aah beers et oa eye iracate ties ee vee TY terials Aten, Ae po eathoew ss jamiees Lewites Pipetite i OTT EE Ae reareretent peer Lory Pasty ee veverere © te 9 wY prea tanw mga mS eee ae ae at oves Tjlyreae meres nae eornn oss v2 bee Geren ta tetera Ore tices ender oa he ate: BAe ae Doses : yiiteeetet ae Kpien ve pees woe Sarbarev=s, ipa waeey ewe Tali Sa gat satan # eden Pena, Lee rbd aie gag rip shiters seeewsnert neonates oben iB Sectheeaed 4 Tanase ane nee Ve assy. petit gr ertarneaty peweN tetas ff tot er ieee fee <2 ikisateh-. Laer aera en Ta oar! ope ne asia we Soon toe ve ea Srewtoere sear pa doe bens ees . BEE tos alten tee ret er aes Be So wees eceeens oot eT av oe : sere ueaee s i Coosa enn eee ene vad awe eaev ee ert sat aes esr iewee? SST oy et ettes® err oer eens Nee pee ® Leite reten Sentero onegr peataca eee tee ier enete oe yd be ee oe paceman perare fants Petes Lf e AoW ver se : 7 aver Tet Sere paestl tases 80d sap oker Deegan e caree we) WH -—< A publication of the Ornithological Sub-committee of the East Africa Natural History Society Edited by Graeme Backhurst Volume 17, No. 2, October 1994 SCOPUS Cover illustration from a gouache painting by Dr P. A. Clancey Scopus is normally published three times a year (although issues may be combined) by the Ornithological Sub-committee of the East Africa Natural History Society. Sub- scriptions are payable to the OSC Hon Treasurer (and Secretary) D. A. Turner [tel: Nairobi 48133], Box 48019, Nairobi, Kenya, at the following rates: Kenya residents: Ksh 400.00 (Ksh 420.00 up-country cheques) All others, air mail: Stg £10.00, US $16.00, DM30,00 or equivalent in convert- ible currency—personal cheques in convertible currency are perfectly acceptable. Make cheques out to D. A. Turner, Scopus a/c. Bank Drafts in Kenya currency and drafts in foreign currencies drawn on Kenya banks cannot be accepted This is because our bank charges almost as much as the value of the draft to process it. The rates for ‘All others’ apply to subscribers in all countries other than Kenya. Those wishing to remit by bank transfer should do so to Barclays Bank of Kenya Ltd., Market Branch, Box 30018, Nairobi for credit of D. A. Turner, Scopus a/c No. 2852601. Other members of the Ornithological Sub-committee: G. C. Backhurst (Chairman, Editor of Scopus, and Ringing Organizer), Box 15194, Nairobi; house tel: Nairobi 891 419. A. L. Archer, Nairobi; N. E. Baker, Dar es Salaam; Dr L. A. Bennun, Nairobi; Dr M. J. Carswell, England; M. A. C. Coverdale, Nanyuki; J. H. Fanshawe, England; B. W. Finch, Nairobi; Mrs C. Gichuki, Nairobi; Dr N. Gichuki, Nairobi; W. G. Harvey, Nairobi; Dr K. M. Howell, Dar es Salaam; Dr W. Karanja, Nairobi; Dr A. D. Lewis, England; B. S. Meadows, England; D. C. Moyer, Iringa and USA; Dr D. J. Pearson, England; Prof D. E. Pomeroy, Kampala; D. K. Richards, Nairobi; T. Stevenson, Baringo. Notes for Contributors Scopus welcomes original contributions on all aspects of the ornithology of eastern Africa—the area from the Sudan south to Mocambique. Contributions will be as- sessed by independent referees. Material published is divided into ‘papers’, “short communications’, letters, and communications. Short communications will usually be less than two pages in length. Authors are asked to follow the conventions used in Scopus and to refer to a recent issue for guidance. Metric units should be used. A few examples of conventions are: dates: 23 September 1991 [note the order, no comma, not ‘23rd’]; names of birds: Continued inside back cover Scopus 17: 65-112, October 1994 Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania N. J. Cordeiro Mt Kilimanjaro, situated in northeast Tanzania, is composed of three peaks, Kibo being the central and highest (5895 m) with Shira and Mawenzi on either side (Fig. 1). Several studies have been conducted on the flora and fauna of this mountain. The vegetation has been described by various authors (e.g. Hedberg 1951, Salt 1954, Greenway 1965, Mwasaga 1991) and the mammals (e.g. Moreau 1944, Guest & Leedal 1954, Child 1965, Grimshaw & Foley 1991), birds (e.g. Moreau 1936, Moreau Ul Molog RONGAI PLANTATIONS Figure 1. Map showing the forest reserve and conifer plantations on Mt Kilimanjaro & Moreau 1939, Lamprey 1965, King 1973) and invertebrates (Salt 1954, Cordeiro in prep.) have received significant attention. The flora and fauna have also been examined from a biogeographical perspective (e.g. Moreau 1966, Kingdon 1981, Rogers et al. 1982, Newmark et al. 1991, Pécs 1991, Stuart et al. 1993). In view of the environmental degradation in East Africa, research has concentrated on forest habitats throughout the region. This is also true of Kilimanjaro; a volume of EGS 66 N. J. Cordeiro 6000 m 4000 m he wlseees, With ) i 2000 m Figure 2. The vegetation belts of Mt Kilimanjaro (from Pocs 1991) Key a The cultivated zone (coffee, wheat, bananas, plantation forests of Pinus and Cupressus Montane rainforest (dominated by Ocotea) Mossy montane rainforest (dominated by Podocarpus or Erica) Subalpine ericaceous heath (dominated by Philippia) OO. -G3.-- Qi. Montane mesic and dry evergreen forest (dominated by Cassipourea and Cascaria or by Olea and Juniperus) f Subalpine ericaceous bush (dominated by Stoebe, Anthospermum, Artemisia) g Alpine tussock (dominated by Helichrysum, Pentaschistes) h Alpine desert (dominated by bare rock and ice) research was compiled on the conservation values and associated threats of this mountain’s natural resources (Newmark 1991c). Apart from supporting a vast array of flora and fauna, Mt Kilimanjaro is also recognized as an important water catchment area for northeastern Tanzania and southeastern Kenya (Bj@rndalen 1991). In addition, the forest serves as an important fuelwood and timber resource (Misana 1991, Newmark 1991c). Despite some attention, this forest ecosystem remains only partially understood and in order to conserve this valuable asset, further research is essential on the many variables that make up Kilimanjaro’s ecosystem. Although Mt Kilimanjaro did not qualify as a forested area of particular importance for the conservation of Afrotropical avifauna (Coliar & Stuart 1988), three species occurring on the mountain are listed as candidate threatened or near-threatened (Table 2). These birds and many other forest birds could be threatened by increased exploitation of the forest. Hence, it is because of the destruction of this important forest and the little that is known about altitudination of forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro that this study was conducted. Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 67 KEY: 4+ forest boundary seeece national park boundary maxes main road eeee dirt road -.-- Mvweka tourist route Kaloleni Figure 3a. Location of sites on the south slope of Mt Kilimanjaro 68 N. J. Cordeiro x KK os oe x” : ye * x % yr eX as x KEY: quam main road eexwe tracktothe Shira Plateau natural forest plantations Figure 3b. Location of sites on the west slope of Mt Kilimanjaro i Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 69 250 ——a— south slope —e—_ west slope Mean annual rainfall (mm) i=) oO i=) oO [e) oO (o) oO oO oO oO oO oO oO (2) (=) [o) (2) oO ie) w) o Ww Oo w co) w (o) w o bd v N N isp) © va is wo Altitude (m) Figure 4. Rainfall patterns on west and south slope of Mt Kilimanjaro Sources: Salt (1955), Kundaelli (1976), Sarmett & Faraji (1991) The forest avifauna of Mt Kilimanjaro has been examined in some detail by various researchers (see Previous ornithological work on Kilimanjaro, below). However, although most studies have been in the form of species lists, very little has been conducted on the ecology of forest birds of this mountain. Hence, using mist-nets placed along two altitudinal gradients on the mountain, an attempt to gather further knowledge of forest birds, in particular the understorey dwellers, is presented here. After a brief section on previous ornithological investigations of the mountain, the forest avifauna is examined and a few species have been deleted from, or added to, previous lists (Moreau 1944, Lamprey 1965). Ecological and distributional notes and altitudinal ranges are provided and possible vertical seasonal movements indicated. [A more detailed paper on the altitudination of forest understorey birds on Kilimanjaro is provided elsewhere (Cordeiro in prep.)]. The similarities and differences between the understorey avifauna on the south and west aspects of the mountain are compared. In addition, breeding records obtained during the study period are discussed as well as the question of whether or not any species have become extinct on Kilimanjaro. Finally, recommendations for the conservation of forest birds on Kilimanjaro are given. The common and scientific names in the text and accompanying tables follow Britton (1980) and Turner et al. (1991). Study area The vegetation of Mt Kilimanjaro occurs as a series of belts which vary in their _ characteristics and upper and lower limits according to aspect (Hedberg 1951; Pocs 1991; Fig. 2). This study concentrates on the forest which has been described by | Greenway (1965), Steele (1966a, b), Wood (1965a, b) and Mwasaga (1991). Since 70 N. J. Cordeiro Table 1. Some site characteristics on the western and southern gradients Western gradient (Forest limits 1650-2550 m) site altitude (m) 1 1750 2 1900 31, 2050 4 2200 5° -| 2350 6 2500 7 ~~ ‘1700 8 2350) Southern gradient (Forest limits 1500-3000 m) level of disturbance xeric; disturbed xeric, disturbed xeric, slightly disturbed xeric, disturbed Xeric, very disturbed xeric, intact Xeric, almost intact Xeric, very disturbed density & canopy height (m) dense; 20—25 not very dense; 25 very dense; 25—30 not dense; 20—25 thin; 20 dense; 25-35 dense; 20—30 thin; 15-25 1 1600 wet; disturbed dense; 25—30 Zt ASO 3 1900 4 2050 > 2200 6 2350 7 ~~ 2500 8 2650 9 2800 wet; disturbed wet; disturbed wet; intact wet; slightly disturbed wet; intact wet; intact wet; intact wet; intact dense; 25—30 dense; 25—30 dense; 25-35 dense; 20—30 dense; 20—30 not so dense; 20-25 not so dense; 20-25 not so dense; 20—25 forest type & dominant trees, shrubs and herbs (genera) Teclea, Olea, Bersama, Ilex, Hibiscus, Justicia Teclea, Bersama, Ilex, Olea, Hibiscus, Justicia Teclea, Olea, Markhamia, Senecio, Piper Teclea, Olea, Senecio, Piper, Vernonia, Ureracea Teclea, Nuxia, Justicia, Vernonia, Ureracea Podocarpus, Juniperus, Nuxia, Digitaria, moss Teclea, Ilex, Olea, Rubiaceae shrubs Teclea, Olea, Vernonia, Ureracea, Crotolaria, Justicia, Macaranga, Ocotea, Taber- naemontana, Psychotria, — Rubiaceae shrubs Macaranga, Ocotea, Taber- naemontana, Psychotria, Rubiaceae shrubs Macaranga, Ocotea, Taber- naemontana, Rubiaceae shrubs Ocotea, Schefflera, Macaranga, Rubiaceae shrubs, moss Ocotea, Schefflera, Podocarpus, Rubiaceae shrubs, Moss Ocotea, Schefflera, Podocarpus, Rubiaceae shrubs, Moss Podocarpus, Erica, Maytenus, Diplachne, Cyperis, moss Podocarpus, Erica, Maytenus, Schefflera,Diplachne, Cyperis, moss Podocarpus, Erica, Hagenia, Maytenus, Diplachne, Cyperis, moss Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania ish 1958, the forest has been severely fragmented (Wood 1965b, Lamprey et al. 1991; see Fig. 1). Two fairly large softwood plantations now occupy much of the western and north-eastern slopes, having replaced 6200 ha of indigenous forest (Lamprey et al. 1991; Fig. 1). Thus, the forest belt is now almost broken in two places, except at its uppermost altitudes where narrow corridors (c. 1 km wide) link the two strips. The climate varies with aspect: the northern and western aspects receive signifi- cantly less rainfall than the southern and southeastern slopes (e.g. Sampson 1965, Kundaelli 1976, Misana 1991). The southeast trade wind brings heavy rainfall from March to May (long rains) and the drier northeast monsoon rains fall from late October to December (short rains) (e.g. Salt 1955, Maro 1988, Misana 1991). Thus the southern face of the mountain receives most of the annual rain during the long rainy season and the eastern slope receives its maximum rainfall during the short rains (Maro 1988). Rainfall increases with elevation up to 2400-3000 m and then decreases with altitude (Maro 1988; see Fig. 4). Temperature decreases with increasing elevation (Maro 1988, Sarmett & Faraji 1991). Forest birds were surveyed along two altitudinal gradients on the south and west slopes. Successive sites along these gradients were separated by 150 m altitude and spanned the entire natural forest belt (see Table 1). Most sites on the west slope were situated in the natural forest bordering the West Kilimanjaro conifer plantations and sites on the southern aspect located along the Mweka tourist route (Figs. 3a, 3b; Table 1). Since most of the forest on Mt Kilimanjaro has been affected by humans over the centuries, many of the sites were situated in forest that was secondary in nature with different levels of disturbance (Table 1). On the xeric western slope, the forest is somewhat dense throughout, except in places where selective logging has degraded the vegetation. There are no obvious changes in the dominant trees below 2400 m, but above this, Podocarpus, Juniperus and Nuxia predominate (Table 1). Parts of the forest edge near Nduimet village were subjected to fires in recent years (Nduimet villagers, pers. comm.). A small patch of forest that was indicated on the Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve Map (SC 1988) no longer exists, probably as a result of such fires. The southern gradient contains a similar plant community at most elevations. The forest is relatively denser from 1600 m to 2350 m, and much of the vegetation remains somewhat similar with changes in the dominance of some species (Table 1). However, the greatest change in the vegetational structure occurs somewhere between 2500 m and 2650 m, where the forest is much thinner, comprising of Podocarpus and Erica tree stands (Table 1). Materials and Methods Sampling birds In order to determine the understorey bird species present at the various elevations, ten Avinet mist nets (2 x 13 m) were operated from dawn to dusk at each site. Nets were mounted between poles with the bottom shelf-string at ground-level. Birds were 12 N. J. Cordeiro removed at half-hour to hour intervals depending on the capture rate. All birds were fitted with Eastern African Ringing Scheme rings and the following biometrics were taken: (1) wing length; (ii) tail length; (411) tarsus length; (iv) bill length. Other data such as weight, sex (where possible), breeding condition and moult state were obtained for all birds. Birds were identified in the field using Mackworth- Praed & Grant (1957, 1960), Britton (1980), Williams & Arlott (1980) and Maclean (1988). Each site was surveyed for at least 36 mist-netting hours, (1.e. 3 days from dawn to dusk), using the cumulative species surveying technique (Newmark 1991a & pers. comm). The western slope was surveyed from late August to mid-October (54,860 net- m-h), and the southern slope from late October to early December, 1991 (42,380 net- m-h). Two additional sites, which includes the natural corridor, were surveyed on the western gradient in December (13,065 net-m-h; see Fig. 3b). In addition, all species seen or heard in the field were recorded. Breeding Records All active nests, dependent juveniles, courting behaviour or adult birds with fresh brood patches were recorded. In the case of fledglings and juveniles, records were back-dated to the nearest laying month. Nest-building and courtship behaviour were considered as suspected breeding records only. Brood patch as a measure of breeding activity is reliable (Tye 1992) and only very fresh, fully developed brood patches were accepted as breeding records. Species that had bare breasts, e.g. as a result of moulting, were excluded. In addition, some birds that had less developed brood patches but may have been breeding, were also excluded. Previous ornithological work on Kilimanjaro Mt Kilimanjaro has received a considerable amount of ornithological attention and many species and races were described from this mountain (e.g. Abbott’s Starling Cinnyricinclus femoralis, Oriole Finch Linurgus olivaceus_ kilimensis). Moreau (1950a) reviewed the ornithology of Tanzania up to the early 1950s, providing a brief summary on the avifaunal investigations of Mt Kilimanjaro. Nevertheless, it is important to recount the earlier contributors to this mountain’s ornithology. Sir H. Johnston first collected bird specimens on the mountain in 1884, many of which were new to science. Soon after (1890s) Kretschmer, Abbott, von der Marwitz and Neumann made several collections. They were followed by K. Kittenberger, Schillings and Sjéstedt, all of whom made substantial collections during the very early 1900s (Moreau 1950a). The resulting publications were mainly in the form of taxonomic descriptions and annotated species lists (e.g. Shelley & Johnston 1886, Oberholser 1905, 1906, Kittenberger 1958, 1959). Several years later, some naturalists explored the mountain and made a few notable records (e.g. van Someren 1931, 1932). However, it was not until 1932 that Moreau Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 73 visited and collected specimens from there. He compared the forest and alpine avifauna of Mt Kilimanjaro with that of Mt Meru (Moreau 1936) and Mt Kenya (Moreau 1944) as well as with other mountains (Moreau 1966). After further investigation on the north slope in 1938, he recorded species new to the mountain (Moreau & Moreau 1939). Subsequently, Guest & Leedal (1954) made further incidental records of various birds. More recently, some authors briefly described the altitudination of forest and alpine birds from field observations (Lamprey 1965, King 1973). During the 1970s and 1980s, Dr H. Grossman (pers. comm.) surveyed and documented the altitude ranges and ecology of the Mt Kilimanjaro avifauna from field observations. After some years of absence, he has continued this work up to the present (Grossman unpublished). Hence, this study provides further details on the ecology of forest birds on this mountain by using mist-nets. Nevertheless, the forest avifauna has not been thor- oughly investigated here, and given that the southeast, south and southwest slopes have been studied the most by previous researchers, a large area remains to be explored. Results Additions and deletions to the forest avifauna The forest avifauna of Mt Kilimanjaro was previously described by Moreau (1936, 1944, 1966), Moreau & Moreau (1939), and Lamprey (1965); however, amendments to their lists have been made as a result of the current research. These changes are explained in this section and an up-to-date list of the forest-dependent species is provided (Table 2). It is important to note that some of the additions were species that Moreau (1944) had recorded in the cultivation zone below the forest belt. Indeed, he had stated that some of those species might subsequently be qualified as “montane”. In addition, the distinction between non-forest species and forest species is sometimes rather vague (Stuart 1983), thus some forest edge species are included in this new list (Table 2). Four species are omitted from Mt Kilimanjaro’s list of forest avifauna as their initial records were based on misidentifications or misleading information on the exact locality. A further 11 are added to the list, some of which are mainly restricted to the forest edge. Another nine species, most of which were listed by Britton (1980) as occurring on Mt Kilimanjaro, may occur on the foothills of the mountain. Each of these are discussed in their appropriate sections below. Deletions Crested Guineafowl Guttera pucherani Johnston (Shelley & Johnston 1886) found this bird in thickets and ravines on the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro; Kittenberger (1958) noted it from forest along the Rau River, near Moshi, in 1903. Mackworth-Praed and Grant (1957) state that it inhabits 74 N. J. Cordeiro thickets and lightly forested areas but not highland forest. Britton (1980), however, also records it from the mountain but does not indicate that it is confined to forest and thickets on the foothills. Moreau (1936, 1944), Grossman (pers. comm.) and I have not recorded this bird in the forested parts of Mt Kilimanjaro. It probably occurs in the dense thickets on the foothills but not in highland forest. This statement is supported by Moreau (1936) who states that most records are from eastern parts of the mountain like ““Taveta and Kahe”’. It may be important to note that this species is probably extinct from the Rau Forest, in which it was recorded by Kittenberger (1958) in 1905. The forest was surveyed for six months in 1985 (as well as periodically between 1986-1987) and there was no evidence of its presence. Since this forest has been isolated by human habitation, pressures from encroachment, domestic animals and hunting have probably taken this species’ toll. [NB: It still occurs at Kahe II Forest Reserve where a recent survey was done (Cordeiro et al. in prep.)]. Green Tinkerbird Pogoniulus leucomystax This taxon was believed to inhabit the forest of Mt Kilimanjaro; however, this turns out to be a misidentification. Lamprey (in /itt.) had based his identification on Moreau’s (1936, 1944) record of the species, having not observed the bird at close range. Moreau had not misidentified the bird: he placed it as Viridibucco simplex leucomystax. Interestingly, Oberholser (1905) records this taxon from Mt Kilimanjaro as early as 1888. The taxonomy of the tinkerbirds has since been revised and two species are recognized: Green Tinkerbird Pogoniulus simplex and Moustached Green Tinkerbird P. leucomystax. Only the latter was recorded on Mt Kilimanjaro. Orange Ground Thrush Turdus gurneyi Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1960), copied by Lamprey (1965), recorded this bird on Mt Kilimanjaro. Moreau (1936) erroneously recorded this taxon here on the basis of a juvenile specimen which was later determined to be the similar Abyssinian Ground Thrush T.. piaggiae (Moreau 1966) which does occur on Kilimanjaro. Taita Thrush Turdus helleri Bednall (1958) reported this bird from cultivation at c. 2000 m on 20 February 1956. It was not observed during 110,305 net-m-h of mist-net sampling and thus the original record is probably a misidentification (H. Grossman in Collar & Stuart 1985) or that of a wanderer (Hall & Moreau 1962). It is doubtful that it occurs on Kilimanjaro (Turner in Collar & Stuart 1985; pers. obs.). Additions [Buff-spotted Pygmy Crake Sarothrura elegans] Benson (in King 1973) believed that the Chestnut-tailed Pygmy Crake S. affinis could occur on Kilimanjaro as it is known from Mt Kenya and southern Tanzania (Keith ef al. 1970). At 2400 m, just after it rained at dusk on 12 and 13 November, a bird called Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 75 Table 2. Systematic list of all Mt Kilimanjaro species recorded in the field, including altitude ranges on west and south slopes, habitats used and other notes. Note that with further research, the classification of some forest and forest-edge species will most likely change. Altitudinal ranges are accurate for most understorey species and a few canopy dwellers; the ranges given here are based on observations during this study only. A few species are included as records of other observers (Moreau 1944, J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993, N. and E. Baker pers. comm. 1993) Species Status in Africa classification (Collar & Stuart 1985) Ecology ¢ = forest inhabitants * = threatened ° = showed evidence of seasonal altitudinal | movements ee = forest edge inhabitants | _** =candidate threatened +=occurs above forest in heath zone Habitats a = alpine zone fc = forest canopy b = bushland below forest fe = forest edge c = cultivation adjacent to forest fg = forest glades df = disturbed forest fu = forest understorey e = heath zone p = conifer plantations f = forest r = riparian habitats altitudinal range (m) _habitats(s) Species W slopes Sslopes — used comments Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis 2100 pond at Londorosi _ Black-headed Heron Ardea melanocephala 2100 pond at Londorosi Hamerkop Scopus umbretta 2100 pond at Londorosi _ Hadada Ibis . Bostrychia hagedash 2100 pond at Londorosi; feeding in conifer plantations and adjacent culti- vated areas Green Ibis ' Bostrychia olivacea * « 2050 f African Black Duck Anas sparsa e 1700—2100 900-1500 pond; r frequents most rivers | flowing from the mountain and as low as 900 m continued 76 N. J. Cordeiro altitudinal range (m) W slopes __ S slopes habitats(s) Species used comments African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus < 1900 flies over f; c Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus < 1900 flies over f; c Harrier Hawk Polyboroides radiatus df at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus < 1900 flies over f; c Little Sparrowhawk Accipiter minullus < 2050 < 1600 fesc; b seen taking Speckled Mousebird Rufous Sparrowhawk A. rufiventris « 1750 (900) 1500 f; c African Goshawk A. tachiro « < 2350 < 2900 Liceb Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax < 2000 flies over f; c Wahlberg’s Eagle A. wahlbergi < 2000 flies over f; c Augur Buzzard Buteo augur < 3000 < 3000 b; fe;e;a also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Mountain Buzzard B. oreophilus African Hawk Eagle 1750-2600 1500-—2900+ f Hieraaetus spilogaster 1700 flies over f; c Long-crested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis ee < 2600 fe; df also at Kilimanjaro | Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatuse 1650-2600 1500-2500 f Cuckoo Hawk Aviceda cuculoides ee 1750 fe 2 records: 8, 11 December Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus < 2200 < 2200 flies over c Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus 2100 fe; cp possibly resident at Londorosi Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania Species Peregrine Falcon F.. peregrinus Scaly Francolin Francolinus squamatus [Sarothrura elegans] ¢ Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Lemon Dove Aplopelia larvata ° Olive Pigeon Columba arquatrix e Bronze-naped Pigeon C. delegorguei e Speckled Pigeon C. guinea Dusky Turtle Dove Streptopelia lugens Red-eyed Doves S. semitorquata Tambourine Dove Turtur tympanistria e Green Pigeon Treron calva ee Red-fronted Parrot Poicephalus gulielmi « Hartlaub’s Turaco Tauraco hartlaubi e altitudinal range (m) W slopes Sslopes used df 1700—2550+ 1550-2900+ fe; fg; f; e 2400 f 2100 pond 1700-2500 1600-2050 fu 1700-2500 1500-2900 fc 1700-2350 1500-2050 fc < 2000 1700-1900 fe; c < 2300 < 1400 fe;c 1700-1900 1600-1900 c; fu < 2200 < 1600 fe; df 2050-2550 1600-2200 fc 1700-2400 1500-2500 f habitats(s) flies over f ei comments at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) present in lower heath zone see notes on “Addi- tions’, p. 74 at Londorosi not common also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) seen next to forest near Nduimet feeds in small flocks (3-6) also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) highest densities <1900 m (W slope) possibly due to downward seasonal migration due to fruiting trees (Teclea sp., Euclea sp., [lex sp., Olea sp.). continued 78 N. J. Cordeiro | altitudinal range (m) _habitats(s) Species W slopes Sslopes used comments Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus 1750 fe possibly overlooked on south slope Klaas’ Cuckoo C. klaas < 2500 < 1600 fe Red-chested Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus < 2350 < 1600 fe; df also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, Nov—Dec 1993; (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Yellowbill Ceuthmochares aereus 1600 Cc Simba Farm, 7 Sep 1990, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) White-browed Coucal Centropus superciliosus < 1750 < 1750 Cais fe scarce at forest edge; at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Verreaux’s Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus < 1600 < 1500 fe;c;b African Wood Owl Strix woodfordii « 1700-2500 1500-2900 f Montane Nightjar Caprimulgus poliocephalus 1900 fe; b Alpine Swift Apus melba > 1700 > 1500 flies over f; e; a Nyanza Swift A. niansae < 2500 flies over f; e Scarce Swift Schoutedenapus myoptilus > 1700 flies over f Speckled Mousebird Colius striatus up to 2400 df; c also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Bar-tailed Trogon Apaloderma vittatum 1700-2500 1500-2900 f Giant Kingfisher Ceryle maxima « up to 1500 r may extend higher on some rivers; fed on freshwater crabs Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 79 altitudinal range (m) _habitats(s) Species W slopes Sslopes — used comments Brown-hooded Kingfisher Halcyon albiventris < 1500 Tc Eurasian Bee-Eater Merops apiaster up to 2600 overb;f migrating southwards and first flocks seen in late September; rested in forest canopy; at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, Nov 1992 (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Northern Carmine Bee-eater M. nubicus < 1900 b one record on | Sep Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater M. oreobates 1700—2500 1500-1600 fc; fe Broad-billed Roller Eurystomus glaucurus ¢¢ 2200 fe only one record: 21 Dec Green Wood Hoopoe Phoeniculus purpureus 1900 fe only one record: 5 Sep Silvery-cheeked Hornbill Bycanistes brevis e 1700-2500 1500-1750 f; fe frequents thin or disturbed forest White-eared Barbet Stactolaema leucotis ee 1700-1900 1400-1550 fe; c present in thin forest Brown-breasted Barbet Lybius melanopterus < 1500 Cc Moustached Green Tinkerbird « Pogoniulus leucomystax 1700-2500 1500-2350 f not common in Podocarpus—Erica forest on south slope Scaly-throated Honeyguide Indicator variegatus 1700-1900 f; fe Cardinal Woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens noted from forest by Moreau (1944) Olive Woodpecker | D. griseocephalus 1700-2500 1600-2500 f not recorded in Podocarpus—Erica forest on south slope House Martin Delichon urbica < 2300 over f; c late October and December continued 80 N. J. Cordeiro altitudinal range (m) _habitats(s) Species W slopes Sslopes — used Eurasian Swallow Hirundo rustica 2900 over f;e Mosque Swallow H. senegalensis fg; df Black Rough-wing Psalidoprocne pristoptera 1700—2500+ 1400-2650 f Banded Martin Riparia cincta 2300 Cab Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis < 1400 b; c Black-headed Oriole Oriolus larvatus 1900 fe White-necked Raven Corvus albicollis > 2900 e;a Pied Crow C. albus 2100 1450 nr village African Hill Babbler Alcippe abyssinica ¢ ° 1700-2500 1600-1900 f Grey Cuckoo Shrike Coracina caesia e 2050—2200 f; fg; fe Striped-cheeked Greenbul ° Andropadus milanjensis 1700-2050 1600-1750 f Mountain Greenbul A. tephrolaemus ¢ ° 1650-2500 1600-2900 f Nicator Nicator chloris e f Olive Mountain Greenbul « Phyllastrephus placidus 1700-2500 1600-2500 fu; fe Common Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus < 2200 c; fe Robin Chat Cossypha caffra ee 1600—2500+ 1500; 2900+ fe; e Riippell’s Robin Chat C. semirufa ¢ 1700-2500 1600-2050 fu; fe White-starred Forest Robin « ° Pogonocichla stellata 1700-2500 1600—2900+ f; fe comments late September and October at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) one record: 4 September at Londorosi1 and Mweka dense forest on north slope (2150 m) also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 81 altitudinal range (m) _habitats(s) Species W slopes Sslopes used comments Stonechat Saxicola torquata 1800-—2600+ Cb; e also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Northern Olive Thrush Turdus abyssinicus ¢ ° 1900-2500 1500-1900 f; fe; p Abyssinian Ground Thrush T. piaggiae e 2500 2050-2900 fu Black-headed Apalis Apalis melanocephala « 1750-2350 1500-1900 f Bar-throated Apalis A. thoracica © 1700-2500 1600-2650 fu; fe; fg Evergreen Forest Warbler « ° Bradypterus barratti 1700-2350 1600-2650 fu; fe; fg Cinnamon Bracken Warbler B. cinnamomeus ee 1750—2500+ 2800+ fester ic Grey-backed Camaroptera ¢ Camaroptera brachyura < 2200 fe; fg; c Yellow Warbler Chloropeta natalensis 1900 b _ Britton (1980) states that this warbler and C. similis are segregated by altitude; however, it is also possible that they occupy different habitats. Both species occurred at 1900 m butonly C. similis was netted in forest Mountain Yellow Warbler C. similis « 1900—2500+ 1900-2400 fg; df; fe Hunter’s Cisticola Cisticola hunteri > 2100 > 2900 fe; df;e Winding Cisticola C. galactotes < 1900 c;b River Warbler | Locustella fluviatilis © Rombo Mkuu, Dec 1986 (N.E. & E. M. Baker pers. comm. 1993) Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus 1550 fe late Oct-Nov Brown Woodland Warbler « P. umbrovirens 1900-2500 1600—2900+ f; e continued 82 Species Tawny-flanked Prinia Prinia subflava Garden Warbler Sylvia borin Blackcap S. atricapilla N. J. Cordeiro altitudinal range (m) W slopes _ S slopes < 1900 1550 habitats(s) used c;b fe 1500-1750 fe; f White-eyed Slaty Flycatcher ee Melaenornis chocolatina Dusky Flycatcher Muscicapa adusta ¢ Forest Batis Batis mixta e ° Chin-spot Batis Batis molitor Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis ¢ Crested Flycatcher Trochocercus cyanomelas African Pied Wagtail Motacilla aguimp Mountain Wagtail Motacilla clara Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava Black-backed Puffback Dryoscopus cubla ee Tropical Boubou Laniarius ferrugineus ee Many-coloured Bush Shrike Malaconotus multicolor Fiscal Lanius collaris Abbott’s Starling 1750-2500 fe; fg 1700—2500+ 1500—2900+ f; fe 1700-2300 1600-2050 f 1750-2000 < 2350 1600-1900 2100 1450 1900-2350 1500 2250 1700-1900 < 1500 1700—2500+ 1600 b; df 1600—2350 fe; c; f male C fe, fg fe;-fg; c;e€ 1700-2200 1500-1950 f 2300 Cinnyricinclus femoralis ** ¢ 2300-2500 2200 c:b fc comments late Oct-Nov in mixed flock; late Oct-Nov attended ant swarm party of 5 seen in disturbed forest at Kilimanjaro Timbers in June 1990; pair hunting in grassy area on west slope near villages race not determined attended ant swarms; very common at 1600—1900 m on west slope also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m, (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 83 Species Sharpe’s Starling C. sharpii « Red-winged Starling Onychognathus morio altitudinal range (m) _habitats(s) W slopes Sslopes — used comments 2500 2200 fc < 1900 < 1500 c;b Waller’s Chestnut-winged Starling « O. walleri Kenrick’s Starling Poeoptera kenricki ** ¢ Collared Sunbird Anthreptes collaris Amethyst Sunbird Nectarinia amethystina Malachite Sunbird N. famosa 1750-2500 1600-2900 fc 2350-2500 1900-2200 fc 1700-1800 1500 fe;-¢ < 1500 Cc 2100 at pond at Londorosi; feeding at Crotolaria sp. Scarlet-tufted Malachite Sunbird N. johnstoni Bronze Sunbird N. kilimensis > 2600 > 2900 e one seen at Londorosi pond (2100 m); fed at Lobelia sp., Hy- pericum sp. and Protea sp. < 1500 Cc Eastern Double-collared Sunbird e ° N. mediocris Olive Sunbird N. olivacea e ° Golden-winged Sunbird N. reichenowi Tacazze Sunbird N. tacazze Variable Sunbird N. venusta Montane White-eye Zosterops poliogastra e 1750—2500+ 2200—2900+ f; fe; fg; e obtained nectar from two [mpatiens spp. 1750-2350 1600-2500 f 1600-2400 1500 fe, fg; b fed at Crotolaria spp. and Leonotis spp. which dominated disturbed forest on west slope 2200 1500 fe < 1500 < 1500 fe; c; b at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) 1700-2500+ 1600-2900+ f; fg; fe; e; df continued 84 N. J. Cordeiro altitudinal range (m) _habitats(s) Species W slopes Sslopes — used comments Red-naped Widowbird Euplectes ardens 1700-1900 b Large flock of 20-40 females with 3—5 males; foraged in bare patches of scrubby and tall grassy area. Baglafecht Weaver Ploceus baglafecht < 2600 < 1550 fexc: Spectacled Weaver Ploceus ocularis ee 1600-2200 < 1500 fexe fed in association with greenbuls, thrushes and warblers Cardinal Quelea Quelea cardinalis df; b at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Rufous Sparrow Passer motitensis 1500—2100 bac Pin-tailed Whydah Vidua macroura < 1450 Cc Red-faced Crimson-wing ee Cryptospiza reichenovii 1750 bits Abyssinian Crimsonwing C. salvadorii e 1700-2500 1600-2900 fu; fe Waxbill Estrilda astrild < 1600 c;b at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) Yellow-bellied Waxbill Estrilda melanotis e« 1600-2350 1400-1550 fe; c Grey-headed Negrofinche 1900-2500 1900-2350 fe; fg; f Nigrita canicapilla Black and White Mannikin Lonchura bicolor ee < 2350 < 1550 fe; c SSp. nigriceps Golden-breasted Bunting Emberiza flaviventris < 1450 Cc Oriole Finch Linurgus olivaceus e 2500 1900-2350 fu; fg Thick-billed Seed-eater Serinus burtoni e 1750 2400 f ssp. kilimensis Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 85 altitudinal range (m) _habitats(s) Species W slopes Sslopes — used comments Yellow-crowned Canary S.canicollis 2200; 2500+ 1500; 2900+ c; b; e also at Kilimanjaro Timbers, 2000 m (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993) African Citril S. citrinelloides 1700-2300 < 1600 c; b Streaky Seed-eater S. striolatus e« 1800—2600+ > 2900 c: fezie Brimstone Canary S. sulphuratus < 1900 c;b for several minutes sounding like a peculiar horn. The call resembled that of S. elegans but more conclusive evidence is necessary before acceptance of this record. Rufous Sparrowhawk Accipiter rufiventris Two individuals of this uncommon raptor were observed just inside the forest on both south and west slopes. Several observations were also made of a brown goshawk with a longish tail, unlike that of the other forest dweller, the African Goshawk. However, the raptor could not be sufficiently identified due to its rapid movements through the forest canopy. It is strange that early investigations have missed this bird and that the only other documentation is that of Williams (1967). African Goshawk Accipiter tachiro This raptor occurred throughout the forest, especially from lower to mid-altitudes, and yet it was not mentioned by either Moreau (1936, 1944), Moreau & Moreau (1939) or Lamprey (1965). Mountain Buzzard Buteo oreophilus This raptor was considered an alpine inhabitant by Moreau (1944); however, it is definitely a forest dweller which infrequently visited the heath zone of the mountain. King (1973) also noted it to be a forest dweller. Scaly-throated Honeyguide Indicator variegatus Not previously reported from Kilimanjaro by Moreau (1936, 1944) or Lamprey (1965). It was observed in forest on the west slope. Black-headed Apalis Apalis melanocephala A canopy inhabitant on Kilimanjaro, this species eluded earlier naturalists; van Someren being the first to discover it and assign the Kilimanjaro population as the 86 N. J. Cordeiro subspecies moschi (van Someren 1931). Moreau (1944) strangely excluded this apalis from his list of forest birds although he included it as a bird of intermediate forest in an earlier paper (Moreau 1936). Britton (1980) notes it from Kilimanjaro. It occurs on both slopes of the mountain. Grey-backed Camaroptera Camaroptera brachyura Not strictly a forest dweller on the densely forested south slopes, this bird penetrated the forest interior on the west slope. Moreau (1936) classified it as a bird of the cultivation zone and later noted it near the forest boundary on the north slope (Moreau & Moreau 1939). However, this species was abundant in low-altitude forest that was thin and yet contained a dense understorey. Crested Flycatcher Trochocercus cyanomelas Moreau (1944) and Lamprey (1965) do not include this species in their list of forest birds; however, Moreau (1936) had noted it from fringing forest in Machame from 1200-1500 m. W. L. Abbott had previously collected it from 1850 m (Oberholser 1905) and Sjostedt (1910) had also collected it from the forest. Britton (1980) rightly records it from the foothills of Kilimanjaro where it inhabits the lower forests on the south and southwestern slope (see Ecology section, p. 92). Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis Although Britton (1980) records this species from Mt Kilimanjaro, Moreau (1936) believes it to be a flycatcher of the forest edge, vestigial forest and bush, occurring below the forest belt. This species penetrated the forest interior and has been recorded up to 2350 m on both aspects (Table 2); it is also common in disturbed HOLOS. up to 2000 m at Kilimanjaro Timbers (J. Grimshaw pers. comm. 1993). Nicator Nicator chloris Britton (1980) records this species from Mt Kilimanjaro, probably copying Sjéstedt’s (1910) and Moreau’s (1936) records. Sjéstedt (1910) reported it from the cultivated zone where he noted it as scarce. Moreau (1936) also noted it from scrub at Marangu at 1850 m. A pair were observed in dense forest on the north slope in June 1990. Sharpe’s Starling Cinnyricinclus sharpii Britton (1980) records this starling from Mt Kilimanjaro; however, this species was not mentioned by either Moreau (1936, 1944), Moreau & Moreau (1939), or Lamprey (1965). At least three sightings of this bird were made on both slopes. Red-faced Crimson-wing Cryptospiza reichenovii Moreau (1936) commented on the absence of this estrildid on Mt Kilimanjaro. A single observation of a pair at the forest edge on the west slope suggests that this species is scarce and has probably been overlooked. Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 87 Species occurring below the forest belt The following have been recorded on “Kilimanjaro”, a location used broadly during the 1800s and early 1900s to denote the area in the vicinity of this mountain. Thus for many of these species (Table 2), the riparian habitats and groundwater forest patches on the foothills of Kilimanjaro are more likely localities. This is confirmed for most species except the Dark-backed Weaver Ploceus bicolor. For some species, further investigations might indicate their presence at higher altitudes. Narina’s Trogon Apaloderma narina Mackworth-Praed and Grant (1957) and Williams (1967) record this trogon from Mt Kilimanjaro, but Moreau (1936, 1944), Moreau & Moreau (1939), and Lamprey (1965) do not mention it. Johnston (Shelley & Johnston 1886) apparently shot one at 900m and Sjéstedt (1910) obtained a specimen from the cultivation zone at Kibongoto. It has probably been overlooked due to its inconspicuous nature. The closely related Bar-tailed Trogon A. vittatum occurs from 1600-2900 m on Mt Kilimanjaro (Table 2), and since in many localities the two birds are separated altitudinally (Narina’s mostly at lower altitudes: Britton 1980, Benson 1982, Stuart 1983), it is possible that Narina’s occurs in riverine forest below 1600 m. A single observation of a trogon along the Weru Weru river (c. 1000 m) in the mid-1980s (pers. obs.) could have been this species but the identification was not certain. Cardinal Woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens This woodpecker was noted from the forest by Moreau (1944); however, its occurrence is probably limited to the forest at the lowest altitudes and forested and wooded habitats below the main forest belt. Little Greenbul Andropadus virens This species has been recorded from Marangu (van Someren 1932) and Kibosho (Kittenberger 1959) but was not recorded in this study. It may inhabit the lower forest near rivers and was recently netted at Kahe II Forest Reserve (Cordeiro et al. in prep.). Dark-backed Weaver Ploceus bicolor Williams (1967) is the only person who recorded this weaver from Mt Kilimanjaro. Moreau (1948) notes that unlike some forests in Kenya and eastern Tanzania, Mt Kilimanjaro lacks a forest weaver. As the species also inhabits dense woodland (Britton 1980; N. & E. Baker, pers. comm.), it is possible that the record in Williams (1967) is from the wooded slopes of the mountain. African Broadbill Smithornis capensis This understorey dweller apparently occurs. on Mt Kilimanjaro (Britton 1980). Britton (1980) may have obtained this reference from Kittenberger (1959) who noted it from forest along the Rau River, near Moshi. It was not noted from montane forest and may be under-recorded due to its inconspicuous nature (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989). 88 N. J. Cordeiro Other species Various authors have noted the following from cultivated fields, riverine forest, thickets and foothill forest patches (Sjéstedt 1910, van Someren 1932, Kittenberger 1959, Britton 1980): Kretschmer’s Longbill Macrosphenus kretschmeri, Yellow- bellied Greenbul Chlorocichla flaviventris, Grey-olive Greenbul Phyllastrephus cerviniventris and Green-backed Twinspot Mandingoa nitidula. Ecology and distribution of forest species In this section, most forest-dependent species recorded on Mt Kilimanjaro during this study are discussed. These include some species of the forest edge. The behaviour, feeding niche and habitat preference are described in detail for many species; especially the understorey birds which were the most intensively studied. A summary of habitats, altitude ranges and other notes is presented for all species recorded in the field (Table 2). Threskiornithidae The Green Ibis Bostrychia olivacea was only observed on the south slope in dense and little-disturbed forest. Three individuals were briefly observed feeding in the early morning (6 November) on the ground some 20 m away from a fallen tree. That evening at least two were flushed from the undergrowth and, at dusk, three birds roosted in a huge Ocotea tree about 150 m from the fallen tree. Brown et al. (1982) mention that this ibis “prefers to roost in giant trees with dead tops”. The ibises roosted in the foliage of a very mature tree which lacked a dead canopy. At dawn of the following morning, three birds were again flushed from the understorey in the same locale as the previous day. Accipitridae Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus were seen hunting in pairs, probably searching for troops of Colobus and Blue monkeys (Colobus polykomos and Cerco- pithecus mitis). Both primates hid in the understorey and alarm-called when they detected the eagles (Cordeiro 1992). The distribution of this eagle on both aspects may be related to the presence of Blue Monkeys and Colobus Monkeys: it was recorded at the uppermost levels of the forest on the west slope where both primates were present and was recorded from 1500-2500 m (south slope) which corresponded to the limits of Colobus Monkeys. Accipiter tachiro occurred throughout the forest. It was often caught in mist nets where it attacked netted birds: one killed a White-starred Forest Robin Pogonocichla stellata and another chased a Scaly-throated Honeyguide /ndicator variegatus into a net. Netted birds often give alarm calls attracting goshawks to the vicinity of mist-nets. Phasianidae The Scaly Francolin Francolinus squamatus occurred in the undergrowth and Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 89 frequented glades, streams and dense forest stands. It leaves its sign by digging at elephant dung until flattened and probably consumes the undigested seeds and insects. Columbidae The Dusky Turtle Dove Streptopelia lugens seemed somewhat dependent on the forest edge and the adjacent cultivated fields. It foraged in small flocks (2-8) on the burnt slope close to the forest and roosted in trees at the forest edge and sought refuge there when disturbed. Lemon Doves Aplopelia larvata fed alone or in pairs on the ground for invertebrates and fallen fruits and seeds. At 2050 m (western aspect), five individuals roosted close to each other in a tree and shrubs (Senecio sp. and Piper capense) at understorey level. Psittacidae Red-fronted Parrots Poicephalus gulielmi showed regular daily movements from one part of forest to another. Every morning, flocks ranging from over two to 20 birds would fly southwards from the direction of Ol Molog towards Sanya Juu, returning in the evening. A few flocks would also fly in the opposite direction. On the south slope, fewer birds in smaller flocks (2—10 birds) were seen. These birds flew westwards in the morning and in the opposite direction at dusk. In Kenya, these parrots are known to fly daily from the Cherangani Hills to Mt Elgon (60 km), leaving the hills at dawn and returning at dusk (Fry ef al. 1988). In the evenings, large flocks fed on ripe fruits of Podocarpus trees at the ecotone between the Ericaceous zone and the forest on the west slope. Strigidae Two adult African Wood Owls Strix woodfordii were attracted to a camp-fire at 2050 m along the Mweka route: they kept calling and came closer and closer to inspect the scene. Kittenberger (1959) made similar observations for the Verreaux’s Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus below the forest. Trogonidae The Bar-tailed Trogon Apaloderma vittatum was regularly encountered throughout the altitudinal expanse of forest on both slopes. It snatched prey on the wing and from bark. Timaliidae The African Hill Babbler Alcippe abyssinica fed mainly in the understorey and occasionally in the mid-stratum. It gleaned insects by searching the leaves and branches of shrubs and small trees and was common in dense understorey; it also ate small fruits. Campephagidae The Grey Cuckoo Shrike Coracina caesia is very shy and inconspicuous unless it calls 90 N. J. Cordeiro or flies after prey. It fed in the mid-stratum and canopy by gleaning insects off leaves and branches of trees. It sometimes caught insects in flight, as was observed when feeding in association with the Forest Batis Batis mixta and Black-headed Apalis Apalis melanocephala. Pycnonotidae Mountain Greenbul Andropadus tephrolaemus and Striped-cheeked Greenbul A. milanjensis fed in the understorey and occasionally visited the mid-stratum and canopy where they took insects and fruit. On the west slope both were observed consuming Teclea and Euclea fruits and on the south slope, fruits of the Rubiaceae family were favoured. The densities of A. milanjensis were highest at low altitudes where those of A. tephrolaemus were much lower: A. tephrolaemus dominated above 1900 m. This pattern is indicative of competition which is also believed to affect these species in the Usambaras (Stuart 1983). Olive Mountain Greenbul Phyllastrephus placidus gleaned insects from shrubs and small trees and searched for food in the ground foliage. It often attended ant swarms, sometimes in association with A. milanjensis. Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1960) mention that P. placidus hunts alone or in pairs; however, on Kilimanjaro it was found in small parties, ranging from two to six individuals. Turdidae Robin Chat Cossypha caffra fed in a similar manner as below. When both chats occurred at similar altitudes, as on the west slope, it was rare to find both in the same locale: C. semirufa penetrated deeper into the forest than C. caffra. Riippell’s Robin Chat C. semirufa was very abundant on the west slope where it inhabited the understorey at the forest edge and interior, being less common in very disturbed forest. Although present on the south slope in relatively smaller numbers, it does not seem to prefer the high altitude Podocarpus—Erica forest. It fed on or near the ground where it gleaned insects from the ground or herbal and shrub layers. This chat snatched invertebrates as it hopped on the ground or as it occasionally overturned leaves; it frequented swarms of ants. White-starred Forest Robin Pogonocichla stellata was one of the most numerous of all understorey birds on Kilimanjaro. It foraged mainly in the understorey but sometimes fed in the mid-stratum and canopy. It caught insects in flight through short swoops; gleaned off branches, leaves and tree trunks; and hopped on the ground searching for prey; it was common at ant swarms. Although abundant in undisturbed forest with a very dense understorey, it infrequently foraged at the edge of conifer plantations. Evidence of seasonal movements is provided elsewhere (Cordeiro in prep.). Northern Olive Thrush Turdus abyssinicus: Britton (1980) states that this thrush inhabits the forest edge and glades; on Kilimanjaro, it occurred in the forest interior, forest edge and occasionally hunted in cypress plantations. It usually foraged on the ground and in the understorey where it picked fruits or insects; it also searched for Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 91 insects and fruits at all levels of the forest. It climbed the trunks and branches of trees probing its beak into moss, lichen, clefts or bark for invertebrates. In conifer plantations T. abyssinicus foraged for insects by turning over the fallen needles. On occasion, it was observed feeding in mixed flocks with greenbuls. Abyssinian Ground Thrush T. piaggiae occurred at high altitudes especially where the forest floor is densely covered with mosses and lichens (Grossman pers. comm. ). It probed its beak in clumps of moss and lichens, both on the ground and in the herbal and shrub layers; invertebrates were searched for in topsoil. Sylviidae Bar-throated Apalis Apalis thoracica and Black-headed Apalis A. melanocephala separate vertically: A. thoracica occupied the mid-stratum to canopy level and A. melanocephala the understorey. A. melanocephala often associated with mixed flocks; it gleaned invertebrates from bark and branches, as well as clumps of leaves. When prey species attempted to escape it pursued and captured them in short flights. Both warblers usually hunted alone or in pairs and fed in a similar manner. A. thoracica was found mainly at the forest edge, although it penetrated thin forest where it fed mainly in the understorey layer, seldom being found in the mid-stratum. On the south slope, A. thoracica was rarely encountered in the interior of dense forest but was seen foraging near glades; it was very common on the western gradient. Evergreen Forest Warbler Bradypterus barratti and Cinnamon Bracken Warbler B. cinnamomeus foraged on the ground or in the herbal layer where they gleaned invertebrates from foliage, the base of tree trunks or the ground. Both were infrequently observed at ant swarms. B. barratti occurred at the forest edge and interior, being scarce in thin and shrubby forest where its congener, B. cinnamomeus, often took its place. Both species occurred sympatrically at varying altitudes so long as a forest edge or glade was present; B. barratti preferred very dense understorey and B. cinnamomeus scrubby areas with bracken. In the heath zone, only B. cinnamomeus was observed although B. barratti might have been present in small numbers, especially nearer the forest. At high altitudes where the dominant herbal layer consists of grasses (Diplachne sp.), B. cinnamomeus was very common and B. barratti rare. Grey-backed Camaroptera Camaroptera brachyura was only observed on the west slope where it was a common resident of the understorey at low altitudes. Its apparent absence at low altitudes on the south slope is difficult to understand especially since it occurs in the coffee and banana plantations below the forest belt. It may be restricted to drier forests, thus explaining its absence from the wetter south slope. It fed like B. barratti but sometimes foraged up to 2—3 m high. Mountain Yellow Warbler Chloropeta similis inhabited forest glades and edges with scrubby vegetation containing clumps of bracken: therefore it was abundant on the western gradient and uncommon in intact forest on the south slope. It gleaned invertebrates from the foliage, branches and sometimes sallied for prey. - Hunter’s Cisticola Cisticola hunteri inhabited the forest edge and scrubby forest glades on the west slope (not below 2200 m) and was common in the heath zone. It was especially common in impoverished forest above Scota. 92 N. J. Cordeiro Brown Woodland Warbler Phylloscopus umbrovirens foraged anywhere from ground-level to the canopy; prey was caught in the air or gleaned from foliage or branches. It fed singly, in pairs or associated with mixed flocks consisting of white- eyes and flycatchers. Although present in some numbers on the western aspect, its abundance on the southern gradient suggests a preference for wet forest or more intact forest habitats. Muscicapidae Crested Flycatcher Trochocercus cyanomelas and Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis: T. cyanomelas is confined to low altitude wet forest on the south slope, inhabiting the understorey and occasionally foraging in the mid-stratum. T. viridis frequented the forest edge on the west slope and seldom penetrated the forest interior: on the south slope it occurred up to the Podocarpus—Erica forest, especially where the canopy was thin or broken. T. viridis fed at all levels, but was commonly observed in the mid-stratum and canopy; it sometimes joined mixed flocks consisting of warblers, greenbuls, white-eyes and flycatchers. Forest Batis Batis mixta foraged at all levels of the forest but mostly below the mid- stratum. One observation was made of a pair feeding in the canopy with one Coracina caesia and two Apalis melanocephala. Dusky Flycatcher Muscicapa adusta fed alone, hunting from a perch, and rarely associated with mixed flocks. It usually foraged in the canopy and mid-stratum, and occasionally the understorey; attended ant swarms where it dived for insects that were flushed by the ants. Malaconotidae Black-backed Puffback Dryoscopus cubla fed in the canopy but occasionally descended to the ground when in pursuit of falling prey. It occurred on the west slope below 1800 m and appeared absent on the south slope. This is strange as it occurred in gardens and coffee plantations below the forest belt on the south slope during the study period. It seems possible that it leaves the southern forest during the cold season or that it may not inhabit the forest at all, specifically not wet forest. Britton (1980) notes that D.cubla occasionally occurs inside forest, its prime habitat being forest edges, gardens and woodland. On the west slope, it was found in rather scrubby forest whereas the forest on the south slope is more intact. Hence, habitat preference or climate may be the key factors to this bird’s distribution pattern on the mountain. Many-coloured Bush Shrike Malaconotus multicolor fed as above, although it also hopped from branch to branch in the canopy and mid-stratum, snatching prey along its path. It explored the foliage intensively, searching for prey in all directions. Sturnidae Abbott’s Starling Cinnyricinclus femoralis and Sharpe’s Starling C. sharpii were infrequently seen on both slopes and are probably rare on Kilimanjaro. Small mixed flocks of these birds (up to five individuals) were observed inside forest on the west Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 93 slope above 2300 m, and single-species flocks were seen on the south slope. It is interesting that one or two individuals of C. sharpii were seen with small flocks of C. femoralis; the opposite of which was documented in Arusha National Park (Beesley 1972). Both are canopy species; however, one C. femoralis was seen taking prey on the ground with a party of Turdus abyssinicus. Kenrick’s Starling Poeoptera kenricki and Waller’s Chestnut-winged Starling Onychognathus walleri are canopy species which often occurred in mixed flocks. O. walleri is the most abundant forest starling on Kilimanjaro. Nectariniidae Eastern Double-collared Sunbird Nectarinia mediocris and Olive Sunbird N. olivacea: N. mediocris inhabited the full altitudinal expanse of forest (and the heath zone), being rather dominant in thinner and disturbed forest, and forest at high altitudes, where it appeared to replace N. olivacea. Where both species occurred, N. mediocris was more a bird of the forest edge or glades in more intact forest. N. olivacea was very abundant on the south slope and common on the west slope; this may be a reflection of the habitat differences between the two aspects. Zosteropidae The Montane White-eye Zosterops poliogastra inhabited the full altitudinal expanse of forest as well as the lower heath zone. It was extremely common and was often in mixed fiocks; density was highest in dense undergrowth and canopy. These birds fed in small flocks at all levels of the forest where they gleaned invertebrates from foliage. They probed clumps of leaves, twigs, moss and bark for prey. Since the behaviour of one may disturb potential prey, another member of the flock below the disturbance will often benefit when prey drops or tries to escape. Thus they may take insects and spiders in short, quick flights or by fly-catching. Ploceidae Forest weavers have not been recorded on Kilimanjaro, unlike other adjacent mountains. The Baglafecht Weaver Ploceus baglafecht and Spectacled Weaver P. ocularis frequented various forest habitats at lower altitudes but are not confined to forest. P. baglafecht penetrated up to about 50 m inside intact forest and up to 300 m inside disturbed forest where glades abound (west slope); it occurred at 2400 m in bracken habitat (west slope). On the other hand, P. ocularis foraged in the understorey inside intact forest on the west slope up to about 2200 m so long as there was a forest edge: on the west slope the forest edge extends up to about 2300 m, allowing this “open-country” species access to hunt in the adjacent habitat. Its occurrence only at the forest boundary on the south slope confirms this observation. Kstrildidae Red-faced Crimson-wing Cryptospiza reichenovii was only observed once at the forest edge where a pair were foraging on the ground (west slope). Its apparent absence 94 N. J. Cordeiro in the forest interior may be due to the presence of C. salvadorii, although C. reichenovii’s preference for stream habitats (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989) suggests that it should be present near streams on the mountain. Abyssinian Crimson-wing C. salvadorii occurred throughout the forest and is easily overlooked due to its secretive behaviour. It fed exclusively in the understorey, especially on the forest floor, and was fairly abundant at low to medium altitudes. It foraged alone or in pairs. It was extremely common on the west slope and rather uncommon on the southern gradient. This is probably indicative of its preference for dry forest or less intact forest habitats. Grey-headed Negrofinch Nigrita canicapilla is often overlooked due to its secretive habits. This species occurred at the forest edge and glades, sometimes penetrating the interior near glades or open areas such as forest paths. Although it foraged in the understorey, several observations indicate that it also haunts the mid-stratum to canopy levels. It fed on seeds as well as invertebrates, which it obtained by hopping from branch to branch, carefully searching through foliage or branches. Fringillidae Oriole Finch Linurgus olivaceus fed on the ground and in the understorey. It occurred at high altitudes on the west slope and below 2000 m on the south slope and may have been overlooked on account of its secretive habits. Thick-billed Seed-eater Serinus burtoni fed as above; however, it is more secretive in habits and less tame (exception: see breeding notes). It fed on ripe berries of Rubus volkensii which were growing in a small glade on the south slope. Its call is a short and high-pitched squeak, similar to that of Coracina caesia. Streaky Seed-eater S. striolatus is restricted to the forest edge and the interior of thin, disturbed forest with an abundance of glades, such as that on the west slope. It is typically a species of montane grasslands, scrub and heath. However, when such habitats are near each other due to the presence of severely disturbed forest, its distribution is heightened. On the south slope, the forest is more intact and the small gaps present seem unsuitable for this bird. Understorey forest birds: species diversity and comparison between aspects In dealing with understorey forest birds, species diversity decreases with altitude on the south slope (Cordeiro in prep.), a pattern that is typical on other tropical mountains (Kikkawa & Williams 1971, Terborgh 1971, 1977, Prigogine 1980, Stuart 1983). However, this pattern did not hold true for the western gradient. The factors governing the observed patterns are discussed elsewhere (Cordeiro in prep.). In regard to the understorey avifauna of both aspects, most species were found in reasonably similar numbers on both slopes. However, four forest-dependent birds (Eastern Double-collared Sunbird, Tropical Boubou, Montane Yellow Warbler, Grey- Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 95 backed Camaroptera) were very frequent on the western gradient and found only at the lower forest boundary or in the heath zone on the southern aspect, with some exceptions. In addition, three species (Olive Sunbird, Brown Woodland Warbler and Evergreen Forest Warbler) were very common on the south slope and less frequent on the western gradient. The opposite was true for the Abyssinian Crimson-wing and Riippell’s Robin Chat. Many species appeared to prefer the open and disturbed forest habitats on the western gradient. Species like the Montane Yellow Warbler, Eastern Double-collared Sunbird and Tropical Boubou inhabited forest edges and glades and were uncommon where the forest was intact with a dense understorey. This may also be true for the crimson-wing and robin chat, although the different densities of these two species may also be due to preference for drier forest. Conversely, the Brown Woodland Warbler, Olive Sunbird and Evergreen Forest Warbler are species typical of dense forest, as indicated on both aspects of the mountain. All three were very common in forest with a high density of trees and shrubs and less common in the disturbed and open forest on the western gradient. In addition, possible competition with the Cinnamon-bracken Warbler and/or habitat quality may have negatively influenced the distribution of the Evergreen Forest Warbler. Since this study was conducted during the cold season and the start of the hot season, it remains to be seen whether the densities of some birds (especially crimson- wing, sunbird and warblers) will increase or decrease on each respective slope during the hot months and long rains. Nevertheless, apart from habitat type and quality, which appear to be the main influences on the distributions of the species mentioned above, season and competition may also be important factors to consider. Hence, long-term studies are necessary to completely understand the ecology of the understorey avifauna of this mountain. Composition of birds in the narrow natural forest corridor Only 12 understorey forest species were recorded in the natural corridor above the plantations near Scota (Fig. 3b), despite a sufficient amount of mist-netting (i.e. 7020 n-m-h; see Table 3). The most abundant species were mainly forest edge or glade dwellers whereas several typical forest interior species were either absent or scarce. This result may be associated with the very disturbed nature of the habitat due to selective logging and possibly old fires. Altitudinal distributions The altitudinal distribution of all species recorded in the field are given in Table 2. Eight species (African Wood Owl, Bar-tailed Trogon, Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater, Striped-cheeked Greenbul, Nicator, Riippell’s Robin Chat, Black-headed Apalis, Crested Flycatcher; Table 2) reached higher elevations than reported in Britton (1980). 96 N. J. Cordeiro A further four species (Rufous Sparrowhawk, Dusky Turtle Dove, Scarce Swift and Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater; Table 2) were found at lower elevations than those reported in Britton (1980). The factors governing a bird’s altitude range are not clear-cut and may be a reflection of competition between species which share similar niches, habitat type and quality, temperature, availability of food and seasonal movements (Cordeiro in prep.). Thus, since many of these factors vary from one locality to another, it is probably of no surprise that some of the results here were obtained. Examples include the peculiar distributions of the greenbul, robin chat and apalis. These birds occurred at higher elevations on the west compared to the south slope (Table 2). In other cases, the extension of the forest at high or low altitudes would most likely affect the distribution of forest-dependent species (e.g. African Wood Owl, Bar-tailed Trogon, Dusky Turtle Dove). In fact, the known altitude ranges of some species will undoubtedly change with further research, especially during the very hot (January—February) and rainy (March—May) months. Table 3. Composition of understorey forest species in the natural corridor above the plantations. Species marked with a (*) were observed in the field and believed to be scarce because they were not netted or rarely seen. Some species may occupy both the forest edge and interior Species Numbers captured Forest edge and glade inhabitants Bar-throated Apalis Cinnamon Bracken Warbler Eastern Double-collared Sunbird Montane Yellow Warbler Streaky Seed-eater Tropical Boubou XR OWN ~ Forest interior inhabitants Abyssinian Crimson-wing African Hill Babbler — Brown Woodland Warbler Evergreen Forest Warbler Montane White-eye Mountain Greenbul Northern Olive Thrush Riippell’s Robin Chat White-starred Forest Robin Were *¥WrR *¥*NN Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 97 Seasonal movements Some tropical forest birds are known to move from higher to lower elevations during the cold season and vice versa during the hot season. This has been well documented for the Usambaras (Stuart 1983, 1989), Mt Mulange (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989) and other highland areas in Africa (Mackworth-Praed & Grant 1957, 1960, Benson 1982, Stuart & Jensen 1985, Stuart et al. 1987). Evidence of seasonal movements of understorey forest birds on Kilimanjaro is discussed elsewhere (Cordeiro in prep.); however, species that appeared to migrate during the study period are indicated in Table 2. Many of these species have shown evidence for vertical seasonal movements elsewhere in East Africa (Mackworth-Praed & Grant 1957, 1960, Benson 1982, Stuart 1983, Stuart & Jensen 1985, Stuart et al. 1987, Stuart 1989, Dowsett-Lemaire 1989, Jensen & Brggger-Jensen 1992). Breeding of forest birds During the five-month study period 148 breeding records (including three suspected) of 40 species (including three suspected) were obtained. The breeding data for mostly forest-dependent species and a few non-forest species is shown in Table 4. Given that the study period covers only a fraction of the whole year, an attempt to distinguish any breeding pattern for the avifauna has not been made; however, these results are related to other studies. (A few additional records obtained in 1993 (Grimshaw pers. comm.) are listed in Appendix 1.) Only a few long-term studies have been conducted on the breeding seasons of African forest birds (Moreau 1950b, Beesley 1973, Colston & Curry-Lindahl 1986, Dowsett-Lemaire 1989, Brosset 1990). Two major studies have summarized the breeding information of East African birds (Moreau 1950b, Brown & Britton 1980). Moreau (1950b) described the breeding seasons of terrestrial birds based on habitats and geographical regions. Brown & Britton (1980) present breeding data for 861 species in East Africa, many of which are forest birds. They divide the region into five climatic zones; Region D (which includes Mt Kilimanjaro), being characterized by its bimodal rainfall pattern: long rains from March—May and short rains from October— December. This method poses some flaws in that (i) the region being large, does not characterize any one locality particularly well, and extremities in both the monthly distribution and mean amount of rainfall may be observed (e.g. Voi: 549 mm, Amani: 1926 mm); (ii) breeding records of species in some months may be a result of prolonged drought conditions in a given year, thus distorting the normal breeding patterns of certain species (e.g. Brosset 1990); (i1i) breeding records are not separated by altitude, thus incorrectly suggesting that some species have “prolonged or all month breeding” (Tye 1992). In areas with only one wet and one dry season, breeding peaks during the wet season and is lower before and after this period (e.g. on Mt Nimba, Liberia, Colston & Curry- 98 N. J. Cordeiro Table 4. Breeding records of mostly forest species and a few non-forest species on Mt Kilimanjaro obtained between August and December 1991. Numbers in paren- theses include suspected breeding records Months Species Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total Altitude range (m) Little Grebe i (1) 2100 Long-crested Eagle (1) 1900 Scaly Francolin 2 1 3. = 1950-2050 Lemon Dove 1 1 l 3. =: 1500-2400 Tambourine Dove 1 1 1900 Montane Nightjar 1 1 1900 Bar-tailed Trogon 1 1 2750 Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater 1 1 1500 Moustached Green Tinkerbird 1 2 3. 1750-2200 African Hill Babbler 8 1 1 10 1600-1750 Striped-cheeked Greenbul 1 | 1600 Mountain Greenbul 2 1 l 4 2050-2200 Olive Mountain Greenbul 2 1 2 } 8 1750-2350 Riippell’s Robin Chat - 1 1(2) 1750-2350 White-starred Forest Robin 4 6 5) 17. 1600-2050 Stonechat 1 1 2 2100-2200 Northern Olive Thrush 2 2 «x t11900 Abyssinian Ground Thrush 2 D 2500 Bar-throated Apalis 1 2 3 2 3 11 =1750-—2500 Evergreen Forest Warbler 2 D 1700 Cinnamon Bracken Warbler 1 1 1 3. 1750-2800 Grey—backed Camaroptera 1 l 2 1750-1900 Mountain Yellow Warbler 2 1 1 4 1900-2200 Brown Woodland Warbler 4 3 2 9 1600-2500 White-eyed Slaty Flycatcher 1 1 2200-2300 Forest Batis D 1 3 1600—1900 Crested Flycatcher 1 1 2 1600-1750 African Pied Wagtail 2 2 2100 Tropical Boubou 2 2 2050-2200 Collared Sunbird 1 1 1500 Eastern Double-collared Sunbird 1 1 1 3. ~=1750—2600 Olive Sunbird 1 1 3 2 vi 1750 Montane White—eye 1 I 14 1 4 21 1600-2500 Baglafecht Weaver 1 1 2200 Spectacled Weaver 1 1 2 = 1750-2050 Abyssinian Crimson-wing + 4 2500 Grey—headed Negrofinch 1 1 2350 Oriole Finch 1 1 2200 Thick—billed Seed-eater 1 1 1700 Streaky Seed-eater 2 2 2500 Total 14(15) 23(24) 60 30 ~=—- 18(19) 145(148) Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 99 Lindahl 1986). This pattern is similar for the Nyika Plateau in Malawi, except that most birds breed during the late dry season and early rains (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989). However, in western Cameroon, lowland forest birds breed throughout the year whereas montane species do so in the drier period and stop breeding at the onset of the rains (Serle 1981, Tye 1992). Tye (1992) found that 17 predominantly lowland species breed during the wet season at low altitudes but in the dry season at high altitudes coinciding with the breeding period of the montane avifauna. In high altitude areas with bimodal seasons, most of the forest avifauna breeds during the short rains (Usambara Mountains: Moreau 1950b; Mt Kilimanjaro: Moreau 1936, 1950b; Mt Meru: Beesley 1973; parts of Region D: Brown & Britton 1980). The main wet season would appear unfavourable for most species due to (i) nest destruction by rain storms (Tye 1992); (41) lower temperatures due to rains would involve greater incubation periods for eggs and nestlings (Beesley 1973, Tye 1992); (111) low temperatures would hamper insect activity and abundance (Serle 1981, Buskirk & Buskirk 1976); (iv) fledglings may have better survival chances in the warmer season succeeding the short rains than in the colder period succeeding the long rains for reasons of temperature and insect abundance; and (v) long periods of rainfall could reduce the amount of time required for foraging (Gaston et al. 1979, Tye 1992). Thus the majority of montane species breed during the shorter rains when conditions appear more favourable for rearing young. As earlier suggested by Moreau (1936, 1950b) and by evidence from the present study, this may be the case for many species on Mt Kilimanjaro. The bulk of breeding records were obtained in October and the number of records was lower before than after this month. Since the west and south aspects were covered at different times (except both aspects were surveyed in October) it is difficult to note any obvious differences between the populations of either aspect. Both populations appeared to begin breeding between late September and carried through to December and, possibly January. Interestingly, Moreau (1950b) noted that forest birds on the south slope breed before and during the short rains whereas those of the north slope, where the rainy season is not so marked nor heavy, breed in January and February. He based his idea on a mere 21 definite records from the north side where he carried out fieldwork for only two weeks in February 1938. Although his theory may be accurate, further information from all months of the year needs to be obtained before such a conclusion can be made firmly. In addition, since the data from Kilimanjaro represent only half the year, for those species that had few or no breeding records and an abundance of immatures, breeding may take place prior to, during and at the end of the long rainy season. Moreau (1936), Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1960), Brown & Britton (1980) and Dowsett-Lemaire (1989) note several birds that occur on Kilimanjaro (e.g. Estrildid finches, apalis species, thrushes, Evergreen Forest Warbler, Montane Yellow Warbler) that exhibit this pattern in various parts of East Africa. In conclusion, although these results indicate that breeding for most species does take place before and during the short rains, further research is definitely required to 100 N. J. Cordeiro understand the differences and similarities between aspects due to the differing climatic regimes. In addition, a long-term and year-round study is essential to pin- point the actual breeding seasons of all forest elements on the mountain. Breeding notes for selected species Brown & Britton (1980) lack breeding data in some months for a number of species in Region D. Several records from Mt Kilimanjaro fill in some of these gaps, including new breeding records for three species in Region D (Table 5). In addition, two species (Riippell’s Robin Chat and Montane White-eye) noted not to breed during the short rains (Brown & Britton 1980) were found to do so on Kilimanjaro (Table 5). The breeding records discussed below involve species with few breeding records in Region D or provide new data on breeding behaviour and nest site and structure. Table 5. Breeding data of species for months not noted by Brown & Britton (1980) in Region D Species Laying month Scaly Francolin Oct Tambourine Dove Oct" ” Lemon Dove Oct Montane Nightjar Aug Moustached Tinkerbird | Aug, Nov Mountain Greenbul Oct, Nov Riippell’s Robin Chat Aug, Dec Bar-throated Apalis Aug, Sep, Oct, Dec Evergreen Forest Warbler Dec Cinnamon Bracken.Warbler - Aug, Oct, Nov Mountain Yellow Warbler Sep, Dec Brown Woodland Warbler Oct, Dec Forest Batis Oct, Nov Crested Flycatcher Sep, Oct Tropical Boubou Sep Eastern Double-collared Sunbird Aug Olive Sunbird Aug, Oct Abyssinian Crimson-wing Oct Grey-headed Negrofinch Nov Thick-billed Seedeater Dec Streaky Seedeater Oct Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 101 Little Grebe Short courtship displays by a pair were observed in early December, indicating that they were possibly going to breed in that month or in January. Long-crested Eagle An individual was observed giving a display flight fitting the description in Brown et al. (1982). It was possibly breeding in September. An individual flew high in the air and then descended vertically in an undulating manner, calling infrequently during flight. When perched on a tree after an aerial display, the eagle called loudly. This display was irregular and continued for at least an hour. Scaly Francolin Two family parties were observed in early November, the chicks of which were most likely hatched in October. On a different occasion, a fledgling and two adults were seen just off a forest path. The adults ran away in separate directions, probably trying to divert my attention from the chick, which was probably a few days old. Meanwhile the chick concealed itself in the short vegetation. When the chick was caught the adults ran towards me almost to the point of attacking. The chick weighed 26.8 g and it had two brown stripes running vertically down the back on an otherwise yellowish coat. Lemon Dove Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) note that the nest of this dove is “substantial... with a well-defined cup”, a few feet from the ground in an understorey shrub. Urban et al. (1986) mention that the nest is found at 1-9 m “in tangle of creepers, on debris in fork of tree, or in middle of horizontal bough; nearly always in deep shade.” A nest built with dry twigs found on 25 September, differs from the above descriptions in that it was built where the horizontal thin branches of at least two species of shrubs intertwined. It was well-covered by the leaves of the shrubs (which were about 3 m high) and sat a little over a metre from the ground; the cup of the nest was very shallow. Only one egg (faint pink to light tawny in colour) was present. Montane Nightjar At the end of August, an individual was found nesting on the ground in short secondary vegetation (succeeding a fire), amidst dead leaves. Fry et al. (1988) note that this bird lays its eggs on bare ground, for example near a boulder or in a “burnt clearing”. Two eggs (average length 25.6 mm; average diameter at centre 18.5 mm) sat close together on some dead leaves. The eggs were faint pinkish with irregular rufous brown spots. The adult bird sat on the nest throughout the day, remaining well concealed in the leaf litter. It was approached within 1.5—2 m and yet it remained stationary. It flew off only when an accidental noise was made or if one approached too close. Bar-tailed Trogon Two dependent juveniles were observed being fed by their parents at about 2900 m in Podocarpus—Erica forest in December. Fry ef al. (1988) note a juvenile being fed by its parents in November (Kenya). 102 N. J. Cordeiro Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater A pair were suspected to be breeding at the forest edge in November on the south slope. In December, a juvenile was observed being fed by an adult where the initial observations were made on the adult pair. Montane Yellow Warbler Two pairs were noted to be breeding in September on the west aspect. One pair was continuously caught in mist-nets over a three-day period. They seemed to be taking turns to incubate the eggs; the nest of which was situated in the deep undergrowth of a very thorny bush. Brown & Britton (1980) provide only three records for Region D (July, August, November) and Fuggles-Couchman (1986) noted nest-building October 1943 at Mbulu Mbulu. Brown Woodland Warbler Nests of this species are built “in the side of a bank or against a fallen log or root” (Mackworth-Praed & Grant 1960). Two nests of this warbler were located in a hollow area on the side of a bank along a forest path (c. 75 cm above ground level). The nests were similar to those described by Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1960) but were also lined with moss and lichens. Both contained three eggs. These nests were well concealed and had it not been for the rapid “escape” flight of the adult, they would have never been found. Forest Batis Brown & Britton (1980) do not provide any breeding records for this species in East Africa and Fuggles-Couchman’s (1986) record in December 1956 from the Ulugurus is apparently the first for this region. Three females with large and very fresh brood patches were netted in September and October, thus adding to the East African records. | Tropical Boubou A female, probably killed by a mongoose whilst in a mist-net, laid two light bluish eggs before dying. This was on the west slope on 28 September. Eastern Double-collared Sunbird This sunbird was breeding in October. Its nest was placed about 3 m above the ground at the top of a heath bush on the west slope. The nest was rather oval and not spherical (Mackworth-Praed & Grant 1960) with an opening at the top. Montane White-eye Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1960) state that the nest of this bird is a “deep cup of fibres or lichen lined with fine fibres and attached or slung to large herbs or heaths.” Several nests of this species were found on both slopes that matched the above description, except that some were also lined with moss. One nest was constructed in the vertical fork of a Justicia shrub, approximately 1 m from the ground. Another three were located in clumps of ferns, reasonably protected from above by fern leaves. These nests were slanted and about 50—75 cm from the ground. Two nests were also built about 2 m high in a horizontal fork of the tree Tabernaemontana holstii where they were well protected from rain by the large trees above. Another nest was constructed approximately 3 m off the ground on a horizontal forked branch of the tree Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 103 Podocarpus latifolius. Interestingly, this otherwise gregarious species breeds away from conspecifics and its nest is not always located in large herbs or shrubs, but also in trees at mid-stratum level. The regular number of eggs was two although a couple of nests contained one or three eggs. One nest in a fern bush contained a similar-sized egg that was pale blue, suggesting possible parasitism by a cuckoo, two of which are known to lay such eggs (Red-chested Cuckoo, Emerald Cuckoo: Mackworth-Praed & Grant 1957). The nest was subsequently abandoned. Oriole Finch Fuggles-Couchman (1986) apparently provides the first East African breeding record for this finch. A female with a large and fresh brood patch was netted on the west slope in October. The male was also caught in the same net. Thick-billed Seedeater A pair of this species remained in a dense area of the understorey for long periods at a time (west slope: 8—11 December) and were easily approachable. Both were netted, one of which had a large fresh brood patch. They appeared to be guarding young or eggs but the site was not investigated. Are any birds extinct on Kilimanjaro? On first impression of the literature on the forest avifauna of Mt Kilimanjaro, and a subsequent visit to the mountain, one may be fooled by the absences of several birds (see “Additions and deletions to the forest avifauna’’). The absences of most of these birds is attributed to misidentifications, the broad use of the locality “Kilimanjaro” and, extremely localized distributions. Thus, there is no definite evidence for the extinction of any bird species on the mountain since the late 1800s. Before assuming extinctions based on previous literature, especially older papers, it is necessary to conduct long-term studies in a given locality. Thus, short-term studies on local species extinction should be treated with great caution. As illustrated in some studies (e.g. Benson 1948, Benson & Benson 1977, Leck 1979), there are many discrepancies in viewing species as locally extinct in various parts of the world. Dowsett (1980) carefully points these out for cases in Africa, including his own study (Dowsett 1980): (1) short study periods, (11) overlooking these species due to their secretiveness, (i11) not visiting the exact area where the bird was initially recorded and (iv) a combination of all three. Areas surveyed for longer periods yield more accurate results (e.g. Stuart 1983). Stuart (1983), who studied the avifauna of the Usambara Mountains in Tanzania for over three years, notes no difference in the forest species composition since the earlier detailed studies by Moreau (1935) and Sclater & Moreau (1932-33). The ornithology of Mt Kilimanjaro has been well-surveyed since the time of the early European scientific expeditions; however, as Moreau (1950a) pointed out, there are still gaps to fill. For example, many such gaps were filled since Moreau’s last documentation on the avifauna of Mt Kilimanjaro. He notes the absence of the Red- 104 N. J. Cordeiro faced Crimson-wing and the rarity of the Abyssinian Crimson-wing on the mountain (Moreau 1936 & 1944). Recent investigations suggest the reverse. The present study, though only five months long, has provided new information on many forest birds of Mt Kilimanjaro. Nevertheless, in order fully to understand the ecology of the avifauna, a longer study would be crucial. The conservation of forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro African birds directly and indirectly face imminent threats from the development and exploitation of their habitats. As many as 172 species of the Afrotropical and Malagasy regions were considered threatened by Collar & Stuart (1985), 67.5 per cent of these from the islands and the rest from the continent. Of these, two are believed to be extinct, 28 endangered, 15 vulnerable, 31 indeterminate, 78 rare and 18 insufficiently known. Both extinctions were documented from islands, although Collar & Stuart (1985) mention two mainland birds that have not been observed for over 50 years. In Collar & Stuart (1985), forest or forest-dependent birds represent 65 per cent of the 97 Afrotropical species listed as threatened. They show that the distributions of most of these species centre on the Upper Guinea lowland forest, the forests in western Angola, the montane and lowland forests of Cameroon, the lowland and montane forests along the Albertine Rift (parts of Zaire, Uganda and Rwanda), and the forests of eastern Kenya and Tanzania. The last three areas are considered centres of high forest bird diversity and endemism (Moreau 1966, Diamond & Hamilton 1980). Given these descriptive data, a dismal situation is presented for many forest birds in Africa. This is chiefly because many of the areas richest in bird species are being degraded by various human pressures. Using Tanzania as an African example, forests cover less than 1.5 per cent of the total area of the country and yet are estimated to be cut down at a rate of 100 km?’ per annum (Sayer et al. 1992). Given this alarming rate, and the high bird species diversity and number of endemics in some of these forests, many extinctions are foreseeable in the next few decades. Habitat degradation, in particular of forests, can be due to land development in the form of agriculture (Stuart & Hutton 1977, Brown 1981, Collar & Stuart 1985, Maclean 1993), agroforestry (Collar & Stuart 1985, Lamprey et al. 1991, Maclean 1993) and selective logging (Thiollay 1986, 1992), amongst other factors. Most of these means of destruction have fragmented forests and have had negative effects on forest birds (e.g. South America: Willis 1979, 1980, Lovejoy et al. 1984, Thiollay 1986, 1992; Africa: Carlson 1986, Blankespoor 1991, Newmark 1991a). In regard to the effects on forest bird populations, forest fragmentation is more important than is mere reduction of the forest size: the reduction of forest area affects forest edge birds whereas decrease in diameter affects forest-interior species (Dowsett 1980). Thiollay (1985) observed that the extinction rate of forest species is inversely correlated to the area of a reserve, and thus those species that show seasonal movements require broader habitat types and larger areas. This can also be applied to Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 105 the forest on Mt Kilimanjaro which, as earlier stated, is almost completely fragmented into two parts by huge plantation forests (see Grimshaw & Foley (1991) for details on forest conservation on Kilimanjaro). If altitude-specific birds require to cross from one part of the forest to another, and given that many forest-interior species are inhibited to cross gaps between their habitats (Diamond 1971, Willis 1979, Karr 1982, Newmark 1991a), then these plantations would serve as barriers against their movement. How may we rectify this situation? The strategy of using forest corridors to link the forests seems to be the solution. The concept of wildlife corridors has been viewed by scientists and conservationists as a possible solution to avoid species losses. Allowing small areas of land to be devoid of any human-made barrier (e.g. farm or settlement) between the migration centres of wild animals would maintain genetic heterogeneity between these mobile populations. MacClintock et al. (1977), Willis (1979) and Newmark (1991a, b; 1993), for example, state that corridors between forest patches could enable greater species diversity through recolonization processes. Thus in the case of the forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, possible local extinctions could be avoided in the future through such practical innovations. Research in this area needs to be emphasized in parts of East Africa where the forest habitats have already been fragmented. In the case of Mt Kilimanjaro, a lot more information is needed before the idea of introducing corridors can be considered. These recommendations are outlined below: 1. Long-term research is essential if one is to understand the complexities of bird populations and their horizontal and vertical movements through the forest on Mt Kilimanjaro. Transects need to be conducted on at least four aspects of the mountain (i.e. north, south, east and west) during the warm and cold seasons. This information might not only yield additions to the forest bird check-list, but it could also indicate differences in the composition and distribution of birds relative to aspect or forest type. 2. Population densities and distribution patterns of uncommon or scarce species (e.g. Green Ibis, Abyssinian Ground Thrush, Grey-Cuckoo Shrike, Abbott’s Starling and Sharpe’s Starling) as well as altitudinally-restricted species (see Table 2) need to be assessed. This information might indicate whether or not their populations are non- viable and if the populations are negatively affected by the conifer plantations. 3. Given that some bird populations might be non-viable on Mt Kilimanjaro, it would probably be necessary to determine whether or not individuals can cross the pine plantations. Hence, a long-term ringing project should be established covering either side of the plantations on an altitudinal basis. This project would confirm whether or not birds move regularly across the plantations. 4. The current condition of the natural corridor above the West Kilimanjaro pine plantations is very poor and almost devoid of tall old trees. Although Lamprey et al. (1991) state that the corridors are about 1 km wide, the actual width in some place approaches 300-500 m. In such narrow and open corridors, the forest bird community is very depauperate (see Table 3). Therefore, these corridors must be taken care of to avoid forest areas being completely separated. 106 N. J. Cordeiro 5. The wild bird trade has escalated since 1985, especially in parts of Africa. For example, Tanzania is now the second largest bird exporter in the world, after Argentina (Howell 1992). The bird trade directly threatens species that are in demand as cage- birds in Japan, Europe and the United States of America. Howell (1992), on the other hand, sees that the trade is already having its effects on the Fischer’s Lovebird Agapornis fischeri, a non-forest Tanzanian endemic which, he states, is now scarce outside protected areas. Even in these protected areas, they are being taken illegally. Careful biological monitoring of individual species is urgently required otherwise this trade cannot be sustainable (Howell 1992). No study has been conducted on populations of individual species in the African bird trade. This is crucial as several species were being trapped in the forest/game reserve on Mt Kilimanjaro (see also Grimshaw & Foley 1991). These included the Red-fronted Parrot, Hartlaub’s Turaco and numerous finches. There is no information on the abundance of these species on this mountain or how many are being trapped per day for this trade and how this affects the bird populations. Trapping apparently continues throughout the year. Without this data base and firm regulations on the trade, there appears little doubt that Mt Kilimanjaro could face the local extinction of some species in the future. 6. Snaring for doves and francolins, amongst other animals takes place, especially near human habitations. In one case, when returning to a net ride near the Scota area on the west slope, 16 snares were found, three of which contained Lemon Doves. Two doves were released although their tarsi were swollen and one subsequently died. These doves are uncommon on the mountain and so snaring could have serious effects on the local population. Unfortunately, such activity is hard to monitor and regulate and therefore no immediate solutions can be sought. Acknowledgements In am very grateful to the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTEC) for granting me permission to conduct research on Mt Kilimanjaro. Many other people and bodies assisted and gave me permission to work on the mountain: D.R. Mutashobya, D. Issara, M.I.L. Katigula and D. Sellayike. This project was chiefly funded by the Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania and I thank the Society and the following people who were extremely helpful: Dr. K.M. Howell, N.E. and E.M. Baker and P. Y. Nnyiti. Dr L. Beede and Prof. B. Wisner of the Henry Luce Food, Resources & International Policy Program at Hampshire College made funding available to me covering international travel expenses. The International Council for Bird Preservation—Tanzania provided bird rings at no cost and I thank N.E. and E.M. Baker for this. In Tanzania, Dr K. Howell, N.E. and E.M. Baker, Dr W.D. Newmark and Dr H. Grossman advised me on the different biological and ornithological aspects of my research, without which this study would have been much less fruitful. At Hampshire College the research and writing of this paper has benefited greatly from the advice and Forest birds on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 107 criticism of Dr C. D’Avanzo, Dr B. Schultz and Dr B. Oke. _ Lam also indebted to G. Leyiyo, R. Ardallah, E. Mboya, V. Kallema and E. Macha (Tanzania National Herbarium at TPRI, Arusha) who provided efficient services in the identifications of plant specimens. In addition, the Zonal Forest Management Officers, Olmotoni, Arusha, are thanked for the excellent maps and aerial photographs of Mt Kilimanjaro. Two base camps were established on the mountain. My thanks to M. Mkwembe of Imara Wood Products Co. Ltd. and K. A. Sanga of TWICO who was especially helpful. On the southern aspect, Dr Manyanza, Principal of Mweka Wildlife College, offered his kind services. E. 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Cordeiro, 3145 Canfield Avenue, # 13, Los Angeles, CA 90034, USA Scopus 17: 65-112, October 1994 Received 18 April 1994 Appendix 1 Additional breeding records from Kilimanjaro Timbers at about 2000 m (J. Grimshaw, pers. comm. 1993) Species Date Activity and notes African Black Duck May 1990 with chicks in Lerangwa Korongo White-backed Vulture Aug 1993 immature in nest in forest African Harrier Hawk Apr—May 1993 suspected breeding Mosque Swallow 10 Feb 1990 nesting at sawmill Scopus 17: 113-118, October 1994 113 Bird-ringing recoveries from Ethiopia’: II J.S. Ash A previous list of ringed birds found in Ethiopia, and resulting from birds ringed in Ethiopia and recovered elsewhere, was given in Ash (1981). The recoveries in the present report (Table 1) result from birds ringed in 1969-1980 by the ringers listed in the earlier report, from recent ringing in other countries providing recoveries in Ethiopia, and the discovery of some old recoveries in national ringing schemes’ data banks. Gerhard Nikolaus has been particularly helpful in tracking down old recoveries in German and Russian archives, and in elucidating some recoveries over which there had been queries. Now that the situation in Ethiopia is approaching normality, it is to be hoped that bird-ringing will be resumed, particularly of Palaearctic migrants. Until a national ringing scheme is instituted in Ethiopia, I shall continue to collate recoveries, and shall be most grateful for any information sent to me direct. The conventions and symbols used in the following list follow Spencer & Hudson (1978). The periods elapsing between ringing and recovery are given in days. Of special interest is a Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis, providing the first definite evidence of a Palaearctic bird of this species in the Afrotropics; a second Ruff Philomachus pugnax from Yakutsk in eastern Siberia; an inland Great Black-headed Gull Larus ichthy- aetus; an unexpected relatively long-distance movement by an endemic White-backed Black Tit Parus leuconotus; and long-lived birds include a nine-years-old Riippell’s Long-tailed Starling Lamprotornis purpuropterus, ten-years-old Tacazze Sunbird Nectarinia tacazze and White-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus; and 12-years-old Spur-winged Plover Vanellus spinosus and Black-headed Weaver Ploceus cucullatus. Table 1. Ringing recoveries involving Ethiopia and Eritrea Note: where no country name is given, the locality is in Ethiopia; all rings are ‘London’ unless stated Pelecanus onocrotalus White Pelican Z3— ls, 1972-74 Lake Shalla, (Shoa), 7°27N, 38°28E vv 1978 or’79 Lake Ras Amer, 12°35N, 35°07E, Dinder National Park, Sudan, 680 km NW, > 1309 d Nycticorax nycticorax Black-headed Night Heron Israel Len? Hula Reserve, 33°05N, 35°38E, Israel ? ? before87 Ethiopia (vide Paz 1987) ' and Eritrea 114 J.S. Ash Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Moscow 1 _ 01.07.80 Kalinovski, 39°00N, 48°50E, Liman, Kyzil-Agach, Azerbaijan C301698 X 20-31.10.80 Saraye Region, 11°03N, 39°33E, 3220km SSW, >111d The first proof of a Cattle Egret of Palaearctic origin in the Afrotropical Region (Nikolaus1992). Ciconia ciconia White Stork : Moscow 1 25.06.65 Tukums, 56°58N, 23°10E, (Riga), Latvia A19818 +. early 03.70 Alamata, 12°26N, 39°35E, Rayanokobo (Wollo), 5000 km SSE, 1713 d A 19818 was originally reported as A 19813 (see also under Neophron percnopterus in Ash 1981), aring actually placed on a Cygnus olor Mute Swan. Some of the figures 8 and 3 were difficult to separate on this series of rings, and it is now thought that 19818 is the correct number (Dr I. Dobrinia, pers. comm., per G. Nikolaus). Helgoland 1 11.07.79 near Dannenberg, 53°05N, 11°06E, Germany BBO208 = /?/ 24.01.80 35 km N of Gondar, 12°58N, 37°46E, (Begemdir), 5860 km SE, 197d Gdansk 1 18.07.84 Sroczewo, 52°06N, 17°11E (Poznan), Poland V6467 + 00.12.84 Tacazze River, c. 14°N, 39°E, West Tigray, 4400 km SE, c. 136 d (“Killed with stones by natives’’) Gdansk 1 21.06.87 Debniaki, 52°30N, 19°OOE, Wloclawek, Poland VA731 /?/ 13.06.88 Wollega Province, c. 9°N, 36°E, 4850 km SSE, 357 d The following Helgoland recoveries were listed in Ash (1981), but now have amended data derived from the Vogelwarte Helgoland data base: Helgoland 1 10.07.58 Grosswish, 53°51N, 9°22E, Schleswig Holstein, Ger- many H4108 X (14.03.61) 10°54N, 40°00E, Wollo Province, 5150 km SE, c. 977d Helgoland 1 14.06.63 Freiburg-Laak, 53°49N, 9°17E, Stade, Germany H9141 (04.12.64) 10°33N, 37°35E, SW of Lake Tana, Gojjam, 5200 km SE, c. 528 d Helgoland 3 01.07.34 Coomerau b. Klix, 51°16N, 14°32E, Germany 205062 0 (29.01.35) Dera, 10°10N, 38°59E, Salale, Shoa, 5079 km SE, 212d Anas penelope Wigeon Moscow 2. 20.07.60 Solonchak, 48°44N, 62°12E, Kazakhstan E556.355 /?/ 08.01.61 20 km N of Addis Ababa, 9°15N, 38°43E, 4650 km SSW, 172d Circaetus gallicus pectoralis Black-chested Snake Eagle 1080714 5 04.05.76 Chifra, 11°39N, 40°01 E, Melle, Wollo + 24.07.81 shot where ringed, 1912 d Recoveries from Ethiopia: II 115 Buteo buteo Common Buzzard The identification of the recovery of Rossitten 1286 included in Ash (198 1) under this species had been queried as a possible Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus on the grounds that B. buteo was unknown in the Afrotropical Region. However, the latter species is now known to be a not uncommon visitor to Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia, so the reported recovery can be regarded as valid. Buteo augur Augur Buzzard HW26581 7 16.05.76 15 km NE of Debre Berhan, 9°43N, 39°38E, Shoa X 16.11.80 near Debre Berhan, 9°41 N, 39°3 1, Shoa, 13 km WSW, 1645 d, (ailing) Vanellus spinosus Spur-winged Plover IDSS88203) 2° 19.10.74 Lake Abiata, 7°36N, 38°40E, Shoa X 30.04.83 where ringed, 4211 d DS92172 6 19.04.76 Lake Langano, 7°34N, 38°51E, Shoa X 08.01.80 where ringed, 1359 d Philomachus pugnax Ruff DA10905 4 06.10.76 Koka, 8°24N, 39°02E, Shoa + 20.05.79 Nizhniy-Bestyakh, 61°09N, 128°46E, Kachikattsy, Western Yakut, Russia, 9582 km, 956 d Larus ichthyaetus Great Black-headed Gull Moscow 3. 07.06.76 Alakol Lake, 46°06N, 81°25E, Kazakhstan Al121340 + 21.12.76 Bahar Dar, 11°36N, 37°25E, Gojjam, 5650 km SW, 197d Larus fuscus Lesser Black-backed Gull Stockholm 1 27.06.45 Angholmarna, 55°58N, 14°26E, Skane, Sweden P2258 + 11.10.46 Massawa, 15°38N, 39°28E, Eritrea, 4800 km SE, 471 d Stockholm 1 23.07.72 Njurunda, 62°17N, 17°30E, Medelpad, Sweden 8035138 (X) 30.07.73 Gherar, Massawa, 15°38N, 39°28E, Eritrea, 5300 km SE, 372 d Larus cirrocephalus Grey-headed Gull EF72581 6 21.05.73 Lake Abiata, 7°36N, 38°40E, Shoa X 10.01.94 Lake Zwai, 8°O1N, 38°50E, Shoa, 48 km NNE, 7539 d (“bird found’’) Sterna caspia Caspian Tern Helsinki 1 28.06.73 Hamugrundet, 59°55N, 24°0O1E, Inkoo, Uusimoa, Fin- land HT020181 X, .25:12.73 Lake Langano, 7°34N, 38°51E, 6000 km SE, 180d 116 Stockholm 1 16.06.86 7091348 X 04.07.87 J.S. Ash Stora Garkast, 58°40N, 17°35E, Harts6, S6dermanland, Sweden Lake Abiata, 7°37N, 38°40E, Rift Valley, Shoa, 5961 km SSE, 383 d Pterocles quadricinctus Four-banded Sandgrouse EB71575. 4m 26.04.76 + 04.03.78 Koka, 8°24N, 39°02E, Shoa shot 100 km S of Addis Ababa (where ringed?), 677 d Streptopetia lugens DuskyTurtle Dove DS92215) 3) 2212-73 vy 20.09.75 Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher CN35439 2 13.10.70 v 19.06.71 CN36755 2 13.10.71 + early 01.72 Addis Ababa, 9°02N, 38°46E, Shoa where ringed, 637 d Lake Abiata, 7°36N, 38°40E, Shoa Lake Langano, 7°34N, 38°51 E, Shoa, c. 14 km SE, 249 d Lake Abiata shot Lake Langano, c. 14 km SE, >80 d Merops pusillus Little Bee-eater SA07043 2f 17.02.71 EON LO t Didessa, 9°02N, 36°09E, Wollega shot where ringed, 226 d Hirundo rustica Eurasian Swallow 12.09.69 [?/ 10.11.69 Moscow 2 S48 1544 Moscow 2. 07.05.88 XB696262 /?/ 00.11.88 Chokpak Pass, 42°3 IN, 70°38E, Kazakhstan Coastal Red Sea, 16149N, 39°13E, Eritrea, c. 4500 SW, 60 d Chokpak Pass, Kazakhstan Lake Zwai, 7°57N, 39°07E, Shoa, c. 5500 km SW, 543 d Pycnonotus barbatus White-vented Bulbul BE24175 72. 307-72 v 14.09.75 BP25907 4 04.11.73 v_- 28.07.83 Gambela, 8°15N, 34°35E, Ilubabor where ringed, 1140 d Aseita, 11°34N, 41°27E, Wollo near Djibouti border at 11°54N, 41°30E, 37 km NE, 3553 d Dryoscopus gambensis Northern Puffback BJ98826 2 02.08.70 Mia Sc ali Didessa, 9°02N, 36°09E, Wollega fresh dead, where ringed, 460 d Laniarius aethiopicus Tropical Boubou CJ38004 4 25.02.74 + 05.11.71 Addis Ababa, 9°02N, 38°46E, Shoa killed by sling shot, where ringed, 440 d Recoveries from Ethiopia: II 117 Turdus abyssinicus Olive Thrush CJ74690 4 09.07.76 Addis Ababa, 9°03N, 38°42E, Shoa v 05.03.81 where ringed, 1697 d CJ74968 3J 10.07.76 Addis Ababa X 09.05.77 hit window where ringed, 303 d Melaenornis chocolatina Abyssinian Slaty Flycatcher JX12457 2 22.07.76 Addis Ababa, 9°02N, 38°45E, Shoa + 21.03.82 shot where ringed, 2067 d Parus leuconotus White-backed Black Tit JX11708 4 14.07.75 Addis Ababa, 9°02N, 38°46E, Shoa X 21.08.83 dying at Awasa, 7°03N, 38°28E, Sidamo, 223 km SW, 2960 d Nectarinia tacazze Tacazze Sunbird JJ20821 2f 06.11.73 Addis Ababa, 9°02N, 38°46E, Shoa X 05.07.83 where ringed, 3521 d Ploceus cucullatus Black-headed Weaver CJ38318 4 19.05.74 Gambela, 8°15N, 34°35E, Illubabor + 24.09.86 where ringed, 4511 d Quelea quelea Red-billed Quelea NE47876 4 30.05.80 Kibish Hills, 5°OSN, 35°57E + 26.07.82 Lafon, 5°02N, 32°27E, Southern Region, Sudan, 394 km W, 787 d (killed by spraying) NE460— 3J 26.07.80 Ambo Pond, 4°38N, 37°30E, Yavello, Sidamo v 28.10.81 10 km S of Meki, 8°O5N, 38°51E, Lake Zwai, Shoa, 450 km N, 459 d NE49968 3J 28.07.80 near El] Gumu, 4°30N, 38°OSE, Sidamo + 01.05.84 Mugali, 3°35N, 32°04E, near Nimule, Sudan, 675 km WSW, 1373 d (killed by catapult) Lamprotornis purpuropterus Ruppell’s Long-tailed Starling CJ38494 6 20.09.74 Aseita, 11°34N, 41°27E, Wollo Vv 28.07.83 near Djibouti border, 11°54N, 41°30E, 37 km NE, 3233 d Acknowledgements A full list of acknowledgements was included in Ash (1981). Chris Mead and Bill Erickson were again most helpful, Gerhard Nikolaus discovered more data in Russian and German data banks, John Atkins provided the Grey-headed Gull recovery, 118 J.S. Ash Graeme Backhurst provided valuable editorial help, and Dr I. Dobrinina and Roland Staav kindly provided vital recovery data. References Ash, J.S. 1981. Bird-ringing results and ringed birds in Ethiopia. Scopus 5: 85-101. Nikolaus, G. 1992. Palaearctic Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis wintering in tropical Africa—the first ringing recovery. Scopus 15: 135-136. Paz, U. 1987. The birds of IsraeL London: Christopher Helm. Spencer, R. & Hudson, R. 1978. Report on bird-ringing for 1976. Ringing & Migration 1: 189- 252: Dr J. S. Ash, Godshill Wood, Fordingbridge, Hampshire SP6 2LR, England Scopus 17: 113-118, October 1994 Received 3 December 1993 Scopus 17: 119-123, October 1994 119 Weights of migrant Palaearctic Sylvia warblers in Ethiopia J.S. Ash Of the eight, possibly nine, species of Palaearctic Sylvia warblers recorded from Ethiopia as non-breeding visitors, over 1700 individuals of seven species were weighed—all captured, incidentally, during an investigation into African birds. Eritrea has been separated off recently, but the present data were all collected from within the present-day boundaries of Ethiopia. In general, migrants arrive in Ethiopia with light weights in the autumn, maintain relatively stable ‘non-migratory’ weights, and refatten before departure. Fat deposits are laid down as fuel for long flights, and some species undertake a ‘step-migration’ in which successive stages of intermediate fattening are required for these additional stages. Variations on this theme occur from species to species, and some of them apparently move over shorter distances without recourse to major lipid deposition. Table 1. Seasonal weights of Palaearctic Sylvia migrants in Ethiopia Month mean SD range n mean range n Sylvia atricapilla Blackcap Sep 17.04 1.24 15.0-19.1 16 Oct 17.49 Doll 12.1-22.8 63 Nov 17.14 132 14.3-21.0 107 17.14 12.1-22.8 266 Dec 16.72 1.38 14.0-22.1 ay Jan 17.68 1.85 13.3-—20.9 19 Feb 16.38 2.39 12.8—20.0 9 Mar 19.56 247 14.7-29.3 191 | Apr 19.86 3.75 14.1-30.5 167 19.68 14.1-30.5 371 May 19.19 3.13 15.0-27.6 13 Jun 15.9 ~ 1 Total 18.62 12.1-30.5 638 Sylvia borin Garden Warbler Sepees( L7.29 1.62 14.0-20.2 40 Oct WA) 2.00 12.7-22.2 74 17.16 12.7-22.2 130 Nov 16.63 37) 14.3-18.8 8 Mar 17.06 LAt 15.9-18.9 8 Apr 19.69 3.83 14.5-32.5 149 May — 20.92 4.61 15.5-34.3 53 } 20.01 14.5-34.3 202 Total 18.84 12.7-34.3 332 continued 120 Month mean SD range Sylvia communis Whitethroat Aug 14.05 Sep 13.65 Oct 14.09 Nov 13.91 Dec 13.64 Jan 13.79 Feb 13.66 Mar 13.13 Apr 15.06 May 20.68 Total 13.91 1.01 0.93 1.46 1.46 1.16 0.64 0.89 V.27 2.16 1.07 13.1-16.0 11.0-15.1 11.0-17.8 11.5-17.1 12.0-16.8 13.1-15.0 12.6-14.9 10.9-15.8 11.3-20.5 19.8-22.1 10.9-22.1 Sylvia curruca Lesser Whitethroat Sep 12.10 Oct 10.99 Nov 10.96 Dec 11.26 Jan 123 Feb 11.83 Mar 12°57 Apr 14.90 Total 11.70 0.77 0.77 0.87 0.74 0.96 AT 9.3-12.1 9.1-12.7 9.6—-13.0 9.6-12.3 9.8-15.9 9.1-18.3 9.1-18.3 Sylvia nisoria Barred Warbler Oct 23.51 Nov 24.02 Dec 23.94 Feb 23.55 Mar 23.18 Apr 22.70 Total 233i) 2.88 2.70 Long 1.54 1.84 Ja,5)) 19.6—26.7 20.2—28.0 22.0—24.9 20.0—26.8 19.0-27.0 18.7—26.3 18.7—28.0 Sylvia hortensis Orphean Warbler Dec 23 Feb 22.84 Mar 23.90 Total 22.90 0.15 1.43 1.71 22.1-22.4 20.1—25.3 22.0-25.3 20.1-25.3 yee! Neen, pore” mean 13.74 15.83 11433 12.60 23.65 23.11 22.43 23.90 range 10.9-17.8 11.3-22.1 9.1-15.9 9.1-18.3 19.6—28,0 18.7—27.0 20.1—25.3 22.0-25.3 J.S. Ash 329 wy) 173 69 64 70 20 continued Sylvia weights from Ethiopia 121 Month mean SD range n mean range n Sylvia mystacea Ménétries’ Warbler Oct 9.84 0.77 8.7—10.7 5 Nov 9.53 0.60 8.3-10.4 15 9.70 8.3-11.4 Pe Dec 10.10 L277 9.2-11.0 2 Jan 9.94 0.94 9.1-11.4 5) Feb 10.47 1.20 9.1-12.1 ] 10.47 9.1-12.1 7 Total 9.83 8.3-12.1 34 Weight data are presented on a monthly basis (Table 1), and some background information is provided against which changes in body mass can be assessed. This includes dates of arrival in and departure from Ethiopia, distribution of each species within Ethiopia and, where known, the subspecies involved. There is some additional information to that included in Ash (1980). All weights were obtained from freshly netted live birds, using frequently calibrated Pesola spring balances graduated in grams, and further estimated to the nearest 0.1 g. Retrap weights, where they follow a stopover interval of one night, have been included. The following seven species, with their numbers, are considered here: 638 Blackcaps, 332 Garden Warblers, 358 Whitethroats, 242 Lesser Whitethroats, 23 Orphean Warblers, 34 Ménétries’ Warbler, and 134 Barred Warblers. The only other Palaearctic migrant Sy/via in Ethiopia and/or Eritrea, but not weighed, is the Desert Warbler S$. nana. Riippell’s Warbler S. rueppelli is doubtfully recorded, and one resident species, the Red Sea Warbler S. Jeucomelaena also occurs. Blackcap S. atricapilla S. a. atricapilla and S. a. dammholzi are recorded. Some overwinter, but most pass southwards, apparently in a casual nomadic movement, with a tendency to concentrate at abundant food supplies. They occur throughout the country, except in the arid southeast, between 26 August and 25 May. Few are recorded 3 December — 16 January, and there was a summer occurrence on 18 June, and an earlier record in July 1870 is given by Antinori & Salvadori (1873). The mean weight before departure in March — May (19.86 g) is 18 per cent above the lowest mean monthly weights (16.8 g), and the heaviest bird at 30.5 g was 252 per cent heavier than the lightest (12.1 g). An exceptional spring passage occurred on a small island, Debre Mariam (13°56N, 39°22E) at 1800 m in Lake Tana, from 25 March to 5 April 1977, when 132 were caught and ringed. Garden Warbler S. borin Probably all are S. b. woodwardi. Passage migrants occur 22 August — 24 November and 5 March — 27 May, throughout the country except for the arid southeast. There are no overwintering records in Ethiopia, although there are from slightly further south in Kenya (Britton 1990). Mean monthly weights prior to departure in May (20.92 g) are 122 J.S. Ash 26 per cent above the lowest mean monthly weight of 16.63 g. The heaviest bird at 34.3 g was 170 per cent heavier than the lightest (12.7 g). Whitethroat S. communis S. c. icterops recorded. Some birds overwinter, but the majority continue further south. They occur through most of the country, but only once west of 36°E and none at all east of 45°E. Mean weights before departure in May (20.68 g) are 58 per cent above the lowest mean monthly weights (13.13 g). The heaviest bird at 22.1 g was 103 per cent heavier than the lightest. First arrival date was 26 August and the last departure 14 May; there are relatively few records 2 December — 15 March. Lesser Whitethroat S. curruca S. c. curruca recorded. Birds are present 16 September until the first week of May, and probably all overwinter; there are no records from further south in Kenya (Britton 1980). They are widespread in north and central regions south to 8°N, and thereon down the Rift Valley to 5°30N; always scarce east of the Rift, and there are none west of 36°30E, nor east of 42°E in Ethiopia. Mean weights before departure in March — April (12.60 g) are 15 per cent above the lowest mean monthly weights (10.96 g); the heaviest bird at 18.3 g was 101 per cent heavier than the lightest at 9.1 g. Orphean Warbler S. hortensis S. h. crassirostris recorded. This species reaches the furthest extent of its winter range in Eritrea, and in northeast Ethiopia south to 10°N, occurring between 20 November and 23 March, but is only seldom recorded. It is apparently somewhat nomadic in its quest for seasonal food supplies, and there is little weight variation in the period December — March, and birds probably close to departure at 23.9 g were heavier by only 6 per cent than those with the lowest mean monthly weight. The heaviest bird at 25.3 g was 26 per cent heavier than the lightest at 20.1 g. Ménétries’ Warbler S. mystacea Visitors arrive rather late and depart early, 24 September — 28 February (with the exception of a mid-April record in Ash 1980), presumably consisting of birds near the extreme edge of their wintering range. Mean weights before departure in February (10.47 g) are only 10 per cent above the lowest mean monthly weights in November (9.53 g), suggesting that large lipid deposits may not be required for the relatively short (and possibly leisurely) return journey to breeding areas. The heaviest bird at 12.1 ¢ was 46 per cent heavier than the lightest at 8.3 g. They overwinter through Eritrea, and in the northern Rift Valley, exceptionally as far south as 8°N. Barred Warbler S. nisoria S. n. nisoria recorded. Probably few, if any, overwinter, and there are no records 22 December — 2 February. Each side of this period birds have occurred from the last week of September to 21 December, and 3 February to the first week of May. Birds appear to move south rather slowly and early arrivals in the northern part of the Sylvia weights from Ethiopia 123 country, seldom visited by ornithologists, may have been missed. Birds occur as early as 19-25 August in coastal Sudan (Nikolaus 1983). They are widely distributed north of 11°N, then south down the Rift Valley, although they are very scarce to the west and east of it. Mean weights before departure in March — April (23.11 g) are actually lower than of birds in October — December, suggesting that no major weight changes take place and that heavy lipid levels are not required prior to migration. The heaviest bird at 28.0 g was 50 per cent heavier than the lightest (18.7 g). Acknowledgements I wish to thank Dr D. J. Pearson for his helpful comments on a draft of this paper, and Graeme Backhurst for his editorial help. References As, J.S. 1980. Migrational status of Palaearctic birds in Ethiopia. Proceedings IV Pan-African Ornithological Congress: 199-208. ANTINoRI, O. & SALVADOoRI, T. 1873. Viaggio dei Signori O. Antinori, O. Beccari ed A. Issel nel Mar Rosso, nel Teriitorio dei Bogos e Regioni Circostanti durante gli anni 1870—71. Catalogo degli uccelli. Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova 4: 366-520. Britton, P.L. 1980. Birds of East Africa their habitat, status and distribution. Nairobi: EANHS. Niko aus, G. 1983. An important passerine ringing site near the Sudan Red Sea coast. Scopus 7: 15-18. Dr J. S. Ash, Godshill Wood, Fordingbridge, Hampshire SP6 2LR, England Scopus 17: 119-123, October 1994 Received 18 March 1994 124 Short communications Short communications Birds recorded from the Loliondo area of northern Tanzania The Loliondo Game Controlled Area of northern Tanzania lies in the heart of Masailand, to the east of the Serengeti National Park and immediately south of the Loita Hills and the Ngurumans in southern Kenya, while further to the east is the Rift Valley escarpment and Lake Natron. The altitude ranges from 2000 m on the plains to over 2500 m on the Olosha and Loliondo hills. Forest covers the eastern and southeastern slopes of the hills around Loliondo township, and is the most northerly area of forest of northern Tanzania that lies east of Lake Victoria. It is in effect a southerly extension of the Loita Hills and the Nguruman Forest. From an ornithological standpoint the area is little known, though E.G. Rowe did make a small collection of forest birds from there in October 1931, and which were later deposited in the British Museum. At the time of my visit, 29 May —3 June 1993, the area was unusually dry, the April — May rains having failed over much of the area, and no species were breeding. Table 1 lists all species recorded, while those of noteworthy distributional interest are summarized below. Lemon Dove Aplopelia larvata Two birds on 31 May were the first records from this area of northern Tanzania, though it is known from the nearby Ngurumans. White-headed Wood Hoopoe Phoeniculus bollei A group of three birds on 30 ae was the first record of this species from Tanzania in recent decades. Silvery-cheeked Hornbill Bycanistes brevis A pair seen on several occasions 2—3 June. This species ranges widely east of the Rift Valley, occurring to the west of it only at Loliondo and the Ngurumans. Moustached Green Tinkerbird Pogoniulus leucomystax One on 2 June was the first record from northern Tanzania west of the Rift Valley, though it is known from the nearby Ngurumans. Red-throated Wryneck Jynx ruficollis Singles observed 2—3 June were the first records from northern Tanzania in recent years. Fine-banded Woodpecker Campethera tullbergi Two birds observed 2—3 June were the first records from northern Tanzania, and only the second known locality in Tanzania, all previous records being from the Mahari Mts, near Lake Tanganyika. Brown-backed Woodpecker Picoides obsoletus One on 1 June, and two on 3 June were the first records in northern Tanzania away from the Crater Highlands. Purple-throated Cuckoo Shrike Campephaga quiscalina A pair observed almost daily were the first records of this species from northern Tanzania in recent years. Short communications 125 Yellow-whiskered Greenbul Andropadus latirostris Several observed 2—3 June were the first records of this species in northern Tanzania east of Lake Victoria. Abyssinian Ground Thrush Turdus piaggiae A single bird observed on 30 May was undoubtedly that of the little known race rowei, and was probably the first record of this form since its discovery in 1931. Grey Apalis Apalis cinerea Brown-headed Apalis Apalis alticola The presence of both species at Loliondo extends their area of sympatry from the nearby Ngurumans (Turner 1992). Eastern Double-collared Sunbird Nectarinia mediocris Several seen daily repre- sented an extension of known range from the Crater Highlands. Brown-capped Weaver Ploceus insignis Pair observed 3 June was the first record from northern Tanzania, and only the second known locality in Tanzania, all previous records being from the Mahari Mountains near Lake Tanganyika. Abyssinian Crimson-wing Cryptospiza salvadorii Several seen daily at Loliondo represented an extension of range from the Crater Highlands. Black and White Mannikin Lonchura bicolor Several groups of the race nigriceps were seen almost daily, representing a considerable northward extension of range from Ngorongoro Crater. Table 1. Birds recorded from the Loliondo area Nomenciature follows Britton (1980) where scientific names may be found Forest and forest edge Non-forest Hamerkop Woolly-necked Stork Ruppell’s Vulture Egyptian Vulture Bateleur African Goshawk X Tawny Eagle X Verreaux’s Eagle X Augur Buzzard X Crowned Eagle Hildebrandt’s Francolin Scaly Francolin Lemon Dove Olive Pigeon Tambourine Dove x Kx KK RK ~ KK MK OS continued 126 Green Pigeon Hartlaub’s Turaco African Wood Owl Montane Nightjar Little Swift Black Swift Speckled Mousebird Narina’s Trogon Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater Hoopoe White-headed Wood Hoopoe Silvery-cheeked Hornbill Crowned Hornbill Moustached Green Tinkerbird Red-fronted Tinkerbird Black-throated Honeyguide Lesser Honeyguide Wahlberg’s Honeybird Red-throated Wryneck Little Spotted Woodpecker Fine-banded Woodpecker Brown-backed Woodpecker Bearded Woodpecker Rufous-naped Lark Red-rumped Swallow Grey-rumped Swallow Black Rough-wing White-headed Rough-wing Banded Martin Black-headed Oriole White-necked Raven White-bellied Tit African Hill Babbler Black Cuckoo Shrike Purple-throated Cuckoo Shrike Grey Cuckoo Shrike Yellow-whiskered Greenbul Mountain Greenbul Olive Mountain Greenbul Forest and forest edge >< ~ ~ KK KOK OK OOOO OK a oo a Short communications Non-forest * * Common Bulbul Short communications Robin Chat White-browed Robin Chat Red-capped Robin Chat Capped Wheatear White-starred Forest Robin Olive Thrush Abyssinian Ground Thrush Cinnamon Bracken Warbler Grey-backed Camaroptera Cisticola sp. Hunter’s Cisticola Mountain Yellow Warbler Brown Woodland Warbler Yellow-breasted Apalis Grey Apalis Brown-headed Apalis Tawny-flanked Prinia White-eyed Slaty Flycatcher Dusky Flycatcher Paradise Flycatcher Plain-backed Pipit African Pied Wagtail Black-backed Puffback Tropical Boubou Grey-headed Bush Shrike Brown-headed Tchagra Black-headed Tchagra Fiscal Violet-backed Starling Blue-eared Glossy Starling Red-winged Starling Collared Sunbird Amethyst Sunbird Bronze Sunbird Eastern Double-collared Sunbird Golden-winged Sunbird Variable Sunbird Yellow White-eye Baglafecht Weaver Brown-capped Weaver Forest and forest edge x MK a a a x