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Pramcston 1994
SHAMANISM: A LEG OF THE STOOL
by John M. Johnson
Submitted to; br. Jun Ho-dJin
Asicr Religions and Christian, Miission and
, Dr. Marlin L. Nelson
Strategies for World Evangelization
The Asian Center for Theological Studies May 17, 1983
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INTRODUCTION
Btetirst glance the titie of this paper "Shamanism : A Leg of the Stool" may seem strange indeed. It is based on a thought expressed by Kyung Cho Chung in his book, Korea Tomorrow. Author Chung said that "although religion in Korea has always reflected foreign influences ... it was likened to a three-legged stool based on shamanism, Buddhism and Confucianism.(1) Chung did go on to say that the general belief of the Korean people wasS Shamanisn. Eugene A. Nida refers to this type of religious frame work as a multireligion in his book Religion Across Cultures. Several examples of this three-legged stool concept could be cited but here two will suffice. Homer B. Hulbert in his book The Passing of Korea which was written at the turn of the century makes the following statement.
As a general thing, we may say that the all- round Korean will be a Confucianist when in society, a Buddhist when he philosophises and a spirit-worshipper when he is in trouble. Now, if you want to know what a man's religion is, you must watch him when he is in trouble. Then his.genuine religion willcome, out, if he has .any«. ,it.is for this reason that I conclude that the underlying religion of the Korean, the foundation upon which all else is mere superstructure, is his original spirit- worship. In this term are included animisn, Shamanism, fetichism and nature-worship generally.(2)
In 1961 Charles Allen Clark in his study of Religions of Qld Korea voiced a Similar idea. "Confucianism was the religion of state and, as such, a charge upon the national revenues. Buddhism throughout Korea's history was a state cult or a semi-state cult. Shamanism has been often condemned publicy, as noted above, and has always been despised by the literati, and more or less shamefacedly practised by everyone, yet it had ha more vitality than them allo™(3)
Because of the limited scope of this paper a long historical survey of the Korean people will not be given.
However, a few basic facts should be pointed out. During the
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The general purpose for this paper is to provide some information about shamanism and how it has made itself evident in Korea. This general purpose will be looked at in the first two sections of this paper, those being "The Shamanism Found in Korea" and "Shamanism's Relationship with and Role in Society",
The specific purpose of this paper will be to look at Christianity's response toward shamanism and seek to find that common thread, the point of contact, so that the already effective evangelism taking place on this peninsula can become even more effective. The last section will also contain a strategy for reaching the people group consisting of Korean shamans. This strategy will be based on the ten point strategy planning model provided by Dayton and Fraiser
in their book Planning Strategies for World Evangelization.
As a note of information, from time to time throughout this paper in quoted material the term Musok will appear in place of shamanism. This author chose to use the term Shamanism because of its general acceptance by both Korean and Western scholars.
It must be understood from the outset of this paper that this writer is neither a Korean nor an expert by any stretch of the imagination on the Korean people. It is however this writer's primise that foreign missionaries can never be truly effective until they gain at least a basic understanding of © the world to which they have come. Shamanism is a big part of the Korean world, if not the key element.
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Parepatk THE SHAMANISM FOUND IN KOREA A Description of Korean Shamanism
For centuries shamanism has existed on the Korean peninsula. There is today a great deal of speculation about when shamanism arrived and who brought it. suffice it to say that most scholars point to the similarities between Korean shamanism and Siberian shamanism and propound that their must be a connection. Dr. Charles Allen Clark states, "we have taken it for granted above that there is a history of the direct connection of Korean shamanism with that of Siberia, but vohere-Dsrlittlevin thevway of written records to prove it."(5) It should also be noted that Korean shamanism has absorbed a great deal from the taoist books of China.
In an article under the head of "Intangible Cultural Property Musok: Folk Religion of Korea" Alan C. Heyman in his opening paragraph writes:
Korean folk art has been passed on down through the centuries largely unrecorded, thus making it difficult--almost impossible in some instances--to find primary source material relating to it. However, its living form embodied in Musok, the folk religion of Korea, often somewhat mistakenly referred to as "Shamanism" for lack of a better terminology, has miraculously managed to survive--though in rather threadbare remnants for the most part-- throughout the many social and political upheavals that have taken place down through the ages.(6)
But what of this folk religion that has "miraculously Managed to survive?" How can it be defined? Many are the writers and researchers that have sought to do this.
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defines shamanism as "a religion that postulates a universe in which not only human beings have souls or spirits, but
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lower animals and the inanimate. .. . as well. The problems of life are adjustive to havin, a proper relationship with Bee Sworld of “the ‘spirits. (7)
C. A. Clark quoting from the Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics defines shamanism thusly: "it is a primitive religion of polytheism or polydemonism with strong roots in native worship, and generally with a supreme god over all."(8)
Edward’ R, Canda, A fulbright scholar in oriental Philosophy speaks of shamanism in this way. "Shamanism is primarily concerned with the bringing together in harmony and maximum mutual fulfillment of the person, the society and the non-human environment."(9)
One final definition seems helpful. This definition is provided by professor Kin Tae-Gon who points out the difficulty of accurately defining Korean shamanisn.
Ecstasy, trance, and possession, which have been generally regarded as peculiar characteristics of shamans, often occur in the wonder-working power displayed by the founders of new religions and in the so-called communion or union with God in some Christian churches. Therefore it seems untenable to define the characer of Shamanism with these phenomena as the-only criteria. ... ditis very difficult to define Korea Shamanisn. Without a definition as the premise, it is impossible to describe Korean Shamanism. For convenience's sake, therefore, this writer will describe Korean Shamanism, mainly the phenomena it presents, on the basis of phenomena which are recognized internationally as Shamanistic. As "mu" who are as shamans, the religious phenomena involving "mu" will be regarded as Shamanism.(10)
Because an exact definition is so hard to come by an examination of the characteristics, world view, folk beliefs, .nd the kinds of gods that are worshiped will prove helpful.
Characteristics
The characteristics of Korean shamanism provide insight into the type of thinking that shamanism has produced in the Korean people. Tongshik Ryu foints out four specific characteristics. They are: 1) dependence on others, 2) conservatism or stagnancy, 3) near-sighted realism and 4) pleasure-amusement.(11)
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Ryu gpoes on to describe she impaet that these tour characteristics have had up.» the basic personality of ‘the Koreans. Their depedence upon others has promoted the idea that man has little or no control over his destiny--fatalisn, in other words. “Making no decisions by himself, a person just lets*the witch take charge of eliminating calamities and calling Gor “blessings or fortunes. Enspite of “the fact that 2t 2S higrowm life and destiny, he does not take responsibility himself for it but he depends on others such as gods or witches."(12)
This then leads to the second item conservatism or stagnancy. "One who can not take responsibility and make ethical decisions can never be expected to bring forth any reformation in himself and his social surrounding."(13)
Near-sSsighted realism means that man's total concentration. . « anterests and’ desires... . are focused on the today of his: Life. The question is asked "what about fortune-tellers that play a part in Korean shamanism?" Tongshik Ryu answers thas Dysisayang, "it. is not for’ the future but for the. present that they) go to fortune’ tellers. phamanism . ..-« does not plan for the future."(14)
The three previous items lead to the final one that of pleasure-amusement. Fatalism and a present-centered approach bring a person’ to the idea of "drink, eat and be merry." The present moment and its enjoyment are key.
World View
There seems to be some debate among scholars with regard to the world view of shamanisn. Edward Canda feels that Shamanism operates within a dualistic frame of reference.
He goes on to say: "(Shamanism). . . extensively deals with the magical manipulation of objects for human benefit. .. This is not to say that shamanism never transcends dvalism."(15)
Dr. Hahm Pyong-Choon in the article "Family and Life Cycle" brings out the “idea*the man is free of "dualistic obsessions." Hahm has a great deal to say about the world view of Korean shamanism. A great deal can be learned by underscoring here some of Dr. Hahm's comments.
Many of the fundamental assumptions of western culture have no counter parts in the world- view of Korean shamanism. The shamanistic world view, posits no god at-or as-the center of the ‘universe. Hume:: existence is not thought to be assigned meaning by a
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transcendent, abstraci or omnipotent being who created the universe and now guides its history. Life Gsnet understood to be. a unidirectional linear progression with a clear beginning and end, nor is history considered a series of stages in the ‘development! of human perfection.(16)
: Dr. Hahm goes on to make several very clear cut statements = about "the shamanistic man." Collated from several pages of : material Hahm's references to "the shamanistic man" could look something like this.
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The shamanistic man:
--comes into the world as an integral part of the rhythm of nature.
--has been in this world since the beginning of life and remains ‘here after death.
--is so closely intertwined with the terrestrial forces of nature, in fact, that man without nature would be impossible, and nature without man irrelevant.
--lives in and with nature, and has with it a reationship which is neither amicable nor antagonistic.
--does not fear annihilation by nature, and thus does not consider it necessary to dominate it.
--lives best by flowing with the rhythm of nature but he is not a abject slave to its rhythms.
--attains the fullest life by becoming as completely ‘human! as possible.
--does not consider perfection as consisting of obedience to divine commands, nor of godliness and divinity-which he considers dehumanized, nonhuman conditions,
--has no god who emcumbers his life with demands for absolute perfection therefore he never feels that his life has become and endless sequence of foibles and failures. --fails to be enchanted by the dichotomy of spirit against body and the notion that one is somehow superior to the other is a alien to him as the idea that the two are hostile to each other.
--recognizes human faculties such as intelligence, wisdon, logic, reason,’ mind, spirit, soul and so forth, these are inseparable from the overall biological process-= particularly the senses.
--feels that the human soul and body are not discrete and separable. They constitute a continuum, a mutually overlapping, interpenetrating, and conjunctive whole.(17)
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Over a period of twelve years Dr. Kim Tae-Gon researched and interviewed a shaman frre: the Seoul area. Her name was Miss Mun Tok-Sun. Much of -.ne information that he gained from this source was provide by avestionaire. Dr. Kim's = hatha nessan, regard. to the worlt view of this particular
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shaman are very enlightening. Although at time the views of this particuler shaman differ from the views expressed by Dr. Hahm one must keep. in mind Dr. Kim's objective. "The object of my research is a comprehensive understanding of shamanism as transmitted through a traditional typical shaman."(18) (italics belong to this author) As Dr. Hahm was looking a Shamanism overall, Dr. Kim will be looking a shamanism through -the..eyes of just one of it practioners.
Dr. Kim Tae-Gon's report breaks shaman Mun's world view down into a divine view a human view, a other worldly view, a cosic view and a religious view. What follows is an attempt to summerize what was recorded. (For complete detail read "Shamanism in the Seoul Area" Korea Journal 1978, pp 45-47)
Divine View
The divine view held by shaman Mun was as follows: (The god mentioned is the shamanistic god that shamans believe in.)
1. Gods shape is the same as humans but god is invisible to human eyes.
2. Only shamans can see god.
3. God is almighty and can do anything he wishes.
4. The function of god is to feed human beings and to protect children so they grow up in good health.
5. Since god is an inexpressibly great and sacred being man is always fearful.
6. There is a hierarchy of gods. (This point will be returned to later.)
7. Each god has his own responsibilities.
8. God is not only transcendental but almighty as well.
Human View
1. Samsin, (the god that usually stays at the end of the inner house), created man by borrowing flesh from the mother and bone from the father.
2. The child cannot maintain good health unless Samsin takes care of it.
3. After age seven, Chilsong gods have to extend one's life span.
4H, A person's death could be interpreted to mean that Since one's assigned life span had expired, the king of Hell, Yama, has sent his messenger to take hin underground.
Other World
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1. When a man dies he goe: to another world, although the dead body is buried under the ground.
2aernes world «s ‘called. [sung and the other world which is kindof a utopia is called Chosunge.
3. After death a man goes to the next world where he meets Yama for the final judgement of the deeds he did while here on earth.
He Phe other world is divided into two regions, one being paradice (Kungnak) and the other being hell. Hell) is a kind of dungeon under the earth, where a number a snakes and serpents are moving in darkness.
5. The location of the other world is not clearly known. 6. In that world new life will start again and if someone has lived a virtuous life he will resurrect as a human being in the other world.
7. If a child dies before speaking it will be resurrected in the other world because it never told a lie.
Cosmic View
1. The cosmos is divided into three worlds which each have sun, moon and stars.
2. These three worlds are the celestial world, the world of this earth and the world underneath this world.
Religious View
1. Believes in shamanistic gods.
2. Buddha is worthy and can be prayed to.
3. Christianity is to be hated because it is so different. 4. Since the shaman god has a hatred for Christians, a Shaman will be punished by her god if she only talks to them.(19) .
Again it must be pointed out that the above views were the views of only one woman. They are included in this report not because they present the exact view held by every shaman and shamanistic person throughout Korea, but instead because they merely give the reader some sort of general overall frame of reference--a starting point.
Folk Beliefs
Sitamanssm 13 a religion of fear. it is the belief of the people that the land, air an: sea are teeming with spirits. Both the animate and the inanime’c« iiave spirits. These spirits for the most part are out to disrupt man's existense.
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Only a very few of these spirits have man's best intentions at heart. Myths, legends and stories abound up and down the peninsula and have had (and still have) a great deal of attention paid then.
Spencer J. Palmer has this to say about shamanistic folklore.
Shamanistic rolklore was, based.on faith in superhuman spirits who revealed their will to human beings, often through the use of mediums. Both happiness and disaster was bestowed by the activity of these divine spirits. Through them humans could exercise wonderful power. Evil spirits could be cast out and disease could be healed. Once a man acquired this power he was said to be able 1) to see all the past,- the present, and the future, 2) to see a thousand miles distance, 3) to fly a hundred miles in a second and 4) to call forth and rain and the clouds.(20)
Shamanism has been called the religion of the women and children in Korea. At a latter point this idea will be returned to but it is mentioned here to bring out the following idea. "Korean folk-tales frequently have to deal with a situation where a gentleman is ill, but will have nothing to do with the spirits. His wife, however, holds the opposite opinion, and, unknown to her lord, smuggles ina "mudang", or "pansu", to exercise the deamon of disease."(21)
As a general rule things that are not understandable are feared and or worshiped in Korea. .. more feared than worshiped. The idea that ghosts were at work in many instances when no other reason could be found was not unfamiliar. In the book Modern Transformation of Korea Yi
Kyu-Tae writes of this very idea.
The ancient, animistic folk religion of Korea so thoroughly permeated the minds of Koreans until recently that ghostly action could be blamed for almost any untoward with a high probability that such an explanation would be believed . . . illegitimate children were often blamed by their unmarried or widowed mothers on 'rape' by a ghost.(22)
Before leaving this section -n folk beliefs and going on to the closely related section of the kinds of gods that are worshiped two, folk ideas of many which abound in Korea even today should be mentioned. Palmer sites a few of these of
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which one will mentioned. The second folk idea came to this author by means of discussion with a young Korean woman.
a. One never enters a house by going straight in from the gate to the door. Inside the gate is atscreenewith a picture of a tiger or a dragon to frighten the spirits. One goes around the screen and sometimes around two or three of them before he arrives before the house door, walls within walls.(23)
b. When a person died his clothes were put upon the roof or stuck into the eves of the home along with a bowl of rice. This was so the departing spirit would be well fed and clothed for the trip into the next world. The birds in fact came and ate the rice but when the bowl was empty the family was satisfied that the spirit had been pleased.
Folk beliefs with regard to the shaman will not be examined here but will be considered instead in the section that pertains to the shaman.
Kinds of Gods Worshiped
It has been said the deamons, spirits, gods, imps and sprites touch the Korean at every point in his life from birth to death. Korean antropologist Kim Tae-Gon has classified the types of gods that infest the Korean world in two ways: natural gods and human gods. Natural gods seem to come out of nature worship and human gods come out of the ideas of ancestor and hero worship. This antropologist puts the number of Korean gods at 273 and he breaks them down as follows:
1. Natural gods (1) Heavenly gods a. Heaven god b. Sun god ec. Moon god d. Star god (2) Earth gods (3) Mountain gods (4) Road gods (5) Water gods a. Water gods b. Dragon gods (6) Fire gods (7) .Wind gods
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2. Buman gods (1) Royal gods a. King god b. Queen goddess c. Princess goddesses (2) Commander gods a. General god b. General's wife goddess, other goddesses ) Lord gods ) Madam goddesses, Bride goddesses ) Shaman ancestor gods ) ) ) )
Buddhist gods Taoist gods Miscellaneous gods Others (24)
Kim Tae-Gon goes on to say that punishment is the means by which these gods get the attention of man. "Rather than providing man with guidance through rational revelation, these gods convey their wish to man by subjecting him to painful punishment. Therefore there is also the feeling of is fear between man and the gods because of the punishment even ge though they are good hearted diety (sic)." (25)
BS It might prove interesting to look at some of the Korean a+ gods by name and "occupation". Below then is a listing that = has been compiled from the various sources refered to in the
bibliography. This could be thought of as a glossary of the se Korean gods, but it must be remembered it is far from complete. The gods are organized in more or less a hierachical frame of reference.
1. Taegam, also known as T'tojutaegam( Ty tH ys He is the protector and overseer of the home, particularly of the building ground. He is the most important god of traditional homes. His special attributes are to bestow wealth and prosperity on the hnone.- "He is closely dnde~. {fied as the god of the housewife. He occupies t... foundation of the home.
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3. Songjo, also known as Songiu( “44 )
He has become one of the highest gods of the traditional home. He is chiefly identified with the house master who occupies the highest place in the hone.
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é. ang Chej C ook, the yellow general of the sky zenith 5. Samsin( SY )
The god of- the inner house in charge of fertility.
6; Chilsons(= 4% ~* ) The seven star.god. He is the god in charge of extending one's life span.
7. Yama(%>b, “See ) The king of hell by whom everyone will be judged.
8. Sansin( tY¥ )
imeae are the mougvash gods;* This spirit is.lord of everything on or within the mountains, its trees and minerals, its birds and its animals. He is often pictured as a Old man seated upon a tiger.
9. Sunghwangdang( 2% S ) These are the gods of the mountain passes.
10. Chunsin( *% ) These are the gods over the villages located ina plain.
11. Dragon Spirits( £% )
He is 20erd of all oceans, rivers, lakes; and’wells. He is supposed to reside more particstarly in certain bottomless lakes or ponds. aithough he is lord of the waters, he can soar up ir . the heavens.
12. Tokeibi( Lm v/ )
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These are spirits who take delight in tormenting people. They cause the iron kettle cover-which is larger than the kettles to fall down inside, They misplace articles so that they must be hunted for, and make general nuisances of themselves.
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These are floating spirits or tramps. These are unattached, unclean spirits of various sorts, people who have died violent deaths etc.
14. Sonkaksi( ¢ %«, ) One of the most malignant spirits. He is the spirit of a young girl who died just, before her marriage.
15. Kwisin or Kweesin( Fe )
These are the spirits of disease and disaster.
(The two main sources from which this partial listing was drawn were: "Shamanistic Thought and Traditional Korean Homes" by Lee Jung-Young, and Religions of Old Korea by C. A. Clark.)
One god that is neither mentioned by Kim Tae-Gon in his breakdown of the 273 gods nor in the partial listing above was the god Hananim. Translated this would mean the one "Great One", "Koreans universally say that Hananim sends the harvest, that he sends the rain, that by his grace we live and breathe". (26)
In times of mortal danger, almost the first cry of the Korean is to Hananin. Hananim seems to dominate their lives, since his name ne CONTI nually on their lips, but curious to note, they never seem to really worship hin, unless we except the rain ceremonies. They say he sends the harvest, yet in the fall they offer their sacrifices not to him, but to the gods of the Hatis, or to the house gods, or to the ancestral tablets. He seems to be everything to them, and then again he seems to be nothing, judging from the way in which they disregard him when all goes well.( 27)
Hurbert wrote in 1906 the following regarding Hananim:
The Koreans all consider this being to be the Supreme ruler of all tl. aniverse. He is entirely separated from and outside the eireLles of various spirits and deamons that
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infest all nature. - The Korean never attempted to make any pi:'sical representation of Hananin. He has never been worshiped by the use of idolatrous rites. ° “ As a rule the people do not worship Hananin. He is appealed to by the Emperor only.(28)
Many scholars believe that the Korean's understanding
behind Hananim has been one of the vital factors in
eye
Christianity"s ripid ‘rowth in Korea. This will be discussed
aweyx «
Dr. Jun Ho-din in his unpublished paper "Shamanism in
Korea and Its Influences on the Korean Church" wraps up this
section very succinctly and bridges the gap between this
section which has attempted to describe Korean shamanism and
the next section that will look at the practitioners of
Korean shamanisn.
- e« »« Korean shamanism has many gods, consequently the customs, the way of living and the way of thinking of Koreans are deeply associated with these gods. So many gods and spirits made the people feel the necessity of a mediator between gods and man, Koreans believe that man's birth and death, rise and fall, happiness and disaster and disease affecting him all depend on the will of gods. This viewpoint of gods necessarily demand for the mediating roles of (the) shaman.( 29)
The Practitioners
The shaman is the religious specialist within shamanisn. They could not be viewed as either the priest or doctor but they could possibly be viewed as "a priest and doctor in
embryo",
The priest beseeches favor of gods (or spirits), the shaman believes himself able to command spirits, and is not seldom spirit embodied. The functions of a shaman are summed up in the securing of good for those who retain his services and averting of evil from them.jorThis, Gneludec tne: airection of ceremonials, arrangement of dances and feasts, Healing Of the siek, guarding from sorcery, securing rainfall and ‘ivining.(30)
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The ecstatic experience and specifically the trance seem to be key elements of distinguishing a Shaman. ara Through his advancement in the use of techniques of Soe enes; the shaman is able to help others in dealing with the spirit world. The shaman is able to control the time and manner of his ecstatic experience so that it performs a religious and social function."(31)
It seems that the term for the religious specialist in Korean shamanism varies from place to place. Halla Pai Huhm
in her book entitled Kut: Korean Shamanjst Ritualssays
In northern Korea, a female shaman is called mansjin and the male shaman is called mugyok or paksu. In Hamgyong provinces, a female shaman is refered to as osimi and a mugyok as t'osaebi. In the southern region of Korea the name used shaman is talgollae, and on Cheju island it is Simbang. In the eastern seaboard region, shamans are simply called mudang. (32)
Throughout the remainer of this paper the term mudang or sometimes the spelling mootang will be used for the Korean shaman, unless otherwise indicated.
According to recent statistics what has been historically true in Korean shamanism, that there are more women as practitioners than men, continues to be true today. Of the 100,000 mudangs some 85% of them are women.(33) Because of this fact the pronouns she and her will be used when refering to the mudang. The 15% of men involved in shamanism are labeled paksoos who do the same work as the mudang or as pansus who are blind diviners.
The shaman can be classified by function in four separate ways.
ie e of exorcism co ial hose who only exorcise, These shamans are devoid of magical power and at only in an offical capacity at exorcisms.
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3. Type of exorcism and divination comprising those who can both exorcise and divine, These Shamans can display at will both magical power
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The amount of magical power and therefore the shaman's ability to "reach" the spirit world and communicate her desires or the desires of her clients could be seen as a Simplier breakdown of the shaman's actions by function. "Seen along this line, Korean shamans can be divided into charismatic shamans who are engaged mainly in displaying magical power and prietly shamans who, having not a bit of Magical power, are engaged mainly in performing the function of an officiant."(35)
It is because of this emphasis on magical power in Korean shamanism that the Korean shaman differs from other shamans around the world. As has been mentioned earlier one of the key elements of shamanism is the ecstatic experience. LG is the possession of the spirits which gives the shaman power and it is that possession which is chiefly sought on the peninsula.
Legends are many with regard to the shaman. One common legend about the origin of the shaman says that a holy mother, who was married to a nobel man, had eight daughters. The mother instructed these daughters in the various skills and techniques pertaining to shamanism. Later these girls spread throughout the country. (36)
These legends about shamanism have been classified in the following manner by Lee J. Y. who is a Korean anthropologist.
1. The ancestors of mudang are not selfordained priests. Mudang are heavenly ordained.
2. The second characteristic is the kingly origin of mudangs.
3. The third characteristic is their close association with mountains.
4. They had passed through tragedy or at least related with unfortunate events.
5. The predominace of women.(37)
The mudang in Korea is generally held in low esteem by the people. She has many strikes against her to begin with, two of which are that (1) she is generally a women and (2) she is
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generally uneducated. In Youngsook Kim Harvey's book "Six Korean Women" she points out several of the folk beliefs regarding shamans.
1. Koreans believe that spirits in search of human being to possess and use as mediums tend to gravitate toward those individuals whose maumn ("heart" or "soul") has already been "fractured" and made vurnerable by some psychological distress.
2. Koreans also believe that all potential shamans experience sinbyong ("possession sickness") of varying duration, during which time they may behave in ways that can cause them to be mislabeled as insane.
3. Koreans believe that recruits can become permanently crazy if shamans officiating at their naerjim-kut ("initiation rite for shamans") fail to guide properly the entry into and possession of their bodies by their possessing spirits.
4. If suecessfully initiated, Koreans believe that their conjugal and familial relationships will inevitably disintegrate. (38)
5. Koreans regard recruitment into the shaman role as an unfortunate (or even the most unfortunate) act of predestination over which human beings have no control. They point as evidence of predestination by super natural ordination to the afflictions that befall potential shaman-recruits and that defy natural explanations or convential remedies. 6. Koreans believe that the victim can be relieved of their afflictions only if the assume the shaman role.(39)
The shaman is generally viewed in society as someone takes advantage of the poor and weak. "This negative view, however, does not prevent people from seeking the services of shamans but perhaps only fosters an ambivalence towards them as a social category."(40)
How does, one become a shaman? Shamanism in general holds that one can become a practitioner.in one of three ways: C1) "by spontaneous vocation, (the call or election); (2) by hereditary transmission of the shamanic; and (3) by personal request, or more rarely, by the will of the clan. (41)
C.A. Clark points out that "The Koreans all firmly believe that when a mootang dies, her spirit lays hold upon some one and that person has no volition in the matter. Pie ws pa wats force her to serve them.(42) This lack of choice has
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Simbyong then is the leverage used by the spirits. Simbyong is illness either mental or physical caused by the SpLriies < Simbyong will last as long as necessary, folk beliefs would indicate, to conuince the victim of the need to accept the shaman role, or it is terminated when the resistinenvictinfdiéesivs Si Simbyong can -last.twenty years or longer, its symptoms (flaring up intermittently) .(43)
Simbyong from start to finish might look something like Ena ss
(1) Origin - This experience originates more often from gradual ailment without a particular cause than from suggestions ina dream or external impact.
(2) Dietary habits - They cannot eat rice and incline to an unbalanced diet, drinking water cup after cup and shunning fish and meat, thereby showing symptoms of indigestion.
(3) Physical conditions - They grow lean and weak, feeling tingling pains in the limbs or falling into convulitions, feeling pains in one side of the head, the chest, or in one arn, falling ill with bloody excrement, or feeling heavy in the chest or on the shoulders,
(4) Mental conditions = They become insecure and have more dreams, in which they see sacred scenes of their contact with gods. Such dreams become more frequent, and they grow less and less conscious, so that they finally become unable to distinguish dreams from reality, seeing phantom of gods and hearing an illusory sound even in waking hours. Growing worse, they go insane and wander around.
(5) Process of symptoms - Although in some cases they show signs of mental troubles from the beginning, physical ailment comes first in most cases and it develops into mental disorder.
(6) Period of illness - Eight years on the average. The longest period of 30 years was reported. :
(7) Remedy - Medical treatment is impossible, and they even believe that it will bring about an adverse effect. Their mental illness, they believe, can be cured completely only when they become a shaman through a mediumist exorcism. The ailment recurs when they quit their function as a shaman.(44)
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It is believed then that the cure for simbyong only comes after a ceremony has been held to invite the spirit to take possession of the troubled person.
The initiation rite which marks the transition from the afflicted victim to the shaman is Called naerim-kut, a rite in which the possessing spirits are officially invited to descent (naeri-da) and enter into the novice. Thereafter, the relationship between the Shaman and the possessing spirits is explicitly transactional: the shaman provides the spirits with access to human beings and theirvaffairs andsasrincturn relieved) of: the afflictions which had plagued her before assuming the role and which can again plague her and/or her family if she neglects her role. When the shaman is not sufficiently dutiful) tov the spirits; they retaliate; when the spirits are insufficiently protective of the shaman, she challenges their right to possess her.( 45)
Following the naerim-kut the Korean woman enters into a new phase of life. At this point the neophyte has been called by the spirits to become their medium. She has responded. It is at this point thateformal’ training’ begins. There is a great deal that must be learned. Generally the Shaman who lead the naerim-kut will become the teacher for the neophyte.
In actuality the neophyte becomes an apprentice. During this time she "learns relevant myths and rituals. He becomes aquainted with sacred pharaphernalia. He tests and improves his ability to enter trance at will, prognosticate and cure. (46)
It should be noted that there is no set amount of time that the "student" has to go through before she becomes of full-fledged shaman. It varies according to their involvement in shamanism before their naerim-kut.
Miss Mun, the shaman who was interviewed by Kim Tae-Gon, gave a great deal of information about what kind of training took place during her three-year apprenticeship. Just after she was possessed she became a fortune-teller but she didn't have any power to perform the kut.
Miss Mun had to assist her superior while she
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was performing her ritual, learn how to prepare food for kut, and memorize the shamanistic epic by hearing it. After spending a month like this she put on shaman's clothes and performed some simple ritual (sic) under the supervision of her superior shaman, When Miss Mun put on shamanistic clothes, she felt obsessed with god and jumped, singing Shaman songs. When she got her confidence in performing kut. . . She set up herself as an independent shaman. (47)
According to statistics the average age that a women becomes a shaman is from 35 to 40. Some 65% of the near 40 thousand goverment registered shamans became shamans at this time. The other 35% it was recorded became shamans between the ages of 40 to 60.(48)
"The apprentice, having mastered the kut craft, builds and alter, usually in one of the rooms of her home, installs an image of the spirits, places the kut tools, and after offers supplications and prayers morning and evening."(49) The Shaman is now "in business" so to speak.
Practices and "Tools of the Trade"
At the turn of the century Horace Allen wrote a very interesting discription of a Korean shamanistic ceremony describing the ceremony graphically he writes of the "jolly racket" made by the mudang:
As they dance, beat their tom-toms and drums and utter their peculiar calls, a stanger can hardly believe other than that that particular house is giving a family "hop" and that some one sts: "calling vof HY sim igoodt old: style,: so naturally, too, as in make one feel like joining inthe “swing your parters, éc., that the calls seem to mean. This only illustrates the contrariness of things oriental to the occidental mind however, for there is no merry-making in this house, There is music, dancing and calling out; but instead of being im imbmth i tiris tin. -sadness,e1t- is done by :a paid, female exorcist who is trying by her incantations to drive out the small-pox or other evil spirits from the person of some suffering member of the family. The family, if poor, may have pawn their clothing to pay for this treatment, and while they may get
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some pleasure from the music and dancing they are much more concerned in the results they hope to obtain.(50)
The general name for the Korean ceremony is called a kut. There are different types of kuts and they are broadly classified below:
1. Pison: These are performed in a very short period of time and can be performed by ordinary females other than shamans.
2. P'tudakkori: These are performed by either a Shaman or a fortune-teller and require three or four hours, the performer personally playing musical instruments and chanting songs in a recitation tone.
3. Greater kut: These are performed by shamans with musicians playing a variety of instruments while the shaman performs songs or dances. A greater kut usually lasts from one to several days.(51)
As a help to the non-Korean reader's understanding of the far reaching scope of the kut on lives of those who believe, the following list of kut rituals and their occasions has
been included. These are the major kut rituals from the Seoul area. .
Hoju kut--performed when the spirits have appeared in a Shaman-to-be; Naerim kut--performed to consecrate the god which has appeared; Chinjok kut--performed annually by the shaman; /Ch'onsinmaji kut--peformed annually for the peace, health, and good luck of the requesting families; Seasonal kut--for example, kkotmaji kut in spring, immaji kut in summer, Sin'gokmaji kut in autumn, and sibaesari Kut invewinter; /Samsinmaji kut--performed for a childless family to pray forthe birth of sacchild; Songjubaji kut--performed when a house is built; Ant'aek songjubaji kut--performed when the head of the housenoid is 27,317,417 )1,01,and TT years old; Hotchangp'uri kut--performed for a person suffering a long illness against which all medication has been ineffective; yPiudakkori kut--performed when a person is suddenly taken by illness or bad luck has struck the family; / {ae nori kut--performed for a businessman's good luck; Sanmaji kut--performed at a mountain for good luck in general;
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Yonggungmaji kut--performed aboard a boat in a river;
Yongsin kut--performed at a shrine on a riverbank;
Chin chinogwi kut--performed within the thirteenth or forty-ninth day of the death of a person;
Noggoji kut--performed in the field when a person has died
by drowning or has met an accidental death in the mountains; Mamabaesong kut--performed on the thirteenth day after contraction of Smallpox; Taedong kut--performed jointly by a greater neighborhood; Todang kut--performed jointly by a neighborhood, ata Shrine, when available; vsonghwang kut--performed when there has been an illness resulting from a disturbance of the earth, arousing the g0d of the trees, god of water, god of stone, god of Garth; 2odor tron, and the like; Korj kut--performed for the good luck of a traveling Salesman; P'tungnong kut--perforned for a bumper harvest, accompanied by farmer's music; Taehonnye hoch'tam kut--performed on the third anniversary of one's death by way of ending the mourning period; Nara kut--performed by the state in the palace, praying to 3 state gods, that is, the heavenly god, the mountain god, i and the dragon god, for the peace and prosperity of the State and the people; and Chedangmaji kut--performed at the state shrine for the guardian god of the state.(52)
The setting of the ceremony and the various tools impliment should be examined before the actual sequence of the rite--the standard program--is looked at. "First, ceremonial tables are dedicated to the god, along with a variety of flowers and shaman tools, are set in place on the wooden floor of the hall in which the kut is performed... In accordance with the kut program, the shaman sings in front of the table, and performs shaman dances and a variety of other acts. Musicians, sitting close by, play accompanying music."(53)
In the performance by the mudang, she may be accompanied by any number of musical instruments. The most popular instruments used in Korean shamanism are the drum (changgo), the flute (p'iri), a kind of clarinet (taegum), the cymbals (chegum) a gong and the fiddle (haegum). Other tools used by the mudang might be:
1) Bells-At the end of a Y-frame hang seven bells which have one meter of yellow satin string. ‘The bells are chiefly used for initiation.
2) Fan-the Big Dipper is painted on yellow
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2) Samji Ch'ang (three-branched spear)-105 cn total length: 80cm of wooden stick and 24 cn of three iron spear branches,
4) Unwolto-105 em total length: 44 ecm of sword with 61 em of wooden handle.(54)
The description of the "standard" kut to follow appears in full in the article "Shamanism in the Seoul Area", Because of lack of space and keeping with the scope of this paper this writer has sought to condense the material.
1. Pujone Kori: involves. the. shamanistic act of chasing out the devil.
2. Kamang Kori: involves the shamanistic act of responding to god.
3. Malmyong Kori: involves the act for blessing the souls of ancestors.
4. Sangsan Kori: the act for the god of the high mountain.
5. t:uolsang tors: the,act.for.the god.of small pos.
6. Taegam Kori: the act for the high ranking officals.
Oa Pulsa.Chesok fori: .the.act for the Buddhist chesok deity. .
8. Hogu Kori: the act for food.
9... 50nfZ 10 Korisc the.act.for the god of residence, LO. shOnuUne kort. tne act for military heros.
Tihs, Chtangbu Kori: the.act.for.actor. 12. Twitchon Kori: the last act.(55)
During these rites the mudang actually believes herself to become identified with the spirits. "To this end, the shaman dons the costume of a spirit, thereby assuming its identity."(56) Therefore it is not uncommon for the shaman to change some part of her outer garment between each kori. "The musical activities, however, are the main events in the Shamanistic exorcism.(57) A large part of the music consists of the mu-ka, the shaman songs.
How much preparation goes into the production of one of these kuts?
A major kut involves several days of preparation, .the ritual ,itself,.lasting from Evenc FO sien enous. The shaman endures intense emotional and physical stresses, is
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able to memorize and recite long chants, performs dancing, singing, and even feats of trickery and acrobatics. All the while she must maintain a rapport with the audience in order to facilitate their healing catharsis. iniiorder to méet:.all ‘of these) requirements, the shaman must maintain a condition which is at once ecstatic and disciplined.(58)
Cne item that should not be overlooked is the mugun. Mugum has been called "the dance in shaman's clothing". This is the time when the "customers" get a chance to dance. The wine has been passed and everyone is ready to dance, The various stages of this mugum could be looked at like this. The dance may last from 5-10 minutes.
line The ‘sponser .of “the kut, the dady of the house (kiju) is urged to dance.
2. The mansin selects the appropriate costume fom elLhe thady of the:yhouse . « .\0 ‘and dresises the women while the musician begins to tap the drun.
3. Once dressed, the lady of the house draws out some money and sets it either on the offering tables or on the drun.
4. She bows low to the floor.
5. The drummer begins a slow four-beat pattern and the woman begins to dance,
6. The drum beats pick up speed and the woman's dance does also.
7. When the woman reaches the end of her strength she collapses to the floor in another head-to-the-floor bow.
8. A mansin removes the costume and shakes it over the woman's head asking the possessing spirit to provide good fortune.(59)
Why do the Korean women participate in the mugum? According to the shaman's thinking this is a time, when the spirit is entertained and is given a chance to "play". This way the spirit will work for one's benefit rather than one's detriment. Even more important than that: ". . .. the mugun is considered a key element in the "healing" worked by kut. As a step in the process of the mansin's cure the mugum is the point at which the beneficiary is brought into most direct contact with the forces mustered on her or his behalf."(60)
Before Leaving this diseussion of the kuts and some of the assorted elements which can make them up it should be said that although their is a great deal of tradition in the kut
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and in the way "things are done" their can be seen a gradual eransivion in ali areas of the kut, in music, dances and song. (61)
One other practice within the world of the shamanistic man is the use of fetiches,. "The belief in many spirits leads people to attempt to localise them by means of some physical emblen. they Go NOt think (Unau tne fetich is the spirit itself, but that it fastens upon the fetich and can always be found when necessity demands."(62)
That thought was written long ago but it remains true even today. Pujok(talisman) are still used. It should be pointed out again that within Korean shamanism the god is not revered fer tie poa*s sake but instead “the purpose of the ritual is ~Haemeatoa make “offering »to him)(theigod) and gain his favor so that the devotee's wishes may be granted.(63)
A good example of where fetishes might be found and used would be in the home. Most of the Korean household spirits mentioned earlier have different fetishes associated with them. Some of these are pieces of paper with red Chinese eharacters painted eon them, an old hat, a fish head, ora straw oaddali «
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Fart. If SHAMANISM: ITS RELATIONSHIP AND ROLE IN SOCIETY
Shamanism's Relationship with Society
Shamanism has had a long-standing relationship with the Korean society. The relationship with the society has been strongly resisted by the government, strongly influenced by other religions and strongly tied to the home.
In 1917 it was predicted that shamanism was on the way out and that it would "disappear with this generation". And yet Shamanism remains as a firmly entrenched way of life.
Statistics can be interesting tools. They can be manipulated to report almost anything. thts writer has collated some general statistics from this decade and the two previous decades. The findings are interesting even if they are from three different sources. They do seem to present a trend--that shamanism is still strongly "dug-in" in Korea.
In 1963 these were the figures that were being tabulated by the ministry of Health and Social Affairs. The number of Shamans in business with licences was 21,345. Included in this tabulation were witches, fortune-tellers, phrenologists, palm-readers, physiognomists and sutra-chanters. Again it should be stressed that these were licenced practitioners, These figures estimated the total number of people involved with "the superstitious businesses" were about 8 million people based on the assumption that each religious specialist met on average of one person per day.(64) It should be noted that no attempt is made to suggest that there might be other practicing shamans who were not licenced.
In 1973 data published by the Kyung-Shin Hoe, an organization comprised of mudangs and fortune-tellers claimed
a total membership of 48,980 but estimated that there were actually 208,424 practitioners around the country. It was Suggested that a mudang might service 100 to 200 households or regular clients. No attempt was made at arriving at any estimate of the total number of believers.(65)
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A report published by The Korean Religious Institute in June of 1981 indicated that the total number of shamans with government approved licences was 39,124. Those without licences were estimated in be in the neighborhood of 60,000 which would put the total number of Shamans around the 100,000 mark. These figures indicated that the total number of believers across the country was 2,195,370. Taking those figures given then, the number of believers divided by the number of mudang we come up with the average number of people serviced by each individual mudang. With regard to these Statistics the average number of clients the mudang serves in 56 persons.(66) That number seems very low to this writer.
Comparing these figures is like trying to compare apples with oranges. It is impossible. It would seem logical that we need to have some common denominator to get a real picture and even then it won't be a real picture but just a far- fetched estimate. Using the idea that each shaman is visited by one client per day per year we arrive at the following set of figures for the years in question. (It must be held in mind that the 197.3 figures will be.a.little higher because the number of shamans supplied comes from the shaman association itself.)
Shamans Estimated Believers 1963 2ylag 3D t5190;925 1973 48,980 hier s 1.00 1981 39,124 14,280,260
What shall be done with these figures? Nothing of .any great lasting valve. It would seem that some place within the government recording system some standardized figures would exist. These figures would not be totally accurate, but they would be more informational than the little "SCrapings" that this writer has been able to come up with.
If one thought that the Korean government's feelings toward shamanism were ambivalence and antagonism, one would not be far from the truth. A Handbook of Korea for 1978 has very little to say about shamanism. Shamanism is described and the concluding thought is this. Te 1) « Sneamanism stilt persists in obscure nooks of Korea today."(67)
Traditionally the government has been opposed to Shamanism, this was especially seen during the Yi Dynasty.
The pervasiveness of shamanism in Korean life and history is nowhere more dramatically evident than in the nationwide and systematic persecution launched by the neo-Confucianist government of the Yi Dynasty throughout its LONE. PER 2 Ns It periodically barred shamans
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from the ‘capitor and, “In’1413; confiscated books from shamans and burned then. In addition shamans were designated Ch'onmin ("outcasts") by government decree.(68)
Today as mentioned earlier the Korean government is trying to help the people see a distinction between shamanism as an unscientific system of superstititions and the shamanism that B2storzacally holds a’ lerge portion of Korean history.
Koreans are being taught to reject the former and accept the latter with these "teachings" going on the government is even going further.
The present Korean government has mounted a renewed campaign to eradicate shamanism from Korea. Police raids on shamanistic ceremonies are a common place occurrence, and a primary objective of the government-sponsored Saemaul- undong ("New Village Movement") is to eliminate traditional religious practices which are shamanistic in nature. Government newsreels deSinated to disseminate information on public health single out the shaman as a target of ridicule and attack.(69)
The government's feeling of antagonism toward shamanism can be understood if the highly negative views expressed by Kim Jong-il are studied and believed. Ina listing entitled "The Social Influences of Shamanism" Kim Jong-il reports that Shamanism has indeed had some sour effects upon the Korean world.
1. Shamanism strongly emphasizes the belief in demons. People are therefore afraid of spirits.
2. Shamanism tries to make people insecure, therefore the people are weakened.
3. The people become dependent upon spirits in Shamanisn.
4. Shamanism disturbs the people and hinders them from understanding God in the right way. 5. Shamanism tries to make people give up easily and be lazy.
6. Shamanism promotes a defeatest attitude among the people.
7 Maggio, “faith “and luck“ are stressed.
Instead of hard work the people depend on Spirits:
do. There *is “a lack “of tradition.
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9.° There’ ista.laek of morals.
10. Shamanism takes away people's hope in the LUGtU res
11. Shamanism destroys society and cultural development.
ic. DHere is) a@ lack of matdonalisn.
13. Shamanism makes people fear social crisis and therefore people become tied financially to shamans.
tus be Gestroys the traditional family life. 15. Shamanism places an emphasis upon the individual and therefore concepts such as righteousness, love and mercy are absent.(70)
Has shamanism actually had such a negative impact upon the Korean society? It would seem so, As the above statements have made plain, shamanism has really had an effect upon the thinking of the Koreans. Some other thoughts in regard to the social topics of marriage, sex-roles, kinship, ethics, and truth follow:
16. In Korean shamanism marriage is not just the union of two individuals but of two families. The most significant aspect of marriage is to create a new life.
17. Korean shamanism considers sex-roles to have been biologically defined and ordained. 18. To the shamanistic man, a man without a family is a most wretched human. Kinship gives meaning to life, protects one fron loneliness, and is the best assurance of one's humanity.
19. In Korean shamanist thinking, that behavior which is most "human" is judged to be good, and that behavior which is inhuman is considered evil.
20. In Korean shamanistic thinking, truth is never absolute. It is relative and must be qualified by the particular equities of any given situation.(71)
Four other ideas that are expressed of how shamanism has been influential in developing the Korean society are:
21. Shamanism tends to be a religion of self- interest therefore it stimulates selfishness. Its concerns are to realize the desires of the individual, the groups and the family.
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self-denial. leas moncerned: with: isatisfying desires, not denying then. ag ji vwohanand sm lacks! the spirit of independence. Man doesn't have to take responsibility for failure: nor’ can he take responsibility, for siwecess. 24. Shamanism makes the society too conservative.(72)
All three of the sources that the above twenty-four comments came from were written by Christian authors. Thas may indicate why the ideas are covered with a shade of negativisn.
Shamanism's stance toward other religions has mainly been one of syncretism--blending in with foreign religions--to form a new religion that may have within it doctrines which contradict. This has never seemed to bother the Korean shamanistic believer.
Looking at the various religions as a whole one shaman said that they consider it presumptuous to equalize shamanisn with Confucianism, and they would like to elevate shamanism to the level of other legitimate religions such as Buddhisn, Taoism, and Christianity and they resent the social stigma attached to shamans and their practices. Shamanism, she contends, is the only true native Korean religion. . .(73)
This comment indicates the interwoven quality between Shamanism and Confucianism. According to this shaman the man's religion, Confucianism rules the roost. She only hopes that shamanism, the women's religion will be given its Figwerul place: ifs the: “heady ofs the! house".
Confucianism which ruled in Korea for about 500 years in the recent past has formed the Korean's thoughts and concepts. In Korea "the family-centered ideas, the view of values in social life, and the manners of our wedding (sic) and funerals are all Confucian."(74)
Shamanism and Confucianism have lived and worked side by side for so long that the main religion in Korea has almost become a hyphenated religion, Shamanistic-Confucianisn. The ideas of which religion holds to what are mixed up in the people's minds. An example of this is the memorial service for the dead. "it is) their understanding and conception that the memorial service for their ancestors is more than simple worship of ancestors, that there is also the shamanistic conception about the souls of the dead."(75)
If one looks more closely at what takes place in the home and at the burial grounds when someone dies one can see much more of this Shamanistic-Confucianism at work. The ceremony for a person; who has just died’ is called the "invitation of
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the sour", If the deceased iS a man, the invitation is made to the spirit of the deceased by the man's oldest son, Basically at -isS an invitation for” the soul to leave the area. At the burial arounds, which have been chosen by the shaman ai ver Gonsolting the Stars, another ceremony is held. At the burial ground a meal is served the spirits of the ancestors as well as to those family members who are alive and present. Following the burial the whole family puts on white, white being the color of mourning. Mourning the loss of a member of the family may last several months, even years.
The ideas which go into making up Confucianism are these:
1. It is primarily interested in present- centered realisn.
2. °itetis® selfishty Fanily centered:
3% There is-aviloess of subjectivity.
4. Conservative authority and tradition are key.
5. The government is put above the people.
When these characteristic are meshed with the characteristics of shamanism discussed earlier the characteristics of the new hyphenated religion Shamanistic-= Confucianism appear as: "1) dependency on others with subjectivity lost, 2) stagnant conservatism, 3) selfish realism, 4) factionalism, 5)bureaucracy of putting the government above the people, and 6) pleasure-loving amusement."(76)
In the opening paragraph to this section the idea was expressed that shamanism has been traditionally tied to the home. It has been said that shamanism is in fact the religion of the home. Dr. Lee Jung-Young in his excellent article entitled "Shamanistic Thought and Traditional Korean Homes" makes some very significant statements about the strong ties shamanism has with the traditional homes. Several of these statements are:
1. The traditional Korean homes have not only preserved a Shamanistic tradition but served as shaman sanctuaries.
2. Since the homes are the domain of the women, it is also the religion of women.
3. In the home the women are responsible for Various Shamanistae rituals . . . The oldest women in the home will be the "chief priest" of the home during the ritual even though professional Shamanesses are invited to perform various rites. She is the symbolic
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4, Shamanism has been able to penetrate into the communal and societal life of Korea through women and children at home.
5. Taegum is the most important god of traditional homes. He is often known as the god of wealth and blessing.
6. The shamanistic deities are ancestral gods who bring the home and shamanism together.
i. the house is not only a sacred place but a temple of shamanistic deities.
8. In most cases, there is no special room and an altar is temporarily created for this particular purpose. When the particular ritual is over, the altar is removed and the place is again used for ordinary purposes.
9. The homes reflect the iss mundi, where both the sacred and the secular come together. 10. The combination of shamanism and Confucianism and their religious practices are understood as a strength rather than a weakness of family life.(77)
In years past and even today the home has played role in the continuation of shamanism. were published in 1981 listed that there were 172 temples in It is evident from that small number that many homes actually do become places of worship.
Shamanism's Role in Society
Thinking specifically of the women who occupy the religious specialist position they have very real opportunities open to them that other women do not have. Inspite of the fact that they are looked down upon in the society they still have these opportunities. that they gain superiority over their husbands.
Since the possessing spirits are often the ancestral ghosts of the shaman's husband and
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Since, for those who believe in their reality, spirits in general ere superordinate to human bBePngs* hers. In so much as only the shaman has*direect access’ tocthe spirits) invany disputes between the shaman and other family members, the spirits are likely to be in coalition with the shaman.(79)
Another of these opportunities is based upon the monetary incentives of being a shaman. "Today, with such social constraints much more relaxed democratization of education, industrialization, and urbanization, shamans can, by careful strategy, use their economic resources to liberate their children from social humiliation to some degree and motivate them towards socially more acceptable life styles."( 80)
These aspects related to women, generally coming under the caption of providing a niche in society for women may well be why shamanism has had the staying power that it has had.
Although it is generally accepted that creeds and general written formulas are missing in shamanism, culturally defined answers to the mysteries of life have been provided down through the years through oral tradition and the practice of the kut. This could be seen as a second function of Shamanism. This has been already discussed under the section of characteristics of shamanism.
Three other ideas will be explored in regard to Shamanism's role in society. These functions are the healing function, the fortune-telling function and the entertainment function.
The Healing Function
Korea has been and still is an agricultural society. There are a great many places throughout the country, hard as it is*to believe, where hospitais;j-clinics, doctors or pharmacies cannot be found. Smail islands off the west coast and mountain villiages are examples of places such as this. In these secluded places what are the people to do? When illness strikes or accident befalis a family member it is to the mudang that they turn, Some areas are so isolated that even a mudang may not be present. In some of these places sun-kuh-ri (sun is an amateur; kuh-ri means "ritual") can be found.(81)
The healing function is an important function to be fulfilled in the eyes of the Koreans. What follows is the discription of a healing kut as related by a western onlooker.
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First yo sacrifieralitbioed zs «shéd,*sof<a ehveken, “or pig;-0Or dog, and a generous neal of rice and other things with this meat is prepared. An awning is spread overhead covering the courtyard of the house, and thick grain-drying mats are spread over the ground. When the meal is ready, it is placed upon a small table and set out in the courtyard on the mats, and then the drums begin to sound, the pipes to wail and the Mootang to dance. She holds in her hands the sword or trident, or sometimes only a fan, and she postures and dances, calling out to the spirits from time to time and inviting them to join the revelry. Faster and faster she goes, Swirling like a dervish, leaping high in the ‘air. Her eyes flash wildly. Even the sound of her voice changes. People shrink away from her in fear. Sometimes, to help her, one of her assistants will take a basket and scrape upon it, making a sound like that which the boys make on the rocks along the river bank when they try to entice fresh-water crabs out from under big stones. On and on she goes, calling and calling to the-spirits to come and join her, begging them to come, cajoling them with all sorts of promises, explaining the wonderful feast that has been prepared, reminding then of their friendship to her, teasing, joking, pleading. Sometimes she gets absolutely exhausted and falls down almost in a faint without getting any results. She lies still a while, and then arises and begins again, or a companion takes her place and they serve alternately, calling and calling. .'. . Usually, sooner or later, a change comes, and she announces that the evil spirit has come out of the sick person and is partaking of the feast. Then she must use some device to persuade the spirit to go away after eating, and not to go back into the person who was ill. She does this sometimes by cajolery and perhaps more often with guile. Among her properties will be a small horse sometimes, made of woven straw. She will beg the spirit to mount the horse at the end of the meal, and, when he has done so, she will seize the horse, run out the door and throw it up into a tree or into a stream. The poor, simple- minded evil spirit cannot find his way back to the same house again, so the sick person gets well.(82)
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There has of recently been quite a lot written about this function of Korean shamanisn. Some views expressed about the healing function are: 1) The shaman is merely a folk-quack--a deceiver of the people, but this view gives no real explanation for the healings that have taken place. 2) The shaman is a folk-therapist who uses her various dances, trances, songs and ceremonies as merely tools in her therapy. 3) The shaman is a healed-folk healer, who has once been mentally, physically or emotionally ill and who now drops back on past experience to heal others.
The first of these views is a generally held folk-belief by many Westerners today and was common among early missionaries in Korea. In many writings the people who went to the mudang were (and still are) refered to as "the uneducated lower classes", Everything was written off to superstitution and deception.
The second of these views is one view that is argued for today. An example of this type of argumentation appears in the article "Caught Between Ancestors and Spirits" by Dr. Poaunmet eendall... Aiter giving afield report on. one kut that he viewea, he arrived at the following conclusions:
i. .es ."therapy™, the kut rallied family concern around Mrs. Kim and justified effort and expense undertaken on her part. in SHOnt., the kut reaffirmed Mrs. Kim's right to existance and her importance to her family.
2. the Kut coutd not change reality; it could previde a revitalized "United Front" in face of that reality and inject a note of optimisn about the future.
SeeLne “cure® does not significantly alter the underlying circumstances of the afflicition (which the author attributed to poverty compounded by the loss of her children). Rather, the patient is introduced to a set of practices that provide a means of periodic and revitalized orientation. (83)
An author who would go along with the third view of the Shaman as a healed folk-healer would be Edward Canda. He Simply puts the thought this way: "Having experienced deathly illnesses and been cured by accepting the shamanic vocation, a shaman learns the art of curing others."( 84)
In recent years with the advances of medical knowledge that have taken place on the peninsula much of the healing function of the shaman has been reduced. However, the healing aspect of shamanism still serves a purpose in the
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mind or the believer. "i. « Lhe: Deltevers. in shananisn, like shamans, realize that illness can be cured by modern medicine. Indeed, they rely upon it. But the shaman logic addresses an issue which is normally cast aside as concidence Or bad,» auck by) science: "Why me?" in short, science and shamanism ask two different questions."( 85)
The Fortune-telling Function
In various places in Seoul and around the country fortune- tellers can be found. Sitting on the sidewalk with their back against a wall. Their books and plam charts are arranged around them in a semi-circle of divination. Does the pansu have a role to fulfill in the society? It would seem that he does.
As an example in 1963 when there was a great deal of governmental uncertainity and unrest in the society the number of mudangs and fortune-tellers rose from the year before by 15% from 18,202 to 21,345. The future was uncertain and answers sought. (86)
Pansus are blind fortune-tellers. The name is from the two Chinese characters pan(to decide) and su(destiny).( 87)
What kind of questions are answered for the clients of the pansu? Thirty reasons, {and it would seem that there would be many others), were listed in the book The Passing of Korea. Fifteen were chosen to show the wide range of reasons one naghti go to a pansy; |) Forfind out:
1. Whether he will receive a reward for good conduct.
2. What will happen during the day, month or year.
3. What will happen at the point of death.
4, What was the condition in a former state of existence.
5. Whether he carries in his body the seeds of great misfortune.
6. How to find a lost article or person.
7. Whether a journey will be prosperous.
S.A What is the: conditdion of <a distant: friend or relative.
9. Whether he will be wealthy.
10. In what direction should he move when he changes residence.
11. Whether he can repair his house without suffering calamity.
12. When a son will be born.
13. Whether a son or daughter will have a
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The Entertainment Function
The life of the Korean has been a hard one. These days things are changing very fast what with emphasis on modernization. The emaeu 10 ent has done a great deal for the rural people in this area. the L.V. bas almost become away of life for Koreans--something that runs almost constently when people are home. Most of this has happened within the middle to late 1970's and early 1980's.
Shamanism has provided entertainment by means of the dances, songs, instrumental music and puppet plays for most Koreans.
A hiking trip to a popular mountain spot will treat you to more of the same, (the gusty sound of Korean folk singing) with the added element of dance. Korean picnickers, especially older ones, often bring along such traditional Korean percussion instruments as the changgo, an hourglass-shaped drum, and the kkwang-gwari a small ear shattering gong, to use on their way back down the mountain when the stop to eat, drink, and be merry--being merry in Korea inevitably means singing and dancing.(89)
From the above account, obviously by a Westerner, one can see many visible tools of shamanisn. i, is this writer's opinion after having viewed many such scenes as this that the dance forms would be shamanistic as well.
One particular dance that should be mentioned is the chwado-kut or the farmers dance. This is a fast paced dance that invoives a great deal of acrobatic skill on the part of the dancers. "Besides being a great form of entertainnent, farmers' music and dance are still considered by many to be efficacious shamanistic tools. They are performed to purify the village well, protect houses from thieves and fire, pray to the mountain spirit for his blessing, ensure a bumper crop ete."(90)
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The functions that shamanism has played in society are: 1) providing women a higher status in society; 2) providing answers to the difficult questions in life;. 3) providing healing; 4) providing fortune-telling; and 5) providing entertainment. Invariably there are others. But it is evident for a large number of Koreans that these functions are not sufficient "attractions" to shamanism to keep them from turning to Christianity. One Christian author hints that maybe when Christianity arrived that Korea was passing through a period of religious change.
Because shamanism has played and still plays such a large roles in Society—--"a leg “of “the stool"--it is only natural to assume that shamanism has also affected Christianity. In the next section Shamanism's relationship with Christianity will be examined.
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Part fit Shamanism's Relationship with Christianity
In 1984 the Protestant Church in Korea will celebrate its centenial. For one hundred years, (and even before that with the introduction of Catholicism in the late 1700's), shamanism has had ample opportunties to "rub shoulders" with Christianity. What has been shamanism's relationship with Christianity? What has happened during the contacts and confrontations? What doctrines and worship practices of shamanism have found there way into the church? And what does the church today have to say about shamanism?
Before looking back to the early days of Prostestant Christianity in Korea, for reference it would be helpful to get some sort of picture of Christianity in Korea today and its relationship with shamanisn.
According to "Christian talk*® in Korea those who are claimed by the Christian church would represent some 20% of the population. This "Christian talk" would also say that one of every three persons in Seoul is a Christian. It really is very nard to’ cone: up with reliable figures. Also, one should be careful in viewing governmental statistics because all Protestant sects such as the Mormon Church and the Unification Church are also included under the overarching umbrella labeled "Christianity."
In 1979 The Missions Advanced Reasearch Center (Marc) published the following statistics in regard the the relligious composition of Korea,
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Christianity is growing in Korea. No matter where one gets ones statistics they show growth. Mare statistics for 1974 for instance indicate that Protestant Christianity held 7.5% of the people's religious adherance. Also from those Same statistics shamanism (and traditional religions) held an 80-90% following.(92) It should be mentioned that in the 1979 statistice only Christianity was mentioned, not both
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Shamanism: A Preparer of the Soil
The title or this section almost makes one think of the Roman Catholic idea that other religions are preparatio to Chins tical sty: . it muse be sSscated at the’ outset that a@ person, by becoming the very best shaman or shamanistic believer, will never get himself or herself any closer to Christianity or personal salvation available only through Jesus Christ. This idea cannot be accepted but it should be recognized that an animistic society like Korea will more readily accept Christianity than would a Mohamamandan society.
Hoy snearer in his work entitled Wildfire: Chureh Growth in Korea says this about shamanism's role in preparing the Korean people for the gospel.
When Protestant Christianity came to Korea, it found no strong, organized religious opposition but found instead that Shamanisn, or animisim, had actually prepared the nation to receive Christianity . . . While Shamanism 25,n0L, an. Organizea religion, it is’ one of Salvation through a higher being, a religion which holds that a person has no power in himself but needs help from a higher being. . - For centuries Korea had been plowed by Shamanistic efforts to communicate with higher beings, and when the seeds of Christianity were placed in this rich soil, they flourished and produced the fruit of Christian disciples.(93)
Before going on with this widely accepted premise that the cause of Christianity was advanced in Korea because or the pre-existing belief in and need of a higher being, one thought should be interjected.
As has been said previously, shamanism controls the thoughts and actions of a great many people simply by fear. mm siren Clark*s book A History of the Church in Korea, the aucher quotes one of the early missionaries, Dr. J. S. Gale as follows:
One thing that attracted the Korean to the Gospels was that, as he read them, he found
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himself on familiar ground, for there were stories of demons here and he Knew all about demons. But the attractive thing about these demons was that they were on the run, and he was interested in finding out about a religion that would have the power to put the demons on the run for him, also.(94)
Several authors have refered to the fact that in the early days of Christianity's involvement on the penisula that the whole society was undergoing a great deal of change. The people were having their needs go unfulfilled. In Christianity they saw something that seemed to be a powerful replacement to the religion of fear that they had clung to ror so Jong. "In the more friendly and equally vivid supernatural world of the Christian, the animist found a congenial substitute for his dissolving world of spirits."(95)
Shearer speaks of this dissatisfaction as being a present reality. The Koreans today seem glad to find a high God of love to replace the gods of fear that they have known in the past. "IT have seen enough in this study and have had enough experience to realize that animism has a most important relationship to church growth in Korea."(96)
Turning again to the concept of a higher being, J. Spencer Palmer posits that this is one of the key ways that shamansim prepared the soil for Christianity. "The Korean will give Christianity his undivided allegience when he is told that the "Great One' whom he has reveared for thousands of years is none other than the God of the Bible."(97) Palmer says that in Christianity the Korean found the "mirror image" of their own true god, Hananim. Palmer concludes this way:
Hananim was a point of contact with Korean culture the like of which missionaries in China did not have. As a personal transcendent God, clearly the supreme deity of the Korean people, Hananim was uniquely suited to prepare the Korean people for belief in the Christian God. Because of this, Hananim was a concept upon which the Christian missionaries working in Korea could rather easily agree. Hananim has been a wonderful deity for the Christians of Korea, considerably facilitating their work.(98)
In the book Korea Tomorrow, this discovery was shared to give the reader some similarities between Christianity and Shamanism. To be sure the differences are marked; the Similaarities are still striking. The discourse was shared
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To this writer the idea that a strong emphasis is placed upon personal sin does not seem to fit in with the fatalism of Korean shamanism. It could be that what this author is expressing is the "personal sin" of breaking with the expressed desires of the spirits. If this is done according to the shamanistic ways of thinking, punishment will certainly follow.
The above mentioned ethic which includes the phrase "love your neighbor" has a very familiar. ring to it. Could the Koreans have possibly picked up on this idea too when thinking about adopting Christianity?
The Power Struggle
In 1968 Shearer in his Master's thesis on "Animism and the Chureh in Korea" came to the conclusion that " ... animisn is not lacking in power nor does it seem to be on the decling ia. Sitiiesn 1S powerful cyen in urban. settings..,<..« Animism is not dead nor is the desire on the part of the people to deal favorably and be dealt with favorably by the spirits around them."(100)
As has been seen, Shamanism has perpared Korean's and their ways of thinking toward the acceptance of Christianity. However, shamanism also presents a force of rejection and opposition to the gospel.
The author of the book Six Korean Women relates in her final case study--a case study of a Korean shaman who became a Christian--just how this woman came to Christ. The following excerpt shows the power struggle involved between Christianity and shamanisn.
Her eldest son was the first to be converted to Christianity, followed by her husband and other sons. Her own conversion came much later after a protracted battle with the Devil
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for her soul. It had required the physical destruction of her shamanistic altar by her husband, sons, and Elders form their church while she sat cowered and enraged, which led to her conversion to Christianity as having been far more horrifying than her earlier experiences of being possessed by shamanistic spirits.(101)
When this author was talking with a middle aged Korean Christian woman about shamanism she wanted to know why I was studying shamanism. She stated very strongly in her opinion, (and she felt she was expressing the opinion of most Korean Christians), that shamanism was of the devil. The power that the shaman has been given her by Satan himself. She felt it was important for me to know that shamanism and those who are the practitioners of shamanism were under the control of the Prince of Darkness.
This view would seem to concure with that of Deaconess Chang, the converted shaman.
The mudang has traditionally been seen aS a person who is in direct.oppositton to Christianity. Shearer quoting Underwood, one of the first western missionaries to work in Korea says "Shamanism is the most obstinate enemy that the missionaries have to met in Korea."(102)
Shearer cites seven instances of the power confrontation between Christians and mudangs. One of these was especially interesting and is recorded below.
The conversion took place ina direct confrontation by the mudang, arrayed in the paraphernalia of her trade, against a group of Christians gathered together in prayer. Of further interest is that this group of Christians contained a former p'tansu, who had once been shown to have weaker power than this mudang when she proved his capture of a spirit in a bottle to be false. Now this former p'ansu was a Christian and a member of the congregation. When the mudang confronted the assembled Christians with a defiant attitude, the former p'tansu led out in prayer and the whole congregation joined in agonized prayer for the mudang. She could not contain herself, threw down all her paraphernalia, and ran to her home. At this time she did not make a confession of Christ but was in agony for many days. Christians.came. to. visit, spoke to the mudang, and told her of the forgiveness of sin in Christ. Eventually she
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It seems that very little study has been done in the area of the power encounter. How Should it be carried out? This whole area has a direct bearing upon how one presents the gospel and lives out onets Christian role as witness. Should it be handled by a toe to toe confrontation? Or should Shamansism be tolerated until those religious specialists and believers "come to their senses" and turn to Christ?
Dr. Jun Ho Jin gives some scriptural basis for the power encounter between Christianity and shamanisn.
1. Levitecus 20:27 prescribes death to mediums and wizards,
2. Deuteronomy 18:10-12 describes diviners, enchanters, withches, charmers, consulters of Spirits, wizards, and necromancers as abominations to the Lord.
3. Romans 1:19-21 says that man has represses the truth and the divinity of God.
4, The power of the Holy Spirit needs to be substituted for the power of the shaman.
5. There ought to be emphasized a firm belief in the evil power that the Bible teaches,
6. Ephesians 6:10=-11 encourages believers to stand firm in His power and put on the armour of God when doing the power encounter.(104)
These are biblical but they provide little practicle "how to do -Lt* advice.
As will be elaborated on in the strategy section of this paper, it would seem that the people group consisting of Shamans would be a worthy target of evangelisn. To reach that group it would seem likely that in many cases a direct power confrontation would be necessary. This would be difficult and maybe it is the reason that the shaman has generally over looked in the past.
Notice below though just how much influence a converted Shaman has in the church. How much more affective could a converted shaman be among her peers, not to mention her clients.
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Today, she is hearlded by her fellow believers as a chosen one, saved by God from the very clutch of Satan. The special designation allows her to function much as she used to as a shaman in ministering to those in need of her potent prayers. She enjoys the prestige and social support she recieves from her fellow Christians and family members. .
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Shamanistic Influences in the Church
Much of the information in this section and in the following section was garnered by means of a questionnaire. One hundred questionnaires were sent out to Korean pastors and denominational leaders. The method used was not a simple mailing, but instead almost every questionnaire was placed in the hand of a missionary who then placed it is the hand of the national leader. Being that in Asia everything of import seems to go through a middle man, it was felt that the questionnaire should follow that cultural pattern. This could count for the high response of 48%.
The questionnaire was prepared in English. This writer was fully aware that-this approach may well have skewed the results because it limited those who could be surveyed to only those persons who had some ability in English.
The cover letter and the questionnaire are included at the back of this paper. On that questionnaire percentages of each response appear for each question. In the body of this paper references will be made to the results of the questionnaire.
It would seem that if shamanism has had such an impact on the society and is in fact "a leg of the stool" upon which the Korean culture rests that it would also have had an influence upon Christianity.
When one begins to look for specific influence of Shamanism with Christianity, one tends to do so by thinking negatively. This attitude has an inherent danger, that being that when one finds a carry over one feels that it should be eliminated to preserve the sanctity of the church. This way of thinking destroys any possibility for the church to develop a functional substitute,
A functional substitute is a practice developed by the church to replace a socially accepted, socially required, or socially needed way of coing things with a way of doing things that does not violate the Scriptures or Christian doctrine. This is a very sensitive issue because much of
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what Westerners feel is "right" may not be "right" in Korea, or in Asia.fior.that matter. A functional substitute can be thought of as taking a shamanistic practice and "baptizing" Oh es
Shearer points out that in Korea the idea of ancestor worship was one of the areas where the church needed to develop a functional substitute. He reports that the early missionaries ignored the issue. eA. ueed ss ene missionaries ' attutide toward ancestor worship was mistaken."(106)
Because ancestor worship had sociological implications in the Korean world it would not simply die out. Titanic t became a stumbling block for many Koreans in their attempt to accept the gospel. Among the folk beliefs mentioned most by the pastors who completed the questionnaire, ancestor worship was considered a hinderance to the gospel.
A Korean Christian convert wrote that she could not.put up.a spirit.table. for the.dead as the pagans do, because most of them believe the spirit of the dead comes back into the tablet with power to give blessing or woe to the household. The women had a religious problem that must be dealt with. The way to deal with such a religious problem caused by prohibition of ancestor worship, is with the funcitional substitute that does not compromise the faith.(107)
On Chusok, a traditional holiday when the Koreans visit the graves of their ancestors and offer thanks for the harvest, and on aniversaries of the birth and death of the ancestors, Korean non-Christians as well as Christians still visit the grave site. What happens at the grave site of these families are worlds apart. The animists who visit the graves on these days offer food to the spirits and bow before the grave requesting blessings and offering thanks. The Christians go and have a memorial service with Scripture reading and hymn singing. Flowers my be layed on the grave. Just like the animists, the Christians bring food, but the food is for them and they enjoy a fellowship meal together.
Through the use of the questionnaire, conversations with Korean Christians and two specific sources, (those being: " Shamanism in Korea and Its Influences on the Korean Church" by Jun Ho. .Jdin;,.and. "Animism and-the,Church in Korea" by Roy E. Shearer), the following list of influnces has been developed. The list has been developed into two specific areas which are doctrine and practice.
Doctrine
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1. Blessings
a. If one gives more money he will receive more blessings from God. b. .If one is good then he will be blest by God.
ec. Prayer is a key to receiving blessings. 2. Tithing
a. If one does not tithe he will recieve punishment. 3. Healing
a. There is a confusion between mental dlilness and demon possession.
b. All iliness is. viewed.as a result of one's spiritual condition. Some pastors say that our illness comes from ghosts.
4. Belief in a Threefold World View
5. Thinking about the Bible as a book of spiritual power.
6. The Pastor
a. He is viewed as a mediator between God and the chruch.
b. Members believe that the prayer of the pastor can cure those who are ill. 1e Belief in good spirits and bad spirits (demons and angels).
Practice
16, Prayer
a. Prayers for blessing.
Bb. Prayers for_-expelling devils.
ec. Early morning prayer service.
d. Emphasis on fasting and prayer.
e. Emphasis that when someone is sick or there is a pressing problem that a person must go to the prayer mountain,
f. Long and loud prayers.
g@. Prayer for the sucess of a business enterprise is stress,
2. Specific worship of the cross.
3. Little concern for the, living a practical Christian lifestyle,
4. Ecstatic spiritualism
a. The emotional quality of Korean services.
5. Prophesy (telling fortunes?). 6. Healing
a. Whenever someone becomes sick of is injured most parisrioners immediately send for the pastor or ch i Officers.
D, .8e pastor yisits the sick person daily.
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e. Healing is done by the "laying on of hands." 7. Commeration of the ancestors birth and death with a worship service. 8. Thank Offerings
a. Offerings for one’s birthday or anniversary.
b. Offerings for the recovery from an iviness.
e. Offerings for’ the birth of a child.
d. Offerings for the start of a business.
e. Offerings for a child getting into a good school. 9. Funerals
a. Bowing to the dead person's picture.
b. The mourning service that takes place at the grave site. 10. The launching of a Christian boat which invoives the pastor. 11. The raising of the beam ceremony on a new house. 12. Emphasis upon the "Bible woman." 13. Cleanliness and purity are emphasized. 14. People are very enthusiastic about living a religious life.
As far as items of doctrine go it would seem that the individual denominations need to take a long hard look at just what the people in their denomination believe. The concept of blessings seem to be one of the most talked about areas in the church today. Of those pastors who responded to the question on the questionnaire about influences of Shamanism on the churen, more pastors listed this idea of blessings as an influence than any other single subject.
It seems that a goodly percentage of pastors believe that Korean seminaries are teaching something about shamanisn. Are these seminaries teaching anything about shamanism's influence upon the church? Are these schools informing these future pastors of the danger present if their people begin to think of them as their only mediators between themselves and God?
And what of the carry over in regard to practices? Many functional substituted have been developed. This is-the sign of a healthy church. However, the danger of syncretism must always be kept in mind. What about emphasized practices such as healing or fasting? What are the peoples thoughts behind bowing to a dead person's picture or thank offerings? These are important questions. Are they being ask in the Korean Church today?
Many of these items are very positive and are being used for the the growth of the church in Korea and the glory of
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The church today seems to be growing more and more insulated from the world of the shaman. Donald McGavran of the School of World Mission refers to this as redemption and lift. This process is under way in Korea. It seems that second and third generation Christians have little if any idea about shamanism except that it is evil. Most people have very little idea how many Shamanistic believers there
are or even how many shamans there are.
The following statements represent the finding of the questionnaire. It should be remembered that this questionnaire was given to Korean pastors.
1. Most pastors view shamanism as something of Satan.
2. Most pastors feel that shamans are afraid of Christianity.
3. Most pastors have confused ideas about how many adherants there are to shamanism and about how many actual shamans there are in Korea.
4, Almost all pastors said that the average Christian would not be afraid of a shaman,
5. All but one pastor said that the average pastor would not be afraid of a shaman.
6. Most all the pastors surveyed said they had heard a sermon against shamanism.
7. Over half of the pastors surveyed said they had preached a sermon against shamanisn.
8. About five out of every seven pastors said they believed that Korean seminaries taught something about Shamanism.
9. About one half of all the pastors stated that they felt that the Korean church had adopted certain things in worship, doctrine and practice from shamanisn.
10. Most pastors have never been actively involved in ‘witnessing to shamans.
ll. Over two out of every three pastors said that they did not know of any Korean ministries directed toward specific shamans. Of these who said "yes", only one name was mentioned as someone who is doing specific work in this area. His name: Kim Ki Dong Shimkil Dong Young Dong Po, Seoul
12. The pastors split down the middle with regard to whether or not a person after confessing Jesus as Lord could ever go back to a Shaman in a time of crisis.
13. Over half the pastors questioned stated that there were some folk bel: ' that might hinder a shaman from becoming a Christie
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14. Most pastors would describe shamans as a group of people who have no awareness of the gospel.
15. Most pastors would describe shaman's attitude toward the gospel as strongly opposed.
One of the questions on the questionnaire dealt with what point of contact a pastor would use when witnessing to a Shaman. As a possible conversation starter the following ideas were listed. These are listed in question forn.
Who is the God Hananim?
Who created the world?
Who gives both blessing and disaster? Who is the mediator between God and man? Do you fear God?
Who has power over evil spirits?
Does God help humans?
What do you think about heaven?
ONAUM FWN FH °
This writer was told of an instance in a rural community that had one small church and one powerful shaman. In the community there was a park and on a Sunday afternoon some Christian young people went out to witness. As they tried to witness they were confrnted by the question "What does Christianity have to offer that shamanism does not have?" They were told that their shaman was very great and if they were ever in need some was more than able to help then. IBye was because of this incident that the question, "What does Christianity that shamanism can not offer", was included in the questionnaire.
The responses to this question were many and varied, however, almost all those who responded recorded salvation as the obvious answer. Here are the responses,
Curtstianity offers .. «. «
Salvation by Jesus Christ alone,
Christ, the incarnate, who was resurrected from the dead. peace with God.
ilove and truth to give away. Not our love and truth, but the love and truth of Jesus Christ.
eternal hope.
the power to overcome the sinful life.
ethics and moral teachings.
a-doetrine of ereation,
spiritual association with God Himself.
love.
an example of a holy lifestyle.
the cross.
a purpose for living
service to others 4a- BOal {cr society.
iteaaots
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the conviction of sin. the deep fellowship of the Body of Christ.
Preaching from the pulpit seems to be the common method of dealing with shamanism in Korea. One pastor did comment that "We don't need to preach about shamanism in the church." He gave no reason for his position. It could be assumed that he felt that Christians already know that shamanism is evil and that they will stay away for its influences in their lives. However, this position does not provide the Christians with any handles when they do have to confront the issue with regard to a friend or family member. It also discourages them from having any desire to witness for Christ to the Shamanistic believer or the shaman.
Of the pastors who responded that they had either heard or preached a sremon against shamanism, these were some of the scripture references that they listed.
Exodus 20
Leviticus 18:1ff Deuteronomy 6:4; 18:9-14 I Samuel 28
John 4:23
Acts 14:8-183 16:16-34; 17:16-31; 19:18-20 Romans 1: 18-23
Ephesians 5:5 Colossians 2:8
James 4:7
Revelation 21:8
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It seemed to be the concensus of those who returned the questionnaire and many others as well that very little is being done in the area of evangelizing shamans. It seems that some preaching is being done, but at present how many Shamans find their way into a church? And if any did find their way into a church would they or could they listen to the message? There seems to be no coordinated effort to reach the people group of shamans, The Mission Advanced Research Center says about Korea:
- ss « the door -anone che non-Christians is wide open. By recognizing specific target groups and adjusting the approaches to meet the felt needs as well as real needs the Church has an excellent chance to evangelize all the unreached in South Korea.(108)
this is precisely «* “shall be attempted in the final section of this paper : th regarc to shamans.
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A Strategy for Reaching Korean Shamans
This strategy is based on the ten point planning cycle prepared by Edward R. Dayton and David A. Fraser in their book Planning Strategies for World Evangelization. The s
of their planning cycle are listed below.
1. Define the Mission.
2. Describe the People.
3. Describe the Force for Evangelisn. 4. Examine the Means and Methods.
5. Define the Approach.
6. Anticipate the Outcomes.
7T- Decide Our Role.
8. Make Plans.
Qo, Aet.
10. Evaluate.
Step 1. Definition of the Mission
The description put foward in this book of evangelism worthy of note. "To evangelize is to communicate the gos in such a way that men and women have a valid opportunity accept Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior and become respons members of his church"(p. 80).
This derinition is expanded further.
The nature of evangelism is the communication of the good news.
The purpose of evangelism is to give individuals and groups a valid opportunity to accept Jesus Christ.
The goal of evangelism is to persaude men and women to become desciples of Jesus Christ and serve him in the fellowship of his Church (p. 62) 4
Finally some basic principles of evangelism are given shed some light on the task.
1. The gospel, and not some substitute, must be communicated.
2. The messangers who proclaim the gospel must be authentic disciples of Jesus, Christ.
3. The message mus’ be pharsed in the language and idioms, the th~ught forms and world view of the listeners » are being ask to make a
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4, The means of communication must be suited to the social structure and communication patterns common to the people.
5. The witness to Jesus Christ must be sustained long enough to be comprehensible to the average person in the group being evangelized.
6. Ultimately, a valid opportunity implies the work and presence of the Holy Spirit (pp. 82- 83).
The goal of this endeavor is to come among the people group of Korean shamans to increase their awareness of the gospel, to increase the number of this people group in the Korean Church and to make disciplers who will inturn win the rest oft the people group. A second and related goal is that the disciplers would also involve themselves in evangelizing among their former clients who lie outside of the designated people group, but who are nonetheless closely related to it.
Specific strategies for the achievement of these goals will be given later.
In step 2 an attepmt will be made to describe the Shaman people group. This will be an abriviated version of what appears in the earlier portions of this paper. Before going on to that, however, this writer found five specific problems with Dayton and Fraser's book. These problems are germane to our thinking about Korean shamans as a people group.
1. Korean Christians tend to think of themselves as a homogenous unit--that there are no recognizable people groups--they are all Koreans, The people group theory may have trouble being accepted in Korea.
2. The book stresses that a church should be established among the group. This is refered to as “the main objective" of this approach (p. 102). The establishment of a church among shamans in Korea is not practicle becuase shamans tend to be so spread out. Also, it is not necessary to establish a church among these people because they should be incorporated into the many already existing churcnes.
3. The book mentions Peter Wagner's missiological theory that "priority should be given to peoples who are currently responsive to the gospel" (p. 92). Shamans are not responsive but are instead resistent. The principle is a good one, but if in practice it means to avoid work among this group totally because other areas are more responsive, then it must be revised. The Korean Church has over-looked the shaman and this could very weil be the reason why.
4. Korean shamans are a hidden people even if they only
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fit part of the given description. ""Hidden peoples' are those with no or virtually no practicing Christians. 2 I evangelization is to be done, it will have to be done by eross-cultural evangelists (E-2/E-3) evangeiism" (p. 97). The main force for evangelism should be Koreans (E-1) evangelisn.
5. A significant question is asked on page 103. "Do we have individuals who have a strong desire and real potential for serving in the new area?" This presents a problem for most pastors, although they are not afraid of the shamans, they do avoid the contact. There is a strong social stigma against shamans. They are looked down upon in societyand are viewed as demon possessed persons.
With these problems in mind let us move on to a description of the people group.
Step 2. Describe the People
The strategy working group of the Lausnne Committee for World Evangelization has given this definition of a people group: A significantly large sociological grouping of individuals who percieve themselves to have a common affinity for one another {(p. 135).
This then shall become the starting point for the discussion of Korean shamans as a people group.
Dayton and Fraser provided in their book an Unreached Peoples Questionnaire. This writer completed the questionnaire with regard to Korean shamans and it appears below.
1. Name of the group of people: Korean Shamans,
2. Alternate name(s) or spellings: women: udang, Mansin; men: pansu, paksu.
3. Country where located: South Korea.
4. Aproximate size of this group in this country: 100,000.
5. Vernacular or common language: Korean.
6. Lingua franca or trade language: Korean,
7. Name of the religious group found among this people: Animism, with a heavy influence from both Buddhism and Confucianisn.
8. In your oppinion what is the attitude of this people toward Christianity? Strongly opposed.
People Distinctives
A number of different things contribute to create a distinctive people or group, one that in some way shares a
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common way or life, sees itself as a particular group having an affinity toward one another, and differs to some extent from other groups or peoples. What would you say makes the people you are describing distinctive? Importance in each of the following areas will be given an (H) for high, an (M) for medium, or an (L) for low.
Same language (H)
Common residential area (L)
Common political loyalty (L) Similar social class (H)
Similar occupation (H)
Similar economic status (M)
Racial or ethnic similarity (H) Shared hobby or special intrest (L) Shared religious customs (H) Discrimination from other groups (H) Common kinship ties (L)
Unique health situation (H)
Strong sense of unity (M) Distinctive legas status (H) Similar education level (H)
Similar age (M)
Common significant problems (H)
9. What is the growth rate of the total Christian commnity among this people group? There does not seem to be a Christian community among this people.
10. In your opinion, what is the attitude of this people to religious change of any kind? Somewhat closed.
11. In your opinion, what is the attitude of this people toward Christianity? Strongly opposed.
Within this questionnaire was included the Engle Scale to help determine a people's attitude toward Christianity. Although what appears below is this writer's hypothesis, the actual percentages are not the important thing. What is amportant is the faet that the greatest portion of Shamans appear as having an awareness of Christinaity and just some knowledge of the gospel. They have an awareness of a person called Christ and that there are Christians who worship him. They also may know somethings about Christ and his plan of salvation, but this knowledge is most likely to be second hand and based on many misconceptions and falsehoods.
The Engle Scale
Have No. awareness of Chrisbianity/=T«..<csccsecsvcss 00% Have awareness of the existence of Christianity/-6...50% Have some knowledge Of the PoSpel/=—5 .cccccssesnccce cc ANG Moderstand tne Message Of LNG Gospel /=<4 ccc ccc es cee cD 5S See the personal implcations of the gospel/-3........00% Recognizes personal need that the gospel can meet/-2.00% Are being ¢hallenged to réceive Christ/-1...cseseeee00%
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Have decidea for Christ, but are not incorporated into
a fellowship (may be evaluating their decision)/+1...00% Are incorporated into a fellowship of Christians/+2..01% Are active propagators of the gospel/+3....cceeesveees 00%
What are the felt needs
An understanding of the felt needs of a people will help one tapper one's methods and strategies. Some of the felt needs of the shaman are:
1. Because the shaman is the religious specialist for a great many clients, she has a felt need to be the mediator between the spirit world and this world. There is a great deal of importance placed upon her power.
2. The rituals that she performs provide a culturally acceptable service for her clients. She is important because she fulfills a role in society.
3. Her beliefs in the many gods of the Korean world provide even for her, the religious specialist, some amont of fear. She must be careful not to overstep her "bounds" or she will be punished by her god.
4. Socially she is an outcast and yet her outcast status does not hinder her clients from coming to her in times or need.
5. The governmant regards her as a quack and deciever of the people, and yet the historical role of shamans is recognized.
6. There is a need to speak to the issue of the Supernatural. Emphasis is placed upon local gods and goddessess, demons and evil spirits, and dead spirits. Ancestors and ghosts are also other special areas that need to be spoken to.
7. Morality is not stressed therefore guilt does not seem to be an issue.
8. There is a need to live out this existence as comfortably as possible. The present is important.
It is very probable that shamans have other felt needs as well. Other ideas are mentioned in sections one and two of this paper.
The "fit™ between the gospel and the shaman
This is a very difficult area to discuss as the following statement highlights.
On the one hand, there must be the realization that a change of allegiance to Jesus Christ is a radical and deeply significant event. Jesus is a challenge to the very center of a people's world view and religion. fis word, he allows no rival. There is thus a necessary confrontation at the point of conversion. Yet
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there is another side. Conversion should not 'de-culturize' a person, removing him or her from. tribe and. fanily, and forcing the evangelist's culture as a part of the process of conversion (p. 174).
This may well be one of the key areas that needs to be thought through by those who are seeking to work with Shamans.
Two questions are presented to aid in this discussion:
1. What social structures should be utilizea to proclaim the love of God to shamans?
It is believed that the present day Church in Korea is the key to evange1izing the people group. The pastor, as the shaman's counterpart has a vital role to play. The pastor must not only give his people the "dangerous side" of shamanism from his pulpit (a tool of Satan, the shaman is a demon possessed person), but he must also begiu to teach his people that the person--the shaman--is loved by God. Ways need to be developed by the Church for going out of their way to show love to these persons. By persistent Christian love through service maybe a hearing for the gospel can be attained--even among shamans! Athough it is recognized that because of the social stigma and religious stigma attached to shamans is deeply entrenched, the message of Romans 12:14-21 is clear.
Bless those who persecute you; bless and do not curse then. Rejoice with those who rejoice, weep with those who weep. Live in harmony with one another; do not be haughty, but associate with the lowly; never be conceited. Repay no evil for evil, but take thought of what is nobel in the sight of all. If possible, so far as it depends upon you, live peaceably with all. Beloved, never avenge yourselves, but leave it to the wrath of God; for it is written, "vengeance is mine, Lawvili.~repay,acay thre Lord." No, "if your enemy is hungry, feed him, if he is thirsty, give him drink; for by so doing you will heap burning coals upon his head." Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good. (RSV)
Another possible social structure that could be used to reach this group of people is the family of the mudang. This was the method used to convert the shaman, Deaconess
Chang, mentioned in the book Six Korean Women.
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2. Are there some commonly held cultural practices that are clearly prohibited by the scriptures?
It would seem that the whole basis for the uniqueness of this people group is to fulfill roles in society that go against the teachings of the Bible. Examples could be:
a. Worshipping other gods.
b. Ancestor worship.
e. Shamans placing themselves as mediators between the gods and the people.
d. The use of witches and wizards.
And yet are all the practices and functions performed by shamans anti-Scriptural?
a. Providing status for women in society. b. Healing. ec. Entertainment.
The Korean Church will have to speak to these ideas. Dayton and Fraser present a very important point that goes along with these two questions.
Those whose interests are threatened (as was the case with the silversmiths, led by Demetrius of Ephesus, whose trade in images of Diana was threatened by some many becoming Christians) will rise up to oppose and subvert the«gospel (p. 175).
It seems likely that some shamans will "revolt" against the idea of some of their number turning to the "Christian God." They will no doubt place a stronger emphasis upon the idea that the god this is possession of the shaman will inflict a heavy punishment upon any who desert the ranks. Their interests will surely be threatened.
Step 3. The Force for Evangelism
In the discussion of the force for evangelism it must be recognized that the most effective evangels among shamans will be converted shamans themselves. This concept looks very good on paper but there are some questions that need to be answered by the Korean Church,
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3. The Church seems to hold a converted shaman in high esteem, a trophey of grace. But what about her relationship with other shamans? Has that relationship been damaged permanently?
4. What about simbyang in reverse? Most shamans believe that if they convert to Christianity that they will be punished by the possessing god. What can a converted Shaman say about this?
5. What about the status in society that a shaman receives. Does the Church have anything that can give the Shaman the same sense that she is needed?
And some other questions are:
6. The Korean Church has traditionally held a very negative view of the Korean shaman. Can the Church reject shamanism and yet love and seek to evangelize the shaman? 7. Is the Korean Church concerned enough about the shaman that they will begin to teach about shamanism in their seminaries, for the purpose of better equipping future pastors to work among shamans?
8. Because shamnas are techinically a "hidden people" (without an internal witness) persons from outside the people group must be the initial force for evangelism. Is the Korean Church prepared at present for such a ministry? 9. Today those few pastors who seem to emphasize the need to work with shamans are viewed with some distrust and skepticisn. Is this how the Korean Church will continue to act?
10. In the Churen, what governing body is going to keep alert to make sure sycretistic aspect of shamanism does not "water down" the gospel message? Will this be necessary? How will corrections be handled by the Korean Church?
if, as thas wrater fees, that the initial force for evangelism among shamans must come from within the Korean Church, these questions need to be dealt with.
The Korean Church is a missionary sending Church. It is now time that the Korean Church also begin to look among the people groups up and down its own peninsula. Shamans happen to be one such group and they are a significant one at that. Pastors in the Korean Church are encouraged to start new congregations. Some reports indicate that as many as three new congregations are started every day. Why couldn't a Similar emphasis be placed on the work among shamans? The potential here is unlimited. They not only have contact with other shamans but they also have contact with the largest unreached section of the society--that 73% who-are locked in traditional religions and secularisn.
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Step 4. Means and Methods
One of the conclusions of Roy Shearer in his paper "Animism and the Korean Church" was this:
I believe there must be a more concerted effort to win the animistic religious practitioners. Whether the bulk of them have any inclination to turn to Christ or not is not known. But testimony of several of these practitioners indicate a dissatisfaction with their present way “Of iife. iIf° these religious practitioners could be won to Christ, they would become very effective witnesses in the society that stilt holds their power in high regard. (109)
How will this be done among shamans of Korea? If, as most Koreans believe that the shaman's power has been given them by Satan himself, what can be accomplished?
An interesting distinction was made by a Korean woman when this writer ask her how she would witness to a shaman. She stated that it would depend upon what kind of shaman she was speaking with. She felt that a shaman who had become a Shaman by the process mentioned in the paper, that of personal demon possession by means of simbyong and then the naerim kut, would be highly resistent. However, she felt that a shaman who had become a shaman through heredity would be much easier to witness to. What she seemed to be saying was that a hereditary shaman has a tendency to be more of a nominal shaman. If this is a valid distinction, one's means and methods could differ according to the type of shaman one is dealing with. The Korean Church needs to begin to seek ways of making this distinction.
Three methods which might be effective among shamans are: 1) worship services in homes near the vicinity of a shaman temple or the home of a shaman; 2) tracts and 3) the power encounter.
With the following questions this writer is suggesting
some methods that might have an appeal to a Korean shaman who may be nominal or not so nominal in her beliefs.
Worship Services
1. Could traditional Korean music be used with drums (changgo), flutes (p'iri), clarinets (taegumn), fiddles
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2. Could traditional dance be included allowing those who wished to participate to do so?
3. Could a Korean pastor actually have physical contact with his audience?
4. Is the pulpit the only place where a sermon can be preached from?
5. Could a pastor ever chant a sermon?
6. Could a pastor use illustrations that have their origin in shamnaistic practices?
7. Is the church the only place that a Sunday morning service could take place? Could a church continue its regular Sunday/Wednesday schedule and have other services near a shaman'ts home during the week? It would seem that the home would be the key to this type of approach.
8. When it is time for the offering to be collected, could the people be encouraged to place the money themselves on the altar?
9. In the home worships located in close proximity to the home of a shaman or a shaman temple, could Christian healing be emphasized?
10. Could a pastor change his outfits (the color of his outfits) when he is making a theological point in his sermon: ie a red robe when he is speaking of sin, or a white robe when speaking about the purity of Christ etc.
Tracts
1. Could material be Deaeeyce with the shaman solely in mind as the audience?
2. It would seem that the major messages that need to be presented are;
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d. Jesus, the one who has power over demons.
3. To have the tracts use the art work of Kim Ki-chang in telling the story of the gospel might be effective.
4, Christians are going to have to go to shamans with these tracts. It should not be expected that unconverted shamans will come to the church.
5. It is possible that the families of shamans might be a good entrance to reach the shaman herself with the tract. 6. When presenting these tracts to the shamans themselves women may be grated a better hearing.
The Power Encounter
1. When nesessary the power encounter should not be avoided
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provided that the pastor or layperson has an adequate assurance of his/her salvation.
2. Before the power encounter every effort should be made by the church to, by acts of service and love win a hearing for the gospel.
3. The base for the power encounter should always be prayer. When the pastor goes forth to "do battle with Satan" he should always have a support group of prayer warriors.
4, The pastor should not go alone , but he should not be followed by a mob of people either.
5. Everything that the pastor does and says should be in the name of our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.
6. It should be remembered that "the confrontation of Christ with the spirits fit exactly into the Korean understanding of illness, physical and mental. Possession of an evil spirit is believed to be the cause of all illness."(110)
fe “ROorean Christians did net think of their conversion to Christianity as changing from one religion to another, but as a release from the power of the spirits."(111) Could the Korean shaman feel this way also?
8. A shaman needs to be encouraged to destroy her fetishes. It must be remembered that when a shaman destroys her fetishes she is also parting with her means of making a living. Does the Church have a responsibility here?
9. There will be a great deal of anguish and agony experienced by the mudang “while the spirits within struggle with the spirit of Chirst."(112)>:° It. is at this time that the Church needs to be constantly in touch with the shaman,
10. Following the conversion sever doubts may set in especially when illness strikes the shaman. Follow-up is esstential. It is reported of the converted shaman, Deaconess Chang, that "she feels that she is a pawn caught mercilessly in the cosmic struggle between God and Satan, neither of whom pays much attention to her own suffering. But she is even more afraid of losing the support of her family and church."(113)
Before leaving the discussion of means and methods Dayton and Fraser make a comment that has a great deal to say when one is thinking about working with Korean Shamans.
If we view a movement as Satanic, does that preclude the acknowledgment that it might be doing the kinds of things the Christian Church Should be doing in meeting the needs of the people? Perhaps one of the implications of Jesus' words that we be as wise as serpents and as harmless as doves is that we ought to learn from the good examples of bad people without adopting their values or evil motives (ps 302).
Step 5. Analyzing the Strategy
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Dayton and Fraser speak of grand strategies, mid-range strategies and short-range strategies. Thinking about strategies should include these three aspects.
The grand strategy is to move a sufficient number (20%) of shamans from the -5 range on the Engle Scale to the +3 range so that converted Korean shamans will themselves become propagators of the gospel among their own people and among their clients. Hereditary shamans will be the initial people to be reached because of their greater potential for receptivity. Other shamans will be reached through converts from the first group. Part of the underlying assumption is that a separate church for converted shamans would be impractical and unacceptable to the Korean Church.
The intermediate strategy is to develop programs of education on the demoninational level, the seminary level, and more importantly on the local church level so that Korean pastors and laymen can themselves become the initial force for evangelism. At this step as many converted shamans as can be identified will be brought into the programming as advisors and active witnesses.
The short-range-strategy is to gain the cooperation of the denominations in Korea. This very paper will become a spring board for discussion aaand decision. This paper will of course have to be printed and published in Korean. This will be done by Word of Life Press in Seoul, Korea.
It is the intent of this strategy that the grand strategy will be in operation by January 1, 1990. The intermediate strategy will be operational by March 1, 1986. The short- range strategy will be completed by December 31, 1984.
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Seine Step 6. Anticipated Outcomes
Anticipating outcomes is never an easy task but it is exciting. ji*s a. bit like dreaming God* thoughts after Him.
There are two significant areas that need to be viewed with regard to the outcomes of this strategy to work among Korean shamans. They are: 1) What are the general expectations if the strategy should succeed? and 2) How will one know when a shaman has been converted? What will be some outward manifestations of this inward change?
Below are listed several anticipated outcomes. They follow somewhat of a chronological order.
1. At first the Korean Church will be very hesitant in getting involved with this type of progran. Two things seem to be in its disfavor. One is that the Korean Church will feel that "we have never done this type thing before" and the other is that this approach is proposed by a foreigner, therefore it could be suspect.
2. The Korean Church will be won over by demoninational leaders who-have been sold on the idea.
3. The Korean Church will seek to finance the program totally by themselves.
4. The Korean seminaries will begin to include in their programming classes on shamanism with special emphasis on how to witness to shamans. Areas such as the power encounter will also be stressed.
5. The Korean government will support the program because it dovetails so well with the teachings and attitudes of their Saemaul Movement.
6. The number of practicing shamans will gradually begin to decrease,
7. The Korean population will sense the shift and begin seriously to question their "old ways".
8. Converted shamans will become a central vehicle for the evangelization of practicing shamans and shamanistic believers.
9. Among the shamanistic community there will become an aggressive anti-Christian movement.
10. The number of power encounters necessary for the conversion of shamans will increase.
11. Also, the Church through a "if you are persecuted falsely for my sake" attitude will win many practicing Shamans and shamanistic believers over to the gospel by acts of love and concern,
12. The Korean Church will grow at a faster rate than it is growing presently.
13. The Korean Church will become a world leader in the "how to" of effective witnessing among animists.
14. Many Korean missionaries will be sent to other countries to witness to animists.
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15. God will receive a great glory because many animists around the world, and especially in Korea, will have turned "to ‘Christ “as ‘Savior and Lord.
And how will one be able to identify a converted mudang?
1. She will destroy her paraphenalia and fetishes.
2. She will cease practicing her shamanistic activities in the name of the god who possessed her.
3. She will cease fearing what Satan might do to her and recognize that Christ by his death and resurrection has gained power over Satan.
4. She will make a public confession of her faith.
5. She will be able to express in her own words the good news of the gospel.
6. She will become involved in the life of a local congregation.
7. She will become involved in home cell units.
8. She will seek to become a candidate for baptisn.
Step 7. Your Role
One of the considerations at the beginning of Step 7 said, "just because we have thought about reaching a people does not mean that we are the ones whom God is calling to reach them" (p. 395). .This is precisely the case with this Strategy.
Because this planner is neither widely known by the denominational leaders in Korea, nor is he ordained, nor does he have the sufficient degree qualifications, this strategy will have to be presented to the Korean Church by others more qualified. It is also recognized that changes will have to be made by those who are more "in the know" so that this Strategy will be acceptable. This is both welcomed and expected. A possible presenter of this program could be Dr. Bong Ro who is with the Asia Theological Association and who is himself a Korean.
This planner merely sees himself as an initiator, not an active participant in future planning or organizing unless he would be asked to do so at some future date by the Korean Church. At this time it would not seem likely that that would happen.
One suggestion made by Dayton and Fraser which shows this planner's lack of activity in the process is presented below:
We may decide that the most effective avenue to the consciousness of a people is ministry that combines clear preaching of the gospel (using native ana’»%gies and concepts) with faith healing. In the society in question
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there might be many traditional healers with a great deal of concern for health and sickness, As the people come into the church, church leaders might inaugurate a corps of Christian healers, laying hands on those who, after prayer and fasting, feel God is calling them to such a ministry. They would then develop a new set of Christians substitutes for the traditional healer's rituals and paraphenalia and provide a ministry of compassion for the sick (pp. 416-417).
The Korean Church will be the motivating force behind this program from beginning to end. Westerners and Western mission organizations will not be involved unless specifically requested, and this is not expected.
Step 8. Make Plans
Under this step two different aspects of planning need to be considered. This first is making specific plans for the evangelization process and the second is making specific plans for the movement of the people toward the gospel and even further, toward the propagation of the gospel.
The Evangelization Process
1. This strategy will secure the backing of two organizations: The Asian Theological Association and the Word of Life Press, by December 31, 1983.
2. Working jointly these two organizations will publish this paper and strategy in Korean. This publication will come out by March of 1984.
3. The publication of this paper and strategy will be timed with other articles written by Korean Christians dealing with the need for work among Korean shamans.
4. During the year of 1984 Korean denominations will be encouraged to see what part they can play in this Strategy.
5. Before May of 1984 churches will be requested to set apart some "pioneers" in the area of evangelization among Shamans in Seoul.
6. In January 1985 an interdenominational meeting will be held among denominational leaders and resource persons to discuss the possible outworkings of this type of strategy. Before the meeting leaders in the field of animistic studies and especially in the area of Korean shamanism will be asked to prepare papers on various subjects dealing with shamanisn. Tracts will also be prepared for this meeting.
7. A standing committee will be appointed to coordinate this strategy.
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8. Out of this consultation will also come the development of a training school for the purpose of helping pastors develop some skills to ewvangelize Korean shamans.
9. From this meeting these leaders will be encouraged to take the ideas and plans discussed back to their churches for further consideration and action.
10. Each denomination will be encouraged to develop a means by which syncretism can be checked.
11. Seminary courses, pastor's training courses and lay leader workshops will be developed denominationally to Bive people accurate knowledge of shamanism and effective tools for witness to shamans.
12. These seminary courses, pastor's training courses and lay leader workshops will be underway and operational by March 1, 1986.
13. Trainees in these programs will not "graduate" until they have completed an on the job training experience with a qualified instructor.
14. By March 1987 more than 5,000 seminarians, pastors, and laypersons will have completed training in these areas.
The Movement of Shamans Toward the Gospel
1. Before January 1985 through the work of some "pioneers" some 5% of the total shaman community will have moved from the -4 and -5 area on the Engle Scale to the +l area. 2. These converted shamans will take part in the interdenominational meeting in January 1985 as "shamanistic experts",
3. Between January 1985 and June 1985 these 5% will be nurtured in the following areas:
an Lue TPinteye
b. The how and why of Christian prayer.
ec. The assurance of salvation--do you need to fear?
d. What about healing?
e. The Christian role of a witness.
4. These shamans will then be encouraged to work as witnesses among other shamans and former clients. They will move to the +3 area on the Engle Scale. It should be taken into consideration that shamans have little in the way of any organization therefore this type of propagation among other shamans and clients may prove to be difficult. One pastor said that this type of strategy would work better among Buddhist monks, because they have a good organization.
5. At the same time Korean evangelists, pastors and laypersons will be out witnessing to shamans as well.
Love and service to shamans will be emphasized to the Korean Church.
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6. By March 1986 10% of the shamans left at the -4, -5 stage on the Engle Scale will have moved to the +1 stage. This will be accomplished by converted shamans working jointly with pastors and laypersons.
7. By March 1987 5% of this group will become active propagators of the Gospel increasing the total percentage of shamans at the +3 stage to 10%.
8. By December 1987 another 10% of shamans will have moved from -4, -5 to the +l.
9. By January 1, 1990 20% of the shamans will be active propagators of the Gospel and another 30% will be attenders of local Christian congregations.
10. Also by January 1, 1990, because of the work of converted shamans, pastors and laypersons, the total Shamanistic community in Korea will be under 2,000,000 persons.
Et is estimated that the total cost. of this program. for research, publication and printing, meetings, mailings, and eoordination will cost about 50,000 dollars. Except for the starting costs which will be jointly covered by the ATA and Word of Life Press the total cost will be covered by the Korean Church,
Step 9. Act
~
Action, of course means putting into practice what has been planned on paper up to this point. An important concept is mentioned by Dayton and Fraser when it comes to putting ones plans into action.
When we plan, we begin with the goals, not the resources, This should come last. After deciding on the goal, we then move onto the how, the means and methods. After deciding what we believe are appropriate means and methods, we analyze what resources are necessary. However, when we begin to act, the reverse is true. We must first start with the resources, use them to carry out our means and methods, then hopefully realize our goals (p. 466).
Planning to succeed is important and acting as though God will help you succeed is also vitally important.
One other thing that should be noted as one thinks about action is the following: "Tt is only in atttempting to act that we can gain e€..,?rience,. Planning helps us to anticipate ‘the different kind of futures we may face, but our skill in
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handling the unexpected and the wisdom that comes fron experience can be gained only after we act (p. 473).
Step 10 Evaluate
Several questions need to be asked at the evaluation stage of the cycle.
1. Did we reach the goals?
2. If we met the goal we originally set, why did we meet it?
3. If we did not reach our goal, why did we not reach it? Was the goal unrealistic? Is there a possibility that we could reach it if we gave it more time and energy? Was the goal inapproprite? Did we abandon it? What can we learn because of not reaching the goal?
4, If we did reach the goal, did it have the desired result? (pp. 480-81)
Several areas need to be evaluated, such as 1) means and methods; 2) resources; and 3) personnel.
Other things need to be kept in mind during the evaluation process.
Damouce we begin to act, it~ is’ very difficult-to stop*to evaluate.
2. Evaluation only takes place when we plan to evaluate. 3. Evaluation should begin with goals, not with resources.
4. The most difficult evaluation is personal evaluation.
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CONCLUSION
This study of shamanism as a leg of the stool upon which the Korean culture rests is complete. This paper has come full circle from a definition of the shamanism found in Korea to a development of a strategy to reach the shamans in particular and shamanistic believers as well.
In the past the Korean Church has grown remarkably well. This study has indicated that one of the reasons for this growth has been the presence of shamanism on this peninsula. This is a recorded fact. It is also a fact that missionaries and the Korean Church have struggled (and much of that struggle has been for not), to convert any significant number of shamans.
One paragraph ago this writer said that this study of Shamanism was complete. In fact, this is not the case. This study of shamanism will not be complete until it has inspired the Korean Church to first of all begin to take shamanism and Shamans seriously and secondly, to take the strategy offered here and revise, adjust, and build upon it so that by 1990 20% of the total number of shamans presently in Korea will become active propagators of the Gospel, to the glory of God.
ENDNOTES
1. Kyung Cho Chung, Korea Tomorrow, (New York: The Macmillian Company, 1956), p. 28.
2. Honor B. Hulbert, The Passing of Korea, (Seoul,
Korea: Yonsei University Press, reprinted, 1969), p. 404.
3. Charles Allen Clark, Religions of Old Korea, (Seoul, Korea: The Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1961), p. 178.
KR. Harold S. Hong, Won Yong Ji, and Chung Choon Kin,
ed., Korea Struggles for Christ (Seoul, Korea: Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1966) pp. 149-150.
5. Clark, Religions, p. 175.
6. Alan C. Heyman, "Musok: Folk Religion of Korea", Morning Calm, Winter 1982, p. 11.
7. Iwentieth Century Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 1955 ed., s.v. "Shamanism",
BusCLark, Religions, p.)\t73% 9. Edward R. Canda, "Korean Shamanic Initiation as Therapeutic Transformation: A Transcultural View", Korea
Journal, (November, 1982): 13-25.
10. Kim T'ae-Gon, "Components of Korean Shamanism", Korea Journal, (December, 1972): 17-25.
if. Hong, a_ Stru es, pp. 155-156. ier cibids;,ipi0t5s5%
13... Pbids; ape$t56.
in. £bid.
15. Canda, "Shamanic Initiation", p. 14.
16. Hahm Pyong-Choon, "Part One: Family and Life-Cycle", Korean Cultural Service, Winter 1981, p. 3.
of~ Ibid. ;opp.. 3=4G
18. Kim T'ae-Gon, "Shamanism in the Seoul Area", Korea
Journal, (June, 1978): 39-51. 9. Ibid.
20. Spencer J. Palmer, Korea and Christianity, (Seoul,
ppdats +i Lo ;Aoew i ‘ i ea): >. ae ¢ Aza 2 ta c t ahha Ma rf my " ’ ! a | nt LOLS, nll tah puke fi 1a cee) ad ite pba 0 sale +i t : otfaaxat ‘oa oe Ef 2(S80r, (aspen f ; : Ow: i ooueat a ae s . ' fs 3 recmmn eel) ) aa A f'. ~~? n rr *, v's | eu Get... @. Pahl eit igor = Phe i ‘ : +> by o£ OF (a: ¢0n0 a5gi* ,acedo . rt #32. Re
“ag "ah me saeaadey
Korea: Hollym Corporation: Publishers), p. 90.
21. Hulbert, as Ca,.P. 406.
22. Yi Kyu-Tae, Mo n nsformation en, trans. Sung Tong-Mahm, Kim Soon-Sin, Charles Goldberg, Park Nahn- sreim, ( seoul,. Koreas Sejgong Publishing Co., 1970), p. 195.
23. Clark, eli ns, pe. 195.
Ppa. Kim. T*ae-Gon, "Components", .p. 22.
25. ibid.
Pew clark, Religions, p.-196,
2a. bid.
28. Hulbert, Passing Korea, pp. 404-405.
29. Jun Ho-Jin, "Shamanism in Korea and Its Influences on the Korean Church", (Coursework Paper, Fuller Theological
Seminary, 1978), pp. 8-9.
30. The Ne chaff-Herzo n Q Knowledge, 1911 ed., s.v. "Shamanism".
Se erenur Wok eecer, "A Study in Fertility. Cult for
Children in Korean Shamanism" (Doctoral Thesis, Yonsei Oniversity, 1976) ;. Pp. 6.
32. Halla Pai Huhm, Kut: Korean Shamanist Ritual, (Elizabeth, New Jersey: Hollym International Corp., 1980), p. 10.
33. Kim Jong-Il, Ne igions j ea, (Seoul, Korea: me korean Religious Eustitute, 1981), p. 277.
34%. Kim T'ae-Gon, "Components", p. 18. pe A cB ie
36. Lee Jung-Young, "Shamanistic Thought and Traditional Korean Homes", Korea Journal, (November, 1975): 43-51.
37. Jun, “Shamanism Influences", p. 11.
38. Youngsook Kim Harvey, Six Korean Women, (St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Co., 1979), pp. 5-6.
25s, whbid 4, DDe4 250=251-. 4Q. Ibid.
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1“ i. L aad nati
ernatu , bono ied... S.V. "Shaman, wo, bark 9 Rekbethors {ops «19a. 43. Harvey, Six Women, p. 237. 44. Kim Ttae-Gon, "Components", p. 21. a5... Harvey, Six Women, p. 251. WG. Canda, "“SHhamanie Initiation", p. 16. iy. Kim T'ae=-Gon, "Shamanism in Seoul", p. 41. 48. Kim Jong-Il, Ne Pe LOns:. Ps 271 «
wo, HuUbM, Kut. pe. ot.
50. Horace N. Allen, "Mudang", Korean Repository, (April, 1896): 163-167.
51. Huhm, Kut, pp. 11-12.
Be. Lbid. opp e2h=22%
5a. EDid J pnep si t3si4.
54. Kim T'ae-Gon, "Shamanism in Seoul", p. 42. 55. Ibid., pp. 43-44.
56... Candag s"ShamanicyEinitiation", p. 20.
57. Kim T'ae-~Gon, "Shamanism in Seoul", p. 43. 58. Canda;, "Shamanic Initiation", p. 20.
59. Laurel Kendall, "Mugum: The Dance in Shaman's
Clothing", Korea Journal (December, 1977): 38-44.
60.5 Ibid. p.- 41. G1. sHuhn; Kutsaup. 7400:
62. Hulbert, Passing Korea, pp. 411-412.
63. Heyman, "Musok", p. 15.
64. Hong, Kore tru Ss. De 150: 65. Chun Shin-Yong, ed., sulk Culture in Korea, Korean
Culture Series, No. 4 (Seoul, Korea: Si-Sa-Yong-O-Sa, Puplienvers, Ine..,. 1982), p. 60.
66. Kim Jong-Il, Ne ippons, pe 277
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67. Kim Yung-Kwon, ed. A Hand k ea, (Seoul, Korea: Korea Overseas Information Service, Ministry of Culture and Information, 1978), p. 190.
eo. Harvey, Six Women, p. 10.
er sohed.', “Pe 1 tes
70. Kim Jong-Il, Ne HS Disw: 2 Tibis
71. Hahm, "Life-Cycle", pp. 4-8.
fa. dua, "Shamanism Infivences", p.. 13.
73. Harvey, Six Wovem, Pp. 23.
74. Hong, Korea Struggles, p. 151.
hoe Totae,: D.. V52'
oes Lotd..,.p.— TSe°
77. Lee Jung-Young, "Shamanistic Homes", pp. 43-48.
78. Kim Jong-I1, New Religions, p. 277.
79. Harvey, Six Women, p. 238.
SO, ‘Ebid. ,..P. 239...
81. Chun Shin-Yong, k C¢ ure, p. 66.
oe eGterk. Religions pp. 212.213.
83. Laurel Kendall, "Caught Between Ancestors and Spirits: Field Report of a Korean Mansin's Healing Kut", Korea Journal, (August, 1977): 8-23.
SA. Canda, “Shamanic Initiation", p. 15.
85. Soon Young Yoon, "Magic, Science and Religion on Cheju Island", a Jou - (Mareh, 1976): 8-11.
S62" Hong; Korea Struggles, ps 151. a7. Clark,’ Relizions, p..186. 88. Hulbert, Passin ore
5 Da Hee.
89. Gary Rector, "Insigh: on Music and Dance", ore
Quarterly, (Vol II. No. 4): 56-65.
90. Ibid.
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Steshbovid G, EB, Liag, td., worra Christianity, vol. 2, Eastern Asia (Monrovia, California: Mare Publications, 1979), p. i ie
B25 5 us istianij ou : ; (Monrovia, Califorina: Mare Publications, 1974).
93. Roy E. Shearer, Lidfires u r ; (Grand Rapids: -Wm. B. Eerdmans’ Publishing Co., 1966), p. 30.
oy. @iLen D.” Clark, 2_Bistory of the Church in Korea, (Seoul: The Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1971), p. 42.
95. Alfred W. Wasson, "Church Growth in Korea" (New York: International Missionary Council, 1934), p. 77.
96. Palmer, e nae Christianity, p.. 17. Sie keds 4. Pow VOCs
98. Shearer, Wildfire, p. 218.
99. Chung, re ) POW, DPD. 29.
100. Roy E. Shearer, "Animism and the Church in Korea*" (Master's thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1968), p. 139.
101. Harvey, Six Women, p. 209.
102. Shearer, "Animism and the’ Church", p.s.101« 163...2bid.,..pp. 105=106%
104. Jun, "Shamanism Influences", pp. 19-20. 105. Harvey, Six Women, p. 234.
106. Shearer, "Animism and the Church", p. 91. MOT LDiGs5 Ds “9'9'.
160. Liaad, s pn Asta. ps 60.
109. Shearer, "Animism and the Church", p. 140. itis LOL ds is, ens
Pod an. D10 4
fier, PBId ss. Dis. VOT «
Liss. Harvey, Six Women, p.° 234.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, Horace N. "Mudang." ean Re (April 1896): 163-167.
Canda, Edward R. "Korean Shamanic Initiation as Therapeutic Transformation: A Transcultural View." Korea Journal] (November 1982): 13-25.
Chung, Kyung Cho. Korea Tommorrow. New York: The Macmillian Company, 1956.
Clark, Allen D. A History of the Church in Korea. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1971.
Clark, Charles Allen. i Ss d ea. “Seoul: The Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1961.
Chun Shin-Yong, ed. Folk Culture in Korea. Korean Culture Series, no. 4. Seoul: Si-Sa-Yong-0-Sa, 1982.
Hahm, Pyong-Choon,. “Part ones: Family and Life Cycle." Korean Cultural Service (Winter 1981).
Harvey, Youngsook Kim. Six Korean Women. ot. Paul < West Publishing Co., 1979.
Heyman, Allen C. "Musok: ~ Folk Religion of Korea." Morning Calm (Winter 1982).
Hong, Harold S.3; Ji, Wong Yong and Kim, Chung Choon, ed.
Korea Struggles for Christ. Seoul: The Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1966.
Huhm, Halla Pai. Kut: Korean Shamanist Ritual. Elizabeth, New Jersy: Hollym International Corp., 1980.
Hulbert, Homer B. The Passing of Korea. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, reprinted 1969.
Jun Ho-Jin. "Shamanism in Korea and Its Influences on the Korean Church." Coursework Paper, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1978.
Kendall, Laurel. "Caught Between Ancestors and Spirits: Field Report of a Korean mansin's Healing Kut." ore Journal (December 1977): 8-23.
Kim, Jong-Il. e igi s ea. seoult’ The Korean Religious Institute, 1981.
Kim, T'ae-Gon,. "Components of Korean Shamanism." orea Journal (December 1972): 17-25. Kim, T'ae-Gon. "Shamanism in the Seoul Area." ore
Journal (June 1978): 39-51.
~~.
a
io 2 Suz
ip |
h Vl ee eed 2
Kim, Yung-Kwon, ed. A Handbook of Korea. Seoul: Korea Overseas Information Service, Ministry of Culture and Information, 1978.
Kinsler, Arthur W. WA ocuay in, Fertility Cult for Children in Korean Shamanism." Doctoral Thesis, Yonsei University, 1976.
Lee, Jung-Young. "Shamanistic Thought and Traditional
Korean Homes." e ou (November 1975): 43-51. Baeao, David C...5.. ea. d LSstianity., .vol..2% Eastern Asia. Monrovia, California: Mare Publications, 1979. Ma fyt d Lc} n u at n
u ural, 1970 ea... S.vV. "Shaman". Palmer, Spencer J. Korea and Christianity. Seoul:
Hollym Corporation: Publishers.
Rector, Gary. wInsight on Music and Dance." Korea Quarterly (Vol II. no. 4): 56-65.
Shearer, Roy E. "Animism and the Church in Korea." Master's Thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1968.
Shearer, Roy E. Wildfire: Chureh Growth in Korea. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1966.
u hris nit i : ea. Monrovia, California: Marc Publications, 1974.
The Ne chaff-Herzo ne fe) ia e Lous owl 1911 ed., s.V. "Shamanism."
enti Centur ne opedi igi ° 7955 ed., S.V. ,"sShamansin."
Wasson, Alfred W. "Church Growth in Korea." New York: International Missionary Council, 1934.
Yi Kyu-Tae. fe) rans ati ea. Trans. Sung Tung-Mahm; Kim Soon-Sin; Goldberg, Charles; and Park Nahm putek. Seoul: Sejong Publishing Co., 1970.
Yoon, Soon Young. "Magic, Science and Religion on Cheju Island." Korea Journal (March.1976): 4-11.
_*
in ae Sy
* A ie &
La ke
-
at ben
areas
ed
Beet 21, 1983
Dear Worker for Christ in Korea,
My name is John M. Johnson. I am a student at the Asian Center for Theological Studies ( yin Seoul. I am presently working towards a Master of Divinity degree.
The reason that I am contacting you is that I am working ona project for two classes, Asian Religions and Christian Mission and Strategies for World Evangelization. The project is a study of Korean shamanisn. A great deal has recently been written about shamanisn. I have read many books on the subject. Now I need special help from Christian workers.
The purpose for my study is not just research on Korean shamanism, but research to better understand the Korean Shaman and to develop a strategy for evangelizing that group of persons. As a foreigner I may very well not be the person to attempt such a study, however, that is why I am asking for your helpful insights and valubable suggestions.
Because I do not speak Korean fluently the attached questionnaire has been prepared in English. It is hoped that your responses would also be made in English. If that is not possible your responses would still be greatly appreciated in Korean. _
If you have any questions please phone me any time at 393- 1613.
Please return the attached questionaire to: Mr. John M. Johnson 67-1, YunHee-Dong, Sudaemoon-Ku, Seoul 120
It would be a great .help if this form could be mailed to me no later than May 2, 1983.
Thank you in advance for your thoughtful consideration in regard to this questionnaire.
In His service,
John M. Johnson
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SHAMANISM OQUESTIONNATRE
1) What is the basic feeling of Christianity in Korea toward shamanism?
O4% something to be tolerated.
26% something that is a part of the culture and therefore not
openly opposed. 66% something of Satan. Q4% other. If other, please describe.
2) How do you feel believers in shamanism feel about Christianity? _22% something to be tolerated. 26% something foreign, therefore something to be
32% something to be feared.
20% something to be used just in case shamanism does not work. other. If other, please describe.
3) How do you feel shamans feel about Christianity? 09% something to be tolerated. 24% something foreign, therefore something to be
58% something to be feared.
09% something to be used just in case shamanism does not work. other. If other, please describe.
4) In your opinion, how many adherants to shamanism are there in Korea? 12% less than 1 million 27% between 1 million and 4 million _17% between 4 million and 6 million 4ug more than 6 million
5) In your Opinion, how many shamans are there in Korea? 38% less than 20,000 30% between 20,000 and 50,000 12% between 50,000 and 100,000 20% more than 100,000
6) Would the average Christian be afraid of a shaman?
Yes _08% Noes 4.
7) Would the average pastor be afraid of a shaman?
Yes _02% No _98%
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8) Have you ever heard a sermon preached against shamanism in Korea?
Yes _872 No. 13%:
9) Have you ever preached a sermon against shamanism?
Yes _57% No _43%
If yes, what scripture or scriptures did you use?
10) Do Korean seminaries teach anything about shamanism?
Yes -_73% No _27%
11) Does the Korean church have anything in worship, doctrine or practice that has come out of shamanisn?
Yes _51% No _49%
If yes, please list some examples.
12) What shamanistic doctrine would you use to start witnessing to a Korean shaman?
Have you ever done it? Yes _32% No _68%
13) Are there any special Korean ministries now doing specific evangelism with Korean shamans?
Yes _31% No _69%
If yes, please give name and address of a contact person, if known.
14) Do you believe that a person who had professed Jesus as Lord could ever
g0 back to a shaman in a time at crisis?
Yes _42% No _58%
15) In your opinion, what does Christianity offer that Shamanism can't
offer? Please be specific.
16) Are you aware of any Korean folk beliefs that might hinder a shaman from becoming a Christian?
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Yes _60% No _40%
If yes, please list some examples.
17) Would you describe shamans as people who have: 61% no awareness of the gospel 26% some knowledge of the gospel 04% seen the implications of the gospel 09% a recognition of personal need for the gospel.
18. How would you describe the shaman's attitude toward the gospel? 52% strongly opposed 24% somewhat opposed 20% indifferent _02% somewhat favorable 02% strongly favorable
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