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The Scottish Naturalist

The Scottish Naturalist

With which is incorporated

The Annals of Scottish Natural History

EDITED BY

V. G. WYNNE-EDWARDS
Regius Professor of Natural History
Aberdeen University

AND

JAMES W. CAMPBELL

Volume 64

ABERDEEN

!952

3

Printed in Great Britain at The University Press, Aberdeen

JULY

1952

Price

The Scottish Naturalist

With which is incorporated

The Annals of Scottish Natural History

EDITED BY

V. C. WYNNE-ED WARDS

Regius Professor of Natural History , University of Aberdeen

AND

JAMES W. CAMPBELL

All Articles and Communications intended for publication and
all Books, etc., for notice, should be sent to The Editor, Natural
History Department, Marischal College, Aberdeen.

Subscriptions and Advertisements should be addressed to the
Editor.

Annual Subscription : £i is. ; single parts, 7s.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Migrational Drift in Britain in Autumn, 1951 — Kenneth

Williamson ........ 1

The Littoral Ascidians of Argyll — Dr. R. H . Millar . . 19

Recent Notes on the Birds of the Clyde Area, 1950 — Professor

M. F. M. Meiklejohn and C. E. Palmar . . .26

A List of Insects from the Island of Ulva — K. W. Miller and

J. A. Owen . . . . . . . .31

Daily Activities of the Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis in the North

Atlantic in July — F. R. Allison ..... 38

Botanical Note ........ 45

Zoological Notes ........ 46

Correspondence ........ 62

Book Reviews . . . . . . . 37, 63

The Scottish Naturalist

Volume 64, No. 1 Summer 1952

MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN

1951 *

Kenneth Williamson
Fair Isle Bird Observatory

The autumn migration of 1951 at Fair Isle was remarkable
not only for the numbers of birds and wide variety of species
involved, but also for the frequency of “ waves ” of immigrants
from late August onwards to mid-December. At the close of
the season I made a study of the occurrence and composition of
these “ waves 5 5 in relation to the apposite weather conditions.
For this purpose the Observatory’s day-to-day “ Migration
Schedule ” records and the Daily Weather Report of the Meteoro-
logical Office of the Air Ministry were used ; later, records from
other points in Scotland and elsewhere were examined for
possible links. This study has led to a fuller development of
what may be called the <c drift theory ” of migration into the
British area, and a discussion of the nature of this phenomenon,
with illustrations from the autumn analysis, is offered in this
paper.

Acknowledgments

The Fair Isle observations are due to the energies of a
number of observers who stayed at the Bird Observatory for
varying periods during the autumn, and I am grateful to all
these for the part they played in making our records so complete.
It is manifestly impossible, on an island as big as Fair Isle, to
keep an exact tally of all the birds — even, perhaps, all the
species — present at any one time ; innumerable migrants alight

* Received 1 6th April 1952

I

2

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

to rest and feed on the precipitous cliffs, where identification
and counting are beyond human endeavour, but the day-to-day
counts do give a fair indication of changes in the population.

I am also grateful to a number of other observers who
worked at widely separated points during the autumn for
generously allowing me the use of their records. They are the
Isle of May Bird Observatory and Field Station Committee,
Professor V. C. Wynne-Edwards (Aberdeen), Major Robert
F. Ruttledge (Great Saltee Bird Observatory, S.E. Ireland),
Dr. Ian D. Pennie (Noss Head, Caithness, and Tongue,
Sutherlandshire) , Mr. and Mrs. L. S. V. Venables (Dunross-
ness, South Shetland), Messrs. P. J. Conder (Skokholm Bird
Observatory, S.W. Wales), P. E. Davis (Lundy Bird Obser-
vatory, Bristol Channel), James Gunn (Reay, Caithness),
Ian Walker (Little Ross Lighthouse, Kirkcudbrightshire),
Alexander Tulloch (Flannan Islands — per D. G. Andrew),
and James Dixon (Tory Island, N.W. Ireland). My thanks
are also due to Messrs. K. Mylne, D. Jenkins, J. H. Hyatt,
D. R. Wilson and M. K. H. Plaxton, who formed the Cam-
bridge University Ornithological Expedition to Lista in
S.W. Norway, for permission to quote from their records.

The Nature of Migrational Drift

The concept of “ drift 55 as an important influence on bird-
migration in the British area was first put forward by Misses E.
V. Baxter and L. J. Rintoul (1918) over thirty years ago, and it
has been strangely neglected since. They repeat the observa-
tion of W. Eagle Clarke (1912), in regard to Fair Isle, that big
“ rushes 55 of migrant birds appear only during easterly or
south-easterly weather, and that little or nothing arrives on the
east coast when the wind is from north or west. Their analysis
of the situation goes further than Eagle Clarke’s, however, and
they show that falls of migrants will occur no matter if the
wind is light and conditions anticyclonic, or strong with heavy
rain (i.e. of low pressure type), provided the direction is
easterly. They do not consider that the direction of the wind,
apart from its force, stops birds migrating, it merely determines
the route along which they travel after leaving the breeding-
quarters, and “ the deviation from the direct route is largely,
perhaps mainly, due to drift

1952

MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN

3

Later, Dr. Finn Salomonsen (1935) applied the ex-
planation of “ drift ” to the occurrence of a number of
migratory species in the Faeroe Islands, the rare vagrants
especially; he did not, apparently, regard this drift as having
any bearing on the arrival of birds from the Greenland-
Iceland sector or on the movements of the more regular
Continental immigrants, although Misses Baxter and Rintoul
had shown that, so far as the Isle of May is concerned, the
regular and abundant winter-visitors from the Continent are
affected equally with the rarer birds.

I have written elsewhere (1951), when comparing Fair
Isle and Faeroe migration records for 1949, that Fair Isle’s
great reputation as a migration study-centre has been built
up almost entirely on the accident of drift and that it would not
be surprising if the same were true (though perhaps in a lesser
degree) of east-coast observatories such as the Isle of May and
Spurn. Analysis of the 1951 records strongly confirms this
impression. The scale of migrational drift into Britain in
spring and autumn is enormous, with not only the unusual
species but the majority of the commonest ones taking part.
The old idea of a direct “ through passage ”, involving a long
overseas journey between central Norway and Scotland, is no
longer tenable; and such passage-migration as we encounter
over the greater part of Britain is largely due to the onward
flow of birds which appeared in the first instance as the result of
displacement by easterly winds from their Continental coastal
“ guiding-lines ” between the Skaggerak and northern France.

The overall picture given by this analysis of the autumn
movements may be briefly outlined as follows. Anticyclonic
conditions develop over northern or central Europe, and those
birds whose physiological state is attuned to this external
stimulus commence their southward flight. The easterly
airstream below (south of) the anticyclone (round which the
air circulates with a clockwise motion) creates a certain amount
of westwards drift. If North Sea weather is such as to maintain
or intensify this easterly airstream then considerable falls of
migrants occur on the east coast and islands to the north and
north-west of Britain, no matter how light the wind-strength
may be. The actual weather types which produce this
situation are reserved for more detailed discussion at the end of

4

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

this paper. First of all, in order to put the theory of migrational
drift into proper perspective, there are more fundamental
matters to be considered.

Chief among these are two hypotheses which have been the
subject of much discussion in migration literature, and of a
good deal of observational and experimental work. They are
embodied in the terms “ preferred direction 55 or “ standard
direction ”, and Leitlinie or “ guiding lines 55 . There can be
no doubt that each species (or, better, population of a species)
has a certain preferred direction, learned or hereditary, to
south, south-east, west, or south-west through Europe in
autumn towards its wintering-area, and, we might add, south-
east into the British area from the Greenland-Iceland sector.
Rudebeck (1950) has recently attempted a classification of these
groups, and a brief general discussion appears in Matthews
(1952a). As regards the second hypothesis, there is abundant
evidence in the Dutch work on day-migrating starlings and
chaffinches and in Rudebeck’s Swedish observations, that
small birds are loth to attempt the crossing of great stretches
of open water. When a wide expanse of sea or lake or river-
mouth appears on their route they are deflected and fly along
the coast or shore, using the edge of the land as a guiding-line.
(See Geyr von Schweppenburg 1933, and Deelder 1949).

As already mentioned, earlier workers such as W. Eagle
Clarke (1912) and A. Landsborough Thomson (1926),
represented the migration routes of Scandinavian land-birds
by straight lines joining southern and central Norway to the
northern islands and east coast of Britain, and these maps
have been reproduced in several recent works. The Bjerknes
theory of the formation and nature of barometric depressions,
a knowledge of which is essential to an understanding of drift,
was not developed until the first World War, so that the exis-
tence of such routes appealed to previous workers as the simplest
and most logical way of accounting for the very considerable
falls of birds which were and still are an outstanding feature of
Fair Isle, Shetland and east-coast ornithology. But, as
Misses Baxter and Rintoul pointed out, it is inconceivable
that so many Scandinavian summer visitors which winter in
Africa (and which presumably have a standard direction to
south or south-east) should choose to take a circuitous route

1952

MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN

5

through the British Isles, exposing themselves to the hazards
of a double-sea-crossing, such as sudden changes in the weather
and the need to rely for energy on what one might call their
own physiological capital. That birds should expose them-
selves to such risks when an alternative overland route is
possible is incompatible with our present knowledge of their
rapid deterioration in physical condition during migratory
flights, a matter which is discussed more fully in a later section.

The explanation offered by the drift theory, that such birds
do in fact follow a more direct and safer Continental route, and
reach this country solely as the result of displacement when
there are easterly winds, would show the main movements into
Britain running almost at right-angles to the routes of the early
maps. This, of course, is an over-simplification of what actu-
ally happens, but the picture is real enough in this respect, that
the majority of such falls of migrant birds, in spring and autumn,
originate between the Skaggerak and the north-east coast of
France. Aspects of the spring migration have been dealt with
by the present author and others in British Birds (1952).

Factors Initiating Migration

Before proceeding, we may consider briefly what proximate
factors cause birds, whose physiological state is in readiness, to
undertake their biennial journeys. There can be no doubt
that the immediate external factors are to be sought in the
properties of anticyclonic weather. Although this has been
known for many years, there has been a strong tendency to
place undue stress on the importance of barometric and
temperature changes, and to ignore the obvious factors
(perhaps because both are negative ones), namely, the lack of
wind and cloud.

An anticyclone is a comparatively inert air-mass, and its
great virtues for a bird ready to undertake a journey are that
winds remain light or even non-existent over a wide area for
several days, and that they hold comparatively little moisture.
Depressions, on the other hand, are the very opposite of inert,
and are characterised by the existence of strong winds and
fronts which cause thunderstorms or line-squalls (cold fronts)
or widespread areas of rain or drizzle (warm fronts and,
generally, occlusions). The weather generally associated with

6 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

such fronts is therefore of a type which would quickly distress a
travelling bird, wetting the plumage and lowering its efficacy
as an insulation against loss of body heat, and so reducing
cruising range. This point is argued in greater detail under
the heading “ Weight-loss During Migration 55 below. In
view of this, it is hardly remarkable that migrant birds, and
night migrants especially, should have become adapted to
initiating their flights under the influence of anticyclonic
conditions. This is the only possible adaptation, under the
pressure of natural selection, if migrant populations are to
survive.

It seems likely that the bird must recognise an anticyclone
by the one factor that is always constant in such weather and is
all-important to its well-being, namely, the continuance of
calm or nearly calm wind conditions. It is also probable that
the lack of heavy cloud which might obscure the direct light
of the sun is important, since Kramer’s (1952) experiments and
Matthews’ (1951, 1952#) work on homing pigeons and gulls
show that migrants almost certainly require a bearing on the
sun’s position in order to establish their standard direction.
There does not seem to be any physiological evidence to sup-
port the view that a bird is able to appreciate changes or trends
in either temperature or barometric pressure or both. Such
changes, presumably, would be cumulative in any effect they
might have, but they are complex and very uneven, and may
differ widely over a small area in the same high pressure
system. Moreover, as no two weather charts are ever the
same, one must conclude that fluctuations in temperature and
the isallobaric pattern of one anticyclone are never exactly
repeated in any subsequent high, so that a different pattern
of stimuli would be required each time. The simplest ex-
planation certainly appears to be the best, and I believe that
the activity is stimulated by the only constant features of a
“ high ”, the light strength or absence of wind and lack of
cloud * over a period.

* Lack of cloud is not necessarily a constant character of an anticyclone.
When temperature inversion occurs in the upper layers of air, condensation of
moisture may lead to a dense pall of cloud over the whole sky, completely ob-
scuring the sun. Such conditions of “ anticyclonic gloom ”, however, are almost
entirely confined to the winter months, when normal migration has ceased.
It would be interesting to learn whether or not such conditions inhibit winter
“ weather movements ” of birds.

1952 MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN 7

When an anticyclone develops over Europe the exodus of
the particular populations (or age or sex groups within popu-
lations) in which the migratory urge has matured, and which are
waiting for favourable travelling conditions, must have immense
depth and breadth. The more extensive the anticyclone,
the greater the scale of movement. The large numbers and
variety of birds which entered this country at the beginning
of October 1951 were a reflection of the vastness of the anti-
cyclonic systems that had developed over Europe during the
preceding days. When these birds pass within the sphere of
influence of the easterly airstream below the high they are
subjected to a certain amount of westwards drift; and naturally,
so far as we in Britain are concerned, the south-easterly
migrants are affected to a much lesser extent than those which
are heading south-west towards wintering-grounds in France
and the Iberian Peninsula. Nor is the drift so strongly marked
among diurnal migrants as among those which travel regularly
at night, and are thus denied the visual aids which enable
day-migrants to correct for observed drift away from their
guiding-lines. It is significant in this connection that although
many thousands of chaffinches and a large number of bramb-
lings were passing Lista at the beginning of October, the drift
of these species to the Isle of May and Fair Isle was negligible.
By contrast, the influx of robins and goldcrests, which are
typical night-migrants, was tremendous.

The bulk of passerine migration takes place at night in
order that the daylight hours may be spent in feeding and
replenishing lost stores of energy. Such migrants, if they
commence their journey before sunset (and observations at
Fair Isle suggest that many do) will be able to determine their
standard direction, according to Kramer’s postulate. Such
birds, however, will be unable to check their orientation later,
and will have to rely entirely on previously-chosen guiding-
lines or, if these become obscured, fly “ blind ”. When night
has fallen visual migration must be very difficult, and under
moonless or misty conditions well-nigh impossible, since the
avian eye is a poor instrument at such times (Pumphrey, 1948).
As a bird in flight is a part of a moving mass of air a night-
migrant flying “ blind ” can have no physical cues which will
indicate that a drift off course is taking place, or any hint in the

8 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

way of distant cloud-forms that it is moving gradually from
one weather system into another. Migrants attempting the
short sea-crossing of the Skaggerak will be particularly exposed
to the danger of drift. With coastwise migrants farther south,
in Denmark, North Germany and Holland, the tendency to be
displaced out to sea will be accentuated under calm or light
easterly conditions by land-breezes caused by the convection
currents which rise above the sea at night. The existence of
such breezes, coupled with the broken nature of this coastline,
where the North and East Frisian Islands serve as a “ false 55
guiding-line, so to speak, may go a long way towards explain-
ing why Heligoland enjoys such great importance as a bird
observatory. (See J. G. Harrison, Brit. Birds , 1952, 45: 112.)

Weight-loss During Migration

It will be as well to consider at this stage the changes which
take place in a bird’s metabolism during a long migratory
flight. There is a growing mass of data in the Fair Isle weight-
records to show that losses of the order of 20-30 per cent,
of the normal weight occur during North Sea crossings.
Evidence of such loss, and of subsequent recovery, has been
given in F.I.B.O. Annual Report , 1949, pp. 15-16, idem, 1950,
pp. 6-7, and in “ Isle of May Bird Observatory Report, 1950 ”
in Scot. Nat., 1951, 63: 56-63, mainly in relation to migrant
chaffinches.

Prior to the autumn of 1951 the only evidence bearing on
this question had been collected at Fair Isle and the Isle of May,
and it was a disadvantage that there were no comparable
records from stations on the Continent. However, the Cam-
bridge University party trapped and weighed a number of
birds, and the data for selected species were subsequently
compared with arrival weights of individuals of the same
species trapped at Fair Isle over the same period, 28th
September to 3rd October inclusive. Comparison was
restricted to those species in which Fair Isle data could not be
invalidated by the inclusion of local breeding birds, or of
different geographical races from those passing at Lista.
It should be noted that it is unlikely that the Lista birds, many
of which were captured at the lighthouse lantern, were just
commencing their migration ; it is more likely that many

i952 MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN 9

were already drift-migrants at that point from farther east in
the Baltic region.

The records were examined by Mr. Alec Butterfield, to
whom I am indebted for the details set out in the table below,
and for the comments which follow.

Comparison of Bird-weights (in grams) at Lista and Fair Isle

Species

Provenance
and number
examined

Mean

weight

C g •)

Variance

of

mean

Differ-
ence in
mean wt.
(*■)

Prob-

ability

per cent.

Goldcrest

Lista (7)

5-82

0-0305

0-41

10

Regulus r. regains

Fair I. (8)

5‘39

0-0122

Garden warbler

Lista (4)

I7-75

0-6028

CO

10

Sylvia borin

Fair I. (10)

ifi-97

0-1945

Blackcap

Lista (5)

18-70

0-6962

1-31

20

S. a. atricapilla

Fair I. (7)

17-41

0-2332

Redstart

Lista (14)

16-23

0-2360

1-65

20

Ph. ph. phoenicurus

Fair I. (5)

x4'58

0-8585

Robin

Lista (20)

17-72

0-0499

2-80

o-oi

Erithacus r. rubecula

Fair I. (24)

14-92

0-0862

Hedge-sparrow

Lista (2)

22-87

1-8769

5-36

1 -o

Prunella m. modular is

Fair I. (4)

I7*5I

0-4048

Comments by Alec Butterfield: In the six species selected, Lista examples show
higher mean weights than Fair Isle birds. Unfortunately the samples are very
small except in the case of the robin, and this throws some doubt on the significance
of the differences. Against each series in the table is given the probability of the
difference being due to random sampling. The first four probabilities are too
high to rule out the possibility of random sampling being involved (see Mather,
Statistical Analysis in Biology , 1946, for the method of calculating the probabilities).
If random sampling errors were the cause of the differences, however, it might
be expected that some species would show a lower mean weight at Lista than at
Fair Isle. No species does so. The probability that all six species would show
higher mean weights at Lista if the differences were due to random sampling
alone is 1-56 per cent. Taken as a group, we may say that this data shows
beyond reasonable doubt that birds lose weight during an overseas migration.

Note by K. W. One of the hedge-sparrows whose arrival-weight of 16-85 §■
at 09.40 hrs. 3rd October was used in the above calculations was retrapped at
07.15 hrs. 16th October showing 21-9 g., an increase of 30 per cent, of its arrival-
weight in 13 days. It was caught again at the same time on 29th October at
24-54 so that in 26 days it had increased its arrival-weight by 45 per cent.

It will be seen, therefore, that the weight-loss sustained by
a migrant which has to endure a prolonged period of drift is
general, and may be considerable. This loss occurs whatever
the weather: neither the hedge-sparrow nor any other of the
migrants which arrived with the early October “ rush 55

2

IO THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

had to contend with marked frontal disturbances or adverse
weather conditions of any kind other than the light easterly
winds which caused the drift. Reference was made in the
preceding section to the fact that passage through fronts, with
their extensive precipitation, would tend to reduce the cruising-
range of migrants, as the deterioration in weight would take
place more rapidly under such conditions. At Fair Isle it is a
matter of simple field observation that birds which have passed
through a front are more distressed than those which have had
clear weather, and we have noted that redwings ( F.I.B.O .
Annual Report , 1950, pp. 33-36) and water rails ( F.I.B.O .
Bulletin No. 1, 1951) show an apparent correlation of arrival-
weight with wind-direction, those arriving on easterly winds
being heavier than new arrivals trapped when the wind is
from westerly points. The weather records made at the time
suggest that these lighter birds had come in with a front, the
east wind responsible for the drift veering to south-west or west
as the front passed through.

The physiological basis of such weight-change has been out-
lined by R. C. Murphy and William Vogt (1933) in a dis-
cussion of the loss — up to 50 per cent. — sustained by little auks
during a “wreck55 in eastern North America. They say:
“ The physiological processes of birds are extraordinarily
rapid, but the katabolic sequence during starvation and ex-
haustion is the same as among other vertebrates. As the
first stage, the glycogen or animal starch in the muscles and
liver is used. This is followed by the combustion of fat
throughout the body. Until the glycogen and fat have been
practically all utilised, the destruction of muscle fibre is very
slight, but thereafter the protein of muscle tissue is drawn upon
rapidly for the energy of life and movement. The heart is the
last muscular tissue to be diminished. Any starving animal
reaches at a certain point a sudden toxic destruction of tissue,
which represents the pre-mortal breakdown, and which is
irreversible.55 The only difference between the little auk or
other sea-bird and the migrant land-bird is that the one is
striving to avoid and the other to gain a lee shore: they have
equally to draw upon their own stored energy resources during
the period, and the two deciding factors in the life-and-death
struggle are time and the weather experienced.

MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN

1952

The Behaviour of Drift-migrants

1 1

We are now ready to consider what is likely to be the
behaviour of a land-bird which finds itself drifted away from the
coast and over the inhospitable environment of the North Sea.
There is no direct evidence bearing on this question, and the
answer must be sought by deduction from the facts given above,
and from interpretation of the composition of migration waves
at various points in relation to the governing meteorological
conditions. Observations made from a ship, or of birds
arriving at a small island or headland or other fixed point
are not valid, since it is clear that such birds would have set a
definite course to reach that point a short time before.

The drift-migrant in this unenviable predicament could do
one of two things: it could attempt to maintain standard
direction flying whatever the weather along the route, or it
could forsake directional flying altogether and allow itself
to be borne along by the wind-stream. In the first instance, it
would still be subject to a certain degree of drift which it would
have no means of assessing or correcting in the absence of
visual aids. It may be worth interpolating an observation by
Mr. A. Hazelwood ( pers . comm.), who sailed in the Royal Navy
during the war, and who noticed that land-birds at sea,
attracted to the vicinity of the convoy, flew alongside the
ship and altered their direction to conform every time the
vessel changed its zig-zag course. This observation suggests
that the birds regarded the ship in much the same way as they
would have regarded a coastal guiding-line, and it does not
favour the view that directional flying is maintained under
these conditions. Indeed it is extremely difficult to visualise
any benefit which might accrue to a bird through travelling
onwards in this way.

It is clear, however, that there are very distinct advantages
in pursuing the second course. Two needs are paramount,
first, to avoid fronts and their associated precipitation; second,
to travel as far as possible in the shortest time and so conserve
vital energy. By flying before the wind the bird would in many
cases keep ahead of an advancing front and so avoid the worst
of the weather. This would be a very real benefit, but it might
be merely a fortuitous one. It would also greatly increase the
bird’s cruising-range and its chances of making a landfall

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

before physical deterioration reached a critical stage. This
would be an even greater benefit, and it seems to me so power-
ful a factor for survival that it is not unreasonable to suppose
that natural selection could have made it a hereditary pattern
of behaviour in migrant stocks. On the darkest night a low-
flying migrant would have no difficulty in determining, from
observation of the waves, the direction in which its flight made
the greatest headway.

Such behaviour would presumably persist until a distant
island or coastline, indicated by a flashing lighthouse or a fringe
of white breakers against the cliffs, gave the bird a fixed point
on which to set a course for a landfall. We cannot prove that
this actually happens, as was said at the outset, but the view
finds some support in the not infrequent occurrence of south
European rarities in the south of Britain, and of northern
and eastern rarities in Scotland. Such behaviour may well
be more advantageous than persistence in holding to a pre-
determined course, but it carries no guarantee of ultimate
success, and we can only surmise as to the fate of the thousands
of migrants which, in the course of a single season, must miss
the British islands altogether and continue their drift beyond.
There is little doubt that this experience happens rather
frequently and to large numbers of individuals. Obser-
vations of thrushes arriving at the Flannans from the north-
west presumably flying a “ duffer’s course ” against a drift
from the south-east, on 27 th October; and of thrushes reaching
S.T. c Brackenwell ’, fishing 1 5 miles west of St. Kilda at the
beginning of November (Hr. Andrias Jensen, pers. comm.),
strongly suggest a last bid to make a landfall after a night’s
drift through the Orkney-Shetland gap. During the first
week of November Mr. A. Tulloch found a number of thrushes
whose flight had overtaxed their strength, dying of exhaustion
and apparent paralysis on the Flannans, and about the same
time numbers were reported at a weather-ship stationed some
150 miles south of Iceland (Dr. Bruce Campbell, pers. comm .).

If a drift-migrant could continue on the wing indefinitely
it would pass from one weather system to another and eventually
be brought back to land; but performance must be limited
partly by the size of the bird and its physical condition at the
outset of the drift, and partly by the type of weather it

1952

MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN

i3

encounters on the way. Gatke (1895) thought that no bird
could sustain a flight of more than 12 hours duration, but this
must be an under-estimate of the capacity of most species.
Even as far north-west as Faeroe, 600 miles from the Skaggerak,
falls of drift-migrants are considerable and include such frail
species as goldcrest and the phylloscopine warblers. Larger
species, such as the Turdidae, may travel fairly regularly to
Iceland, Greenland and Jan Mayen; and American birds,
waders especially, may safely cross the Atlantic, in some years
in fair numbers. An interesting case was the trans-Atlantic
crossing of lapwings undertaken in an estimated 24 hours,
reported on by H. F. Witherby (1928). It must be remembered
that the ultimate fate of all such birds is not merely dependent
on their making a landfall, but upon their doing so at a place
which affords suitable habitats for the restoration of strength.
(See F.I.B.O. Annual Report , 1949, pp. 15-16, and Williamson
and Petersen a Botni, 1951). Marshall (1952) has made some
pertinent comments on this in connection with drift-migrants,
including a barred warbler which must have flown at least
1,200 miles, at Jan Mayen. It seems likely that although a
bird’s powers of endurance are high under favourable con-
ditions there can be no escape from the fact that the wastage
of bird-life due to drift is on a colossal scale, probably large
enough in some years to affect population adversely over a
part of the breeding-range.

Migrational drift no doubt has its repercussions on changing
distribution, though many of these changes must be of a
temporary nature: one example may be the infrequent

nesting of redwing and brambling in the north of Scotland
(there is a record of redwings nesting at Fair Isle), and another
the occasional breeding of south and central European species
such as the moustached warbler (Hinde and Thom, 1947) in
southern England. The classic example in recent years is the
immigration and establishment of a breeding colony of field-
fares in the Juliannehaab district of south-west Greenland, a
case which has been fully analysed by Salomonsen (1951).
Historically, migrational drift must have been the instrument
of a number of similar extensions of range to the Faeroes
{redwing, twite, blackbird) and Iceland (redpoll, redwing,
starling) on the part of passerine birds.

14 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

The Significance of Rarities, and of some Ringed Bird

Recoveries

It is fashionable to regard the casuals and rare vagrants
which occur from time to time at Fair Isle, Isle of May and
similar places as abnormal, “ disorientated 55 wanderers which,
whilst they possess a certain academic interest, are of no
practical importance to migration study. This summary
dismissal of such individuals as “ disorientated ” waifs implies
that they have either lost the special navigational faculty
of migrant birds, or, due to some genetic deficiency, have
never possessed it. If such a faculty exists, and recent reviews
by Matthews (1951, 1952 a) leave no reasonable doubt that
it does, then it is most unlikely that so many hundreds of
thousands of birds perish for the hereditary want of it, or lose
it in some inexplicable way just when they need it most. If
the behaviour of drift-migrants is as I have suggested, then
there is no need to postulate that either of these unlikely
and unnatural contingencies exists. We might express the
situation in this way, that birds under the influence of migra-
tional drift become voluntarily, and only temporarily,
“ disorientated 55 because it is clearly in the interests of survival
to do so.

It follows, if this reasoning is correct, that there is no
longer any mystery surrounding the extralimital occurrences
of birds. On the contrary, the phenomenon is simple enough,
and it is endowed with an important practical as well as
academic interest, for by correlating such appearances with
the appropriate meteorological data it is possible to learn
something of the source, nature and extent of the drift which
has brought them (and probably many of the commoner
species in the same fall) to a particular observation point.
The value of the island bird observatories in this connection
should be clear, for at such isolated points there is every
justification for regarding day to day changes in the avifauna
as due to overseas arrivals or departures, and the date of
occurrence has a validity which cannot be claimed at mainland
stations, where the picture is often confused by purely local
movements or coastwise passage, either normal or due to the
onward flow of drift which reached the country elsewhere
several days before.

1952

MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN

15

Migrational drift is almost certainly responsible for a
number of the more unusual bird-ringing recoveries. The
best examples are perhaps those of the redwing summarised by
E. P. Leach (1941): birds marked in winter 1934 and 1937
in the east Midlands were recovered in the following winters
in Tuscany, Italy; and a third marked in Cornwall in January
1939 was found at Venezia, Italy, the following December.
A redwing ringed at Fair Isle on 28th October 1951 apparently
“ corrected ” its drift and was in the province of Limburg,
Holland, in early December: and in the same way robins
drifted to Spurn and Cley during the early October rush
perhaps re-orientated themselves, as they were reported from
the Mediterranean region later in the year. A brambling
caught in Worcestershire in February 1937 was in Gironde,
France, the following December; another ringed in Gloucester-
shire in December 1934 was in Tarn-et-Garonne, France,
four winters later; and a third, in Cheshire in February 1931,
was in Yugoslavia in mid-July of 1933. Teal recoveries also
show movement to widely separated wintering areas in different
years, probably due to the same cause, and a number of
winter-caught teal at the Orielton decoy in Pembrokeshire
were captured in subsequent winters as far afield as Denmark,
France, Spain and Italy.

A number of recoveries of Iceland-ringed waterfowl are
very suggestive in this connection. An analysis of the
recoveries of Iceland-bred gadwall, teal, wigeon, pintail,
tufted duck and scaup reported by Bjornsson (1933) and
Gudmundsson (1943), and also by Leach (1945), shows that
between 60 per cent, (wigeon) and 100 per cent, (gadwall) of
such birds winter in Ireland or near the western seaboard of
Britain. This is the distribution one would expect if the theory
of cyclonic approach advanced below holds good: such an
approach is demonstrated in autumn 1951 for the Greenland
white-fronted goose, and it is perhaps significant that 92 per
cent, of the ringing recoveries for this bird so far published by
Salomonsen (1948) are from Atlantic Britain. The same
applies to Icelandic waders such as redshank, snipe, golden
plover and oyster-catcher. There are, however, some curious
anomalies. Three pintail recoveries in the same autumn,
1934, were from southern Italy and Albania, suggesting a drift

1 6 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

in that autumn far south of the normal route and into the
Mediterranean. Similarly, two Icelandic wigeon were shot
as far to the east as western Russia in the spring of 1938,
strongly suggesting that such distant wandering is quite
exceptional and due in the first place to excessive drift. Whilst
the great majority of Iceland waders and waterfowl winter in
Atlantic Europe there have been recoveries of wigeon and
teal in eastern North America, indicating drift in the opposite
direction, and of a common scoter in the Azores.

The Meteorological Background

Fortunately for British ornithologists, it is in the nature
of things that there should be good drifts of migrants towards
these shores in the course of a year. We could hardly be better
situated geographically, for there is in our area an almost
continual conflict between the maritime and continental
types of climate. Anticyclones or highs, which are compara-
tively stable masses of dry polar air, form regularly over the
vast land-mass of Europe in spring and autumn and dominate
the Continental weather. It is useful to regard these as the
“ primary 55 conditions, since they are concerned with
initiating migration. These primary factors alone may lead
to big falls of migrants if the anticyclone is sufficiently vast to
embrace the North Sea and British Isles. The early October
period provides the best example in autumn 1951 of immense
migrational drift under primary weather conditions, though
similar periods followed in the middle and at the end of the
month.

Much of our own weather, on the other hand, is of quite a
different type, being derived from low pressure systems which
develop over the Atlantic as the result of masses of moist
tropical air from the south meeting dry polar air flowing from
the north. The lows or depressions which form generally
move, at first rather quickly, in a north-easterly direction along
the line of the polar front. Very often they slow down and
begin to fill when some distance west or north-west of the
British Isles, and the airstream, circulating anticlockwise about
the centre, may then become southerly or south-easterly over
the North Sea. These low pressure systems, which are often
complex, should be regarded as “ secondary ” weather factors,

1952

MIGRATIONAL DRIFT IN BRITAIN IN AUTUMN

i7

since, whilst they play no part in initiating migration (and may
indeed inhibit it), they nevertheless exert a powerful effect
on the movements once they are under way.

So far as these secondary drift-producing factors are
concerned, the easterly nature of the weather may be assured if
such a depression becomes occluded and the line of occlusion
bulges in a north-easterly direction across the sea, as such
fronts often do. Intensification of the easterly conditions
may result if a smaller or secondary depression buds from the
larger one somewhere along its occluded front, or develops
from a trough, and passes northwards through the North Sea,
following the general rule that such secondaries move in an
anticlockwise orbit about their parent lows, and very often show
a predilection for holding to waterways in preference to en-
croaching over the land. Such minor depressions have their
own fronts and warm sector and their own wind system, and
may be extremely active in the early stages, with strong to
gale force winds on the side furthest from the parent low. Most
of the examples of drift from Continental sources in late August
and September 1951 are of low pressure types, and interesting
changes consequent upon the development of secondary
depressions can be followed in several instances, notably those
of 1 3th- 1 5th and 22nd-24th September.

Migrational drift is sometimes created by secondary
anticyclonic, not low pressure, weather, but such cases seem
to be rare: there was only one instance of this in autumn 1951,
on 7th-8th September. This resulted in a simultaneous drift of
Continental migrants to the east coast and of Greenland-Iceland
birds to Fair Isle. It seems clear from the examples available,
however, that the usual course of drift from the north-west is
of a different kind, birds reaching this country by a cyclonic
approach round the western and southern sides of a fairly
stationary depression which is filling some way south or south-
east of Iceland. Such travellers, and they are as diverse in
kind as buntings and geese, appear to have a following wind,
often strong, all the way. So regular is this “ cyclonic
approach ” that it seems as if we must regard it as the normal
movement of Greenland-Iceland birds to their wintering-
grounds in western Britain, a region they can seldom fail to
reach successfully under such conditions.

3

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

REFERENCES

Baxter, E. V. and L. J. Rintoul, 1918. The birds of the Isle of May:
a migration study. Ibis (1918) : 247-287.

Bjornsson, M., 1933 etseq. Fuglamerkingar . Natturugripasafnid i Reykjavik.
Clarke, W. Eagle, 1912. Studies in bird-migration. Edinburgh.

. Deelder, C. L., 1949. On the autumn migration of the Scandinavian Chaffinch.
Leiden.

Gatke, H., 1895. Heligoland as an ornithological observatory. Edinburgh.
Geyr von Schweppenburg, N., 1933. Zur Theorie der Leitlinie. Ardea ,
22: 83.

Gudmundsson, F., 1943 et seq. Skyrsla um Fuglamerkingar natturugripasafnsins.
Reykjavik.

Hinde, R. A. and A. S. Thom, 1947. The breeding of the moustached
warbler in Cambridgeshire. Brit. Birds, 50: 98-104.

Kramer, G., 1952. Experiments in bird orientation. Ibis, 94: 265-285.
Leach, E. P., 1941. Redwings wintering in widely separated areas in
successive years. Brit. Birds, 34: 243.

1945 seq. British recoveries of birds ringed abroad. Brit. Birds,

38: 222-227,242-246; 41: 174-178,204-208; 43: 284-291.
Marshall, A. J., 1952. Non-breeding among Arctic birds. Ibis, 94:
3I0"333-

Matthews, G. V. T., 1951. The experimental investigation of navigation
in homing pigeons. Jour. Exper. Biol., 28: 508-536.

1952a. The problems of bird orientation. Science News, No. 23:

46-60.

■ 1952 b. An investigation of homing ability in two species of gulls.

Ibis, 94: 243-264.

Murphy, R. C. and W. Vogt, 1933. The dovekie influx of 1932. Auk, 50:
325-349-

Pumphrey, R. J., 1948. The sense organs of birds. Ibis, 90: 1 71-199.
Rudebeck, G., 1950. Studies on bird-migration. Var Fagelvarld, Suppl. 1,
148 pp.

Salomonsen, F., 1935. Aves. Zoology of the Faeroes, Part 54. Copenhagen.
' 1 948 et seq. Preliminary recoveries of lists of birds ringed in Green-

land. Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidss., 42: 100- 102; 43: 251-255; 44:
168-170.

• — — 1951- The immigration and breeding of the fieldfare in Greenland.

Proc. Xth Internat. Ornith. Congress, pp. 515-526.

Thomson, A. Landsborough. 1926. Problems of bird migration. London.
Williamson, K., 1952. (Spring migration of the ring ouzel in 1951.)
Brit. Birds, 45: 251-255.

and A. Butterfield, 1952. (Spring migration of the red-backed

shrike in 1951.) Brit. Birds, 45: 247-250.

and N. F. Petersen a. Botni, 1951. Fugletraek pa Faer^erne i

1949. (English summary). Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidss., 45: 121-138.
Witherby, H. F., 1928. A transatlantic passage of lapwings. Brit.
Birds, 22: 6-13, 43.

1952

THE LITTORAL ASCIDIANS OF ARGYLL

i9

THE LITTORAL ASCIDIANS OF ARGYLL*

R. H. Millar
Marine Station Millport

The ascidians, class Ascidiacea , are the sessile members of the
primitive chordate group Tunicata. Those of the Scottish area
have been investigated by Thompson (1930-34), but most of
his material was dredged. Norman (1869) and Alder and
Hancock (1905-07) included littoral species in their works,
but we still know little of the local occurrence and abundance
of ascidians on the shore. The present paper records the
results of a few years of intermittent collecting on the shores of
several parts of Argyll, on the Scottish west coast.

The coast of Argyll is long and varied, and is remarkable
for the number of places providing considerable or extreme
shelter from wave action. Rapid tidal currents are another
notable feature of the district. Sand and mud are present
in some areas but most of the coast is rocky, and particularly
where the rock is slate there are on the shore many flat stones
which provide suitable attachment surfaces for ascidians and
other sessile organisms.

Collecting was done mainly in the following places :
(1) Sound of Kerrera, (2) Clachan Sound, (3) Easdale Island
and Sound, (4) Cuan Sound, (5) Luing-Torsay Channel.

It is difficult to get quantitative data on the abundance
of animals on the shore, and in the present account species
are roughly classified as: not found ( — -), rare (r), occasional
(oc), common (c), or abundant (ab).

Table 1 summarises the distribution of species in the areas
where collections were made.

A systematic list of the species is given below, together with
notes on habitat, vertical distribution, previously known
geographical distribution, and other facts relevant to a faunistic
survey.

Cla velina lepadiformis (Muller). On stones and rock
about L.W.O.S.T. level, and scarcely extending above this

* Received 1st February, 1952.

20

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol 64

line. This species has been recorded from higher levels on the
shore, but apparently only in pools (Wynne-Edwards, 1948),
and it possibly does not tolerate exposure to the air. Thompson
(J 93<>34) considers it “ a rare species ” in Scottish waters but
the present survey shows it to be commoner than this suggests,
at least on Argyll coasts.

Table I

Species

Locality

Kerrera

Clachan

E as dale

Cuan

Luing
Tor say

Clavelina lepadiformis

oc

oc

c

Polyclinum aurantium

—

oc

—

c

c

Aplidium pallidum

—

—

—

—

c

Amaroucium punctum

—

—

—

oc-c

—

Amaroucium nordmanni

—

— .

—

oc

c

Sidnyum turbinatum .

r

c-ab

c

c

c

Trididemnum tenerum

■ —

oc

oc

oc

oc

Didemnum maculosum

oc-c

ab

c

oc

oc-c

Diplosoma listerianum

—

—

oc

oc

—

Lissoclinum argyllense

—

—

oc

oc

oc-c

Ciona intestinalis

oc

oc

r-oc

oc

—

Perophora listen

—

—

—

r

—

Corella par allelo gramma

—

oc

oc

oc

: —

Ascidiella aspersa

—

—

—

oc

—

Ascidiella scabra

—

c-ab

—

oc

oc

Ascidia mentula

c

oc

— .

oc-c

oc

Ascidia conchilega

c

oc-c

oc-c

c

oc

Styela coriacea

oc

—

—

—

—

Dendrodoa grossularia

c-ab

c-ab

—

—

—

Botryllus schlosseri

c

c

c

c

c

Botrylloides leachi

oc

oc

oc

oc

oc

Pyura squamulosa

oc

r

—

oc

—

Pyura tesselata

oc

r-oc

r-oc

r-oc

oc

Molgula citrina

oc

oc

oc

oc

—

Molgula complanata .

oc

oc

~

—

Polyclinum aurantium Milne Edwards. Usually on the
under sides of stones; many colonies close together It extends
above the level of L.W.O.S.T. and indeed is possibly mainly a
littoral form. The species is already recorded from the Scottish
west coast and as far north as the Shetlands.

Aplidium pallidum (Verrill). Attached, mainly to algae,
at, and a little above, low- water line. A. pallidum , although
distributed from the English Channel to the Arctic, has rarely
been recorded in British waters except from the south. In

1952

THE LITTORAL ASCIDIANS OF ARGYLL

21

Scottish waters it has apparently been found only near the
Orkney Islands in 1 16 metres and west of the Shetland Islands
in 160 to 229 metres. Its occurrence only in the Luing-Torsay
Channel suggests that it is very local. I have also found it on
the lower part of the shore near Mallaig, Inverness. A
wider search might produce more records. The species may
be limited to special conditions of which we still know nothing.

Amaroucium pungtum Giard. Attached to the lower
sides of stones from low water mark to a short distance up the
shore. Berrill (1950) gives the geographical distribution as
very limited, including only the Plymouth region, Channel
Islands, and Roscoff in France. There is, however, a single
doubtful record given by Rankin (1901) for the Lesser Cumbrae
in the Firth of Clyde, and Thompson stated that this, the only
Scottish record, required confirmation. The occurrence of
many colonies in a small area of the shore at Cuan is therefore
of interest and suggests that the previous record from the Firth
of Clyde may be a correct one. In addition, the Irish record
for Blacksod Bay (Hartmeyer, 1915), a personal record for
Roundstone, Connemara, Ireland (material collected by Mr.
H. T. Powell), and records for the coast of North Wales (Dr.
H. A. Cole, personal communication) all point to a wide
distribution along the west coast of Britain. This is certainly
a species whose northern limit of distribution on the west coast
needs to be worked out.

Amaroucium nordmanni Milne Edwards. On stones
and rocks, not above the level of L.W.O.S.T. The validity
and relationships of A. nordmanni Milne Edwards, A.
proliferum Milne Edwards, and A. densum Giard are still
uncertain. Thompson considers them probably identical, but
Berrill maintains their separation. The colonies collected
from Cuan shore and from the Luing-Torsay Channel agree
closely in shape with A. nordmanni but not with A. proliferum or
A. densum. A. nordmanni , however, has not been recorded
from north of the English Channel. A. proliferum , on the other
hand, is reported from the west and east coasts of Scotland
and from the Shetlands and Norway. If we follow Thompson
in combining the three species then the new records agree with
the known distribution, but if Berrill’s view is accepted and the
Argyll colonies are placed in A. nordmanni , then we have a

22

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

considerable northern extension of the range of that species.
The difficulty cannot be overcome until the systematics of the
group are worked out.

Sidnyum turbinatum Savigny. Only on hard sub-
strata such as stones and rocks. S. turbinatum extends from
low water line to a point further up the shore than any other
species collected except Dendrodoa grossularia. This vertical
range, together with what is already known of its occurrence,
suggests that the species is mainly littoral. It is generally
distributed round the British coasts and from the Mediterranean
to Norway.

Trididemnum tenerum (Verrill). On stones, but often
much commoner on the fronds of Fucus serratus. Previous
records confirm this tendency to attach to the fronds of the
larger algae.

Didemnum maculosum (Milne Edwards). On the lower
sides of stones but also on the fronds of Fucus serratus and on the
stems and holdfasts of Laminaria. It is found from the sub-
littoral to a short distance up the shore. Berrill states that the
species does not appear to occur in Scottish waters. But if, as
I believe, we can accept D. helgolandicum Michaelsen as a
synonym of D. maculosum (Milne Edwards), the nearest
existing record is from Faroe. There is also a record from the
Firth of Clyde (Rankin) of “ Leptoclinum This may refer to
D. maculosum , which has subsequently been found there. The
presence of the species in the English Channel, in North Wales
(Dr. H. A. Cole, personal communication) in Argyll, and at
Faroe, shows that it is generally distributed along the south and
west coasts of Britain.

Diplosoma listerianum (Milne Edwards) . On a variety of
substrata — the fronds of Laminaria , the tests of other ascidians,
shells, and stones. Although not common on any of the
Argyll collecting grounds it is not, as Thompson states, a
very rare species in Scottish waters. It is, in fact, generally
if sparsely distributed along the Scottish west coast, in shallow
water, and becomes locally common in suitable places such as
the sheltered and shallow water of docks.

Lissoclinum argyllense Millar. Usually on the lower
sides of stones about low water mark. L. argyllense was first
described only a few years ago (Millar, 1950) and little is yet

I I I I

0 1 Z 3 cm.

Fig. i. — -Amaroucium nordmanni Milne Edwards.
Fig. 2. — Amaroucium punctum Giard.

Fig. 3. — Didemnum maculosum (Milne Edwards).
Fig. 4. — Lissoclinum argyllense Millar.

Fig. 5. — Aplidium pallidum (Verrill).

Fig. 6. — Trididemnum tenerum (Verrill).

I

1952

THE LITTORAL ASCIDIANS OF ARGYLL

23

known of its occurrence outside the original locality. It is
found along with D. maculosum, but is usually less common
than that species.

Ciona intestinalis (L.). Adhering to many kinds of
object — stones, rocks, shells, the tests of other ascidians, and
the fronds of algae. It was found to extend only a short distance
up the shore, but in Skye I have seen it left quite dry at low
water.

Perophora listeri Forbes. The few colonies found were
attached to the lower sides of stones, about the level of
L.W.O.S.T. Thompson and Berrill give no records of the
occurrence of this species in Scottish waters. In the Clyde
Marine Fauna, Supplementary List (1911), however, there is a
single record for Ettrick Bay, Bute. This is apparently the
only previous record of P. listeri in Scottish waters. The
Argyll records are therefore of interest and extend the known
range further northwards along the west coast.

Corella parallelogramma (Muller). Attached to stones
on the lowest part of the shore. Although only found oc-
casionally in the littoral zone, it was sometimes common on the
submerged under sides of floats placed in the flooded quarries
on Easdale Island. C. parallelogramma is therefore probably
a sublittoral species that only rarely succeeds in colonising the
lowest part of the shore. This species is widely distributed
round the British coasts.

Ascidiella aspersa (Muller). On many types of hard
substratum. It was found on the shore only at the lowest
levels, and even there was never common. In several parts of
Argyll, however, it is abundant in shallow water just off-shore,
as for example in Loch Sween, where it may be dredged in
great numbers. Thompson shows that this is a southern
species which spreads northwards along the west coast of
Britain, and that along the west Scottish coast it partly replaces
its near relative A. scabra. I cannot agree with him that north
of the English Channel A. aspersa is “ comparatively rare ”.

Ascidiella scabra (Muller). On a variety of substrata
but in some places most abundant on the fronds of Fucus
serratus which were almost hidden by the ascidians. This
species can withstand exposure to the air for a short time and
it extends a little way up the shore. A. scabra and A . aspersa ,

24

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

although inhabiting the same general localities, were not usually
found together and there seems to be some kind of local habitat
preference by each species.

Ascidia mentula (Muller). Fixed below, or on the sides
of, large stones and boulders. A. mentula was confined to the
lowest part of the shore and to the sub-littoral. It was absent
from places exposed to wave action or to strong tidal currents.
It is generally distributed in suitable places along the Scottish
west coast.

Ascidia conchilega (Muller). Attached to the under
sides of stones and shells to which it adheres closely along its
whole length. This species was found to be commoner than
A. mentula , and possibly because of its close adherence to the
substratum it better withstands the action of wave and tidal
current.

Styela coriacea (Alder and Hancock). The only
occurrence on the shores of Argyll was in the Sound of Kerrera,
where it was found on the test of A. mentula. This species
has been recorded from a few localities in the west of Scotland,
but it does not seem to have been taken previously from the
shore.

Dendrodoa grossularia (van Beneden). This species was
found, sometimes in great abundance, in many places where
there is sufficient shelter, such as crevices under boulders.
In suitable conditions it extends much higher up the shore
than any of the other ascidians studied, and can withstand
several hours of exposure to the air at each tide.

Botryllus schlosseri (Pallas). Attached to rock, stones,
shells, algae, and the tests of other ascidians. Although
commonest about and below low water mark, this species
also colonises the lower part of the inter-tidal zone. Botryllus
schlosseri is of very general occurrence round the British coasts
and was quite plentiful in all the Argyll collecting grounds.

Botrylloides leachi (Savigny). Most often on algae
about low water line, but also on stones. It was found in most
places where B. schlosseri was taken, but in smaller numbers.

Pyura squamulosa (Alder). On stones and boulders at,
and just below, the level of L.W.O.S.T. Previous records
refer only to the Shetland Islands, the Hebrides, and Loch
Gairloch, and Thompson regards it as rare on the Scottish

1952

THE LITTORAL ASCIDIANS OL ARGYLL

25

west coast. The discovery of this species, even if only occasion-
ally^ in three of the collecting places in Argyll suggests that
it is more plentiful than previous records imply. It is worth
noting that both Thompson and Berrill give the size of this
species as 1 to 2.5 cm., but the Argyll specimens attained a
size of 3.6 by 3.0 cm.

Pyura tessellata (Forbes). This species was found in the
same places and habitats as P. squamulosa but in rather greater
numbers.

Molgula citrina Alder and Hancock. Attached to
stones from low water mark up to the level reached by Botryllus.
Although widely distributed on British coasts, it does not seem
to have been collected before anywhere on the west Scottish
coast between the Firth of Clyde and the Shetlands.

Molgula complanata Alder and Hancock. This small
species was collected at, and a little above, low water mark.
The records suggest that although it occurs from the English
Channel to the Arctic, this species is seldom abundant. Berrill
overlooked the Scottish records made by Thompson, who
concluded that there is an area of abundance north-west of
Scotland. I have also taken the species from the shore of
several parts of the Isle of Skye, and believe that it often passes
unnoticed.

REFERENCES

Alder, J., and A. Hancock, 1905-07. The British Tunicata. Ray Soc.,
London.

Berrill, N. J., 1950. The Tunicata. Ray Soc., London.

Hartmeyer, R., 1915. Results of a biological survey of Blacksod Bay,
Co. Mayo. Ireland Sci. Invest. 1914 (1915): 68-70.

King, L. A. L. (editor), 1911. Clyde Marine Fauna, Supplementary List,
Glasgow.

Millar, R. H., 1950. Lissoclinum argyllense n. sp., a new ascidian from
Scotland. Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc., 29: 389-392.

Norman, A. M., 1869. Shetland Final Dredging Report, Part 2. Rep.
Brit. Assoc., 1868: 247-336, 341-342.

Rankin, J., 1901. “ Tunicata ”, in Fauna, Flora and Geology of the Clyde

Area, pp. 181-182, Glasgow.

Thompson, H., 1930-34. The Tunicata of the Scottish Area. Fisheries,
Scotland, Sci. Invest., 1930, No. 3; 1931, No. 1; 1932, No. 2; 1934,

No. 1.

Wynne-Edwards, V. C., 1948. The Tunicate Clavelina lepadiformis
(Miill.) in Aberdeenshire. Scot. Nat. 60: 127.

4

26

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

RECENT NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF
THE CLYDE AREA, 1950*

Compiled by M. F. M. Meiklejohn and C. E. Palmar

Glasgow

At present there is no regular report covering the birds of the
Clyde area, and it was in order to remedy this deficiency that
we recently appealed to members of the Scottish Ornithologists’
Club for notes relating to that area and to that part of the
Forth area which surrounds Aberfoyle.

In this first report we have confined ourselves to reporting
the occurrence of rarities and semi-rarities. We have received
many excellent notes on the breeding distribution and habits
of commoner species: these we have filed, with the intention
of publishing them when, with increased information, we are
able to put together a more complete picture.

Although the following notes deal mainly with the year
1950, we have included a number of unpublished notes of
rarities from previous years.

It is hoped that we may succeed in waking more interest
in the birds of our area by this report.

Those whose notes are herewith included are: Kenneth
Barclay, Miss W. U. Flower, Nicol Hopkins, Ronald Jamison,
Miss M. I. Kinnear, G. L. Sandeman, S. D. Stevenson, Mrs.
R. N. Traquair, Dr. H. D. Slack, J. A. Anderson, J. Greig,
Scott Nelson, and the compilers.

Siskin Carduelis spinus

In view of the rather astonishing scarcity of this species
within our area, we include all records received.

(Summer) Glen Massen, 14th May 1940; Ardhallow,
2 1 st June 1940; near Inveraray, 22nd May 1941, ten to twelve;
near Furnace, Loch Fyne, 31st May 1941 (G. L. S.).

(Winter) Richmond Park, Glasgow, 9th November 1945,
about twenty-four (N. H.); Lambhill, Glasgow, 24th January
1950, one (M. F. M. M.).

* Received 2 6th February 1952

j952 REGENT NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE CLYDE AREA 27

White Wagtail Motacilla alba alba

Occasional on spring migration near Kelvin (W. U. F.).
Hamilton, 8th May 1948, several (C. E. P.) ; 10th May 1950,
one (M. F. M. M.).

Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus

Botanic Gardens, Glasgow, 13th March 1937, two; near
Motherwell, 13th November 1946, fifty (N. H.); Giffnock,
February 1948, about thirty (K. B., R. J.).

Pied Flycatcher Muscicapa hypoleuca

East Renfrewshire, 1950, a pair bred (C. E. P., S. D. S.).

Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus

Beith, Ayrshire, 6th October 1950, one. The observer
(J. Alasdair Anderson, a leading bird artist) watched the bird
for fully five minutes fronr a window of his house as it perched
on a bush outside, less than five feet away. The very con-
spicuous superciliary stripe and double wing-bar were par-
ticularly obvious, and with the image of the bird fresh in his
mind immediate confirmation was obtained from the Handbook .

Black-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus erythropthalmus

A bird of this species was picked up dead in Kintyre on
8th November 1950. A full account has already appeared in
the Scot. Nat., 63 : 131-132.

Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus

Eaglesham Moors, 13th May 1950, a male (G. E. P. and J.
Greig). The bird was seen at about 50 yards. Dark marks
were clearly seen on the wing, both above and below. The
bird was close enough for the observers to notice that the rump
did not show white, but was more or less the same colour as
the back. The local shepherd, a keen and intelligent observer,
had seen the bird accompanied by a female on two occasions.
Subsequent exhaustive search of the moor, however, did not
reveal the birds again.

This record is of especial interest for comparison with a
recent record from near Perth (Scot. Nat ., 63 : 132) and a
rather more nebulous record from Berwickshire ( Edinburgh
Bird Bulletin, 2 : 10).

28

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol 64

Bewick’s Swan Cygnus bewickii

Loch Lomond, mouth of R. Endrick, igth November 1949,
three (C. E. P.). They were close to a number of whoopers,
with which they did not associate, and the difference in size
was most noticeable.

White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons

The assumption that white-fronted geese occurring in our
area belong to the Greenland race A. albifrons flavirostris is
confirmed by at least one specimen from Kintyre in the
Glasgow Museum, Kelvingrove. A bird shot at Beith by
J. Alasdair Anderson on 4th December 1937 is probably also
referable to this race (see Scot. Nat., 1938 : 55).

Sheld-duck Tadorna tadorna

Bothwell Bridge, 17th March 1950, one, probably a
female (M. F. M. M.). Uncommon in Lanarkshire.

Gadwall Anas strepera

Summerston, a pair, 30th April 1933; near Possil Loch,
1 8th November 1945, one female (N. H.). Bardowie Loch,
1 8th March 1950, one female; 15th April 1950, one male
(W. U. F.).

Garganey Anas querquedula

Hamilton, a drake was present on 23rd and 24th May 1950
(M. F. M. M.).

Wigeon Anas penelope

An albinistic wigeon duck, paired with a normal drake,
was seen at Hamilton on 23rd January 1950. It was of a
uniform pale buff colour, with underparts and speculum
white. A similar bird was present in October and December
of the following winter (M. F. M. M.).

American Wigeon Anas americana

A drake of this species was seen by N. H. at Summerston
on 20th May 1936 at a distance of about thirty yards. The
following features were noted: “size of wigeon . . . chest

and flanks dull chestnut: rest of underparts white: white
wing patch: head white, speckled black with greenish tinge:
also a green stripe from eye to back of neck ”.

i952 RECENT NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE CLYDE AREA 29

We agree with Mr. Hopkins5 identification of this bird,
but regret that, after this interval of years, it will be impossible
to establish whether it was an “ escape 55 or no. The date
perhaps is unusual for the occurrence of a genuinely wild bird.

Eider Somateria mollissima

High Dam, near Eaglesham, 15th October 1950, a drake
in eclipse plumage. This occurrence was preceded by a period
of westerly gales. The identification was confirmed by Mr.
George Arthur (Mrs. R. N. T.).

Storm Petrel Hydrobates pelagicus

At Ardeer shore, Ayrshire, 9th October 1950, one was
observed during a severe gale. It was undamaged and feeding

(M. I. K.).

Leach’s Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa

Bearsden, 20th September 1950, one found dead in garden
(Miss L. Hutchison, C. E. P.). Ballantrae, 16th October
1950, one found dead in cemetery (Scott Nelson). Both
specimens in Glasgow Museum.

Red-necked Grebe Podiceps griseigena

Near Gartocharn, 19th November 1949, on a pool near the
R. Endrick a bird of this species was observed, still in partial
summer plumage (C. E. P.). Rossdhu, Loch Lomond, 22nd
February 1947, one found dead on the ice (M. V. Brian per
Dr. H. D. Slack).

Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis

Summerston, one was present from 1st to 5th October 1930.
The upturned tilt of the bill was noted (N. H., record confirmed
by W. Rennie).

Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa

N. H. considers it regular on autumn passage at Summer-
ston, Balgray and Motherwell. The largest number observed
together by him was seven at Motherwell, 7th-28th August 1940.
This was later increased to twelve (Roy Ferguson). Dumbarton,
14th October 1949 (M. F. M. M.) ; this appears to be only the
second record for Dumbartonshire. Barassie, Ayrshire, 20th
November 1949, two (Ian F. Stewart per M. I. K.).

30 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST VgI. 64

These records give an interesting indication of the bird’s
increasing frequency.

Little Stint Calidris minuta

Motherwell, 18th October 1946, one (N. H.). It was in
company with dunlins, which afforded a basis for comparison
of size.

Ruff Philomachus pugnax

Observed regularly in autumn at Summerston, Balgray,
and Motherwell. The maximum number observed at one
time was eleven at Motherwell, 24th August 1944 (N. H.).

Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus

Rouken Glen, 26th April 1933, one in almost black breeding
plumage. Summerston, 15th July 1936, one (N. H.).

Irvine, 19th February 1950, one. It was a little bigger than
the common redshanks, with which it was consorting; but it
was not large enough for a greenshank. It had a general pale
greyish appearance and a faint dusky pectoral band. It did
not fly, so the absence of white wing-bar was not noticed.
The observer is familiar with the species (C. E. P.). This
winter record should be compared with a recent March record
from the Solway {Scot. Nat ., 63: 195).

Black Tern Chlidonias niger

Balgray Dam, 22nd August 1934, one (N. H.). Hamilton,
26th September to 8th October 1950, one. This bird was
seen by a number of observers who were attending the con-
ference of the Scottish Ornithologists’ Club. On 1 12th
October there were three birds present; they stayed until
20th October, a very late date (M. F. M. M. and others).

Iceland Gull Larus glaucoides

A first year bird of this species in the white phase of plumage
was first observed by N. H. at Hamilton on 20th December
1949. With only brief absences the bird has remained there
ever since, and at the time of writing (January 1952) is still
present. It has probably been prevented from migrating
by an injury to one leg. A fuller account of this bird has been
sent to British Birds.

1952

A LIST OF INSECTS FROM THE ISLAND OF ULYA

3i

A LIST OF INSECTS FROM THE
ISLAND OF ULVA *

K. W. Miller and J. A. Owen
Edinburgh

During July and the beginning of August 1948 the authors
visited the Island of Ulva (v.c. 103) with a party of members
of the Edinburgh University Biological Society, and collected
several of the major groups of insects. One of us (K. W. M.)
paid two further visits, lasting two to three days, to the island
in September 1948 (with Mr. S. Wyndham Miller) and again
in May 1949.

A few specimens were obtained from Mull, Iona and StafFa
during short visits to these places, and these have also been
listed.

As accurate determination is essential if faunistic lists are
to have any value, we first of all identified the majority of
specimens ourselves and then submitted most of our collections
to appropriate authorities, either at the British Museum
(Natural History) or elsewhere, for confirmation.

We cannot claim that our lists are by any means complete,
especially with regard to the Hymenoptera and Hemiptera,
but, as several of the species are of considerable interest and
as we do not anticipate being able to revisit the island in the
near future, we feel that these results are worth publishing
now.

All records are for Ulva during the period July- August 1948,
unless otherwise stated.

Nomenclature

Some difficulty was experienced over nomenclature.
At first we had hoped to follow Kloet and Hincks’ Check List
of British Insects (1945), but although we found this work of
great assistance, we eventually decided, for most groups,
to adhere to the names used by the authors of the various

* Received 18 th July 1951.

32 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

standard works used in identifying our specimens. These are
as follows:

Lepidoptera: Ford, Butterflies (1945); South, The Moths of
the British Isles (1939); Meyrick, Revised Handbook of British
Lepidoptera (1928) (“micros55 only).

Coleoptera: Joy, A Practical Handbook of British Beetles

(1932).

Odonata : Longfield, The Dragonflies of the British Isles { 1937).
Hymenoptera and Hemiptera : Kloet and Hincks, with one
or two exceptions when names used by the authorities who
checked our work are retained.

Odonata

Cordulegaster boltonii Don., common. Aeshna ?juncea L., seen
on the wing. Libellula quadrimaculata L., one specimen, May
1949. Sympetrum Pstriolatum Charp., seen twice. Orthetrum
coerulescens Fabr., one specimen; another seen. Pyrrhosoma
nymphula Sulz., two specimens taken; also two in May 1949.
Enallagma cyathigerum Charp., two specimens taken at height
of about 1,000 feet.

Hemiptera

Heteroptera

Pentatoma rufipes L. JVabis flavomarginatus Sch. JV. ericetorum
Sch. JV. limbatus Dahlb. Anthocoris nemorum L., nymphs.
Lygus contaminatus Fall. Stenodema holsatum F. Orthotylus mar -
ginalis Reut. Plagiognathus arbustorum F. Gerris costae H.-S.
G. lacustris L. Velia currens F.* Notonecta sp., taken as nymphs.
Corixa sp ., taken as nymphs. Saida ( Sciodopterus ) morio Zett.

Homoptera

Aphrophora spumaria L. ( = alni Fall.). Philaenus leucophthalmus
Edw. ( = spumarius Fall.). Euacanthus interruptus L. Cixius
cunicularius L.

* Since this manuscript was prepared a paper has appeared dealing with the
genus Velia in Britain (E. S. Brown, Ent. Mon. Mag., 87 : 297, 1951).

From this paper it appears that the British Velia hitherto regarded as Velia
currens L. are not identical with the Fabrician type. All the specimens from Ulva
were submitted to the author of the above paper, to whom we acknowledge our
thanks, and have been identified as V. caprai, which appears to be the common
British species.

1952

A LIST OF INSECTS FROM THE ISLAND OF ULYA

33

Lepidoptera

Pararge aegeria (Speckled Wood). Fairly common in
suitably wooded parts of Ulva and Mull. The specimens
taken all appear to be referable to ssp. oblita Harrison.

Eumenis semele (Grayling). Common, especially on the
shore and sea cliffs. As is usual in the Islands these specimens
are all much brighter than the typical form with a greater
degree of contrast between the dark and light areas on the
wings. Similar specimens were also taken on Iona, Staffa,
and Mull.

Maniola jurtina (Meadow Brown). Very common and
referable to the ssp. splendida White. Especially fine specimens
were also taken on Staffa.

Coenonympha pamphilus (Small Heath). Very common.

Argynnis selene (Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary). Common
during the early part of our stay.

A. aglaia (Dark-green Fritillary). Very common on the
heath and represented by the ssp. scotica Watkins.

Euphydryas aurinid (Marsh Fritillary). One rather worn
specimen in July and a web of small larvae in September.
Unfortunately the latter did not survive the winter.

Vanessa atalanta (Red Admiral). One specimen of this
migrant was seen in September.

Aglais urticae (Small Tortoiseshell). A few imagines and
numerous larvae in July and August.

Nymphalis io (Peacock). An occasional imago and numerous
larvae in July and August. A number of imagines in
September.

Polyommatus icarus (Common Blue). Common on Ulva,
Mull and Staffa.

Lycaena phlaeas (Small Copper). One specimen, Ulva,
July. Common in September on Mull and Ulva.

Callophrys rubi (Green Hairstreak). A few specimens in
May and one larva in July.

Pieris brassicae (Large White) . Several specimens in
September.

P. napi (Green-veined White). Fairly common.

5

34

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

Laothoe populi (Poplar Hawk), ova on Salix. Lophop-
teryx capucina (Coxcomb Prominent). Thyatira batis (Peach
Blossom). Lasiocampa quercus (Oak Eggar), larvae of ssp.
callunae Palmer on Calluna. Macrothylacia rubi (Fox Moth),
larvae common on moors. Philudoria potatoria (Drinker),
common both as larvae and imagines. Saturnia pavonia
(Emperor), larvae common on heath. Spilosoma lubricipeda
(White Ermine), imago July, larvae September. Parasemia
planiaginis (Wood Tiger). Diacrisia sannio (Clouded Buff).
Arctia caja (Garden Tiger). Nudaria mundana (Muslin).
Apatele rumicis (Knot Grass), also larva, September. Lyco-
photia porphyrea (True-lover’s Knot). Actebia praecox (Portland
Moth) , September only. Ammogrotis lucernea (Northern Rustic) ,
two very dark specimens flying during the day at a height of
nearly 1,000 feet. Amathes baja (Dotted Clay). A. ditra-
pezium (Triple-spotted Clay). A. xanthographa (Square-spot
Rustic), May and July. Diarsia brunnea (Purple Clay).
D.f estiva (Ingrailed Clay). Ochropleura plecta (Flame Shoulder).
Axylia putris (Flame). Triphaena comes (Lesser Yellow-under-
wing). T. pronuba (Large Yellow-underwing). T. janthina
(Lesser Broad-border), July and September. Polia nebulosa
(Grey Arches). Diataraxia oleracea (Bright-line Brown-eye).
Hadena contigua (Beautiful Brocade). H. bicruris (Lychnis).
Tholera cespitis (Hedge-rustic), May only. Cerapteryx graminis
(Antler Moth). Procus fasciuncula (Middle-barred Minor).
Apameafurva (Confused). A. rurea (Clouded-bordered Brindle).
A. lithoxylea (Light Arches). A. monoglypha (Dark Arches).
Euplexia lucipara (Small Angle-shades). Hydraecia lucens (Large
Ear) September only (det. from genitalia). H. micacea (Rosy
Rustic), September only. Leucania impura (Smoky Wainscot).
Caradrina clavipalpis (Pale Mottled Willow). Rusina umbratica
(Brown Rustic). Cosmia trapeziua (Dun-bar). Omphaloscelis
lunosa (Lunar Underwing), September only. Citria lutea
(Pink-barred Sallow), September only. Cucullia umbratica
(Shark). Anarta myrtilli (Beautiful Yell ow-underwing) . Rivula
sericealis (Straw Dot). Plusia chrysitis (Burnished Brass).
P. bractea (Gold Spangle). P. pulchrma (Beautiful Golden Y.).
P. gamma (Silver Y.), September only. P. interrogationis
(Scarce Silver Y.). Abrostola tripartita (Spectacle), July and
September, i^anclognatha grisealis (Small Fan-foot). Hypena

J952 A LIST OF INSECTS FROM THE ISLAND OF ULVA 35

proboscidalis (Snout). Hipparchus papilionaria (Large Emerald).
Iodis lactearia (Little Emerald). Sterrha biselata (Small Fan-
footed Wave). Scopula ternata (Smoky Wave). Odezia atrata
(Chimney Sweeper). Lygris testata (Chevron). L. populata
(Northern Spinach). Dysstroma truncata (Common Marbled
Carpet), May and July. D. citrata (Dark Marbled Carpet)
May only. Xanthorhoe ferrugata Cler. ( = unidentaria Haw.)
(Dark-barred Twin-spot Carpet) . X. designata (Flame Carpet) .
X. montanata (Silver-ground Carpet). Colostygia pectinataria
(Green Carpet), May and July. Venusia cambrica (Welsh Wave)
Mesoleuca albicillata (Beautiful Carpet). Lyncometra ocellata
(Purple Bar). Perizoma alchemillata (Small Rivulet). P.
jlavofasciata (Sandy Carpet). Euphyia bilineata (Yellow Shell).
Hydriomena furcata (July High-flyer), May and July. Eupithecia
centaureata (Lime-speck Pug). E. absinthiata (Wormwood Pug).
Gymnoscelis pumilata (Double-striped Pug). Orthonama lignata
(Oblique Carpet). Cabera pusaria (Common White Wave).
Campaea margaritata (Light Emerald). Gonodontis bidentata
(Scalloped Hazel), May only. Opisthograptis luteolata (Brim-
stone). Cleora repandata (Mottled Beauty). Ematurga atomaria
(Common Heath), May only. Lithina chlorosata (Brown Silver-
line), May only. Zygaei ia pupuralis (Transparent Burnet).
Z- achilleae (Scarce Burnet). Z* flipendulae (Six-spot Burnet).
Hepialus fusconebulosa (Map-winged Swift). H. hecta (Gold
Swift). Crambus margaritellus Hubn. Alucita pentadactyla L.
Scoparia ambigualis Treits. Pyrausta ( Rhodaria ) cespitalis Schiff.
Mesographe ( Pionea ) forficalis L. Tortrix viburnana Schiff.
( = donelana Carp.). Borkhausenia ( Hofmannophila ) pseudospretella
S taint. Tpsolophus parenthesellus L. ( = Cero stoma costellus F.
in Meyrick).

COLEOPTERA

Cicindela campestris L., May and July. Cychrus rostratus L.
Carabus catenulatus Scop., May and July. C. nemoralis Mull.,
May only. C. glabratus Pk. C. granulatus L., May and July.
C. arvensis Hbst. Nebria brevicollis F. N. salina F. L. (— iberica
Ol.). Pseudophonus pubescens Mel., May and July. Harpalus
latus L., May and July. Pterostichus madidus F., May and July.
P. niger Schal. P. vulgaris L., May and July. P. nigrita F.,
May and July. P. streams Pz. Abax ater Vill., May and July.

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

36

Vol. 64

Amara ovata F., May only. Calathus piceus Marsh. Synuchus
nivalis Pz. Anchomenus rujicornis Goez. Agonum mulleri Hbst.
Deronectcs griseo-striatus De G. Hydroporus erythrocephalus L.
H. pubescens Gyll. Agabus paludosus F. A. arcticus Pk. A.
bipustulalus L. Ilybius aenescens Th. Rhantus bistriatus Berg.
Dytiscus lapponicns Gyll. Acilius sulcatus L. Gyrinus natator L.
(== substriatus Steph.). Cercyon lateralis Marsh. C. haemorr-
hoidalisY ., May only. Atheta ( Metaxya) pertyi Heer, May only.
Tachinus laticollis Gr., May only. Quedius tristis Gr. Staphy-
linus erythropterus L., Mull only. S. caesareus Ceder. S.

stercorarius Ol. S. globulifer Geof. Philonthus carbonarius Gyll.
Proteimis brachypterus F., May only. Necrophorus humator F.,
July and September. N. vespilloides Hbst. Thanatophilus

rugosus L. Oeceoptoma thoracica I.. Phosphuga atrata L., May
and July. Aphidecta obliterata L. Aphodius fossor L., May only.
A. rufus Moll. A. nijipes L. A. depressus Kg., May only.
Geotrupes stercorarius L., May and July. G. stercorosus Sb., May
and July. G. vernaiis L. S erica brunnea L. Phyliopertha

horticola L. Athous haemorrhoidalis F., May and July. Agriotes
obscurus I,. Corymbites cupreus F. Prosternon holosericeus OL,

May only. Dascillus cervinus L. Donacia discolor Pz. Galeruca
tanaceti L. Galerucella tenella L. Lochmaea suturalis Th.,
September only. Chaetocnema concinna Marsh., September only.
Otiorrhynchus sulcatus F. Phyllobius argentatus L. Barynotus
moerens F. Phytonomus punctatus F. Anthonomus pedicutarius L.
Micrelus ericae Gyll. Mesites tardyi Curt., also on Mull.

Hymenoptera

Bombas hortorum L. B. lucorum L. B. jonellus Kby. B.
agrorum F. s.sp. septentrionalis Vogt. Psithyrus barbutellus Kby.
P. campestris Panz. s.sp. swynnertoni Rich. Andrena tarsata Nyl.
Vespa rufa L. V. vulgaris L. V. sylvestris Scop. V. norwegica F.
Ancistrocerus pictus Curt. A. albotricinctus Zett. Chrysis ignita L.
Blepharipus dimidiatus F. Abia sericea L. Tenthredo olivacea Klug.
Selandria serva F. Ichneumon didymus Grav., bred from cocoon
of Philudoria potatoria L. I. obsessor Wesm. Banchus volutatorius
L. Cratophion gravipes Grav. Triclistus curvator Fab. ( = spira-
cularis Thm.). Enicospilus ramidulus L.

We are greatly indebted to the following authorities
for their kindness in checking our specimens: W. H. Tams

1952

A LIST OF INSECTS FROM THE ISLAND OF ULYA

37

(Lepidoptera-Heterocera), R. J. Izzard (Hemiptera), J. F.
Perkins and R. B. Benson (Hymenoptera), all of the British
Museum (Natural History), D. K. Kevan (Coleoptera) and
Professor F. Balfour-Browne (aquatic Coleoptera).

In addition we received much assistance from Dr. A. C.
Stephen, Keeper of the Natural History Department, Royal
Scottish Museum, who also allowed us access to the collection
there.

Finally we would like to thank the Hon. Mrs. Eric Aldridge,
of Ulva, who kindly allowed us to use Ardalum House as our
laboratory and living quarters, and who, in addition, rendered
us much assistance during our stay on the island.

BOOK REVIEW.

Freshwater Life of the British Isles. By John Clegg. London : Warnes’
Wayside and Woodland Series, 1952. Pp. 351. 16 plates in colour,

51 in half-tone, 95 text-figs. 21s.

This is a welcome addition to the literature of freshwater biology. Though
the author’s claims are modest enough it takes a worthy place in a deservedly
popular series of natural history hand-books. The work aims at providing
the young naturalist or interested layman with a straight-forward and
sufficient account of the zoology and botany of freshwaters. Its appearance
is very timely, as a gap in the literature of the subject at this level has been
evident for some time. The amount of ground to be covered, however, is
large, and might well have resulted in a dry condensed textbook or a
superficial popular account. The author, with much success, has taken
a middle course, and with his particular audience in mind shown remarkable
skill in presenting his subject adequately, yet in agreeable fashion.

The main part of the book is given over to a descriptive natural history
of aquatic organisms, arranged systematically. Two chapters are devoted
to aquatic plants, followed by thirteen on fauna from Protozoa to Verte-
brates. The practical directions for collection and examination are
excellent. There is a well-chosen bibliography, a list of anglers’ names for
various aquatic insects and a good nine-page index. The book is well
illustrated.

A few minor errors will no doubt be corrected in a subsequent edition,
e.g. misprints on p. 29 {Paramecium) , p. 320 (. Dreissena ), p. 102 ( Lankesterella )
and on p. 337, 339. The derivation given of “ thermocline ” (p. 36) seems
doubtful. On p. 238 several statements on the habits of salmon fry need
revision.

The book is a sound piece of work and much care and thought have
been expended on it. It can be recommended confidently to teachers as an
excellent introduction to biology, and as an instructive handbook for the
young naturalist and that section of the public interested in learning
something about the freshwater flora and fauna. — R. M. N.

38

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

DAILY ACTIVITIES OF THE FULMAR FULMARUS
GLACIALIS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC IN JULY

F. R. Allison
Leeds

In July 1950 I spent some time on the ocean weather ship
Weather Explorer , and the following paper is an account of my
observations on fulmars.

Ocean weather ships are well suited for bird-watching,
with a good observation position on top of the balloon-shed.
These ships steam out to their “ stations 5 5 and then they just
drift, keeping within a 1 o mile square and steaming back on to
“ station 55 every time they drift out of the square. This
steaming back to position is usually only necessary about once
a day. The ship was therefore stationary most of the time and
offered facilities for a study of the daily activities of the birds
in that particular part of the ocean. When the ship did move
its usual speed was 9 knots, and though the number of fulmars
was reduced some still followed.

Preliminary observations showed that the fulmars had
approximately the same cycle of activities each day. Counts
were made of the numbers near the ship and the numbers ;
engaged in flying, feeding, preening and sleeping throughout
the day. Details of all the counts are too bulky to be included
and a summary of them is given in Table I.

Most of the counts were made when the ship was drifting,
but some were made when she was moving, and some of these
are included for comparison though they cover only 13 hours
altogether.

The times of all counts have been corrected to Local Mean
Time for the ship’s position, namely 590 N, 190 W (i9th-20th
July) and 6i°N, ii°52' W (2ist-28th July). This time cor-
rection is necessary if the behaviour of fulmars is to be studied
in relation to solar time and if the two sets of counts are to be
compared.

The results are presented as graphs showing the average
number of birds per count, or the average number engaged
in a given activity. In Fig. 2 the number flying is represented

u

Q.

JL

o

to

LU

cr

<x5

o

Z

CL

LU

UJ

_J

CO

6

Sju

sgwi@ jo

tiSSWnN 30Vd3AV

40 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

as the percentage of the numbers of birds seen. Hour 2
includes the readings from 0130 hours to 0230 hours and hour 3
from 0230 hours to 0330 hours, etc. x2 tests indicate the
variation is significant for all activities except in the graph of
preening. The shaded portion under the time base indicates
roughly the hours of darkness. Sun-rise varied from 0305
hours to 0325 hours and sunset from 2050 hours to 2110 hours.

Some of the fulmars studied showed signs of moulting
primaries which in July should indicate non-breeding birds,
whilst others did not and may have been breeding birds out
foraging. No differences in the behaviour of the two groups
could be detected.

Ship Drifting

Numbers and Percentage Flying

The graph of the average number of fulmars about a
drifting ship (Fig. 1) shows that the birds were least numerous
at night-time, and from sunrise to just before noon increased
to an average peak of 83, and then diminished, till by sunset
the numbers were down to the low average of the night-time
counts again.

This change in numbers is probably associated with the
feeding habits of the fulmar. Their food is recorded as being
mainly planktonic by Fisher and Waterston (1941) and
Salomonsen (1950), and it has been demonstrated by Russell
(1927) and others that most planktonic animals, including
jellyfish, ctenophores, nereids, chaetognaths, pteropods, cope-
pods, mysids, cumaceans, isopods, amphipods and euphausians
recorded in the fulmar’s diet, have a vertical diurnal migration
which brings them into the surface waters at night. Murphy
(1936, pp. 486, 869) records the movement to the surface
at night-time of cephalopods, also recorded as preyed on by
fulmars.

As the fulmar does not often dive, but feeds from the surface,
it must capture its food when it comes near the surface at
night. The very limited depth which is accessible by this
method of feeding and comparative scarcity of plankton within
these limits means that fulmars must cover a wide area in
feeding to obtain sufficient food, and must leave the ship to

1952

DAILY ACTIVITIES OF THE FULMAR

41

get food when it can most readily be caught. This view is
supported by the graph of the percentages of birds flying
(Fig. 2), which has a night-time peak; but this is somewhat
weakened by the fact that the number of birds observed in the
night hours 2300, 2400, 0100 and 0200 is small and the average
number of birds flying for any hour is roughly constant at
about 2 to 5.

The numbers of fulmars near the ship and the percentage
seen flying are therefore believed to reflect the nocturnal
feeding imposed on them by their method of feeding and the
habits of their prey.

Feeding and Preening

So far as feeding is concerned, this section refers only to
food obtained from the ship. The system of waste-disposal
employed resulted in the most waste being thrown overboard
during the preparation of meals and just after meals, and hence
the association of ship’s meal-times and the peak numbers
of fulmars feeding. These peaks were followed by peaks
in preening activity (Fig. 3).

I watched fulmars dive for food on five occasions during the
trip. Three dived by checking their flight a foot or two
above the surface of the water, and then, with head and
feet lowered, dropping into the water, leaving their wing-
tips just protruding. The other two dived from the surface
of the water. One of them landed, swam a foot or so, and
then went completely under the water to grab a piece of food.
The second bird dived just by the ship’s side, and I was able
to watch it under the water from about 9 feet above. It was
swimming on the surface and suddenly dived under and went
down to a piece of food at a depth of over 3 feet. Under
water it used its whole wings bent at the carpal joint, and its
feet as well, beating together. Normally, the feet are used
alternately in taking-off, swimming and landing. All the
birds came to the surface to swallow the food.

Sleeping and Resting

Fig. 4 shows the number of birds sleeping and resting
throughout the day. The figures given for sleeping birds
may be too low, since only those individuals remaining still
6

42 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol 64

with the bill tucked into the scapulars were counted. Similarly
the figures given for birds resting is probably too high, since
it includes, besides sleeping birds, all those not engaged in
recognised activities, namely flying, feeding or preening.
Both the graphs for sleeping and resting are similar, and reach
a maximum about noon. The percentage of birds sleeping
and resting round the drifting ship was roughly constant
throughout the day at about 60 to 90 per cent.

Ship Steaming
Numbers and Percentage Flying

With a moving ship the numbers of fulmars seen varied
in a different manner from those seen around a drifting ship.

Duffey (1950), referring presumably to the fulmars
following a moving ship, though this is not specifically stated,
mentions “ the occasional diurnal rhythm recorded for the
fulmar (usually in the summer) when it had a morning and
an afternoon peak 55 . My counts of birds following a moving
ship cover only part of the day, but they do show a peak in
the morning and a minimum about noon (Fig. 1). The num-
ber of fulmars seen was usually less when the ship was moving
than when it was still.

The cycle of numbers following the ship can be explained
from the observations made when the ship was not moving.
Like the birds around a stationary ship, those following a
moving ship will have to leave the ship at night-time to feed
on plankton, which explains the night-time minimum. The
minimum occurring about noon can be explained by a study
of the graph of “ sleeping plus resting 55 (Fig. 4), which shows
a peak about noon. If the fulmars following a ship rest about
noon, as the graph suggests, they will be left behind by the
ship and so there will be a reduction in numbers. In the
mid-morning and mid-afternoon the smallest numbers will
be away feeding or resting and there will be the largest numbers
able to follow the ship for the extra supply of food, shelter
and air-currents which the ship possibly provides, thus
accounting for the peaks at these times.

Table I shows the average numbers and percentage
numbers of fulmars flying when the ship was still and moving

Table I. Summary of Counts

1952

DAILY ACTIVITIES OF THE FULMAR

43

0/

/o

Flying

1 1 m(o com | co 0 co loco cm rj" co co I I I I I I | 1

| | tn m 10 io | a ^hco m m 00 m m | 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Average

Flying

lo mm

1 IcbT-cno Icbo-Loba^ loco bo b 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Average

Number

m

1 iPUrrii?,?c??T'?,i0U?i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 « co Neb 1 w cb N Th1 a Neb « ^ | | | | | | | |

M M M M COM M M H MW

Number
of Counts

No data

4
1 1
1 1

7

No data

5
5
5

8
8

4

2

4

1

No data

Average

Sleeping

1 r ? ? up 1 1 u |

boN^boMbfcbcbebcb-^b « bf b 6

0/

/o

Resting

I OHeiinOHOCOrf* COCO CT>CO CM ^ lo CO ^ CO M

1 LOCO CO M LOCO CO CO CO MCO CO MCO MCO CO CO CO CO MCO CO

Average
Resting 2

10 LO

1 O CO ^ CM CM LOCO COCO ^COOlH p p COCO LO LO 0 p p p

1 h H(ico loco cb bo lo loco cb bo b cb co iobn No « b

M M M M M M CO COCO CO-'fCMCOlMMWMWWM

Average

Preening

[ ofCMcoococor^-cMCM t^co nh 0 hco loco m |
boHccboHcibHOH^Hobboo

Average

Feeding

• , , | 1 ocopoppOMppp | , ,

1 M ci Neb co co | tj* bf loco bo bf Neb w co b 1 1

0/

/o

Flying

OppOOLOOpOLOpo p-co pp^poppoppp
b bo bocb NNbobow be co co N1 N* N ^ i bf co ^o-boNco

OLOmmm w w w w mm m m m m CO

Average

Flying

lO iO lo

cMwcoefTfopooof^-'OfCO mco lo lo coco moo m cm cm

bHNWMN^^LOLOCOCfClHCfMCOCfHCf'MClbb.

Average

Number

LO

Of M I^CO Of CO LO M M MCO M 0 LOCO COCO CO O O CO LO LO M

b cf ^ bo ^cb b boob bf bf loco bo co ^ bo N1 bocb bo co w b

M H Of Of CO Cf Tf CO NOCO^COCM N CM M mm

Number
of Counts

LOCO « LO LOCO COLO^MOCO COLOOCO O M CO CM LO^^fTj-1

1 Hour 1 includes counts made from 0030 to 0130 hrs. ; and so on.

2 Figures of “ resting ” birds include those of sleeping birds given in a following column.

44 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

(see also Fig. 2) . Higher percentages were seen flying when the
ship was moving, as would be expected.

I carried out some estimations of the speeds at which fulmars
were flying, when following the ship moving at different speeds
and under different conditions. Waiting until one landed just
astern of the ship, I then timed it until it took off and found
how long it took to regain its position relative to the ship;
knowing this, the ship’s speed and course and the wind’s
speed and direction, it is possible to calculate the ground-
speed of the fulmar, and, using vector triangles, the air-speed.
With a beam wind of 1 5 knots and the ship travelling at 9 knots
and 2*5 knots, the fulmars flew at 34 to 44 knots and 18 to 24
knots respectively.* With the ship going at a speed of 2 knots
with an impeding wind of 28 knots at an angle of 40° to the
fulmar’s line of flight they had an air-speed of 35 to 40 knots.

I would like to thank the Marine Superintendent, Meteoro-
logical Office and the British Trust for Ornithology for the
opportunity to make the trip and to acknowledge the assistance
I received from Commander, H. R. Wilkinson, R.N.R., and
his crew of the Weather Explorer in carrying out my observations.

REFERENCES

Duffey, E., 1950. Quoted in B.T.O. Bulletin No. ^January 1950.
Fisher, J. and G. Waterston, 1941. The breeding distribution, history
and population of the fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis ) in the British Isles.
Journ. Anim. Ecol., 10: 204-272.

Murphy, R. C., 1936. Oceanic Birds of South America. 2 vols. New York.
Russell, F. S., 1927. The vertical distribution of plankton in the sea.
Biol. Rev., 2: 213-262.

Salomonsen, F., 1950. The Birds of Greenland. Parti. Copenhagen.

* The practice of regarding air-speed as being equal to ground speed with a
beam wind has not been followed as this is an incorrect assumption ; for example,
the ground speeds were 30*5 to 40 knots and 9*3 to 18 knots respectively.

BOTANICAL NOTE

45

| 1952

BOTANICAL NOTE

Hermaphrodite Empetrum in Sutherland, June, 1950. —

At Drum Chuibhe, west of Bettyhill, plants of a hermaphrodite
Empetrum sp. were discovered, growing with E. nigrum on flat sandy
ground at an altitude of about 250 feet. The soil was a consolidated
and impure shell sand of pH 7-47 (glass electrode), and free CaC03
2-28 per cent.

The most prominent species growing in this small area of some
500 square yards were :

Antennaria dioica
Beilis perennis
Dryas octopetala
Empetrum nigrum
Euphrasia sp .

Festuca rubra
Koeleria gracilis
Lotus corniculatus
Orchis fuchsii

Thymus drucei

Plantago lanceolata
P. maritima
Polygala serpyllifolia
Polygonum viviparum
Primula scotica
Ranunculus bulbosus
Salix repens
Saxifraga aizoides
Sedum acre
. em. Jalas

Further inland on acid peat beyond the influence of the sand drift,
and at an altitude of 300-400 feet, all the crowberry was E. nigrum.

On Ben Laoghal and Ben Clibreck the situation appeared
to be similar to that recorded for the Cairngorms by A. S. Watt and
E. W. Jones, 1948, Journ. Ecol. , 38: 283, with E. nigrum on the lower
and E. hermaphroditum on the upper slopes. To a height of 1500 feet
only E. nigrum was encountered. An admixture of hermaphrodite
plants then appeared, until, above 2,000 or 2,500 feet, dioecious
individuals could not be found.

No distinct difference in habit could be detected in the two
forms, either at the coast or in the hills.

Hermaphrodite plants had generally only three persistent
stamens, while male plants had usually six. Male flowers of E.
nigrum from Meall Mor, Arran, examined a few days later, had
three persistent stamens.

Cuttings of the coastal hermaphrodite plants, brought back to
Glasgow for establishment and chromosome counts, died, so that it
cannot be decided if they were in fact the tetraploid, or merely
hermaphrodite forms of E. nigrum similar to those described by
K. Blackburn, 1938, Journ. Bot ., 76: 306. — D. N. McVean, and
A. Berrie, Glasgow.

46

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

Mayfly in Sutherland. — To previous notes on the distribution
of Ephemera spp. in Scotland, a further record of its presence in
Sutherland may now be added. In the latter part of July 1951,
Ephemera danica (Mull.) was observed in moderate numbers on
Lochs An Ruathair, Araich-lin and Leum-a-Chlamhain — west of
the Kinbrace-Forsinard road. On 20th July on L. Araich-lin
emergence began towards mid-day, and continued in considerable
quantity for over an hour. Trout fed steadily on the nymph and
subimago. — R. M. Neill, Marischal College, Aberdeen.

For previous notes see Scot. Nat. 60: 47, and 63: 64. — Editors.

Hymenoptera in the Scottish islands. — In a note printed
in the Scot. Nat., 63: 184, A. B. Duncan records the taking of two
inquiline species of Hymenoptera, V. austriaca and P. barbutellus,
on Gigha in June 1949, and states that the whole genus Psithyrus
seems to be absent from most of the Scottish islands. It may
be of interest to note that two species, Psithyrus barbutellus and P.
campestris v. swynnertoni, along with the host of the latter, Bombus
agrorum, were taken on the island of Ulva by the Edinburgh
University Biological Society in July 1948, as recorded on p. 36
of this issue. — J. A. Owen, Edinburgh.

New Records of Macrolepidoptera in the Solway Area in
1951. — The use of mercury vapour light has produced the following
new records : —

Drymonia dodonaea Schiff., the marbled-brown moth, new to the
Dumfriesshire list, Tynron, 21st June 1951, two.

Drymonia rujicornis Hufn., the lunar marbled-brown moth, new
to the Solway list, 6th June 1951, Tynron, one.

Euproctis similis Fuessly, the yellow- tail moth, new to the Dum-
friesshire list, Closeburn, 31st July 1951, one.

Eilema lurideola Zinckner, the common footman moth, new to the
Dumfriesshire list, Closeburn, 31st July 1951, common.

Diarsia jlorida Schmidt, the marsh square-spot moth, recently
added to the British list, has turned up at Mabie Forest in the
Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, at Dumfries, and at Tynron. This,
whether a form of D. rubi Vieweg or a separate species, may prove
to be widely distributed in Scotland. R. S. Gordon’s dates for
rubi suggest that it was jlorida that he took in Wigtownshire. This

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

47

insect appeared on 23rd June and remained on the wing until
19th July 1951, its time of emergence falling between the May and
August broods of rubi.

Hadena contigua Schiff., the beautiful brocade moth, new to the
Solway list, Dumfries, 2ist-30th June 1951, six.

Bombycia viminalis Fab., the minor shoulderknot moth, new to the
the Solway list, Tynron, 16th August-4th September, seven.

Dasypolia templi Thunb., the brindled ochre moth, new to the
Dumfriesshire list, Tynron, 8th October 1951, one.

Eumichtis lichenea Hb., the feathered ranunculus moth, new to the
Dumfriesshire list, Tynron, 1st September 1951, two.

Rhizedra lutosa Hb., the large wainscot moth, new to the Solway
list, Tynron, 21st October 1951, one.

Nonagria typhae Thunb., the bulrush wainscot moth, new to the
Dumfriesshire list, Tynron, 28th August 1951, one.

Plusia inter rogationis Linn., the scarce silver-Y moth, new to the
Stewartry list, Southwick, 8th July 1951, one.

Bapta temerata Schiff., the clouded silver moth, new to the
Dumfriesshire list, Tynron, 14th June- 1 6th July 1951, five.

The records for Tynron and Southwick are Duncan’s, and those
for Mabie, Dumfries, and Closeburn, Cunningham’s. — Arthur B.
Duncan, Lannhall, Tynron, and David Cunningham, Dumfries.

Capture of Pre-Grilse Stage of Salmon. — Details have been
received of the capture of a pre-grilse stage of the Atlantic salmon
(i Salmo salar L.). This fish was taken by S/T Glen Bervie when
fishing in 60 fathoms of water, 8 miles south-east of Fuglo Head,
Faroe, on 14th January 1952. When examined in the laboratory
it measured 41-5 cm. in length and weighed 620 gms. It was a
male fish and appeared to have spawned as a parr. It had un-
fortunately scaled badly on capture so that there were few scales in a
satisfactory condition for examination, but their reading confirmed
that this fish had been captured during its first winter in the sea.
The stomach contained 40 amphipods ( Themisto gracilipes), 5
euphausiaceans ( Thysanoessa longicaudata) and 5 sand eels ( Ammodytes
lancea marinus).

There are very few previous records of the capture of salmon in
the stage between the smolt and the grilse. The laboratory’s
records include details of only one other capture of this kind, a
pre-grilse captured near Fraserburgh in 1926. Further details
of this fish are given by Menzies ( The Salmon , 2nd edition, London,
1931, p. 139). — K. A. Pyefinch, Scottish Home Department,
Brown Trout Research Laboratory, Pitlochry.

48

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

Brambling in Inverness-shire during breeding season. —

On 23rd June 1951 G. E. Wooldridge and I located a brambling
Fringilla montifringilla in a thickly wooded area of deciduous trees,
interspersed with pine, at the eastern end of Loch Morlich,
Inverness-shire. The brambling, a male in full summer plumage,
uttered its drawn out greenfinch-like “ dweee — 55 incessantly.
The bird, which had been seen by two other observers on 22nd
June, remained in the area all day. No female brambling was
either observed or heard. — Brian C. Turner, Ipswich, Suffolk.

Through the courtesy of the editors of British Birds we learn
that this male brambling was also observed on several occasions
between 24th and 29th June 1951 by Mr. Alan Baldridge, of
Darlington. He was informed on the 23rd that it was there, and
that it had been seen first a few days earlier. — Editors.

Siskins feeding on the shore. — During January 1950, on the
shore of the Solway Firth at the estuary of the border river Sark,
near Gretna, Dumfriesshire, I frequently saw parties of siskins
Carduelis spinus feeding among driftwood, pebbles and drying sea-
weed, far from any trees. Often they fed at the high tide line,
sometimes in tidal runnels and occasionally a little further inland on
the salt marsh turf. Flocks of up to eight were common both here
and just over the border into Cumberland, but I was unfortunately
unable to determine the food. For a bird which is usually associated
with alders and birches during winter, this habitat seems most
remarkable, especially in view of the fact that the weather was
rather mild for the time of year, and the winds mainly south-
westerly. Later, in February 1950, I found siskins commonly in
gorse bushes growing along the coast at Annan, Dumfriesshire. —
D. F. Owen, Oxford.

Black-headed Bunting at Fair Isle. — During observation
among the crops at Busta on the morning of 13th September 1951,
M. F. M. Meiklejohn,T. Yeoman and D. I. M. Wallace found a bird
which they identified as a female black-headed bunting Emberiza
melanocephala. It was watched for a short time during the afternoon
by Misses P. Condliffe, G. Johnstone, D. and P. Campbell, and the
writer. It haunted the standing corn close to the croft, with
occasional excursions to nearby turnip and potato riggs, and when
disturbed usually flew strongly for a short distance before coming
to rest on a wooden post or wire strand of one or other of the fences.
It did not associate with other birds, although numerous sparrows
and twites were foraging in the corn. On a few occasions it

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

49

perched alongside these birds, and once was within a few feet of a
scarlet grosbeak Carpodacus erythrinus , thus affording excellent views
for comparison of size.

The general impression was of a large, pale bunting, bigger
than either sparrow or grosbeak, and approaching a corn bunting
Emberiza calandra in its size and stocky appearance. The latter
characteristic was due to a habit of perching with the head sunk
into the shoulders. A noticeable feature was the large dark eye
contrasting with the pales lores, as strongly marked in this example
as in a female of this species watched by Meiklejohn on the Isle of
May in September 1949. The ear-coverts were darker brown
than the lores. Good views were had of the rump and upper tail-
coverts, which were buff with a rusty tinge, to my mind, very much
the colour of the ripening corn, and contrasted markedly with the
duller mantle-plumage. The wing-coverts appeared to be the
same dull brown as the mantle, and the major coverts and tertials
showed buffish fringes and tips. The remiges and rectrices were
blackish-brown, and the latter showed no white: the outer tail-
feathers appeared to be a paler brown than the rest. The under-
parts were a uniform greyish-white with a slight yellowish suffusion
in certain lights. The under tail-coverts were noted as “ lighter
in colour 55 by Wallace, but none of the observers recorded any
yellow on this region, which was difficult to see properly owing to
its being constantly in shadow. The massive bill was steely-
grey, and the legs were pinkish-flesh.

Confusion with a female red-headed bunting Emberiza bruniceps
is possible, but several considerations indicate that the bird was
not of this species. There was no suggestion of greenish-yellow
in the plumage of the upper parts, and the rump, which was well
seen, was decidedly rusty-buff. Meiklejohn stated that the bird’s
size, carriage, plumage features (except for the under tail-coverts)
and call — a soft “ tchup ”, sometimes two or three times repeated —
were in no way different from those of the female black-headed
bunting he watched, and subsequently handled, on the Isle of May
on 22nd September 1949 (Scot. JVat., 62: 100), or from those of the
many black-headed buntings he had watched when in Palestine.
Less than four weeks previously the writer had had a male red-
headed bunting (Scot. JVat., 63: 185) under frequent close observa-
tion, and is confident that the present bird was not of the same
species. It looked decidedly bigger and heavier, adopted a more
thick-set posture on perching, and its “ tchup ” call-note was quite
different from the sharper, higher-pitched “ pwip ” of the red-
headed bunting.

7

50

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

VoL 64

The bird, which constitutes the fourth record of the black-
headed bunting at Fair Isle and the sixth for Scotland, had gone
by the following day. — Kenneth Williamson, Fair Isle Bird
Observatory.

Tawny Pipit at Fair Isle. — A tawny pipit Anthus campestris was
found on the close-cropped grassland of Meoness on the afternoon
of 15th September 1951, by George Waterston and Misses G.
Johnstone and D. and P. Campbell. Later the same day it was
closely observed by the writer in company with M. F. M. Meiklejohn,
Holger Holgersen, and D. I. M. Wallace. It could not be found
the following day, but re-appeared on the 17th on Buness, 2 miles
to the north. All the observers then staying at the hostel, including
Miss P. Condliffe, T. Yeoman, and W. J. Wallace in addition to the
above, had splendid views of it at close range, and took part in
trapping it in a clap-net set on its favourite feeding-area.

In the fields it was a strikingly pale pipit of rock pipit size, but
with a more horizontal bearing: indeed, its carriage as it ran
swiftly over the short grass was a strong reminder of the close
affinity between the pipits and wagtails, an impression which was
enhanced when the bird alighted after short flights and flicked the
tail up and down two or three times in true wagtail fashion. The
upper parts were pale brown with a greenish-olive cast, the head
and nape appearing greyer. The head and back were faintly
streaked. The wings were pale brown, the secondaries, tertials
and greater coverts having bufhsh-white fringes. The median
coverts were darker and presented the appearance of a blackish-
brown wing-bar, and these feathers were tipped with bufhsh-white.
There was a noticeable black line above the eye, contrasting with
a pale eyestripe; the ear-coverts were greenish-olive, and there
were white moustachial streaks bordered by dark lines. The
throat was white, the breast vinous bufF faintly streaked at the
sides, the belly and vent whitish and unstreaked. The long tail
appeared to have white outer feathers when seen in the held, but
these proved to be bufhsh-white when the bird was examined in
the hand.

G. Waterston 'noted a somewhat lark-like chirrup on the 15th,
but during the morning of the 17th the only note we heard was a
soft “ tee-up ”, sometimes repeated, as the bird made short hights.
The note was fuller and lacked the squeaky quality of the commoner
pipits. The hight was undulating and rather wagtail-like.

The following additional information was obtained in the
laboratory. Age — 1st winter, there being a small number of

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

51

1952

j white-edged juvenile feathers in the mantle plumage. Measure-
ments— wing 89 mm., bill from skull 17 mm., tarsus 26 mm.,
weight 20.21 gms. Colours of soft parts — bill, pinkish-flesh on
lower mandible and cutting-edges, dark horn on culmen and at
tip; legs, flesh-coloured and markedly scutellate, sometimes
appearing pinkish in the field.

This is the fourth tawny pipit recorded for Fair Isle, previous
I occurrences being in spring 1933 and 1943 (sight-records by
I George Stout) and 8th October 1935 (a 1st winter male collected
by James Wilson). These appear to be the only Scottish records. —
Kenneth Williamson, Fair Isle Bird Observatory.

Chiffchaffs in East Ross and East Inverness. — With
reference to the recent records of chiffchaffs ( Phylloscopus collybita )
on the southern shore of the Beauly Firth (Scot. Nat. 62: 125; 63:
130 and 187), as I felt that the birds seen near Clachnaharry might
very likely be breeding, and not merely on passage, I wrote to Rev.
John Lees for information on the status of the chiffchaff in the
Black Isle, East Ross, on the opposite side of the firth.

I am much indebted to Mr. Lees for the following interesting
account :

My earliest actual notes of the presence of chiffchaffs were
in 1940, of singing birds at Rosehaugh (Avoch Parish) 20th
May 1940 and at Raddery House (Rosemarkie Parish) 3rd
July 1940. I know they were present in previous years, but
these are first records.

I was able to follow the Rosehaugh birds closely from year
to year.

Dates of earliest song :

1942

27th April

*947

10th May

1943

1st May

!948

29th April

1944

29th April

*949

28th April

!945

2nd May

!950

22nd April

!946

26th April

I951

9th May

Three pairs were present at Rosehaugh in 1943 and 1944,
five pairs in 1945, two pairs in 1946, and only one pair 1947-
1951-

In 1950 and 1951, males sang much on arrival, but rather
spasmodically during rest of season.

Nests were located in May 1944 near foot of ivy-covered wall,
and in May 1945 on a steep bank. In June 1946 I was informed
that a nest of young chiffchaffs had been destroyed by a cat.

52

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

In January 1948 the trees frequented by chiffchaffs were
blown down, and in that and later years they removed to
another clump about 400 yards away. Since then there has
been considerable clearing of undergrowth in the area, and
I am not sure whether the birds will stay.

At Raddery singing birds were heard in the summers of
1940, 1941, and 1942, and on 21st April 1943. In 1945
there were none, nor have I heard any since.

On 17th July 1943 a chiffchaff sang from a lone tree in
Rosemarkie churchyard.

I trapped a first-year bird in my own garden on 4th August
1948.

These records are an important addition to the published
information on the status of this species in the north of Scotland.

It will be of assistance to future workers to note that in British
Birds , 36: 20 there is an account of two chiffchaffs near the House
of Farr, Inverness-shire, on 15th April 1942. — James W. Campbell,
Strathtay, Perthshire.

Aberrant Wood-warbler at Fair Isle. — On the afternoon of
7th September 1951 a wood-warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix, which
had previously been observed “ flycatching ” above the Vatrass
moorland, was captured in the Dyke Trap. It was a curiously
aberrant specimen. The plumage was normal for a first-winter
bird of this species (a very rare one at Fair Isle), but the wing was
remarkably short and atypical in formula. The measurement,
carefully checked, was 66 mm. : C. B. Ticehurst (A Systematic Review
of the Genus Phylloscopus , 1936) gives a minimum wing-length of

71 mm. The tail was also short, 42 mm., but the index “ tail
X 100 -f- by wing ” was 63, approximating closely to the 64 given
by Ticehurst for this species. The third and fourth primaries
only were emarginate, instead of third-fifth, and the first primary,
which is characteristically 2-5 mm. shorter than the primary
coverts, was in this case 1 mm. longer. The third primary was the
longest and the fourth a shade shorter; second 2-5 mm., fifth 4 mm.,
sixth 8 mm. and seventh 1 1 mm. shorter. The tarsi and toes were a
greenish-horn colour, not pale yellowish-brown as stated by
Ticehurst and A Handbook of British Birds. The bird’s left leg was
slightly twisted and deformed, apparently an old condition, and
one which may have affected its development.

Another wood-warbler was found dead in the Gully on 12 th
September. This too was a rather small bird with the wing

72 mm., tail 47 mm., and tail/wing index 65. The fifth primary

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

53

showed slight emargination and the first was i mm. shorter than the
primary coverts. Both birds had three rictal bristles, not two, as
stated in Ticehurst’s monograph of the genus. In view of the
rarity of this species in the north islands it should be recorded that
L. S. V. and U. M. Venables observed a wood-warbler in an ash-
sycamore plantation at Weisdale, Shetland, on 19th September 1951.
— K. Williamson, Fair Isle Bird Observatory.

Blackcap in Stirlingshire in winter. — On 8th December
1950 I trapped, ringed, and released a blackcap Sylvia atricapilla
here at Torrance, Stirlingshire. I trapped this bird again on the
19th and 23rd December, so that it looks as if it intended to winter
here. The blackcap is rare in this district. — -James Bartholomew,
Torrance, Stirlingshire.

Blackcap in East Ross in January. — On 7th January 1952
I caught a male blackcap Sylvia atricapilla in a ringing trap in my
garden here at Avoch; it has been about the place for some time.
The bird was perfectly healthy, and there seems no reason why
it should not have gone south, had it so desired. This is the second
occasion that blackcaps have been here in mid-winter. — -John Lees,
Avoch, Ross-shire.

Blackcap on Speyside in January. — During the cold week
beginning on 27th January 1952 an unusual bird appeared, with
tits, feeding at the bird- table or on window-sills of this house. It
seemed to be very tame, and sat with feathers fluffed out as if
suffering from the intense cold. The colour of body and wings was
mole-brown and greyish, and the small neat head had a black cap.
A blizzard of snow and very hard frost followed on the 28th, and
we did not expect to see the bird again, but it appeared on the
28th and 29th, and was easily caught by hand while feeding on
fat in a cocoanut. In the house it soon revived in the warmth,
appeared quite happy in a cage, and became lively and active.
It drank from a spoon and ate fat and crumbs, and at night settled
to sleep with head under wing; but it was found dead on floor of
cage next morning. To make certain what the bird was, it was
sent to the Department of Natural History, Aberdeen, where it
was identified as a blackcap Sylvia atricapilla. — Kathleen M.
Findlay, Muirton, Craigellachie, Banff.

The bird was a male, with a faint fringe of brown across the
front of the black cap, probably indicating a first-winter bird. —
Editors.

54 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

Blackcap at Nairn in December and January. — On 29th
December 1951 a male blackcap Sylvia atricapilla appeared on our
window-sill, where it fed on crumbs put out for the birds. It came
frequently on 30th and 31st December, but was missing on 1st
January 1952, and was found dead on the lawn on 2nd January.
I had never seen one here before, so sent it to the Natural History
Museum, London, where the identification was confirmed. Mr.
J. D. MacDonald informed me that the bird was a male in its
first winter. — D. Brodie, Nairn.

Blackcap in West Sutherland in November. — A female

blackcap Sylvia atricapilla came into the garden at Kinsaile, near
Rhiconich on 12th November 1951. It appeared very exhausted
when it arrived, so I brought it into the house for the night, but
by morning the bird had died. — John F. Palmer, Rhiconich,
Sutherland.

There appears to be no published record of the occurrence, at any
season, of the blackcap in west or north Sutherland, but Dr. Ian
Pennie informs us that he has a note, unpublished, of a male seen
at Borgie (Parish of Tongue), North Sutherland, on 17th May 1951,
by Mrs. H. A. Gilbert.— Editors.

Garden Warbler and Lesser Whitethroat beard in East
Inverness. — On 4th June 1951 I heard a garden warbler Sylvia
borin singing beside the Spey at Aviemore; on 14th June 1951 there
was a lesser whitethroat Sylvia carruca singing repeatedly at the
eastern side of Loch Morlich.

Both were singing from typical breeding habitat, so I saw
neither. I am, however, very familiar with the songs of both
species down south. — Geoffrey Taylor, Hampstead, London.

We have not traced any previous record of the garden warbler
in East Inverness. In an editorial footnote to a record of a lesser
whitethroat heard singing, but not seen, in Perthshire, it is interesting
to find that the late Bernard W. Tucker wrote in British Birds , 40:
376 — “ It may be mentioned that on July 6th, 1941, we (B.W.T.)
had an almost identical experience [i.e. a bird heard singing
persistently but not seen] near the head of Loch Morlich on Speyside
(Inverness-shire), though, as we failed to get a view of the bird, it
was not recorded at the time.” We know of no other record for East
Inverness. In the footnote referred to above attention is drawn to
the fact that the whitethroat Sylvia communis has an occasional
song variant which is indistinguishable from the lesser whitethroat’s
rattle (see Songs of Wild Birds , p. 124). — Editors.

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

55

A Redwing Roost. — During December 1951 small parties of
redwings Turdus musicus and birds in ones and twos passed west over
my garden in the darkening as if going to a roost. There is a
blackbird roost in Largo House grounds, about a quarter of a mile
away, in evergreens and thicket under hardwood trees, so I went
to see if they were using that. At 4 p.m. two redwings came in,
and for the next half hour a constant stream of redwings and a few
fieldfares arrived at the roost. There were hundreds, evidently
drawn from a wide extent of country; the birds often arrived
singly as well as in small parties. They took no notice of me,
perching on bare branches within a yard or two before plunging
into the roost ; there was a great deal of shuffling about and a con-
stant volume of not very loud talk before they finally settled down.
There were a good many blackbirds too, very noisy, and most of
them roosted in evergreens on the outskirts of the thicket. — Evelyn
V. Baxter, Upper Largo, Fife.

Black Redstart in Ayrshire. — On 5th February 1950,
while watching fulmars on Bennane Head near Ballantrae,
Ayrshire, my wife and I noticed a small dark bird, with conspicuous
orange-chestnut rump and tail, fly across the road from the shore
to the cliff, up which it made its way in short flights over ivy-
covered rocks until it was lost to view in a gully. Although we saw
the bird for only a short time and while it was in constant movement,
our observations were made in excellent light and with good bino-
culars, and we have no doubt that it was an adult male black
redstart Phoenicurus ochrurus. The Handbook mentions only three
previous occurrences of this species for the Clyde area. — A. F.
Duncan, Girvan, Ayrshire.

This appears to be the first record for Ayrshire. — Editors.

Black-bellied Dippers at Fair Isle in 1951. — In the early
morning of 28th April, 1951 a dipper Cinclus c. cinclus was found
haunting the burn which flows through the gully. In mid-morning
the bird was caught in the small Heligoland trap which spans the
burn above a waterfall. It was released at North Haven after
ringing and examination, and returned to the stream, where it
stayed throughout the next day. It was not seen during the first
three days of May, but was on the burn again from 4th-6th May
inclusive.

In the field, even at close quarters, I could see no trace of
reddish-brown between the white breast and the black belly.
The contrast was sharp and clear. In the hand, however, a few
brownish fringes could be found on the uppermost black feathers,

56 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

and these were not reddish in tone but nearer the coffee-brown
colour of the bird’s head. When I held the bird I was surprised (
at the strength of its clasp on my fingers, the sharpness of the claws,
and the powerful fluttering of its short, rounded wings as it struggled
to be free. These attributes, like the continual blinking of the
yellowish-white nectitating membrane, must be useful adaptations
in a bird specialised for under-water feeding.

The dipper weighed 60.2 g. The tarsi were grey with a purplish
tinge, and the irides hazel. The wing-length was 82 mm., which is
3 mm. below the minimum Handbook (3 : 221) range for females
of this form. The bill, measured from skull, was 20 mm. and
the tarsus 28 mm. Mallophaga were collected, and were kindly
determined by Mr. W. Stirling of the Royal Scottish Museum as
Philopterus cincli (Denny).

The bird’s anxiety note was a low, sharp, tuneless “ tchik ”.
When released, it flew off with a series of louder and shriller notes
recorded as “ tchwik ”, perhaps a more emphatic variant of the
anxiety note.

In late autumn the gully burn was again haunted by a bird
of this subspecies. It was first seen by James Anderson on 18th
November, and his identification was confirmed a few days later
by James A. Stout. Both had excellent close views of it on several
occasions during a number of days as they attempted to drive it
into the mill or gully traps: it entered the former on one or two
occasions, but would not leave the stream to go to the box, doubling :
back each time and flying out over their heads. The bird was still ;
on the isle in late December, and is perhaps attempting to winter
there. Its visits to the gully were then irregular, and on a number
of occasions it was found by one or other of these observers feeding
in the drainage ditches on the Sukka Moor a mile and more
upstream. These ditches, cut by the islanders last winter, are about
2 feet in width and depth, and their course is fairly straight, an
unusual habitat for a dipper.

These supply the sixth and seventh Scottish records. A black-
bellied dipper haunted the same burn on igth-20th March 1950, and
there is a previous Fair Isle record for 30th March 1934. There are
two records from Spiggie in Dunrossness, the most recent of which
concerns a bird watched at close quarters by Mr. Tom Henderson
on 4th January 1951. — Kenneth Williamson, Fair Isle Bird
Observatory.

Late Swallow in Argyll. — On 3rd November 1950 I observed
a swallow Hirundo rustica flying over Kirn Pier, by Dunoon,

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

57

j 1952

I; Argyllshire. It circled over the houses in front of the pier, and
then flew out of sight. This is a remarkably late date for a
swallow to be in these parts. It appeared weak on the wing and
!j was, no doubt, one of a second brood. — Charles F. Priestley,
Dunoon, Argyll.

Wryneck in Inverness-shire. — In view of the scarcity of
] records I may note that my brother Brig. H. M. Stanford and
myself watched a wryneck Jynx torquilla singing in a plantation in
j Glen Strathfarrer on 5th June 1951. It moved on while we watched
it and may have been a passing migrant. — J. K. Stanford,
Wiltshire.

Although the wryneck has been recorded for East Ross, we have
not traced any record for Inverness-shire. — Editors.

Goldeneye in Inverness-shire. — A pair of goldeneye Bucephala
j clangula was seen on a loch in Glen Strathfarrer twice on 31st May
j 1951, and on 2nd and 3rd June the male was seen swimming alone
I in the early morning. The pair was seen on the same loch on 8th
and 9th, but was not seen after that date. — J. K. Stanford,
Wiltshire.

Turtle Dove in North Uist, Outer Hebrides. — On 8th

September 1950 while walking along the Atlantic shore of North
Uist, I flushed a turtle dove Streptopelia turtur that had taken shelter
among the sand dunes from the strong southerly wind that was
blowing at the time. As the Outer Hebrides would appear to lie
outside the species’ normal migratory route, its presence on this
island is perhaps worth recording. — Collingwood Inge? am,
Benenden, Kent.

The turtle dove, which is an occasional visitor to the Outer
Hebrides, has been recorded on several previous occasions from
North Uist; the majority of Outer Hebridean records are for the
Autumn months. — Editors.

Grey Phalarope in North Fife in Winter. — On 20th January
1952 I saw a grey phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius from the end of
the pier at St. Andrews. It was about 1 1 a.m. and there was bright
sunshine, and the bird was watched from about 10 yards’ distance,
swimming with five or six black-headed gulls Laras ridibundus and,
like them, feeding off the surface. It closely resembled a miniature
version of the larger bird. Observation was unhappily limited to a
8

58 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

few seconds, since something disturbed the gulls, which caused the
phalarope to fly off down the East Sands until out of sight. There
was nevertheless time to observe the comparatively stout bill and
the unmarked grey of the back, especially noticeable as the bird
took wing. I have previous experience of the grey phalarope
and have no hesitation in my identification. In the preceding
week there had been violent gales. — M. F. M. Meiklejohn,
Glasgow.

Little Gulls and a Sabine’s Gull in Largo Bay, Fife. —

The little gull Larus minutus used to be only an uncommon visitor
to Scotland, but has become, of late years, much more plentiful
in the areas of Forth and Tay. About thirty years ago records of
their regular occurrence, in very small numbers, began. This was
chiefly in autumn but also in winter and spring. In 1951 they
appeared here in greater numbers than we have ever seen before.
Our first record for the season was in Largo Bay, on 15th September,
when twelve were present, about two- thirds being adults in winter
plumage. They increased steadily until on 3rd October about 100
were counted; these were in all stages of plumage from the dark
first feather to the full winter dress of the adult. After this they
decreased steadily, till on 31st October only six adults and one
immature remained. Thereafter we have seen one or two at
intervals up to 1 8th January 1952. This increase may be correlated
with their recent extension as breeding birds to Sweden, Denmark
and Holland.

Another interesting visitor to Largo Bay was a Sabine’s gull
Xema sabini which, however, we saw only twice, on 15th and 17th
September. — Evelyn V. Baxter and Leonora Jeffrey Rintoul,
Upper Largo.

Common Guillemot inland in North Perth. — On the 12th
October 1951 Mr. Ian Thomson found a common guillemot
Uria aalge on the Tay, at the east end of the Aberfeldy golf course.
The bird appeared to be in good condition, and was remarkably
tame, allowing a close approach while it swam on the water.
Mr. Thomson, who waded within three or four yards of the bird,
was of the opinion that it was of the northern race Uria aalge aalge ,
and when I saw it on 13th October from a distance of some 30
yards, its upper parts appeared blackish and darker than the brown
characteristic of the southern form. I watched the bird for some
time; it kept to a small area at the top of the pool, allowing itself
to be drifted down by the current in the “ run ”, and then, where

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

59

1952

the stream tailed off, swimming powerfully up in the eddy to the
head of the pool, where it once more entered the stream, and was
again drifted down. This procedure continued throughout the
20 minutes or so that I watched the bird, and it was still behaving
! in this manner, in the same place, when watched again by Mr.
Thomson on 14th October. On this occasion the bird was alarmed
by a dog and swam downstream out of the pool, and was seen no
more.

There have been few recent inland records for this area, but
the remains of a guillemot were found below pylons at the junction
of Tay and Lyon on 23rd October 1950 (Scot. Nat. 63: 67). —
James W. Campbell, Strathtay, Perthshire.

Observations on the Diving Ability of Healthy and Badly-
Oiled Guillemots. — For the past six years I have kept systematic
notes on guillemots Uria aalge fishing off Ailsa Craig, and since
comparatively little work has been published on this subject since
Dr. J. M. Dewar’s The Bird as a Diver in 1924, it seems desirable
to give a short summary of my results. The average of 1,000 dives
by healthy guillemots, excluding all dives of under 5 seconds, was
28.8 seconds. Of those, 207 were between 5 and 20 seconds, 542
between 20 and 30 seconds, 177 between 30 and 40 seconds, 61
between 40 and 50 seconds, 12 over 50 seconds and one of 74
seconds. The longest dive recorded in The Handbook (by J. M.
Dewar) is 68 seconds.

In 1948 I was able to record over 400 dives by badly-oiled
guillemots (not included in the above average). Their average
dive, again excluding all dives of under 5 seconds, was 16.4 seconds,
and the longest 26 seconds. It is not known to what extent oil
affects the fishing ability of sea birds, but this greatly shortened
duration of dive may throw some light on the very high mortality
amongst oiled birds. — J. A. Gibson, Ralston, Paisley.

Little Auk in Perthshire. — On 4th January 1952 I was given
a dead little auk Plautus alle by Mrs. Ian Macnaughton, Aberfeldy.
The bird had been brought in the day before by a cat which had
probably found it near the river, the Tay being close in front of
the house. The bird was in perfect condition; it was an adult
in winter plumage, and had clearly been driven inland by the
severe westerly gale of 30th December. It was said to have been
seen alive a day or two before but I could not confirm this. —
Colin C. I. Murdoch, Kingussie, Inverness-shire.

6o

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

A record of a little auk, found in Glen Almond, Perthshire,
in February 1940, was published in Scot. Nat. 61 : 187-8. — Editors.

Tlie Birds of Sanda Island.— In this very interesting account
of the birds of Sanda and Sheep Island and Gluniemore {Scot. Nat .,
63: 178-182), Mr. Borland and Mr. Walls report a very flourishing
colony of cliff birds, including razorbill, puffin, shag, and kittiwake.
None of these birds bred on these islands when they were visited by
Eagle Clarke in June, 1897, or when visited by John Paterson and
John Robertson in June 1898 (Report of a visit to Sanda and
Gluniemore, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc., Glasgow (N.S.) 5: 197-204).

In answer to my request for information about their history Mr.
Alex Russell, the owner-farmer of Sanda, has very kindly replied
that these birds 4 4 came here some twenty years ago ”. It may be
noted that there are now possibly as many puffins nesting on these
islands as on Ailsa, and that the breeding colony of shags would
seem to be the largest on the Clyde. — J. M. McWilliam, The Manse
of Tynron, Dumfriesshire.

Great Extinct Ox Bos primigenius in Banffshire. — Skulls or
parts of skulls of the great extinct ox have been found in many places
in Scotland, but other parts of the skeleton have rarely been found,
or at any rate have rarely been recorded or preserved. Moreover,
this striking animal has not hitherto been discovered in the high-
lands of Banffshire, although a remarkable find was made in 1935
in the parish of Fordyce.

It seems therefore desirable to record the discovery 44 a few
years ago ” of a bone found 44 in the bottom of a peat moss near the
ancient College of Scalan, Braes of Glenlivet ”. It is reported
by the finder that during his lifetime 44 approximately 30 feet of hard
black peat bank had been removed from above the place where the
bone was found ”. Probably therefore it belongs to a fairly early
post-glacial period.

The bone is a hind cannon bone, or right metatarsal, of Bos
primigenius. It is stained deep brown by the peat, and is a full-
grown adult bone. Since in all its measurements it is distinctly
smaller than the corresponding bone of the Fordyce specimen, the
pelvis and skull of which indicate that it was a mature male, and
since it is also slightly finer in build, I consider the Glenlivet bone
likely to be that of a female.

There appear to be no records of the remains of female examples
of this species from Scotland, so I add the comparative measurements
of this right metatarsal for reference:

1952 ZOOLOGICAL NOTES 61

Glenlivet Specimen

Fordyce Specimen

mm.

mm.

Greatest length

271

295

Width (i.e. side to side)

upper end

59

7i

middle of shaft

34

44

lower end

67

79

Thickness (i.e. back to front)

upper end

52

67

middle of shaft

36

44

at narrowest

24

33

James Ritchie,

Edinburgh.

Common Seal in the Ythan. — On 6th February 1952 during
a long spell of hard weather a common seal Phoca vitulina was seen
fishing in the river Ythan above Tangland Bridge about 12 miles
from the sea and 6 miles above the limit of the tidal water. It was
shot by the Fishery Board water bailiffs and proved to be a young
male in excellent condition. According to Fraser Darling the
common seal may often go some miles up a river into fresh water,
or may enter a fresh water loch via a burn. The occurrence
nevertheless seems worth recording. — G. F. Raeburn, Ellon.

THE BIRDS OF AILSA CRAIG
{Scot. Nat., 63, 73-100, 159-177)

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS

The following paragraph should have been inserted at the end
of the Doubtful Records section (p. 169) : —

Published and unpublished records of non-native or
less common subspecies of the pied wagtail, great tit, coal-
tit, goldcrest, willow-warbler, song-thrush, robin and red-
shank are provisionally placed here also.

On p. 76, 7 and 4 lines from foot : for 64 read 62, and for 12
read 14.

On p. 174, line 2 : for 6 read 14.

The correct totals should be:

Occasional and irregular visitors 62

Doubtful records 14

In Table 2 on p. 93 the figures opposite West Trammins,
West, namely, 7, 8, 8 7*6, should have been placed under

Guillemot and not under Kittiwake.

62

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

VoL 64

CORRESPONDENCE

Oxford,

14th March , 1952.

The Editor,

The Scottish Naturalist.

Dear Sir,

The increasing use of various types of colour-marking j
for the field recognition of birds must lead to confusion between
individual experiments unless an authoritative central register can
be compiled. The Scientific Advisory Committee of the British
Trust for Ornithology therefore invites all ornithologists who are
running colour-marking experiments with rings, dyes, or in any other
form, to file details of the marks used on a special schedule which
I shall be pleased to send out on request.

Colour marking schemes fall broadly into two groups:

(1) Studies of population, dispersal and migration in mobile
species, where a single colour is used to indicate the place of origin
or the age when marked.

(2) Detailed population and behaviour studies; usually of
sedentary species, in which combinations of colours are used to
identify individual birds.

It is obviously important that confusion in group (1) studies
should be avoided, and it is hoped, by means of the proposed
register, that the B.T.O. office can serve as a clearing-house for
information on all such schemes in the British Isles.

But it is also important that workers engaged in group (2)
studies in the same neighbourhood should be aware of each other’s
existence, and so it is hoped that those who are running schemes,
even on a small scale in their own gardens, will co-operate as well
by asking for and filling in a schedule.

Yours faithfully,

BRUCE CAMPBELL,

Secretary, British Trust for Ornithology.

1952

BOOK REVIEWS

63

BOOK REVIEW

Life in Lakes and Rivers. By T. T. Macan and E. B. Worthington.
London: Collins’ New Naturalist Series, 1951. Pp. 272. 45 coloured

plates. 2 is.

This book is an up-to-date introduction to the natural history of lakes and
rivers and its bearing on practical problems of freshwater fish production and
water conservation. It is offered to a diversity of readers whose interests,
in practice, often conflict. They include the collecting naturalist, the
naturalist with a fishing rod, the student of waterside birds and mammals,
the water engineer, the local authority concerned with sewage and the
industrialist disposing of trade waste.

The book’s fifteen main chapters represent almost as many dips of the net
beneath the surface of freshwater biology pure and applied. Throughout
the range of topics discussed the unifying element is the consistently
ecological outlook of the authors. Not that the work is in any sense a
textbook of ecology. Indeed a more explicit statement of the ecological
approach and a firmer outlining of the ecological pattern presented by lake
or, especially, river might aid the reader in getting full value from its most
interesting chapters. None the less it contrives to illustrate generously
ecological principles, in a variety of ways. About half the book is devoted
to the fundamental biology of lakes and rivers. Subsequent chapters
discuss productivity, waterside life, animal travels, fish stocks, the effects of
fertilizers on yield, problems of pollution and the significance of a pure
water supply.

Treatment of the varied aspects of lake ecology is extremely well done
throughout. The earlier chapters on lakes as habitats of life are excellent.
Naturally the authors lean heavily on work done at the Freshwater Bio-
logical Association’s Laboratory at Windermere during the past twenty
years, though effective mention is made of parallel studies in American,
Swedish and Danish lakes. The treatment of rivers is perhaps less satisfying.
Most of it is based on Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries investigations on
R. Tees, Itchen, Lark, Hampshire Avon and Bristol Avon. Researches
further afield, e.g. streams in Australia and New Zealand, are not brought
into the picture. A curious omission from both text and bibliography is any
reference to Kai Berg’s admirable studies on the Danish river Susaa. In
choosing data for extended discussion the authors tend to restrict themselves
to a rather narrow range of waters. The reader, indeed, may find himself
on occasion slightly perplexed as to how safely he can generalise from findings
in the Lake District and certain selected rivers when he turns his thoughts
elsewhere, to his own or other waters.

The sections dealing with fish production, water supply and other
practical problems in which freshwater research is intimately involved are
instructive and pleasantly written and will appeal to a wide circle of readers.
Oddly enough it is in the treatment of the actual fauna and flora of lakes and

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

64

Vol. 64, 1952

rivers that the book may not meet with the entire approval of some readers.
A single chapter is devoted specifically to animals and plants, though the
fauna and flora of Windermere and neighbouring lakes is examined in
chapter seven and parts of other chapters disclose further information on this
topic. In a work, however, written jointly by a distinguished entomologist
and an expert on fishes the naturalist may wish that space had been found
for more authoritative information on the life cycle and autecology of
individual freshwater forms, generally but perhaps imperfectly known, e.g.
various insects and fishes. The angler-naturalist, while ready to learn what
fishes occur in certain waters, e.g. Windermere, Ennerdale Lake, R. Tees,
would find considerable interest in a map illustrating the distribution of the
commoner British freshwater species, and in a considered, if brief, account of
what is known of their ways, in addition to feeding habits. In the chapter
on “ Animals and Plants ”, the systematic distribution of the freshwater
fauna is interwoven with elementary observations on taxonomy which
might well have been relegated to an appendix.

Occasionally there are statements that revision may amend. For
example the rather superficial comments on current speed as an ecological
factor (pp. 64, 65). To say that Dreissensia “ has only recently invaded
fresh water ” may be misleading if records of its presence in the Danube
in the eighteenth century are to be trusted. Again, it is limited food rather
than temperature that accounts for the close set winter rings of the salmon
scale. “The genus Leptocephalus was created” by Gronovius in 1763,
not in 1856 when Kaup first described L. brevirostris.

The Scottish reader will find that his native lochs and rivers figure but
sparingly in the text. However, seven full page coloured plates of Scottish
lochs are included out of seventeen used to illustrate various features of
lakes. He may be startled to find also coloured plates of two northern
salmon streams R. Feshie and R. Bennie, both bearing the title “ Trout
beck ”, but will be reassured to some extent on referring to p. 65.

As a timely contribution to the literature of freshwater biology Life in
Lakes and Rivers is most welcome, embodying as it does in attractive form the
results of a large amount of recent research, with much of which the writers
have been intimately connected. It should be on the reading list of all
interested in the country’s freshwaters and of all teachers and students of
biology. — R. M. N.

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

HE SCOTTISH NATURALIST is devoted to the study

of Scottish Natural History, and is therefore concerned with

all the many aspects, zoological, botanical, geographical,
topographical and climatic embraced by this title.

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THE IRISH NATURALISTS’ JOURNAL

A MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY
Published Every Quarter by the I.N.J. Committee

EDITED BY

MARY P. H. KERTLAND, M.Sc.

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The Scottish Naturalist

With which is incorporated

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EDITED BY

V. C. WYNNE-EDWARDS

Regius Professor of Natural History , University of Aberdeen

AND

JAMES W. CAMPBELL

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Editorial : The Centenary of William MacGillivray . - 65

Records of British Hippoboscidae — Gordon B. Thompson . 70

A possible explanation of the occurrence of the flea Frontopsylla

( Orfrontia ) laeta in Scotland — F. G. A. M. Smit . . 74

Geographical variation in the bill of the Fulmar ( Fulmarus

glacialis)—Prof V. C. Wynne-Edwards . . . .84

Rare and exotic fishes recorded in Scotland during 1951 —

Dr. B. B. Rae and E. Wilson . . . . .102

Zoological Notes . . . . . . . .112

Book Reviews . . . . . . .124

Notice . . . . . . . . . .128

The Scottish Naturalist

Volume 64, No. 2

Autumn 1952

THE CENTENARY OF WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY

1796-1852

It might need no more than a lucky spark even now to kindle
the popular interest in William MacGillivray. His genius
seems to merit, in Scotland especially, just the kind of affection-
ate esteem accorded in England to Bewick and Gilbert White
and in the United States to Audubon and Wilson. In the
minds of those people best able to judge there has never been
any serious question of his pre-eminence as a naturalist, nor
of his originality of mind and skill as a writer. W. H. Mullens
indeed thought that, “ among the many famous names which
adorn the long roll of British ornithologists, that of William
Macgillivray stands forth as facile princeps ” {Brit. Birds ,
3: 389, 1909). Professor Alfred Newton of Cambridge,

incisive, omniscient, and sparing of praise, says, cc I may
perhaps be excused for repeating my opinion that, after
Willughby, Macgillivray was the greatest and most original
ornithological genius save one (who did not live long enough
to make his powers widely known) that this island has
produced 55 {Diet. Birds , Introduction, p. 60, 1896). Charles
Darwin, as a second-year medical student at Edinburgh
in 1826-27, attending Prof. Jameson’s lectures (“ they were
incredibly dull ”), came to know MacGillivray, “ and he was
very kind to me ”, as he says in his Autobiography. There-
after all his life he remembered and admired “ the accurate
MacGillivray ”, constantly citing the History of British Birds
as a source of information, e.g. in The Descent of Man.

In the words of Elliot Coues (the correspondent and eminent
contemporary of Newton and in some degree his American
counterpart), “ opinion differs greatly respecting the merit of

9 65

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

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Macgillivray’s work, and it is not easy to decide in a case
where one’s estimate must depend so much upon whether one
likes the author or not ; for this writer’s personality colours !
his work throughout, and almost necessarily impresses itself 1
upon the reader. For instance, Macgillivray is to me per-
sonally so agreeable a companion, that I doubt not that my
warm appreciation of his ability and acquirements is open to
a charge of favouritism. His writings attract me strongly;
and possess for me the nameless fascination that thousands
have felt in perusing the pages of Gilbert White or of Alexander
Wilson” ( Proc . U.S. Nat. Mus., 2: 395, 1880).

MacGillivray (so he always wrote his own name) was born
in Old Aberdeen in 1796; from the age of three to eleven
he was brought up on his uncles’ farm in Harris; then he
returned to Old Aberdeen for a year at school and five years
at King’s College. He took the degree of “ A.M.” and started
on the medical course; but he never progressed far beyond
the study of botany and zoology, partly, perhaps, because of
the untimely death from typhus fever of his friend and teacher
Dr. Barclay.

Like other students in those days he walked home (to the
west coast, for Harris) at the end of the session; and he became
inured to hunger and nights in the heather on many a wild
adventure in the Highlands. On 8th September 1819 he
even set out, as is well known, to journey to London on
foot, by Braemar, Fort William, Inveraray, etc, to see in the
British Museum the “ great collections of Beasts and Fishes,
of Birds & other flying things, of Reptiles & Insects — in short
of all the creatures which have been found upon the face of
the earth ”.

Careful descriptions of these travels were written in a beau-
tiful hand into journals, of which only two now survive (in
Aberdeen University Library). In one of them the author
avows his interest in “ physiognomy ”, or the appraisal of
human character; but he reveals none so clearly as his own.
His style is simple and direct, spirited, despondent, humerous,
grave, indignant or lyrical, according to his mood. His
greatest literary gifts are evoked by scenes of sublime natural
beauty. The lovely passage on Invercauld bridge in The
Natural History of Dee Side and Braemar (pp. 56-57) brings tears

1952 CENTENARY OF WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY 67

still to the eyes of the responsive reader, as the scene did a
century ago to his own.

He married in 1820 and moved to Edinburgh, where at
first he was assistant to Professor Jameson, and thereafter
supported himself independently by literary and scientific
work. In 1831 he was appointed conservator of the museum
of the Edinburgh College of Surgeons, and remained in that
post till he became professor of Natural History, and lecturer
in Botany, at Marischal College, Aberdeen, in 1841. He
occupied this chair with honour, receiving an LL.D. from
King’s College in 1844, and with quiet contentment in his
work, until his final illness and death on 8th September 1852.

It was in Edinburgh in the thirties that he enjoyed his
association with Audubon, for whom he performed a pro-
digious though scarcely acknowledged service, in providing
the technical or scientific cc bone and sinew ” for Audubon’s
Ornithological Biographies (1831-39). These two men, whose
upbringing could not easily have been more different, and
who were each unknown to the other when they first
met, were drawn into a mutually complementary and
highly productive partnership. Mac Gillivr ay’s own horizon
was greatly increased by the insight he gained into American
ornithology. His name is commemorated on the other side
of the Atlantic in cc Macgillivray’s warbler ”, a native of western
North America; and his own Descriptions of the Rapacious Birds
of Great Britain (1836) is in turn dedicated in admiration and
friendship to John James Audubon. (One of Mac Gillivr ay’s
ten children was moreover called Audubon Felix, and my
attention has been drawn to the name of one of Audubon’s
daughters, Marion, being the same as Mrs. Mac Gillivr ay’s.)

Volume 1 of A History of British Birds appeared in 1837,
followed by volumes 2 and 3 in 1839 and ’40. It thus exactly
coincided with William Yarrell’s excellent and sooner-
completed work of the same title; and to this unfortunate
coincidence is probably due the fact that there was never a
demand for so much as a second edition. Volumes 4 and 5,
moreover, did not come out for another twelve years; he
completed them both in the last bereaved and invalid year of
his life, holding death at arm’s length till they were finished.
“ Commenced in hope, and carried on with zeal, though

68

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

ended in sorrow and sickness, I can look upon my work without
much regard to the opinions which contemporary writers may
form of it, assured that what is useful in it will not be for-
gotten, and knowing that already it has had a beneficial effect
on many of the present and will more powerfully influence the
next generation of our home-ornithologists 55 (last page of vol. 5) .

His temperament was one of militant independence, and
he scorned the cabinet-naturalists who were his contemporaries.
Always he tried to discover truth at the fountain-head; and,
if we may judge from the youthful Darwin, and from shoemaker
Thomas Edward of Banff in later years, he was moved to great
kindness and generosity towards those prepared to do the
same. “ Although I have been anxious to render the work
entirely original ”, he says in the preface to Rapacious Birds
(p. 7), “I have on many occasions been obliged to have
recourse to the observations of others. These, however, I
have always attributed to their authors, not judging it honest
to give them as my own in a disguised state, as I observe to
be a common practice with men who would scruple to pick
their neighbour’s pockets, probably because they should run
the risk of being sent to study ornithology in Botany Bay.
I have not invented any new names, generic or specific, nor
cleverly appended a c mihi ’ to the tail of any species. In
some instances, however, I have judged it necessary to alter the
English name.” (The last sentence but one refers strictly of
course to the rapacious birds. As is well known, MacGillivray
described Ross’s gull under the name Larus roseus in 1824, and
later ( Manual of British Ornithology , 1842) erected for it the
genus Rhodostethia. Rhodostethia rosea is still its valid name.)

His lesser products included a very popular abridgment
of Withering’s Botanical Arrangement , Manuals of Botany and
Geology, Lives of Eminent Zoologists, and many other excellent
works, still to be picked up in second-hand book-shops, and
all worth possessing. He was a gifted draughtsman, as the
hundreds of his published cuts of birds, their heads, feet and
viscera testify. His industry and output were astounding, but
never more so than in organising the field-work and writing
the text of a 372-page systematic handbook, A history of the
Molluscous Animals of the counties of Aberdeen , Kincardine , and
Banff (1843), in the space of two years.

r

1952

CENTENARY OF WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY

69

Those who have not yet come under his spell might be
advised to start on the Rapacious Birds; but they will come
sooner or later to his most perfect and harmonious work,
The Natural History of Dee Side and Braemar (1855), printed
for private presentation by Queen Victoria; therein flow
together all the diverse springs of his natural knowledge, and a
lifetime of experience and understanding, in tribute to his
beloved hills. Its value and freshness have diminished very
little in the century that has passed since he journeyed up
Deeside in 1850 “ — not for the first time ... to examine the
geological structure of Braemar, its alpine vegetation, and,
to a certain extent, its zoology . . . and undertake a survey
of this tract 55 .

The best summary of the facts of his life is to be found in the
Dictionary of National Biography ; Mullens’ independent and
admirable article on him (1909) has already been mentioned.
A Memorial Tribute to William MacGillivray, by a descendant
of the same name, was a book privately printed in Edinburgh
in 1901; and in 1910 there was published the Life of William
MacGillivray , containing the material of the Memorial Tribute,
somewhat altered and enlarged, and an appreciation of his
scientific work by Professor J. Arthur Thomson.

His grave is in New Calton Burying- Ground, Edinburgh,
and there is a bronze tablet to his memory, erected in 1900,
in the Natural History Museum, Marischal College. A
MacGillivray Prize, founded by his daughter in 1905, is
offered annually, and now customarily held by the best
graduating honours student in zoology, at Aberdeen University.

“ The time has almost gone ”, he says in the preface to the
Molluscous Animals , “ when a little Latin, a little Greek, a little
Mathematics, a little Natural Philosophy, and a little Moral
Philosophy, in such spare quantities as 4 one small head could
hold ’, made an accomplished scholar. The book of Nature
has been opened to us, and whatever profit there may be in
storing our minds with phrases, it would require some in-
genuity to shew that the knowledge of things is not more
useful than that of words.” “ Let Latin and Greek have
their due share, but let not the incubus of classic lore be
permitted to smother the mind, that, if unrestrained, would
inhale with delight the pure air of heaven.”

70

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

RECORDS OF BRITISH HIPPOBOSCIDAE *

Gordon B. Thompson

Cambridge

The following records are based on a collection of British
Hippoboscidae from the Royal Scottish Museum, sent to me
for examination through the kindness of Dr. A. C. Stephen and
Mr. W. T. Stirling. A number of interesting locality records
and the discovery of a specimen of Lynchia albipennis (Say),
which has only been taken once in Wales and once in Ireland,
justify these notes.

Eight species of Hippoboscidae are now known to occur in
the British Isles. I am in agreement with Dr. Jos. Bequaert,
who considers that there are only two species of Ornithomyia
present in our islands.

i. Lipoptena cervi (L.), 1758.

Four specimens, all winged, Argyllshire, R. Etive, 8th
October 1919 ; one specimen, winged, Dumfriesshire, Annan-
dale, 3rd~5th October 1907 ; one specimen, wingless, N.W.
Inverness-shire, Strathglass (no other data) ; one specimen,
wingless, from red deer Cervus elaphus , Perthshire, Dalnaglar
Castle, 1894 (P. Morrison) ; thirteen specimens, all winglesy
Perthshire, Blair Atholl; one, wingless, from red deer, Ross-
shire, Strathcarron, September 1899 (L. W. Hinxman).

L. cervi has been commonly stated to occur on the red deer,
roe-deer and fallow deer, but I have been unable to find an
authentic record of its occurrence on fallow deer. The
capture of winged forms during October is in keeping with
previous observations. According to Darling (1937) the
winged keds disappear about the middle of October.

Previous records of this species from Scotland have been
published by Ormerod (1897), Grimshaw (1904), King (1911),
Cameron (1932, 1937), Parnell and Cameron (1933), Thomp-
son (1936), Darling (1937), Bequaert (1937, 1942), Smart

* Received 14 th May 1952

1952

RECORDS OF BRITISH HIPPOBOSCIDAE

7i

(1945) and Parmenter (1949). All these records are from
Perthshire, Inverness-shire, Ross-shire, Fife and Kinross and
Arran.

2. LyNCHIA ALBIP ENNIS (Say) , 1 823.

A single specimen from a bittern Botaurus stellaris “ picked
up dead ”, Fidra Island, Firth of Forth, 19th March 1929.

The first record of this species was by Hallett (1934) from
a purple heron Ardea purpurea , Pembrokeshire, Haverfordwest,
23rd April 1931. Only one other record has been published.
O’Mahony (1940) recorded a single specimen from little
bittern Ixobrychus minutus, Co. Wexford, Enniscorthy, May 1939
(A. E. Williams). It appears to be a characteristic parasite of
birds of the family Ardeidae.

3. Ornithomyia avigularia (L.), 1758.

From long-eared owl Asio otus , Shetland Is., 31st October
1916 ; blackbird Turdus merula , Yorks, Barnsley (E. G.
Bayford).

4. Ornithomyia fringillina Curtis, 1836.

From curlew Numenius arquata , Sutherland, Assynt, May
!9°7 (W. Eagle Clarke) ; starling Sturnus vulgaris , St. Kilda,
10th October 1910 (W. Eagle Clarke) ; meadow pipit Anthus
pratensis, Fair Isle, September 1921 (W. Eagle Clarke) ;
White’s thrush Turdus dauma , Fair Isle, 19th October 1929 ;
long-eared owl Asio otus , 1 ith September 1894 (no other data) ;
skylark — young — Alauda arvensis , E. Lothian, Aberlady, nth
June 1910; red grouse Lagopus scoticus , Banffshire, Ballin-
dalloch, 6th June 1908; “ grouse ”, Argyllshire, Campbeltown,
July 1907.

The following records are based on specimens without in-
dication of host: five specimens, Ross and Cromarty, Dingwall,

1 2th August 1909 (J. R. Malloch) ; S. Dunbartonshire, Bonhill,
6th July 1907; Inverness-shire, Boat of Garten, July- August
1 9°3 (J- J- F. X. King) ; Flannan Is. (no other data) ; Rannoch,
June 1898; Rannoch, August 1905 (P. H. Grimshaw); Ran-
noch, June-July 1922 (A. E. J. Carter); Edinburgh, Museum
window, 25th September 1909; W. Inverness, Corrour, July
1914 and June 1915 ; Butt of Lewis, September 1914

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

(W. Eagle Clarke); two specimens, Fair Isle, September 1907
(W. Eagle Clarke); Fair Isle, September 1906 (W. Eagle
Clarke); N. Peeblesshire, Halmyre, 24th June 1893 (T. G.
Laidlaw) ; Perthshire, Blairgowrie, 15th September 1912
(A. E. J. Carter).

These records extend the distribution of 0 . fringillina in the
British I§les. This species has a more northerly range than
0. avicularia ; it occurs in southern Finland, Norway, Iceland,
Alaska (63° N.) and southern Labrador (50° 17' N.). The
record from White’s thrush constitutes a new host.

The two species avicularia and fringillina have been confused
to a considerable extent in the past and in most cases the
records are of little value. The record of 0. avicularia from the
Flannan Islands published by Grimshaw (1905) is in fact 0.
fringillina. For Scottish records see Blair (1932), Clay and
Meinertzhagen (1943), Edwards (1951), Evans (1903, 1909),
Grimshaw (1904), King (1911), O’Mahony (1949, 1950),
Parmenter (1940), Sharp (1907), Shipley (1909), Smart (1939,
1945), Thompson (1934, 1936, 1937, 1938) and Williamson
(I949> i95°> W)-

5. Stenepteryx hirundinis (L.), 1758.

Specimens from house martin ( Delichon urbica ), Berwick-
shire, Coldingham, August 1905 and 18th July 1907 (J.
Waterston) ; Edinburgh Zoo, September 1949; Aberdeen-
shire, Inverurie, 10th September 1903 (W. Tail).

The few previous records of this species are all from the
eastern counties of Scotland, viz. Aberdeen, Kincardine, Perth,
Midlothian and Berwick. The earliest record is that of
Stewart (1811), followed by Grimshaw (1904), Waterston
(1909, 1910), Evans (1921) and Allan (1950).

I would like to draw attention to the complete absence of
records of Crataerina pallida (Latr.) from Scotland. This fly
is the specific parasite of the swift and there seems to be no
reason for its absence within the breeding range of its host.

REFERENCES

Allan, R. M., 1950. Scot. Nat., 62 : 33-41.

Bequaert, J., 1937. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc., 32 : 92, 94-98.

1942. Ent. Amer., 22 : 58-81.

Blair. K. G., 1932. Ent. Mon. Mag., 68 : 21 1.

1952

RECORDS OF BRITISH HIPPOBOSCIDAE

73

Cameron. A. E., 1932. Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb., 22 : 81 and 87-88.

1937- Trans. Highl. Agric. Soc. Scot. (5th Ser.), 49 : 143-145.

Clay, T. and R. M. Meinertz hagen, 1943. Parasitology , 35 : 11-16,.
2 text-figs.

Darling, F. F., 1937. A herd of Red Deer. London. Pp. 143-144.
Edwards, R‘, 1951. Fair Isle Bird Observatory : 2nd Ann. Rep. (for 1950), 21.
Evans, W., 1903. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist. : 249.

1909. Ent. Mon. Mag., 45 : 65.

192 1. Scot. Nat. : 21.

Grimshaw, P. H., 1904. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist. : 29-30.

1905. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist. : 220.

Hallett, H. M., 1932. Ent. Mon. Mag., 68 : 133.

King, J. J. F. X., 1911. Glasg. Nat., 3 : 99.

1911. Glasg. Nat., 4 : 23.

O’Mahony, E., 1940. J. Soc. Brit. Ent., 2 : 75.

1949- Ent. Mon. Mag., 85 : 140.

!95°. J. Soc. Brit. Ent., 3 : 207-210.

1950. Ent. Mon. Mag., 86 : 71.

Ormerod, E. A., 1897. Report of Observations of Injurious Insects, 20th Rep. :
60-68.

Parmenter, L., 1940. Ent. Mon. Mag., 76 : 162.

1949. Ent. Mon. Mag., 85 : 24.

Parnell, I. W. and T. W. M. Cameron, 1933. Scot. Nat. : 142.

Sharp, D., 1907. Ent. Mon. Mag., 43 : 58-59.

Shipley, A. E., 1909. Proc. £ool. Soc. Lond. : 321-323.

Smart, J., 1945. Entomologist, 78 : 127.

Smart, J., in F. W. Edwards, H. Oldroyd and J. Smart, 1939. British
Blood Sucking Flies. London. P. 127.

Stewart, C., 1811. Mem. Wern. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1 : 577.

Thompson, G. B., 1934. Ent. Mon. Mag., 70 : 133-136.

1936. Scot. Nat. : 76 and 77.

1936. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), 18 : 310.

• 1937- Ent. Mon. Mag., 73 : 47-51.

1938. Ent. Mon. Mag., 74 : 129- 133.

Waterston, J., 1909. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist. : 227.

1910. Trans. Perthsh. Scot. Nat. Sci., 5 : 48-49.

White, F. Buchanan, 1878. Scot. Nat., 4 : 185-186.

Williamson, K., 1949. Scot. Nat., 61 : 24, 28.

1950. Fair Isle Bird Observatory, 1st Ann. Rep. : 23.

1951- Fair Isle Bird Observatory, 2nd Ann. Rep. : 26, 40.

IO

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Vol. 64

A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION OF THE OCCURRENCE
OF THE FLEA FR ON T OPSTLLA ( ORFRONTIA )
LAETA IN SCOTLAND.*

F. G. A. M. Smit
British Museum (Natural History)
The Zoological Museum, Tring, Herts

In 1950 Ronald M. Allan (1950, pp. 37-40) published his j
interesting discovery of the occurrence in Scotland (at Newton-
hill, Kincardineshire) of the flea Frontopsylla laeta (J. and R.), |
1920. This species was hitherto unknown from the British
Isles and the same is true for the entire family Amphipsyllidae,
so that Allan’s discovery is a notable extension of the area of
distribution of this family. Shortly after the determination of j
Allan’s material, some of which he kindly presented to the
British Museum (Natural History), I accidentally discovered j
among the mounted specimens of Ceratophyllus farreni Roths.,
1905, at Tring a female of Frontopsylla laeta , collected and
identified (as C. farreni ) by the late Rev. J. Waterston. This s
specimen, which has not been recorded in print before, also i
came from a house martin’s nest in Scotland (Dunlaverock,
Coldingham (N.E. Berwickshire), 1914). It is difficult to
understand how this specimen happened to be misdetermined
because F. laeta is so different from C. farreni, even in the female
sex, but it is perhaps fortunate that the specimen was not
recognised before we received Allan’s specimens of both sexes i
of F. laeta , because the species was only known from one
specimen (the male holotype from Switzerland), and if the
specimen from Dunlaverock had been found before we knew
the female of F. laeta it might easily have been described as a
new species. This shows the danger of describing a new
species from a single female, or from a single specimen in
general.

I take this opportunity to give a figure of the complete
terminalia (Fig. 1) and the genitalia (Fig. 2) of a female of F.
laeta , since Allan figured the 7th sternum only.

Received 28 th May 1952

1952

OCCURRENCE OF THE FLEA FRONTOPSTLLA

75

Frontopsylla ( Orfrontia ) laeta J. and R., 2 (from Newtonhill, Scotland). Fig. i.
Terminalia. Fig. 2. Genitalia.

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t

Vol. 64

It should be noted that Ioff (1946, p. 89) erected a subgenus,
Orfrontia , for the bird-infesting species of Frontopsylla , all of
which have about 30 or more spines in the pronotal ctenidium ;
the type species of this subgenus is Frontopsylla frontalis (Roths.),
I909-

Thus far F. (0.) laeta has been recorded from Scotland,
Switzerland and the Caucasus; the last-mentioned record
being given by Ioff (1949, p. 51) who states that “ . . . quite
recently I obtained Fr. laeta (also 1 male) in the Caucasus
(Teberd’ Valley, May 1946) from a nest of Delichon urbica ”.

The apparently very sporadic nature of this distribution
over a distance of about 3,000 miles may be genuine or may be
due to the fact that relatively very little intensive collecting of
fleas from the nests of house martins has been done in Europe.
It seems that F. laeta is a monoxenous parasite of Delichon
urbica , and Allan’s discovery of many specimens in nests “ on
the roof of a cave facing the sea ” suggests the possibility that
it may perhaps only occur in nests built in similar sites (i.e.
under natural conditions on rocks and cliffs), not in the much
more frequent and accessible situations under the eaves of
houses. The original record of the flea does not help in this
connection because it is obviously abnormal, and Ioff does not
state the type of site in which the nest from which he obtained
F. laeta was built. It is not improbable that the specimen of F.
laeta from Coldingham, mentioned above, was also found in a
nest that was built on a rock or cliff, for many colonies of house
martins can be found on rocks and on cliffs along the coast of
Berwickshire and also more inland (Jourdain and Witherby,
1939, P* 22)* The suggestion that F. laeta may only occur in
nests from “ natural ” sites is supported by the known records
of another monoxenous parasite of the house martin, Orneacus
waterstoni (Jordan), 1925. This flea, belonging to the family
Ceratophyllidae, was originally collected “ from nests of C.
urbica , taken from the cliffs at Todhead, near Kinneff, Kin-
cardineshire . . (Waterston, 1910, p. 84). In 1917 this
species was obtained in Switzerland from the same nest which
yielded the holotype oiF. laeta, and finally Allan took specimens
of 0. waterstoni from the same nests in Scotland from which he
obtained F. laeta. It is probable that F. laeta and 0. waterstoni
have the same ecological requirements and therefore occur

1952

OCCURRENCE OF THE FLEA FRONTOPSTLLA

77

together in the same type of nests ; thus they seem to have a
similar distribution, though it is not known yet whether 0.
waterstoni occurs in the Caucasus. A closely related species,
Orneacus oreinus Jordan, 1937, is found in the nests of Delichon
urbica in Kashmir and Tien Shan.

Further evidence as to the preference of some species of
Frontopsylla for nests of house martins in natural sites is provided
by Ioff in his note on F. (0.) cornuta Ioff, 1946 (Ioff, 1949,
p. 54), for he states that he got specimens of this species from
a “ nest of D. urbica from rocks in the Valley of Terek, Aksaj,
Tien Shan. Moreover, 3^2$, from a similar nest, were
taken in the Valley of Ishtik, Issik Kul District (July- August
1943 and 1944).” Specimens of Orneacus oreinus in the Tring
Collection apparently come from the same nests in Aksaj, since
they were collected at that place in 1943 from nests of D. urbica
and were received from Ioff; this would mean that 0. oreinus ,
too, occurs in nests on rocks.

All bird-fleas are believed to have been derived from
mammal-fleas, and the species of Frontopsylla provide an
unusually good example of the type of evidence that has led to
this assumption.

Ioff (1946, 1949) divided the genus Frontopsylla into four
subgenera, Frontopsylla s. str., Mafrontia, Profrontia and Orfrontia .
The first three of these subgenera all contain fleas (a total of
21 forms) which infest rodents which live in burrows ( Alticola ,
Arvicola , Clethrionorrys, Microtus , Allactaga, Spermophilopsis , Citellus
and Criceiulus ), while some of these species of Frontopsylla have
also been found on other hosts (Mus musculus , Sicista , Rattus and
undoubtedly strayed specimens on Sorex). The fourth sub-
genus, Orfrontia , is the most important in the present connec-
tion. It contains the following species and subspecies : — -

F. (0.) frontalis frontalis (Roths.), 1909. — Originally
recorded from a nest of the alpine chough Pyrrhocorax
graculus , in the Austrian Alps (Rothschild, 1909, p. 59).
Ioff (1949) records it from Tien Shan, Caucasus and Trans-
baikalia from nests of birds living in burrows, but states that
it is also frequently found in burrows of marmots, susliks
( Citellus spp.), jerboas and gerbils.

F. (0.) frontalis gud Argyropulo, 1935. — In a nest of
“ Fringillidae (?) 55 in a mountainous region, Caucasus.

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F . (0.) frontalis baikal Ioff, 1946. — This subspecies was
found in nests of Oenanthe and other birds living in burrows
in the ground, but it was also often found in nests of birds
that had made use of abandoned rodent-burrows; Trans-
baikalia, Cisbaikalia, Tien Shan and Mongolia.

F. (0.) frontalis alatau Fedina, 1946. — Same hosts as
F.f baikal , once found on a suslik; Tien Shan, Kopet-Dag.

F . (0.) frontalis dubiosa Ioff, 1946. — In nests of Oenanthe
and Montifringilla ; Issik Kul District.

F. (0.) lapponica (Nordberg), 1934. — Originally de-
scribed from a nest of the sand martin Riparia riparia ,
Tornio, Finland (65° 48' N, 240 15' E) ; subsequently
found by Miss T. Clay at Karesuando, N.E. Sweden
(68° 29' N, 220 40' E), also in nests of R. riparia (Rothschild,
1952, P- I94). Sand martins’ nests are always in burrows
made by the bird itself.

F. (0.) cornuta Ioff, 1946. — From a nest of Delichon
urbica , built on rocks; Tien Shan.

F. (0.) laeta (J. and R.), 1920. — From nests of Delichon
urbica ; very probably only in those nests which are built
on rocks and cliffs; Scotland, Switzerland, Caucasus.

From the Russian evidence it would appear that frontalis
(the polytypic species) is in an ecologically less advanced stage
of transfer from rodents on to birds, though morphologically
it is a true bird-flea by having more than 30 spines in the
pronotal ctenidium. Originally a flea of rodents living in
burrows, it adapted itself to birds which made use of these
burrows when abandoned by their original owners. The
subspecies frontalis apparently still occurs frequently on mam-
mals as well as on birds. The next subspecies, F.f gud , must
be left out of account because of the vagueness of the only
record, but the remaining three subspecies, F. f. baikal , F. f
alatau and F. f dubiosa , all apparently occur only on birds, the
single record of ssp. alatau from a suslik being doubtless
accidental.

F. (0.) lapponica is another species that lives in sandy
burrows, namely in those of sand martins ; its known range of
distribution (N.E. Sweden and N. W. Finland) may be extended

1952

OCCURRENCE OF THE FLEA FR OJVT OPS TLLA

79

if a diligent search for fleas from nests of sand martins is made;
its occurrence in Scotland seems not unlikely (Rothschild,
1952, p. 195). This sand-martin flea no doubt originated in
the centre of distribution of Frontopsylla (Central Asia) and the
fact that it has not been found, and probably will not be found,
on burrowing rodents is doubtless due to the inaccessibility to
rodents of the burrows of sand martins; this has no doubt
resulted in lapponica becoming more distinct * and more
strongly host-specific than the subspecies of frontalis, in which
an exchange between avian and mammalian hosts can still
easily be accomplished.

Finally, the species now known as F. (0.) cornuta and F. (0.)
laeta have found their way to the nests of the house martin
Delichon urbica. How did these fleas, which originally lived in
burrows of rodents, finally arrive in martins’ nests ? Bearing
in mind that our information about the distribution of the
species of Frontopsylla is extremely inadequate, it may be useful
to examine the few facts that we possess and see if it is possible
to construct a hypothesis which will fit them. This will serve
as a guide as to the most fruitful directions in which to seek
further information. The record of F. f. frontalis in numbers
from a nest of Pyrrhocorax in the Austrian Alps may be of
significance in connection with the question of the arrival of
some species of Frontopsylla in house martins’ nests. Pyrrhocorax
could have become infested with Frontopsylla either from small
rodents on which, according to some statements in the
literature, choughs have been observed to prey, or the birds
could have obtained the fleas from marmots which in the Alps
live in the same biotope as the alpine chough; it may be
noteworthy in connection with the last-mentioned suggestion
that choughs prefer to use mammal-hairs for lining their nests. |
Since choughs are largely ground feeders in the Alps in summer,
they could also easily attract fleas that lost contact with their

*F. (0.) lapponica is a much more hairy species than all other known forms
of the subgenus Orfrontia; the same can be said of Ceratophyllus styx (the very
common monoxenous flea of the sand martin in Europe) as against all other
bird-Ceratophylli. Fleas living in close touch with sand tend to have more
numerous and/or larger hairs than those which do not live in sandy places.

f Jordan and Rothschild (1920, pp. 86, 98) recorded two pairs of Chaetopsylla
homoea Roths, from the nest of Pyrrhocorax graculus from Zermatt, Switzerland.
This is a true mammal-flea, occurring on the fox, polecat, stoat and weasel in
Central Asia, Tibet, Tien Shan and Switzerland !

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Vol. 64

host when this was wandering about. A search for fleas from
both marmots’ and choughs’ nests in the Alps would be of great
interest. Whatever the method of transfer, the record of
Frontopsylla f. frontalis in numbers from the nest of the alpine i
chough shows that the flea has adapted itself to this avian host.
Those house martins which build nests on rocks and cliffs might
find themselves in close proximity to Pyrrhocorax, since most
nests of P. pyrrhocorax in the British Isles are found “ in crevices
of sea-cliffs or holes in roof of sea-caves ” (Witherby et al., 1948,
p. 38) (note that Allan took a nest of Delichon urbica also “ on
the roof of a cave facing the sea”). An exchange of fleas
seems, therefore, not improbable.

The chough is a very rare breeding bird in Scotland, but it
was formerly widely distributed there, and it seems significant
that Gray (1871, p. 163) mentions St. Abb’s Head in Berwick-
shire and Troup Head in Banffshire as among the last stations
of the chough in eastern Scotland, for Coldingham (one of the
two known Scottish localities of Frontopsylla laeta ) is within a :
mile or two of St. Abb’s, while the other known locality,
Newtonhill, is between these two points. It is not unlikely
that house martins, nesting in exactly the same biotype as i
choughs, may in years gone by have used material from the !
bulky nests of choughs for lining their own nests (though
usually the lining is made up from feathers and bits of straw),
to which they thus transferred chough-fleas, which successfully i
adapted themselves to the new avian host; the probability of
this suggestion is greatly increased by the fact that members of
the genus Frontopsylla are clearly much more dependent on
ecological factors than on the type of food available for the
adult fleas.

The question remains why the species of Frontopsylla that
infest house martins apparently do not (or not yet) occur in
nests under eaves of houses. Is it because the building of nests
under eaves is a relatively recently adopted habit of house
martins, and that the Frontopsylla species have not yet adapted
themselves to the relatively new and dry habitat? Or is the
natural barrier between nests on cliffs and nests under eaves
too great? Miriam Rothschild (1952, p. 195) has called
attention to several baffling problems relating to the distribu-
tion of fleas from the house martin. She suggests that the

1952

OCCURRENCE OF THE FLEA FRONT OPSTLLA

81

distribution of Orneacus waterstoni and Frontopsylla laeta may
depend on special humidity requirements of the larvae, or the
segregation of small populations of the house martin. Both
these conditions are probably fulfilled by our suggestion that
these fleas may now be restricted to those house martins which
have retained the primitive habit of nesting on cliffs and on
the roofs of caves.1

Like F. lapponica from sand martins, F. cornuta and F. laeta
will very rarely have a chance of transferring to a rodent
because of the isolation of the house martins’ nests, so even if
the ancestral hankering for mammal-burrows still remains in
them — as is clearly the case in frontalis — they cannot easily
break the natural barrier between these nests and those of
burrowing rodents.

It is much too early to decide whether the apparently
discontinuous distribution of the species of Frontopsylla which
infest house martins is genuine or not, since the known dis-
tribution is based only on scanty knowledge, owing to the small
amount of collecting that has been done so far. However, one
may assume that F. (0.) laeta (like Ceratophyllus vagabundus
(Boheman), 1866) “is a c relict 5 species, reduced to a mere
fringe of its former distribution either by climatic changes or
by the gradual elimination of its principal host, it may owe
its survival to the crowded breeding conditions on rocky cliffs
along the coast . . .” (Rothschild, 1952, p. 201). Both in the
case of the Ceratophyllus and that of the Frontopsylla there is
evidence that suggests a correlation between the distribution of
the flea and that of the two species of chough, but if the fleas
originally infested Pyrrhocorax they must both have transferred
to other hosts before the choughs became extinct in most of
their Scottish haunts.

A similar explanation to the one set out in this paper could
apply to the presence of Orneacus waterstoni and 0. oreinus in the

1 Miss Rothschild informs me that the alpine chough Pyrrhocorax graculus has
recently shown the same tendency as the house martin to seek man-made buildings
as nesting sites. In 1937 (in company with G. M. Spooner) she observed a nest
of these birds placed on the crossbeam in the station of a mountain funicular
railway in the Bernese Oberland. The female was brooding. Further down
the line a small colony was nesting in a funicular tunnel within easy reach of the
ground. In the same year Schifferli and Lang (1946, p. 1 15) observed a pair of
alpine choughs nesting in the former bell- tower of Schloss Tarasp (Lower Engadin).
Future siphonapterists will perhaps have the opportunity of discovering whether
or not Frontopsylla will be able to survive in this new ecological niche of the chough.

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nests (built on rocks and cliffs) of the house martin, since the
genus Orneacus originated from Citellophilus Wagner, 1934, a
genus of mammal-fleas occurring in Central and Eastern
Europe and Asia.

It would be very much worth while to collect nests of: —

(a) Delichon urbica from “ natural 55 sites, preferably from
localities where the chough has been or still is resident: Isles
of Islay, Jura and Skye, the south coast of Ayrshire, and along
the coast line of Wigtownshire, extending to the Mull of
Galloway, Burrow Head and the borders of Kirkcudbrightshire.

( b ) Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax and Pyrrhocorax graculus , as well
as other European rock- and cliff-breeders, e.g. Riparia rupestris.

(c) Marmots (in the Alps).

The nests (linings only) of the birds should be put in a bag
after the birds have left (so as not to cause any disturbance to
the birds during the breeding-season) and the fleas must then
be obtained from them, whilst keeping the nests in the bag or
in a box (taking care to prevent drying up) in order to give the
eggs, larvae and pupae the opportunity to develop, so that no
material will be lost by remaining in an immature stage. I
hope that an appeal to naturalists, and especially to ornitho-
logists, to collect such abandoned nests and forward them to a
specialist in fleas, will not remain unanswered.

I am greatly indebted to the Hon. Miriam Rothschild for
criticising the manuscript and for making valuable suggestions.

REFERENCES

Allan, R. M., 1950. Fleas (Siphonaptera) from birds in North-East
Scotland. Scot. Nat.. 62 : 33-41.

Gray, R., 1871. The Birds of the West of Scotland including the Outer Hebrides.
Glasgow.

I off, I., V. Tiflov, A. Argyropulo, O. Fedina, L. Dudolkina and P.
Shiranovitch, 1946. New species of fleas. Med. Parasitol., Moscow ,
!5 (4) : 85-94 [in Russian].

I off, I. G., 1949. Aphaniptera of Kirgizia. In : V. N. Beklemishev and
I. G. Ioff, 1949. Ectoparasites. Fauna, ecology and epidemiological import-
ance. No. 1 [in Russian].

Jordan, K., and N. C. Rothschild, 1920. A preliminary catalogue of
the Siphonaptera of Switzerland. Ectoparasites, 1 : 78-122.

OCCURRENCE OF THE FLEA FRONTOPSTLLA

1952

83

Jourdain, F. C. R., and H. F. Witherby, 1939. Cliff-breeding in the
House-Martin. Brit. Birds , 33 : 16-24.

Rothschild, M., 1952. A collection of fleas from the bodies of British
Birds, with notes on their distribution and host preferences. Bull.
Brit. Mus. {Nat. Hist.) Ent., 2 : 187-232.

Rothschild, N. C., 1909. Notes on fleas in the K. K. Hofmuseum in
Vienna. Novit. Z°cl., 16 : 57-60.

Schifferli, A. and E. M. Lang, 1946. Aus dem Brutleben der Alpen-
dohle, Pyrrhocorax graculus (L.). Orn. Beob., 43 : 114-117.

Waterston, J., 1910. On some habits and hosts of Bird Ceratophylli taken
in Scotland in 1909 ; with description of a new species {C. rothschildi) ,
and records of various Siphonaptera. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb .,
18 : 73-91.

Witherby, H. F., F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst and B. W. Tucker,
1948. The Handbook of British Birds. London. Vol. 1.

84

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Vol. 64

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION IN THE BILL OL THE
EULMAR ( FULMARUS GLACIALIS)

V. C. Wynne-Edwards
Aberdeen University

Travelling by sledge in the spring of 1924 the Danish
explorer Peter Freuchen reached an immense and unin-
vestigated fulmar colony on the south shore of Lancaster
Sound, upon snow-covered cliffs near the mouth of Admiralty
Inlet, Baffin Island. He brought from there a collection of
twenty-five skulls of sexed birds, with the horny integument
of the bills attached, and this was the first series of specimens
of breeding fulmars to be secured anywhere in Arctic Canada.
A few more similar skulls were later obtained by him in Bylot
Island (Hc/rring, 1937: 41).

This collection has recently been re-examined by Salomon-
sen (1950), and shown to belong to a short-billed race, for
which the old name minor Kjaerbplling (1852) can be re-
instated. Fulmarus glacialis minor is a “ good ” race, as will
be seen below, and it was at once accepted as valid by the
A.O.U. Check-List committee (Auk, 68: 367, 1950).

In 1950 I visited another huge colony, at Cape Searle in
Baffin Island, about 700 miles south-east of Freuchen’s site,
on a tower-like headland jutting out into Davis Strait (Wynne-
Edwards, 1952a and b). From there a small series of speci-
mens was also brought back, belonging to the same race.

Although the short-billed fulmar is only known to breed
in the “ Eastern Arctic 55 of Canada, the type locality of the
name minor is North Greenland. Salomonsen says * (pp.

1 03- 1 04): “It is quite natural that this new form should
have been first discovered in Greenland, for both forms abound
along the coasts, the small one as a visitor from Baffin Island,
the large one as the breeding bird in N. Greenland. Possibly
the Greenland stock forms a transition between the two just
mentioned, but unfortunately the material is not sufficient
to decide the point, as we do not know with certainty whether

* The original is in Danish.

i952 VARIATION IN THE BILL OL THE FULMAR’ 85

the specimens we have are breeding birds or wanderers in
Davis Strait originating in Baffin Island. Besides, most of
the birds are not sexed. Needless to say, however, both the
long- and short-billed forms wander along the coast. Further
investigation is required to decide the status of the Greenland
birds.” A little lower down (p. 104) he adds : “ It is possible
that the breeding fulmars of Spitzbergen and elsewhere in
the north as well, approach those of Baffin Island in bill
measurements, but I think this is improbable, for if so they
would be found wandering further south in the Atlantic.”

In addition to minor there are the two better-known sub-
species, namely the Atlantic fulmar, F. gl. glacialis , and the
Pacific fulmar, F. gl. rodgersii. The type-locality of glacialis
was not many years ago designated as Spitzbergen (Mathews,
1 934 : :74)> but the name is generally applied at least to all
the fulmars breeding in Europe and Arctic U.S.S.R. as far
east as the fulmar occurs (perhaps Lonely Island, 86° E.).
The Pacific fulmar is confined as a breeding bird to far-
eastern Siberia and neighbouring islands (including the
Kuriles, Commanders, Aleutians, Pribilovs, St. Matthew and
Hall, and perhaps other islands lying in the Bering Strait
region). Details of the breeding range of the species have
recently been summarized by Fisher (1952a: 334).

The most conspicuous differences between members of
these three races are to be seen in the size and strength of their
bills. In fact, as Voous (1949) has very clearly and interest-
ingly shown, the bill in Fulmarus is a plastic structure, readily
undergoing evolutionary change. The purpose of this paper
is to direct further attention to its variations, particularly in
the Atlantic sector.

2. The fulmar' s bill

In common with other members of the order Procellarii-
formes, fulmars have the horny sheaths of the mandibles
composed of a number of separate plates. The terminal
plate of the upper mandible forms a strong curved hook.
That of the lower mandible, likewise strong and fitting to bite
against the inner side of the hook, forms a pronounced edge
or “ gonys ”, on the under side of the chin, where the two
rami of the mandible meet and are united.

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In the family Procellariidae, which includes the fulmars,
shearwaters and petrels, the external nasal tubes lie side by
side and are roofed over by a common horny sheath.

In the fulmars themselves, i.e. the genus Fulmarus , the
trend of evolution has been towards a thickening and strength-
ening of all parts of the bill. The Antarctic or silver-grey
fulmar (F. antarcticus ) * is the least specialised, and therefore the
slenderest and most shearwater- like in its bill. Of the northern

Fig. 1. — Lower jaw with remains of tongue (stippled), and palatal view of the
skull to show the small lamellae inside the margins of the bill. Drawn from
a dry skull picked up at Cape Searle, 1 7th August 1 950.

races, the Pacific fulmar stands nearest to it, with a relatively
weak bill, whereas the bills of the Atlantic races are consider-
ably more robust (Voous, 1949: 114).

The specialisation appears to be partly a feeding adaptation,
and partly epigamic, that is, developed by sexual selection in
relation to courtship display. In the northern fulmars there
are, inside the cutting edge of the maxilla, some 30-40 fine
horny ridges or lamellae, whose free edges slope upwards and
•

* The name antarcticus has been used here, following J. L. Peters’ Check-list
of birds of the world , vol. 1, p. 51 (1931), and Murphy (1936: 596), in preference
to the well-known synonym glacialoides, employed by Voous (1949) andj. Fisher
( 1 952a) -

i952 VARIATION IN THE BILL OF THE FULMAR 87

backwards, and these are presumably used in conjunction with
an unusually broad tongue in sifting or holding small food
particles (Fig. 1). A more elaborate adaptation of the same
kind, also developed to a varying extent in the different
species, is to be found in the related whale-birds ( Pachyptila ,
formerly Prion ) . The lamellae are absent in the unspecialised

Fig. 2. — Comparison of the length,
shape and sexual dimorphism of the
bills in the named forms of Fulmarus.
The bottom two are redrawn to scale,
chiefly from the sources quoted; the
remainder are original.

Antarctic fulmar, which has for this reason been placed until
very recent times in a separate genus Priocella , and even a
separate sub-family, though its close resemblance to the
northern fulmars in other respects has often been noted.
Voous ( loc . cit. | now regards glacialis and antarcticus as a
single superspecies.

Sufficient attention does not seem to have been drawn to
the other or epigamic aspect of the adaptation of the bill.

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Although the fulmar’s familiar cackling display, with open
beaks and bowing heads, is mutual, the bill shows more or
less distinct sexual dimorphism. It averages somewhat longer
in the male, and the hook tends to be more robust. The
extent of this sexual dimorphism follows the development of
the other “ fulmarine ” characters The average difference
in length of bill of males and females in rodgersii is only 3 per
cent of total length, and in both sexes the hook is weak or
effeminate; whereas in glacialis the average difference is
6'5"7‘5 per cent, and in minor 9 per cent, and the difference
in bill-strength is so marked that individuals can usually be
sexed at sight, at any rate in the hand.

Nevertheless in glacialis and minor even the female’s bill is
not so effeminate as that found in rodgersii (Fig. 2). There
seems in effect to be a progressive trend towards what may be
called “ maleness ” in the specialisation of the fulmar’s bill.
It is to be seen in the greater depth and stronger curvature of
the hook, and also in the strength and slope of the gonys. The
gonydial angle is flattest and feeblest in antarcticus , and strongest
in the Atlantic races, which is to say that in the latter the
terminal plate of the lower mandible is very deep relative to
its length.

3. Material and measurements

In order to determine the degree of variation in the length,
“ maleness ” and dimorphism of the bill in different parts of
the fulmar’s range, it is important to take measurements only
from birds obtained at or reasonably near their breeding
places in the summer half-year, and from those whose sex is
known. Away from the breeding colonies a great admixture
is to be found throughout the Atlantic sector. Both minor
and glacialis occur on the American and Canadian banks and,
as will be mentioned again later, there is a Norfolk specimen
which could reasonably be assigned to minor in the British
Museum (Natural History).

This seriously restricts the material available for compara-
tive study, as the quotation from Salomonsen has already
implied. In addition to the small collection at Aberdeen

University, I have measured all the admissible specimens in

the Royal Scottish Museum and the British Museum (Natural

1952

VARIATION IN THE BILL OF THE FULMAR

89

History), and I wish to thank the keepers of the respective
departments, Dr. A. C. Stephen and Mr. J. D. Macdonald,
for the facilities kindly provided. From Mr. W. Earl Godfrey
I have received bill-measurements of all fulmars in the National
Museum of Canada, Ottawa, and from Dr. Hans Johansen
(in Dr. Salomonsen’s absence abroad) of all material from
the Faeroes and Iceland in the University Zoological Museum,
Copenhagen. I have, moreover, used Dr. Salomonsen’s
published figures for minor , combining them with others now
available. I am very much indebted to all these gentlemen.

The only measurement which I have found reasonably
satisfactory is the length of the chord, from the edge of the
feathers at the base of the culmen to the most distant part of

Fig. 3. — Method of measuring chord of bill-length.

the curve of the hook (Fig. 3). The sharp tip and cutting
edges of the hook are evidently subject to wear, and in a dry
museum specimen the occlusion of the mandibles is seldom
perfectly natural. For these reasons measurements of the
depth or height of the hook, or of the closed bill, are not
strictly comparable.

The length measurement is limited in precision by the
slightly variable shape and thickness of the basal edge of the
nasal plate, and the presence or absence of a narrow featherless
zone of skin behind it. Vernier calipers were used by me,
and readings obtained to the nearest tenth of a millimetre,
but some slight personal factor is inevitable, and may show
up when two different people measure with equal care the
same series of specimens. Measurements should therefore be
made as far as possible by one person.

12

90 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

The result of the measurements is to show that, in the
Atlantic region, not only are the smallest-billed birds found,
as Salomonsen showed, in the Canadian Arctic, but that the
birds of East Greenland, Jan Mayen, Spitzbergen and Bear j
Island can be readily lumped into a second group, segregated
from a third fairly homogeneous group in Iceland, the Faeroes
and the British Isles. The latter have the largest bills (and
are also the heaviest birds). The “Spitzbergen55 type is
intermediate between the big European birds and the small
Baffin Island ones, though nearer the former. There appears,
at any rate at first sight, to be a “ stepped cline 55 .

It must be stressed that no measurements are available
for fulmars breeding in Arctic U.S.S.R., or in North and
West Greenland.

Where the numbers in the samples are as small as they
must necessarily be in this case at present, it is desirable to
indicate by the use of statistics what reliance can be placed
on the average differences observed. The measurements of
the three groups are all overlapping, even when the sexes are
segregated ; in the case of minor the overlap at present appears
to be slight, but it may not remain so when material from
North and West Greenland colonies becomes available.

For this reason the standard deviation is given, which
indicates whether the measurements are bunched or scattered;
the statement “ 41-3 ± i*2 mm.55 for the length of bill in male
Scottish fulmars (i.e. average standard deviation) means that
68 per cent of the population ought to come within these limits,
namely 42*5 and 40-1 mm.; the actual extreme measurements
taken in this sample of ten were in fact 43*6 and 39-0 mm.

A small random sample may not, moreover, be exactly and
typically representative, and the average of the sample may
not therefore coincide exactly with the true mean of the whole
population. The “ standard error of the mean 55 indicates
the reliance to be placed in the average of a particular sample;
the odds are known to be about 5 to 1 that the true mean
differs from our average by an amount less than the standard
error, 20 to 1 by less than twice the standard error, 370 to 1
by less than three times, and so on. We can make particular
use of this in comparing samples from different regions, to
estimate the chances that the difference observed could be

VARIATION IN THE BILL OF THE FULMAR

9i

1952

merely illusory, resulting from any assortment of untypical
specimens which happen to have been preserved in the
museum collections.

The following are the actual bill-length measurements
taken (in mm.) : —

glacialis, Scotland except St. Kilda, 5 39, 39-8, 41, 41,

41- 4, 41-7, 41-7, 42, 42, 43-6; $36, 37-3, 37-5, 38-1, 38-2,
38-2, 38-3, 39, 39- 1 ; St. Kilda, 537-6; 37-6, 39-3, 40-8, 41-5,42,

42- 3; $36-9; Faeroes, 539, 40, 40, 40-5, 41, 41-4, 43;
¥ 36, 36-5. 37> 39; 39. 40-2, 41-5; Iceland, $ 39, 40, 40, 40-5,
40-5, 41, 41, 42, 42, 43; ¥ 35; 35'5. 37; 37. 37. 37'5. 37'5.
38, 38, 38, 38, 38-5. 38-5-

glacialis, Spitzbergen, 5 37% 38'3. 39’71 ¥ 35’4. 36‘5i
Bear Id., 538-6,40-6; <5 36'5. 37 5 Jan Mayen, 539, 39-5;
¥ 35'2; 35‘5. 39’4i East Greenland, 5 38, 40; ? nil.

minor, Baffin Island, ¥ (21 from Salomonsen, 1950a: 101),
34'5. 36, 36-2, 37, 37-9, 38, 38-1; ? (6 from Salomonsen, loc.
cit .), 31, 32-8, 35-5; Devon Island, 5 35-5, 36, 37, 37, 37-5.

rodgersii, all Pacific material regardless of date or origin,
<? 34'9, 35-6, 36, 36, 36-1. 37. 37'1. 37'4, 37'5. 37‘6. 37'8, 38,
38-2, 39, 40-6; ¥ 3342 , 34-9. 35. 35'5> 35'5. 36, 36> 36. 36;
36*4, 36-6, 36-6, 36-7, 37*1, 40. (4 measurements published

by Stejneger, 1885: 94, are included in this series.)

These are represented graphically in Fig. 4. A statistical
: summary is given in Table I.

4. Three regional groups in the North Atlantic sector

It is desirable to examine in the first place whether the
supposed groups in the Atlantic sector, namely the large-billed
European type, the rather smaller Spitzbergen type, and the
very short-billed minor , are natural or artificial, in the latter
case to be explained by the particular method of arranging
the material, or by some accidental effect of untypical samples.

If the four component samples of the European type, from
Iceland, the Faeroes, Scotland, and St. Kilda, are compared
within each sex, a simple inspection of the means (Table I)
reveals that they are reasonably uniform, and it is unnecessary

92

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64 \

35 40

35 40 mm.

Fig. 4. — Bill-letigth is shown on the horizontal axis, and in each sample the
number of birds with bill-lengths in each millimetre group is shown verti-
cally. The bill-lengths are grouped 31-0-31-9, 32-0-32-9, 33-0-33-9, etc.
The position of the male or female sign indicates the mean in each group.

TABLE I

Bill-Length of Fulmars

(Measurements in millimetres)

1952

VARIATION IN THE BILL OF THE FULMAR

93

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94

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol 64

(though simple) to demonstrate that there is no “ significant 55
difference between them. No obstacle appears to combining
them together to provide a single larger sample of the European
type.

In the Spitzbergen group the size of the constituent samples,
from East Greenland, Jan Mayen, Spitzbergen and Bear
Island, is unfortunately altogether too small for satisfactory
comparison ; they appear to be uniform enough, however,
and it is reassuring to discover that, when combined together
as a single composite sample, the standard deviation and
standard error of the mean are about the same size as they
are in our other samples, including those known to come
from a single colony. In other words, the Spitzbergen group
is as homogeneous as are the breeding birds of, say, St. Kilda
or Admiralty Inlet.

If, on the other hand, the European type is compared with
the Spitzbergen type, the difference between the means in
males is 1-82 ± 0*43 mm. (the last figure being the standard
error of the difference), and in females 1-32 ± 0-56 mm.
In the males the difference is over four times its own standard

error, which implies that the chances are more than 1000 to 1
that such a difference is real and not attributable to a mere
accident of sampling; in the females the probability exceeds
30 to 1.

The differences between the Spitzbergen type and minor,
in males 2-77 ± 0*45 mm. and in females 3-41 ± 0-65 mm.,
five or six times their standard errors, are still more significant.

There appears to be no reason therefore to doubt the
reality of the differences between these three regional groups.
It is of value to note that colour-variability follows a similar
distribution. The European type is almost 100 per cent light-
phased, and the rare “ non- white 55 birds are quite pale;
whereas in minor dark and intermediate birds predominate,
and the darkest among them are almost as black as the darkest
rodgersii. The Spitzbergen type again stands between these
extremes. On entirely different grounds Fisher (1952b) has
come to the conclusion that the great spread of the fulmar in
our own area in modern times originated in Iceland; and
this accords perfectly with the homogeneity here demonstrated
within the European group.

1952

VARIATION IN THE BILL OF THE FULMAR

95

It is worth remarking also that the European group have
their breeding habitat in a temperate or merely boreal climate,
contrasting sharply with the rigorous arctic environment of
i the Spitzbergen group and minor ; and furthermore they
show a marked propensity to spread into lower latitudes, and
i to colonise low cliffs in small groups, in a manner quite foreign
to the other groups of the Atlantic sector.

Salomonsen has already shown (1950a: 102) that not only
I the bill but the whole skull differs in size in glacialis and minor.
What few figures we have indicate that the body-weight is
similarly affected. Five February males from cliffs in north-
east Scotland weighed 801, 834, 862, 885, and 936 (av. 864)
gm., as against 740 gm. for one August male at Gape Searle;
one female from north-east Scotland weighed 723 gm. compared
with 565, 595 and 625 (av. 595) gm., for three minor females,
two at Cape Searle and one off Newfoundland (July 1934).
Other weight measurements are available for two male glacialis ,
one from Newfoundland in July and one from the Nova
Scotia banks in November, of 880 gm. (bill 40 mm.) and
795 gm. (bill 41 mm.), the latter bird being weighed some
days after death; and of two July females from Newfoundland
waters of 795 gm. (bill 38-2), and 765 gm. (bill 36*6).

When these figures for body-weight are plotted against
bill-length (Fig. 5) there appears to be a linear relation between
them. Students of animal growth will recognise that such a
relation has a deceptively simple appearance, since we are
comparing length in one variable with weight (i.e. volume,
proportional to length3) in the other. It is in reality equivalent
to saying that the largest birds have relatively the largest bills.
Bill-length is in fact markedly allometric (Huxley & Tessier,

1936V. .

Regarding wing-lengths the evidence is less clear, for we
must here eliminate from consideration all moulting birds,
which leaves rather few summer specimens available. Ten
Scottish males average 337 mm. (329-349), and one Scottish
female measures 324 mm. One Baffin male measures 314,
and two females 314 and 329. More adequate material will
perhaps reveal some real differences in wing-length, but it
may prove to be proportionally much less than the difference
in the bills.

96

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

Though the three Atlantic types are quite distinct, it would
be a mistake on the present evidence to give a separate sub-
specific name to the European form. It may seem unfortunate
that the two available names do not happen to have been
bestowed on the two extremes of the cline; for, though minor
applies to the smallest race with the shortest bills, glacialis
has for its type locality Spitzbergen, and not Britain or Iceland.
However, we must be guided by the magnitude of the differ-
ences between the various populations, and whether the

BILL-LENGTH

Fig. 5. — The relation of bill-length to body-weight.

. be
criteria

named races can be defined in such a way that a reasonable
majority of individual specimens, properly sexed, can
correctly assigned to the right group. The various
which have been put forward for separating overlapping
subspecies have recently been reviewed by Rand & Traylor
( 1 950) ; and it is sufficient to say that minor can be distinguished
in both sexes from both Spitzbergen and European glacialis
under at least the “ 50 per cent from all 55 rule, for the mean
bill-lengths are separated by somewhat more than the sum of
their standard deviations; and subspecific separation is thus

in accordance with conservative codes of modern practice.
A thorough examination of the breeding fulmars of Greenland

1952

VARIATION IN THE BILL OF THE FULMAR

97

may, however, show the cline to be more continuous than it
appears at present, and in that case minor may cease to enjoy
such a large measure of distinctness.

Between the two glacialis groups referred to as the Spitz-
bergen and European types, the difference in average bill-
length is less than the sum of the standard deviations, in bot h
males and females. We can no longer identify with reasonable
certainty the majority of single individuals as to their group
of origin, because of the very considerable overlap in the
measurements of the two groups. For a male with a bill-
length of 42 mm. or over the chances are at least 370 to 1 that
it is native to the “ European 55 area; but the “ odds ”
dwindle to “ evens 55 for a male with a bill of 39-8 mm., which
is equally likely to be a Spitzbergen or a European type. It
is of no practical use to give different names in such a case,
though the mean differences are nevertheless perfectly real
and valid.

Before leaving this section an interesting illustration may
be given. Fulmars of course wander far and wide when they
are away from their breeding stations. There is in the British
Museum a female (Reg. 195 1.13.206, coll. W. A. Payn) from
Blakeney, Norfolk, 29th September 1928. The plumage may
be described as “ off-light ”, the head pale silvery and under-
parts the same; the bill-length is 33-5 mm., close to the mean
for females of minor . According to common practice it could
be identified as minor, and admitted to the British list on
similar grounds to several other vagrant subspecies. For there
is no specimen, known for sure to be a female glacialis, with a
bill-length under 35 mm.; and, on statistical grounds, this
bird’s bill being 3-0 mm. shorter than the average for the
Spitzbergen-g/aatf/w (and 2-3 times the standard deviation)
the probability is 100 to 1 that it is a Canadian rather than
a Spitzbergen bird. Caution bids us to add, however, that
this is almost exactly equivalent to saying that only 1 per cent
of Spitzbergen females would be expected to have a bill as
short as this. Proof-positive identification of origin cannot be
looked for in such cases.

13

98 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

5. Sexual dimorphism and inter-relationships within the genus

It will not have escaped attention that the bill-length of
the Pacific fulmar, F. gl. rodgersii , with a mean in the male of
37*25 ± 0-37 mm., and in the female of 36*10 ± 0*37 mm.,
falls within the cline of the Atlantic types (Table I), The
question therefore arises whether it forms part of the same
series. To this the answer may be given that it is not directly
comparable with the larger-billed European and the smaller-
billed Canadian types, on account of the different, more
slender and effeminate mould of the Pacific fulmar’s bill, and
it cannot therefore form part of a simple cline with these
Atlantic forms. The depth of the bill, measured from the
top or dorsum of the hook (unguis) to the angle of the gonys,
in specimens with properly occluded mandibles, gives a clear
indication of this :

In 7 rodgersii 13*0 — 15*3 (14*4) mm.

In 1 ^ minor 16*6 mm.

In 13 dd Scotland 15*9 — 19*1 (17*9) mm.

Between the females the difference is, of course, less, but a
little experience in handling specimens soon makes it readily
apparent to the eye. On account of the low sexual dimor-
phism in rodgersii it is more difficult, and in most cases quite
impossible, to pick out males from females in this race.

Voous (1949: 120) has already reached what seems to
be an unavoidable conclusion, that the Antarctic fulmar
represents the ancestral type, and that the northern hemi-
sphere has been colonised via the Pacific, where the Pacific
race remains as a clear connecting link, intermediate in
evolutionary specialisation between the Antarctic and Atlantic
forms.

The bill in antarcticus is longer and more shearwater-like
than in any of the northern fulmars. Murphy (1936: 596)
gives: 10 males 41*3 —46.5 (44*2), 10 females 39*3 —44

(42) mm.; and Voous, for males, 44*5 — 47*5 mm. The bill
is relatively narrow across the base, the gonydial angle very
obtuse or flat, and the curve of the hook wide and short. It
has most likely diverged in its own way from that of the

1952

VARIATION IN THE BILL OF THE FULMAR

99

common ancestor of the whole group, possibly in growing
longer. The degree of sexual dimorphism is much less than
in glacialis , and possibly less also than in rodgersii.

At the other extreme we have the two highly dimorphic
“ masculinoid 55 types, one very large and the other very
small, in Europe and Arctic Canada. Though the evidence
is not sufficient as yet to lead to any but tentative conclusions,
some indication can be given of the possible origin of these two,
and their relationships to the rest.

The Atlantic form coming nearest to rodgersii in bill-length
is the Spitzbergen type. The difference (Table I, p. 93)
between their respective females is insignificant, and in fact
the strongest contrast between them
appears in the enhanced sexual di-
morphism in the Spitzbergen birds.

In the column of Table I giving
the mean differences in bill-length
between males and females, rodgersii
shows only 1*15 mm., whereas the
Spitzbergen type shows 2*5 mm.,
more than twice as much.

However, in European glacialis
the sexual difference in bill-length
is 3-01 mm., and in minor it reaches
the very high figure, bearing in mind
the overall shortness of the bill, of
3-23 mm. Some of these figures are
not based on really adequate num-
bers of measurements, particularly
in the Spitzbergen case, but it
seems justifiable enough to suggest,
in order to carry the conjectured penetration of the northern
hemisphere a step further than was done by Voous, that the
Spitzbergen type is the oldest or least modified in the Atlantic
sector, and that the European and short-billed forms are
derivatives of it (Fig. 6). If this is true, measurements of
fulmars from Novaya Zemlya and other islands in Arctic
U.S.S.R. would be most likely to resemble the Spitzbergen
type. Unfortunately I have not been able to examine any
specimens from that area.

Fig. 6. — Possible, relationships
in time and space of the known
forms of fulmars.

100

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

There may not after all be just a simple one-dimensional
series even in the Atlantic forms, but rather a central more
primitive type with relatively lower sexual dimorphism, from
which have developed on the one side the small, highly di-
morphic, predominantly dark, and still high-arctic race minor ,
and on the other, perhaps more recently, the out-sized, white-
phased, non-arctic, European type.

If this is the correct interpretation, both minor and the
European form have undergone parallel changes, under the
influence of sexual selection, continuing the orthogenetic trend
of the genus in still further “ masculinising 55 the bill and
intensifying its epigamic significance; but they have over the
same period followed diverging lines with respect to absolute
size, both of the bill and of the body as a whole, and with
respect to their habitat preferences, in which ordinary natural
selection may be presumed to have played the leading part.

Summary

1. The bill in the fulmars has undergone progressive
specialisation, partly no doubt as a feeding- adaptation, but
partly also as an epigamic structure connected with display.
Sexual dimorphism and “ maleness 55 of the bill are least in
the Antarctic and Pacific fulmars, and strongest in the Atlantic
races.

2. Measurements of bill-length in museum specimens
obtained at or near breeding places show that, in addition
to the short-billed subspecies F. gl. minor, lately recognised
from Arctic Canada by Salo monsen, the remaining fulmars
in the Atlantic sector fall clearly into two size-groups. One,
the “ Spitzbergen type ”, is arctic, inhabiting at least East
Greenland, Jan Mayen, Spitzbergen and Bear Id. The other
or “ European type ” is found in Iceland, Faeroes, British
Isles, etc.; it is the largest of all the northern forms, temperate
and not arctic in habitat, and essentially white-phased.

Body-weight is evidently correlated with bill-length,
though the latter is markedly alio me trie.

3. Extending the conjectured history, evolution and spread
of the genus, which Voous concluded to have started in the
Antarctic and to have reached the northern hemisphere

1952

VARIATION IN THE BILL OF THE FULMAR

IOI

through the Pacific, it is suggested that the Spitzbergen type
is the central and primitive one in the Atlantic sector, and
that from it have developed minor to the west and the European
type to the south. Both natural and sexual selection seem to
have played a part in their differentiation.

REFERENCES

Fisher, J., 1952a. A history of the fulmar Fulmarus and its population
problems. Ibis, 94: 334-354.

1952b. The changes in the distribution of the fulmar ( Fulmarus

glacialis) . Proc. X Int. Orn. Congr. : 449-46 1 , Stockholm.

Herring, R., 1937. Birds collected on the 5th Thule expedition. Rep.

$th Thule Exp. IQ2I-24, 2(6): 134 pp., Copenhagen.

Huxley, J. S. and G. Tessier, 1936. Terminology of relative growth.
Nature, 137: 780.

Mathews, G. M., 1934. Synonymy of Fulmarus glacialis (L.). Ibis, 1934:
173-174-

Murphy, R. C., 1936. Oceanic birds of South America, 2 vols., New York.
Salomonsen, F., 1 950. Rediscovery of Fulmarus glacialis minor (Kjaerbolling) .

Dansk Orn. For. Tidssk., 44: 100- 105 (in Danish).

Stejneger, L., 1885. Results of ornithological explorations in the Com-
mander Islands and Kamtschatka. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 29:
382 pp., Washington.

Voous, K. H., 1949. The morphological, anatomical, and distributional
relationship of the Arctic and Antarctic fulmars (Aves, Procellariidae).
Ardea,$j: 1 13-122.

Wynne-Edwards, V. C., 1952a. The fulmars of Cape Searle. Arctic , 5:

1 04- 1 17.

1952b. Zoology of the Baird Expedition (1950). I. The birds

observed in central and south-east Baffin Island. Auk, 69: (in press).

102

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

RARE AND EXOTIC FISHES RECORDED IN
SCOTLAND DURING 1951 *

B. B. Rae and E. Wilson
Scottish Home Department, Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen

Since 1909 records have been kept of exotic fishes brought
in by fishing vessels landing catches at Aberdeen. These
records were collected by the Aberdeen Fishery Officers while
members of the staff of this Laboratory on occasion assisted
with the identification of the species. The adoption and
rapid spread of the use of the seine net during the inter- war
years opened up more widespread opportunities to obtain
information concerning the presence in local waters of
unusual species, and, with official encouragement, the report-
ing of such occurrences by members of the general public
as well as by those engaged in the industry to the District
Fishery Officers or direct to the Laboratory gradually
extended.

The late Professor Sir D’Arcy W. Thompson, in The
Scottish Naturalist for the years 1917-18, examined the data
then available concerning certain species, but since then only
isolated references, mostly dealing with single species, have
been published. Yet these rare fish records, some of which
refer to the more distant fishing grounds, e.g. the oceanic
banks or Faroese and Icelandic waters, are of considerable
interest, not only from the purely faunistic viewpoint but also
from certain aspects of ecology and climatology. Variations
in the intensity and extent of “ invasions 55 of Scottish waters
by certain species in different years are clearly discernible.
That reliance may be placed on such records is shown by the
tendency to confirmation from different sources. Thus, the
prelude to a heavy invasion of the northern North Sea by
Ray’s bream may be reports of their occurrence from great
line vessels fishing to the west of Scotland. Later, trawlers

* Received 12th June 1952

RARE AND EXOTIC FISHES

103

J 1952

working within the North Sea bring in specimens and finally
strandings on our eastern coasts help to complete the picture.
Often, too, in such an event, records accumulate in other
countries bordering the North Sea.

The list that follows has been made more complete through
the courtesy of Dr. A. G. Stephen of the Royal Scottish Museum,
Edinburgh, who has supplied particulars of specimens which
j had either been forwarded or reported to him. These
1 records are indicated by “ (A.C.S.) Acknowledgment is
also made to Mr. E. Ford, Director, Millport Marine Labora-
tory, who has kindly permitted the inclusion of the record
concerning the stone basse, and to Mr. G. E. Palmar, Curator,
Natural History Department, Glasgow Art Gallery and Museum,
who supplied details of the capture by trawl 8o' N.E. X N.
from Buchanness of a Ray’s bream which had been gifted
to his department in October 1951.

The nomenclature used here follows the classification
of J. R. Norman in the British Museum’s List of British
Vertebrates — Fishes (1935).

Torpedo nobiliana Bonaparte — Electric Ray

The capture of four fish, all taken by seine net was recorded
during the year.

Position of Capture

Month

Length {cm.)

Sex

S.E. Skerryvore

Aug.

69

6' N.W. Ailsa Craig

Aug.

99

F

1 8' W. X S. Dubh Artach

Aug.

1 10

—

2' S.W. to S. X W. Turnberry

Sept.

98

F

The stomach of the second specimen contained a fully
grown dogfish, Scyliorhinus caniculus (L.), and a poor-cod,
Gadus minutus L.

These four records represent a relatively large number of
this species. Hitherto the greatest number recorded in any
one year has been five, in 1931. It is also unusual for a year’s
captures to be confined to west coast grounds.

104

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

Acipenser sturio L. — Sturgeon

Seven specimens were caught in Scottish waters during
1951, the details of which are as follows —

Position of Capture

Month

Method of
Capture

Depth

metres

Length

cm.

Weight

kg.

8' N.E. Kinnaird Head

Jan.

Trawl

137

27-2

T S. Pittenweem

May

Seine

178

40' E. X N. Aberdeen
Between Loch Ryan and

June

Trawl

64

14-3

Ailsa Craig

July

Seine

• —

152

20-6

S.W. X S. Ailsa Craig
5' S.W. Ailsa Craig

Aug.

Seine

5i

14-3

Sept.

Seine

—

31-8

8$' E.S.E. Fair Isle

Oct.

Trawl

115

149

19-1

!

This is the highest annual total of sturgeon recorded in the
post-war years. The unbroken sequence of one per month
from May to October is interesting as is the capture of three
specimens in the vicinity of Ailsa Craig in the Firth of Clyde.
The only previous laboratory record from the vicinity of the
Clyde estuary is of a single fish caught off Corsewall Point
in July, 1922.

Alosa alosa (L.) — Allis Shad

Two specimens were caught in Loch Fyne, one in
November, the other, near Ardrishaig, in December.
Both were rather small fish, 27-4, 27-0 cm. respectively.

Alosa jinta (Cuvier) — Twaite Shad

One record was obtained by seine net 7' N.E. X E. from
Eyemouth, at a depth of 78 metres in February. This fish,
a maturing female of 39 cm., was found to be feeding on sand
eels.

Sardina pilchardus (Walbaum) — Pilchard

Two specimens were caught by a research vessel using a
drift net in the Minch (58° 23' N., 6° 03' W.) in September.
Both were females. One, 22*5 cm., was about to spawn while
the other, 25-4 cm., had already done so. A second record,

i952 RARE AND EXOTIC FISHES 105

j from off Kinghorn in the Firth of Forth in December, com-
1 prised 6 stones, also taken by drift net, by a vessel fishing for
bait. The presence of pilchards in the estuary of the Forth
I is most unusual and may on this occasion have had some
connection with the dense concentrations of the species which
were encountered by herring drift net fishermen on the East
| Anglian grounds towards the end of the 1951 season.

Engraulis encrasicholus (L.) — Anchovy

A single specimen was caught by a research vessel at the
position 570 58' N., o° 03' E. in February. This fish of 14 cm.
length was taken by trawl at a depth of 137 metres.

Argentina silus (Ascanius) — Great Silver Smelt

In April, \ cwt. of this northern species was trawled on the
Viking Bank. In June three specimens were trawled 30' N.W.
from Flugga, Shetland, at a depth of 256 m. These fish — -
a male of 41 cm. and females of 43 and 44 cm., had all recently
spawned; none of their stomachs contained food. It is
interesting to record that hake were present on the grounds
on each of these occasions. It is possible that A. silus may be
present in the northern North Sea in greater numbers than the
Scottish records suggest, as it may be overlooked owing to its
close resemblance to the smaller and more common species,
A. sphyraena L.

Scomberesox saurus (Walbaum) — Saury Pike

Two specimens were recorded during the year ; the first, a
female of 36-5 cm. from near Stornoway in September, the
second a maturing male of 34 cm. from the beach near
Buckhaven, Fife, in October. The latter fish was alive when
picked up.

Belone belone (L.) — Garfish or Greenbone

Two records of this species were obtained under rather
unusual circumstances. The first is of a fish of 34 cm. which
was dropped by a gull in a street in Lerwick on 8th February.
This may have been picked up from the quay — thrown there

io6 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

during discharge of a fishing vessel’s catch — or it may have
been taken by the bird from the surface either of the harbour
or of more open waters in the vicinity. The second garfish
was washed on board a trawler between Buchanness and
Aberdeen on the night of 24th October. The fish, a spent
female of 67 cm., was found to have been feeding on decapod
larvae. The strange manner in which this record originated —
the second of its kind — would appear to be due to the habit
of the species of coming to the surface at night. Five more
specimens were caught by a research vessel in the Firth of
Clyde in November. These were taken in a drift-net and
ranged from 51 to 78 cm. in length.

Raniceps raninus (L.) — Lesser Fork Beard or Tadpole Fish

The first record of this species in 1951 was obtained by a
research vessel trawling at a depth of 1 1-15 meters in Aberdeen
Bay in April. This fish was an unusually small specimen of
10 cm. In June a spent male, 25*5 cm. in length, was taken
by a trawler 26' E.S.E. from Aberdeen at a depth of 62
metres.

Poly prion americanum (Schneider) — Stone Basse

In the Annual Report of the Scottish Marine Biological
Association for the year ending 31st March 1952, the Director,
Mr. E. Ford, records the capture in October 1951 of 33 of this
species. The fish were caught on hook and line by the crew
of a weather ship at 520 30' N., 20° oo' W. This position
lies within the normal distribution of the stone basse so that
the record is not strictly appropriate to this paper. However,
the comparative scarcity of records and the appearance from
time to time of individuals nearer to our shores have prompted
its inclusion.

The fish were observed near the surface of the water and
close to a log of wood and a mass of sea weed — habits already
described in the literature on the species which have earned
for it the alternative name of wreck fish.

Identification was confirmed from a single specimen, 52 cm.
in length, which has since been presented to the Royal Scottish
Museum.

1952

RARE AND EXOTIC FISHES

107

I Naucrates ductor (L.) — Pilot Fish

The species is exceedingly rare in Scottish waters. This

specimen was taken in August, by herring drift-net, 6' E. \ S.

I from Chicken Head, Stornoway. It was a male fish 22-3 cm.

in length. The laboratory records contain only one previous

J example which was also caught by drift-net in much the same

locality — 16' N.E. from Tiumpan Head in September 1945.

■

Brama raii (Bloch) — Ray’s Bream

This fish is one of the commonest southern migrants to
Scottish waters. In some years it appears to stay away from
our shores while in others it approaches our western coasts and,
in progressively diminishing numbers, penetrates deep into
the North Sea. Its appearance is seasonal, from August to
March, reaching a maximum in the last quarter of the year.

The first six of the following records were from vessels
fishing with great-lines, the next five from trawlers and the
last two from strandings. Through the good offices of Mr.
C. E. Palmar already referred to, it is known that still another
capture was made by a Granton trawler early in November.
There, is no doubt that this specimen, too, was taken in the
northern North Sea but as the exact location is not obtainable
it has not been included.

The four landings in bulk are unusual and were made with
a view to attracting buyers on Aberdeen market. Hitherto,

No. of Species
or quantity

Position

Month

Depth

metres

Length

cm.

1

25' S. Munken Rock, Faroe

Aug.

54*5

8 cwts.

50' W. X N. Barra Head
40' N.W. Butt of Lewis

Sept.

— -

5 st.

Oct.

• —

—

4 cwts.

N.W. Eagle Island, W. Ireland

Oct.

200

—

3 cwts.

23' W.N.W. Black Rock, W.
Ireland

Oct.

182

1

N.W. X N. Dennis Head, Orkney

Oct.

182

—

1

8o' N.E. X N. Buchanness

Oct.

—

—

1

14' N.W. Flugga

Nov.

—

53

1

1 6' S.S.E. Tod Head

Nov.

—

1

47' S. ^ E. Aberdeen

Dec.

—

—

2

I35/ N.E. X E. J E. Aberdeen

Dec.

—

—

2 (A.C.S.)

Near Kirkcaldy

Dec.

—

- — •

1 (A.C.S.)

North Berwick

Dec.

—

108 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

this species has had no commercial value in Scotland and the
attempt to establish a demand for it met with no success.
The fish were all disposed of for manufacture into fish meal.
These four records, however, provide confirmatory evidence
that Bray’s bream may be present on occasion in relatively
large numbers along the edge of the continental shelf and it is
also worthy of note that the subsequent captures within the
northern North Sea in 1951 were much less numerous than
in some years, 1949 being the most recent example.

Sciaena aquila Risso — Meagre

A fine specimen of this extremely rare species was caught by
seine net 10' N.E. from Aberdeen in 37 to 46 metres in August.
This fish of 153 cm. and 27*2 kg. had not been feeding im-
mediately prior to capture. Earlier records contain only one
other example caught by trawl on practically the same ground,
in October 1939. It was a much smaller fish measuring 63 cm.
in length and weighing 2-2 kg.

Mullus surmuletus L. — Red Mullet

Although this species occasionally appears in considerable
numbers in Scottish waters, the 1951 rare fish records include
only one specimen caught by seine net near Sandwick,
Shetland, in August.

Labrus mixtus L. — Cuckoo Wrasse

Although not uncommon on the Scottish west coast this
species appears to be much less frequent on the east coast.
The capture of four specimens, including a female of 24 cm.
by a research vessel S.E. of the Pentland Skerries in May,
and three males of 31 to 33 cm. by commercial trawlers from
30 to 40' N. X W. from Rattray Head in August, suggests a
possible movement from the north and west coasts into the
North Sea.

Aphanopus carbo Lowe — Black Scabbard Fish

One specimen was reported during the year, caught by
great line 108' W. J N. from the Westmann Isles, S.W. Iceland,

i952 RARE AND EXOTIC FISHES 109

at a depth of 330 metres, in September. Three records of this
species were obtained in 1950.

Thunnus thynnus (L.) — Tunny (A.C.S.)

In the first week of November a large fish was washed
ashore at Swanbister Bay, Scapa Flow, Orkney. The specimen,
which was over 2 metres in length, was recognised as a tunny
and this identification was confirmed later at the Royal
Scottish Museum where the skull bones, along with a descrip-
tion of the remains, had been sent.

Katsuwonus pelamis (L.) — Bonito (A.C.S.)

A single specimen, 66 cm. in length, was found in a salmon
stake-net on the north side of the Solway Firth at Newbie,
near Annan, on 9th August.

Sarda sarda (Bloch) — Belted Bonito

The capture of this fish in a salmon stake-net in Largo Bay,
Firth of Forth, in July, is the first record in the Laboratory lists.
The fish measured 76*7 cm. and weighed 5-7 kg. The speci-
men is now in the British Museum in London.

Euthynnus allitteratus Rafinesque — Marbled Tunny (A.C.S.)

A specimen 61 cm. in length was taken in a salmon net
at Garlieston, Wigtownshire, on nth July. The fish was
forwarded to the Royal Scottish Museum where a cast has
been prepared.

Fierasfer dentatus Cuvier — Pearl Fish

Three specimens were caught by one of the research vessels
in the small mesh covering the cod-end of the otter trawl.
Details of these captures are as follows: —

Date

Position

Depth ( m .)

Length {cm.)

13 February

6o°oT N.-i°45/ E.

106

25

25 February

57°58' N.-o003' E.

137

29

12 May

56°o6'N.-7°46/W.

95

30

I 10

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

Centrolophus niger (Gmelin) — Black Fish

In August a single specimen was trawled in Icelandic
waters at a position 4' S.E. of Ingolfshofdi Huk. This fish r
measured 71 cm. and is the largest black fish in the Scottish
records.

Mugil chelo Cuvier — Thick-lipped Grey Mullet

That this species may appear in the northern North Sea in
considerable numbers was demonstrated in 1937. In June
of that year fishermen at Saltburn in the Cromarty Firth were
catching them for the market. In other years, however,
occurrences have been sporadic with only single specimens
involved. Grey mullet may frequent the Scottish west coast
more often and to a greater extent than is yet known, but so
far as the present authors are aware, it has not yet been
established that breeding occurs either there or within the
northern North Sea. In this connection the occurrence of
a spent male near Stornoway in August 1939, and of a ripe
female off Fraserburgh in May 1948, may have a significance
which has been enhanced by the capture of a baby fish of
only 3*3 cm. This was taken in November 1951, by a beach-
seine operated by members of the laboratory staff on the
shore of Loch Fyne.

Trigla lyra (L.) — Piper

A single specimen of this gurnard, rarely recorded from
Scottish waters, was received from Lunna Firth, Shetland,
in June. The fish, 30 cm. in length, was caught by seine.
Because of its resemblance to other members of the gurnard
family, it is possible that the piper may not be so uncommon
in Scottish waters as our records seem to suggest.

Arnoglossus laterna (Walbaum) — Scald Fish

This small flatfish is exceedingly rare in Scottish east
coast waters. A specimen measuring 10 cm. in length was one
of several notable research vessel captures during the year.

It was taken in Nairn Bay in October. The laboratory
lists contain only one previous record, from off the Banffshire
coast in December, 1921.

1952

RARE AND EXOTIC FISHES

1 1 1

Mole i mola (L.) — Sunfish

One specimen was caught in August by great line, 15'
N.W. from Rockall. This fish measured 90 cm. in length and
120-5 cm. from tip to tip of the fins.

The main features of the rare fish records for 1951 may be
summarised as follows: —

1. The notable number of records including several
extremely rare species obtained in July and August.

2. The relatively large number of sturgeons caught during
the year including three from the Firth of Clyde.

3. The four records of electric rays, all from the west coast
and including two from the Firth of Clyde.

4. The greater-than-average number of Ray’s bream and
the evidence of shoaling by this species on or near the Atlantic
shelf.

It would be interesting to speculate on the possible con-
nection between the bulk captures of Ray’s bream described
above, and also between the appearance in the Clyde estuary
and adjacent waters of sturgeon, electric rays, bonito and
marbled tunny, and the abnormal hydrographic conditions
which are known to have existed during 1951. To the west
of the British Isles the main trend of surface water movement
is believed normally to be predominantly north-eastward.
It has been established by Dr. J. B. T ait ( Annales Biologlques
for 1951 : MSS.) that during the year, at least south of latitude
58° N., this movement over a wide band was in a southerly
or south-westerly direction for an appreciable period. The
correlation of rare fish occurrences with hydrographic con-
ditions, however, will require close examination of the available
data over a number of years.

1 12

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

Oleander Hawk-moth in Inverness-shire. — I had word
from Mr. Alec Davidson, the head keeper on the Glen Feshie
estate, in January 1952, that he had picked up a moth lying dead
on the heather when he was out with a party grouse-shooting, in
the last week of August 1951, and that he was keeping it for me.
I was unable to get to Glen Feshie until April when he handed me
the moth. It was in a poor state of preservation, although Mr.
Davidson assured me that it was quite fresh when he found it.
There seemed little doubt in my mind that it was a specimen of
D. nerii , but in order to make certain I sent it to Mr. Tams of the
British Museum (Natural History) for his confirmation. — Kenneth
Tod, Wellbank, by Dundee.

This is a rare species in Scotland. In 1926, when one was
reported from Arran {Scot. JVat., 1926: 1 6 1 ), our editors knew of
only three previous records. In 1948 one was captured at Grange-
mouth docks {Scot. Nat., 61 : 115). Mr. Davidson’s find appears
to be the most northerly record and also the earliest date, the
others having occurred in September (4) and October (1). —
Editors.

The Butterflies of Ailsa Craig. — No previous attempt has
been made to list the butterflies occurring on Ailsa Craig. Since
1945 I have spent many months on the island, principally for the
purpose of studying the bird population, and this short note is the
result of observations made during that time ; no systematic attempt
was made to collect butterflies. The nearest part of the mainland
is Ardwell Point, Ayrshire, 8J miles to the south-east.

Grayling Eumenis semele : Three records ; all west cliffs.

Meadow Brown Maniola jurtina : Common; general distribution.

Small Heath Coenonympha pamphilus : Fairly common on summit
grass (600 to 900 ft.) towards north.

Large Heath Coenonympha tullia : Five specimens recorded;
all region of Garry Loch {c. 800 ft.).

Dark Green Fritillary Argynnis aglaia : One record, August
1948; talus slope below south fog-horn.

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

i3

1952

Red Admiral Vanessa atalanta : Two recorded, July 1947?
cottage garden.

Painted Lady Vanessa cardui : One record, July 1947? below
south fog-horn.

Small Tortoiseshell Aglais urticae : Very common, general
distribution.

Peacock Nymphalis io : Two records, August 1948 and Septem-
ber 1949. Both on grass patch on east shore in front of cottage.

Brown Argus Aricia agestis : A few each year around the Castle
flat (c. 400 ft.).

Common Blue Polyommatus icarus : Fairly common; general

distribu don.

Small Copper Lycaena phlaeas : Occurs from time to time;

hard to capture — may be more common; east slopes up to summit.

Large White Pieris brassicae : Common ; general distribution.

Small White Pieris rapae : Very common; general distribution.

Green- veined White Pieris napi .* Common; general distribu-
tion.

J. A. Gibson, Ralston, Paisley.

Slow-worm and Palmate Newt in Wigtownshire.

According to Dr. A. C. Stephen (Scot. Nat., 61: 116, 1949)5 an(^
to the distribution maps in The British Amphibians and Reptiles , by
Malcolm Smith (1951), it appears that neither the slow-worm nor
any of the newts have been reported from Wigtownshire. There-
fore it may be of interest to record that the slow-worm Anguis
fragilis , and the palmate newt Triturus viridescens, occur in the
parish of Mochrum. — David Stuart, Mochrum, Wigtownshire.

Chiflfchaffs in South-east Sutherland, North and South
Perth, and South Argyll. — In a previous issue (Scot. Nat., 62 :
125) we asked for further records of the chiffchaff Phylloscopus
colly bita in the Highlands, and we are indebted to the correspon-
dents mentioned below for the following records for 1952.

South-east Sutherland. — One heard and seen on 7th June in a
wood at Skibo, about three miles west of Dornoch. The woodlands
consisted of beech, oak and Scots pine with a thick undergrowth
of tall rhododendrons (D. MacDonald, Dornoch).

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

114

Vol. 64

East Ross. — One in song in the manse garden, Avoch, at inter-
vals from apple trees, from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. on 24th March;
hardly a trace of yellow in plumage, underparts being uniform,
somewhat dirty white; legs dark greyish brown; none known of
here before in March (Rev. John Lees).

North Perth. — Two in song on Drummond Hill on 13th May,
in forestry plantation of mainly 25-years-old larch, with grass and
bracken undergrowth. About the same date one singing from
tall trees in mixed woodland at Baledmund, Pitlochry; heard
subsequently on many occasions including the first week in July
(J. L. Finlay Fergusson, Pitlochry).

One seen and heard on 5th and 9th June on top of a tall conifer
at Blair Castle, Blair Atholl (Pat. W. Sandeman, Edinburgh) ;
one singing from larch plantation near Comrie Bridge, Glen
Lyon, on 14th June (James W. Campbell, Strathtay).

South Perth. — One singing at Loch Ard Forest, Aberfoyle, on
2 1 st May, in similar plantation to those at Drummond Hill,
Loch Tayside (J. L. Finlay Fergusson).

South Argyll. — One heard on 30th April in the wood above
Tighnabruich (J. Kerr, Thornhill).

The bird seen and heard at Skibo is the first recorded from
South-east Sutherland. — Editors.

Habitat of Chiffchaff in Scotland. — As is well known,
the chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita is a scarce and local bird in the
northern part of its British breeding range. It is uncommon as
far south as the West Riding of Yorkshire where, during three
years’ residence, I only heard two males in song : from there north-
wards it is uncommon up the western side of England : and it is
local throughout Scotland.

It was in April 1952 that I first noticed that the distribution
of the chiffchaff in those areas where it is scarce appears to depend
on the presence of the rhododendron R. ponticum. During a walk
along the eastern bank of Loch Lomond I heard chiffchaffs singing
in Balloch Park, in the neighbourhood of Boturich Castle and near
Buchanan Castle — in each case from trees overhanging rhodo-
dendron thickets: between these places I traversed wide areas of
woodland apparently suitable for chiffchaffs, but, while they did
not contain chiffchaffs, they also did not contain rhododendrons.
To test the apparent connection between bird and shrub, I visited,
on 27th April 1952, Glen App in Ayrshire; here, in the two and
a half miles between Glen App Kirk and the sea, I heard six
chiffchaffs in song and each one of them was close to a clump of

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

IJ5

rhododendrons. Indeed, there was scarcely a rhododendron clump
without its singing chifFchaff and one clump held two.

In my notebook I find the following records of the singing
chiffchaff from the northern and north-western limits of its range
in Britain : Bramhope, West Riding i ; Arthington, West Riding i ;
Rusland, North Lancs i ; Balloch, Dunbartonshire 2; Boturich
Castle, Dunbartonshire 1 ; Buchanan Castle, Stirlingshire 1 ;
Ballantrae, Ayrshire 1 ; Glen App, Ayrshire 6. Out of these
fourteen records, thirteen were in close proximity to rhododendrons.
The exception was at Ballantrae where the bird was singing on the
border of a mixed deciduous and spruce fir wood; it will be noted,
however, that this bird, too, was near to evergreen vegetation.

Mr. Ian Hay informs me of two chiffchaffs singing in Pollok
Park, Glasgow, in May 1952, both close to rhododendrons, and
Mr. Dougal Andrew has kindly provided me with the following
interesting data from the east of Scotland : —

1. 23rd March 1952, Barnton. No rhododendrons, but bird
obviously a migrant.

2. 1st May 1952, Valleyfield, Fife. No rhododendrons, but
observer, Mr. John Hoy, considered bird to be migrant.

3. Kenmore, Loch Tay, May 1952. Two singing, both near
rhododendrons (John Hoy).

4. 19th April 1952, near Balerno, Midlothian. One singing
from tree above abundant rhododendrons.

5. Colinton, near Edinburgh. No date given. Another above
rhododendrons.

The above data show that there is a close connection between
the northern distribution of the chiffchaff and the presence of the
rhododendron. This is confirmed by Commander G. Hughes
Onslow in litt.: “ I have always looked on the chiffchaff as a

delightful little snob! Hereabouts (southern Ayrshire) one can
see him in the policies of almost any large country house and
nowhere else. In the west of Scotland policies almost invariably
include rhododendrons in quantity, so our observations un-
doubtedly agree.”

The reason for this habitat preference seems to be that, when
the chiffchaff first arrives early in spring, the weather is usually
cold and inclement and that the rhododendron, at that season,
provides the commonest evergreen shelter in deciduous woods.
It is amusing to speculate whether the introduction of the rhodo-
dendron was responsible for any increase in the chiffchaff’s range
but, unfortunately, there are few reliable records of the nesting

1 1 6 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

chiffchaff in Scotland before the second half of the last century. •
It is possible that the holly and yew formerly provided the chiffchaff
with necessary shelter in early April. — M. F. M. Meiklejohn, (
Glasgow.

Professor Meiklejohn’s note is particularly interesting in view ^
of the extension of range which seems to be taking place in the
Highlands. In the Strathtay district of Perthshire we have for
many years noticed that the distribution of the garden warbler
also appears to be related to the presence of R. ponticum , and the
small pocket of breeding blackcaps, previously reported {Scot. 1
Mat., 60: 219 and 62: 125) at Scatwell, East Ross, is also in an
area where this rhododendron forms an extensive, but isolated,
thicket of undergrowth, in a countryside which is predominantly
heather, birch and pine. There can be little doubt that the dis-
tribution of several species of warbler in the Highlands is closely
related to the presence of suitable undergrowth-cover in spring. —
Editors.

11

Garden Warbler heard in East Inverness. — With reference
to the note of a garden warbler Sylvia borin heard singing at Avie-
more in June 1951 {Scot. Mat., 64: 54), which is apparently the
first published record for East Inverness, it is worth recording that
I heard one in song in mid-June 1952 at Newtonmore. — Richard
Perry, Newtonmore, Inverness-shire.

Black Redstart in Ayrshire. — With reference to the note on
a black redstart Phoenicurus ochrurus in Ayrshire and the Editors’
comment thereon {Scot. Mat., 64: 55), I should report that I saw
a bird of this species at Black Rae, Barr, Ayrshire, on 12th December
1948. I sent a note of this to Mr. R. S. R. Fitter, who was con-
ducting the black redstart enquiry, but I must apologise for not
having placed it on record in The Scottish Maturalist. It was either
a female or first year male, as I could detect no white on the wing !
at rest or in flight. — G. Hughes Onslow, Barr, Ayrshire.

Black Redstart in North Perth. — On 5th January 1952 I
observed a female black redstart Phoenicurus ochrurus on Kinnoull
Hill, Perth. It was feeding among some rocks and patches of
snow, and my attention was drawn to it by the plaintive notes it
was uttering. It was very tame, allowing me to approach within
5 yards. Its back was greyish- brown, and the breast and under
parts were not noticeably paler than the back. The legs were

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1 17

dark, and the tail was the usual orange-red, being strikingly con-
spicuous when it flew away. The following morning it was flushed
from some gorse bushes. It then flew into a pine wood where it
hopped around the branches, and made short dashes to the ground
and back again. — Charles Aitchison, Perth.

This appears to be the first record for North Perth. — Editors.

Bee-eater at Lerwick. — On 4th and 5th October 1951 a bee-
eater Merops apiaster was seen within the burgh boundaries of
Lerwick. It hawked flies at a height of 40 to 50 feet in the manner
of a swift except that there was much intermittent gliding. The
writer was able to get good views of the bird with binoculars at
approximately 40 yards, first when it perched on a fence and later
when it sat on an out-crop of rock in the middle of a field. The
long bill and long central tail feathers could be distinctly seen when
the bird was on the wing, but the remarkable beauty of its plumage
could only be noted when it was at rest. The bird appeared to be
in perfect adult plumage. The bee-eater has been seen in Shetland
on at least two earlier occasions. — G. T. Kay, Lerwick.

Wryneck in Inverness-shire: — About noon on 20th June 1952
we were surprised to hear the loud calls of a wryneck Jynx torquilla
from a belt of alders on the shore of Urquhart Bay, Loch Ness,
near Drumnadrochit. Presently the bird flew down to the ground
in a narrow field between the trees and the main road and H. G.
Alexander got a very good view of it. It then flew up into the trees
again and continued to call at frequent intervals and we occasionally
got glimpses of it.

Then we saw it fly across the road into an oak, from which it
dropped into a field above the road and shortly afterwards flew
on to the top of a post in the hedge where we all saw it clearly.
Finally it flew on up the hill along the line of the hedgerow. —
H. G. Alexander, Birmingham, W. B. Alexander, Oxford,
Cecilia Knowles, Dunlichity Lodge, by Inverness, and Elsie P.
Leach, London.

See p. 57 of this volume for a previous Inverness-shire record. —
Editors.

Pintail Anas acuta nesting in Tiree. — On Sunday, 3rd June
1951 I was walking through some typically boggy ground between
Gott and Balephetrish when I noticed what first appeared to me to
be an old eider’s nest hidden in the heather. Closer inspection,
however, showed it to be a smaller nest and very much in use. I

1 18

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64 si

pulled aside some down and this revealed eight eggs. The eggs j
were warm; the duck must only have left them a few minutes
earlier. The eggs were definitely smaller than mallards’. They ,
were just over two inches in length and appeared to be well in-
cubated. I thought at first this might be a shoveller’s nest so re-
placing the covering of down over the eggs I made my way to a
fair-sized lochan about 300 yards from the nest and began to search !
the water with my glasses for the owners of the nest. There was
no duck to be seen on the lochan at first, but after a few minutes
a drake pintail, beautiful in his full summer plumage, appeared
from some reeds at the far side. A few seconds later he was joined
by a pintail duck, her slender neck and plumage distinguishing
her. I decided to return later to the nest, and departed. The
same evening I again approached the nest, this time from a different
direction, and managed to get to within a few feet of it without
disturbing the sitting duck. From my position I would see that
she was without any doubt a pintail. Some twelve days later on
the same lochan I was lucky enough to see a female pintail and
ducklings. They were probably from the same nest. At any rate
the eggs in the nest mentioned hatched out. — Arthur E. Bennett,
Isle of Tiree.

This is the first breeding record for Tiree that we have been
able to trace. Some down from this nest has been preserved, but
to date we have been unable to compare it with known pintail
down, as suitable material has not been forthcoming, and the
reference collection at the British Museum (Natural History) is
temporarily unavailable. — Editors.

Fall of cliff at Ailsa Craig, affecting the Gannet Colony. —

At the junction between the Main Craigs and the West Trammins
on the south cliffs of Ailsa Craig a huge buttress of rock projected
forth at an angle of about 75 degrees from the main cliff. This
had been standing for many hundreds of years and was known
locally as Rotten Nick, because of its apparently precarious position.
The surface of this buttress, which was intersected by a dolerite
dyke, provided the Main Craigs Far East, and the top of the buttress
the Main Craigs Far East Top, gannet colonies; a few kitti wakes,
guillemots and razorbills also nested, mainly around the top. On
10th March 1952, however, the whole of the buttress west of the
dolerite dyke crashed to the shore, resulting in the total destruction
of the Far East Top colony (first occupied in 1947) and that part
of the Far East colony (first occupied in 1938) west of the dolerite
dyke — about three-quarters of the whole. The gannets from the

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

:I9

top colony have moved back to the cliff-edge and I have little
doubt that gannets will colonise the cliff-face exposed by the fall;
in fact one pair is already nesting. The recent populations of the
colonies are as follows: Main Craigs Far East Top, 29 pairs in
1951 and 15 pairs in 1952; Main Craigs Far East, 57 pairs in 1951
and 16 pairs in 1952. — -J. A. Gibson, Ralston, Paisley.

Dark-phase Fulmar Petrel Nesting in Shetland. — While
many of the dark form of the fulmar petrel Fulmarus glacialis may be
seen in the off-shore waters between Shetland and Norway, they
are extremely scarce in Shetland coastal waters. I spend much
time in these coastal waters during the summer months, but have
never seen, amongst the thousands of normal birds, more than
three dark birds in a season. About a dozen years ago a dark bird
was seen to fly from what could have been a nesting ledge on the
island of Mousa, but it was not seen again on later visits. During
the summer of 1950 a dark bird was seen sitting on a ledge at Noss.
No egg was seen and only light birds were seen on the ledge later
through the season. Up till last summer (1951) these two oc-
casions were the only ones known to me where dark-phase birds
had actually been seen sitting ashore. While on a cruise last
summer with my friend John Peterson a landing was made on the
island of Hascosay on 21st June. Amongst a scattered group of
nesting fulmars Mr. Peterson spotted a dark bird on a cliff ledge.
By lowering a handkerchief the bird was dislodged and an egg
exposed. Satisfactory records of the occasion were made by still
and cine cameras. The nest was kept under observation on the
2 1st, 22nd and 23rd and always a dark bird was in occupation.
Almost certainly it was the same bird but we were unable to clear
up that problem. A further visit was made to the cliff when the
chick had hatched and it was established that to all appearance
the chick was a normal one. The dark bird was equal in size o
body, head and bill to that of the normal British fulmar. It may
be added that the shepherd, who visits the islands occasionally
during the winter, has reported that he has seen a dark bird back
on the nesting ledge. — G. T. Kay, Lerwick.

White-billed Northern Diver in Angus. — On the shore at
Monifieth, Angus, on 24th February 1952, I found the body of a
diver, which, on careful examination, turned out to be a white-
billed northern diver Colymbus adamsii. It was badly oiled.

The bill was yellowish-white shading to horn-colour at the base
of the upper mandible and blue-grey at the base of the lower.

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The upper mandible was almost straight, while the lower one
was distinctly angled, giving the general appearance of a slightly I
upturned bill. The size of the bill, and the white shafts of the
primaries, also distinguished it from the great northern diver
C. immer. The measurements taken were: —

Bill from nostril (hole, not groove) to tip 80 mm. (exposed culmen
95*5 mm.); chord of wing 388 mm.; tail 69 mm. — Gordon B.
Corbet, Dundee.

White-billed Northern Diver seen in East Lothian. — On

24th February 1952 I noticed a diver off the shore at Dirleton,
East Lothian. The bird was about fifty yards out and, even to
the naked eye, the appearance of the bill attracted attention.
After watching through binoculars (x 12) I came to the con-
clusion that this was a white-billed northern diver Colymbus adamsii.
The following description was noted. Size as for great northern
diver Colymbus immer ; upper parts and top of head dark brown;
back of neck dark brown shading to light brown in front; throat
below this and rest of underparts white; bill whitish, apparently
upturned and very large. The bill was most striking and, as
mentioned, this feature was plainly visible to the naked eye, giving
the impression of being so large as to be out of all proportion to the
size of the bird. To the naked eye also the upturned appearance
was clearly visible. — Russell G. Thin, Edinburgh.

These two white-billed northern divers were recorded at
different places on the same day. There were no Scottish records
until Mr. and Mrs. L. S. V. Venables found one dead on 21st
January 1946 in Shetland {Brit. Birds , 40: 112, 1947), and saw
another in summer plumage there on 8th June 1947 {ibid.: 282).
Since then, Mr. Venables informs us, they have seen three more.
We learn also that two were found washed up on the coast of

i 95 2

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1 2 1

Yorkshire during the past winter. The species appears to be on
the increase.

In addition to the measurements given, it may be noted in Fig. i
that the upper mandible of the Monifieth specimen projects 8-5 mm.
beyond the lower. The total length of the skull, from bill-tip
to occiput, measures 189 mm. The left wing and skull, which
have been preserved, have kindly been lent to us for examination.

We are indebted once again to Mr. Len Fullerton for the
illustration (Fig. 2) comparing the white-billed and great northern
divers . — Editors .

(Winter)

(Summer)
Colymbus adamsii

Fig. 2

(Winter)

(Summer)

Colymbus immer

Four successive broods in Stock-dove’s nest. — This year
(1952) I have ringed four broods of stock-doves Columba oenas in a
hole in a walnut tree, the entrance to which is about 5 feet
above ground level. The dates they were ringed (two on each
occasion) were: 7th April, 12th May, 1 8th June and 9th August.
On 24th May there was a fresh egg in the nest before the two young
had flown.

In 1951 I ringed three broods in this nest, on 13th May, 26th
June and 25th August. — James Bartholomew, Torrance, near
Glasgow.

The Handbook , vol. 4, p. 136, records “ at least two broods,
sometimes three ”. Mr. Bartholomew is of the opinion that only
one pair of birds have used the nest. — Editor.

Black-tailed Godwit in Skye. — We have received from the
Editors of British Birds a note in the handwriting of the late B. W.
Tucker, that Mr. J. A. Gulland had informed him that on 26th
August 1948, he had had a good view of a black-tailed godwit
Limosa limosa on a small islet accessible at low water near Broadford,
Skye. The only other record of this species in Skye is one seen
near Portree in December 1949 by Mr. Seton Gordon (Scot. Nat.,
62 : 60) . — Editors.

16

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Little Gulls in Angus. — On 14th January 1952, at about
12 noon, on an area of sand-dunes at the mouth of the Tay at
Buddon Ness, Angus, I noticed a small gull hawking over the water
near the shore. My attention was immediately attracted by the
very dark underwing. Soon this bird was joined by another, and

1 watched one or both of them intermittently for about two hours;
they worked slowly up wind till they were opposite me, then they
would sweep round the ness northward, and work up again. At

2 p.m. I saw four together, a bit further out over a jobble of water —
a sandbank I believe. Half an hour later there were as many as
twenty, and then an immature bird and about four more. I made
notes of their plumage and general characteristics on the sjjot, and
a check in The Handbook afterwards confirmed my belief that they
must have been little gulls Larus minutus. — John Furse, Arbroath.

Mr. Furse has supplied us with full notes made at the time,
together with a sketch of an immature bird in flight. This record
is especially interesting in view of the recent note on little gulls in
Largo Bay, Fife (p. 58 of this volume). It is about seven miles
from Elliot, where little gulls were often observed in the years
1922-24 {Scot. JVal., 1925 : 23). — Editors.

Little Gull in Aberdeenshire in July.— On 19th July 1952
I saw a little gull Larus minutus at the mouth of the Ythan. The
bird was tame, and I observed at leisure the pitch-black hood
(coming further down behind than in the black-headed gull), the
dark, white-fringed underwing, the short, broad wings without
black at the tips, and the relatively short red legs. Black-headed
gulls and common terns were near by, but when it settled it sat
apart from them.

Though the little gull is not now a rare bird on the east coast,
I have found no recent Scottish records for July. Miss Baxter
saw one, not in adult dress, at Largo Bay on ioth June 1914 {Scot.
Nat., 1914: 164). The earliest recorded date at Arbroath was

5th August 1922, and the birds seen there were in winter plumage
{Scot. Nat., 1925: 23). There was a July 1949 record in Lincoln-
shire {Brit. Birds, 43 : 407). — V. C. Wynne-Edwards, Aberdeen.

Herring Gull nesting on a roof-top. — A pair of herring
gulls Larus argentatus nested successfully in 1952, and brought off
two young, from amongst a group of chimney pots on the chimney
stack of a dwelling-house in Cellardyke, East Fife. The house lies
on the main street, near the harbour. The two young birds were
ringed by me. — W. J. Eggeling, Anstruther.

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

123

The Handbook of British Birds, vol. 5, p. 89, mentions one case
of nesting on a house-roof in Devon. We have read in the news-
papers a report of a similar attempt at Peterhead this year. —
Editors.

Kittiwakes inland in summer. — On 12th July 1952, at
17.00 hours, I watched five kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla in a freshly
cut hayfield close to the road, 5 miles north-west of Duns,
Berwickshire. The birds appeared to be picking insects off the
newly mown hay. There were two black-headed gulls with them.

This is unusually far inland for this gull to be found, as the place
is 1 1 \ miles from the nearest point on the sea-coast. — W. M.
Logan Home, Edrom, Berwickshire.

Blackcock in Orkney. — During the autumn and winter of
1941, whilst stationed at Lyness, I frequently took long walks over
the hills behind the town, and there I first saw a party of eight male
blackcocks Lyrurus tetrix on 5th October. They were still there
when I left late in December. At no time did I see any hen birds. —
S. E. Linsell.

The above note appears by arrangement with the Editors of
British Birds, to whom it was originally addressed. The black
grouse has been recorded occasionally from Orkney. — Editors.

Ptarmigan eating Scurvy Grass. — In September 1951, on
Ben Nevis at 3,800 feet, I saw a ptarmigan Lagopus mutus feeding on
the leaves of scurvy grass Cochlearia sp. — Seton Gordon, Upper
Duntuilm, Skye.

Guvier’s Whale at Fair Isle. — Some time in the early spring
of 1949, probably in late February or March, a whale was stranded
in an east-coast geo at Fair Isle. Decomposition proceeded during
the summer, aided by ravens and hooded crows, and in August
of the following year I took photographs of part of the skeleton
and submitted them to Dr. Francis C. Fraser at the British Museum
(Natural History), who was able to identify them as the skull and
some of the vertebrae of a Cuvier’s whale (J^iphiiis cavirostris) . —
Kenneth Williamson, Fair Isle Bird Observatory.

124

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BOOK REVIEWS

' I

The Popular Handbook of British Birds. Edited by P. A. D. Hollom.
London: H. F. and G. Witherby, 1952. Pp. 424. 132 plates in

colour, 20 in half-tone. 45s.

Here we have, reduced to the compass of a single volume, those elements
of the five volumes of The Handbook which will be of most interest to the keen
amateur bird-watcher, the advancing, rather than the advanced, orni-
thologist. The detailed plumage descriptions and the sections on display
have been omitted, as have details of breeding of those birds which do not
nest in the British Isles. Birds which have occurred less than ten or twelve
times are left out, though it would have been as well to have given at
least a list of these, as some of them, which in the original Handbook shared
a plate with some commoner species, appear in illustration but not in the
text — which is liable to perplex the beginner. The work of editing has
been undertaken by Mr. P. A. D. Hollom with the sound judgement we
would expect. If any section has been too drastically reduced, it is that
on “ Voice there is no mention here, for example, of the common
tsooeet note of the linnet, and, while the breeding cry of the spotted crake
finds a place the commonest and most usually heard note of that species
does not. The purpose of the book must be primarily identification and
as much detail as possible should have been included on the “ difficult ”
species; thus it is a pity that Koekkoek’s excellent plates of immature
skuas should have been left out, when Harrison’s less satisfactory one is
included.

Mr. Hollom has brought his material up-to-date; we find here, for
example, the substance of Mr. Theo Kay’s excellent work on the identifica-
tion of the glaucous and Iceland gulls. Although in a work of this scope
one cannot expect individual records (such as the aquatic warbler on the
Isle of May or the black redstart breeding in Yorks) to be taken into
account, perhaps certain general trends could have been mentioned — for
example, the increase of the woodlark in certain areas, or the recent spread
to the Solway of the pink-footed goose.

We welcome the use of the Wetmore classification, but, while noting
that Mr. Hollom follows the dictates of the B.O.U. List Committee, we
cannot help wondering precisely what that learned body is up to. They
continue to dig up names from the rubbish heap of ornithology — Podiceps
caspicus for the black-necked grebe is one of the latest truffles — thereby
creating general confusion, and yet are so little abreast with modern de-
velopments in systematics that they continue to treat the hooded and
carrion crows as different species.

A feature not possessed by the original Handbook is a good series of
illustrations of eggs. The pictures of birds are taken from the original
five volumes and one continues to be impressed by the superiority of the
work of M. A. Koekkoek to that of his rivals. In the Handbook acknowledge-
ment of Mr. Koekkoek’s work was confined to a brief sentence tucked away

1952

BOOK REVIEWS

125

among the “Introductory Notes”: in the Popular Handbook his name,
which ought to be on the title page with that of Mr. Hollom, is nowhere
to be found. This lack of generosity on the part of the publishers towards
one who has contributed so largely to the success of the book is not to be
admired.

On re-reading the late B. W. Tucker’s notes on our birds, one is struck
more than ever by the fineness of his descriptive writing. Read for example
his account of the nightjar and ask yourself whether such a full and ac-
curate statement could have been made more vividly and yet more econo-
mically. Nor was Tucker — the best British ornithologist of his generation
— afraid to express admiration of a bird or of its beauty; he is a great
example of the combination of the scientific with the aesthetic approach.

To conclude, this book is good money’s worth and is much to be
recommended to the Middle Ornithological Brackets. M. F. M. M.

Caddis. By Norman E. Hickin. London : Methuen’s 4 Field Study Books’,
1952. 9s. 6d.

This is an excellent book for all those interested in the natural history of
streams, ponds and lakes in Britain, and moreover very well designed to
create such an interest. It has the added value of being the only collected
work on the immature stages of the Trichoptera written in English.

The book outlines the structure and biology of caddis-flies and gives
keys for the identification to families of the order for imagines, pupae and
larvae. For pupae and larvae this is as far as the present knowledge of
the group in this country permits, but encouraged by such an introduction,
one hopes to see a complete guide to the identification of the immature
stages of the Trichoptera by Dr. Hickin when all the British species have
been described.

The text is beautifully illustrated by the author in line and colour,
adequately portraying the details of structure required for study of these
insects. If one might ask for more where so much is provided, drawings
showing wing venation typical of the Psychomyidae, Odontoceridae, and
Leptoceridae and the larval thoracic sclerites of Agapetus and a hydroptilid
would assist the beginner in following the imaginal and larval keys.

This addition to the Field Study Books series will undoubtedly lead
to a much wider knowledge of the biology of Trichoptera, for it cannot fail
to encourage further study. H. D. S.

In Oaks and Oakwoods. By A. G. Tansley, F.R.S., illustrated by Phyllida
Lumsden. London: Methuen’s 4 Field Study Books’, 1952. 9s. 6d.

This is a most interesting book, well written, full of information, thoroughly
up-to-date and of the usual Tansley standard, which is always of a high
order. The text is greatly helped by excellent black and white illustrations
which are a joy to behold. There are also four good outline colour plates.

E. W. F.

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Vol. 64

Flora of the British Isles. By A. R. Clapham, T. G. Tutin and E. F. Warburg.
Cambridge : at the University Press, 1952. Pp. li + 1,591. £2 10s.

The appearance of this flora has already been heralded as an outstanding
event. It removes a disadvantage under which two generations of British
naturalists have struggled, as compared with those of other countries, in
having no modern manual of the vascular plants. Though the price may
appear considerable to many, it is in fact not dear for a technical book in
these days. As a work of reference it is unique, and certainly every serious
student must sooner or later acquire it.

It is difficult to form any conception of the vast amount of work which has
gone into the book. It contains hundreds of thousands of statements of fact,
each of which has had to be determined, checked and put into its proper
place. The descriptions of several thousand species, varieties, subspecies
and hybrids are, as far as possible, made afresh from living or herbarium
material. There are new keys to the families and genera and to the
species in all but the smallest genera, and 75 new illustrations. In addition
to the description, most articles on individual species record the date of
flowering, chromosome number, life-form, status, habitat and range in the
British Isles (with the number of vice-counties inhabited in Britain and
Ireland), and the range abroad. They may in addition contain notes on
pollination by insects and other interesting ecological or economic points.

Practical handling of such a manual is clearly needed before a considered
appraisal can be given, though there is no reason to doubt that in so com-
petent a work our appreciation of it will grow rather than diminish with
increasing familiarity. There are, nevertheless, one or two important
matters wherein the editors’ policy may not receive unanimous approval.

The sequence of orders and families is revised in conformity with present-
day understanding of plant evolution (though it does not, we believe,
exactly follow any of the recognised systems), and the nomenclature is
brought up to date. There will naturally be those who complain of being
asked to abandon long-familiar names, though experience shows that this is
easier and more painless than we are apt to fear at first sight. The authors
do, however, appear to have been excessively liberal in splitting up genera,
thereby imposing a staggering burden on the memory, without sufficient
compensation in promoting more 4 natural ’ units. A wider use of subgenera,
which do not inflict their names on us when we identify and catalogue
plants, would have been very widely welcome, and in conformity with the
principle of making nomenclature a handmaiden rather than a master.

It is customary and valuable to include adventive or introduced plants,
especially if they are widely or long naturalised, or frequent casuals;
moreover most of us are interested in cultivated as well as wild plants.
Scores of non-native ornamental and cultivated trees, shrubs and herbs
have been inserted perhaps largely for the benefit of undergraduates taking
courses in systematic botany. It is of course impossible to draw any hard
and fast line between what belongs and what does not belong to the
British flora, liberally interpreted. The editors must have felt they had
good reason before deciding to admit, for example, economic notes on

1952

BOOK REVIEWS

127

exotic Apocynaceae, to be seen in hot houses if at all (p. 814); or
lilac, “ syringa ”, “ acacia ”, Eschscholtzia, two exotic species of Calendula ,
three of Corydalis, seven of Prunus including almond and peach, eight
American Michaelmas daisies; or garden lettuce, radish, onion, broad
bean, green and sweet peas. (The potato is noticed only by name, and
the long-persisting rhubarb is excluded.) These are but a handful of
examples. Collectively they contribute a material part of the 1,600 pages.

The treatment of non-native species in the text takes a number of forms.
Of those duly described under generic headings, some are printed in
standard-sized type, some in small type ; sometimes they are numbered
consecutively with native species, sometimes they are un-numbered,
regardless of type-size; usually they are starred, but not always (e.g.
Astrantia major , p. 638). The reader is possibly missing something by
having no key to the system adopted.

Well-merited attention and care has been directed to the foreign
distribution of each plant. The North American ranges (particularly
interesting to me) are, however, sometimes unaccountably omitted, as
in Carex capillaris , flava , lepidocarpa, microglochin , paupercula, etc., Hippuris
vulgaris , Ligusticum scoticum, Mertensia maritima (also N. Pacific shores), to
mention only a few. When the time comes for the first revision, no doubt
advantage will be taken of Professor M. L. Fernald’s superlative 8th
Edition of Gray’s Manual (1950), on this and other topics.

It would be far from my intention to create any impression in this review
stronger than that of gratitude and admiration towards the editors. They
will contribute to the compass and enjoyment of every botanist in the country,
and have provided us with a practical tool whose immediate value it is
difficult to over-estimate.

A promised companion volume of illustrations will be keenly awaited. —
V. C. W.-E.

The Birds of Greenland. By Finn Salomonsen. With plates by Gitz-
Johansen. Parts 2 and 3. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1951.
Pp. 1 59-348 and 349-608, small 4to. 60 Crowns per part.

The first part of this outstanding work has previously been noticed (62 :
1 9 1 ) ; the second and third parts now complete it. The cost (£3 3s. per
part, unbound) will unfortunately put it out of most people’s reach, though
there is little doubt that money spent on it would be well invested. It is a
very beautiful, as well as a practical and useful book, and after the edition
is sold out the demand for it is most unlikely to diminish.

As stated earlier, it is printed in Danish and English in parallel columns.
Part 1 dealt with the water birds up to the Anseriformes, and the Wetmore
sequence is approximately followed in the remaining parts, through the
game-birds, waders, gulls, auks, birds of prey both diurnal and nocturnal,
and the passerines, to finish up with the raven. Then follows a systematic
list, a bibliography so far as humanly possible complete, and an index. The
plates continue in the same decorative if rather controversial style; the

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Vol. 64, 1992

impression of the scenery is at times undoubtedly “ truer to life ” than that
of the bird in the foreground. The final song-bird plates, especially the j
one of the cock Lapland bunting, are among the best in the book.

The text of these two parts is no less impressive than that of the first
one. It is factual, painstaking, thorough, and complete, not given over-
much to conjecture, and wise in its handling of problems and difficulties.
Field ornithologists will read it with sustained interest and often with
genuine delight; and, if I am not mistaken, will wish to possess it. It is
and will continue to be an essential work of reference to students of arctic
and northern birds and, having in mind the high cost, the attention of
university and public librarians ought to be directed towards it, so that
it may be made known and available to ornithologists in this country.
Particularly in one of the three beautiful bindings which have been designed
for it, it will be an ornament to any library. — V. C. W.-E.

NOTICE

A meeting was held at the rooms of the Royal Entomo-
logical Society of London, on Wednesday, 12th March, 1952
(see Proceedings C, vol. 17, No. 2, 4th March), at which, in
response to a request from Professor Grasse and others, the
proposal to form a British branch of the “ Union Inter-
nationale pour l’Etude des Insectes Sociaux ” was discussed.
I have agreed to act provisionally as Secretary, and would
be glad to hear from any British biologist who would like
to join such an organisation. If the necessary response is
received, steps will be taken to put the organisation on a
permanent basis and to nominate officers.

J. D. Carthy.

Queen Mary College,

Mile End Road,

London, E.i.

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THE IRISH NATURALISTS’ JOURNAL

A MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY
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WINTER

1952

The Scottish Naturalist

With which is incorporated

The Annals of Scottish Natural History

EDITED BY

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Regius Professor of Natural History , University of Aberdeen

AND

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Notes on the Islet of Gasker — Robert Atkinson and Dr. Brian Roberts . 129

The Incubation Rhythm of the Fulmar — Kenneth Williamson . .138

Notes on the Breeding of the Fulmar — Dr. W. J. Eggeling . .148

The Spiny or Thorny Lobster, Palinurus vulgaris Latreille, in

Scottish Waters — Eric Wilson . . . . . 151

The Food of Great Skuas on Hermaness, Unst, Shetland — J. D. Lockie 1 58
Botanical Note . . . . . . . . .163

Zoological Notes . . . . . . . . .164

Corrections . . . . . . . . . .182

Correspondence . . . . . . . . .182

Obituary . . . . . . . . . .183

Statement of Income and Expenditure . . . . .184

Book Reviews ......... 185

Index . . . . . . . . . . .189

The Scottish Naturalist

Volume 64, No. 3

Winter 1952

NOTES ON THE ISLET OF GASKER *

Robert Atkinson and Brian Roberts
Henley-on-Thames Cambridge

Gasker, low and green, 105 feet high and about 47 acres in
extent, is an uninhabited islet lying 5! miles westward of
Husinish Point, a headland on the Atlantic coast of Harris.
A few sheep are intermittently pastured on Gasker, being
brought out by crofters from Harris, but the place is now
seldom visited. Martin Martin (1703) mentioned it in his
Description of the Western Islands of Scotland: “ it excels any other
plot of its extent, for fruitfulness in Grass and Product of Milk,
it maintains 8 or 10 Cows ; the Natives kill seals here which
are very big ”. J. A. Harvie-Brown (1889) landed for an hour
on 4th July 1887, but described only the landing places he used.
Fishery cruisers have visited the islet from time to time ; on
two occasions accompanied by Seton Gordon, who published
brief accounts of some of his observations (Gordon, 1946, 1950,
195177 and 19516).

On nth July 1949, during a cruise in the motor ketch
Heather , we embarked a spare crew at Leverburgh and went
out to Gasker, where we and John Naish were able to land by
dinghy and spend three hours ashore. A moderate westerly
swell was running and we landed, not very easily, about mid-
way along the east coast, hauling the dinghy ashore. A much
better place is Geo Ear, a sheltered cleft further north on the
east coast, where a small boat can easily be drawn up. There
is another, larger, geo on the north coast, Geo Iar, but its rock
walls are much steeper. These two geos were used by Harvie-
Brown.

* Received 29 th May 1952
129

17

130 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol.64

There is no anchorage at Gasker, the bottom being rock and
the water deep even close in. The coast is rock-bound and
cliffy all along the north side. Except for Gasker Beg, a 20-foot I
high, bare rock six cables south-eastward of Gasker, and a rock
which breaks, close to the north-east corner of the islet, there
are no off-lying dangers.

The interior of Gasker is an undulating pasture, elevated
north and south into two slight hills, with a lower area between
them where lie two large ponds, evidently made and main-
tained by the wallowing of generations of Atlantic seals.

Vegetation

A hurriedly-made collection of specimens was kindly
examined by the late Mr. A. J. Willmott and by Dr. A.
Melderis, who determined 42 species ; a few more could no
doubt be added in a longer search. The specimens have been
deposited in the British Museum (Natural History). The list
is as follows :

Ficaria verna L.

Ranunculus repens L.

R. jlammula L.

Cochlearia scotica Druce
Lychnis jlos-cuculi L.

Silene maritima (L.) Honck.
Cerastium vulgatum L.

Stellar ia media (L.) Vill.

Sagina procumbens L.

Spergularia salina (L.) J. and C.
Presl.

Lotus corniculatus L.

Trifolium repens L.

Potentilla erecta (L.) Rausch
P. anserina L.

Montia fontana L.

Hydrocotyle vulgaris L.

Scabiosa succisa L.

Matricaria inodor a L.

Leontodon autumnalis L.

Euphrasia foulaensis T owns .
Glaux maritima L.

Armeria maritima Willd.
Callitriche stagnalis Scop.

Rumex acetosa L.

R. crispus L.

Atriplex glabriuscula Edmonst.

A. hastata L. (small)

Plantago lanceolata L.

Plantago lanceolata L. var. with
silky leaves

P. maritima L. (variable)

P. coronopus L.

Coeloglossum viride (L.) C. Hartm.
Juncus bufonius L.

Car ex face a All. (— C. glauca
Murr.)

Agrostis canina L.

A. stolonifera L.

Holcus lanatus L.

Poa. annua L.

P. subcoerulea Sm.

P. trivialis L.

Festuca rubra L.

Puccinellia maritima (Huds.) Pari.
Ophioglossum vulgar e L. (very
small) ~

•i ,*■ »

J952

NOTES ON THE ISLET OF GASKER

131

(i) Gasker from north-eastward, showing Geo Iar in the right foreground and
Geo Ear on the extreme left. Photo Eric Hosking, 30th September 1947.

By July of 1949 Hebridean soils were everywhere dried up
by the summer drought and some of the heather did not
recover. Gasker was similarly affected, although at the time
of our visit all the vegetation was lush, and rank in places. The
south hill, a low mound of deep, dark peat, and evidently a
morass for much of the year, was now dry and everywhere
zig-zagged with deep cracks, like the bed of a dried-up pond.
There were some patches of bare peat, though the appearance
was green and white, a strong growth, chiefly of Matricaria , with
clumps of Rumex acetosa, Cochlearia , Stellaria , Atriplex sp., Sper-
gularia , Potentilla anserina and Armeria, where each plant often
had room to spread to its full extent. The north hill, again of
dry peat but entirely covered with vegetation, was largely a
meadow of Plantago , in parts a close sward of P. coronopus , with
diminutive Euphrasia , in other parts a deep growth of P. lanceo-
lata and P. maritima. A single plant of Coeloglossum viride was
growing in the sward of P. coronopus. Tall green grass covered
much of the central area about the two big ponds, patched
with dense beds of Scabiosa that extended up the flank of the

132

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

I

(2) Gasker. Seal wallows in centre of islet and lower pond. Photo Robert
Atkinson, nth July 1949.

north hill — Scabiosa growing like cos lettuces. The fruitfulness
of Martin’s time was easily understood. There were 20 sheep
on the island at the time of our visit, but they had only recently
been landed and had made no apparent impression on the
vegetation. The droppings of sea-birds, the dung of seal pups,
the blood and placentae, and the corpses young and old, must
all keep this organic soil in a state of perpetual high fertility.

The central area was evidently the chief seal breeding
ground, centred about the two big ponds. Here the ground
was much cut up by a variety of puddles and wallows, and
drains and slides. Some of the wallows, with bare peat walls
up to 3 feet high, were dry and had a floor of vigorously
growing Juncus bufonius ; others were bare. The stony and

195^

NOTES ON THE ISLET OF GASKER

133

(3) Gasker. Drainage stream from lower pond, with hills of west Harris. Photo
Robert Atkinson, nth July 1949.

muddy shores of the big ponds were fringed with Juncus and
Rumex crispus. Areas of loose boulders where the coastal rock
began to be soil-covered were patched with Silene in places ;
in other places Ficaria grew from deep niches between the
boulders, the plants so overgrown and yet attenuated that they
were hardly recognisable. The sweet smells of Silene and
Cochlearia were heavy in the air.

Seals

Gasker has long been known as a breeding place of Atlantic
seals ( Halichoerus grypus). As already noted, they were being
killed there in Martin’s time at the beginning of the eighteenth
century. In 1838 MacGillivray wrote : “ On the rock of

134

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

■■

1 ■

mmm

Hi

1

Mi

HI

■MbhbMbMI

'yAy^y .; ; ' V A : J ■ -T -fUy.y | ' |p| v'' ■ ' % :

* k Hjj ^ '^r^' ^ " ''r' V- A- ■' '-' ' ' '■ Ak:Ufek .

•H* -'.* * - " ' '**J* V* * A'-*- ,

(4) Gasker. Bed of Scabiosa succisa by upper pond. Photo Robert Atkinson,
nth July 1949.

Gaskir, twelve miles from Harris, in the Atlantic, it [the
Atlantic seal] is found on shore in great numbers, along with
its young . . . and so many as a hundred and twenty seals
have been killed there in one day 55 . However, no further
information seems to have been published during the following
century.

On 30th September 1947, one of the writers participated in
a reconnaissance flight organised by Mr. James Fisher (1948)
to make a survey of Scottish sea] colonies. On that occasion,
rather early in the breeding season, there were at least 150 pups
and 90 adult seals present on the island. It thus appeared that
Gasker was still the site of a considerable breeding colony.
Unknown to those who took part in this flight, a fishery

1952 NOTES ON THE ISLET OF GASKER 135

cruiser had visited Gasker in 1946. Mr. J. S. Munro of the
Fisheries Division, Scottish Home Department, has kindly
supplied the following information about the seal population
noted during visits of the Department’s cruisers on various
occasions since then. On 14th October 1946 a landing was
made and “ several hundred ” seal pups were observed. The
total seal population was estimated by the ship’s officers at
about 1,000. Of this visit, Seton Gordon (1946) records “ at
least 500 ” pups, ranging in age from “ a day to a month or
more The cruiser disturbed the crew of an open boat who
were clubbing the young seals. On 27th March 1948 no
landing was made owing to weather conditions, but about 50
seals were counted in the surf. On 1 ith June 1948 a landing
was made and only two seals were observed. On 24th
November 1949, when no landing was made, some 200-300
seals were observed on the east side of the island. On 6th
November 1950 a landing was made and about 700-800 pups
were observed. The number of pups was greater than in 1946,
but the increase might have been due to the fact that the visit
was made later in the breeding season. On this visit, Seton
Gordon (1950) records that “ upward of a hundred ” pups
were lying dead. On 30th October 1951 a landing was made
and 400-500 pups were counted. There appeared to be an
increase in the number of adult bulls present.

At the time of our visit in 1949, about 25 seals were to be
seen on the rocks or in the sea. The area of seal-affected land
and the quantity of bones indicated a considerable breeding
colony. In fact, it appears that of the Scottish breeding
colonies, Gasker is now second only to North Rona and has a
very much larger breeding population than either Shillay or
Haskeir to the southward.

Birds

In July 1949 ten species were noted as breeding or probably
breeding :

Rock pipit ( Anthus spinoletta)

Common eider ( Somateria mollissima :)

Storm petrel ( Hydrobates pelagicus )

Oyster-catcher ( Haematopus ostralegus)

Puffin ( Fratercula arctica )

136 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64 '

Arctic tern ( Sterna macrura )

Common gull {Larus cams )

Herring gull {L. argentatus)

Lesser black-backed gull {L. fuscus)

Great black-backed gull {L. marinus)

Rock pipits were frequent and no doubt breeding — one bird
seen with food. Common eiders appeared to breed in some
numbers ; several families were swimming offshore, several
used nests were seen, and one with two eggs. Two adult
storm petrels were handled, both excavated from holes under
boulders, one of which contained an addled egg, the other
empty. Both holes were found by smell. The breeding of
the few pairs of vociferous oyster-catchers was inferred. Only
a small number of puffins were breeding. About 35 pairs of
arctic terns were congregated on the area of flattish rock at the
south-west end of the island. Three nests were seen, two with
eggs, one with newly hatched chicks. Of the gulls, great
black-backs and herring gulls were many and noisy ; their
young fledging. There were two or three pairs of common
gulls with running young at the north end of the island. We
did not establish whether or not the few lesser black-backed
gulls were nesting.

Seven further species of birds were noted : a drake mallard
{Anas platyrhynchos ) on the upper pond, injury feigning ; shags
{Phalacrocorax aristotelis ) swimming offshore, probably not breed-
ing ; three rock doves {Columba livid) seen in Geo Iar ; a
flock of perhaps 50 turnstones {Arenaria interpres ) ; a few dunlins
{Calidris alpina) ; one or two ringed plovers {Charadrius hiati-
cula ) ; two common sandpipers {Actitis hypoleucos) flushed from
the lower pond.

No fulmars {Fulmarus glacialis ) or black guillemots {Uria
grylle ) were seen, and although some of the broken cliffs were
whitewashed in places, no razorbills {Alca torda) or guillemots
( Uria aalge ) were seen ashore. We had wondered whether
Gasker might not be suitable for a colony of Leach’s fork-tailed
petrels {Oceanodroma leucorhoa) but no sign was discovered. The
few storm petrels and puffins were both confined to the small
areas of loose heaped boulders. The extensive deep peat was
nowhere marked by bird burrows ; probably it is normally too
wet, and much churned up by seals every autumn and winter.

I952

NOTES ON THE ISLET OF GASKER

137

Seton Gordon ( loc . cit.), who visited the islet in winter,
reported numerous barnacle geese ( Branta leucopsis). The
Norse name Gasker, meaning goose-skerry, suggests that the
island has long been a winter resort of this species. Seton
Gordon also saw great black-backed gulls ( Larus marinus), teal
( Anas crecca ), a single wigeon (A. penelope ), redwings ( Turdus
musicus ), fieldfares (T. pilaris ), blackbirds (T. merula), a great
snipe ( Capella media), a redshank ( Tringa totanus), and small
flocks of golden plover ( Charadrius apricarius), purple sandpipers
( Calidris maritima) and dunlin (C. alpina).

REFERENCES

Fisher, James, 1948. “ Rockall ” and “ seal ” flights, 1947. Notes and

Records of ihe Royal Society of London , 6 : 12-17.

Gordon, Seton, 1946. Atlantic seals. Island colonies off the Outer
Hebrides. Scotsman , 2nd November 1946.

1950. Among the seals. Spectator , No. 6387, 24th November 1950

(Christmas number), pp. 541-542.

19510. Haunts of the Atlantic seal. Country Life , 109 : 777-778

(16th March 1951).

1951#. The first Barnacle-Geese. Country Life , no : 1625 (16th

November 1951).

Harvie-Brown, J. A. and Buckley, T. E., 1889. A vertebrate fauna of the
Outer Hebrides. Edinburgh, p. lx.

MacGillivray, William, 1838. A history of British quadrupeds. Edinburgh
(Vol. 13 of the Naturalists’ Library, edited by William Jardine,
Edinburgh, 1843), p. 218.

Martin, Martin, 1703. Description of the Western Islands of Scotland.
London, “ 1673” [1703], p. 50.

18

138

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol 64

THE INCUBATION RHYTHM OF THE FULMAR*

Kenneth Williamson
Fair Isle Bird Observatory

During the second half of May, June and early July 1952,
thrice-daily observations were maintained on three neighbour-
ing pairs of fulmars Fulmarus glacialis nesting at a Fair Isle cliff.
As there is no readily discernible sexual dimorphism in this
species it is only rarely that one finds a pair whose partners
can be distinguished one from the other, so these three matings
presented an unusual opportunity for studying events at the
nest. The present contribution deals mainly with the incuba-
tion rhythm, of which a more complete picture is now available
than that which R. Richter (1937 — also summarised by Fisher
1952, P* 364) was able to give. Behaviour notes were kept
during the incubation and fledging periods, but unless these
amplify previously published statements they are not included
here. It is hoped that future seasons will bring opportunities
for a closer study of the breeding cycle in these same pairs.

The individuals comprising the three pairs were identified
as follows:

Pair A. A fulmar of the blue phase mated with a normal bird.
The mutant was uniformly blue-grey On head, neck and mantle,
but rather paler on the breast. When flying it completely lacked
the usual contrast between white head and underparts on the one
hand, and grey wings and tail on the other.

There was no egg at this site, where both birds were present
and courting, on the morning of 17th May, but the blue bird
was sitting on a single egg laid in a hollow of bare earth on 1 9th.
It is thought that the blue bird was the female, since it took the
first spell of incubation, and proved to be the more assiduous in
domestic duties.

Pair B. This site was immediately below A and only 6 or 8
feet from it. The partners were an intermediate blue bird and a
normal one, the mutant in this case being dusky rather than dark.
There was more whitish on head and breast than in Upper Blue,

* Received ist October 1952

1952 THE INCUBATION RHYTHM OF THE FULMAR 139

and while it did not present the same uniformly drab appearance
in flight it lacked the sharp contrasts of normal birds.*

It is not known when the egg was laid, though this probably
occurred before 17th May. As the existence of a mutant at this
site was not appreciated until early on 19th it is probable that the
normal partner had already done one spell. The egg was deposited
in a hollow of bare earth.

Pair C. Both were normal birds, occupying an inner ledge of
the same cliff. At midday on 20th May, when both were present
at the nest, it was seen that they differed in the colour of their bills
— uniformly greenish in one bird (called Greenbill below), but with
the nostril tube a dark horn colour in the other (called Darkbill).

The nest was composed of numerous small chippings of the
friable sandstone, rock of which the cliff is formed. The date of
laying is unknown, but it is likely to have been earlier than 17th
and was certainly earlier than 19th May.

The Incubation Rhythm

It is not proposed to give a full narrative of the incubation
period. The important data have been summarised in the
table, in which the number of consecutive observations between
change-overs is noted for each bird. From three to five
observations were made each day, but only three have been
used in compiling the table — namely, the first visit between
0500 hrs. and 0700 hrs. G.M.T., the second at or about 1400
hrs. and the final visit late in the evening, usually between
2000 hrs. and 2200 hrs. If we allow each of these observations
to represent a “ unit ” period of incubation of roughly one-
third of a day in duration, then we have comparable informa-
tion for each of the six birds.

* My friend John Peterson of Lerwick, to whom I showed these birds in July,
is of the opinion that Upper Blue is not so dark a specimen as the one which he
and G. T. Kay found nesting on the island of Hascosay in 1951 (see Scot. Nat.,
64: 1 19), and which is the first blue fulmar to have been found breeding in the
British Isles. Using the notation of Fisher (1952, p. 266 seq .), I should place
Upper Blue as a “ D ” bird, and Lower Blue as an “ L ” bird, the normal type
being “ LL ” and the Hascosay individual nearer “ DD ” (judging from G. T.
Kay’s Kodachrome film, which I have seen) . It should be added that at least
one and possibly two other “ D ” birds frequented Fair Isle in the summer of
1952: one was watched prospecting Smirri Geo (and sitting for some minutes
on the banks) on April 30th, but it did not stay; and another (?) courted a
normal bird at the Kame of Furse colony in late May, but did not nest. An
“ L” bird also nested in this group. James A. Stout, a member of the crew
of The Good Shepherd, reported seeing a dark fulmar on several summer crossings
of the Roost.

140

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

Number of Consecutive Observations
between Change-overs in Three Pairs of Fulmars

A. Upper Blue Pair
(18th May — 10th July)

Blue

. 8

15

12

12

18

9

6

7 2

4

3 Total

96

Normal .

5

12

6

6

8

10

2

4 5

3

1 Total

62

B. Lower Blue Pair

(19th May—

-10th July)

Normal .

p

18

6

17

i7

10

4

1

3

Total

76+

Blue

. 18

1

21

15

9

8

4

4

6

Total

86

C.

Darkbill

X Greenbill

(20th May-

-8th July)

Darkbill .

?

1 1

26

14

16

9

3

1

2

Total

82-j-

Greenbill

. 6

*5

12

13

9

1

5

3

1

Total

65

It will be noticed that there are striking differences in the
share of the partners in pairs A and C as compared with pair
B; also that there is a marked change in the incubation
rhythm in all three pairs towards the close of the period. At
nests A and C one of the partners, Upper Blue and Darkbill
respectively, took the greater share of incubation, the difference
being most pronounced at A, where Blue totalled thirty-two
days out of the fifty-three recorded. The difference is less
striking in the case of C, but unfortunately we do not know
how long was Darkbilfs first sitting: this, if of average length,
would give this bird a figure comparable with Upper Blue’s.
This greater attentiveness to domestic duties may be evidence
that Darkbill and Upper Blue are females, and support of
this may lie in the fact that one certainly, and the other
.probably, initiated the incubation period.

In contrast pair B appear to have divided the work more
evenly, and their unit totals are close when taken over the
whole period. The table shows that the dusky partner was
the more attentive to incubation, but again the duration of
the first spell on the nest is unknown, and, as is mentioned
later, there were occasions when the normal bird was reluctant
to accept relief. Darkbill had one prodigious spell of nearly
nine days, and the normal bird at B once sat for eight days

THE INCUBATION RHYTHM OF THE FULMAR

1952

1 41

with only a few hours relief on the seventh day. There were
three six-day sittings and one of a week’s duration, but most
of the spells during the main phase of incubation are fairly
evenly distributed between two-and-a-half to five days.

With pairs B and C sittings were generally longer than was
the case with pair A, and some interesting individual differ-
ences are seen if the figures are averaged. Thus, up to the
end of June, Darkbill’s five sessions average five days in length,
whilst the six sessions of the normal partner at A come to only
two-and-two-third days. The corresponding figure for the
two birds at site B, with five sittings each, is over four days,
and for Upper Blue it is three-and-two-third days. Had it
not been for the temporary absence of a few hours only on
31st May, the normal bird’s average at site B would have
amounted to close on six days.

It will be seen that in each case the longer spells fall in
that part of the period between the commencement of obser-
vations and the week or ten days before the hatching of the
chick. In other words, the rhythm changes, apparently
quite suddenly, shortly before the onset of hatching, change-
overs becoming more frequent and the majority of spells <c on ”
reduced to little more than a day. At this time there is also
a marked tendency for the unoccupied partner to remain at
the nest-site, sitting alongside its mate. This new pattern of
behaviour was maintained until regular observation was dis-
continued some ten days after the hatching of the chicks, and
probably does not cease until the young begin to be left for
long periods by their parents at about a fortnight old.

There seems little doubt that this change in the incubation
rhythm is adjusted to the hatching phase, which, in the case
of so large an egg, must occupy the best part of a week from
the first activity of the chick inside the shell. It is unlikely,
however, that the new behaviour is a direct response to some
observed change in the condition of the egg, since pair B
behaved in exactly the same manner as the others although
their egg never hatched. It would appear more likely that
the different behaviour is brought about by some physiological
change which anticipates the hatching of the chick, and is
adapted to the need to provide it with food at short and regular
intervals during its early days.

42

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

The Incubation Period

It is not known when chipping began in either A or C.
Both adults were “ pseudo-sleeping ” at A when my wife and
I visited the cliff at 2000 hrs. on 6th July : hand-clapping
caused the blue bird (always rather nervous) to move towards
her mate, who rose from the egg, so that it lay uncovered for
some minutes between the two. After five minutes, during
which we made no further disturbance, the normal bird
departed, and as the blue one went on to the egg we could see
that the shell was partly broken, and the exposed flesh of the
chick quite noticeable. The blue bird made gentle pecking
motions at the egg a few times before finally settling on it.
Darkbill was brooding a chick in dry down at this time. The
dry chick of pair A was first seen at 1 1 15 hrs. 9th July, and is
likely to have freed itself from the shell some time on 8th.
This would give a period of fifty-two days if we presume a
commencement on 18th May. A similar figure has been given
by Misses E. V. Baxter and L. J. Rintoul (Witherby et al .,
1941), whilst W. Towrie recorded fifty- three days in Orkney
in 1935: other records, some widely at variance with these,
are discussed by James Fisher (1952, p. 365).

Decline of the Brooding Urge

When no change had occurred by 9th July it was feared
that pair B’s egg was infertile, since it is known to have been
laid before the egg at A. The normal partner sat all that
day, the dusky one sitting on 10th and nth. The normal
partner then had a short spell until mid-morning of 12th, and
the other brooded until the following afternoon. Four obser-
vations were made between 2000 hrs. 13th and the afternoon
of 14th, and at each it was seen that a change-over had
occurred, the unoccupied bird staying at the ledge. At 1600
hrs. 14th, the darker bird flew in and settled beside the normal
one as we watched: five minutes later it departed, and, with
equal abruptness, the sitting bird rose from the egg and
followed. This was the one and only occasion on which we
saw any one of the eighteen eggs at this cliff* left unattended,
and, as we had made no disturbance, it would appear that the

THE INCUBATION RHYTHM OF THE FULMAR

H3

*952

brooding urge had already become very weak. Neither came
back during the next quarter of an hour, but the egg was
being brooded in the late evening. No visit was made on
15th July, and at 0630 hrs. next morning the normal bird was
there alone. Early on 17th the egg had vanished from the
ledge, on which the pair sat most of that day and the next.

This pair continued to visit their ledge, either singly or
together, and to indulge in courtship behaviour, throughout
July and much of August. A pair which nested a few feet
from them, and lost their egg late on May 25th or early on
26th, continued to visit their nest and perform courtship
display (often directed at their neighbours B and G) regularly
until the cessation of my routine visits in mid-July. Birds
were seen there on several dates in August, and one was sitting
in the nest on the afternoon of 27th, when many of the young
reared on the cliff had flown. A single bird was sitting in
nest B on 30th (when only one youngster remained at the cliff)
and this was visited first by one, later by a second bird. All
had normal plumage, so it is clear that the original pair was
not involved, although the normal partner of that pair may
have been. Dispossessed birds, according to Fisher (1952) leave
the colony within a fortnight or so of losing egg or chick, and
go to sea to moult : but observational evidence at present would
appear to be too fragmentary to permit of any generalisations.

The Change-over

Change-overs may take place at any time of the day or
night. Of forty changes during the pre-hatching phase 60
per cent, took place between 2000 hrs. and 0700 hrs., 20 per cent,
in the later morning and 20 per cent, in the afternoon. Over
the whole incubation period two-thirds of the changes at A
took place during the “ overnight ” period; with pair B
changes were about equally divided between that and the
daytime periods, and with C there was a preponderance of
daytime shifts.

Sometimes the relieving adult spends some hours beside its
mate before changing, and similarly the relieved bird often
stays for several hours at the ledge (see the observations
below). This is by no means invariably the case, however.

44

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

Change-over may take place quickly and quietly, without any
ceremony whatsoever, or it may be accompanied by a short
spasm of head-rolling and cackling on the part of one or both
birds.

Unoccupied birds were generally absent from the cliff for
several days together. This suggests that breeding fulmars
go some distance out to sea in order to feed, at any rate
during the first six weeks of incubation. It is also obvious
that a sitting fulmar can go without food for a period of a
week or more without suffering serious inconvenience, and,
indeed, there is evidence that such birds are in no hurry to
leave for their feeding-grounds after relief. Darkbill, on the
completion of her nine-day vigil some time between 1430
hrs. and 1830 hrs. on 8th June did not leave immediately,
and at the second visit was paying court to Greenbill in a
mild and sedate fashion. The normal bird of pair A had an
opportunity to get away after sitting for six days when the
mate came in overnight on 30th/3ist May: but she was back
within a few hours and continued to sit for a further two days.
The same bird had sat for four-and-a-half days when the
mate arrived on the evening of 13th June, but no change took
place until late 15th or early 16th. This bird had sat for
five days when the mate returned overnight on 24th/25th
June, but did not accept relief until the afternoon.

No changes occurred, and no mates were seen, during a
north-westerly gale from 28th-30th May. When the weather
fell calm early on 31st changes occurred at B (seventh day)
and C (after five days), and in the evening the relieving adult
arrived at A.

The Fledging Period

By 20th August the chicks of the two pairs, and most
others at the cliff, were indistinguishable from adults except
for their brighter pinkish-flesh legs and feet: the immediate
environment of every nest was greyish-white with preened-off
down. The young, many of which had probably been
deserted by their parents, passed their time between preening
and dozing, and paid little attention to the world beyond
their nests. A week later these same chicks were noticeably
restless, spending long periods in craning their necks over the

THE INCUBATION RHYTHM OF THE FULMAR

145

1952

edge as though contemplating departure, and every now and
then indulging in violent wing-flapping exercises, facing the
cliff.

The chick at A was still on the nest on the morning of
26th August but had gone by the following afternoon. It
was to all appearances a normal bird, and its fledging period
was about fifty days. The Darkbill-Greenbill chick, and
another which we had first seen in dry down on 6th July,
were still in their nests. The former left between 1800 hrs.
and 1930 hrs. on 27th. An adult bird was sitting alongside
the latter, who accepted its company, at 1830 hrs. on 29th:
when I looked at the cliff again five minutes later both birds
had gone from the ledge. Is it possible that in some cases
the adults may influence the departure of the young? The
periods in these cases were nearer fifty-four and fifty-six days
respectively.

The impression given by Duffey (1951) and Fisher (1952)
is that the young bird does not beg for food unless first stimu-
lated to do so by its parent. Though this was so in several
cases when feeding was observed there were exceptions, in
one case when the chick was very small, and in another when
it was within a week of leaving the cliff (and had probably
ceased to be fed regularly). At 1930 hrs. on nth July Upper
Blue took over from the normal bird, a mutual cackling display
both before and after the change-over being the only ceremonial.
The normal left the chick slowly and haltingly, and finally
flew from the ledge. Blue did not brood for ten minutes, but
sat beside the chick, which continually made upward lunges
in an effort to reach its parent’s bill. At each lunge the adult
responded with a brief cackle, raising the head, and it made
no attempt to satisfy the chick. Finally, the adult advanced
so that the chick was between it and the cliff, and so invisible:
the parent spread-eagled its wings and lowered its head
towards the chick, and feeding appeared to take place. After-
wards the chick was brooded.

Only one youngster, a late-hatched one, remained at this
cliff on 30th August. It repulsed an adult which leaned
towards it, cackling, from an adjacent ledge, but accepted
another adult which alighted alongside it soon afterwards.
It immediately began to beg from this newcomer with a harsh
19

146 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64 1

churring note and a side-to-side swinging motion of the head,
which it raised now and then to fence with the adult’s bill.
The adult remained quite impassive, its only movement being |
to wag its head and cackle occasionally at some near-flying
bird. After a few minutes it left the ledge and the chick’s
importuning ceased. This youngster was the last to leave the
cliff, on 5th or 6th September.

The young of pairs A and C actually took their first flights
during a north-westerly gale, with the wind driving against
their nesting-cliff — the best possible conditions for a successful
departure. During the last week of August and first in
September there are invariably a number of “ strandings ” at
Fair Isle, due to an overmastering drive to fly into the wind
rather than down to the sea. This is well illustrated by the
behaviour of one bird found sitting on the moorland above
the Observatory: after being weighed and ringed, it was

placed on the edge of the cliff overlooking the South Haven,
in a position where the wind was at its back. A few seconds
later Michael Swales saw it turn about, run into the wind, and
fly inland again, coming to rest once more on the moor. He
brought the bird back to the first position, and within a few
minutes it had repeated the behaviour. Finally we took it to
the North Haven beach and released it at the edge of the tide.

Many young birds fledge whilst still very much above the
normal adult weight. Records of weights of “ stranded ”
young and a few taken from ledges have been included by
Fisher (1952) in his Appendix 3, and other records obtained in
1952 are summarised below.

24th August, 1036 gm. ; 30th August, 980 gm. and 1020 gm. ;
31st August, 950 gm. ; 2nd September, 900 gm. and 920 gm.

Average of six breeding adults (late May-early June 1952)
740 gm. Average of seven early August adults 1952, 760 gm.

Summary

1. The incubation rhythm was studied in three neigh-
bouring pairs of fulmars Fulmarus glacialis , the partners of
which were individually recognisable.

2. In two of the pairs there were striking differences in
the share of the partners: the best-documented case gave a

THE INCUBATION RHYTHM OF THE FULMAR

147

1952

total of thirty-two days’ incubation, out of fifty-three recorded,
j for the bird thought to be the female. With the third pair the
duties were more evenly shared.

3. The longest sitting was a little short of nine days.
There were several lasting six days or more, but the majority
occupied from two-and-a-half to five days.

4. In each case the longer sittings occurred during the
first six weeks of incubation. The rhythm changed with the
onset of the hatching-phase, spells on the nest being reduced
to less than two days, and unoccupied birds spending longer at
the nest-site. This behaviour, which continues into the early
part of the fledging period, and seems adapted to the need
for regular feeding of the chick, is thought to be due to some
physiological change, since it was observed in one pair whose
egg failed to hatch.

5. The brooding urge declined rapidly in the unsuccessful
pair. This, and another pair which lost their egg early in the
incubation period, remained at their nest-sites until late in the
season.

6. Most change-overs took place at night or very early in
the morning. There was none or very little ceremony in the
few change-overs seen.

7. The fledging-period in one case was about fifty days:
in two other instances it was about fifty-four and fifty-six
days.

8. Observations are given on the behaviour of the young
prior to fledging and the “ stranding ” of young birds on their
first flight is explained. Weights of fledged birds are given.

REFERENCES

Duffey, Eric, 1951. Field studies on the Fulmar. Ibis , 93 : 237-245.
Fisher, James, 1952. The Fulmar. New Naturalist ser., London.
Richter, R., 1937. Einiges iiber die Lebensweise des Eissturmvogels.
Jour, fur Ornithologie, 85: 187-200.

Witherby, H. F. et al , 1941. The Handbook of British Birds. Vol. 4.
London.

148

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

\

NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF THE FULMAR *
W. J. Eggeling

Forest Office, Morozoro, Tanganyika

Some additional exact data on the laying and incubation of
the fulmar Fulmarus glacialis were obtained on the Isle of May
in 1952. The dates for the period of maximum laying and
the incubation periods recorded fall within the season and
period limits given by Fisher (1952) in his monograph.

Dates of Laying

Seventeen fulmar nests containing either an egg or a chick
were located. This is the largest number yet reported from
the island in a single season. According to Fisher ( loc . cit.,
p. 192) less than ten pairs bred annually from 1931, when
breeding was first proved, up to 1949. In 1950 and 1951 it
is unlikely that more than about eleven pairs bred, although
detailed counts were not made in these years.

On 17th May 1952 at least one nest contained an egg
( fide G. Waterston’s note in Observatory records). By 22nd
May at least seven eggs had been laid; by the 25th at least ten;
by the 27th at least thirteen ; by the 29th at least fifteen ;
and by the 30th at least sixteen. It is highly improbable
that any eggs were laid after 30th May. Certainly eight, very
probably ten, and possibly as many as sixteen eggs were laid
between 20th and 29th May, i.e. during Fisher’s period of
maximum egg-laying for colonies of this size.

Incubation Periods

The period of incubation was recorded precisely in two
instances and approximately (to within two days) in two
more. In another three cases minimum possible incubation
periods were obtained. Details are given below.

* Received 12 th November 1952

1952

Nest i.

NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF THE FULMAR

149

Egg laid between 22nd May (evening) and 27th
May (morning).

Nest contained a one-day-old chick on evening of
1 2th July.

Incubation period : 46-50 days.

Nest 4 . Egg laid in night of 2 7th-28th May.

Chick emerged towards dusk, 14th July.

Incubation period : 48 days.

Nest 6. Egg laid in night of 2ist-22nd May.

Nest contained a two-to-four-day-old chick on
evening of 12 th July.

Incubation period: 48-50 days.

Nest 8. Egg laid in night of 24th-25th May.

Chick emerged in afternoon of 12th July.

Incubation period : 45 days.

Nests 11, Eggs laid before 21st May.

12 <2? 14. Nests contained chicks not more than two days old
on morning of 13th July.

Incubation periods (5 instances) : at least 51 days.

It was not possible to determine fledging periods and
breeding success, but it is known that only eight eggs hatched
and that at least two of the eight chicks did not survive. At
best, not more than six young can have flown.

Breeding Frequency

The data here derive partly from my own observations in
1949 and 1952, and partly from the records of the Isle of May
Observatory and Field Station. In the five years 1947-51,
inclusive, nineteen adult fulmars and seven nestlings were
ringed on the island. The only recoveries (re-trappings) to
date have been of unsexed birds ringed as breeders, as follows :

(i) 318023 Ringed 1947 (breeding); recaught 1949

(breeding); paired with AC 12 14 in 1949.

(ii) 318024 Ringed 1947 (breeding); recaught 1949

(breeding).

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64 1

(iii) AC 1 2 14 Ringed 1949 (breeding); recaught 1951

(breeding); recaught 1952 (breeding). Bred
in the same nest in all three years. Paired !
with 318023 in 1949; different mate in
1952; mate in 1951 unknown.

(iv) RX4259 Ringed 1951 (breeding); recaught 1952

(breeding). Bred in same nest both years
with same mate (RX4271).

(v) RX4271 Ringed 1951 (breeding); recaught 1952

(breeding). Bred in same nest both years
with same mate (RX4259).

Casual observations only were made in 1948 and 1950,
so that it is not known whether birds 318023 and 318024 bred
on the island in 1948, or if AC 12 14 bred there in 1950. But,
according to a note in the Observatory records, the nest-site
occupied by AC 12 14 in 1949, 1951 and 1952 was tenanted
also in 1950, so it is by no means impossible that this bird
may have bred in the same nest for four successive years.

It has been suggested by Duffey (1950) that adult fulmars
breed only either every other year or (more probably) every
third year. But three of the five cases cited above are opposed
to the first of these hypotheses, and all five of them are opposed
to the second. On the other hand, none of them in any way
disproves the possibility that the fulmar, like the great majority
of birds, normally breeds annually. If it does, the fact should
not be unduly difficult to prove.

During the 1952 nesting season not more than two (if
any) non-breeding fulmars were present on the Isle of May,
giving a total adult fulmar population of thirty-four to thirty-
six birds. Of these, nineteen were caught and ringed, and at
least three others carried rings put on previously. With
about two-thirds of the 1952 breeding population ringed, and
ten of the seventeen pairings fully recorded, the stage is set for
the collection, by other observers, of further data on the point
at issue.

REFERENCES

Duffey, Eric, 1950. Non-breeding in the fulmar Fulmarus glacialis.

Scot. Nat., 6 2: in-121.

Fisher, James, 1952. The Fulmar. London.

1952

THE SPINY OR THORNY LOBSTER

THE SPINY OR THORNY LOBSTER, PALINURUS
VULGARIS LATREILLE, IN SCOTTISH
WATERS *

Eric Wilson

Scottish Home Department, Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen

In a concise account of the distribution of the spiny lobster
in British waters Ritchie (1910) commented on the extreme
rarity of its occurrence off the north-west and north coasts of
Scotland, and on the apparent absence of the species from
Shetland waters and from that part of the British east coast
north of Flamborough Head. Later, the same author (1912)
published additional records from the Outer Hebrides. Since
then no further information extending the northward range
of distribution appears to have been available and editorial
comment in The Scottish Naturalist for 1924 (p. 167), on the
occasion of the notification of the capture of a specimen in
the Sound of Sleat, concluded: “ Although records are few,
the species would seem to be distributed sparsely along the
western coast of Scotland, but in the northern parts it is
scarcer than in the southern and only two records are known
from north Scotland.”

In December 1951 the capture of two spiny lobsters by
seine-net in Shetland waters was notified to the Marine
Laboratory, Aberdeen, by the District Fishery Officer, Mr.
T. Suttar, Lerwick. A third specimen was received alive
from the same source in June 1952. These bring the total
laboratory records of captures in the Shetland area since 1927
to seven, and the total from all Scottish waters since 1924 to
twenty-eight.

The following details of these records, which, except in
one instance, refer to single specimens, have not hitherto
been published. The depths, where stated, are given in
fathoms.

* Received 29 th November 1952

I52

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

Jan. 1924

West Coast Waters
4' - 5' W. X S. Rudh’ Re

c. 50

Trawl

Feb. 1924

4' N. of Point of Sleat, Skye

32

Cod-net

Oct. 1924

Ardnakillie Point, Scalpay,
Harris

Inshore

Lobster creel

April 1925

6' S.W. from Skerry vore

c. 46

Trawl

Feb. 1926

Scourie Bank

c. 30-40

Trawl

Feb. 1927

Off Inverasdale, Loch Ewe

Inshore

Lobster creel

Feb. 1928

4' N.W. of Loch Roag

c. 38-40

Trawl

April 1928

Off Dunvegan Hd., Skye Not known

Great line

March 1929

5'-6' N.W. from Gasgeir
Rock

50-60

Trawl

Jan. 1930

Close to Holm Point,
Stornoway harbour

r. 15

Small line

Jan. 1933

•

5'-7' S.S.E. to 20' N.E. 1 E.
from Flannan Is.

34-50

Trawl

Dec. 1938 *

6' N. from Gallon Hd. and
14' S.S.W. from Flannans

42-50

Trawl

Sept. 1941

Loch Inver

Not known

March 1945

Firth of Clyde : off Rhuad
Point, Kintyre

22

Seine-net

March 1949

7' W.S.W. from Cape Wrath

25-30

Trawl

July 1949

Orkney and Scottish North Coast

T W. from Costa Hd.

(Orkney mainland) 9

Lobster creel

July 1937

Off John O’ Groats

Inshore

Lobster creel

Aug. 1939

Off Duncansby Lid.

Inshore

Lobster creel

May 1927

Shetland Area

Vicinity Bard Head, Bressay

35-45

Seine-net

Dec. 1933

20' N. X W. from Flugga

c. 80-90

Trawl

Sept. 1948

Burra Haaf (Foula-Scallo-
way-Sumburgh bight)

C- 35-45

Seine-net

Aug. 1949

Off Trondra (near Scallo-
way)

3

Mackerel net

Dec. 1951

Burra Haaf

c. 55-60

Seine-net

Dec. 1951

Between Fetlar and Out
Skerries

60

Seine-net

June 1952

Between Scalloway and
Burwick Holm

3-4

“ Net ”

* Two specimens.

1952 THE SPINY OR THORNY LOBSTER 153

Scottish East Coast

Oct. 1935 Vicinity of Red Head,

Angus 25-30 Trawl

May 1937 J' off Kinnaird Head, Aber-
deenshire 6 Lobster creel

Means of Capture

The records are interesting not only because of the notable
extension of distribution but also because of the varied
instruments of capture. Six of the spiny lobsters were taken
in lobster creels. Ritchie (1910) wrote: “ the apparent

scarcity 55 (along northern parts of the British coasts) “ may,
in part, be due to its long and unyielding antennae which,
Couch states, frequently hinder it from entering crab pots
The Scottish creel is smaller than the Cornish pot, and has a
smaller entrance, and it would be reasonable to assume that
Couch’s remark would apply with greater force in Scottish
waters. The new records go some way towards discounting
this and towards indicating that scarcity of the species in
those areas off the Scottish coasts where creel fishing has been
a regular and long-standing practice has been actual rather
than apparent. One of the creel-caught specimens measured
12 inches from rostrum to telson while another was 16 inches
and weighed just under 4^ lb.

The captures by seine-net total five and to this gear are
owed four of the seven Shetland records. The use of the
Danish seine-net from motor boats in Shetland coastal waters
commenced about 1926 but adoption of the method by local
fishermen was slow until after the second world war. More-
over, up to 1946 creel fishing for the native lobster, Homarus
vulgaris , in Shetland waters was a relatively minor activity.
Therefore, while the absence of earlier records of Palinurus in
this area is in accord with the concept of its increasing scarcity
in higher (and colder) latitudes, it cannot be asserted with
complete confidence that the Shetland occurrences here
reported constitute evidence of a northerly extension of the
range in recent years.

The records of specimens caught by trawl are specially
worthy of note in that they demonstrate tolerance of open-sea

20

i54 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

conditions in depths down to at least 80 fathoms. Of the ten
so captured none is further from land than the occurrence 20
miles north by west from Flugga in December, 1933. While
from this record and from one or two others it might be
tempting to deduce propensity in individual adults to make
long migrations, it has to be borne in mind that the lobster is
ill-equipped for swimming and resorts to it only occasionally
for short distances mainly to escape from enemies.

Origin of Scottish Specimens

Mme. Heldt (1929), who, it appears, was unaware of
Ritchie’s paper, summarises the distribution of Palinurus as
follows :

La langouste vulgaire fait defaut en Mer du Nord.

En Atlantique, elle apparait sur les cotes occidentales d’Ecosse
et se rencontre, d’une maniere plus commune, entre flrlande et
le cap Bojador: cotes d’lrlande, des Cornouailles, de Bretagne,
plateau de Rochebonne et ses contreforts de l’ouest, Madere,
cotes d’Espagne, de Portugal et d’Afrique.

Palinurus vulgaris est tres repandu en Mediterranee dont il
est Phote normal.

Nothing is known concerning possible migrations by
Palinurus but it is extremely difficult to visualise the species
extending its distribution by such lengthy adult journeys as
would appear to be involved, for example, in the case of the
two Scottish east coast occurrences given above, or, even more
so, in the instance mentioned by Ritchie (1910) of a single
specimen from Bergen, Norway, which Professor Appellof
described as a zoogeographical abnormality. Only in the
possession of smaller claws is the spiny lobster better equipped
structurally for long distance travel than Homarus vulgaris.
Many tagging experiments with the latter have failed to yield
evidence of extensive migration. Moreover, regarding the
American spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus and P. interrupts,
Pearson and Anderson (1946) say: “ There is no evidence of
migration parallel to the coast ” ; while Crawford and De Smidt
(1922), writing on the former species say: “ Places known to
be depleted from overfishing are not repopulated in a short

1952

THE SPINY OR THORNY LOBSTER

155

time, which it seems reasonable to suppose would be the case
if migrations occurred parallel to the coast.”

There remains the probability of population spread
through the transport by currents of the larvae. This theory
is all the more attractive when one considers the post-embryonic
forms. The newly born larva, the Phyllosoma, is leaf-like.
It floats passively and passes through ten structural transitions
(Bouvier, 1914). There follows a phase (the Puerulus stage)
during which the tiny lobster, now able to swim feebly, lives
bathypelagically for at least part of the time (Anon. 1928)
and is thus still liable to current transportation. But precise
information regarding the time required for the development
of the larvae through each of the different stages is lacking.

A search of the laboratory’s plankton records for all years
subsequent to 1923, excluding the war period, yielded fourteen
instances of the capture of Palinurus larvae. Six of these records
were obtained during one cruise in west coast waters in July
1936. Mr. K. M. Rae of the Scottish Marine Biological
Association’s Oceanographic Laboratory, Edinburgh, has
kindly given permission for the mention here of the recording
of a single Phyllosoma a few miles east of Fair Isle in July
1946. This would appear to be the first record from the
northern North Sea. The author is also indebted to Dr.
J. H. Fraser both for having the search of the Marine
Laboratory records carried out by his staff and for the
following note.

The larvae are by no means common but they occur from May
to August. The absence of records in many years may well be due
to the absence of sampling in appropriate areas at appropriate
times.

Captures in Hebridean waters, including positions west of the
Outer Hebrides and to the immediate north of the Butt of Lewis,
were obtained in the months of May, June, July and August. Off
the north-west corner of Scotland and west of the Orkneys, an area
known to be influenced by Hebridean waters, captures were made
only in the later months, July and August.

It thus seems highly probable that those larvae found in the
latter area had been transported there from Hebridean waters.
As it is now known that water from this area can penetrate into
the northern North Sea, often to the Moray Firth, less often as

1 56 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

far as the Aberdeenshire coast and occasionally as far as the Firth
of Forth and Northumbrian coast (Fraser, 1952), it is a reason-
able assumption that Palinurus larvae can also be carried into the
North Sea. In years when conditions are favourable such larvae
may well develop, but there is, so far, no planktonic evidence to
suggest that Palinurus breeds in the North Sea.

The origin of the larvae in the laboratory’s plankton collections
may have been adults living in the Hebridean area (if berried
females are found there in May and June) or in Irish west coast
waters (if berried females occur there earlier in the year).

There is an interesting isolated record of a larva taken S.W. of
Faeroe (6i°09'N. 7°24'W.) in June 1939. The probable origin of
this larva cannot be stated with any confidence but the Rockall
area might be considered a possibility. It is unlikely to have been
Hebridean.

Dr. Fraser’s comment concerning paucity of sampling
applies particularly to the west coast areas. In the northern
North Sea regular plankton research has been fairly intensive
for many years and the total absence of earlier records of
Phyllosoma emphasises the <£ zoogeographical abnormality ”
of the two occurrences of adult Palinurus off the Scottish east
coast. On the other hand, the apparent length of drift in the
case of the single larva found to the south-west of Faeroe
encourages acceptance of the idea of a drift from Hebridean
waters to the North Sea and subsequent development there.

Direct evidence of breeding off the Scottish coasts is
practically non-existent. Not all the specimens listed above
reached the laboratory. Sexes are recorded in nine cases
and, of five females, only one was berried — the specimen
captured in February 1924, north of Sleat Point, Skye. No
records exist of the occurrence of adolescents up to a length of
8 inches.

No proof has emerged that anything more has happened
than that the geographical range of Palinurus vulgaris has been
extended, possibly temporarily. It has not been found possible,
so far, to associate the appearance of these individuals in
waters far distant from the main area of distribution with
specific hydrographic changes either long-term or short-term
in character.

1952

THE SPINY OR THORNY LOBSTER

*57

REFERENCES

Ritchie, James, 1910. On the distribution of the thorny lobster ( Palinurus
vulgaris ) in British waters. Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb., 18: 68-71.

1912. The thorny lobster, Palinurus vulgaris , in the Outer Hebrides.

Scot. Nat., 1912: 93 and 166.

Bouvier, E. L., 1914. Recherches sur le developpement post-embryon-
naire de la langouste commune (. Palinurus vulgaris). J. Mar. biol.
Ass. U.K. , io(N.S.): 179-193.

Crawford, D. R. and De Smidt, W. J. J., 1922. The spiny lobster,
Panulirus argus, of Southern Florida: its natural history and utiliza-
tion. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish., 38: 281-310.

Anon, 1928. Le developpement de la langouste. La Peche Maritime, ne
Annee : 821.

Heldt, Mme. H., 1929. Rapport sur la langouste vulgaire (. Palinurus
vulgaris Latreille). Rapp. Comm, int., Mer., Medit., 4: 113-126.

Pearson, John C. and Anderson, W. W., 1946. Spiny lobster. Fish.
Leafi ., Wash., No. 142.

Fraser, J. H., 1952. The chaetognaths and other zooplankton of the
Scottish area and their value as biological indicators of hydrographical
conditions. Mar. Res Scot. Home Dept., No. 2. (In the press.)

158

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

THE FOOD OF GREAT SKUAS ON
HERMANESS, UNST, SHETLAND *

J. D. Lockie,

Edinburgh

This is a short account of the relationships observed between
the nesting great skuas Stercorarius skua and other species
(kittiwake gull Rissa tridactyla , red-throated diver Colymbus
stellatus) nesting in or near the skua colony on Hermaness,
Unst, during July and early August 1950.

In Shetland skuas have been blamed for the reduction
in numbers of some of the rarer birds as well as commoner
species. J. H. S. (1926, p. 172) contrasts the bird population
on an unnamed Shetland island before the arrival of the
skuas with that ten years later in 1926, when black-headed
and kittiwake gulls, terns, red-throated divers and whimbrel
had left the neighbourhood and lesser black-backed and
herring gulls had become scarce. This he attributes to the
predation of the great skuas. Pitt (1922, p. 177), quoting
an R.S.P.B. watcher, alleges that the skuas take the eggs
of gulls and especially divers. Pennie (1948, p. 162), writing
of Foula, describes the great skua as “ a menace to all other
forms of bird life and a nuisance to the crofters ”. Foula is
a small island with a very large population of skuas so perhaps
the situation here is abnormal.

However, there is, as yet, little evidence to show that the
correlation between the decrease of some species and increase
of the great skua is valid. In fact, there is much which suggests
it in some cases to be invalid. Both whimbrel and red-throated
diver have shown local increases which have gone hand in hand
with an increase of the great skua in the same area.

For example, although Saxby (1874, p. 193) states that
“ the whimbrel breeds freely in Shetland ”, by 1923 it is
described as a rare breeding bird there (Glegg 1923, p. 70).
Unst is not mentioned as a breeding station by either Saxby

* Received 17 th November 1952

f

1952

FOOD OF GREAT SKUAS ON HERMANESS

159

or Glegg. It appears therefore that the whimbrel has in-
creased of recent years on Unst, for a conservative estimate
of the number of pairs (almost certainly all breeding) in
July 1950 was put at eighteen. I have since been told by
L. S. V. Venables that thirty-five pairs bred in 1949 but
that the numbers vary from year to year.

There is little literature on the previous status of the
red-throated diver. Saxby (1874, p. 282) describes it as a
constant resident in these islands though not very common
in the breeding time. I believe fourteen pairs nested on
Unst in 1950 of which ten were seen with eggs or young.
The species certainly has not decreased.

The great skua of course has been steadily increasing all
over Shetland, since the latter part of the nineteenth century.
Meinertzhagen (1941, p. 109) maintains that the large losses
of eider chicks he observed were entirely due to great skuas.
(He saw only two broods actually attacked.) However,
later (p. 115) he mentions “ colony after colony of breeding
birds, brood after brood of eiders, all told the same tale,
decimation at the hands of the skua ”. On p. 117 he states
<c the damage these large powerful skuas do is immense but
. . . (they) have not, in spite of wholesale depredations,
made much impression on their victims ”. Obviously much
more first hand information on the food habits of these skuas
is required, and, as a long-term measure, their effect on the
population on which they are shown to prey.

Three methods were employed in studying food : (1)

direct observation of feeding skuas, (2) examination of the
litter and castings about the nests and knolls, and (3) examin-
ation of the crop contents of those chicks which could be
made to regurgitate. The second and third of these methods
tend to underestimate the amount of fish consumed, as fish
is more completely digestible than, say, young birds.

Apart from kittiwakes (which used the Hova Burn as an
overland route to Loch of Cliff), red- throated divers, and
occasionally arctic skuas Stercorarius parasiticus no other birds
were seen on or over the great skua territories. It is thus
reasonable to suppose that remains and castings found at,
and near, the great skua nests were, in fact, food remains of
these skuas.

i6o

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

The bulk of the skua population hunted along the
Hermaness and Saxavord sea cliffs and also offshore where
gannets Sula bassana fished. Only occasionally were birds
seen at Haroldswick, Baltasound, or inland (other than their
nesting ground), although Loch of Cliff, where small parties
often bathed, appeared to be a regular patrol for a few.

The observations on food are given in chronological
order. Prior to our arrival, large fish had obviously been
an important part of the diet, as portions of their vertebrae
lay around many of the nests.

10th July: A group of twenty sucked kittiwake eggs found
near a great skua nest.

nth July: A large chick induced to disgorge a small kittiwake
chick; another disgorged fish.

1 8th July : A skua seen to snatch a young kittiwake from the
nest, fly down to the sea and eat it.

22nd July: Skuas intercepting gannets returning to the

nesting cliff.

23rd July: Examined six pellets from several nests; all con-
sisted of the legs and skull of juvenile kittiwakes.

23th July: Two adult great skuas found dead, each with a
large hook, attached to a line, embedded in the throat.
Mr. Venables informed me that Scandinavian long-line
fishermen in Shetland waters use a pine bark float to
each hook. It takes some time for the line to sink, and
gulls, skuas and fulmars snatch the bait before the line
sinks and are caught in this way. They either break
the line or are cut adrift by the fishermen.

4th August: Skuas seen eating two fledged kittiwakes and

one half-grown gannet at the base of the cliff.
yth August: The remains of over fifty recently fledged kitti-
wakes seen at nests on a transect across Hermaness Hill.
gth August: A skua seen eating a fledged kittiwake.

10th August: Three skuas watched feeding with gulls on

debris brought inshore by a storm. One skua twice
hovered over and lunged at an eider duck family
(i Somateria mollissima ) . The chicks quickly dived and the
parent snapped at the skua which sheered off.
nth August: A skua from a territory near the red- throated
diver was seen to swoop at the diver chicks which

i952 FOOD OF GREAT SKUAS ON HERMANESS 161

promptly dived. The parent reared out of the water
and snapped at the skua which sheered off.

The remains of six half-fledged great skua chicks, three
arctic skua fledglings, three adult puffins Fratercula arctica ,
two adult kittiwakes and one young herring gull Larus argen-
tatus were also found on the moor near skua nests during
this period. There is no direct proof that great skuas were
responsible but it is difficult to see what else could have
been. Pennie (1948, p. 163) records that the great skuas
on Foula take the chicks of arctic skuas and have seriously
depleted their numbers.

Observations at a Red-throated Diver's nest

Two pairs of divers were nesting on Hermaness in the
middle of the nesting colony of great skuas. The pair just
below the watchers5 hut were chosen for observations. The
late broods in 1950 were due to egg-collectors, who, it is said,
raided all but one of the first clutches on Unst.

A hide was built overlooking the nest and when the eggs
hatched, a second was constructed commanding a view of the
whole lochan. A total of 26 hours was spent in the hides.

The brooding bird had no view of the surrounding
countryside and used the great skua alarm call as a warning
of the approach of danger. She paid no attention to other
skua calls or to noises from within the hide, but at the first
skua alarm call she looked alert, and as the skuas rose about
her calling, the slipped from the nest and dived, appearing
shortly at the leeward end of the lochan. From here she
flew to a nearby pool until the skuas had once more subsided.
The eggs were uncovered on these occasions usually for
between 5 to 10 minutes.

During June and July disturbances were frequent as
sightseers and ornithologists made their way to the sea-cliffs
on the northwest of the peninsula. On no occasion was a
skua seen to attempt to take the eggs nor was a skua noted
on the lochan.

The young red-throated divers are extremely active almost
immediately on hatching and swim and dive with ease.
For the first few days they were constantly accompanied
by at least one parent. By the end of the first week the

21

1 62 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

young were left alone for periods up to 30 minutes, and
after 14 days for periods up to 90 minutes. The only oc-
casion when a great skua was seen to show interest in the
diver chicks was in the presence of one adult, and this has
been mentioned already. Whether the skua was attracted
by food held in the bill or by the young themselves is not
known.

These red-throated divers habitually fished in Burra
Firth and, although many times each day they passed over
skua nesting grounds with a fish held in clear view, they were
never seen to be molested.

The diver on the other lochan successfully hatched its
single egg and reared the chick.

Summary

During July and August 1950, the chief food of great
skuas on Hermaness, Unst, was juvenile kittiwake gulls. A
red-throated diver nesting among great skuas was watched
from hides for a total of 26 hours. Both young were reared
successfully. Another diver, nesting among skuas, hatched
its single egg and reared the chick.

Acknowledgements

These notes are abbreviated from the ornithological
section of a survey (covering some aspects of botany, ento-
mology and ornithology) made by the Edinburgh University
Biological Society, for the Nature Conservancy. The Nature
Conservancy kindly bore the cost of the fares of ten members
of the society to Unst. I am indebted to Miss A. P. Roberts
and Messrs. Agnew, Allen and Green, for assistance on Unst.

REFERENCES

Glegg, W. E., 1923. A note on the nesting of the whimbrel. Brit.
Birds , 17 : 70-76.

1926. The great skua in Shetland. Scot. Nat. (1926) : 169-173.

Meinertzhagen, R., 1941. August in Shetland. Ibis { 1941) : 105-117.
Pennie, I. D., 1948. Summer bird notes from Foula. Scot. Nat., 60 :
157-163.

Pitt, Frances, 1922. The great and arctic skua in Shetland. Brit. Birds,
16 : 174-181.

Saxby, H. L., 1874. The birds of Shetland. Edinburgh.

1952

BOTANICAL NOTE

163

BOTANICAL NOTE

Diapensia lapponica in Scotland. — It is appropriate to notice
in these pages the discovery, by Mr. C. F. Tebbutt in July 1951,
of a beautiful arctic plant new to Britain, on hills in Arisaig,
Inverness-shire (see J. Grant Roger, Trans, and Proc. Bot. Soc.
Edinb., 36, 1952: 34-36).

Diapensia lapponica ,■ long one of our favourites among arctic
flowers, is an outstanding addition to the native flora; its belated
discovery makes us wonder what treasures may still lie hidden

Diapensia lapponica Photo by

V. C. Wynne-Edwards

upon seldom-trodden hills. It is a plant of widespread circum-
polar distribution, belonging to the Diapensiaceae (placed near
the heaths and primulas). It grows in dense cushions or in larger
patches on bare gravel and rock, bearing little narrow crowded
evergreen leaves, and beautiful white flowers half an inch across,
each erect on its own short peduncle. Unfortunately the flower
is ephemeral, for the corolla becomes detached and lost in the
wind while it is still fresh ; the sepals and capsule alone long persist.

Our photograph was taken in 1932 in eastern Canada (Mt.
Albert, Gaspe, Que.). — Editors.

164

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

A record of the leech Hirudo medicinalis from Islay, with
brief mention of other species. — During a survey in June 1952
of the fresh-water triclads occurring in the lochs of Islay, a specimen
of the medicinal leech Hirudo medicinalis was found. In 1910 Harding
reported that “ there is very little doubt that it no longer occurs
in the wild state”. However, Blair (1927) in 1910 found this
species breeding in large numbers in the ponds and streams of the
New Forest, Hampshire. Apart from this record, Hirudo has not
been reported elsewhere in the British Isles since 1910 (Harding
1923). Brown (1935) also comments on its apparent absence
from Lancashire and Cheshire. The discovery of the species on
Islay was therefore entirely unexpected. A single specimen was
found attached to the undersurface of a large stone at the edge of
Loch nan Diol, and although the search for flatworms here occupied
twenty-five minutes, no further specimens were seen. Haemopis
sanguisuga was common here, however. Loch nan Diol is a small
body of water, lying 300 yards north-west of the main road skirting
the S.E. corner of the Island. Two-thirds of the lake surface was
covered by a profuse growth of water lily, while there were also
emergent beds of Phragmites and Equisetum, especially at the
western inflow area. The edges are peaty with stony patches
here and there. The water is poor in dissolved calcium (4*8 parts
per million), with a total hardness of io-8 parts (as CaC03) per
million. Solutes are also low; amounting to only 89 parts per
million. The loch would be classified as a poor moorland type.
The specimen of Hirudo was about three inches long when extended
and in fixative it contracted to one inch. Field identification based
on colour was confirmed by the examination of the jaws which
showed the typical single row of numerous small teeth. The
examination of a further twenty- two lochs on Islay did not pro-
duce any further specimens. It would be idle to speculate on
the significance of the isolated record, particularly as this species
has been so closely linked with man’s activities in the past.

During the survey other species of leech were noted and are
listed below. There is no doubt that the list could easily be
enlarged because leeches were recorded only as components of the
general fauna. Nomenclature is taken from Boisen Bennike (1943).

Helobdella stagnalis Herpobdella sp.

Glossiphonia complanata Haemopis sanguisuga

Theromyzon (= Protoclepsis ) tessulatum Hirudo medicinalis

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

165

The following table lists the species against the lochs in which
they were observed. Some chemical data are also recorded
indicating ,the relative richness of the lochs.

Loch

National Grid

Ca"

(pts.j million)

Dissolved matter
{pts.l million)

pH ( Colorimetric ,
cresol red)

\

Species observed

nan Gillean .

308,432

4*4

98

7-6

Helob della stagnalis
Glossiphonia complanata
Herpobdella sp.

nan Gabha.

337T84

9-6

122

7’3

Glossiphonia complanata
Theromyzon tessulatum

nan Diol

432,482

4-8

89

77

Haemopis sanguisuga
Hirudo medicinalis

Ardnahoe

421,716

2-8

60

7*9

Helobdella stagnalis

Gam .

345,666

2-8

63

77

Theromyzon tessulatum

Skerrols

342,637

9-6

113

7'9

Helobdella stagnalis

Ardnave

285,727

9-6

164

T9

Helobdella stagnalis

Conailbhe .

216,600

4-0

”5

T5

Glossiphonia complanata

Gorm

230,660

8-8

131

7-8

Helobdella stagnalis
Glossiphonia complanata
Herpobdella sp.

Leeches were noted in a further seven lochs but the species
were not identified. A more detailed account of the physical,
chemical and biological aspects of the lochs will be given in a later
paper.

I am indebted to the Nature Conservancy for a grant covering
expenses. — T. B. Reynoldson, University College, Bangor, North
Wales.

REFERENCES

Boisen Bennike, S. A., 1943. Contributions to the ecology and biology
of the Danish freshwater leeches (. Hirudineo ). Folia Limnologica Scan-
dinavica, No. 2, Copenhagen. 109 pp.

Brown, F.J., 1935. British freshwater leeches. North Western Naturalists'"
Union Tear Book, 1935.

1 66 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

Blair, N. W., 1927. Notes on Hirudo medicinalis, the medicinal leech, as
a British species. Proc. £ool. Soc. Lond ., 1927: 989-1002.

Harding, W. A., 1910. A revision of the British leeches. Parasitology ,
3: 130-201.

1923. “ Hirudinea ” in The Natural History of Wicken Fen , p. 95.

Cambridge.

Scottish Grasshoppers. — In a recent number, Duncan (1951,
Scot. Nat., 63: 185) suggests that Omocestus viridulus (L.) (Orthopt.,
Acrididae) had not previously been recorded from the Inner
Hebrides. This is not correct; it has been reported at least twice
— from Colonsay and from Eigg (see Waterston, 1939, Scot. Nat.,
1939: 129, and Kevan, 1941, Entomologist, 74: 249). There are,
however, very considerable gaps in our knowledge of the Scottish
Orthoptera and I should be most grateful to readers for any records
or specimens (which will be promptly returned if desired) of even
the commonest species from all parts of Scotland. The least well
known counties remain much the same as those most frequently
left blank by Burr (1936, British Grasshoppers and their Allies, London),
although a few gaps have been filled in since (cf. Kevan, 1952,
J. Soc. Brit. Ent., in press). — D. K. McE. Kevan, University of
Nottingham, School of Agriculture, Sutton Bonington, Lough-
borough, Leics.

Wood Wasp in Caithness. — The wood-wasp (Sirex gigas) has
arrived in Reay. I saw one in 1951, but failed to capture it.
Another was killed with a hammer by a mason, but was too badly
smashed to be sent for identification. This year (1952) a local
lady brought one to me which she had found. I forwarded it to
Miss Rintoul and Miss Baxter, and they inform me that it belongs
to this species. — -James M. Gunn, Old Schoolhouse, Reay.

The Hippoboscid Fly Crataerina pallida in Scotland. —

Arising from Mr. G. B. Thompson’s remarks (p. 72) that there is
as yet no record from Scotland of the Hippoboscid fly Crataerina
pallida (Latr.), I should like to mention that a specimen was sent
to me in June 1948 by a correspondent who had taken it on a
wounded swift at Crieff, Perthshire. It is now in the J. J. F. X.
King collection at Glasgow University.

Perhaps it is also worth recording that I saw large numbers of
the Hippoboscid of deer, Lipoptena cervi (L.), flying in a wood near
Arisaig, Inverness-shire, in early October 1946. Many of them
settled on me, but did not attempt to bite. — -J. A. Downes, Depart-
ment of Zoology, University of Glasgow.

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

167

Hadena caesia on the Isle of Canna. — Five specimens of
this very local moth were taken in my mercury-vapour trap this
summer. Mr. W. H. Tams kindly identified the capture for me.
— -J. L. Campbell, Isle of Canna.

Migrant Lepidoptera on the Kirkcudbright Coast. —

During a watch for migrant passerine birds at Southerness Point,
Kirkcudbright, in September 1952, a number of Lepidoptera
were observed moving in fixed directions. On 19th September
four red admiral butterflies Vanessa atalanta left the Point and flew
straight out over the sea in a southeasterly direction ; two more did
likewise on 27th September, followed by two silver-Y moths Plusia
gamma. Both species mounted high in the air on reaching the sea
and then continued on rapidly. If the same direction was main-
tained throughout the crossing, the insects would reach the coast
of Cumberland in a region just south of Silloth, a distance of just
over seven miles.

On 19th September a number of large white butterflies Pieris
brassicae came in from the Solway Firth from the south-west and
landed on the rocky shore, east of Gillfoot Bay. These butterflies
were flying singly over a wide area of sea, and, on alighting, rested
awhile before (in some cases) flying inland. Possibly these
butterflies had flown from Ireland or the Isle of Man, or had been
deflected from making a straight crossing from Cumberland by the
light northerly wind. The flight direction seems abnormal for the
time of year, but since numerical data were not obtained it is
impossible to draw conclusions.

In addition to the above records a single Plusia gamma flew
west from Southerness Point on 27th September, and during the
period 16th to 28th September Vanessa atalanta and Pieris brassicae
were found commonly along the coast between Rockcliffe and the
estuary of the River Nith, where also one or two painted lady
butterflies Vanessa cardui were seen. It is possible that many of
these eventually crossed the Solway from various points along the
coast. — D. F. Owen, Edward Grey Institute, Oxford.

Tawny Pipit in East Lothian. — When at Aberlady Bay on
10th May 1952 we came across a bird which immediately attracted
our attention by its generally pale colouring. An approach was
made to within 15 to 20 yards and, with the aid of 8X3°
binoculars and a 40 X telescope, the following description was
taken, in excellent conditions, the sun being on our left. Fore-
head, crown, nape, back and rump pale greyish brown, with

1 68 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol, 64

very faint underlying markings not easily visible even through
binoculars; underparts bullish cream, slightly paler on belly ;
throat unmarked ; breast finely streaked dark brown with odd !
faint markings on flanks; eye dark brown with conspicuous pale
buff eye-stripe; wings dark brown, primaries edged buff; upper
and under tail dark brown with white outer feathers; bill darkish
brown; legs appearing fairly dark but owing to the grass that the
bird was on the definite colour was not obtained.

The bird was alcne. In size it was definitely larger in body,
legs and tail than the meadow pipit Anthus pratensis, which is
common in the area. In build it resembled a wagtail, this being
especially noticeable when, on landing, and occasionally at other
times, it bobbed its tail for a few seconds.

When flushed it did not fly far, always returning to more or
less the same spot, on grassy saltings with small dried-up pools.

Its flight was undulating. The only sound it made was a faint
“ tseep ” when flushed. Most of the time it was in a rather
hunched-up attitude, but occasionally it took short runs after
insects.

We watched it for about an hour-and-a-half, one of us attempt-
ing without success to contact other observers by telephone.

With south-east winds prevailing, there was obviously a large
movement of passerines at this time; we noted also in the same
area a male blue-headed wagtail Motacilla f flava , and a ring-
ouzel Turdus torquatus , both scarce visitors to the bay.

After consulting the Handbook and later the skins in the Royal
Scottish Museum, we were of the opinion that the bird could only
have been a tawny pipit, Anthus compestris. — Keith S. Maggregor
and Frank D. Hamilton, Edinburgh.

Great Grey Shrike in Aberdeenshire and Inverness-shire.

— Single great grey shrikes Lanius excubitor were watched near
Aboyne, Aberdeenshire, on 17th and 1 8th January 1950, and near
Kingussie, Inverness-shire on 2nd November 1952. The Aboyne
bird was first found at sunset. While watching blackbirds, field-
fares, yellow buntings and other small birds, many going to roost
in a small conifer plantation in open grassland, I heard a single
unfamiliar call written at the time as “ a clear, ringing, 4 cllink
or 4 cleek Looking round I saw the shrike perching high in
one of a line of leafless oak trees in a hedgerow. Its shape w as
reminiscent of a diminutive magpie. Seen in silhouette, the bird’s
head looked rather large, the body round, and the tail long, held
stiffly and slightly elevated. It flew'' to another line of trees, and

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

169

to a hawthorn hedge, where it appeared to be eating something,
though no signs could be found at the spot afterwards. In flight
the vivid black-and-white pattern of wings and tail, and the pale
grey back, showed up. The flight was undulating and buoyant.

The following morning (keen frost) I watched the shrike at
the same area, perching on a small dead branch sticking out at
the top of a large pine, and in the topmost twigs of a bare lime;
both trees were in a clump of woodland in the middle of open
fields. The shrike perched motionless except for turning its head
steadily from side to side. It stayed one hour in the lime tree,
and altogether was under observation from 9 till 11.30 a.m.
Several times it flew from both positions down into the interior of
the crown of the pine where I could see it feeding on a small bird
stuck on a short upright spike on a side branch. The small bird’s
tail could be seen against the light, but it could not be identified.
The shrike lifted its prey off the spike a couple of times and replaced
it, and it held a large piece, with which it seemed to have difficulty,
in its mouth.

The Kingussie bird was first seen at several hundred yards’
distance perching on the tip of a tall lone birch on a steep bank
above a burn, between moorland and fields, and near a conifer
plantation. Its long tail, upright stance, black cheek patches and
habit of turning the head from side to side, were first noticed at a
distance. After ten minutes, and when I was nearer the bird, it
suddenly dropped down through the birch branches and flew
away, carrying something in its bill. It flew to another, smaller
birch, a hundred yards off, and I watched it eating what turned
out to be a blue tit, using the bare end of a broken branch, of about
finger-thickness, as a spike. When I went up to the tree, the
shrike flew off carrying part of its meal, and I found the legs of
the blue tit slung by a piece of skin astride the tip of the spike,
and feathers scattered on the ground underneath. — Colin C. I.
Murdoch, Kingussie.

The great grey shrike is a fairly regular winter visitor to
Aberdeen and East Inverness, though in small numbers. — Editors.

Pied Flycatcher Nesting in Perthshire. — In 1950 I found
a nest of the pied flycatcher Muscicapa hypoleuca in one of my nest
boxes at the west end of the planted area of Drummond Hill, above
Loch Tay (Scot. J\rat., 62: 180). This nest was in a hardwood
scrub strip with standards on the shores of the loch, a typical
habitat, and not in conifers. On 21st May 1952 I found a pied
flycatcher’s nest in another clump of boxes, 4 miles away at the

22

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

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east end of Drummond Hill. I had the hen in my hand, but did
not see the cock, although I thought I heard him singing. This
nest contained six eggs.

The site is unusual, in a larch plantation about fifteen years
old, not brushed up, and thick, although I had cleared a flight-
way into the box. There were two big beeches within 50 yards,
the extreme tops of which served as song posts ; but, except for the
cleared flight-way, the immediate surroundings were just an
ordinary larch thicket, and not at all like the usual open or half-
open wood. I have seen some hundreds of nests, but only two or
three in sites of a somewhat similar type, in Northumberland.

On nth June I asked Dr. James Campbell to come with me
to confirm my identification. There were then five nestlings,
nearly fledged, say ten days old, with wing-patches already showing,
and an addled egg. We again saw the hen clearly, but could not
see the cock, although we heard his song. Dr. Bruce Campbell
saw the nest on 14th June, and ringed the nestlings and the hen,
but did not see or hear the cock.

Miss Penelope Molteno saw a cock three times, some 4 miles
further west up Glen Lyon in early June. Dr. W. J. Eggeling
found the nest there on 7th June with the hen feeding young,
apparently about ten days old. He has kindly allowed me to give
his 1952 records; besides this nest he saw pied flycatchers feeding
young in Glen Lochay on the same day, and a female near Kinloch
Rannoch on 12th June. — J. M. D. Mackenzie, St. Andrews, Fife.

Goldcrest at Window during Darkness. — Just before
12 p.m. (B.S.T.) on 12th October 1952 a goldcrest Regulus regulus
came to a lighted upstairs window of our house here. My wife
had heard a scratching and fluttering noise at the window for four
or five minutes, and on going to investigate she saw a goldcrest on
the sill, close up to the window. On the light being turned out,
nothing more was heard. Goldcrests are resident in the garden
and common in the neighbouring woods, but it seems more likely
to the writer that this bird was an overland migrant which was
attracted to the light (the window which the bird came to is in a
prominent position overlooking the wide Spey valley) than a local
bird. We have known no other “ garden 55 bird do this. Other
migrants were in the district in considerable numbers at the time,
notably fieldfares and redwings. The weather had been fine,
frosty and sunny, for two days, but with rain and poor visibility
during the night. — Colin C. I. Murdoch, Kingussie, Inverness-
shire.

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1 7i

Chiffchaffs in Midlothian. — I was at Cammo, near Barnton,
Edinburgh, on 23rd March 1952 when I heard a chiffchaff
Phylloscopus collybita singing. I obtained an excellent view while
it flitted about and sang in a low hawthorn hedge. The bird was
also seen, later in the day, by Mr. Kenneth Williamson. This is
an exceptionally early record for Scotland.

I take this opportunity to place on record also what I think
may be the first known nesting of the species in Midlothian. I
found the bird on Riccarton estate early in June 1941. I made a
long search for the nest, which was subsequently found by my
friend, the late Mr. William Watson, on 28th June, in a yew tree
about 5 feet above the ground. Unfortunately the birds failed to
hatch the eggs, as a heavy rainfall damaged the nest and the birds
deserted it. — P. W. G. Gunn, Edinburgh.

ChiffchafFs in East Ross. — An addition to the notes on
pages 51-52 and 114 may be of interest. After the early-season
song of 24th March 1952 at Avoch, no chiffchaff was heard to
sing during spring or summer in the immediate area. Yet on
1 2th June 1952 an adult female (wing 57 mm., wt. 9-8 gm.) was
trapped and ringed in my garden. Its legs were dark grey and its
appearance was similar to that of the bird heard on 24th March.
Then on 27th July 1952 a juvenile male (wing 58 mm., wt. 7*9
gm.) was also caught. Its legs were straw-coloured. Both birds
were critically discriminated by wing formula, and the sex estab-
lished by cloacal examination.

This area has both conifers and rhododendrons in plenty to
provide suitable chiffchaff territory. A local nest there must have
been, though no song was heard. I have noted considerable
variation in song intensity among different chiffchaffs: some that
sing daily and almost continually the whole season through, others
(always in an isolated territory) that sang only spasmodically in
the early season (May) ; I dare say a breeding territory might be
established without song. — John Lees, Avoch.

Lesser Whitethroat in East Ross. — Among my summer
trappings at Avoch was a lesser whitethroat Sylvia curruca on 24th
July 1952. The bird was a juvenile male, wing 68 mm., tail 53
mm., wt. 1 1 -6 gm. I am quite familiar with the species, and had
no hesitation about identity. Measurement of primaries, etc., was,
however, made, just in case the bird might be an aberrant common
whitethroat — a species abundant in this area. — John Lees, Avoch.

The Geographical Distribution and Status of Birds in Scotland shows the
lesser whitethroat as an occasional visitor to East Ross. — Editors.

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Vol. 64.

Fieldfare in Berwickshire in Summer. — A fieldfare
Turdus pilaris was present in the garden at Silverwells, Coldingharn,
from 2 1st July till 25th August 1952. The bird fed on gooseberries
and blackcurrants in company with many blackbirds.

From the black feathers on the head and rich chestnut of the
mantle, it was judged to be an adult male.

The Handbook gives nth July as the latest date for this migrant
thrush in Britain. — W. M. Logan Home, Edrom, Berwickshire.

Stonechats breeding again in Kincardineshire. — In the

spring of 1952 two pairs of stonechats Saxicola torquata nested near
Cove on an area of coastal farmland bordered by extensive areas
of gorse and heather. Amongst the farmland are several patches
of gorse of about half an acre each and in one of these a male bird
was seen on 22nd February; he remained there for two or three
days before disappearing. On 12th March a male was seen in
in another gorse patch about 500 yards away ; he was joined there
by a female some time between 4th and 14th of April. The nest
with three newly hatched young was discovered on the ground at
the foot of a gorse bush on 5th May.

The second nest was never actually located, but there can be
no reasonable doubt that the birds did in fact rear a brood. The
pair were first seen in one of the small gorse patches, about a mile
from the first pair, on 30th April. (This particular area had not
been regularly visited before this date so that the birds may have
been there a long time.) On 16th May both birds were seen
carrying food to a cluster of gorse bushes but at no time would they
actually go to the nest while I was anywhere in the vicinity; they
became so agitated every time I entered the gorse patch that it
seemed inadvisable to search further for the nest. On 2nd June
the adults were seen with fledged young about 100 yards from the
supposed nest site. — Ivan M. Goodbody, Aberdeen.

Black Redstart in East Inverness. — With reference to the
note on page 1 1 6 of a black redstart Phoenicurus ochrurus in North
Perth, I have a record of an immature male in Glen Tromie,
Inverness-shire, a few miles north of the Perthshire march, on
5th November 1947, in company with blackbirds, song thrushes,
robins and greenfinches migrating south through the Pass of
Gaick. It is interesting to note that it was first seen on the chimney
of an uninhabited cottage, the only building in that part of the
glen. — Richard Perry, Newtonmore.

The black redstart has been recorded once in South Inverness,
but apparently not previously in East Inverness. — Editors.

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1 73

Nightingale at Stirling Castle. — On 14th May 1952 Mr.
Colin G. Hendry heard a bird singing in a thicket of hawthorns
in the Back Walk of Stirling Castle at 11.40 p.m. He was
much impressed by the beauty of variety of the song and ’phoned
Mr. David Sharp, a local naturalist on 16th May. That evening
they listened to the bird singing from 1 1 .50 p.m. until after midnight.
Mr. Sharp kindly wrote and told me about the occurrence.

It was not until the night of 29th May that I was able to visit
the locality in company with several other ornithologists. We did
not reach the Back Walk until 10.30 p.m. We waited for a long
time and heard nothing. It was a cold night, with a strong breeze
from the north-west, a night hardly conducive to song. Suddenly,
at 11.30 p.m., out of the dark stillness of the woods there came
a short burst of varied chuckling song. To those of us who were
familiar with the song of the nightingale, there could be no mistake
about it. The bird sang spasmodically in short bursts with long
intervals. Then, after midnight, when the cold wind had died
down, the bird took heart and treated us to some typical outbursts
of wonderful song. Before we left, we stopped beside a gate into
a cornfield on the main road opposite the Castle and heard it
singing loudly and clearly at a range of about 300 yards — the
Castle crags seeming to act as a “ sounding board ” to its song.

The following night, I again visited Stirling, taking with me
the B.B.C. recording van in the hope of getting some sound-record-
ings. We had some difficulty in getting the van near enough to
the site; but by running out about 200 yards of cable, I was able
to creep up to the hawthorn tree in which I had last heard the
nightingale, and fixed the microphone in a fork of the tree. I sat
down quietly below the tree to await events.

It was a warmer night and quite windless — so conditions were
good. For three-quarters of an hour I sat there motionless ; and
then to my delight the nightingale started to warble softly only
ten yards from me. It took some time to “ warm up ”, but event-
ually sang in bursts lasting several minutes. During an interval I
crept silently back to the recording van to hear how things were
getting on. I had just reached the van when the bird resumed its
song and I heard the sound coming through perfectly on the
machine. On one occasion when the bird stopped singing we
played back some of its own song from one of the discs through a
loud speaker and immediately set it off again! There was a
certain amount of interference in the initial stages with the sound
of cars passing on the road below, but in the early hours of the
morning we managed to get some really good recordings of pure
unadulterated song.

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On 2nd June, as the nightingale apparently lacked a mate, I
resolved to remedy the matter. Through the kindness of a friend
who had kept a female in an aviary in Edinburgh, I was able to
take this bird with me up to Stirling. The female had been fed
on live insects in a large aviary, and was in a condition to feed
naturally. At the Back Walk, we waited until the male bird was
singing loudly and then released the female in close proximity. It
flew up into some hawthorn scrub near-by, but we soon lost sight
of it.

On subsequent evenings the birds were seen together by Mr.
J. Ralston Crawford and Mr. Colin G. Hendry, but there were no
signs of courtship or nesting activity. The birds were heard
croaking and piping their call-notes up till the night of 22nd July,
after which they disappeared.

Following the report in the Press of the occurrence of the night-
ingale in Stirling, various people wrote giving details of nightingales
in song in various parts of the country. I spent a good deal of
time investigating these and in every instance found the singer to
be a sedge- warbler. — George Waterston, Edinburgh.

Nightingale in East Ross. — I looked out on the morning of
2 1 st September 1950 to see a bird with somewhat rufous plumage,
ruddy wings and heavy rounded reddish tail, perched above the
catching-box inside the large cage trap in my garden at Avoch.
I lost no time in securing it. I hesitated for a few minutes over
positive identification, as it seemed so unlikely that a nightingale
Luscinia megarhyncha, previously unrecorded on the mainland of
Scotland, should appear here. Yet a nightingale it was, and
critical examination confirmed every detail. I judged it on cloacal
form to be a first-year female, wing 83 mm., wt. 22-7 gm.

On release, the bird (ringed) flew vigorously down the village
street in an easterly direction. My son, Mr. John Lees, M.A.,
Aberdeen, was with me at the time, and would confirm the identi-
fication.— John Lees, Avoch.

Dipper’s nesting materials. — A few years ago I noticed
that the nest of a pair of dippers Cinclus cinclus, which breed each
year at a waterfall on the high waters of the Kilmaluag River in
Skye, contained ling Calluna vulgaris and cut-leaved saxifrage
Saxifraga hypnoides. The ling was snipped from the growing plant
by the bird’s bill, and I believe the same materials are used annually
by this particular pair of birds. — Seton Gordon, Upper Duntuilm,
Skye.

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

175

A large colony of Sand Martins in Lanarkshire. — The

j colony of sand martins Riparia riparia at Rosebank is the largest I
have come across, and it would be interesting to hear of others as
large or larger in Scotland.

The nesting holes are made in a sandy cliff, facing south, on
the banks of the River Clyde. Up to about March 1951 the
western end of the cliff was quarried, and it is here that the larger
of the two distinct portions of the colony is now situated. The
smaller portion is about 60 yards distant. The entrances to the
holes in both occupy a layer 2 to 3 feet deep, about 14 feet up the
cliff face in the larger, and almost 30 feet up in the smaller group.

In 1951 there were approximately 260 and 160 nesting holes
in the two parts of the colony, making a total of 420 ; and in 1952
the corresponding numbers were 360 and 66, total 426. It appears
that the birds are transferring to the larger site, now that the noisy
machinery has been removed, and it will be interesting to see if
there is a further shift in 1953.

The following dates of arrival and departure of the birds at this
colony may be recorded:

Arrival: 21st April 1951; 17th April 1952.

Departure: 16th September 1951 (the final few birds); 31st
August 1952 (none seen after this date). — P. E. D. Cooper, Carluke.

Roller Coracias garrulus in Berwickshire. — As our post-
man was returning from his morning round on 17th July 1952, he
called to tell me of a most unusual bird he had seen. Since he
was almost breathless with excitement, I set off at once, expecting
from his description to find an escape from some local aviary.

A few minutes later I found, perched on a telegraph pole by
the edge of a wood, this most exotic looking stranger, with pale
blue head and breast, warm chestnut mantle, wings a brilliant
turquoise (one might almost call it a kingfisher blue), and the tail
appearing to be a purplish navy blue, or black. It spread its
brilliant wings and glided, pigeon like, to the ground, there to pick
about for a few minutes, then up again, this time on to a horizontal
branch of an ash tree, where, silhouetted against a dark background
of Scots pine trees, it sat and preened its feathers 30 yards away.

I had this bird under observation for five days, during which it
never moved far, perching by preference on the telegraph pole.
When it did move, it seemed to prefer to stay in the open, and was
often seen on the posts of a wire fence which bordered a hay field.

It was actually brighter and more spectacular in colour than
shown in the plates in Thorburn’s British Birds or The Handbook by
Witherby. It did not seem unusually timid, and gave a wonderful

1 76 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

display to a dozen members of the Edinburgh branch of the S.O.C.,
who came immediately, on hearing from Mr. Dougal Andrew, to
whom I had sent a report. — W. R. Cairns, Spottiswoode, Gordon,
Berwickshire.

The roller is an occasional visitor to Scotland, but although it
has been recorded previously from the Tweed area, this is appar-
ently the first record for Berwickshire. — Editors.

A Snowy Owl in the Cairngorms during summer. —

Although winter records of snowy owls JVyctea scandiaca are frequent
in the Scottish Highlands, summer records for Britain are rare.
The Handbook of British Birds (2, 1938: 31 1) records “several

May, two (Elgin, Mayo) June, two (Mayo) July, one (Bucks)
July- August ”. It is therefore of great interest that a snowy owl
was found frequenting a high plateau of the Cairngorms during
June 1952.

The owl was seen first by S. Van den Bos on 19th June. He
followed it from place to place over the plateau for about one-and-
a-half hours. Identification could not be mistaken. At first sight
it seemed to him just like a snowman as it sat on top of a boulder,
with the same featureless rounded outline of the upright body and
three dark points on the head, the two eyes and bill. He likened
the flight, heavy and gliding, to that of a harrier. He noticed
that when it was disturbed it nearly always alighted in a prominent
position giving a wide view in all directions. As the owl appeared
extremely pale — almost dead white — he considered that it was
probably a male. He had previously seen a snowy owl in England
during winter on the east coast. Next day he returned, but in
spite of a prolonged search he saw no sign of the bird.

The day after his return visit, 21st June, the Adam Watsons,
senior and junior, climbed to the plateau and saw the owl almost
immediately after entering the stony corrie, where it had been
followed by S. Van den Bos. They also commented on the remark-
able resemblance of the bird to a snowman. It was difficult to
tell which way the owl was facing, as it turned its head at times to
look straight out over its back. It appeared pure white at a
distance, but a closer view at less than 100 yar ds range showed that
in fact it was dirty white in colour, with a few very small fawn-
coloured marks on the wings and mantle. Adam Watson senior
had seen a snowy owl before in the Dovrefjell of central Norway.

Within the ensuing three days Adam Watson junior crossed the
plateau twice without seeing the owl. However, an interesting
clue was found by him at Glenmore Lodge. There the warden,
Mr. Charles Cromar, told him that his daughter had seen a “ great

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

177

white owl like an eagle ” on the plateau about a mile from the
corrie favoured by the owl, as far back as the end of May.

On 29th June the owl was seen by Professor M. F. M. Meiklejohn,
Adam Watson senior, Adam Watson junior, Professor V. C.
Wynne-Edwards and his son Hugh, in very good light at the
end of a long search. Alex. Tewnion, who also searched inde-
pendently that day, failed to see the owl. As far as is known it
has not been seen since.

The area it frequented was mostly covered by large granite
blocks, with patches of grassland and typical arctic-alpine flora
among the stones, at an altitude of 3700-3800 feet. In many
respects it is very similar to the stony tundras frequented by
snowy owls in their regular arctic breeding grounds. — S. Van den
Bos, Barrow-on-Humber, Lines., Adam Watson senr. and Adam
Watson junk., Turriff, Aberdeenshire.

The June record from the county of Elgin, referred to above,
was at Lossiemouth on 1 8th June 1917 (Scot. Nat., 1918: 274).

Compared with the many snowy owls, alive and dead, that we
have seen in Canada, this one was exceptionally immaculate, and
appeared wholly white except on the closest scrutiny. — Editors.

Common Buzzards in Deeside. — As the present status of
the common buzzard Buteo buteo in Deeside is rather obscurely
defined in The Handbook and elsewhere, it may be of interest that
since April 1 949, when I watched a pair displaying in Glen Girnock,
the species has established itself in the Gairnsheil-Ballater-Crathie
area.

From about 1870 or 1880 until 1947 the buzzard was rarely
seen in Deeside, but between 1947 and 1949 I saw it on several
occasions — all except once during the late autumn and winter
months — in Glen Feardair, on Stranyarroch, on Creag Ghiubhais,
and on some of the higher hills. From April 1949 onwards I
paid a number of visits to the Ballater-Crathie area, and in May
and early June that year, hoping the birds I had earlier seen dis-
playing had nested, I searched Glen Girnock and the hills between
Dee and the lower Gairn, without success, although I saw one,
and sometimes two birds both then and in later months.

In 1950 I again saw a pair on several occasions during spring
and summer : and in July 1951 watched three quartering the

moorlands to the east of Geallaig Hill. I did not visit the region
again until 25th July 1952, and on the 26th I saw five birds together
quartering the slopes of Creag Liath, only a mile from where,
three years before, I had watched the first pair displaying.

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Mr. Seton Gordon has informed me (August 1952) that on
his visits to Deeside during the past four or five years he has become
accustomed to seeing the species between Dinnet and Braemar,
where formerly (when he stayed at Aboyne) they were never seen.

There seems, therefore, little doubt that the species is now
resident in Middle Deeside, although until breeding has been
confirmed it must be regarded as a non-breeding resident. — Alex.
Tewnion, Aberdeen.

Whooper Swan in Wigtownshire in August. — On 8th

August 1952 I found a whooper swan Cygnus cygnus first on shore,
then swimming off shore, 2 to 3 miles south of Port William.
— H. G. Alexander, Birmingham.

The status of the Common Eider in the Moray Firth. —

In a previous note on this subject (Scot. Nat., 60: 53), I recorded
breeding of the eider Somateria mollissima on the Moray Firth coast
of Sutherland, and noted that it was “ now regularly seen in small
numbers on the coast westwards from Fraserburgh at least as far
as Spey Bay and, even in summer, small numbers remain off the
high cliffs at Troup Head in Banffshire and Pennan Head in
Aberdeenshire, though it is unlikely that they may breed there

On 20th June 1950 I saw a duck eider with four small downy
young off Collie Head, just west of Troup Head in Banffshire.
During the summers of 1951 and 1952 I have seen no more breeding
eiders there; however the stretch of available cliffs and rocks
extends for almost 10 miles along the coast. — Adam Watson, junr.,
Turriff.

The Gannets of Holy Island, Arran. — Some years ago
gannets started to visit Holy Island, off the south-east Arran coast,
in a manner which suggested they were attempting to establish a
new breeding colony.

The first note I have is of three birds roosting on the east cliffs
during the summer of 1946. During the next three seasons about
a dozen birds were always present around the east cliffs and were
frequently seen carrying nesting material. The most promising
year was 1950; at least twenty-five birds frequented the east
cliffs throughout the summer, and were often seen carrying nesting
material, but no eggs or young were seen. In 1951, however,
only half-a-dozen birds were observed; and this year, 1952, there
have been no gannets at all, so any attempt to establish a new
colony has now come to an end. — J. A. Gibson, Ralston, Paisley.

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

179

Five successive broods in Stock-dove’s nest. — We have
received two further bulletins from Mr. James Bartholemew,
Torrance, near Glasgow, concerning the progress of the record-
breaking stock-dove Columba oenas reported on page 12 1.

“ 31st August 1952. The stock-dove is sitting in the nest in
the tree again, her fifth nest this year! I will write later on when
I ring the young ones, if all goes well.”

“ 14th October 1952. The stock-dove has reared her fifth
brood of two in the same nest this year, the last young one leaving
on 13th October.”

Readers will be looking forward to further reports from this
productive nest-site in the walnut tree. — Editors.

The Sea-birds of Inch Moan, Loch Lomond; Inland
breeding of the Herring and Great Black-backed Gulls. —

The low-lying, marshy island of Inch Moan, in Loch Lomond,
has been well known to ornithologists for nearly one hundred
years, principally because of its remarkable colonies of sea-birds.
Gray (1871) recorded the five British terns as nesting species, and
although these have long since vanished, the island has been
recently colonised by the herring and great black-backed gulls, so
that five species of gulls now nest. This seems a suitable oppor-
tunity for examining the history of the Inch Moan sea-birds, since
no separate account of Inch Moan’s birds exists.

Sandwich Tern, Sterna sandvicensis. Recorded by Gray as a
breeding species, but not present by 1895. Record probably
correct.

Roseate Tern, Sterna dougallii . Recorded by Gray as a breed-
ing species, but not present by 1895. Record probably correct.

Common Tern, Sterna hirundo. Formerly nested in large
numbers, but decreasing markedly by 1895. A few pairs nested in
1945 but they have now quite deserted the island. Terns nest on
other Loch Lomond islands.

Arctic Tern, Sterna macrura. Formerly nested in large numbers ;
decreasing markedly by 1895; no later record.

Little Tern, Sterna albifrons. Recorded by Gray as a breeding-
species, but this record is most unconvincing. The little tern is the
most marine of the terns, and usually nests close to the sea.

Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibundus. Nesting in large
numbers 1871; somewhat decreased by 1895. Small colony still
present although numbers fluctuate greatly and are decreasing.
Present population about fifteen pairs.

180 ^ THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

Common Gull, Larus cams. Not present 1871, 1895. Now a
small colony of some twenty pairs, but numbers fluctuate.

Herring Gull, Larus argentatus. This gull colonised Inch
Moan a few years ago. There are now some fifteen to twenty
nests scattered along the south shore.

Lesser Black-backed Gull, Larus fuscus. Nesting in large
numbers 1871 and 1895, and has continued to nest ever since.
Population now much reduced, however, and only about ten pairs
now present.

Great Black-backed Gull, Larus marinus. Several pairs
nesting 1871, but no longer nesting by 1895. About six years ago,
however, this gull again colonised Inch Moan and three or four
pairs now nest.

[References : R. Gray, 1871. The Birds of the West of Scotland.
Glasgow. J. Lumsden and A. Brown, 1895. A Guide to the Natural
History of Loch Lomond and Neighbourhood. Glasgow.) — J. A. Gibson,
Ralston, Paisley.

John Colquhoun, in his Moor and the Loch , first published in
1840, has a chapter on Inch Moan, which is mainly concerned with
duck shooting. On page 303 of our copy of the sixth edition,
published in 1884, it is mentioned that the herring gull nests on
the island. — Editors.

Little Gull in Wigtownshire. — On 10th August 1952, I
watched a little gull Larus minutus for some time, in the air and on
the sea, half-a-mile north of Isle of Whithorn. — H. G. Alexander,
Birmingham.

Pomatorhine Skua in Kirkcudbright. — On 22nd September
1952 I observed a pale phase pomatorhine skua Stercorarius pomarinus
off Southerness Point, Kirkcudbright. The bird flew close to the
shore at high tide, and its large size and twisted tail feathers were
noted. Its arrival coincided with a change of wind to south-west,
after continuous light easterly winds. Mr. Arthur B. Duncan
informs me that there has not been a record for Kirkcudbright for
a long time, though some were recorded in the early part of the
present century. — D. F. Owen, Edward Grey Institute, Oxford.

Albino Guillemot in Aberdeenshire. — On nth May 1952
while studying the bird life on the south face of the Dunbuy Rock,
north of Cruden Bay, I noted an almost white guillemot Uria
aalge, which appeared to be mated to a normal bird. The parts

1952

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1 8 1

which usually are sooty were a very light buff. Seen without the
aid of field-glasses the bird appeared pure white. — John W. Pope,
Aberdeen.

After receiving this communication we visited the place on
24th May, and saw the bird described by Mr. Pope. — Editors.

Little Auk in North Perth. — With reference to the record on
page 59 of a little auk Plautus alle at Aberfeldy, I may report that
my brother, D. G. S. Macmillan, found one early in February
1947 at Ochtertyre, Crieff'. It was found close to the side of the
frozen loch during a period of intense and prolonged cold, in a
fresh but possibly refrigerated condition.

This is only a few miles from the place where one was retrieved
from a snow-drift in February 1940 (Scot. Mat., 61 : 187). — Andrew
T. Macmillan, Edinburgh.

Water Rail in West Ross. — It may be of interest to record
that in the middle of January 1952 my wife and I saw a water-rail
Rallus aquaticus in the glen at Achmore, Stromeferry. The surround-
ing countryside was covered with frozen snow, and the bird was
seeking food in a muddy, unfrozen ditch at the roadside. It was
fairly tame, so we had a good opportunity for observing its char-
acteristic features. — Wilfred M. Lawson, Stromeferry, Ross-shire.

The Geographical Distribution and Status of Birds in Scotland gives no
record of any occurrence of the water-rail in West Ross, but it is
a winter visitor to West Inverness. — Editors.

Food of Ptarmigan. — In September 1952, while traversing
the upper slopes of Stob Ghabhar, in Argyll, I retrieved the body of
a freshly killed cock ptarmigan Lagopus mutus from a peregrine
falcon Falco peregrinus. When I examined the bird later I identified
ten leaves and a seed capsule of the starry saxifrage Saxifraga
stellaris among the crop contents. — Alex. Tewnion, Aberdeen.

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

182

CORRECTIONS

On page 1 1 3 the scientific name of the palmate newt should be
Triturus helveticus and not T. viridescens (which is a North American
species) .“—Editors.

In an editorial note on page 193 of Volume 63 of The Scottish
Naturalist , concerning the American blue-winged teal in Scotland,
we stated that this species had occurred previously at the Isle of
May. This is incorrect, and we must apologise for the mistake
which was due to a slip of the pen whilst bringing our copy of
The Geographical Status and Distribution of Birds in Scotland up to
date. — Editors.

CORRESPONDENCE

39 Strathmore Avenue,
F^alston,

Paisley.

The Editor

The Scottish Naturalist
Dear Sir,

THE BIRDS OF THE FIRTH OF CLYDE

In 1936 the Rev. J. M. McWilliam published The
Birds of the Firth of Clyde , which gave the status of all birds in the
Clyde counties, i.e. Ayr, Renfrew, Dumbarton, Bute and South
Argyll. Since then many important changes have taken place,
and a revision of this book has become necessary for working
purposes.

By arrangement with Mr. McWilliam, I have undertaken this
and hope to complete it by the end of 1953. It will take the form
of a check-list of the birds of the Clyde, with as full information as
possible about changes of status since 1935. If any of your readers
have notes on rarities or changes in the status of Clyde birds, or
can help in any other way, I shall be very glad to hear from them.
All information will be fully acknowledged.

Yours faithfully,

J. A. GIBSON.

1952

OBITUARY

183

OBITUARY

George Thomas Arthur, 1900-1952

Bird-watchers throughout Britain will have learned with deep
regret of the tragic death of George T. Arthur, the well-known
Orkney ornithologist.

All his life he had taken a very active interest in bird protection;
and it is no exaggeration to say that, had it not been for his en-
thusiasm, the hen harrier might well have become extinct as a
breeding species in Scotland.

At one time this species was down to a few pairs in Orkney, and
bred nowhere else in Scotland. Menaced by egg-collectors, its
position had become serious in the extreme. By organising public
opinion among the farmers and inhabitants of all the Orkney
islands, and by sleeping out in the heather in the vicinity of the
surviving nesting pairs in order to prevent them from being dis-
turbed by egg-collectors, George Arthur was able to “ nurse ”
the species successfully. Today, the numbers to be seen are one
of the ornithological attractions of Orkney, and will long, we hope,
remind bird-watchers of the debt we owe to his always uncom-
promising attitude to egg-collecting.

Every summer Orkney is invaded by bird-watchers from all
parts of the British Isles, and they invariably found their way to
George Arthur’s hospitable house. Here, during the War, one
found admirals, humble ratings, high-ranking officers and members
of the W.R.N.S. and A.T.S., gathered round his kitchen table,
drinking innumerable cups of tea and listening to George’s stories.
He loved to “ yarn ” as he termed it.

He knew and loved his native islands, and his knowledge of the
local birds was unsurpassed. Nothing was ever too much trouble
for him — taking visitors round the mainland in his baker’s van, or
out to Gairsay, Eynhallow, and other islands in his motor-boat.

He was indeed a very lovable character and a kenspeckle
figure in his old tweed jacket and corduroy trousers, with field-glasses
slung at his side. Everybody in Orkney knew “ George ”.

Injured birds were often brought to him for care and attention;
and at one time a young seal occupied the Arthur bathroom for a
week!

Probably the proudest moment in George’s life was the occasion
when he travelled to London to be presented on 25th March 1950

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

184

Vol 64

with the Silver Medal of the Royal Society for the Protection of
Birds, in recognition of his services in the cause of bird protection.
The number of birds which now nest un-molested in Orkney
provide a fitting memorial for one who loved nature and wild life
passionately all his days. To his widow and two daughters we
extend our heartfelt sympathy. G. W,

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST
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1952

BOOK REVIEWS

18

BOOK REVIEWS

Common Farm Weeds Illustrated. (Anonymous, for “ Plant Protection Ltd.”).
London: Butterworth’s Scientific Publications Ltd. 15s.

The purpose of this useful and attractively produced book is to provide
information to persons with little technical knowledge, who are interested
in the identification of weeds. Excellent photographs, taken at an early
and a late stage in the annual life of each of some eighty common weeds of
arable and grassland, are supplemented with brief descriptive details.
The photographs are large enough to demonstrate the major morphological
details, the reproduction is very good and the additional details so clearly
given that identification should be an easy matter.

The Spider’s Web. By T. H. Savory. London: Frederick Warne and Co.,
Ltd. Wayside and Woodland Series, 1952. Pp. 154, 27 plates, 8
coloured. 12s. 6d.

Mr. Savory introduces the subject by pointing out the absolute depen-
dence of most spiders on the silk which they produce, and then gives
many interesting facts about the composition and properties of this
substance.

He describes in great detail the structure and method of construction
of the various types of web, especially dwelling on the familiar orb-web,
and discusses the theories on the origin and evolution of the different
forms. His own suggestions on this subject are interesting and ingenious.
There are a number of references to possible relationships between groups
of spiders, as indicated by web-form. Careful observations and measure-
ments clear up a number of popular misconceptions.

The photographs and drawings which illustrate the book are well
chosen, while the colour-plates of various spiders are among the best I
have seen in modern works. — B. F.

British Pyralid and Plume Moths. By Brian P. Beirne. London : Frederick
Warne and Co. Ltd. Wayside and Woodland Series, 1952. Pp.
208 and 405 Figs., of which 216 are direct reproductions of colour
photographs . 21s.

The classification, life-history, habits, food and distribution in the British
Isles of the 210 British species of Pyralidae, Pterophoridae and Orneodidae
are described. For almost every species the author points out many
problems awaiting solution. Several species of economic importance are
included in these families, which have been neglected through lack of a
recent volume of this standard. Armed with the book, the naturalist will
be able to fill numerous gaps in the knowledge of the Lepidoptera of
Scotland. — G. D. M.

24

1 86 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 64

Name this Insect. By E. Fitch Daglish. London: Dent and Sons, 1952.
Pp. xxvi + 294, 16 coloured, 48 halftone plates, many diagrams. 15s.

To name one of the larger species of insects common in Britain is a simple
task by the use of the excellent keys and illustrations of this book which
may be carried in one’s pocket. For many species the reader will find
brief statements on the habitat, distribution in Britain, type of food, habits
and development. — G. D. M.

The Observer's Book of the Larger British Moths. By R. L. E. Ford. London :
Frederick Warne and Co. Ltd., 1952. Pp. 224, 196 illustrations in
colour and black and white. 5s.

Short notes on the rearing of eggs, larvae and pupae serve as an introduc-
tion to Mr. Ford’s compilation on the Larger British Moths, in which are
depicted in colour, natural size, an adult moth of each of the 104 British
species of Sphinges and Bombyces, and of the nine largest representatives
of other families. Larvae and pupae are illustrated in halftone. Descrip-
tions have been omitted for the adults and reduced to a minimum for the
other stages, but the accuracy of the illustrations will enable the reader to
name his captures from the book in the field. Notes are given on the
habits, distribution and food-plants of each species. The beauty of the
illustrations, conciseness of the text, high quality of paper and printing
combined with remarkable cheapness deserve commendation. — G. D. M.

The British Amphibia and Reptiles. By L. Harrison Matthews. London :
Methuen’s “Field Study Books”, 1952. Pp. x + 54, 33 Figs.,
4 colour plates. 9s. 6d.

All British species are easily named from this book, which emphasises
how the animals live and the problems that confront them. Numerous
suggestions for field work on each species merit special praise, and they are
well within the compass of an observer of any species in its native habitat.
— G. D. M.

Bird Migrants. By Eric Simms. London: Cleaver-Hume Press, 1952.

Pp. 212. Twenty photographs by Eric Hosking. 15s.

Bird Migrants is no more than an introduction to what is a highly complex
subject, and it is primarily written for the bird-watcher who desires a
background of knowledge to help him understand some of the problems
involved. The introductory chapters discuss the various types of move-
ment found amongst birds, and a distinction is drawn between local
movements, irruptions, etc., and true migratory behaviour in which there
is a shift in the “ centre of gravity ” of the population of a species. It is
with this latter type of movement that the book is largely concerned.
Later chapters deal with the many problems related to diurnal and noc-
turnal migration and the way in which birds travel, whether on a broad

1952

BOOK REVIEWS

187

front or along narrow “ fly-lines Extensive mention is also made of
the effects of geographical features and local wind conditions on the move-
ments of birds. The final chapters deal primarily with the study of inland
migration through Britain and a very full account is given of the author’s
own studies of migration in the Avon valley and on the Cotswold escarp-
ment ; these last chapters demonstrate the way in which useful information
can be gathered by a single observer making regular observations in one
locality.

A useful chapter is also included on the problem of bird navigation;
in this, as indeed throughout the whole book, the author wisely avoids
speculation and confines himself to stating the theories advanced by those
who have studied the subject and the main objections to these theories.
We should have welcomed further chapters dealing with the relation
between the physiological state of the bird and its readiness to migrate,
and with the effects of meteorological conditions; both topics seem to us
sufficiently important to deserve individual treatment.

We recommend the book to all who want an introduction to the study
of bird migration; there is a fairly extensive bibliography for those who
wish to pursue the subject further. (In the bibliography on p. 197 the
reference to the work of D’Urban and Mathew should, of course, read
“ . . . (1895) The Birds of Devon ” and not “ . . . (1900) The Birds of
Ireland ”). Eric Hosking’s excellent photographs further enhance the
book.— I. M. G.

The Fulmar. By James Fisher. London: Collins, The New Naturalist,
1952. Pp. xv -f- 496, 48 plates in half-tone and 4 in colour. -£1 15s.

This is Mr. James Fisher’s first contribution to the fine series of New
Naturalist volumes, which he has edited with such marked success. Its
preparation has been to him a mission, “ the result of an obsession ”, he
tells us, with a bird that has haunted half his life. It is therefore no surprise
to find a more personal sort of book than one might expect of a ‘ mono-
graph ’ ; indeed, the author himself speaks to us from every page, animating
in a very characteristic and colourful manner what might in more prosaic
hands have become a catalogue of places and events.

It is no doubt impossible to dissociate his interest in the bird from his
interest in the places where it lives. With persistence and no little enter-
prise he has been visiting many of its native haunts during the last twenty
years, some of them remote and relatively little known. As a result, the
knowledge he has amassed of northern sea-cliffs is probably unsurpassed.
The collected descriptions and illustrations of these in the book will no
doubt be widely recognised as a contribution to geography which is
important in its own right.

The perspective of the book is essentially geographical. Nearly three-
quarters of it is devoted to accounts of the fulmar’s distribution, in the
Antarctic, the Pacific, the Arctic, Iceland, Faeroe, Norway and the British
Isles, together with the history of the tremendous spread in its Icelandic-
European range.

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

1 88

Vol. 64

This has been treated with a thoroughness and enthusiasm which
merits the highest praise. We are told (p. 468) that his bibliography cites
2,378 separate titles, a figure propierly appreciated only by those who have
themselves had difficulty in digesting and integrating perhaps a tenth of
that number. The pity is that the high cost has prevented the inclusion
of this hoard of wealth in the book itself. His exhaustive studies, for
example, of the arctic voyages of the last century and of foreign periodicals,
have brought to light much that is new to present-day readers ; the omission
of references is therefore tantalising and, from a scientific standpoint,
serious. We should strongly urge him to find some way of implementing
the promise given on page 496, that the bibliography will be published
separately — or even, we might add, a substantial selection from it. The
task of compilation is immense; but because the final products appear
dull to the uninformed eye, the value of bibliographies is persistently
under-rated. We have too few of them hand-picked like this and devoted
to such popular fields of knowledge.

If one were using the book for reference there would be some fault to
find with the index. It has two parts, the first a systematic list of verte-
brates (excluding the fulmar), and the second an alphabetic list of places.
Neither of these is directly concerned with the biology or life-history of
the fulmar itself — its behaviour and habits, physiology, structure and
plumage, food, parasites and so forth. Consequently the several chapters
particularly devoted to these aspects receive very imperfect citation.

The book is produced and illustrated in the manner which one has
come to expect of the series, and which leaves nothing to be desired.
Even at 35s. there can be no doubt that the purchaser is being given the
best value for his money. To readers of The Scottish Naturalist it should
excel in interest, for it deals with a bird better known to us than to any
comparable body of naturalists. Contributions to its history have long
appeared in our pages and, by coincidence, have broken all records in the
present volume. Many of us have had a hand in gathering information
reproduced in the book; and here particular mention may be made of the
interesting contribution by Mr. L. S. V. Venables, which constitutes
Appendix VII, entitled “ A Shetland Fulmar Population ” (pp. 482-8).

The book serves to draw attention to the fact that, in spite of this
present cult of what one of our contemporaries jocularly calls ‘ fulmar-
ology ’, knowledge of the bird’s habits and ecology lags far behind the
study of its distribution. We can reasonably expect further accessions to
this field, like those of Mr. Kenneth Williamson and Dr. Eggeling which
appear on earlier pages of this issue. Mr. Fisher himself would, of course,
be the last to suppose that the final word had been said about this engaging
though enigmatic bird; he has rather set in order, and added much to,
our present knowledge. Though one may be prepared to argue here and
there with the opinions expressed, there is no doubt that, as a work of
lasting value, The Fulmar is a worthy successor to its prototype, Gurney’s
well-known monograph of another ‘ bird with a history ’, The Garnet. —
V. C. W-E.

INDEX

Account, revenue, for vol. 63, 184
Ailsa Craig, The birds of, additions
and corrections, 61 ; butterflies,
112-113; fall of cliff, 1 18
Aitchison, Charles, 116-117
Albino guillemot, 1 80-181
Alexander, H. G., 117, 178, 180
Alexander, W. B., 117
Allison, F. R., Daily activities of the
Fulmar in the North Atlantic in
July, 38-44

Amphibia, 113 (palmate newt)

Anchovy, 105
Argus, Brown, 1 1 3
Arthur, G. T., obituary, 183
Ascidians, The litoral, of Argyll, 19-25
Atkinson, Robert, and Dr. Brian
Roberts, Notes on the islet of
Gasker, 1 29-1 37
Auk, Little, 10, 59, 181

Bartholomew, James, 53, 121, 179
Baxter, Miss Evelyn V., 55
Baxter, Miss Evelyn V., and Miss
Leonora Jeffrey* Rintoul, 58
Bee-eater, 1 1 7

Beirne, B. P., British Pyralid and Plume
Moths reviewed, 185
Bennett, Arthur E., 118
Berrie, A., see McVean and Berrie
Bird-ringing, 62 (colour - marking
schemes)

Bittern, 71; Little, 71
Blackbird, 13, 55> 7D i37> l68>
Blackcap, 9, 53-4, 116
Blackcock, 123
Black fish, 1 10
Blue, Common, 33, 113
Bonito, 109; Belted, 109
Book Reviews, 37, 63-64, 124-128, 185-
188

Bos primigenius, 60

Botanical Notes and lists, 45, 130- 133
(islet of Gasker), 163 ( Diapensia )
Brambling, 7, 13, 15, 48
Bream, Ray’s, 107
Brodie, D., 54

Bunting, Black-headed, at Fair Isle,
48-50; Yellow, 168
Butterfield, Alec, 9
Buzzard, Common, 177-178

Cairns, W. R., 176
Campbell, Dr. Bruce, 62

Campbell, J. L., 167
Campbell, Dr. James W., 51-52, 58-59,
114

Chaffinch, 7

Chiffchaff, 51-52, 113-116, 171
Chough, 77-82

Clapham, A. R., Tutin, T. G. and
Warburg, E. F., Flora of the British
Isles, reviewed, 126-127
Clegg, John, Freshwater Life of the British
Isles, reviewed, 37

Clyde area, Recent notes on the birds
of the, 26-30; The birds of the Firth
of Clyde, 182
Coleoptera, 35-36
Cooper, P. E. D., 175
Copper, Small, 33, 113
Corbet, Gordon B., 1 19-120
Corrections, 61, 182
Correspondence, 62, 182
Crataerina pallida, 72, 166
Crow, Hooded, 123
Cuckoo, Black- billed, 27
Curlew, 71

Daglish, E. Fitch, Name this Insect ,
reviewed, 186
Deer, Fallow, 70; Red, 70
Diapensia lapponica, 163
Dipper, 174; Black-bellied, 55
Diptera, 70-73, 166

Diver, Red-throated, 158-162; White-
billed Northern, 119-121
Dove, Rock, 136; Stock-, 121; Turtle-,
57

Downes, Dr. J. A., 166
Duck, see Eider, Gadwall, Garganey,
Goldeneye, Mallard, Pintail, Scaup,
Sheld-duck, Teal, Tufted Duck,
Wigeon

Duncan, A. B., and David Cunningham,
46-47

Duncan, A. F., 55
Dunlin, 136, 137

Editorial, 65-69

Eggeling, Dr. W. J., 122; Notes on the
breeding of the Fulmar, 148-150
Eider, 28, 135-136, 159, 160, 178

1

Fair Isle Bird Observatory, 1-18, 48, 51,

52, 55-56> !38

Fergusson, J. L. Finlay, 114

189

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 64

190

Fieldfare, 13, 137, 168, 170, 172

(summer record)

Findlay, Miss Kathleen M., 53
Fisher, James, The Fulmar, reviewed,
187I188

Fishes, Rare and exotic, recorded in
Scotland during 1951, 102-111
Flycatcher, Pied, 27, 169-170
Food of birds: fieldfare, 172; fulmar,
40; great grey shrike, 169; great
skua, 158-162; peregrine, 181
Ford, R. L. E., The Observer's Book of the
larger British Moths, reviewed, 186
Fork Beard, Lesser, 106
Fritillary, Dark-green, 33, 112; Marsh,
33; Small Pearl-bordered, 33
Fullerton, Len, 121 (illustration)
Fulmar, Daily activities of the, in the
North Atlantic, 38-44; Geographi-
cal variation in the bill of the, 84-
101; dark-phase nesting in Shet-
land, 1 19; 136 (none on Gasker);
The incubation rhythm of the, 1 38-
147; Notes on the breeding of the,
148-150; review of Fisher’s mono-
graph, The Fulmar, 187-188
Furze, John, 122

Gadwall, 15, 28
Gannet, 118, 160, 178
Garfish, 105
Garganey, 28

Gasker, notes on the islet of, 1 29-1 37
Gibson, Dr. J. A., 59, 112-113, 118-119,
178, 179-180, 182
Godwit, Black-tailed, 29, 121
Goldcrest, 7, 9, 13, 170
Goldeneye, 57
Goodbody, Ivan M., 172
Goose, Barnacle, 137; White-fronted,
i5> 28

Gordon, Seton, 123, 174

Grasshoppers, 166

Grayling (butterfly), 33, 112

Grebe, Black-necked, 29; Red-necked, 29

Greenfinch, 172

Grosbeak, Scarlet, 49

Grouse, Red, 71

Guillemot, Black, 136; Common, 58,
59, 1 18, 136, 180-181
Gull, Black-headed, 158, 179; Common,
136, 180; Great Black-backed, 136,

1 80 (inland breeding) ; Herring,
122-123, 136, 158, 161, 179-180
(inland breeding;) Iceland, 30;
Kittiwake, 118, 123, 158-162;

Lesser Black-backed, 136, 158-180;
Little, 58, 122, 180 ; Sabine’s, 58
Gunn, James M., 166
Gunn, P. W. G., 171

Hadena caesia, 167

Hairstreak, Green, 33

Hamilton, Frank D., 168

Harrier, Montagu’s, 27

Hawk-moth, Oleander, 1 1 2 ; Poplar, 34

Heath, Large, 112; Small, 33, 112

Hedge-sparrow, 9

Hemiptera, 32

Heron, Purple, 7 1

Hickin, Norman E., Caddis, reviewed, 125 j
Hippoboscidae, Records of British, 70-3 ;

166

Hirudo medicinalis, 164-166
Hollom, P. A. D., The Popular Handbook,
reviewed, 124

Home, Lt.-Col. W. M. Logan, 123, 172 j
Hymenoptera, 36, 46, 166

Inch Moan, Sea-birds of, 179-180
Ingram, Collingwood, 57

Kay, G. T., 1 17, 1 19
Kerr, J., 114

Kevan, Dr. D. K. McE., 166
Kittiwake, 118, 123, 158-162
Knowles, Mrs. Cecilia, i i 7

Lapwing, 13

Lawson, Wilfred M., 181
Leach, Miss Elsie P., 117
Leeches, 164-166

Lees, Rev. John, 53, 114, 171, 174
Lepidoptera, 33-35 (island of Ulva),
46-47 (Solway area), 112 (Oleander
Hawk-moth), 112-113 (Ailsa Craig),

167 ( H . caesia, also migrants)

Linsell, S. E., 123

Lobster, The spiny or thorny, in Scottish
waters, 1 51-157

Lockie, J. D., The food of Great Skuas
on Hermaness, Unst, Shetland,
158-162

Macan, T. T. and E. B. Worthington,
Life in Lakes and Rivers, reviewed,
63-64

MacDonald, D., 113
MacGillivray, The centenary of William,
65-69

Macgregor, Keith S., 168
Mackenzie, J. M. D., 170
Macmillan, Andrew T., 181
Mallard, 136
Mallophaga, 56

Mammals, 16, 77 et seq., 130-135
Martin, House, 72, 74-82 ; Sand,

78-79> 175

Matthews, L. Harrison, The British
Amphibia and Reptiles , reviewed, 186
Mayfly in Sutherland, 46

1952

INDEX

191

McVean, D. N., and A. Berrie, 45
Me William, Rev. J. M., 60
Meadow Brown, 33, 112
Meagre, 108

Meiklejohn, Prof. M. F. M., 57-58,
1 14-1 16

Meiklejohn, M. F. M., and C. E.
Palmar, Recent notes on the birds
of the Clyde area, 1950, 26-30
Migration of birds, 1 - 1 8
Millar, Dr. R. H., The Littoral
Ascidians of Argyll, 19-25
Miller, K. W., and Dr. J. A. Owen,
A list of insects from the island of
Ulva, 31-37

Mullet, Red, 108; Thick-lipped Grey,
1 10

Murdoch, Colin C. I., 59, 168-169, 170

Neill, Dr. R. M., 46
Neuroptera, 46
Newt, Palmate, 1 13, 182
Nightingale, 1 73-1 74

Obituary, G. T. Arthur, 183-184
Odonata, 32

Onslow, Commander G. Hughes, i i 6
Orthoptera, 166
Owen, D. F., 48, 167, 180
Owen, Dr. J. A., 46 (see also Miller
and Owen)

Owl, Long-eared, 71; Snowy, 176-177
Ox, Great extinct, 60-61
Oyster-catcher, 15, 135-136

Painted Lady, 113, 167
Palinurus vulgaris, 1 51 -157
Palmar, C. E., see Meiklejohn and
Palmar

Palmer, John F., 54

Peacock (butterfly) , 33, 1 1 3

Pearl fish, 109

Peregrine, 181

Perry, Richard, 116, 172

Petrel, Leach’s, 29, 136; Storm, 29,

135-136

Phalarope, Grey, 57-58
Pike, Saury, 105
Pilchard, 104
Pilot fish, 107
Pintail, 15, 117-118
Piper (fish), no

Pipit, Meadow, 71, 168; Rock, 135-

136; Tawny, at Fair Isle, 50-51 ; in
East Lothian, 167

Plover, Golden, 15, 137; Green, see

Lapwing; Ringed, 136
Pope, John W., 180-181
Priestley, Charles F., 56
Ptarmigan, 123, 181

Puffin, 135-136, 16 1
Pyefinch, K. A., 47

Rae, Dr. B. B. and E. Wilson, Rare and
exotic fishes recorded in Scotland
during 1951, 102-m
Raeburn, G. F., 61
Rail, Water-, 10, 181
Raven, 123
Ray, Electric, 103
Razorbill, 118, 136
Red Admiral, 33, 113, 167
Redpoll, 13

Redshank, 15, 137; Spotted, 30
Redstart, 9; Black, 55, 116-117, r72
Redwing, 10, 13, 15, 55, 137, 170
Reptiles, 113 (slow-worm)

Reynoldson, T. B., 164-166
Rhododendron ponticum, 114-116
Ring-ouzel, 168
Ritchie, Prof. James, 60-61
Roberts Dr. Brian, see Atkinson and
Roberts
Robin, 7, 9, 172
Roller, 175-176
Ruff, 30

Salmon, Capture of pre-grilse stage of,
47

Salomonsen, F., The Birds of Greenland,
reviewed, 127-128
Sanda Island, The birds of, 60
Sandpiper, Common, 136; Purple, 137
Savory, T. H., The Spider's Web,
reviewed, 185
Scabbard fish, Black, 108
Scald fish, 1 10
Scaup, 15

Seal, Atlantic, 130- 135; Common, 16

Shad, Allis, 104 ; Twaite, 104

Shag, 136

Sheld-duck, 28

Shrike, Great Grey, 168-169

Silver-Y, 34, 167 ; Scarce, 47

Simms, Eric, Bird Migrants, reviewed, 186

Siphonaptera, 74-83

Siskin, 26, 48

Skua, Arctic, 159, 161; Great, The food
of the, on Hermaness, Unst, 158-
1 62 ; Pomatorhine, 1 80
Skylark, 71
Slow-worm, 1 1 3
Smelt, Great Silver, 105
Smit, F. G. A. M., A possible explanation
of the occurrence of the flea
Frontopsylla ( Orofrontia ) laeta in
Scotland, 74-83

Snipe, Common, 15; Great, 137
Speckled Wood, 33
Stanford, Lt.-Col. J. K., 57

192

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Starling, 13, 71
Stint, Little, 30

Stock-dove, 121, 179 (five successive

broods)

Stonechat, 172
Stuart, Lord David, i i 3
Sturgeon, 104
Sunfish, 1 1 1
Swallow, 56 (late)

Swan, Bewick’s, 28; Whooper, 178

Tansley, A. G., Oaks and Oakwoods,
reviewed, 125
Taylor, Geoffrey, 54
Teal, 15, 16, 137; American blue-

winged, 182

Tern, 158; Arctic, 136, 179; Black, 30;
Common, 179; Little, 179; Roseate,
179; Sandwich, 179
Tewnion, Alex., 177-178, 181
Thin, Russell G., 120
Thompson, Gordon B, Records of
British Hippoboscidae, 70-73
Thrush, 12, 13 ; Song, 172; White’s, 71
Tit, Blue, 169
Tod, Kenneth, 112
Tortoiseshell, Small, 33, 113
Tufted Duck, 15
Tunicata, 19-25
Tunny, 109; Marbled, 109
Turner, Brian C., 48
Turnstone, 136
Turtle Dove, 57
Twite, 13

Ulva, A list of insects from the island of,
31-37

Vol. 64. '

Van den Bos, S., 176-7

Wagtail, Blue-headed, 168 ; White, 27 1
Warbler, Barred, 13; Garden, 9, 54, 1 16;
Moustached, 13; Wood, 52-53; |
Yellow-browed, 27
Water-rail, 10, 181
Waterston, George, 174
Watson, Adam, senr. and junr., 176-177, j
junr., 178
Wax wing, 27

Weights of birds, 8-10, 56 (dipper), !j
95 and 146 (fulmar), 1 7 1 (chiff- 0
chaff and lesser whitethroat) , 174
(nightingale)

Whale, Cuvier’s, 123
Wheatear, 77
Whimbrel, 158

White, Green-veined, 33, 113; Large, .1
33, 1 13, 167; Small, 1 13
Whitethroat, Lesser, 54, 1 7 1
Wigeon, 15, 16, 28, 137; American, 28 !!

Williamson, Kenneth, Migrational
drift in Britain in autumn 1951,
1-18; 48-50* 50-5 U 52-53* 123 ;

The incubation rhythm of the Ful- !
mar, 138-147

Wilson, E., The spiny or thorny lobster
in Scottish waters, 1 51-157; see
also Rae and Wilson
Wood wasp, 166
Wrasse, Cuckoo, 108
Wryneck, 57, 1 17

Wynne-Ed wards, Prof. V. C., Geo-
graphical variation in the bill of the
Fulmar, 84-101; 122, 163 (photo)

Zoological Notes, 46-61, 1 12-123, 164-
181

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