sEN & SON LTD. ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNKY. ae “~ 6) / EE Ba AND ao HbIVING: WONDERS A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE MARVELS OF THE DEEP AND OF THE PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME BY Diy G, HART W bG AUTHOR OF ‘‘THE TROPICAL WORLD” “‘THE HARMONIES OF NATURE” “THE POLAR WORLD” AND “THE SUBTERRANEAN WORLD” SEVENTH EDITION WiTH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS AND PLATES LONDON LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. AND NEW YORK: 15 EAST 16% STREET 1892 VOTH = ie — 7 ne i The right of translation into French is reserved by the Author. All necessa ry : steps for securing the Copyright have been taken. } PREFACH TO THE THIRD AND FOURTH EDITIONS. Nortuine can be more agreeable to an author anxious to merit the suffrages of the public, than the opportunity afforded him, by a new edition, of correcting past errors or adding improvements to his work. Should any one of my readers think it worth his while to compare ‘ The Sea,’ such as it now is, with what it formerly was, I have no doubt he will do me the justice to say that I have conscientiously striven to deserve his approbation. Two new chapters—one on Marine Constructions, the other on Marine Caves have been added; those on tke Molluscs and Ccelenterata (Jelly-fishes, Polyps) almost entirely re-written; and those on Fishes, Crustaceans, Microscopic Animals, the Geographical Distribution of Marine Life, and the Phosphorescence of the Sea, con- siderably enlarged; not to mention a number of minor improvements dispersed throughout the volume. Great attention has also been paid to the Illustrations, many of questionable value having been omitted in the present edition, to make room for a number of others, vl PREFACE. which will be found of great use for the better under- standing of the text. In one word, I have done my best to raise my work to the standard of the actual state of science, and to render it, as far as my humble abilities go, a complete epitome of all that the general reader cares to know about the marvels of the deep. G. Hartwia. Saton VILLAs, LUDWIGSBURG : June 30, 1873. PREFACE TO THE FIRST TWO EDITIONS. For years my daily walks have been upon the beach, and I have learnt to love the ocean as the Swiss mountaineer loves his native Alps, or the Highlander the heath-covered hills of Caledonia. May these feelings have imparted some warmth to the following pages, and serve to render the reader more indulgent to their faults! G. Harrwie. GOTTINGEN: July 17, 1860. HON cee WOODS HOLE, MASS. CONTENDS. PART J. THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. CHAPTER I. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA, Extent of the Ocean.—Leneth of its Coast-Line.— Mural, Rocky, and Flat Coasts. —How deep is the Sea ?—Average Depth of the Atlantic Ocean.—The Tele- graphic Plateau between Newfoundland and Ireland.—Measurement of Depth by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave.—Progressive Changes in the Limits of the Ocean.—Alluvial Deposits.—Upheaving.—Subsidence. —Does the Level of the Sea remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same ?—Composition and Temperature of Sea-Water.—Its intrinsic Colonr.—The Azure Grotto at Capri. —Modification of Colour owing to Animals and Plants.—Submarine Landscapes viewed through the Clear Waters . . ‘ A Page 3 CHAPTER IL THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN Waves and the Mode of their Formation.—Height and Velocity of Storm-Waves. on the High Seas, according to the Calculations of Scoresby, Arago, Sir James Ross, and Wilkes.—Their Height and Power on Coasts.—Their Destructive Effects along the British Shore.—Dunwich.—Reculver.—Shakspeare’s Chiff. 24 CHAPTER III. THE TIDES, Description of the Phenomenon.—Devastation of Storm-Floods on Flat Coasts.— What did the Ancients know of the Tides ?—Their Fundamental Causes revealed by Kepler and Newton.—Development of their Theory by La Place, Euler, and Whewell.—Vortices caused by the Tides.—The Maelstrom.—Charybdis.—The Barre at the mouth of the Seine.—The Euripus , ° ° C4835 - o2 vl CONTENTS, CHAPTER IV. MARINE CAVES. Effects of the Sea on Rocky Shores.—Fingal’s Cave.—-Beautiful Lines of Sir Walter Seott——The Antro di Nettuno—The Cave of Hunga.—Legend of its Discovery.—Marine Fountains.—The Skerries.—The Souffleur in Mauritius.— The Buffadero on the Mexican Coast . ° . . . Page 45 CHAPTER V. OCEAN CURRENTS. Causes of the Oceanie Currents.—The Equatorial Stream.—The Gulf Stream.— Its Influence on the Climate of the West urepean Coasts.—The Cold Peruvian Stream.—The Japanese Stream 5 - : 4 . 54 CHAPTER VI. THE AERIAL AND TERRESTRIAL MIGRATIONS OF THE WATERS. Movements of the Waters through Evaporation.—Origin of Winds.—Trade-Winds. —Calms.—Monsoons.—Typhoons.—Tornadoes.—Water-Spouts—The Forma- tion of Atmospherical Precipitations —Dew.—Its Origin.—Fog.—Clouds.— Rain, —Snow.—Hail.—Sources.—The Quantities of Water which the Rivers pour into the Ocean.—Glaciers and their Progress.—Icebergs.—Erratic Blocks.—Influence of Forests on the Formation and Retention of Atmospherical Precipitations.— Consequences of their excessive Destruction.—The Power of Man over Climate, —How has it been used as yot? - 2 5 - 60 CHAPTER VII. MARINE CONSTRUCTIONS. Lighthouses.—The Eddystone.—Winstanley’s Lighthouse, 1696.—The Storm ot 1703.—Rudyerd’s Lighthouse destroyed by Fire in 1755.—Singular Death of one of the Lighthouse Men.—Anecdote of Louis XIV.—Smeaton.—Bell Rock Lighthouse.—History of the Erection of Skerryvore Lighthouse.—I]lumination of Lighthouses—The Breakwater at Cherbourg.—Liverpool Docks.—The Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits. —The Sub-oceanic Mine of Botallack. 80 PART 2 THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA. CHAPTER VIIL THE CETACEANS. General Remarks on the Organisation of the Cetaceans.—The Large Greenland Whale.— His Food and Enemies.—The Fin-Back or Rorqual.—The Antarctic Whale.—The Sperm Whale.—The Unicorn Fish.—The Dolphin.—Truth and Fable.—The Porpoise —The Grampus.—History of the Whale Fishery . 95 CONTENTS. 1X CHAPTER IX. SEALS AND WALRUSES. The Manatees and the Dugongs.—The Seals and the Esquimaux.—King Menelaus in a Seal’s Skin.—Barbarous Persecutions of the Seals in Behring’s Sea and the Pacifie.—Advyentures of a Sealer from Geneva.—The Sea Calf.—The Sea Bear. —His Parental Affection.—The Sea Lions.—The Sea Elephant.—The Arctic Walrus.—The Boats of the “Trent” fighting with a Herd of Walruses.—The White Bear.—Touching Example of its Love for its Young.—Chase of the Sea Otter . : A z : : . s . Page 117 CHAPTER X. SEA-BIRDS. Their Vast Numbers.—Strand-Birds.—Artifices of the Sea-Lark to protect its Young.—Migrations of the Strand-Birds.—The Sea-Birds in General.—The Anatide.—The Eider Duck.—The Sheldrake.—The Loggerheaded Duck.— Auks and Penguins.—The Cormorant.—Its Use by the Chinese for Fish- eateching.—The Frigate Bird.—The Soland Goose.—The Gulls.—The Petrels.— The Albatross.—Bird-catching on St. Kilda——The Guano of the Chincha Islands. 5 : . 5 : . : . 142 CHAPTER XI. THE REPTILES OF THE OCEAN. ‘The Saurians of the Past Seas.—The Anatomical Structure of the Turtles.—Their Size.—Their Visits to the Shores——The Dangers that await their Young.— Turtles on the Brazilian Coast.—Prince Maximilian of Neuwied and the Turtle-—Conflicts of the Turtles with Wild Dogs and Tigers on the Coast of Java.—Turtle-catching on Ascensicn Island.—Tortoise-shel].—The Ambly- rhynchus cristatus.— Marine Snakes.— The Great Sea-Snake . 5 CHAPTER XII. THE MARINE FISHES. General Observations on Fishes.—Their Locomotive Organs—Tail—Fins.-— Classification of Fishes by Cuvier.—Air-Bladder.—Scales.—Beauty of the Tropical Fishes.—The Gills.--Terrestrial Voyages of the Anabas and the Hassar.— Examples of Parental Affection.— Organs of Sense.—Offensive Weapons of Fishes.—The Sea- Wolf.—The Shark.—The Saw-Fish.—The Sword- Fish.—The Torpedo.—The Star-Gazer.—The Angler.—The Chstodon Ros- tratus.—The Remora, used for catching Turtles.—Defensive Weapons of Fishes—The Weever.—The Stickleback.—The Sun-Fish.—The Flying-Fish.— The numerous Enemies of the Fishes.—Importance and History of the Herring Vishery.—The Pilehard.—The Sprat.—The Anchovy.—The Cod.—The Sturc- x CONTENTS. geons.—The Salmon.—The Tunny.—The Mackerel Family—The Eel.—The Murey.—The Conger.—The Sand-Launce.—The Plectognaths.—The Sea- Horse.—The Pipe-Fish—The Flat-Fishes—The Rays.—The Fecundity of Fishes ° . ; . : ° : . Page 186 CHAPTER XIII. CRUSTACEA. CRALBS— LOBSTERS. How are they distinguished from the Insects ?—Barnacles and Acorn-shells.— Siphonostomata. —Entomostraca.— King-Crab.—Edriophthalmia.—Sandhoppers. —Thoracostraca.—-Compound Eye of the higher Crustaceans.—Respiratory Apparatus of the Decapods.—Digestive Organs—Chele or Pincers.—Distribu- tion of Crabs.—Land Crabs.—The Calling Crab.—Modifications of the Legs in different species—The Pinna and Pinnotheres.—Hermit Crabs.—The Lobster. — The Cocoa-nut Crab.—The Shrimp.—Moulting Process.—Metamorphoses of Crabs.—Victims and Enemies of the Crustaceans.—Their Fecundity.—Marine Spiders and Insects ° . . . . . . 243 CHAPTER XIV. MARINE ANNELIDES, The Annelides in general.—The Eunice sanguinea.—Beauty of the Marine Anne- lides.—The Giant Nemertes.—The Food and Enemies of the Annelides.—The Tubicole Annelides——The Rotifera—Their Wonderful Organisation.—The Syncheta Baltica . - : : . . * - 262 CHAPTER XV. MOLLUSCS. The Molluses in general. —The Cephalopods.—Dibranchiates and Tetrabranchiates —Arms and Tentacles.—Suckers.—Hooked Acetabula of the Onychoteuthis.— Mandibles.—Ink Bag.—Numbers of the Cephalopods— Their Habits—Their Enemies—Their Use to Man—Their Eges.—Enormous size of several species. —The fabulous Kraken.—The Argonaut.—The Nautili—The Cephalopods of the Primitive Ocean.—The Gasteropods.—Their Subdivisions.—Gills of the Nudibranchiates.—The Pleurobranchus plumula.—The Sea-Hare.—The Chitons. —The Patelle—The Haliotis or Sea-Ear.—The Carinariae.—The Pectini- branchiates.— Variety and Beauty of their Shells.—Their Mode of Locomotion. —Foot of the Tornatella and Cyclostoma.—The Janthine.—Sedentary Gastero- pods.—The Magilus.—Proboscis of the Whelk.—Tongue of the Limpet.— Stomach of the Bulla, the Scyllea, and the Sea-Hare.—Organs of Sense in the Gasteropods—Their Caution—Their Enemies—Their Defences—Their Use to Man.—Shell-Cameos.—The Pteropods—Their Organisation and Mode of Life. —The Butterflies of the Ocean—The Lamellibranchiate Acephala—Their Organisation.-—Siphons.—The Pholades.—Foot of the Lamellibranchiates.— The Razor-Shells.—The Byssus of the Pinns.—Defences of the Bivalves— Their Enemies. — The common Mussel. — Mussel Gardens.—The Oyster.— Oyster Parks.—Oyster Rearing in the Lago di Fusaro.—Formation of new > CONTENTS. Xl Oyster Banks.—Pearl-fishing in Ceylon.—How are Pearls formed ?—The Tridaena gigas.—The Teredo navalis.—The Brachiopods——The Terebratule.— The Polyzoa.—The Sea-Mats.—The Escharee.—The Lepralie.—Bird’s Head Processes.—The Tunicata.—The Sea-Squirts.—The Chelyosoma.—The Botrylli. —The Pyrosomes.—The Salpz.—Interesting Points in the Organisation of the Tunieata : . 4 9 : : : - Page 270 CHAPTER XVI. ECHINODERMATA, STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-CUCUMBERS. The Star-Fishes—Their Feet or Suckers.—Voracity of the Asterias.—The Rosy Feather-Star.—Brittle and Sand-Stars.—The real Sea-Stars of the British Waters.—The Sea-Urchins.—The Pedicellarize.—The Shell and the Dental Ap- paratus of the Sea-Urchins.—The Sea-Cucumhers.—Their strange Dismember- ments.—Trepang-fishing on the Coast of North Australia—In the Feejee Islands. 5 ‘ : c : : : . 328 CHAPTER XVII CCQELENTERATA, POLYPS AND JELLY-FISHES. Thread-cells or Urticating Organs.—Sertularie.—Campanulariade.—Hydrozoie Acalephe.—Medusidze.—Lucernariad. — Calyeophoride.—The Velella.—The Portuguese Man-of-war.—Anecdote of a Prussian Sailor.—Alternating Fixed and Free-swimming Generations of Hydrozoa.— Actinozoa.— Ctenophora—Their Beautiful Construction.—Sea-anemones.—Dead Man’s Toes.—Sea-pens.—Sea- rods.— Red Coral.—Coral Fishery.—Isis hippuris.—Tropical Lithophytes.— History of the Coral Islands—Darwin’s Theory of their Formation—The progress of theis Growth above the level of the Sea . ° - 34d CHAPTER XVIII. PROTOZOA. The Foraminifera.—The Amcebe.—Their Wonderful Simplicity of Structure —The Polycystina.—Marine Infusoria.—Sponges.—Their Pores—Fibres and Spiculea— The Common Sponge of Commerce : ° 5 : . 378 CHAPTER XIX. MARINE PLANTS. The Algz.—Zostera marina.—The Ulve and Enteromorphe.—The Fuci.—The Laminariz.—Macrocystis pyrifera.—Description of the Submarine Thickets at Tierra del Fuego.—Nereocystis lutkeana.—The Sargasso Sea.— The Gathering of edible Birds’-nests in the marine Caves of Java.—Agar-Agar.—The Floridesx. —The Diatomacese.—Their importance in the economy of the Seas . 390 xl CONTENTS. CHAPTER XX. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE LIFE. The Dependence of all created Beings upon Space and Time.—The Influences which regulate the Distribution of Marine Life——The four Bathymetrical Zones of Marine Life on the British Coasts, according to the late Professor Edward Forbes of Edinburgh.—Abyssal Animals.—Bathybius Haeckelii—Deep-Sea Sponges and Shell-Fish.— Vivid Phosphorescence of Deep-Sea Animals.—Deep- Sea Shark Fishery —The “ Challenger.” : : : . Page 406 CHAPTER XXI. THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SEA. Its Causes.—Noctiluca miliaris. — Phosphorescent Annelides and Beroés, — Intense Phosphorescence of the Pyrosoma atlantica.—Luminous Pholades.— The luminous Shark.—Phosphorescent Algze.—Citations from Byron, Coleridge, Crabbe, and Scott . é ; : c ; é s 423 CHAPTER XXII. THE PRIMITIVE OCEAN. The Giant-Book of the Earth-rind.—The Sea of Fire-—Formation of a solid Earth-crust by cooling.—The Primitive Waters.—First awakening of Life in the Bosom of the Ocean. —The Reign of the Saurians.—The future Ocean ° ° . . ° : 5 . - 433 PAR Er THE PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY. CHAPTER XXIII. Maritime Discoveries of the Pheenicians.—Expedition of Hanno.—Cireumnaviga- tion of Africa under the Pharaoh Necho.—Colzus of Samos.—Pytheas of Massilia.—Expedition of Nearchus.—Circumnavigation of Hindostan under the Ptolemies.—Voyages of Discovery of the Romans.—Consequences of the Fall of the Roman Empire. — Amalfi. — Pisa. — Venice.—Genoa.—Resump- tion of Maritime Intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.— Discovery of the Mariner’s Compass.—Marco Polo. ; > - 443 CHAPTER XXIV. Prince Henry of Portugal.—Discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira.—Doubling of Cape Bojador.—Discovery of the Cape Verde Islands.—Bartholomew Diaz.— Vaseo de Gama.—Columbus.—His Predecessors.—Discovery of Greenland by CONTENTS. Xill Giinnbjorn. — Bjorne Herjulfson. —- Leif.— John Vaz Cortereal.— John and Sebastian Cabot.—Retrospective View of the Beginnings of English Navigation. —Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci.—Vincent Yaiiez Pinson.—Cortez.—Verazzani. —Cartier.—The Portuguese in the Indian Ocean. ° - Page 454 CHAPTER XXYV. Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa.—His Discovery of the Pacific, and subsequent Fate.—- Ferdinand Magellan.—Sebastian el Cano, the first Circumnavigator of the Globe.—Discoveries of Pizarro and Cortez.—Urdaneta.x—Juan T’ernandez.— Mendoza.—Drake.—Discoveries of the Portuguese and Dutch in the Wesiern Pacifie.—Attempts of the Dutch and English to discover North-East and North- West Passages to India.—Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor.—Frobisher.— Davis. — Barentz.— His Wintering in Nova Zembla. — Quiros.—Torres.— Schouten.—Le Maire.—Abel Tasman.—Hudson.—Baffin.—Dampier.—Anson. —Byron.— Wallis and Carteret.—Bougainyille . A : - 464 CHAPTER XXVI. What had Cook’s Predecessors left him to discover ?—His first Voyage-—Discovery of the Society Islands, and of the East Coast of New Holland.—His second Voyage.—Discovery of the Hervey Group.—Researches in the South Sea—The New Hebrides.—Discovery of New Caledonia and of South Georgia.—His third Voyage.—The Sandwich Islands. — New Albion.—West Georgia. — Cook’s Murder.— Vancouver.—La Peyrouse 4 2 : - 485 CHAPTER XXVII. Scoresby.—The Arctic Navigators.—Ross.—Parry.—Sufferings of Franklin and his Companions on his Overland Expedition in 1821.—Parry’s Sledge-journey to the North Pole.—Sir John Franklin.—M‘Clure.—Kane.—M ‘Clintock.— South Polar Expeditions.—Bellinghausen. — Weddell. — Biscoe. — Balleny. ~ Dumont d’Urville.—Wilkes.—Sir James Ross.—Recent Scientific Voyages of Circumnavigation . ° ° . . - . - 496 XV DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPLECK ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY. —-y — Tue sledge plays a very conspicuous part in the history of arctie discovery, as it enables the bold investigators of the icy wildernesses of the North to penetrate to many places, impervious to navigation, to establish dépéts of provisions for future emergencies, or even becomes the means of saving their lives when their ship has been lost or hopelessly blocked up. Whenever dogs can be had, these useful animals are made use of for the transport. Our plate represents one of these gledging parties threading its way through blocks of ice, and gives a good idea of the difficulties they have to encounter. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Arctic Sledge-Journey . . Frontispiece. FACING PAGE FACING PAGE The Souffleur Rock, Mauritius . 52] Penguins . : 52 kt Lighthouse and Waterspout . 65 | Subaqueous Life —_ Stickleb: icks Australian Sea-Bears . : 7 and Nest : : loo The Boats of H.M.8. “Trent” Russian Official daltecting Alge. 392 attacked by Walruses. . . 131 MAP. Map of the Globe, showing the direction of the Ocean Currents, Cotidal Lines, &e. facing page 3. WOODCUTS. PAGE PAGE Annelidans :— Birds — continued : Aphrodita, or Sea-Mouse . 264 Great Crested Grebe - 150 Nereis - 263 Guillemot, Black . - 165 Serpula, Miached toa Shell. 266 (winter plumage) . . 167 Beachy Head. . : é by) Herring Gulls. : - 168 Bell Rock Lighthouse. : 5) oe Hooded Merganser, . 404 Birds :— Pelican . 2 IG lar Albatross, Wandering . . 163 Penguins . : » 152 Auk . : : : . 168 Petrel, Broad- billed : ~ 160 Great . . : a loll Fork-tailed . : ~ 160 Avoset : : : a lt6 Stormy - : «= 162 Barnacle Goose . - . 146 Plover 9 2 : . 44 Cormorant, eommon . a GD Puffins : 2 | 1655 167 Curlew : - c . 148 Red-breasted Mengatiaos 5 ey Eider Duck . , : . 146 Scissor-bill (Rhynchops nigra) 144 Flamingo . : : Git Sheldrake . : c 148 Gannet, commut . : . 15€ Skimmer, Black . 5 >» 169 XVII LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE PAGE Birds— continued : Crustaceans — continued : Snow Goose 3 : . 146 Spotted Mantis-Crab . . 206 Speckled Diver . . . 145 Stenopus hispidus : - 261 Tailor-bird . : 5 s, 143 Whale-Louse . : = LOM Birds of Passage . : . 171 | Crustaceans and Oysters . . 256 Bones of the Anterior Fin of a Dental Apparatus of the Sea- Whale . : : 5 ary Se Urchin, viewed from above . 339 Ceelenterata :-— Ear, Human F ? « W196 Alcyonidium elegans . . 863 | Ear of the Perch . ot ae Astrea 2 5 “ . 873 | Echinodermata :— Caryophyllia shlues . 370 Cross-Fish,common . . 334 Chrysaora hysoscella . . 387 Eatable Trepang . : - 340 Coryniade . : c . 3058 Goniaster . c 5 . 336 Ctenophora . 3 - 93860 Lily-Encrinite . : . 330 Diphyes appends colata. . 353 Sand-Star . : ° . 332 Grey Sea-Pen .. : - 365 Sea-Urehin . : . . 337 Isis hippuris - - 5 HS!) Edible . 5 - - 338 Jelly Fishes . 9849, 350, 351 Mammillated a - ood Tucernalia auricula’, . 802 Warted Euryale . : - 333 Medusze 5 . 3849, 350, 351 FEddystone Lighthouse ; ge 4: Physalia caravella : . 3855 | Esquimaux in his Kayak . - 120 Physophora Philippii . . 386 | Fingal’s Cave . - a LY Red Coral . : 5 - 3867 | Fishes :— Sertularia tricuspidata . 347 Ammodyte, or Launce . . 230 Stone Corals 5 3 Bifah Be Anabas of the dry tanks . 192 Tubipora Musica . 5 . 370 Anchovy . : : . 214 Velella : : 5 . 304 Angler : - ° - 208 Virgularia mirabilis. - 365 Bonito : i ‘ . 223 Vogtia pentacantha . . 3853 Cod . c : : . 215 Compound Foraminiferous Proto- Conger Eel . 1195 123) 135 Salmo Rossii : : . 220 Greenland . : . 123 Salmon : : . . 415 Walrus : 4 3 1295 So Sand-Eel . ; id - 415 Whale, common . . he oo) Saw-Fish . : Z ey 201 Whale, Spermaceti ae LOD a Sea-Horse . : . 234, 344 | Mollusks:— Shark, Blue ‘ : - 200 Argonaut . 5 : - 280 Hammer-headed . = 99 Ascidia mammillata . - 322 White . : ; 5 lS Banded Dipper . : el Short Sun-Fish . 5 PB Ey Bivalve deprived of its shell, Sole . > ; : - 237 to show its various open- portion of skin of, high- ings : - : . 3800 ly magnified . =e Botryllus . : : - 324 Sturgeon, common : 5 Bly Bulla . : : 5 . 294 Surgeon-Fish : - 205 Calamary . 5 > - 272 Swimming Pegasus . - 207 Carinaria . 3 : . 287 Sword-Fish . ‘ = 99) 201 Cellularia . ; : SBNY) Thornback . = 5 - 240 Chelyosoma Macleayanum 323, 327 Torpedo . : . - 201 Chinese Wentle-trap (Sca- Toxotes Jaculator ° - 203 laria pretiosa) . . - 289 Trunk-Fish P : 5 CBW Chiton squamosus - 28D Tunny : . 2 - 221 Clavellina producta. - 322 Turbot 5 > . . 237 Clio borealis : : >) OE Wolf-Fish . 3 : 5 ely Cockle, common . . 303, 306 Foraminifera, various forms of . 381 Cuttle-Fish (Sepia) . 104, 275 Fossils :— Diazona violacea . : . 324 Ammonite . = A . 437 Donax ‘ : = . 301 elemnite ~ “». «=. 437 Edible Mussel, . 23° 2° 307 Ichthyosaurus communis 172, 438 Edible Oyster . . . 308 Pentacrinus Briareus, por- Eolis . - 5 - . 284 tion of . . - . 330 Eschara cervicornis . . 318 Plesiosaurus 5 . 438 Gorgeous Doris . : . 236 Trilobite . ; 436 Haliotis . c = . 287 Hill at the Rapid on Bear ae Harp-shell . : : . 288 River (North-West mre Hippopus maculatus. . 315 North America) . 5 23 Tanthinacommunis . . 290 H. M.S. “ Resolute” lying to in Leaf-like Sea-mat . 816, 317 the North Atlantic . % 24 Limpet and Shell 286, 292, 411 Ice-Bear pages the “ Te: Magilus antiquus 5 . 291 rothea” and ‘‘Trent” . 5 aye Mitre-shells 3 ‘ - 288 Japan Junks : ; > oF Murex haustellum . 291, 296 Licmophora flabellata . , . 403 Oliva hispidula . 5 - 290 Mammals :— Onychoteuthis . : . 274 Dolphin, - 2 5 AKO Orange Cone-shell . . 288 Dugong. . 5 Aluly/ Pearl-Oyster > 5 * ole female, of G@iylon: 5 ig) Pearly Nautilus . < - 280 Manatee . 5 5 ae alaly/ Periwinkle . a e oo 410 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE PAGE Mollusks — continued : Reptiles — continued: Petunculus . - 3 . 3802 Tortoise . . : = 74 Pholas striata = - 302 Turtle, Green . ; < 170 Pinna . : c - 3805 Hawk’s Bill . . « 180 Poulp Gains» + - 272, 278 Loggerhead. a iG Pteroceras scorpio 290 Water-Snake 183 Retepora cellularis . . 818 | Rocky Mountains at the aa of Salpa . . 326 the Bear Lake River = ae ae Seyllea . ° 283 | Rotifera :— Sea-Hare, compound tothe Conochilus volyox 268 Of. - ; : 295 Philodina roseola 269 Sepia . ‘ 104, 275 Ptygura melicerta 2 ef 1267 Solen, or Razor-Shell . 304 | Saw of the Saw-Fish . 100 Strombus pes pelicani . 290 | Sea-Fowl Shooting . 168 Syllea, gizzard of 2 294 | Skeleton of the Dugong . = Js Tiara . : 2 . 288 of the Perch 6 : . 188 Tridacna gigas. - . 314 of the Seal . : 119 Whelk. : s : 413 of the Tortoise . - = lin Worm-shell 291 | Skerryvore Lighthouse : . 89 Muscles and Electric Batteries bf Skull and Head of Walrus . 129 the Torpedo 202 | Skull of Whale, with the Baleen. 98 Nervous Axis of an Aeweldan 262 | Surirella constricta 402 Noctiluca miliaris - 419 | Theoretic representation of the Ova of the Cuttle-Fish < 278 Circulation in Fishes 192 Protozoa :— Theoretic representation of the Ameha : : : 379 Circulation in Mammals and Foraiainifera 381 Birds. : 175 Halina papillaris 386 | Theoretic eee of the Infusoria, marine 384 Cireulation in Reptiles 175 Nummulina discoidalis 378 Torso Rock, near Point Deas Polycistina . 383 Thomson, in the Arctic Ocean . 8 Sponges : - . 885 | Sockets with teeth, of Echinus Tethea ‘ * - 885, 386 esculentus ‘ : - 3839 Reptiles :-— Urticating organs of Cilendamte 346 Alligator Lucius . ’ 173 | Water-Spovts . : 69, 70 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. ee - er at Nee a ee mind atte ny 2 #1900) £2000] Comparanve View ¢ of the 4 _________ Principal. Blevonons in the Western Hemisphere. MAP OF THE GLOBE HEMISPHERES ——_- Showing the — NATURAL FEATURES of me LAND AND THE DIRECTION OF THE OCHAN CURRENTS, 7 Yo f - COTIDAL LINES = J, ‘ \ &e. / Soh SE EEE ae Se Ay, z | Joep Marquess Eps Bratt! aot! sale! Sa a ae ee nace Baia. hey. MAN c zt ia x | ae 4 Kemp 1 Su in leh, the distribution of Active Volcanoes. sand the regions visited ce D dice] SH Het Lime Spare Reference to Currents &o The Atroms indicate the direction of the Currents. those this We—=5. show that the ong We Nintee So Sumner! Current alternates with the S The fipuree attached indicate the Toeate of the Current Fringint Barrier Reefs D Requms drained. by the Ai “are Gre re The light curved liner crossing Db D Di an 3 eg and the reman numerals D: D. D In n R amtuchnd indieare whe ome of Nigh Warer ar Yew Full Moon. y D D Arai, Dt Bop DS of Ravers which discharge te ) into Lakes ve lost iv Sands & PDP. Bly CHAPTER I. - THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA. Extent of the Ocean.—Length of its Coast-Line.—Mural, Rocky, and Flat Coasts. —How deep is the Sea?—Average Depth of the Atlantic Ocean.—The Tele- graphic Plateau between Newfoundland and Ireland.—Measurement of Depth by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave.—Progressive Changes in the Limits of the Ocean.—Alluyial Deposits.—Upheaving.—Subsidence.—Does the Level of the Sea remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?—Composition and Temperature of Sea-Water.—Its intrinsic Colour.—The Azure Grotto at Capri. —Modification of Colour owing to Animals and Plants.— Submarine Landscapes viewed through the Clear Waters. Or all the gods that divide the empire of the earth, Neptune rules over the widest realms. If agiant-hand were to uproot the Andes and cast them into the sea, they would be engulphed in the abyss, and scarcely raise the general level of the waters. The South American Pampas, bounded on the north by tropical palm-trees, and on the south hy wintry firs, are no doubt of magnificent dimensions, yet these vast deserts seem insignificant when compared with the boundless plains of earth- encircling ocean. Nay! a whole continent, even America or Asia, appears small against the immensity of the sea, which covers with its rolling waves nearly three-fourths of the entire surface of the globe. A single glance over the map shows us at once how very un- equally water and land are distributed. In one part we see continents and islands closely grouped together, while in another the sea widely spreads in one unbroken. plain; here vast penin- sulas stretch far away into the domains of ocean, while there immense gulfs plunge deeply into the bosom of the land. At first sight it might appear as if blind chance had presided over this distribution, but a nearer view convinces us that providen- B 2 4 PILYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. tial laws have established the existing relations between the solid and fluid surfaces of the earth. If the sea had been much smaller, or if the greatest mass of land had been concentrated in the tropical zone, all the meteorological phenomena on which the existence of actual organic life depends would have been so different, that it is doubtful whether man could then have existed, and certain that, under those altered circumstances, he never would have attained his present state of civilisation. The dependence of our intellectual development upon the ex- isting configuration of the earth, convinces us that Divine wisdom and not chaotic anarchy has from all eternity presided over the destinies of our planet. The length of all the coasts which form the boundary between sea and land can only be roughly estimated, for who has accurately measured the numberless windings of so many shores? The entire coast line of deeply indented Europe and her larger isles measures about 21,600 miles, equal to the cir- cumference of the earth; while the shores of compact Africa extend to a length of only 14,000 miles. I need hardly point out how greatly Europe’s irregular outlines have contributed to the early development of her superior civilisation and political pre- dominance. The coasts of America measure about 45,000 miles, those of Asia 40,000, while those of Australia and Polynesia may safely be estimated at 16,000. Thus the entire coast-line of the globe amounts to about 136,000 miles, which it would take the best pedestrian full twenty-five years to traverse from end to end. How different is the aspect of these shores along which the ever-restless sea continually rises or falls! Here steep rock-walls tower up from the deep, while there a low sandy beach extends its flat profile as far as the eye can reach. While some coasts are scorched by the vertical sunbeam, others are perpetually blocked up with ice. Here the safe harbour bids welcome to the weather-beaten sailor, the light-house greets him from afar with friendly ray ; the experienced pilot hastens to guide him to the port, and all along the smiling margin of the land rise the peaceful dwellings of civilised man. There, on the con- trary, the roaring breakers burst upon the shore of some dreary wilderness, the domain of the savage or the brute. What a wonderful variety of scenes unrolls itself before our fancy as it DIFFERENT FORMATION OF SEA-COASTS. Bi) roams along the coasts of ocean from zone to zone! what changes, as it wanders from the palm-girt coral island of the Beecny Head. tropical seas to the melancholy strands where, verging towards the poles, all vegetable life expires! and how magnificently grand does the idea of ocean swell out in our imagination, when we consider that its various shores witness at one and the same time the rising and the setting of the sun, the darkness of night and the full blaze of day, the rigour of winter and the smiling cheerfulness of spring ! The different formation of sea-coasts has necessarily a great influence on commercial intercourse. Bold mural coasts, rising precipitously from the deep sea, generally possess the best harbours. Rocky shores also afford many good ports, but most frequently only for smaller vessels, and of difficult access, on account of the many isolated cliffs and reefs which charac- terise this species of coast formation. In places where high lands reach down to the coast, the im- mediate depth of the sea is proportionably great; but wherever the surface rises gently landwards, the sea-bed continues with a corresponding slope downwards. On these flat coasts the tides roll over a sandy or shingly beach; and here the aid of human industry is frequently required to create artificial ports, or to prevent those already existing from being choked with sand. On many flat coasts the drift-sand has raised dunes, wearying 6 PITYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. the eye by their monotonous uniformity; on others, where these natural bulwarks are wanting, artificial embankments, or dykes protect the lowlands against the encroachments of the sea, or else the latter forms vast salt-marshes and lagunes. On some coasts these submerged or half-drowned lands have been transformed by the industry of man into fertile meadows and fields, of which the Dutch Netherlands afford the most celebrated example ; while in other countries, such as Egypt, large tracts of land once cul- tivated have been lost to the sea, in consequence of long misrule and tyranny. How deep is the sea? How is its bottom formed? Does life still exist in its abyssal depths? These mysteries of ocean, which no doubt floated indistinctly before the mind of many an inquisitive mariner and philosopher of ancient times, have only recently been subjected to a more accurate investigation. Their solution is of the highest importance, both to the physical geographer, whose knowledge must necessarily remain incom- plete until he can fully trace the deep-sea path of oceanic currents, and to the zoologist, to whom it affords a wider in- sight into the laws which govern the development of the innumerable forms of life with which our globe is peopled. The ordinary system of sounding by means of a weight at- tached to a graduated line, and “armed” at its lower end with a thick coating of soft tallow, so as to bring up evidence of its having reached the bottom in a sample of mud, shells, sand, gravel, or ooze, answers perfectly well for comparatively shallow water, and for the ordinary purposes of navigation, but it breaks down for depths much over 1000 fathoms. The weight is not sufficient to carry the line rapidly and vertically to the bottom; and if a heavier weight be used, ordinary sounding line is unable to draw up its own weight along with that of the lead from great depths, and gives way, so that by this means no information can be gained as to the nature of the sea-bottom. To obviate this difficulty, several ingenious instruments have been invented, such as the “ Bull-dog” sounding machine, which is so contrived that on touching the bottom the weight becom s detached, while at the same time a pair of scoops, closing upon one another scissorwise on a hinge, and permanently attached DEEP SOUNDINGS. t to the sounding-line, retain and are able to bring up a sample of the bottom. With the aid of steam, dredging has also been successfully carried down to 2,435 fathoms, so that the ocean bed may be- come in time as well known to us as the bed of the Mersey or the Thames. Both sounding and dredging at great depths are, however, difficult and laborious tasks, which can only be performed under very favourable circumstances, and require a vessel specially fitted at considerable expense. Many of the early deep soundings in the Atlantic, which reported the astonishing depths of 46,000 or even 50,000 feet, are now known to have been greatly exaggerated. In some cases bights of the line seem to be carried along by submarine currents, and in others it is found that the line has been running out by its own weight only, and coiling itself in a tangled mass directly over the lead. These sources of error vitiate very deep soundings; and consequently, in the last chart of the North Atlantic, published on the authority of Rear- Admiral Richards in November 1870, none are entered beyond 4000 fathoms, and very few beyond 30600. “ The general result,” says Professor Wyville Thomson,* “ to which we are led by the careful and systematic deep-sea sound- ings which have been undertaken of late years is that the depth of the sea is not so great as was at one time supposed, and does not appear to average more than 2000 fathoms (12,000 feet), about equal to the mean height of the elevated table-lands of Asia. “The thin shell of water which covers so much of the face of the earth occupies all the broad general depressions in its crust, and it is only limited by the more abrupt prominences which project above its surface, as masses of land with their crowning plateaux and mountain ranges. The Atlantic Ocean covers 30,000,000 of square miles, and the Arctic Sea 3,000,000, and taken together they almost exactly equal the united areas of Europe, Asia, and Africa—the whole of the Old World—and yet there seem to be few depressions on its bed to a greater depth than 15,000 or 20,000 feet—a little more than the height of Mont Blane; and, except in the neighbourhood of the shores, * «The Depths of the Sea,” p. 228. 8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. there is only one very marked mass of mountains, the voleanic group of the Agores.” Accurate soundings are as yet much too distant to justify a detailed description of the bed of the Atlantic. I will merely state that after sloping gradually to a depth of 500 fathoms to the westward of the coast of Ireland, in lat. 52° N., the bottom suddenly dips to 1700 fathoms, at the rate of from about 15 to 19 feet in the 100. From this point to within about 200 miles of the coast of Newfoundland, where it begins to shoal again, there is a vast undulating plain averaging about 2000 fathoms in depth below the surface—the “telegraph plateau” on which now rest the cables through which the electric power transmits its marvellous messages from one world to another. Our information about the beds of the Indian, the Antarctic, and the Pacific Oceans is still more incomplete, but the few trustworthy observations which have hitherto been made seem to indicate that neither the depth nor the nature of the bottom of these seas differs greatly from what we find nearer home. The inclosed and landlocked European seas are very shallow when compared with the high ocean: the Mediterranean, how- ever, has in some parts a depth of more than 6000 feet; and even in the Black Sea, the plummet sometimes descends to more than 3000 feet; while the waters of the Adriatic every- where roll over a shallow bed. The researches of Mr. Russell on the swiftness of the tide-wave, showing that the rapidity of its progress increases with the depth of the waters over which it passes, afford us another means, besides the sounding line, of determining approximately the distance of the sea-bottom from its surface. According to this method, the depth of the Channel between Plymouth and Boulogne has been calculated at 180 feet; and the enormous rapidity of the flood wave over the great open seas (300 miles an hour and more) gives us for the mean depth of the Atlantic 14,400 feet, and for that of the Pacifie 19,500. Natural philosophers have endeavoured to calculate the quantity of the waters contained within the vast bosom of the ocean ; but as we are still very far from accurately knowing the mean depth of the sea, such estimates are evidently based upon a very unsubstantial foundation. So much at least is certain, that the volume of the waters of THE GOODWIN SANDS. 9 the ocean as much surpasses all conception, as the number of their inhabitants, or of the sands that line their shores. The boundaries of the ocean are not invariable; while mn some parts it encroaches upon the land, in others it retreats from the expanding coast. In many places we find the sea perpetually gnawing and undermining cliffs and rocks; and Torso Rock, near Point Deas Thomson, in the Arctic Ocean. sometimes swelling with sudden rage, it devours a broad expanse of plain, and changes fertile meads into a dreary waste of waters. The Goodwin Sands, notorious for the loss of many a noble vessel, were once a large tract of low ground belonging to Earl Goodwin, father of Harold, the last of our Saxon kings; and being afterwards enjoyed by the monastery of St. Augustine at Canterbury, the whole surface was drowned by the abbot’s neglect to repair the wall which defended it from the sea. In spite of the endeavours of the Dutch to protect their flat land by dykes against the inundatory waters, the storm-flood has more than once burst through these artificial boundaries, and converted large districts into inland seas. But the spaces which in this manner the dry land has gra- dually or suddenly lost, or still loses, to the chafing ocean are largely compensated for in other places, by the vast accumulations 10 PHYSICAL GHOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. of mud and sand, which so many rivers continually carry along with them into the sea. Thus at the mouths of the Nile, of the Ganges, and of the Mississippi, large alluvial plains have been deposited, which now form some of the most fruitful portions of the globe. The whole Delta of Egypt, Bengal, and Louisiana, have thus gradually emerged from the waters. The volcanic powers, which once caused the highest mountain chains to rise from the glowing bosom of the earth, are still uninterruptedly active in changing its surface, and are gradually displacing the present boundaries of sea and land, upheaving some parts and causing others to subside. On the coast of Sweden, it has been ascertained that iron rings fixed to rocks which formerly served for the fastening ot boats are at present much too high. Flat cliffs on which, ac- cording to ancient documents, seals used to be clubbed while enjeying the warm sunbeam, are now quite out of the reach of these amphibious animals. In the years 1731, 1752, and 1755, marks were hewn in some conspicuous rocks, which after the lapse of half a century were found to have risen about two feet higher above the level of the sea. This phenomenon is confined to part of the coast, so that it is clearly the result of a local and slowly progressive upheaving. Whilst a great part of Scandinavia is thus slowly but steadily rising, the shores of Chili have been found to rise convulsively under the influence of mighty volcanic shocks. Thus after the great earthquake of 1822, the whole coast, for the length of a hundred miles, was found to be three or four feet higher than before, and a further elevation was observed after the earthquake of Feb. 21st, 1835. While to the north of Wolstenholme Sound, Kane remarked signs of elevation, a converse depression was observed as he proceeded southwards along the coast of Greenland, Esquimaux huts being seen washed by the sea. The axis of oscillation must be somewhere about 77° N. lat. At Keeling Island, in the Indian Ocean, Mr. Darwin found evidence of subsidence. On every side of the lagoon, in which the water is as tranquil as in the most sheltered lake, old cocoa- nut-trees were undermined and falling. The foundation-posts of a store-house on the beach, which the inhabitants had said stood seven years before just above high-water mark, were now THE TEMPLE OF SERAPIS. 11 daily washed by the tide. Earthquakes had been repeatedly remarked by the inhabitants, so that Darwin no longer doubted concerning the cause which made the trees to fali, and the store-house to be washed by the daily tide. On the columns of the temple of Serapis, near Puzzuoli, the astonished naturalist sees holes scooped out by Pholades and Lithodomas, twenty-four feet above the present level of the sea. These animals are marine testacea, that have the power of burying themselves in stone, and cannot live beyond the reach of low-water. How then have they been able to scoop out those hieroglyphic marks so far above the level of their usual abodes ? for surely marble originally defective was never used for the construction of so proud an edifice. Alternate depressions and elevations of the soil afford us the only key to the enigma. Earthquakes and oscillations, so frequent in that volcanic region, must first have lowered the temple into the sea, where it was acted upon by the sacrilegious molluscs, and then again their upheaving powers must have raised it to its present elevation. Thus, even the solid earth changes its features, and reminds us of the mutability of all created things. There can be no doubt that, in consequence of the perpetual increase of alluvial deposits, and of the volcanic processes I have mentioned, the present boundaries of ocean must undergo great alterations in the course of centuries, and the general level of the sea must either rise or fall; but the evidence of history proves to us that, for the last 2000 years at least, there has been no notable change in this respect. The baths hewn out in the rocks of Alexandria, and the stones of its harbour, have remained unaltered ever since the founda- tion of the city by the Macedonian conqueror; and the ancient port of Marseilles shows no more signs of a change of level than the old sea-walls of Cadiz. Thus, all the elevations and depressions that have occurred in the bed of ocean, or along its margin, and all the mud and sand that thousands of rivers continually carry along with them into the sea, have left its general level unaltered, at least within the historic ages. However great their effects may appear to the eye that confines itself to local changes, their influence, as far as the evidence of history reaches, has been but slight upon the immensity of the sea. Geodesical operations have proved that the level of the ocean, 12 PILYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. with the exception of certain enclosed seas of limited extent, is everywhere the same. The accurate measurements of Cora- boeuf and Delcros show no perceptible difference between the level of the Channel and that of the Mediterranean. In the course of the operations for measuring the meridian in France, M. Delambre calculated the height of Rodez above the level of the Mediterranean at Barcelona, and its height above the ocean which washes the foot of the tower of Dunkirk, and found the difference to be equal to a fraction of a yard. The measurements which, at Humboldt’s suggestion, General Bolivar caused to be executed by Messrs. Lloyd and Filmore, prove that the Pacific is, at the utmost, only a few feet higher than the Caribbean Sea, and even that the relative height of the two seas changes with the tides. The long and narrow inlet of the Red Sea, which, according co former measurements, was said to be twenty-four or thirty feet higher than the Mediterranean seems, from more recent and accurate investigations, to be of the same level, and thus to form no exception to the general rule. Thesalts contained insea water, and to which it owes its peculiar bitter and unpleasant taste, form about three and a half per cent. of its weight, and consist principally of common table salt (chloride of sodium), and the sulphates and carbonates of magnesia and lime. But, besides these chief ingredients, there is scarcely a single elementary body of which traces are not to be found in that universal solvent. Wilson has pointed out fluoric combina- tions in sea water, and Malaguti and Durocher (Annales de Chimie, 1851) detected lead, copper, and silver in its composi- tion. Tons of this precious metal are dissolved in the vast volume of the ocean, and it contains arsenic sufficient to poison every living thing. Animal mucus, the product of numberless creatures, is mixed up with the sea water, and it constantly absorbs carbonic acid and atmospheric air, which are as indispensable to the marine animals and plants as to the denizens of the atmospheric ocean. In inclosed seas, communicating with the ocean only by narrow straits, the quantity of saline particles varies from that TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA. 13 uf the high seas. Thus the Mediterranean, when evaporation is favoured by heat, contains about one half per cent. more salt than the ocean; while the Baltic, which, on account of its northern position, is not liable to so great a loss, and receives vast volumes of fresh water from a number of considerable rivers, is scarcely half so salt as the neighbouring North Sea. In the open ocean, the perpetual circulation of the waters produces an admirable equality of composition: yet Dr. Lenz, who accompanied Kotzebue in his second voyage round the world, and devoted great attention to the subject, found that the Atlantic, particularly in its western part, contains a some- what larger proportion of salts than the Pacific; and that the Indian Ocean, which connects those vast volumes of water, is more salt towards the former than towards the latter. As water is a bad conductor of caloric, the temperature of the seas is in general more constant than that of the air. The equinoctial ocean seldom attains the maximum warmth of 83°, and has never been known to rise above 87°; while the sur- face of the land between the tropics is frequently heated to 129°. In the neighbourhood of the line, the temperature of the surface-water oscillates all the year round only between 82° and 85°, and scarce any difference is perceptible at different times of the day. The wonderful sameness and equability of the temperature of the tropical ocean over spaces covering thousands of square miles, particularly between 10° N. and 10° S. lat., far from the coasts, and where it is not intersected by pelagic streams, affords, according to Arago, the best means of solving a very important, and as yet unanswered question, concerning the physics of the globe. ‘ Without troubling itself,” says that great natural philosopher, ‘‘ about mere local influences, each century might leave to succeeding generations, by a few easy thermometrical measurements, the means of ascertaining whether the sun, at present almost the only source of warmth upon the surface of the earth, changes his physical constitution, and varies in his splendour like most stars, or whether he has attained a permanent condition. Great and lasting revolutions in his shining orb would reflect themselves more accurately in the 14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TILE SEA. altered mean temperature of those ocean plains than in the changed medium warmth of the dry land.” The warmest part of the ocean does not coincide with the Equator, but seems to form two not quite parallel bands to the north and south. In the northern Atlantic, the line of greatest temperature (87° F.) which on the African coast is found but a little to the north of the Equator, rises on the north coast of South America as high as 12° N. lat.,and in the Gulf of Mexico ranges even beyond the tropic. The influence of the warmth-radiating land on inclosed waters is still more remarkable in the Mediterranean (between 30° and 44° N. lat.) where during the summer months a temper- ature of 84° and 85° is found, three degrees higher than the medium warmth of the open tropical seas. While in the torrid zone the temperature of the ocean is generally inferior to that of the atmosphere, the contrary takes place in the Polar seas. Near Spitzbergen, even under 80° N. lat., Gaimard never found the temperature of the water below 4+-33°. Between Norway and Spitzbergen the mean warmth of the water in summer was +39°, while that of the air only attained + 37°. In the enclosed seas of the Arctic Ocean, the enormous accu- mulation of ice, which the warmth of a short summer is unable totally to dissolve, naturally produces a very low temperature of the waters. Thus, in Baffin’s Bay, Sir John Ross found during the summer months only thirty-one days on which the tempe- rature of the water rose above freezing point. In the depths of the sea, even in the tropical zone, the water is found of a frigid temperature, and this circumstance first led to the knowledge of the submarine polar ocean currents; “ for without these, the deep sea temperature in the tropics could never have been lower than the maximum of cold, which the heat-radiating particles attain at the surface.” * It was formerly believed that while the surface temperature —- which depended upon direct solar radiation, the direction of currents, the temperature of winds, and other temporary causes — might vary to any amount, at a certain depth the temperature was permanent at 4° C., the temperature of the greatest density of fresh water. Late investigations, however, have led to the * Tumboldt’s “ Kosmos,” LOCALISED CURRENTS. 15 conclusion that instead of there being a permanent deep layer ot water at 4° C., the average temperature of the deep sea in temperate and tropical regions is about 0° C., the freezing point of fresh water. In the atmospheric ocean, aeronauts not seldom meet with warm air currents flowing above others of a colder temperature ; while, according to a general law, the warmth of the air con- stantly diminishes as its elevation above the surface of the sea increases. Similar exceptions to the general rule are met with in the ocean. In moderate depths sometimes the whole mass of water from the surface to the bottom is abnormally warm, owing to the movement in a certain direction of a great body of warm water, as in the “warm area” to the north-west of the Hebrides, where, at a depth of 500 fathoms, the minimum temperature was found to be 6° C. On the other hand, the whole body of water is sometimes abnormally cold, as in the “cold area,” be- tween Scotland and Faeroe, where, at a depth of 500 fathoms, the bottom temperature is found to average —1° C.* The only feasible explanation of these enormous differences of tempera- ture, amounting to nearly 13° F. in two areas freely communi- cating with one another, and in close proximity, is that in the area to the north-west of the Hebrides a body of water warmed even above the normal temperature of the latitude flows northwards from some southern source, and occupies the whole depth of that comparatively shallow portion of the Atlantic, while an arctic stream of frigid water creeps from the north-eastward into the trough between Faeroe and the Shetland Islands, and fills its deeper part in consequence of its higher specific gravity. There ean be no doubt that similar phenomena occur in various parts of the ocean, and that the deep seas are frequently intersected by streams differing in temperature from the surrounding waters. In some places, owing to the conformation of the neighbour- ing land or of the sea-bottom, superficial warm and cold cur- rents are circumscribed and localised, thereby occasioning the singular phenomenon of a patch or stripe of warm and a patch of cold sea meeting in an invisible but well-defined line. * «The Depths of the Sea,” by Professor Wyville Thomson, p. 307. 16 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. The temperature of the sea apparently never sinks at any depth below —3°5° C. This is about the temperature of the maximum density of sea water, which contracts steadily till just above its freezing point (—3-°67° C.), when kept perfectly still. If we include in the tropical seas all that part of the ocean where the surface temperature never falls below 68° F., and where consequently living coral reefs may occur, we find that it nearly equals in size the temperate and cold ocean-regions added together. This distribution of the waters over the surface of the globe is of the highest importance to mankind ; for the immense extent of the tropical ocean, where, of course, the strongest evaporation takes place, furnishes our temperate zone with the necessary quantity of rain, and tends by its cooling influence to diminish the otherwise unbearable heat of the equatorial lands. The circumstance of ice being lighter than water also con- tributes to the habitability of our earth. Ice is a bad con- ductor of heat; consequently it shields the subjacent waters from the influence of frost, and prevents its penetrating to considerable depths. If ice had been heavier than water, the sea-bottom, in higher latitudes, would have been covered with solid crystal at the very beginning of the cold season; and during the whole length of the polar winter, the per- petually consolidating surface-waters would have been con- stantly precipitated, till finally the whole sea, far within the present temperate zone, would have formed one solid mass of ice. The sun would have been as powerless to melt this pro- digious body, as it is to dissolve the glaciers of the Alps, and the cold radiating from its surface would have rendered all the neighbouring lands uninhabitable. The mixture of the water of rivers with that of the sea pre- sents some hydrostatic phenomena which it is surious enough to observe. Fresh water being lighter, ought to keep at the surface, while the salt water, from its weight, should form the deepest strata. This, in fact, is what Mr. Stephenson observed in 1818 in the harbour of Aberdeen at the mouth of the Dee, and also in the Thames near London and Woolwich. By taking up water from different depths with an instrument invented for the purpose, Mr. Stephenson found that at a certain distance FRESH-WATER SPRINGS. ae from the mouth the water is fresh in the whole depth, even during the flow of the tide, but that a little nearer the sea fresh water is found on the surface, while the lower strata consist of sea water. According to his observations it is between London and Woolwich that the saltness of the bottom begins to be per- ceptible. Thus, below Woolwich the Thames, instead of flowing over a solid bed, in reality flows upon a liquid bottom formed by the water of the sea, with which no doubt it is more or less mixed. Mr. Stephenson is of opinion that, at the flow of the tide, the fresh water is raised as it were in a single mass by the salt water which flows in, and which ascends the bed of the river, while the fresh water continues to flow towards the sea. Where the Amazon, the La Plata, the Orinoco, and other giant streams pour out their vast volumes of water into the ocean, the surface of the sea is fresh for many miles from the shore; but this is only superficial, for below, even in the bed of the rivers, the bitterness of salt water is found. It is a curious fact, that in many parts of the ocean, fresh- water springs burst from the bottom of the sea. Thus, in the Gulf of Spezzia, and in the port of Syracuse, large jets of fresh water mingle with the brine; and Humboldt mentions a still more remarkable submarine fountain on the southern coast. of Cuba, in the Gulf of Xagua, a couple of sea miles from the shore, which gushes through the salt water with such vehemence, that boats approaching the spot are obliged to use great caution. Trading vessels are said sometimes to visit this spring, in order to provide themselves in the midst of the ocean with a supply of fresh water. The sea is not colourless; its crystal mirror not only reflects the bright sky or the passing cloud, but naturally possesses a pure bluish tint, which is only rendered visible to the eye when the light penetrates through a stratum of water of considerable depth. This may be easily ascertained by experiment. Takea glass tube, two inches wide and two yards long, blacken it inter- nally with lamp-black and wax to within half an inch of the end, the latter being closed by a cork. Throw a few pieces of white porcelain into this tube, which, after being filled with pure Cc 18 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. sea-water, must be set vertically on a white plate, and then, looking through the open end, you will see the white of the porcelain changed into a light blue tint. In the Gulf of Naples, we find the inherent colour of the water exhibited to us by Nature on a most magnificent scale. The splendid “ Azure cave,” at Capri, might almost be said to have been created for the purpose. For many centuries its beauties had been veiled from man, as the narrow entrance is only a few feet above the level of the sea, and it was only discovered in the year 1826, by two Prussian artists accidentally swimming in the neighbourhood. Having passed the portal, the cave widens to grand proportions, 125 feet long, and 145 feet broad, and except a small landing place on a projecting rock at the farther end, its precipitous walls are on all sides bathed by the influx of the waters, which in that sea are most remarkably clear, so that the smallest objects may be distinctly seen on the light bottom at a depth of several hundred feet. All the light that enters the grotto must penetrate the whole depth of the waters, probably several hundred feet, before it can be re- flected into the cave from the clear bottom, and it thus acquires so deep a tinge from the vast body of water through which it has passed, that the dark walls of the cavern are illumined by a radiance of the purest azure, and the. most differently coloured objects below the surface of the water are made to appear bright blue. Had Byron known of the exist- ence of this magic cave, Childe Harold would surely have sung its beauties in some of his most brilliant stanzas. All profound and clear seas are more or less of a deep blue colour, while, according to seamen, a green colour indicates soundings. The bright blue of the Mediterranean, so often vaunted by poets, is found all over the deep pure ocean, not only in the tropical and temperate zones, but also in the regions of eternal frost. Scoresby speaks with enthusiasm of the splendid blue of the Greenland seas, and all along the great ice-barrier which under 77° S, lat. obstructed the progress of Sir James Ross towards the pole, that illustrious navigator found the waters of as deep a blue as in the classical Mediterranean. The North Sea is green, partly from its water not being so clear, and partly from the reflection of its sandy bottom mixing with the essen- tially blue tint of the water. In the Bay of Loanga the sea has DISCOLORATION OF THE SEA FROM ALG. 19 the colour of blood, and Captain Tuckey discovered that this results from the reflection of the red ground-soil. -But the essential colour of the sea undergoes much more frequent changes over large spaces, from enormous masses of minute alge, and countless hosts of small sea-worms, floating or swimming on its surface. “ A few days after leaving Bahia,” says Mr. Darwin, “ not far from the Abrolhos islets, the whole surface of the water, as it appeared under a weak lens, seemed as if covered by chipped bits of hay with their ends jagged. Each bundle consisted of from twenty to sixty filaments, divided at regular intervals by transverse septa, containing a brownish-green flocculent matter. The ship passed several bands of them, one of which was about ten yards wide, and, judging from the mud-like colour of the water, at least two and a half miles long. Similar massesof floating vegetable matter are a very common appearance near Australia. During two days preceding our arrival at the Keeling Islands, I saw in many parts masses of flocculent matter of a brownish green colour, floating in the ocean. They were from half to three inches square, and consisted of two kinds of microscopical conferve. Minute cylindrical bodies, conical at each extremity, were involved in large numbers in a mass of fine threads.” “ On the coast of Chili,” says the same author, “ a few leagues north of Conception, the ‘ Beagle’ one day passed through great bands of muddy water; and again, a degree south of Valparaiso, the same appearance was still more extensive. Mr. Sulivan, having drawn up some water in a glass, distinguished by the aid of a lens moving points. The water was slightly stained, as if by red dust, and after leaving it for sometime quiet, a cloud collected at the bottom. With a slightly magnifying lens, small hyaline points could be seen darting about with great rapidity, and frequently exploding. Examined with a much higher power, their shape was found to be oval, and contracted by a ring round the middle, from which line curved little sete pro- ceeded on all sides, and these were the organs of motion. Their minuteness was such that they were individually quite invisible to the naked eye, each covering a space equal only to the one- thousandth of an inch, and their number was infinite, for the smallest drop of water contained very many. In one day we passed through two spaces of water thus stained, one of which (yi 20 ; PILYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. alone must have extended over several square miles. ‘The colour of the water was like that of a river which has flowed through a red clay district, and a strictly defined lme separated the red stream from the blue water.” In the neighbourhood of Callao, the Pacifie has an olive-green colour, owing to a greenish matter which is also found at the bottom of the sea, in a depth of 800 feet. In its natural state it has no smell, but when cast on the fire, it emits the odour of burnt animal substances. Near Cape Palmas, on the coast of Guinea, Captain Tuckey’s ship seemed to sail through milk, a phenomenon which was owing to an immense number of little white animals swimming on the surface, and concealing the natural tint of the water. The peculiar colouring of the Red Sea, from which it has derived its name, is owing to the presence of a microseopic alga, sui generis, floating at the surface of the sea and even less remarkable for its beautiful red colour than for its prodigious fecundity. I could add many more examples, where, either from minute algz or from small animals, the deep blue sea suddenly appeared in stripes of white, yellow, green, brown, orange or red. For fear, however, of tiring the reader’s patience, I shall merely mention the olive green water, which covers a considerable part of the Greenland seas. It is found between 74° and 80° N. lat., but its position varies with the currents, often forming isolated stripes, and sometimes spreading over two or three degrees of latitude. Small yellowish Meduse, of from one-thirtieth to one- twentieth of an inch in diameter are the principal agents that change the pure ultramarine of the Arctic Ocean into a muddy green. According to Scoresby, they are about one-fourth of an inch asunder, and in this proportion a cubic inch of water must contain 64, a cubic foot 110,592, a cubic fathom 23,887,872, and a cubic mile nearly twenty-four thousand billions! From soundings made in the situation where these animals were found, the sea is probably more than a mile deep; but whether these substances occupy the whole depth is un- certain. Provided, however, the depth to which they extend be about 250 fathoms, the immense number of one species mentioned above may occur in a space of two miles square; and what a stupendous idea must we form of the infinitude of SUBMARINE LANDSCAPES. 21 marine life, when we consider that those vast numbers, beyond all human conception, occupy after all only a small part of the green-coloured ocean which extends over twenty or thirty thousand square miles! It is here that the giant whale of the north finds his richest pasture-grounds, which at the same time invite man to foliow on his track. A small red crustacean (Cetochilus australis) which forms very extensive banks in the Pacific, and in the middle of the Atlantic about 40°S. lat., affords a similar supply of food to the whales frequenting those seas, and exposes them to the same dangers. When the sea is perfectly clear and transparent, it allows the eye to distinguish objects at a very great depth. Near Mindora, in the Indian Ocean, the spotted corals are plainly visible under twenty-five fathoms of water. The crystalline clearness of the Caribbean sea excited the admiration of Columbus, who in the pursuit of his great discoveries ever retained an open eye for the beauties of nature. “In passing over these splendidly adorned grounds,” says Schopf, “where marine life shows itself in an endless variety of forms, the boat, suspended over the purest erystal, seems to float in the air, so that a person unaccustomed to the scene easily becomes giddy. On the clear sandy bottom appear thousands of sea-stars, sea-urchins, molluscs, and fishes of a brilliancy of colour unknown in our temperate seas. Fiery red, intense blue, lively green, and golden yellow perpetually vary ; the spectator floats over groves of sea-plants, gorgonias, corals, aleyoniums, flabellums, and sponges, that afford no less delight to the eye, and are no less gently agitated by the heaving waters, than the most beautiful garden on earth when a gentle breeze passes through the waving boughs.” With equal enthusiasm De Quatrefages expatiates on the beauties of the submarine landscapes on the coast of Sicily. “The surface of the waters, smooth and even like a mirror, enabled the eye to penetrate to an incredible depth, and to recognise the smallest objects. Deceived by this wonderful transparency, it often occurred during my first excursions, that I wished to seize some annelide or medusa, which seemed to swim but a few inches from the surface. Then the boatman smiled, took a net fastened to a long pole, and, to my great astonishment, plunged it deep into the water before it could attain the object which I had supposed to be within my reach. The admirable 22 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. clearness of the waters produced another deception of a most agreeable kind. Leaning over the boat, we glided over plains, dales, and hillocks, which, in some places naked and in others carpeted with green or with brownish shrubbery, reminded us of the prospects of the land. Our eye distinguished the smallest inequalities of the piled-up rocks, plunged more than a hundred feet deep into their cavernous hollows, and everywhere the undulations of the sand, the abrupt edges of the stone-blocks, and the tufts of alga were so sharply defined, that the wonder- ful illusion made us forget the reality of thescene. Between us and those lovely pictures we saw no more the intervening waters that enveloped them as in an atmosphere and carried our boat upon their bosom. It was as if we were hanging in a vacant space, or looking down like birds hovering in the air upon a charming prospect. Strangely formed animals peopled these submarine regions, and lent them a peculiar character. Fishes, sometimes isolated like the sparrows of our groves, or uniting in flocks like our pigeons or swallows, roamed among the crags, wandered through the thickets of the sea-plants, and shot away like arrows as our boat passed over them. Caryophyilias, Gorgonias, and a thousand other zoophytes unfolded their sensitive petals, and could hardly be distinguished from the real plants with whose fronds their branches intertwined. Enormous dark blue Holothurias crept along upon the sandy bottom, or slowly climbed the rocks, on which crimson sea-stars spread out immoveably their long radiating arms. Molluscs dragged themselves lazily along, while crabs, resembling huge spiders, ran against them in their oblique and rapid progress, or attacked them with their formidable claws. Other crustaceans, analogous to our lobsters or shrimps, gambolled among the fuci, songht for a moment the surface waters to enjoy the light of heaven, and then by one mighty stroke of their muscular tail, instantly disappeared again in the obscure recesses of the deep. Among these animals whose shapes reminded us of familiar forms appeared other species, belonging to types unknown in our colder latitudes: Salpe, strange molluses of glassy trans- parency, that, linked together, form swimming chains; great Beroés, similar to living enamel; Diphye hardly to be dis- tinguished from the pure element in which they move, and finally, Stephanomic, animated garlands woven of crystal and ———— SUBMARINE LANDSCAPES. 23 flowers, and which, still more delicate than the latter, disap- pear as they wither, and do not even leave a cloud behind them in the vase, which a few moments before their glassy bodies had nearly entirely filled.” Fill at the Rapid on Bear Lake River. (North-West Territory, North America.) 24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA CHAP. 4. THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN. Waves and the Mode of their Formation.—Height and Velocity of Storm-Waves, on the High Seas, according to the Calculations of Scoresby, Arago, Sir James Ross, and Wilkes—Their Height and Power on Coasts—Their Destructive Effects along the British Shore-—Dunwich.—Reculver.—Shakspeare’s Cliff. AFTER having admired the sea in the grandeur of its expanse, and the profundity of its depths, I shall, in this and the two following chapters, examine in what manner the perpetual cir- culation of its waters is maintained. “ The movements of the sea,” says Humboldt, “ are of a three- fold description: partly irregular and transitory, depending H.M.S. ‘* Resolute’? lying- to in the North Atlantic. upon the winds, and occasioning waves; partly regular and periodical, resulting from the attraction of the sun and the moon WAVES, THEIR MODE OF FORMATION. 25 (ebb and flood); and partly permanent, though of unequal strength and rapidity at different periods (oceanic currents).” Who has ever sojourned on the coast, or crossed the seas, and has not been delighted by the aspect of the waves, so graceful when a light breeze curls the surface of the waters, so sublime when a raging storm disturbs the depths of the ocean? But it is easier to admire the beauty of a wave than clearly to explain its nature, so as to convey an accurate or sufficiently general conception of its formation to the reader’s mind. Those who are placed for the first time on a stormy sea, discover with wonder that the large waves which they see rushing along with a velocity of many miles an hour do not carry the floating body along with them, but seem to pass under the bottom of the ship with scarcely a perceptible effect in carrying the vessel out of its course. In like manner, the observer near the shore perceives that floating pieces of wood are not carried towards the shore with the rapidity of the waves, but are left nearly in the same place after the wave has passed them as before. Nay, if the tide be ebbing, the waves may even be observed rushing with great velocity towards the shore, while the body of water is actually receding, and any object floating in it is carried in the opposite direction to the waves out to sea. What, then, is wave-motion as distinct from water-motion ? The force of the wind, pushing a given mass of water out of its place into another, dislodges the original occupant, which is again pushed forward on the occupant of the next place, and so on. As the water-particles crowd upon one another, in the act of going out of their old places into the new, the crowd forms a temporary heap visible on the surface of the fluid, and as each successive mass is displacing the one before it, the un- dulation or oscillatory movement spreads farther and farther over the waters. Wave-motion is, in fact, the transference of motion without the transference of matter: of form without the substance, of force without the agent. The strongest storm cannot suddenly raise high waves, they require time for their development. Fancy the wind blowing over an even sea, and it will set water-particles in motion all over the surface, and thus give the first impulse to the 26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TIE SEA. formation of small waves. Numberless oscillations unite their efforts, and create visible elevations and depressions. Mean- while, the wind is constantly setting new particles in motion; long before the first oscillations have lost their effect, countless others are perpetually arising, and thus the sum of the pro- pelling powers is constantly increasing, and gradually raising mountain-waves, until their growth is finally limited by the counterbalancing power of the earth’s attraction. As the strength of the waves only gradually rises, it also loses itself only by degrees, and many hours after the tornado has ceased to rage, mighty billows continue to remind the mariner of its extinguished fury. The turmoil of waters awakened by the storm propagates itself hundreds of miles beyond the space where its howling voice was heard, and often, during the most tranquil weather, the agitated sea proclaims the distant war of the elements. The velocity of waves depends not only on the power of the impulse, but also on the depth of the subjacent waters, as I have already mentioned in the preceding chapter. For this reason, as increased velocity augments the power of the impulse, the waves in the Atlantic or Pacific, the mean depth of which may be estimated at 12,000 or 18,000 feet, attain a much greater height than in the comparatively shallow North Sea. The breaking of the waves against the shore arises from their velocity diminishing with their depth. As the small flat wave rolls up the beach, its front part, retarded by the friction of the ground, is soon overtaken by its back, moving in swifter progression, and thus arises its graceful swelling, the toppling of its snow-white crest, and finally its pleasant prattle among the shingles of the strand. This is one of those pictures of nature which Homer describes with such inimitable truth in various places of his immortal poems: he paints with admirable colours the slow rising of the advancing wave, how it bends forward with a graceful curve, and, crowning itself with a diadem of foam, spreads like a white veil over the beach, leaving sea-weeds and shells behind, as it rustles back again into the sea. The height which waves may attain on the open sea has NEIGHT OF WAVES. 27 peen accurately investigated by the late Rev. Dr. Scoresby, during two passages across the Atlantic in 1847 and 1848. “In the afternoon of March 5th, 1848,” says that eminent philosopher, “I stood during a hard gale upon the cuddy-roof or saloon deck of the ‘ Hibernia :’ a height, with the addition of that of the eye, of 23 feet 3 inches above the line of flotation (the ship’s course being similar to that of the waves). Iam not aware that I ever saw the sea more terribly magnificent; the great majority of the rolling masses of water was more than 24 feet high, (including depression as well as altitude, or reckoning above the mean-level, more than 12 feet). I then went to the larboard paddle-box, about 7 feet higher (80 feet 2 inches up to the eye), and found that one half of the waves rose above the level of the view obtained. “Frequently I observed long ranges (200 yards), which rose so high above the visible horizon, as to form an angle estimated at two or three degrees when the distance of the wave’s summit was about 100 yards from the observer. This would add near 13 feet to the level of the eye, and at least one in half-a-dozen waves attained this altitude. Sometimes peaks or crests of breaking seas would shoot upward, at least 10 or 15 feet higher. “The average wave was, I believe, fully equal to that of my sight on the paddle-box, or more than 15 feet, and the mewn highest waves, not including the broken or acuminated crests, rose about 43 feet above the level of the hollow occupied at the moment by the ship. It was a grand storm-scene, and nothing could exceed the pictorial effect of the partial sunbeams break- ing through the heavy masses of clouds.” From the time taken by a regular wave to pass from stern to stem, Dr. Scoresby calculated its velocity at 2875 feet in each minute, or 32°67 English statute miles in an hour. The mean length of the wave-ridges, was from a quarter to a third of a mile. To those who might be inclined to doubt the accuracy of these measurements, the remark may suffice that our celebrated countryman had been for years engaged in the northern whale- fishery, where he had ample opportunities for practising his eye in measuring distances. Besides, the conclusions of many other trustworthy observers coincide with the evaluations of Dr. Scoresby. 28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. Thus Captain Wilkes, commander of the U. 8. Exploring Expedition, found the height of the waves near Orange Har- bour, where they rose higher and more regular than at any other time during the cruise, to be thirty-two feet (depression ana altitude), and their apparent progressive motion about twenty-six and a half miles in an hour. Sir James Ross calculated the height of the waves on a strongly agitated sea at twenty-two feet, and, according to the French naturalists who sailed in the frigate “ La Venus,” on her voyage round the world, the highest waves they met with never exceeded that measure. Thus, according to the joint testimony of the most eminent nautical authorities, the waves in the open sea never attain the mountain-height ascribed to them by the exuberant fancy of poets or exaggerating travellers. | But when the tempest surge beats against steep crags or rocky coasts it rises to a much more considerable height. The lighthouse of Bell Rock, though 112 feet high, is literally buried in foam and spray to the very top during ground-swells, even when there is no wind. On the 20th November, 1827, the spray rose to the height of 117 feet above the foundation or low-water mark, which, deducting eleven feet for the tide that day, leaves 106 feet for the height of the wave. The strength of that remarkable edifice may be estimated from the fact, that the power of such a giant billow 13 equivalent to a pressure of three tons per square foot. In the Shetland Islands, which are continually exposed to the full fury of the Atlantic surge (for no land intervenes between their western shores and America), every year witnesses the removal of huge blocks of stone from their native beds by the terrific action of the waves. “In the winter of 1802,” says Dr. Hibbert, in his description of that northern archipelago, “a tabular-shaped mass, eight feet two inches by seven feet, was dislodged from its bed and removed to a distance of from eighty to ninety feet. I measured the recent bed from which a block had been carried away the preceding winter (A.p. 1818), and found it to be seventeen feet and a half by seven feet, and the depth two feet eight inches. The removed mass had been borne to a distance of thirty feet, when it was shivered into thirteen or more lesser fragments, some of which were carried DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF WAVES. 29 still farther from 30 to 120 feet. A block nine feet two inches by six feet and a half, and four feet thick, was hurried up the acclivity to a distance of 150 feet.” The great storm of 1824, which carried away part of the breakwater at Plymouth, lifted huge masses of rock, from two to five tons in weight, from the bottom of the weatherside and rolled them fairly to the top of the pile. One block of lime- stone weighing seven tons was washed round the western ex- tremity of the breakwater, and swept to a distance of 150 feet. In 1807, during the erection of the Bell Rock lighthouse, six large blocks of granite which had been landed on the reef were removed by the force of the sea and thrown over a rising ledge to the distance of twelve or fifteen paces, and an anchor weighing about twenty-two hundredweight was cast upon the surface of the rock. With such examples before our eyes, we cannot wonder that in the course of centuries all shores exposed to the full shock of the waves, lashing against them with every returning tide, should gradually be wasted and worn away. One kind of stone stands the brunt of the elements longer than another, but ultimately even the hardest rock must yield to the rage of the billows, which when provoked by wintry gales, batter against them with all the force of artillery. Thus, all along our coasts we find innumerable instances of their destructive power. Tynemouth Castle now overhangs the sea, although formerly separated from it by a strip of land, and in the old maps of Yorkshire we find spots, now sandbanks in the sea, marked as the ancient sites of the towns and villages of Auburn, Hartburn, and Hyde. The cliffs of Norfolk and Suffolk are subject to incessant and rapid decay. At Sherring- ham, Sir Charles Lyell ascertained, in 1829, some facts which throw light on the rate at which the sea gains upon the land. There was then a depth of twenty feet (sufficient to float a frigate) at one point in the harbour of that port, where only forty-eight years ago there stood a cliff fifty feet high with houses upon it! “If once in half a century,” remarks the great geologist, “ an equal amount of change were produced suddenly by the momentary shock of an earthquake, history would be filled with records of such wonderful revolutions of the earth’s surface ; but if the conversion of high land into deep sea be 30 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. gradual, it excites only local attention.” On the same coast, the ancient villages of Shipden, Wimpwell, and Eccles have disappeared, several manors and large portions of neighbour- ing parishes having gradually been swallowed up; nor has there been any intermission, from time immemorial, in the ravages of the sea along a line of coast twenty miles in length in which these places stood. Dunwich, once the most considerable seaport on the coast of Suffolk, is now but a small village with about one hundred inhabitants. From the time of Edward the Confessor, the ocean has devoured, piece after piece, a monastery, seven churches, the high road, the town-hall, the gaol, and many other buildings. In the sixteenth century not one-fourth of the ancient town was left standing, yet, the inhabitants retreating inland, the name has been pre- served, — “Stat magni nominis umbra,’— as has been the case with many other ports, when their ancient site has been blotted out. The Isle of Sheppey is subject to such rapid decay, that the church at Minster, now near the coast, is said to have been in the middle of the island fifty years ago, and it has been con- jectured that at the present rate of destruction, the whole isle will be annihilated before the end of the century. Another remarkable instance of the destructive action of the tidal surge is that cf Reculver, on the Kentish coast, an important military station in the time of the Romans, now nothing but a ruin and a name. So late as the reign of Henry VIII., Reculver was still a mile distant from the sea; but, in 1780, the encroaching waves had already reached the site of the ancient camp, the walls of which, cemented as they were into one solid mass by the unrivalled masonry of the Romans, continued for several years after they were under- mined to overhang the sea. In 1804, part of the churchyard with the adjoining houses was washed away, and then the ancient church with its two lofty spires, a well-known land- raark, was dismantled and abandoned as a place of worship. Shakspeare’s Cliff at Dover has also suffered greatly from the waves, and continually diminishes in height, the slope of the hill being towards the land. About the year 1810, there was SHAKSPEARE'S CLIFF. 31 an immense landslip from this cliff, by which Dover was shaken as if by an earthquake, and a still greater one in 1772. Thus the fame of the poet is likely to outlive for many centuries the proud rock, the memory of which will always be entwined with his immortal verse :— “ How fearful, And dizzy ’tis to cast one’s eyes so low! The crows, and choughs, that wing the midway air, Show searce so gross as beetles: half way down Hangs one that gathers samphire ; dreadful trade! Methinks, he seems no bigger than his head. The fishermen, that walk upon the beach, Appear like mice; and yon tall anchoring bark, Diminish’d to her cock; her cock, a buoy Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge, That on th’ unnumber'd idle pebbles chafes, Cannot be heard so high.” The peninsulas of Purbeck and Portland, the cliffs of Devon- shire and Cornwall, the coasts of Pembroke and Cardigan, the stormy Hebrides, Shetland and Orcadia, all tell similar tales of destruction, a mere summary of which would swell into a volume. During the most violent gales the bottom of the sea is said by different authors to be disturbed to a depth of 300, 350, or even 500 feet, and Sir Henry de la Béche remarks that when the depth is fifteen fathoms, the water is very evidently dis- coloured by the action of the waves on the mud and sand of the bottom. But in the deep caves of ocean all is tranquil, all is still, and the most dreadful hurricanes that rage over the surface leave those mysterious recesses undisturbed. 82 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. CHAPS TE THE TIDES. Description of the Phenomenon.—Devastations of Storm-Floods on Flat Coasts.— What did the Ancients know of the Tides ? — Their Fundamental Causes revealed by Kepler and Newton.— Development of their Theory by La Place, Euler, and Whewell.— Vortices caused by the Tides.— The Maelstrom.— Charybdis.— The Barre at the mouth of the Seine.— The Euripus. Living on the sea-coast would undoubtedly be deprived of one of its greatest attractions, without the phenomenon of the tides, which, although of daily recurrence, never loses the charm of novelty, and gives constant occupation to the fancy by the life, movement, and perpetual change it brings along with it. How wonderful to see the sandy plain on which, but a few hours ago, we enjoyed a delightful walk, transformed into a vast sheet of water through which large vessels plough their way! How agreeable to trace the margin of the rising flood, and listen to its murmurs! Those of the rustling grove or waving cornfield are not more melodious. And then the variety of interesting objects which the reflux of the tide leaves behind it on the beach — the elegantly formed shell, the feathery sertularia, the delicate fucoid, and so many other strange or beautiful marine productions, that may well challenge the attention of the most listless lounger. But the spectacle of the tides is not merely flesene to the eye, or attractive to the imagination; it serves also to rouse the spirit of scientific inquiry. It is indeed hardly possible to wit- ness their regular succession without feeling curious to know by what causes they are produced, and when we learn that they are governed by the attraction of distant celestial bodies, and that their mysteries have been so completely solved by man, that he is able to calculate their movements for months and years to come, then indeed the pleasure and admiration we fee) at their DESCRIPTION OF TIDES. 33 aspect must increase, for we cannot walk upon the beach with- out being constantly reminded that all the shining worlds that stud the heavens are linked together by one Almighty power, and that our spirit, which has been made capable of unveiling and comprehending so many of the secrets of creation, must surely possess something of a divine nature! On all maritime coasts, except such as belong to mediterra- nean seas not communicating freely with the ocean, the waters are observed to be constantly changing their level. They regu- larly rise during about six hours, remain stationary for a few minutes, and then again descend during an equal period of time, when after having fallen to the lowest ebb, they are shortly after seen to rise again, and so on in regular and endless succes- sion. In this manner twelve hours twenty-four minutes elapse on an average from one flood to another, so that the sea twice rises and falls in the course of a day, or rather twice during the time from one passage of the moon through the meridian to the next, a period equivalent on an average to 1,3, day, or nearly twenty-five hours. Thus the tides retard from one day to another; least at new and full moon, when our more active satel- lite accomplishes her apparent diurnal motion round the earth in twenty-four hours, thirty-seven minutes; and most at half- moon, when, sailing more leisurely through the skies, she takes full twenty-five hours and twenty seven minutes to perform her daily journey. As the retarding of the tides regularly corresponds with the retarding of the moon, they always return at the same hour after the lapse of fourteen days, so that at the end of each of her monthly revolutions, the moon always finds them in the same position. The knowledge of this fact is extremely useful to navigators, as it is easy to calculate the time of any tide in a port by knowing when it is high-water on the days of new and full moon. The height of the tides in the same place is as unequal and changing as the period of their intervals, and is equally depen- dent on the phases of the moon, increasing with her growth, and diminishing with her decrease. New and full moon always cause a higher rising of the flood (spring-tide), followed by a deeper ebb, while at half-moon the change of level is much less considerable (neap-tide). Thus in Plymouth, for instance, the D 34 PITYSICAL GEOGRAPITY OF THE SEA. neap-tides are only twelve feet high, while the ordinary spring- tides rise to more than twenty feet. The highest tides take place during the equinoxes; and eclipses of the sun and moon are also invariably accompanied by considerable floods, a circumstance which cannot fail to add to the terror of the ignorant and superstitious when a mysterious obscurity suddenly veils the great luminaries of the sky. It has also been remarked that the tides are stronger or weaker, according as the moon is at a greater or smaller distance from the earth. Thus as the height of the floods is always regulated by the relative position of the sun and moon, and the movements of these heavenly bodies can be calculated a long time beforehand, our nautical calendars are able to tell us the days when the highest spring-tides may be expected. This however can only be foreto!d to a certain extent, as the tidal height not only depends upon the attraction of the heavenly bodies, but also upon the casual influences of the wind, which defies all calculation, and of the pressure of the air. Thus Mr. Walker observed on the coasts of Cornwall and Devonshire that when the barometer falls an inch, the level of the sea rises sixteen inches higher than would otherwise have been the case. When a strong and continuous wind blows in an opposite direction to the tide-wave, and at the same time the barometer is high, the curious spectators will therefore be deceived in their expectations, however promising the position of the attracting luminaries may be; while an ordinary spring-tide, favoured by a low state of the barometer and chased by a violent storm against the coast, may attain more than double the usual height. When all favourable circumstances combine, an event which fortunately but rarely occurs, those dreadful storm-tides take place, as menacing to the flat coasts of the Netherlands as an eruption of Etna to the towns and hamlets scattered along its base, for here also a vast elementary power is let loose which bids defiance to human weakness. It is then that the rebel sea affords a spectacle of appalling magnificence. The whole surface seethes and boils in endless confusion. Gigantic waves rear their monstrous heads like mighty Titans, and hurl their whole colossal power against the dunes and dykes, as if, impelled by a wild lust of conquest, they were burning to devour MAGNIFICENCE OF STORM-TIDES. 35 the rich alluvial plains which once belonged to their domain. Far inland, the terrified peasant hears the roar of the tumul- tuous waters, and well may he tremble when the mountain-waves come thundering against the artificial barriers, that separate his fields from the raging floods, for the annals of his country relate many sad examples of their fury, and tell him that numerous villages and extensive meads, once flourishing and fertile, now lie buried fathom-deep under the waters of the sea. Thus, on the first of November, 1170, the storm-flood, bursting through the dykes, submerged all the land between the Texel, Medenblik, and Stavoren, formed the island of Wieringen, and enlarged the openings by which the Zuiderzee communicated with the ocean. The inundations of 1232 and 1242 caused, each of them, the death of more than 100,000 persons, and that of 1287 swept away more than 80,000 victims in Friesland alone. The irruption of 1395 considerably widened the channels between the Flie and the Texel, and allowed large vessels to sail as far as Amsterdam and Enkhuizen, which had not been the case before. Whilst reading these accounts, we are led to compare the inhabitants of the Dutch lowlands with those of the fertile fields and vineyards that clothe the sides of Vesuvius: both exposed to sudden and irretrievab'e ruin from the rage of two different elements, and yet both contented and careless of the future; the first behind the dykes that have often given way to the ocean, the latter on the very brink of a menacing volcano, The tides which sometimes cause such dreadful devastations on the shores of the North Sea are, as is well known, incon- siderable, or even hardly perceptible in the Mediterranean, and thus many years passed ere the Greeks and Romans first wit- nessed the grand phenomenon. The Phoenicians, the merchant princes of antiquity, who at a very early period of history visited the isolated Britons, — “ Penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos, ” — and sailed far away into the Indian Ocean, were of course well acquainted with it; but it first became known to the Greeks through the voyage of Coleus, a mariner of Samos, who, accord- ing to Herodotus, was driven by a storm through the Straits of Hercules into the wide Atlantic 600 years before Christ. About D2 36 PITYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TITE SEA. reventy years after this involuntary discovery, the Phoceans of Massilia, or Marseilles, first ventured to follow on the track of Coleus for the purpose of trading with Tartessus, the present Cadiz; and from that time remained in constant commercial intercourse with that ancient Phcenician colony. With what eager attention may their countrymen have listened to the wondrous tale of the alternate rising and sinking of the ocean! Such must have been the astonishment of our forefathers when the first Arctic voyagers told them of the floating icebergs, and of the perpetually circling sun of the high northern summer. Thus the tides became known to the Massilians about five centuries before Christ, but in those times of limited interna- tional intercourse, knowledge travelled but slowly from place to place; so that it was not before the conquests of Alexander, which first opened the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to Grecian trade, that the great marine phenomenon began to attract the general attention of philosophers and naturalists. The flux and reflux of the seais evidently so closely connected with the movements and changes of the moon, that the intimate relations between both could not possibly escape the penetrating sagacity of the Greeks. Thus we read in Plutarch, that Pytheas of Marseilles, the great traveller who sailed to the north as far as the Ultima Thule, and lived in the times of Alexander the Great, ascribed to the moon an influence over the tides. Aristotle ex- pressed the same opinion, aud Cesar says positively (Commen- taries, De Bel. Gal. book iv. 29,) that the full-moon causes the tides of the ocean to swell to their utmost height. Strabo distinguishes a three-fold periodicity of the tides according to the daily, monthly, and annual position of the moon, and Pliny expresses himself still more to the point, by saying that the waters move as if obeying the thirsty orb which causes them to follow its course. This vague notion of obedience or servitude was first raised by Kepler to the clear and well defined idea of an attractive power. According to this great and self-taught genius, all bodies strive to unite in proportion to their masses. “ The earth and moon would mutually approach and meet together at a point, so much nearer to the earth as her mass is superior to that of the moon, if their motion did not prevent it. The moon WHAT DID THE ANCIENTS KNOW OF TIDES ? 37 attracts the ocean, and thus tides arise in the larger seas. If the earth ceased to attract the waters, they would rise and flow up to the mocn.” The general notion of a mutual attraction, however, did no more than point out the way for the solution of the problem, and it was reserved to our great Newton 1o accomplish the prophecy of his great predecessor, *‘ that the discovery of the true laws of gravitation would be accomplished in a future generation, when it should please the Almighty Creator of nature to reveal her mysteries to man.” Newton was the first who proved that the tide-generating power of a celestial body arises from the difference of the at- traction it exerts on the centre and the surface of the earth. Thus it was at once made clear how the water not only rises on the surface facing the moon, but also on the opposite side of the earth, as in the latter case the moon acts more strongly on the mass of the earth than on the waters which cover the hemisphere most distant from her. The evident consequence is that the earth siiks (so to say), on the surface turned from the moon, whereby a deepening of the waters, or, in other words, a rising of the tide, is occasioned. It now also became clear how the moon, whose attractive power upon the earth is 160 times smaller than that of the sun, is yet able to occasion a stronger tide, since, from her proximity to the earth, she attracts the surface more forcibly than the centre with the thirtieth part of her power, while the distant sun occasions a difference of attraction on these two points equal only to one twelve-thousandth part of her attrac- tive force. Now also a full explanation was first given why the highest tides take place at new and full moon: that is, when the moon stands between the sun and the earth; or the latter between the sun and the moon; as then the two celestial bodies unite their powers; while at half-moon the solar tide corresponding with the lunar ebb, or the lunar tide with the solar ebb, counteract each other. But even Newton explained the true theory of the tides only in its more prominent and general features, and the labours of other mathematicians, such as MacLaurin, Bernoulli, Euler, La Place, and Whewell, were required for its further development, 38 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SHA. so as fully to explain all the particulars of the sublime phe- nomenon. The reproach has often been made to science, that she banishes poetry from nature, and disenchants the forest and the field; but this surely is not the case in the present instance, for what poetical fiction can fill the soul with a grander image than that of the eternal restlessly-progressing tide-wave, which, following the triumphant march of the sun and moon, began as soon as the primeval ocean was formed, and shall last uninter- ruptedly as long as our solar system exists ! Were the whole earth covered with one sea of equal depth, the tides would regularly move onwards from east to west, and everywhere attain the same height under the same latitude. But the direction and the force of the tide-wave are modified by many obstacles on its way, such as coast-lines and groups of islands, and it has to traverse seas of very unequal depth and form. Flat coasts impede its current by friction, while it rolls faster along deep mural coasts. From all these causes the streneth of the tides is very unequal in different places. They are generally low on the wide and open ocean. Thus the highest tides at Otaheiti do not exceed eleven inches, three feet at St. Helena, one foot and a half at Porto Rico. But when considerable obstructions oppose the progress of the tide-waves, such as vast promontories, long and narrow channels, or bays of diminishing width, and mouths of rivers directly facing its swell, it rises to a very great height. Thus, at the bottom of Fundy Bay, which stretches its long arm between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the spring-tides rise to sixty, seventy, or even one hundred feet, while at its entrance they do not exceed nine feet, and their swell is so rapid as frequently to sweep away cattle feeding on the shore. The Bristol Channel and the bay of St. Malo in Brittany, are also renowned for their high tides. Near Chepstow, the flux is said sometimes to reach the surprising height of seventy feet, and at St. Malo the floods frequently rise to forty and fifty feet. When the water is low, this small seaport town appears sur- rounded on all sides by fantastically shaped cliffs covered with sea- weeds and barnacles. Pools of salt water interspersed here and there among the hollowed stones, or on the even ground between them, and harbouring many curious varieties of marine animals, THE TIDES AT ST. MALO. 39 are the only visible signs of the vicinity of the ocean, whose hoarse murmurs are heard resounding from afar. But an astonishing change takes place a few hours after, when the town, surrounded by the sea, would be a complete island, but for a long, narrow causeway called “the Sillon,” which connects it with the main- land. On the side fronting the open sea, the tide breaks with tremendous rage against the strong buttresses that have been raised to oppose its fury, rises foamingly to a height of thirty or forty feet, and threatens the tardy wanderer as he loiters on the narrow causeway. The cliffs that erewhile were seen to sur- round the town are now hidden under the waters, some few excepted, that raise their rugged heads like minute islands above the circumambient floods. The opposite side of the cause- way is also washed by the sea; but here its motions are less tumultuous, for after having broken against numberless rocks and made a vast circuit, it scarce retains a vestige of its primitive strength. On this side lies the vast, but deserted harbour of St. Malo, completely dry at ebb-tide; a wide sea during the flood. Two eminent French authors, Chateaubriand and Lamennais, were born at St. Malo, and there can be no doubt that the imposing spectacle I have briefly described must have greatly contributed to the widening of their intellectual horizon. Daily witnesses from their early childhood of one of the grandest phe- nomena of nature in all its wild sublimity, the boundless and the infinite soon grew familiar to their mind, enriching it with splendid imagery and bold conceptions. Although the sun and the moon exert some attraction upon the smaller and inclosed seas, yet the development of a power- ful flood-wave necessarily requires that the moon should act upon a sufficiently wide and deep expanse of ocean. Even the Atlantic is not broad enough for this purpose, as its equatorial width measures no more than one eighth of the earth’s circum- ference: and the Pacific itself, notwithstanding its vast area, is so studded with islands and shallows, that it presents a much more obstructed basin for the action of the tide-wave than might be expected, from its apparent dimensions and equatorial position. Thus it is in the Southern Ocean, where the greatest unin- terrupted surface of deep water is exposed to the influence 40 PUYSICAL GEOGRAPITY OF TIE SEA. of the moon, that we must look for the “ chief cradle of the tides.” From this starting point they flow on all sides to the northward, progressing like any other wave that arises on a small scale in a pond from a gust of wind, the throwing of a stone, or any other cause capable of producing an undulating movement on the surface of the waters. The tide-wave, which ultimately reaches our shores, arrives at the Cape of Good Hope thirteen hours after it has left Van Diemen’s Land, and thence rolls onward in fourteen or fifteen hours to the coasts of Spain, France, and Ireland. It penetrates into the North Sea by two different ways. One of its ramifications turns round Scotland and thence flows onwards to the south, taking nineteen or twenty hours for the passage from Galway to the mouth of the Thames. A tide-wave, for instance, which appears at five in the afternoon on the west coast of Ireland, arrives at eight near the Shetland Islands, reaches Aberdeen at midnight, Hull at five in the morning, and Margate at noon. The other ramification of the same tide-wave, taking the shorter route through the Channel, had meanwhile preceded it by twelve hours, having reached Brest about five o’clock of the afternoon (at the same time that the northern branch appeared at Galway), Cherbourg at seven, Brighton at nine, Calais at eleven, and the mouth of the Thames at midnight. Thus, in this southern corner of the North Sea, two tide- waves unite that belong to two successive floods; the Scotch branch having started twelve hours sooner from the great Southern Ocean than the Channel branch, which thus results from the next following tide. The meeting of the two branches naturally gives rise to a more considerable rising of the waters, so that this circumstance, by allowing large ships to sail up the Thames, may be considered as one of the fundamental causes of the grandeur of London. In other parts of the North Sea, where the two tide-waves appear at different times, the contrary takes place, for the ebb of the one coinciding with the rising of the other, they naturally weaken or even neutralise each other. This occasions the low tides on the coast of Jutland, in Denmark, where they are scarcely higher than in the Mediterranean, and explains the otherwise startling fact of there being a space in the North TIDES IN THE NORTH SEA—-THE MAELSTROM. 41 Sea where no periodical rise and fall of the waters whatsoever takes place. Thus we see that the relations of the tides in the North Sea, with regard to height and time, are of a somewhat complicated nature, which could only be explained after the numerous observations (amounting to more than 40,000) made by order of the British Government in all parts of the world, under the direction of Professor Whewell, had proved that all the floods of the seas chiefly proceed from the great tide-wave of the Southern Ocean, which, by its numerous ramifications ia narrow seas or through groups of islands and by the unequal rapidity of its progress, according to the depth or shallowness of the waters it traverses, occasions all the seeming anomalies which were quite inexplicable by the simple Newtonian theory. As every twelve hours a new tidal-wave originates in the Southern Ocean which regularly follows in the same track as its predecessor, the tides everywhere succeed each other in regular and equal periods, and can thus everywhere be cal- culated beforehand. In narrow straits or in the intricate channels which wind through clusters of islands, different tidal-waves meeting from opposite directions give rise to more or less dangerous whirl- pools. One of the most famous of these vortices, though incon- siderable in itself, is the renowned Charybdis, which gave so much trouble to Ulysses on his passing through the strait which separates Sicily from Italy, but is at present an object of fear scazcely even to the poor fisherman’s boat. A much grander whirlpool, owing its celebrity, not to the fictions of poetry, but to the magnificent scale on which it has been constructed by nature, is the renowned Maelstrom, situated on the Norwegian coast in 68° N. lat., and near the island of Moskoe, from whence it also takes the name of Moskoestrom. It is four geographical miles in diameter, and in tempestuous weather its roar, like that of Niagara, is said to be heard several miles off. John Ramus gives us a terrible description of its fury, and mentions that in the year 1645 it raged with such noise and impetuosity, that on the island of Moskoe, the very stones of the houses fell to the ground. He tells us also that whales frequently come too near the stream, and, notwith- standing their giant strength, are overpowered by its violence, 42 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TIE SEA. but, unfortunately adds, that it is impossible to describe their howlings and bellowings in their fruitless struggles to dis- engage themselves—impossible, no doubt, as whales happen to have no voice at all! According to more modern travellers, such as the celebrated geologist Leopold von Buch, the Maelstrom is far from being so terrible as depicted by Ramus and other friends of the marvellous; so that, except during storms and spring-tides, large ships may constantly cross it without danger. The Norwegian fishermen are even said frequently to assemble on the field of the Maelstrom on account of the great abundance of fishes congregating in those troubled waters, and fearlessly to pursue their avocations, while the whirlpool moves their boats in a circular direction. Sir Robert Sibbald describes a very remarkable marine whirl- pool among the Orkney islands, which would prove dangerous to strangers, though it is of no consequence to the people who are used to it. It is not fixed to any particular place, but arises in various parts of the limits of the sea among these islands. Wherever it appears, it is very furious, and boats would in- evitably be drawn in and perish with it, but the people who navigate them are prepared for it and always carry a bundle of straw or some such matter in the boat with them. This they fiing into the vortex which immediately swallows it up, and, seemingly pleased with this propitiatory offering, subsides into smoothness, but soon after re-appears in another place. A remarkable and sudden rising of the spring-tide takes place at the mouth of several rivers, for instance, the Indus (where the surprising phenomenon nearly caused the destruction of the fleet uf Alexander the Great), the Hooghly, the Dordogne, &c. In the Seine it is observed on a scale of great magnitude. While the tide gradually rises near Havre and Harfleur, a giant wave is suddenly seen to surge near Quilleboeuf, spanning the whole width of the river (from 30,000 to 36,000 feet). After this migh y billow has struck against the quay of Quillebouf, it enters a more narrow bed and flows stream-upwards with the rapidity of a race horse, overflowing the banks on both sides, and not seldom causing considerable loss of property by its unexpectel appearance. The astonishment it causes is in- creased when it takes place during serene weather, and without THK MEDITERRANEAN—THE ADRIATIC. 43 any signs of wind or storm. A deafening noise announces and accompanies this sudden swelling of the waters, which owes its first origin to the silent action of gravitation, and is the result of the diminishing velocity of the tide-wave over a shallow bottom. While the tide-wave advances over the deep and open seas with an astonishing rapidity, its progress up the channel of a river is comparatively very slow, partly on account of the reason just mentioned, and partly from its meeting a current flowing in an opposite direction. Thus, the tide takes no less than twelve hours for its progress from the mouth of the Thames to London, about the time it requires to travel all the way from Van Diemen’s Land to the Cape of Good Hope. Consequently, when it is high-water at the mouth of the Thames at three o’clock in the afternoon, for instance, we have not high-water at London Bridge before three o'clock in the following morning, when it is again high water at the Nore. But, in the mean time, there has been low water at the Nore and high water about half-way to London, and while the high water is proceeding to London, it is ebbing at the intermediate places, and is low water there when it is high water at London and at the Nore. If the tide extended as far beyond London as London is from the Nore, we should lave three high waters with two low waters interposed. The most remarkable instance of this kind is afforded by the gi- gantic river of the Amazons, as it appears by the observations of Condamine and others, that, between Para, at the mouth of the colossal stream, and the conflux of the Madera and Maranon, there are no less than seven simultaneous high waters with six low waters hetween them. Thus, four days after the tide-wave was first raised in the Southern Ocean, its last undulations expire deep in the bosom of the South American wilds. The Mediterranean is generally supposed to be tideless, but this opinion is erroneous; and in the Adriatic, the flux of the sea is far from being inconsiderable, for, at Venice, the dif- ference between high and low water is sometimes no less than six or even nine feet. Mr. W. Trevelyan, during a summer residence in the old port of Antium, on the Roman coast, found from a svries of accurate observations, that the tides regularly succeed each other and attain a height of fourteen inches. i4 PILYSICAL GEHOGRAPILY OF THE SHA. In the eastern Mediterranean new measurements have proved that they are still more considerable, while in the western part of that inclosed sea they are almost imperceptible. The differences of level caused by the Mediterranean tides, are indeed too inconsiderable to attract the general notice of the inhabitants on the coast, but in the famed Euripus, the narrow channel which separates the island of Eubcea or Negropont from continental Greece, the tide produces the striking phenomenon of very irregular fluctuations of the waters, from one end of the channel to the other. This phenomenon was of course completely inexplicable to the ancient philosophers, and Aristotle is even said to have drowned himself in the Euripus in a fit of despair, since, with all his prodigious sagacity, he could not possibly solve the mystery. For us, who know that peculiar formations of the sea-bed and coasts are capable of considerably augmenting the force of the floods, and that tidal waves rushing into a narrow channel in opposite directions, and at different times, must necessarily produce irregular fluctuations of the waters, the phenomenon of the Euripus has ceased to be a mystery. 4A CHAP. -LVi MARINE CAVES. Effects of the Sea on Rocky Shores.—Fingal’s Cave.—Beautiful Lines of Sir Walter Seott.—The Antro di Nettuno. -The Cave of Hunga—Legend of its Discovery.—Marine Fountains.—The Skerries.—The Souffleur in Mauritius.— The Buffadero on the Mexican Coast. Wuoever has only observed the swelling of the tide on the flat coasts of the North Sea, has but a faint idea of the Titanic power which it developes on the rocky shores of the wide ocean. Even in fair weather, the growing flood, oscillating over the boundless expanse of waters, rises mm tremendous breakers, so that it is impossible to héhold their fury without feeling a con- viction that the hardest rock must ultimately be ground to atoms by such irresistible forces. Day after day, year after year, thev renew their fierce attacks, and as in the high Alpine valleys the tumultuous torrents rush- ing from the glaciers tear deep furrows in the flanks of the mountains, thus it is here the sea which stamps the seal of its might on the vanquished rocks, corrodes them into fantastic shapes, scoops ont wide portals in their projecting promontories, and hollows out deep caverns in their bosoms. Here, also, water appears as the beautifying element, deco- rating inanimate nature with picturesque forms, and the sea nowhere exhibits more romantic scenes than on the rocky shores against which her waves have been beating for many a mil- lennium. How manifold the shapes into which the rocky shores are worn! how numberless the changes which each varying season, nay, every hour of the day with its constant alternations of ebb and flood, of cloud and sunsbine, of storm or calm, produces in their physiognomy! Our coasts abound in beauties such as these; but pre-eminent above all other specimens of Ocean’s fantastic architecture is Fingal’s Cave, which may well challenge the world to show its equal. 46 PITYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. From afar, the small island of Staffa, rising precipitously from the sea, seems destitute of all romantic interest, but on ap- proaching, the traveller is struck with the remarkable basaltic columns of which it is chiefly composed. Most of them rest upon a substratum of solid shapeless rock, and generally form colonnades upwards of fifty feet high, following the contours of the inlets or promontories, and overtopped with smaller hillocks. Along the west coast of the island they are tolerably irregular, but on the south side Staffa appears as an immense Gothic edifice, or rather as a forest of gigantic pillars seemingly ar- ranged with all the regularity of art. The admiration they cause is, however, soon effaced when the vast cave to which the remote islet owes its world-wide celebrity bursts upon the view. Fancy a grotto measuring 250 feet in length by 53 in width at the entrance, and spanned by an arch 117 feet high, which, though gradually sloping towards the interior, still maintains a height of 70 feet at the farthest end of the cavern! The walls consist of rows of huge hexagonal basaltic pillars, which seem regularly to diminish according to the rules of perspective. The roof of the vault is formed of the remnants of similar columns, whose shafts have beyond a doubt been torn away by the sea, which, destroying them one after the other, has gra- dually excavated this magnificent temple of Nature. All their interstices, like those of the pillars, are cemented with a kind of pale yellow spar, which brings out all the angles and sides of their surfaces, and forms a pleasing contrast with the dark purple colour of the basalt. The whole floor of the cave is occupied by the sea, the depth of which, even at its farthest end, is above six feet, during ebb- tide ; but it is only in perfectly calm weather that a boat is able to venture into the interior, for when the sea is any way turbu- lent (and this is generally the case among the stormy Hebrides) it is in danger of being hurled against the walls of the grot and dashed to pieces. Under these circumstances, the only access into the cave is by a narrow dyke or ledge running along its eastern wall, about fifteen feet above the water. It 1s formed of truncated basaltic pillars, over which it is necessary to clamber with great caution and dexterity, as they are always moist and slippery from the dashing spray. Frequently there is only room enough for one foot, and while the left hand grasps that FINGAL'S CAVE, 47 of the guide, it is necessary to hold fast with the right to fe pillar of the wall. As this difficult path is most dangerous in the darkest part of the cave, but few tourists are bold enough to trust themselves to it, for the least false step must infallibly precipitate the adventurous explorer into the seething caldron below. Sometimesa cormorant, fearless of any accident of this kind, has built his nest upon the top of one of the truncated Fingal’s Cave. pillars, which form the pavement of the pathway, and betrays by a peevish hissing his ill humour at being disturbed in his solitary retreat by the intrusion of man. The narrow path ultimately widens into a more roomy and slanting space formed of the remains of more than a thousand perpendicular truncated shafts. The back wal] consists of a range of unequally sized pillars, arranged somewhat like the tubes of an organ. When the waves rush with tumultuous fury 48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. into the cave and dash their flakes of snow-white foam against its wall, it seems as if the gigantic instrument, touched by an invisible hand, were loudly singing the triumphs of ocean. Among the beauties of this matchless cave, the clear light must not be forgotten, which, penetrating through the wide portal, produces an agreeable chiaro-oscuro even at its farthest end, so that the eye is able to seize at one glance the full majesty of the splendid hall; nor the pure air which, constantly renewed by the perpetual alternations of the tides, is very different from the chilly dampness which generally reigns in subterranean caverns. When we consider the resemblance which from its regularity this magnificent work of nature bears to a production of human art, we cannot wonder at its having been ascribed to mortal architecture. But as men of ordinary stature seemed too weak for so colossal an enterprise, it was attributed to a race of giants, who constructed it ‘for their chief and leader, Fingal, so renowned in Gaelic mythology. This belief still lingers among the primitive people of the neighbourhood, though some, being averse to pagan Goliahs, ascribe its workmanship to St. Columban. The patriotic muse of Walter Scott, who visited the cave in 1810, rises to more than ordinary warmth while describing “That wondrous dome, Where, as to shame the temples deck’d By skill of earthly architect, Nature herself, it seemed, would raise A minster to her Maker's praise! Not for a meaner use ascend Her columns, or her arches bend; Nor of a theme less sulemn, tells That mighty surge that ebbs and swells, And still between each awful pause From the high vault an answer draws Tn varied tones, prolonged and high, That mocks the organ’s melody. Nor doth its entrance front in vain To old Iona’s holy fane, That Nature’s voice might seem to say, ‘ Well hast thou done, frail child of clay, Thy humble powers that stately shrine Task’d high and hard---but witness mine!’” Lord of the Isles, canto iv. stanza 10. THE CAVE OF HUNGA. 49 The Mediterranean has likewise its marine grottoes of world- wide celebrity, its azure cave of Capri,* which I have previously described, and its Antro di Nettuno, in the island of Sardinia, about twelve miles from the small seaport of Alghero. Unfortu- nately this superb grotto is very difficult of access, for any wind between the north-west and the south prevents an entry, so that the Algherese assert that 300 out of the 365 days it is impossible to enter it. The first vaulted cavern, forming an antechamber about thirty feet high, has no peculiar beauty, but on crossing a second cavern, in which are about twenty feet of beautifully clear water, and then turning to the left, one finds oneself in an intricate navigation among stalactites with surrounding walls and passages of stalagmites of considerable height. Havirg passed them and proceeding westerly, one reaches another cavern with a natural column in its centre, the shaft and capital of which, supporting the immense and beautifully fretted roof, reminds one of those in the chapter-house of the cathedral at Wells, and the staircase of the hall at Christ Church, Oxford. It stands, the growing monument of centuries, in all its massive _and elegant simplicity with comparatively speaking few other stalagmites to destroy the effects of its noble solitude. In parts of the grotto are corridors and galleries, some 300 and 400 feet long, reminding one of the Moorish architecture of the Alhambra. One of thein terminates abruptly in a deep cavern into which it is impossible to descend; but among many other interesting objects is a small chamber the access to which is through a very narrow aperture. After climbing and scram- bling through it, one finds oneself in a room the ceiling of which is entirely covered with delicate stalactites, and the sides with fretted open work, so fantastical that one might almost imagine that it was a boudoir of the Oceanides, where they amused themselves with making lime lace. Some of the columns in different parts of the grotto are from seventy tc eighty feet in circumference, and the masses of drapery droop- ing in exquisite elegance are of equally grand proportions. If a rare chance was required to discover the narrow opening in the cliffs of Capri, behind which one of the loveliest spec- tacles of nature lies concealed, we well may wonder how the famous cave of Hunga in the Tonga Archipelago ever became * Chap. i. p. 18. E 50 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TILE SEA. known, as its entrance even at low water is completely hidden under the surface of the sea. Mariner, to whom we owe our first knowledge of this wonderful play of nature, relates that while he was one day rat-hunting * in the island of Hunga with king Finow, who at that time reigned over Tonga, the barbarian monarch took a fancy to drink his kawa f inthe cave. Mariner, who had absented himself for a few moments from the company, was very much astonished when, returning to the strand, he saw one chieftain after another dive and disappear. He had but just time to ask the last of them what they were about. * Follow me,” answered the chieftain, “‘ and I will show thee a place where thou hast never been before, and where Finow and his chieftains are at present assembled.” Mariner immediately guessed that this must be the celebrated cave of which he had frequently heard, and, anxious to see it, he immediately followed the diving chieftain, and swimming close after him under the water, safely reached the opening in the rock through which he emerged into the cave. On ascending to the surface, he imme- diately heard the voices of the company, and still following his guide, climbed upon a projecting ledge on which he sat down. All the light of the cave was reflected from the sea beneath, but yet it was sufficient, as soon as the eye had become accus- tomed to the twilight, to distinguish the surrounding objects. A clearer light being, however, desirable, Mariner once more dived, swam to the strand, fetched his pistol, poured a good quantity of powder on the pan, wrapped it carefully up in tapa- cloth and leaves, and, providing himself with a torch, returned as quickly as possible to the cave. Here he removed the cloth, a great part of which was still quite dry, and igniting it by the flame of the powder made use of it to light his torch. This was probably the very first time since its creation that the cave had ever been illumined by artificial light. Its chief compart- ment, which on one side branched out into two smaller cavities, seemed to be about forty feet wide and the mean height above the water amounted to as much. The roof was ornamented in a remarkable manner by stalactites resembling the arches and fantastic ornaments of a Gothic hall. According to a popular * A favourite pastime of the Polynesian chiefs. + An intoxicating beverage extracted from the Piper methysticum, a species of pepper plant. THE CAVE OF HUNGA. 61 tradition, the chieftain who first discovered this remarkable cave while diving after a turtle, used it subsequently as a place of refuge for his mistress to screen her from the persecutions of the reigning despot. The sea faithfully guarded his secret: after a few weeks of seclusion, he fled with his beloved to the Feejee Islands, and on his returning to his native home after the death of the tyrant, his countrymen heard with astonish- ment of the wonderful asylum that had been revealed to him by the beneficent sea-gods. Lord Byron adopted this graceful tale as the subject of his poem “ The Island, or Christian and his Comrades,” and has thus described the cave, no doubt largely adorning it from the stores of his brilliant fancy: “ Around she pointed to a spacious cave, Whose only portal was the keyless wave (A hollow archway, by the sun unseen, Save through the billows’ glassy veil of green, On some transparent ocean holiday, When all the finny people are at play). “ Wide it was and high; And showed a self-born Gothic canopy. The arch upreared by Nature’s architect, The architraye some earthquake might erect ; The buttress from some mountain’s bosom hurl'd, When the poles crash’d and water was the world ; Or harden’d from some earth-absorbing fire, While yet the globe reek’d from its funeral pyre. The fretted pinnacle, the aisle, the nave, Were there, all scoop'd by darkness from her cave. There, with a little tinge of fantasy, Fantastic faces mopp’d and mow’d on high; And then a mitre or a shrine would fix The eye upon its seeming crucifix. Thus Nature played with the stalactites, And built herself a chapel of the seas.” On many rocky shores the ocean has worn out subterraneous channels in the cliffs against which it has been beating for ages, and then frequently emerges in water-spouts or fountains from the opposite end. Thus, in the Skerries, one of the Shetland Islands, a deep chasm or inlet, which is open overhead, is con- tinued under ground and then again opens to the sky in the middle of the island. When the water is high, the waves rise up through this aperture like the blowing of a whale in noise and appearance. E 2 52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEa. A similar phenomenon is exhibited on the south side of the Mauritius, at a point called “ The Souffleur,” or “* The Blower.” “A large mass of rock,” says Lieutenant Taylor,* “runs out into the sea from the mainland, to which it is jomed by a neck of rock not two feet broad. The constant beating of the tre- mendous swell, which rolls in, has undermined it in every direc- tion, till it has exactly the appearance of a Gothic building with a number of arches. In the centre of the rock, which is about thirty-five or forty feet above the sea, the water has forced two passages vertically upwards, which are worn as smooth and cylindrical as if cut by a chisel. When a heavy sea rolls in, it of course fills in an instant the hollow caverns underneath, and finding no other egress, and being borne in with tremen- lous violence, it rushes up these chimneys and flies, roaring furiously, to a height of full sixty feet. The moment the wave recedes, the vacuum beneath causes the wind to rush into the two apertures with a loud humming noise, which is heard at a considerable distance. My companion and I arrived there before high water, and, having climbed across the neck of rock, we seated ourselves close to the chimneys, where I proposed making a sketch, and had just begun when in came a thunder- ing sea, which broke right over the rock itself and drove us back much alarmed. “Our negro guide now informed us that we must make haste to recross our narrow bridge, as the sea would get up as the tide rose. We lost no time and got back dry enough; and I was obliged to make my sketches from the mainland. In about three-quarters of an hour the sight was truly magnificent. I do not exaggerate in the least when I say that the waves rolled in, long and unbroken, full twenty-five feet high, till, meeting the headland, they broke clear over it, sending the spray flying over to the mainland; while from the centre of this mass of foam, the Souffleur shot up with a noise, which we afterwards heard distinctly between two and three miles. Standing on the main cliff, more than a hundred feet above the sea, we were quite wet. All we wanted to complete the picture was a large ship going ashore.” A similar phenomenon, on a still more grand and majestic scale, occurs near Huatulco, a small Mexican village on the * Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, vol. ili. 1833. tee ae on Se ee e nr F M = ’ { a thy “ \ * io 1 4 »® he is . <2 gorci Rok. . A ~s ’ i 4. = r . * t be ‘ ‘ iy 6 A - fa | i ; Fern, ee ieee Pants } A \d : bod r A . had ii \ * r s bal q s - » { Ni i . as i i ah ! ‘ teed rg ee ¢ 7 e . * a, ; be ‘ ' : | At \ hs ; « 4 \ ote o Be THE SOUFFLEUR. Yuts plate shows the sea beating against some hollow rocks on the coast of the Mauritius, and producing the remarkable phenomenon called “ The Souffleur,’ ot ‘The Blower,” water-spouts issuing from the wave-worn cavities of the cliff to a considerable height, and with a noise distinctly audible at a distance of three miles, MAURITIUS. sr Na THE SOUFFLEUR ROCK, Ki \ NNN HATA TNA lish WAAAY MI Will! WA A ta WU I PLURAL Hu Wlld | ERNE THE BUFFADERO. 53 coast of the Pacific. On sailing into the bay one hears a dis- tant noise, which might be taken for the spouting of a gigantic whale, or the dying groans of a bull struck by the sharp steel of the matador, or the rolling of thunder. Anxious to know the cause, “It is the Buffadero,” answer the boatmen, pointing to a fantastically-shaped rock towards which they are rowing. On approaching, a truly magnificent spectacle reveals itself; for a colossal fountain springs from an aperture in the rock to a hight of 150 feet, and after having dissolved in myriads of gems, returns to the foaming element which gave it birth. This beautiful sight renews itself as often as the breakers rush against the rock, and must be of unequalled splendour wken a tornado sweeps across the ocean and rolls its giant billows into the hoilowed bosom of the cliff. 54 CHAP. Ve OCEAN CURRENTS. Causes of the Oceanic Currents.—The Equatorial Stream.—The Gulf Stream.— Its Influence on the Climate of the West European Coasts.—The Cold Peruvian Stream.— The Japanese Stream. PeRPETUAL motion and change is the grand law, to which the whole of the created universe is subject, and immutable stability is nowhere to be found, but in the Eternal mind that rules and governs all things. The stars, which were supposed to be fixed to the canopy of heaven, are restless wanderers through the illimitable regions of space. The hardest rocks melt away under the corroding influence of time, for the elements never cease gnawing at their surface, and dislocating the atoms of which they are composed. Our body appears to us unchanged since yesterday, and yet how many cf the particles which formed its substance, have within these few short hours, been cast off and replaced by others. We fancy ourselves at rest, and yet a torrent of blood, propelled by an indefatigable heart, is con- stantly flowing through all our arteries and veins. A similar external appearance of tranquillity might deceive the superficial observer, when sailing over the vast expanse of ocean, at a time when the winds are asleep, and its surface is unruffled by a wave. But how great would be his error! For every atom of the boundless sea is constantly moving and changing its place; from the depth to the surface, or from the surface to the depth; from the frozen pole to the burning equator, or from the torrid zone to the arctic ocean; now rising in the air in the form of invisible vapours, and then again de- scending upon our fields in fertilising showers. The waters are, in fact, the greatest travellers on earth; they know all the secrets of the submarine world; climb the peaks CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS. 55 of inaccessible mountains, shame the flight of the condor as he towers over the summit of the Andes, and penetrate deeper into the bowels of the earth than the miner has ever sunk his shaft. Leaving their wanderings through the regions of air to the next chapter, I shall now describe the principal ocean currents, the simple, but powerful agencies by which they are set in motion, their importance in the economy of nature, and their influence on the climate of different countries. Even in the torrid zone, the waters of the ocean, like a false friend, are warm merely cn the surface, and of an almost icy cold- ness at a considerable depth. This low temperature cannot be owing to any refrigerating influence at the bottom of the sea, as the internal warmth of the earth increases in proportion to its depth, and the waters of protuund lakes, in a southern climate, never show the same degree of cold as those of the vast ocean. The phenomenon can thus only arise from a constant sub- marine current of cold water from the poles to the line, and strange as it may seem, its primary cause is to be sought for in the warming rays of the sun, which, as we all know, distributes heat in a very unequal manner over the surface of the globe. Heat expands all liquid bodies, and renders them lighter ; cold increases their weight by condensation. In consequence of this physical law, the waters of the tropical seas, rendered buoyant by the heat of a vertical sun, must necessarily rise and spread over the surface of the ocean to the north and south, whilst colder and heavier streams from the higher latitudes flow towards the equator along the bottom of the ocean, to re- place them as they ascend. In this manner, the unequal action of the sun calls forth a general and constant movement of the waters from the poles to the equator, and from the equator to the poles; and this per- petual migration is one of the chief causes by which their purity is maintained. These opposite currents would necessarily flow direct to the north or south, were they not deflected from their course by the rotation of the earth, which gradually gives them a westerly or easterly direction, The unequal influence of the sun in different parts of the globe, and the rotation of the earth, are, however, not the only causes by which the course of ocean-currents is determined. Violent storms move the waters to a considerable depth, and &6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. retard the flow of rivers, and thus it is to be expected that con- tinuous winds, even of moderate strength, must have a tendency to impel the waters in the same direction. The steady trade-winds of the tropical zone, and the prevail- ing westerly winds in higher latitudes, consequently unite their influence with that of the above mentioned causes, in driving the waters of the tropical seas to the west, and those of the temperate zones to the east. The tides also, which on the high seas generally move from east to west, promote the flow of the ocean in the same direction, and thus contribute to the westerly current of the tropical seas. Nor must we forget that the obstacles which the ocean- currents meet on their way; such as intervening lines of coast, sand banks, submarine ridges, or mountain chains, have a great influence upon their course, and may even give them a dia- metrically opposite direction to that which they would otherwise have followed. Having thus briefly mentioned the origin and causes of the currents, which intersect the seas like huge rivers, I shall now describe such of them as are most important and interesting in a geographical point of view. In the northern part of the Atlantic, between Europe, North Africa, and the New World, the waters are constantly perform- ing a vast circular or rotatory movement. Under the tropics they proceed like the trade-winds from east to west, assisting the progress of the ships that sail from the Canaries to South America, and rendering navigation in a straight line from Car- thagena de Indias to Cumana (stream upwards) next to im= possible. This westerly current receives a considerable addition from the Mozambique stream, which, flowing from north to south between Madagascar and the coast of Caffraria, proceeds round the southern extremity of Africa, and after rapidly ad- vancing to the north, along the western coast of that continent, as far as the island of St. Thomas, unites its waters with those of the equatorial current, and continues its course right across the Atlantic. In this manner the combined tropical streams reach the eastern extremity of South America (Cape Roque), where they divide into two arms. The one flowing to the south follows the south-eastern coast, and vradually takes a south- THE GULF-STREAM. 57 easterly direction, between the tropic of Capricorn and the mouth of the La Plata river, beyond the limits of the trade- winds. Its traces show themselves to the south-east of the Cape of Good Hope, and are finally lost far in the Indian Ocean. The northern arm of the equatorial stream flows along the north-eastern coast of South America; constantly raising its temperature under the influence of a tropical sun, and progress- ing with a rapidity of a hundred miles in twenty-four hours (six feet and a half in-a second), after having been joined by the waters of the Amazon river. Thus it continues to flow to the east, until the continent of Central America opposes an in- vineible barrier to its farther progress in this direction, and compels it to follow the windings of the coast of Costa Rica, Mosquitos, Campeche, and Tabasco. It then performs a vast circuit along the shores of the Mexican Gulf, and finally emerges through the Straits of Bahama into the open ocean. Here it assumes a new name, and forms what navigators call the Gulf-stream, a rapid current of tepid water, which, flowing in a diagonal direction, recedes farther and farther from the coast of North America as it advances to the north-east. Under tke forty-first degree of latitude it suddenly bends to the east, gradually diminishing in swiftness, and at the same time in- creasing in width. Thus it flows across the Atlantic, to the south of the great bank of Newfoundland, where Humboldt found the temperature of its stream several degrees higher than that of the neighbour- ing and tranquil waters, which form, as it were, the banks of the warm oceanic current. Ere it reaches the western Azores, it divides into two arms, one of which is driven, partly by the natural impulse of its stream, but principally by the prevail- ing westerly and north-westerly winds, towards the coasts of Europe; while the other, flowing towards the Canary Islands and the western coast of Africa, finally returns into the equatorial current. In this manner the waters are brought back to the point from which they came, after having performed a vast circuit of 20,000 miles, which it took them nearly three years to accomplish. According to Humboldt’s calculations, a boat left to the current, and moving along without any other assistance, would require about thirteen months to float from the Canary Islands to the 58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. Caribbean Sea as far as Caraccas. From Caraccas to the Straits of Florida, it would remain another ten months on the way, for though the direct distance is but short, the current has to perform an enormous circuit of 2500 miles, and flows but slowly in those confined seas. But the accumulated waters having now to force their passage through the narrow channel between Cuba and the Bahama Islands on one side, and Florida on the other, attain so considerable a velocity, that the whole distance from the Havannah to the Bank of Newfoundland, is traversed in forty days. During this passage the Gulf-stream particularly deserves its name, and is easily distinguished from the surrounding waters by its higher temperature and its vivid dark blue colour. Numerous marine animals of the tropical seas,— the flying fish, the neat velella, the purple ianthina, the crosier nautilus, accompany it to latitudes which otherwise would prove fatal to their existence; and, trusting its tepid stream, float or swim along to the north or the north-east. At the extremity of the Bank of Newfoundland, it becomes broader, wavers more or less in its course, according to the prevailing winds, and at the same time decreases in rapidity, so that the boat would most likely still require from ten to eleven months for this last station of its journey, ere it once more reached the Canary Islands. The direction of the Gulf-stream explains to us how the pro- ductions of tropical America are so frequently found on the shores of the Eastern Atlantic. Humboldt relates that the main-mast of the “ Tilbury,” a ship of the line, wrecked during the seven years’ war on the coast of San Domingo, was carried by the Gulf-stream to the North of Scotland ; and cites the still more remarkable fact, that casks of palm oil belonging to the eargo of an English vessel, which foundered on a rock near Cape Lopez, likewise found their way to Scotland, having thus twice traversed the wide Atlantic; first borne from east to west by the equatorial current, and then carried from west to east, between 45° and 55° N. latitude, by means of the Gulf-stream. Major Renuell (“ Investigation of Currents ”) relates the pere- grinations of a bottle, thrown overboard from the “ Newcastle,” on the 20th of January, 1819, in lat. 38° 52’, and long. 66° 20’, and ultimately found on the 2nd of June, 1820, on the shore of the Island of Arran. ESQUIMAUX DRIFTED TO SHETLAND. 59 On the 16th of April, 1853, another bottle cast into the waters in the vicinity of the Bank of Newfoundland, on the 15th of March, 1852, was found near Bayonne, not far from the mouth of the Adour. On the coasts of Orcadia, a sort of fruit, commonly known by the name of Molucca, or Orkney beans, are found in large quantities, particularly after storms of westerly wind. These beans are the produce of West Indian trees (Anacar- dium occidentale), and find their way from the woods of Cuba and Jamaica, to the Ultima Thule of the ancients, by means of the Gulf-stream. Large quantities of American drift-wood are transported by the same current to the dreary shores of Iceland, —a welcome gift to the inhabitants of a region where the highest tree is but a dwarfish shrub, and cabbages of the size of an apple are raised, as a great rarity, in the governor’s garden. A short time before Humboldt visited the island of Teneriffe, the sea had thrown out the trunk of a North American cedar-tree (Cedrela odorata), covered with the mosses and.lichens that had grown upon it in the virgin forest. The Gulf-stream has even contributed to the discovery of America, for it is well known that Columbus was strengthened in his belief in the existence of a western continent, by the stranding on the Azores of bamboos of an enormous size, of artificially carved pieces of wood, of trunks of a species of Mexican pine, and of the dead bodies of two men, whose features, resembling neither those of the inhabitants of Europe nor of Africa, indicated a hitherto unknown race. But not only life- less and inanimate objects find their way across the wide At- lantic by means of the Gulf-stream and its spreading waters ; the living aborigines of the distant regions of America have also sometimes been driven towards the coasts of Europe by the combined action of the currents and the winds. Thus, James Wallace tells us that, in the year 1682, a Greenlander in his boat was seen by many people near the south point of the island of Eda, but escaped pursuit. In 1684 another Green- land fisherman appeared near the island of Wistram. An Ks- ‘quimaux canoe, which the current and the storm had cast ashore, is still to be seen in the church of Burra. In Cardinal Bembo’s ** History of Venice,” it is related that, in the year 1508, a small 60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA, boat with seven strange-featured men, was captured by a French vessel in the North Sea. The description given of them cor- responds exactly with the appearance of the Esquimaux; they were of a middle-size, of a dark colour, and had a broad face with spreading features, marked with a violet scar. No one under- stood their language. They were clothed in seal-skins. They ate raw flesh, and drank blood as we do wine. Six of these men died on the journey; the seventh, a youth, was presented to the King of France, who at that time was residing at Orleans. The appearance of so-called Indians on the coast of the German Sea, under the Othos and Frederic Barbarossa, or even, as Cornelius Nepos, Pomponius Melas, and Pliny relate, at the time when Quintus Metellus Celer was proconsul in Gaul, may be explained by similar effects of the current and continu- ous north-easterly winds. A king of the Boians made a present of the stranded dark-coloured men to Metellus Celer. Gomara, in his General History of the Indies,” expresses a belief that these Indians were natives of Labrador, which would be doubly interesting as the first instance recorded in history of the natives of the Old and the New World having been brought into contact with each other. We can easily account for the appearance of Esquimaux on the North European coasts in former times; as during the eleventh and twelve centuries, their race was much more numerous than at present, and extended, as we know, from the researches of Rask and Finn Magnussen, from Labrador to the good Winland, or the shores of the present State of Massachusetts and Connecticut. If we compare the climates on the opposite coasts of the Northern Atlantic, we find a remarkable difference in favour of the Old World. The frozen regions of Labrador, lie under the same degree of latitude as Plymouth, where the myrtle and laurel remain perpetually verdant in the open air. In New York, which has a more southern situation than Rome, the winter is colder than at Bergen in Norway, which lies 20° farther to the north. While on the northern coasts of the old continent, the waters remain open a great part of the year, even beyond the latitude of 80°, the ice never completely thaws on the opposite shores of Greenland. What a contrast between the Feroe islands, where the harbours are never frozen, where fertile meadows afford pasturage to numerous flocks of sheep, INFLUENCE OF THE GULF-STREAM ON CLIMATES. 61 and even crops of barley reward the labours of the husbandman, and the frightful wildernesses on the shores of Hudson’s Straits! —and yet both are situated under the same latitude of 62°. The milder winter and earlier spring which characterise tho north-west coast of Europe, are due, in some measure, to the prevailing westerly winds ; but there can be no doubt that they are mainly owing to the influence of the Gulfstream, which, as we have seen, conveys the heated waters of the Mexican Gulf far to the north-east, and thus imparts warmth to the climate of our native isle. In both seas, on the contrary, which bound the peninsula or island of Greenland, icy currents descend, and continue their course to the south, along the coasts of North America. Near Newfoundland their temperature, in May, is found to be 14° lower than that of the air, and even in spring and the early summer they carry along with them immense ice- blocks, which are frequently drifted as far south as the latitude of New York, and finally disappear in the Gulf-stream. It is evident that the cold of winter must be increased, and the spring retarded along the North American coasts by these cold streams, just as the coasts of Europe are favoured by streams of a contrary nature; and thus the ocean-currents go a great way to explain the remarkable differences of climate between the opposite shores of the Northern Atlantic. On this occasion I cannot omit directing the reader’s atten- tion to the influence which the far-distant barrier of Central America has upon the climate of Great Britain. Supposing yon narrow belt of land to be suddenly whelmed under the ocean, then instead of circuitously winding round the Gulf of Mexico, the heated waters of the equatorial current would naturally flow into the Pacific, and the Gulf-stream no longer exist. We should not only lose the benefit of its warm current, but cold polar streams, descending farther to the south would take its place, and be ultimately driven by the westerly winds against our coasts. Our climate would then resemble that of New- foundland, and our ports be blocked up during many months, by enormous masses of ice. Under these altered circumstances, England would no longer be the grand emporium of trade and industry, and would finally dwindle down from her imperial station to an insignificant dependency of some other country more favoured by Nature. 62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. On examining other coast-lands, in different parts of the globe, we shall everywhere find the influence of the reigning currents producing analogous effects to those I have already mentioned. The Southern Atlantic is not warmed like the European seas by tepid streams, it is exposed on all sides to the free afflux of the cold waters of the Antarctic Ocean, and during the summer months to the influence of drift ice. Thus, the southern ex- tremity of America, Terra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, Sandwich Land, and other isles of the southern ocean, have a much colder climate than the European coasts and islands situated under the same latitude. Let us for instance compare the temperature of the Falkland Islands and of Port Famine in the Straits of Magellan, with that of Dublin, which is situated at an equal distance from the line. Mean Temperature, Latitude Winter. Summer. Annual, Dublin 3 A é o OBle2 ING +4:0° R. 15°39 9:69 Port Famine 5 - > 908° 38'S. + 0.6 10:0 53 Falkland Islands . cC =) O22 308S: 4°36 11:8 8-24 Feroé Islands fm c Ol eaeN: 3°9 11°6 (Ei Thus the climate of the Falkland Islands is, as we see, not very different from that of the Feroé Islands, although the latter lie ten degrees farther from the equator. In the Pacific Ocean, as well as in the Atlantic, we find a westerly current filling the whole breadth of the tropical zone, from the coast of America to that of Australia and the Indian Archipelago. The best known of its affluxes is the cold Peru- vian stream, which, emerging from the Polar Sea, flows with ereat rapidity along the shores of Chili and Peru, and does not take a westerly direction, before reaching the neighbourhood of the line. It has everywhere a remarkably low temperature, comparatively to the latitude, and this sufficiently accounts for the equal and temperate climate on the coasts of Chili and Peru. Thus, the mean temperature of Callao (12° S. lat.) is only 20° R. while in Rio Janeiro (23° S. lat.), though so much farther from the line, the annual warmth rises to 23-2° R. In the beginning of November, Humboldt found at Callao the temperature of the sea within the current not higher than 15°5°, while outside the stream it rose to 26° or even 28°5° R. THE JAPANESE STREAM. 63 Fven in the vicinity of the equator, after the current has already assumed a westerly direction, its mean temperature does not exceed 20°5.° But as it advances towards the west, its tem- perature gradually rises to 27° or 28°. On the western banks of the Pacific the equatorial stream divides into several branches. Part of its waters flow to the south, a greater quantity penetrates through the channels of the south Asiatic Archipelago into the Indian Ocean, the re- mainder turns to the north-east, on the confines of the Chinese Sea, leaves the eastern coast of the Japanese Islands, and then Japan Junks, spreads its warm waters under the influence of north- westerly winds over the northern part of the Pacific. Thus the Japanese stream plays here the same part as the Gulf-stream in the Atlantic, and exerts a similar, though less mighty influence over the climate of the west coast of America, as it is neither so large nor so warm, and, having to traverse a wider ocean, in higher latitudes, naturally loses more of its heat during the passage. It is owing to this stream that Sitcha enjoys a mean annual temperature of + 7° R., while Nain in Labrador, situated under the same latitude, is indebted to the Greenland current for a summer of + 7°8°, a winter of —18°5°, and a miserable annual temperature of —3°6°. On the west coast of North America F » * 54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, OF THE SEA. the analogous trees grow 3° or 4° nearer to the pole, and the aboriginal tribes go naked as far to the north as 52°, a simplicity of toilet that would but ill suit the Esquimaux of Labrador. Besides their beneficial influence on different climates the ocean-currents tend to equalise, or to maintain the equilibrium of the saline composition of sea-water, and thus secure the existence of numberless marine animals. Their movements also contribute to the formation of sand-banks, where at certain seasons legions of fishes deposit their spawn and invite the per- secutions of man. The rapidity of currents is very different, but always impor- tant enough to be taken into account by navigators. The well- informed seaman makes use of them to traverse wide spaces with greater rapidity, and, after an apparently circuitous course, arrives sooner and more safely at his journey’s end than the ignorant steersman, who vainly endeavours to strive agaiust their power. Pavonia Lactuca, with Polypes in Natural Position. D WATERSPOUTS. AN SE HTHOU LIG LIGHTHOUSE AND WATER-SPOUTS. A Licutuovusr on a rocky shore is represented as just lighted, the twilight having become darkened by a sudden storm, during which the phenomena of “ water-spouts” occur, which are represented to the left of the Lighthouse. THE WINDS. 65 CHAP? V& fE ABRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL MIGRATIONS OF THE WATERS. Movements of the Waters through Evaporation.— Origin ef Winds.—Trade-Winds.— Calms.— Monsoons.— Typhoons.—Tornadoes.—Water-Spouts.—The Formation of Atmospherical Precipitations.— Dew —Its Origin.— Fog.— Clouds.—Rain.— Snow.—Hail Sources.—The Quantities of Water which the Rivers pour into the Ocean.—Glaciers and their Progress.—Icebergs.— Erratie Blocks.—Influence of Forests on the Formation and Retention of Atmospherical Precipitations.— Consequences of their excessive Destruction.—The Power of Man over Climate. —How has it been used as yet? NEITHER storms nor ocean-currents, nor ebb and flood, however great their influence, cause such considerable movements of the waters, or force them to wander so restlessly from place to place as the silent and imperceptible action of the warming sunbeam. In every zone evaporation is constantly active in impregnating the atmosphere with moisture, but the chief seat of its power is evidently in the equatorial regions, where the vertical rays of the great parent of ligl.t and heat plunge, day after day, into the bosom of ocean, and perpetually saturate the burning air with aqueous vapours. In this chapter I intend following these invisible agents of fertility and life, as they lightly ascend from the tropical seas, and accompanying them in their various transformations, until they once more return to the bosom of their great parent. A cursory view of the benefits they confer on the vegetable and animal world, as they wander over the surface of the land, will, I hope, agreeably occupy the reader, and serve to increase his admiration for that deep and dark blue ocean without which all organic life would soon be extinct upon earth. I begin with a few words on the winged carriers of marine ex- halations, the winds, which, although now and then detrimental or fatal to individuals by their violence, largely compensate for these 66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. local injuries, by the constant and inestimable benefits they confer on the whole body of mankind. On taking a comprehensive view of their origin, we find that, like the oceanic currents, they are chiefly caused by the unequal influence of solar warmth upon the atmosphere under the line and at the poles. In the torrid zone, the air, rarefied by intense heat, ascends in perpendicular columns high above the surface of the earth, and there flows off towards the poles, in the same manner as in a vase filled with cold water and placed over the flame of a lamp, the warmed liquid rises from the Sottom and spreads over the surface. But cold air-currents must naturally come flowing in an opposite direction from the poles to the equator to fill up the void, as in the example I have cited, colder and consequently heavier water comes streaming down the sides of the vase to replace the liquid which is rising in the centre under the influence of heat. Thus the unequal distribution of solar warmth over the surface of the earth evidently generates a constant circulation of air from the equator to the poles, and from the icy regions to the tropics, and by this means the purity of the atmosphere is chiefly maintained. The sun is not only the great fountain of warmth, he is also the universal ventilator; he not only calls forth animal life, but at the same time, by a simple and admirable mechanism, provides for its health by constantly renewing the air, which is essential to its existence. If caloric were the sole agent which influences the direction of the winds, or if the earth were one uniform plain, the opposite air-currents I have mentioned would naturally flow straight to the north and south; but their course is modified or diverted in the same manner as that of the ocean-currents by the rotation of the globe. Thus, the cold air-current (polar-stveam) which comes rushing upon us from the Arctic regions, is felt in our latitude as the biting east or north-east wind, so trying to our nerves and organs of respiration, while we enjoy the warm air-current from the tropics as the mild western or south-western breeze. But besides the rotation of the enrth, there are many other local influences by which the winds are deflected from their course, or by whose agency partial air-currents are called forth. THE CALMS. 67 Among these we particularly notice high chains of mountains, the unequal capacity of sea and land in absorbing and re- taining heat, which gives rise to sea and land breezes; the increasing or diminishing power of the sun in different seasong by which the equilibrium of the air is modified in many cour- tries, the difference of radiation from a sandy desert or a forest, electrical discharges from clouds, &c. &e. Although subject to many of these local disturbances, the winds generally blow with an astonishing regularity in the tropical zone; while in our variable climate the polar and equatorial stream are engaged in a perpetual strife, now bring- ing us warmth and moisture from the south and west, now cold and dryness from the north and east. Thus, in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean we find the trade- winds perpetually blowing from the east, the north-east trade- wind between 9° and 27° N. lat., and the south-east trade-wind between 3° N. lat and 25°S. lat. It was by their assistance that Columbus was enabled to discover America, and that the wretched barks of Magellan traversed the wide deserts of the Pacific from end to end. Between these two regions of the trade-winds lies the dreadea zone or girdle of the equatorial calms (doldrums), where long calms alternate with dreadful storms, and the sultry air weighs heavily upon the spirits. “Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down, ’Twas sad as sad could be; , And we did speak, only to break The silence of the sea. “ Day after day, day after day, We stuck, nor breath, nor motion, As idle as a painted ship Upon a painted ocean.” On their polar limits, the trade-wind zones are again girdled with calm belts, the horse latitudes, whose mean breadth is from ten to twelve degrees. The boundaries of these alternating regions of winds and calms are not invariably the same, on the contrary, they are perpetually moving to the north or south, aceording to the position of the sun. From 40° N. lat. to the pole, westerly winds begin to be 63 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. prevalent, and in the Atlantic Ocean their proportion to the easterly winds is as two to one. In the Northern Indian Ocean and in the Chinese Sea we alsu find the trade-wind, which is there called the north-east monsoon; here, however, it only blows from October to April, as during the summer terrestrial influences prevail which completely divert it from its course. From the wide plains of central Asia, glowing with the rays of a perpetually unclouded sun, the rarefied air rises into the higher regions. Other columns of air rush from the equator to fill up the void, and cause the trade-wind to vary its course, and change into the south-western monsoons of the Indian Ocean, which blow from May to September. The regularly alternating monsoons materially contributed to the early development of navigation in the Indian seas, and con- ducted the Greeks and Romans as far as Ceylon, Malacca, and the Gulf of Siam. Similar monsoons, or deflections from the ordinary course of the trade-winds, occur also in the Mexican Gulf, in the Gulf of Guinea, and in that part of the Pacific which borders on Central America, through the influence of the heated plains of Africa, Utah, Texas, and New Mexico. The passage from one monsoon to the other is of course only gradual, since the land also is only gradually heated and cooled. Thus at the change of the monsoon, an atmospheric war of several weeks’ continuance occurs, during which the trade-wind and the monsoon measure their strength, and calms alternate with dreadful storms (typhoons, cyclones, tornadoes). According to the researches and observations of Franklin, Cooper, Redfield, Reid, &c. &e., these storms are great rotatory winds, that move along a curved line in increasing circles. In the northern hemisphere, the rotatory movement follows a direc- tion contrary to that of the hands of a clock; while the opposite takes place in the southern hemisphere. ‘The knowledge of the laws which regulate the movements of storms is of great impor- tance to the mariner, since it points out to him the direction he has to give his ship to gain the external limits of the tornado, and thus to remove it from danger. Water-spouts are formed by two winds blowing in opposite directions, and raising or sucking up the water in their vortex They generally form a double cone; the superior part with its > WATER-SVPOUTS. 69 apex downwards, consisting of a dense cloud, while the inferior cone, the apex of which is turned upwards, consists of water, which is thus sometimes raised to a height of several hundred feet. Water-spouts seldom last longer than half-an-hour. Their course and movements are irregular; straight forwards; in z1g- zag lines; alternately rising and falling; stationary; slow; or progressing with the rapidity of thirty miles an hour. The ro- 79 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF. THE SEA tatory movement is also variable; its power is often very great, but sometimes water-spouts pass over smail vessels without in- juring them. They are more frequent near the coast than on the high seas; and are more commonly seen in warm climates, They seem to occur particularly in regions where calms frequently alternate with storms, which is not to be wondered at, since they owe their origin to miniature storms or whirlwinds. How do the aqueous vapours with which evaporation impreg- nates the atmosphere, again descend upon the surface of the earth? Everybody knows that when in summer a bottle filled with cold water is brought into the room, it soon gets covered with thick dew-drops, which presently trickle down its sides, although it was perfectly dry on entering. Whence does this moisture come from? Not from the inside of the bottle as ignorant people might imagine, but from the surrounding atmosphere ; in consequence of the capacity of the air to absorb and retain mois- ture, increasing or diminishing, as its temperature grows warmer or colder. Thus when the cold bottle is introduced into the room, the warm sheet of air, which is in immediate contact with its surface, immediately cools, and being no longer able to retain all the moisture with which it was impregnated, is obliged to deposit it on the sides of the vessel. This familiar example suffices to explain the formation of dew, rain, hail, snow, hoar-frost, and CAUSES OF DEW. @1 ull other atmospherical precipitations. They all result from the influence of some refrigerating cause upon the air; such as the passage of a warm current into a cooler region; the influx of a cold wind; a cold-radiating chain of high mountains; a forest, and so forth. The very name of dew is refreshing, and calls forth a host of pleasing ideas, associated as it is with the memory of serene skies and sunny mornings. How beautiful are its diamonds glittering in all the colours of the rainbow, on verdant meads, or on the blushing petals of the rose. How suggestive of all that is lovely, pure, and innocent ! Poetry is of older date than prose, and bards have sung long before philosophers inquired. Thus, although the children of song from Homer and Theocritus to Byron and Wordsworth so frequently mention dew in their immortal strains, it is only in our time that its formation has been fully explained by Dr. Wells, who in a very ingenious’and masterly essay on this subject, first proved that it results from the ground radiating or projecting heat into free space, and consequently becoming colder than the neighbouring air. During calm and clear nights, the upper surfaces of grass-blades, for instance, radiate their caloric into the serene sky, from which they receive none in return. The lower parts of the plant, being slow conductors of heat, can only transmit to them a small portion of terrestrial warmth, and their temperature consequently falling below that of the cireumambient atmosphere, they con- dense its aqueous vapours. Clouds on the contrary compensate for the loss of heat the grass sustains from radiation, by reflect- ing or throwing back again upon the terrestrial surface, the caloric which would else have been dissipated in a clear sky, and this is the reason why dew does not fall, or but slightly falls during clouded nights. It is easy to conceive why none is formed in windy weather, as then the air in contact with the ground is constantly removed ere it has time to cool so far as to compel it to part with its moisture. We can also understand why dew is more abundant in autumn and spring than at any other season ; as then very cold nights frequently follow upon warm days; and why it is most copious in the torrid zone, as in those sultry regions the air is more saturated with moisture than anywhere else, and the comparatively cold nights are almost constantly serene and 72 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA, calm. Hoar-frost is nothing but congeaied dew, and owes its formation to the same causes. When warmer air-currents are cooled by being transported into colder regions, or from any other refrigerating cause, a great part of their moisture generally condenses into small vesicles, but very little heavier than the surrounding atmosphere, which then becomes visible under the form of clouds, thosa great beautifiers of our changing skies, that frequently trace such picturesque, gorgeous, or singular groups and landscapes in the aérial regions. The inhabitants of countries where the heavens are monotonously serene, may well envy us the charms of a phenomenon which in some measure affords us compensa- tion for so many disagreeable vicissitudes of the weather. Who that has admired at sunset the light clouds so beautifully fringed with silver and gold, or glowing with the richest purple, and loves to foliow them in all their wonderful and fantastic trans- formations, will deny that they are the poesy and life of the skies, the awakeners of pleasing fancies and delightful reveries ? Thin wreaths of clouds have been observed, by travellers that have ascended the most elevated mountains, floating high above the peak of Chimborazo or Dhawalagiri, and thus shows us to what an amazing altitude the emanations of ocean are carried by the ascending air-current. Sometimes when light clouds pass into a warmer atmosphere, they gradually dissolve and vanish; more frequently the accu- mulating moisture, tov heavy to continue floating in the air, or condensed by electrical explosions, descends upon the earth in rain, which, with few exceptions, visits every part of the globe, either in its liquid form or congealed to snow or hail. But the quantity of rain which annually falls in different regions is very unequal, and strange to say, it is not most considerable in those countries whose climate enjoys an unenviable notoriety for its clouded atmosphere and the great number of its rainy days. In the tropical regions it is generally only about the time of the summer solstice that abundant showers of rain fall regularly every afternoon, while the rest of the year, the sky is uninterruptedly serene; but during the short period of the rainy season, a far greater quantity of water is precipitated upon the earth, than in the temperate zones. While on the island of Guadaloupe, the annual quantity of MIGRATIONS OF TIE WATERS. 7A rain amounts to 274:2 French inches, and to 283°3 at Maha- buleshwar, on the western declivity of the Ghauts, which, as far as has hitherto been ascertained, is the place where most rain descends; only from 35 to 40 inches fall on the western coast of England, where the skies are chronically weeping. It is a remarkable circumstance that the annual quantity of rain which falls in the same place remains about the same from year to year; so that by an admirable balancing of conflicting influences, nature seems to have provided for stability in a pro- vince which of all others might be stpposed most open to the caprices of chance. Having thus followed the exhalations of ocean to the end of what may be called the first stage of their journey, and seen them descend ina condensed form upon the surface of the dry land, I will now accompany them in their ulterior progress to the bosom of the seas. A great part of them have many trans- formations and changes to undergo ere they can accomplish their return ; repeatedly rising in vapours from the solid earth, and falling in showers upon its surface; or circulating through the tissues of organic life: but after all these intermediate stages and delays, they ultimately find their way into rivulets or streams, which after many a meander restore them to the vast reservoir from which they arose. The waters that descend upon solid rocks, or fall in large quantities upon abrupt declivities, immediately flow into the brooks or rivers; but when they gently and gradually alight upon a porous soil, they are absorbed by the earth, and, dis- placing in virtue of capillary attraction, and of their superior weight, the air which fills the interstices between its solid particles, sink deeper and deeper until they meet with a solid and impenetrable stratum. If this forms a hollow basin, they naturally settle in the cavity; whence they are slowly displaced by fresh accessions and evaporation; but if its deepest declivity lies somewhere near the surface, they gradually gush forth under the form of sources or springs, having unequal distances to perform before they can reach the orifice. If no fresh supply of water falls, ere the most distant particles have reached their journey’s end, the source dries up: but if new atmospheric precipitations continually take place, the source is perennial, although naturaily of unequal strength at different times. 74 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPITY OF THE SEA. The temperature of springs varies from icy coldness to boiling heat. Cold. springs arise when the waters, by which they are fed, descend from high mountains or do not penetrate a great way into the bowels of the earth; but if the filtering waters reach a depth which is constantly of a higher temperature, they then gush forth in the form of warm or even boiling springs. A crowd of agreeable associations attaches itself to the idea of sources and springs, for they are generally both pleasing and useful to man. How we long in summer for the refreshing waters of the cool fountain issuing from the mountain side, and murmuring through the woods. The lover of nature spends hours near some solitary spring, and forgets the flow of time, as he observes the bubbling and listens to the sweet music of its crystal waters. A luxuriant vegetation marks their progress, though all around be burnt up by the scorching sun. Along their margin many a wild flower blooms, and herbs and shrubs and trees rejoice in a more vivid green, and statelier growth. There also congregate such members of the finny race, as delight in cooler streams of untainted purity, and birds love to build their nests among the sheltering foliage. Thus a little world forms around the gushing spring, and shows on a dimi- nutive scale, how all that lives and breathes depends upon the liquid element for its existence. While the waters filter through the earth they naturally dissolve a variety of substances, and all springs are more or less mixed with extraneous particles. But many of them, par- ticularly such as are of a higher temperature and consequently arise from deeper strata, contain either a larger quantity or so peculiar a combination of mineral substances as to acquire medicinal virtues of the highest order, and to become objects of importance to a large portion of mankind. Numberless invalids annually flock to the hygeian fountains which nature unceasingly pours forth from her mysterious laboratory, and are by them restored to the enjoyments of a pleasurable ex- istence. How truly wonderful is the chain of processes which first raises vapours from the deep, and eventually causes them to gush forth from the entrails of the earth, laden with blessings and enriched with treasures more inestimable than those the miner toils for! _— MOTION OF GLACIERS. 75 Although a river generally has its source in mountainous regions, it must be remembered that all the waters that descend upon the territory of which it forms the lowest level, gradually find their way into its current. Thus, the monarch of all streams, the Amazon River, is the natural drain of a territory thirty times larger than England. Thousands of rivulets and brooks, fed by the waters which descend from the slopes of thousands of glens and valleys, or filter through the vast forest- plains that rise but a few feet above their surface, all contribute to swell the majesty of its current. Its sources are in reality wherever, on that vast extent of land, water descends and drains into any one of its innumerable affluents. When we hear that on an average the river of the Amazons alone restores every minute half a million of tons of water to the ocean, and then consider the countless number of streams all alike active, that are scattered over the globe, we may form a faint idea of the vast quantity of vapours which are constantly rising from the deep, and of the magnitude of these silent operations of nature. Yet such is the immensity of ocean, that supposing all the waters it constantly loses, never to return again into its bosom, it would require thousands of years of evaporation to exhaust the immensity of its reservoirs! It might be supposed that the waters which congeal on the sides of mountains covered with perennial snow, or fill Alpine valleys in the form of glaciers, were eternally fixed on earth—but there also we are deceived by delusive appearances of immobility. Every year the glacier slowly but restlessly makes a step forwards into the valley, and while its lower end dissolves, new supplies of snow constantly feed it from above. It has been calculated by Agassiz that the ice masses of the Aar glacier require 133 years to perform their descent from its summit to its inferior extremity—a distance of ten miles—so that their sojourn in that chilled valley far surpasses that of the oldest patriarch of the mountains. How great must be their delight when they at last are liberated from the spell which so long enchained them, and freely bound along on their way to Ocean! How they must shudder at the idea of once more returning to their desolate prison, and long for the perpetual warmth of spicy groves and tropical gardens ! In the colder regions of the earth, in Greenland or Spitz- 76 PILTYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. bergen, immense glaciers frequently fill the valleys that open on the sea, descend even beyond the water’s edge, and, as they move along, their overhanging masses separate from their base and plunge into the deep with a crash louder than thunder. The icebergs that drift about the, Arctic seas, and are annually conveyed by the currents into lower latitudes, are formed in this manner. Huge blocks of granite, detached by atmo- spherical vicissitudes from the higher mountains and precipitated on the surface of the glaciers, frequently float on the broad back of an iceberg far away from the spot where they seemed rooted for eternity. As their crystal support melts away in its progress to warmer climes, these rocky fragments, which have been appropriately named erratic blocks, fall to the bottom of the sea hundreds or even thousands of miles from the starting point of their journey. Thus the great bank of Newfoundland is covered with stones from distant Greenland, raised high in the air by volcanic power myriads of years ago, and now condemned to an equally long repose below the surface of ocean. When will they rise again above the waters, and what further changes will they have to undergo ere their compacted atoms resolve them- selves into dust and assume new forms? But, however remote their dissolution, it will inevitably come, for Time is all-powerful, and has an eternity to work out his changes. The large blocks of stone that so wonderfully migrate on the wandering iceberg form but a small and insignificant portion of the terrestrial spoils which are transported to ocean by the returning waters. Every river is more or less laden with earthy particles which its current carries onwards to the sea and deposits at its mouth. In course of time their accumu- lation, as I have already mentioned, forms large tracts of fertile territory encroaching upon the maritime domains. T shall end with a few words on the influence of forests in attracting or retaining the atmospherical moisture, as it is a subject of great importance in the economy of nations, and shows us how much it is in the power of man to improve or to defeat the provisions of nature in his favour. Forests always cool the neighbouring atmosphere, for their foliage offers an immense warmth-radiating surface, so that the vapours readily condense above them and descend in frequent showers. At the same time their roots loosen the soil, and the INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATES, 77 successive falling of their leaves forms a thick layer of humus, which has an uncommon power in attracting and retaining moisture. Their thick canopy of verdure also prevents the rays of the sun from penetrating to the ground, and absorbing its humidity. Thus the soil on which forests stand is constantly saturated with water, and becomes the parent of perennial sources and rills, that spread fertility and plenty far from the spot where they originated. The rain-attractive influence of forests did not escape the at- tention of Columbus, who ascribed the frequent showers whick refreshed and cooled the air, as he sailed along the coasts of Jamaica, to the vast extent and density of the woods that covered the mountains of that island. On this occasion he mentions in his journal that formerly rain had been equally abundant on Madeira, the Canaries, and the Azores, before their shady forests were felled or burnt by the improvident settlers. The wanton destruction of woods has entailed barrenness on countries renowned in former times for their fertility. The mountains of Greece were covered with trees during the great epoch of her history, and the well-watered land bore abundant fruits, and sustained a numerous population. But man reck- lessly laid waste the sources of his prosperity. Along with the woods, many brooks and rivulets disappeared, and ceased to water the parched plains. The rain gradually washed the vegetable earth from the sides of the naked hills, and condemned them to sterility. When the snow of the mountains began to thaw under the warm breath of spring, it was now no longer retained by the spongy soil of the forests, and gradually dissolved under their cover; but, rapidly melting, filled with its impetuous torrents the bed of the rivers, and overflowing their banks, spread ruin and devastation far around. Unfortunately, forests when once destroyed are not so easily restored, and it requires many centuries ere the bared mountain side reassumes its pristine vesture of shady woods. First lichens, mosses, and other thrifty herbs, content to feed upon nothing, have to prepare a scanty humus for the reception of more pretentious guests. In course of time some small stunted shrub makes its appearance here and there in some peculiarly favoured spot, and after all requires vast powers of endurance to maintain itself on the niggard soil, exposed to the full enmity G 78 PIYSICAL GEOGRAPITY OF THE SEA. of wind and weather. This paves the way for a more vigorous and fortunate offspring; and as every year adds something to the vegetation on the mountain’s side, and opposes increasing obstacles to the winds, the falling leaves and decaying herbage accumulate more and more, until dwarfish trees first find a sufficiency of soil to root upon, and finally, the proud monarch of the forest spreads out his powerful arms and raises his majestic summit to the skies. While Greece and Asia Minor have seen their fertility de- crease or vanish with the trees that once covered their hills, other countries have improved as their vast woods have beer thinned by the axe of the husbandman. In the time of the Romans all Germany formed one vast and continuous forest, and its climate was consequently much more rigorous than it is at present. All the low grounds were covered with imper- vious morasses, and the winter is described by historians in terms like those we should employ to paint the cold of Siberia. But the scene gradually changed as tillage usurped the sylvan domain. The excessive humidity of the soil diminished, the swamps disappeared, and the heat of the sea, penetrating into the bosom of the earth, developed its productive powers. Thus the chestnut and the vine now thrive and ripen their fruits on the banks of the Rhine and the Danube, where 2000 years ago they could not possibly have existed. But Germany would also see her fertility decline, if the destruction of the forests which still crown the brow of many of her hills should continue in a considerable degree. Numerous rivulets would then be dried up during the warm season, in consequence of the more rapid descent and thaw of vernal rains and wintry snows, and most likely, refresh- ing summer showers would be far less frequent. Even now the inundations which almost annually desolate the banks of the Elbe, the Oder, and the Rhine, are ascribed by competent judges to the excessive clearing of the forests in the mountaimous countries where those rivers originate. These few examples suffice to prove to us the power of man in modifying the climates of the earth, and the vast importance of the study of terrestrial physics. By planting or destroying woods, he is able to compel nature to a more equitable distribution of her gifts. In marshy and low countries, he may remove the surperfluous waters by drainage, and increase the productiveness of arid plains by DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION. 79 judicious irrigation. Thus man is the lord and master of the earth ; but hitherto he has done but little to reap all the advan- tages he might have obtained from his dominion, or even used it to his own detriment. Drainage, irrigation, and a judicious management of forest-lands, are only beginning to be under- stood even among the most enlightened nations. A great part of our damp island still remains undrained, and we allow the rivers of India to pour their waters into the sea, instead of diverting them upon her thirsty plains. But there can be no doubt that as knowledge increases, man will gradually learn to provide every soil with the exact measure of humidity that is requisite to make it bring forth its fruits in the greatest abun- dance. Views such as these teach us, that, far from having at- tained the summit of civilisation, we are still on the threshold of her temple, and that most likely our descendants will look down upon our present condition as we do upon that of our barbarous ancestors. Rocky Mouutains at the bend of Bear Lake River. G 2 CHAR. Vil. MARINE CONSTRUCTIONS. Lighthouses.—The Eddystone.—Winstanley’s Lighthouse, 1696.—The Storm of 1703.—Rudyerd’s Lighthouse destroyed by Fire in 1755—Singular Death of one of the Lighthouse Men.—Anecdote of Louis XIV.—Smeaton.—Bell Rock Lighthouse —History of the Erection of Skerryyore Lighthouse.—Illumination Lighthouses.—The Breakwater at Cherbourg.—Liverpool Docks.—The Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits.—The Sub-oceanic Mine of Botallack. [vy one of the finest passages of * Childe Harold,” Byron contrasts the gigantic power of the sea with the weakness of man. He describes the resistless billows contemptuously playing with the impotent mariner—now heaving him to the skies, now whelm- ing him deep in the bosom of the tumultuous waters; he mocks the vain pride of our armadas, which are but the playthings of ocean, and points with a bitter sneer at the wrecks with which he strews his shores. A less misanthropic mood or a more truthful view of things might have prompted the wayward poet to celebrate the triumphs of man over the brute strength of the winds and waves; how, guided by the compass, he boldly steers through the vast waste of waters, how he excavates the artificial harbour, or piles up the breakwater to protect his bark against the destruc- tive agencies of the billow and the storm, or how he erects the lighthouse to point out the neighbourhood of dangerous shoals or the entrance of the friendly port. The various constructions planned and executed by man to disarm the turbulent or perfidious seas of a great part of their terrors, are indeed among the noblest monuments of his archi- tectural genius, nor are any more deserving of universal ap- planse and gratitude. Who has ever performed a winter voyage homewards over the wide Atlantic and not felt a thrill of delight when the first bright flash of light beamed over the dark waters and welcomed him back to his native isle? or what generous mind has ever experienced this feeling without devoting the THE EDDYSTONE LIGIITILOUSE. 81 tribute of its thanks to the wise and beneficent men whose energy and perseverance have succeeded in lighting every head- land or estuary of our rugged coast? So completely has this been done, that in the dark and stormy night, almost as well as in the brightest day, the homeward-bound ship need not approach danger without receiving friendly warning, for her pathway is illuminated by gigantic fire-beacons so thickly set that when one fades to the sight a new one rises to the view. Among the numerous lighthouses with which the genius of humanity has encircled our native shores, the Eddystone, the Bell Rock, and the Skerryvore, are pre-eminent for the vast diffi- culties that had to be surmounted in their construction, situated as they are upon solitary rocks, exposed to the full fury of the insurgent waves; and should by some revolution all other monu- ments erected by man be swept away from the surface of our land, and these alone remain, they would suffice to testify to future ages that these islands were once inhabited by a highly civilised and energetic race, one well worthy to lay claim to the dominion of the seas. At the distance of about twelve milesand a half from Plymouth Sound, and intercepting, as it were, the entrance of the Channel, the Eddystone rocks had been for ages a perpetual menace to the mariner. The number of vessels wrecked on these perfidious shoals must have been terrible indeed, it being even now a com- mon thing in foggy weather for homeward-bound ships to make the Eddystone Lighthouse as the first point of Jand of Great Britain, so that in the night and nearly at high water, when the whole range of the rocks is covered, the most careful pilot might run his ship upon them, if nothing was placed there by way of warning. As the trade of Engiand increased, the number of fatal accidents naturally augmented, rendering it more and more desirable to crest the Eddystone with a tutelary beacon ; yet years elapsed before an architect appeared bold enough to undertake the task. At length, in 1696, Mr. Winstanley, a country gentle- man and amateur engineer, made the first attempt of raising a lighthouse on those sea-beaten rocks, but as he was possessed of more enterprise than solid knowledge, the structure he erected was deficient in every element of stability. Yet such was the presumption of the man that he was known to express a wish that the fiercest storm that ever blew might arise to test the Bie PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. solidity of the fabric. The elements took him at his word, for while on a visit of inspection to his lighthouse the dreadful storm of November 26, 1703, arose, the only storm whicb in our latitude has equalled the rage of a tropical hurricane. “No other tempest,” says Macaulay in his Essay on Addison, “was ever in this country the occasion of a Parliamentary address or of a public fast. Whole fleets had been cast away. Large mansions had been blown down. One Prelate had been buried beneath the ruins of his palace. London and Bristol had presented the appearance of cities just sacked. Hundreds of families were still in mourning. The prostrate trunks of large trees and the ruins of houses still attested in all the southern counties the fury of the blast.” No wonder that a tempest like this swept away the ill-constructed lighthouse like the ‘‘unsubstantial fabric of a vision,” and that neither poor Mr. Winstanley nor any of his companions survived to recount the terrors of that dreadful night. Strange to say, the task of rebuilding the Eddystone light- house, which was now felt as a national necessity, once more devolved, not upon a professed architect, but upon a Mr. Rudyerd, a linendraper of Ludgate Hill, the son of a Cornish vagrant, who had raised himself by his talents and industry frem rags and mendicancy to a station of honourable competence. The cheice, however, was not ill made, for, with the assistance of two competent shipwrights, the London tradesman constructed an edifice which, though mainly of timber, was so firmly bolted to the rock with iron branches that for nearly half a century it resisted the fury of the billows, and might have withstood them for many a year to come had it not been rapidly and completely destroyed by fire. This catastrophe, which happened on December 2, 1755, was marked by a strange accident, for while one of the light-keepers was engaged in throwing up water four yards higher than himself, a quantity of lead, dissolved by the heat of the flames, suddenly rushed like a torrent from the roof, and falling upon his head, face, and shoulders, burnt him in a dreadful manner. Having been conveyed to the hospital at Plymouth, he invariably told the surgeon who attended him, that he had swallowed part of the lead while looking upward; the reality of the assertion seemed quite incredible, for who could suppose it possible that any JOHN SMEATON. 83 human being could exist after receiving melted lead into the stomach, much less that he should afterwards be able to bear the hardships and inconvenience from the length of time he was in getting on shore before any remedies could be applied. On the twelfth day, however, the man died, and having been opened a solid piece of lead, which weighed above seven ounces, was found in his stomach.* Another interesting anecdote is attached to the history of Rudyerd’s lighthouse. Louis XIV. being at war with England while it was being built, a French privateer took the men at work upon it and carried them to France, expecting, no doubt, a good reward for the achievement. His hopes, however, were doomed to a grievous disappointment, for while the captives lay in prison, the transaction reached the ears of the monarch, who immediately ordered them to be released and the captors to be put in their place; declaring that though he was at war with England, he was not at war with mankind. He therefore directed the men to be sent back to their work with presents; observing that the Eddystone lighthouse was so situated as to be of equal service to all nations navigating the Channel. It is gratifying to meet with this trait of natural generosity in a mind long since obscured by the bigotry which prompted the revocation of the Edit de Nantes. After these repeated disasters, the rebuilding of Eddystone lighthouse, in a more substantial manner than had hitherto been effected, was now no longer confided to amateur ingenuity, but to John Smeaton, an eminent civil engineer, one of those men who by originality of genius and strength of character are so well entitled to rank among the worthies of England. From his early infancy Smeaton (born May 28, 1724) gave tokens of the extraordinary abilities which were one day to render his name illustrious. Before he attained his sixth year his playthings were not the playthings of children but the tools which men em- ploy: before be was fifteen he made for himself an engine for turning, forged his iron and steel, and had self-made tools of every sort for working in wood, ivory, and metals. At eighteen he by the strength of his genius acquired the art of working in most of the mechanical trades, and such was his untiring zeal * A full account of this extraordinary circumstance was sent to the Royal Society, and printed in vol. xlix. of their Transactions, p. 477. 84 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. that a part of every day was generally occupied in forming some ingenious piece of mechanism. In 1753, his various inventions and improvements had already attracted such notice that he was elected member of the Royal Society ; and when, a few years later, the accident happened which burnt down the Eddystone lighthouse to the ground, he was at once fixed upon as the person most proper to rebuild it A better choice could not possibly Kddystone Lighthouse. have been made, for Smeaton’s lighthouse, firm as the rock on which it stands, has now already braved the storms of more than a century, and will no doubt continue to brave them for many ages tocome. Of him it may well be said * exegit monumentum ere perennius,” for to him is due the honour of having fixed the best form to be given to a marine lighthouse, and even now the Eddystone beacon-tower remains a model which has hardly been surpassed by the taller and more graceful edifices of Bell Rock THE BELL ROCK LIGIITITOUSE. 85 and Skerryvore. Nothing could exceed the patient ingenuity, the sagacity, and forethought with which that great engineer mortised his tall tower to the wave-worn rock, and then dove- tailed the whole together, so as to make rock and tower prac- tically one stone, and that of the very best form for deadening the action of the wave. Nor must we forget that our great marine lighthouses, of which Smeaton gave the model, are as remark- able from an artistic as from a utilitarian point of view, as pleasing to the man of taste as to the friend of humanity. It is to be regretted,” says, with perfect justice, the author of an excel- lent article in the Quarterly Review,* “that these structures are placed so far at sea that they are very little seen, for they are, taken altogether, perhaps the most perfect specimens of modern architecture which exist. Tall and graceful as the minar of an Eastern mosque, they possess far more solidity and beauty of con- struction; and, in addition to this, their form is as appropriate to the purposes for which it was designed as anything ever done by the Greeks, and consequently meets the requirements of good architecture quite as much as a column of the Parthenon.” Covered to the height of fifteen feet at spring tide, and little more than a hundred yards in its extent, the famous Bell Rock, or Inchcape, facing the Frith of Tay at a distance of twelve miles at sea, was as dangerous to the navigation of the eastern coast of Scotland as the Eddystone had been to the entrance of the Channel. To erect a tower on a spot like this was an undertaking of no common boldness, but, fired by Smeaton’s example, Mr. Robert Stevenson no less gloriously succeeded in converting what for ages had been a source of danger into a beacon of safety. On the opposite coast of Scotland, and placed in the same parallel of latitude as Bell Rock, the Skerryvore Reef had a name equally dreaded by the mariner. Situated considerably farther from the mainland than the Bell Rock, it isless entirely submerged, some of its summits rising above the level of high water, though the surf dashes over them; but the extent of foul ground is much greater, and hidden dangers, even in fine weather, beset the in- tervening passage between its eastern extremity and Tyree, from which island it is distant some eleven miles. In rough weather the sea which rises there is described as one in which no ship * No. 228. 86 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. could live. This terrible reef, so fatal to many a gallant bark, rendered the erection of a lighthouse most desirable, yet such was the difficulty of the case that although so long ago as 1814 an Act was obtained for a light on Skerryvore, it was not before 1837 than Mr. Alan Stevenson, son of the famous architect of the Bell Rock sea-tower, was authorised to commence the work. That difficulty was not confined to the position and character Bell Rock Lighthouse. of the raef itself, as the neighbouring island of Tyree afforded no resource, and all the materials for the building, even the stone itself, liad to be transported from distant quarters. At length, all preliminary arrangements being settled, the engineer reached the rock and commenced his work, in June 1838, by erecting a barrack-house upon stilts—a sort of dovecot perched on poles— high out of the water on the reef, close to the proposed site of the lighthouse. The erection of this barrack fully occupied the THE SKERRYVORE LIGITIOUSE. 87 first summer; and, lest 1t might be supposed that this was but little work for so long a time, it may be as well to remark that, such was the turbulence of the sea that between August 7 and September 11, it had only been possible to be 165 hours on the rock. Much inconvenience was occasioned by the hard and slippery nature of the volcanic formation of the Skerryvore, to which the action of the sea had given the appearance and the smoothness of a mass of dark-coloured glass, so that the foreman of the masons compared the operation of landing on it to that of climbing up the neck of a bottle. When we consider how often, by how many persons, and under what circumstances of swell and motion, this operation was repeated, we must look upon this feature of the spot as an obstacle of no slight amount. At length, after much danger and difficulty, the barrack was completed, but the first November storm swept it away and utterly annihilated the work of the season. Iron stancheons had been drawn, broken, and twisted like the wires of a champagne bottle ; the smith’s iron anvil had been transported eight yards from where it was left; and a stone three-fourths of a ton was lifted out from the bottom of a hole and sent towards the top of the rock. Mortified, but nothing daunted by this disaster, which gave him a warning of the tremendous power he had to contend with, Mr. Stevenson prepared during the winter for the labours of 1839, which, besides the re-erection of the barrack on an im- proved plan, chiefly consisted in the levelling or blasting of a flat surface of forty-two feet diameter on the top of the rock from which the lighthouse was to arise. This foundation pit was in itself a work of no small magnitude, as it required for its ex- cavation the labours of 20 men for 217 days, the firing of 296 shots, and the removal into deep water of 2,000 tons of material. The blasting, from the absence of all cover and the impossibility of retiring to a distance farther in any case than thirty feet, and often reduced to twelve, demanded all possible carefulness. The only precautions available were a skilful appointment of the charge and the covering the mines with mats and coarse net- ting made of old rope. Every charge was fired by or with the assistance of the architect in person, and no mischief occurred. The year 1840 had now arrived, and the construction of the lighthouse was about to begin. Quarriers and labourers had been 88 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY CF TIE 868A. busily employed in cutting blocks of stone in the quarries. Carpenters were diligently engaged in making wooden moulds for each lighthouse block wherewith to guage its exact mathe- matical figure. In April, a reinforcement of thirty-seven masons from Aberdeen arrived at Tyree—men expert in the difficult work of dressing granite—and, on April 30, the first visit was nade to the rock. To the great joy of all, the barrack con- structed in the previous season was found uninjured, though a mass of rock weighing about five tons had been detached from its bed and carried right across the foundation pit by the violence of the waves. In this barrack the architect and his party now took up their quarters, which from the frequent flood- ing of the apartments with water and from the heavy spray that washed the walls were anything but agreeable. ‘ Once,” says the gallant engineer,* “‘ we were fourteen days without communica- tion with the shore or the steamer, and during the greater part of that time we saw nothing but white fields of foam as far as the eye could reach; and heard nothing but the whistling of the wind and the thunder of the waves, which was at times so loud as to make italmost impossible to hear anyone speak. Such a scene, with the ruins of the former barrack not twenty yards from us, was calculated to inspire the most desponding anticipations ; and I well remember the undefined sense of dread that flashed on my mind, on being awakened one night bv a heavy sea which struck the barrack and made my cot swing inwards from the wall, and was immediately followed by a cry of terror from the men in the apartment above me, most of whom, startled by the sound and the tremor, sprang from their berths to the floor, impressed with the idea that the whole fabric had been washed into the sea.” This spell of bad weather, though in summer, well-nigh out- Jasted their provisions; and when at length they were able to make the signal that a landing would be practicable, scarcely twenty-four hours’ stock remained on the rock. The landing of the heavy stones from the lighters was a work of no small dif- ficulty, considering the slippery nature of the rock, and as the loss of one dressed stone would frequently have delayed the whole progress of the building, the anxiety was incessant. On July 4, the building of the tower really commenced. Six courses * Account of Skerryvore Lighthouse, by Alan Stevenson, Enyineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board. Edinburgh, 1848. THE PHARUS OF ALEXANDRIA. 89 of masonry carried the building to the height of 8 feet 2 inches before the autumnal gales terminated the work of 1840, and an excellent year’s work it was. The saying that “what is well begua is half done” was illustrated here. Next year’s work was comparatively easy—so that in 1842 the tower rose to its full height of 138 feet; and the year after the light was shedding its LELAA = as The Skerryvore Lighthouse. beneficent rays over the thirty miles of watery waste that sur- round the hidden rocks of Skerryvore. Well may we be proud of men like Smeaton and _ the Stevensons ; but, while justly admiring their architectural skill, their perseverance, and their courage, we must not forget to offer the just tribute of our gratitude to the eminent natural philosophers without whose ingenious optical inventions the most splendid sea-towers would be comparatively useless. The Pharus or lighthouse of Alexandria was, probably with justice, 90 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SIA. reckoned among the seven wonders of the world, and its several stories, rising on marble columns to the height of 400 feet, must have presented an imposing spectacle, but I strongly suspect that the rude brazier on the summit of the majestic pile bore the same proportion to the lighthouse Janterns of our time as the wretched coasting-craft of the ancient Greeks to the ocean steamers of the present day. Among the names of those who have contributed most effectually to the progress of marine illumination Argand, Borda, and Fresnel are conspicuous. The hollow cylindrical wick of the first was a sudden and immense ad- vance in the art of economical and effective illumination. The second, by his invention of tle parabolic mirror, multiplied the effect of the unassisted flame by 450, and the refracting lens of Fresnel so admirably concentrates the light as to project its warn- ing beams to the wonderful distance of thirty or thirty-five miles In former ages the efforts of man to provide a refuge to the mariner from the fury of the raging gale were feeble and in- significant. Content with the harbours that nature had provided, it was then thought quite sufficient to line a river-bank with quays or to enclose a natural pond by walls. The idea of raising colossal breakwaters by casting whole quarries into the deep, or of extending artificial promontories far into the bosom of the ocean, is of modern date, and would have appeared chimerical not only to the ancients but to our fathers not a century ago. The first great work of this description is the famous break- water planned by De Cessart in 1783, and terminated in 1853, which has converted the open roadstead of Cherbourg into a land-locked harbour. Rising from a depth of 40 feet at low spring tides, on a coast where the floods attain a height of 19 feet, it opposes a front of 12,700 feet to the fury of the storm, and carries 250 pieces of the heaviest cannon on its for- midable brow. It far surpasses in extent and boldness of construction the breakwater at Plymouth, nor will it be eclipsed by the moles now forming at Portland, Holyhead, and Alderney; but although it is a more impressive spectacle to see man struggling with the ocean and producing calmness and shelter in the midst of the raging storm, than to contemplate his operations where he has no such adversaries to subdue, still such buildings as those just described are neither the largest nor the most expensive works SUBMARINE MINES. $] required for the accommodation of shipping. Witness the Cyclopean grandeur of the Liverpool docks or of the Great Fioat at Birkenhead, which alone covers an area of water of 121 acres, and whose portals, with a clear opening of 100 feet, will admit the largest screw-steamer or sailing ship the wildest imagination has yet conceived. Six millions of money is the cost of this one work alone—more than would be required to raise a pyramid like that of Cheops—and even this sum isa trifle when com- pared with what has been spent on the harbours of Liverpool, London, and other great commercial cities. Not satisfied with erecting his lighthouses on wave-worn rocks or defying the waves with his colossal breakwaters, man spans bridges over arms of the sea and excavates mines under the abysses of the deep. The locomotive now rolls full speed 100 feet above high water over the strait which separates Anglesea from the mainland; and in Botallack and several other Cornish mines the workman, while resting from his subterranean labours, hears the awful voice of the ocean rolling over his head. * In all these submarine mines,” says Mr. Henwood, “ I have heard the dashing of the billows and the grating of the shingle when in calm weather. I was once, however, underground in Wheal Cock during a storm. At the extremity of the level seaward some eighty or one hundred fathoms from the shore, little could be heard of its effects, except at intervals, when the reflux of some unusually large wave projected a pebble outward, bounding and rolling over the rocky bottom. But when standing beneath the base of the cliff, and in that part of the mine where but nine feet of rock stood between us and the ocean, the heavy roll of the large boulders, the ceaseless grinding of the pebbles, the fierce thundering of the billows, with the crackling and boiling as they rebounded, placed a tempest in its most appalling form too vividly before me ever to be forgotten. More than once doubting the protection of our rocky shield, we retreated in affright, and it was only after repeated trials that we had confidence to pursue our investigations.” Yet the miners, accustomed from their early youth to the fierce and threatening roaring of the stormy sea, pursue their work from year to year, never doubting that the thin roof which separates them from a watery grave will continue to protect them, as it has shielded their fathers before them. _ ® = * ae. we . ay Tere e Pa me ad suits wi wel Hoy Oy Ts ims | 4% Pah ‘a 26 ° ee ea - = = -~ = - > = ‘ ~~ AS “ . > ; Ay J - ; . * * ‘ : . ’ A Ee) el: —_—_ +___ THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA. al - or CHAP, VIET: THE CETACEANS. General Remarks on the Organisation of the Cetaceans.—The Large Greenland Whale. — His Food and Enemies.—The Fin-Back or Rorqual.— The Antarctic Whale.— The Sperm Whale.—The Unicorn Fish.—The Dolphin.—Truth and Fable-—The Porpoise-—The Grampus.—History of the Whale Fishery. Or all the living creatures that people the immensity of ocean, the cetaceans, or the whale family, are the most perfect. Their anatomical construction renders them in many respeéts similar to man, and their heart is susceptible of a warmth of feeling unknown to the cold-blooded fishes ; for the mother shows signs of attachment to her young, and forgets her own safety when some danger menaces her offspring. Like man, the cetaceans breathe through lungs, and possess a double heart, receiving and propelling streams of warm red blood. The anatomical structure of their pectoral fins bears great resemblance to that of the human arm, as the bony structure of those organs equally consists of a shoulder-blade, an upper arm, a radius and ulna, and five fingers. But the arm, which in man moves freely, is here chained to the body as far as the hand, and the latter, which, in obedience to human volition and intellect, executes such miracles of industry and art, is here covered with a thick skin, and appears as a broad undivided fin or flapper. Yet still it is destined for higher service than that of a mere propelling oar, as it serves the mother to guide and shield her young. The lower extremities are of course wanting, but their functions are performed by the mighty horizontal tail, by whose powerful strokes the un- wieldy animal glides rapidly through the waters. The cetaceans distinguish themselves, moreover, from the fishes by the bringing forth of living young, by a greater quantity of blood, by the smoothness of their skin, under which is found a Hi 2 96 THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA. thick layer of fat, and by their simple or double blow-hole, which is situated at the top of the head, and corresponds to the nostrils of the quadrupeds, though not for the purpose of smelling, but merely as an organ of respiration. Our knowledge of the ceta- ceans is still very incomplete ; and this is not to be wondered at, when we consider that they chiefly dwell in the most inaccessible parts of the ocean, and that when met with, the swiftness of their movements rarely allows more than a flighty view of their external form. Thus their habits and mode of living are mostly enveloped in obscurity ; and while doubtless many ceta- ceans are to the present day un- known, one and the same species has not seldom been described under different-names, to the no small confusion of the naturalist. The cetaceans are either with- out a dental apparatus, or pro- vided with teeth. The former, or the whalebone whales, have two blow-holes on the top of the head, in the form of two longitudinal fissures; while in the latter, (sperm-whales, unicorn-fish, dol- phins,) which comprise by far the greater number of species, there is but one transversal spout-hole. In all whales the larynx is con- tinued to the spouting canal, and deeply inserted or closely imbricated within its tube. Thus no tones approaching to a voice can be emitted except through the spiracles, which are encumbered with valves, and evidently badly adapted for the transmission of sound. Scoresby assures us that the Green- land whale has no voice, and Bennett frequently noticed sperm i NON hi i Ni ii! we \\ \ WY \ XY a ‘