SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.

327

THE SCIENTIFIC WRITINGS

OP

JAMES SMITHSON,

EDITED BY
WILLIAM J. RHEES.

WASHINGTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

1879.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The scientific writings of James Smithson, the distinguished
founder of the Smithsonian Institution, have been collected and
are published in the present volume, in accordance with the
instructions of the Board of Regents. These memoirs were orig-
inally contributed to the " Transactions of the Royal Society of
London," of which Smithson was a member, between the years of
1791 and 1817, and to Thomson's "Annals of Philosophy,"
between 1819 and 1825. They are twenty-seven in number, and
embrace a wide range of research, from the origin of the earth,
the nature of the colors of vegetables and insects, the analysis of
minerals and chemicals, to an improved method of constructing
lamps or of making coffee. Some of these papers were translated
into French by the author and others, and published in the " Jour-
nal de Physique, de Chimie, et d' Histoire Naturelle, etc."

These writings of Smithson prove conclusively his scientific char-
acter and his claim to distinction as a contributor to knowledge.

Among the personal effects of the founder of the Institution
were several hundred manuscripts, besides a large collection of
scraps and notes on a great diversity of subjects, including history,
the arts, language, rural economy, construction of buildings, &c.,
which unfortunately were destroyed by the fire at the Smithsonian
building in 1865. It is probable that Smithson also contributed
articles to other scientific and literary journals than those men-
tioned, but none have been found, though the leading English
periodicals of the day have been carefully examined for the pur-
pose.

Appended to the writings of Smithson is a review of their
scientific character by Professor Walter R. Johnson, communicated

in

IV ADVERTISEMENT.

to the National Institute, of Washington, in 1844 ; and one by J.
R. McD. Irby, prepared for the Institution in September, 1878.
The material for this work has been collected and prepared for
publication by Mr. Wm. J. Rhees, Chief Clerk of the Institution.

SPENCER F. BAIPJ),

Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

WASHINGTON, D. C., October, 1879.

CONTENTS.

I. — SCIENTIFIC WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

Page.

An account of some Chemical Experiments on Tabasheer . 1

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Vol LXXXI, for the year 1791, Part II, p. 368. Bead July 7,
1791.
A Chemical Analysis of some Calamines .... 18

Philosophical Transactions of the Eoyal Society of London,
Vol. XCIII, p. 12. Read November 18, 1802.

Account of a Discovery of Native Minium .... 32

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Vol. XCVI, Part I, 1806, p. 267. Read April 24, 1806.

On Quadruple and Binary Compounds, particularly Sulphu-

rets 34

Philosophical Magazine, London, Yol. XXIX, 1807, p. 275.
Read December 24, 1807.

On the Composition of the Compound Sulphuret from Huel

Boys, and an account of its Crystals .... 34

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Vol. XCVIII, Part I, 1808, p. 55. Read January 28, 1808.

On the Composition of Zeolite ...... 42

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Vol. CI, p. 171. 'Read February 7, 1811.

On a Substance from the Elm Tree called Ulmiii . . 47

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Vol. GUI, Part I, 1813, p. 64. Read December 10, 1812.

On a Saline Substance from Mount Vesuvius ... 52

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Vol. GUI, Part I, 1813, p. 256 Read July 8, 1813.

A few Facts relative to the Coloring Matters of some Vege-
tables 58

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Vol. CVIII, p. 110. Read December 18, 1817.

VI CONTENTS.

Page.

On a Native Compound of Sulpliuret of Lead and Arsenic . 65
Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XIV, 1819, p. 96.

On Native Hydrous Aluminate of Lead or Plomb Gomme . 67
Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XIV, 1819, p. 31.

On a Fibrous Metallic Copper ...... 68

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XYI, 1820, p. 46.

An account of a Native Combination of Sulphate of Barium

and Fluoride of Calcium 71

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XYI, 1820, p. 48.

On some Capillary Metallic Tin 74

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XYII ; New Series,
Yol. I, 1821, p. 271.

On the Detection of very Minute Quantities of Arsenic and

Mercury ......... 75

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XX; New Series,
Yol. IY, 1822, p. 127.

Some Improvements in Lamps ...... 78

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XX; New Series,
Yol. IY, 1822, p. 363.

On the Crystalline Form of Ice 80

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XXI ; New Series,
Yol. Y, 1823, p. 340.

A Means of Discrimination between the Sulphates of Barium

and Strontium 81

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XXI: New Series,
Yol. Y, 1823, p. 359.

On the Discovery of Acids in Mineral Substances . . 82

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XXI ; New Series,
Yol. Y, 1823, p. 384.

An Improved Method of Making Coffee .... 87

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XXII ; New Series,
Yol. YI, 1823, p. 30.

A Discovery of Chloride of Potassium in the Earth . . 89

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Yol. XXII ; New Series,
Yol. YI, 1823, p. 258.

CONTENTS. VII

Page

A Method of Fixing Particles on the Sappare ... 90

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXII; New Series,
Vol. VI, 1823, p. 412.

On some Compounds of Fluorine . . . . . 94

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXIII; New
Series, Vol. VII, 1824, p. 100.

An Examination of some Egyptian Colors .... 101

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXIII; New
Series, Vol. VII, 1824, p. 115.

Some Observations on Mr. Penn's Theory concerning the for-
mation of the Kirkdale Cave 103

Thomson's AnnaUof Philosophy, Vol. XXIV ; New Series,
Vol. VIII, 1824, p. 50.

A letter from Dr. Black describing a very sensible Balance . 117

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXVI ; New Series,
Vol. X, 1825, p. 52.

A Method of Fixing Crayon Colors ..... 120

Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXVI ; New Series,
Vol. X, 1825, p. 236.

II. — REVIEWS.

A Memoir on the Scientific Character and Researches of
James Smithson, Esq., F. R. S., by WALTER R. JOHN-
SON 123

On the Works and Character of James Smithson, by J. R.

McD. IRBY . 143

INDEX 157

AN ACCOUNT OF SOME CHEMICAL EXPERI-
MENTS ON TABASHEER.

From the Philosophical Transactions of the Koyal Society of London.
Vol. LXXXI, for the year 1791, Part 2, p. 368.— Read July 7, 1791 .

The Tabasheer employed in these experiments was that
which Dr. RUSSELL laid before the Society, as specimens of
this substance, the evening his Paper upon the subject was
read.*

There were seven parcels.

No. 1 consisted of Tabasheer extracted from the bamboo
by Dr. RUSSELL himself.

No. 2 had been partly taken from the reed in Dr. Rus-
SEL'S presence, and partly brought to him at different times
by a person who worked in bamboos.

No. 3 was the Tabasheer from Hydrabad ; the finest kind
of this substance to be bought.

Nos. 4, 5, and 6 all came from Masulapatam, where they
are sold at a very low price. These three kinds have been
thought to be artificial compositions in imitation of the true
Tabasheer, and to be made of calcined bones.

No. 7 had no account affixed to it.

The Tabasheer from Hydrabad being in the greatest quan-
tity, and appearing the most homogeneous and pure, the
experiments were begun, and principally made, with it.

Hydrabad Tabasheer. (No. 3.)

§ I. (A) This, in its general appearance, very much re-
sembled fragments of that variety of calcedony which is
known to mineralogists by the name of Cacholong. Some
pieces were quite opaque, and absolutely white ; but others

* See Phil. Trans. Yol. LXXX, p. 283.

2 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

possessed a small degree of transparency, and had a bluish
cast. The latter, held before a lighted candle, appeared very
pellucid, and of a flame colour.

The pieces were of various sizes ; the largest of them did
not exceed two or three-tenths of an inch cubic. Their
shape was quite irregular; some of them bore impressions
of the inner part of the bamboo against which they were
formed.

(B) This Tabasheer could not be broken by pressure be-
tween the fingers ; but by the teeth it was easily reduced to
powder. On first chewing it felt gritty, but soon ground to
impalpable particles.

(C) Applied to the tongue, it adhered to it by capillary
attraction.

(D) It had a disagreeable earthy taste, something like
that of magnesia.

(E) No light was produced either by cutting it with a
knife, or by rubbing two pieces of it together, in the dark ;
but a bit of this substance, being laid on a hot iron, soon
appeared surrounded with a feeble luminous aureole. By
being made red hot, it was deprived of this property of
shining when gently heated; but recovered it again, on
being kept for two months.

(F) Examined with the microscope, it did not appear dif-
ferent from what it does to the naked eye.

(G) A quantity of this Tabasheer which weighed 75.7 gr.
in air, weighed only 41.1 gr. in distilled water whose tem-
perature was 52.5 F. which makes its specific gravity to be
very nearly = 2.188.

Mr. CAVENDISH, having tried this same parcel when be-
come again quite dry, found its specific gravity to be = 2.169.

Treated with water.

§ II. (A) This Tabasheer, put into water, emitted a num-
ber of bubbles of air; the white opaque bits became trans-
parent in a small degree only, but the bluish ones nearly as
much so as glass. In this state the different colour pro-

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 3

duced by reflected and by transmitted light was very sensi-
ble.

(B) Four bits of this substance, weighing together, while
dry and opaque, 4.1 gr., were put into distilled water, and
let become transparent ; being then taken out, and the un-
absorbed water hastily wiped from their surface, they were
again weighed, and were found to equal 8.2 gr.

In the experiment § I. (G), 75.7 gr. of this substance ab-
sorbed 69.5 gr. of distilled water.

(C) Four bits of Tabasheer, weighing together 3.2 gr.
were boiled for 30' in half an ounce of distilled water in a
Florence flask, which had been previously rinced with some
of the same fluid. This water, when become cold, did not
shew any change on the admixture of vitriolic acid, of acid
of sugar, nor of solutions of nitre of silver, or of crystals
of soda; yet, on its evaporation, it left a white film on the
glass, which could not be got off by washing in cold water,
nor by hot marine acid ; but which was discharged by warm
caustic vegetable alkali, and by long ebullition in water.

Upon these bits of Tabasheer, another half ounce of dis-
tilled water was poured, and again boiled for about half an
hour. This water also on evaporation left a white film on
the glass vessel similar to the above. The pieces of Taba-
sheer having been dried, by exposure to the air for some
days in a warm room, were found to have lost one-tenth of
a grain of their weight.

To ascertain whether the whole of a piece of Tabasheer
could be dissolved by boiling in water, a little bit of this
substance, weighing three-tenths of a grain, was boiled in
36 ounces of soft water for near five hours consecutively;
but being afterwards dried and weighed, it was not dimin-
ished in quantity, nor was it deprived of its taste.

With vegetable colours.

§ III. Some Tabasheer, reduced to fine powder, was boiled
for a considerable time in infusions of turnsole, of logwood,

4 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

and of dried red cabbage, but produced not the least change-
in any one of them.

At the fire.

§ IV. (A) A piec*e of this Tabasheer, thrown into a red
hot crucible, did not burn or grow black. Kept red hot for
some time, it underwent no visible change ; but when cold,
it was harder, and had entirely lost its taste. Put into water
it grew transparent, just as it would have done, had it not
been ignited.

(B) 6.4 gr. of this substance, made red hot in a crucibler
were found, upon being weighed as soon as cold, to have
lost two-tenths of a grain. This loss appears to have arisen
merely from the expulsion of interposed moisture ; for these
heated pieces, on being exposed to the air for some days,,
recovered exactly their former weight.

(C) A bit of this substance was put into an earthen cru- .
cible, surrounded with sand, and kept red hot for some time;
when cold, it was still white both exteriorly and interiorly.

(D) Thrown into some melted red hot nitre, this substance
did not produce any deflagration, or seem to suffer any alter-
ation.

(E) A bit exposed on charcoal to the flame of the blow-
pipe did not decrepitate or change colour ; when first heated
it diffused a pleasant smell ; then contracted very consider-
ably in bulk, and became transparent ; but on continuing
the heat it again grew white and opaque, but seemed not to
shew any inclination to melt per se. Possibly, however, it
may suffer such a semi-fusion, or softening of the whole
mass, as takes place in clay when exposed to an intense
heat; for when the bit used happened to have cracks, it
separated during its contraction, at these cracks, and the
parts receded from each other without falling asunder.

If, while the bit of Tabasheer was exposed to the flame,
any of the ashes of the coal fell upon it, it instantly meltedr
and small very fluid bubbles were produced. That the
opacity which this substance acquires on continuing to heat

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 5

it after it is become transparent, is not owing to the fusion
of its surface by means of some of the ashes of the charcoal
settling upon it unobserved, appeared by its undergoing the
same change when fixed to the end of a glass tube, in the
method of M. DE SAUSSURE.*

With acids.

§ V. (A) A piece of Tabasheer, weighing 1.2 gr. was
first let satiate itself with distilled water ; its surface being
then wiped dry, it was put into a matrass with some pure
white marine acid, whose specific gravity was 1.13. No ef-
fervesence arose on its immersion into the acid; nor did
this menstruum, even by ebullition, seem to have any action
upon it, or itself receive any colour. The acid being evap-
orated left only some dark coloured spots on the glass.
These spots were dissolved by distilled water. No precipi-
tation was produced in this water by vitriolic acid, or by a
solution of crystals of soda. The bit of Tabasheer washed
with water, and made red hot, had not sustained any loss of
weight.

The pores of the mass of Tabasheer were filled with
water before it was put into the acid, to expel the common
air contained in them, and which would have made it im-
possible to ascertain with accuracy whether any effervescence
was produced on its first contact with the menstruum.

(B) Another portion of Tabasheer, weighing 10.2 gr. was
boiled in some of the same marine acid. Not the least pre-
cipitate was produced on saturating this acid with solution
of mild soda. This Tabasheer also, after having been boiled
in water, and dried by exposure for some days to the air,
was still of its former weight.

§ VI. This substance seemed in like manner to resist the
action of pure white nitrous acid boiled upon it.

§ VII. (A) A bit of Tabasheer weighing 0.6 gr. was di-
gested in some strong white vitriolic acid, which had been

* Journal do Physique, Tom. XXVI, p. 409.

6 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

made perfectly pure by distillation. It did not seem by this
treatment to suffer any change, and after having been freed
from all adhering vitriolic acid by boiling in water, it had
not undergone any alteration either in its weight or proper-
ties. The vitriolic acid afforded no precipitate on being-
saturated with soda.

(B) Two grains of Tabasheer reduced to fine powder were
made into a paste with some of this same vitriolic acid, and
this mixture was heated till nearly dry ; it was then digested
in distilled water. This water, being filtered, tasted slightly
acid, did not produce the least turbidness with solution of
soda, and some of it, evaporated, left only a faint black
stain on the glass, produced doubtless by the action of the
vitriolic acid on a little vegetable matter, which it had re-
ceived either from the Tabasheer, or from the paper. The
undissolved matter collected, washed, and dried, weighed
1.9 gr.

§ VIII. 2 gr. of Tabasheer, reduced to fine powder, were
long digested in a considerable quantity of liquid acid of
sugar. The taste of the liquor was not altered ; and being
saturated with a solution of crystals of soda in distilled
water, it did not afford any precipitate. The Tabasheer hav-
ing been freed from all adhering acid, by very careful ablu-
tion with distilled water, and let dry in the air, was totally
unchanged in its appearance, and weighed 1.98 gr. This
Tabasheer being gradually heated till red hot, did not
become in the least black, or lose much of its weight, a
proof that no acid of sugar had fixed in it.

With liquid alkalies.

§ IX. (A) Some liquid caustic vegetable alkali being-
heated in a phial, Tabasheer was added to it, which dis-
solved very readily, and in considerable quantity. When
the alkali would not take up any more, it was set by to cool,
but was not found next morning to have crystallized, or un-
dergone any change, though it had become very concen-

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 7

tratecl, during the boiling, by the evaporation of much of
the water.

(B) This solution had an alkaline taste, but seemingly
with little, if any, causticity.

(C) A drop of it changed to green a watery tincture of
dried red cabbage.

(D) Some of this solution was exposed in a shallow glass
to spontaneous evaporation in a warm room. At the end
of a day or two it was converted into a firm, milky jelly.
After a few days more, this jelly was become whiter, more
opaque, and had dried and cracked into several pieces, and
finally it became quite dry, and curled up and separated
from the glass.

The same change took place when the solution had been
diluted with several times its bulk of distilled water, only
the jelly was much thinner, and dried into a white powder.

Some of this solution, kept for many weeks in a bottle
closely stopped, did not become a jelly, or undergo any
change.

(E) A small quantity of this solution was let fall into a
proportionably large quantity of spirit of wine, whose spe-
cific gravity was .838. The mixture immediately became
turbid, and, on standing, a dense fluid settled to the bottom,
and which, when the bottle was hastily inverted, fell through
the spirit of wine in round drops, like a ponderous oil.

The supernatant spirit of wine being carefully decanted
off, some distilled water was added to this thick fluid, by
which it was wholly dissolved. This solution, exposed to
the air, shewed phenomena exactly similar to those of the
undiluted solution (D).

The decanted spirit being also left exposed to the air in a
shallow glass vessel, did not, after many days, either deposit
a sensible quantity of precipitate, or become gelatinous;
but having evaporated nearly away, left a few drops of a
liquor which made infusion of red cabbage green ; and, on
the addition of some pure marine acid, effervesced violently.
No precipitate fell during this saturation with the acid ; nor

8 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

did the mixture on standing become a jelly; and on the
total evaporation of the fluid part, a small quantity of mu-
riate of tartar only remained. The spirit of wine seems,
therefore, to have dissolved merely a portion of superabun-
dant alkali present in the mixture, but none of that united
with Tabasheer.

(F) To different portions of this solution were added
some pure marine acid, some pure white vitriolic acid, and
some distilled vinegar, each in excess. These acids at first
produced neither heat, effervescence, any precipitate, or the
least sensible effect, except the vitriolic acid, which threw
down a very small quantity of a white matter ; but, after
standing some days, these mixtures changed into jellies so
firm, that the glasses containing them were inverted without
their falling out.

This change into jelly equally took place whether the
mixtures were kept in open or closed vessels, were exposed
to the light or secluded from it ; nor did it seem to be much
promoted by boiling the mixtures.

(G) Some solution of mild volatile alkali in distilled
water, being added to some of this solution, seemed at the
first instant of mixture to have no effect upon it ; but in the
space of a second or two it occasioned a copious white pre-
cipitate.

(H) The flakes remaining on the glasses at (D) and (E)
put into marine acid raised a slight effervescence, but did
not dissolve. These flakes when taken out of the acid, and
well washed, were found, like the original Tabasheer, to be
white and opaque when dry ; but- to become transparent
when moistened, and then to shew the blue and flame
colour, § II. (A).

(I) The jellies (F), diluted with water, and collected on a
filter, appeared to be the Tabasheer unchanged.

§ X. A bit of Tabasheer, weighing two-tenths of a grain,
was boiled in 127 gr. of strong caustic volatile alkali for a
considerable time ; but after being made red hot, it had not
sustained the least diminution of weight.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 9

§ XL (A) 27 gr. of Tabasheer reduced to fine powder,
were put into an open tin vessel with 100 gr. of crystals of
soda, and some distilled water, and this mixture was made
boil for three hours. The clear liquor was then poured off,
and the Tabasheer was digested in some pure marine acid;
after some time this acid was decanted, and the Tabasheer
washed with distilled water, which was then added to the
acid.

(B) This Tabasheer was put back into the alkaline solu-
tion, which seemed not impaired by the foregoing process,
and again boiled for a considerable time. The liquor was
then poured from it while hot, and the Tabasheer edulco-
rated with some cold distilled water, which was afterwards
mixed with this hot solution, in which it instantly caused a
precipitation. On heating the mixture it became clear
again; but as it cooled it changed wholly into a thin jelly;
but in the course of a few days, it separated into two por-
tions, the jelly settling in a denser state to the bottom of
the vessel, leaving a limpid liquor over it.

(C) The Tabasheer remaining (B) was boiled in pure ma-
rine acid ; the acid was then poured off, and the Tabasheer
edulcorated with some distilled water, which was afterwards
mixed with the acid.

(D) The remaining Tabasheer collected, washed, and
dried, weighed 24 gr. and seemed not to be altered.

(E) The acid liquors (A and C) were mixed together, and
saturated with soda, but afforded no precipitate.

(F) The alkaline mixture (B) was poured upon a filter,
the clear liquor came through, leaving the jelly on the paper.

Some of this clear liquor, exposed to the air in a saucer,
at the end of some days deposited a small quantity of a gel-
atinous matter ; after some days more, the whole fluid part
exhaled, and the saucer became covered with regular crys-
tals of soda, which afforded no precipitate during their solu-
tion in vitriolic acid. What had appeared like a jelly while
moist, assumed, on drying, the form of a white powder.

10 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

This powder was insoluble in vitriolic acid, and seemed still
to be Tabasheer.

Some of this clear liquor, mixed with marine acid, effer-
vesced; did not afford any precipitate; but, on standing
some days, the mixture became slightly gelatinous.

(G) Some of the thick jelly remaining on the filter, being
boiled in water and in marine acid, appeared insoluble in
both, and seemed to agree entirely with the above powder
(F).

With dry alkalies.

§ XII. (A) Tabasheer melted on the charcoal at the blow-
pipe with soda, with considerable effervescence. When the
proportion of alkali was large, the Tabasheer quickly dis-
solved, and the whole spread on the coal, soaked into it, and
vanished ; but, by adding the alkali to the bit of Tabasheer
in exceedingly small quantities at a time, this substance was
converted into a pearl of clear colourless glass.

(B) 5 gr. of Tabasheer, reduced to fine powder, were
melted in a platina crucible with 100 gr. of crystals of soda.
The mass obtained was white and opaque, and weighed 40.2
gr. Put into an ounce of distilled water, it wholly dissolved.
An excess of marine acid let fall into this solution produced
an effervescence, and changed it into a jelly. This mixture
was stirred about, and then thrown upon a filter. The jelly
left on the paper did not dissolve in marine acid by ebulli-
tion ; collected, washed with distilled water, and dried, it
weighed 4.5 gr. and seemed to be the Tabasheer unaltered.

The liquor which had come through being saturated with
mineral alkali yielded only a very small quantity of a red
precipitate, which was the colouring matter of the pink
blotting paper through which it had been passed.

(C) 10 gr. of Tabasheer, reduced to powder, were mixed
with an equal weight of soda, deprived of its water of crys-
tallization by heat. This mixture was put into a platina
crucible, and exposed to a strong fire for 15'. It was then
found converted into a transparent glass of a slight yellow

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 11

colour. This glass was broken into pieces, and boiled in
marine acid. No effervescence appeared ; but the glass was
dissolved into a jelly. This jelly, collected on a filter, well
washed and dried, weighed 7.7 gr.

The acid liquor which came through, on saturation with
soda, afforded not the least precipitate ; but, after standing
a day or two, it changed into a thin jelly. This collected
on a filter was washed with distilled water, and then boiled
in marine acid, but did not dissolve. Being again edulco-
rated, and made red hot, it weighed 1.6 gr. The filtered
liquor (B) would in all probability have changed similarly to
a jelly, had it been kept. These precipitates were analo-
gous to those § IX. (I).

(D) An equal weight of vegetable alkali and Tabasheer
were melted together in the platina crucible. The glass
produced was transparent ; but it had a fiery taste, and soon
attracted the moisture of the air, and dissolved into a thick
liquor. But two parts of vegetable alkali, with three of
Tabasheer, yielded a transparent glass, which was perma-
nent.

Treated with other fluxes.

§ XIII. (A) A fragment of Tabasheer put into glass of
borax, and urged at the blow-pipe, contracted very consid-
erably in size, the same as when heated per se ; after which
it continued turning about in the flux, dissolving with great
difficulty and very slowly. When the solution was effected,
the saline pearl remained perfectly clear and colourless.

(B) With phosphoric ammoniac (made by saturating the
acid obtained by the slow combustion of phosphorus with
caustic volatile alkali) the Tabasheer very readily melted
on the charcoal at the blow-pipe, with effervescence, into a
white frothy bead.

(C) Fused, by the same means, on a plate of platina, with
the vitriols of tartar and soda, it appeared entirely to resist
their action ; the little particles employed continuing to re-
volve in the fluid globules without sustaining any sensible

12 WHITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

diminution of size, and the saline beads on cooling assumed
their usual opacity.

(D) A bit of Tabasheer was laid on a plate of silver, and
a little litharge was put over it, and then melted with the
blow-pipe. It immediately acted on the Tabasheer, and
covered it with a white glassy glazing. By the addition of
more litharge the mass was brought to a round bead; though
with considerable difficulty. This bead bore melting on the
charcoal, without any reduction of the lead, but could not
be obtained transparent.

(E) The ease with which this substance had melted with
vegetable ashes, led to the trial of it with pure calcareous
earth. A fragment of Tabasheer, fixed to the end of a bit
of glass, was rubbed over with some powdered whiting. As
soon as exposed to the flame of the blow-pipe, it melted
with considerable effervescence ; but could not, even on the
charcoal, and with the addition of more whiting, be brought
to a transparent state, or reduced into a round bead.

Equal weights of Tabasheer and pure calcareous spar,
both reduced to fine powder, were irregularly mixed, and
exposed in the platina crucible to a strong fire in a forge for
20' ; but did not even concrete together.

(F) When magnesia was used, no fusion took place at the
blow-pipe.

(G) Equal parts of Tabasheer, whiting, and earth of
alum precipitated by mild volatile alkali, were mixed in a
state of powder, and submitted in the platina crucible to a
strong fire for 20', but were afterwards found unmelted.

Examination of the other specimens.
No. I.

This parcel contained particles of three kinds; some
white, of a smooth texture, much resembling the foregoing
sort ; others of the same appearance, but yellowish ; and
others greatly similar to bits of dried mould.

The white and yellowish pieces were so soft as to be very

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 13

easily rubbed to powder between the fingers. They had a
disagreeable taste, something like that of rhubarb. Put
into water, the white bits scarcely grew at all transparent ;
but the yellow ones became so to a considerable degree.

The brown earth-like pieces were harder than the above,
had little taste, floated upon water, and remained opaque.

Exposed to the blow-pipe, they all charred and grew
black; the last variety even burned with a flame. When
the vegetable matter was consumed, the pieces remained
white, and then had exactly the appearance, and possessed
all the properties, of the foregoing Tabasheer from Hydra-
bad, and like it melted with soda into a transparent glass.

No. II.

Also consisted of bits of three sorts.

(a) Some white, nearly opaque.

(b) A few small very transparent particles, shewing, in an
eminent degree, the blue and yellow colour, by the different
direction of light.

(c) Coarse, brownish pieces of a grained texture.

These all had exactly the same taste, hardness, &c., and
shewed the same effects at the blow-pipe, as No. I.

27 gr. of this Tabasheer thrown into a red-hot crucible,
burned with a yellowish white flame, lost 2.9 gr. in weight,
and became so similar to the Hydrabad kind as not to be
distinguished from it.

Some of this Tabasheer put into a crucible, not made very
hot emitted a smell something like tobacco ashes, but not
the kind of perfume discovered in that from Hydrabad,
§ IV. (E).

No. IV.

All the pieces of this parcel were of one appearance, and
a good deal resembled, in their texture, the third variety of
No. II. Their colour was white; their hardness such as
very diflicultly to be broken by pressure between the fingers.

14 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

In the mouth they immediately fell to a pulpy powder, and
had no taste.

A bit exposed on the charcoal to the blow-pipe became
black, melted like some vegetable matters, caught flame,
and burnt to a botryoid inflated coal, which soon entirely
consumed away, and vanished.

A piece put into water fell to a powder. The mixture
being boiled, this powder dissolved, and turned the whole
to a jelly.

These properties are exactly those of common starch.

No. V.

Agreed entirely with No. IV. in appearance, properties,
and nature.

No. VI.

The pieces of this parcel were white, quite opaque, and
considerably hard. Their taste and effects at the blow-pipe,
were perfectly similar to those of the Hydrabad kind.

No. VII.

Much resembled No. VI. only was rather softer, and
seemed to blacken a little when first heated. With fluxes
at the blow-pipe it shewed the same effects as all the above.

Conclusion.

1. It appears from these experiments, that all the parcels,
except No. IV. and V. consisted of genuine Tabasheer ; but
that those kinds, immediately taken from the plant, con-
tained a certain portion of a vegetable matter, which was
wanting in the specimens procured from the shops, and
which had probably been deprived of this admixture by
calcination, of which operation a partial blackness, observ-
able on some of the pieces of No. III. and VI. are doubtless
the traces. This accounts also for the superior hardness
and diminished tastes of these sorts.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 15

2. The nature of this substance is very different from
what might have been expected in the product of a vegeta-
ble. Its indestructibility by fire; its total resistance to
acids ; its uniting by fusion with alkalies in certain propor-
tions into a white opaque mass, in others into a transparent
permanent glass; and its being again separable from these
compounds, entirely unchanged by acids, &c., seem to afford
the strongest reasons to consider it as perfectly identical
with common siliceous earth.

Yet from pure quartz it may be thought to differ in some
material particulars ; such as in its fusing with calcareous
earth, in some of its effects with liquid alkalies, in its taste,
and its specific gravity.

But its taste may arise merely from its divided state, for
chalk and powdery magnesia both have tastes, and tastes
which are very similar to that of pure Tabasheer ; but when
these earths are taken in the denser state of crystals, they
are found to be quite insipid; so Tabasheer, when made
more solid by exposure to a pretty strong heat, is no longer
perceived, when chewed, to act upon the palate, § IV. (A). •
And, on accurate comparison, its effects with liquid alka-
lies have not appeared peculiar; for though it was found on
trial, that the powder of common flints, when boiled in some
of the same liquid caustic alkali employed at § IX. (A) was
scarcely at all acted upon ; and that the very little which
was dissolved, was soon precipitated again, in the form of
minute flocculi, on exposing the solution to the air, and was
immediately thrown down on the admixture of an acid; yet
the precipitate obtained from liquor silicum by marine acid
was discovered, even when dry to dissolve readily in this
alkali, but while still moist to do so very copiously, even
without the assistance of heat; and some of this solution,
thus saturated with siliceous matter by ebullition, being ex-
posed to the air in a shallow glass, became a jelly by the
next day, and the day after dried, and cracked, &c., exactly
like the mixtures § IX. (D and E). And another portion of
this solution mixed with marine acid afforded no precipi-

16 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

tate, and remained perfectly unaffected for two days ; but on
the third it was converted into a firm jelly like that § IX.
(F).

As gypsum is found to melt per se at the blow-pipe, though
refractory to the strongest heat that can be made in a fur-
nace, it was thought that possibly siliceous and calcareous
earths might flux together by this means, though they resist
the utmost power of common fires ; but experiment showed
that in this respect quartz did not agree with Tabasheer.
But this difference seems much too likely to depend on the
admixture of a little foreign matter in the latter body, to
admit of its being made the grounds for considering it as a
new substance, in opposition to so many more material
points in which it agrees with silex.

Nor can much weight be laid on the inferior specific grav-
ity of a body so very porous. The infusibility of the mix-
ture § XIII. (G) depended also, probably, either on an
inaccuracy in the proportions of the earths to each other, or
on a deficiency of heat.

. 3. Of the three bamboos which were not split before the
Royal Society, I have opened two. The Tabasheer found
in them agreed entirely in its properties with that of No. I.
and II.

It was observed that all the Tabasheer in the same joint
was exactly of the same appearance. In one joint it was all
similar to the yellowish sort No. I. In another joint of the
same bamboo, it resembled the variety (c) of No. II. Prob-
ably, therefore, the parcels from Dr. RUSSELL, containing
each several varieties of this substance, arose from the pro-
duce of many joints having been mixed together.

4. The ashes, obtained by burning the bamboo, boiled in
marine acid, left a very large quantity of a whitish insolu-
ble powder, which, fused at the blow-pipe with soda, effer-
vesced and formed a transparent glass. Only the middle
part of the joints was burned, the knots were sawed off,
lest being porous, Tabasheer might be mechanically lodged
in them. However, the great quantity of this remaining

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.. 17

substance shews it to be an essential, constituent part of
the wood.

The ashes of common charcoal, digested in marine acid,
left in the same manner an insoluble residuum which fused
with soda with effervescence, and formed glass; but the
proportion of this matter to the ashes was greatly less than
in the foregoing case.

5. Since the above experiments were made, a singular
circumstance has presented itself. A green bamboo, cut in
the hot-house of Dr. PITCAIRN, at Islington, was judged to
contain Tabasheer in one of its joints, from a rattling noise
discoverable on shaking it ; but being split by Sir JOSEPH
BANKS, it was found to contain, not ordinary Tabasheer, but
a solid pebble, about the size of half a pea.

Externally this pebble was of an irregular rounded form,
of a dark-brown or black colour. Internally it was reddish
brown, of a close dull texture, much like some martial sili-
ceous stones. In one corner there were shining particles,
which appeared to be crystals, but too minute to be distin-
guished even .with the microscope.

This substance was so hard as to cut glass !

A fragment of it exposed to the blow-pipe on the char-
coal did not grow'white, contract in size, melt, or undergo
any change. Put into borax it did not dissolve, but lost its
colour, and tinged the flux green. With soda it effervesced,
and formed a round bead of opaque black glass.

These two beads, digested in some perfectly pure and
white marine acid, only partially dissolved, and tinged this
menstruum of a greenish yellow colour ; and from this so-
lution Prussite of tartar, so pure as not, under many hours,
to produce a blue colour with the above pure marine acid,
instantly threw down a very copious Prussian blue.

P. S. — In ascertaining the specific gravity of the Hydra-
bad Tabasheer, § I. (G), great care was taken in both the
experiments that every bit was thoroughly penetrated with
the water, and transparent to its very centre, before its
weight in the water was determined.

18 WHITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

A CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME CALAMINES.

From the Philosophical Transactions of the Koyal Society of London,
Vol. XCIII, page 12.— Eead November, 18, 1802.

Notwithstanding the experiments of BERGMAN and others,
on those ores of zinc which are called calamine, much uncer-
tainty still subsisted on the subject of them. Their consti-
tution was far from decided, nor was it even determined
whether all calamines were of the same species, or whether
there were several kinds of them.

The Abbe HAUY, so justly celebrated for his great knowl-
edge in crystallography and mineralogy, has adhered, in
his late work,* to the opinions he had before advanced,f
that calamines were all of one species, and contained *no
carbonic acid, being a simple calx of zinc, attributing the
effervescence which he found some of them to produce with
acids, to an accidental admixture of carbonate of lime.

The following experiments were made to obtain a more
certain knowledge of these ores ; and their results will
show the necessity there was for their farther investigation,
and how wide from the truth have been the opinions
adopted concerning them.

Calamine from Bkyberg.

a. The specimen which furnished the subject of this
article, was said by the German of whom it was purchased,
to have come from the mines of Bleyberg in Carinthia.

It was in the form of a sheet stalactite, spread over small
fragments of limestone. It was not however at all crys-
talline, but of the dull earthy appearance of chalk, though,
on comparison, of a finer grain and closer texture.

It was quite white, perfectly opaque, and adhered to the

* Traite de Mineralogie, Tome IV. f Journal des Mines.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON, 19

tongue ; 68.0 grs. of it, in small bits, immersed in distilled
water, absorbed 19.8 grs. of it, = 0.29.

It admitted of being scraped by the nail though with
some difficulty : scraped with a knife, it afforded no light.

68.1 grs. of it, broken into small pieces, expelled 19.0 grs.
of distilled water from a stopple bottle. Hence its density
= 3.584. In another trial, 18.96 grs. at a heat of 65°
FAHRENHEIT, displaced 5.27 grs. of distilled water; hence
the density = 3.598. The bits, in both cases, were entirely
penetrated with water.

b. Subjected to the action of the blowpipe on the coal, it
became yellow the moment it was heated, but recovered its
pristine whiteness on being let cool. This quality, of tem-
porarily changing their colour by heat, is common to most,
if not all, metallic oxides ; the white growing yellow, the
yellow red, the red black.

Urged with the blue flame, it became extremely friable ;
spread yellow flowers on the coal ; and, on continuing the
fire no very long time, entirely exhaled. If the flame was
directed against the flowers, which had settled on the coal,
they shone with a vivid light. A bit fixed to the end of a
slip of glass, wasted nearly as quickly as on the coal.

It dissolved in borax and microcosmic salt, with a slight
effervescence, and yielded clear colourless glasses ; but
which became opaque on cooling, if over saturated. Car-
bonate of soda had not any action on it.

c. 68.0 grs. of this calamine dissolved in dilute vitriolic
acid with a brisk effervescence, and emitted 9.2 grs. of car-
bonic acid. The solution was white and turbid, and on
standing deposited a white powder, which, collected on a
small filter of gauze paper, and well edulcorated and let
dry, weighed only 0.86 gr. This sediment, tried at the
blowpipe, melted first into an opaque white matter, and then
partially reduced into lead. It was therefore, probably, a
mixture of vitriol of lead and vitriol of lime.

The filtered solution, gently exhaled to dryness, and kept
over a spirit-lamp till the water of crystallization of the

20 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

salt and all superfluous vitriolic acid were driven off, af-
forded 96.7 grs. of perfectly dry, or arid,* white salt. On
re-solution in water, and crystallization, this saline matter
proved to be wholly vitriol of zinc, excepting an inappre-
tiable quantity of vitriol of lime in capillary crystals, due,
without doubt, to a slight and accidental admixture of some
portion of the calcareous fragments on which this calamine
had been deposited. Pure martial prussiate of tartar,
threw down a white precipitate from the solution of this,
salt.

In another experiment, 20.0 grs. of this calamine afforded
28.7 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc.

d. 10 grs. of this calamine were dissolved in pure marine
acid, with heat. On cooling, small capillary crystals of
muriate of lead formed in the solution. This solution was
precipitated by carbonate of soda, and the filtered liquor let
exhale slowly in the air ; but it furnished only crystals of
muriate of soda.

e. 10 grs. dissolved in acetous acid without leaving any
residuum. J3y gentle evaporation, 20.3 grs. — 2.03, of ace-
tite of zinc, in the usual hexagonal plates, were obtained.
These crystals were permanent in the air, and no other
kind of salt could be perceived amongst them.

Neither solution of vitriolated tartar, nor vitriolic acid,
occasioned the slightest turbidness in the solution of these
crystals, either immediately or on standing; a proof that
the quantity of lime and lead in this solution, if any, was
excessively minute.

/. A bit of this calamine, weighing 20.6 grs. being made
red hot in a covered tobacco-pipe, became very brittle, di-
viding on the slightest touch into prisms, like those of
starch, and lost 5.9 grs. of its weight = 0.286. After this,
it dissolved slowly and difficultly in vitriolic acid, without
any effervescence.

* Dry, as opposed to wet or damp, which are only degrees of each other,
merely implies free from mechanically admixed water. Arid, may be ap-
propriated to express the state of being devoid of combined water.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSOF. 21

According to these experiments, this calamine consists oi

Calx of zinc 0.714

Carbonic acid 0.135

Water 0.151

1.000.

The carbonates of lime and lead in it are mere accidental
admixtures, and in too small quantity to deserve notice.

Calamine from Somersetshire.

a. This calamine came from Meudip Hills in Somerset-
shire.

It had a mammillated form ; was of a dense crystalline
texture ; semitransparent at its edges, and in its small frag-
ments; and upon the whole very similar, in its general
appearance, to calcedony.

It was tinged, exteriorly, brown ; but its interior colour
was a greenish yellow.

It had considerable hardness ; it admitted however of „
being scraped by a knife to a white powder.

56.8 grs. of it displaced 13.1 grs. of water, at a tempera-
ture of 65° FAHRENHEIT. Hence its density = 4.336.

b. Exposed to the blowpipe, it became opaque, more
yellow, and friable ; spread flowers on the coal, and con-
sequently volatilized, but not with the rapidity of the
foregoing kind from Bleyberg.

It dissolved in borax and microcosmic salt, with efferves-
cence, yielding colourless glasses. Carbonate of soda had
no action on it.

c. It dissolved in vitriolic acid with a brisk effervescence ;
and 67.9 grs. of it emitted 24.5 grs. — 0.360, of carbonic
acid. This solution was colourless ; and no residuum was
left. By evaporation, it afforded only vitriol of zinc, in
pure limpid crystals.

d. 23.0 grs. in small bits, made red hot in a covered-
tobacco-pipe, lost 8.1 grs. — 0.352. It then dissolved slowly

22 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

and difficultly in vitriolic acid, without any emission of car-
bonic acid ; and, on gently exhaling the solution, and heat-
ing the salt obtained, till the expulsion of all superabundant
vitriolic acid and all water, 29.8 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc
were obtained. This dry salt was wholly soluble again in
water ; and solution of pure martial prussiate of soda oc-
casioned a white precipitate in it.
This calamine hence consists of

Carbonic acid 0.352

Calx of zinc - - - 0.648

1.000.
Calamine from Derbyshire.

a. This calamine consisted of a number of small crystals,
about the size of tobacco-seeds, of a pale yellow colour,
which appeared, from the shape of the mass of them, to
have been deposited on the surface of crystals of carbonate
of lime, of the form of Fig. 28, Plate IV. of the Gristallo-
graphie of KOME DE L'!SLE.

The smallness of these calamine crystals, and a want of
sharpness, rendered it impossible to determine their form
with certainty ; they were evidently, however, rhomboids,
whose faces were very nearly, if not quite, rectangular, and
which were incomplete along their six intermediate edges,
apparently like Fig. 78, Plate IV. of ROME DE L'!SLE.

22.1 grs. of these crystals, at a heat of 57° FAHRENHEIT,
displaced 5.1 grs. of water, which gives their density 2=3
4.333.

Heat did not excite any electricity in these crystals.

b. Before the blowpipe, they grew more yellow and
opaque, and spread flowers on the coal. They dissolved
wholly in borax and microcosmic salt, with effervescence.

c. 22.0 grs. during their solution in vitriolic acid, effer-
vesced, and lost 7.8 grs. of carbonic acid zn 0.354. This
solution was colourless, and afforded 26.8 grs. of arid vitriol
of zinc, which, redissolved in water, shot wholly into clear
colourless prisms of this salt.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITIISON.

23

d. 9.2 grs. of these crystals, ignited in a covered tobacco-
pipe, lost 3.2 grs. = 0.3478 ; hence, these crystals consist of

Carbonic acid 0.348

Calx of zinc - - - 0.652

1.000.

Electrical Calamine.

The Abbe HAUY has considered this kind as differing
from the other calamines only in the circumstance of being
in distinct crystals; but it has already appeared, in the
instance of the Derbyshire calamine, that all crystals of
calamine are not electric by heat, and hence, that it is not
merely to being in this state that this species owes the above
quality. And the following experiments, on some crystals
of electric calamine from Regbania in Hungary, can leave
no doubt of its being a combination of calx of zinc with
quartz ; .since the quantity of quartz obtained, and the per-
fect regularity and transparency of these crystals, make it
impossible to suppose it a foreign admixture in them.

a. 23.45 grs. of these Regbania crystals, displaced 6.8 grs.
of distilled water, from a stopple-bottle, at the temperature
of 64° FAHRENHEIT ; their specific gravity is therefore =
3.434.

The form of these crystals is represented in the annexed
Figure.

d

c

cL

\

f

ac= 90°.

a £ — 150°.

cd=z 130°.

24 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

They were not scratched by a pin ; a knife marked them.

b. One of these crystals, exposed to the flame of the blow-
pipe, decrepitated and became opaque, and shone with a
green light, but seemed totally infusible.

Borax and microcosmic salt dissolved these crystals, with-
out any effervescence, producing clear colourless glasses.
Carbonate of soda had little if any action on them.

c. According to Mr. PELLETIER'S experiments* on the
calamine of Fribourg in Brisgaw, which is undoubtedly of
this species, its composition is,

Quartz 0.50

Calx of zinc 0.38

Water - - - 0.12

1.00.

The experiments on the Regbania crystals have had
different results ; but, though made on much smaller quan-
tities, they will perhaps not be found, on repetition, less in
conformity with nature.

23.45 grs. heated red hot in a covered crucible, decrepi-
tated a little, and became opaque, and lost 1.05 gr. but did
riot fall to powder or grow friable. It was found that this
matter was not in the least deprived of its electrical quality
by being ignited ; and hence, while hot, the fragments of
these decrepitated crystals clung together, and to the cruci-
ble.

d. 22.2 grs. of these decrepitated crystals, — 23.24 grs. of
the original crystals, in a state of impalpable powder, being
digested over a spirit-lamp with diluted vitriolic acid, showed
no effervescence ; and after some time, the mixture became
a jelly. Exhaled to dryness, and ignited slightly, to expel
the superfluous vitriolic acid, the mass weighed 37.5 grs.

On extraction of the saline part by distilled water, a fine
powder remained, which, after ignition, weighed 5.8 grs.
and was quartz.

* Journal de Physique, Tome XX. p 424.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 25

The saline solution afforded on crystallization, only vitriol
of zinc.

These crystals therefore consist of

Quartz 0.250

Calx of zinc 0.683

Water 0.044

0.977
Loss 0.023

1.000.

The water is most probably not an essential element of
this calamine, or in it in the state of, what is improperly
called, water of crystallization, but rather exists in the crys-
tals in fluid drops interposed between their plates, as it often
is in crystals of nitre, of quartz, &c. Its small quantity,
and the crystals not falling to powder on its expulsion, but
retaining almost perfectly their original solidity, and spath-
ose appearance in the places of fracture, and, above all,
preserving their electrical quality wholly unimpaired, which
would hardly be the case after the loss of a real element of
their constitution, seem to warrant this opinion.

If the water is only accidental in this calamine, its com-
position, from the above experiments, will be

Quartz 0.261

Calx of zinc - - - 0.739

1.000.

I have found this species of calamine amongst the pro-
ductions of Derbyshire, in small brown crystals, deposited,
together with the foregoing small crystals of carbonate of
zinc, on crystals of carbonate of lime. Their form seems,
as far as their minuteness and compression together would
allow of judging, nearly or quite the same as that of those
from Regbania ; and the least atom of them immediately
evinces its nature, on being heated, by the strong electricity
it acquires. On their solution in acids, they leave quartz.

26 WEITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

OBSERVATIONS.

Chemistry is yet so new a science, what we know of it
bears so small a proportion to what we are ignorant of, our
knowledge in every department of it is so incomplete, so
broken, consisting so entirely of isolated points thinly scat-
tered like lurid specks on a vast field of darkness, that no
researches can be undertaken without producing some facts,
leading to some consequences, which extend beyond the
boundaries of their immediate object.

1. The foregoing experiments throw light on the propor-
tions in which its elements exist in vitriol of zinc. 23.0
grs. of the Mendip Hill calamine, produced 29.8 grs. of arid
vitriol of zinc. These 23.0 grs. of calamine contained 14.9
grs. of calx of zinc; hence, this metallic salt, in an arid
state, consists of exactly equal parts of calx of zinc and vitri-
olic acid.

This inference is corroborated by the results of the other
experiments : 68.0 grs. of the Bleyberg calamine, contain-
ing 48.6 grs. of calx of zinc, yielded 96.7 grs. of arid vitriol
of zinc; and, in another trial, 20.0 grs. of this ore, contain-
ing 14.2 grs. of calx of zinc, produced 28.7 grs. of arid
vitriol of zinc. The mean of these two cases, is 62.7 grs.
of arid vitriol of zinc, from 31.4 grs. of calx of zinc.

In the experiment with the crystals of carbonate of zinc
from Derbyshire, 14.35 grs. of calx of zinc furnished indeed
only 26.8 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc ; a deficiency of about
•j-jj-g-, occasioned probably by some small inaccuracy of ma-
nipulation.

2. When the simplicity found in all those parts of nature
which are sufficiently known to discover it is considered, it
appears improbable that the proximate constituent parts of
bodies should be united in them, in the very remote rela-
tions to each other in which analyses generally indicate
them ; and, an attention to the subject has led me to the
opinion that such is in fact not the case, but that, on the
contrary, they are universally, as appears here with respect

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 27

to arid vitriol of zinc, fractions of the compound of very
low denominators. Possibly in few cases exceeding five.

The success which has appeared to attend some attempts
to apply this theory, and amongst others, to the composi-
tions of some of the substances above analysed, and espe-
cially to the calamine from Bleyberg, induces me to venture
to dwell here a little on this subject, and state the composi-
tion of this calamine which results from the system, as,
besides contributing perhaps to throw some light on the
true nature of this ore, it may be the means likewise of
presenting the theory under circumstances of agreement
with experiment, which from the surprising degree of near-
ness, and the trying complexity of the case, may seem to
entitle it to some attention.

From this calamine, containing, according to the results
of the experiments on the Mendip Hill kind, too small a
quantity of carbonic acid to saturate the whole of the calx
of zinc in it, and from its containing much too large a por-
tion of water to be in it in the state of mere moisture or
dampness, it seems to consist of two matters ; carbonate of
zinc, and a peculiar compound of zinc and water, which
may be named hydrate of zinc.

By the results of the analysis of the Mendip Hill cala-
mine, corrected by the theory, carbonate of zinc appears to
consist of

Carbonic acid - J

Calx of zinc

Deducting from the calx of zinc in the Bleyberg cala-
mine, that portion which corresponds, on these principles,
to its yield of carbonic acid, the remaining quantity of calx
of zinc and water are in such proportions as to lead, from
the theory, to consider hydrate of zinc as composed of

Calx of zinc . - f

Water, or rather ice £

And, from these results, corrected by the theory, I consider
Bleyberg calamine as consisting of

Carbonate of zinc - - |-

Hydrate of zinc ...

28

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

The test of this hypothesis, is in the quantities of the re-
mote elements which analysis would obtain from a calamine
thus composed.

The following tahle will show how very insignificantly the
calamine compounded by the theory, would differ in this
respect from the calamine of nature.

1000 parts of the compound salt of carbonate and hydrate
of zinc consist of

Carbonate of zinc 400 =-

Hydrate of zinc = 600 -

Carbonic ,nA

• J 4UU

acid = — =

Calx of
zinc

400X2

C±°f =J50X8

Ice - - =

= - - — 716f

Great as is the agreement between the quantities of the
last column and those obtained by the analysis of the
Bleyberg calamine, it would be yet more perfect, probably,
had there been, in this instance, no sources of fallacy but
those attached to chemical operations, such as errors of
weighing, waste, &c., but the differences which exist are
owing, in some measure at least, to -the admixture of car-
bonate of lime and carbonate of lead, in the calamine
analysed, and also to some portion of water, which is un-
doubtedly contained, in the state of moisture, in so porous
and bibulous a body.

It has also appeared, in the experiments on the Mendip
Hill calamine, that acids indicate a greater quantity of car-
bonic acid than fire does, by yf^. If we make this deduc-
tion for dissolved water, it reduces the quantity of carbonic
acid in the Bleyberg calamine, to 0.1321.

If we assume this quantity of carbonic acid as the datum
to calculate, on this system, the composition of the calamine
from Bleyberg, we shall obtain the following results :

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 29

Compound salt, of carbonate of zinc and hydrate

of zinc

Water in the state of moisture
Carbonate of lime and carbonate of lead

1000.0

It may be thought some corroboration of the system here
offered, that, if we admit the proportions which it indicates,
the remote elements of this ore, while they are regular parts
of their immediate products, by whose subsequent union
this ore is engendered, are also regular fractions of the ore
itself: thus,

The carbonic acid = -/$•

The water = -g9^

The calx of zinc = £f

Hereby displaying that sort of regularity, in every point
of view of the object, wyhich so wonderfully characterises
the works of nature, when beheld in their true light.

If this calamine does consist of carbonate of zinc and
hydrate of zinc, in the regular proportions above supposed,
little doubt can exist of its being a true chemical combina-
tion of these two matters, and not merely a mechanical
mixture of them in a pulverulent state ; and, if so, we may
indulge the hope of some day meeting with this ore in
regular crystals.

If the theory here advanced has any foundation in truth
the discovery will introduce a degree of rigorous accuracy
and certainty into chemistry, of which this science was
thought to be ever incapable, by enabling the chemist, like
the geometrician, to rectify by calculation the unavoidable
errors of his manual operations, and by authorising him to
eliminate from the essential elements of a compound, those
products of its analysis whose quantity cannot be reduced
to any admissible proportion.

A certain knowledge of the exact proportions of the
constituent principles of bodies, may likewise open to our
view harmonious analogies between the constitutions of

30 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

related objects, general laws, &c., which at present totally
escape us. In short, if it is founded in truth, its enabling
the application of mathematics to chemistry, cannot but be
productive of material results.*

3. By the application of the foregoing theory to the
experiments on the electrical calamine, its elements will
appear to be,

Quartz - - - i

Calx of zinc - f

A small quantity of the calamine having escaped the action

of the vitriolic acid, and remained undecomposed, will

account for the slight excess in the weight of the quartz.

4. The exhalation of these calamities at the blowpipe, and
the flowers which they diffuse round them on the coal, are
probably not to be attributed to a direct volatilization of
them. It is more probable that they are the consequences of
the disoxidation of the zinc calx, by the coal and the
inflammable matter of the flame, its sublimation in a metal-
lic state, and instantaneous recalcination. And this alter-
nate reduction and combustion, may explain the peculiar
phosphoric appearance exhibited by calces of zinc at the
blowpipe.

The apparent sublimation of the common flowers of zinc
at the instant of their production, though totally unsublim-
able afterwards, is certainly likewise but a deceptions
appearance. The reguline zinc, vaporized by the heat, rises
from the crucible as a metallic gas, and is, while in this
state, converted to a calx. The flame which attends the
process is a proof of it; for flame is a mass of vapour,
ignited by the production of fire within itself. The fibrous
form of the flowers of zinc, is owing to a crystallization of
the calx while in mechanical suspension in the air, like that
which takes place with camphor, when, after having been
sometime inflamed, it is blown out.

A moment's reflection must evince, how injudicious is the

* It may be proper to say, that the experiments have been stated precisely
as they turned out, and have not been in the least degree bent to the system.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 31

common opinion, of crystallization requiring a state of solu-
tion in the matter; since it must be evident, that while
solution subsists, as long as a quantity of fluid admitting of
it is present, no crystallization can take place. The only
requisite for £his operation, is a freedom of motion in the
masses which tend to unite, which allows them to yield to
the impulse which propels them together, and to obey that
sort of polarity which occasions them to present to each
other the parts adapted to mutual union. No state so com-
pletely affords these conditions as that of mechanical
suspension in a fluid whose density is so great, relatively to
their size, as to oppose such resistance to their descent in it
as to occasion their mutual attraction to become a power
superior to their force of gravitation. It is in these circum-
stances that the atoms of matters find themselves, when, on
the separation from them of the portion of fluid by which
they were dissolved, they are abandoned in a disengaged
state in the bosom of a solution ; and hence it is in satu-
rated solutions sustaining evaporation, or equivalent cooling,
and free from any perturbing motion, that regular crystalli-
zation is usually effected.

But those who are familiar with chemical operations, know
the sort of agglutination which happens between the parti-
cles of subsided very fine precipitates ; occasioning them,
on a second diffusion through the fluid, to settle again much
more quickly than before, and which is certainly a crystal-
lization, but under circumstances very unfavourable to its
perfect performance.

5. No calamine has yet occurred to me which was a real,
uncombined, calx of zinc. If such, as a native product,
should ever be met with in any of the still unexplored parts
of the earth, or exist amongst the unscrutinized possessions
of any cabinet, it will easily be known, by producing a
quantity of arid vitriol of zinc exactly double its own
weight ; while the hydrate of zinc, should it be found single,
or uncombined with the carbonate, will yield, it is evident,
1.5 its weight of this arid salt.

32 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

ACCOUNT OF A DISCOVERY OF NATIVE
MINIUM.

From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Vol. XCVI, Part I, 1806, p. 267.— Read April 24, 1806.

IN A LETTER TO THE RIGHT HON. SIR JOSEPH BANKS,
K. B. P. R. S.

MY DEAR SIR : I beg leave to acquaint you with a dis-
covery which I have lately made, as it adds a new, and
perhaps it may be thought an interesting, species to the
ores of lead. I have found minium native in the earth.

It is disseminated in small quantity, in the substance of a
compact carbonate of zinc.

Its appearance in general is that of a matter in a pulveru-
lent state, but in places it shows to a lens a flaky and crys-
talline texture.

Its colour is like that of factitious minium, a vivid red
with a cast of yellow.

Gently heated at the blowpipe it assumes a darker colour,
but on cooling it returns to its original red. At a stronger
heat it melts to litharge. On the charcoal it reduces to
lead.

In dilute white acid of nitre, it becomes of a coffee
colour. On the addition of a little sugar, this brown calx
dissolves, and produces a colourless solution.

By putting it into marine acid with a little leaf gold, the
gold is soon intirely dissolved.

When it is inclosed in a small bottle with marine acid,
and a little bit of paper tinged by turnsol is fixed to the
cork, the paper in a short time entirely loses its blue colour,
and becomes white. A strip of common blue paper, whose
colouring matter is indigo, placed in the same situation
undergoes the same change.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 33

The very small quantity which I possess of this ore, and
the manner in which it is scattered amongst another sub-
stance, and blended with it, have not allowed of more
qualities being determined, but I apprehend these to be
sufficient to establish its nature.

This native minium seems to be produced by the decay
of a galena, which I suspect to be itself a secondary pro-
duction from the metallization of white carbonate of lead
by hepatic gas. This is particularly evident in a specimen
of this ore which I mean to send to Mr. GREVILLE, as soon
as I can find an opportunity. In one part of it there is a
cluster of large crystals. Having broken one of these, it
proved to be converted into minium to a considerable thick-
ness, while its centre is still galena.
I am, &c.,

JAMES SMITHSON.

CASSELL IN HESSE, March 2d, 1806.

From the Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XXXVIII, 1811, p. 84.

After I had communicated to the president the account
of the discovery of native minium, printed in the Philo-
sophical Transactions for 1806, 1 learned that this ore came
from the lead mines of Breylau in Westphalia.

34 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

ON QUADKUPLE AND BINARY COMPOUNDS,
PARTICULARLY SULPIIURETS.

From the Philosophical Magazine, London, Yol. XXIX, 1807, p. 275.
Bead December 24, 1807.

A paper, by Mr. Smithson, on quadruple and binary com-
pounds, particularly the sulphurets, was read. The author
seemed to doubt the propriety of the distinction, or rather
the existence, of quadruple compounds, believed that only
two substances could enter as elements in the composition
of one body, and contended that in crises of quadruple com-
pounds, a new and very different substance was formed,
which had very little relation to the radical or elementary
principles of which it was believed to be composed. This
opinion he supported by reference to the sulphurets of lead
(galena) and of antimony, and to the facts developed by
crystallography. In the latter science he took occasion to
correct and confirm some remarks of his in the Transac-
tions for 1804, on different crystals, which he acknowledged
have not hitherto been found in nature.

ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE COMPOUND SUL-
PI1URET FROM HUEL BOYS, AND AN AC-
COUNT OF ITS CRYSTALS.

From the Philosophical Transactions of the Koyal Society of London,
Vol. XCVIII, Part I, 1808, p. 55.— Pvead January 28, 1808.

It is but very lately that I have seen the Philosophical
Transactions for 1804, and become acquainted with the two
papers on the compound sulphuret of lead, antimony, and
copper contained in the first part of it, which circumstance

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. , 35

has prevented my offering sooner a few observations on Mr.
HATCHETT'S experiments, which I deem essential towards
this substance being rightly considered, and indeed the
principles of which extend to other chemical compounds ;
and also giving an account of the form of this compound
sulphuret, as that which has been laid before the Society is
very materially inaccurate and imperfect.

We have no real knowledge of the nature of a compound
substance till we are acquainted with its proximate ele-
ments, or those matters by whose direct or immediate union
it is produced ; for these only are its true elements. Thus,
though we know that vegetable acids consist of oxygene,
hydrogene, and carbon, we are not really acquainted with
their composition, because these are not their proximate,
that is, are not their elements, but are the elements of their
elements, or the elements of these. It is evident what
would be our acquaintance with sulphate of iron ; for ex-
ample, did we only know that a crystal of it consisted of
iron, sulphur, oxygene, and hydrogene ; or of carbonate of
lime, if only that it was a compound of lime, carbon or
diamond, and oxygene. In fact, totally dissimilar sub-
stances may have the same ultimate elements, and even pro-
bably in precisely the same proportions ; nitrate of ammo-
nia, and hydrate of ammonia, or crystals of caustic volatile
alkali,* both ultimately consist of oxygene, hydrogene, and
azote.

It is not probable that the present ore is a direct quad-
ruple combination of the three metals and sulphur, that
these, in their simple states, are its immediate component
parts; it is much more credible that it is a combination of
the three sulphurets of these metals.

On this presumption I have made experiments to deter-
mine the respective proportions of these sulphurets in it.

I have found 10 grains of galena, or sulphuret of lead, to
produce 12.5 grains of sulphate of lead. Hence the 60.1

* FOURCROY, Syst. des Con. Chem. t. I. p. 88.

36 WHITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

grains of sulphate lead, which Mr. HATCHETT obtained, cor-
respond to 48.08 grains of sulphuret of lead.

I have found 10 grains of sulphuret of antimony to afford
11.0 grains of precipitate from muriatic acid by water.
Hence 31.5 grains of this precipitate are equal to 28.64
grains of sulphuret of antimony.

The want of sulphuret of copper has prevented my de-
termining the relation between it and black oxide of copper,
but this omission is, it is evident, immaterial, as the quan-
tity of this sulphuret in the ore must be the complement of
the sum of the two others.

But as the iron is a foreign adventitious substance in this
ore, it follows that the foregoing quantities are the products
of only 96.65 grains of it. 100 parts of the ore are there-
fore composed of

Sulphuret of lead 49.7

Sulphuret of antimony - - 29.6

Sulphuret of copper - - 20.7

100.0

It is impossible not to be struck with the trifling altera-
tion which these quantities require to reduce them to very
simple proportions, or to think it a very great violation of
probability to suppose that experiments, effected with no
errors, would have given them thus :

Sulphuret of lead 50.

Sulphuret of antimony 30.

Sulphuret of copper - 20.

However, I doubt the existence of triple, quadruple, &c.
compounds ; I believe, that all combination is binary ; that no
substance whatever has more than two proximate or true
elements ; and hen<?e I should be inclined to consider the
present compound as a combination of galena and fahl-
ertz ; and if so, it will be accurately represented, as far as

WRITINGS OF JAME3 SMITHSON. 37

Chemical analysis has yet been able to go, by the following
figure :

fl rrolor, J £ Sulphur

Compound sulphuret 1 $ lead

of lead, antimony, = j f sulphuret of f £ sulphur,

and copper - * antimony ={| antimony.

( * fahlertz = j f sulphuret of ( 1 sulphur/
[ copper \ | copper.

Its ultimate elements are therefore,

Sulphur 20 . . . = f§

Lead 41f . . . = f£

Antimony 25 . . . = H

Copper 13 J . . . = -gV

and it is not a little remarkable, that here, as was the case
with the calamine,* they are sexagesimal fractions of it.

When in a former paper I offered a system on the pro-
portions of the elements of compounds, I supported it by
the results of my own experiments, which might be sup-
posed influenced, even unconsciously to myself, by a favour-
ite hypothesis, and I made the application of it principally
to a substance whose nature was not very clear. But the
present case is not liable to these objections : here no fond-
ness to the theory can be suspected of having led astray,
nor did even the experiments as they came from their
author's hands, bear an appearance in the least favourable
to it, and yet when properly considered, they are found to
accord no less remarkably with its principles.

It is evident that there must be a precise quantity in
which the elements of compounds are united together in
them, otherwise a matter, which was not a simple one,
would be liable, in its several masses, to vary from itself,
according as one or other of its ingredients chanced to pre-
dominate; but chemical experiments are unavoidably at-
tended with too many sources of fallacy for this precise
quantity to be discovered by them ; it is therefore to theory

* Phil. Trans. 1803, p. 12.

dQ WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

that we must owe the knowledge of it. For this purpose
an hypothesis must be made, and its justness tried by a
strict comparison with facts. If they are found at variance,
the assumed hypothesis must be relinquished with candour
as erroneous, but should it, on the contrary prove, on a
multitude of trials, invariably to accord with the results of
observation, as nearly as our means of determination au-
thorise us to expect, we are warranted in believing that the
principle of nature is obtained, as we then have all the
proofs of its being so, which men can have of the justness
of their theories : a constant and perfect agreement with
the phenomena, as far as can be discovered.

The great criterion in the present case is, whether on the
conversion of a substance into its several compounds, and
of these into one another, the simple ratios always obtain
which the principles of the theory require. Amongst the
multitude of instances which I could adduce, in support of
such being the fact, I will, for the sake of brevity, confine
myself to a few in the substances which have come under
consideration above, as they will likewise give the grounds
on which some of the proportions in the table have been
assigned, and every chemist, by a careful repetition of the
experiments, may easily determine for himself to what at-
tention the present theory is entitled.
Lead = f of sulphate of lead

= f of sulphuret of lead
Sulphuret of lead = | of lead

— £ of sulphate of lead
Sulphate of lead = | of lead

= -f- of sulphuret of lead
Antimony = -f of powder of algoroth

= 4 of sulphuret of antimony
Sulphuret of antimony - = V of .powder of algoroth.

In the experiments by which these relations were ascer-
tained, the portion of ponder of algoroth and sulphate of
lead dissolved in the precipitating and washing waters, was
scrupulously collected.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 39

The importance of a knowledge of the true quantity in
which matters combine, is too evident to require to be dwelt
upon ; but this importance will be greatly augmented, if it
should prove that this quantity is, as has been suggested,
expressive of the forces with which they attract each other.
It is perhaps in the form of matters that we shall find the
cause of the proportions in which they unite, and a proof,
a priori, of the system here maintained.

I have examined some of the grey ores of copper in
tetraedral crystals ; but the notes of my experiments are in
England. I can, however, say, that they do contain anti-
mony, and that they do not contain iron in any material
quantity. With respect to the proportions of the constitu-
ent parts, I cannot now speak with any certainty ; but, I
think, that at least some species of fahlertz contain a smaller
portion of sulphuret of antimony, than the fahlertz does
which exists as an element in the foregoing compound one.

Of the Form of this Substance.

Of the seventeen figures which have been given, as of the
crystals of this compound sulphuret, in Part II. of the
volume of the Transactions for 1804, great part are ac-
knowledged to have no existence, nor are indeed any of
them consistent with nature.

This substance seems to have yet offered but one form,
and which is represented in the annexed Plate under its
two principal appearances ; that is, having the primitive
faces, the predominant ones of the prism ; and having the
secondary ones such, and which will be fully sufficient to
make it known. In the first infancy of the study of crys-
tals, it might be necessary to attend to every, the most
trifling, variation of them, to trace each of their changes,
step by step, to, as it were, spell the subject ; but in the
state to which the science has now attained, to continue to
do so would be not only superfluous, but most truly puerile.

40

WRITINGS OF JAMES 8MITHSON.

I have a very small, but very regular, crystal of the form
of Fig. 1.

Fig. I

Fig. 2.

mp = 90°

m t =90°

a m = 135°

m b = 135°

c b = 125° 15' 52"

g b = 144° 44' 8"

d m = 116° 33' 54"

fm = 153° 26' 6"

By mensuration the faces a and m appear to form together
an angle of about 135°, and the faces c and b an angle of
about 125°.

It is said in the account above quoted, that the primitive
form of this matter is a rectangular tetraedral prism, but
no proofs of this have been offered ; nor have the dimen-
sions of this prism been given, a circumstance of the first

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 41

moment to the determination of true or primitive form, nor
Lave any quantities been assigned to the decrements sup-
posed. I will, therefore, supply these very important omis-
sions.

That the atom of this substance is a rectangular tetrae-
•dral prism, is inferable, not from the strise on the crystals,
for striae are by no means invariably indicative of a decre-
ment in the direction of them ; but from the angles which
the faces a and c make with the faces m and b, and these
angles also prove, that the height of this prism is equal to
the side of its base, that is, that it is a cube.

Hence the face a is produced by a decrease of one row of
atoms along the edge of the cube, and the angle it forms
with the face m is really of 135°.

The face c is produced by a decrease of two rows of atoms
at the corners of the cube, and the angle it forms with the
face b is — 125° 15' 52".

The face b being produced like the face a, forms the same
angle with the face m.

No crystal I possess, has enabled me to measure the in-
clinations of the faces </, d, or f; should the face #, as is
presumable, result from a decrease of one row of atoms at
the corners of the cube, it will form with the face 6, an
angle of 144° 44' 8", and if the faces d and /are, as is also
probable, produced by a decrease of two rows of atoms
along the edges of the cube, the. first will form an angle of
116° 33' 54", and the latter one of 153° 26' 6", with the
face m.

The angles assigned here differ considerably from those
given in the former account of these crystals ; but the
angles there given have not only appeared to me to be con-
tradicted by observation, but, crystallographically consid-
ered, are inconsistent with each other, as the tetraedral
prism of dimensions to produce an angle of 135° by a
decrement along its edge, would not afford angles of 140°
and 120° by decrements at its corners.

The sum of the faces of these crystals is 50.

42 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

ON THE COMPOSITION OF ZEOLITE.

From the Philosophical Transactions of the Koyal Society of London,
Vol. 01, p. 171.— Read February 7, 1811.

MINERAL bodies being, in fact, native chemical preparations,
perfectly analogous to those of the laboratory of art, it is
only by chemical means, that their species can be ascer-
tained with any degree of certainty, especially under all the
variations of mechanical state and intimate admixture with
each other, to which they are subject.

And accordingly, we see those methods which profess to
supersede the necessity of chemistry in mineralogy, and to
decide upon the species of it by other means than her's,
yet bringing an unavoidable tribute of homage to her supe-
rior powers, by turning to her for a solution of the difficul-
ties which continually arise to them, and to obtain firm
grounds to relinquish or adopt the conclusions to which the
principles they employ, lead them.

Zeolite and natrolite have been universally admitted to
be species distinct from each other, from Mr. KLAPROTH
having discovered a considerable quantity of soda and no
lime, in the composition of the latter, while Mr. YAUQUELIN
had not found any portion of either of the fixed alkalies,
but a considerable one of lime, in his analysis of zeolite.*

The natrolite has been lately met with under a regular
crystalline form, and this form appears to be perfectly simi-
lar to that of zeolite, but Mr. HAUY has not judged himself
warranted by this circumstance, to consider these two bodies
as of the same species, because zeolite, he says, " does not
contain an atom of soda."t

I had many years ago found soda in what I considered to

* Journal des Mines, No. XLIV.

f Journal des Mines, No. CL. Juin 1810, p. 458.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 43

be zeolites, which I had collected in the island of Staffa,
having formed GLAUBER'S salt by treating them with sul-
phuric acid ; and I have since repeatedly ascertained the
presence of the same principle in similar stones from various
other places ; and Dr. HUTTON and Dr. KENNEDY, had like-
wise detected soda in bodies, to which they gave the name
of zeolite.

There was, however, no certainty that the subjects of any
of these experiments were of the same nature as what Mr.
YAUQUELIN had examined, were of that species which Mr.
HAUY calls mesotype.

Mr. HAUY was so obliging as to send me lately, some
specimens of minerals. There happened to be amongst
them a cluster of zeolite in rectangular tetrahedral prisms,
terminated by obtuse tetrahedral pyramids whose faces coin-
cided with those of the prism. These crystals were of a
considerable size, and perfectly homogeneous, and labelled
by himself " Mesotype pyramidee du depart, de Pay de Dome."
I availed myself of this very favourable opportunity, to as-
certain whether the mesotype of Mr. HAUY and natrolite,
did or did not differ in their composition, and the results of
the experiments have been entirely unfavourable to their
separation, as the following account of them will show.

10 grains of this zeolite being kept red hot for five min-
utes lost 0.75 grains, and became opaque and friable. In a
second experiment, 10 grains being exposed for 10 minutes
to a stronger fire, lost 0.95 grains, and consolidated into a
hard transparent state.

10 grains of this zeolite, which had not been heated,
were reduced to a fine powder, and diluted muriatic acid
poured upon it. On standing some hours, without any ap-
plication of heat, the zeolite entirely dissolved, and some
hours after, the solution became a jelly : this jelly was evap-
orated to a dry state, and then made red hot.

Water was repeatedly poured on to this ignited matter
till nothing more could be extracted from it. This solution
was gently evaporated to a dry state, and this residuum

44 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

made slightly red hot. It then weighed 3.15 grains. It
was muriate of soda.

The solution of this muriate of soda being tried with
solutions of carbonate of ammonia and oxalic acid, did not
afford the least precipitate, which would have happened
had the zeolite contained any lime, as the muriate of lime*
would not have been decomposed by the ignition.

The remaining matter, from which this muriate of soda
had been extracted, was repeatedly digested with marine
acid, till all that was soluble was dissolved. What remained
was silica, and, after being made red hot, weighed 4.9 grains.

The muriatic solution, which had been decanted off from
the silica, was exhaled to a dry state, and the matter left
made red hot. It was alumina.

To discover whether any magnesia was contained amongst
this alumina, it was dissolved in sulphuric acid, the solution
evaporated to a dry state, and ignited. Water did extract
some saline matter from this ignited alumina, but it had not
at all the appearance of sulphate of magnesia, and proved
to be some sulphate of alumina which had escaped decom-
position, for on an addition of sulphate of ammonia to it, it
produced crystals of compound sulphate of alumina and
ammonia, in regular octahedrons.

This alum and alumina were again mixed and digested in
ammonia, and the whole dried and made red hot. The
alumina left, weighed 3.1 grains.

Being suspected to contain still some sulphuric acid, this
alumina was dissolved in nitric acid, and an excess of ace-
tate of barytes added. A precipitate of sulphate of barytes
fell, which after being edulcorated and made red hot, weighed
1.2 grains. If we admit J of sulphate of barytes to be sul-
phuric acid, the quantity of the alumina will be — 3.1 —
0.4 ~ 2.7 grains.

* These names are retained for the present, as being familiar, though,
since Mr. DAVY'S important discovery of the nature of what was called
oxymuriatic acid, the substances to which they are applied, are known not
to be salts, but metallic compounds analogous to oxides.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON, 45

From the experiments of Dr. MARCET,* it appears that
3.15 grains of muriate of soda, afford 1.7 grains of soda.

Hence, according to the foregoing experiments, the 10
grains of zeolite analysed, consisted of

Silica - 4.90

Alumina - 2.70

Soda 1.70

Ice 0.95

10.25

As these experiments had been undertaken more for the
purpose of ascertaining the nature of the component parts
of this zeolite than their proportions, the object of them
was considered as accomplished, although perfect accuracy
in the latter respect, had not been attained, and which, in-
deed, the analysis we possess of natrolite by the illustrious
chemist of Berlin, renders unnecessary.

I am induced to prefer the name of zeolite for this species
of stone, to any other name, from an unwillingness to oblite-
rate entirely from the nomenclature of mineralogy, while
arbitrary names are retained in it, all trace of one of the
discoveries of the greatest mineralogist who has yet ap-
peared, and which, at the time it was made, was considered
as, and was, a very considerable one, being the first addi-
tion of an earthy species, made by scientific means, to those
established immemorially by miners and lapidaries, and
hence having, with, tungstein and nickel, led the way to the
great and brilliant extension which mineralogy has since
received. And, of the several substances, which, from the
state of science in his time, certain common qualities in-
duced Baron CRONSTEDT to associate together under the
name of zeolite ; it is this which has been most imme-
diately understood as such, and whose qualities have been
assumed as the characteristic ones of the species.

Indeed, I think that the name imposed on a substance by

* Phil. Trans. 1807.

46 WRITINGS OP JAMES SMITHSON.

the discoverer of it, ought to be held in some degree sacred,
and not altered without the most urgent necessity for doing
it. It is but a feeble and just retribution of respect for the
service which he has rendered to science.

Professor STRUVE, of Lausanne, whose skill in miner-
alogy is well known, having mentioned to me, in one of his
letters, that from some experiments of his own, he was led
to suspect the existence of phosphoric acid in several stones,
and particularly in the zeolite of Auvergne, I have directed
my enquiries to this point, but have not found the phos-
phoric, or any other acknowledged mineral acid, in this
zeolite.

Many persons, from experiencing much difficulty in com-
prehending the combination together of the earths, have
been led to suppose the existence of undiscovered acids in
stony crystals. If quartz be itself considered as an acid, to
which order of bodies its qualities much more nearly assim-
ilate it, than to the earths, their composition becomes readily
intelligible. They will then be neutral salts, silicates, either
simple or compound. Zeolite will be a compound salt, a
hydrated silicate of alumina and soda, and hence a com-
pound of alumina not very dissimilar to alum. And topaz,
whose singular ingredients, discovered by Mr. KLAPROTII,
have called forth a query from the celebrated Mr. VAUQUE-
LIN, with regard to the mode of their existence together,*
will be likewise a compound salt, consisting of silicate of
alumina, and fluate of alumina.

Our acquaintance with the composition of the several
mineral substances, is yet far too inaccurate to render it
possible to point out with any degree of certainty, the one
of which zeolite is an hydrate, however the agreement of
the two substances in the nature of their constituent parts,
and in their being both electrical by heat, directs conjecture
towards tourmaline.

St. James's Place, Jan. 22, 1811.

* Annales du Museum d'Hist. Nat. tome 6, p. 24.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. . 47

ON A SUBSTANCE FROM THE ELM TREE,
CALLED ULMIN.

From the Philosophical Transactions of the Koyal Society of London,
Vol. GUI, Part I, 1813, p. 64.— Kead December 10, 1812.

1. The substance now denominated Ulmin was first made
known by the celebrated Mr. KLAPROTH, to whom nearly
every department of chemistry is under numerous and great
obligations.*

Ulmin has been ranked by Dr. THOMSON, in his System of
Chemistry, as a distinct vegetable principle, on the ground
of its possessing qualities totally peculiar and extraordinary.
It is said, that though in its original state easily soluble in
water and wholly insoluble in alcohol and ether, it changes,
when nitric, or oxymuriatic acid is poured into its solution,
into a resinous substance no longer soluble in water, but
soluble in alcohol, and this singular alteration is attributed
to the union to it of a small portion of oxygen which it has
acquired from these acids.* Being possessed of some of
this substance which had been sent to me some years ago
from Palermo, by the same person from whom Mr. KLAP-
ROTH had received it, I became induced, by the foregoing
account, to pay attention to it, and have observed facts
which appear to warrant a different etiology of its phe-
nomena, and opinion of its nature, from what has been
given of them.

The ulmin made use of in the following experiments, had
been freed from the fragments of bark by solution in water
and filtration, and recovered in a dry state by the evapora-
tion of the solution on a water bath.

2. In lumps, ulmin appears black, but in thin pieces it is
Been to be transparent, and of a deep red colour.

*Dr. THOMSON'S Syst. of Chem. Vol. IV, p. 696. Fourth edition.

48 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

In a dilute state, solution of ulmin is yellow ; in a con-
centrated one, dark red, and not unlike blood.

When solution of ulmin dries, either spontaneously or by
being heated, the ulmin divides into long narrow strips dis-
posed in rays to the centre, which curl up and detach them-
selves from the vessel, and the fluid part seems to draw
together, and becomes remarkably protuberant. Solution
of ulmin slowly and feebly restores the colour of turnsol
paper reddened by an acid.

3. Dilute nitric acid being poured into a solution of
ulmin, a copious precipitate immediately formed. The
mixture was thrown on a filter. The matter which has
been considered as a resin remained on the paper, and a
clear yellow liquor came through. This yellow solution, on
evaporation, produced a number of prismatic crystals look-
ing like nitrate of potash. They were tinged yellow by
some of the resin. This mixture, heated in a gold dishr
deflagrated with violence, and a large quantity of fixed
alkali remained.

Dilute muriatic acid caused an exactly similar precipita-
tion in solution of ulmin to nitric acid, and the precipitate
was the same resin-like substance. The filtered liquor
afforded a quantity of saline matter, which, after being
freed by ignition from a portion of dissolved resin, shot
into pure white cubes of muriate of potash, as appeared by
decomposing them by nitric acid.

Sulphuric, phosphoric, oxalic, tartaric, arid citric acids,,
occasioned a similar precipitation in solution of ulmin.

Distilled vinegar produced no turbidness in it ; and the
mixture being exhaled to dryness, at a gentle heat, wa&
found to be again wholly soluble in water. But when the
mixture was made to boil, some decomposition took place.
On adding muriatic acid to a mixture of solution of ulmin
and distilled vinegar, a precipitate was produced, as in a
mere solution in water.

The nitric and muriatic acids received a small quantity of
lime and iron from the ulmin, and I believe also a little

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON, 49

magnesia ; but these can be considered only as foreign ad-
mixtures.

4. To acquire an idea of the quantity of potash in ulmin,
4 grains of ulmin were decomposed by nitric acid. They
afforded 2.4 grains of resin-like matter. The nitrate of
potash obtained was heated to deflagration, in small quanti-
ties at a time, in a platina crucible to free it from resin.
The alkali produced was supersaturated with nitric acid,
dried, and slightly fused. It then weighed 1.2 grains. If
we admit J of nitrate of potash to be alkali, this will denote
^g- of potash in ulmin.

5 grains of ulmin were decomposed by muriatic acid.
The resinous matter weighed 3.3 grains, and the muriate of
potash, after being ignited, dissolved away from the char-
coal, dried, and again made red hot, weighed 1.4 grains.
If we suppose f of muriate of potash to be alkali, this will
indicate ^fo of potash in ulmin.

2 grains of ulmin were made red hot in a gold crucible.
It then weighed only 1.05 grain. The form of the flakes
was in no degree altered, but they had acquired the blue
and yellow colours of heated steel, of which they had like-
wise the metallic aspect and lustre, and could difficultly, if
at all, have been distinguished by the eye from heated steel-
filings, or fragments of slender watch-springs. Water im-
mediately destroyed their metallic appearance.

Muriatic acid, poured on, caused a strong effervescence,
and formed muriate of potash, which, freed from all char-
coal, and made red hot, weighed 0.6 grain, corresponding
to ^j- of potash in ulmin.

These experiments assign about £ for the quantity of
potash in ulmin, but as it is impossible to operate, on so
small a scale, on such substances without loss, it is proba-
ble that it even exceeds this proportion.

5. The substance separated from ulmki by acids has the
following qualities :

It is very glossy, and has a resinous appearance.
4

50 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

In lumps it appears black, but in minute fragments it is
found to be transparent, and of a garnet-red colour.

It burns with flame, and is reduced to white ashes.

Alcohol dissolves it, but only in very small quantity.

Water likewise dissolves it, but also only in very small
quantity. Acids cause a precipitate in this solution, though
this resin-like matter appears neither to contain any alkali,
nor to retain any of the acid by means of which it was
obtained.

Its solution in water seems to redden turnsol paper.

Neither ammonia, nor carbonate of soda, promote its
solution in cold water.

On adding a small quantity of potash to water in which
it lies, it dissolves immediately and abundantly. This solu-
tion has all the qualities of a solution of ulmin, and, on
exhalation, leaves a matter precisely like it, which cracks
and separates from the glass, and docs not grow moist in the
air, &c.

Hence it appears that ulmin is not a simple vegetable
principle of anomalous qualities, but a combination with
potash of a red, or more properly a high yellow matter,
which, if not of a peculiar genus, seems rather more related
to the extractives than to the resins.

English Ulmin.

I collected, from an elm tree in Kensington gardens, a
small quantity of a black shining substance which looked
like ulmin.

It was readily soluble in water, and the solution was in
colour and appearance exactly similar to a solution of
ulmin.

This solution, exhaled to a dry state on a water-bath,
left a matter exactly like ulrnin, and which cracked and
divided as ulmin does, when dried in the same manner. It
did not, however, rise up from the watch-glass in long
strips, like the Sicilian kind, but this may have been owing

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 51

partly to its small quantity, which occasioned it to be spread
very thin on the watch-glass, and partly to its containing a
•considerable excess of alkali, for it differed also from the
Palermo ulmin by becoming soft in the air, and its solution
strongly restored the blue colour of reddened turnsol paper.

Nitric acid, added to a filtered solution of this ulmin, im-
mediately caused a precipitate in it, and the filtered solu-
tion, on evaporation, afforded numerous crystals of nitrate
of potash.

This English ulmin made a considerable effervescence
with acetous acid, which the Palermo ulmin had not been
observed to do. This acetous solution, in which the acid
was in excess, was exhaled dry, and repeatedly washed with
spirit of wine. No part of the brown matter dissolved.
Water dissolved this brown residuum readily and entirely.
This solution did not sensibly restore the blue colour of
reddened turnsol paper. Exhaled to a dry state, the mat-
ter left did not separate from the watch-glass quite as freely
as Palermo ulmin, which had been treated with acetous
acid ; but it seemed no longer to grow moist in the air.
Redissolved in water, and nitric acid added, the mixture
became thick from a copious precipitate.

The spirit of wine contained a quantity of acetate of
potash.

The excess of alkali, in this English ulmin, may be owing
to the tree from which it was collected having been affected
with the disease, which produces the alkaline ulcer to which
the elm is subject.

Sap of the Mm Tree.

Thinking that the production of ulmin by the plant
might not be the consequence of disease, and that it might
•exist in the healthy sap, a bit of elm twig, gathered in the
beginning of last July, was cut into thin slices and boiled
in water. It afforded a brown solution, like a solution of
ulmin. Exhaled to dryness, this solution left a dark brown

52 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

substance, in appearance similar to ulmin, but on adding
water to this dry mass, a large quantity of brown glutinous
matter remained insoluble. The mixture being thrown on
a filter, a clear yellow liquor passed, which may have con-
tained ulmin, but the quantity was too small to admit of
satisfactory conclusions.

Perhaps older wood, the juice of which was more per-
fected, would afford other results, since ulmin appears to
be the product of old trees ; but the inquiry, being merely
collateral to the object 1 had originally in view, was not
persevered in.

ON A SALINE SUBSTANCE FROM MOUNT
VESUVIUS.

From the Philosophical Transactions of the Eoyal Society of London r
Vol. CIII, Part I, 1813, p. 256.— Read July 8, 1813.

It has very long appeared to me, that when the earth is
considered with attention, innumerable circumstances are
perceived, which cannot but lead to the belief, that it has
once been in a state of general conflagration. The exist-
ence in the skies of planetary bodies, which seem to be
actually burning, and the appearances of original fire dis-
cernible on our globe, I have conceived to be mutually cor-
roborative of each other ; and at the time when no answers
could be given to the most essential objections to the
hypothesis, the mass of facts in favour of it fully justified,
I thought, the inference that our habitation is an extinct
comet or sun.

The mighty difficulties which formerly assailed this
opinion, great modern discoveries have dissipated.^, Ac-
quainted now, that the bases of alkalies and earths are
metals, eminently oxydable, we are no longer embarrassed

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 53

either for the pabulum of the inflammation, or to account
for the products of it.

In the primitive strata, we behold the result of the com-
bustion. In them we see the oxyd collected on the surface
of the calcining mass, first melted by the heat, then by its
increase arresting farther combination, and extinguishing
the fires which had generated it, and in fine become solid
and crystallized over the metallic ball.

Every thing tells that a large body of combustible matter
still remains enclosed within this stony envelope, and of
which volcanic eruptions are partial and small accensions.

Under this point of view, an high interest attaches itself
to volcanoes, and their ejections. They cease to be local
phenomena ; they become principal elements in the history
of our globe ; they connect its present with its former con-
dition ; and we have good grounds for supposing, that in
their flames are to be read its future destinies.

In support of the igneous origin, here attributed to the
primitive strata, I will observe, that not only no crystal im-
bedded in them, such as quartz, garnet, tourmaline, &c. has
ever been seen enclosing drops of water ; but that none of
the materials of these strata contain water in any state.

a. The present saline substance was sent to me from
Naples to Florence, where I was, in May 1794, with a re-
quest to ascertain its nature. The general examination
which I then made of it, shewed it to be principally what
was at that time called vitriolated tartar, and it was in con-
sequence mentioned as such in an Italian publication soon
after. But as this denomination, surprising at that period,
was not supported by the relation of any experiments, or
the citation of any authority, no attention was paid to it ;
.and the existence of this species of salt, native in the earth,
has not been admitted by mineralogists, no mention being
made of it, I believe, in any mineralogical work published
since.

b. I was informed by letter, that it had " flowed out liquid

54 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITIISON.

from a small aperture in the cone of Vesuvius," and which
I apprehend to have happened in 1792 or 1793.

c. The masses of this salt are perfectly irregular, their
texture compact, their colour a clouded mixture of white,,
of the green of copper, and of a rusty yellow, and in some
places are specks and streaks of black.

d. A fragment melted on the charcoal at the blow-pipe
formed hepar sulphuris.

e. A piece weighing 9.5 grains was so strongly heated in
a platina crucible, that it melted and flowed level over the
bottom of it, but did not lose the least weight.

/. Not the slightest fume could be perceived on holding
a glass tube wetted with marine acid over some of this salt,,
while triturating in a mortar with liquid potash ; but a sim-
ilar mixture being made in a bottle, and which was imme-
diately closed with a cork, to which was fixed a bit of red-
dened litmus paper, the blue colour of the paper was-
restored.

g. Being dissolved in water, there was a small sandy
residue, which consisted of green particles of a cupreous
nature, of a yellow ochraceous powder, and of minute crys-
tals of a metallic aspect of red oxyd of iron, by which the
black spots in the mass had been occasioned.* Mr. KLAP-
BOTH found a similar admixture in muriate of soda from
Vesuvius, f

h. The solution had a feeble green tint. It did not alter
blue or reddened turnsol paper.

i. Prussiate of soda-and-iron threw down a small quantity
of red prussiate of copper from it. Liver of sulphur and
tincture of galls likewise caused very small precipitations.

j. Carbonate of soda, and oxalate of potash, and solutions-

* What mineralogists denominate speculary iron ore, Per oligiste of Mr.
HAUY, appears to be merely red oxyd of iron in crystals ; red hematite the
same substance in the state of stalactite ; and red ochres the same in a pul-
verulent form. The hematites which afford a yellow powder are hydrates
of iron.

f Essays, Vol. II. p. 67, Eng. Trans.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 55

of magnesia, clay, copper, iron, and zinc, either had no
effects, or extremely slight ones.

k. Solution of sulphate of silver produced a white curd,
like precipitate. 9.35 grains of this salt (the weight of the
insoluble matter being deducted) afforded 1.05 grains of
slightly melted muriate, or chloride, of silver. This pre-
cipitate was equally produced after the salt had been made
strongly red hot, so that it was not owing to a portion of
sal ammoniac.

I Tartaric acid, and muriate of platinum, occasioned the
precipitates in its solution which indicate potash.

m. Nitrate of lime did not form any immediate precipi-
tate in a dilute solution of it ; but. in a short time, numerous
minute prismatic crystals of hydrate of sulphate of lime
were generated.

n. Nitrate of barytes poured into a solution containing
9.8 grains of this salt afforded a precipitate, which after be-
ing ignited weighed 12.3 grains. The filtered solution
crystallized entirely into nitrate of potash mixed with a
few rhomboides of nitrate of soda.

o. Some of this salt finely pulverized was treated with
alcohol. This alcohol on exhaling left a number of minute
cubic crystals, which proved, by the test of nitric acid, to
be muriate of soda. Prussiate of soda-and-iron caused a
red precipitate of prussiate of copper in this alcoholic solu-
tion.

p. The solution of this salt afforded, by crystallization,
sulphate of potash in its usual forms, and some prismatic
crystals of hydrate of sulphate of soda.

q. To discover what had occasioned the precipitate with
galls, (i) since copper has not this quality, a portion of this
salt, which had been recovered by evaporation from a fil-
tered solution of it, was made red hot in a platina crucible.
On extraction of the saline part by water, a very small
quantity of a black powder was obtained. Ammonia dis-
solved only part of it, which was copper. The rest being

56 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

digested with muriatic acid, and prussiate of soda-and-iron
added, a fine Prussian blue was formed.

r. From several of the foregoing experiments, it appeared
that no sensible quantity of any of the mineral 'acids, be-
sides the sulphuric and muriatic, existed in combination
with alkali in this volcanic salt. But Mr. TENNANT, whose
many and highly important discoveries have so greatly con-
tributed to the progress of chemical science, having detected
disengaged boracic acid amongst the volcanic productions
of the Lipari islands, and suggested that it might be a more
general product of volcanoes than had been suspected,* it
became important to ascertain whether the presence of any
in this salt proved Vesuvius likewise to be a source of this
acid. Alcohol heated on a portion of it in fine powder,
and then burned on it, did not however shew the least green
hue in its flame.

s. To ascertain the proportions of the ingredients of this
saline substance, the following experiments were made :

10 grains of sulphate of potash of the shops were dis-
solved in 200 grains of water, and an excess of muriate of
platina added. The precipitate edulcorated with 100 grains
of water, and dried on a water bath, weighed 21.1 grains.

10 grains of the saline part of the native salt, treated pre-
cisely in every respect in the same way, afforded 17.2 grains
of precipitated muriate of platina-and-potash.

If 24.1 grains of this precipitate correspond to 10 grains
of sulphate of potash, 17.2 grains of it correspond to 7.14
grains of this salt.

It has been seen (ri) that 10 grains of the saline part of
this volcanic salt would have afforded 12.55 grains of sul-
phate of barytes.

But 7.14 grains of sulphate of potash form only 9.42
grains of sulphate of barytes,f and therefore the remaining
3.13 grains of sulphate of barytes would be produced by the

* Trans, of the Geolog. Soc.

f Dr. MARCET on Dropsical Fluids.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITH60N. 57

sulphate of soda, and correspond to 1.86 grains of it in an
arid state, or uncombined with ice.*

10 grains of the saline part of this native salt would have
produced 1.12 grains of ignited muriate of silver (k). By
accurate experiments 241 grains of ignited muriate of silver
have been found to correspond to 100 grains of ignited mu-
riate of soda.f

Consequently the soluble portion of the present Yesuvian
salt consists of

Sulphate of potash 7.14

Sulphate of soda 1.86

Muriate of soda - - 0.46

Muriate of ammonia ^

Muriate of copper V - 0.54

Muriate of iron )

10.00

t. The insoluble sandy residue (g) having been thoroughly
edulcorated, dilute nitric acid was put to it. A green solu-
tion formed without any effervescence. Acetate of barytes
scarcely rendered this solution turbid ; but nitrate of silver
produced a copious curd-like precipitate, and iron abund-
antly threw down copper from it. The green grains enclosed
in this native sulphate of potash, appear, therefore, to be a
submuriate of copper, of the same species as that of the
green sands of Peru and Chili.

Muriatic acid dissolved the yellow ochraceous powder,
and prussiate of soda-and-iron produced Prussian blue. I
am inclined to believe this yellow powder to be a submu-
riate of iron, but its small quantity, and the admixture of
the submuriate of copper, were impediments to entirely
satisfactory results. Such a submuriate of iron, though, if
I mistake not, overlooked by chemists, exists, for the pre-
cipitate which oxygen occasions in solution of green muriate
of iron, contains marine acid.

*Prof. KLAPROTH'S Essays, Vol. 1, p. 282.
f Dr. HENRY, Phil. Trans. 1810.

58 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

Possibly this yellow powder, and the crystals of speculary
iron which exist in this Yesuvian salt, have been produced
by a natural sublimation of muriate of iron, similar to that
of the experiment of the Duke d'AYEN, recorded by MAC-
QUER,* and which was known long before to Mr. BOYLE and
Dr. LEWis.f

This Yesuvian salt, considered in its totality, has pre-
sented no less than nine distinct species of matters, and a
more rigorous investigation, than I was willing to bestow on
it, would probably add to their number.

July 3, 1813.

A FEW FACTS RELATIVE TO THE COLOURING
MATTERS OF SOME VEGETABLES.

From the Philosophical Transactions of the Koyal Society of London,
Vol. CVIII, p. 110.— Read December 18, 1817.

I BEGAN, a great many years ago, some researches on the
colouring matters of vegetables. From the enquiry being
to be prosecuted only at a particular season of the year, the
great delicacy of the experiments, and the great care
required in them, and consequently the trouble with which
they were attended, very little was done. I have now no
idea of pursuing the subject.

In destroying lately the memorandums of the experi-
ments which had been made, a few scattered facts were met
with which seemed deserving of being preserved. They
are here offered, in hopes that they will induce some other
person to give extension to an investigation interesting to
chemistry and to the art of dying.

* Diet, de Chimie, Art. Per.

•j- A course of practical chemistry by WILLIAM LEWIS, 1746, p. 63, note/.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 59

Turnsol.

M. FOURCROY has advanced, somewhere, that turnsol is
essentially of a red colour; and that it is made blue by an
addition of carbonate of soda to it; and he says that he has
extracted this salt from the turnsol of the shops.

If turnsol contained carbonate of soda, its. infusions should
precipitate earths and metals from acids.

I did not find an infusion of turnsol in water to have the
least effect on solutions of muriate of lime, nitrate of lead,
muriate of platina, or oxalate of potash.

Its tinctures, or infusions, consequently, contain neither
any alkali, nor any lime; nor probably any acid, either
loose or combined. This is unfavourable to the opinion of
urine being employed in the preparation of turnsol.

I put a little sulphuric acid into a tincture of turnsol, then
added chalk, and heated; and the blue colour was restored.
It appears, therefore, that the natural colour of turnsol is
not red, but blue, since it is such when neither disengaged
acid or alkali is present.

No addition of chalk brought the cold liquor back to a
blue colour; the carbonic acid absorbed by it, during the
effervescence of the carbonate of lime, being sufficient to
keep it red.

Some turnsol was put into distilled vinegar. An effer-
vescence arose ; and after some time the acid was become
neutralized. On examining the mixture with a glass, there
were seen, at the bottom of the vessel, a multitude of grains
like sand. It was found on trial that these grains were car-
bonate of lime; probably of slightly calcined Carrara
marble.

When turnsol is treated with water till this no longer
acquires any color whatever, the remaining insoluble matter
is nearly as blue as at first.

Acids made this blue insoluble matter red, but did not
extract any red tincture.

Carbonate of soda did not affect it.

60 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

If the vegetable part of this blue residuum is burned
away, or it is washed off with water, a portion of smalt is
obtained.

On exhaling, on a water bath, a tincture of turnsol, the
colouring matter is left in a dry state.

This matter heated in a platina spoon over a candle, tume-
fied considerably, as much as starch does, became black and
smoked, but did not readily inflame, nor did it burn away
till the blow pipe was applied. It then burned pretty
readily, leaving a large quantity of white saline matter.
This saline matter saturated by nitric acid afforded crystals
of nitrate of potash, and some minute crystals like hydrous
sulphate of lime.

Is this potash merely that portion of this matter which
exists in all vegetable substances ? or is the colouring matter
of turnsol a compound, analogous to ulmin, of a vegetable
principle and potash ? Its low combustibility gives some
sanction to this idea.

Of the colouring matter of the violet

The violet is well known to be coloured by a blue matter
which acids change to red ; and alkalies and their carbon-
ates first to green and then to yellow.

This same matter is the tinging principle of many other
vegetables : of some, in its blue state ; of others, made red
by an acid.

If the petals of the red rose are triturated with a little
water and carbonate of lime, a blue liquor is obtained. Al-
kalis, and soluble carbonates of alkalis, render this blue
liquor green ; and acids restore its red colour.

The colouring matter of the violet exists in the petals of
red clover, the red tips of those of the common daisy of the
fields, of the blue hyacinth, the holly hock, lavender, in
the inner leaves of the artichoke, and in numerous other
flowers. It likewise, made red by an acid, colours the skin
of several plumbs, and, I think, of the scarlet geranium,
and of the pomegranate tree.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 61

The red cabbage, and the rind of the long radish are also
coloured by this principle. It is remarkable that these, on
being merely bruised, become blue ; and give a blue infu-
sion with water. It is probable that the reddening acid in
these cases is the carbonic ; and which, on the rupture of
the vessels which enclose it, escapes into the atmosphere.

Of sugar-loaf paper. •

This paper has been employed by BERGMAN as a chemical
instrument. I am ignorant of what it is coloured with.

Sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, phosphoric, and oxalic acids
make it red. Tartaric and citric acids, made rather yellow
spots than red ones. Distilled vinegar, and acid of amber,
had no affect on it.

Carbonate of soda and caustic potash did not alter the
blue colour of this paper.

Water boiled on this paper acquired a vinous red colour ;
carbonate of lime put into this red liquor, did not affect its
colour : nor did carbonate of soda or caustic potash change
it to blue or green.

Cold dilute sulphuric acid extracted a strong yellow tinc-
ture from this boiled paper : carbonate of lime put to this
yellow tincture made it blue ; but on filtering, the liquor
which passed was of a dirty greenish colour ; and sulphuric
acid did not make it red : a blue matter was left on the
filter, which was not made red by acetous acid ; but was so
by sulphuric.

After this treatment the paper remained brown ; seem-
ingly such as it was before being dyed blue.

It should seem that there are at least two colouring mat-
ters in this paper ; one red, which is extricable from it by
water ; the other blue, which requires the agency of an acid
to extract it.

Its insolubility in water, and low degree of sensibility to
acids, distinguish the blue matter from turnsol ; to which its
not being affected by alkalis otherwise much approximate
it. Its easy solubility in dilute suphuric acid, and being

62 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

reddened by it and several other acids, show it not to be
indigo.

Of the black mulberry.

The expressed juice of this fruit is of a fine red colour.

Caustic potash made it green, which gradually became
yellow.

Carbonate of soda did not make it green, but only blue.

Carbonate of ammonia changed it to a vinous red, rather
than to blue ; and this redness increased on standing.

Caustic ammonia made it bluer than its carbonate ; but,
on standing, the mixture became of the same vinous red.

The mulberry juice mixed with carbonate of lime became
purple. On filtering, a red liquor passed; and the carbon-
ate of lime left on the filter was blue. An addition of
whitening to the red filtered liquor did not alter its colour;
nor did this second portion of whitening become blue.
Heating did not affect the red colour of this liquor ; so that
it was not owing to carbonic acid, disengaged from the car-
bonate of lime. Caustic potash instant!}7 made this red
liquor a fine green, and gradually yellow.

Sulphuric acid rendered all the above mixtures florid red.
It is remarkable that the mixtures with ammonia, and car-
bonate of ammonia, which were become quite vinous red by
standing, were made a perfect blue by the sulphuric acid
before they were reddened by it. It would hence seem that
the red colour, caused by these alkalis, was owing to an
excess of them ; and that in a less quantity they would have
produced a blue.

The filter, into which the mixture of mulberry juice and
chalk had been thrown, was become tinged blue. Water
did not remove this colour. Sulphuric acid made this paper
florid red. Caustic potash did not alter its blue colour ; but
put on the places made red by sulphuric acid, it restored the
blue colour, but did not produce green.

Future experiments must decide whether this blue matter

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 63

is the same as that of turnsol ; or as the blue matter which
the experiments above have indicated in sugar-loaf paper.

The juices of many other fruits, as black cherries, red
currants, the skin of the berries of the buckthorn, elder
berries, privet berries, &c., seemed to be made only blue by
mild fixed alkalis, but green by caustic. Puzzling anoma-
lies, however, occasionally present themselves, which seem
to show a near relation between the several blue colouring
matters of vegetables, and their easy transition into one
another.

The corn poppy.

The petals of the common red poppy of the fields rubbed
on paper stain it of a reddish purple colour.

Solution of carbonate of soda put to this stain occasioned
but little change in it.

Caustic potash made it green.

Caustic ammonia seemed not to have more effect on it
than carbonate of soda.

Some poppy petals being bruised in a mixture of water
and marine acid, formed a florid red solution : a superabun-
dance of chalk added to this red liquor, did not make it
blue; but turned it to a dark red colour exactly like port
wine.

Some poppy petals bruised in a weak solution of carbon-
ate of soda, and the mixture filtered, the liquor which came
through was not at all blue, but of a dark red colour like
port wine. Caustic potash made this red liquor green,
which finally became yellow.

Some dried poppy petals of the shops, gave a strong
obscure vinous tincture to cold water. This red tincture
heated with whitening, did not alter to blue, but preserved
its red colour.

These very imperfect experiments may perhaps suggest
the idea, that the colouring matter of this flower is the same
as the red colouring matter of the mulberry.

64 WETTINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

Of sap green.

The inspissated juice of the ripe, or semi-ripe, berries of
the buckthorn, constitute the pigment called sap green ; by
the French, vert de vessie. This species of green matter is
entirely different from the common green matter of vege-
tables.

It is soluble in water.

Carbonate of soda and caustic potash changed the solu-
tion of sap green to yellow. Paper tinged by sap green is
a sensible test of alkalis.

Sulphuric, nitric, and marine acid, made it red. Carbon-
ate of lime added to a reddened solution, restored the green
colour, which therefore appears to be the proper colour of
the substance.

The green colour, which the last infusions of galls present,
appears to be different, both from the usual green of vege-
tables, and from sap green.

Some animal greens.

A green puceron, or aphis, being crushed on white paper,
emitted a green juice, which was immediately made yellow
by carbonate of potash (wrongly called sub-carbonate.)

There are small gnats of a green colour : crushed on
paper, they make a green stain, which is permanent.
Neither muriatic acid nor carbonate of soda altered this
green colour. It is consequently of a different nature from
the foregoing.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 65

ON A NATIVE COMPOUND OF SULPHURET OF
LEAD AND ARSENIC.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XIV., 1819, p. 96.

PARIS, May 19, 1819.

This mineral is found in Upper Yalais, in Switzerland.
It is lodged in a white, granose, compound carbonate of
lime and magnesia. It is accompanied in this rock by reg-
ular crystals of yellow sulphuret of iron ; by red sulphuret
of arsenic ; and by some other substances.

This compound sulphuret has a metallic aspect. It is of
a grey colour ; it is exceedingly brittle and soft ; its fracture
in some directions is perfectly vitreous ; but in at least one
direction, it is evidently tabular; but the size of the frag-
ments I had, not exceeding coarse sand, precluded research
with respect to crystalline construction. By trituration,
this ore afforded a red powder.

At the blow-pipe, this ore melted instantly on the con-
tact of the point- of the flame. It smoked considerably ;
and a small flame was visible on the surface of the melted
button. On cooling, this button forced out a quantity of
fluid matter from its interior. During the fusion, the bead
occasionally swelled up, and puffs of dense smoke issued
from it ; due evidently to a volatile matter, which the fire
expelled from another less volatile. Finally, a button of a
more fixed, less fusible, white metallic matter, extensible
under the hammer, was. left, and which proved to be lead.

Some bits of this compound sulphuret heated in a tube
over a candle, melted, and a red sublimate rose, which be-
came yellow on cooling, and looked like orpiment.

Some of this ore, being fused with nitre, deflagrated, and
became a white oxide. The solution of this nitre afforded
a white precipitate with muriate of barytes ; and with

5

66 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

nitrate of silver, a brick-red precipitate of arseniate of
silver.

The white precipitate by muriate of barytes was only
partially soluble in nitric acid. The insoluble part of this
precipitate, of which the quantity was so minute that no
balance would have been sensible to it, was carefully col-
lected on to a very small bit of charcoal fixed to a pin. It
was then strongly heated at the blow-pipe. This bit of
charcoal now put into a drop of water, placed on a silver
coin, immediately made a black stain of sulphuret of silver
on the coin. This is the nicest test I am acquainted with
of the presence of sulphur, or sulphuric acid, in bodies.

The quantity I possessed of this mineral for experiment
was very small. The above trials were made with particles
little more than visible ; however, the results, I think, suffi-
ciently establish the nature of the constituent parts. Their
respective proportions must remain for inquiries on another
scale.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVI, 1820, p. 100.

Compound of Sulphuret of Lead and Arsenic. — This is a new mineral
species discovered by Mr. Smithson, and described by him in the Annals of
Philosophy, xiv. 96. It was found in a magnesian lime rock in the Upper
Valais. It has a metallic aspect, a grey colour, and a fracture in some
directions vitreous, in others foliated. When triturated, yields a red pow-
der. Mr. Smithson, by a set of very minute but satisfactory experiments,
demonstrated that its constituents were sulphur, arsenic, and lead.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 67

ON NATIVE HYDROUS ALUMINATE OF LEAD,
OR PLOMB GOMME.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XIV, 1819, p. 31.

PARIS, May 22, 1819.

I see in the Annals of Philosophy for this month, which I
have very lately received, an analysis by M. Berzelius of
the mineral which was formerly known here under the
name of " plomb gomme."

The first discovery of the composition of this singular
substance belongs, however, to my illustrious and unfortu-
nate friend, and indeed distant relative, the late Smithson
Tennant. He ascertained when last at Paris, on pieces fur-
nished him by M. Gillet de Laumont, that it was a combi-
nation of oxide of lead, alumina, and water.

At that time I received a small specimen of this rare ore
from M. de Laumont, accompanied with a label, of which
the following is a copy :

" Hydrate d'alumine et de plomb reconnu par Mr. Ten-
nant, du Huelgoat, pres Poullaouen, en Bretange (Finisterre)
qui paroit etre la meme substance decrite par Rome de PIsle,
torn. iii. de la Cristallographie, p. 399, comme plomb rouge
en stalactite.

" J'en ai dit quelques mots en Mai, 1786, dans le Journal
de Physique, p. 385, F. 16."

This ore is of a yellow colour ; it otherwise bears so great
a resemblance to the siliceous substance found near Frank-
fort on the Mein, called Mullen glass, that it might be mis-
taken for it.

Suddenly heated, it decrepitated violently ; but heated
slowly, it became white and opaque. The utmost fire did
not appear to fuse it, or produce any further alteration in it.

It dissolved readily in borax into a colourless transparent
glass, but no reduction of lead took place. Not having any

68 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

carbonate of soda at hand, I added a particle of nitre, whose
deflagration producing potash, lead was revived.

A bit, which had been made white by ignition, being
wetted with nitrate of cobalt and again ignited, became
blue.

Heated in a glass tube over a candle, it decrepitated, be-
came opaque and white, and water sublimed.

Mr. Tennant mentioned to me a sort of explosion occa-
sioned by the sudden expulsion of the water, and character-
istic of this ore, which took place when it was heated at the
blow-pipe. With the very minute particles I have tried, no
effect of this sort was perceived.

The above characters will prove sufficient, I apprehend^
to make this substance known when met with.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVI, 1820, p. 100.

Plomb Oomme. — Mr. Smithson has given us some interesting details
respecting the history and properties of this mineral, which is a hydrous
aluminate of lead. It has a yellow colour, and is exceedingly similar in
appearance to Mullen glass. When heated, it decrepitates violently ; and
if it be heated by the blow-pipe, in contact with an alkali, lead is reduced.
Its nature was first ascertained by Mr. Tennant. Berzelius has lately anal-
yzed it. The result of his analysis will be found in the Annals of Philoso-
phy, xiii. 881. (See Annals of Philosophy, xiv. 81.)

OF A FIBROUS METALLIC COPPE1I.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVI, 1820, p. 46.

PAEIS, March 17, 1820.

SIR : There occur, in mineral collections, pieces of a cop-
per slag, having fibres of metallic copper in its cavities. I
have seen this fibrous copper erroneously placed among
native coppers.

I possess samples of this kind from a foundery in the
Hartz. The metallic copper in the cavities, or air-holes, is
so delicately slender as to be a metallic wool.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 69

From several considerations, it appeared to me to be be-
yond all doubt that the opinion of these fibres having been
produced by crystallization was perfectly inadmissible ; and
I was for a very long time totally unable to come to any
conjecture with respect to the mode in which they had
originated.

Looking on one of these specimens this morning, an idea
struck me which is, I am convinced, the solution of this
knotty problem.

It occurred to me that these fibres had been generated at
the instant of consolidation of the fused slag. That by its
shrinking at that moment, it had compressed drops of cop-
per, still in a fluid state, dispersed in its substance, and
squeezed a portion of it through the minute spaces between
its particles, under this fibrous form, into its cavities, or air-
holes.

For this operation to take place, the concurrence of sev-
eral conditions is required. The slag must be so thick and
pasty as to retain metallic copper scattered through it. It
must have developed bubbles of some gas which have occa^
sioned vacuities in it. It must be less fusible than the cop-
per, but in so very small a degree that the copper consoli-
dates as the fibres of it are formed.

It is evident that on this supposition these fibres of copper
are produced by a process entirely the same as that employed
for the manufactory of macaroni and vermicelli ; and which
.are made by forcing paste through small apertures by the
pressure of a syringe. It is wire-drawing performed in-
versely— by propulsion instead of traction.

As soon as this hypothesis had presented itself to me, I
became anxious to ascertain whether I could give birth to
this fibrous copper at the blow-pipe. I melted a small
fragment of the slag ; and, on breaking it, I had the grati-
fication of finding its little cavities lined with minute fibres
of metallic copper as those of its greater prototype.

I wished now to form the slag itself which was to afford
the copper fibres. As I had ascertained the slag of the

70 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

Hartz to consist of sulphur, copper, and iron, I had recourse
to the yellow sulphuret of copper and iron. To produce
the required portion of metallic copper, I calcined some
small fragments of this yellow ore at the tip of the exterior
flame. Finding that I had exceeded the proper point, and
rendered them too infusible, I added a little of the raw ore ;
and after encountering a few difficulties succeeded in pro-
ducing a little mass of slag, whose internal cavities pre-
sented me, on breaking it, with the fibres of copper which
were the object of my toil.

A repetition of these experiments in a furnace, on a larger
scale, would undoubtedly have yet more successful results.

It deserves to be noticed that the curved form which these
fibres of copper generally have is entirely favourable to the
foregoing theory of their formation, and equally contrary to
the supposition of their being produced by crystallization.

The power to which has been ascribed the phenomenon
which forms the subject of these pages has hitherto been
overlooked. It has not been considered what the effects
might be of the contraction of a melted mass at the moment
of its congelation. It is, however, a means of effects which
may have acted on many occasions in the earth. Two mat-
ters of unequal fusibility, and of no attraction to each other,
are not unlikely to have occurred blended in a state of fusion ;
and then the most fusible to have become pressed out from
between the particles of the other when it solidified. If
some evolved vapour had opened cavities in the mass, or
rents had formed in it, the fluid matter will have escaped
from the pressure into these voids, as has happened with
the copper. If these receptacles for it have been wanting,
it must have flowed to the external surfaces, and may have
formed a crust there. The matter which lines or fills the
cavities of some lavas has, perhaps, been so introduced into
them.

A knowledge of the productions of art, and of its opera-
tions, is indispensable to the geologist. Bold is the man
who undertakes to assign effects to agents with which he

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 71

has no acquaintance ; which he never has beheld in action ;
to whose indisputable results he is an utter stranger : who
engages in the fabrication of a world alike unskilled in the
forces and the materials which he employs.

AN ACCOUNT OF A NATIVE COMBINATION OF
SULPHATE OF BARIUM AND FLUORIDE OF
CALCIUM.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVI, 1820, p. 48.

PARIS, March 24, 1820.

SIR : I acquired this substance in Derbyshire. It is many
years since I ascertained its constitution. I have examined
several minerals which in appearance bore a resemblance to
it, but have not found any of them to be of the same nature.
This species would hence appear to be of rare occurrence
in the earth.

This substance formed a vein about an inch wide in a
coarse shell limestone. Next to this substance was a layer
of crystals of sulphuret of lead ; and between these and
the limestone rock a layer of crystals of carbonate of cal-
cium.

I infer that these matters filled a vertical fissure in the
limestone stratum ; and from the ideas I entertain of the
mode by which such fissures have generally become occu-
pied by their contents, I believe them to have been succes-
sively deposited in it by sublimation, either through the
intense vehemence of subterranean fire, or by the agency of
the vapour of water, or of some other gas.

This compound matter bears in its general appearance so
strong a resemblance to fine compact grey limestone that
the eye can probably not distinguish between them.

Forty-two grains of it lost 11.2 grs. in rain water at the

72 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

temperature of 61° Fahr.; consequently its density is 3.750.
These 42 grs. of this stone by laying in the water did not
absorb intd their substance a quantity of it equal to one-
tenth of a grain.

It does not mark glass, and is readily scraped to a powder
by a knife. It marked sulphate of barium. Its hardness
and that of fluoride of calcium appeared to be the same.

It showed no electricity by heat. By friction it readily
became electrified.

In the fire it lost no weight.

At the blow-pipe, it readily melted. The little bead while
in fusion was transparent. On evolving, it became opaque.
The transparency of the bead in a melted state is best seen
with a very minute one. On fusing this matter long, it
spreads on the coal, and becomes a refractory mass.

With borax, it dissolved with great effervescence into a
brown glass. If much stone was used, the glass appeared
quite black, but drawn out to a thread with the tongs, it
was found to be of a fine hyacinth colour. These colours
depend on the formation of sulphur.

With microcosmic salt it fused with effervescence to a
clear colourless glass, which became opaque, and white on
adding more of it.

A particle of this stone which had been fused on the
charcoal being laid in a drop of water on a plate of silver,
immediately made a black spot of sulphuret of silver on it.

This bit of melted stone, transferred to a drop of marine
acid, on a piece of glass, partially dissolved with efferves-
cence. The solution let exhale spontaneously, afforded
crystals of chloride of barium.

Some of this stone in fine powder, being heated in a drop
of sulphuric acid on a bit of glass, the polish of the glass
was destroyed.

Water in which this stone in fine powder had been boiled
was not affected by solution of nitrate of lead.

A bit of this stone, being heated in dilute marine acid,
emitted a few bubbles of carbonic acid, but was not other-

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 73

wise affected : 5.4 grs. of this mineral in very fine powder
were let remain in an excess of marine acid till all action
on them had ceased. The undissolved portion washed and
gently ignited weighed 5.15 grs. The acid had acquired
lime ; so that this mineral contains a mechanical admixture

of °f carbonate of calcium.

This fine powder, which had been treated with the marine
acid, had sulphuric acid evaporated to dryness on it in a
platinum crucible. It was then digested in dilute marine
acid. On evaporating this solution, a large quantity of
sulphate of calcium in crystals was obtained.

From these results, sulphuric acid, fluorine, barytes, and
lime, appear to be the elements of this mineral. It is con-
sequently inferable that its proximate principles are sulphate
of barium and fluoride of calcium.

The following experiments were made to obtain some
idea of the proportions in which these two compound com-
ponents of this mineral exist in it :

5.6 grs. of this stone in powder were heated in a platinum
crucible in so large a quantity of sulphuric acid as to be en-
tirely dissolved. The mixture was then exhaled dry, and
ignited. The weight was now 7.85 grs. The increase had,
therefore, been as -fifo.

This augmentation of weight could arise only from the
change of the fluoride of calcium into sulphate of calcium.

To know to what quantity of fluoride of calcium it cor-
responded, two grSi of pure fluoride of calcium in subtile
powder were treated with sulphuric acid till the augmenta-
tion of weight ceased. The two grains had then become
3.65 grs.; accordingly the augmentation of weight was =
1.65 = TMr.

This Derbyshire mineral, therefore, consists of

Sulphate of barium - 51.5

Fluoride of calcium - - 48.5

100.0

74 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

Some error is created by the admixed carbonate of lime ;
and which had not been removed.

This mineral presents us with a remarkable case of com-
bination ; that of a neutral salt with a body which is not a
salt, but belongs to an order which is analogous to metallic
oxides. I have met with another instance of the same
kind. I have examined transparent crystals which were
composed of anhydrous sulphate of calcium and chloride
of sodium.

These combinations of their compounds may, however,
perhaps, appear to some persons to cast doubts on the
opinion that chlorine and fluorine are not acids.

These compounds will still be deserving of particular
attention from consisting of four matters.

ON SOME CAPILLARY METALLIC TIN.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVII— New Series,
Vol. 1—1821, p. 271.

PARIS, February 17, 1821.

SIR : M. Ampere, a few days ago, accidentally in conver-
sation, mentioned a fact to me which much excited my
attention, as it appeared to me completely to confirm the
explanation I had ventured to offer of the mode of forma-
tion of the capillary copper in the slag of the Hartz, printed
in the Annals of Philosophy for July, 1820.

For some purpose of the arts, Mr. Clement formed a
cylinder of copper, and, to give it strength, introduced into
it a hollow cylinder, or tube, of cast-iron. To complete
the union of these two cylinders some melted tin was run
between them.' With the exact particulars of this construc-
tion, I am not acquainted, but the material circumstance is,
that during the cooling of this heated mass, a portion of
the melted tin was forced by the alteration of volume of

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 75

the cylinders through the substance of the cast-iron cylinder,
and issued over its internal surface in the state of fibres,
which were curled and twisted in various directions. This
form in the fibres of copper I had considered as very favour-
able to my hypothesis. Such was the tenuity of these fibres
of tin that little tufts of them applied to the flame of a
candle took fire, and burned like cotton.

This passage of melted tin through cast-iron has a perfect
agreement with the passage of water by pressure through
gold, and tends to elucidate and confirm the account of the
celebrated Florentine experiment. Had the water on that
occasion issued solid, it would have been in fibres.

This penetration of solid matters by fluids, by means of
great mechanical force, will, perhaps, come to be thought
deserving of more attention than has been yet paid to it ;
besides any scientific results to which the consideration of
it may lead, it may be found to afford compound substances,
not otherwise obtainable, and of value to the arts.
I am, sir, your most obedient servant,

JAMES SMITHSON.

ON THE DETECTION OF VERY MINUTE QUAN-
TITIES OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XX ; New Series, Vol. IV,

1822, p. 127.

SIR : To be able to discover exceedingly small quantities
of arsenic and mercury must, on many occasions, prove
conducive to the purposes of the chemist and the mineralo-
gist, more especially now that a very diminished scale of
experiment, highly to the advantage of these sciences, is
becoming daily more generally adopted.

But the occasion above all others in which the power of

76 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

doing this is important, are those of poisonings. In these
it is often of the first moment to be able to pronounce with
certainty, from portions of matter of extreme minuteness,
on the existence and the nature of the poison.

Of Arsenic.

I have already communicated the method here proposed
for the discovery of arsenic by employing it in the analysis
of the compound sulphuret of lead and arsenic from Upper
Yalais, printed in the Annals of Philosophy for August,
1819, but not having mentioned the" generality of its appli-
cation, or the great accuracy of it, it seems not superfluous,
from the importance of the subject, to resume it.

If arsenic, or any of its compounds, is fused with nitrate
of potash, arseniate of potash is produced, of which the
solution affords a brick-red precipitate with nitrate of silver.

In cases where any sensible portion of the potash of the
nitre has become set free, it must be saturated with acetous
acid, and the saline mixture dried and redissolved in water.

So small is the quantity of arsenic required for this mode
of trial, that a drop of a solution of oxide of arsenic in
water, which, at a heat of 54.5° Fahr. contains not above
l-80th of oxide of arsenic,* put to nitrate of potash in the
platina spoon and fused, affords a considerable quantity of
arseniate of silver. Hence when no solid particle of oxide
of arsenic can be obtained, the presence of it may be estab-
lished by infusing in water the matters which contain it.

The degree in which this test is sensible is readily deter-
mined.

With 5.2 grains of silver, I obtained 6.4 grains of arse-
niate of silver ; but 0.65 grain of silver was recovered from
the liquors, so that the arseniate had been furnished by 4.55
grs. of silver.

In a second trial 7.7 grains of silver, but of which only
6.8 grains precipitated, yielded 9.5 grs. of arseniate.

*Chimie de Thenard, ii, p. 167.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 77

The mean is 140.17 from 100 of silver.
If we suppose 100 of silver to form 107.5 of oxide, we
shall have

Oxide of silver 107.50

Acid of arsenic - 32.67

Consequently 1 of acid of arsenic will produce 4.29 of
arseniate of silver; 1 of white oxide of arsenic, 4.97; and
1 of arsenic, 6.56.

Of Mercury.

All the oxides and saline compounds of mercury laid in
a drop of marine acid on gold with a bit of tin, quickly
amalgamate the gold.

A particle of corrosive sublimate, or a drop of a solution
of it, may be thus tried. The addition of marine acid is
not required in this case.

Quantities of mercury may be rendered evident in this
way which could not be so by any other means.

This method will exhibit the mercury in cinnabar. It
must be previously boiled with sulphuric acid in the platina
spoon to convert it into sulphate.

Cinnabar heated in solution of potash on gold amalga-
mates it.

A most minute quantity of metallic mercury may be dis-
covered in a powder by placing it in nitric acid on gold,
drying, and adding muriatic acid and tin.

A trial I made to discover mercury in common salt by
the present method was not successful, owing, perhaps, to
the smallness of the quantity, which I employed.
I am, sir, yours, &c.,

JAMES SMITHSON.

78

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

SOME IMPROVEMENTS OF LAMPS.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XX ; New Series, Vol. IV,

1822, p. 863.

SIR : It is, I think, to be regretted, that those who culti-
vate science frequently withhold improvements in their
apparatus and processes, from which they themselves derive
advantage, owing to their not deeming them of sufficient
magnitude for publication.

When the sole view is to further a pursuit of whose im-
portance to mankind a conviction exists, all that can do so
should be imparted, however small may appear the merit
which attaches to it.

Of the Wicks of Lamps. — The great length of wick com-
monly put to lamps for the purpose of supplying the part
which combustion destroys, is, on several accounts, ex-
tremely inconvenient. It occupies much space in the vessel,
and requires an enlargement of its capacity ; it is frequently
the occasion of much dirt, &c. This great length of wick
is totally unnecessary.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

It is advantageously supplied by a tube containing a bit of
cotton wick about its own length, or some cotton wool, fig.
1, and at the end of which is placed a stout bit of wick or
cotton wool, fig. 2.

This loose end receives a supply of oil from the cotton
under it with which it is put into contact, and when it be-'
comes burned, it is easily renewed.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 79

A loose ring of wick may in like manner be applied to
the argand lamp. This removes the necessity of the long
tube into which the wicks, now used, descend, and thus
greatly contracts this lamp in height.

Of Wax Lamps. — Oil is a disagreeable combustible for
small experimental purposes, and more especially when
lamps are to be carried in travelling. I have, therefore,
substituted wax for it. I experienced, however, at first,
some difficulty in accomplishing my object.

The wicks of my lamps are a single cotton thread, waxed
by drawing through melted wax. This wick is placed in a
burner made of a bit of tinned iron sheet, cut like fig. 3,
and the two parts a a raised into fig. 4.

This burner is placed in a china cup, about 1.65 inches in
diameter, and 0.6 in. deep. Fragments of wax are pressed
into this cup. But great care must be taken that each time
the lamp is lighted, bits of wax are heaped up in contact
with the wick, so that the flame shall immediately obtain
a supply of melted wax. This is the great secret on which
the burning of wax lamps depends.

When the wick is consumed, the wax must be pierced
with a large pin down to the burner, and a fresh bit of
waxed cotton introduced.

I employ a wax lamp for the blowpipe. This has, of
course, a much larger wick, and this wick has a detached
end to it, as above described.

Extinguishing Lamps. — The best way of doing this is to
extinguish the ignited part of the wick by putting sound
wax on to it, and then blowing the flame out. This pre-
serves the wick entire for future lighting again.

This mode applied to candles is much preferable to the
use of an extinguisher, or douters, to which there are many
objections.

80 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

ON THE CRYSTALLINE FORM OF ICE.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXI; New Series, Vol.
V, 1823, page 340.

March 4, 1823.

SIR: I have just seen a memoir in the Annales de Chi-
mie et de Physique for Oct. 1822, but published about a
month ago, on the crystalline form of ice.

Mr. Hericart de Thury is said to have observed ice in
hexagonal and triangular prisms ; and Dr. Clarke, of Cam-
bridge, in rhomboides of 120° and 60°.

M. Haiiy supposed the form to be octahedral, and so did
Rome de 1'Isle ; and, if I mistake not much, there is in an
ancient volume of the Journal de Physique by Rozier, an
account of ice in acute octahedrals.

Are these accounts and opinions accurate ?

Hail is always crystals of ice more or less regular. When
they are sufficiently so to allow their form to be ascertained,
and which is generally the case, it is constantly, as far as I
have observed, that of two hexagonal pyramids joined base
to base, similar to that of the crystals of oxide of silicium
or quartz, and of sulphate of potassium. One of the pyra-
mids is truncated, which leads to the idea that ice becomes
electrified on a variation of its temperature, like tourma-
line, silicate of zinc, &c.

I do not think that I have measured the inclination of
the faces more than once. The two pyramids appeared to
form by their junction an angle of about 80 degrees.

Snow presents in fact the same form as hail, but imper-
fect. Its flakes are skeletons of the crystals, having the
greatest analogy to certain crystals of alum, white sulphuret
of iron, &c., whose faces are wanting, and which consist of
edges only.

In spring and autumn ; that is, between the season of

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 81

snow and that of hail, the hail which falls partakes of the
nature of both, is partly the one and the other ; its crystals,
though regular, arc opaque, of little solidity, and consist,
like snow, of an imperfect union of grains, or smaller
crystals.

A MEANS OF DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN THE
SULPHATES OF BARIUM AND STRONTIUM.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXI ; New Series, Vol.
V, 1823, pago359.

April 2, 1823.

SIR : To distinguish barytes and strontian from one an-
other, it is directed in No. 19 of the Journal of the Royal
Institution to dissolve in an acid which forms a soluble salt
with them, to decompose by sulphate of soda, and to add
subcarbonate of potash to the filtered liquor. If the earth
tried is strontian, a precipitate falls ; if barytes, not.

When these matters are in a state to be soluble in an acid,
a more certain, I apprehend, and undoubtedly a much easier
proceeding, is to put a particle into a drop of marine acid
on a plate of glass, and to let this solution crystallize spon-
taneously. The crystals of chloride of barium in rectangu-
lar eight-sided plates are immediately distinguishable from
the fibrous crystals of chloride of strontium.

I have not repeated the process above quoted ; but if sul-
phate of strontium did possess the solubility in water there
implied, this quality presented a ready method by which
mineralogists would be enabled to distinguish it from sul-
phate of barium. On trial I did not find water, or solution
of sulphate of soda, in which sulphate of strontian had long
lain, produce the least cloud on the addition of what is
called subcarbonate of soda.

82 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

The means I have long employed to distinguish the two
sulphates apart was to fuse with carbonate of soda, wash,
dissolve in marine acid, &c.; but this process requires more
time and trouble than is always willingly bestowed, and
may even present difficulties to a person not familiarized
with manipulations on very small quantities.

A few months ago a method occurred to me divested of
these objections. The mineral in fine powder is blended
with chloride of barium, and the mixture fused. The mass
is put into spirit of wine, whose flame is coloured red if
the mineral was sulphate of strontium. The red colour of
the flame is more apparent when the spirit is made to boil
while burning, by holding the platina spoon containing it
over the lamp.

THE DISCOVERY OF ACIDS IN MINERAL
SUBSTANCES.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXI ; New Series, Yol.
V, 1823, page 384.

April 12, 1823.

SIR : Acids, it is well known, have been repeatedly over-
looked in mineral substances, and hence dubiousness still
hovers over the constitution of many, although they have
formed the subjects of analysis to some of the greatest
modern chemists.

To be able to dissipate all doubts — to ascertain with cer-
tainty whether an acid does or does not exist, and, if one is
present, its species, and this with such facility that the trial
may be indefinitely renewed at pleasure, and made by all,
so that none need believe but on the testimony of his own
experiments, is the degree of analytical power which it
would be desirable to possess.

So far as I have gone in these respects, I here impart.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITIISON. 83

As the carbonates of soda and of potash precipitate all the
solutions of earths and metals in acids, so do they decom-
pose all their salts by fusion with them. Fusion with car-
bonate of soda or potash affords there a general method of
separating acids from all other matters.

Lead forms an insoluble compound with all the mineral
acids except the nitric. It may consequently be imme-
diately known whether a mineral does or does not contain
an acid element by the carbonate of soda or potash, with
which it has been fused after saturation by acetous acid,
forming or not forming a precipitate with a solution of lead.

If the production of a precipitate proves the presence of
an acid, the determination of its species will present no great
difficulty.

1. Sulphuric Acid. — If the alkali which has received it
from the mineral is fused on charcoal, and then laid in a
drop of water placed on silver, a spot of sulphuret of silver
will be produced, as I have stated on a former occasion.*
Bright copper will likewise serve for this purpose.

Fusion in the blue flame will often be sufficient to deoxi-
date the sulphur.

It is needless to observe that the alkali used in this trial
must itself be perfectly free from sulphuric acid. When
such is not possessed, its place may be supplied by Rochelle
salt, or by cream of tartar.

2. Muriatic Acid. — I have likewise discovered a test of
chlorine, and consequently of muriatic acid, of delicacy
equal to the foregoing. If any matter containing chlorine
or muriatic acid is laid on silver in a drop of solution of
yellow sulphate of iron, or of common sulphate of copper,
a spot of a black chloride of silver, whose colour is inde-
pendent of light, and which has not been attended to 'by
chemists, is produced. The chlorine in a tear, in saliva,
even in milk, may be thus made evident. When the quan-
tity of chlorine in a liquor is very small, a bit of sulphate

* Annals of Philosophy for July, 1820.

84 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

of copper placed in it on the silver is preferable to a solu-
tion. To find chlorine in milk, I put some sulphate of
copper to it, and placed a small piece of bright silver in the
mixture.

3. Phosphoric Acid. — The alkali containing it, after satu-
ration by acetous acid, gives a sulphur-yellow precipitate
with nitrate of silver, which no other acid does. The pre-
cipitate obtained with lead crystallizes on the blow-pipe.
M. Berzelius's elegant method of detecting phosphoric acid
is universally known.

4. Boracic Acid. — Its presence in carbonate of magnesia,
and in some other of its compounds, is indicated by the
green colour they give, during their fusion, to the flame of
the lamp.

M. Gay-Lussac has observed that a solution of boracic
acid in an acid changes the colour of turmeric paper to red,
like an alkali.* Borax, to which sulphuric acid has been
put, does so, and the same is of course the case with a bead
of soda containing boracic acid.

The most certain test of boracic acid in a soda bead, &c.,
is to add sulphuric acid to it and then spirit of wine, whose
flame is coloured green, if boracic acid is present.

5. Arsenical Acid. — Alkali containing it produces a brick-
red precipitate with nitrate of silver. f

6. Chromic Acid. — Chromate of soda and its solution are
yellow, and so is the precipitate with lead. That with silver
is red.

Chromate of soda or potash fused on a plate of clay leaves
green oxide of chromium.

Chromate of lead fused on a plate of clay produces a very
dark-green mass, which is probably chr ornate of lead ; with
an addition of lead, it forms a fine red, or orange glass.

Lead added to the green oxide left by chromate of soda

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tomo xvi. p. 76.
f Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. iv. p. 127.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 85

on the clay plate, dissolves it, and forms an orange-coloured
glass.

The green oxide of chromium sometimes acts the part of
an acid. I have seen a combination of it with oxide of lead
found in Siberia, in regular hexagonal prisms, having the
six edges of the terminal face truncated (Haiiy, pi. Ixviii.
fig. 63); melted with lead on the clay plate this would un-
doubtedly produce the orange glass; and fused with nitrate
of potash it would form chromate of potash.

7. Molybdic Acid. — If molybdate of soda or potash, or, I
apprehend, any other molybdate, is heated in a drop of sul-
phuric acid, the mixture becomes of a most beautiful blue
colour, either immediately, or on cooling.

The solution of molybdate of soda in sulphuric acid
affords with martial prussiate of potash, a precipitate of the
same colour that copper does. Tincture of galls gives with
this acid solution a green precipitate ; but with an alkaline
solution of molybdic acid galls produce a fine orange pre-
cipitate. If an alkali is put to the green precipitate, it
becomes orange ; and if an acid to the orange precipitate,
it becomes green.

8. Tungstic Acid.' — If tungstate of soda is heated with
sulphuric acid, the granules of precipitated tungstic acid
become blue, but not the solution ; and the phenomena can-
not be confounded with those presented by molybdate of
soda. Martial prussiate of potash has no effect on this acid
liquor.

Tincture of galls put to the solution of tungstate of soda
in water does not affect it. On the addition of an acid to
this mixture, a brown precipitate forms.

If tungstate of soda is heated to dryness with a drop of
muriatic acid, a yellow mass is left. On extractingthe saline
matter by water, yellow acid of tungsten remains. It is
readily soluble in carbonate of soda. If taken wet on the
blade of a knife, it soon becomes blue. This is made very
evident by wiping the blade of the knife with a bit of white

86 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

paper. Possibly a small remainder of muriatic or sulphuric
acid among it is required for this effect.

9. .Nitric Acid. — Mtrate of ammonia produces no defla-
gration when filtering paper, wetted with a solution of it and
dried, is burned; the salt volatilizing before ignition, most,
or all, the other nitrates deflagrate.

If metallic copper is put into the solution of a nitrate,
sulphuric acid added, and heat applied, the copper dissolves
with effervescence.

10. Carbonic Acid. — It is to be discovered in the mineral
itself. The application of heat is, in some cases, required
to render the effervescence sensible. It has been sometimes
overlooked in bodies from want of attention to this circum-
stance.

11. Silica. — A simple and sufficient test of it is the form-
ation of a jelly, when its combination with soda is put into
an acid.

It has evidently not been intended to enumerate all the
means by which the presence of each acid in the soda bead
could be perceived or established. Little has been said be-
yond what appeared required and sufficient.

Mention has been made above of small plates of clay.

They are formed by extending a white refractory clay by
blows with the hammer, between the fold of a piece of
paper, like gold between skins. The clay and paper, are
then cut together with scissars into pieces about 4-10ths of
an inch long, and 2J-10ths of an inch wide, and hardened
in the fire in a tobacco-pipe.

They are very useful additions to the blowpipe apparatus.
They admit the use of a new test, oxide of lead. They
show to great advantage the colours of matters melted with
borax, &c. Quantities of matter too minute to be tried on
the coal, or on the platina foil, or wire, may be examined
on them alone, or with fluxes. Copper may be instantly

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 87

found in gold or silver by fusing the slightest scrapings of
them with a little lead, &c., &c.

Cut into very small, very acute triangles, clay affords a
substitute for Saussure's sappare.

AST IMPROVED METHOD OF MAKING COFFEE.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXII ; New Series, Vol.
VI, 1823, page 30.

June 4, 1823.

SIB : From the highly fugacious nature of that part of
coffee on which its fine flavour depends, a practice has become
'very generally adopted of late years of preparing the liquor
by mere percolation.

This method has not only the great defect of being ex-
cessively wasteful, but the coffee is likewise apt to be cold.

Coction and the preservation of the fragrant matter are,
however, not inconsistent. The union of these advantages
is attainable by performing the operation in a close vessel.
To obviate the production of vapour, by which the vessel
would be ruptured, the boiling temperature must be obtained
in a water-bath.

In my experiments I made use of a glass phial closed
with a cork, at first left loose to allow the exit of the air.
Cold water was put to the coffee.

This process is equally applicable to tea.

Perhaps it may also be employed advantageously in the
boiling of hops, during which, I understand, that a material
portion of their aroma is dissipated; as likewise possibly
for making certain medical decoctions.

This way of preparing coffee and tea presents various ad-
vantages. It is productive of a very considerable economy,
since by allowing of any continuance of the coction without
the least injury to the goodness, all the soluble matter may

88 WHITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

be extracted, and consequently a proportionate less quantity
of them becomes required. By allowing the coffee to cool
in the closed vessel, it may be filtered through paper, then
returned into the closed vessel, and heated again, and thus
had of the most perfect clearness without any foreign addi-
tion to it, by which coffee is impaired. The liquors may be
kept for any length of time at a boiling heat, in private
families, coffee houses, &c., so as to be ready at the very in-
stant called for.

It will likewise prove of no small conveniency to travel-
lers who have neither kettle, nor coffee-pot, nor tea-pot, in
places where these articles are not to be procured, as a bot-
tle will supply them.

In all cases means of economy tend to augment and dif-
fuse comforts and happiness. They bring within the reach
of the many what wasteful proceedings confine to the few.
By diminishing expenditure on one article, they allow of
some other enjoyment which was before unattainable. A
reduction on quantity permits indulgence in superior qual-
ity. In the present instance, the importance of economy is
particularly great, since it is applied to matters of high
price, which constitute one of the daily meals of a large
portion of the population of the earth.

That in cookery also, the power of subjecting for an
indefinite duration to a boiling heat, without the slightest
dependition of volatile matter, will admit of beneficial
application, is unquestionable.

'WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 89

A DISCOVERY OF CHLORIDE OF POTASSIUM IN
THE EARTH.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXII ; New Series, Vol.
VI, 1823, page 258.

SIB : A RED ferruginous mass, containing veins of a white
crystalline matter, part of a block which was said to have
been thrown out of Vesuvius during a late eruption, was
brought to me, with a request that I would tell what it was.

This red ferruginous rock was a spongy lava, in the sub-
stance of which was here and there lodged a crystal of
augite or pyroxene of Haiiy, or of hornblende.

The white matter filled most of the larger cavities, and
was more or less disseminated through nearly the whole of
the mass.

It had a saline appearance ; a tabular fracture could be
seen in it with a lens, and in some few places regular cubi-
cal crystals were discernible.

I supposed it to be chloride of sodium, or muriate of am-
monia.

Heated in a matrass, it decrepitated slightly, and melted,
but little or nothing sublimed.

This white matter dissolved entirely in water. Laid on
silver with sulphate of copper, it produced an intense black
stain.

Chloride of barium added to the solution caused only a
very slight turbidness, due probably to some sulphate of
lime which is present.

Tartaric acid occasioned an abundant formation of crys-
tals of tartar. Chloride of platinum immediately threw
down a precipitate, and distinct octahedral crystals of the
Bame nature afterwards appeared.

On decomposition by nitric acid, only prismatic crystals
of nitrate of potash could be perceived. On a second crys-

90 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

tallization, a few rhombic crystals were discovered ; but
nitrate of potash sometimes presents this form.

It appears from these experiments, that this white saline
matter is pure, or nearly pure, chloride of potassium.

I am inclined to attribute its introduction into the lava to
sublimation.

As chloride of potassium is a new species in mineralogy,
I shall send the specimen to the British Museum.

A METHOD OF FIXING PARTICLES ON THE

SAPPARE.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXII ; New Series, Vol.
VI, 1823, page 412.

October 24, 1823.

SIR : "When the species of minerals are ascertained by
their physical qualities, they mostly undergo no injury, or
but a very slight one ; as that attending the determination
of their hardness, the colour of their powder, their taste,
&c. This is certainly a material advantage, and would
highly recommend this method, was it constantly adequate
to its purpose. That it is not so, however, we have a proof
in the great errors into which have fallen those best skilled
in it. Mr. Werner, its principal and most distinguished
professor, was unable by its means to discover the identity
of the jargon and the hyacinth ; of the corundum and the
sapphire ; of his apatite and his spargelstein ; and while he
thus parted beings, as it were, from themselves, he forced
others together which had nothing in common.

The chemical method justly boasts its certainty; but it
carries destruction with it, and often bestows the knowledge
of an object only at the expense of its existence. The sole
remedy which can be opposed to this defect is to reduce the

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 91

scale of operating ; and thus render the sacrifice which must
be made as small as it is possible.

M. de Saussure's* ingenious contrivance for subjecting
the most minute portions of matters to fire, by fixing them
on a splinter of sappare, appeared to fulfil the conditions of
this problem, and to have accomplished all that could be
desired. It has, however, been scarcely at all employed,
owing to the excessive difficulty in general of making the
particles adhere ; and in consequence the almost unpossessed
degree of patience required for, and time consumed by,
nearly interminable failures.

That such should be the case could not but be a subject
of much regret, for besides economy of matter, of time, of
labour, and the great beauty of deriving knowledge from so
diminutive a source, and attaining important results with
such feeble agents; reduction of volume became, in this in-
stance, productive of increase of power, and thence, of an
extension of the series of qualities by which substances are
characterised.

A slight alteration which I have made in M. de Saus-
sure's process has removed the objection to it. To water,
saliva, gum water, which he employed, the last of which is
not sensibly superior to the former, I have substituted a
mixture of water and refractory clay.

Small triangles, or slender strips, of baked clay may be
used in lieu of sappare, which is not at all times to be pro-
cured ; or a little of the moist clay may be taken up on the
end of a platina, or other wire, and the object to be tried
touched with it. This way may be applied to pieces of the
ordinary size, and supersede the use of the platina tongs.

But a proceeding which I have only recently adopted ap-
pears to deserve the preference. Almost the least quantity
of clay and water is put on the very end of a platina wire,
filed flat there. With this, the particle of mineral lying on
the table can be touched in any part chosen; for a moment

* Journal de Physique, par Rozier, tome 45.

92 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

or two it is dry, and may be taken up, and put into the
flame, without the clay exploding, as not unoften happens
when more of it is used. Particles of the least visible mi-
nuteness may be thus submitted to trial with the utmost
facility. The contact of the particle with the wire may, in
general, be so managed as to be extremely slight, as the
slenderest point is sufficient to support it. However, when
the utmost heat possible is desired, a fragment of a less
conducting matter may, if deemed necessary, be interposed.

There may be cases in which the presence of .the clay is
objectionable. I conceived that some of the body itself to
be tried, would on these occasions, supply its place. Flint
was the least promising of any in this respect. It was se-
lected for the experiment. With a paste of its powder and
water, pieces of flint were successfully cemented to flint,
and some of this paste taken on the end of a wire, served,
if not quite as well as clay, yet very sufficiently. After sev-
eral times igniting and quenching in cold water, the reduc-
tion of very hard matters to subtile powder is attended with
no difficulty.

Earth of alum would perhaps be preferable to pipe-clay
for making the triangles on strips, and for agglutinating
objects to them. It would even have the advantage over
sappare of being a simple substance. Some from the Paris
shops acquired only little solidity in the fire ; but I after-
wards learned that it had been obtained from alum by fire.

Since I have been in possession of this means of so effec-
tually confining the subjects of examination as to be able to
continue during pleasure to act on them, I have directed
but little attention to the fusibility of matters. Quartz,
whose fusion has been called in question by M. Berzelius,*
has seemed to be quite refractory. On some few occasions
when it has proved otherwise, the phenomena have neither
corresponded with M. de Saussure's account, nor been
always the same, which certainly admits of the fusion being
attributed to an accidental cause.

*De 1'emploi du Chalumeau, p. 108.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 93

But I have found with much surprise that flint can be
melted without difficulty; and even of a considerable bulk.
"Where the heat is most intense, a degree of frothing takes
place; where it is less, there is a swelling of parts of the
surface. The effects wore the same with French and Eng-
lish flint, with black and with horn-coloured. Does flint,
like pitchstone, contain bitumen, which, at a certain heat,
tends to tumefy it ? This might explain the smell from its-
collision, and the oil which Neumann obtained by its distil-
lation, and to which no credit has been ever given. No
doubt can, I conceive, be entertained of flint being a vol-
canic production. On this point I may speak again at a
future opportunity.

In using mere water, diamond, anthracite, plumbago,
were particularly difficult of trial, as any adhesion they had
contracted with the sappare was quickly destroyed by the
combustion of their surface, while, as the intention in their
case is not to subject to great heat, they may be so secured
in the clay as at least very much to retard their escape.
Here acting on very minute particles is essential, as when
large pieces are employed, the effect is too slow to be per-
ceptible.

A pleasing way of demonstrating the combustion of
plumbago, and of even exhibiting the iron in it, is to rub a
little from the wetted point of a pencil on one of the clay
plates mentioned in a former paper.*

In trying diamond it was imagined that its glow contin-
ued an unusual time after removal from the fire. The pres-
ent method afforded the means of making a comparison.
A fragment of diamond, and another of quartz, chosen pur-
posely of rather a larger size, were fixed near each other in
the clay; and it was observed that the diamond was most
luminous while under the action of the flame, and longer
so after removal from it. Its being a very slow conductor
of heat may occasion in part the latter quality.

* Annals for May.

94 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

In the same way the unequal fusibility of two substances
may probably, on some occasions, be ascertained ; and serve
from deficiency of a better, as a means of distinction be-
tween them.

I am, sir, yours, &c.

J. SMITHSON.

ON SOME COMPOUNDS OF FLUORINE.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXIII ; New Series, Vol.
VII, 1824, p. 100.

January 2, 1824.

SIR : When numberless persons are seen, in every direc-
tion, pursuing a subject with the utmost ardour, it is natu-
ral to conclude that their labors have accomplished all that
was within their reach to perform.

It must, therefore, in mineralogy be supposed, that those
substances whose abundance has placed them in every hand,
have been fulty scrutinized, and are thoroughly understood;
and that if now to extend the boundaries of the science it
is not indispensable to explore new regions of the earth,
and procure matters hitherto unpossessed, it is yet only to
objects the most rare, the most difficult of acquisition, that
inquiry can be applied with any hope of new results.

A want of due conviction that the materials of the globe
and the products of the laboratory are the same, that what
nature affords spontaneously to men, and what the art of
the chemist prepares, differ no ways but in the sources from
whence they are derived, has given to the industry of the
collector of mineral bodies an erroneous direction.

What is essential to a knowledge of chemical beings has
been left in neglect; accidents of small import, often of
none, have fixed attention — have engrossed it ; and a fertile

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 95

field of discovery has thus remained where otherwise it
would have been exhausted.

Fluor spar has decorated mineral cabinets from probably
the earliest period of their existence ; every tint with which
chance can paint it; each casual diversity of form and
appearance under which it may present itself have been long
familiar, and its true nature continues a problem ; and its
decomposition by fire was yet to be learned.

Fluor Spar.

If a very minute fragment of fluor spar is fastened by
means of clay* to the end of a platina wire nearly as fine as
a hair, which is the size I now employ even with fluxes, it
will be perceived on the first contact of the fire to melt with
great facility. As the fusion is prolonged, the fusibility will
decrease; protuberances will rise over the surface of the
ball ; it will put on what is designated by the term of the
cauliflower form ; and finally become entirely refractory.
On detaching it from the wire, it will prove hollow. This
little capsula being taken up again by its side, and its edge
presented to the flame, thin and porous as this edge is, it
will withstand its utmost violence.

Such an alteration of qualities proclaims an equal one of
nature. I had no doubt that the calcium had absorbed oxy-
gen, and parted with fluorine ; that the mass had ceased to
be fluor spar, and was become quicklime. On placing it in
a drop of water my conjecture was confirmed; a solution
took place by which test papers were altered ; a cremor calcis
soon appeared; and on allowing the mixture to become
spontaneously dry, a white powder remained, which acids
dissolved with effervescence.

That the fluoric element was gone admitted not of doubt.
To pursue it in its escape ; to coerce it, and render it palpa-
ble to the senses, could not be required to establish the fact.
It may, however, be done.

* Annals for December.

96 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

The open tube described by M. Berzelius in his valuable
work on the blowpipe, is adapted to the purpose by an addi-
tion to it. A small plate of platina foil, or a curved plate
of baked clay, is introduced a little way into one of its ends;
and secured by bringing with the point of the flame the glass

into contact with it. The body to be tried is fixed to this
plate by means of moist clay; and may then be subjected
for any time to any degree of heat.

Thus tried, fluor spar quickly obscured the glass by a thick
crust of siliceous matter ; and coloured yellow a bit of paper
tinged with logwood.

M. Berzelius assigns fernambuc wood for the test of flu-
oric acid. Bergman says that this wood affords a red infu-
sion which alkalies turn blue.* None such could be
procured, but it was found that logwood might be substi-
tuted for it. The paper tinged with this, like that mentioned
by M. Berzelius, is made yellow by fluoric acid and oxalic
acid ; but it did not seem to be so by sulphuric or muriatic
acids, nor by phosphoric acid.

Topaz.

In extremely minute particles, topaz subjected to the fire
at the end of a very slender wire soon becomes opaque and
white ; but I perceived no marks of fusion.

This change is undoubtedly occasioned by the loss of its
fluoric part. One of the times I was at Berlin, M. Klaproth
gave me, as his reason for not publishing the analysis of
topaz, that in the porcelain furnace it sustained a great loss
of weight, the cause of which he had not then been able to
ascertain.

Topaz ground to impalpable powder, and blended with
carbonate of lime, melted with ease. Some of this mixture

* Analysis of Mineral Waters.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITIISON.

97

fused on the platina plate at the mouth of the tube, made
an abundant deposit of silica over its interior surface ; and
the bit of logwood paper at the end of it had its blue colour
altered to yellow.

In the trial in this way of substances of difficult fusion,
an apparatus of the following construction is more favoura-
ble than the one above described.

d

a. A bottle cork..

b. A slice of the same fixed with three pins.

c. A wire.

d. A cylinder of platiua foil introduced into the mouth of
the glass tube, to prevent its being softened and closed by
the flame.

6. A platina wire, at the end of which is cemented with
clay the subject of trial.

I formerly suggested that topaz might be a compound of
silicate of alumina, and of fluate of alumina.* I am now
convinced that no oxygen exists in it ; but that it is a com-
bination of the fluorides of silicium and aluminum.

This system produces a considerable alteration in the pro-
portions of its elements.

* Philosophical Transactions for 1811.

98 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

The mean of the six analyses quoted by M. Haiiy, in the
second edition of his Mineralogy, is

Silica 36.0

Alumina 52.8

Fluoric acid - - 9.7

98.0

Deducting the oxygen from the metals, we have
Silicium 18.0

Aluminium - 27.7

Fluorine 52.3

98.0
Kryolite.

It has been observed to diminish in fusibility during
fusion,* and it was in every respect probable, from what had
been seen with the foregoing bodies, that it would be de-
composed in the fire. After being kept some time melted,
it afforded an alkaline solution, which, by exposure to the
air, became carbonate of soda, effloresced, effervesced with
nitric acid, and produced crystals of nitrate of soda.

Fused on the platina plate at the mouth of the tube ; a
copious deposit of silex collected in the tube ; and the bit
of logwood paper became very yellow.

Kryolite heated in sulphuric acid on glass destroyed its
polish.

1. These experiments render it highly probable that flu-
orine will be expelled from every compound of it by the
agency of fire ; and consequently that we are now in pos-
session of a general method of discovering its presence in
bodies. In cases where a matter is infusible, and parts with
it with great difficulty, as in that of topaz, it may be required
to reduce it to fine powder, or to act upon it by some ad-

* Haiiy's Mineralogy.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 99

mixture with which it melts, for the sake of promoting
division and multiplying surfaces.

Hereby is supplied what may have seemed to be an omis-
sion in the paper on acids.* Although it was not such, since
fluorine is not an acid ; and fluoric acid may never occur
in a mineral substance ; as it can probably exist in combina-
tion only with ammonia ; all its other supposed compounds
being doubtless fluorides.

2. The theory of these decompositions may be acquired
by experiment; and light obtained on the nature of the
compounds.

If fluor spar, for instance, is a combination of oxide of
calcium and fluoric acid, and this is expelled from the oxide
merely by the force of fire, t{ie decomposition of it will take
place in closed vessels without the presence of oxygen or of
water ; fluoric acid will be obtained ; and the weight of this
acid and the lime will be equal together to that of the orig-
inal spar.

If the spar is metallic calcium and fluorine, and when
heated in oxygen absorbs this, and parts with fluorine, it is
fluorine which will be collected in the vessels, and its weight
and that of the lime' will together exceed that of the spar
by the oxygen of the lime.

If it is water which is the agent of decomposition, fluoric
acid will be collected ; but here the excess of weight will
not only equal the oxygen absorbed by the lime, but also
the hydrogen which has acidified the fluorine ; and this in-
creased weight of the fluoric acid will prove that hydrogen
is an element of it.

It appears to have been fluoric acid which in the above
related experiments passed into the tubes ; but the inflam-
mable matter of the flame would probably have rendered
emitted fluorine such. It becomes of high importance to
ascertain whether ignited fluor spar is decomposed by pass-
ing water over it, and if so what are the products. It is

* Annals for May.

100 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

not convenient to myself at present to make the experiment :
I therefore resign it to others.

How far the difficulty which the action of fluorine on the
vessels in which it is contained, as opposed to its examina-
tion, would be obviated by employing vessels of its com-
pounds, as of fluor spar, or of chloride of silver ; or whether
it acts on all oxides as it does on silica, experiments have
not informed me.

3. The vegetation of matters before the blow-pipe is
attributed by a great chemist to a " new state of equilib-
rium induced by heat between the constituent parts of
bodies,"* but the phenomena do not accord with the expla-
nation.

"Was such the cause of the acquired infusibility, it would
manifest itself through the whole mass as soon as fusion had
enabled the new arrangement. It is, on the contrary con-
fined to the surface; the interior portion continues fluid;
but wherever any of this bursts the shell, and issues forth,
it is instantly fixed in immovable solidity ; and when the
process has attained its final state, a hollow globule remains.

Why is the change of quality limited to the surface ; how
has been produced the central cavity ; what has forced away
the matter which occupied it ? A new element has been
received from without, one which existed in the matter has
been parted with in a state of vapour. This double action
may probably be inferred wherever a matter presents this
species of vegetation.

Some metallic bodies, as tin, lead, sulphuretted tin, arsen-
icated nickel, &c., present another species of vegetation,
caused by the absorption of oxygen, and the production
over their surface of a matter more bulky than the metal
from which it is produced, and infusible at the heat to-
which it is exposed. Here no internal void forms.

The mode of fusion of epidote had led me to suspect the
existence of fluorine in it; but on trial with the second ap-

* De PEmploi du Chalumeau, p. 94.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. - 101

paratus, represented above, I could not perceive a trace of
it. A more accurate observation of its fusion has shown
me that it does not, as generally supposed, form the cauli-
flower. It appears to do so only where so large a mass is
exposed to the fire that but points of its surface are fused in
succession. If a very minute bit is employed, it is clearly
seen to puff up like borax, stilbite, &c.; and then, like them,
become less fusible; from the separation, doubtless, of a
vapourized element on which its greater fusibility had
depended. The smallest particle of fluor spar shows no
such inflation.

We see here three several cases of intumescence in the
flre: one where a gas is absorbed; one where a gas, or
vapour, is disengaged ; one where the two effects are con-
comitant.

There may be persons who, measuring the importance of
the subject by the magnitude of the objects, will cast a
supercilious look on this discussion; but the particle and
the planet are subject to the same laws ; and what is learned
upon the one will be known of the other.

AN EXAMINATION OF SOME EGYPTIAN
COLOUES.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXIII, New Series, Vol.
VII, 1824, p. 115.

January 2, 1824.

SIR: More than commonly incurious must he be who
would not find delight in stemming the stream of ages:
returning to times long past, and beholding the then state
of things and men.

In the arts of an ancient people much may be seen con-
cerning them : the progress they had made in knowledge of
various kinds ; their habits ; their ideas on many subjects.

102 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

And products of skill may likewise occur, either wholly
unknown to us, or superior to those which now supply them.

I received from Mr. Curtin, who travelled in Egypt with
Mr. Belzoni, a small fragment of the tomb of King Psam-
mis. It was sculptured in basso relievo which were painted.

The colours were white, red, black and blue.

I have heard the white of Egyptian paintings extolled for
its brilliancy and preservation. I found the present to be
neither lead nor gypsum ; but carbonate of lime. Chlo-
rides of barium caused no turbidness in its solution. An
entire sarcophagus of arragonite proves that the ancient
Egyptians were in possession of an abundant store of this
matter, remarkable often for its perfect whiteness. Was it
the material of their white paint ?

The red was oxide of iron. By heating, it became blackr
and returned on cooling to its original hue. In a case
where so much foreign admixture was present, since the
layer of red was much too thin to allow of its being iso-
lated, I considered this as a better proof of red oxide of iron
than obtaining prussian blue.

The black was pounded wood charcoal. After the car-
bonate of lime with which it was mixed had been removed
by an acid, the texture of the larger particles were perfectly
discernible with a strong lens; and in the fire it burned
entirely away.

The blue is what most deserves attention. It was a smalt,
or glass powder, so like our own, though a little paler, as to
be mistaken for it by judges to whom I showed it ; but its
tinging matter was not cobalt, but copper. Melted with
borax and tin, the red oxide of copper immediately ap-
peared.

Many years ago I examined the blue glass with which
was painted a small figure of Isis, brought to me from
Egypt by a relation of mine, and found its colouring matter
to be copper.

I am informed that a fine blue glass cannot at present be

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 103

obtained by means of copper. What its advantages would
be above that from cobalt, it is for artists to decide.

Intent upon the blue smalt, it unfortunately did not occur
to me to examine, till I had washed nearly the whole of it
away to waste, what was the glutinous matter which had
been so true to its office for no less a period than 3,500
years ; for the colours were as firm on the stone as they can
ever have been.

A small quantity of it recovered frDm the water did not
seem to form a jelly on concentrating its solution ; or to
produce a precipitate with galls. I imagined its vegetable
nature ascertained by its ashes restoring the colour of red-
dened turnsol paper, till I found those of glue do the same.

The employment of powder of charcoal for a black would
seem to imply an unacquaintance with lamp-black, and, per-
haps, with bone black, and that of copper to colour glass
blue, a deficiency of cobalt. And if the glutinous matter
should prove, on a future examination, to be vegetable, our
glue being then possessed may, perhaps, be deemed ques-
tionable.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON MR. PENN'S THEORY

CONCERNING THE FORMATION OF THE

KIRKDALE CAVE.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXIV ; New Series, Vol.
VIII, 1824, p. 50.

June 10, 1824.

SIR: No observer of the earth can doubt that it has
undergone very considerable changes. Its strata are every-
where broken and disordered ; and in many of them are
enclosed the remains of innumerable beings which once
had life ; and these beings appear to have been strangers to
the climates in which their remains now exist.

104 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

In a book held by a large portion of mankind to have
been written from divine inspiration, an universal deluge is
recorded. It was natural for the believers in this deluge to
refer to its action, all, or many, of the phenomena in ques-
tion ; and the more so as they seemed to find in them a
corroboration of the event.

Accordingly, this is what was done, as soon as any desire
to account for these appearances on the earth became felt.
The success, however, was not such as to obtain the general
assent of the learned ; and the attempt fell into neglect and
oblivion.

Able hands have lately undertaken the revival of this
system ; Mr. Penn has endeavoured to reconcile it with the
facts of the Kirkdale Cave, which appeared to be strongly
inimical to it.

Acquainted with Mr. Penn's opinions only from the
"Analysis of the Supplement to the Comparative Estimate"
in the Journal of the Royal Institution for January, not
having seen this Supplement itself, the Comparative Esti-
mate, nor even a review of this in a former number of the
Journal, and knowing of Mr. Buckland's Reliquiae Diluvi-
ance, only the account of the Kirkdale Cave published in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1822, I have hesitated
long about communicating the present observations, which
presented themselves during the perusal of the above-men-
tioned slender abstract.

I have yielded to a sense of the importance of the subject
in more than one respect, and of the uncertainty when I
shall acquire ampler information at more voluminous
sources — to a convictioh that it is in his knowledge that
man has found his greatness and his happiness, the high
superiority which he holds over the other animals who
inhabit the earth with him, and consequently that no igno-
rance is probably without loss to him, no error without evil,
and that it is therefore preferable to urge unwarranted
doubts, which can only occasion additional light to become
elicited, than to risk by silence letting a question settle to

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 105

rest, while any unsupported assumptions are involved in it.

If I rightly apprehend Mr. Penn's ideas, they are these :

Secondary limestones were originally in a soft state.

The waters of the deluge while elevated above England,
deposited on it a layer, or bed, of "a soft and plastic" cal-
careous matter.

On their departure from the earth, by flowing away to-
wards the north, they floated over England the carcases of
a number of tropical animals, clustered together into great
masses.

These masses became buried in the calcareous mud.

On the sinking of the waters of the deluge below the
surface of England, the bed of calcareous mud began to dry,
•and on doing so completely, became the present Kirkdale
rock.

The clustered animal bodies enclosed in the calcareous
paste, by putrifying, evolved a great quantity of gas, which
forced the limestone paste in all directions from them, and
thus generated the Cave in which Mr. Buckland found their
bones.

Soft State of Secondary Limestones.

That secondary limestones have been in a state to admit
foreign bodies into their substance, their existence in it is
evidence.

Every shell and stone on the beach tells by its rounded
form the attrition to which it is subject at each flood and
ebb of the tide ; and that a subtil powder is abraded from
it which is collected somewhere.

From the immense multitudes of marine bodies which
exist in some of these limestones, from others consisting in
fact entirely of them, from in general little or nothing but
calcareous matter being present, it becomes highly probable
that it is to the calcareous part of marine animals, more or
less comminuted, that secondary limestones owe their ori-
gin.

106 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

Deposition of the Calcareous Mud.

The waters of the deluge had not, surely, either a dura-
tion or power, to obtain the matter of this supposed layer
of mud.

No shores any longer existing, shells could not he pulver-
ized by the beat of the wave, for it is not deep under water
that such destruction is effected ; nor, was it so, would the
short period of a year have been sufficient to produce the
material of all the secondary limestones of the earth ?

To have harrowed up this matter from the depths of the
ocean, would have required an agitation of the waters,
which nothing warrants us in giving to them, which every
thing denies their having had.

No hurricanes, no tempestuous winds, no swollen billows,
are recorded. To drown mankind they were superfluous.
A wind having arisen at the termination of the calamity
tells that none existed before ; and this wind must have
been a most gentle one, a very zephyr. A vessel, bulky
beyond all the efforts of imagination to figure, so laden, so
manned, could not have lived in any agitated sea, least in
one which out-topped the Alps, and the Andes, all that could
curb its fury, and mitigate its violence.

Had the ark not foundered, which is impossible, what yet
had become of the millions which its sides enclosed ? Few
had survived to repair the effects of the divine wrath.

The waters must have been at rest when the ark continued
stationary for many months on the mountains of Ararat.

Nor, do the agitations of a sea extend far below its sur-
face. What navigator has told of the storm in which the
sea became thick with its own sediments ?

But had such a deposit been made on our island, it would
not have continued on it. Standing like a little turret in
the bosom of the waters, each agitation of them would have
precipitated part of it down its sides. Their gigantic tides
must alone have washed it away, and on the rush of their

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 107

final departure, not a vestige of it could possibly have re-
mained behind.

If the waters of the deluge placed a bed of calcareous
matter on England and Germany, they must have done so
over the entire earth. It must have been an universal
stratum.

Yet so total was the deficiency of it at Botany Bay, that
the first settlers, for the very little lime which a few struc-
tures of immediate necessity required, were compelled,
though spare as were the hands, and much as they were
wanted for other purposes, laboriously and tediously, to col-
lect shells along the beach. Where a limestone nodule was
so anxiously sought and could not be found, great strata
could not be near.

But the sediment of the deluge waters would not be mere
calcareous matter. It must have consisted of everything
which they could receive, suspend, and deposit.

If over the earth were spread such a layer of mire, Noah
and the animals could not have landed upon it. Or had
they not sunk into it and been smothered ; where yet had
the weak found refuge from the voracious ; where had the
herbivorous found food ?

What a time must have elapsed before Noah could culti-
vate the vine ! Nor is it from such a soil that the wine
would have intoxicated the holy Patriarch. Had things so
been, Ham never had offended, nor Canaan incurred the
fatal curse.

Sinking of the Bodies into the Mud.

Supposing, however, such a bed of " soft and plastic "
calcareous matter deposited by the waters on England, the
immersion of the bodies into it is of no small difficulty.

Animal bodies bloated with gas from decay, which water
had " floated on its surface," are not easily conceived to
have displaced a stony powder of a specific gravity of 2.7,
and to have fallen below it.

" Turbulent vortices," which are imagined to have lent

108 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

their aid on the occasion, would have disseminated the
clustered animals, and dispersed the powdery stratum.

That the bodies should in every case have descended into
the calcareous pulp, in one unbroken group ; that in none
a fragment, even a lock of hair, should have parted from
the putrid mass, and stopped by the wa}r, cannot certainly
plead probability in its favour. Yet what cabinet shows
even the slenderest bone of a water-rat bedded in the solid
stone ? What limestone stratum has astonished the learned,
by presenting them, in its substance, with an antediluvian
hyeena's bristles, or lion's mane ?

Formation of the Gave.

If the limestone pulp was too thin, the gas would pass
through it and escape, and the pulp fall back upon the
bodies ; if too thick, the elastic force of the gas would be
insufficient to repel it from them. A precise point of indu-
ration, at which it would at once yield and resist, was indis-
pensable. This exact condition would but rarely occur;
would, at least, often not do it, and consequently bodies
buried in the solid rock must be frequent, if not most so.

It is incredible that in every case the gas should have
driven away from the bodies the whole of the mud in con-
tact with them. Some of the mud must have insinuated
itself between the several individuals of the cluster, some
have penetrated by the mouth, by lacerations, into the cavity
of the bodies, and isolated pieces of rock must now occur
among the bones, bearing the impression of the parts with
which they had been in contact ; as at Pompeii, indurated
ashes presented the cast of a woman's breasts.

As the parts receded from the bodies, it would carry with
it some adhering fragments of them — bones, teeth, hair,
feathers ; and which would now be fixed to the sides and
roofs of the caves.

Bodies which had been previously putrefying for twelve
months in a tropical temperature, would not probably have

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSO'N. 109"

still afforded, after their interment, sufficient gas for the
supposed purpose. From some experiments, made a great
number of years ago, on the decay of animal muscle con-
fined over mercury, I am inclined to believe, that in no
case, when secluded from oxygen, is any great volume of
gas evolved by it. Subjected to the imagined pressure,
•would the matters of the gases have been able to expand to
the elastic form ? Would they not rather have assumed
the fluid one ?

Under these circumstances, would the muscular part of
the bodies have entirely disappeared ? Would not some
portion of it have altered to adipocire ? In such a state
some of it must at least some times be met with.

That fish have, in some cases, been inclosed in strata, in-
vested with all their muscular part, seems indubitable, from
the presence of the scales ; but they are scattered singly
through the stratum, and have blown up no caves round
themselves.

Indeed, the clustering of the quadrupeds during their
voyage, appears to be by no means a certain event. If they
sunk below the surface, they would sink to different levels ;
borne on the surface, they might assemble together, but no
adherence would take place between them, and upon the
slightest impulse they would part again.

If the bodies were deposited with their integuments, the
bones must be nearly all of them entire. How should they
have become broken, enveloped in a soft mass, rendered
additionally elastic by the gases of a putrefying state, and
floating on a sea which, high above all land, bore them out
of the reach of every means of concussion, especially be-
come shivered as are of those of the cave ? The force
which could thus destroy the bones, had reduced the mus-
cular matter to pulp, and the waters had carried it off, and
the cave had had no efficient cause.

If the bodies were deposited entire, every bone of each
must be forth coming, and its complete skeleton admit of
being mounted.

110 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

Between " the animal remains discovered buried singly
in strata of gravel and clay, and those found in multitudi-
nous masses in the cavities of rocks," there exist the im-
portant differences of the former not being in caves, and of
the strata in which they occur being fresh-water ones. These
remains may consequently be supposed those of animals
washed from heights by inundations, and buried in the
earthy matter transported with them.

Nor can the bones of the cave be assimilated to the
" shells kneaded into the limestone rock of Portland."
For the comparison to hold, the bones must be " kneaded
into the limestone rock" as the shells are, and as are the
bones in the Stunsfield slate, which have been placed in it
by the sea.

If the stalactites had been produced by the descent of
portions of the calcareous pulpy mass yielding to gravity,
they would, like the stalactites of lava, formed in this way,
have the texture of the rock. The stalactites of limestone
strata are clusters of crystals, which have generated from
solution in water.

Induration of the Calcareous Stratum.

The calcareous paste is supposed by Mr. Penn to have
petrified by simple drying ; and on this supposition much
of the hypothesis concerning the formation of the Cave
reposes.

Experiments will convince that a paste of calcareous
powder and water does not dry to marble, but to whitening.
An indurating faculty must not be attributed to time, it has
it not. Chalk strata cannot be assigned a less age than the
rocks of Yorkshire, and they have not dried to stone, nor
seem hastening to become such.

Each particle of powder is a diminutive pebble, and an
intervening cement is required to connect it with the neigh-
bouring ones.

Carbonate of lime dissolved in water by means of an

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. Ill

excess of acid is the element of agglutination, which nature
has in these cases made use of. The acid solvent exhales
or becomes saturated, and the neutral salt, ceasing to be
soluble, crystallizes on the particles of the powder.

It is thus that the sands of the Calabriari shores are con-
solidated. The sea water loaded with the calcareous salt,
carries it into them. It cannot be by drying since they are
wetted by every wave ; and sand wetted with ordinary sea
water and dried is not converted into millstone. The great
hardness is due to the silicious part.

I brought a mass of sand from the sea at Dumbarton, in-
closing a recent razor shell with its epidermis on it, and
fragments of coal, cemented to stone by carbonate of lime,
so that the calabrain process takes place on that coast.

In limestones consisting of considerable-sized fragments
of shells, the sparry cement which connects them is perfectly
evident. It is this cement which appears as regular crystals
where cavities occur in the mass too large to have been filled
by it.

Beds of sediment can by this means become rock at the
utmost depths of the ocean, and it is in all probability there
that most of them have done so. The workings of contig-
uous volcanos have supplied the carbonic acid.

Oolites have been evidently formed in a sea much loaded
with dissolved carbonate of lime, and which on the escape
of the dissolving acid has crystallized round floating parti-
cles. When the weight of the grains has become such as
to occasion their subsidence, they have been cemented to-
gether, every thing taking place in all respects as in the case
of the pisolites of Carlsbaden. The Kirkdale rock being
composed of oolites must have had this origin.

Such a formation cannot be assigned to the time of the
deluge. Besides the violence of bringing within the com-
pass of a few months, operations whose accomplishment
seems to have required centuries of centuries, the necessary
conditions must have been wanting. Had not all the vol-
canos become extinguished, they could not, and in such a

112 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

time, have poured forth carbonic acid to saturate the im-
mensity of its waters ; and it is also utterly impossible to
believe that the beings in the ark, already not a little incon-
venienced for respiration, could withstand the suffocating
effluvium.

Coming of the Animals by Sea.

Of the animals having been tropical ones no testimony is
offered. The elephant of Siberia being now ascertained to
have been a very hairy animal may be supposed to have
been a northern one, and if there were formerly northern
elephants, there may have been northern hyaenas and north-
ern tigers.

If the bodies were brought by water, no reason appears
why they are, with the exception of a few birds, exclusively
those of quadrupeds. Reptiles, insects, trees, even fish, for
all of them must have perished from the mixture of salt
and fresh water, must have entangled in the clusters.

As the bodies must have been macerated for about a year
in the tropical seas, before the retreat of the waters trans-
ported them towards the north, those of the smaller animals,,
as the water-rats, must have been so completely decayed as
to be reduced to the bones solely, which water would not
float.

The voyage from the tropics of the balls of album grsecum
in an entire state, is what will not, under any circumstances,,
be easy to admit ; to suppose it amidst " turbulent vortices,
by which the framework of the animals was shattered, dis-
located, fractured within the integuments," reduced to splin-
ters, is utterly impossible. The entire state of the balls of
album grsecum, and the extremely fractured one of the
bones, are totally incompatible on Mr. Penn's system. And
such an ablution would not have left in these balls a trace
of the triple phosphate.

But quadrupeds are not the only animals of tropical
features found in northern latitudes. Every shell in the
strata, the nautili, the cornu ammones, the belemnites, the-

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 113

anomia, are now as foreign to the surrounding seas, as are
the others to the land. If one then came from afar, both
did.

What must have "been the mass and impetuosity of the
wave which could buoy a huge oyster, a massive brain stone,
from the equator to the British Islands, and at an elevation
to deposit it on Shotover Hill, or at Kings weston ? Such
waves had tumbled down the mountains of the earth, shiv-
ered its islands and its continents, and choked up the bed
of the ocean with their ruins. Surely it is a far less diffi-
culty to " bring the climate to the exuviae, than the exuviae
to the climate."

The existence together of the bones of many species does
not necessitate the conclusion of the animals having been
associates in the cave. If hyaenas " do not always resort to
the same den," neither is it probable do other wild beasts.
A succession of inhabitants is admissible.

"Norjs it required to believe that any of the animals whose
bones were found in the cave died there. If hyaenas col-
lect bones round their dens, it must be allowed not very
improbable that they sometimes, often even, carry them a
little further. Alarmed by the roar of a more mighty de-
vourer, or even by. that of one of equal strength, it seems
natural for them to retreat with their spoil to their last
refuge. Why, but to be able to do this, do they bring them
near their dens ?

The smallness of the cave's mouth, admitting it to have
been always what it now is, would indeed oppose the idea
of elephants having walked into it, but no entire skeleton
requires the admission of their having done this; and hyae-
nas who feed on putrid carcases, may have found no diffi-
culty in parceling such ; or they may have collected " the
Bushman's harvest," or the bones may have been carried
into the cave by animals more powerful than hyaenas.

If animals as ravenous of bones as hyaenas are said to be
did not, in any hour of dearth, devour those of the water-
rats, it may be because those became tenants of the cave

8

114 WHITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

only when the water had expelled the hysenas. It is alike
improbable that animals of such contrary habits should
dwell together, and that hysenas should carry so diminutive
a prey as a water-rat, to their den to devour it.

The small quantity of the album grsecum can afford no
argument against the animals who produced it having lived
in the cave. So brittle a substance could not last long under
the trample of numerous animals of such bulk. The water
which subsequently entered the cave may have destroyed a
part. The existence of any is a strong circumstance in
favour of the supposition of their having lived in the cave,
and such as it would scarcely have dared to hope for, in its
support.

If bones of quadrupeds are found inclosed in no rocks
but limestone ones, which it may, however, require more
extended observation to establish, the reason may be, that
in no other rocks are caverns, in which wild beasts can take
shelter, so common. These are likewise the only rocks in
which the formation of stalactite would close the openings,
and preserve the bones through a long course of ages, and
so as to have reached our times, from the decay and all the
accidents to which in an open cave they would be exposed.

Of the Deluge.

Should every argument which has been adduced to estab-
lish that the animals were not brought from remote regions
by water, that they lived and died in the countries in which
their remains now lie, have appeared insufficient for the
purpose, yet, that it is not to the Mosaical flood that their
existence, where they now are, is to be referred, two great
facts appear to place beyond controversy.

One is the total absence in the fossil world of all human
remains of every vestige of man himself and of his arts.

The magnitude of the chastisement, the order of nature
subverted to produce it, proclaim the multitudes of the
criminal. Human bodies by millions must then have cov-

WRITINGS OP JAMES SMITHSON. 115

ered the waters ; they must have formed a material part, if
not the principal one, of every group, and human bones be
now consequently met with everywhere blended with those
of animals.

Objects of human industry and skill must likewise con-
tinually occur among the bones. Of the miserable victims
of the disaster numbers would be clothed, and have on their
persons articles of the most imperishable materials; and
the dog would retain his collar, the horse his bit and har-
ness, the ox his yoke. To men who wrought iron and
bronze, who manufactured harps and organs, these things
must have been familiar.

But more ; embalmed within the substance of the dilu-
vian mud, entire cities, with their monuments, with a great
part of their inhabitants, with an infinity of things to their
use, would remain. Every limestone quarry should daily
present us with some of these most precious of all antiqui-
ties, before which those of Italy and Egypt would shrink to
nothing.

How greatly must we regret that this is not-the case, that
we must relinquish the delightful hope of some day finding
in the body of a calcareous mountain, the city of Enoch
built by Cain, at the very origin of the world, with what
awful sentiments had not present generations contemplated
objects which once had been looked upon by eyes which
had seen the divinity !

The other great fact which forcibly militates against the
diluvian hypothesis is, that the fossil animals are not those
which existed at the time of the deluge. The diluvian
species must have been the same as the present. The mul-
tifarious wonders of the ark had for sole object their pres-
ervation ; while of the fossil kinds, not perhaps one, or
quadruped, or bird, or fish, or shell, or insect, or plant, is
now alive.

" Amazing proofs of inundations at high levels " are
appealed to. Had they being, of the deluge they could at
most speak but to their existence ; on its influence in the

116 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

contested cases, they would be silent ; but it appears that
this stupendous prodigy,

" Like the baseless fabric of a vision,
Left not a wreck behind."

Of the occurrence of marine depositions at great altitudes,
the elevation of the stratum by volcanic efforts, furnishes a
far more easy solution than the elevation of the sea, as it
refers the phenomenon to a natural cause, and does not
require the immediate interposition of the divine hand ;
and the ruptured state and erect position of the strata on
all these occasions, testify strongly in favour of the simpler
supposition.

To collate the revered volume with the great book of
nature, and show in their agreement one author to both,
was an undertaking worthy of the union of piety and
science. If the result has not been what was anticipated ;
if we look in vain over the face of our globe for those
mighty impressions of an universal deluge, which reason
tells us that it must have produced and left behind itself, to
some cause as out of the natural course of things as was
that event, must this doubtless be attributed.

By his entering into a covenant with man and brute ani-
mals, and having for ever " set his bow in the cloud," as a
token that the direful scene should never be renewed, the
Creator appears to have repined at the severity of his
justice.

The spectacle of a desolated world, — of fertility laid
waste, — of the painful works of industry and genius over-
thrown,— of infantine innocence involved in indiscriminate
misery with the hardened offender, — of brute nature whose
want of reason precluded it from the possibility of all
offence, made share in the forfeit of human depravity, may
be supposed to have touched his heart.

Under the impression of these paternal feelings, to oblit-
erate every trace of the dreadful scourge, remove every
remnant of the frightful havoc, seem the natural effects of
his benevolence and power. As a lesson to the races which

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 117

were to issue from the loins of the few who had been
spared, — races which were to he wicked indeed as those
which had preceded them, but which were promised exemp-
tion from a like punishment, to have preserved any memento
of them would have been useless.

To a miracle then which swept away all that could recall
that day of death when " the windows of heaven were
opened " upon mankind, must we refer what no natural
means are adequate to explain.

A LETTER FROM DR. BLACK DESCRIBING A
VERY SENSIBLE BALANCE,

Prom Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXVI ; New Series, Vol.
X, 1825, page 52.

EDINBURGH, September 18, 1790.

DEAR SIR : I had the pleasure to receive your letter of
the 9th. The apparatus I use for weighing small globules
of metals, or the like, is as follows : A thin piece of fir
wood not thicker than a shilling, and a foot long, -fa of an
inch broad in the middle, and •}-$ at each end, is divided by
transverse lines into 20 parts ; that is, 10 parts on each side
of the middle. These are the principal divisions, and each
of them is subdivided into halves and quarters. Across
the middle is fixed one of the smallest needles I could pro-
cure to serve as an axis, and it is fixed in its place by means
of a little sealing wax. The numeration of the divisions is
from the middle to each end of the beam. The fulcrum is
a bit of plate brass, the middle of which lies flat on my
table when I use the balance, and the two ends are bent up
to a right angle so as to stand upright. These two ends
are ground at the same time on a flat hone, that the extreme

118 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

surfaces of them may be in the same plane ; and their dis-
tance is such that the needle when laid across them rests on
them at a small distance from the sides of the beam. They
rise above the surface of the table only one and a half or
two-tenths of an inch, so that the beam is very limited in
its play.

The weights I use are one globule of gold, which weighs
one grain ; and two or three others which weigh one-tenth
of a grain each ; and also a number of small rings of fine
brass wire made in the manner first mentioned by Mr,
Lewis, by appending a weight to the wire, and coiling it
with the tension of that weight round a thicker brass wire
in a close spiral, after which the extremity of the spiral
being tied hard with waxed thread, I put the covered wire
in a vice, and applying a sharp knife which is struck with
a hammer, I cut through a great number of the coils at one
stroke, and find them as exactly equal to one another as can
be desired. Those I use happen to be the l-30th part of a
grain each, or 300 of them weigh 10 grains ; but 1 have
others much lighter.

You will perceive that by means of these weights placed
on different parts of the beam, I can learn the weight of
any little mass from one grain or a little more to the Y^Vir
of a grain. For if the thing to be weighed weighs one
grain, it will, when placed on one extremity of the beamr
counterpoise the large gold weight at the other extremity,
If it weighs half a grain, it will counterpoise the heavy gold
weight placed at 5. If it weigh -^ of a grain, you must
place the heavy gold weight at 5, and one of the lighter
ones at the extremity to counterpoise it ; and if it weighs
only 1, or 2, or 3, or 4-100ths of a grain, it will be counter-
poised by one of the small gold weights placed at the firstr
or second, or third, or fourth division. If on the contrary
it weigh one grain arid a fraction, it will be counterpoised

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 119

by the heavy gold weight at the extremity, and one or more
of the lighter ones placed in some other part of the beam.

This beam has served me hitherto for every purpose ; but
had I occasion for a more delicate one, I could make it
easily by taking a much thinner and lighter slip of wood,
and grinding the needle to give it an edge. It would also
be easy to make it carry small scales of paper for particular
purposes.

We have no chemical news. I am employed in examin-
ing the Iceland waters, but have been often interrupted. I
never heard before of the quartz-like crystals of barytes
aerata, nor of the sand and new earth from New Holland.
Indistinct reports of new metals have reached us, but no
particulars. Some further account of these things from
you will, therefore, be very agreeable. Dr. Hutton joins
me in compliments, and wishing you all good things ; and I
am, Dear Sir,

Your faithful humble servant,

JOSEPH BLACK.

NOTE BY Mr. SMITHSON. — The rings mentioned above have
the defect of their weight being entirely accidental ; and
consequently most times very inconvenient fractions of the
grain. I have found that a preferable method is to ascertain
the weight of a certain length of wire, and then take the
length of it which corresponds to the weight wanted. If
fine wire is employed, a set of small weights may be thus
made with great accuracy and ease. Inconvenience from
the length of the wire in the higher weights is obviated by
rolling it round a cylindrical body to a ring, and twisting
this to a cord.

This little balance is a very valuable addition to the blow-
pipe apparatus, as it enables the determination of quantities
in the experiments with that instrument, which was aji un-
hoped-for accession to its powers.

Dr. Black mentioned to me its having been used by an

120 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON.

assayer in Cornwall, to whom he had made it known ; and I
have since heard, from another person, of an assayer in that
county, who, finding the assays he was employed to make,
cost him more in fuel than he was paid for them, had con-
trived means of making them at the blowpipe on one grain
of matter. I presume him to have been the same Dr. Black
had spoken of.

LONDON, May 12, 1825.

A METHOD OF FIXING CRAYON COLOURS.

From Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXVI ; New Series, Vol. X,

1825, page 236.

LONDON, August 23, 1825.

GENTLEMEN : Wishing to transport a crayon portrait to a
distance for the sake of the likeness, but without the frame
and glass, which were bulky and heavy, I applied to a man
from whom I expected information for a method of fixing
the colours. He had heard of milk being spread with a
brush over them, but I really did not conceive this process
of sufficient promise to be disposed to make trial of it.

I had myself read of fixing crayon colours by sprinkling
solution of isinglass from a brush upon them, but to this
too, I apprehended the objections of tediousncss, of dirty
operation, and perhaps of incomplete result.

On thinking on the subject, the first idea which presented
itself to me was that of gum-water applied to the back of
the picture ; but as it was drawn on sized blue paper, pasted
on canvass, there seemed little prospect of this fluid pene-
trating. But an oil would do so, and a drying one would
accomplish my object. I applied -drying oil diluted with
spirit of turpentine ; after a day or two when this was grown
dry, I spread a coat of the mixture over the front of the
picture, and my crayon drawing became an oil painting.

WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 121

NOTES:

AND ADDENDA TO TITLES.

Page 29 :

In a critical notice of Davy's Elements of Chemical Philosophy in the
Quarterly Review for 1812, the writer speaking of recent advances in
chemistry, and especially in the establishment and extension of the law of
definite proportions, remarks : " for these facts the science is principally
indebted after Mr. Higgins, to Dalton, Gay Lussac, Smithson, and Wollas-
ton." Quarterly Review, 1812, vol. viii, p. 77.

Page 34 : On the composition of the compound sulphuret from Huel Boys ,
and an account of its crystals — otherwise called Bournonite.

Page 42 : On the Composition of Zeolite.

This article was translated by Smithson himself into French, and pub-
lished under the title " Memoire sur la Composition de la Zeolite," in the
Journal de Physique, de Chimie, et d'Hist. Nat., etc. Paris, 1814, vol.
Ixxix, pp. 144-149.

Page 47 : On a substance from the Elm Tree, called TTlmin.

This article (translated by M. Vogel) was published under the title " Ex-
periences sur 1'Ulmine," in the Journal de Physique, de Chimie et d'Histoire
Naturelle. Paris, 1814, vol. Ixxviii, pp. 311-315.

Page 65 : On a native compound of sulphuret of lead and arsenic. — Binnit
of Naumann.

Page 68 : Thomson's Annals of Philosophy October, 1821, vol. ii, New
Series, pp. 291-292. Contains comments by Charles Konig,
on Smithson's article on "Fibrous Metallic Copper."

Page 71 : An account of a native combination of sulphate of barium and
fluoride of calcium.

Das von Smithson als Flussbaryt aufgefiihrte Mineral aus Derbyshire ist
wohl nur ein sehr inniges Gemenge von Fluorit und Baryt. (Naumann,
Min. 9th edit., p. 261, Ann. 3.)

A MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER AND RE-
SEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON, ESQ., F.R.S.,

By WALTER R. JOHNSON,

Corresponding Secretary of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila.
delphia, Member of the National Institute, &c.

Bead before the National Institute, Washington, D. C.t April 6, 1844.*

PRELIMINARY NOTE.

In the many notices of Mr. Smithson's bequest, and plans for establish-
ing an institution on its basis, which have either officially or otherwise been
brought before the public, no succinct account has, so far as the writer's
recollection serves, been offered of the scientific pursuits of Mr. Smithson
himself, — a very material omission, it is conceived, — and one which could
not fail to encourage, or at least excuse, the multiplication of schemes, for
carrying out the provisions of his will. A knowledge of the habits, pur-
suits and feelings of the testator, on the contrary, may relieve us from un-
certainty in the interpretation of his language, and the application, of his
bequest.

If the gratitude of posterity attaches to the memory of
successful warriors who enlarge the boundaries of a nation's
physical domain, m'uch more is it due to him who opens the
fields of knowledge, invites ardent votaries to their cultiva-
tion, and thus promotes that nation's happiness, glory, and
prosperity.

Under whatever form of government, in whatever social
condition, the man of practical benevolence seeks to give
his benefactions the character of intellectual blessings ;
whether, like Bridgewater, he aspires with lofty aim to un-
ravel t)ie designs of creation, explain the final causes of
physical laws, and impress by written treatises, the lessons
of eternal truth on the matured understandings of men ;
whether, with the acute, discriminating and practical Girard,
he content himself with the humbler but not less honorable
office, of rescuing from ignorance, vice and degradation, the
homeless and friendless orphan ; whether, with Franklin, he
found a library ; with Maclurc endow an academy for re-
searches in natural science ; or, with Smithson, seek to
stimulate into activity the spirit of philosophical research ;

* Philadelphia, Barret & Jones, Printers, 33 Carter's alley, 1844.

123

124 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER

to " increase " by deepening the sources, and " diffuse " by
multiplying the channels of knowledge ; in each and all of
these cases, the universal sentiment of mankind awards a
grateful recognition to the intellectual, moral, social bene-
factor.

But when, in addition to other circumstances of the bene-
faction, the author has selected for the exercise of his benev-
olent spirit, not a small circle of votaries of science in a
region where the avenues to knowledge are sedulously
guarded, but, a great nation, which has made equal rights
the basis of its social system, and virtue and intelligence the
supports of all its institutions, it is evident that a higher
meed of praise, and a deeper feeling of gratitude should
spring from the breast of every lover of liberty and of
truth.

Having made our country the recipient of his benefac-
tion ; having given us the inheritance of his fame as well as
of his fortune, Smithson may justly claim from this side of
the Atlantic the tribute of a recognition of his merits, a due
appreciation of his own labors, in those paths to which he
has invited the scientific efforts of our citizens — efforts on
which he has, virtually, and it is to be hoped, not ineffectually,
invoked the fostering care of this nation's government.

Let one instance in our country suffice — let not a second
be exhibited, of that shameful violation of trusts, solemnly
assumed, which seeks, in the indulgence of personal vanity,
in the execution of splendid schemes of architecture, utterly
incongruous to their purpose, or in the search after inappli-
cable, far-fetched plans of organization, to find a substitute
for the simple directions of a man of plain common sense.

On the basis of his labors alone, the true votary of science
is willing to rest his credit with mankind, and his fame with
future generations. He can look with indifference on the
artificial distinctions which fashion, and the greedy love of
notoriety, conspire to throw or to draw around pretension
and mediocrity. As he deals with the great truths of
nature, and not with the changeful humors of man ; as he
investigates and promulgates laws, not subject to REPEAL ;
announces results, not of bargains and compromises, but of
the eternal fitness and congruity of parts in creation, he ex-
periences none of the feverish anxiety about adverse inter-
ests, that may one day undo his works, which often accom-
panies the labors of men in other walks of intellectual effort.

In the view of such a man, the accidents of birth, of for-
tune, of local habitation, and conventional rank in the
artificial organization of society, all sink into insignificance

AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 125

by the side of a single truth of nature. If he have con-
tributed his mite to the " increase " of knowledge ; if he
have diffused that knowledge for the benefit of "man ; and,
above all, if he have applied it to the useful, or even to the
ornamental purposes of life, he has laid not his family, not
his country, but the world of mankind under a lasting
obligation.

As with societies, so with individuals occupying them-
selves with scientific pursuits, the estimation in which they
must be held, will ever depend on the amount, but especially
upon the quality of new published truths which they dis-
seminate. Hence we look primarily to the published works
of a scientific man for the evidences of what he has done
for science.

They whose recollections of scientific works go back to
the first years of the present century, will have no difficulty
in judging how far the principle just stated will rank
James Smithson among the working scientific men of his
time. The transactions of the Royal Society of London,
and the scientific journals of the day, will, without reference
to other evidence, place us in a condition to solve this ques-
tion.

But we are fortunately not left to these alone. In his
written journals, scientific notes, and more elaborate manu-
script papers on a great variety of topics, connected with
his tours of observation, and with his studies in numerous
departments, we witness the workings of a mind ever
active in its endeavors to elicit from the volume of nature
truths worthy to fix the attention of all intelligent beings.
Let us first recur to his printed works.

1. In the Philosophical Transactions, vol. 93, is a paper
on the Chemical Analysis of some Calamines. Read November
18, 1802.

In this paper the author describes calamine — 1, from
Bleyburg in Carinthia; 2, from Somersetshire; 3, from
Derbyshire ; and 4, electrical calamine.

In this essay the author remarks that " Chemistry is yet
so new a science; what we know of it bears so small a pro-
portion to what we are ignorant of; our knowledge in every
department of it is so incomplete, consisting so entirely of
isolated points, thinly scattered, like lurid specks on a vast
field of darkness, that no researches can be undertaken
without producing some facts leading to consequences
which extend beyond the boundaries of their immediate
object."

126 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER

The Abbe Hauy had advanced the opinion that calamines
were all of one species, and all mere oxides or " calces " of
zinc, containing no carbonic acid, and that their effervescence
with acids was due to an accidental admixture of carbonate
of lime. Smithson's analyses completely overthrew this
opinion, and established thefe minerals in the rank of true
carbonates.

His remarks on the action of the ores of zinc before the*
blow-pipe, evince much discernment in relation to the
effects there observed.

11 The exhalation of these calamines at the blow-pipe, and the flowers
which they diffuse round them on the coal, are probably not to be attributed
to a direct volatilization of them. It is more probable that they are the
consequence of the disoxidation of the zinc calx, by the coal, and the in-
flammable matter of the flame, its sublimation in a metallic state, and
instantaneous recalcination. And this alternate reduction and combustion
may explain the peculiar phosphoric appearance by calces of zinc at the
blow-pipe."

" The apparent sublimation of the common flowers of zinc at the instant
of their production, though totally unsublimable afterwards, is certainly,
likewise, but a deceptious appearance. The reguline zinc, vaporized by
the heat, rises from the crucible, as a metallic gas, and is, while in this state,
converted to calx (oxide.) The flame which attended the process is a proof
of it.

" The fibrous form of the flowers of zinc is owing to a crystallization of
the calx while in mechanical suspension in the air, like that which takes
place with camphor when, after having been sometime inflamed, it is blown
out."

As incidental to this inquiry on calamines, he introduces
a remark of great interest in connection with the subject of
crystallization— a subject, which, when applied to a partic-
ular body of the highest interest to the arts, (I refer to
wrought iron,) has of late awakened great attention both
among practical and scientific inquirers ; and which has
been invested with a deep tragic interest by a recent la-
mentable occurrence in our own community :

" A moment's reflection," says Smithson, "must evince how injudicious
is the common opinion of crystallization requiring a state of dissolution in
the matter, since it must be evident that while solution subsists, as long as
a quantity of fluid admitting of it is present, no crystallization can take
place. The only requisite for this operation is a freedom of motion in the
masses which tend to unite, which allows them to yield to the impulse
which propels them together, and to obey that sort of polarity which oc-
casions them to present to each other the parts adapted to mutual union.

" No state so completely affords these conditions as that of mechanical
suspension in a fluid, whose density is relatively, to their size, such as to
oppose a resistance to their descent in it, and to occasion their mutual attrac-
tion to become a power superior to their force of gravitation.

" It is in these circumstances that the atoms of matter find themselves,
when, on the separation from them of the portion of fluid by which they
were dissolved, they were abandoned in a disengaged state in the bosom of
a solution, and hence it is in saturated solutions sustaining evaporation, or
equivalent cooling, and free from any perturbing motion, that regular crys-

AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 127

tallization is usually effected. But those who are familiar with chemical
operations, know the sort of agglutination which happens between the par-
ticles of subsided and very fine precipitates, occasioning them, on a second
diffusion through the fluid, to settle again much more quickly than before,
and which is certainly a crystallization, but under circumstances very un-
favorable to its perfect performance."

The recent discovery of the reduction of wrought-iron
from a fibrous to a granular state by a mechanical percus-
sion, especially at a certain elevated temperature, is a case
strongly illustrative of the views of Smithson on this ab-
struse and difficult subject.

In the same paper (on the calamines) he has attempted to
show a simple definite relation* to exist between the constit-
uents of this material.

In attestation of the value of these observations by Smith-
son, we may cite Gregory Watt's paper on the basalts pub-
lished in the following year, (1803 :)

" It has been most justly remarked by Mr. Smithson, that solution, far
from being necessary to crystallization, effectually prevents its commence-
ment; for, while solution subsists, crystallization cannot take place. It
may remain a question, whether previous solution be essential as a prepara-
tory means of obtaining by subsequent evaporation, the small parts of
bodies disengaged so that they may unite to form regular crystals. If by
solution be only meant that simple action of heat or water which merely
counteracts the force of aggregation, and relieves the molecules from their
bond of union with each other, it certainly is a requisite ; but if by solution
be meant that action of affinities by which not only the force of aggrega-
tion is overcome, but the combinations which constitute the molecules are
destroyed, it obviously is not only unnecessary, but prejudicial to the crys-
tallization ; as a new set of molecules must be formed, by a new combina-
tion of the elementary particles, before the formation of regular bodies can
take place. The suspension of the molecules ready to crystallize may be
correctly said to be merely mechanical. Though the mechanical action of
trituration can never be expected to resolve even the most divisible body
into its molecules, because the fractures will be at least as frequently across
the natural joints as in their direction; yet, even by this rude method,
some perfect molecules may be disengaged ; for we find that water, passing
over large surfaces of silicious sand, finds some molecules of silex in the
state proper for aggregation, and even for crystallization. Mechanical sus-
pension in a fluid medium of such density that the crystalline polarity may
be enabled to counteract the power of gravity, is with justice considered by
Mr. Smithson the only requisite for the formation of crystals.

" The particles of bodies apparently solid must be capable of some inter-
nal motion enabling them to arrange themselves according to polarity,
while they are still solid and fixed as far as they have reference to the ordi-
nary characters of fluidity."

The mode of examining calamines, adopted by Smithson,
was to subject them to heat, in order to expel water and
carbonic acid, and then to dissolve the residue in sulphuric
acid, drying the white vitriol thus produced, and estimating
the weight of oxide by that of anhydrous sulphate. This
estimation of a metallic oxide in its state of a dry sulphate,
enables the chemist to avoid two or three operose and

128 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER

troublesome processes, including filtration, washing and ig-
niting, which ordinarily consume much time, labor, and
minute attention.

As the result of his careful inquiry into the truth of the
position assumed, it appears, by Hatiy, without a sufficient
examination, Smithson makes the following statement at the
conclusion of his paper :

" No calamine has yet occurred to me which was a real uncombined calx
of zinc. If such, as a native product, should ever be met with in any of
the still unexplored parts of the earth, or exist among the unscrutinized
possessions of any cabinet, it will easily be known by producing a quantity
of arid vitriol (anhydrous sulphate) of zinc, exactly double of its own
weight ; while the hydrate of zinc, fhould it be found single or uncombined
with carbonate, will yield 1.5 times the weight of this arid salt."

2. In the Phil. Transactions, vol. 96, p. 267, 1806, is an
" Account of a discovery of Native Minium" in a letter from
James Smithson, Esq., F. R. S., to the Right Hon. Sir Joseph
Banks, K B., P. R. S. Read April 24, 1806.

This letter is dated at Cassel, in Hesse, March 2d, 1806.
He states that he has found minium native in the earth — the
gangue, compact carbonate of zinc — with a flaky, crystalline
appearance. He gives, in the course of his remarks, the
chemical reactions and modes of testing employed to detect
its nature.

" This native minium," he remarks, "seems to be produced by the decay
of a galena, wbich I suspect to be itself a secondary production from the
metallization of the white carbonate of lead by hepatic gas. This is par-
ticularly evident in a specimen of this ore, in one part of which is a cluster
of large crystals. Having broken one of these it proved to be converted
into minium to a considerable thickness, while its centre is still galena."

I may remark, in confirmation, that the mineral veins of
iron, copper, lead, and silver of the United States, afford
abundant evidences of the production of " secondary "
ores, — such as hydrated peroxides of iron, from the argilla-
ceous carbonates, the protoxide and peroxide, and carbonate
of copper, from the yellow sulphuret ; the carbonate of lead
with its protoxide and peroxide, from galena ; this last be-
ing the reverse of the order of change conjectured by
Smithson. In the silver mines of North Carolina, now
worked with considerable activity, the metallic silver is at
the outcrop of the veins found mixed with carbonate of
lead and of copper, phosphate of lead, with other materials
much disintegrated, and offering great facilities for their
extraction, while at greater depths, below the reach of at-
mospheric and other surface influences, the body of ore
comes to be almost altogether a mass of galena intermixed
with metallic silver.

AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 129

3. In the Phil. Trans, vol. xcviii., p. 55, (1808,) is a paper
by Mr. Smith-son, " On the composition of the compound sul-
phuret from Huel Boys and an account of its crystals" p. 8, 1
plate. Read January 28, 1808. In this paper the com-
pound sulphuret of lead, antimony, and copper is described
with an account of its chemical properties, and theoretical
views of the manner in which proximate elements like these
co-exist. He states his belief that all combination is binary,
that no substance whatever has more than two proximate or
true elements. He makes the mineral to consist of —

Sulphuret of lead 49.7

Sulphuret of antimony - 29.6

Sulphuret of copper 20.7

100.

He gives a figure representing the forms of the crystals
and the angles formed by the several faces with each other.

In Tilloch's Magazine, vol. xxix., for 1808, in an account
of the proceedings of the Royal Society, we • have the fol-
lowing remarks relative to this paper : " December 24,
1807. A paper by Mr. Smithson, on quadruple and binary
compounds, particularly the sulphurets was read. The
author seemed to doubt the propriety of the distinction, or
rather the existence of quadruple compounds ; believed
that only two substances could enter as elements in the
composition of one body, and contended that in cases of
quadruple compounds a new and very different substance
was formed, which had very little relation to the radical or
elementary principles, of which it was believed to be com-
posed. This opinion he supported by reference to the sul-
phurets of lead, galena, and of antimony, and to the facts
developed by crystallography. In the latter science, he
took occasion to correct and confirm some remarks of his
in the Transactions for 1804, on different crystals, which he
acknowledged have not hitherto been found in nature.

4. In the Phil. Trans, vol. ci., p. 171, for 1811, is a paper
u On the composition of Zeolite" read Feb. 7. 1811.

In the commencement of this paper the author recognizes
the principle that mineral bodies are native chemical com-
pounds, and that it is only by chemical means that their
species can be ascertained with any degree of certainty.
He found the Zeolite to contain,

Silica - - 49.0

Alumina 27.0

Soda - 17.0

"Ice" - - - 09.5

130 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER

He calls it a " hydrated silicate of alumina and soda."
In relation to this paper on Zeolites, the following notice is
contained in Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxxvii.,
from January to June, 1811, (p. 152,) under the head of the
" Proceedings of the Royal Society : "

" February 7th, Mr. Smithson's paper on Zeolite was read. This in-
genious mineralogist having received some specimens of this mineral from
Hauy himself, and labelled by his own hand, he deemed it a favorable
opportunity of ascertaining if there were any chemical difference between
the mesotype of the French crystallographer, and zeolith of Klaproth, as
he had previously discovered the existence of soda in all the specimens of
zeolite, which are found in these kingdoms, as well as those in Germany.
M. Vauquelin analyzed several specimens of zeolite, without discovering
any traces of soda, but Mr. Smithson discovered alkali even in the mezo-
type sent him by M. Hauy, and in every other specimen of zeolite in his
possession. From this circumstance he is inclined to prefer the original
name of zeolite as given to this mineral by its discoverer Cronsted, to that
of mezotype, as given it by Hauy, and considers the distinction between
mezotype and natrolith as unsupported by chemical analysis."

5. In the Phil. Trans, vol. ciii. (1813,) p. 256, to 262, is a
paper " On a saline substance from Mount Vesuvius." Read
July 8, 1813'.

This paper gives a chemical quantitive analysis of a com-
pound sulphate of potash.

Sulphate of potash 71.4

Sulphate of soda 18.6

Muriate of soda 04.6

Muriate of ammonia"}

Muriate of copper > - 05.4

Muriate of iron j

100.0

In the commencement of the paper are some very interest-
ing general views relative to the connection of volcanoes
with the theory of geology. One remark is worthy of
citation :

" In support of the igneous origin here attributed to the primitive strata,
I will observe that not only no crystal imbedded in them, such as quartz,
garnet, tourmaline, &c., has ever been seen enclosing drops of water, but
that none of the materials of these strata contain water in any state." *

6. In the Phil. Transactions, vol. ciii. p. 64, (1813,) is a
paper " On a substance from the Elm Tree, called Ulmine."
Read December 10, 1812.

This paper gives an account, 1st. Of ulmine received
from Sicily ; 2d. Of English ulmine ; and 3. Of the sap of
the elm tree.

* In confirmation of this statement see a late paper by Professor Lewis
C. Beck, entitled u Views concerning igneous action," in Silliman's Jour-
nal, vol. xlvi., page 337, April, 1844.

AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON, 131

The experiments were made to determine the properties
and composition of the substance.

7. In the Transaction of the Royal Society, vol. cviii.,
for 1818, p. 110, are u A few facts relative to the coloring mat-
ters of some vegetables." Read December 18, 1817.

The vegetables particularly examined and described in
this paper are :

a Turnsol, (litmus,)

b The violet.
• c Sugarloaf paper.

d Black mulberry.

e The common poppy.

/ Sap green, and

g Some animal greens.

The above paper is chiefly an account of experiments
made for the purpose of testing the chemical characters ot
the coloring materials of the different substances — an ex-
ceedingly interesting branch of inquiry in organic chemis-
try— scarcely much advanced at this day beyond the point
at which Mr. Smithson left it.

From the period of 1818, Mr. Smithson appears to have
ceased his contributions to the Transactions of the Royal
Society. After this time we find his name most frequently
occurring in the Annals of Philosophy, a work too well
known to require any remarks upon its scientific character.

8. In this periodical, vol. xiv., 1819, is a letter from Mr.
Smithson, dated Paris, May 22, 1819, relative to u plombe
gomme," in which he claims the discovery of the composi-
tion of that substance for his " illustrious and unfortunate
friend, and indeed distant relative the late Smithson Ten-
nant," who he asserts had ascertained that it was a combi-
nation of oxide of lead, alumina and water.

He describes the ore, its reactions and modes of reduction.
The alumine was detected by the usual test of igniting, wet-
ting the whitened mass with nitrate of cobalt, and again
igniting producing a blue color.

It decrepitated wh6n heated in a glass tube over a candle,
and deposited water in the upper part of the tube, thus
proving it to be a hydrate.

9. In the Annals, same vol., page 96, is another letter
dated Paris, May 19, 1819, (three days before the preced-
ing,) in which he describes a native sulphuret of lead and
arsenic, found in Upper Valais, in Switzerland, in a granose
compound of carbonate of lime and magnesia.

132 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHAEACTER

He gives the native characters of the ore, its reactions
before the blow-pipe and the action of reagents upon itr
particularly of a delicate test of the presence of sulphur,
which consisted in placing a minute portion of an insoluble
sulphate of baryta formed by treating its solution with
chloride of baryum on a very small bit of charcoal, heating
it strongly, then dipping it in a drop of water on polished
silver, giving to the latter a deep black stain.

Mr. Smithson conducted his researches on a minute scale.
The above trials were made with particles little more than
visible; the results, however, sufficiently established the
nature of the constituent parts. The proportions were nec-
essarily left for inquiries on another scale.

The two preceding subjects are honorably noticed in a
historical sketch of improvements in physical science dur-
ing the year 1819, contained in the 16th vol. of the Annals,
(1820,) p. 100.

10. In the same vol. (xvi.) of the Annals, are contained
two letters to Dr. Thomson, one dated Paris, March 17th,
the other March 24th, 1820.

The former contains a " View of the probable causes which
produce fibrous metallic copper, found both in the ores of copper r
and in the slag of copper furnaces." Mr. Smithson conceives
these fibres to be produced by squeezing metallic copper in
a state of fusion into or through pores of the glass, while
the latter is cooling and contracting.

11. The latter communication contains An account of a
native combination of sulphuret of barium and fluoride of cal-
cium. This substance was found in Derbyshire, in close
proximity with sulphuret of lead.

He describes with great minuteness the reaction of this
substance with tests, and infers that it consists of —

Sulp. of Barium, 51.5

Fluoride of Calcium, - 48.5

12. In the Annals, vol. xvii., p. 271, is a letter from Mr.
Smithson, dated February 17, 1821, in which he describes
capillary metallic Unforced through the pores of cast iron.

13. In the Annals for August, 1822, vol. xx., p. 127, is an
article (Art. v.) On the detection of very minute quantities of ar-
senic and mercury.

In this publication he refers to his paper in the Annals
for August, 1819, relative to the compound sulphuret of
lead and arsenic.

AND KESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 133

"If arsenic, or any of its compounds, is fused with the nitrate of potash,
.arseniate of potash is produced, of which the solution affords a brick red
precipitate, with nitrate of silver.

" In cases where any sensible portion of the potash of the nitre has be-
come free, it must be saturated with acetous acid, and the saline mixture
dried and redissolved in water.

" So small is the quantity of arsenic required for this mode of trial, that
a drop of a solution of oxide of arsenic in water, which at a heat of 54.5
deg., Fahr., contains not above -fa of oxide of arsenic, put to nitrate of
potash, in the platina spoon, and fused, affords a considerable quantity of
arseniate of silver. Hence, whence no solid particles of .oxide of arsenic
can be obtained, the presence of it may be established by infusing in water
the matter which contains it.

" The degree in which this test is sensible is readily determined.

" With 5 2 grains of silver he obtained 6.4 grains of arseniate of silver j
but 0.65 grains of silver was recovered from the liquors, so that the arsen-
iate had been furnished by 4.55 grains of silver. In a second trial, 7.7
grains, of which only 6.8 grains precipitated, yielded 9.5 grains of arseniate.
The mean is 140.17 from 100 silver."

Before the invention of the method of subliming a ring
of arsenic in a glass tube, and that more recently employed
by Marsh, of converting it, by means of hydrogen, into ar-
seniuretted hydrogen, the method of Smithson was among
the most delicate in use, and, as a means of obtaining col-
lateral evidence of the presence of arsenic, it still continues
to be employed.

With respect to mercury, he remarks :

" All the oxides and saline compounds of mercury laid in a drop of ma-
rine acid, on gold, with a bit of tin, quickly amalgamate the gold.

u A particle of the corrosive sublimate, or a drop of a solution of it may
be thus tried. The addition of marine acid is not required in this case.
Quantities of mercury may be rendered evident in this way which could
not be so by any other means."

This test for mercury, it may be remarked, still keeps its
place among the best evidences of the presence of that
metal.

" This method will exhibit the mercury in cinnabar. It must be pre-
viously boiled with sulphuric acid, in the platina spoon, to convert it into
sulphate."

" Cinnabar heated in a solution of potash, on gold, amalgamates it."
" A most minute quantity of metallic mercury may be discovered, in a
powder, by placing it in nitric acid, on gold, drying, and adding muriatic
acid and tin."

14. In the same volume (xx.) is, at page 363, a letter to
the editor of the Annals, On some improvements on lamps,
particularly referring to the form of the wicks, the employment
of wax as their fuel, and the mode of extinguishing them,
by putting sound wax to the wicks, and then blowing out
the flame.

" It is to be regretted," remarks the author, " that those who cultivate
science, frequently withhold improvements in their apparatus and processes,
from which they themselves derive advantage, owing to their not deem-

134 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER

ing them of sufficient magnitude for publication. "When the sole view is
to further a pursuit of whose importance to mankind a conviction exists,
all that can be so, should be imparted, however small may appear the merit
which attaches to it."

On the fuel for chemical lamps, he remarks :

" Oil is a disagreeable combustible for small experimental purposes, and
more especially when lamps are to be carried in travelling. I have there-
fore substituted wax for it. I employ a wax lamp for the blow-pipe."

15. In the 21st volume of the Annals, p. 340, is a short
article, (Art. II.) "On the crystalline form of ice " dated March
14, 1823.

After referring to several contradictory statements, he
remarks :

u Hail is always crystals of ice, more or less regular. When they are
sufficiently so to allow their form to be ascertained, and which is generally
the case, it is constantly, as far as I have observed, that of two hexagonal
pyramids, joined base to base, similar to that of the crystals of oxide of
silicium, (or quartz,) and of sulphate of potassium. One of the pyramids
is truncated, which leads to the idea that ice becomes electrified on a varia-
tion of its temperature, like the tourmaline, silicate of zinc, &c."

"The two pyramids appeared to form, by their junction, an angle of
about 80°.

" Snow presents, in fact, the same form as hail, but imperfect. Its flakes
are skeletons of crystals, having the greatest analogy to certain crystals of
alum, white sulphuret of iron, &c., whose faces are wanting, and which
consist of edges only."

16. In the same volume of the Annals, (xxi.) p. 359, is a
short paper on a Means of discriminating between the sulphates
of barium and strontium. It is dated April 2d, 1823.

Mr. S. states that when these earths are in a soluble state,
(in acids,) the easier process is to put a particle into a drop
of marine acid, on a plate of glass, and to let the solution
crystallize spontaneously.

The crystals of choride of barium, in rectangular eight-
sided plates, are immediately distinguishable from the-
fibrous crystals of the chloride of strontium.

Another method is suggested, that of blending the min-
eral in fine powder, with chloride of barium, and fusing
the mixture, putting the mass into spirits of wine, and
inflaming it while heated, over a lamp, the flame is red if
any strontium is present.

17. In the same volume of the Annals, at p. 384, is a
paper On the discovery of acids in mineral substances, dated
April 12, 1823. This paper gives specific directions in re-
gard to — 1, Sulphuric; 2, Muriatic; 3, Phosphoric; 4, Bo-
racic ; 5, Arsenic ; 6, Chromic ; 7, Molybdic ; 8, Tungstic ;
9, Mtric ; 10, Carbonic ; 11, Silicic acids.

18. In the 22d volume, p. 258, of the Annals of Philoso-

AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 135

phy, is a short paper On the discovery of chloride of potassium
in the earth.

This discovery resulted from an examination of a red
feruginous mass, containing veins of white crystalline mat-
ter, part of a block said to have been thrown from Vesu-
vius.

It was a spongy lava, with sparse crystals of augite, pyr-
oxene, or hornblende, the white crystalline matter was
wholly soluble in water, and when laid on silver with
sulphate of copper, gave an intense black stain.

The potash was detected by chloride of platinum and by
tartaric acid.

When decomposed by nitric acid, nitrate of potassa was
the solid obtained by crystallization.

19. At the 30th page of the same volume (xxii.) of the
Annals of Philosophy, is a short tract "On the improved
method of waking coffee."

The object is to preserve the aroma of the coffee during
the coction, which Mr. Smithson effected in a phial closed
with a cork, left loose at first, to allow the escape of air,
and afterwards closed tight, and kept immersed in boiling
water until the process was concluded. It may, when
cooled, be filtered, without losing the aroma, and then re-
turned to the close vessel to be re-heated.

11 In all cases means of economy tend to augment and diffuse comfort and
happiness. They bring within the reach of the many, what wasteful pro-
ceeding confines to the few. By diminishing expenditure on one article,
they allow of some other enjoyment which was before unattainable. A
reduction in quantity permits an indulgence in superior quality. In the
present instance the importance of economy is particularly great, since it
is applied to matters of high price, which constitute one of the daily meals
of a large portion of the population of the earth.

" That in cookery also, the power of subjecting for an indefinite dura-
tion, to a boiling heat, without the slightest dependiture of volatile matter
will admit of a beneficial 'application, is unquestionable."

20. In the same volume of the Annals, (xxii.,) p. 412, is
a paper, by Mr. Smithson, On a method of fixing particles upon
the sappare, (cyanite,) dated October 24, 1823.

He refers to the uncertainty of physical qualities to deter-
mine the species of minerals. Werner was unable, by this
means, to discover the identity of the jargon, (zircon,) and
the hyacinth ; of the corundum and the sapphire ; of his
apatite and his spargelstein, and " while he thus parted be-
ings from themselves, as it were, he forced others together,
which had nothing in common."

Hence, Smithson infers the necessity of chemical analy-
sis; and, to avoid waste, the practice of analyzing on a
very small scale.

136 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER

To fix the particles of minerals on a sappare, in order to
subject them to high temperature, Mr. Smithson employed
water with gum, as used by Saussure, who invented the
method, but he added refractory clay. The particle of
mineral was then made to adhere to this clay, a small por-
tion of it being for this purpose taken upon the end of a
flattened platina wire.

21. In the 23d volume of the Annals, (p. 100,) we find a
paper, by Mr. Smithson, dated, January 2d, 1824, " On some
compounds of fluorine."

In this, he makes the apposite and just remark : that, u a want of due
conviction that the materials of the globe, and the products of the labora-
tory are the same, that what nature affords spontaneously to men, and
what the art of the chemist prepares, differ in no ways but in the sources
from whence they are derived, has given to the industry of the collector
of mineral bodies, an erroneous direction."

" What is essential to a knowledge of chemical beings, has been left in
neglect ; accidents of small import, often of none, have fixed attention —
have engrossed it -and a fertile field of discovery has thus remained un-
explored, where, otherwise, it would have been exhausted."

His method of illustrating the character of fluor spar,
was by fixing with clay a small piece, on a bit of platinum
foil, and holding the latter on a clay support, in the end of
a bit of glass tube, and thus subjecting it to the action of
the blow-pipe. '

The topaz was also assayed, and gave out fluorine or
fluoric acid. Smithson expresses his conviction that topaz
is a compound of fluate of silicium and fluate of alumina.*

He also examined kryolite, which had been observed to
diminish in fusibility during fusion.

The result of his experiments were : 1st. That fluorides
are in general decomposable by heat, and hence, that " we
now have a method of discovering the presence of fluorine."
2d. The theory of these decompositions may be obtained
by experiment.

Referring to the minute blow-pipe experiments with
which his results had been obtained, he significantly re-
marks :

"There maybe persons, who, measuring the importance of the subject
by the magnitude of the object, will cast a supercilious look on this discus-
sion ; but the particle and the planet are subject to the same laws, and what
is learned upon the one will be known of the other."

22. In the same volume (xxiii.) of the Annals, p. 115, is
a short paper of the same date, (January 2, 1824,) containing
An account of an examination of some Egyptian colors.

* At this day he would probably have substituted the terms fluoride of silicium
and ./Zworide of aluminum.

AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 137

" More than commonly incurious must he be, who would not find delight
in stemming the stream of ages, returning to times long past, and behold-
ing the then existing state of things and of men.

" In the arts of an ancient people, much may be seen concerning them,
the progress they had made in knowledge of various kinds, their habits
and their ideas on various subjects. Products of skill may likewise occur,
either wholly unknown to us, or superior to those which now supply them."

He received from Mr. Curtin, who traveled in Egypt,
with Belzoni, a small fragment of the tomb of King Psam-
mis.

It was sculptured in basso relievo and painted, the colors
being white, red, black and blue. The white was found to
be carbonate of lime; the red, oxide of iron; the black,
pounded wood charcoal, the texture of the larger particles
being perfectly discernible with a lens, after dissolving out
the other coloring matters. The blue was a smalt of glass
powder, its tinging matter, however, was not cobalt, but
copper. Melted with borax and tin, the red oxide of copper
immediately appeared.

23. In the 24th volume of the Annals, p. 50, is a paper
of ten pages, bearing date June 10, 1824, and containing
Some observations on Mr. Penn's theory concerning the formation
of the Kirkdale cave.

The writer whose work Smithson criticises, had attempted
to account for the bones by referring them to the period of
" the Deluge" This opinion Mr. Smithson very successfully
combats. A confutation is, however, hardly needed by
geologists in our day. It is not therefore deemed necessary
to follow the writer through the steps of his reasoning.

24. In the 25th volume of the Annals, is a letter from Dr.
Black, to Mr. Smithson, describing his delicate balance for
weighing minute quantities of metals, and other results of
analysis, consisting of a thin bit of fir, with a fine cambric
needle for an axis, and an upturned bit of brass for a sup-
port. To this apparatus Mr. Smithson suggested some im-
provement in the formation of the weights.

There is much reason to suppose that the foregoing list of
twenty-four papers, does not embrace all the published
works of Mr. Smithson. The numerous lists of loci or
topics, evidently designed to form the heads of essays or
treatises, either found disconnected, or united with loose
notes, on each topic, or wrought out into formal essays, of
which several are found among his manuscripts, afford
ground for believing that he was a contributor to some of
the literary productions of the day; but as such pieces
generally appear anonymously, it is not easy to ascertain

138 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER

the precise object for which these numerous tracts were
composed.

It appears from all which has been cited, from the pub-
lished works of Smithson, that his was not the character of
a mere amateur of science. He was an active and industri-
ous laborer in the most interesting and important branch
of research — mineral chemistry.

A contemporary of Davy, and of Wollaston, and a cor-
respondent of Black, Banks, Thomson, and a host of other
names renowned in the annals of science, it is evident that
his labors had to undergo the scrutiny of those who could
easily have detected errors, had any of a serious character
been committed.

His was a capacity by no means contemptible, for the
operations and expedients of the laboratory. He felt the
importance of every help afforded by a simplification of
methods and means of research, and the use of minute
quantities, and accurate determinations in conducting his
inquiries. Many of those " lurid spots in the vast field of
darkness," of which he spoke so feelingly, have, since his
days of activity, expanded into broad sheets of light.
Chemistry has assumed its rank among the exact sciences.
Methods and instruments of analysis, unknown to the age
of Smithson, have come into familiar use among chemists.
These may have rendered less available for the present pur-
poses of science, than they otherwise might have been, a
portion of the analysis and other researches of our author.
The same may, however, be said of nearly every other
writer of his day.

Having dwelt so long on the published papers of Mr.
Smithson, it will be practicable to give but a brief account
of his unpublished memoirs and other writings. These
are comprised in about two hundred manuscripts, besides
numberless scraps and miscellaneous notes of a cyclopedical
character. Many of these are connected with general sub-
jects of history — the arts — language — rural pursuits — gar-
dening— the construction of buildings, and' kindred topics,
such as are likely to occupy the thoughts and to constitute
the reading of a gentleman of extensive acquirements and
liberal views, derived from a long and intimate acquaintance
with the world.

In a pretty copious mass of notes on the subject of habita-
tions^ for example, the materials are discussed under the
several heads of situation, exposure, exterior, and interior
arrangements, materials for their construction ; contents of

AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 139

rooms, furniture, pictures, statuary, and other objects of
taste.

In a tract upon knowledge, he takes occasion to remark,
that men may consider themselves as having four sources
of knowledge : 1st. Observing. 2d. Reasoning. 3d. In-
formation. 4th. Conjecture. It is evident that in his own
acquirements in knowledge, he followed this order of pro-
ceding, and did not, as many have done, both before and
since his time, begin with conjecturing, proceed next, to ask
information ' as to the opinions of others, receiving, as sound,
all those which tally with the conjecture, and rejecting the
rest, and end with attempting to reason themselves into a
belief that this mass of crude fantasies constitutes philoso-
phy. Smithson began the process of acquisition by obserr-
ing. For this purpose he made a number of tours or scien-
tific journeys, taking, as opportunity offered, careful obser-
vations of all interesting facts.

It was in 1784, (now sixty years since,) that, in company
with Mr. Thornton, Monsieur Faujas De St. Fond, the cele-
brated French philosopher, and the Count Andrioni, he
made one of these tours, through New Castle, Edinburg,
Glasgow, Dunbarton, Tarbet, Inverary, Oban, Arross, Tur-
tusk, and the island of Staffa. In all these places observa-
tions on the evidences of geological structure, on the min-
eral contents of rocks, on the superposition of beds, on the
methods of mining, smelting ores, and conducting manu-
facturing processes, were made with all the minuteness
which the arrangements of the journey could permit.

The period of two generations of men elapsed since the
journey to Fingal's cave was undertaken, has seen a vast
accession of strength to that ruling passion which now
sends forth the votaries of geology of all countries, with
hammer and knapsack, to explore alike the desert and the
fertile field, to indulge in the luxury of toilsome wander-
ings, soiled apparel, hard lodgings, and scanty fare.

The hardships and privations of such expeditions were,
at that day, not so often encountered as at present, because
the expeditions themselves were seldom undertaken. Still,
it would, even in our own time, be thought a very respect-
able piece of hardihood and scientific self-denial, to en-
counter such risks and privations as are here and there
jotted down in Smithson's journal, in relation to this visit
to the island of Staffa.

The party had arrived at a house on the coast of Mull,
opposite the island. The journal proceeds :

140 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHAEACTER

"Mr. Turtusk got me a separate boat, — set off about half-past eleven
o'clock in the morning, on Friday, the 24th of September, for Staffa.
Some wind, the sea a little rough, — wind increased, sea ran very high, —
rowed round some part of the island, but found it impossible to go before
Fingal's cave, — was obliged to return,— landed on Staffa with difficulty, —
sailors press to go off again immediately, — am unwilling to depart without
having thoroughly examined the island. Resolve to stay all night. Mr.
Maclaire stays with me ; the other party which was there had already come
to the very same determination, — all crammed into one bad hut, though
nine of ourselves, besides the family ; — supped upon eggs, potatoes, and
milk, — lay upon hay, in a kind of barn." (The party, be it remembered,
embraced two English gentlemen, one French savan, one Italian count.)
"25th. Got up early, sea ran very high, wind extremely string — no boat
could put off. Breakfasted on boiled potatoes and milk ; dined upon the
same ; only got a few very bad fish ; supped on potatoes and milk ; — lay in
the barn, firmly expecting to stay there for a week, without even bread."

" Sunday, the 26th. The man of the island came at five or six o'clock in
the morning, to tell us that the wind was dropped, and that it was a good
day. Set off in the small boat, which took water so fast that my servant
was obliged to bail constantly — the sail, an old plaid — the ropes, old gar-
ters."

With this unpromising outfit, however, the party, at
length, once more, reach terra firma.

On the 29th, the tourists are at Oban, where a little cir-
cumstance is noted, which significantly marks the zeal and
activity of the collector of minerals and fossils, and the
light in which that devotion to geology is sometimes viewed
by the unscientific part of the community :

" September 29. This day packed up my fossils in a barrel, and paid 2s.
Qd. for their going by water to Edinburg. Mr. Stevenson charged half a
crown a night for my rooms, because I had brought ' stones and dirt,' as he
said, into it."

A month later we find him at Northwich :

" October 28. Went to visit one of the salt mines, in which they told me
there were two kinds of salt. They let me down in a bucket, in which I
only put one foot, and I had a miner with me. I think the first shaft was
about thirty yards, at the bottom of which was a pool of water, but on one
side there was a horizontal opening, from which sunk a second shaft, which
went to the bottom of the pit, and a man let us down in a bucket smaller
than the first."

In these trivial incidents we may note the character of an
enthusiast in pursuit of his favorite objects ; a man not to
be turned aside by the fear of a little personal inconvenience
from the attainment of his ends. In his tours on the con-
tinent, of which, one was made from Geneva to Italy,
through Tyrol, in 1792 ; one through certain parts of Ger-
many, in 1805 ; another in 1808, and a third from Berlin to
Hamburg, in 1809, are found many interesting remarks on
the physical features, geology, and climate of the districts
of country through which he passed.

What has now been presented, may perhaps enable us to
judge of the animus which impelled Smithson to found an

AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 141

institution " for the increase and diffusion of knowledge
among men."

It may at least enable us to decide whether it was any
undue assumption on his part, to constitute himself a patron
of science. Those who look at the matter in the humble
light of a mere pecuniary transaction, will, readily enough,
answer the question. They will say " every man has a right
to do what he will with his own."

But the inquiry is one of far higher import, it addresses
itself to men of science. Had Smithson the qualifications
which should authorize and require us to defer to his judgment,
were he now living, in regard to the specific objects of 'an institu-
tion, founded in the broad and comprehensive terms employed in
his will ? To this, I think, there can be but one answer.
If anybody has a right to direct how institutions of science
should be founded and conducted, it is they, who have in-
ured their own hands to the work, who have taken the
laboring oar, and won, by its use, an honorable distinc-
tion. Such a man, we have seen, was JAMES SMITHSON.

A single question more. — "What would have been the
purposes of an institution founded by Smithson in his life-
time?

To this, his lifetime is a sufficient answer.

Eesearches to " increase " positive knowledge, and publi-
cations to "diffuse" and make that knowledge available
to mankind — such were the great objects of his own con-
stant, praiseworthy, and laborious efforts.*

*The Smithson fund in possession of the Government of the United
States, now amounts (April 10, 1844) to $700,000, of which the interest is
$42,000 per annum. Two years' interest are said to be unpaid. (?)

ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER OF JAMES
SMITHSON.

BY J. K. McD. IRBY.*

It is the characteristic of modern biography that it seeks
to know the personalities of men. It has ceased altogether
to be a mere chronology. It attempts to introduce to us its
subjects as we would have known them in actual life and to
make them the people of our inward world.

Who that has known the splendid benefits derived from
Smithson's great foundation has not felt a desire to know
more nearly him from whom the gift proceeded ? Who has
not been impressed with his persevering philanthropy, when,
failing to accomplish his object through the Royal Society
of Great Britain, he turned his face to the New World and
laid up his name in the new order of things and men ?
Who has not discerned in this the spirit of a real benefactor
of mankind, and not that of a vain builder of his own monu-
ment. It is my pleasant task to show something of his
way, his work, and his thought.

Smithson's actual additions to knowledge are not great,
but they are distinct. It was his misfortune to work at two
sciences, chemistry and mineralogy, which were yet in their
infancy, and at a third, geology, which, though pregnant to
the birth, was still unborn, in a true sense. In the dark
beginnings of things, when both ideas and methods are im-
perfect, it is seldom that the bewildered gropings of men
become valued heirlooms to posterity.

We could wish Smithson's name to have been coupled
with some great discovery, or with the apprehension of
some far-reaching law that would have formed a worthy in-
scription for the portal of his institution. Though this be
not gratified, we shall find that he appreciated the great
problems before him and attempted their solution ; that he
knocked earnestly and worthily at the portal of great knowl-
edge, and that although it was denied him to be the first to
enter into the greater chambers, he was, nevertheless, no
unworthy seeker. When we have caught the utterances of

* Prepared at the request of the Institution, September, 1878.

143

144 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER

his writings we shall learn that his mind was tuned to
great things.

The greater part of Smithson's work was in analytical
chemistry. He discovered several tests, the most important
of which is the blow-pipe test for sulphur by reducing its
compounds on charcoal with carbdnate of sodium, and ob-
serving the stain on silver when the fused mass is laid upon
it in a drop of water (p. 66). In the paper " On the Detec-
tion of very Minute Quantities of Arsenic and Mercury,"
(p. 75,) two very good tests for these elements are given,
especially that for the first :

u If arsenic, or any of its compounds, is fused with nitrate of potash,
arseniate of potash is produced, of which the solution affords a brick-red
precipitate with nitrate of silver."

The paper on page 82 gives a systematic course for distin-
guishing the mineral acids. On page 82 a flame-test is
given for strontium, which is perhaps the earliest applica-
tion of colored flames in analytical chemistry. In the
paper, page 94, "On some Compounds of Fluorine," the
method of detecting this element is described, and a very
neat form of apparatus given. The latter is peculiarly con-
venient in that the etching of glass and the change of color
of logwood paper may be simultaneously observed.

A glance through his papers will show how much of his
work was actual analysis. Owing to the great improve-
ments in analytical chemistry since his day, his quantitative
results are of little value to us. This is not true, though,
of the qualitative work. The composition of the so-called
Tabasheer (hydrous silica), of the Egyptian colors, the pres-
ence of some carbonate in certain calami nes, as well as other
of his results, have a permanent value. "We are apt to
overlook them because they are become so obvious and ele-
mentary.

Connected with and occasioned by certain of his analyses
are some considerations on the laws of the chemical compo-
sition of bodies. These, though erroneous, are the greatest
of his scientific attempts. They are found on page 27,
" Observations " appended to the paper on calamines.
These were published in 1802. A further development of
his views is found in the paper, page 34, " On the Compo-
sition of a Compound Sulphuret from Huel Boys," pub-
lished in 1808. His idea was that the weights of the prox-
imate constituents of any complex compound bore a simple
relation to one another. His experiments lead him to infer
that sulphate of zinc is composed of equal weights of ZnO
and SO3. This, though very nearly, is not accurately true; so

OF JAMES SMITHSON. 145

nearly that the analytical chemistry of that day was power-
less to detect the difference. His analyses of the Mendip
Hill calamine seemed to show (and did show as nearly as
they showed the truth) that it was composed of —

Carbonic acid $

Calx of zinc $

He thought to have found further continuation of his
views in the analysis of the compound sulphuret from Huel
Boys. It must be borne in mind that these attempts were
anterior to the publication of Dalton's theory, (his Chemical
Philosophy, appeared in 1808.) The second of the above
mentioned papers was also in 1808, but in the very begin-
ning of the year. He seems to have been absent from Eng-
land, for he mentions in the beginning of the paper that the
Philosophical Transactions for 1804, had just come into his
hands; and on page 39, paragraph 2, that certain of his
notes were in England. We may be sure he had no know-
ledge of Dalton's theory. In the paper u On the Composition
of Zeolite," published in 1811, he does not recur to them. I
think these views are worthy of notice in the history of
chemical theory. They were as certainly established as was
possible with the analytical methods of that day.

His very correct apprehension of the true problem of ana-
lytical chemistry probably confirmed him in his error. In
the second paper above referred to, on page 35, we find the
following passage :

" We have no real knowledge of the nature of a compound substance
until we are acquainted with its proximate elements, or those matters by
whose direct or immediate union it is produced ; for these only are its true
elements. Thus, though we know that vegetable acids consist of oxygene,
hydro/gene, and carbon, we are not really acquainted with their composi-
tion, because these are not their proximate — that is, their true elements,
but are elements of their elements, or elements of these. It is evident
what would be our acquaintance with sulphate of iron, for example, did
we only know that a crystal of it consisted of iron, sulphur, oxygene and
hydrogene; or of carbonate of lime, if only that it was a compound of
lime, carbon or diamond, und oxygene. In fact, totally dissimilar sub-
stances may have the same ultimate elements, and even probably in pre-
cisely the same proportions; nitrate of ammonia and hydrate of ammonia
or crystals of caustic volatile alkali both ultimately consist of oxygene,
hydrogene, and azote."

This remarkably lucid passage could not be improved
upon now, three quarters of a century later. Without doubt
his exceedingly clear conception of importance of proxi-
mate analysis led him to seek the laws relative to compounds
in their proximate constituents; and he thought to havo
found them.

The following passage, page 37, relating to the same
10

146 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER

subject, shows his perfect understanding of the inductive
method, and the inherent indeterminateness of his analysis :

" It is evident there must be a precise quantity in which the elements of
compounds are united together in them, otherwise a matter, which was not
a simple one, would be liable in its several masses, to vary from itself, accor-
ding as one or the other of its ingredients chanced to predominate; but
chemical experiments are unavoidably attended with too many sources of
fallacy for this precise quantity to be discovered by them ; it is therefore to
theory that we must owe the knowledge of it. For this purpose an hypoth-
esis must be made, and its justness tried by a strict comparison with facts.
If they are found at variance, the assumed hypothesis must be relinquished
with candor as erroneous ; but should it, on the contrary, prove, on a mul-
titude of trials, invariably to accord with the results of observation, as
nearly as our means of determination authorize us to expect, we are war-
ranted in believing that the principle of nature is obtained, as we then have
all the proofs of its being so, which men can have of the justness of their
theories : a constant and perfect agreement with the phenomena, as far as
can be discovered."

The following passage, page 29, shows how clearly the
object to be attained was set forth in his own mind :

" If the theory here advanced has any foundation in truth the discovery
will introduce a degree of rigorous accuracy and certainty into chemistry,
of which this science was thought to be ever incapable, by enabling the
chemist, like the geometrician, to rectify by calculation the unavoidable
errors of his manual operations, and by authorizing him to eliminate from
the essential elements of a compound those products of its analysis whose
quantity cannot be reduced to any admissible proportion.

" A certain knowledge of the exact proportions of the constituent prin-
ciples of bodies, may likewise open to our view harmonious analogies be-
tween the constitutions of related objects, general laws, &c., which at
present totally escape us. In short, if it is founded in truth, its enabling
the application of mathematics to chemistry cannot but be productive of
material results."

At the time his paper on the " Compounds of Fluorine"
was published, the composition of fluor spar was still a mat-
ter of doubt. The following is a sketch of a proposed
method for determining it:

" If fluor spar, for instance, is a combination of oxide of calcium and
fluoric acid, and this is expelled from the oxide merely by the force of fire,
the decomposition of it will take place in closed vessels without the pres-
ence of oxygen or of water ; fluoric acid will be obtained ; and the weight
of this acid and the lime will be equal together to that of the original spar.

" If the spar is metallic calcium and fluorine, and when heated in oxygen
absorbs this, and parts with fluorine, it is fluorine which will be collected
in the vessels, and its weight and that of the lime will together exceed that
of the spar by the oxygen of the lime."

Further on he suggests the employment of vessels of
fluor spar for the examination of fluorine. He then dis-
cusses the phenomenon of intumescence as observed in
fluor spar and similar substances, in order to correct an
erroneous explanation of its nature that it was a "new state

OF JAMES SMITIISON. 147

of equilibrium induced by heat between the constituent
parts of a body."

'' Why is the change of quality limited to the surface ; how has been
produced the central cavity ; what has forced away the matter which
occupied it ? A new element has been received from without, one which
existed in the matter has been parted with in a state of vapor. This double
action may probably be inferred wherever a matter presents this species of
vegetation," (p. 100.)

As the story of his analysis of a tear indicates, he was an
exceedingly nice manipulator. He was one of the very first
who commenced the cardinal practice of modern analytical
chemistry, the use of delicate methods and small quantities
of material. His quantitative determinations were usually
made with about a gramme, and his qualitative determina-
tions often with almost invisible bits. In the examination of
the "Native Compound of Sulphuret of Lead and Arsenic"
(binnite of Naumann) from Upper Valois, his " trials were
made with particles little more than visible." On page 95
he says :' "A very minute fragment of fluor spar is fastened
by means of clay to the end of a platina wire nearly as fine
as a hair, which is the size I now employ even with fluxes."
We have before noticed the neat and simple apparatus (p.
97) for the detection of fluorine. On page 86 a method of
making and using thin clay plates is given, which might,
at the present time, be advantageously employed in blow-
pipe work, especially if the}7 were made from a pure kaoline.
The paper on the " Method of Fixing Particles on the Sap-
pare " (fibres of cyanite) contains repeated instances of his
delicacy and neatness.

Smithson's contributions to mineralogy consists princi-
pally in the discovery of several new species. Native red
lead was first examined by him and its having been derived
from galena demonstrated. He also first observed chloride
of potassium, in a native state from Vesuvius. He attributed
its presence in lava to sublimation. The native compound
of sulphuret of lead and arsenic is the rhombic mineral
binnite (of Naumann), as is recognized by its locality, chem-
ical composition, hardness and cleavage. He also described
a native compound of sulphate of barium and fluoride of cal-
cium from Derbyshire. Naumann (Min., 9te Aufl., p. 261,
Anmerkung 3) thinks, as is correct, that this is only a mix-
ture and not a true species.

The crystallographical observations of Smithson are of
rather a rough character, owing perhaps to his instruments.
They refer to the forms of electric calamine, of bournonite
(the compound sulphuret from Huel Boys) and of ice. The

148 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER

rhombic character of bournonite escaped him, he having
taken it for quadratic. Snow he found to have the form of
a double six-sided pyramid, with a lateral angle of about
80° The various observations on its forms are so discrep-
ant, however, that it is impossible to state which are correct.
On page 81 he gives a crystallographical test to distinguish
between the chlorides of barium and of strontium. The
crystals of the one are rectangular, eight-sided plates; those
of the other fibrous.

At this point, a handful of Smithson's manuscripts may
be mentioned, which escaped the fire at the institution in
1865. They consisted of notes on various specimens of
minerals and rocks belonging to his collection, and also
several fragments of catalogues, which seem to have been
begun in various years. The earliest bears the date 1796,
the latest 182*2. These are of little or no scientific value,
except in so far as they illustrate the way in which he
worked. The following are a few extracts from them :

"No. 1. — Carbonate of lime containing manganese, from near
Aix la Ohappelle.

It dissolved in nitric acid with effervesence like carbonate of lime. The
Bait obtained from this solution by drying over a candle is quite white, but
on heating more it becomes brown, and then on solution in water leaves a
small quantity of brown powder. Prussiate of soda and iron caused a
white precipitate in solution of this stone, and in it the least blue was per-
ceivable. Tincture of galls produced no black color with it.

Some of the above nitrous salt melted on platinum with nitrate of pot-
ash gave the green color of manganese.

Copperas put into some of this nitrous solution caused a precipitate of
sulphate of lime.

This carbonate of lime and manganese becomes brown at tho blow-pipe.

This carbonate of lime and manganese colored borax red.

No. 19. — Reduced nickel free from arsenic.

It was made at the blow-pipe from oxide of nickel which had been fused
with saltpetre. It contains admixed borax. It is infusible. It probably
contains cobalt.

No. 4. — Crust from the church bell of Torre del Greco,
formed by the lava in 1794.

There is a crystal in the little group which is the most regular. The two
larger faces of this crystal seem to form an angle of 140° with the prism,
and meet together at the summit in an angle of 80°. There is a broken
crystal in the same group which seems to show that the four larger faces of
the prism form together angles of 90°. The form of these crystals is 8-
sided prisms and 4-sidcd pyramids and are similar to III. 55. d., having
the four edges of the prism slightly truncated.

No. 7. — A small group of native gold in 24-sided crystals
from Vorospatak, in Transylvania.

The matrix is evidently a quartzose stone. Shows in many parts minute

OF JAMES SMITHSON. 149

crystals of quartz, and contains pyrites disseminated in it, which are
probably auriferous.

No. 25. — Arseniate of iron. Paris, September 25, 1820.

1. Nitric acid was put on to some native arsenuret of cobalt to form nitrate
of cobalt, and this matter formed as a sulphur colored powder in the mix-
ture. It was washed and dried.

2. Heated in a tube some water and crystals of arsenious acid sublimed
and a dark mass remained.

3. This dark mass heated on coal at the blow-pipe emitted fumes prob-
ably of arsenious acid and became like a scoria of iron, but the magnet did
not effect it.

4. The scoria-like mass dissolved in borax with effervesence and spread
much on the coal. This glass in the whole looked black, but where there
were air-bubbles it had the color of chrysoberyl.

5. This borax was heated in dilute muriatic acid in a tube. The acid
quickly became yellow.

Prussiate of soda and iron formed an abundant precipitate of prussian
blue ; but nitrate of silver formed only a white curdy precipitate of chlo-
ride of silver, and no arseniate of silver.

It is probable, however, that the above yellow powder is arseniate or ar-
senite of iron.

No. 955.— Paris, May, 1819.

1. In Mr. Stockhausen's catalogue this is called mountain cork, and said
to be from Dauphenee.

Both the black fibrous part and the white part, when held in the flame
of a candle, take fire and burn with a large flame.

When the white part was tried, a fluid matter like oil flowed from it and
ran along the lips of the pincers, and on cooling set with a crystalline tex-
ture. The color was greenish, and it was soft and brittle like spermacite.

No foetid animal smell was perceived during the combustion.

The matter is more' like adiposcere than mountain cork.

No. 1166. Octahedral crystals from Clausthal.

1. These crystals are easily broken.

2. Put into pure muriatic acid, the fragments of it did not suffer any
change.

3. Per se, at the blowrpipe they did not decrepitate, but readily reduced
to a white metal, which exhaled.

4. They dissolve in borax with effervescence, without coloring it. Balls
of a white metal were produced, but when the borax became fluid it soaked
into the charcoal like alkali, and the whole disappeared.

5. The form of the crystals is regular octahedral, with the six points cut
off.

6. Their color is gray, and their aspect metallic.

7. Their fracture is perfectly tubular and parallel to the six corners of
the octahedron. Their true form is a cube, fissile, parallel to its six faces.

N. B. — These are, most probably, common sulphuret of lead.

No. 1564. — Native gold from the Edder, a river in Hessia,
in Germany.

I had it from Capt. Stockhausen's cabinet.
N. B.— It is only mica.

150 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER

No. 1639. — A button, which is a white compound of cop-
per, etc.

1. Melted on a bit of slate with saltpetre — the solution of this salt gave
a yellow precipitate, with nitrate of silver.

2. Melted on the coal the metal spread ; no flowers of oxide. It was
very fusible ; seemed white while melted ; the cooled button filed was yel-
low like brass ; hence, perhaps, an alloy of copper and zinc or tin.

3. It dissolved wholly in nitric acid, forming a clear blue solution ; ex-
haled dry, and pure water added, a small quantity of grey powder was left
insoluble.

This solution poured into much water became milky, and some of this
milky liquor put into a watch glass with ammonia, and then nitrate of sil-
ver added, yielded a yellow precipitate.

No. 1672. — Braunkohle mit Stockwerk vom Ahlberge bei
Mariendorf.

In the fire it emits a copious pungent smoke, which pains the eyes greatly*
An incombustible residuum remains of the form and nearly size of the bit
of wood, which very slowly. burned to a white ash. (Paris, March 2, 1820.)

"With saltpetre this incombustible residuum burned like anthracite. While
the saltpetre was fluid it looked like a dark green color, though not like
manganese. On fusing again this color vanished, but on sudden cooling in
water the blue was restored. The solution in water was not green, and did
not become red.

No. 1766.— Fuller's earth.

1. Does not lose its black color in water.

2. Decrepitates.

3. Melts easily into a black glass, which seems opaque.

4. This black glass is taken up by the magnet.
6. Adheres to the tongue. '

6. Hub bed with a little water on a bit of unglazed china it gives a yellow
greenish color.

7. Found in a basalt quarry at Wilhelmshohe, 1804.

No. 2012. — Green clay found by self near Frankfort, April
the — , 1805.

1. In a moist state it is very lubric.

2. Compressed in this state to a thin plate it is considerably hard.

3. In the flre hardens and melts to a black glass ; is not very fusible,
and shows no inflation.

4. Seems to dissolve in borax without much difficulty, and colors it very
green. If a great quantity of the clay is put to the borax, a black bead is
obtained.

6. I found it adhering to (coating one side of) a mass of lava lately
extracted from the earth. It had probably formed in a fissure of the lava
stratum.

6. Strongly heated on coal it became black, and the edges melted to a
black glass. In this state it was not drawn on by the horse-shoe magnet ;
but reduced to powder, on a brass plate, some of the powder was taken
up.

7. Sulphate of soda and iron did not dissolve it, but the bead became
slightly milky on cooling.

8. Put into water it falls into lumps like curds, but which pressed with
the fingers, reduce to a powder.

OF JAMES SM1THBON.

151

No. 2952. Unknown plated metallic ore, said to corne from
the Hartz, in my cabinet marked No. 2952.

1. Its color is grey, like that of lead or sulphuret of zinc.

2. It is brittle.

3. Has the metallic gloss and opacity.

4. Per se on the charcoal decrepitates greatly.

5. With borax melts, effervesces, emits a white smoke, and exhales,
leaving a small ball of white metal, which appears to be lead, as it is en-
tirely fluid when not very hot.

6. Melted in the gold spoon with carbonate of soda produces a greyish
mass; water added formed a black powder, and the solution stained silver
only very slightly. This solution being mixed with nitric acid produced
but a very slight smell of sulphide of soda, and the black powder continued
insoluble.

7. Keduced to powder and very strong nitric acid poured on it there was
no effect, but gradually a very gentle effervescence took place, the ore was
decomposed and sulphur became visible.

8. A small bit held at the end of a clay-slip in the flame of the lamp it
partially melts and glazes the clay-bit around itself. The flame being-
directed on it by the blow-pipe it melts to a metallic ball and spreads a
yellow gloss on the clay. The little metallic button, b6ing separated from
the clay-bit and beat on the steel plate, extended to a thin and hot plate
which was flexible like lead.

9. The solution No. 7 afforded colorless octahedral crystals.

No. 3093— Black slate.

1. It feels very light.

2. The lens shows particles of mica in it.

3. Before the blow-pipe it takes fire and burns with a flame like coals,
but does not melt, leaving a greyish mass of its former shape and volume.
This mass ia as hard as the slate. The burned bit put into muriatic acid
produced a smell of liver of sulphur.

4. Another burned bit at a strong fire melted quickly at the angles to a
glossy black matter. It did not stain silver — was not drawn by the mag-
net. Put on to silver with a drop of muriatic acid it made some small
spots on it.

5. Put into pure muriatic acid it effervesced so slowly as to be scarcely
visible, and the smaller bits did not fall to powder or soften. Put in pow-
der into muriatic acid the effervescence was more sensible, but I could not
not find that the solution reddened sensibly the flame of a candle.

N. B. — This might prove a new test.

No. 3912. — Carbonate of lime. St. Andreasberg.

oc = 90°

wo = 127° 30'

nc = 142° 30'

From the above figures it is probable that the faces n are those of the
rhombohedron, h, fig 7, Haiiy, though the angles differ by 3° 16'.

[_jR:0 = 127° 15'. L]

152 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER

No. 3926.— Black lead pencil bought at Frankfort. May,
1805.

1. It cost thirty-six kreutzers, or about one shilling and two pence, Eng-
lish.

2. Held in the candle the point does not soften or seem affected.

3. A bit heated at the blow-pipe in the spoon emits a copious white smoke
without any sensible smell of sulphur, and the smoke settled as a white
powder on bodies. The bit of pencil falls into a coarse scaly powder. This
powder looked so like the scaly manganese or iron I suspected its being
such ; but melted with saltpetre it consumed and did not impart to it the
least bit of green.

A bit of the pencil heated with carbonate of soda did not form visible
liver of sulphur, but the solution of the mass stained silver.

No. 3926.— Factitious pencil bought at Frankfort in 1805.

1. A bit exposed at the blow-pipe burns with a flame and emits a copious
white smoke. A matter remains which falls to powder under the touch
and seems to be plumbago.

No. 5763. — Perhaps Fluorspar, from a lead mine, Matlock
bath, in Derbyshire, 1799.

1. Powdered, and put into muriatic acid, there is a momentary efferves-
cence from some particles of carbonate of lime but no sensible diminution
of the powder.

2. Heated in sulphuric acid on a bit of glass it effervesced much, but the
glass was not depolished.

3. Sulphate of soda formed hydrated sulphate of lime in the solution
No. 1.

4. It melted with carbonate of soda, with effervescence, and formed a
transparent glass, with opaque white quartz in it which more alkali did not
dissolve.

5. This stone scratches glass.

6. The glass (4) was treated with muriatic acid ; the whole did not dis-
solve.

7. This muriatic solution exhaled dry, left no crystals on adding water.
On drying again, and heating more, and adding a small quantity, a dark
matter, probably oxide of manganese, was left.

Sulphuric acid added to this solution formed no immediate precipitate,
but one of hydrated sulphate of lime formed.

These minute experiments are recorded for a considerable
number of specimens. It may be that there were many
more of them than have been preserved. They show with
what careful and minute accuracy Smithson worked and
noted all he did. A large number of these notes were of
rocks and clays. This seems to have been the only way in
which he busied himself with geology.

A system of chemical nomenclature was made use of in
these jottings which, perhaps, deserves notice on account
of its curiousness. It is an extension of the astronomical
signs, as applied to certain of the metals. They are as fol-
lows :

OF JAMES SMITHSON.

153

"Water.

A

•^Q Platinum.
r*f Iron.

Sulphur.
O Copper.

r\ Mercury.

Q — O Arsenicum.
O Gold.

I

Nickel
Zinc.

Silver.
— J— Oxygen.
Silica.

A

Crystal.
Precipitate.
© Curdy.

Sublimate.
Baryta.
Soda.
Potassa.

Lime.

Oxide of Iron.

O4O Arsenic.

4- O-O Arsenious Acid.

(£)

"TV Lime Water.

!P

Magnesia.

Carbonic Aeid.

.|Q Q^- Barium Chloride.
y f Fluor-Calcium.

Distilled Vinegar.

Carbonate of Limo,

154 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER

The following extracts illustrate his manner of thinking:

u Chemistry is yet so new a science, what we know of it bears so small a
proportion to what we are ignorant of, our knowledge in every department
of it is so incomplete, so broken, consisting so entirely of isolated points
thinly scattered like lucid specks on a vast field of darkness, that no re-
searches can be undertaken without producing some facts, leading to some
consequences, which extend beyond the boundaries of their immediate
object," (p. 26.)

" The only requisite for this operation (crystallization) is a freedom of
motion in the masses which tend to unite, which allows them to yield to
the impulse which propels them together, and to obey that sort of polarity
which occasions them to present to each other the parts adapted to mutual
union," (p. 31.)

"I doubt the existence of triple, quadruple, &c., compounds ; I believe
that all combination is binary ; that no substance whatever has more than
two proximate or true elements," (p. 36.)

" Many persons, from experiencing much difficulty in comprehending
the combination together of the earths, have been led to suppose the exis-
tence of undiscovered acids in stony crystals. If quartz itself be consid-
ered as an acid, to which order of bodies its qualities much more nearly
assimilate it, than to the earths, their composition becomes readily intelli-
gible. They will then be neutral salts, silicates, either simple or compound,"
(p. 46.)

It would be interesting to know if this be the first men-
tion of the acid nature of silica ; if so, it should be noticed.
This was written in January, 1811 :

" A knowledge of the productions of art, and of its operations, is indis-
pensable to the geologist. Bold is the man who undertakes to assign effect*
to agents with which he has no acquaintance ; which he never has beheld
in action ; to whose indisputable results he is an utter stranger ; who en-
gages in the fabrication of a world alike unskilled in the forces and the
materials which he employs," (p. 70.)

The following passages would not be lost on certain mod-
ern philosophers :

" A want of due conviction that the materials of the globe and the pro-
ducts of the laboratory are the same, that what nature affords spontaneously
to men, and what the art of the chemist prepares, differ no ways but in
the sources from whence they are derived, has given to the industry of the
collector of mineral bodies an erroneous direction," (p. 94.)

** There may be persons who, measuring the importance of the subject by
the magnitude of the objects, will cast a supercilious look on this discussion
(on intumescence }; but the particle and the planet are subject to the same
laws; and what is learned upon the one will be known of the other,"
(p. 101.)

" In the arts of an ancient people much may be seen concerning them j
the progress they have made in knowledge of various kinds ; their habits ;
their ideas on many subjects," (p. 101.)

" It is in his knowledge that man has found his greatness and his happi-
ness, the high superiority which he holds over the other animals who in-
habit the earth with him, and consequently no ignorance is probably with-
nnt IO«R to him no error without evil." (v. 104. }

OF JAMES SMITHSON. 155

I have thus attempted to indicate the salient parts of
Smithson's scientific achievement. More interesting than
the work, however, is the worker. He was eminently an
experimenter. All through his papers he is found dili-
gently collecting facts before he proceeds to theorize. This
is well shown in his very first paper, that on the so-called
Tabasheer. Perhaps the most finished of his papers is that
" On a Fibrous Metallic Copper," combining, as it does, an
ingenious explanation of a singular phenomenon and sub-
sequent confirmatory experiments.

His style, so clear, so direct, and so exact, is a model for
scientific purposes. Of this the extracts above given are good
specimens. The paper just referred to, on fibrous copper,
and that that on native minium are others.

Of his neatness as a manipulator and skill in devising ap-
paratus I have already spoken.

The papers on " Improvements of Lamps" and an " Im-
proved Method of Making Coffee " show his practical turn.

It is in the last paper but one of the book relative 'to the
" Formation of Kirkdale Cave," that we, perhaps, best of all
discover the true fibre of Smithson's mind. The paper was
a refutation of the idea of the Rdiquice Diluviance, which
attempted to refer this cave and some bones found in it to
the flood of Genesis. Srnithson discusses the subject with the
greatest cogency, showing the utter failure of the theory to
account for the facts. His argument is of the greatest per-
spicuity and justness, so correctly does he apprehend every
point. This discussion has, of course, lost all its interest at
this day, but it had not then, when geology was so imper-
fectly known. In the last section of this paper the subject
is the Deluge, and the effects which must have followed.
With real eloquence he shows that, if the secondary lime-
stones were formed during the flood, "embalmed cities, with
their monuments " would be found in " every limestone
quarry." Such antiquities as these being wholly unknown,
he concludes that the removal of the effects of the deluge,
like the deluge itself, was due to supernatural causes.

uToa miracle, then," he says, " which swept away all
that could recall that day of death, when 'the windows of
heaven were opened' upon mankind, must we refer what
no natural means are adequate to^explain. For this stupen-
pendous prodigy,

" Like the baseless fabric of a vision,
Left not a wreck behind."

INDEX.

Account of chemical experiments on taba-

sheer, 1.
Account of discovery of native minium,

32.
Acids, discovery of, in mineral substances,

82, 134, 144.

Amp&re on metallic tin, 74.
Analysis of calamines, 18.
Analysis of tabasheer, 1.
Animal greens, 04.

Arid, distinction between dry and, 20.
Ark, Noah's, described in the Bible, perils

of, 1UG.
Arsenic, detection of minute quantities of,

75.

sulphuret of, 65, 132 144, 147.
Arsenical acid, test of, 84.
Arts of ancient peoples, 101.

Balance, description of, by Dr. Black, 117.

notes on, by Smithson, 119, 137.
Bamboo, tabasheer from, 1.
Banks, Sir Joseph, letter to, 32.
Barium, sulphates of, 71, 81, 132, 134.
Basalts, Gregory Watts on, 127.
Beck, Lewis C., on igneous action, 130.
Belzoni, Mr., specimen from, 102.
Benefactions to science, 124.
Bergman on calamines, 18.

on fernambuc wood, 96.

employed sugar loaf paper, 61.
Berzelius on blow-pipe, 92, 96.

on plomb gomme, 07.
Binary compounds, 34.
Binnite, 05, 147.
Bleyberg, calamine from, 18.
Blow-pipe apparatus, 86.
Boracic acid, test of, 84.
Bournonite, 34.
Boyle on muriate of iron, 58.
Buckland's Keliquse Diluvianse, 104.

Calamines, analyses of, 18, 125, 144, 145.

Calcium, fluoride of, 71.

Capillary metallic tin, 74.

Carbonic acid, test of, 86.

Cave, formation of the Kirkdale, 103.

Character of Smithson, W. R. Johnson, 123.

Chemical analysis of calamines, 18.

experiments on tabasheer, 1.

nomenclature of Smithson, 152.
Chemistry, Smithson on, 26, 125.
Chloride of potassium, discovery of, in the

earth, 89.

Chromic acid, test of, 84.
Clarke, Dr., on form of ice, 80.
Clay, method of forming plates of, 86.
Clement, experiments of, 74.
Coffee, improved method of making, 87,

1:55, 155.

Coloring matters of vegetables, 58, 131.
Colors, method of fixing, 120.

of Egyptian paintings, 101, 102, 136.
Combination, all binary, 36.

Compounds of fluorine, 94.
Compounds, quadruple and binary, 34.
Composition of compound sulphuret from

Huel Boys, 34.
Composition of zeolite, 42.
Conflagration of the earth, 52.
Cookery, improvements in, 88.
Copper, 68, 132.

Corn poppy, coloring matter of, 63.
Crayon colors, method of fixing, 120.
Cronstedt, Baron, on zeolite, 45.
Crystalline form of ice, 80.
Crystallization, Smithson on, 126.
Crystallography, Smithson's papers on, 147.
Crystals, ores of copper in, 39.
Curtin, Mr., specimen from, 102.
Cyanite, notice of Smithson's paper on, 135,

147.

Dalton's theory, 145.
Davy, Humphrey, discovery by, 44.
D'Ayen, Duke, on muriate of iron, 58.
De Laumont on plomb gomme, 67.
Deluge, views of a universal, 104, 139, 155.
Derbyshire, calamine from, 22.
De Saussure's contrivances, 91.
De Thury, H., on forms of ice, 80.
Detection of very minute quantities of

arsenic and mercury, 75.
Diamonds, experiments with, 93.
Discovery of acids in mineral substances,

82. *

of chloride of potassium in the earth, 89.
of native minium, 32.
Dry, distinction between arid and, 20.

•
Earth, changes observed in, 103.

discovery of chloride of potassium in, 89.
Economy, importance and advantages of,

88, 135.

Egyptian colors, examination of, 101.
Elephant, hairy, of Siberia, 112.
Elm tree, ulmin from, 47.
Error always associated with evil, 104.
Examination of some Egyptian colors, 101.
Experiments on decay of animal muscle,

109.

Extinguishing lamps, 79.
Extracts from Smithson's writings, 154.

Fibrous metallic copper, 68.

Fingal's cave, Smithson's visit to, 139.

Fixing crayon colors, method of, 120.

Florentine experiment, 75.

Fluoride of calcium, 71.

Fluorine, compounds of, 94, 136, 144, 146.

Fluor spar, nature of, 95.

Fossil world, absence of human remains

in, 114.

Fourcroy, observations of, 35, 59.
Franklin, founding of a library by, 123.
Fuel for chemical lamps, 134.
Fusibility, experiments on, 93.

157

158

INDEX.

Gay Lussac, observations of, 84.
Girard, benevolence of, 123.

Habitations, Smithson on, 138.
Hail, form of crystals of, 80.
Hatchett's experiments on sulphurets, 35.
Haiiy, Abb6, analyses quoted by, 98.

on calamines, 18, 126.

on form of ice, 80.

on specular iron ore, 54.

on zeolite, 42.

Henry on muriate of soda, 57.
Honorable notice of Smithson's researches,

132.

Huel Boys, sulphuret from, 34.
Human remains, total absence of, in fossil

world, 114.

Hutton, Dr., compliments of, to Smithson,
119.

on zeolite, 43.

Ice, crystalline form of, 80, 134, 147.

Igneous action, Lewis C. Beck on, 130.
Smithson on, 130.

Ignorance always attended with loss, 104.

Improved method of making coffee, 87.

Improvements in lamps, 78.

Increase of knowledge by Smithson, 124.

Inspiration of book recording a universal
deluge, 104.

Irby, J. R. McD., on the works and char-
acter of Smithson, 143.

Iron, reduced from fibrous to granular
state, 127.

Isis, coloring matter of figure of, 102.

Johnson, Walter R., on scientific character
and researches of Smithson, 123.

Kennedy on zeolite, 43.

Kirkdale Cave, on formation of, 103, 137, 155.

Klaproth on barytes and soda, 56.

on topaz, 90.

on ulmin, 47.

on zeolite, 42, 46.

Knowledge, Smithson on, 104, 124, 139.
Kryolite, experiments with, 98.

Lamps, improvements in, 78, 133, 155.
Lead, aluminate of, G7.
sulphuret of, G5, 147.
Letter from Dr. Black describing* a very

sensible balance, 117.

Letter of Smithson to Sir Joseph Banks, 32.
Lewis, Wm., on muriate of iron, 58.

Maclure, endowment by, of an academy
for science, 123.

Magnitude of objects not a test of their
importance, 101.

Manuscripts of Smithson, 137, 148.

Marcet, experiments of, 45.
on dropsical fluids, 56.

Marsh, experiments on arsenic, 133.

Means of discrimination between sulphates
of barium and strontium, 81.

Memoir on scientific character and re-
searches of Smithson, by W. R. John-
son, 123.

Mendip Hill calamine, 21.

Mercury, detection of minute quantities
of, 75, 132, 144.

Mesotype, 43.

Metallic copper, fibrous, 68.

Metallic tin, 74.

Method of fixing crayon colors, 120.

Method of fixing particles on the sappare,
90.

Mineralogy, Smithson's papers on, 147.

Mineral substances, acids in, 82, 134.

Minium, account of discovery of, 32, 128.
Miracle to sweep away consequences of

deluge, 117.

Molybdic acid, test of, 85.
Mulberry, coloring matter of, 62.
Muriatic acid, test of, 83.
Mull, Smithson's visit to, 139.

Native combination of sulphate of barium

and fluoride of calcium, 71.
Native compound of sulphuret of lead and

arsenic, Go.
Native hydrous aluminate of leader plomb

gomme, G7.
Native minium, 32.
Natrolite, 42.
Naumann, G5.
Nitric acid, test of, 86.
Noah's ark, 106, 107.
Northwitch, Smithson's visit to, 140.
Notes on minerals and rocks by Smithson,

148.

Oban, Smithson's visit to. 140.
Observations on Penn's theory of the Kirk-
dale Cave, 103.

Particle and planet subject to same laws,
101.

Pelletier's experiments on calamines, 24.

Penetration of solids by fluids, 75.

Penn's theory of the formation of the Kirk-
dale cave, 103.

Phosphoric acid, test of, 84.

Plomb gomme, 67, 131.

Potassium, chloride of, in the earth, 89,135.

Proportion of elements, Smithson's theory
of, 29, 37.

Psammis, King, specimen from tomb of,
102.

Quadruple and binary compounds, 34.

Researches of Smithson, W. R. Johnson,

123.

Rozier, on sappare, 91.
Russell, Dr., on tabasheer, 1.

Saline substance from Mount Vesuvius, 52.

Sap green, coloring matter, 64.

Sap of the elm tree, 51.

Sappare, method of fixing particles on the,

90, 135, 147.

Saussure's sappare, 87, 91.
Silica, acid nature of, 154.

test of, 86.

Silver mines of North Carolina, 128.
Smithson fund, April, 1844, 141.
Smithson, James, account of unpublished
writings of, 138.

manuscripts of, 137.

on the works and character of, J. R. Mc-
D. Irby, 143.

scientific character and researches o£
by \V. R. Johnson, 123.

scientific journeys of, 139.
Snow, form of crystals, 80.
Somersetshire, calamiue from, 21.
Staffa, Smithson's visit to, 139.
Strontium, sulphates of, 81, 134, 144.
Struve on zeolite, 46.
Sugar-loaf paper, coloring matter of, 61.
Sulphates of barium and strontium, 71, 81,

114, 132.

Sulphur, blow-pipe test for, 144.
Sulphuret from Huel Boys, 34.
Sulphuret of lead and arsenic, 65.
Sulphurets, paper on, 34, 129, 131, 144.
Sulphuric acid, test of, 83.
Symbols used by Smithson, 153.

INDEX.

159

Tabasheer, account of the chemical exper-
iments on, 1, 136, 144, 155.

Tea, improved method of making, 87.

Tear, analysis of a, 147.

Tennant, Smithson, discovery of plomb

gomme, (J7.
experiments of, 56.

Theory of formation of Kirkdale Cave,
103.

Thomson on ulmin. 47.

Tin, capillary metallic, 74.

Tomb of King Psammis, specimen from,
102.

Topaz, experiments with, 96.

Tours of Smithson, 139, 140.

Tungstic acid, test of, 85.

Turnsol, coloring matter of, 69.

Ulmin, substance from elm tree, 47, 130.

Vauquelin on zeolite, 42, 46.
Vegetables, coloring matter of, 58.
Vesuvius, analysis of matter from, 89.

saline substance from, 52, 130.
Violet, coloring matter o£ GO.
Volcanoes, 53, 130.

Watt, Gregory, on basalts, 127.
Wax lamps, 79.
Werner on minerals, 90.
Wicks of lamps, 78.

Works and character of Smithson, J. R.
McD. Jrby, 143. .

Zeolite, composition of, 42, 129, 145.

3=5ffi=gS3fe~