ete ot gt tegen eie” ie a Ce a ea ee > SHEEP HUSBANDRY; — WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS, « AND GENERAL DIRECTIONS IN REGARD TO SUMMER AND WINTER MANAGEMENT, BREED- ING, AND THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES. UHith Portraits and other Engrabings. BY HENRY 8. RANDALL, LL.D, .f LATE SECRETARY OF STATE OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. WITH HIS LEITER TO THE TEXAS ALMANAC ON SHEHHP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS, AND GEO. W. KENDALL'S ON SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS. «oe eal ° : * aie ,. NEW-YORK: GRANGE: JUDD, 41 PARK ROW. AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER. 1865. . ‘ ’ ey } *) s e . i i é w i 7 a) ae ‘ ¥ : . .” f e “« ° ¥ * ‘ “~\ = a Poe 5 ot * ; ~ { _— { me '® i at ya F me 1 1Ge & (~~ yf ee x ‘s 4 WV lh ‘ed 7 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by ' ©. M. SAXTON, BARKER & CO., " In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 7 * a ¥ * S e - k By Hxchange i rmy And Navy Sab : * _ 1929 + ‘ i ® v ra a ¥ ¢ : # ‘ w , = & ‘* fs PREFACE. So full and complete is the exposition of the subject as discussed in the following pages, and so clearly are the scope of the work and the circumstances which prevailed with its accomplished author, to pass it throngh our hands to the public, explained in his own « InTRo- DUCTION,” that only in compliance with a common custom in book- making, a any thing have been deemed necessary in the way of preface; were it not to acquit ourselves of the obligation to tender thus publicly to Col. RANDALL, not our own thanks merely, but those of the agricultural community, for the great benefit which must ensue to it, in the proportion that this instructive contribution to the stock of our agricultural knowledge and literature may command the atten- tion to which it is, on every account, so well entitled. An agricultural correspondence, reaching far back, and spreading widely over the Southern States, to which has been more recently added. considerable extent of personal observation, had with us, already established the conviction, that in no other part of our coun- try, perhaps, does there exist a resource at once so fruitful, and so little availed of, as that which is possessed in that region, for the pro- secution of this—one of the most interesting and important branches of Husbandry that any country can enjoy. But while it has been easy to perceive this defect so apparent in their agricultural economy, amounting in the aggregate to a national loss of no inconsiderable magnitude; it was not so easy to expose, as Col. Randall has done, the fallacy of the difficulties that were sup- posed to stand in the way, or to indicate how the real impediments. which do exist may be overcome, or materially mitigated. Something of these imaginary difficulties, for successful Sheep Husbandry, may, as we believe, be assumed to have their origin im the prejudices engendered in the minds of Southern agrioulturists, by the sweeping condemnation of it to be found in the celebrated and deserv- edly popular essays of Arator, by Col. John Taylor—elarum vene- rabile nomen! and it may be that these prejudices are referable in a degree, also, to the concurrent opinions of the no less celebrated John Randolph, «of Roanoke,” who, even on the floor of Congress, gave them utterance in vehement and bitter denunciation agaust the harm- 3 « ¥ ¥ “ * . 4 | PREFACE. less animal itself—going so far in his animosity to it, and to all en- couragement of the great industry-which it was forthe’ to subserve, as to declare, that he would at any time go out of his way ‘to kick a _ sheep! !” Nor would it be unreasonable to apprehend that these im- pressions against the policy and profit of sheep-breeding, as an import- ant object of attention for the Southern land-holder, have taken root the more kindly in the minds of a people unaccustomed, if not na- turally averse to that careful and minute attention which the successful prosecution of this business demands—a people*whose sons, it may be feared, still find it easier, if not more commendable, to follow in the venerated footsteps of their sires, than to encounter for themselves the labor of investigation, and the trouble (together with some expense of new arrangements incident to every new employment of labor and ‘eapital. The general impression, in fact, is, (the reader will judge how far it is just,) that cultivators of the soil everywhere are, of all classes, the least apt to embark in any new enterprise, however pro- mising. .They talk and talk about it, but rarely go about; and per- haps it may be better that it should - so; yet it is well to remember that precipitancy is one thing, and torpor quite another! We once knew a farmer (so called) in Calvert county, who, being told, as he sat toasting himself in the chimney corner on a cold winter's sialie that the house was on fire! without moving from his seat, answered, «call the people !” & In opposition to all that has been urged or imagined against Sheep Husbandry in the South, on the score either of ill-adapted climate, deficiency of suitable forage, want of adequate demand for wool, or other obstacles, the whole subject has been so admirably and thoroughly canvassed in the work here offered, that further argument would be superfluous ; otherwise we might oppose to the hitherto prevailing be- lief, if not prejudice, the experience of some, on a limited scale, and the well-settled opinion of yet many more among the most enlightened of our acquaintances in that region—gentlemen uniting ample oppor- tunities with close habits of observation on all questions of rural economy, and who have not hesitated to express the confident belief, that profitable and interesting as has been the growing of .cattle in western Virginia, an equal amount of capital and attention, devoted to sheep and wool growing in the same section of country, would be yet more remunerating. Looking for reliable information yet further south, and back to a period more remote, even anterior to our decla- aes of independence, it may not be out of place to quote an evi- dently careful and intelligent author of a work on the climate and products of each of the then English colonies. Speaking of Geor, get, and her well-ascertained adaptation to the growth of silk, the vine, the olive, madder and wool, he remarks: «« Wool, we [England] take 4 * ‘ cS a PREFACE. | 9) OO —— a = in large uantities from abroad, because it is of a kind we cannot pro- duee 1 in England our colonies on the continent of North America, - South of New York, produce a wool entirely similar to the Spanish. No staple they could produce would, therefore, be more advantageous to Great Britain. It is well known that a piece of fine broadcloth cannot be made without Spanish wool; it is also known that the Spaniards have of late years made great efforts to work up their own wool; if they should succeed, or if they should by any other means prevent the export of it, our woollen fabrics, though they might not be stopped, would at least be burdened with a fresh expense and a new trouble; all which would be prevented by encouraging the import of wool from America: and at the same time that this good effect was wrought, another would be brought about, in cramping the manufac- tures of the colonies.” Unfortunately for the agricultural interest of our country particu- larly, the desire to «« cramp the manufactures of the colonies,” here so candidly avowed as the settled policy of England, not only survived the Revolution, but has been so well fostered by our own subserviency to it, as to render our independence, in respect of this and other no less important industrial pursuits, rather nominal and fictitious than substantial and true; nevertheless, with the odds of pauper labor and immense capital against us, thatikseto the ingenuity and enterprise of our people, we need not despair of final success with any thing like fair consideration on the part of our own government. For this opinion . we need have no better authority than that of Samuren LAwreEncz, the enlightened and liberal proprietor of the Middlesex Mills, at Lowell, who says, «the business of, manufacturing wool in this coun- try is on a better basis than ever before, inasmuch as the character, skill, and capital engaged in it are such as to defy foreign competi- tion.” Occasional revulsions, such a# the present, will occur from causes abroad over which we have no control, but let not the wool grower relax in the care of his flock, for the same far-seeing manu- facturer has declared that he could point to articles of wool now im- ported, that will require thirty millions of pounds of medium and fine quality to supply the demand. After all, then, on viewing the importance ‘of the i inquiry to nume- rous fiends for whose welfare we profess to entertain unaffected con- cern, and the great extent of the district which seemed to us to be so well adapted to the growth of sheep and wool—the magnitude of the interests involved swelled upon the contemplation, begetting a conviction that as a question of practical agriculture, it was not to be worthily and well treated by a few hasty and superficial essays, or by more elaborate compilations in relation to the oft-repeated natural history of the ani- taal, its prominence in scriptural annals, &c., unsustained by that ¥ % 6 . PREFACE. a ne a laborious and discriminating comparison of facts and authorities to illustrate its uses and its value, and by that fulness of personal ex- perience in the breeding and management of the various races, ‘in sickness and in health,” which constitute the excellence of these let- ters to Col. Allston. Under all. these circumstances, the reader of the work bate pre- sented may well judge how fortunate that it should have been under- | taken, con amore, by a gentleman so well prepared by general scholar- ship, by exact practical knowledge, and by extensive inquiry into the mercantile and manufacturing, as well as the agricultural bearings of the question. It is due, however, no less in justice to ourselves than to truth, to add, that in urging him to undertake it, we had no idea of committing the author to such an amount of labor, even had we foreseen that being, as he says, a “labor of love,” it would have thus ended in pro- ducing, asin our judgment it has, decidedly, the best work on the sub- ject of Sheep, that has at any time appeared in our country. May we not refer, for the soundness of this opinion, as well to its originality and strictly American character, as to the comprehen- siveness with which it presents the subject in its various relations, in- structive alike to the merchant, the manufacturer, the political inquirer, and the legislator; as tothé practical farmer? Nor is it to be characterized alone by its utility in these respects; for the reader will agree with us that its entire fairness and freedom from narrow views and local prejudices, much enlarge, in a moral and instructive view, its title to general confidence and favor. _ Finally, as far as the public judgment may be anticipated in refer- ence to a production originally appearing disadvantageously, in de- tached parts, and not until now finished and embodied; if we may conclude from the favorable manner in which such portions have been reviewed and recommended, by some of the leading journals of the country, the writer may well felicitate himself on having rendered a most acceptable service not only to his brother farmers, but to his countrymen generally; while we may unaffectedly, and, as we think, confidently add, it establishes for Col. Randall himself a claim to stand in front of those whose pens, some of them under high motives of patriotism, have been engaged in illustrating one of the most impor- ’ tant of all our industrial pursuits; nay, one which may be considered essential, in an eminent degree, to our national independence. J. S. SKINNER. INTRODUCTION. Tue subject of Sheep Husbandry has recently attracted more attention in out Southern and South-western States, than at any previous period. The want of a staple or product, the cultivation of which should render productive the capital in- vested in millions of acres of mountain and other lands, which do not now yield a farthing of income, and which, from their soils, situation, or other circumstances, are unadapted to the growth of any of the present Southern staples, has struck every Southern man, as well as every traveller of ordinary intelligence, who has passed through the regions indicated. The want, too, of some class of domestic animals to constitute the basis, or pivot as it were, of a system of convertible husbandry on the tillage lands of the South, to take the place of the present imperfect rotations of crops, and new and old field-system, has become apparent to many of her more investigating agriculturists. The fact that the mountain and other unproductive lands alluded to cannot be made to profitably yield any vegetable products but pasturage ; that for the present, and for a long time to come, at least, the bulk of them will not afford a pasturage adapted to the support of large animals; could not but suggest the growing of wool, as their best, if not their only available staple. ‘The similarity of their general cli- mate, too, with that where wool is most cheaply grown on the Eastern Continent, was a consideration promising favorably to this husbandry. And, finally, it had not failed to strike men of ordinary commercial intelligence, that of those animal staples, to the production of which a Southern climate is adapted, the Sheep fur- nishes a vastly more marketable one than any of the larger grazing animals. The superiority of the Sheep over other animals for supporting the fertility of tillaze lands, by converting a portion of their products into manure, was not so apparent. Butthe well-known fact that they receive the preference for this pur- pose, in some of the best agricultural countries of the world, made it sufficiently probable to demand a full investigation, before adopting an adverse conclusion, espe- cially as what has been said in relation to climate and the marketableness of animal staples, was as applicable to these lands, in the South, as to those adapted only to ss. But Sheep Husbandry as a system, and especially a system tested by experience, was scarcely known jm any of the Southern States excepting in western, Virginia. Whether the theoreti€al considerations and natural circumstances which apparently favored its introduction would be met, in practice, with unforeseen obstacles, was a matter calling for grave circumspection. The Southern agriculturist is ever wary of innovation, and very properly averse to rash experiment. He knew, it is true, that his roving and untended ‘native’ sheep obtained subsistence, and found no 7 . - > j is . 2 i + , > a " é e r . - ae * INTRODUCTION. . a. th ——————————————————EEE————————E———E—————— SS enemies to their health but the wolf and cur, on all the Southern zones. But whether the local climate and herbage of those different zones—the low, level, Tertiary sands of the Atlantic plain—the granite hills of the middle, and the ele- vated Paleozoic or Transition regions of the mountain zone—would be found to agree with the more valuable breeds of sheep; whether their wool would retain its qualities or degenerate in these several localities ; whether a greatly increased sup- ply of wool would find a remunerating price in market; whether the mountains could be converted into sheep-pastures, and wool produced on them without an expense Which would absorb all the ‘profits 5 whether Sheep Husbandry could be made a substitute for “‘ resting,”’ or expensive artificial manuyes, in restoring to the cotton, tobacco, and grain lands of the middle and tide-water zones the fertility withdrawn by tillage; and various other important correlative questions were all problems to him. And to add to the difficulties of forming a correct opinion, and especially of instituting safe and satisfactory experiments, he was ignorant of all the practical details and manipulations of Sheep Husbandry: he knew little of the various breeds, and their respective adaptation to his wants. For information on the subject of practical Sheep Husbandry and breeds of sheep, there are a multitude of European, and several American works, of great value. But for the answers to the questions in the preceding paragraph, which involve the particular bearings and adaptation of this husbandry, of the different breeds, etc., to the agricultural cireumstances and wants of the various regions of the South— where was the inquirer to find the desired information? Some well-written letters, embracing portions of these topics, have appeared from time to time in our agricul- tural journals. They have been of great value in drawing attention to the subject. But they have not usually occupied limits sufficient for the examination of more than a single phase of the general subject, or they have been mere coup d’wils of that subject, omitting all but a few important facts and considerations of a general | character. They have, too, usually been replied to, or published contemporaneously in the same or other agricultural journals, with contradictory statements—some- times with crude and erroneous speculations—calculated to confuse or mislead the inexperienced inquirer. Beyond these occasional Letters in the agricultural jour- als, nothing, so far as I am aware, has appeared on this subject. A practical farmer, I have bred nearly all the approved varieties of almost every sind of domestic stock—of every kind commonly kept on Northern farms—and have been familiar with the details of their management and husbandry. I have owned flocks of sheep, and been more or less familiar with them, from my child- hood; and for the last fifteen years have made their economy, their habits, their comparative profitableness with other kinds of stock, and the comparative value of their breeds, matters of careful and constant observation and experiment. When Corresponding Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society, a few years since, the facts drawn out by me in an extensive correspondence with eminent Southern agricuiturists, united to what knowledge I had previously ob- tained by reading and personal observation of the Southern States, led me to th impression that there. were numerous considerations and natural circumstances _ strongly indicating the expediency of introducing wool-growing extensively into those States. But at that time, my attention, in common with that of many if not most, of the Northern flock-masters, was turned towards the @rairies of the North- west, as a region capable of sweeping away all American competition in this branch of husbandry. Glowing estimates and calculations had been predicated on very partial experiments. The value of the natural grasses, the character of the winters and general climate, and the general facilities of the prairies for wool-growing, were then little understood here, and had been made the subjects of much favorable exag- a * 4 e ad » . hg e h ° a iM INTRODUCTION. * ) | eee re = . ~ - 3 ae, geration. Facts subsequently ascertained, e,. it cannot HEP denied, materially changed the impressions of our flock-masters on this subject. Whether correctly or incorrectly, they no longer fear Western competition in growing fine wool. My own coincides with the popular impression on this topic, if we consider that com. — petition in its relations to a period not far distant in the future. & The adoption of these views led me to again turn my attention, never entirely’ withdrawn, more particularly to the capabilities of the South for this branch of hus- bandry. My conclusions and the reasons for them will be found in the following Letters. Ina letter to Hon. Robert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury, pub- lished in his Treasury Report of 1845, and ina series of letters published in the Virginia “ Valley Farmer,’ the same year, I stated some of the general conclu- sions I had then arrived at on this topic. These publicationg were followed by ‘sive system of wool-growing on the Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, domes- ° letters from gentlemen residing in Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas, making farther inquiries, and usually impart- ing more or less local information on the subject. Some of these were practical men, only seeking information on practical points; others, eminent for intelligence and legislative experience, embraced a more comprehensive field of investigation, and sought from me, as probably from other sources, to ascertain by a wide range of general facts and statistics, the probable bearing, now and in future, of an exten- tic consumption—in short, the whole domestic economy of our Southern States. Answers to these questions demanded careful investigation, and involved a great variety and complexity of details in the practical department of the subject, ren- dered far more numerous by the wide differences existing between the soils, esta- blished husbandry, and even the climates, of the three distinct and well-defined zones already alluded to. The location of some of my correspondents was on the mountains of Virginia, the Carolinas, and ‘Tennessee—others on the hilly zone of the same States—others on the Tertiary sands of the tide-water zone, and the Cre- taceous plains of the Mississippi and Arkansas. ‘To give opinions on all the topics referred to, and in reference to natural circumstances so various, supported by even a respectable show of corroborating facts, was an undertaking requiring considera- ble time and labor: to repeat them separately to each correspondent, was wholly out of the question. : Requested by Mr. Skinner, a little more than a year since, to prepare a series of Letters on Sheep Husbandry, and especially on Sheep Husbandry in the South, for The Farmers’ Library, it occurred to me that a compliance with his request would enable me to answer each of my correspondents by once writing; and moreover, | could feel, under such circumstances, that I could properly afford to bestow an amount of time and elaboration on my communications which I should otherwise find impracticable. And I confess, I also thought if the information I could impart would prove of value to my personal correspondents, it might also prove so to many others among the numerous readers of a popular agricultural magazine. The liberal offer of the Publishers to provide all such cuts as I should choose to direct, was an ‘additional inducement to adopt this medium of communication. I have often felt the want of these in agricultural letters of my own, and in reading the works of others. In describing a breed of sheep, for example, to a person who has never seen them, the best chosen words convey but a vague impression. In many other eases also, cuts exhibit at a glance what it would require much circumlocution ta describe ; and they in many instances convey ideas to the mind with a definiteness, correctness, and exemption from possibility of misunderstanding, which words alone never could. ‘The cuts include portraits of all the breeds which I supposed could of possibility possess, or claim to possess, superior value, for any region or B * . LO INTRODUCTION. i a locality within the United States; all the necessary anatomical figures, with those ~ of the less known insect and parasitic enemies of the sheep; and finally, represen- tations of every implement, fixture, or process employed in Sheep Husbandry, where I thought they would convey important information—and particularly new information—more clearly than it could be done by words. Many of the latter class of illustrations have never before been, so far as I am aware, attempted; and, representing as they do the results of years of i inquiry and experiment, I trust they ° may prove of service to beginners—particularly in regions where Sheep Husbandry has been hitherto little known. The Letters were begun and concluded exclusively as a ‘ labor of love.” To possess the consciousness that even a limited portion of my fellow-men have been benefited by my labors, would be al], and the noblest recompense to which I could aspire. Nor do I feel, that in attempting to benefit the agriculturists of one section of our country, by urging them to appropriate a branch of industry now giving sub- sistence to those of another section, Iam seeking the good of the former at the expense of the latter. Every region has natural advantages, or those tesulting from the natural course of events, for different branches of industry. ? _when the time of laborers would otherwise be entirely thrown away, it is doubtful whether any extension of even the coarse cloth manufactories would, or ought to, in an economical point of view, banish the home-made article. If we count the slave labor thus saved one-half the value of free labor, and dispense with the fulling and dressing* (which we usually dis- pensed with in manufacturing domestic slave cloths, in the interior of the Carolinas, Georgia, etc.), the cloth would cost but 20 cents a yard, and the dyeing might carry it to 22 cents. Let one-half the fabric be made of cot- ton, and the cost would be still farther reduced.t Since the above was written, I have received the samples of Welsh plains, Chelmsford plains, and slave blankets forwarded by you. None of these goods exceed in quantity the estimate I have put upon them in my receding remarks. The Welsh plain which you state cost 65 cents per yard by the piece, (32 inches wide,) is about the thickness of rather heavyy—but not the heaviest—sheep’s gray. It is not, however, by many shades, so close and firm a cloth, for the want of equal fulling ; and perhaps even this would not give it equal firmness, by reason of the loose twist of the yarn. The yarn is considerably coarser, (larger in diameter,) than that ordinarily em- ployed in sheep’s gray—but it derives no inconsiderable portion of its bulk (which gives the cloth its thickness) from the loose and imperfect man ner in which it was twisted in spinning. This is particularly the case with the filling, which you can scarcely detach from even so open a web, without its breaking in pieces. Accordingly, the cloth tears very easily lengthwise, for that presenting such an apparent amount of stock. With a sufficient amount of fulling, dyeing, (it is white,) and a little gigging and shearing—or simply brushing—it would become identical in * But still you want carding-machines, to card the wool ; for, by hand, it is a slow and expensive process. 71 was shown a new article of satinets a day or two since. It was double or broadcloth width, black, and the cotton warp dyed black, and could only be distinguished from a very fair piece of black broad- cloth by examining the cut edge. The manufacturer stated that the cotton warp weighed but 3 oz. per yard ; but I do not credit the assertion. One is strongly inclined to suspect that a cloth of this character could not have been “got up” for any very legitimate purpose, but that it belongs in the wooden-nutmeg and horn-flint category ! The ordinary satinet, when well made, is a profitable, cheap cloth. 90 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH appearance with heavy sheep’s gray, excepting in the quality of the wool. That is inferior to any I ever saw in a single piece of the former. It appears to be of two qualities, the finest about like the Asia Minor or African (‘“Smyrna” or ‘ Mogadore”) wools; and this intermixed with occasional still coarser sharp pointed hairs, which could come only from au animal not many removes from the wild Argali.* In both, there is a peculiarly dry, harsh, wiry feeling, not found in North American wools, and which is more indicative of an inferior staple—of brittleness, and want of felting properties—than even their coarseness. The staple is not appa- cently a very long one. I conjecture that it is Iceland wool—or that, mixed with Orkney, or some of the coarsest short or medium staple wools of Scotland. : The Chelmsfords, (31 inches wide,) twilled, undyed,t cost, you inform me, 58 cents per yard. The plain article, (2. e. untwilled,) 28 inches wide, costs 50 cents per yard. The sample of the twilled, forwarded by you, is a thicker, decidedly stronger cloth, with larger and far more tightly twisted yain, than the sample of Welsh plains. The wool is of about the same quality, though at first view it strikes you as decidedly coarser, as the longer nap shows more of the coarse fibres on the surface, and these are rendered more conspicuous still by their variety of color. But on re- solving portions of each cloth back into unmanufactured wool, I can detect little or no difference in its fineness, unless it be that the stock of the Chelmsford plains possesses none of those peculiarly coarse fibres or hairs which characterize the other. The wool used in the Chelmsfords is ap- parently of a longer staple. It is probably South American, though it may be Smyrna or Mogadore, as it bears a strong resemblance to the w.cl of the broad-tailed sheep of Asia and Africa. You state that the Welsh is generally thought to outwear the Chelmsford plain. This may be true of the ordinary articles, but I think it cannot be of the samples forwarded. Of these, the latter possesses nearly double the strength of the former, and is much the heaviest cloth. The slave blanket, 6 feet 11 inches long, by 6 feet 5 inches wide, weigh- ing 44 lbs., you state cost about $3 124 by the piece (a piece containing 16 blankets costs $50). It is manufactured of avery coarse and a long stapled wool—not much fulled—with a Jong nap raised on both surfaces. The wool in quality resembles that used in the Chelmsfords. On the receipt of these samples, I forwarded a specimen of the Welsh plains to two manufacturers of experience and perfect pecuniary respon- sibility, asking them at what price per yard they would contract to furnish me 100,000 yards of cloth of the same style and equal quality with the sample. The question was put to both of these gentlemen and received by them, as purely a commercial one—the opening of a commercial nego- tiation. Each stood ready to enter immediately on the fulfillment of a contract, based on his offer. , The following is the answer of one of the above named gentlemen : Henry S. RANDALL, Esq. MorRIsvILuE, N, Y., April 2C, 1847. Dear Sir: Yours of the 13th is at hand and duly noticed. I have no wool of the quality of the sample sent, and do not wish to work foreign wool. I would like to make for you 100,000 yards like the sample, out of our American or domestic wool. I would make it as thick and tight as the sample sent, 32 inches wide, at 40 cents per yard. I could not say how much less it would cost to get up the article from the same kind of wool with that used in the sample. I do not know what that kind of wool is now worth in market. I have not worked any of it for two years past, Yours, truly, Cc. TILLINGHAS'T, * Many of the unimproved breeds have, as is common with wild animals, a coating of hair over a finer pe- lago beneath, and it is difficult to perfectly separate them. + A small portion of the wool employed in the filling is black, giving the cloth a dirty drab or ash color But this I take to be the natural color of the wool. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 9] The first answer of the other manufacturer, 8. Newton Dexter, Esq. of Whitestown, Oneida Co., N. Y., (head of the Oriskany Manufacturing Company,) it is not necessary to transcribe entire. Mr. Dexter informed me that his machinery is calculated for the manufacture of fine cloth ; that the carding of coarse wool would injure his cards; that its manufacture would throw him out of his regular course of business; that he had no wool of the quality used in the sample on hand; that he should be com- pelled to use domestic wool; and that for these reasons and some others named by him, he could not undertake to fill the contract at less than 42 cents per yard—which he knew would be considered a high price. Mr. Dexter being a gentleman equally distinguished for his correct and able business character, and for that capacity and range of information which give value to his opinions on all the topics connected with this in- vestigation, I addressed him a second communication, asking him what he could manufacture the cloth for, giving him time to procure stock of the same quality used in the sample. I also inclosed him proof-sheets of the preceding part of this letter, asking him his opinion of the correctness of my statements, in relation to the general cost of manufacturing, &c. The following extracts from his reply will be read with interest : Col. HENry 8. RANDALL: WuITEsTown, April 24, 1847. Dear Sir: Yours reached me on Wednesday. There is no doubt at all but what if I felt cer- tain that wool could be procured of the quality of which your sample was made, at a price pro- portionably low, I could have afforded to have manufactured the cloth at 37 cents per yard, as well as at 42, and use our coarse native wool, at a probable cost of 25 cents... . . There has been an advance of more than 70 per cent. in the price of lard oil. The price a short time since was 55 cents. The last I bought cost 95 cents in New-York. Five quarts of this oil are wanted tc every 80 yards of these cloths. ... . I cannot imagine where the wool was from out of which the sample was made, probably from Iceland—for I recollect some twenty years ago the Oriskany KkMauufacturing Company obtained just such wool somewhere, when Ame'ican wool was deemed too high, and manufactured it into miserable satinets, by which they lost a great deal of money The wool was said to have been imported from Iceland. I was one of the Directors of the mil; then, but had nothing to do with “operating” it... .. You request my opinion as to the correctness of your statements of the probable cost of Welsh plains, &c., and generally of the statements put forth by you on the subject of woollen manufac- tories. I am not very good authority as to the cost of manufacturing coarse woolens, never hav- ing done much in that way. Iam free to say, however, that your estimates may generally be relied on. Certainly you have allowed liberally for what would have been the cost of such wool by the pound last year; but I think your estimate of 17} oz. of wool in the fleece, out of which to manufacture one yard of cloth 32 inches wide, similar to the sample inclosed in your letter, too low. I should think it would certainly take 20 oz., or 14 pounds. The allowance of 11 cents for manufacturing will, I am inclined to think, pay charges, but it will not afford any profit, nor in- terest on capital, nor leave anything for keeping machinery in repair. It is a very close calcula tion, when fuller’s soap, lard-oil, &c., are so high. The sheep’s gray cloths that you speak of, you will observe, are generally not quite 3 wide— say 26 inches—while the sample you sent me was 32 inches. One pound of well washed fleece wool will make a yard of sheep's gray of medium quality ; but unless the goods are flocked, the calculation is a very close one indeed. I am inclined to think that you overestimate the profit of manufacturing woolen goods, although I admit that in well-managed institutions, that have the most improved machinery, with an abun- dant capital, the profits have, at times, been very large indeed, and our friend Samuel Law- rence, of whom you speak, is the most prominent example of such a manufacturer within my knowledge. .... Every new manufactory erected, if built with judgment, has one advantage over those already in operation, and that is, they have availed themselves of all the improvements of those in operation. And as machinery is constantly being produced at cheaper rates, a factory of increased capacity will probably have cost less money... . . The Oriskany Manufacturing Company is the oldest company now manufacturing woolen gsods in the United States. They have made satinets which have sold readily at $3 50 per yard, and have made cloths which have as readily sold for $12 per yard. Satinets full as good can now be bought at 75 cents, and handsomer, if not better cloths, for $3. What a change is here} And yet the Oriskany Manufacturing Company was perhaps never doing better than now. This Company availed itself of the opportunities offered last year to obtain wool very low, to purchase a supply for nearly two years. This year the business will be good, that is, pay a profit of 10 per zent. on investments, even where wool is purchased at current rates; but I do not believe it will nay more. Iwill furnish you with a brief estimate : 92 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. A mil} with acapital of $100,000 wili manufacture, say 90,000 yards of 6-4 cloth, which will bring in market an average of $1 50 per yard, or ....-..----------------+----- $235,000 To get these cloths into cash (for they are sold at 8 months, and are charged ‘ with commission of 5 per cent., and other charges equal, in all, including in- terest, boxing and transportation, to 12 per cent..--.---------------------- $16,200 Cost of 225,000 Ibs. of wool at 30 cents. ---.---------- 2-0 seen ee nen ee nee ne 67,500 Aa 3,300 gallons sperm and lard oil at $1---.------------+--.----------- 3,300 -. Soap, soft and bard........------------------+--- Jeeineeeeeen maosee 3,500 -- 800,000 teazles .....--.---- 2-2. eee ee eee eee cee eee ene ee cee eee 1,000 -- Dyeing materials of all kinds -.---.--------------------------------- 11,500 meek Wine nme cee ee eis ce melas mise = em elm las richness, but they alternate with inferior ones, and with vast and un- healthy morasses. Taken together, the region which I have included un- der the designation of Germany, though not a sterile country, is not favored with soils naturally as productive as those of Italy or Spain; nor would it at all compare with that portion of the United States west of the Apalachians. The climate of Germany is thus summed up by Malte Brun: {] * Southey, quoted by Bischoff. vol. ii. p. 356. t Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1846. ¢ For a picture of this as well as the other natural features of Turkey, both in Europe and Asia, Greece, ‘and the Ionian Isles—as delicately accurate, as soft and rich as one of the scenes of Claude—see Childe ‘Harold, Canto II., the opening of the Giaour, the Bride of Abydos, ete. Though this may be deemed a sin. gular, it is the very best reference, which my reading enables me to make. 4 || See Urquhart on Turkey and its Resources, p. 139. § Encyclopedia Americana ; art. Wool. | Am. ed., vol. ii, p. 594, ' | ———— a | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 115 “The climate of Germany is greatly modified by the elevation and declivities of the coun try; but independently of that cause, it does not admit, from its extent.in latitude, of any ‘| vague or general definition. It may be divided, however, into three great zones, and these ‘| too, are susceptible of other subdivisions. The first is that of the northern plains, of which || the temperature is not so cold as it is humid and variable ; they are exposed to every wind, | while fogs and tempests are conveyed to this region from two seas. The north-west plair is ‘| subject, from its vicinity to the North Sea, to frequent rains and desolating hurricanes. ‘Ihe \ influence of the Baltic on the north-east plain is less powerful; the climate, though colder, i is not so humid and variable. , The second general zone comprehends all the central part of Germany. . . . . The moun- ‘ tains in that extensive region form a barrier against the effects of the maritime climate. The ' sky is not obscured by mists, and the regular order of the seasons is not interrupted by | winds and tempests; but the elevation of the soil renders the climate colder than in other | countries in the same latitude nearer thetlevel of the sea... . . The third general zone is | that of the Alps. The lofty hights and rapid declivities connect very different climates ; | thus the culture of the vine ceases in Bavaria and Upper Austria, and appears anew with | fresh vigor in the neighborhood of Vienna. The eternal glaciers of Tyrol and Salsburg are contiguous to the valleys of Styria and Carniola, covered with fields of maize or vineyards, and almost border on the olives of Trieste and the lemon-trees of Riva.” Contiguous mountains render the north of Hungary extremely cold. Farther south, the climate rapidly becomes warmer, and on the lower plains in the extreme south the heat is intense and the climate insalubrious The bauer or farmer in those States of Germany where the feudal ten- ures have been abolished, and the land is held in fee simple, owns four or five English acres of land. These men, says Mr. Jacob, _“although placed above the pressure of want, or possessing the bare necessaries of life, _ have very little beyond them. Such as are industrious and frugal, by cultivating their small _ portion of ground, may raise a sufficient quantity of potatoes for their own consumption, corn for their bread, and provisions for two draught oxen. They all raise a small quantity of flax, and some few contrive to keep five or six sheep. It is often no easy matter for those to find occupation, who are desirous of other employment in addition to the cultivation of their own land, for no agricultural labor can be carried on during the long and severe winters. . . It is rare indeed that they can afford to have meat of any kind, and those ‘only who are more prosperous than their neighbors can keep a cow to provide themselves with milk.” The wool raised by these owners of five or six sheep, is annually bought up by Jews and other traveling agents, who go from house to house to collect it. . The following extracts from William Howitt’s sprightly and interesting “Rural and Domestic Life in Germany ” will show under what circum. stances a great portion of its wool is grown: “ Here you look in vain for anything like the green fields and hedge-rows of England. .. . It is all one fenceless and plowed field. Long rows of trees on each side of the road are all that divide them from the fields. . . . . The keeping up of the cattle presents you a new feature of rural life. As the quantity of land left for grass is very small, the grass is propor- tionably economized, The little patches of grass between woods and in the open parts of the woods, the little strips along the river-banks and even in gardens and shrubberies, are carefully preserved for this purpose. You see women in these places cutting grass with a small hook or smooth-edged sickle, and carrying it away on their heads in baskets for their cows. You see the grass on the lawns of good houses, on grass-plats, and in shrubberies, very long and wild; and when you ask why it is not kept closer mown, the reply is that it is given to the milk-woman, often for a consideration, who cuts it as she wants it. Yousee other women picking the long grass ont of the forests, or under the bushes on the hill-sides where the slopes have been mown, for the same purpose. . . . . The children may be seen standing in the stream in the villages carefully washing weeds before they are given to the cattle. . . . . Nettles, chervil, cow-parsnip, which in England are left to seed and rot, are all here cut for the imprisoned cow. You go down to the river-side to fish, and a peasant is soon with you, chattering and gesticulating, pointing to your feet and to the grass. It is to let ou know that you are not to angle there, because it treads down the grass; and accordingly, ~ ma Germany, with rivers full of fish, you seldom see an angler; if you, he is pretty sure to be an Englishman. . . . . Not a sheep, a horse, or a cow is to be seen. . .. The mountain tops are covered with wood. The slopes are covered with vineyards. You ask where the cattle are? You are answered, in the stalls. Where are the sheep? Under the care of shepherds, somewhere—Heaven knows where! you never come across them. It is only on the great * 116 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. lains of the North that you afterward find large flocks and herds, under the care of keepers | kept close together; for as they have no fences, they are under the momentary peril of mak ing ravages on their neighbor’s crops.” Between Leipsic and Berlin, on the plains of Saxony, Mr. Howitt first saw flocks of sheep in the field, and he says : ‘One thing which surprises an Englishman is to see what wretched creatures are the sheep which produce the famous Saxony wool. .”. . . In fact, it is a prevailing idea that the leaner the sheep the finer the wool. It is the wool to which all the attention of the grow- er is devoted, and therefore, generally speaking,a more miserable assemblage of animals than a flock of German sheep is not to be seen. ... . On the plains they wander under the care of ashepherd, and for the most part on fallows and stubbles, to pick up odds and ends, rather than to enjoy a regular pasture. You may see them penned on a blazing fallow, where not a trace of vegetable matter is to be seen, for the greater part ofa summer day, which in this climate is pretty much like being roasted alive... . . For what purpose they are here, except to starve and melt them iato leanness, I never could discover. ... . The sheep, be- sides being lean, are generally dreadfully lame with that pestilent complaint the foot-rot, and \| their keepers, apparently, trouble themselves very little about it.” Mr. Howitt states that it is necessary to economize the land so closely, to! sustain the population, in some parts of Germany, that the peasants actual: | ly convey earth up steep hill-sides in baskets, and cover the rocks with it, - to thus add to the tillable soil! In reviewing the preceding facts, you are struck with no one which ° would indicate particular natural advantages for sheep rearing in the States " of Germany, Prussia, and—with an exception presently to be named— Austria. The climate of the North is humid, fickle and tempestuous ; that ’ of the middle cold with long winters. Neither possess any advantages ‘ over our own Northern States—and in some respects are decidedly inferior ' to them. This was the opinion of that eminent sheep-breeder and excel- lent man, Henry D. Grove, of this State, who was a native of Prussian | Saxony, and who certainly would never be suspected by any one who » knew him personally, of any want of partiality for anything pertaining to | ae Fatherland ! In his letter to Benton and Barry on wool-growing, &c.. | e says: “Ten years’ experience has fully satisfied me on this point. In some respects, we possess natural advantages over Germany.’ In what particulars he awarded the preference to the United States, his letters and oral declarations to me, leave no uncertainty. It was both in soil and climate, and in instituting the comparison, he had his eye not onthe most favored sections of our country, but on the hills of Rensselaer County in this State, where he resided. ; lf in xatural advantages we surpass Germany, how much more we do in artificial ones, may be estimated from the preceding extracts from Messrs. Jacob and Howitt. To these general remarks portions of Hunga- ry form an exception. In these, the climate is fine, the soil rich, and, the feudal tenures remaining unabolished, the land is yet held in those large estates so favorable to Sheep Husbandry. Prince Esterhazy, the former Austrian Ambassador to England, says Mr. Paget,* owns an estate of some- thing more than 7,000 square miles, including 130 villages, 40 towns, and 34 castles. Hissheep are said to amount to 3,000,000.t Other nobles own flocks of from ten to thirty thousand. The demi-savage Magyar serf, whose’ labor costs nothing, whose principal garment is a sheep-skin, and whose miserable and scanty food is more than half stolen,t makes a most econom- wal shepherd! Hungary lacks facilities for internal communication, and her convenience to the Mediterranean markets—excepting Turkey—so as * Paget’s Hungary and Transylvania, vol. i.p; 46. t Youatt. } See Paget’s Hungary, &c., p. 13 to 19. | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 117 I : 'o first throw her agricultural products into ports where the demand is good, s decidedly inferior to that of Italy, France and Spain. The Danube js the only natural outlet to her commerce—which, thanks to a liberality ‘bf policy on the part of Turkey,* contrasting most favorably with that of several enlightened nationst under similar circumstances, she enjoys \without limitation. To reach Trieste, a long land carriage is indispensa- ble. Her exports too, are embarrassed by the imposts and narrow restric- ions of the Imperial Government. She cannot, therefore, export cheap heavy articles, such as provisions, to so great advantage as the Levantine ations: but every circumstance points to her as a country which should be one of the first on the Eastern Continent, for the production of wine, silk, wool, &c. | Separated from Hungary and Transylvania only by the Carpathian Moun- tains and Turkish Moldavia, lie the fertile provinces of South-eastern Rus- sia, the basins of the Dniester, the Dnieper, and the Don. From the Car- jpathians to the Caspian, across the entire extent of the plains of ancient Scythia, not an elevation which could be properly dignified with the ap- | ellation of a mountain, breaks the immense expanse! The lower valley of the Dniester or Borysthenes, formerly known as the Ukraine, has been celebrated for centuries for its pasturage—for its horses ¢ and cattle : and re- cently flocks of Merino sheep have been introduced there and successfully crossed with the native variety. In 1839, Mr. Slade states that many of the colonists on the Steppe and in Bessarabia had 20,000 sheep. Merinos vere introduced into Crimea or Taurida, by M. Rouvier, a French ad- venturer, in about 1802.|| In this favored peninsula, which the learned Pallas describes as little less than an earthly Paradise, they have multiplied exceedingly, and extended to Cherson, Ekatherinoslav, Bessarabia ‘and other provincial Governments.§ The export of wool from Odessa in 1829 was 3,402 lbs.; in 1830, 21,361 lbs.; in 1831, 35,058 lbs. ; in 1832, 41,558 Ibs.; in 1833, 66,457 lbs.; in 1834, 66,901 lbs.{j _ In one respect Southern Russia has the advantage over Hungary. Itis more sparsely populated, and land is perhaps in still lower estimation. As in the latter, the land, much of it, is fertile and well adapted to pasturage, and the price of labor is next to nothing. But for causes adverted to in the opening part of my eighth Letter, there is a wide disparity in the climates of the two countries, if-we leave Crimea out of view. That of Russia, affect- ed by the north and north-east winds—which the Carpathians exclude from Hungary—has a winter which for length and intensity is entirely unequaled in the latter, excepting in its northern mountainous regions. Sheep must be housed, and fed for some months on dry food, in Southern Russia. Taking into view the broad, level steppes** and their luxuriant natural verdure— taking into view the climate, warm in summer, cold and exposed to winds of great severity in winter, it strikes me that there must be no inconsider- able resemblance between this portion of Russia and our own north- western prairies in corresponding latitudes (45° to 46°). But when the ost of land and labor is taken into consideration, wool can be produced cheaper, in my judgment, in South-western Russia than in Spain, France, Germany, Italy or any other portion of Europe, excepting Hungary. Were * This power is remarkable for its liberality in all its regulations which affect the trade and commerce of other nations. te. g., the policy of England in relation to the navigation of the St. Lawrence. { This wild region and its horses have been rendered classic by Mazeppa. Who, that ever read, has for- | got the description of the horse on which the Hetman performed his fiery and perilous ride ! | || For an interesting account of the adventures of this fortunate French Jason, see Slade’s “‘ Travels in Germany and Russia,” published London, 1840. § See Slade’s Travels; also McCulloch’s Com. Dic.—ert. Odessa. McCulloch's Com. Dic.—art. Odesea. | * This Russian word has a similar signification to prairie, pampas, anos, &c. at % 118. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. European Turkey differently populated, and under different institutions, it might constitute another exception. Central and Northern Russia, like the States north of Germany, are north of the wool zone. Their winters are too long and severe to | allow them to compete with regions lying farther south, in wool-growing. Asia Minor, or Turkey in Asia, and Persia have been alluded to—the former, much of it, a fine country with a most delightful climate, but its natural advantages all neutralized by its political systems and the charac- ter of its population—the latter, except in occasional favored positions, such as the valleys of Shiraz and Ispahan, a land of mountain and desert, of intense heat and intense cold. Independent Tartary, lying immediately north of it, is less exposed to the hot winds of Arabia, but more so to the freezing ones of Siberia. Its vast dry plains are usually deserts, excepting on the borders of its exceed- ly rare streams. Great Bucharia, however, in the south-east, on the head waters of the Amoo (Oxus)—from the Capital of which Timour (Tamer lane) issued on his desolating path of conquest—is a country of great fer- tility. Its natural beauties constitute a favorite theme with the poets and geographers of Persia and Arabia. Since the opening of the navigation of the Indus, it has annually sent some wool to Bombay, which constitutes a part of that which is shipped thence to England, and is known in Table 8 as Hast Indian wool. Afghanistan and Beloochistan, protected on the north from the Siberian winds by the lofty Hindoo Koosh mountains, and less exposed on the south to those of Arabia, exhibits a milder and less variable climate than that of the conterminous regions of Persia. Among the Highlands of the north, and those skirting the Indus on the east, there is much good pasturage. Sir Alexander Barnes states that four-fifths of the whole surface of Cabul, a Province of the former, is excellent pasture land. The wool of the broad- tailed sheep of these countries also finds its way, by the Indus, to Bombay, and is classed as East India wool in the Table. : ——— ———————S mein dees a one ue 2k ee From the high, cold, mountain regions of Thibet, Little Bucharia, &c., . some wools are exported, through the same channels, which come under the same classification. These countries also export shawl wool.* Most ‘of China north of the great Desert of Cobi is a cold, mountainous country. The southern portion, or China Proper, is too densely populated and closely cultivated to be devoted to pasturage. The wool trade which followed the opening of the Indus (the raw ma- terial being supplied by Afghanistan, Great Bucharia, Thibet and some of the Hindostanese Provinces) might doubtless be swelled into one of great importance, particularly by introducing finer breeds of sheep; but we can scarcely expect this, from what we know of the habits, agri- cultural and commercial, of the population. Among constant politica! changes wrought by the only Asiatic argument—the sword—the personal habits and occupations of the Asiatic remain ever the same, and are, per haps, the best type of persistency to be found in anything short of im. mobile matter. Indeed, the stony features of the Sphinx have changed scarcely less through revolving generations, than have the ethnic ones of this great family of the human race! Let us now pass to those regions of the Old World, south of the Equa- tor, included in the wool-growing zone. The southern extremity of Africa—the Cape of Good Hope—is included * The table-land of Thibet is elevated 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mr. Trail remarks that every animal here, including Carnivora, produce that down under their hair which is known as shawl wool~ though that manufactured comes mainly from a species of goat. | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 119 fm the wool-growing zone. The following description of it is by Rev. ‘Robert Moffat, for twenty-three years a resident of it as the agent of the London Missionary Society :* | } ; |“ The Colony extends from west to east about six hundred miles, its average breadth being labout two hundred. .... Between the coast and the vast chain of mountains, beyond which lie the Karoo, the country is weil watered, fertile and temperate. The other portions of \the Colony, with few exceptions, and without a change in the seasons, appear to be doomed ‘to perpetual sterility and drouth. The Karoo country, which is in the background of the |Colony, is, as Lichstenstein correctly describes it, a parched and arid plain, stretching out to jsuch an extent that the vast hills by which it is terminated, or rather which divide it from other plains, are lost in the distance. The beds of numberless little rivers, (in which ‘water is rarely to be found) cross, like veins, in a thousand directions, this enormous space. The course of them might, in some places, be clearly distinguished by the dark green of the ‘mimosas spreading along their banks. Excepting these, as far as the eye can reach, no tree ‘or shrub is visible. ... . But even on these hills and sunburnt plains thousands of sheep pasture on a thin sprinkling of verdure and esculents. ... . The entire country, extending ‘in some places hundreds of miles on each side of the Orange River, and from where it emp- ties itself in the Atlantic, to beyond the 24th degree of east longitude, appears to have the curse of Gilboa resting upon it. It is rare that rains to any extent or quantity fall in those regions. Extreme drouth continues for years together. The fountains are exceedingly few, precarious, and latterly many of these have been dried up altogether.” _ According to Barrow, nearly seven-tenths of the Calony are destitute ‘of vegetation during a greater part of the year. Sand drives before the winds, exercising an unfavorable influence on sheep and wool. Lions, | tigers, wolves, hyenas, jackals, wild dogs, etc., are numerous on the very skirts of the settlements, making much vigilance necessary for the protec- tion of the sheep; and they must be nightly driven into the settlements to be folded. But the natives have proved a vastly more destructive enemy than these.t| The sheep introduced by the English colonists will probably eventually considerably increase beyond their present number in a country of so great extent, but we are scarcely authorized to believe that the Cape will ever take a high rank among the wool-producing countries of the world. That great island, or continent, known as New South Wales, or Aus- tralia, has a superficial area equaling that of the United States. But a limited portion of it, however, is included in the wool zone. All of Van Diemen’s Land, or Tasmania, is in that zone. The export of wool. from these countries, as will be seen from the Table,{ reached nearly ten million pounds in 1840—nearly half that of Germany, including Austria and Prussia, and almost eight times that of Spain! Here, as at the Cape of Good Hope, there are no woolen manufactories, and being Colonies of England, their export to that country exhibits their whole production. The soil, products, &c. of Australia are thus spoken of by Mr. McCul- loch : || “ The fertility of the soil in most parts of New-Holland that have been explored with any care, is very far indeed from corresponding with the glowing descriptions of some of its casual visitors, whose imaginations seem to have been dazzled by the magnificence of its botanica! erage and the clearness and beauty of the climate. The truth is that the bad land ears a much greater proportion to the good in New-Holland than in almost any other coun- try with which we are acauainted. . . . . Of course it is not to be supposed Dut that ina country of such vast extent there must be some fertile districts; but along the east coast, with which we are best acquainted, these seem to be much more confined than might have been expected; and the little experience we have had on the west side, at Swan River and other places, does not seem to lead to any more favorable conclusions.” After stating that if the Government price of lands “is not a great deal * Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa, pp. 23—24. +See Letter V., and Note. nt Including Port Philip, Swan River, and Scutk Australia, the exports of which are carried out separately Table 8. l| McCuiloch’s Com, Dic.—Art. Sydney. 120 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. above the mark in New-Holland, it must be a great deal below it in Upper Canada,” Professor McCulloch continues : “Tf the Americans exacted the same price for their public lands that we do, something might be found in favor of extending the principle to Canada. They, however, do nothing of the scrt, but sell much better land at a decidedly lower rate. ... . If slaves could be imported into a Colony of this sort, there might be some chance of its succeeding. But while land of the very best quality may be had in the Valley of the Mississippi for about a dollar an acre or less, we think better of the common sense of our countrymen than to suppose that any one able to carry himself across the Atlantic will resort to Australia.” Of the climate he says : “The climate of such parts of New South Wales as have been explored by the English is particularly mild and salubrious. .... On the other hand, however, it has the serious defect of being too dry. It seems to be subject to the periodical recurrence of severe. drouths. These prevail sometimes for 2, 3, or even 4 years together. The last ‘great | drouth’ began in 1826, and did not terminate until 1829. Very little rain fell during the whole of this lengthened period, and for more than six months there was not a single shower. In consequence, the whole surface of the ground was so parched and withered that all minor vegetation céased; and even culinary vegetables were raised with much difficulty. There was also a pretty severe drouth in 1835. This is the great drawback of the Colony; and were it more populous the drouths would expose it to still more serious difficulties.” Another drouth occurred in 1841, and Mr. Hood thus describes its ef- fects on the sheep :* “Tt will be scarcely believed in England that the estimated number of sheep which have died within the last twelve months in the Colony from catarrh and drouth is 70,000 !! that colonists are compelled in order to save the dam from starvation, to cut the throat of her lamb; that no means are adopted for securing a stock of lambs for next year; or thata stockholder would offer 8,000 sheep to any one that would remove them from his puns, and finding that no one could be prevailed upon to taint his own flocks by accepting so danger- ous a present, had recourse to consuming them by fire, and had actually killed and burnt DOO O sites tos Of the country Mr. Hood remarks : “The first object on the arrival of every settler should be to procure a good country for his flocks, and this, I have elsewhere said, is his grand difficulty. Let him be wary on this point. Almost every desirable or habitable spot in the old countries, as the early settled districts are called, is already occupied.” Some diseases seem to be peculiar to the country, or, rather, peculiarly inveterate in it. Mr. Youatt says :t “ The sheep frequently suffer from the wild and poachy nature of a considerable portion of the pasture. The foot-rot seems to assume a character of its own... . . Jf neglected, it speedily becomes inveterate and preys upon and destroys the animal. The losses occasioned by it in the early existence of the Colony were frightful.” The astringency of the water and other causes have produced severe epidemics. In some years, some of the flockmasters have lost half of their sheep.{ The scab is a prevailing disease, and Doct. Lang says : || “When a convict shepherd has a pique against his master, or even again# his overseer, it is often in his power to subject the whole of his: master’s flock to this obnoxious disease, merely by driving his own flock a few miles from their usual pasture, and bringing them into contact with a diseased flock. The chief source of the wealth and prosperity of the Colony is thus, in a great measure, at the mercy of the most worthless of men.” The cost of both land and labor is comparatively (2d est, compared with the unoccupied lands of the United States) high. The Government mini- mum is 5s. ($1 15) per acre, but very little if any good land is sold at that price. Mr. Hood states that the portion of Capt. McArthur’s immense estate which was obtained by purchase, cost, on the average, 7s. 6d, ($1 724) per acre. Shepherds receive from £15 to £20 ($69 to $92) with * Quoted by Spooner in “ History, Diseases, &c., of the Sheep.” London, 1844, p. 67. t Youatt on Sheep, p. 189. . t See Spooner, pp. 417-421. Lang—Historical and Statistical Account, vol. i, p. 351. Syaor NN SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 121 a house and rations, per annum ; overseers of a superior description £50 to £60 ($230 to $276),* also with a house and rations.t The sheep are exposed to the depredations of various animals, but the wild dog is their most dangerous enemy, with the exception of the rwn- away convict. The sheep are therefore folded nightly, guarded by ‘a watchmen with his dogs, and with a fire to scare away the wild beasts.} One shepherd usually takes care of about 300 sheep, and “in the more sterile parts of the Colony, where three acres of the uncultivated ground are scarcely sufficient for the support of one sheep, the labor is very severe.” || Mr. Samuel Lawrence recently wrote me: “Tsawa gentleman from England a few months since who has an admirable flock in New South Wales, of twenty-five thousand sheep, and he assured me he had not received a penny of income from them siace 1838.” -Van Diemen’s Land (containing 28,000 square miles) is claimed by Mr Youatt§ to be superior in several respects to Australia as a wool-growing country. Table 8 does not, however, show that its exports increase any more rapidly. Both of these Islands, as colonies of Great Britain, send their wool to the latter duty free, and they save 1 cent per pound on wool costing less than 24 cents, and 2 cents on that exceeding that value. But this by no means offsets against the additional cost of freight, over that exported from the United States, Hungary, or the south of Russia. While it is only 3,375 miles from New-York to London, it is not less than 13,000 miles from Sydney or Hobart’s Town to the latter place. Professor McCulloch states (art. Sydney) that the expense of conveying a passenger to Sydney is about three times that of conveying one to Quebec. I see no reason why a corresponding difference should not exist in the freights; and in that case, freights from the United States would be two-thirds less than from Australia. [ pretend, Sir, to no power of vaticination on this subject, but the con- clusions which J draw from a review of all the foregoing facts are as follows: 1. That wool-growing is never likely to permanently and importantly] increase in any of the countries of Europe, unless it be in Hungary, Tur- key, and the south of Russia. 2. That it is more likely to decrease than increase in Great Britain, France, Portugal and Italy. - 3. That such a decrease is next to certain in Spain and Germany, (in- cluding Prussia and Austria in the latter,) excepting Hungary and Tran- sylvania; that the decrease will be much more considerable in Germany ; that its rapidity and extent will be proportioned to the rapidity and extent with which the market is supplied from countries which can grow wool cheaper, such as North and South America, Hungary, Southern Russia, and Australia. 4. That wool-growing will undoubtedly largely increase in Hungary and Southern Russia—and that it owght to in European and Asiatic Turkey but will not, extensively, until the character of the people and their po litical institutions are changed. 5. That it will also increase at the Cape of Good Hope, Australia and Van Diemen’s Land; but that its economical extension in either of these countries is limited, especially if America becomes a competitor. * Calling the English shilling 23 cents, according to Report of Director of U. S. Mint, 1827. + Report uf a Committee, &c., quoted by Mr. McCulloch—Com. Dic. ; art. Sydney. {Cunningham’s Two Years in New South Wales, vol. i., p. 254. || Youatt on the Sheep, p. 188. § Quem vide, p. 190. {] |say “importantly,” because Sweden, Norway, Denmark, &c., in that spirit of rendering themselves in. dependent of foreign supplies, which characterizes all nations, may, and probably will extend their wool culture; but it will be tou unprofitable a struggle — to be carried to a very great extent. x 122 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. _ = — eee 6. That no part of the Eastern Continent or its islands, all things eon- sidered, possess equal advantages for wool-growing with some parts of the United States. 1. The climate of many portions of the latter (in the South) is not excelled by that of the most favored situations in Hungary or Australia; and in this respect it is decidedly superior to the south of Russia. 2. The soils of vast sections of the United States, with the above climate, are more wniformly fertile and adapted to pasturage than those of either Hungary or Southern Russia—and, as a whole, are entirely supe- rior to those of Australia. 3. The regions alluded to in the United Statés, are better watered with running streams than either of the other named countries—have not the vast and unhealthy morasses of Hungary—and are not subject to the destructive drouths of Australia. 4. The land is sheaper in the United States than in Australia, and (my impression is) than in Hungary or Southern Russia; and, in the Southern States, labor costs no more than in the two latter, and far less than in the former. 5. Th accessibility and nearness even to the great European wool market, the United States stand on equal terms, at least, with Hungary and Southern Russia, and the distance from Sydney (in Australia) to London is nearly four times the distance from New-York to London. 6. In no respect do | either of these countries, the most favored in the Old World, excel, in my judgment, for the purposes of Sheep Husbandry, large portions of the United States; and I believe those portions of the United States can sell wool in the English market at a better profit on all the capital invested than either of the above countries, with the possible exception of the most favored portions of Hungary. Our surplus wools can, therefore, at any time, be exported to England at a reasonable profit. This is true, even of wools grown in the Northern States. In 1845, the United States exported wool, (mainly to England,) to the value of $22,153; and in 1846, to the value of $203,996. This was a commercial experiment, and although it is not understood to have resulted in any profit to the exporters, the wool sold at an advance on the Ameri- can prices current—and would have sold so as to have realized a handsome profit to the exporters, had it been properly sorted and otherwise prepared to meet the requisitions of the English market. Statements of this kind have been published by one of the most prominent of the exporters. It would seem, from Mr. Lawrence’s statement, already quoted, that the prices of Australian wools have not yielded a profit over all expenses, during the same years. The quality and style of our wool have been praised by the English press, and are understood to have given high satis- faction to the English manufacturers. On the whole, then, we may regard this experiment as a successful one. The American prices current of those years were about-32 cents per pound. We have seen that the actual cost of wool (including all expenses, and 7 per cent. on price of land and sheep) in the Northern States may be set down at about 27 cents per pound.* These facts show that a remunerating price can be obtained for even North- ern wool in England—if a profit on investment considerably exceeding the highest legal rate of interest (7 per centum) is to be considered “ re- munerating.” And if this is true of the Northern wools of the United States, how much more so would it be of those of the South, the first cost of which has been estimated at less than one-third that of the former! t I see not, therefore, a shadow of a reason why our Southern States might not embark, at once, with perfect safety, in an extensive production of wool, if they had only the foreign market to look to. I hesitate not to * See Letter V. t Ib. dy 4 > ae SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 123 assert that they could drive all the European nations from the market, with the two or three exceptions heretofore specified; and with these, as well as the most favored Austro-Oriental regions, they could main- tain a successful competition. The same remark is true of the Austro- Occidental regions of our own continent. And it is difficult to foresee the ultimate extent of this trans-Atlantic demand for wool. Vast portions of the Old World, in those zones where wool must eventually become the principal article of clothing, are but just stepping within the verge of civilization—just laying aside the skins and peltry of the pastoral nomad and the savage hunter, for garments of cloth. In 1771, England imported 1,829,772 lbs. of wool; in 1840, the import was 52,959,221 lbs.!_ In 1771, the export of woolens was £4,960,240. In 1840, the export of woolens was, £5,652,917, and of woolen and worsted yarn, €3,796,644. Making all necessary allowance for the difference in prices, the increase in the ex- port bears no comparison whatever to that in the import. What seems to be the unavoidable conclusion? It is that the consumption of a population of 27,000,000 (the population of Great Britain and Ireland) has thus enor- mously swelled within the period of s¢xty-nine years! This too in a coun- try with a mild climate—which at the beginning of that period (1771) was as far advanced in social and political civilization, and the mass of whose people were as well clothed and better fed, than those of any nation on the Eastern Continent! It is not necessary to follow up this idea. Progress is an inseparable condition of humanity,* and civilization is its fruit. With the latter, new wants—a demand for greater comforts and luxuries—steadily keep pace ; and with these again keeps pace the increase of population.t Both the latter causes conspire to swell the demand for cloths; and both causes are at work in this Nineteenth Century, in a ve- locity of ratio which would fill a Malthus and Ricardo with consternaticn— if, indeed, it did not convince them of the fallacy of their gloomy theories, I dare to predict that the time will come when the present Russian Em- pire will consume a greater amount of woolens than the whole Eastern Continent now does! This may not come to pass in a day or a century— but unless retarded by unnatural, not to say unusual causes, our posterity in the third or fourth remove will be likely to witness it! Away, then, with those fallacious fears of over-production of cotton, bread-stuffs, etc.—the opposite extreme of Malthusianism—which have disturbed the repose of producers who are not content to let the great natural currents of demand and supply regulate each other; or rather, who are not content with those fair and just profits which they would receive under such an order of things. t ; But the American wool-grower is not compelled to look to the European market, unless he enormously increases his own production—and contin- ues to increase it with the increase of the population. The Census of 1840 shows that the number of sheep in the United States, in 1839, was nearly 20,000,000. These have been steadily increasing, and probably now greatly exceed that number. Yet these have never supplied the demand of our * This may not be thought to accord with preceding statements in relation to the unchangeability of Asiatic character and customs. Particular families or races of mankind have always advanced slowly, but the course of the world, as a whole, is onward. The circle of civilization widens, and races which come in contact with it, receive it, or are conquered and absorbed by the civilized races. t When I speak of luxuries promoting the increase of population, I do not use the word in its invidious sense. | mean by it those things which, though not, strictly speaking, necessaries, tend to promote human comfort. ¢ I mean this remark in no ultra spirit. Governments must be supported and resources raised. Inci- dental protection may be justly afforded to the products of agricultural or mechanical skill, under certain circumstances. But the fewer of these restrictions that are found necessary, the more rapidly, as a general rule, the wealth and comfort of mankind and nations are advanced. ee, 124 ° SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. own manufactories alone. The following Table* will show the value of the imports of wool into the U.S. from 1837 to 1847: TABLE No. 9. e - t Import of | Import of | Import of | Import of 1843. 1844, 1845. 1846. & | Average im-] Average im- ports of 1837,|ports ¢f 1840, 1838 & 1839.)1841 & 1842. Wool not costing to exceed 7 cts.| > $558,458 $759,646 $190,352 $754,441 | $1,553,789 | $1,107,305 @ Tinagare £2 sient Exce’ding 7cts.a lb 801,087 | 1.004,312 54.695 97,019 136,005 26.921 Total......1 $1,359,545 | $1,763,958 | $245,047 | $851,460 | $1,689,794 | $1,134,226 It may be a matter of interest to know from what countries these wools were imported. The following Table} will give this information for the last fiscal year, (1846,) and will also give a general idea of our wool trade. TABLE No. 10. Wools not exceeding 7 cents Wools exceeding 7 cents WHENCE IMPORTED. per pound. per pound. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Pounds. Dollars. Pounds. ~ Pounds. RUNSSIS < e nin s wie eee a alate cere meee cccans 955,163 60.678 Hanse Towns. ------ pole aint wieicicepaeins 6,966 330 13,820 8,433 Rigtlanded eg cccic-sieintonis Pecwumisete te sits 170 93 Dutch West Indies.........-- eecccee 10,774 556 MAG GNIAR SET LY Leics vedbb anise 7,177 248 1,407 175 Te ae ae OE a Lethaia: 1,188,800 35,944 28,406 6,668 Scotlandes oa sm ee sie sieiel~ a rete cee esee 21,132 1,382 | Gibyaltars - oc secs satesiscre'e ee cteeeccees 207,006 12,339 Cape of Good Hope.....-------- a5c4 83,662 6,810 British West Indies..........-..---- 8,694 537 522 70 British American Colonies.........- ne 168,589 9,543 39,346 4,562 Wrancess sccicetmcleces ateba Stoo Basch 84,799 5,424 396 40 Spalnstep cess ioe slaw'-ieinis ebteisipie minieiele inte 20,730 1,425 Tteiliy ~ < csicisiaieis|sjeielele.c= ieinistnia iin ia Sees 81,156 4,720 Trieste (Austria)...... Sen eteete stateterels 111,981 8,151 Turkey: L. D. Gregory, quoted in American Shepherd, pp. 73, 74. ee SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 133 hibiting wider points of difference than did those of Spain. In some cases” they doubtless owe it to particular courses of breeding—but more often, probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood. The point has, indeed, been occasionally mooted, whether there are any Merinos in the United States, descendants of the early importations, of unquestionable purity of blood. That there are, has been recently deft nitely settled by a connected chain of undisputable and undisputed testimo- ny,* not necessary here to be repeated. That, on the other hand, in the recent rush of speculation, a marvelous facility has been evinced, in some instances, in suddenly recollecting lost links in the chain of pedigree—or in forgetting others which it would not be expedient to remember, no one would require any proof who has seen some of the animals which have been hawked through the country as full-bloods. “Taken collectively, the Spanish rams, according to Chancellor Living- ston, yield about eight and a half pounds of wool, and the ewes five, which loses half in washing—making four pounds and a quarter the average weight of fleece of the rams, and two and a half the average of the ewes.t Some varieties considerably exceed this estimate, and probably it would fall short if applied to the prime sheep of any variety.” The fleeces of the Merinos at Rambovillet in France, it is stated in the Report of M. Gilbert, to the National Institute, quoted by Mr. Living- ston,{ weigh, in the rams, from twelve to thirteen pounds (unwashed) wool —taking rams and ewes together, it has “not quite attained to eight pounds, after deducting the tags and the wool of the belly, which are sold sepa- rately.” _Mr. Livingston remarks that the French pound is about one- twelfth heavier than the English; but on the other hand, that from the man- ner of folding and housing sheep and feeding them on fallows in France, they are very dirty, and lose 60 per cent. in washing.” || This would bring the average of the Rambouillet flock“o about four pounds, exclusive of tag and belly wool. M. Lasteyrie gives the following annual averages per head of the Ram bouiilet flock: 1796, 6 lbs. 9 0z.; 1797, 8 lbs.; 1798, 7lbs.; 1799, 8 lbs. , 1800, 8 lbs.; 1801, 9 lbs. 1 oz.—This is unwashed wool, and will lose half in washing. Mr. Livingston’s imported ewes averaged 5 lbs. 2 oz.; his rams 6 lbs. 7 oz., of unwashed wool.§ The later importations will, judg- ing from the specimens I have seen, average much higher than the latter. They are a large sheep, with good, but not the best, quality of Merino wool—some of the larger stocks being rather coarse—and not very uni- form, one with another, either in their appearance or fleeces—and are most remarkable for the loose pendulous skin which hangs about their necks, and lies in folds about their bodies. They are free from hair— their wool, which is of good style, opens with a creamy color, and rich lus- tre, on a fine rose-colored skin. Their wool is long on the back, shortisk on the belly—thick, but not so thick as that of many of the American Me- rinos—very yolky, but destitute of concrete external gum. The American Merino has, as already intimated, diverged into families or varieties presenting wide points of difference. The minor distinctions are numerous, but they may all, perhaps, be classed under three general heads. The jirst,is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep, carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine—free from hair in properly bred flocks—somewhat inclined to throatiness, but not so much so as the Rambouillets—bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some * This testimony will be found in a Letter from me to A. B. Allen, Esq., in the December No of the American Agriculturist, 1 and in the Cultivator, I think, of the same date—if not, the succeedi 0. + Livingston’s Essay on Sheep, p. 39. t Ibid., p. 49, et supra. (i Livingston’s Essay on Sheep, p. 51. § Ibid’, Appendix. a | 134 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. flocks, but not commonly so—their wool longish on both back and beiiy and exceedingly dense—wool whiter within than the Rambouillets—skin the same rich rose-color. The ram on page 131 is a good specimen of this variety, thougk his age is not sufficient to give him the substance and com- pactness of an older animal, and the apparent want in these particulars is hightened by recent shearing.* His first fleece of well-washed wool, at thirteen months old, was 8 lbs.; was of beautiful quality, and entirely destitute of hair. At three years old he would have sheared from 10 to 12 Ibs. of well-washed wool.t CARPENTER DEL Ale MERINO EWE. The second general class of American Merinos are smaller than the pre- ceding—less hardy—wool as a general thing finer—covered with a black pitchy gum on its extremities—fleece about one-fourth lighter than in class first. The third class, which have been bred mostly South, are still smaller and less hardy—and carry still finer and lighter fleeces. The fleece is desti- tute of external gum. The sheep and wool bear a close resemblance to the Saxon; and if not actually mixed with that blood,t they haye been formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of breeding. Class first are a larger and stronger sheep than those originally imported from Spain, carry much heavier fleeces, and in well selected flocks, or in- dividuals, the fleece is of a decidedly better quality. The ewe from my flock—the portrait of which is given above—sheared 7 Ibs. 10 oz. of well- washed wool.|| The fibre numbered 1. in fig. 1, in the succeeding measure- ments by Dr. Emmons, is from this fleece. The fleece is exceedingly ever and entirely destitute of hair. For the purpose of exhibiting the comparative quality of the wool of w * The portrait, on the whole, is strikingly accurate, but the skill of the artist does not compensate for his want of experience, in animal painting, in giving the anatomical details and expression of the countenance. The same remark applies to the portrait of the ewe. ‘ + This valuable animal died since the above portrait was painted, and prior to his second shearing. he am not aware what pedigree is claimed for them. ‘They are usually spain of as Merinos. i. e— washed as clean as practicable in a brook, under a heavy sheet of fallmg water. f SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ; }a5 the American, Rambouillet, and early imported Spanish Merinos, 1 copy the following, from the pen of Ebenezer Emmons, M. D., State Geologist, in the American Quarterly Journal of Agriculture and Science, of which publication Dr. E. is the Editor. “‘ Having given you a pretty full report of the farm and stock of Mr. Randall, embracing many details also in the several branches of husbandry, I now propose adding a few words as an appendix to that report. I gave some intimation, when speaking of the fineness of she wool of Mr. R.’s sheep, that on my return home I would furnish something more exact as a test for fineness than the naked eye. In fulfillment of this intimation, | have been en- gaged since I returned, in measuring the diameter of the different staples which I procured while at Cortlandville, and which I have compared with others obtamed of our mutual friend, Luther Tucker, Esq., of the Cultivator. _ “The different kinds are indicated by numbers. I have prepared a scale which is equal to 100 millimeters; a millimeter is equal to 0-039 of an inch. The hundredth of a millime- ter,* and the fibres of wool, are all subjected to the same magnifying power of an excellent Chevalier’s compound microscope. The comparison is both absolute and relative ; but it is highly interesting to see the perceptible difference between the different fibres of wool, The microscope also reveals other differences; some of the fibres appeared rather uneven or flat- tened, and destitute of a clear and distinct pith or tube; and, in fact, I may remark that the microscope is really the best method of testing the real quality of wool.” .. . SS Be “No. 1, Mr. Randall’s; No. 1a, fibre of Mr. Randall’s prize Merino buck ;t No. 18, fibre from one of Mr. Randall’s feeces; No. 2 and Qa, fibres from Mr. Seth Adams’s wool; No. 4, Remilles wool, Shoreham, Vt.; No. 5, fibre of S. O. Burchard’s fine wool, Shoreham ; No. 3, fibre of Charles L. Smith’s wool, Shoreham; No. 6, fibre from Collins’s Grandee. The last five were taken from wool left at the Cultivator office. In all the fibres examined there is a great uniformity in the parcels; only slight differences, in fact, could be detected in the several diameters. No.7 shows the structure of wool as seen under the microscope. In the corner is the scale of measurement. The finest fibre as magnified in this cut is equal te about eighteen-hundredths of an inch in diameter. “ Another inquiry equally important with the preceding came up in this place: What is the strength of a single fibre of wool, and is the coarser comparatively stronger than the fine? I set about answering those inquiries at once, and now give you the result below: ‘Mr. Randall’s No. 1d, on three trials, supported on an average 62 grains; or, rdther, broke when tried with the weight of 62 grains. “Mr. R.’s No. 1a broke with 57-1 grains. “ The fibre from Collins’s Grandee, on three trials, supported on an average 84:6 grains. “Mr. Smith’s specimen of Shoreham, Vt., on three trials, gave an average of 65°6 grains.” No. 1a is the wool of my ram “ Premium,” which received the first prize * * About 1-2500 of an inch. tTaken from the animal by Doct. Emmons. 136 _ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. at the State Fair at Poughkeepsie, 1844,* and his fleece weighed 10 Ibs. of well washed wool. No. 2 and 2a, (Mr. Seth Adams’s wool,) were from the sheep imported by that gentleman. No. 6 was from Grandee, the best ram of Mr. Collins’s Rambouillet im- portation. It will be observed, first, that the American wool is the finest, and second, its strength is greatest in proportion to its diameter. It will probably be as well to bring Doct. Emmons’s subsequent méas- _urements of the wool of other individuals and varieties together at this place, as to scatter them through the descriptions of the several breeds. It will render a comparison between them more convenient. I would re- mark that the cuts are copied from those of Doct. Emmons, with the strictest fidelity.t Indeed they are perfect fac similes. Fig 2. ‘ i, ee he } “Figure 2 (scale of measurement same as in Fig. 1) exhibits the comparative diameters of the wool fibre of two premium Saxon sheep exhibited at the State Fair at Utica, 1845. Al is a fibre of wool from the shoulder of the 2d premium sheep (Mr. Church’s) ; 2 do. from the flank. B 1, fibre from the shoulder of the first premium sheep (Mr. Crocker’s) ; 2 do. flank. Fig. 3. UM “Fig. 3, No. 1. fibre of Bakewell—about the average fineness of this kind of wool. No. 2, fibre from Merino ewe belonging to Col. Sherwood, 3 years old (Blakesley sheep.) No, 3 do. Mr. Bailey’s ewe. No. 4 do. Mr. Atwood’s. Fig. 4. UU CY ‘Wig. 4.—No. 5, fibre of Mr. Ellis’s ewe, fleece weighing 6 lbs. 13 oz. No. 6 do. Mr. Net- tleton’s yearling Merino buck. No.7 do. a sample from the imported 5 per cent. South American wool, which is seen to be nearly as fine as the best of our flocks. No. 8 do. Col. * This isthe only time my sheep have ever been shown at a State Fair, and I first made arrangements for exhibiting, in the expectation of having the privilege of comparing my sheep with the imported Ram- * bouillets of Mr. Collins. Mr. C., however, declined my invitation to show. I-received the first prize on rams, and the first and second on ewes. + Executed by William Howland, of New-York, whom I take pleasure in recommending to all wishing te obtain wood engravings, as an accurate and most obliging artist. L SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 137 Sherwood’s three-year-old buck, sheared 84 lbs. of wool. No. 9 do. finest Saxon wool in market. Fig. 5.—No. 10, fine Ohio wool. No. 12, do. Saxon Fig. 5. of the late Mr. Groye’s excellent flock. No. 13, do. ce sriginal imported Spanish wool by Seth Adams. No. | 14, Mr. L. A. Morrell’s Saxon | The following cut, copied from Youatt, LL Mota, 26. 14 exhibits a fibre of Merino wool viewed | both as an opaque and transparent object, with a microscope manufac- tured by Mr. Powell, of London. The serrations or “‘ beards;’”’ which constitute & the felting property of wool, are beautifully distinct and sharp. It was a picklock from a Negretti fleece, and Mr. Youatt says it is “very fine, being only the 745th part of an inch in diameter.” By consulting Doct. Emmons’s preceding statements, it will be seen that the wool of my prize ram “ Pre- -mium” is only about z,59th of an inch in diameter! This forcibly shows the improvement which has been made on the Merino wool of Spain in the ' United States. “The Merino, though the native of a warm climate, becomes readily in- ured to the greatest extremes of cold, flourishing as far north as Sweden, | without degenerating in fleece or form. It is a patient, docile animal, bear- ing much confinement without injury to health, and possesses none of that peculiar ‘ voraciousness of appetite,’ ascribed to it by English writers.*— _ Accurately conducted experiments have shown that it consumes” a little over “two pounds of hay per diem, in winter; the Leicester consumes from three and a half to four; and the common wooled American sheep would not probably fall short of three. The mutton of the Merino, in spite of the prejudice which exists on the subject, is short grained and of good flavor, when killed at a proper age,” and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to tothe quarter. “ It is remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth and continuing to breed two or three years longer than the common sheep,” ana at least half a dozen years longer than the improved English Breeds; the feeblest and least hardy Merin#@ of Germany. Fi “but it should be remarked in connection with this fact, that it is corres. pondingly slow in arriving at maturity. It does not attain its full growth before three years old, and the ewes in the best managed flocks, are rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age.” The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-wooled sheep, and my experience goes to show that its lambs, when newly dropped, are hardier than the Bakewell, and equally so.with the high bred South- Down. The ewe is not so good a nurse, however, as the latter, and will not usually do full justice to more than one lamb. Eighty or ninety per cent. is about the ordinary number of lambs usually reared, though it often reaches one hundred per cent. in carefully managed or small flocks. . “We have already adverted to the cross between the Merino and the native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the Merinos, they were universally engrafted on. the parent stock, and the cross was contin- ued until the Spanish blood was nearly bred out.” When the admixture | took place with judiciously selected Saxons, it resulted not unfavor-— ably for certain purposes. But unfortunately these instances of judicious crossing were rare. Our country was flooded by caag speculators, with ness of wool during *Youatt, p. 149, s 138 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the period of this strange excitement, was made the only test of excellence, ' no matter how scanty its quantity, no matter how diminutive or miserable | the carcass. Governed by such views, the holders of most of our Merino | flocks purchased these over-delicate Saxons, and the consequence was as ‘ might have been foreseen—their flocks were ruined.” ; YOWLANO oo L @ SAXON RAM f Saxons.— In the year 1765, Augustus Frederick, Elector of Saxony, ob- | tained permission from the Spanish Court to import two hundred Merinos, | selected from the choicest flocks of Spain. They were chosen principally | from the Escurial flock, and on their arrival in Saxony, were placed on a , private estate belonging to the Elector, under the care of Spanish shepherds. | So much importance was attached to the experiment, as it was then con- sidered, that a commission was appointed to superintend the affairs of the establishment; and it was made its duty to diffuse information in relation to the management of the new breed ; to dispose of the surplus rams at prices which would place them within the reach of all holders of sheep ; and finally, by explaining the superior value of the Merinos, to induce the Saxon farmers to cross them with their native breeds. Popular preju- dice, however, was strong against them, and this was hightened by the rava- ges of the scab, which had been introduced with them from Spain, and which proved very destructive before it was finally eradicated. But when it became apparent that the Merino, so far from degenerating, had im- proved” inthe quality of its wool, in Saxony, “ the wise and patriotic efforte | of the Elector began to reap their merited success, and a revolution took place in popular sentiment. The call for rams became so great that the ‘Government resolved on a new importation, to enable them more effec- tually to meet it, and to improve still farther the stock already obtained. Vor this purpose an individual, considered one of the best judges of sheep in Saxony, was dispa@iched to Spain in 1477, with orders to select three hun- dred. Forsome reason, probably because he experienced difficulty in obtain- ing a greater number presenting all the qualifications he sought, he return- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 139 ed with but one hundred and ten. They were from nearly all the different flocks of Spain, but principally the Escurial—and were considered decided- ly superior to the first importation. In addition to the establishment at Stolpen, already founded, others were now commenced at Rennersdorf, Lohmen, &c.; schools were established for the education of shepherds ; publications were distributed by the commissioners to throw information on the subject before the people; and the Crown tenants, it is said, were each required to purchase a certain number of the sheep.” Mr. Spooner* states that there are two distinct breeds of the Saxon Me- rino sheep, the first “having stouter legs, stouter bodies, head and neck com- paratively short and broad, body round. The wool grows most onthe face and legs—the grease in the wool is almost pitchy.” The other breed call- ed Escurial have longer legs, with a long, spare neck and head, with very little wool on the latter, and a finer, shorter and softer character in its fleece, but less in quantity. The fleece in the Escurial averages from one and a half to two pounds in ewes, and two to three pounds in rams and wethers, while in the others it is from two and a quarter to three and a quarter in ewes, and from four to six pounds in ram and wethers. These varieties cannot be amalgamated successfully. The preceding portrait is a favorable specimen of the Escurial Saxon, copied from a cut, after a drawing by Harvey, in Mr. Spooner’s work? That the German shepherds have sacrificed the hardiness of the Merino, and indeed almost everything else, for fineness of staple, there can be but little doubt. Their methdd of managing the sheep and its effects are thus described by Mr. Carr, a large sheep-owner of Germany :t+ “They are always housed at night, even in summer, except in the very finest weather, when they are sometimes folded in the distant fallows, but never taken to pasture until the dew is off the grass. In the winter they are kept within doors altogether, and dre fed witha small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw, which has not suffered from wet, aud which is varied at each feed; they pick it over carefully, eating the finer parts, and any grain that may have been left by the threshers. Abundance of good water to drink, and rock- salt in their cribs, are indispensables. ... . They cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it 1s quite necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture of short and not over-nutritious herbage. If allowed to feed on swampy or marshy ground, even once or twice, in autumn, they are sure to die of livercomplaint in the following spring. If they are permitted to eat wet grass, or exposed frequently to rain, they disappear. by hundreds with consumption. In these countries it is found the higher bred the sheep is, especially the Escurial, the more tender !’’ Such are the common views of the sheep, and their treatment over Germany, Prussia, and Austria. Various statements of the methods adopt- ed by Baron Geisler, Graf Hunyadi, and other eminent flockmasters, will be found in Dr. Bright’s Travels in Lower Hungary, Paget’s Travels in Hungary and Transylvania, Jacob’s Travels in Germany, &c. The qualities of the Saxons as breeders and nurses, may be inferred from the following regulations, for the management of his flock, by Baron Geisler.{ ~ “During the lambing period, a shepherd should be constantly day and night in the cute, in order that he may place the lamb, a soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother, in a separate pen, which has been before prepared. The ewes which have lambed should, during a week, be driven neither to water or pasture; but low troughs of water for this pur- pose are to be introduced into each partition, in order that they may easily and at all times quench their thirst. It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley-meal into the water, for by this means the quantity of the ewe’s milk is much increased. When the lambs are so strong that they can eat, they are to be separated by degrees from their mothers, and fed with the best and finest oats, being suffered at first to go to them but three times a day, early in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, and so to continue till they can travel to pasture, and fully satisfy themselves.” * Spooner, p. 57 + Quoted by Spooner, p. 58. t Ibid., p. 59. * a 110 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. — The following history of the introduction of the Saxons into the United | States, was compiled by me from written memoranda, and the oral state- ments of Mr. Grove, submitted to the Committee of New-York State Ag- ricultural Society, already alluded to, of which I was Chairman, and was published in my Report, credited, of course, to Mr. Grove individually, ag no other member of the Committee was conversant with the facts nar- rated.* “ The first importation of Saxony sheep into the United States was made by Mr. Samuel Henshaw, a merchant of Boston, at the instance of Col. James Shepherd, of Northampton. They were but six or seven in number. In 1824, Messrs. G. & T. Searle, of Boston, import- ed 77 Saxon sheep. They were selected and purchased by a Mr. Kretchman, a correspond- ent of the above firm, residing in Leipsic, and shipped at Bremen on board the American schooner Velocity. I was engaged to take charge of the sheep on the passage, and I alsa shipped six on my own account. Iam sorry to say that as many as one-third of the sheep. purchased by Kretchman, (who shared profit and loss in the underfaking,) were not pure- blooded sheep. The cargo were sold at auction at Brooklyn, as ‘pure-blooded electoral Sax- ons,’ and thus unfortunately in the very outset the pure and impure became irrevocably mix- ed. But I feel the greatest certainty that the Messrs. Searle intended to import none but. the pure stock—the fault lay with Kretchman. In the fall of 1824, I entered into an arrange- ment with the Messrs. Searle to return to Saxony, and purchase in connection with Kretch-: man, from 160 to 200 Electoral sheep. I was detained at sea seven weeks, which gave rise to the belief that I was shipwrecked and lost. When I finally arrived, the sheep had been al- ready bought by Kretchman. On being informed of what the purchase consisted, I protested against taking them to America, and insisted on a better selection, but tono purpose. A quarrel ensued between us, and Kretchman even went so far as to engage another to take charge of the sheep on their passage. My friends interposing, I was finally induced to take charge of them. The number shipped was 167, 15 of which perished on the passage. They were sold at Brighton, some of them going as high as from $400 to $450. A portion of this importation consisted of grade sheep, which sold as high as the pure-bloods, for the Ameri- can purchasers could not know the difference. It may be readily imagined what an induce- ment the Brighton sale held out to speculation, both in this country and Saxony. The Ger- man newspapers teemed with advertisements of sheep for sale, headed ‘ Good for the Ameri- can Market;’ and these sheep, in many instances, were actually bought up for the American market at five, eight or ten dollars a head, when the pure-bloods could not be purchased at from less than $30 to $40. In 1836, Messrs, Searle imported three cargoes, amounting in the ag- gregate to513 sheep. They were of about the same character with their prior importations, in the main good, but mixed with some grade sheep. On the same year a cargo of 221 arrived, on German account, Emil Bach, of Leipsic, supercargo. A few were good sheep and of pure blood ; but taken as a lot they were miserable. The owners sunk about $3,000. Next came a cargo of 210 on German account; Wasmuss and Multer, owners. The whole cost of these was about $1,125, in Germany. With the exception of a small number, procured to make a flougish on, in their advertisements of sale they were sheep having no pretensions to purity of blood. In 1827, the same individuals brought out another cargo. These were selected exclusively from grade flocks of low character. On the same year the Messrs. Searle made their last importation, consisting of 182 sheep. Of these I know little. My friends in Ger- many wrote me that they were like their other importations, a mixture of pure and impure blooded sheep. It is due, however, to the Messrs. Seale to say that, as a whole, their im- portations were much better than any other made into Boston. “‘T will now turn your attention to the importations made into other ports. In 1825, 13 Saxons arrived in Portsmouth. They were miserable creatures. In 1826, 191 sheep arrived in New-York, per brig William, on German account. A portion of these were well descend- ed and valuable animals, the rest were grade sheep. In June the same year, the brig Lou- isa brought out 173 on German account. Not more than one-third of them had the least pre- tensions to purity of blood. Next we find 158, shipped at Bremen, on German account.— Some were diseased before they left Bremen, and I am happy to state that twenty-two died before their arrival in New-York. All I intend to say of them is, that they were a most cu rious and motley mess of wretched animals. The next cargo imported arrived in the brig Maria Elizabeth, under my own care. They were 165 in number, belonging to myself and F. Gebhard, of New-York. These sheep cost me $65 a head when landed in New-York.— They sold at an average of $50 a head, thus sinking about $2,400! I need not say that they were exclusively of pure blood. A cargo of 81 arrived soon after, but I know nothing of their quality. The next importation consisted of 184, on German account, per brig Warren. With a few exceptions they were pure-blooded and good sheep. We next have an importa- tion of 200 by the Bremen ship Louisa. They were commonly called the ‘ stop sale sheep. * Mr. Morrel in his American Shepherd, quotes this as a “ Report” drawn and read by Mr. Grove, (one ig ‘eft to infer,) before the New-York State Agricultural Society. ‘This is doubtless an inadvertance. > SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 14] ry They were of the most miserable character, some of them being hardly half-grade sheep.— The ship Phebe Ann brought 120 sheep, of which I know little; and 60 were landed al Philadelphia, with the character of which I am unacquainted. Having determined to settle in America, I returned to Saxony, and spent the winter of 1826-7 in visiting and examining } many flocks. I selected 115 from the celebrated flock of Machern, embarked on board the | ship Albion, and landed in New-York June 27, 1827. In 1828, I received 80 more from the same flock, selected by a friend of mine, an excellent judge of sheep. I first drove them to Shaftsbury, adjoining the town of Hosic, where I now reside. On their arrival they stood me in $70 a head, and the lambs half that sum.” “Tt will be inferred from the facts above stated that there are few Sax- on flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality of grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure which were imported together, and a// sold to our breeders as pure stock.” And independent of this, there are but exceedingly few flocks which have not been agaz crossed with the Native or Merino sheep of our coun- try, or both. Those who early purchased the Merino, crossed them with the Native ; and, when the Saxons arrived, these mongrels were.bred to Saxon rams. This is the history of probably three-quarters .of the “ Sax- on” flocks of the United States, and among them some, as I know, among the most celebrated. As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the Saxon that their wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it is exceedingly problematical in my mind whether they are any worse for the admixture: when crossed only with the Merino, it is undoubtedly to their advantage. Though I once thought differently, experience has satisfied me that the American Saxon, with these early crosses in its pedigree, is a hardier and more easily kept animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. As with the Merino, climate, feed, and other causes, have doubtless conspired to add to their size and vigor ; but, after all, I have not a doubt they usually owe more of it to those early crosses. The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from 2 or 2} to 3 lbs. They are, comparatively speaking, a tender sheep, requiring regular supplies of good food, good shelter in winter, and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds ; but they are evidently hardier than the parent German stock. In docility and patience under confinement, late maturity, and longevity, they resemble the Merinos, from which they are descended ; though they do not mature so early as the Merino, nor ordinarily live so long. They are poorer nurses; their lambs smaller, fee- bler, and far more likely to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched. They do not fatten so well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of food correspondingly less. ] Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the American Merinos; but Dr. Emmons’s measurements show that this is not always the case, and many breeders of Saxons are now crossing with the Merino, in the expectation of increasing the weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality.** Though I am in possession of wool from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio, which compares well with the higher grades of German wool,t and though there are doubtless other flocks of equa: quality in the country,t our Saxon wool, as a whole, falls considerably below that of Germany ; and I never have seen a single lock of the American equaling some samples, given me by a friend recently * Mr. Lawrwnce believes this practicable, and Mr. Morrel and various other Saxon breeders have for some time bred in this way. ; t Fully equaling, and, I think, better than some German wool J recently saw, which, all expenses in- eluded, stood the purchaser in $1 60 per pound! . ¢ Dr. Emmons stated, subsequently to his measurements above, that he had received wool from the flock of Dr. Beekman, considerably finer than the Sax wool figured. Ps 142 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. from Europe, which came from Styria, south of Vienna, in Austria. other natural causes, nor is it owing to a want of skill on the part of our | breeders. It is owing to the fact that but a very few of our manufactur- \ ers have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would | render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which pro- % duce this exquisite quality of wool. No American breeder thinks of hous- | ing his sheep from the summer rains and dew, or observing any of the hot- 4 house regulations—at least in the summer—of Graf Hunyadi, or Baron 4 Geisler! Ifhe did, his wool would not probably pay half of its first cost. | When our manufacturers wish to find these wools in the home market, | they must learn to pay for them in the home market as liberally as they ‘ are compelled to to obtain ther in foreign ones! Vp-2 THE NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL. The portrait above is copied from one of a sheep of this variety, belong- ing to the Duke of Bedford, given in Mr. Youatt’s work on Sheep. “The unimproved Leicester was a ‘ large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed’ of sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It is described also as having been ‘a slow feeder, and its flesh coarse-grained, and with little flavor. The breeders of that period regarded only size and weight of fleece. The celebrated Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, was the first who adopt- ed a system more in accordance with the true principles of breeding. He selected from the flocks about him those sheep ‘whose shape possessed the peculiarities which he considered would produce the largest propor- tion of valuable meat, and offal,’ and having observed that animals of me- dium size possess a greater aptitude to take on flesh, and consume less food than those which are larger, and that prime fattening qualities are rarely found in sheep carrying a great weight of wool, he gave the prefer- ence to those of smaller size, and was satisfied with lighter fleeces.” To reach the wonderful results obtained by Mr. Bakewell, it was supposed that he resorted to a cross with some other varieties, but it is believed by some that he owed his success only to a judicious principle of selection and a steady adherence to certain principles of breeding. } ik wa. - SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 143 _It is exceedingly unfortunate that this eminent breeder has left us so nuch in the dark in relation to those principles of breeding, adopted by him, which led to such signal success in his efforts to improve both the | cattle and sheep of the region in England in which he resided. All of his | measures were veiled in impenetrable secrecy even from his most intimate friends, and he died without voluntarily throwing the least light on the subject. The whole inception and management of his famous “ Dishley | Society”* betrays selfishness the most intense, i in plain English, mean- ness the most unalloyed. Should a man claiming to be a gentleman, ir _ this country, make valuable discoveries in breeding, or in any other de- partment of husbandry, and closely conceal them from the public, his con- duct would meet with universal reprehension and contempt ;t yet the thing seems to be considered a matter of course, or is at least passed over with- out censure, in Kouatt, Spooner, Bischoff, and a host of earlier writers, all of whom laud Mr. Bakewell to the echo! “ The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than the original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, &c. Where there is a sufficiency of feed, the New Leicester is unrivaled for its fattening properties, but it will not bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. In its ap- propriate situation, on the luxuriant herbage of the highly cultivated lands of England, it possesses unrivaled earliness of maturity ; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good quality, but is usually coarse, and compara- tively deficient in flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally feeds for. The wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off in the succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty to thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is long—averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches; and the fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse quality, and little used in the manufacture of cloths, on account of its length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater or less extent, to all the English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it stands first, and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, &c. “The high bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell’s stock became shy breed- ers and poor nurses, but crosses subsequently adopted” have, to some ex- tent, obviated these defects. So far as my experience has extended in this country, however, the lambs are not very hardy, and require considerable attention at the time of yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moder- ately cold or stormy. Neither can the grown sheep be considered, in my opinion, very hardy. They are much affected by sudden changes in the weather, and a sudden change to cold is pretty sure to be registered on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or ‘snufiles.’ “In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, the meat of this variety is in very great demand; and the consequent re- turn which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make, renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are re- corded of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these ani- * For the Regulations of this Society, see Youatt, p. 317. t+ Of course I do not include in this category those nameless venders of recipes for killing Canada This tles; rats, &c. &c.; and men who spend their time and property in inventing improved implements, etc., are entitled to the pay offered by the Patent laws. But, among our agriculturists of standing, who has ever known of a single instance of a valuable discovery in the operations of husbandry being concealed or with- held from the public? Who has known a breeder of rank wheedle a partner out of one-half of a valuable bull, and then refuse the quondam partner the services of that bull at any price, lest he should prove dangerous rival in breeding? Yet, what English writer has expressed any contempt for such meanness These things would not “ go down” among us “ repudiators” ! 144 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. — mals, and Mr. Bakewell’s celebrated buck “ Two Pounder” was let for | the enormous price of four hundred guineas for a single season! The } New Leicester has spread into all parts of the British Dominions, and been imported into the other countries of Europe and the United States. 4 They were first introduced into our own country by the late Christopher Dunn, Esq., of Albany, about twenty-five years since.* Subsequent import- ations have been made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other gentlemen.” rece It is no more than justice to say that this breed has never proved a fa- vorite with any large class of American farmers. Our long, cold winters, but more especially our dry, scorching summers, when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, tender feed in which the Leicester delights—the general want of green feed in the wint+., robs it of its early maturity, and even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is too fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed, to suit American taste. Its wool is not very salable, from the much to be regretted dearth of worsted manufactories in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, notwithstanding all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the vicinities of consid- erable markets, it will always probably make a profitable return. The following description of what constitutes the desirable characterist- ics of this breed, is from the pen of Mr. Youatt :t “The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering toward the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forward. The eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin, rather long, and directed backward. The neck full and broad at its base, where it proceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible déviation, one continued horizon- tal line from the rump to the poll. The breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the back—particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situation of these bones.— The arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to the knee. ‘The bones of the leg small, standing wide apart; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively bare of wool. The chest and barrel at once deep and round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the animal is in good condition, to make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth. The barrel ribbed well home ; no irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides; the careass very grad- ually diminishing in width toward the rump. The quarters long and full, and, as with the fore legs, the muscles extending down to the hock; the thighs also wide and full. The legs of a moderate length; the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool—not so long as in some breeds, but considerably finer.” Tue Sourns-Down.— This breed of sheep has existed for several centu- ~ ries in England, on a range of chalky hills called the South Downs. They were, as recently as 1776, small in size, and of a form not superior to the common wooled sheep of the United States. Since that period, a course of judicious breeding, pursued by one man (Mr. Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex), has mainly contributed to raise this variety to its present high degree of per- fection, and that, too, without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign blood. In our remarks on this breed of sheep, it will be understood that we speak of the pure iniproved family, as the original stock, presenting, with trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited sixty years since, are yet to be found in England—and as the middle space is occupied by a variety of grades, rising or falling in value, as they approximate to or recede from the improved blood. “ The South-Down is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool which’in point of length belongs to the middle class,” has been estimated to rank with half-blood Merino, and was so estimated in my Report, quo * Now about 35 years since. ; t Youatt on Sheep, p. 110. * SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 145 AR OM ata a ‘tations from which constitute so large a portion of this Letter. But both subsequent experience, and information derived from other’sources, have convinced me of the erroneousness of this opinion. South-Down wool is Wifprs WA J Mig ip NS SS SOUTH-DOWN RAM. essentially different from Merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in seme of the finest fleeces may be of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood Merino. The following cut from Youatt,* gives the microscopic appearance, says that gentleman, of a “prime specimen of picklock South-Down wool,” 1 being viewed as a transparent, 2 and 2 as an opaque object.” The fibre is gioth part of an inch in diameter. The cups or leaves of 2 “are roughened irregular, and some of the leaves have ex- 2 ceedingly short angles,” but they are far sharper, more numerous and regular (the points which give wool its felting property) than in ordinary South-Down wool. In the latter, the cups are rounded and have a “ rhomboidal”’ in- stead of that sharp and “hooked” character which distinguishes the Me- rino and Saxon. South-Down wool is deficient in felting properties. It makes a “ furzy, nairy ” cloth, and is no longer used in England, unless largely admixed wita foreign wool, even for the lowest class of cloths. The following testimony was given by some of the most eminent manu- facturers, wool-factors, staplers, and merchants of England, before the (ommittee of the House of Lords in 1828, several times previously al- luded to :t . ———ed * Youatt, p. 236. + See Bischoff, ee pp. 145 to 155. 146 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Bo ns $$$ ii Mr. Cuartes Butt, wool-agent, Lewes.—“ Formerly it [South-Down wool] was used for clothing purposes; now it is impossible to sell it for that manufacture; . .. it is used for baizes and flannels in a very large way.” Mr. Witt1am Cunnineton, wool-stapler, Wiltshire— The public will not wear the South-Down cloths, they are so very coarse.” Mr. James Fison, wool dealer, Thetford.—‘ There has been deterioration in the quality of (South-Down) wool; the general weight of the fleece 20 years ago was 2 pounds to 24, and it is now 3 pounds to 34, our wool used to be made into cloths, and returned into Nor- folk, and used by myself and the agriculturists. We do not get the same cloth now; neither myself nor the farmer would wear it, because of the deterioration of quality.” * Mt. James Hussarp, wool agent, Leeds.—South-Down wool is not ‘‘now employed for the purpose of making cloth; it has been forced down two or three steps in the scale of wool, and is now used for-flannels and baize..... The wool gets more frothy and open, and in manufacturing it does not felt and improve so well; it works more flannely.” .... Mr. Joun Brooke, manufacturer, Howley.—‘‘ Manufacture principally blue cloths from 7s. to 24s. and 25s. per yard, and also narrow cloths. ... - Had the Duke of Norfolk’s wool, Mr. Ellman, junior’s, clip from 1817 and 1822, and Mr. Ellman, senior’s, from 1817 to 1821..... Kept to English wool longer than any house in the neighborhood. .... Ceased to manufac- ture it entirely in 1823 or 1824,.... found our neighbers were sending out better cloths than we were, not only at the same price, but better manufactured cloths, and we lost our cus- tomers.” Mr. Bensamin Gort, merchant and manufacturer, Leeds.—“ I formerly used 150 packs of English wool weekly; the disuse of English wool was gradual, commencing about the year 1819, continuing to 1823 and 1824, about which time I began to manufacture exclu- sively from foreign wool. The disuse of English wool arose ‘from the quality and the ad- vantage of using foreign wool compared with our own. I gould not now make an article which would be merchantable at all for the foreign market, (that remark applies equally to the home trade,) in certain descriptions of cloth, except of foreign wool.” . . . These wools (the domestic and foreign,) ‘“ have different properties.” Mr. Wicxiam Iretanp, Blackwell Hall factor, London.—‘‘ We have been using English wool for second and livery cloths, but recently they have been so very much lowered in quality we have not been able to make use of them at all, and have been obliged to make use of low German and low Spanish wools for that purpose.” Mr. J. Surctirre, wool-stapler, Huddersfield.—‘‘ South-Down wool was formerly ap- plied for making cloth for home consumption regularly, for the clothing of servants, &c. It was also used for army clothing. It is now no longer used for those purposes. It makes a furzy, soft, hairy piece; it has not that fastness in it that foreign wool has.” Many other individuals testify to the same effect, and the extremely low character of South-Down wool for carding purposes may be regarded as definitely settled. But as it has deteriorated it has increased in length of staple in England, and to such an extent that improved machinery«enables itto be used as a combing wool—for the manufacture of worsteds. Where this has taken place it is quite as profitable, in England, as when it was finer and shorter. In the United States, where the demand for combing- wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article, perhaps thi would not be the case. And it may be problematical whether the proper combing length will be easily reached, or at least maintained in this coun- try, in the absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased length in England:* The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is 3 Ibs.; on rich lowlands a little more. Mr. John Ellman, Jr., testified before the Com- mittee of the House of Lords that he was then “ keeping his sheep better than formerly—fattening them, which rendered the fleece heavier—that they then averaged about 3 lbs. of wool.” + “ But the Down is cultivated more particularly for its mutton, which for quality takes precedence of all other” (from sheep of good size) “in the English markets. Its early maturity and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose. The Down is turned off at two years old, and its weight at that age is, in England, from 80 to 100 lbs. High fed wethers have reached * Nearly or quite every individwal who testifies to the deterioration and increased length of the South Down wool before the Lord’s Conimittee, assign this as the cause of the change. Bischoff, vol. ii., p. 137 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 147 from 32 to even 40 lbs. a quarter! Notwithstanding its weight, the Down has, in the language of Mr. Youatt, a patience of occasional short keep, and an endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier Leicester, Lincolns, &c., as a mutton sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scarty ‘herbage. It is hardy and healthy, though in common with the other Eng- ‘lish varieties much subject to the catarrh or “snuffles,” and no sheep bet- ‘ter withstands our American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and good nursers. The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and though an industrious feeder, exhibiting little disposition to rove.” Like the Leices- ter, it is comparativelyga short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with short and middle wooled breeds than the Leicester. “ A sheep possessing such qualities must of course be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of markets. They have been introduced into every part of the British Do- minions, and imported into various other countries. The Emperor of Russia paid Mr. Ellman three hundred guineas for two rams, and in 1800 ‘a ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford, was let for one season at eighty guineas, two others at forty guineas each, and four more at twenty-eight guineas each.’ These valuable sheep were introduced into the United States a few years since by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia, and a small number was imported by one of the members of this Committee in 1834. The last were from the flock of Mr. Ellman, at a cost of $60 ahead. Sey- eral other importations have since taken place.” The ram and ewe, the portraits of which are given, are the descendants of the importation of Francis Rotch, Esq., alluded to in the preceding paragraph. They are most spirited likenesses, and were kindly furnished me by that gentleman, to accompany this Letter. They are exceedingly DY Ha 6 f We is s wae” Tia, on i CY tas wr Z 4 Las. Zs ey, SOUTH-DOWN EWE. characteristic of the Ellman stock. Not so large as the later importations of Mr. Rotch from the celebrated flock of Mr. Webb, they are, in the 148 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. opinion of that gentleman, as well as in my own, a more beautifully | formed and not less profitable animal. For compactness—great weight tn | a small compass—they are.perhaps unrivaled. The following is the description of the perfect South-Down by Mr. EJl- | man, the founder of the improved breed : «‘ The head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray and neither too long nor twa * short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow; the under jaw or chap fine ana thin; the ears tolerably wide and well covered with wool, and the tore- head also, and the whole space between the ears well] protected by it, as a defence against the fly. “The eye full and bright but not prominent. The orbits of the eye, the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lamging. ( “The neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the shoul. | ders, where it should be broad and high and straight in its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the fore-legs, indicating a : ood constitution and a disposition to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above: they should bow outward from the | top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it. i “The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the ' last rib projecting more than others, the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and flat; the rump broad and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the spine. The hips wide; the space between them and the last rib on ei- || ther side as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular form like a || barrel. : “ The belly as straight as the back. “ The legs neither too long nor too short; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot; not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind; the hock having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being } particularly full, the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or | dark color. . The belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind ta,the | knee and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spiry projecting | fibres.” THE COTSWOLD SHEE P. The above cut is copied from one in Mr. Spooner’s work on Sheep— | the original drawing being by Harvey. The Cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, | | | : | ¢ . SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 149 coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the fore-quarter—shearing a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were hardy, prolific breeders and capital nurses. ,They were deficient in early maturity, and did not possess feeding properties equaling those of the Down or New Leicester. To a cross with the latter variety we owe the modern or improved Cots- wold. Having had no personal experience with the breed,* I prefer quoting the descriptions of the later standard English writers, to the task of compilation. ; 5 The following is from Spooner :t “ The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fleece, and the ewes are very prolific and good nurses. Formerly they were bred only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys, of the Severn and the Thames; but with the inclosure of the Cotswold Hills and the improvement of their cultivation they have been reared and fatted in the same district. They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses considerably im- proved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are now sometimes fattened at 14 months old, when they weigh from 15 lbs. to 24 lbs. per quarter, and at two years old increase to 20 lbs. or 30 lbs. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, 6 to 8 inches in length, and from 7 lbs. to 8 lbs. per fleece. The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of late years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under which man- agement still farther improvement appears very probable. They have also been used in crossing other breeds, and, as before noticed, have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold that, under the term New or Improved Oxfordshire Sheep, are so frequently the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in the Kingdom. The quality of the mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester, the tallow being less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh. We may, therefore, regard this breed as one of established reputation, and extending itself throughout every district of the Kingdom.” Of the method of crossing between the Cotswolds and Leicester, Mr. Youatt remarks :f ‘** The degree to which the cross may be carried must depend upon the nature of the old stock, and on the situation and character of the farm. In exposed situations, and somewhat scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. On a more sheltered soil, and on land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made of the Leicester. Another circumstance that will guide the farmer is the object that he principally has in view. If he expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look to the primitive Cotswolds ; if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will use the Leicester ram more freely.” Cotswold sheep of good quality have been imported into the United States by Messrs. Corning & Sotham, of Albany, and are now bred by the latter gentleman. I believe there were several earlier importations— but of their dates or particulars I am not advised. Tue Cueviot Sueep.—sSheep of this breed have been imported into my immediate neighborhood, and were subject to my frequent inspection for two or three years. They had the appearance of small Leicesters, but were con- siderably inferior in correctness of proportions to high-bred animals of that variety. They perhaps more resemble a cross between the Leicester and the old “ native” or common breed of the United States. Their fleeces were too coarse to furnish a good carding wool—too short for a good combing one. Mixed with a smaller lot of better wool, their this year’s clip sold for 29 cents per pound, while my heavier Merino fleeces sold for 42 cents per pound. They attracted no notice, and might at any time have been bought of their owner for the price of common sheep of the same weight. I believe the flock was broken up and sold to butchers and others this spring, after shearing. They were certainly inferior to the description of the breed by Sir John Sinclair, even in 1792, quoted by Mr. Youatt,|| and * With every breed previously described, I have had ample personal experience. I have merely seen Cotewold flocks. t Q.v., p. 99. t Q.v., p. 340. ll Q. 2, pp. 285, 286. 200 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. had all the defects attributed to the me by Cully.* They might ) not, however, have been favorable speci of the breed. On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot Hil the extreme North of Eng: | ‘and, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in resisting | oes e 4S By HOWLAVD CHEVIOT EWE. cold and feeding on coarse heathery herbage. A cross with the Leices- ter, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the improved variety. The characteristics of the Leicester are quite evident in the portrait of the Cheviot Ewe, above, copied from Mr. Youatt. Professor Low thus speaks of the result of this cross : “The Cheviot breed amalgamates with the Leicester, and a system of breeding has been extensively introduced for producing the first cross of this descent. _The rams employed are of the pure Leicester breed, and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tenden- cy to fatten, to the native Cheviot. . . . The benefit, however, may be said to end with the first cross, and the progeny of this mixed descent is greatly inferior to the pure Leicester in form and fattening properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution. Of the improved Cheviot Mr. Spooner says : “This breed has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of Scotland, and in many instances supplanted the Black-faced breed; but the change, though in many cases ad- vantageous, has in some instances been otherwise, the latter being somewhat hardier, and more capable of subsisting on heathy pasturage. They are, however, a hardy race, well suited for their native pastures, bearing with comparative impunity the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making more flesh on an equal quantity of food, and making it quicker. They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, without horns. The ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is much space between the ears and. eyes. The carcass is long; the back straight; the shoulders rather light; the ribs circular; and the quarters good. The legs are small in the bone and coy- ered with wool, as well as the body, with the exception of the face. The Cheviot wether is fit for the butcher at three years old, and averages from 12 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter—the mutton being of a good quality, though inferior to the South-Down, and of less flavor than the Black-faced. . . . . The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet and docile, and ea- sily managed. The wool is fine, (7) closely covers the body, assisting much in preserving it * See Cully on Live Stock, p. 150. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ® 3 from the effects of wet and cold; the fleece averaging about 341bs. Formerly the wool was = : a 3 . ev extensively employed for making cloths, but having given place to the finer Saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been confined to combing purposes. It has thus become altogether ¢ a secondary consideration.” ... | If Mr. Spooner is not made to say that the wool is “fine” by an omis- sion of qualifying words, or some other misprint, his ideas of fineness must be singular indeed! The South-Down wool, rejected for carding pur- poses, is several shades finer than the Cheviot! Thg latter is of about the quality of Leicester, the number of serrations about the same, and, says Mr. Youatt, speaking of the microscopic appearance of the wool, “the derivation of the breed (from the Leicester) is well illustrated by the formation of the fibre.” Mr. John Varley, manufacturer, of Stanningley, near Leeds, thus testi- fied before the Lords’ Committee :* “T attribute the low price of Cheviot wool to deterioration ; it is deteriorated very much in point of hair; it was formerly the fashion of the day for Cheviot wool to be worn as cloth ; it is not the fashion now. It is not fit to make fine cloths, as it was then. .... The wool is grown coarser and longer, and only fit to make low coatings and flushings.”’ This is confirmed by the testimony of other witnesses before the Com- . mittee; and Mr. Youatt on the same subject remarks,f “that the wool is inferior to the South-Down.” Broap-TAILeD AsIATIC AND AFrricaN SuHeep.—I allude to the Broad- tailed race of sheep, not from any high estimate which I place upon their value, but because they constitute one of the breeds now existing in a state of purity in the United States. Some “Tunisian Mountain Sheep” were received by Col. Pickering when abroad, and were distributed by him in Pennsylvania.t They are highly spoken of by Col. Powell as a cross with the Dishley and South- Down. They have, | believe, long since become extinct. It was Commodore Porter, I think, who, you informed me, sent home some of the Broad-tailed sheep of Asia, obtained from Smyrna, pure- blooded descendants of which yet exist in South Carolina.|| I have care- fully examined the specimens of wool of the full blood and the grades of this variety forwarded by you. No. 3, taken from the skin of a full-blood, is 8 inches long, pure white, consisting of coarse hairs, uneven in their length and diameter—the same hair of uneven diameter in different parts of it, and the whole intermixed for about 4 inches from the roots, with a fine, downy or cottony wool. No. 2, about 33 inches long from the side of a three-fourths blood ram, is much eveuner in quality, with no hairs as coarse or wool as fine as in No. 3. It contains some jarr, or short, sharp- pointed hairs, and.is a dry, and, I should judge, rather unworkable wool, not well adapted to either carding or combing. No.1, from thigh of same animal, is 8 inches long, resembles N>. 3, but not so great a distinction etween the hair and the wool. No. 4, from a three-fourths blood 4-year- old ewe, is about 2 inches long, contains a few colored hairs, resembles No. 2, but is somewhat coarser. All these samples are destitute of yolk, and apparently come from loose, light, dry, open fleeces. They do not strike me as wools which could be as profitably cultivated as many others, for any objects or under any circumstances. If the object is mutton instead of wool, it seems to me that a better se- lection can be made, from some of the English breeds—which intermingle * Bischoff, vol. ii, p. 144. Mr. Youatt quotes the substance of the above, and fully sustains Mr. Varley’s views. , Tt Q. v., p. 285. { See Essay on Various Breeds of Sheep, by Col. John Hare Powell, published in the Memoirs of the Board of Agriculture of the State of New-York, vol. iii., p. 377, (1826.) || In Letter Vth I inadvertently spoke of these as a large breed of sheep. They are not above medium size, or rather, may be said to be a smailish race, 2 152 _ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. their fat and muscle in such a manner as to render both palatable, insteac of depositing a greatly disproportioned share of the former in one luscious mass, forming an impediment to breeding, and an unsightly appendage in the eye of the breeder. All the different varieties of the Broad-tailed and Fat-rumped sheep will be found described in Youatt, and I will not now consume your time with them. ¢ ° SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 153 “ | ‘, LETTER XI. , fHE MOST PROFITABLE BREED OF SHEEP FOR THE SOUTH—PRINCIPLES ituan OF BREEDING. ra Breeds should be adapted to the circamstances of a Country...Circumstances requiring a Mutton Sheep ..-Comparison between Mutton Sheep—The South-Downs, Leicesters and Cotswolds. .-How far the Feed Markets, &c., of the South demand such breeds...What breed of Sheep will give the greatest value of Woul from the feed of an acre ?...Comparative Consumption and Wool Product of the Mutton breeds and the Merino—Other Expenses—Comparative Hardiness, &c-...A pound of fine wool can be grown as cheaply as a pound of coarse—worth more for market or for consumption...The Mutton of the Merino and its Crosses-.. What sub-variety of the Merino best adapted to the wants of the South ?... Review of the His- tory of Wool-Growing and the Wool Markets since 1824...'Tariffs and Prices...Injudicious course of the Manufacturers—Have discouraged the growth of tine wool and encouraged that of medium and coarse. .. A surplus of medium wools, and a bare or short supply of fine. ?. Manufacturers now in the power of fine ‘wool growers.--Interest of the Manufacturers to encourage the growth of fine wools by paying better rices—are beginning to do so—will be compelled to continue this course... Will the North furnish the increasing demand 7—No—Reasons...Fine wool in every point of view more profitable than coarse for cultivation in the South...Comparison between Merinos and Saxons-.-..Crosses between them... Points which constitute excellence in a Merino—proper size—per centage of wool to live-weight—shape and gen- eral appearance—skin—wrinkles--.The wool—what parts it should cover—its gum—length and weight of fleece—evenness—style—softness—serration—manner of opening, &c..- Principles of breeding. --In and-in breeding. ..Crossing...English Crosses with the Merino...Views of Mr. Livingston concerning the use of cross-bred rams—of the French breeders—of the author...Great importance of starting a flock with choice rams—with different strains of blood. Dear Sir: No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable for the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool; and another which is valu- able for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of feed and climate, while others are much less affected by those conditions, and will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature, and on the most opposite qualities of verdure. In selecting a breed for any given locality, we are to take into consid- eration jirst, the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural circum- stances; and, second, the market facilities and demand. We should then make choice of that breed which, with the advantages possessed, and un- der all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net value of marketable: product. * Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of large carcasses. If convenient to markets where mutton finds a prompt sale and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which call for a mut- ton, as contradistinguished from a wool-producing sheep. Under such cir- cumstances, the choice should undoubtedly, in my judgment, rest between. the improved English varieties—the South-Down, the New Leicester, and’ the improved Cotswold or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding betweer these, minor and more specific circumstances are to be taken into account. If we wish to keep large numbers, the Down will herd* much better than the two larger breeds ; if our feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to: be shortish during the drouths of summer, and we have not a certain sup- ply of the most nutritious winter feed, the Down will better endure: ucca- sional short keep: if the market calls for a choice and high-flavored mut- ton, the Down possesses a decided superiority. If, on the other hand, we * That is, remain thriving and healthy when T tegether in large numbers. [54 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. wish to keep but few in the same inclosure, the large breeds will be as healthy as the Downs; if the pastures be wettish or marshy, the former } will better subsist on the rank herbage which usually grows in such situa- tions; if they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton, they, particularly the Leicester, possess an earlier maturity, and both give more meat for the amount of food consumed, and yield more tallow. The next point of comparison between the Long and Middle wooled families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal ob ject aimed at in the culture of any of these breeds, it is, in this country, an important item or incident in determining their relative profitableness. The American Leicester* yields about 6 lbs. of long, coarse, combing wool; the Cotswold something more, but this perhaps counterbalanced by other considerations ; the Down from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. of a low quality of carding wool. None of these wools are very salable, at,remunerating prices, in the American market. Both will become more so, as manufactures of worsted, and of flannels and baizes, increase. The difference in the weight of fleeces between the breeds is, per se, a less important consideration than would first appear, and for reasons which will be given when I speak of the connection between the amount of wool produced and the food con- sumed, by sheep. Of the Cheviots I have taken no notice in this connection, as they are obviously inferior to the preceding breeds, except in a capacity to endure rigorous weather, and to subsist on heathy herbage. No part of the South has a climate too severe for the more valuable races, and its grasses and other esculents, wherever found, and as far as they go, are, making the proper allowances for wet and dry lands, highly palatable and nutri- tious to all the varieties which respectively feed in such situations. Under the natural and artificial circumstances already alluded to, which surround Sheep Husbandry in many parts of England—where the fattest and grossest quality of mutton is consumed as almost the only animal food of the laboring classes—the heavy, early maturing New Leicester, and the still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep, seem exactly adapted to the wants of producer and consumer, and are of unrivaled value. To depasture poorer soils—sustain a folding system—and furnish the mutton which sup- plies the tables of the wealthy—the South-Down is an equal desideratum. Have we any region in our Southern States, where analogous circum- stances demand the introduction of similar breeds? The climate, so far as its effect on the health is concerned, is adapted to any, even the least hardy varieties ; but not so its effects on the verdure on which they are tg subsist. The long, scorching summers, so utterly unlike those of England, leave the grass on lands stocked heavily enough for profit, entirely too dry and short for the heavy, sluggish Long Wools. ‘This is particularly true in the tide-water zone. Mutton, too, sheeted over externally with three or four inches of solid fat,t even if it could be made acceptable to the slave, in lieu of his ration of bacon—a thing more than doubtful— would never find any considerable market off from the plantation. So far as the supply of feed is concerned, the above remarks apply, though not equally, tothe South-Down. It will live and thrive where the Long Wools would dwindle away, but it is a mistake to suppose that the heavy im- *Tuse the word “ American” Leicester, because it is notorious that this, as well as the Cotswold—and all the other heavy English varieties, soon lose in the weight of their fleeces when subjected to the climate and the (best ordinary) system of feeding in the United States, I should except, perhaps, a few highly pampered animals, + Five and even six inches of solid fat, on the rib, is not uncommon in England. In the Cotswolds the ‘fat and lean are more intermixed, and the mutton is of a better quality ; but it would be considered en- stirely too luscious and tallowy by Americans, —— SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 155 proved South-Down will subsist, and attain its proper weight and fatness, gn very poor or very scant herbage. The old unimproved variety would, like some other smallish and hardy races, obtain a living on keep as poor as that which grew on the lightest and thinnest soils of Sussex. Moulded by the hand ur Ellman, and other breeders, to better fulfill the conditions of a mutton sheep, in size and other particulars, they demand that in- creased supply of food which the formation of additional fat and muscle require. Retaining some of the properties of the parent stock, they are less sluggish, and bear travel better than the Long Wools; but with them as with the latter, and all other animals, much or prolonged exercise in pursuit of food or otherwise, is unfavorable to obesity. Men, and par- ticularly owners, in advocating the claims of this breed and that, seem not unfrequently to forget that the general physical laws which control in the development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. Better organs will doubtless make a better appropriation of animal food ; and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in particular direc- tions—in one breed, more especially to the production of fat—in another, of muscle or lean meat—in another, wool. But, ceteris paribus, large animals will always require more food than small ones. Animals which are to be carried to a high state of fatness must have plentiful and nutri- tious food, and they must exercise but little in order to prevent the unne- cessary “combustion ” in the lungs, of that carbon which forms more than seven-tenths of their fat. Noart of breeding can countervail these estab- lished laws of Nature. Again, there are no facilities in the South for marketing large quantities of mutton—of a tithe of that which would be annually fitted for the sham- bles, were Sheep Husbandry introduced to anything like the extent I have recommended, and with the mutton breeds of sheep. With few cities and large villages—with a sparse population—with an agricultural population the greatest drawback on whose pecuniary prosperity is their inability to market their own surplus edibles—not a particle of rational doubt can ex- ist on this point. True, I have expressed the opinion that, both as a mat-’ ter of healthfulness and economy, mutton should be substituted for a moi- ety of the bacon used on the plantation; but with such a change, in a country so exclusively agricultural, each landholder would raise his own supply, and thus no market be created. It may then be regarded as a set- tled point that the production of wool is the primary, the great object of Southern Sheep Husbandry. In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for wool-growing purposes, I will, in the outset, lay down the obviously incontrovertible proposition that the question is not what variety will shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleeces, irrespective of the cost of production— Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, must be deducted, to fairly test the profits of an animal. Ifa large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give but once and a half as much wool, it is obviously more profitable, other things being equal, to keep two of the smaller sheep. The true question then is, wth the same expense in other particulars, From what breed will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest value of wool ? Let us first proceed to ascertain the comparative amount of food con- sumed by the several breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments which show that dreed, in itself considered, has any particular influence on the quantity of food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, that the con- sumption is in proportion to the live weight of the (grown) animal. Of course, this rule is not invariable in its individual application, but its gen- 156 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. eral soundness has been satisfactorily established. Spooner states that grown sheep take up 32 per cent. of their weight in what is equivalent to dry hay per day, to keep in store condition. Veit places the consumption at 24 percent. My experience would incline me to place it about midway between the two. But whatever the precise amount of the consumption, if it is proportioned to the weight, it follows that if an acre is capable of sustaining three Merinos weighing 100 lbs. each, it will sustain but two Leicesters weighing 150 lbs. each, and two and two-fifths South-Downs weighing 125 lbs. each. Merinos of this weight often shear 5 lbs. per fleece, taking flocks through. The herbage of an acre, then, would give 15 lbs. of Merino wool, and but 12 lbs. of Leicester, and but 9% lbs. of South-Down (estimating the latter as high as 4 lbs. to the fleece)! Even the finest and lightest fleeced sheep ordinarily known as Merinos, average about 4 Ibs. to the fleece, so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest quality of wool sold under the name of Merino, as it would of New Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down! The former would be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent. more per pound than either of the latter! Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as I have, in the preceding estimate, placed the live-weight of the English breeds low, and that of the Merino high. The live-weight of the four- pound fine-fleeced Merino does not exceed 90 Ibs. It ranges from 80 to 90 lbs., so that 300 lbs. of live-weight would give a still greater product of wool to the acre.* I consider it perfectly safe to say that the herbage of an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of Merino, that it wili of any of the English Long or Middle wools. The important question now remains, What are the other relative ex- penses of these breeds? I speak from experience when I say that the Leicestert is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino—indeed, it is my firm conviction that it is less hardy, under the most favorable circum- stances. It is more subject to colds, and I think its constitution breaks up more readily under disease. The lambs are more liable to perish from ex- posure to cold, when newly dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances— herded in large flocks, pinched for feed, or subjected to long journeys— its capacity to endure, and its ability to rally from the effects of such draw- backs, do not compare with those of the Merino. The high-bred South- Down, though considerably less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to the appellation of a hardy animal. In this respect I consider it just about on a par with the Merino. I do not think, how- ever, it will bear as hard stocking as the latter, without a rapid diminution in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are to be taken into account in determining the expenses—and I think they should be— the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The South-Down ewe not only frequently yeans twin lambs, as do both the Merino and Leicester, but she possesses, unlike the latter, nursing properties to do justice by them. But this advantage is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity of the Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in am unt of wool, capacity to fatten, and in general vigor, at about 5 years old and their early maturity is no offset to this, in a sheep kept for wool- growing purposes. This early decay would require earlier and more rapid slaughter or sale than would always be economically convenient, or even possible, in a region situated in all respects like the South. It is well, on id a is understood that all of these live-weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary, or what is called store condition. + I speak of full-blood Leizesters. Some of its crosses are much hardier than the pure bred sheep. e SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 157 properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn off the Merino wether at four or five years old, to make room for the breeding stock; but he will not particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay the way with his fleece, for several years longer. Breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight, and are frequently kept until ten years old, at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the Down and Leicester at five or six.— i have known instances of Merino ewes breeding uniformly until 15 years old! The Improved Cotswold is said to be hardier than the Leicester; but I have said less of this variety, throughout this entire Letter, as from their great size* and the consequert amount of food consumed by them, and the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of so large animals, the idea of their being introduced as a wool-growing sheep any- where, and particularly on lands grassed like those of the South, is, in my judgment, utterly preposterous. There is one advantage which all the coarse races of sheep have over the Merino. Hither because their hoofs do not grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Meri- no, and thus hold dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot, the coarse races are less subject to the visitations of the hoof-ail, and, when contract- ed, it spreads with less violence and malignity among them. Taking all the circumstances connected with the peculiar management of each race, and all the incidents, exigencies, and risks of the husbandry of each fairly into account, I am fully convinced that the expenses, other than those of feed, are not smaller per capita, or even in the number required to stock an acre, in either of the English breeds above referred to, than in the Me- ring. Norscould I be disposed to concede even equality, in these respects, to either of those English breeds, excepting the South-Down. You write me, Sir, that many of the South Carolina planters are under the impression that coarse wools will be most profitably grown by them, jirst, because there is a greater deficit in the supply, and they are better protected from foreign competition; and, secondly, because they furnish the raw material for so great a portion of the woolens consumed in the South. Each of these premises is true, but are the conclusions legitimate 4 Notwithstanding the greater deficit and better protection, do the coarse wools bear as high a price as the fine ones? If not, they are nét as profit- able, for [ have already shown that 7 costs no more to raise a pound of coarse thun a pound of fine wool. Nay, a pound of medium Merino wool can be raised more cheaply than a pound of the South-Down, Leicester, or Cotswold! This I consider cleariy established. * Grant that the South requires a much greater proportion of coarse than of fine wool, for her own consumption. Ifa man needing iron for his own consumption, wrought a mine to obtain it, in which he should happen to find gold equally accessible and plentiful, would it be economical in him to neglect the more precious metal because he wanted ¢o use the iron? or - should he dig the gold, obtain the iron by exchange, and pocket the differ- ence in value? Would it be economical to grow surplus wool, wool for market, worth from 25 to 30 cents per pound, when it costs no more per pound to grow that worth from 40 to 45 cents? And even for the home want, for the uses of the plantation—for slave-cloths, &c.—/fine wool is worth more per pound than coarse for actual wear or use! Is this propo- sition new and incredible to you? I challenge the fullest investigation of its truth, through the testimony of those familiar with the subject, or through the direct ordeal of experiment. It is true that a piece of fine broadcloth is not so strong, nor will it wear like a Chelmsford plain of treble thick- * I saw two at the late N. Y. State Fair, at Saratoga, which weighed over 300 Ibs. each! * 158 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ness. The threads of the former are spun to extreme fineness to econo mize the costly raw material. To give it that finish which is demanded by fashion—to, give it its beautiful nap—these threads are still farther re- duced by “gigging” and “shearing.” But spin fine wool into yarn as coarse as that used in Chelmsfords, and manufacture it in the same way, and it would make a far stronger and more durable cloth. The reasons are obvious. Merino wool is decidedly stronger than the English coarse Long aud Middle wools—or any other coarse wools—in proportion to its diameter or bulk. It felts far better, and there is therefore a greater co- hesion Between the different fibres of the same thread, and between the different threads. It is also more pliable.and elastic, and consequently less subject to “ breaking” and abrasion. Unless the views I have advanced are singularly erroneous, it will be seen that, for wool-growing purposes, the Merino possesses a marked and decided superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-wooled sheep. As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds, but not so much so as it is generally reputed to be. If required to consume the fat and lean together, many who have never tasted Merino mutton, and who have an unfavorable impression of it, would, I suspect, find it more palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton of the cross between the Merino and “ Native”? sheep would certainly be preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer used to the latter. It is short-grained, tender, and of good flavor. The same is true of the crosses with the English varieties. ‘These will be, hereafter, more particularly alluded to. Grade Merino wethers (say half-bloods) are favor- ites with the Northern drover and butcher. They are of good size—ex- traordinarily heavy for their apparent bulk*—make good mutton—tallow well—and their pelts, from the greater weight of wool on them, command an extra price. They would, in my opinion, furnish a mutton every way suitable for plantation consumption, and one which would be well accept- ed in the Southern markets. ¢ In speaking of the Merino in this connection, I have in all cases, unless it is distinctly specified to the contrary, had no reference to the Saxons— though th@y are, as it is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the former. . Assuming it now as a settled point, that it is to the Merino race that the wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, let us now proceed to inquire which of the widely varying sub-varieties of this race are best adapted to the wants and circumstances of the South. A brief glance at the history of wool-growing, and of the wool markets, for the last few years, will form an useful preliminary inquiry, and will assist us materially in arriving at a correct conclusion. : On the introduction of the Saxons, about twenty-four years since, they were sought with avidity by the holders of the fine-wooled flocks of the country, consisting at that time of pure or grade Merinos. The Tariff of 1824 imposed a duty of 20 per cent. on wools costing above 10 cents per pound, gradually rising to 30 per cent., and 15 per cent. on those costing less than 10 cents. Foreign woolen clothst were subject to an ad valorem duty of 30 per cent. until June 30th, 1825, and after that it was raised to 33 percent. ‘The Tariff of 1828 immediately raised the duty on all wools to 40 per cent. ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty, and 5 per cent, was to be annually added to the ad valorem duty, until it should reach 50 * On account of the shortness of their wool, compared with the coarse breeds. : 2 + Where I use the word “cloths” here and in the statements of the different Tariffs which follow, you will understand that I do not include carpetings, blankets, worsted stuff goods, &c. | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 159 per cent. (in 1831.) The duty on woolen cloths was also raised (after June, 1829) to 45 per cent., and that exceeding $4 the square yard to 50 per cent. Under the decisive encouragement offered to both the wool- grower and manufacturer by this Act, a great impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, and the Saxons everywhere rapidly su- perseded, or bred out by cressing, the Spanish Merinos. The latter dis- appeared almost entirely from New-York and New-England. In the fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, constitution, and every- | thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of the wool. The Tariff of 1832 imposed a 40 per cent. ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty on wools costing over 8 cents; and it raised the duty on all broadcloths to 50 percent. It made wools costing less than 8 cents per pound free of duty. The “Compromise” Tariff of 1833 commenced a system of progressive reductions until the maximum rate of duties should not exceed 20 per cent. The following Table will give the duties of each year, on wool and cloths, under this Act, estimating the ad valorem and specific duties on wools exceeding 8 cents, together in an average per centage :* TABLE 14. 1833, | 1835, | 1837. | 1839, | 1841. | 1842. W ool costing less than 8 cents per pound ee cs free. | free. | free. | free. | free. | free. 20 atplace of exportation. ......-.25-.... | W ool costing over 8 cents per pound...... 54 | 50-60} 47-20) 43 "80| 40-40] 30-20] 20 Woolen: cloths) 22 isc2e)2 st cesiese cei asd s oe 50 | 47 44 41. | 38 29 20 The Tariff of 1841 struck out the 20 per cent. duty on the 8 cent wools. _ The Tariff of 1842 again imposed an ad valorem duty of 5 per cent. or | wools costing seven cents or under, and raised it on the higher wools to 30 } \ | i I per cent. ad valorem and 3 cents per pound specific duty, and on cloths to 40 per cent. ad valorem. The Tariff of 1846 establishedsan ad valorem duty of 30 per cent. on all wools, and on cloths. By referring to Table 7, Letter V., it will be seen that the prices of wool have not been controlled by t*h2 amount of the protection. They reached their maximum in 1836, and then fell off, not again to rally, (except during the single year 1839)— hot again to reach 40 cents—until 1844. Why was this? What pro- duced the sudden depreciation of 1837? The Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 gave too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer. Their pursuits became the E/ Dorado of agricultural and mercantile speculators. Skill without capital, and capital without skill, and in some cases probably thirst of gain without either, rushed into these favored avocations. The bank inflations of the period fanned the fires of speculation, and taught some of the wisest commercial heads of the country to forget the provi- dence that had hitherto distinguished them. The natural result followed. In the financial crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary en- terprises which had not been conducted with skill and providence, and which were not based on adequate and real capital, were involved in a common destruction, and even the solidest and bést conducted institutions of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly fell almost 50 per cent. (from 54 to 30 cents per pound.)+ In 1838 it ral- lied a little, and in 1839 it again reached 50 cents, but it went down nearly to the minimum point in 4840. The grower began to be discouraged. He who bred the delicate Saxons, (and, as I have already said, they now comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers in the country,) * The reduction of one-tenth of the excess over 20 per cent. took place Dec. 31st, each year, to 1841; then re of the residue of the excess; and on the 30th of June, 1842, the other half of said residue was de- ucted, z = cg quality of the wools heve alluded to will be found specified in a note on the second page of etter V. 160 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. was not obtaining the actual first cost per pound of his wool. He clam- ored loudly for an increase of duties on the foreign article, as the reduc. tions of the “ Compromise” Act were now approaching their ultimate standard—20 per cent.—and he attributed the low prices to this cause: Sax6n wool continued low, and did not pay its first cost in 1841 and 1842, Was this due solely to the reduction of the Tariff? A reference to Table 11 (Letter IX.) will show that the import of foreign woolens was less from 1836 up to and including 1842, than for the six preceding years! Where then was the foreign competition which was driving the manufacturer to | keep down the price of wools? The Tariff of 1842 raised the duty on wool 10 per cent. and added a specific duty of 3 cents per pound; and it | raised the duty on cloths from 20 to 40 per cent. The import of foreign ‘ woolens sunk, the succeeding year, to a lower point than it had touched ' since 1821, and in 1844 and 1845 it did not reach the average of the six years preceding the enactment of the Tariff of 1842. A reference to Table 9 (Letter [X.) will show that the import of foreign fine wools also — largely fell’off. This coincided with the expectations of the advocates of a higher Tariff, but another and equally legitimate expectation entertained by the great body of Northern wool-growers—that they were to share in the benefits arising from the exclusion of foreign competition—was sig- ' nally disappointed. The Tariff of 1842 was enacted on the 30th day of | August, and part of the clip of that year was sold under its operation. | Wool sold that year dower than it had for the five preceding years, viz., for | 30 cents. The next year it advanced one penny! General discourage- | ment now seized upon the growers of fne wool. The market was not | overstocked—foreign competition was light, but stil they could not sell b their wool for its first cost! To add to their mortification, the manufac- turer, by a most short-sighted policy, would scarcely make a discrimina- tion of 6d. per pound between Saxon wool and medium Merino and grade wools weighing nearly twice as much to the fleece. If the grower of me- dium wool got 25 cents per pound for fleeces weighing 4 lbs.—thus real- izing $1 per fleece—the ordinary Saxon grower would get but 30 cents per pound for fleeces weighing 24 lbs., and thus realize but 75 cents! * When the Saxon growers found that the Tariff of ’42 brought them no relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. The + example, once set, became contagious, and there was a period when it seemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy sacri- fice of their fixtures for rearing sheep. Others crossed with coarse-wooled breeds, and rushing from one extreme to the other, some even crossed with the English mutton breeds! Some more judiciously went back to the parent Merino stock, but usually they selected the heaviest and coarsest wooled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated the character of their wool. As the preceding period had been distinguished by its mania for fine wool, this was,*by its mania for heavy fleeces/{ The English | crosses, however, were speedily abandoned.t The Merino regained his * And though the larger, stronger sheep, bearing the medium wool, would eat more, it was far hardier, required less protection and care of every kind, and would increase more rapidly—circumstances which ‘+ would far more than counterbalance its excess of consumption. , + I make no claim of having possessed greater sagacity or foresight in these particulars than the mass of ° breeders. I began with the Merino. These I crossed with the Saxon, and Jalso bred the pure-blood Sax- ons for several years. Unsatisfied with these, | made some experiments with the English mutton breeds, poth as pure bloods and crosses. Finding none of them equal to the Merino as a wool-producing sheep, J sais to the latter, and I bred for heavy fleeces until the manufacturers saw fit to make a juster discrim- ination in the prices paid by them for the different qualities of wool. tI mean by those who sought to improve their jine-wooled flocks by an English cross. English and all other coarse-wooled sheep are immensely and rapidly improved, for wool-growing purposes, by a proper fine-wooled cross, as 1 have already and shall again have occasion to mention. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 161 supremacy, lost for nearly twenty years, and again became the popular favorite. It was generally adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new Western States, and gives its type to the sheep of those re- gions. ‘ It will be seen from the preceding facts that the supply of fine wool* has proportionably decreased, and that of medium and coarse increased. This has driven the manufacturers to make a juster discrimination in prices. They now realize that their own short-sighted economy has been all but fatal to fine wool-growing in the United States. And they cannot but feel that in destroying this interest, they destroy themselves. Our manufacturers are not so miserably blind as to dream of drawing their raw material from foreign countries—of paying an import duty of 30 per cent. and then competing with the English manufacturer who paysan import duty not exceeding two pence per pound! It is doubtful, in my mind, whether the home supply will* not fall considerably short of the home demand for fine wool for this year !+ The point has been already reached where but a little more discouragement, or a little longer continued discouragement, would have banished these wools from the country! So far, the manufac- tories have not felt this evil, for they have not been compelled to import. Neither pampered nor persecuted by the Tariff of 1846—called for by the consumption of the country—with solid capital and greater experience and skill at their command—they are rapidly increasing, and rising on a solider basis than ever before. So, to sustain our manufacturing interest, (that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths,) it is absolutely necessary that the diminution of fime wools be not only immediately arrested, but that the growth of them be immediately and largely increased. These facts now first beginning to be clearly appreciated by the manufacturer— will deter him from resorting to his former suicidal policy. Instances have recently come to my knowledge of manufacturers offering to contract with fine-wool growers for their entire clips, for a term of years, at an ad- vance on present prices—prices, be it remembered, higher than they have been except for two years (1839 and 1844) since the overthrow of 1837. Should the manufacturer, however, again forget his own interest, the fine- wool grower has it in his power to teach it to him most effectually. In- stead of being discouraged and driven from the business, he has but to withhold his wools for a season—say for a few months, to compel the for- mer to import wools at a ruinous cost—stop his machinery, or pay fair prices at home! I believe in no combinations to control prices. Some- thing far better than vague report, however, says that several of the large: manufacturing establishments of New-England employed the same agents, last season, to buy much, if not all of their wools—and that these wools were subsequently divided by bidding or otherwise, among the parties to the transaction! Is this denied? 1 think it will not be denied. If this was so, what was it but a combination to control prices?¢ But whether * To make myself clearly understood, I will, in the remarks which follow, classify wools as follows: sz perfine, the choicest quality of wool grown in the United States, and never grown here excepting in com. aratively small quantities; fine, good ordinary Saxon; good medium, the highest quality of wool usually on in the market as Merino; medium, ordinary Merino ; ordinary, grade Merino and perhaps selected South-Down fleeces ; coarse, the English long wools, &e. This subdivision is not minute enough, by any means, to express fully the number of well-defined classes which exist in wool. A farther multiplication of them here, however, I have thought would only tend to confusion. +The position has been all along taken that the general supply was under the demand, but the deficit hitherto has been principally in medium and coarse wonls. See Table 9, Letter IX. ¢ And before leaving this point, I will ask another question: Why were most of the wools of New-York. and New-England untouched and unlooked at by the agents of the manufacturers this year, contrary to all preceding customs for two or three months subsequently to shearing? These same agents fucked im droves to the Western States and bought up their entire clip immediately after shearing, while reports | were constantly coming back that this manufactory and that had purchased its entire Sopa fs a yerar,.or perhaps two years? Was this because the Eastern growers demanded exorbitant prices ? 83 it because: anytbing like an approach to a supply of fine wools could be found in the West ! Or was it the result of 162 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTA. so or not, when we compare the profits which have inured to the growers) and manufacturers of fine wool for the last few years, it behooves the for- mer both to speak and act decidedly. Their interests have been sacrificed | long enwugh !. But it isto be hoped that the grower of these wools wil!) not be hereafter driven to the alternative of either suffering himself, or of | defending himself by retaliatory measures. Some few of the manufac- | turers have always, I believe, taken a high and liberal course. Enough) others, as already: remarked, now see the necessity of such liberality to prevent any combined or general effort to depress prices. Will the North again turn its attention to the growth of superfine and| fine wools—again supply the demand, and keep up with it as it increases 1 ‘Not finless stimulated by the inducement of extraordinary profits—not, | certainly, against the competition of the South. The climate north of 419, | or, beyond all dispute, north of 42°, is too severe for any variety of sheep commonly known, which bear either of these classes of wools. In fact, the | only’ such variety, in anything like general use, is the Saxon; and this is| a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely withstanding our Northern | winters, without good shelter, good and regularly administered food, and’ careful and skillful management in all other particulars. When the season | is a little more than usually backward, so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season, it is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes— the young ewes will in many instances disown their lambs, or, if they own) them, not have a drop of milk for them; and if in such a crisis, as it often} happens, a north-east or north-west storm comes driving down, bearing | snow or sleet on its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the temper- | ature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from perish- | ing.* And it will not do to defer the time of having them dropped to es- | cape these evils, or they will not attain size and strength enough to pass | safely through their first winter.t A few large sheepholders, whose farms, | buildings, etc., have been arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing | of these sheep, may continue to grow fine wool until driven from it by-the | competition of the South; but many of these have recently adopted a| Merino cross. The ordinary farmers, the small sheepholders, who, in the | aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of our Northern wools, have im- | bibed a deep-seated aversion—nay, a positive disgust—against the Saxon | sheep. They have not the necessary fixtures for their winter protection, | and they are entirely unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on| them. Besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with | this class of farmers, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. But, | above all, they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care | than their cattle. The strong, compact, medium-wooled Merino—or, per- haps still more generally, its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the | wool which I have classified as ordimary—will be the general favorites — The same reasons will weigh still more strongly in the North-west, where, | as I have shown, the climate is a still worse one for delicate sheep. All these causes will tend to swell the amount of medium, ordinary and coarse | i concerted movement to bring the Eastern grower into taking last year’s prices? It actually did so,in a multitude of instances—or, he was contented to receive the slightest advance on them! This will be found true of. nearly all who sold soon after the market opened in the East. If not the result of a concerted and combined movement, the general desertion of the Eastern and resort to the Western market by the manu- -facturers was a most singular coincidence! These manufacturers are now fain to purchase Eastern wools | at a considerable advance from the prices of 1846—and. as already hinted, it is highly problematical, in my ‘mind, whether they will not be compelled to import at a still higher advance, to eke out a deficiency! It is sto be hoped that this will be the last Act in the drama of folly and suicide played by our manufacturers. * Not even in close barns, and with constant attendance. + North of latitude 42°, it is necessary, as a general rule. that lambs be dropped in the first half of May, to sgive them this requisite size and strength Occasional cold storms come nearly every season up to that riod, and not unfrequently up to the first of June. Mr. Grove was a decided advocate of early lambs.— le used to eay that “it was better to lose two of them im the spring than one in the fall.” es SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 163 wools. Though the reaction has been but recent, the market demand for medium and ordinary wools is now better supplied—nearer being glutted, so far as I am enabled to judge—than that for fine and superfine. And should the market become glutted with either or both, it is important to remember that the datter will be far more profitable for export than the former. Every consideration, then, in my judgment, points to wools ranging from good medium upward, instead of the lowe¥ classes, as the most profitable staples for cultivation in the South. The only question which now arises on this point is, from which variety, the Saxon or Merino, shall the South attempt to cultivate these wools ? It is generally supposed, and as a general thing it is true, that the Me- rino bears no better wool than that which I have classified as good medi- um. But the measurements of Dr. Emmons (given in Letter X.) show, by the infallible testimony of the microscope, that heavy-feeced Merinos sometimes equal—nay, surpass Saxons, in fineness. The fact is more de- cisive, as the Saxon fibres there measured came not only from the most celebrated flocks—from the prize sheep at State Fairs—but it also came from samples, in most instances, given by the owners for public exhibition. I do not claim that Merinos like these are common. They are rather to be regarded in the light of those prodigies of excellence which occasion- ally appear, but which it is difficult to reproduce with anything like uni- formity. Nor are lesser fleeced Merinos, bearing wool equal to ordinary Saxon, very common. During the fine wool mania, all, who sought fine ‘ wool, bred the Saxon sheep, or crossed with it; and the few who stood out, and clung to the Merino, generally aimed to distinguish it as widely as possible from the former, by increasing: the weight of its fleece, to the disregard of its fineness. This, too, was the general disposition during the “heavy-fleeced mania. Of consequence, but very few of our breeders have ever, or until recently, sought a high degree of fineness in fleece in breed- ing the Merino. Recent experience has satisfied me that this is rapidly attainable. Mr. Lawrence, in a quotation already made by me (in Letter I.), says: “I believe a breed may be reared which will give four pounds of exquisitely fine wool to the fleece.” I know by multiplied experiments that once interbreeding betwéen an ewe bearing good medium wool (the fleece weighing, say, from 4} lbs. to 5 lbs.), with a Merino ram of suffi- _ciently high quality, will produce wool in the offspring equaling ordinary Saxon, and a fleece averaging 4 lbs., with none of its weight made up of gum. The result of two such interbreedings will bring. the progeny of a heavy-fleeced medium ewe (provided her fleece is properly even) to the same point. The four-pound fine-fleeced Merino would be a far more profitable animal than the Saxon, other things being equal. But other things are not equal. The former is every way a hardier animal, and a better nurse. It is about 20 lbs. heavier, and therefore consumes more feed; but I consider this additional expense more than counterbalanced by the additional care and risk attending the husbandry of the Saxon. If required to keep the number good, and give the proper attention to the rearing of lambs, I would sooner engage to keep, at the same price, one thousand such Merinos for a year, than to keep the same number of Saxons. It would be practicable, doubtless, to increase the Saxon’s fleece to 4 Ibs.; but any one, familiar with such experiments, knows that it is far easier to increase fineness of wool, by diminishing weight of fleece and carcass a little, than it is to increase weight of fleece and carcass without lowering the quality of the wool. And there is this additional objection to the latter 64 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. system of breeding, so far as the Saxon is concerned. The breeder is na only called upon to increase the weight of its fleece and carcass, but to en- graft on it hardiness of constitution, nursing properties, etc., which by no means follow, as a matter of course, its improvement in the former partic- ulars. These, and particularly the latter, could only be attained, so as to be transmissible with a proper degree of certainty from parents to offspring, by years of breeding, accompanied by a rigorous course of selection. If, therefore, you were called upén to form a variety just suited to your wants, the Merino would present the most ductile and the safest materials. But the Southern agriculturist, just entering upon sheep-rearing, would not be prepared to conduct nice experiments in breeding. He wants a breed or variety already prepared to his hand. And for the same reasons, notwith- standing the fineness of his climate, he wants a hardy breed—one that de- mands no extra skill, no great experience, for its management. Merinos reaching or closely approaching the standard above specified are now to be found, while there is no corresponding variety of Saxons ; and to incur the risks arising from inexperience, want of preparation, &c., the superior hardiness of the former would, of course, render them entirely prefer- able. Some have recommended a cross between the Saxons and Merinos, as a cheap and ready method of obtaining a four-pound fine-fleeced sheep. A properly selected Saxon ram, crossed with good medium and medium- wooled Merino ewes, cutting from 5 lbs. to 55 lbs. of wool, will almost uni- formly produce this result. And 5+ is easier now to get the Saxon than the Merino, fine enough for this purpose. Or a flock may be bred up from Saxon ewes and a Merino ram. The objection to both courses is the same, though not equal to that which exists against breeding the full-blood Sax- ons—vyiz., the production of a feeble and a poor nursing sheep. The latter evil, especially, clings for generations to these cross-bred animals, so far as my experience and observation have extended. And unless Saxons are selected which do not possess the characteristic faults of the variety, the eross-breds are inferior to pure-blood Merinos in many other and essential particulars, notwithstanding the fleece may be all that we desire. There is another important point where the pure-blood Merino possesses “amarked advantage. Few Southern wool-growers will commence their flocks exclusively with high-bred animals of any kind. With a few of them to breed rams from, and to gradually grow up a full-blood flock, they will yeainly depend upon grading up the common sheep of the country. With the long-legged, bare-bellied, open-wooled sheep common in the South (as it once was in the North), the Saxon makes an indifferent cross. Their faults run too much im the same direction, in all save the fineness of wool, for, however good its shape, the wool of the Saxon is comparatively short and open. It therefore shortens the wool of the common sheep, without adding much or any to its thickness, and thus the fleece remains a light one. Precisely all this is the reverse of what results from a cross between the Merino and the common sheep. The wool is but little shortened, un- less the staple of the common sheep was very long; it is essentially thick- ened ; it is made to extend over the belly ; the fieece is, therefore, greatly. increased in weight; the sheep is rendered more compact and “stocky,” and it is brought nearer to the ground. Even the first cross, though its tleece is somewhat wneven, is a prime sheep for the wants of ordinary farm- urs, and among these it is, accordingly, a decided favorite, over the whole Northern States. A majority of them would, I think, give it preference over any other kind or variety of sheep. Two or three more proper Me- rino crosses raise it to the rank of a jirst-rate wool-growing sheep—scarcely ° ‘ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 165 inferior to the full-blood Merino in anything, save that it does not transmis tts good qualities with quite so much certainty to rts offspring.* Let us now proceed to inquire what are the points which constitute ex- cellence, or mark a departure from it, in the class of Merino sheep which I have attempted to show form, in every poiut of view, the most’ suitable variety to commence wool-growing with in the South. What should be its size, weight of fleece, shape, general appearance, style of wool, &c. &c.? Size, within extremes, is not, per se, a matter of much consequence.— There should, however, be uniformity in this particular, at least through the same flock, not only for their good appearance, but larger sheep are apt, by their superior strength, to crowd away small ones from the rack o1 trough. A sheep very small of z¢s breed and family, is commonly less hardy. If very large, it must travel farther to fill itself ; and, therefore, this would be an objection to it in a breed designed to graze on short and scant pas- ‘ turage—for the extra exercise thus made necessary would cause it to waste (in the form of carbon, in the lungs) a considerable portion of the food, which would, under other circumstances, be converted into animal tissues. Very large, like very small animals, of the same species—and, I am ‘in- clined to think, the former more frequently—lack the robustness, vigor of muscle, capacity to endure unusual and protracted exercise, or privation of food, or any other unfavorable deviation from ordinary habits, possessed by compact medium-sized animals. This rule will be found to apply among all domestic animals. Lastly, lam not prepared to prove, but I beleve that, with the same breeding, the woolly, like the osseous and muscular tis- sues of a large Merino sheep, will not be as fine as those of a smaller one. Ido not found this opinion, so far as wool is concerned, upon, nor do 1 claim that it is supported by, any analogies. I state it as solely the result of individual observation. If it is a tendency which can be successfully re- sisted, I never have been fortunate enough to have a sufficient number of | instances brought under my eye, in any one flock, to have them constitute anything more than sparse exceptions to what I deem a well established rule. I have never known a family of very large Merinos bearing anything better than medium wool; and the first step to any decided improvement in them immediately reduces their weight, for it can only be effected by interbreeding with finer and smaller families. Ewes weighing from 80 lbs. to 90 lbs. alive, in good fair store condition, are of about the proper size, in my judgment, where fine wool is the object.t Rams should weigh 40 lbs. or 50 lbs. more. Ewes of the large Merino families weigh from 100 lbs. to 110 lbs.—the rams 50 lbs. more; nor do even these equal the size of some of the late imported French Merinos. A relation analogous to the preceding one, exists between the weight of the fleece and its quality. This point has already been sufficiently set forth on another page. The opinion is there expressed that the Merino may be easily bred, by judicious selection of sire and dam, to bear 4 lbs. of fine wool, or wool equaling ordinary Saxon. I would now add that, as a gen- eral rule, and in large flocks, I do not believe more than this can be ob- tained, without a depreciation in the quality, among ewes. The ram’s flzece should in all cases, in a very superior animal, be about double that of the ewe. Five per cent. of the live-weight of the carcass, with ewes, is the maximum weight of fine wool, which we can, in the present state of breeding, look for with any uniform certainty. This would give a fleece of 4 Ibs. to 80 Ibs. of live-weight. . As the fine-wool Merinos increase, and thus give a wider range and better selection of materials for nice experi + The latter point will be more particularly adverted to in a subsequent part of this Letter. 1 Saxons weigh about 20 Ibs. less. / 166 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ments, it is very possible that the per centage of the fleece may be increased Mr. Lawrence, in speaking of attaining a four-pound fleece of “ exquisite’ quality, undoubtedly alluded to the wool which I have classed as superfine. The four-pound fleeced jime Merino can undoubtedly be made superfine, by diminishing the weight of its fleece 10 or 12 ounces or a pound ; and even then it will be a hardier and better animal than the finer class of Saxons which now produce this wool. But whether Mr. Law- rence’s standard can be fully attained, neither experience nor obser- vation enable me to decide. If it could, and the sheep be equal to the four-pound fine-fleeced Merino in other respects, we should have a perfect heep. Such wool has sold this year at upward of 60 cents per pound, which would bring the fleeces to $2 40 a piece! It may be well here to glance at the comparative worth of fleeces in the several Merino families, taking this year’s prices, and taking the weights which are usually found accompanying the several qualities, in prime ordinary flocks. A jie fleece of 4 lbs., at 50 cents,* would be worth $2; good medium, weighing 44 Ibs., at 40 cents, $1 80; medium, weighing 5 lbs., at 32 cents, $1 60. And the consumption of feed rises with the diminution of quality. Admitting the daily consumption of hay for 150 days to be 3 per cent. to the live- weight, 100 fine Merinos, averaging 85 lbs. each, would consume about 19 tons of hay; and 100 medium Merinos, averaging 105 lbs. each, would consume about 234 tons—an important difference in: their relative ex- penses! The fine-wooled Merino does not, like the Saxon, lose his ad- vantage in this particular by his inferior hardiness. The shape and general appearance of the Merino should be as follows : The head should be well carried up, and in the ewe hornless. It would be better on many accounts to have the ram also hornless, but, being usu- ally characteristic ofthe Merino, many prefer to see them. The face should be shortish, broad between the eyes, the nose pointed, and in the ewe fine and free from wrinkles. The eye should be bright, moderately prominent, and gentle in its expression. The neck should be straight (not curving downward), short, round, stout—particularly so at its junction with the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it should not sink below the level of the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise to any perceptible extent above the level of the back. The back, to the hips, should be straight; the crops (that portion of the body immediately back of the shoulder-blades) full; the ribs well arched; the body large and ca- pacious; the flank well let down; the hind-quarters full and round—the flesh meeting well down between the thighs, (or in the “twist.”) The bosom should be broad and full; the legs short, well apart, and perpendic- ular, (7.¢., not drawn under the body toward each other when the sheep is standing.) Viewed as a whole, the Merino should present the appearance of a low, stout, plump, and—though differing essentially from the English mutton-sheep model—a highly symmetrical sheep. The:skin is an important point. It should be loose, singularly mellow, of a rich, delicate pink color. ‘A colorless skin, or one of a tawny, ap- proaching to a butternut hue, indicates bad breeding. On the subject of wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion.. Being rather characteristic of the Merino—like the black color in a Berkshire hog, or the absence of all color in Durham cattle—these wrinkles have been more -egarded, by nov- ices, than those points which give actual value to the animal ; and shrewd breeders have not been slow to act upon this hint! Many have contended that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled skin; and this is the view * This is not high for fine Merino wool. Though I sold my lot for 42 cents, I was offered 50 cents for the Geeces of nearly all my later-bred sheep, if I would sell them separately. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 167 of the case which has induced both the Spanish and French breeders to cultivate them—the latter to a monstrosity. I confess that T agree, to a considerable extent, with Mr. Joshua Kirby Trimmer,* that “this idea is as wild as that which some of our theorists have entertained, that, by lay- ing lands in high ridges and low furrows, the surface of the earth and its produce is increased.” Though I once entertained a different opinion, the steel-yards have satisfied me that an exceedingly wrinkled neck does not add but a little to the weight of the fleece—not enough to compensate for the deformity, and the great impediment which it places in the way of the shearer. I have owned rams, the labor of shearing six of which, in a nice and workmanlike manner—cutting the wool off short and smooth, on anu among the multitude of folds and wrinkles—was fully equivalent to shear- ing fifteen ordinary Merino rams, or twenty-five ewes—that is to say, a day’s work for one man. And none but a skillful shearer could, with any time given him, clip the wool short. and smooth among the wrinkles, with- out frequently and severely cutting the skin. A smoothly drawn skin, and absence of all dewlap, on the other hand, would not, perhaps, be desirable. The wool of the Merino should densely cover the whole body, where it can possibly grow, from a point between and a little below the eyes, and well up on the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show, particularly in young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and hocks—but long wool covering the legs, and on the nose below the eyes, is unsightly—without value—and on the faces it frequently impedes the sight of the animal, causing it to be ina state of perpetual alarm, and disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool, as seems to be thought by some, the sfightest indication of a heavy fleece. I have as often seen it on Saxons scarcely shearing 2 lbs. of wool, and on the very lightest fleeced Merinos. The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit, is another of the mooted points. Here, as in many other particulars, experience has changed my earlier impressions. Merino wool should be yolky or “ oily,” prior to washing—though not to that extreme extent, giving it the ap- pearance of being saturated with grease, occasionally witnessed. The extreme tips.of the wool may exhibit a sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast—particularly in the ram—but a black, pitchy gum, resembling semi-hardened tar, extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece, and which cannot be removed in ordinary washing, is, in my opinion, decidedly objectionable. There is a white or yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, which appears in the znterior of some fleeces, which is equally objectionable. The weighy of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, inasmuch as it constitutes a better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the sheep from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and fall. The wool should be as nearly as possible of even length and thickness over the whole body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or thinness on the belly, are serious defects. “ Kvenness of fleece” is a point of the first importance. Many sheep exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and even hairy on the thighs, dewlap, &c. Rams of this stamp should not be bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-wooled flock, and all such ewes should be gradually excluded from those selected for breeding. 5 The “style of the wool” is a point of as much consequence as mere * “Practical Observations on the Improvement of British Fine Wopls, &c.” by the above, 1828. 168 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. fineness. Some very fine wool is stiff and the fibres almost straight, like hair. It has a dry, cottony look. This is a poor, unsalable article, how- ever fine the fibre. Softness of wool—a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel, between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to look after. ‘Phis is usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good qualities, so that an experienced judge can decide, with little difficulty, between the quality of two fleeces, in the dark! Wool should be finely serrated or crimped from one extremity to the other—z. e., it should present a regular series of minute curves, and, generally, the greater the number of these ° curves in a given length, the higher the quality of wool in all other patticulars. The wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece; and when the wool is pressed open each way with the hands, it should be dense enough to con- ceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of the wool should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and “liveliness ” of look not surpassed in the best silk. The points in the form of the Merino which the breeder is called upon particularly to eschew, are—a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes— a thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders—bad crops— back falling behind the shoulders—narrow loin—flat ribs—steep, narrow hind quarters—!ong legs—thighs scarcely meeting at all—legs drawn far under the body at the least approach of cold. All these points were sep- arately or conjointly illustrated in many of the Saxon flocks which have been recently swept from the country. The points to be avoided in the fleece have been sufficiently advertef to. Having thus attempted to establish a standard for the Merino-breeder, jit remains that we examine some of the most important principles, in breeding, by which that standard is to be reached or maintained. The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is that “like will beget like.” If the sire and dam are perfect in any given point, the offspring will generally be; if either is defective, the offspring will (sub- ject to a law presently to be adverted to) be balf way between the two; if both are defective in the same point, the progeny will be more so than either of its parents—it will inherit the amount of the defect in both pa- rents added together. There are exceedingly few perfect animals. Breed- ing, then, is a system of counterbalancing—breeding out—in the offspring, the defects of one parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, in the same points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny ; but blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this powew in a greater degree than the female. We may, therefore, in the beginning, breed from ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impro- priety, provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose; but the fiockmaster, aiming at a high standard of quality, should gradually throw out from breeding all ewes possessing even considerable defects. Every year should make him more rigorous in his selection. But from the be- ginning—and in the beginning more than at any other time—the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. If he has a defect, that defect is to be inherited by the whole future flock. If it is a material one, as, for example, a hollow back, bad crops, a thin fleece, or a highly uneven fleece, the flock will be one of low quality and little value. If, on the other hand, he is perfect, the defects in the females will be lessened, and gradually bred out. But it being difficult to find perfect rams, we ure to take those which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 169 these material ones, like those just enumerated. And these defects are to be met and counterbalanced by the decided excellence (sometimes running to a fault) of the ewe, in the same points. If the ram is a little too long- ‘legged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him; if gummy, the dryest-wooled ewes; if his fleece is a trifle below the proper standard ‘of fineness, (but he has been retained, as it often happens, for weight of | fleece and general excellence,) he is to be put to the finest and lightest | fleeced ewes, and so on. Having a ‘selection of rams, this system of coun- _terbalancing would require little skill, if each parent possessed but one fault. If the ewe was a trifle too thin fleeced, and good in all other par- _ticulars, it would require no nice judgment to decide that she needed to be bred to an uncommonly thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to | a greater or less degree, several defects. To select so that every one of these in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and vice versa, re- | quires not only plentiful materials to select from, but the keenest dis- crimination. The time and the convenient method of selecting the ewes for the several rams, and the subsequent management, will be hereafter pointed out. We will now suppose that the breeder has established his flock—that he has done so successfully, and given them an excellent character. He is soon met with a serious evil. He must “ breed in-and-in,” as it is called —that is, interbreed between animals more or less nearly related in blood —or he must seek rams from other flocks, to the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of his flock, hitherto sought so sedulously, and built up with so much care. It is contended by the opponents of in-and-in breeding that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that it tends to decrease of size, to debility, anda general breaking up of the constitution. Its apologists, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents are perfectly healthy, incestuous connexion does not, per se, tend to any diminution of healthiness in the offspring ; and they also claim, what must be conceded, that it enables the skillful breeder much more rapidly to hving his flock to a particular standard or model—and much more easily to keep it there—unless it be true that, in course of time, they will dwin- dle and grow feeble. So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, doth positions may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, diffi- cult to always decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from disease, but from all tendency or predisposition toward it. A brother and sister may be apparently healthy—may be actually so—byt may possess an idiosyncrasy which, under certain circumstances, will manifest itself— If these circumstances do not chance to occur, they may live, apparently possessing a robust constitution, until old age. If bred together, their off- spring, by a rule already laid down, will possess the idiosyncrasy in a double degree. Suppose the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters, daughters, grand-daughters, &c., for several generations, the predisposition toward a particular disease—in the first place slight, now strong, and con- stantly growing str onger—will pervade, and become radically incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time the requisite ex- citing causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks out, and, under such circumstances, with peculiar severity and malignancy. If it be of a fatal character, the flock is rapidly swept away; if not, it becomes chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring intervals. The same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the outward form which do not at first, frem their slightness, attract the notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly increased until, almost before thought of by the owner, they destroy the value of the sheep. That such are the common effects of in-and-in breed- 170 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ing, with such skill as it is ordinarily conducted, all know who have given attention to the subject; and for these reasons the system is looked upon with decided disapprobation and repugnance, as among all kinds of domes- tic animals, by nine out of ten of the best practical farmers of the Northern States. How, then, shall the sheep-breeder avoid the effects of in-and-in breed- ing, and at the same time preserve the character of his flock? He should do so by seeking rams of the same breed, and possessing, as neariy as pos- sible, the characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock. If the latter rule is neglected—if he draws indiscriminately from all the different families or varieties of a breed—some large” and some small—some long and some short-wooled—some medium and some superfine in quality— some tall and some squabby—some crusted over with black gum, some entirely free from it, &c- &c.—breeding* will become a mere hotch-potch, and no certain or uniform. results can be looked for. So many varieties cannot be fused into one, for a number of generations ;* and it not unfre- quently happens, as between the different classes of Saxons alluded to by Mr. Spooner,t that certain families can never be successfully amalgamated. But suppose the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard—that his sheep are deficient in the requisites he desires? If the desired requisites are characteristic of the breed he possesses, he is to adhere to the breed, and select better animals to improve his own inferior ones. If he has an infe- rior flock of South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best South Dams, he should seek,for the best rams of that breed. But if he wishes to obtain qualities mot characteristic of the breed he possesses, he must cross with a breed which does possess them, If the possessor of South- Downs wishes to convert them into a fine-wooled sheep similar to the Me- rino, hg should cross his flock steadily with Merino rams—constantly in-- creasing the amount of Merino and diminishing the amount of South-Down blood. To effect the same result, he would take the same course with the common sheep of the country, or any other coarse race. There are those who, forgetful that some of the finest varieties now in existence, of several kinds of domestic animals, are the result of crosses, bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing, under any and all circumstances. As fre- quently conducted, where objects incompatible with each other are sought to be attained—as, for example, an attempt to unite the fleece of a Merino and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses between those breeds—it is an unqualified absurdity. But under the limitations already laid down, and with the objects specified as legitimate ones, objection to crossing savors, in my judgment, of prejudice the most profound, or quackery the most unvarnished. The cry, “ buy full-bloods,” with such men, generally means, “ buy our full-bloods!” It is neither convenient, nor within the means of every man wishing to start a flock of sheep, to start exclusively with full- bloods. With a few full-bloods to breed rams from, and to degia a full- blood flock, the Southern breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with Merino rams. In selecting the ewes, fair size, good shape, and a robust constitution, are the main points—the little difference that exists between the quality of the common sheep’s wool is of no consequence. For their wool they are to look to the Merino; but good form and constitution they can and ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely wa- necessary evils on their progeny. * This occasions the want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock in France, which was begun by a pro: miscuous admixture of all the Spanish families. * Quoted in Letter X. ] SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH, T have already spoken, in this Letter, incidentally, of the effect on the fleece of the common sheep, by crossing with the Merino and breeding | steadily’ toward the latter; and also of the mutton of this cross, as | well as that of the Merino and the English breeds. The result of the cross with the common sheep has been sufficiently described. I would add a few remarks in relation to that with the South-Down and Leicester | —both of which I have tried until sufficiently satisfied with the result | Resolved on making an experiment with a Down and Merino cross, a few | years since, and finding it difficult to obtain Down ewes* of the proper | quality, I obtained a small, compact, exceedingly beautiful, fine and even- fleeced Down ram,} and crossed him with a few large-sized Merino ewes. The half-blood ewes were bred to a Merino ram, and also their female | progeny, and soon. The South-Down form and disposition to take on fat manifested itself, to a perceptible extent, in every generation which I bred,{ and the wool of many of the sheep in the third generation (4-blood Merino and }-blood Down) was very even, and equal to medium, and some of them to good medium Merino. Their fleeces were lighter than _ the full-blood Merino, but increased in weight with each succeeding cross _ back toward the latter. Their mutton of the first, and even the second cross, was of a beautiful flavor—and it retained some of the superiority of South-Down mutton to the last. Iat the same time purchased a few Leicester ewes,|| and, as in the preceding case, taking one cross of the blood, I bred toward the Merino. The mongrels, to the second generation (beyond which I did not breed them) were about midway between the size of the two parent stocks— with wool shorter, but far finer and more compact than the Leicester—, their fleeces about the same in weight as in the present stocks§—and alto- gether they were a showy and profitable sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of farmers. Their fleeces lacked evenness—their thighs remaining disproportionately coarse and hairy; and making up my mind that this would always be a tendency of the sheep of this cross, | aban- doned them without farther experiment. In relation to the number of crosses necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram, there is a difference of opinion. Mr. Livings- ton says :{ “Tt is now so well established as not even to admit of the smallest doubt that a Merino in the fourth generation, from even the worst-wooled ewes, is in every respect equal to the stock of the sire. No difference is now made in Europe in the choice of a ram, whether he is a‘full-blood or a fifteen-sixteenths.” .... “The French agriculturists say that however coarse the fleece of the parent ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will not show it.’ { I am constrained to differ with even this high authority. I admit that the only value of blood or pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring. As soon as a mongrel reaches the point where, he stamps his characteristics on his progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal. But I do not * To carry out the commonly received principle in breeding, that in crossing between different races, the ram ofthe smaller should be put to ewe of the larger one. } This ram, obtained from Francis Rotch, Exq., was got by a prize ram of Mr. Ellman’s, and from one of his choicest breeding-ewes, and showed infinitely more style, as well as fineness and evenness of wool, than the common Downs of our country. He was not larger than a large-sized Merino ram. } These I finally put off to save myself the trouble of breeding several kinds of sheep on the same farm. || Descended from the flock of the late Robert Adcock. of Otsego County, N. Y.—considered at the time equal to any flock in the State. : a § That is, about 51bs. [I have put down the Leicester fleece, in my description of the breed, at 6 lbs., as this is the amount generally claimed for them; but in the few cases brought within my direct knowledge, they have never averaged it. My ewes above alluded to did not, I think, average quite 5 lbs. @ Essay on Sheep, pp. 181, 183. ie) SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. believe that this can be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the fourth Merino cross. My only experience in this particular is in the ob- servation of other men’s flocks who have bred with high-grade rams.* These have invariably lacked the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks. The sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, and the last perhaps almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams, but I confess I should still prefer to adhere to the latter. Pure blood is a fixed stand- ard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it, in his rams, each one more or less, according to his own judgment or caprice, the whole blood of the country would become adulterated. No man would be authorized to sell a ram of any cross, be it the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full-blood. It is all-important for those commencing flocks either of full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram may be made to serve || from 100 to 150 ewes in a season. A good Merino ram will, speaking within bounds, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece of the dam, on every lamb got by it, from a common-wooled ewe.§ Here is one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season! And every lamb subsequently got by him addsa pound to this amount. Many a ram gets, during his life, 800 or 1,000 lambs! Nor is the extra amount of wool all. He gets from 800 to 1,000 half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is as important, and, it seems to me, quite as valuable an animal as a good farm-horse stallion! When the number of a ram’s progeny are taken into consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be perpetuated, the folly of that economy which would select an inferior one is sufficiently obvious. Every one desirous of starting a flock will find it his best economy, where the proper flocks to draw rams from are not near him, to purchase several of the same breed, of course, but of different strains of blood. 'Thus, ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and vice versa; No. 3 can be put upon the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. 3. The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any considerable dan- ger, are innumerable.— But if these rams of different strains are bought premiscuously, without reference to similarity of characteristics, there may, and probably will be differences between them, and it might require time and skill to give a flock descended from them, a proper uniformity of character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish different strains of blood with the necessary individual and family uni formity. *I have never knowingly bred with any other ram than a pure-blood, of any stock, or for any purpose. || By methods hereafter to be described. § That is, if the ewe at 3 years old sheared 3 Ibs. of wool, the lamb at the same age will shear 4 lbs. of wool. J The brother and sister are of the same blood; the father and daughter, half; the father and grand- daughter, one-fourth; the father and great grand-daughter, one-eighth, and so on. Breeding between an- imals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be considered very close breeding ; and it is not aie fe in rugged, well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of the same lood. ; SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Lio LETTER XII. SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. e Tageing—necessity of—method of doing it..-Burs—how avoided...Lambing—time of—Inclosures for— Mechanical Assistance—when rendered—assisting the Lamb—Feeding—necessary care in—Warming— Foster Ewes...Pens...‘ Pinning”... Numbering and Registering—advantages of—Von Thaér's System of Numbering—manner of doing it conveniently—Mr. Grove’s form of a Register. --Castration and Docking —proper time and method...Washing—time—necessary apparatus—‘ wetting’—manner of washing— ordinary waste in subsequent cleansing...Cutting the Hoofs—best time—implements—method...Time between Washing and Shearing...Shearing—proper conveniences for—catcheyr’s business—directions to shearer—general directions. -.Shearing Lambs—shearing Sheep semi-annually—objectionable practices. -. Doing up Wool—Wool Table and Trough—handling fleece—arrangement on table—folding—rolling—ty- ing—pioper twine. - Storing Wool—Wool-Room. ..Sacking Wool—methods. . Sorting the Flock at shear- ing—how done...Marking Sheep—the proper way---Cold Storms after Shearing... -.Sun-scald-.-Ticks— how destroyed-.-Maggots—preventives...Cutting the Horns...Division of Flocks for Summer...Hop- pling—Clogging, &c...Dangerous Rams..-.Fences.--.Salt...Tar...Water...Shade...Weaning Lambs... Fall Feeding. ..Shepherd’s Crook. Dear Sir: Agreeably to your request, and that of various other South- ern friends, I proceed to give directions for the practical management of sheep “ plain and minute enough for the guidance of those entirely unac- quainted with the subject.” I will begin with their Summer Management.* Taceine.—lIf sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will usually purge more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The wool around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into hard pellets, if the purging ceases. But whether this takes place or not, the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in’the ordinary process of washing. It forms a great impediment in shearing, dulling and straining the shears to cut through it when in a dry state, and it is often impracticable so to do. It is difficult to force the shears be- tween it and the skin, without frequently and severely wounding the latter. Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under this mass of filth prior to _ shearing, and the ensuing swarm of maggots, unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sheep to a miserable death. Before sheep are let out to grass, each one should have the wool sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside’of the thighs, over the surface included between the dotted lines in Fig. 16. the cut. ‘The wool should be sheared from off the en- tire bag of the ewe, that the newly dropped lamb may more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram, as is usually kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, soreness and ulceration sometimes ensue from the con- stant maceration of the urine. Sometimes each tagger catches and holds his own sheep, but it is, on the whole, better, I think, to have an assistant catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged. The latter process requires a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off closely and smoothly, or the vbject is but half accomplished, and the sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance, when the remainder of their fleeces is taken off; * Ihave not thought it necessary to mark with quotation points, various extracts in this Letter, from a series of Letters written by me a number of years since, and published in the “ Valley Farmer” 174 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. and, on the other hand, it is not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is peculiarly so to cut that on the bag of an ewe near lambing. The wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the ex- | penses of the operation. It answers well for stockings and other ordinary _ domestic purposes, or it will sell for something like half the price of fleece | wool. Humanity and economy both dictate that care should be taken in han- dling sheep at all times, and it is especially important with ewes heavy with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about and han- dle them roughly, for even if abortion, the worst consequence of such treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, render- ing it difficult to catch or render them assistance at the lambing period— and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes where it is sometimes necessary to confine tk #m at that time, without having them driving about pell-mell, running over their lambs, &c. It may not be known to every one, that if a sheep is suddenly caught by the wool when running, or is lifted by its wool, the skin is to a certain extent Joosened from the body at the points where it is thus seized, and if killed a day or two afterward, blood will be found settled about those parts. A man knowing this, and subsequently guilty of such gratuitous brutality, richly deserves to be kicked out of the sheep-yard. When sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a yard just large enough to hold them without their being crowded—so they shall have no chance to run and dash about. The catcher should stop them by seizing them by the hind leg close above the hock, or by clapping one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks. Then, not waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw his right arm over and about it immediately back of the shoulders, place his hand under the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. If the sheep is very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his fingers under the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of,his body. He then should set it carefully on its rump on the tagging-table, (which should be 18 or 20 inches high,) support its back with his legs, and “hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed his duty. Two | men should not be permitted to lift the same sheep together, as it will be’ pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good shearer and assistant will tag 200 sheep per day. Where sheep receive green feed all the year round, as they will do in many parts of the South, and no purging ensues from eating the newly- starting grasses in the spring, tagging will not be necessary. Burs, &c.—If sheep are let out in the spring into pastures where the dry stalks of the Burdock (Arctium lappa), or the Hound’s Tongue, or Tory-weed ( Cynoglossum officinale), have remained standing over the win- ter, the burs are caught in their now long wool, and, if numerous, the wool is rendered entirely unmarketable, and almost valueless. Even the dry prickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very numer- ous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the Northern spring ; and, in- dependently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult to wash and other- ‘wise handle the sheep. The Burdock being a large and not very frequent plant, there is no excuse for its being found on the farm. The Hound’s Tongue is very prevalent in forests and partly wooded pastures in the North, and it is not conspicuous enough to be easily eradicated, though careful sheep-farmers often do so. If sheep are let into pastures contain ing it, it must he only in the summer and fall, after shearing. The burs, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 175 not sunk so deeply in the short wool, will wear cut during our winters— but no man thinks of letting his sheep into pastures containing it, before shearing in the spring. Indeed, sheep should be kept on the cleanest pas- tures—th se free from these and all similar plants—during this period; and, in a region where they are pastured the year round, if such pests are not eradicated—which I should consider indispensable—the sheep should be kept from contact with them for some months prior to shearing. Lamsine.—Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to the fifteenth of May. In the South, they might safely come earlier. It is not expedient to have them dropped when the weather is cold and boister- vus, as they require too much care; but the sooner the better, after the weather has become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of milk. It is customary in the North to have fields of clover, or the earli est grasses, reserved for the early spring feed of the breeding ewes; and, if these can be contiguous to their shelters, it is a great convenience—for the ewes should be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, during the lambing season. If warm and pleasant, and the nights are warmish, I prefer to have the lambing take place in the pastures. I think sheep are more disposed to own and take kindly to their lambs thus, than in the confusion of a small inclosure.. Unless particularly docile, sheep in a small inclosure crowd from one side to another when any one enters, running over young lambs, pressing them severely, &c. Ewes get separated from their lambs, and then run violently round from one to another, jostling and knocking them about. Young and timid ewes get separated from their lambs, and fre- quently will neglect them for an hour or more before they will again ap- _proach them. If the weather is severely cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, stafids a chance to perish. Lambs, too, when just dropped, in a dirty inclosure, in their first efforts to rise, tumble about, and the mem- brane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt and dung—and the ewe refuses to lick them dry, which much increases the hazard of freezing. Nevertheless, all this must be incurred in cold storms, and in sudden and severe weather ; and, therefore, it should be the effort of every shep- herd to teach his sheep docility. I have seen the late Mr. Grove walk about a barn filled with his Saxons, not only without their crowding from side to side, but many of them absolutely lying still while he stepped over them! I say it “must be incurred.” I mean by this that it is the safest course with all breeds, and a matter of necessity with others. It takes but a very moderately cold night to destroy the new-born Saxon lamb, which (the pure blood) is yeaned nearly as xaked as achild! During a severely. cold period, of several days’ continuance, it is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. The Merino, South-Down, and some other breeds, will endure a greater degree of cold with impunity. Inclosures, when used for yeaning, should be kept clean by frequent lit- terings of straw—not enough, however, thrown on at one time, to embar- rass the lamb about rising. The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition — Her labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her loud moanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go about several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet an nose of the lamb showing at the mouth of the vagina. But, if let alone, Nature will generally finally relieve her. This might not do with the 176 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. heavy English breeds. I should infer not, from the elaborate directions in the premises, by Youatt, Blacklock, and other English wiiters on Sheep; though with the comparatively small number of these varieties which I | have bred, I hive had no difficulty in this particular. Among the thou- sands and thousands of fine-wooled sheep which I have bred, I never have known a single instance of a false presentation of the foetus, and never ° have had mechanical assistance rendered in to exceed half a dozen in- stances. The objection to intezfering, except as a last resort, is that the ewe is frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease.— When aided, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in conjunction with the efforts of the ewe. While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise, and the ewe is licking it dry, it is better to be in no haste to interfere. A lamb that gets at the teat without help, and gets even a small quantity of milk, knows how to help itself afterward, and rarely perishes. If helped, it sometimes continues to expéct it, and will do little for itself for two or three days.— The same is true when lambs are fed from a spoon or bottle. But if tle lamb ceases to make efforts to rise, particularly if the ewe ‘has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly, it is time for the shepherd to render his assistance. It is better not to throw the ewe down, as is fre- quently practiced, to suckle the lamb, because instinct teaches the latter to point its nose wpward in search of the teat. It is doubly difficult, there- fore, to induce it to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe; and when taught to do this, by being suckled so several times, I have invariably ne- ticed that it renders it awkward about finding the teat im the natural posi- tion, when it begins to stand and help itself, Nothing is stupider than a weakly lamb! Carefully disengaging the ewe from her companions, with his crook, the assistant should place one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks of the ewe, and, then pressing her against his knees, he skould hold her firmly and stilly, so that she shall not ke constantly crowding away from the shepherd. ‘The shepherd should set the lamb on its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible ; if not, supporting it on ets feet by placing one hand under its body—place its mouth to the teat, and encour- age it to suck by tickling it about the roots of the tail, flanks, &c., with a finger. The lamb, mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam, will re- double its efforts to suck. Sometimes it will evince great dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself, crowding backward, &c.; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink himself to the level of a brute by resenting the stupidity of a brute, will generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milking a little into the lamb’s mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will im- duce it to take hold. If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed until the natural supply commences, with small quantities of the milk of a new-milch cow. This should be mixed, say half and half, with water—with enough molasses to give it the purgative effect of biestings, or the first milk—gently warmed to the natural heat (not scalded and suffered to cool), and then fed through a bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should suck, if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a spoon or bottle, as already remarked, it is frequently difficult afterward to induce it to suck. And, moreover, unless milk is poured in the mouth slowly and with care—no faster than the lamb can swallow—a speedy wheezing, the infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid has been forced into the lungs. I have known lambs frequently - killed in this way. | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Y?7 1f a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped up in a woolen blanket, and placed in a warm room—giving a little milk as soon as it will swal- low. four wheels. The construction of the interior of the box being somewhat peculiar, another fig. 37, is given as a vertical section of it, where 4 is the hinged lid by which the grair is put into the box, whence it is at once received into the hopper d, the bottom of which being open, and brought near that of the box, a small space only is left for the grain te pass into the box, the hopper forming the grain-store, a is the cover of the box raised on its hinges by the rod f, acted upon by the platform e f, fig. 35; and, when in this po- sition, the sheep put their heads below a at c, and eat the grain at d. Machines of simi- lar construction to this have also been devised to serve poultry with grain at will.” I never have thought it best in feeding or fattening any animals, or, at all events, any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will—preferring stated. feeds ; and the same remark is applicable tofodder. If this system is de- parted from in using depository racks, as heretofore recommended, it is because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A Me- rino store-sheep, allowed grain ad libitum, would stand a chance to inflict an injury on itself, and I cannot but believe thay grain so fed would gen- erally be productive of more injury than benefit. . - Barns anp Sueps, &c.—Sheep barns and sheds, at the North, are fre- quently made very elaborate contrivances—particularly on paper. But expensive barns, with feeding-cellars and other arrangements for keeping sheep within doorseduring a greater portion of the winter, would, it strikes me, be entirely out of place in the South. Even in our rigorous climate, none but the breeders of Saxons pretend to make a regular practice of feeding under cover. Humanity and economy both dictate, here, that sheep be provided with shelters to lie under nights, and to which they can resort at will. In our severe winter storms, it is sometimes necessary, or at least by far the best, to feed under shelter fora day or two. It is not an uncommon circum- stance in New-York and New-England, for snow to fall to the depth of 20 or 30 inches within 24 or 48 hours, and then to be succeeded by a strong and intensely cold west or north-west wind of two or three days’ continuance,* which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, &c. A flock without shelter will huddle closely together, turning their backs to the storm, constantly step- ° ping and thus treading down the snow as it rises about them. Strong, close- coated sheep do not seem to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, as would be expected. But it is next to impossible to feed them enough or half enough, under such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay —entirely impossible, without racks. The hay is whirled away in an in- stant by the wind, and even if racks are used, the sheep leaving their hud- dle where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting of the snow in their wool, soon get chilled and are disposed to return to their huddle Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is lowered, and at the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones have sunk down hope lessly, the yearlings and oldish ones have received a shock which nothing but careful nursing will recover them from, and even the strongest have suffered an injurious loss in condition. Few holders of more than 40 or 50 sheep now attempt to get along here without some kind of shelters. The following (fig. 38) is a very common form of a Northern sheep-barn with sheds. The sheds front the south, or, what is a better arrangement, one fronts the east, and the other, being turned to a right angle to the direction of this, fronts the south. I have represented hole racks, as in fig. 32, running round the sheds, as, although not yet in general use, they are undoubtedly the best in such sit- * These terrible wind-storms are of much longer continuance in many parts of New-England, pil” * 4 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 205 uations. The sheds are not usually framed or silled,—but are supported by posts of some durable timber set in the ground. The roofs are formed _ of boards ‘‘battened” with slabs. The barn has no partitions within, and is entirely filled with hay. + es Ze Ci <——_ fi iT —s es HOWL AND =e r aQwess a ae e = SS _— : =* <\" — r~S . ‘ SHEEP-BARN. There are many situations where these open sheds are very liable to have snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all cases in severe gales, to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and are very inconvenient—particularly when they thaw. I therefore much prefer sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a wide door-way for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for ventilation when it is necessary. They are convenient for yarding sheep, for the various process- es where this iserequired, as for shearing, marking, sorting, “ doctoring,” Fig. 39, THE OUTSIDE STELL. &c., and especially so, for lambing places or the confinement of newly shorn sheep in cold storms. They should be spacious enough, so that in eg % oh, * 206 ". SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. , addition to the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily through ch the middle when required. - . | In many parts of Scotland, “Stells,” as they are called, are ma e use . of to shelter sheep. Fig.39 on the preceding page is the form of one given in “ The Book of the Farm,” and the author’s description of it : | “Tn a storm, their provender cannot be given to the sheep upon snow, safely and conven- iently, as ground-drift may blow and cover both; and no place is so suitable for the purpose | asa stell. ... . It may be formed of planting or high stone-wall. Either will afford shel- ter; but the former most, though most costly, as it should be fenced by a stone-wall. Of this class I conceive the form represented (fig. 38) a good one, and which may be char- acterized as an outside stell. . . ... The circumscribing strong black line is a stone-wa ma feet high; the dark ground within is covered with trees. Its four rounded projections shel-” ter a corresponding number of recesses embraced between them, so that let the wind bk from what quarter it may, two of the recesses will be always shel the storm, 8 size of this stell is regulated by the number of sheep kept; but t is 1 le may be remem: bered in regard to its accommodation for stock, that each recess occupies about ¢ part of the space comprehended between the extremities of the 4 projections; so that in astell covering 4 acres—which is perhaps the least size they should be, every recess will contain 4 anacre.” — The two following are forms of stells, composed of stone-wall, without planting. Fig. 40 \ ay fee, Ps ” 4 mney ¢ ——a sy 3 ANCIENT STELLS. Figures 42 and 43, on the following page, are forms of circular stells, the first made by stone-walls and planting, as in fig. 39. The open space a is occu by the sheep, and 4 is a funnel-shaped opening to it. On the whole I should consider fig. 42 preferable to any of the preceding forms. Figure 43 represents one of the same form, but without the planting, with a stack in the middle, &c. Hither of the stells which are formed in part of trees, would be convenient in severe winds, would form excellent shades in summer, and would constitute highly ornamental ob- jects on the farm, and in the landscape. On the most northerly of the Southern mountains, where considerable snow falls, they might even be good contrivances for winter shelter. They might also be convenient on the lowlands farther south, provided the shelter of evergreens could be made dense enough to protect the sheep from the winter rams. In this case, the stell or covert might be of any shape, and ought to have no cen at? SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. _ 207° 4 ral opening. It would be merely a dense clump of evergreen trees, for a sheep to take refuge under in storms of rain, and it might be surround- ed oh the outside with a tight board fence or stone-wall, if much exposed :) Re, THE INSIDE CIRCULAR STELL. to the sweep of cold winds. As the sheep would lie among the trees, a clump 50 or 60 feet in diameter—though 100 feet would be better—would suffice for 100 sheep. ye . ae) \ a Se a ee THE CIRCULAR STELL FITTED UP WITH HAY-RACKS. va . But in determining upon the best winter shelters, for the various re- gions in the South, the fact must not be lost sight of that cold rains, or rains of any temperature, when immediately succeeded by cold or freezing weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even snow- storms—and that consequently sheep must be adequately guarded against them. There must also be suitable shelter from any storms to which the country is subject, 7 the lambing season. Any person with the least ex- perience can determine whether an inclosed clump of trees will answer these purposes, in his own immediate region. I think it very probable that in the Gulf States, and some of the lower Atlantic ones—particularly in regions near the ocean—these tree coverts, A 208 SHEEP HUSBANDRY iN THE SOUTH. surrounded by fences to break the winds, would be found sufficient. In sections infested with wolves, they might also be made to answer for folds, by carrying the fence to the requisite hight, to bar the ingress of the wolf But farther north, and on the high lands and mountains, better shelterg would, I am inclined to think, in the end, be found more economical. The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is represented in the following cut (fig. 44). It is formed by poles or rails, the upper ends resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground. It may be rendered rain-proef by pea-haulm, straw, or pine boughs. Fig. 44. W.HOWLAND SC SHED OF RAILS. In a region where lumber is very cheap, planks or boards (of sufficient thickness not to spring downward and thus open the roof) battened with slabs, may take the place of the poles and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more durable roof. Ifthe lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, the shed will shelter more sheep. | These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns, “ hay-barracks,” stacks, or they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle like fig. 43. In the latter case, however, the yard should be square, in- stead of round, on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the boards or poles, which the round form would render necessary. Sheds of this description are frequently made, in the North, between two stacks. ‘The end of the horizontal supporting pole is placed on the stack-pens, when the stacks are built, and the middle is propped. by crotched posts. The supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the upper girts of two hay-barracks ; or two such sheds (at angles with each other) might form wings to this structure. The “ barrack,” as it is pro vincially termed in the North, would, it strikes me, afford a most econom- ical and a most convenient way of storing fodder in the South. It is ea- sily movable, so that it possesses the same advantage that stacks do, in manuring different parts of the field or farm. On the other hand, the fod- der cannot be drenched by a winter rain, as in a partly fed out stack. Hay can be more rapidly stored in it than on a stack at any time, and you can pitch into it to the last moment, when threatened with rain, without stopping to round up the top as is necessary ina stack. The outside is not weather-beaten and damaged, as is the case with the sides, and fre quently with a considerable of the top of a stack. Fig. 45 (on the next page) represents the form of a barrack. It is 12 feet square on the bot- tom, and the frame is formed by girting together four strong poles, 16 feet long, at the bottom, and 6 feet from the bottom. Boards 6 feet long are nailed perpendicularly on the girts. Two-inch holes are bored at con- venient distances through the corner poles, so that the roof, which rests TT Ne — —= | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 209 on pins thrust throygh these holes, can be raised or lowered, at pleasure. it is occasionally lowered as the fodder gets lower in the barrack, so that rain or snow shall not drive under it. Itseems to me that this structure would be remarkably well adapted _to the storing and feeding out of un- Fig. 45. . 'threshed peas, which, as has been 'xgmarked in a former Letter, are so | advantageously raised at the South, ‘and constitute so admirable a feed for sheep. | On all large sheep-farms con- ‘venience requires that there. be one barn of considerable size, to con- ‘tain the shearing-floor, and the ne- cessary conveniences about it for _yarding the sheep, &c. This should me Serer J ~ ‘ on also, fur economy, be a hay-barn, ~ Seep as (where hay is used,) and from its ae \necessary size (for the shearing- | floor), it should hold hay for 400 sheep. It may be constructed in the _corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it, with- (out making improperly sized flocks. At this barn it would be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together all the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number did not exceed 400. Thus the shepherd would be saved much travel at all times, and particularly at the lambing-time, _and each flock would be under his almost constant supervision. I offer the following ground-plan of a barn with fixtures, &c., as one which I think will be found well adapted to the purpose above specified. | The upper is the north part of the plan. j . Fig. 46. The dotted lines a, a,a,a,are the fences dividing four fields, which would | corner at the south-east corner of the barn. The barn is surrounded by double | lines, and the sheds by double lines on the backs and, ends—the dots in _ front of therg, representing the crotched posts supporting their front. The single black lines round the yards, represent tight board fences, which screen the four yards 4, c,d, e, from every wind. There are two pumps and | troughs at h, h, which accommodate the whole four fields, if a want of springs or streams in them render sess necessary. The sheds are so ar- i | | | | ‘ 210 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. a ranged that even without the screens they entirely shut out the north and | west winds—the prevailing and severe winter ones of this region—and if | other ones are more prevalent in other regions, the sheds can be changed’) accordingly. Each of the sheds is 50 feet long and 12 feet wide—six square feet being the smallest proper allowance of sheltered area for each|| sheep. The barn is 48 feet square, a floor 13 feet wide running east andy) west through the center, for shearing and for the drawing in of hay. Aen/ alley 4 feet wide and 8 feet high (boarded up on the side toward the y mow, and covered at the top) cuts off the lower part of each bay from the} east wall of the barn. This is for carrying hay into the yards 4, c. It isy carried into the yards d, e, from the large doors at each end of the shearing-| floor (or from smaller ones cut through them.) The south bay is repre- | sented as divided by a temporary fence, cutting it into two pens f, g. The! outside inclosure c,fer yarding the sheep, communicating by a door with’ jf, and g being used as a room to tie up wool in, presents precisely the! same arrangement which is exhibited in the cut of the shearing-barn}} (fig. 22) in Letter XII. i The barn here given (fig. 46) is probably larger than would be neces-" sary for 400 sheep, in most parts of the South. Its necessary size is a‘ question to be entirely determined by the climate. For large flocks of § sheep, I should regard the storage of some hay or other fodder for winter | as an indispensable precautionary measure, at least, in any part of the} United States ; and, other things being equal, the farther north, or the more | elevated the land, the greater would be the necessary amount to be stored. | The shearing-floor shortened to 30 or 35 feet, would still, perhaps, be sufficiently commodious, and this would reduce the dimensions of the barn | east and west 13 or 18 feet; and one of the bays might be dispensed with. But having constructed so large, so smooth, and so tight a barn-floor as | the shearing one ought to be, it would be good economy to use it for the threshing of grain. One of the bays, therefore, might be used for the | storage of grain in the sheaf. I have always considered this an excellent | arrangement in a Northern barn of this description, as in our cold climate | the sheep require much straw litter in their sheds, yards, &. Thrown out to them daily, as threshed, much bright straw and chaff will be con- sumed by them—particularly of greenish cut oats. The yards ¢, e, in fig. 46 are represented but the width of the barn, 48 | feet. If these were reduced too much, by diminishing the size of the barn, | the shed of ¢ could be carried farther west at 7, and that of e farther north | at 7, being connected with the barn by wind-breakers, composed of a tight | board fence, as high as the summit of the sheds. Or, what would perhaps | be better, the fences thrown forward in a straight line from the ends of | these two sheds might be continued until they intersected each other, and | a fence from their point of intersection to the south-east corner of the barn would divide the two yards. neat _ Feepine Saeep wirn oTHEr Stocx.—Sheep should not run or be fed, tz yards, with any other stock. Cattle hook them, often mortally. Colts tease and frequently injure them, It is often said that “ colts will pick up what sheep leave.” Well-managed sheep rarely leave anything—and if they chance to, it is better to rake it up and throw it into the colts’yard, than to feed them together. If sheep are not required to eat their feeds | pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large quantities. But if sheep are overfed with either hay or grain, it is not proper to compel them by starvation to come back and eat it. They will not unless sorely pinched. Clean out the troughs,—or rake up the hay, and the next time feed less. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 211 Hay-Ho.pers.— Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper doors of a barn into the sheep-yard, as it always must necessarily be in a barn constructed like fig. 38, or any mere hay-barn, or where it is thrown from a barrack or stack, the sheep immediately rush on it, trampling it and soiling it, and the succeeding forkfulls fall on their backs, filling their wool | with dust, seed and chaff. This is avoided by hay-holders—yards 10 feet | square—either portable by being made of posts and boards, or simply a _ pen of rails, placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each stack or barrack. The hay is pitched into the holder, in fair weather _ enough for a day’s foddering at a time, and is taken from this by forkfulls _ and placed in the racks. I would here offer a necessary caution in rela- tion to the use of razls or poles, for stack-pens or hay-holders, The poles Should be so small as to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads between them after hay. A sheep will often insert its head where the opening is wide enough for that purpose, shove it along or get crowded along, to where the opening is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and it will hang there until observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as it often happens, it is thus caught when its fore parts are elevated by climb- ing up the side of the pen, it will continue to lose its fore footing in its struggles, and will soon choke to death. Winter Dry FeeEp ror Suerp.—The proper dry winter fodder for sheep has already been repeatedly alluded to, in general terms. Volumes have been expended on this subject, particularly in Germany—and curious and elaborate systems of feeding given. In Germany great stress is laid on variety in the winter fodder. Inthe German Farmer’s Encyclopedia, the following table of the proper variations and amounts of feed is given by PETRI. TABLE 15. - Loth, Loth, Loth, Day. | Lbs. |equal } Morning. Lbs. |equal Noon, Lbs. | equal Evening. 1 21 |hay 21 |hay 21 |hay 2 1 1 |rye straw 1 | 22 thay 1 1 |rye straw 3 23 |bean straw 26 |vetch-hay 23 |bean straw 4 1 wheat straw pI sainfoin 1 wheat straw 5 | 1] 6 Joat straw 21 |hay 1] 6 joat straw 6 1 6 artichoke stalk 1} 19 |red clover 1 6 |artichoke stalk 7 1 8 |turkey wheat 1 | 12 |lucern 1 8 |turkey-wheat str’w 8} 1] 8 |buckwheat straw 1 | 16 |hay 1 | 8 {buckwheat straw 9 at 6 joat straw 7 |horse-beans 1 6 joat straw 10 19 |red clover 19 jred clover 19 |red clover 11 18 |sainfoin 18 |sainfoin 18 |sainfoin 12 1 6 |millet straw 1 6 |millet straw 1 6 |millet straw 13 30 jlentil straw 21 |hay 30 |lentil straw 14 30 |pea straw ' | 21 |hay 30 |pea straw 15 30 |barley straw 1 artichoke stalk 30 |barley straw 16 1 | 10 |horse-bean straw 1 | 10 |horse-bean straw 1 | 10 |horse-bean straw av 1 1 rye straw 1 | 11 Joat straw 1 1 |rye straw 18 1 3 | wheat straw 1 9 joat straw 1 3 | wheat straw 19 | 1j 6 /rye straw 1 turkey-wheat 1| 3 |wheat straw 20 aS 6 joat straw 1 turkey-wheat 1 6 joat straw 21 1 3 | wheat straw 22 |artichoke stalk 1 6 joat straw 22 30 |lentil straw 1 | 30 |vetch straw 30 |lentil straw O32 a 6 loat straw 1 6 |wheat straw af 6 |oat straw P The same writer gives the following as the proper winter feed of a ewe, the month preceding lambing : 212 Ist day.- oe SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. In the morning, 3 lb. NOON), sea dies evening..} .. morning .$ -. TABLE 16. of good oat straw. of good hay of clover. of good barley straw. of millet straw. 2d day .. -- noon ....2 .. of potatoes with 4 oz. of chopped straw, and 4 oz. of oats. -- evening..} .. of barley straw. morning .} .- of hay. noon ....} .. of hay, «- evening..1 .. of wheat, oat, barley or buckwheat straw. -- morning -? .. of summer straw. sa cay..} x aids as -- noon ...-4 -. ofchopped straw, with 3 oz. oats and 3 oz. bran, moistened fa with water. -- -evening..} -. of winter straw. -- morning -} -. of hay. 5thday..2 -. noon ....2 .. of potatoes with 3 lb. of chopped straw. -- evening..} .. of winter straw. -- morning .} -- of hay. 6thday-.~ .. noon ....asin 4th day, | -- evening..1 lb. of straw. All this would be infinitely “ more nice than wise,” in any part of the United States. Variations of dry fodder are well enough, but hundreds and thousands of Northern flocks receive nothing but ordinary hay, con- sisting mainly of Timothy, (Phleum pratense,) some Red and White Clo- ver, ( Trifolium pratense et repens,) and frequently a sprinkling of June o1 Spear grass, (Poa pratensis, ) during the entire winter. Others receive an occasional fodder of corn-stalks and straw—and some farmers give a daily feed of grain through the winter. Where hay is the principal feed, it may be well,. where it is convenient, to give. corn-stalks (or “ blades”) every fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day. Or the daily feed, not of hay, might alternate between blades, pea-straw, straw of the cereal grains, &c. Should any other fodder besides hay be the principal one, as, for example, corn- blades or pea-haulm, each of the other fodders might be alternated in the same way. It is mainly, in my judgment, a question of convenience with the flock-master, provided a proper supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass, is given. Hay, clover, properly cured pea-haulm, and corn- blades are palatable to the sheep, and each contain the necessary supply of nutriment in the quantity which the sheep can readily take into its stom- ach. Consequently, from either of these, the sheep can derive its entire subsistence. The same remarks may, possibly, apply to greenish cut oat and barley straw; but it would not, I apprehend, be economical or alto- gether safe to confine any kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal grains unless some of those little hardy varieties of sheep which would be of no value in this country. Experiment will readily show the flock-master what kinds of food are palatable and agree with the health of his flock. The following exceedingly valuable Table, prepared by Boussingault, will give the value of various kinds of feed in comparison with ordinary natu- ral meadow hay, as ascertained by himself, Von Thaér, Block, and other distinguished Agricultural Chemists. The results are obtained by chemi- cal analysis, and by actual experiments in feeding. The amount of nitro- gen in 100 parts is made the chemical test of value, as it shows the quan- tity of fibrin, albumen, and casein, (by multiplying by 6.3.) The experi- mental result is obtained by weighing the animal and the feed, and giving him enough of each to maintain him in good condition. }) > | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOJTH. 213 a7 : : TABLE 17. FODDERS. : TABLE OF THE NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUDDERS. he 2 be ae Sse 2td Feleslece| bial al sil Kinds of Food. Be coy %e35| 91 8 2 eis I Remarks. J ESlE°|Ess/ a [mle laeye | 3 a ag Ordinary natural meadow hay-.-..| 11.0} 1.34} 1.15} 100} 100] 100] 100]-100} 100 Do. of fine quality 14.0} 1.50] 1.30) 98 B M02 Select... onc 50 + sole 18.8} 2.40] 2.00} 58 Do. freed from woody stems..... 14.0) 2.44] 2.10) 55 Wacern hay::./5.- 5J..--+ --geee 16.6] 1.66} 1.38} 83 90 90| 100 90, 90 Dombasle, Red clover hay, 2d year’s growth.| 10.1] 1.70) 1.54) 75] 100} 90 90| 100 [Crud. Red clover cut in flower, green, do.} 76.0 0.64] 311] 430 450 rss New wheat straw, crop 1841...... os : 0.36] 0.27) 426] 200) 360} 150] 450| 300/500 Rieder. Old wheat straw..-.....----.----- 0.53) 0.49) 235 Do. do. lower parts of the stalk... 53 0.43} 0.41} 280 Do. do. upper part of do.andear..| 9.4] 1.42] 1.33] 86 New rye-straw 18.7} 0.30} 0.24] 479] 200} 500] 150] 666 COG Wir Cees Se = 12.6] 0.50] 0.42) ©50 Giaizatrany sa. eineok dads ca .---| 21.0] 0.36] 0.30] 383] 200} 200] 150] 190] 200/400 Schwertz. Banley dO. css asses ciccecewigcss 11.0] 0.30} 0.25] 460] 193} 180] 150} 150) 200]400 do. Red dies 42 Soe eS. esa 8.5} 1.95} 1.79) 64} 165} 200] 150} 130} 150/90 Pohl. Milletidos. scis3%-c2atasile=sas-4. 19.0) 0.96] 0.78) 147 250 (Buckwheat: dOs. <)<2/21/<10105 - on = 06 11.6] 0.54} 0.48] 240 200 entildGtdge s: s-s2ssss-2-- +2052 9.2| 1.18] 1.01} 114} 160} 200 130] 150 Jean in flower and dried 11.0] 1.26) 1.14] 101 195 100 Potato tops: <2 === = szwsst 450 76.0} 2.30) 055) 209 300 Field-beet leaves..........--.-... 88.9} 4.50] 0.50} 230] 600 600 @arrot dO... 2 s2-i-o-s sees sac se 70.9) 2.94) 0.85) 135 Jerusalem artichoke:stems....-.. 86.4} 2.70| 0.37) 311] . 325 Lime-trees, young shoots....... ‘..| 55.0] 3.25] 1.45) 79] 73 Canada’ Poplar! do..j.--....'..... 62.5] 2.29] 0.86] 134 g OES s Ca ey ES URE 57.4] 2.16} 0.92) 195] % Acacia do. (autumn)............. 53.6} 1.56] 0.72) 160 Drum cabbage.) 222025 -. 02: 232k. 92.3] 3.70] 0.28) 411) 556] 500) 250) 429] 600 Swedishturnipi. sos. cm 2-ins eleeaaee 11.2} 5.70] 5.06] 23 Lineved cake) =. 02... eae ccd 13.4} 6.00} 5.20) 22) 42] 180 leiitatidias 4... ako om 10.5| 5.50} 4.92) 23 . Madia do.....-- woBden ante Ree a 6.5) 5.93; 5.51] 21 | 5.0] 4.78] 4.21] 27 | 6.8] 5.70} 5.36; 21 6.0} 5.59 5.24| 22 | 6.2| 3.53] 3.31] 35 | Arachis (Pindars) do..-....-- exons 6.6], 8,891. 8.3381 . 14 BT YaBB spat opin ioe + *€ a . 240 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The few cases I have seen have been of a sub-acute character, and would not bear treatment so decidedly and J think dangerously antiphlogistic. Mr. Youatt remarks : * “‘ Depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance—the short continuance of the febrile state; but excitation like this will soon be followed by corresponding ex- haustion, and then the bleeding and the purging would be murderous expedients, and gentian, ginger, and the spirit of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure.” Broncuitis.—It would be difficult to suppose that where sheep are sub- ject to pneumonia they would not also be subject to bronchitis—which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane which lines the bronchial tubes | —the air-passes of the lungs. I have seen no cases, however, which 1 have been able to identify as bronchitis, and have examined no subjects, after death, which exhibited its characteristic lesions. Its symptoms are those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever and a tenderness of the throat and belly when pressed upon. Treatment.—Administer salt in doses from 1} to 2 oz., with 6 or 8 oz. of lime-water, given in some other part of the day. This is Mr. Youatt’s prescription. Cararru.—Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane which lines the nasal passages—and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pha- rynx. In the first instance—where the lining of the nasal passages is alone and not very violently affected—it is merely accompanied by an in- creased discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. In this form it is usually termed szufles, and high-bred English mutton sheep, in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, after every sudden change of weather. When the inflammation extends to the mucous lining of the larynx and pharynx, some degree of fever usually supervenes, ac- companied by cough, and some loss of appetite. At this point the Eng- lish veterinarians usually recommend bleeding and purging. Catarrh rarely attacks the American fine-wooled sheep with sufficient violence in swmmer, to require the exhibition of remedies. I early found that depletion, in catarrh, in our severe winter months, rapidl ‘ produced that fatal prostra- tion, from which it is next to impossible to recover the sheep—entirely im- possible, without bestowing an amount of time and care on it, costing far more than the price of any ordinary sheep. The best course is to prevent the disease, by judicious precautions. With shat amount of attention which every prudent flock-master should bestow on his sheep, the hardy American Merino is little subject to it. (Good, comfortable, but well-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the sheep in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, is usually a sufficient safeguard ; and after some years of experience, during which I have tried a variety of experiments on this disease, I resort to no other remedies—in other words, I do nothing for those occasional cases of ordinas ry catarrh which arise in my flock, and they never prove fatal. Mauienant Epizootic Carakru.—Kssentially .differing from the pre- ceding in type and virulence is an epidemic, or, more properly speaking, an epizoétic, malady, which as often as once in eight or ten years sweeps over extended’sections of the Northern States, destroying more sheep than all the ether diseases puttogether. It usually makes its appearance in win- ters characterized by rapid and violent changes of temperature. The Northern farmers speak of these as the “ bad winters ” for sheep—fre- quently without assigning any name to the malady. Others term the lat * * a SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 241 ter “ The Distemper,” and others again call it the “ Grub in the Head,’ at- tributing the evil exclusively to the presence of these parasites. The latter, as I shall hereafter show, is an entirely erroneous hypothesis. The winter of 1846-7 was one of these ‘“ bad winters,’ and the de- struction of sheep in New-York, and some adjoining States, was very ex- tensive. Some flock-masters lost half, others. three-quarters, and a few seven-eighths of their flocks. One individual within a few miles of me lost five hundred out of eight hundred—another nine hundred out of one thousand! But these severe losses fell mainly on the holders of the deli- eate Saxon sheep, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the best accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill. I lost about fifty sheep during this winter, and never having seen any de- scription of the pathology of this disease, its diagnosis, its lesions—or, in short, any attempt to ascertain its specific character or proper classifica- tion in our ovine nosology—lI shall attempt to supply some of these omis- sions. Not dreaming then of a publication of this kind, my notes were only taken for private reference, and were not as full as they should be for a veterinary treatise. I mzght supply some of these omissions accurately from recollection, but do not consider it proper thus to endanger the accu- racy of records, which as far as they go, I think may now be implicitly re- . lied on. My post-mortem examinations were made at intervals snatched from other pressing engagements. This fact, and certain preconceived views—which I subsequently found erroneous—prevented me from making those examinations, and more particularly the records of them, as minute and extended as could be wished. I then sought only to convince myself of the true nature and character of the disease. In detailing the results of my experience in the premises, I conceive,it a duty to frankly state the whole facts. The records of mismanagement and error, are often as useful, nay, more so, than those of successful manage- ment, and it is a pitiful pride which prevents any man, who pretends to communicate sea to the public, from giving that public the bene- fit of his examples which are to be avozded, as well as those which are to be followed. Up to February, my i remained apparently perfectly sound, and. they were in good flesh. . Each flock had excellent shelters, were fed re- gularly, etc., and although sheep were beginning to perishsabout the coun- try, my uniform previous impunity in these “ bad winters ”’ led me to en- tertain no apprehensions of the prevailing epizoétic. About the first of February, my sheep went into the charge of a new man, hired upon the ‘highest recommendations. A few days atter, I was called away from home for a week. .The weather during my absence was, a part of the time, very severe. The sheep-house occupied by one flock containing one hundred sheep, was, with the exception of two doors, as close a room as can be made by nailing on the wall-boards vertically and without lapping, as is common on our Northern barns.* “One of the doors was always left.open, to permit the free ingress and egress of the sheep, and for necessary ventila- tion. A half dozen ewes which had been untimely impregnated by a neighbor’s ram, were on the point of lambing, and it being safer to confine the ewes in a warm room over night, the shepherd, instead of removing them to such a room, confined the whole flock in the sheep-house every night, and rendered it warm by closing both doors! After two or three hours, the air must have become excessively impure. On entering the sheep-house, on my return, I was at once struck with the fetid, highly of- fensive smell. A change, too, slight but ominous, had taken place in the * Boards in these cuses shrink so as to leave slight cracks between them. up. 242 SHEEP HUSBANDRY N THE SOUTH. appearance of a part of the flock. They showed no signs of violent colds, ] heard no coughing, ‘sneezing, or labored respiration—and the only indica: | tion of catarrh which I noticed, was a nasal discharge, by a few sheep. But those having this nasal discharge, and some others, looked dull andj drooping ; their eyes ran a little—were partially closed, the caruncle and: lids looked pale—their movements were languid—and the shepherd com- | plained that they did not eat quite so well as the others. The pulse was nearly natural—thouch I thoughi a trifle too languid. Not knowing what the disease was—and fully believing that depletion | by bleeding or physic was not called for, let the disease be what it would. I contented myself with thoroughly purifying the sheep house—seeing that the feeding, etc.,* was managed with the greatest regularity—and closely watching the farther symptoms of disease in the flock. In about a week, the above described symptoms were evidently aggravated, and there had been a rapid emaciation, accompanied with debility, in the sheep first at- | tacked. ‘The countenance was exceeding dull and drooping—the eye’ kept more than half closed—the caruncle, lids, &c. almost bloodless—a , gummy yellow secretion below the eye—thick glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils—appetite feeble—pulse languid—and the muscu- | lar energy greatly prostrated. Nothing unusual was yet noticed about their stools or urime, ; I now had all the diseased sheep removed from the flock, and placed in rooms the temperature of which could be easily regulated. I commenced giving slight tonics and stimulants, such as gentian, gin- ger, etc., but apparently with no material effect. They rapidly grew weak. ° er, stumbled and fell as they walked, and soon became unable to rise. The appetite grew feebler—the mucus at the nose, in some instances, tinged with dark grumous blood—the respiration oppressed, and they died with- in a day or two after they became unable to rise. I proceeded to make some post-mortem exaqninations, which I shall here detail, although, as I have before remarked, they are extremely im- perfect. I was at first inclined to suspect that the primary disease was one of some of the abdominal or thoracic viscera, and this impression was cons firmed by the abnormal condition of these viscera in the first subjects exam- ined. I therefore improperly confined my attention to these, and some of the external tissues, without any examination of the interior organs of the head and néck. I shall give my notes verbatim as they were taken down at the time, whether the appearances detailed have, as I now believe, any connection with the fatal disease or not. ; Case 1st. Old sheep. Much emaciated—mouth and lips covered with yellow froth—yellow waxy matter under eyes—adhesive mucus in and about nostrils. On opening, external tissues appear healthy—two hyda- ‘tids on omentum of the size of a walnut—gall-bladder enlarged and. enor- ‘mously distended with pale, and apparently not properly eliminated bile -—gall-bladder slightly adhering to omentum—mesenteric glands enlarged —other abdominal viscera believed to be normal—feces in rectum thought ‘to indicate a constipated habit—stomachs rather empty. Thoracic viscera healthy. Case 2d. Two years old. External appearances as in Case Ist, with ‘the exception of the yellow froth about the mouth, External tissues healthy. Gall-bladder very small and nearly empty—bile pale and un- -eliminated—mesenteric glands enlarged—schirrous tumor at the j * They had been fed with bright hay three times a day, and turnips. As those affected as 4 -@at their turnips well, I commenced feeding some oats, in addition to the turnips. I believed that ous feed was called for, and I gave it. ; : i | | | r SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 243 | of the cecum and colon of the size of a butternut. Superior lobe of left | lung adherent to pleura costalis—three lobes of right lung ditto, with slight | traces of recentinflammation. Hydro-pericarditis—the pericardium slight- ly inflamed and containing something more than a gill of serum. Case 3d. Old, and in lamb. External appearances and tissues as in Case 2d. Omentum dark-yellowish, or yellowish-brown by deposition of lymph, the result of inflammatory action—gall-bladder precisely as in Case 2d—tabes mesentrica or enlargement of the mesenteric glands, as in the preceding cases. Middle lobe of right lung slightly hepatized, and adher- ent to pleura costalis—hydro-pericarditis, (a gill of serum ,in pericar- dium.) ' C.ise 4th. Yearling ram. External appearances and tissues as in pre ceding cases. ‘Two small hydatids on omentun—gall-bladder as in two preceding cases—mesenteric glands as in preceding cases. Traces of diar- rhea. Thoracic viscera healthy. Case 5th. Lamb. External appearance as in preceding cases—omen- tum as in Case 3d, and small hydatid on it—gall-bladder as in three pre- ceding cases—ditto of mesenteric glands. Thoracic viscera healthy. Case 6th. Four-year-old ram, killed for examination, in the first stage of the disease. Yet strong, appetite good, in fair condition, and exhibited no particular external indications of disease except running at the eyes, a slight gummy deposition below them—and some mucus about the nostrils. Gall-bladder but little better filled than in preceding cases—mesenteric glands same as in preceding cases. Thoracic viscera healthy. Remarks on Preceding Cases—I had started on the supposition that the fatal disease would be found one of the lungs, consequent on ca- tarrh. I thought it m7g/t prove a species of pneumonia, though some of the characteristic symptoms of that disease seemed to be wanting ; but I believed it would rather prove to be phthisis pulmonalis, or pulmonary consumption. ‘To the last dtsease, when it assumes the form of what is popularly called “ quick consumption,” it seemed to me to bear several striking analogies. But the post-mortem examinations above detailed, en- . tirely overthrow these suppositions. Except in Case 2d, there wére no manifestations of recent inflammation of the lungs. The adhesions in Case ‘3d, were evidently referable to a past date. In the other four cases, the lungs were in a healthy condition—exhibiting not a trace of hepatization, tubercles, ulcers, or other abnormal action! In Case 6th, where the dis- ease was in its first observable and therefore inflammatory stage, none of the thoracic viscera presented a particle of inflammation ! Then what was the disease? It was evidently the same in the several cases, yet the lesions disclosed by post-mortem examination were very va- rious. Hence, I was led to conclude that these lesions were the results of symptomatic disease, and that the primary one was not yet discovered. The malady continued to spread. New cases occurred daily—it began to exhibit itself in my other flocks. It had manifestly put on the charac- ter of an epizodtic—or, if I may be permitted to coin a word, an en-zo- otic. I now gave orders to have every sheep removed from the several flocks, as soon as it should be attacked with disease. I also resolved on more ex- tended post-mortem examinations. The following are the notes taken in the immediately sueceeding cases. Case 7th. Yearling. External appearance as in the preceding cases— mal tissues normal—mesenteric glands slightly enlarged—gall-blad- r of natural size, with good bile, and with the natural discolorations about it. Thoracic viscera healthy, with exception of pericardium, which exhibited traces of recent inflammation and contained a gill of serum a 244 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. - The thorax also contained considerable fluid, which escaped without ad- measurement. I now examined the bronchial tubes, the lower portions of the windpipe, esophagus, &e., and found them all in an apparently healthy condition, Before tracing these passages to the throat, I removed the upper portion of the skull and carefully examined the brain and its investing mem- -branes. All seemed in a perfectly normal state. I then made a longitu- dinal section down through the middle part of the whole head, as is shown in fig. 49, and the seat and character of the fatal malady stood at once revealed | : The mucous membrane lining the whole nasal cavity, highly congested and thickened throughout its whole extent, betrayed the most intense in- ‘ flammation. At the junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribri- form plate, (in the ethmoidal cells,) slight ulcers were forming on the mem- braneous lining! The inflammation also extended to the mucous mem- branesof the pharynx, and say three inches of the upper portion ofthe ceso- phagus. Here it rather abruptly terminated. Case 8th. Old, in lamb. External appearances as in preceding cases— abdominal parietes healthy—all the viscera apparently healthy, The in- flammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity, pharynx, and upper portion of cesophagus, as in Case 7th, only not quite so acute—no ulcers on the membrane. Cases 5th and 6th: reviewed. The heads of these two subjects having been accidentally preserved, I examined them, and found the inflammatory action of the mucous membrane same as in cases 7th and 8th. Nor have I a particle of doubt that the same would have been found the case in all the preceding subjects, had they been examined. Nosology and Treatment.—I had little difficulty in coming to the conclu- sion that the primary and main disease was a species of catarrh. It evidently, however, differed from ordinary catarrh in it® diagnosis, and in the extent of the lesions accompanying both the primary and symptomatic dis- eases, ' In no case, even in the first attack, did I notice anything—the fever— the accelerated pulse—the redness about the eyes and nostrils—the cough- ing, etc., accompanying an ordinary severe attack of catarrh. And it was for this reason that I was misled as to the seat of the malady. From the very outset, according to my observations, the type of the disease was typhoid—sinking—rapidly tending to fatal prostration. How to reduce the local inflammation of the membrane lining the nasal cavities, I was at a loss to determine. I was satisfied that there was too much debility to admit of an antiphlogistic course of treatment. Still, to make myself sure, I bled in chree or four cases, and, as I anticipated, it evidently accelerated the fatal catastrophe. Blistering could not be brought near to the seat of the inflammation, excepting on the nose, and independ- ent of the extreme difficulty of treating a blister on a spot so constantly exposed to dirt, the rubbing of hay, etc., in winter feeding, I believed it could have little effect, on an account of the thick nasal bone intervening between it and any portion of the inflamed membrane. And, moreover, the greater portion of the inflamed membrane rested on bones detached, except at one extremity, from all connection with the posal bone. I blew Scotch snuff (through paper tubes) up the nostrils of some of the sheep, for two objects—1, to remove, by sneezing, the mucus, which mechanical- ly, and evidently injuriously, obstructed respiration ; and 2, to produce a new action, by which an increased mucous secretion would be excited, and thus the congested membrane relieved. But, farther than this, I re- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 245 sorted to no local or other treatment designed specifically to reach the local inflammation. The next step was to fix on the constitutional treatment. The liver was evidently in atorpid state. There was a functional derangement in the mesenteric and probably other glands, and a want of activity in the general secretory system. What medicine would stimulate the liver, cause it to secrete the proper quantity as well as quality of bile, change the morbid action of the glands and secretory system, and restore activity and health tothe vital functions generally? In my judgment, nothing promised so well as mercury ; and by its well known effect on the entire secretory sys- tem, it would powerfully tend to relieve the congested membranes of the head. In this opinion I was joined by a learned and experienced physi- cian, who, both as a matter of taste. and humanity, has given no little at- tention to veterinary science and practice. The proto-chloride of mercury (calomel) was supposed to possess too much specific gravity to reach the fourth stomach, with any certainty, administered in a liquid; and if ad- ministered as a ball or pill, it would be almost swre not to reach that stom- ach.* The dissolved bi-chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) was therefore hit upon. One grain was dissolved in two ounces of water, and one-half ounce of the water (or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate) was exhibited in a day, in two doses. As constipation existed in most of the cases, it was thought that the bowels required to be stimulated into“action, and slightly evacuated with a mild laxative. Having noticed in similar cases of debility and torpor of the intestinal canal, that purgation is often followed by a serous diarrhea, difficult to correct, and leading to rapid prostration, and there being no in- testinal irritation to suffer exacerbation, I thought that rhubarb—from its well known tendency to give tone to the bowels, and its secondary effect as a mild astringent—was particularly indicated. It was givenin a decoc- tion—the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at a dose—accompanied with the ordinary carminative and stomachic adjuvants, ginger and gentian, in infusion. To a portion of the sheep I administered the rhubarb and its adjuvants alone ; to others I gave the bi-chloride of mercury im addition to the prece- ding. I employed these courses of treatment in a number of cases, the records of all which have been accidentally destroyed with the exception of the following three. Case 9th. Ram, three years old. Has been drooping and weak, with feeble appetite, for some time—has been separated from flock. Has eaten his oats irregularly for several days, and refused turnips, bran, etc., alto- gether—much emaciated—eyes partly closed, with a yellowish deposit below them——caruncle and lids bloodless—nostrils impeded with adhesive yellowish mucus. March 17th. Weaker than before—would not rise to feed—not seen to eat or ruminate—gait, when helped up, weak and staggering ; eyes near- ly closed—stooled dry, hard feeces—urine dark and reddish. Exhibited rhubarb with ginger and gentian in gruel—blew snuff into nostrils. March 18th, morning—Weaker; refused to eat anything. Exhibited rhubarb, ginger and gentian in gruel. Noon—Urine seemingly bloody : breathing» labored : exhibited corrosive sublimate in gruel. Night—Dying. ~ March 19th, morning—Dead. Post-mortem appearances. Inner edges of both lobes of liver softened about two inches from horizontal fissure: hypropericarditis and hydro- eae reasons which will be hereafter given under the head of “ The Proper Way of Administering edicines.” 246 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. thorax—nearly half pint of serum in latter. Other viscera apparently normal. Lining of superior portion of cesophagus and nasal cavity as in Case 8th. Case 10th. Three-year-old ewe. Drooping for several days: sleepy— emaciated and weak: cannot rise without help: appearances about nos- trils and eyes as in Case 9th: appetite considerable—rumination not ob- served. March 17th. Exhibited ginger and gentian in gruel: blew snuff in nostrils. Latter produced sneezing and a discharge of mucus. 18th: Morning. Weaker and would not eat. Noon. A little live- lier: ate hay and grain; exhibited ginger and gentian. Night. Evac- uations thin: urine of a natural color. 19th. Morning: same. Noon. Exhibited same remedies as before. The same course was pursued for three days: the shéep appearing rather to gain, when one morning it was found dead. No post-mortem examination made. Case 11th. Old ewe. Symptoms precisely as in Case 10th, except an occasional grinding of the teeth. March 17th. Treated exagtly as in Case 9th. Lived three days and appeared to rally a little, then brought forth a lamb and died. Post-mortem examination. Abdominal parietes healthy —gall-bladder filled with pale bile: liver normal in size but softened throughout its entire extent, and pale: portions of it paler and more disor- ganized than others: no parasites in its ducts. Thoracic viscera normal. Sub-acute inflammation of the mucous lining of the nasal cavity, and of the superior portion of the cesophagus. Slight ulcer in the ethmoidal cells. I made various other post-mortem examinations. Some of the viscera in every case were in a more or less abnormal state; but there was the same variety in the locality of the diseased action as in the preceding cases. But so far as the seat and character of the catarrhal affection was concerned, it was uniform in every case. The only difference was in in- tensity, as exhibited by the extent of the lesions. Not a single sheep recovered after the emaciation and debility had pro- ceeded to any great extent! One such only lingered along until shearing. Its wool gradually dropped off: it seemed to rally a little once or twice, and then relapse; and it perished one night ina rain-storm. In the gen- erality of instances the time from the first observed symptoms until death, varied from ten to fifteen days. A few died in a shorter time. Inthe three cases last detailed, the disease had evidently proceeded too far to be arrested by any treatment. I muchregret the loss of the records of the other cases, which would throw farther light on the subject. I thought that the treatment produced favorable effects in some instances— particularly when resorted to at the commencement of the disease. At all events, some of the sheep recovered under the treatment—particularly un- der that including the exhibition of the bi-chloride of mercury—and very few, if any, recovered without any treatment. Candor compels me to say, however, that the results of the treatment were far from being highly sat- isfactory—that the cases of recovery were much fewer than the deaths. I have merely stated what I believe to be the facts in the premises ; I do not feel prepared to make any recommendations. The epizoétic gradually abated toward spring, and my flock have since sbeen in perfect health. Near spring, many farmers found what seemed to them an unusual num- ber of grubs in the head (frontal sinuses) of the sheep which died of the prevailing epizodtic, and therefore they attributed the disease to this cause, and this seems to be the prevailing popular opinion. In some of the latest cases in my flock, I discovered more or less grubs; and, in two or three ‘stances, an unusual number. In other cases where the external symp- mi 3 ——————<— SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 247 see eee toms and the post-mortem appearances were almost identical, no grubs were to be seen. Tor this reason, and others which I shall assign when treating of grub in the head, I conclude that the popular opinion is erro- neous. _ Tue Ror.—The existence and prevalence of the Rot in the United | States have been sufficiently alluded to in Letter XIV. Notwithstanding its comparative rareness here, so far as is known, at present, I think it expedient to give a full description of it. It may be more prevalent hereafter, or it may be found peculiar to localities where sheep have not _ yet been introduced. And whether so or not, as its existence will often be feared and suspected in diseased flocks, it is proper that the flock- master always have it in his power to clearly identify this terrible des- troyer. The diagnosis of the disease is thus given by Mr. Spooner.* “The first symptoms attending this disease are by no means strongly marked ; there is no loss of condition, but rather apparently the contrary; indeed, sheep intended for the butcher have been purposely cothed or rotted in order to increase their fattening properties for a few weeks, a practice which was adopted by the celebrated Bakewell. A want of liveliness and paleness of the membranes generally may be considered as the first symptoms of the disease, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at the corner of the eye. Dr. Harrison observes, ‘when in warm, sultry or rainy weather, sheep that are grazing on low and moist lands feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is fear that they have contracted the rot.’ This suspicion will be farther increased if, a few weeks afterward, the sheep begin to shrink and become flaccid about the loins. By pressure about the hips at this time,a crackling is perceptible now or soon afterward, the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece the skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, and the wool is easily separated from the pelt; and as the disorder advances the skin be- comes dappled with yellow or black spots. To these symptoms succeed increased dullness, loss of condition, greater paleness of the mucous membranes, the eyelids becoming almost white and afterward yellow. ‘This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a watery fluid appears under the skin, which becomes loose and flabby, the woo! coming off readily. The symptoms of dropsy oftert extend over the body, and sometimes the sheep becomes chockered, as it is termed—a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the appearances of the fluid it contains, is in some places called the watery poke. ‘The duration of the disease is uncertain; the animal occasionally dies shortly after becoming affected, but more frequently it extends to from three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and pining away, particularly if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging supervenes.” Mr. Youatt thus describes the post-mortem appearances :t ‘“« When a rotted sheep is examined after death, the whole cellular tissue is found to be mfiltrated, and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft aud flabby: they have the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The mesenteric glands enlarged, and engorged with yellow serous fluid. The belly is frequently filled with water or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere thickened, and the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. The heart is enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. The principal alterations of structure are in the liver. It is pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure ; and on being boiled it will almost. dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is often curiously spotted. In some cases it is speckled like the back of a toad.. Nevertheless, some parts of it are hard and schirrous; others are ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. Here is the decided seat of disease, and it is here that the nature of the malady is to be learned. Jt is inflammation of the liver. . . . The liver attracts the priucipal atten- tion of the examiner : it displays the evident effects of acute and destructive intlammation ; and still more plainly the ravages of the parasite with which its ducts are crowded. Here is plainly the original seat of the disease—the center whence a destructive influence spreads on every side. ... The Fluke—the Fasciola of Linneus—the Distoma hepaticum ut Rhodolphi—the Planaria of Goese—is found in the biliary ducts of the sheep, the goat, the deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, the hog, the dog, the rabbit, the guinea-pig, and various other animals, and even in the human being, It is from three quarters of an inch to an inch ané a quarter in length, and from one-third to half an inch in greatest breadth. R oe * Spooner, p. 391, et supra, ty om ¢ Youatt, p. 447, et supra. 248 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Figs. 56 and 58 represent this parasite of its usual size and appearance, and its resem blance to a minute sole, divested of its fins, is very striking. The head is of a poimted form, round above and flat benéath; and the mouth opens laterally instead of vertically, | Fig. 57. Fig. 58. “% THE FLUKE. There are no barbs or tentacule, as described by some authors. The eyes are placed on the most prominent part of the head, ard are very singularly constructed (fig. 57). They have the bony ring of the bird. . ... The anastomoses of the blood-vessels which ramify over the head are plainly seen through a tolerable microscope. The circulating. and digestive organs are also evident, and are seated almost immediately below the head. The situation of the heart is seen in fig. 56, and the two main vessels evidently springing from it, and extending through almost the whole length of the fluke. Smaller blood-vessels, if so they may be called, ramify from them on either side. The convolutions of the bowels appear in fig. 59, and the vent, both for the faeces and the ova, and probably for the connection be- tween the sexes, is on the under part, and almost close to the neck... . . In the beliy, if so it may be called, are almost invariably a very great number of oval particles, hundreds of which, taken together, are not equal in bulk to a grain of sand. They are of a pale red color, and are supposed to be the spawn or eggs of the parasite. 4. . . There can be no doubt that the eggs are frequently received in the food. Having been discharged with the dung, they remain on the grass or damp spot on which they may fall, retaining their vital principle for an indefinite period of time. . . . They find not always, az they find not at all, a proper nidus in the places in which they are deposited; but taken up with the food, escaping the perils of rumination, and threading every vessel and duct until ced arrive at the biliary canal, they burst from their shells, and grow, and probably multi- 7 Leeuwenhoék says that he has taken 870 flukes out of one liver, exclusive of those that were cut to pieces or destroyed in opening the various ducts. In other cases, and where the sheep have died of the rot, there were not found more than ten or twelve... . Then, is the fluke worm the cause or the effect of rot? To a certain degree both. They aggravate the disease; they perpetuate a state of irritability and disorganization, whick must necessarily undermine the strength of any animal. .... Notwithstanding all this, however, if the fluke follow the analogy of other entoza and parasites, it is the effect and not the cause of rot... .. ‘ The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or state of the pasture. It is con- fined to wet seasons, or to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. It has reference to the evaporation of water, and to the presence and decomposition of mbist vege- table matter. It is rarely or almost never seen on dry or sandy soils and in dry seasons ; it is rarely wanting on boggy or poachy ground, except when that ground is dried by the heat of the summer’s sun, or completely covered by the winter’s rain. On the same farm there are certain fields on which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There are others that seldom or never give the rot. The soil of the first is found to be of a pervious nature, on which wet cannot long remain—the second takes a long time to dry, or is rarely or NEVE SO. «6 sys Some seasons are far more favorable to the development of the rot than others, and there is no manner of doubt as to the character of those seasons. After a rainy summer or 4 moist autumn, or during a wet winter, the rot destroys like a pestilence. A return and a soutinuance of dry weather materially arrests its murderous progress. Most of the sheep ¥ | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 249 that had been already infected die ; but the number of those that are lost soon begins to be materially diminished. It is, therefore sufficiently plain that the rot depends upon, or is caused by, the existence of moisture. A rainy season ana a tenacious soil are fruitful or inevitable sources of it... .. The mischief is effected with almost incredible rapidity.” a : . . . ’ Mr. Youatt here gives various instances to prove that rot is engendered in a few hours and even minutes.* He farther says : “Tt is an old observation that all pasture that is suspected to be unsound, the sheep should be folded early in the evening, before the first dews begin to fall, and should not be released from the fold until the dew is partly evaporated... .. Then the mode of prevention—that With which the farmer will have most to do, for the sheep having become once decidedly rotten, neither medicine nor management will have much power in arresting the evil—consists in altering the character of as much of the dan- gerous ground as he can, and keeping his sheep from those pastures which defy all his attempts to improve them. ... . If all unnecessary moisture is removed from the soil, or if the access of air is cut off by the flooding of the pasture, no poisonous: gas has existence, and the sheep continue sound. .... The account of the treatment of rot must, to a considerablé extent, be very unsatis- factory. ”’ Mr. Youatt proceeds to recommend the sale of sheep to the butcher when they are found to be rotted! Rot hastens for a short period the accumulation of fat. Bakewell—a man whose name is associated with the exhibition of prodigious abilities in the improvement of stock, but, in my mind tarnished also.by an equal exhibition of selfishness and absolute meanness—displayed, a characteristic sagacity in purposely rotting his sheep to avail himself of the above circumstance!t It is with pain [ make the following quotation from Youatt—the only thing of such a char- acter | remember to have noticed in his voluminous works: “Tt is one of the characters of the rot to hasten, and that to a strange degree, the accu mulation of flesh and fat. Let not the farmer, however, push this experiment too far, Let him carefully overlook every sheep daily, and dispose of those which cease to make pro gress, or which seem beginning to retrograde. It has already been stated that the meat of the rotted sheep, in the early stage of the disease, zs not like that of the sound one; it is pale and not so firm; but it is not unwholesome (!) and it is coveted by certain epicures, whe, perhaps, are not altogether aware of the real state of the animal(!!) All this is matter of calculation, and must be left to the owner of the sheep; except that, if the breed is not of very considerable value, and the disease has not proceeded to emaciation or other fearful symptoms, the first loss will probably be the least; and if the owner can get any- thing like a tolerable price for them, the sooner they are sent to the butcher, or consumed at home, the better. Supposing, however, that their appearance is beginning to tell tales about them, and they are too far gone to be disposed of in the market or consumed at home, are they to be abandoned to their fate? No: far from it.” Conceding to Mr. Youatt the whole benefit of that saving clause about ‘consumption at home,” the above sentence is one which I could well wish stricken from his valuable work. The sale of the meat of diseased animals, for human consumption, is abhorrent to decency and propriety, and there is not a respectable American family which would not revolt at the idea of either selling or consuming such meat.. Of the treatment of rot, Mr. Youatt continues: “Tf it is suited to the convenience of the farmer, and such ground were at all within his reach, the sheep should be sent to a salt-marsh in preference to the best pasture on the best farm. There it will feed on the salt incrusted on the herbage, and pervading the pores of every blade of grass. A healthy salt-marsh permits not the sheep to become rotten which graze upon it; and if the disease is not considerably advanced, it cures those which are sent upon it with the rot.... Are there any indications of fever—heated mouth, heaving flanks, or failing appetite? Is the general inflammation beginning to have a determination to that part on which the disease usually expend chiefest virulence? Is there yellow- RS * Youatt, p, 453, ie: t So say both Spooner and Youatt. % Qt : a 250 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ness of the lips and of the mouth, of the eyes, and of the skin? At the same time, ars ‘there no indications of weakness and decay? Nothing to show that the constitution is ! fatally undermined? Bleed—abstract, according to the circumstances of the case, eight, , ten, or twelve ounces of blood. There is no disease of an inflammatory character at its — commencement which is not benefited by early bleeding. To this let a dose of physic : . . : a encceed—two or three ounces of Epsom salts, administered in the cautious manner so fre- — quently recommended ; and to these means let a change of diet be immediately added— geod hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff, in the straw-yard. The physic having operated, or an additional dose, perchance, having been administered — in order to quicken the action of the first, the farmer will look out for farther means and appliances. .... Two or three grains of calomel may be given daily, but mixed with aalf the quantity of opium, in order to secure its béneficial, and ward off its injurious effects on the ruminant. ‘To this should be added—a simple and cheap medicine, but that which is the sheet-anchor of the practitioner here—common salt. .... In the first place, it is a purgative inferior to few, when given in a full dose; and itis a tonic as well as a purgative. ..» A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot. The doses should be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night, When the inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to the salt, and there are none superior to the géntian and ginger roots; from one to two drachms of each, finely powdered, may be added to each dose of the salt... . . The sheep having a little recov- ered from the disease, should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and should always have salt within their reach... .. The rot is not infectious.” Diarrnea.—This disease is often more properly a xervous than a febrile one—in the former case, a morbid increase of the peristaltic motion of the bowels—in the latter, an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines. -But for the purpose of viewing it in connection with dysen- tery, to which it is sometimes closely allied, and into which it often runs -—and which is clearly a febrile disease—it will be described here. Common diarrhea, purging, or scours, manifests itself simply by the copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. ‘It is brought on by a sudden change from dry feed to green, or by the introduction of im- proper substances into the stomach. It is important to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery. In diarrhea there is no apparent general fever; the appetite remains good; the stools are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime (mucus) and blood; the odor of the faeces is far less offensive than in dysentery ; the general condition of the animal is but little changed. Treatment.—C onfinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual re- turn to it, oftentimes suffice. I have rarely administered anything to grown sheep, and never have lost one from this disease. To lambs, especially if attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the purging is severe, and especially if any mucus is observed with the feces, the feculent mat- ter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle cathartic—as half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed-oil, or half an ounce of Epsem salts toa lamb. This should always be followed by an astringént, and in nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the first instance. I gener- ally administer, say, + oz. of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk, once a day for two or three days, at the end of which, and frequently after the first dose, the purging will have ordinarily abated or entirely ceased. The following is the formula of the English ‘“ sheep’s cordial ” usually prescribed in cases of diarrhea by the English veterinarians, and there can be no doubt it is a safe and excellent remedy—better probably than sim- ple chalk and milk, in severe cases: Take of prepared chalk one ounce, powdered catéchu half an ounce, powdered ginger two drachms, and pow- dered opium half a drachm ; mix them with halfa pint of peppermint wa- ter—give two or three table-spoonsfull morning and night to a grown sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb. . _ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 25] Dysrentery.—Dysentery is caused by an inflammation of the mucous 01 inner coat of the larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their secretions, and a morbid alteration in the character of those secretions. It is frequently ¢»nsequent on that form of diarrhea which is caused by an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines. The inflam- mation extends throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in viru- lence, and it becomes dysentery—a disease frequently dangerous and ob- | stinate in its character, but fortunately not common among sheep in this _part of the United States. Its diagnosis différs from that of diarrhea in _ several readily observed particulars. There is evident fever; the appe- tite is capricious, ordinarily very feeble; the stools are as thin or even thin- _ner than in diarrhea, but much more adhesive in consequence of the pres- ence of large quantities of mucus. As. the erosion of the intestines ad- _ vances, the feces are tinged with blood ; their odor is intolerably offensive ; and the animal rapidly wastes away. The course of the disease extends from a few days to several weeks. Treatment.—I have seen but a few well-defined cases of dysentery, and in the half-dozen instances which have occurred in my own flock, _Thave usually administered a couple of purges of linseed-oil, followed by chalk and milk as in diarrhéa (only doubling the dose of chalk), and a few drops of laudanum, say twenty or thirty—with ginger and gentian. Ac- cording to my recollection, aboutgne-third of the cases have proved fatal, but they have usually been old and feeble sheep. Farther inquiry satisfies me that moderate bleeding should be resorted to in the first or inflammatory stage of the disease, or whenever decided febrile symptoms are found to be present. Mr. Youatt prescribes bleeding, cathartics, mashes, gruel, &c. He Says : “Two doses of physic having been administered, the practitioner will probably have re- course to astringents. The sheep’s cordial will probably supply him with the best; and to this, tonics may soon begin to be added—an additional quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the cordial, and gentian powder will be a useful auxiliary. With this—as an excellent stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the mouths of the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels which open on the inner surface of the in- testine—a half grain of strychnine may be combined. . . . . Smaller doses should be given for three or four days.”’ u GarceT—Is an inflammation of the udder, with or without gene- ral inflammation. Where simply an inflammation of the udder, it is usual- ly caused by a too great accumulation of milk in the latter prior to lamb- ing, or in consequence of the death of the lamb. It is not the serious mala- dy, here, described by the English veterinarians. . Treatment.—Drawing the milk partly from the bag so that the hungry lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, and bathing it a few times in cold* water, usually suffices. If the lamb is dead. the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing intervals, washing the udder for some time in cold water at each milking. In cases of obdurate induration, the udder should be anointed with ‘odiné ointment. If there is general fever in the system, an ounce of Epsom salts may be given. NERVOUS DISEASES. ApropLexy.—Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of the best conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead, Bi di be * The English veterinarians recommended warm fomentations. & 202 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. SS The symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted, The sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself. on the ground and suddenly rises, and dies in a few moments. Such} cases occur but now and then, and none.have ever occurred in my flock, io my knowledge. I have therefore had no opportunity of observing the | diagnosis, or making dissections. There can be little doubt, however, that the disease is apoplexy. | Desirous to raise the condition of a poorish flock (the poorest sheep ¥ culled from my other flocks) somewhat too rapidly, perhaps, some winters | since, in addition to good hay three times a day, I &rdered them fed a gill | of oats per head; and as rapidly as it could be done without bringing on | scours, | had them fed a liberal allowance of Swedish turnips—about as | much as they would eat up clean. They gained perceptibly. One day a | sheep was reported to me as having become suddenly blind and motion- | less. I immediately exanjined it. It was in good fair condition. It stood , with its head a little down—its eyes were glassy and staring—it was stone blind! The evening before nothing unusual had been perceived about it. 4 I bled it at the inner angle of each eye, and the blood had scarcely started © before its sight began to return. In less than a minute it walked off | among its companions. It had no relapse. Another case was soon re- |} orted; I treated it in the same way, and with the same apparent effect. : he symptoms soon returned, however,*gnd I bled again. ‘This appeared | to produce but a partial restoration of the sight. The sheep would not | follow its companions into and out of the sheep-house. When approach- | ed, it would run about knocking its head against fences, &c. It lost con- | dition, finally became unable to rise, and died. Another one, after being | bled, fed regularly, but its sight was never restored. It lived along thus | for three or four weeks, and then fell into a hole containing water, and | perished. Another apparently recovered, all but sight, and continued in my flock for more than a year afterward. The eye was bright and clear, | as in gutta serena, and the blindness would not be suspected, unless the | sheep was cornered up. Then, if the catchers remained momentarily still, it would as soon run into their arms or against the fence, as in any other direction. Perhaps fifteen cases occurred. In three or four instan- ces the blind sheep, when they moved, constantly traveled round in a circle. In about as many cases, they twisted themselves about without progressing, the head was drawn round toward one side, they fell, ground: their teeth, and their mouths were covered with a frothy mucus. In neither of the latter description of cases did bleeding at the inner angles of tne syes afford anything more than temporary relief. They all proved’ fatal. At the time these things occurred, I regret to say that I had paid but very little attention to veterinary science, and had never made a dissec- | tion. I did nothing but bleed at the inner angles of the eyes, and made no post-mortem examinations. Taking into consideration the feed and the symptoms, there can be but little doubt, I think, that all these cases were referable to a determination of blood to the brain. The sheep were not fat, but the secretions of — blood were rapidly and powerfully increased by rich and abundant food. Treatment.—lf the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the respira- | tion labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the pulse strong and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial or entire loss of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of apoplexy which require immediate and decided treatment. As the good effects of vene- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 253 — in all cases, and especially in this, depend not only upon the amount of blood abstracted, but also upon the rapidity with which it is drawr from the veins, the eye-veins are not the proper ones to open. They are so small that the blood flows slowly, and if cut directly across, as is usually done, they soon contract, and the flow of blood is arrested before a suff- | cient quantity has been abstracted. It is better to have recourse at once to the jugular vein. The animal should be bled until an obvious constitu tional effect is produced—the pulse lowered and the rigidity of the muscles relaxed. An aperient should at once follow bleeding, and if the animal is strong and plethoric, a sheep of the size of the Merino would require at least two ounces of Epsom salts, and one of the large mutton sheep more. If this should fail to open the bowels, half an ounce of the salts should be be given, say, twice a day. © . In the milder cases which I have mentioned as occurring in my own flock, I think had I bied more thoroughly, in the very first attack, and given a mild aperient of Epsom salts, most of the sheep would have re- covered. Purenitis, Teranus, Epimepsy, Patsy, Rasres.—I never have seen a well-defined case of either of these maladies among our sheep, though, in a few instances, something which struck me at the time as somewhat analogous to paralysis or palsy. Palsy is a diminution or entire loss of the powers of motion in some part of the body. I have occasionally seen, in the winter, poor lambs, or poor pregnant ewes, or poor feeble ewes immediately after yeaning in the spring, lose the power of walking or standing rather too suddenly to have it satisfactorily referable to in- creasing debility. The animal seems to have lost all strength in its loins, and the hind-quarters are powerless. It makes ineffectual attempts to rise, and cannot stand if placed upon its feet. Treatment.—Warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing, might raise the patient, but in nineteen cases out of twenty it would be more econo- mical and equally humane, to at once deprive it of life. Coxic.—Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lying down and rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore and hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground. They appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently die, unless relieved. This disease is popularly known as,the “ stretches,” and is erroneously attributed to introsusception of an intestine. Some farmers worry the sheep with a dog, and others hold it up by the hind legs, to effect a cure! I consider it a sort of flatulent colic induced by costiveness. Treatment.—Half an ounce of Epsom ealts, a drachm of ginger, and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. The salts alone, however, will effect the cure, as will an equivalent dose of linseed-oil, or even hog’s lard. 254 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER XVI. DISEASNS AND THEIR TREATMENT—(Continued.) ‘Cachectic Diseases...Hydatid on the Brain—diagnosis—common methods of treating it—treatment of | French and English veterinarians...The Pelt Rot...Local diseases...Grub in the head—the nature of | the disease, if one—erroneous popular opinions—location of the grub—description of the fly (strug || ovis)—method of attacking the sheep—cunduct of the sheep—appearance of the larva—its” habits—the | chrysalis—the larva found in the heads of healthy sheep—not believed to be the cause or source of fatal ! disease—Mr. Bracy Clark’s and Mr. Youatt’s opinion—method of preventing and of expelling the grub... \| Scab—nature of it—habits of the acari—description of them—contagiousness of the disease—post-mor- | tem appearances—treatment...Erysipelatous scab—treatment...Disease of Biflex Canal—nature and §) treatment. ..-Hoof-ail—first indications—erroneous statements of foreign veterinarians—of Mr. Youatt— » author's experience with it—diagnosis—chronic hoof-ail—ean it be cured ?—difficulties—preparation of the foot—ordinary treatment—proper treatment—cost of curing a flock—cheap partial remedies—sug- | gestions—contagiousness of the disease—how communicated...Fouls—cause and treatment...Broncho- cele or goitre—diagnosis—treatment- .-.Miscellaneous diseases...Poison from eating Laurel—symptoms— treatment. :.Sore Face—cause and treatment... -Loss of cud—not a disease... Hoove—cause—symptoms— cure...Obstruction of Gullet, or choking—treatment...Fractures—treatment, &c...Method ot adminis- tering medicine into the stomach...Method of bleeding...The place of feeling the pulse...List of medi- cines employed in treating the diseases of sheep-.-.Ale---Aloes...Alum.--Antimony...Arsenic...Blue Vitriol... Camphor....Carraway seeds....Catechu...-Chalk...Corzosive Sublimate.-.Digitalis...Epsom Salts...Gentian...Ginger...lodine...Lard...Lime, carbonate of...Lime, chloride of....Linseed Oil... Mercury..-Muriatic Acid...Nitrate of Potash...Nitrate of Silver...Nitric Acid...Opium...Pepper... Pimento...Rhubarb...Salt...Sulphate of Iron...Sulphur....Sulphuric Acid....Spirit of Tar....Tar... Tobacco...Turpentine...Verdigris. ..Zinc. CACHECTIC DISEASES. Hypatip oN THE Brain.—This disease, known as turnsick, sturdy, staggers, etc., is spoken of by Chancellor Livingston, and other writers of reputation, as having occurred in this country within their own obser- vation. I have never seen a case of it, and shall be obliged, therefore, to make use of the descriptions of others. Mr. Spooner says : “The symptoms are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating from the flock, a wandering and blwe appearance to the eye, and sometimes partial or total blindness; the sheep appears unsteady in its walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop across the field, and after the disease has existed for some time will almost constantly move round in a circle—there seems, indeed, to be an aberration of the intellect of the animal. These symptoms, though rarely all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently marked to prevent the disease being mistaken for any other. On examining the brain of sturdied sheep, we find what appears to be a watery bladder, termed a hydatid, which may be either small or of the size of a hen’s egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozodns has been termed by naturalists the hydatis polycephalus cerebralis, which signifies the many-headed hydatid of the brain; these heads being irregularly distributed on the sur- face of the bladder, and on the front part of each head there is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of attachment by forming a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus by the aid of the hooks the parasite is‘nourished. The coats of the hydatid are disposed in several layers, one of which appears to possess a muscular power. These facts are developed by the microscope, which also discovers numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane. The fluid im the bladder is usually clear, but occasionaily turbid, and then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms. ” According to Mr. Youatt, this disease attacks many of the weakly lambs in the English flocks. It usually appears, he remarks, “ during the first year of the animal’s life, and when he is about or under six months old.” It succeeds a “a severe winter and a cold, wet spring.”— He says: “If there is only one parasite inhabiting the brain of a sturdied sheep, its situation is very uncertain. It is mostly found beneath the pia-mater, lying upon the brain, and in or upon the scissure between the two hemispheres. If it is within the brain, it is generally in one of the ventricles, but occasionally in the substance of the brain, and, in a few instances, in that of the cerebellum. .... SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ‘- 255 This is a singular disease; but it is a sadly prevalent and fatal one in wet and moorish districts. . «.. It is much more fatal in France than in Great Britain. It is supposed | PACE! ste The means of cure are exceedingly limited. They are confined to the removal or des | truction of the vesicle. Medicine is altogether out of the question here.” “Many barbarous methods have been adopted to rupture the hydatid, | which I will not disgust you by repeating. Mr. James Hogg thrust a wire up the nostrils of the sheep, and through the plate of the ethmoid bone ito the brain, and thus, as he assures us, punctured the hydatid and “cured many asheep!”’* This practice, which I cannot characterize otherwise than as atrocious, is justly condemned by Mr. Youatt. The dotted lines d, e, and d, d, in fig, 49, show how limited a portion of the _ brain could be reached with a wire or trochar by piercing the plate of the _ ethmoid bone—the only portion of the walls of the skull thin enough to be so pierced by a trochar introduced at the nostrils. Mr. Parkinson “ pulled the ears very hard for some time,” and then cut them off close to the head ! t Where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, singularly enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and finally the part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft enough to yield under the pressure of the finger. When such a spot is discovered, «the English veterinarians usually dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a portion of the bone, carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain, and then, if possible, remove the hydatid whole —or, failing to do this, remove its fluid contents. The membranes and integuments are then restored to their position, and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. The French veterinarians usually simply punc- ture the cranium and the cist with a trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, permit the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made. A com- mon awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture. The puncture would be the preferable method for the unskilled practitioner. But when we take into consideration the hazard and cruelty attending the operation at best, and the conceded liability of a return of the malady—the growth of new hydatids—it becomes apparent that, in this country, it would not be worth while, unless in the case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to resort to any other remedy than depriving the miserable animal of life. Peitt Rot—lIs classified as a disease by Mr. Livingston, and various other American writers. Mr. Livingston says : “This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is in fact a different and less dangerous disease ; in this the wool will fall off, and leave the sheep nearly naked ; but it is attended with no soreness, though a white crust will cover the skin from the wool which has dropped. It generally arises from hard keeping aud much exposure to cold and wet. and, in. fact, the animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers by the loss of its coat. The remedy is full feeding, and a warm stall, and anointing the hard part of the skin with tar, oil, and butter.” f I have seen frequent cases of the pelt rot, but never have done any- thing for it, scarcely considering it a disease. If the condition of a poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the winter, the wool is very apt to drop off, and if yet cold, the sheep will require warm shelter. * Hogg on Sheep, p. 59. 1 Parkinson on Sheep, vol. 1, p. 412. } Livingstow on Sheep, Appendix, p. 179, 256 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LOCAL DISEASES. “Grup in THE Heap.”’—TIf the “ grubs” found in the frontal and max- | ‘illary sinuses of the sheep actually, in any case, produce disease, it must be, — in my judgment, by the irritation and inflammation which they induce in the mucous membrane which lines those cavities. The popular theory that the grub causes death by boring through the bony walls which sur- round the brain, and attacking the substance of the brain itself, is, it seems to mé, utterly absurd. The only part of the skull where it could even be fancied that such a perforation would be practicable, is the cribriform plate | of the ethmoid bone (11 of fig. 49,) which is very thin and is pierced with | numerous small holes for the passage of nerves. But an inspection of the same figure will show that the sinus where the parasite is generally found , lodged, is not in immediate juxtaposition with the cribriform plate, and that a passage from the former to the brain, would lead directly through , the frontal bone—the thickest one of the whole cranium. I neversaw but one grub in the cells of the ethmoid bone near the cribriform plate, and that, I judged at the time, was thrown there accidentally by the violence | attending the opening of the head.* But if the grub actually penetrates to the brain, the fact would readily be disclosed after death. The full- grown grub would necessarily leave an orifice of considerable diameter | through the skull. Who has seen any such orifice in the cribriform plate or elsewhere ? Who has seen axy orifice but the natural ones of the crib- riform plate, filled with the nerves which pass throughthem? The farmer splits open the head of a sheep with an ax, cutting, mangling and scatter- ing its contents, by the repeated blows necessary to effect his purpose.— Under such circumstances grubs are sometimes found scattered through all the nasal cavities—over and among the brains—and on the ground.— The proof is just as strong, here, that prior to opening the head, some of the grubs were on the ground, as that they were in the brain ! The “grub ” of popular parlance is the larva of the Qistrus ovis, or gad-fly of the sheep. The latter is represented of the nat- v ural size in figures 60 and 61. It is composed of five rings. It is tiger-colored on the back and belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of brown. The wings are striped. The comparative propor- ions of the head, corslet, wings, etc. are sufficient- le seen in the cuts. He who desires a full, scien- | tific description of these insects, or who would SHEEP GAD-FLY. fully investigate their habits and economy, will do well to consult the excellent monograph of them by Mr. Bracy Clark the celebrated veterinarian. The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the nos trils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this, most common in July and Au- gust, are always indicated by the sheep, which collect in close clumps with their heads inward and their noses thrust close to the ground, and ¢en- to it, if any loose dirt or sand is within their reach. If the fly succeeds in depositing its egg, it is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the young grubs, or lary, crawl up the nose, finding their devious way to the sinuses, where, by means of their tentacule, they at- tach themselves to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. During the ascent of the larve, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and of- ten dashes away from its companions wildly over the field. The larve re- * The head was cloven with an az! Itis proper to say, however, that various writers speak of having found the grubs in the ethmoid cells, and indeed in all the nasal cavities. ‘ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 257 qain in the sinuses feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and hpparently creating no farther annoyance, until ready to assume their pu- ps form in the succeeding spring. Figures 62 and 63 give the shape and an upper and under view of the full-grown larva. THE “GRUB” OR LARVA OF THE SHEEP GAD-FLY. The body consists of eleven rings, colorless in the young grub, but tne elevated portions growing darker with age, and becoming a@lark brown when the full size is attained. There are round spots of a still darker polor on each of these bands. At the edges of the rings are a few short Dis. and lower down some round darkish spots, as shown in fig. 62.— 5maj red spines, as shown in fig. 63, cover the space between the rings bn the belly. The remainder of the body (with the exception of the poste- ior stigmata) is white. The tentaculz, as well as certain appendages on bach side of the anus, the purposes of which have not been discovered, are seen in fig 63. | The larva having remained in the sinuses through the fall and winter, abandons them as the warm weather advances in the latter part of spring. {t crawls down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement ‘han when it originally astended, drops on the ground, and rapidly bur- tows into it. Ina few hours its skin has contracted, become of a dark brown color, and it has assumed the form of a chrysalis, as seen in fig. 64. Dr rather, this figure exhibits the shell of the chrysalis, af- ter the escape of the fly ; and fig. 65 shows the upper ex- M8o* Fig. 65. tremity or head of the pupa, detached by the fly in its es- pape. The experiments of Valisnieri go to show that the Cs- trus ovis never eats—and this is the received opinion.— The male, after impregnating two or three females, dies, and the latter having deposited their ova in the nostrils of the sheep, also soon perish. The larva in the heads of sheep may, and probably do add to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which Pack the membraneous lining of the nasal cavities ; and they are, as we have seen, a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first instance, when ascending to and descending from their lodging-place in the head. ‘But in the interval between these events—extending over a period of jeveral months—not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoy- nce at their presence, or reveals to the veterinarian whether they exist in the sinuses or not. It would be very difficult to believe that all the local irritation which these parasites could cause, would be sufficient to termi- . nate life, and, so far as my observation has extended, post-mortem exam- ination discloses no lesions which would in anywise sanction such belief. [The laryee, moreover, are found, at the proper season, in the heads of near- jty all sheep—the healthy as well as the diseased—and I never have been ‘able to ascertain that the number of themis greater, on the average, in the heads of those sheep which were supposed to have fallen victims to their attacks, than in the heads of perfectly healthy sheep slaughtered for the table. And to prove that the popular ideas on the supject are but vague SHELL OF CHRYSALIS. ql 258 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. | and crude—not the result of that long and close comparison of symptoms results, and post-mortem appearances, which would give weight to th, opinions of the most unerudite—we have but to notice a few of the case, popularly referred to the “ grub in the head.” A sheep in the highes condition and apparent health leaps into the air two or three times, an suddenly dies, and if a grub can be found in the cavities of the head, tha is the undoubted destroyer. Another wastes away for months and die} lingeringly, a mere skeleton, and the same proof establishes the same fac' Whether there has been fever or no fever—whether there has been obst: nate constipation, or equally obstinate dysentery—whether one viscus ©, another exhibit traces of abnormal action—whether the disease has bee acute or chronic—in a word, whatever the form or character of the ma ady—however diametrically different the diagnosis and the lesions, it is clear case of “ grub in the head,” if two or three of those parasites ar | found there ! | Mr. Bracy Clark and Mr. Youatt, so far from regarding the larva of th| CEstrus ovis as the cause of a fatal disease, suggest that they may eve | promote the health of the sheep by diminishing-the tendency to cérebr:| disease—especially determinations of blood—by establishing counter irr | tation! Mr. Spooner does not speak of their producing fatal effects i} any instances, nor am I aware that any late scientific veterinarians do. | / Treatment—Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease; some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means—| One simple way of effecting this is by turning up with a plow a furrow o) earth in the sheep pasture. Into this the sheep will thrust their noses 0 | the approach of the Céstrus, and thus many of them escape its attacks.— Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep with tar occasionally, durin | the proper season—the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Othex compel the sheep to smear their own noses every week or two, by feec ing them their salt sprinkled over tar. Blacklock says that the larvae ma_| be dislodged even from the sinuses, by blowing tobacco smoke for som| moments through the tail of a pipe into each nostril. I have never trie | the experiment. Lf — ’ Tue Scas—The scab is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mang] _ In horses and the itch in men. It is caused and propagated by a minut} insect, the acarus. M. Walz, a German veterinarian, who has throw} great light on the habits of these parasites, says: ~ “Tf one or more female acari are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, they quickly trav to the root of it, and bury themselves in the skin, the place at which they penetrated beir| scarcely visible, or only distinguished by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelfth day ,| little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes its color, and has | greenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day break | and the mothers again appear, with their littke ones attached to their feet, and covered b a portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. These little ones in| mediately set to work, and penetrate thé neighboring skin, and bury themselves beneath i and find their proper nourishment, and grow and propagate, until the poor animal has myr, ads of them to prey on him, and it is not wonderful that he should speedily sink. Some c| the male acari were placed on the sound skin of a sheep, and they too burrowed their wa | and disappeared for a while, and the pustule in due time arose ; but the itching and th] scab soon disappeared without the employment of any remedy. | The figures on the next page are copied from M. Walz’s work : The female acarus brings forth from eight to fifteen young at a litter. ‘The scab is often produced spontaneously in England by mismanage ment of various kinds, such as “bad keep, starvation, hasty driving| dogging, and exposure afterward to cold and wet ;” and it spreads rapid] | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 259 by contagion. It is very prevalent there, and annually causes an immense loss in the wool and flesh of the British flocks. In the United States it is comparatively little known, and so far as I am able to learn, never origin- ates spontaneously. It is a singular fact that short-wooled sheep, like the : Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. THE ACARUS WHICH CAUSES SCAB. Fig. 67.—The acari of their natural size on a dark ground. . ¢ Fig. 66.—The female of 366 times the natural size, larger than the male, of an oval form, and provided with eight feet, four before and four behind. a.—The sucker. 5. b. b. b.—The four anterior feet, with their trumpet-like appendices. c. c-—The two interior hind feet. d. d—The two outward feet, the extremities of which are provided with some long hairs, and on the other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. To these hairs the young ones adhere, when they first escape from the pustule, e.—The tail, containing the anus and vulva, garnished with some short hairs. Fig. 68.—The male on its back, and seen by the same magnifying power. a.—Thg sucker. : b. b. b. b6.—The fore-legs with their trumpet-like appendices, as seen in the female. c. c.—The two hind-legs, with the same appendices and hairs. d.—The rudiments of the abdominal feet. e.—The tail. Merino, are much less subject to its attacks, and this is probably one reason for its little comparative prevalence in the United States. Mr. Youatt observes: ‘“‘ The old and unhealthy sheep are first attacked, and long-wovled sheep in preference to the short; a healthy short-wooled sheep will long bid defiance to the contagion, or probably escape it altogether.” It spreads from individual to individual and from flock to flock, not only by means of direct contact, but by the acari left on posts, stones, and other substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. Healthy sheep are therefore liable to contract the malady ifturned on pastures pre- viously occupied by scabby sheep, though some considerable time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter. The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs it- self with violence against trees, stones, fences, &c. It scratches itself with its feet, and bites its sores and tears off its wool with its teeth. As the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms scabs covering red, inflamed sores. The sores constantly extend, increasing the misery of the tortured animal. If unrelieved, he pines away and soon perishes. Ihave never had an opportunity to observe the post-mortem appear- ances. Mr. Youatt says: é “‘ The post-mortem appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence of a greatnumber of worms. The liver is occasionally schirrous, and the spleen enlarged ; and there are frequently serous effu we) y 260 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. sions in the belly, and sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy betweex } the digestive and the cutaneous systems.” | Treatment-—About twelve years since, I purchased 150 fine-wooled | sheep just driven into the county from a considerable distance. J placed | them on a farm then owned by me, in another town, and did not see them. for about three weeks. One of my men then reported to me that the sheep) were amiss—that they were shedding off their wool—sore spots were be-| ginning to show on them—and that they rubbed themselves against the’ fence-corners, &c. Though I had never seen the scab, I took it for granted | that this was the disease. No time was to be lost, as I had 700 other) sheep on the farm—though fortunately, thus far, the new comers had been | kept entirely separate from them. Barely looking into Mr. Livingston’s, work for a remedy, I provided myself with an ample supply of tobacco: and set out. The sheep had been shorn, and their backs were covered | with scabs and sores. ‘They evidently had thescab. I had a large potash kettle sunk partly in the ground as an extempore vat, and an unweighed quantity of tobacco put to boiling in several other kettles. ‘The only care was to have enough of the decoction, as it was rapidly wasted, and to have it strong enough. A little spirits of turpentine was occasionally thrown on, the decoction, say to every third or fourth sheep dipped. It was neces-| sary to use it sparingly, as, not mixing with the fluid and floating on the surface, too much of it otherwise came in contact with the sheep. Not at-/ tending to this at first, two or three of the sheep are thrown into great ag~ ony, and appeared to be on the point of dying. I had each sheep caught, and its scabs scoured off, by two men who rubbed them with stiff shoe- brushes, dipped in a suds of tobacco-water and soft soap. The two men! then dipped the sheep all over in the large kettle of tobacco-water, rub-' bing and kneading the sore spots with their hands while immersed in the. fluid. The decoction was so strong that many of the sheep appeared to be sickened either by immersion or by its fumes ; and one of the men who dipped, though a tobacco-chewer, vomited, and became so sick that his place had to be supplied by another. The effect on the sheep was almost magical! The sores rapidly healed. the sheep gained in condition, the new wool immediately started, and } never had a more perfectly healthy flock on my farm. Though adminis: tered with little reference to economy, the remedy was a decisive one.— With a vat like fig. 27, (Letter XII,) this would not necessarily be a very’ expensive method, with sheep recently sheared. But the assaults of the scab usually come on in the spring before shearing time, and it would re: quire an immense quantity of the tobacco decoction to dip sheep with their! fleeces on, however carefully it might be pressed out. Y The following is the remedy recommended by Chancellor Livingston | «< First, [separate the sheep (for it is very inféctious) ; I then cut off the wool as far as the elin feels hard to the finger ; the scab is then washed with soap-suds, and rubbed hard wit! a shoe-brush, so as to cleanse and break the scab. I always keep for this use a decoctior! of tobacco, to which Ladd one-third by measure of the lye of wood ashes, as much hog’s-larc as will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of tar from the tar-bucket, which contain: grease, and about one-eighth of the whole by measure of spirits of turpentine. This liquo is rubbed apon the part infected, and spread to a little disiance round it, in three washings’ with an interval of three days each. I have never failed in this way to effect a cure whe: the disorder was only partial. ... | I cannot say whether it would cure a sheep infectec so as to lose half its fleece." | ° vil . . . The following remedies are much used in Great Britain: .. No. 1.—Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the proportion of | * Livingston’s Essay. Appendix, p. 17%. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SCUTH. 261 half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The sheep should pre- viously be washed in soap and water. The infusion must not be per- Dtted to enter the mouth or nostrils. ; | No. 2.—Take common mercurial ointment, for bad cases, rub it own with three times its weight of lard—for ordinary cases, five times its weight bf lard. Rub alittle of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part the wool so.’as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, and then | pply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. Make a sim- lar furrow and application, on each side, four inches from the first, and so Po over the whole body. The quantity of ointment (after being com- ounded with the lard) should not exceed two ounces, and considerably jess will generally suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a {grown sheep. This will generally cure, but if the sheep should continue to rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten days. | No. 3.—Take of lard or palm oil 2 lbs., oil of tar 3 1b., sulphur 1 lb— Gradually mix the last two, then rub down the compound with the first — Apply in the same way as No. 2. No. 4.—Take of corrosive sublimate } lb., white hellebore, powdered, 3 ‘b., whale or other oil 6 gallons, rosin 2 lbs., tallow 2 lbs. “ The first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually mixed.” This is a powerful preparation and must ‘not be applied too freely. Mr. Spooner gives the preference to No. 1, as least troublesome ; Mr. ‘Youatt to No.2; and the author of the Mountain Shepherd’s Manual to No. 4. I should certainly prefer No. 3, if it is, as it is asserted to be, equally effectual, for the reason that it contains no poisonous or dangerous ingredients. An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable itch- ing, sometimes attacks the English flocks, but I have heard of no cases of it here. This would be classified as a febrile disease. It is treated with a cooling purgative, yenesection, and oil or lard applied to the sores. DiskAsE oF THE BirLEx Canau.—From the introduction of foreign bod- ‘ies into the biflex canal, or from other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation. This is sometime¢ confounded with the hoof-ail, but the diseases are entirely distinct and different: from each other. In- flammation of the biflex canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern, particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are thrown wide apart by the tumor. I never have known it to attack more than one foot, and never have allowed it to g@ to the point of ulceration, which it is said to do if neglected. There is none of that soreness and disorganization between the back part of the toes—and none of that pecu- liar fetor which distinguishes the hoofail. I never have found it anything like so serious a disease as it is described tc be by the English veterina- rlans. » Treatment.—l have always scarified the coronet, making one or two deeper incisions in the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal —covered the foot with tar—and paid no more attention to it. Hoor-Att.—The first symptom of this troublesome malady, which is or- dinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of the fore feet. But on daily examining the feet of aflock which have the disease among them, it will be readily seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with lameness. Scarcely any English writer whom I a 262 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. have read, describes with respectable accuracy the first appearances of the hoof-ail as it exhibits itself zn this country, and among the fine-wooled sheep.* Mr. Youatt says: “ The foot will be found hot and tender, the horn softer than usual, and there will be ene largement about the coronet, and a slight separation of the hoof from it, with portions of the } horn worn away, and ulcers formed below, and a discharge of their fetid matter. The ul- _ cers, if neglected, continue to increase ; they throw out fungous granulations, they separate . the hoof more and more from the parts beneath, until at length it drops off.” aS The above is not a description of the consecutive symptoms of the hoof- ail as Ihave seen them. The hoof, instead of being softened, is percepti- _ bly hardened, I think, by the presence of the disease. There is occasion- | ally an enlargement about the coronet, but this is not common in the out- set; andso far from the horn first separating from the foot at that point, it’ is the last place where it usually adheres when the soles are eaten away’ by the ulcerous matter, and the mere outside shell remains. I never have known a hoof to drop off, entire, in the sense in which I understand the ‘ closing part of Mr. Youatt’s remark. ; My first introduction to this disease was by its breaking out in its most malignant form in a flock of eight hundred sheep, with which I had placed, y early in the preceding spring, a few valuable sheep received from abroad | which were infected with the hoof-ail, without my having the slightest sus- picion of the fact. The disease, when of long standing, and well kept un- ' der, shows itself but very little during the winter and spring, unless the | foot is directly examined. Every sheep in that eight hundred took the’ disease, sometimes first in one foot, then in another, then in a third, and when the fourth one was attacked, perhaps it was again bursting out in | one of the cured feet ! I considered the sheep valuable, had much of the esprit du corps of a young flock-master, and was determined to conquer the malady at any cost and at all hazards. I have little doubt that every sheep | in the flock was “doctored” on the average ten times each, and it was' very rarely that I permitted any other person than myself to cut away the ' horn and prepare the foot of a single sheep for the application of the reme-' dies !_ When I look back to that period—the sheep on some remote pas- tures—not a shed on them to shelter myself or assistants from the burning ° August sun as we bent ten or twelve hours a day over our task—our only operating room” a yard in tNe corner of two fields—blood and pus en- ’ crusting hands and garments, and occasionally by an unlucky stroke of the ' knife showered over face and bosom—the crawling maggots—the intolera- ' ble fetor :—I hardly know whether to take credit to myself for or to laugh ! at the stanchness of my zeal. But, worst of all, with all my labor, I had / ——* scofch’d the snake, not killed it!” ~~ ) The disease appeared in my flock, though in a much mitigated form, , the next summer. I think I then cured it—but I was not allowed to es- , cape thus. In the succeeding summer, accident again brought it among | my sheep. In a word, I have first and last served a five years’ appren-, ticeship to combating the hoof-ail. Having seen it in every possible phase —having experimented with almost every recommended remedy not obvi- - ously empirical—I shall be excused if I speak my own opinions with a de- * As 1 have before stated, when discussing “the most profitable breed for the South,” the hoof of the Me- rino and that of the English Long-Wooled races, is essentially different. The latter usually retains its natu- ' ral shape and thickness, and although the side-crust sometimes turns under, it is but a comparatively thin slip of horn, which is subsequently worn or broken off—or it is easily removed by the knife. The hoof of the Merino grows rapidly, especially when the animal has the hoof-ail. The horny soles-will sometimes be- come nearly an inch thick, and the toes will elongate and turn up in front like horns, to the length of three and even four inches. The weight of the Merino is much less than that of the Long-Wool. Take these facts into consideration, together with some of the other circumstances detailed in the introductory remarka to Letter XIV, and perhaps,it sufficiently accounts for some differences in the diagnosis of the disease be- eween the two countries. | | SHEEP AUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 263 land eminent veterinarians. | As all are aware, the horny covering of the sheep’s foot extends up, (gradually thinning out, some way between the toes oy divisions of the hoof, ‘and above these horny walls the “cleft” is lined with skin. When the ‘points of the toes are spread apart, this skim is shown in front, covered ith short, soft hair. The back part of the toes, or the “ heels,” can be sep- larated only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is naked. Ina healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm, pound, dry and uneroded, as on any other part of the animal. | The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with in- flammation and heat of the naked skin in the back part of the cleft, imme- (diately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated appearance, and lis kept moist by the presence of asanious discharge from the ulcerated sur- (face. As the inflammation extends, the friction of the parts causes pain jand the sheep limps. At this stage the foot externally, in a great ma- F onity of cases, exhibits not the least trace of disease, with the exception | of a slight redness, and sometimes the appearance of a small sore at the ‘upper edge of the cleft, when viewed from behind. The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges _of the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is estab- ‘lished between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid matter is exuded from the cavity. The extent of the separation daily increases, and ‘the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole. The bottom of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, and the outer walls, en- _tirely separated from the flesh, hang only by their attachments at the coro- net. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely disorganized, and the entire , foot is a mass of black, putrid ulceration; or, as it more commonly hap- | pens, the fly has struck it, and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover the | surface, and burrow in every cavity. The fore-feet are generally first at- _tacked, and most usually but one of them. The animal at first manifests ‘but little constitutional disturbance. It eats as usual. By the time that any considerable disorganization of the structures has taken place in the | first foot—sometimes sooner—the other fore-foot is attacked. That be- _coming as lame as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food. on its ‘knees, and if forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense agony occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There is a bare spot under the brisket of the size of the palm of a man’s hand, which looks red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever—and the appetite is dull. The animal.rapidly loses condition. The appearance _ of the maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in _ contact with the side in lying down, the filthy ulcerous matter adheres to and - saturates the short wool, (it being but a month and a half or two months af- ter shearing,) and maggots are either carried there by the foot, or they are soon generated there. A black crust is soon formed round the spot. It is the decomposition of the surrounding structures, and innumerable maggots are at work below, burrowing into the integuments and mus- sles and eating up the miserable animal alive, The black festering mass _ rapidly spreads, and the poor sufferer perishes, we cannot suppose other- - wise than in tortures the most excruciating. Sometimes but one fore-foot is attacked, and subsequently one or both _ hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular, and it is a singular . = of confidence, even if they chance to conflict with those of professed 2 — fact that when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully diseased, the » fourth may be entirely sound. So also one foot may be cured, while ev- ery other one is laboring under the malady. °o 264° . SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The highly offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly pathognomonic of the disease—and would reveal its character to one familiar with it, in the darkest night. When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches, and does not manifest itself until the warm weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a mitigated form— the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked—there seems to be less inflammatory action, constitutionally, and in the diseased parts—the course of the disease is less malignant and more tardy, and it more readi- ly yields to treatment. If well kept under the second summer, it is still milder the third. A sheep will occasionally be seen to limp, but its con- dition will scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely su- pervene. One or two applications made during the summer, in such a way, as I shall presently describe, that one thousand sheep can be sub- mitted to the treatment in half a day—with but a trifle of labor and ex- pense—will now suffice to keep the disease under. At this point a little vigor in the treatment will entirely extinguish the disease. With all its fearful array of symptoms, can the hoof-ail be cured in its Jirst attack on a flock? The worst case can be promptly cured, as I know by repeated experiments. Take a single sheep, put it by itself, and ad- minister the remedies daily after the English fashion, or as I shall presently prescribe, and there is not an ovine disease which more swrely yields to treatment. But as already remarked, in a preceding Letter, in, this country, where sheep are so cheap, and labof in the summer months so dear, it would out of the question for an extensive flock-master to at- tempt to keep each sheep by itself, or to make a daily application of rem- edies. There is not a flock-master within my knowledge who has ever pretended to apply his remedies oftener than once a week, or regularly as often as that, and not one in ten makes any separation between the dis- eased and healthy sheep of a flock into which the malady has been once in- introduced. ‘The consequence necessarily is that though you may cure the sheep xow diseased, it has infected or inoculated others—and these in turn scatter the contagion, before they are cured. There is not a particle of doubt—-nay, I know, by repeated observation, that a sheep once entirely cured may again contract the disease, and thus the malady performs a per- petual circle in the flock. Fortunately, however, the susceptibility to con- tract the disease diminishes, according to my observation, with every suc- ceeding attack; and fortunately also, as already stated, succeeding attacks, ceteris paribus, become less and less virulent. What course shall then be pursued? Shall the flock-master sacrifice his sheep—shall he take the ordinary half-way course—or shall he expend more on the sheep than they are worth in attempting to cure them? Nei- ther. The course I would advise him to pursue, will appear as I detail the experiments I. have made. ; Treatment—The preparation of the foot, where any separate individual treatment is resolved upon—and this is always necessary, at least in bad cases——is a subject of no dispute. But the labor can be prodigiously economized by attention to a few not very commonly observed particulars. Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if prac- ticable, as then the hoofs can be readily cut. Ina dry time, and after a night which has left no dew on the grass, their hoofs are almost as tough as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on their way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their feet— The yard ms be small, so they can be easily caught, and it must be kept SHEEP HUSBANRQRY IN THE SOUTH. 265 well littered down, so they shall not fill their feet with their own excre- ment. If the straw is wetted, their hoofs will not of course dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw. Could the yard be built over a shallow, grav: elly-bottomed brook,* it would be an admirable arrangement. The hoofs would be kzpt so soft that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the la bor, as ordinarily performed, would be in a great measure saved, and they would be kept free from that dung which by any other arrangement will, more Or less, get into their clefts. The principal operator or foreman seats himself in a chair—a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers (fig. 21, Letter XII,) a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, and such medicines as he chooses to employ, within his reach. The assistant catches a sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then kneels on some straw or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are long, and especially if they are dry and tough, the assist- ant presents each foot to the foreman, who shortens the hoof with the toe- nippers. If there is any filth between the toes, each man takes his-rag from the bucket of water, and draws it between the toes and rinses it, un- til the filth is removed. Each then seize their knives, and the process of paring away the horn commences. And on the effectual performance of this, all else depends. A glance at the foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action. The least experience cannot fail in properly set- tling this question. An experienced finger, placed on the back of the pastern close above the heel, would at once detect the local inflammation (by its heat) an the dark. If the disease is in the first stage—.e. there is merely an erosion and ul- ceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft above the walls of the hoof, no paring is xecessary. But if ulceration has established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, the ulcerated parts, be they more or less exten- sive, MUST BE ENTIRELY DENUDED OF THEIR HORNY COVERING, cost what it may of time and care. It is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the running blood will wash off the subsequent applica- tion, but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule above laid down. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after a little while, during which time no application need be made to the foot. If the foot is in the third stage—a mass of rottenness and filled with maggots—in the first. place pour a little spirits of turpentine (a bottle of it, witb a quill through tne cork, should be always ready,) on the maggots and most of them will immediately decamp, and the others can be re- moved with a probe or small stick. Then remove every particle of loose horn, though it should take the entire hoof—and it will generally take the whole hoof in such cases. The foot should be now cleansed with a solu- tion of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride to one gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot repeatedly in water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every purpose. The great object is to clean the foot thoroughly. If there are any considerable fun- gous granulations, (“ proud-flesh,”) they should be excised with a pair of scissogs, or the actual cautery (hot iron.) And now comes the important question what constitutes the best remedy ? The recommended prescriptions are innumerable. The following are some of the most popular ones.} 1. 4 oz, blue vitrigl, 2 oz. of verdigris. _ * A portion of any little brook might be prepared by planking the bottom, and widening it if desirable ¢ The first three are given in the American Shepherd, pp. 379-80. 266 SHEEP HUSBANDRY glN THE SOUTH. to a junk-bottle of wine. 2. Spirits turpentine, tar and verdigris in equal parts. 3. 3 quarts of alcohol, 1 pint spirits of turpentine, | pint of strong vinegar, 1 lb. blue vitriol, 1 lb. copperas, 14 lbs. verdigris, 1 lb. alum, 1 Ib. of saltpetre, pounded fine: mix in aclose bottle, shake every day, and let it stand six or eight days before using: also mix 2 pounds of honey and 2 quarts of tar, which must be applied after the previous compound. “ Two applications will entirely remove the disease,” says this recipe, which was once, I believe, hawked about the country as a patent cure—being sold at five dollars to each purchaser, he giving a promise of inviolable se- erecy! 4. Apply diluted aquafortis (nitric acid) with a feather to the ul- cerated surface. 5. Apply diluted oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in the same way. 6. Same of muriatic acid. 7. Dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling point, &c. After a thorough trial of the above and a multitude of other prescrip- tions,* I have come to the conclusion that inthe first and second stages of the disease—before the ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or partly destroyed its structure—that no application, simple or compound, is preferable to a saturated solution of blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper.) In my judgment, no beneficial addition can be made to it as a remedy. Ofthe manner of applying it I shall speak presently. In the third stage, when the foot is a festering mass of corruption, after it has been cleansed as already directed, it requires some strong caustic to remove the unhealthy granulations—the dead muscular structures—and to restore healthy action. Lunar caustic I think preferable to any other application, but it is too expensive. Mr. Youatt gives a decided prefer- ence to chloride of antimony, and I think him correct. This is frequently. not attainable in the country drug-stores, and muriatic acid may be re- sorted to, or even nitric or sulphuric acid. The diseased surface is touched with the caustic (applied with a swab formed by fastening a little tow on the end of a stick,) until the objects above pointed out are obtained. I have then usually treated the foot with the solution of blue vitriol, and sub- sequently coated it over with tar which has been boiled, and is properly cooled.. The last protects the raw wound from dirt, flies, &. Sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly be separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as once in three days. With this degree of atten- tion, their cure will be rapid, and it is astonishing with what celerity the obliterated structures of the foot will be restored. The ordinary method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal lies on its back between the operators, as already described. In this way a few cents’ worth of vitriol will serve for a large number of sheep. But the method is imperfect, because, without remarkable care, there will al- most always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by the knife—the passages to them will be devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed— and the solution will not reach them. Thus the disease will only be tem- porarily suppressed, not cured. I had a flock of sheep a few years since which were in the second sea- son of the disease. They had been but little looked to during the sum- mer, and as cold weather was setting in, many of them were consid- erably lame—some of them quite so. The snow fell and they were brought into the yards, limping and hobbling about deplorably. This sight, so dis- graceful to me as a farmer, roused me into activity. I bought a quantity *Many of them resorted to “against the stomach of my sense,” to give myself and others indisputable / ocular proof of their inutility—or that they were uo better than cheaper, simpler, and more easily attain- able medicines SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 267 of blue vitriol—made the necessary arrangements—and once more took the chair as principal operator! Never were the feet of a flock more thoroughly pared. Into a large washing tub, in which two sheep could stand conveniently, I poured a saturated solution of blue vitriol and water, as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment. The liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, and was. kept at about that depth by frequent additions of hot solution. As soon as a sheep’s feet were pared, it was placed in the tub and held there by the neck, by an as- sistant. A second one was prepared and’ placed beside it. When the third one was ready, the first was taken out, and so on. Two sheep were thus constantly in the tub, and each remained in it about five minutes.— The cure was perfect! There was nota lame sheep in the flock during the winter or the next summer! The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of the foot, and doubtless had a far more decisive effect even on the uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them. Perhaps the lateness of the season was also favorable, as in cold weather the ulcers of ordinary virulence discharge no matter to inoculate the healthy feet, and thus, at the time of applying the remedy, there are no cases where there has been-inoculation not yet followed by those lesions which admit of cure. Whether so thorough a soaking would destroy the virus in the in- oculated foot, I cannot pretend to decide. I think that the vitriol required for the above one hundred sheep was about twelve pounds, and that it cost me fifteen cents per pound, The ac- count then would stand thus: AQTbsy Of avitriol atelio! Centsee sme alles sein m)a=eie ei lel nate Sone oe $1,80 abor/of dimen onerday Gach asnnciecs teenie cee cee sewer eae a eraees 2,25 Potala eee ina pisek n= = nes : - - 50 00 For his board and clothing, - . - - - - ° - - 20 00 $845 00 RECEIPTS. His labor, 160 barrels corn at 40 cents, - - - - $64 00 5 bags cotton at $30 a bag, - - - - - - - - 150 00 & : $214 00 , This is equal to 25 per cent., certainly as much as any man inthis ~ neighborhood makes. I have purposely made this large estimate that no ~ one can say it is under the truth. B. buys 500 ewes and 20 bucks, common stock, at $1, Oe Di - $52000 | Employs a shepherd, - - - - - - - : - - 175,00 Pays 20 cents for winter feed per head, - - - - - - 104 00 Pays for tar and salt, - - - - - - - - - - 20 OU B. has $73 less ‘han A.in the outlay, - - -. - - =: = $819 00 RECEIPTS, 3 Ibs. wool per head is 1560 lbs. at 20 cents, - $312 00 80 lambs to the 100 ewes is 400 lambs at $1, - - 400 00 ; 712 00 Deduct for loss over skins and wool of those that die, 2 per cent, 18 40 - —_—— $693 60 The outlay of A. ($890) brings him $210, equal to 25 per cent. The outlay of B. ($819) brings him $693 60, equal to.85 per cent. This calculation will do for the neighborhood of Pendleton or lower down, where sheep have to be fed during the winter. But for all that part of Pickens and Greenville district, extending south for twenty-six or thirty miles from the foot of the mountains, the profits would be larger. For in that belt of country, 1am informed by many residents—General Garvin among them—that the range affords sufficient food for sheep the entire year. Even when snow is on the ground, they paw the snow away and get sus- tenance from the winter grass. For that section I would alter the calculation thus : B. buys 500 ewes and 20 bucks, - - - - - - - $520 00 Pays for a shepherd, : - - - - - - - - - 175 00 Pays for salt and tar, - - - - - - - - - 20 00 “s $715 00 RECEIPTS, 1560 Ibs. wool at 20 cents, - - - - - $312 00 90 lambs to the 100 ewes is 450 at $1, - - - 450 00 762 00 Deduct for loss 2 per cent. over skins and wool of those that diz, 13 00 $743 00 Making $28 more than 100 per cent. 300 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA. But try it onascale that every one can compare with his own expe- rience. ; B. buys 3ewesandi1buckfor - - - = mp leahagpelAle $4 He shears 12 lbs. of wool at 20 cents, - - . : - 2 40 2 lambs at $1, - : - - - 8 - - - 2 00 “Over 100 per cent. 4 40 These are suppositions. Take what has actually occurred in Pickens district. Mr. Stribling, as I am informed by himself, bought one ewe for $1: ‘ In 1846 she had 3 lambs, - - - . - - $3 00 Sheared 2 lbs. wool at 20 cents, - - - - - - 40 $3 40 In 1847, same ewe had 2 lambs, - - - - - - 2 00 Sheared again 2 lbs. wool at 20 cents, - - - - - 40 Each one of the last year’s lambs had a lamb apiece, - - 3 00 And sheared from the 3, 6 lbs. wool at 20 cents, - - =. 1.20 6 60 This is an increase of eight in twoyears from one ewe, and Mr. Stribling says at this time the whole are alive. I admit this is an extraordinary case, and it is only mentioned to show there are cases of actual increase far above any of those calculations made above. If, then, the climate be not only adapted to fine wool, but also to the coarse—if the range, which is abundant and sufficient to feed a flock the entire year; and if the above calculations are founded.on data anywhere near correct, what more can be desired to show the applicability and value of sheep husbandry to this section. From three very respectable wool growers, one from each of the states of Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio, I was told the way to make a calcu- lation on the profits of sheep husbandry in a reasonably safe way, was to put down every year one-ninth less of lambs than you have ewes, and then deduct one-tenth from the whole for deaths in that year. Thus, say you have - - : - - - - - - 100 ewes. From 100 deduct one-ninth, and you have - - - - - - 89 lambs. 189 Then deduct one-tenth for deaths, ~~ - = s - - ‘ - 18 And you have - - 4 - 2 = = e x 2 Pi 7, To start with the next year. On this basis I have taken one hundred ewes and run the calculation on for eight years. The result was: Wool sheared in eight years, - © - - - - ~ - - 17,190 Ibs. The gentlemen above alluded to, say that half the wool wul pay all ex- penses, even when the winters require five months’ feed : Deduct, then, one-half, 8,595, at 20 cents, - - - - - $1719 OO The increase amounted to 2067 sheep, at $1, - - =the 2067 00 Total, - oi etn! yeeros This result, if attained, would exceed fifty per cent. compounded. They say, too, it is a safe estimate to say that the lambs of each year will pay the expenses of the whole flock for that year in Pennsylvania. They more than SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA? 301 do it here. Allow eighty lambs to one hundred ewes, and you have from five hundred ewes, four hundred lambs; deduct one-tenth for deaths, and ve SUT Set TAP ie See > einai Mea Mate ama a oh F515 Charge 20 cents per head for 900 sheep, makes - - - 180 00 Charge for shepherd, - - - - - - - - 150 00 — 330 00 Lambs over-pay expenses by - - - - - - - > $30 00 All these calculations are made on the supposition that sheep get a part of that regular attention which all farmers give to their other domestic ani mals. And to make sheep husbandry successful, it is not only necessary that this attention should be given, but every one who attempts it shoulc know something of their diseases and the cures, and also the summer and winter management. This can be acquired only by their own, or the ex- perience of others. Easy access can be had to the experience of northern wool growers, who are proverbial for being close observers. They say the disease called the “ scours’’ is the principal one to which sheep are liable, produced by excess of rich green food, and cured easily by a change to dry, but if allowed to continue, is fatal. From the introduction into the United States, in 1808, of Merino sheep from Spain, owners of this stock have considered it of the first importance to preserve the quality and quantity of their fleece, and if possible, to im prove both. They ascertained that lambs from young and healthy sires improved, while those from old- ewes fell back both in quality and quantity of fleece. “ Among them it is now a settled practice not to breed from ewes over seven or eight, nor from bucks over six years old. It is very important to resort to the evidence of age the teeth afford. Their books have been par ticular in describing these evidences, which I will copy: “During the first year, lambs have eight small teeth in front, in the upper jaw, called nippers ; at a year old, the centre two shed, and two larger teeth take their place. At two years old, the next two are lost, and supplied by two larger ones. Thus losing and being supplied by two larger ones annually, till five—then they have a full set. At eight or nine they begin to lose their nippers—two every year—and by thirteen or fourteen years old, they have lost their entire set.”’ It is evident that during the time ewes are losing their teeth, they become less and less able to supply themselves with food, consequently afford less and less milk for their young. Thus the degeneracy is accounted for. In Vermont, where wool is as much their staple as cotton in South Carolina, so important do they consider it not to breed from ewes after they begin to lose teeth, that although mutton is not used by the inhabitants for the table, they sell their old stock to be fed to hogs. In most of the other northern states, their ewes at that age are kept from the bucks, and fattened for market. From their known skill in managing well what they undertake, we may safely take their usage as a guide, when it is applicable to our situation. With them grass is the entire food of their flocks—green meadows for summer pasture and hay for winter. Their win- ters require five months’ constant feeding, during which they estimate each sheep to consume fifty cents worth of hay. All stock is then kept enclosed, and the attention to turning sheep to pasture in summer, and feeding sheep in winter, requires but little labor in addition to their other stock. Flocks require close attention but at three times in the year—the tupping, the lambing, and shearing seasons. Ewes go with lamb one hundred and twenty-five days, or five months, and they so manage as to have the lambs v 302 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA. eager in April and May; (here February is esteemed by many a bettet month.) To do this, the bucks must be kept impounded, except at the time desired. From the great superiority of early lambs, this part of sheep husbandry is esteemed very important. During lambing season, close attention is required to guard both ewe and lamb from storms and cold winds—to see that the ewe acknowledges her lamb, and to keep up the marking and altering as the lambs get between five and ten days old. Ten days previous to shearing time they prepare for it by washing the wool on the sheep’s back, that the natural oil of the wool, which is destroyed by the washing, may have time to be renewed, without which the wool feels and works harsh. ‘The washing is done at spouts or pools, prepared for the purpose, and the other flocks are kept on clean pastures till sheared. As the proper preparation of an article for market is justly considered of the next importance to a good article, I will describe this process minutely, as practised for the northern market. The shearing is done on a clean floor, and each fleece is kept unbroken. When sheared, it is rolled outside in, until it is reduced to a lump about ten inches each way, and then tied with strings in two places. For packing the wool, a bag is used nearly as large as our cotton bags, which, after sewing to a hoop at top, they hang through a hole in an upper floor, a little less in diameter than the hoop; here the fleeces are packed down by the foot, the weight of an ordinary sized man being a sufficient pressure. Thus finished, the wool is ready for a northern or European market. Manufacturers will not give full price for wool unless the fleeces are unbroken; because, before manufacturing, they consider it necessary to have each fleece divided into five qualities, which they cannot do if the wool of different fleeces is emptied together. Different modes of summer management are followed in different coun- tries. The one followed in Australia, as described by Mr. Randall, is not only less troublesome, but would be better suited to our mountain region There they roam over the plains, under charge of a shepherd, in flocks of three hundred to one thousand. Every night, some two or more of these flocks are penned together, during the entire year. Breeding promiscuously from the bucks that run with the flocks, allowing three or four to the hun- dred ewes. At the Cape of Good Hope, he says the same practice pre- vails ; and from both of these places the wool exported is equal, and in some instances superior in quality to the Merino. The statements here given, Mr. President, we have carefully considered, and believe to be truae—and we submit them under the belief that if the im- portance of sheep husbandry was duly considered, especially by the districts lying north and contiguous to the mountains, much additional comfort and — wealth might be added to that already delightful region. All which is respectfully submitted. R. F. SIMPSON. / WNote.—Since this report was read, I have been informed by Mr. Thomas M. Sloan, that his wool does not cost him more than five cents a pound— and by Mr. Morris, at Pickens C. H., that for care, shearing, &c., of a small flock of eight ewes, worth eight dollars, kept on Ocone mountain, he paid one-half of the spring clipping, equal to three-quarters of a pound per head, and that from them he had, after paying all expenses, $3 60, and eight lambs worth eight dollars—#11 60. And by Mr. Shepherd, a tenant on ANCRUM ON WOOL MATTRESSES. | 303 Mr. J. O. Lewis’s Tamosa estate, that in 1846 he took with him from Green- ville a few sheep, Among which were 4 ewes, worth - - - : - - - $4 00 They had 4 lambs, worth - - - - - - - 4 00 Thinks he sheared 3 lbs, per head, but say 2, which is 8 lbs. at 20 ets. 1 60 — 5 60 In 1848, from 8 sheared 14 lbs. woaj at 20 cents, - - - 2 80 And had 8 lambs, worth - - - - - - 700 — 9 80 $15 40 Salt and shearing was the only expense. He had only offered to feed them once in the two years, and then they refused to taste corn shelled ta them. H. ANCRUM ON WOOL MATTRESSES.. ASHLEY, Pike county, Mo. A sound man in one night of seven hours’ sleep, generally perspires fifty ounces avoirdupois or four pounds troy weight; we cannot wonder at that, since there are above three hundred thousand millicns of pores in the body of a middle-sized man, and that in the last hours of sleep one perspires most ; hence the impropriety and the weakness of lying too long in a soft bed, and the necessity of lying on a comparatively hard elastic bed, such asa wool mattress. In France, wool mattresses are generally adopted, conse- quently you never meet with a bad bed there. I have travelled all over France, and never met with a bad bed, and a very recent intelligent Ameri- can traveller of great observation, mentions, on his removal from England to France, that he found the French beds delicious, because the beds are wool mattresses. Mode of Making a Wool Mattress.—The first thing to constitute a good healthy bed is, that it must be absolutely flat, therefore all bedsteads should have wooden laths instead of sacking, which always gives and forms a hol- low ; the wool is carded by hand, and all knots and extranecus matter taken out; the great point is to make it thick enough. The best bed I slept in, in my life, had sixty pounds of wool in it, but the bed was a very large extra size; half that quantity will make a small bed, but if you wish to lie luxuriously, yet hard, do not stint the wool, that makes:all this difference ; it lasts for ever—the covering is washed once a year; the wool is carded, and a few pounds of wool added, and the bed is sweet and new. However luxuriously he may be, let any gentleman have a good wool mattress made, and let him ride forty or fifty miles and thoroughly fatigue himself, he will then know the value of such a bed. My object is also to increase the home consumption of our wool, There are twenty odd millions in the United States; say five to each family, four millions; say three beds to each family, taking the whole population, twelve millions; say thirty pounds of wool to each bed, three hundred and sixty millions of pounds of wool; say thirty-four millions of sheep in the United States, say eighty million pounds of wool; this will consume more than four years’ clip of our wool. This ought to be promulgated to increase the consumption of our wool, and such wool as cannot be sold abroad. Independent of the benefit to all in then health, who adopt wool mattresses on account of their cleanliness and dura- bility, in the end, they are cheaper than ‘any other bedding. Every thing that increases the home consumption of our wool is of na- tional importance, as is every thing that will promote the general health of 3804 ANCRUM ON WOOL MATTRESSES. our people. In this changeable and rigorous climate in winter, if all were to wear flannel, particularly narrow-chested and delicate females, it would be of the greatest benefit to their health, and save them many a fit of sick- ness. When we consider how cheap the English sell their Welsh flan- nel, it ought to stimulate our manufacturers; I must, however, observe, that I never purchased any flannel in the United States equal to the real Welsh flannel, or that did not shrink, or that wore near so long as the English flannel. The English flannel has a nap on both sides, which renders it warm and soft, and it washes soft to the last. The United States flannel that I have used washes harsh, and the wear is not near so agreeable as ~ real Welsh flannel, but surely all these difficulties can be overcome by our ~ people, and they can make as good flannel as the best Welsh flannel. It is well known that woollen clothes, such as flannels, worn next the skin, promote insensible perspiration, May not this arise principally from the strong attraction which subsists between wool and the watery vapor which is continually issuing from the human body? ‘That it.does not depend entirely on the warmth of that covering is clear, because one degree of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of a different kind does not produce the same effect. The perspiration of the human body being absorbed by a covering of flannel, it is immediately distributed through the whole thickness of that substance, and by this means exposed by a very large surface to be carried off by the atmosphere, and the loss of the watery vapor which the flannel sustains on the one ‘side by evaporation, being immediately restored from the other in consequence of the strong attraction between the flannel and this vapor, the . pores of the skin are disencumbered, and they are continually surrounled with a dry and salubrious atmosphere. It is astonishing that the custorn of wearing flannel next the skin should not have prevailed more universally ; it is certain it would prevent a number of diseases, and there certainly is na greater luxury than the comfortable sensation which arises from wearing it, after one is accustomed to it. It isa mistaken notion that it is too warm clothing for summer ; it may be worn in the hottest climates, at all seasons of the year, without the least inconvenience arising from wearing it.* It is the warm-bath of a perspiration confined by a linen shirt, wet with sweat, which renders the summer heats of southern climates so insupportable; but flannel promotes perspiration and favors its evaporation, and evaporation, as it is well known, produces positive cold. I can vouch for the truth of every word of this. JI wear the same kind of flannel all summer as I do in winter with sleeves; when I take extra exercise and perspire freely, my body and flesh is always cool and comfortable, and in part I owe it to wear- ing flannel that I have never had either fever or ague in this western coun- try, which is full of it. All this may appear trivial, and sanitary rules are disregarded, but it is all of the utmost importance and to all. Say fifteen millions of our people wear: flannel next their skin, and three flannel waist- coats to each, that is forty-five millions of waistcoats, at two yards each, (not enough with sleeves as they ought to be made,) ninety millions of yards of flannels in waistcoats only. Old people, delicate women and children, and above all, consumptive people, ought all to wear flannel drawers as well as a flannel waistcoat ; if this was adopted, the great sickness that prevails in the United States would be much diminished. Men drink spirituous liquors to increase the animal heat, and feel that glow that is called com- fortable. Let them wear flannel next their skin instead, and keep the body warm and the head cool, * The firemen in steamboats could not exist if they woro linen instead of flannel shirts. The pleasant est of all mattresses is one made of a mixture of wool and hair. [Eps PLov@H, Loom, ann ANviL.] SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 395 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. BY H. S. RANDALL, LL.D., Author of ‘‘ Life of Thomas Jefferson ;’’ Editor of Randall’s ‘‘ Youatt on the Horse,” ete., etc. _ Eprrors or Texas Atmanac: In pursuance of your request, I proceed so give you some of the results of my experience and investigations in re- gard to wool-growing, and my views of the adaptation of this husbandry o the climate, soil, and other existing conditions of Texas. , Crmoate.—The best climate for the cheap production of wool, other ‘things being equal, obviously is that which furnishes the most abundant and suitable pasturage during the greatest portion of the year. This, Speaking generally, is to be found in the Northern hemisphere, between latitudes 30° and 40° on the eastern margin of each continent, and be- tween about 38° and 48° on the western. The south half of this wool- growing zone, where the other conditions besides climate are favorable, } excels the northern. | North of the wool-growing zone, the growth of vegetation is suspend- ed, and the nutritiveness of grasses destroyed by cold, during considera- 'ble portions of the year; and then sheep require more expensive dry feed, suitable winter shelter, etc. South of the wool-growing zone, veg- )etation, where it flourishes, is too rank and tropical for the smaller rumin- ating animals, and the heat too intense for those carrying so dense a pelage as the fine-woolled sheep. | Local exceptions exist to the above classification, owing to a variety of causes; most prominent of which are altitude, the shelter of mountains \from northern and southern winds, the contiguity of large bodies of |;water, ete. | Thave safl, “other things being equal,” the question will be immedi- ately asked whether wool of the same variety of sheep grown in latitude |B0° is as fine as that grown in latitude 40° or 45° I doubt whether it is. | Sheep transported from a climate of long winters to one of perennial, or nearly perennial, pasturage, increase visibly in size, and their descendants permanently become a larger variety. The constant supply of succulent food produces more copious and uniform animal secretions than an inter- rupted supply, or than an alternating supply of green and dry food. In theory, we should expect the same causes to affect the fleece as well as the carcass. They do visibly increase the length of the staple. The in- | crease of its diameter (admitting that it does increase) during over twenty liyears of breeding—about as far as my personal observations have extend- jon that point—is not, I think, perceptible to the naked eye. But be it \greater or smaller, it is more than compensated for by the increased soft- ness and evenness of wools grown in warm and more uniform climates, and on more uniformly succulent. nutriment. I must be content to state this as a well-established -practical fact. I have not room to array author- Jities on every point. | Sorm.—It would present a very tangible, and by no means a bad test /of the proper .soils for wool-growing, to say that they are those which produce, or which can be made to produce, the most continuous supply Hot fine sweet grasses. A marshy soil, a soil containing so great an excess of clay as to poach into mud, and remain long wet after rains, a low, jrankly, rich river bottom alluvion, and especially such an alluvion, if annu- jjlly replenished by slimy deposits of decaying vegetable matter, all inju- > 306 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. . riously affect the health of sheep. None of these soils produce the grasses I have mentioned. The best lands for sheep are those which are dry and “sound ;” which admit of the rapid percolation or drainage of water; and an admixture of sand or gravel in them, is a favorable, though by no means an indispensable condition., Enormous flocks of sheep flourish, in perfect health, on the plains of Illinois, which are’ “sticky ” after every shower. But water does not stand on them as on a stiff clay, nor does it constantly saturate them as it does boggy lands. It is sometimes claimed—particularly by that class of tyros who are. ready to jump at conclusions on a very limited experience—that sheep on their farms, or in their localities, defy all the preceding conditions. They flourish, if we may believe these gentlemen, in stagnant fens, in “ hog- wallows,” and on river bottoms, where the malaria is almost visible, as it - steams up from the decomposing mass. It is true that fifty sheep, like a ' small family of human beings, will occasionally, and for eed period, © appear unaffected by such unpropitious cireumstances. But, by and by — comes the destroyer—the pestilence that walketh by noon-day—and the ' increase of years is suddenly swept away. Cholera, yellow fever, or bil. ' ious fever depopulates the human settlement—rot, or some other epidemic, - passes, like a tornado, over the sheep-ranch. The causes of disease do not bear fruit every year, but the laws of nature are never abrogated. Sheep tolerate almost all chemical varieties of soil. With the proper conditions in other respects, they are seemingly equally healthy on the sterile, pulverized granite of New England, and the rich, caleareous wheat . lands of Ohio, or the Valley of Virginia—on the tertiary sands of our | Atlantic border, and among the rocky cliffs of the Alleghanies. No ani- mal is so necessary to man, and therefore none has been adapted to the — circumstances of so large a portion of the earth’s surface. | Exrevation.—Elevation is, I rather think, a pleasing condition to ar animal, which, like the goat, the ibex, etc., zodlogists considef the natural denizen of mountain regions; and mountains and hills often present the | other condition which are specially adapted to sheep—firm dry soils, short sweet grasses, pure air, and clear water. But elevation is of no conse- | quence per se; and if the same favorable conditions are found on plains, they are as healthy localities for sheep as mountains. GrassEs.—Sheep will thrive on almost all varieties of gaass, when they | are first springing up tender and succulent from the earth. No grass is | suitable for them, when its stems have become dry and woody. ‘Tough, aquatic grasses are always unfavorable. We are to give the preference, | then, to those varieties which do not send up coarse seed stems—those | which are constantly supplying a fine verdure from the root. No variety | is preferable to the small, spontaneous, white clover of the north, or the finest spontaneous musquite grasses of Texas. Red clover, Timothy, June, or Blue grass ;* indeed, all the grasses cultivated in the north, will ' do very well if kept fed down, and this might be the case with many of the coarser varieties in Texas. Some small flock-masters have fancied ° that sheep would thrive on the dry stems of tall, coarse grasses—because * they thrive among them. But afew sheep will find tender, nutritious plants, which are screened from casual observation among these taller ‘ ones. When the former are gone, sheep will promptly and visibly fall off ‘ in condition. The fact that the natural grass is too coarse for sheep, by no means | nse sa, * I am not sure that the pure grass of New York and the Blue grass of Kentucky are the same, never | having specially investigated the subject ; but the late Mr. Clay wrote me that they were the same. ' | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 307 | soil, particularly if the first flush of its virgin fertility was a little reduced ‘by cropping. 2 | Watrr.—Water is not indispensable for sheep, when at pasture. The Juices of the grass and the dew and rains supply their wants. Thousands and thousands of good sheep-pastures in the north are wholly without other sources of supply. But, of choice, I would prefer water in sheep- pastures—clear springs, or rapidly running brooks. Sheep will visit these as regularly as cows or horses. | Apvapration or Texas.—As I remarked in my answers to your inter. rogatories on this same subject, last fall, (published by you in the Galves- ton News,) Thave never set my foot in your State. But, after the expe- rience of many years in sheep-breeding, and after a close and diligent investigation, extending to all available sources of information—many of these the minute and careful statements of your own most intelligent and eandid citizens—I do not entertain a particle of doubt, first, that you ‘have vast regions in Texas admirably adapted to sheep husbandry; and secondly, that wool can now be raised more cheaply in those regions than jin any other portion of the globe, where sufficiently good government prevails to make life tolerable and secure, and such property as sheep safe from frequent and extensive depredations. In no such portion of the jearth, are lands, furnishing perennial pasturage, (or the use of such lands,) so cheap. In none are the general circumstances more favorable, the ac- cidental and occasional disadvantages fewer. In nearly every particular, ‘Texas possesses decided advantages over our other Southern States, and ‘enormous ones over the Northern and Eastern States. As between it and the latter, a brief statement disposes of all contro- wersy. The sheep-lands of the Northern and Eastern States cost, on an ‘average, thirty dollars an acre; and sheep are frequently kept on those ‘worth from ferty to sixty dollars an acre. On these high-priced lands, sheep must be fed on dry feed—hay and grain—about five months of each ‘year. Expensive shelters must be erected, or the sheep-farmer will lose the co8t of them in the loss of life and condition in his flocks. In Texas, prime and desirable pasture-lands can be bought at two dol- lars an acre—frequently for considerably less.) He who owns a home- stead of a few acres, can pasture thousands of acres of unoccupied land. ‘The pasturage of much of Texas is perennial. Large and ‘small flock- masters have proved this to be a practical fact. Mr. Kendall has wintered ja large and constantly increasing number of sheep, for three years, with- jout, he writes me, giving “an ounce” of dry feed, or providing any arti- |ficial shelter, though He agrees with me that a little of both would be desirable for emergencies, He has encountered wet winters and dry winters with equal success. His sheep are perfectly healthy. His testi- mony is fully confirmed by that of some twenty other candid and intelli- gent gentlemen, scattered over various parts of the State, who have favored me with minute accounts of their experience in sheep-raising. , Theory would anticipate these facts when the natural conditions of Texas ,are known; but it is always satisfactory to have the suggestions of theory ; established and made certain by actual experiment. _ Your country cannot always enjoy this entire priority in the conditions | for cheap wool production. The success of this husbandry of itself will _aid in reducing its profits. Your sheep-lands skirt noble and navigable rivets. Unlike our rough sheep-ranges of the North, they are topograph- ically adapted to the construction of those railroads which the business is that proper “ artificial” varieties would not flourish on the same . 308 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. of your State will soon demand. An enterprising population is pouring in upon you from the other States of the Union, and from Europe. The boy is now born who will see, not only the good soils in all the counties} at present organized in Texas, but in its regions where now roves the wild Camanche, worth twenty or thirty dollars an acre. Then the sunny but unarable slopes of the Alleghanies, in Virginia, the Carolinas, etce.,. may successfully compete with you in wool-growing, owing to their greater cheapness. ] PRoFits OF WooL-GRrow1ne.—Northern flock-masters usually estimate; the consumption of eight American Merino sheep equivalent to that of a cow. All prime American Merino flocks should average as high as about: five pounds of washed wool per head, or seven and a-half pounds of un-, washed wool. Choice breeding flocks should do better still. To show; you that I speak from actual knowledge instead of conjecture, let me say that Chave two flocks of pure Spanish (American Merino) yearling ewes, which averaged, this year, five pounds and six ounces of well-washed: wool per head—equivalent to eight pounds and one ounce unwashed ;, and the yearling never produces as much wool as the adult sheep. Aj choice small flock of my grown ewes averaged six pounds and a fraction. of washed wool per head, equivalent to nine pounds unwashed. In none} of these flocks were there any rams or wethers to increase the yield of wool. None of them received any pampering, or were sheared at an} unusual time. I have cross-breeds between the French and Spanish, which averaged still higher; but they are larger, and will consume more. For many years my entire number of full-blood sheep of all ages, exceed-, ed five pounds of washed wool per head. 5 The price of American Merino wool (washed) has been as follows, on: the first day of Augus%, in the years indicated :— ) 1851 42 to 44 cents. 18h2 40to 43 * ' 1852 49to53 “ 1854 38 to 40 “ 1855 37 to 38 1856 44to 46 “ 1857 45 to 45 °“& 1858 37 to 41.“ 1859 44to46 “ Assuming five zounds to pe the weight of fleece, and eight ewe sheep , to be the equivalent of a cow in consumption, it follows that the feed of acow would have returned this year eighteen dollars in wool, and as | many lambs as eight ewes would raise, which would be at least seven. | What these seven lambs would additionally be worth to the Texas grower, | I leave you to estimate. Hyen among common sheep, the lamb is always considered to be worth as much as its dam’s fleece. Iframs and wethers , raise no lambs, they produce greatly more wool than ewes. Now say what are the profits of a cow in Texas, and deduct the difference in the | trouble of looking after her and the eight sheep, and you have a compar- | ative view of the profits between the animals, which will prove instruc- | tive! Do you obtain five dollars per head of net annual profits on cows, - on the average? And yet you raise cattle on a scale which conveys the idea that you find it as profitable as any other of your branches of. hus: bandry on the pasture-lands of Texas. In my former letters to you I SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 309 placed the entire cost of keeping sheep, including interest on land, at ‘tifty cents a head per annum. In this estimate, I included the cost ot ‘shelters, of a month’s winter feed, and some other contingencies, ail of ‘which I am assured by intelligent Texians are unnecessary. Talso pr oceed- ‘ed on the supposition that no lands were to be pastured but those which had been bought and paid for by the flock-master. If these items be struck vout, the cost of keeping large flocks ought not to exceed one half of my former estimate. I confess, however, that this sounds almost too favora- ible to-be true. Mr. Jefferson deeply lamented the dismemberment of ‘that Texas from the United States which he had bought with Louisiana considering it the very garden of our Southern country. But the “Sage of Monticello ” har dly expected to find El Dorado in your sheep- P astures, or Aladdin’s lamp on the bank of the Colorado! I repeat it, ‘the story must be too good to be ail true. | The first cost of embarking in breeding full-blood sheep is considerable. ‘But the sale of surplus ones at extra prices to newer breeders will soon pect this; and, at all events, it is so soon repaid by the enormous profits of the husbandry, that it.is not to be kept in view as an annual part of ithe account. Interest ceases to,run after the principal is paid! ( Another important fact in favor of Sheep is always to be taken into view. If the steer or colt dies before it is sold or used—if the cosy dies before she has produced young—the loss is nearly a total one. At best, ithe colt keeps you waiting on him, say three years, and the steer and heifer at least two, before they commence making returns. The sheep is ‘a prompter paymaster. He pays you annually. And he never dies in ‘your debt. If he dies before he is six months old, he has cost you noth- ing that is appreciable. Ifhe dies afterwards, before his first shearing, ‘his wool will more than pay for what he has consumed ; and this is true of him at whatever age his death occurs, taking the agorecate of his life together. Brest Breep or SHEEP.—When wool is the main object, and mutton is only an incidental one—as always must be the case in a large and thinly inhabited country like Texas, not yet containing populous cities— there is but one breed of sheep worth consideration, so far as comparative ‘intrinsic value is concerned. I can declare on a pretty extensive experi- ence—but it really needs no experience to arrive at that conclusion—that no other breed makes a remote approach to the value of the Merino for the production of wool; and its mutton is good and palatable. Half and three-quarter breed Merino mutton is especially so, and five Americans out of six would prefer it, on the table, to the tallowy meat of the large ee woolled English mutton varieties. Well-bred Merinos yield about as much wool per head as the largest [ania long-woolled breeds—yield farmore than English middle-woolled breeds—yield about twice as much value of wool for the amount of feed consumed as any English breed—and are hardier, and herd (that is, thrive when kept together in large numbers) better than any of the more valuable English varieties. Their length of life is much greater. A ‘Merino is not, to use a common expression, “ older at eight” than a Bake- well or Southdown sk>ep is at five. And, ‘what may not be quite as well understood by those who have not experimented with both races, (as I have,) the Merino is decidedly hardier than the high-bred English sheep. Iti is less addicted to colds or snufiles, bears extremes of weather better, ‘is capable of travelling farther fpr its food, and will endure a scarcity of tood with far greater impunity. The English sheep has the advantage of 810 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. arriving earlier at maturity—a matter of much importance in a mutton breed, but of comparatively little in a wool-growing one. Of the unimproved English and Scotch varieties, it is unnecessary to speak, Several of them are much superior to the improved varieties of those countries in hardiness and herding properties; but they all produce | coarse, and, compared with the Merino, light fleeces. None of them are, in my opinion, really essentially superior for wool-growing to what is. termed the “ native stock” in. New-York and New-England. Spanish Merinos.—I shall not here consume space with the past his- tory of any breed. The ancient Spanish sheep, as imported into this country by Humphreys, Jarvis, and other breeders, whose character gave | full warrant of supposed purity of blood, produced of washed wool less than four pounds in the ewes, and seven in the rams. The flocks of Spain, taken as a whole, are declared by that most intelligent observer and investigator, Chancellor Livingston, to have averaged of washed wool, only two pounds and a half in the ewe, and four and a quarter in the ram. (See Livingston’s Essay on Sheep, p. 39.) They resembled the present American Merino in form, but were smaller. Saxon Merryos.—The Saxon was the first great offshoot from the parent Merino stem. Partly from the principle of selection first adopted, and partly from the system of management, and the special objects pur- | suetl.in breeding, this variety materially dwindled from the size, consti- tution, and weight of fleece of the Spanish sheep, but improved in the quality of the wool. The first considerable importation into the United | States took place in 1824, and the mania for these feeble little things raged to such an extent, for the three succeeding years, that the most miserable mongrels and grade sheep were introduced and sold under their name. (See the authoritative and undenied statements of the dis- tinguished German importer and shepherd, Henry D. Grove, on this sub- ject, made to me as the chairman of a Committee appointed by the N. Y. State Agricultural Society, in 1837, to report on “The condition and Comparative Value of the several Breeds of Sheep in the United States.” Society’s Transactions, 1841, p. 313.) ; The American Saxon of the present day is a much larger and stronger sheep than its imported ancestor, with, I think, about the same quality and a greater quantity of wool. Some pure flocks now produce an average of nearly three and a half pounds of washed wool, and others dashed with a strain of fine American Merino blood, not materially changing the quality of the fleece, average very near four pounds. It | continues, however, to require considerably more care than the American Merino, and does not rear so large a per centage of lambs. Sriestan Murrnos.—These appear to be something between the Saxon and American Merino—heavier fleece than the former, finer fleece than the latter—and between the two in size. Some specimens I have seen had fine plump forms, and their wool the oil and external black gum of the gummiest family of Merinos. They might, I should say, prove a desirable variety under certain circumstances, and I think a cross with them would improve the Saxon type of sheep. They are the only Merino family which I have not bred. Frenca Merros.—The selection and management of the Spanish Merinos in France, first carried into that country a little more than seventy years ago, produced precisely the contrary effects in several im- portant particulars from those produced by the German system. The carcass was made larger, the fleece hea¥ier and coarser. But a portion — SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 311 of those introduced from France into the United States, within a few years, have not been characteristic specimens of the variety in either of these particulars. They have been exaggerated specimens or caricatures | of the breed. They were those exceptional animals to be found in all ' flocks, larger and heavier-fleeced than the great body of those flocks. J] _ apprehend also that some of them were exceptional in certain other | particulars, as for example, in that enormous “ throatiness” which renders | them such a marvel to the multitude. There is no doubt, however, that as a variety, the French Merinos are _ larger and heavier-fleeced than any other Merino family. But in respect | to fleece, the best of them do not excel the best American Merino as / much as in weight of carcass; in other words, they do not produce as much wool in proportion to size, and, accordingly, to consumption. There are two.causes for this. The first is, their wool has, for reasons which I can not explain, been bred proportionably short. As some very remarkable misconceptions appear to prevail on this particular point, let me state a positive and tangible fact for which I am willing to be held responsible. I recently (to test the accuracy of previous impressions and experiences) carefully measured, lying unstretched on a table, fifteen specimens of French Merino wool, taken indiscriminately (with the aid of the owner) from the sheared fleeces of one year’s growth of a pure blood flock, descended from prime sheep of Mr. Taintor’s importation, and considered by French breeders prime sheep of the variety. The fifteen specimens averaged a little less than two inches in length. Ihave - owned French sheep from the best imported flocks, have seen hundreds, if not thousands, of others, and they have been almost uniformly rather short-woolled sheep—shorter woolled than the longest stapled American Merino flocks. The second reason for the comparative lightness of French fleeces, is their dryness—their freedom from oil and gum, Though there are ex- ceptions, there is ‘a constant tendency in this direction among them, and unless care be taken in breeding to prevent it, the wool becomes almost as dry as cotton, aud then the fleece has no proportionate weight for its bulk. The difference in appearance and handling between such and good American wool is very analogous to that between American and choice Italian sewing-silk. The first, in both cases, even when the actual fine- ness (diameter) is the same, is comparatively light, unelastic, unglossy, and “ cheap looking.” I have sometimes fancied that the pile or fibre of* the American Merino wool is actually denser and heavier of its size than the French, independently of all extraneous substances. This, however, may be but a fancy. French wool washes much cleaner than the oily and gummy American Merino wools; and I think more slowly recovers its maximum of oiliness, after being washed on the back. The overgrown animals of a variety, are rarely of good form. Hence not a few of the imported French sheep, and their immediate descen- dants, when denuded of their fleeces, were most unsightly, scraggy, “lathy? animals, excessively bony, crooked in the back, bad in the cross, (that is, hollow behind the shoulders,) and so thin in the chest, that both forelegs seemed, in horsemah’s phrase, to “ come out at the same hole.” The last defect is perhaps rather characteristic of the variety ; but I have seen not only individuals, but flocks of French sheep, of moderate size, as well formed in every other particular, and perhaps even in that, as any other family cf Merinos. 312 SHEBP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. Another difficulty followed the selection of these huge sheep. Over- grown parents do not always produce overgrown offspring; but the marcel must be kept up, and to do this, a concealed, or at least an un- avowed course of pampering was resorted to in some cases. The lambs were dropped two months before the usual time of having lambs dropped in the North—the ewes were stuffed with unusual and succulent food during the winter, regardless of cost; they were kept in close, warm stables at yeaning timc; the lamb was often given the aid of a “ sucking- bottle,” or a foster-dam, in addition to its natural parent; it was taught as soon as possible to eat roots and grain; it was kept housed from every storm, and even from the dews of the night, during the entire year. This added greatly to the beauty and weight of the wool—to its weight, (when sheared unwashed,) because none of its natural oil was washed out by rains. When at length it was exhibited, without any explanations of the preceding facts, at some State fair, in autumn, it presented about twice the size of carcass, and twice the length of wool, that it would have done if dropped at the common time, and treated in the common way. If not sold at a year old, it was not sheared, and the entire fleece was left growing to increase the marvellous product at two years old; or if it was feared that this fraud would be too apparent, (beyond the gulli bility of the particular market in view,) the yearling was “ stubble- sheared,” that is, shared a half-inch or inch from the skin, leaving three or four months’ growth of wool thereon, to go into the next fleece. I do not say, that the breeder is not authorized to conduct his business to suit himself—men clearly have the right to pamper, and to manufacture “marvels.” But he who does so, is bound to give warning, “fair and true,” to the buyer, whether questioned or unquestioned. Helas! what was so soon the matter wi@h those gigantic French rams, which first scattered like wild-fre over the North? There came a chilly rain-storm, and they sneezed and coughed. Soon they began to mope, and fall off from their feed. They grew thin, and then weak. Their heads drooped ; yellow waxy matter collected about their dim, half-closed eyes; a sticky discharge clung about their nostrils; at length the faint but rapid heaving of the flanks began to indicate a low fever. Then an- other heavy cold shower, and the farmer’s boys presently ran into the house, crying: “Father, father, the great ram is dead!” The farmer had not known that he had set a hothouse plant owt of doors! Thus “departed this life,” a majority—ay, a majority—of the first inundation of great French rams—many of them without getting a lamb. When they lived, it often proved a greater disaster to their owners. They spoiled the carcass and constitution of his flock, lowered the quality of his wool, and not unfrequently actually diminished its quantity. These circumstances created a violent reaction against French sheep, and I should say, between eighty and ninety per cent. of our best North- ern and Eastern wool-growers now thoroughly detest them. I believe they have jumped off the bridge “‘on the other side!” Circumstances led me into an extensive course of fresh investigations on this subject last winter. I found French, like other sheep-raisers, divided in about the usual proportion, between quacks and legitimate breeders. I found French Merino flocks, and especially very high-bred grade French flocks, based on an American Merino foundation on the maternal side, which exhibited fine forms, sufficiently rugged constitutions, a good quality and large quantity of wool. If the wool lacked a little of the gloss and style of the choite American Merinos, it nevertheless was a desirable article, «< SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 312 and especially so for the manufacturer, on account of its cleanness. Per- _ haps, after my preceding remarks, justice requires me to add that I found _ breeders raising the very /argest French sheep with undeniably legitimate objects. They considered that great size desirable, and were therefore (erroneously and unavailingly, in my opinion) attempting to perpetuate | it without perpetuating its usual accompanying defects. The careful and certajnly disinterested examination of many flocks, which had been judiciously bred for a number of years, and down to the present epoch, somewhat modified, I confess, my own previous views. I believe indeed, I found hardier and every way better sheep than the French stock first brought into our country. I made up my mind, that the prejudice against them was violent and excessive, and that by and by another reaction will set in their favor, and that they will be extensively used for an object which I shall treat under another head. “ Tue AmertcaAN Mertno.—About the same amount of fraud and de- ception attended the introduction of the Spanish Merino into the United States, (after Livingston, Humphreys, Jarvis, and a few other elevated men had done their part,) that heralded the advent of the Saxon and French varieties. Like the French, the former sunk into contempt, before it received the general approbation of the country. And it en- countered a far more dangerous foe than contempt, in an almost universal admixture with the puny Saxons. But a remnant was fortunately kept pure, and many flock-masters, after a Saxon cross, bred back to their pre- vious Merino standard. ; The American Merino of the present day is a considerably heavier and stronger animal than his Spanish progenitor. He has been kept in smaller flocks than in Spain, better fed, (or more uniformly fed,) and subjected to a more careful and intelligent system of breeding. As long ago as 1841, the celebrated early importer and subsequent breeder, Hon. William Jarvis, of Vermont, wrote me that ‘twenty-five years’ experi- ence satisfied him that the wool of the Spanish Merino had rather im- proved” in this country ; that his own wool was better‘than the samples received from Spain, when he purchased his imported flock. (The whole of this admirable le®ter will be found in the N. Y. Agricultural Society’s ‘Transactions, 1841, pages 320-328.) The same kind of improvement has continued down to the present time, in many flocks, The different Spanish varieties were, as a general thing, soon inter- mingled with each other in this country, as they had been in France, so that the names of Paular, Negretti, Gaudeloupe, etc., now have no mean- ing, unless in a very few instances, when applied to American sheep. But in point of fact, the same varieties, or somewhat analogous ones, have been reproduced in our country by the systems of breeding pursued by particular persons. Some men, for example, have carefully shunned ‘oil? and “ gum,” and made fineness of wool the primary consideration. These have substantially reproduced the Spanish Escurial, a sheep closely resembling the Saxon, except in its larger size. Others have made weight of fleece the primary consideration, at some sacrifice of fineness; and to this end they have bred as much oil into, and external gum upon the fleece, as practicable. The extreme of these sheep become coated over a few months after shearing, with a natural covering of gum of the color of tar, extending about an eighth of an inch into the wool, which in warm weather sticks to the hand, and in cold becomes a hard rigid crust. The interior.of the fleece looks as if oil had been poured into it, as it exists there not merely as a coating of each filament of wool, but we . ys. - P * 814 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 2 rather wears the appearance of a mass of oil, with filaments of wool growing out through it. * Some breeders take a middle course, cultivating the oil, but avoiding che gum. Some cultivate a medium share of both; and so on. The well-bred American Merino is probably now the densest and heaviest-fleeced sheep of its size in the world, without the help of any extraneous circumstances; but when you read of the enormous fleeces you sometimes do, (whe ther they belong to H.S. R. or A. B. G.,) it is time that you, and all other intelligent men, understand that this enor- mous extra weight is made up of ‘oi and gum. In the first place, wool of this character can not, at_ best, be well washed on the back of the sheep. In the second, many br eeders do not desire to so wash it; they choose to leave these heavy animal excretions in the wool, and they let their flocks run long enough between washing and shearing, to restore all that has been washed away. In fact, washing with them, - is little better than a name, a pretence, to prevent ‘the buyer from deducting the usual one-third from the gross weight, as on unwashed wool. Then, further to mislead the purchaser, they do up each fleece in two par ts—claiming that if that personage sees fit to judge the wool solely by weight of fleece, instead of quality and condition, (as he often does,) it is put a fair retalia- tion, a warrantable ‘ spoiling of the Philistines,” to take a course which will ‘compel him to judge the article by legitimate tests, or to suffer the con- sequences. (That is to say, they assume that if the buyer is a blockhead, or screw, it is right to cheat him, if it can be done by silence.) These excessively oily and gummy sheep are rather “the rage ” at present in the North. There are two reasons for it. The wool-buyer has obstinately refused to make any proportionate difference in the price paid for their wool and that paid for cleaner wools. He will usually pay within three or four cents per pound, as much for the first as for the last, when the “ greasy’? wool weighs two pounds most to the fleece, when it costs no more to raise it, and when it will lose twenty-five per cent. more in cleansing. The manufacturers could have corrected this evil, if they had chosen to do so; and a class of sham-hating men have continued to breed clean wools, expecting them ultimately to do justicegin the matter. But indifference, or the temptation to force these breeders to sell (or sacrifice) their beautiful clips at two or three pennies above the price of “ greasy ” wool, has generally triumphed over all more manly considerations, though in regions where clean wools are extensively grown, and where the breed- ers can and will stand by each other, they have fared better. The other reason for the popularity of excessively oily and gummy sheep, exists in the fact that they generally sell better to those beginners who are willing to pay breeders’ prices, The first thing in a variety or breed, which attracts the eye of a novice, is its salient peculiarities— whether they involve valuable characteristics or the contrary; and they are very apt to become his standards of purity of blood and individual excellence, until experience has taught him better. The Merino, com- pared with others, is an oily and gummy sheep, and “ argal,” the more oil and gum he possesses, the ‘more Merino” is he to the novice. The same remarks apply to “ throatiness ” i ‘folds of pen- dulous skin about the neck or throat, and similar folds on other parts of the body. Breeders defer more or less to the tastes of buyers, and thus more “ orease and wrinkles” are produced than would otherwise be. A pet: tier personage—your nomadic ram peddler—carries his complaisance stil] SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 815 further. He manufactures traits or peculiarities to please purchasers! He buys up half or three-quarter bred Merinos, which chance to have abundance of “ wrinkles,” (the mongrel get of avery “wrinkly” ram often show this peculiarity quite as strongly as his full-blood descend- ants,) and if the natural gum is wanting, he puts it on by daubing them over, immediately after shearing, with a pigment of linseed oil and burnt amber—a composition known in the North as the “Cornwall finish,” from the fact that it was first used (as a winter protection to sheep I pre- sume) in Cornwall, Vermont. It soon makes a nearly black external coating, so similar to the natural gum as to be entirely undistinguishable from it, except to avery practised eye. I should say, however, that it was usually a little more evenly put on, and a shade handsomer, than the natural article! A second good oiling, with clear oil, towards fall, helps along. Armed with these painted mongrels, a demure face, and a cer- tificate of pedigree, purporting to be signed by a “ Deacon,” and a “ Judge of Probate,” your ram-peddler sallies forth, Macedonian-like, conquering and to conquer—greenhorns ! Tue Best Breep ror Trxas.—In thé views I shall express under this head, I desire neither to advance nor to injure the interests of any indi- vidual—certainly to wound no man’s feelings. But if I speak at all, of course I am called upon to express those candid convictions, for which I am willing to be held responsible. Iam free to say, on the start, that I believe there is altogether too much one-sidedness in the views entertained by individuals, and the pub- lic, in regard to this and other analogous questions, The current sets in some particular direction, and then all influenced by conviction, or the desire to take advantage of other people’s convictions, jump into it irre- spective of circumstances. I have no doubt that every variety of the true wool-growing sheep, the Merino, has an appropriate and profitable place. As long as costly woollen fabrics are demanded by the wealthy and luxurious, the delicate Saxon sheep is a want in agriculture. The Silesian supplies the next want, and soon down. If the production is accurately proportioned to the consumption, the laws of trade declare that all these breeds must be profitable, (and something like equally profitable, ) under the best circum- stances, for their respective cultivation. I desire to make another statement. In spite of all the pretences and quackeries of rival breeders, I have no doubt that the dest animals of each of these varieties, produce about the same value (not amount) of wool for the amount of food consumed. Some, however, require more human labor and supervision than others, some demand milder climate than others, and so on. The time may very probably come when each of the Merino families will be profitably grown almost side by side, in Texas. Your climate is as mild as the feeblest-constitutioned ones can elsewhere find. The extra labor demanded for the supervision of such, ought to be as cheap with you as in other portions of the United States. You have abundant suste- nance for the strongest fine-wool breeds. And who can say that when you have railroads covered with cattle and sheep-cars, that you can not supply the mutton eaten in our Atlantic cities, more cheaply than it can be grown nearer to them, and that it may not thus be made profitable to you to grow coarse as well as fine wools? . At present, fine wools pay best in the United States; and among these m2dium qualities find the most extensive demand and the most remuner- . 316 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. ating prices. This class of wool is borne both by the American and French Merino. As a pioneer and experimental sheep, you want the hardiest variety— one capable of resisting a change of climate and circumstances, general or local difficulties in the way of acclimation, and the effects of inexperienced management. As a distinct variety, there can be no reasonable doubt, I think, that the pure American Merino is betterable to “rough it” in a new country than the pure French Merino, though I apprehend the latter will ultimately do well enough in your mild climate. No person ac- quainted with both breeds will hesitate to believe, that in a summer drouth, or during a severe winter scarcity, the former will suffer less than the latter—as much less as black cattle would suffer, under like cir- cumstances, than the larger Shorthorns. The impression is also univer- sal, and certainly every appearance and analogy would seem to favor it, that the American Merino will herd best in very large numbers. But it is not necessary that you limit yourselves exclusively to one variety. He who wants to grow very large wethers for plantation use, or for sale, or he who wishes to grow a larger fine-woolled sheep as a matter of taste, and is prepared to take care of them, will find his wishes met by the French sheep; or if wethers weighing from 150 lbs. to 200 lbs., and ewes weighing from 120 }bs. to 140 lbs., are large enough for him, he can get them by a cross between the French and American varieties. These last, if well bred, compose a beautiful and hardy sub-variety. I bought a flock of them, last winter, mostly French, which were dropped in May, 1858. They were kept in the common way, without pampering, They were thoroughly washed and sheared at the common time, about the close of June, 1859. Their wool was destitute of gum, about as white at the outer as inner end, and seemingly almost as free from oil as cot- ton. They averaged six pounds and four ounces of wool per head. I be- lieve that a cross between such ewes and a very heavy and “ greasy ” fleeced American Merino ram, would carry the average a pound higher in the produce. Iam so confident of this, that Iam availing myself of the results of such a cross on a comprehensive scale. The ewes are un- commonly fine-woolled of their kind. The ramased weighs but 150 lbs, in full fleece, and his washed fleece (as well as it could be washed) weighed 14 lbs. Of course he was excessively oily and gummy, and it was for that very reason he was selected for the experiment. His lambs, two months after birth, began to be colored very perceptibly by the oil inherited from their sire. It is legitimate in breeding, to counteract one defect with another. I have noticed for twenty-five years that the oiliest and gummiest Merino rams cross best with the dry coarse-woolled varieties. I have recently noticed that the cross between the French ram and such varieties rarely results very satisfactorily. There is another reason for this. Where the size of the male is greatly disproportioned to that of the female, the un- born lamb has not room to expand in the womb, and it is born crooked and unshapely—generally thin-chested and flat-ribbed. Hence I entirely prefer the cross between the French ewe and American Merino ram to the one made conversely. Am I asked at this point, if it is legitimate to breed extraneous sub- stances, like oil and gum, and sell them for wool? Certainly not. On the other hand, is it legitimate for the wool buyer and manufacturer to make no fair distinction between clean and dirty wool? He who sells “‘ oreasy” wools in broad daylight, without splitting his fleeces or resort- A : 1) SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 317 ing to any other trick, at leasts commits no fraud! On the whole, I would push towards neither extreme. In your climate, I think you will have to obtain pretty dark-colored and oily rams to keep up the proper medium in that particular in your full-blood American Merino flocks, and still oilier and darker ones, to produce that medium in a cross with coarse sheep. The wool of the French crosses I have described was a shade coarser ~ and a shade lest “stylish” than fair American Merino wool. But the difference in cleanness was in its favor, and the difference in fineness was so little against it, that every lot I mentioned sold, or could have been sold separately, in July, for forty-four or forty-five cents a pound. An intelligent breeder of these, and of French full-bloods, candidily admitted to me last winter, that he considered the former worth quite as much as the latter for wool-growing. Under common care, and exposed to any disadvantages, I think they would. prove most profitable. And such a cross would promptly give additional weight of fleece, and especially size, to American Merino flocks deficient in either particular. But the cross must always be well made not to result in failure. SeLectiIonN oF SurEp.—The points of a good Merino’s carcass are, good but not extraordinary size for the variety, the barrel well rounded, the chest deep, the cross full, the back level forward of the hips, the loin and buttocks comparatively wide, the flank and twist well let down, the neck round and set on level with the shoulders, the head fine but broad _between the ears, the eye lively and mild, the legs straight and moderate- ly long, the whole figure wearing a marked appearance of compactness “and solidity. The degree of throatiness is rather a matter of taste. It is a great im- pediment to smooth and rapid shearing ; but as a badge of blood, and as an indication of that loose, large skin which is-a characteristic mark and valuable property of the highbred Merino, (and which is often found without throatiness,) it is liked to a reasonable extent by most breeders. The skin should be of a fresh pink color—not dead white, and especially not tawny. The wool of the Merino should be compact at all hazards, and of as great length as can be found united with compactness. It should open with some appreciable resistance to the hand, not drop apart at the touch, like the fur of furbearing animals. The pile, in addition to its fineness, should be finely and regularly crimped from one extremity to the other. This is an important indication of quality, and in the case of the American Merino, of blood. ‘Fhe pure French sheep does not so perfectly or so uniformly exhibit it. The interior of the wool (after it has gained length “subsequently to shearing) should be brilliantly glossy, and when properly opened by the hand, every spire of its crimped filaments should seem to be moving, as if instinct with life. This last appearance (of which I can give no definite idea on paper) is the highest possible indication of good breeding. A dry, lustreless appearance, especially a dead appearance, is very Sbjectionable. If, in addition to this, the wool is destitute of crimp, it is wholly inferior. Except near the outer end, wool should be white, or of a faint golden tinge. If saffron-colored near the skin, it is “‘ yellow- ed,” (by some abnormal secretion,) and injured for sale. Slightly brown- ish or nankeen-colored wools, unless so stained by earths, indicate defec- tive breeding. French wools are oftener of this color than those of any other family of the Merino. The gum which is permitted to exist, should be on the outer extremity ‘2 318 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. of the fleece, not scattered through it in small yellow particles resem- bling bee-bread, or in occasional white waxy concretions. The former defect is commonest in the American, the latter in the French Merino, Neither of them appertain to the Saxon. The oil of the fleece should appear like a delicate white perfectly transparent varnish, or some thinner fluid, barely coating over every fibre to give it lustre. As already said, it is objectionable to have it fill up the interstices of the wool, as if it had béen poured in, and doubly so if its color is yellowish. If quite yel- low and viscid, it is called “ yolk.” The wool of the Merino should closely cover every wool-bearing part. It should be thick and long on the belly as well as on the back, and the bare spots for the movements of the legs, etc., should occupy only the surface absolutely necessary for that purpose. It should look, when its pelage is out at full length, like a bundle of wool on legs. But wool below the knees and hocks, and on the point of the nose, is like throati-\ ness, one of those “ fancy points” which is highly valued by some, and objected to by others. The wool on these parts is imferior, and trifling in weight. It does not, as novices often imagine, specially indicate a heavy fleece. That on the legs gets foul with mud or dug, when it comes in contact with it, and that on the nose often so impedes the sight, that unless it is sheared away two or three times a year, the animal see neither forward nor backward, nor scarcely sideways, without awkwardly twisting about its head. I confess I rather like the peculiarity ; but there can be no doubt it would be undesirable in sheep which must travel and “look out for themselves” on extensive plains, and particularly so, if there was any chance of their being attacked by dogs or beasts of prey. Price or Merrnos.—I shall recur to this subject, because the inciden- tal discussion which has taken place on it, in your paper, renders me desirous to submit some definite and tangible statements. I therefore say, definitely and tangibly, that pure-blood American Merino flocks of good quality, including the usual admixture of all ages and sexes, up to four years old, can be bought for eight dollars a head, where one hundred are taken ; for ten dollars a head, where fifty taken ; for twelve dollars a head, where twenty-five are taken ; for twenty-five dollars a head, where a half-dozen are taken. The pure-bred French sheep are comparatively few, and though unpopular with the mass of wool-growers, are highly prized by their breeders on account of their salableness in new regions. I can give no approach to a uniform price on them. Good high-bred French, grades, (a cross with the American Merino) resembling full-blood French can be bought at from fifteen to twenty-five per cent. advance on the price of American Merinos. Mongrel American Merinos—not unfrequently denominated “ full- bloods,” by sheep-growers who have no record of pedigree, oftentimes no distinct conception of what constitutes a pedigree—can be purchased in nearly all the Northern and Middle States, at from two to four dollars a head, according to the prevailing market prices of sheep at the, tinte. Most of them are a cross between the Saxon and “ Native” sheep, with a later infusion of Merino blood. Where the Saxon admixture was strong, these sheep are often as fine as pure-blood Merinos. But their fleeces are lwhter; their constitutions much less vigorous; and like all mongrels made up between distinct races, they are lacking in uniformity. Cost or Imreorration.—There are three ways of getting sheep from the Northern States to Texas—by the Ocean and Mississppi River routes, and by the land route. Where time is no object, and the number of % & SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 319 _ sheep to be taken large, the latter is by far the cheapest. Freights from | New-York City to Galveston, in ship-houses, (water found,) will average | about three dollars per head at proper seasons of the year. When _ enough are sent to fill a ship-house, the usual cost is two dollars a head. | The cost of arranging ship-house, keep, and attendance on the passage is then to be added. It should not exceed two dollars per head. Under | proper arrangements, the passage is as safe as that of the human passen- _ ger of the vessel. - Crossing wiTH coarse SHxErep.—It may be laid down as a settled rule, that the Merino can be improved, a8 wool-producing sheep by a cross with no other breed whatever. All legitimate crossing, for that object, is confined to the several varieties of its own breed. Secondly, there is no other breed the quality and quantity of whose wool is not im- proved by a Merino cross. It is a matter of economy first to stock an extensive wool estancia with coarse, cheap breeds of sheep. Any thing, from English long-wools down to the puny, miserable Mexican sheep, can be used; and with well-selected rams, (medium-sized, compactg oily, gummy, and heavy-fleeced American Merinos,) the rapidity of the im- provement will appear alraost miraculous to inexperienced persons. In selecting the coarse sheep, the carcass is of vastly more importance than the fleece, and hence the Mexicans are the least valuable. But even they are preferable to nothing. None but the full-blood Merino ram should be used under any circum- stances, A different course would, at best, lead to a retardation of the desired improvement, of more amount than many times the cost of the necessary full-blood rams; and the degree and kind of improvement would become wholly a matter of uncertainty. Every breeder whose means admit of it, will do well also to start with a more limited flock of full-blood ewes. They constitute the foundation of a future pure flock, and are the nursery to draw rams from, without the expense of resorting to new purchases every two or three years. To meet this latter object, the ewes and rams originally imported should be of different strains of blood, and so marked as to’be readily distinguish- able from each other. All extensive breeders should keep:two or three separate strains of blood, for the convenience of purchasers. _ Miscettanrous Suaarstions.—Every new breeder should start with an established system of marks which will at once point out to him the blood of the particular animal. The brands may be cut out of wood, or constructed of iron, and they are dipped in some pigment and applied to the sheep (to prevent mistakes) as soon as it is sheared. On one side stamp the owner’s initials, on the other a cross, a circle, a triangle, or the like, ( or a combination of these marks,) to indicate the precise family. Every sheep of inferior carcass of fleece, should receive a mark at shearing, which indicates that it is to be killed or sold. On the subject of winter shelter and keep, I shall here offer nothing. In this particular, experience is the only guide. But I repeat my former adjuration, to keep down the dogs—that curse of sheep-raising in Virginia, the Carolinas, etc., which is more fatal than all others, and which it is next to impossible to get rid of, where it has once got a firm footing. Yours truly and sincerely, Henry 8S. RanpDatt, Cortland Village, New-York, Aug. 12, 1859. 820 SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS, SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS. BY GEORGE W. KENDALL, ESQ. On commencing a third article on “Sheep Raising in Texas,” giving my experience for another year, or since September, 1858, I find that 1 have but a repetition of the same old story to offer the many readers of your valuable almanac ; my good fortune has continued without an inter ruption, and my losses amount to next to nothing. My flocks have all been extremely healthy, and in the best possible condition, while the few losses I have sustained, (not one per cent. probably,) have mostly resulted from casualty or accident of some kind; no disease has visited my folds, You may recollect, that I last year said that I could not hope for a con- tinuance of such good luck or fortune as had followed me through the years, 56-7 and a part of ’58; it has continued up to this Ist of August, 1859, and my sheep are now in finer order than I have ever before seen them. In the fall and early winter of 1858, or during the months of October, November, and December, I felt not a little uneasy about the effect of the acorns, of which we had a most abundant crop in the mountains. I had read in one book that they were hurtful to sheep; I had been told, by those who pretended to know, that their effect would certainly be injurious. To keep my flocks away from them was entirely out of the question ; within a hundred yards of the pens where they were nightly kept, and in almost every direction, they must enter an oak range when turned out in the morning, every tree loaded heavily with acorns. The sheep devoured them with avidity, would run from tree to tree in the morning searching for such as had dropped fresh during the night, and this continued until the heaviest mast we have had in many years was exhausted. What with the grass they cropped meanwhile, (and it was noticed that each day the sheep would graze for hours,) they would come home to their pens at night well filled. And all this time the flocks were bright, healthy, and never in better condition, thus proving past all doubt, that acorns, instead of being injurious to sheep, are a positive benefit, and hereafter the heavier the mast may be at my place, the better I shall like it. _ In April last, at shearing time, I smeared the noses of my sheep, and especially the lambs, bountifully with tar, and so far they have not been troubled at all with grub in the head. Lagt year, it may be remembered, I lost a few lambs from this cause; the tar certainly can do no harm, costs but a trifle, and I believe is beneficial during the spring and early summer months. About the 15th of August, 1858, I weaned my lambs, over eleven hun- dred in number, all on the same morning: as nearly all were dropped in the month of April preceding, they were then about ‘four months old. The Merino buck lambs I turned into my regular wether flock, where I keep all my bucks save during the short tupping season in the fall ; the ewe and wether lambs I have kept in a flock by themselves up to this time, and all have grown and thriven remarkably well—far better than when the old ewes with their lambs ran together, and from one end of the year to the other. Every one who knows anything .about sheep must be well aware that | | SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS. oat \|long after a ewe has nearly dried up—when she gives but a drop of | milk—the lamb will hang on and worry her, forty times a day, for that | drop. It does the latter no good—it pulls down and pesters the old | ewes—in short, injures both. For a day or two after they are separated, f course there will be a terrible outery and clamor, lambs bleating for | their mothers, and mothers calling for theirlambs. But this is soon over ; | both soon set to work in earnest cropping their food, they have the entire day to fill themselves, and my experience has proved that both commence | fattening within a week after the weaning is over. The old ewes have a hance to recruit and strengthen themselves before frost sets in, are jn finer condition for the bucks in November, and pass through the winter | in far better order. I know that where a person has but a single flock of sheep, and that ‘flock small, it creates an additional expense to separate and wean the fambs. But I hold that anything that is worth doing at allis worth doing /well, and the additional expense. will be more than repaid by the increased size, strength, condition, and constitution of the flock. My last year’s ewe-lambs, (those dropped in the spring of 1858,) I ‘shall put to buck on the Ist of the coming November, or when they are some nineteen months old. They will then be two years of age when ‘they have lambs; and I am confident this plan is much better than the one so often practised in Texas, of allowing yearling ewes to run with bucks and have lambs before they have attained their growth, and before they are well able to sustain their offspring. I do not increase my stock so fast by following this system; but I materially improve it, both in size and constitution, and that is what I am constantly striving after. We can all afford to be patient in Texas. _ @I shall have some two thousand ewes to put to buck this fall. Of these, bout one hundred and thirty are full-blood Merinoes, which I shall turn into a pasture with two of the best bucks I can find, on 20th of October. On the 25th of the same month I shall put half of my grade ewes to buck, and on the Ist of November the balance. For six weeks only will the bucks be allowed to run with the ewes; I never wish to see a lamb \come in one of my flocks later than the 15th of May. Ihave proved to my own satisfaction, that a lamb dropped on Ist of April, when the grass is young and fresh and the days comparatively cool, will be larger and better formed the day it is three months old, than will a lamb dropped on the 1st of July, when the grass is apt to be coarse and dry, and the days ‘scorching hot, when it is six months old ; and the former will turn out the best sheep in every respect. Many persons, anxious to increase the num- per of their flocks, may be loath to believe all this, but let them try both or all systems. The custom of allowing bucks to run with the ewes the jyear round, and having lambs come twice a year, or during every month in the year, I cannot but believe ruinous. It would worry me more to jsee a buck among my ewes in July, August, or September, or in Febru- ary, March, or April, than a wolf: the latter might kill half a dozen, and there end; the former would cost me more real loss in the long run. — I am induced to give this statement in relation to my system because I | am continually receiving letters from persons just starting in the sheep ‘business, making inquiries on the subject. I do not say that I am right; [ask no one to follow my general plan of management. I shall change it the moment I hear of any one who has had better success than has befallen me, but not until then. | In the Texas almanac for 1859, I see that Thos. Decrow, Esq., after an W 322 SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS. \ interesting account of his own great success in sheep-raising on Mata- gorda Bay, sees fit to disagree with me in my estimate of the necessity of breeding from no other than pure Merino bucks. Now, Mr. Decrow may be right, and I altogether in the wrong; yet his argument does not convince me that a grade buck, which is perhaps just as apt to breed back as ahead, is as useful in a flock of Mexican ewes as a square-built, compact, stout, vigorous, well-woolled, thorough-bred Merino, an animal perfect in all those parts where the Mexican is naturally defective. I this year sheared many grade sheep, three and four removes from common Mexican ewes, which yielded 8, 83, and some of them 9 pounds of wool, and wool so fine that it would require a sharp sampler to distinguish it from pure Merino, while the animals were perfect in form, lusty, and of most vigorous constitution. I could not have got along so fast with grade bucks, and I think Mr. Decrow was wrong when he says that he had made up his mind to “sell or exchange his thirteen pure Merino bucks, even at half-price, and furnish his newly purchased Mexican ewes (600 in number) with rams of his own raising, from his own flock in preference.” The flock master who breeds altogether from pure Merino bucks, knows always where he is, and where he will come out at the expiration of a certain time; but if he uses no other than grade rams, he is ever living in uncertainty, and will never reach any particular end. My great object is to breed up until every sheep I may own, may be safely marked a thorough, full-blood Merino; and in the course of a few years, should I live, I shall achieve this result. But not in a century could I attain an end I neem so desirable, were I to breed continually from grade raims. I do not wash my sheep at all, and for what I deem good reasons. About the middle of April, or at the time when one half my ewes havyé young lambs at their sides, and the balance are about to drop, would the only time I could wash in this region. At this period I would not race or worry my ewes at all on any account; they should be pestered as little as possible, and any advantage to the fleece from washing cannot make up for the injury to the animal. I might wash my bucks and wethers without injury, and my yearling lamb flock, made up of ewes and wethers, and I may possibly try the experiment ; but my old ewes never. Could my lambs come the latter part of February, as Mr. Decrow deems best, I might then wash all; but in this high mountain region yeaning time cannot prudently come before the latter part of March or April, the the very period when we must commence washing and shearing. We are apt to have bad weather in February in this section, and even up to the 15th or 20th of March. Now, as my lambs come at the outset at the rate of over one hundred a day, a single cold, rainy or sleety norther would carry off one half of those dropped during its continuance; and hence I say that in this parallel of latitude, and north of it, our yeaning time cannot commence before the latter part of March, without running great risk of loss. I will not trespass farther upon your valuable space at this time; another year, should you wish it, I will give you a fourth article upon my _ experience in sheep raising in Texas. Respectfully, your friend, Gro. Witkins KENDALL. New BravunFsts, August 1, 1859, ' ) j A. | | Abdomen, the. Page 228. | contents of the, 228—233. Abomasum, cut of the, 228. | structure and functions of the, 229. | Acarus of scab, cut of the, 259. description and habits of the, 258—259. how produced, 258. | Acetate of copper. See Verdigris. Afghanistan, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 118. Africa, (exclusive of Cape of Good Hope,) | sheep of, 151. | exports of wool to England from, 110. | exports of wool to U. S. in 1846, 124. quality of wool exported from, 90. | Age, determined by the teeth, 237, 238. names indicative of the, 237. length of, in different breeds, 156, 157. _ Agrostis (stricta) vulgaris. See Herds-grass. Air-cells, description of the, 235. Alabama, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. value of woollen goods manufactured in, Le price of land in, 60. adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep husbandry, 47. Ale, the use of, in sheep medicine, 274. | Allegheny mountains. See Apalachian moun- tains. Allspice, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Aloes, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Alum, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Anatomy of the sheep, 227, 238. how far necessary to be studied, 227. proper subjects for the study of, 227. directions for studying, 227, 228. Animals which destroy sheep in the South, 64 in Australia, 65. at the Cape of Good Hope, 65. how guarded against, 65. Antimony, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Aorta, the, 234. Apalachian mountains of U. S., where situated, 30. area occupied by, 30. geology and soils of, 30, 31, 43, 44, 46, 49. altitude of, 43. i! grasses which flourish on, 43, 44, 47, 59, 62 aduptation of, to pasturage, 44, 46, 47, , 62. zlimate on, 44—51, 59. price of lands on, 44, 46—48, 59. Apoplexy, confounded with grub in the head, 258. cause and treatment of, 251.—253. ‘» INDEX. | Arachis. See Pindars. Arctium lappa, mjurious to wooi, 131. Argentine Republic. See Buenos Ayres. Arsenic, the use of, in sheep practice, 275. Arteries, the, 234. Artichokes, value of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Ashes, as a fertilizer in the South, 67. leached, 67. analysis of, 67. Asia. See names of countries of. exports of wool from to U.S. in 1846 124, Asiatic sheep. See Broad-tailed sheep. Asia Minor, adaptation of, to sheep hus: bandry, 118. Auricles of the heart, the, 234. Australia, introduction of sheep into, 25. introduction of Merinos into, 25. effect of climate of, on quality of wool, 25—29. wools of, compared with Spanish, 26. wools of, compared with Saxon, 26. exports of wool from, 25. exports of wool brought down to] 846, 294. how sheep are managed in, 26. sheep husbandry of, compared with Saxon, 26. general adaptation of, to sheep hus- bandry, 25, 119—121. soils and products of, 119. price of land and labor in, 119—121. climate of, 120. remarkable drouths of, 120. wild beasts in, destructive to sheep, 121. vast distance of, from European markets, 121. prospect of the increase of wool in, 121. note giving statistics of wool trade of, brought down to 1846, 294, Austria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114,116. See Germany and Hungary. soils of, 114. climate of, 115. management of sheep in, 139. ig oe of wool from, to U.S. in 1846, 12 Aquafortis, use of, in sheep practice, 276 B. - Baden, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114 Bakewell, Mr., the former of the New Lei- cester breed, 142. the conduct of, as a feeder, censured, 143, 249. Barley, value of, in producing live weight, wool and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in aie ail. 3 £24 Barns for sheep, cut of. Page 205. ground-plan of, with sheds and yards, 209. Barrack for hay, description and cut of, 209. Bavaria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114, 115. Beans, value of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 41-. Beet field, value of, as a fodder, 213. white Silesian, value of, as a fodder, 213. Belgium, exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. late increase of manufactures i in, 294. Beloochistan, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 118. Rermuda grass in the South, 38. + its enormous product, 38. ; its adaptation to meadow or Bpsture, 38. its adaptation to barren sands, 3 Bichloride of mercury, use of, in be me- dicine, 275, Biflex canal, description of, 238. disease of, 261. Bile, account of the, 231. Biliary duct, description of the, 231. Bladder, the, 233. Blain, unusual in U. S222) Blankets for slaves, description of, 87, 90. cost of manufacturing, 87, 9092. Bleeding, place for, 273, 274. rules for, 274. the quantity of blood to be abstracted in, 274. Blood, the circulation of the, 235. the i importance of purity of, in breeding, 168, 171, 172. Blue grass, as the food or sheep, 212. in the North, 33. in the South, 37. on the Southern mountains, 44, 47, 48. Blue Ridge of mountains, location of, 30. Also, see Apalachians. geology of, 30. soils and products of, 31, 44—47, 59. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 44—A7, 59. Bone dust, as a manure in the South, 67. Bot. See Grub in the Head. Box for feeding grain to sheep, cut of, 203. for dipping lambs, cut of, 192. Brain, description of the, 236. Brazil, a portion of, in wool zone, 105. exports of wool from, 110. es: of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124 Breeding, ‘principles of, 168—172. importance of selection i in, 168, 190. in and in, effects of, 169. in and in, how avoided, 170, 172. crossing, ’when admissible i in, 170. crossing, how conducted, 172. crossing, method of starting flocks in the South by, 170. crossing, importance of selecting good rams for, 172. register, how kept, 180. British America, exports of wool from, 110, to U.S. in 1846, 124. British West Indies, exports of wool from, 110. to U.S. in 1846, 124. Broad-tailed sheep introduced into the U.S., 15] wool and mutton of the, 151. INDEX. ——————— Bronchial tubes, the, 235. Bronchitis, description and treatment of, 240. Bronchocele. See Goitre. Browse, feeding of, in-winter, 217. Buckwheat, value of, in producing live weight, wool and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. ‘aiue of straw of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep i in Germany, 211. Buenos Ayres, advantages of, for sheep hus- handry, 105, 106. advantages of, for ot a husbandry, com pared with U. S., exports of wool Hel 105. exports of wool from, to U. S., in 1846 124. pampas of, 105. inhabitants of, 105. Burdock, injurious to wool, 131. Cc. Cabbage, value of, as a fodder, 213. Cabul, paevaniagee of, for sheep husbandry. bicene diseases, 254, 255. Camphor, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119. Merinos introduced in, 26. Merinos, their increase in, 26. exports of wool from, 1. exports of, to U. S. in 1 124 wool of, compared with Australia, 26. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 65, climate of, 26, 119. climate of, effect of, on quality of wool, 26. face of the country in, 119. remarkable drouths in, 119. prevalence of wild beasts in, 119. Capillaries, functions of the, 234, Caraway seeds, the use of, in sheep medi cine, 275. Cardfac opening, the, 231. Carrots, value of, as a fodder, 213. Castration of rams, 180. Cataract, the, 239. Catarrh, common, description and treatment of, 240 malignant epizootic, description of, 240— 247. malignant epizootic, ravages of, in U. S., 240. ; malignant epizootic, treatment of, 245, 246 Catechu, use of, in sheep medicine, 275.. Cattle doctor, the most dangerous: ofgmala- dies, 226. Caul. See Omentum. Census of U.S., inaccurate in its wool re- turns, 18. Cerebellum, the, 236. Chalk, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Chelmsford plains, for slave cloths, 86, 90. quality and cost of manufacturing, 90—93., Cheviot sheep, introduction of, into U. 5S. 149. description of, 149, 150, 154. low quality of their wool, 151. Chili, portion of, in the wool zone, 105. exports of wool from, 11@. exports of wool from, to U. 124. S. in 1846 >. INDEX. 325 China advantages of, for sheep husbandry, Page 118. Choking, treatment of, 273. Chyle, account of the, 231. Climate, not controlled by latitude, 104. of various countries compared, 104. range of, in which fine sheep are bred, range of, in which wool can be most eco- nomically grown, 103, 104. of U. S., favorable to sheep, 18, 103, 104. effect of, on health of sheep, 18, 103. effect of, on the amount of wool, 22. effect of, on the quality of wool, 23, 27—29. Clogging sheep, how done, 193. Clover, red, as the food of sheep, 212. value of, cut in different states, as a fod- der, 213. acclimation of, in Virginia, 36. acclimation of, on the mountains of Vir- ginia, 44, 47. acclimation of, south of Virginia, 44, 47. not indispensable, 44, 47. substitute for, as a fodder, and manuring crop, 39, 41. white, as the food of sheep, 212. flourishes on the southern mountains, 45, 47. Coecum, cut of the, 232. Colic, symptoms and treatment of, 253. Cold storms, dangerous effects of, after shear- ing, 191. e Colombia, exports of wool from, 110. Colon, cut of the, 232. 5 Cobza, value of, as a fodder, 213. " Copperas, sulphate of, use of, in sheep medi- cine, 275. Corn, Indian, as food for sheep, 216. value of, as a fodder, 213. blades of, as sheep fodder, 41, 212, 214. stalks of, as a sheep fodder, 41, 212, 214. Corrosive sublimate, use of, in sheep medi- cine, 275. Cotswold sheep, origin of, 149. introduction of, into the U. S., 149. description of, 149. crosses of, with other breeds, 149. cut of, 148. Cotton, statistics of the crop of, 79. cost of growing, 79, 85. cost of growing, compared with that of growing wool, 85. should alternate with other crops, 78—83. alternating of, with wool growing pro- posed, 81 rotations for such alternation proposed, 83, 84. more should be grown on less land, 80, 85. seed of, as a food for sheep, 216. Crab grass, account of the, 37. Creeping panic grass. See Bermuda grass. Crimeaf advantages of, for wool growing, Merinos introduced in, 117. Srook, uses of the, described, 196. cut of the, 196. Crossing breeds and varieties, object of, 170. effects of, 170—172. advantages of, under some circumstances, 162, 164, 170. Cud, loss of the, not a disease, 272. Cumberland grass. See Bermuda grass. » Cumberland mountains described, 43. Alsa, see Apalachians. the adaptation of, to sheep hushandry. Curled kale, as food for sheep, 62. flourishes on southern mountains, 62 Cynodon dactylon. See Bermuda grass. Cynoglossum officinale, injurious to wee, 174. .See Haund’s-tongue. Cystisis, unusual in U. S., 238. D. Dactylis glomerata. See Orchard grass. Dangerous rams, how managed, 193. Denmark, exports of wool from, 110. Depots for wool. See Wool Depots. Diaphragm, structure and functions of, 234. Diarrhea, description and treatment of, 250, Digestion, the process of, 239—231. Digitalis, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Digitaria sanguinalis, account of the, 37. Diseases, the classification of, adopted, 226. same causes do not produce the same, in different countries, 220. popular superstitions concerning causes of, 220, 221. many of those of England not found in WU. S:; 221— 293) 238; difference in the type of, in England and =4 treatment of, in England and U. S. dif- ferent, 224. English treatment of, too expensive, 224 225. English treatment requires too much skill for popular use, 225. English treatment, its pharmacopeceia toe extensive, 225. treatment of, by ‘“‘cattle doctors’’ dan- gerous, 226. better do too little for, than too much 226. Dissection indispensable to learn nature and treatment of diseases, 227. amount of instruction necessary to per- form, 227. directions for, 227, 228. proper subjects for, 227. Division of flocks proper in summer, 193. necessary in winter, 199. Docking sheep, necessity for, 181. how performed, 181. Dogs, sheep. See Sheep dogs. destruction of sheep in the South by. 64 legal enactments in relation to killing sheep by, in New York, 64. methods of protecting sheep from, 65.- Down sheep. See Southdowns. Dropsy, acute, unusual in U. S., 222. Drouths, the severe, which pfevail in Aus. tralia and the Cape of Good Hope, 1195120: Ductus choledochus, functions of the, 231. Duodenum, cut of the, 232. Dura mater, the, 236. Dutch West Indies, exports of wool from, is U.S. in 1846, 124. Duties on wool in different nations. Tariffs. Dysentery, difference between, and diarrhasa, 251. See nature and treatment of, 261. E. Ear, numbering sheep by notching. Page 179. Von Thaer’s system of, 178, 179. cuts illustrating, 179. ; when done, 180. notcher, described, 180. | holes in, to record age, 179. holes in, how made, &c., 179. East Indies, increasing exports of wool from, 110, 111. . in Bites countries of the, wool is grown, 8 Ellman, Mr. the great imp vver of the South- downs, 144. “ Emasculation of rams, how performed, 181. England, duties of, on imported wool, 106. table of imports of wool of, and from whence imported, every fifth year for thirty years, 110. imports of Wool of, compared with other nations, 108. imports of, brought down to 1846, 294. vast increase of imports of wool of, in sixty-nine years, 123. subsequent increase in imports of, 294. exports of woollens from, 108. exports of wool from, 109. exports of wool from, to U. S., 110. exports of wool from, to U. S."in 1846, 124. number of sheep in, 109. produce of wool in, 109. production of wool in, does not meet the home consumption, 109. general advantages of, for wool growing, 111. sheep necessary to sustain tillage of, 71. sheep dogs of, 286. Enteritis, little known in U. S., 238. pee descwption of the, 236. Epilepsy, little known in U. S., 253. Epsom salts, the use of, in sheep medicine, pga Ot Erysipelatous scab, 261. Ethmoid bone, cut of the, 236. Ewes, proper age of, to begin breeding, 137. proper number to be put to one ram, 197. different methods of putting toram, 198. feed and management of, during preg- nancy, 217. pregnant, should be watered separately, 199. Eye, inflammation of the, how treated, 239. Fy, Fall feeding, a good preparation for winter, Lam Febrile diseases, account of the, 238—251. Feeding sheep in yards with other stock im- proper, 210. Felting property in wool accounted for, 137. Fences, poor ones teach sheep to jump, 194. Fever, inflammatory, little known in U. S., 238. malignant, little known in U. S., 238. typhus, little known in U. S., 238. Flaxseed. See Linseed. Fleece, evenness of, important, 167. how prepared for folding, 187. how folded, 187, 188. . - e INDEX. . — ns Fleece, cuts of table and trough for folding the, 187, 188. ” proper twine for tying, 188. cut of, properly done up, 188. Florida, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. Fluke worm, cuts of the, 248, account of the, 247, 248. Fly, its attacks and their effects, 173, 192. how avoided, 173, 192. Fodders, table of nutritious equivalents ef 213 increase in weight, wool and tallow, from using different kinds of, 214, 215. table of winter variations in, for sheep, 211. table of, for ewes, a month prior to lambing, 212. for winter feed of breeding ewes, 217. amount consumed influenced by tempe- rature, 217, 218. cereal grains for store sheep, 215, 216. ruta bagas for store sheep, 215, 216. Indian corn to be fed with care, 216. regularity in giving, very important, 217. Folding, how done in England, 72. objects of, in England, 72. inexpedient in U. S., 73. Folding of fleeces’ See Fleece. Food. See Grasses and Fodders. Foot rot. See Hoof-ail. Fouls, cause and treatment of, 270. Foxglove. ®ee Digitalis. Fractures, treatment of, 273. France, area of, 111. population of, 111. number of sheep in, 111. exports of wool from, 110. ‘ey exports of, to U. S. in 1846, : exports of woollens from, 108. late increase in manufactures of, 111,296 imports of wool of, 108. duties of, on imported wool, 106. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 111. soil and products of, 111. French Merinos, account of, 133. cut of wool of, 135. quality of wool of, compared with Spa- nish and American families, 135, 136. weight of fleeces of, 133. French sheep dogs, 285. : Frontal bone, cut of section of, 236. Frontal sinuses, cut of, 236. locality of the bot or grub in the head, 256. is Gad-fly of the sheep. See Gstrus ovis. Gall bladder, account of the, 233. Garget, description and treatment of, 251. Gastritis, little known in U. S., 238. Generative organs, the, 233. ret Gentian, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Georgia, population of, 17. * number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. a: {INDEX | * i. ite i Cin. a. SS. a 2 wee 6 f prrens, woollen goods manufactured in. age 17. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 42, 59, 6 price of ‘land i in, 60. adaptation of mountain lands of, t to sheep husbandry, 47. Germany, area of, 114. population of, 114, face of the country in, 114. soils of, 114. climate of, 115. land tenures in, 115. system of sheep husbandry in, 115, 139. method of managing sheep in, 139. circumstances under which the wool of, is grown in, 115, 116. export of wool from, 110, 114. export of woollens from, 108. late inferease in woollen manufactures of, 296. general advantages of, for woo! growing, 114—116. general advantages of, compared with S., 116. general advantages of, Mr. opinion, 116. Gestation, period of, 197. Gibraltar, exports of wool from, 110. exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. Ginger, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Glands, the parotid, 236. the thyroid, 236. * the thyroid, diseases of, 270. the salivary, 236. Glottis, account of the, 236. Goggles. See Hydatid in the brain. Goitre, account of the, 270, 271. Grain, policy of feeding to store sheep in winter, 215. best kinds of, for winter feed, 216. alents of, in nutriment, 213. effects of different kinds of, in producing wool, tallow and muscle, 214. Grain box for sheep, cut and description of, 203 Grove’s Grasses, natural ones of the South, 36—39, 44, 45, 47—49, 58, 59. varieties of, which should be tried in the South, 33, 35—38. best acclimated ones of the South, 33, 36—38. manner of forming swards of, in the South, 73—75. Great Bucharia, wool trade of, 118. Greece, exports of wool from, 110, 114. (In Table on page 110 it is called Morea.) advantages of, for sheep husbandry. See Remarks on Turkey, 104, 114. Grub in the head, description of the, 256, O57: the larva of the Cstrus ovis, 257. cuts and description of the Gstrus, 256. time Cistrus deposits its eggs, 256. locality and habits of the larva, 256, 257. cuts and description of the larva, 257. cut and description of the chrysalis, 257. do the larva produce disease in the sheep ? 257, 258. opinions of eminent veterinarians in rela- tion to, 258. method of preventing and expelling the larva, 258. Guano, as a manure in the South, 67. Guatemala, exports of wool from, 110. Guernsey and Man, exports of wool from 110. Gullet, obstructions of, how treated, 273. Gypsum as a fertilizer in the South, 67. H. s 53 e Handling sheep, directions for, 174. Hay, different value of different qualities of, _as fodder, 213. comparative value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214, nitrogen in, 214. Hay holders for winter foddering described, Hanse Towns: exports of wool from, to U.S in 1846, 124. Head, for proper form of, see the descrip. tions cf the several breeds, and prin ciples of breeding. cut of the bones of the, 236. Heart, structure and functions of the, 234, 235 Hedysarum onibrichis. Sep Sayfoin. Hepatization of the lungg, description of, 239. Herds grass, character of, 33, 37. flourishes in South Carolina, 36, 59. flourishes on the mountains of North Carolina, 44. __ the soils adapted to, 37. Hindostan, wools exported from, 108. Holland, exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U. 8. in 1846, 124. exports of woollens from, 108. am Honeycomb, or second stomach. See Reti. culu Hooding dangerous rams, how done, 193. Hoof, periodical shortening of the, necessary, 183. best time and method for cutting the, 183. cut of toe-nippers for shortening the, 183. Hoof-ail, erroneous statements of English writers concerning, 262. author’s experience with the, 262. consecutive symptoms of, 263. treatment of, 264—269. preparation of the foot for treatment in the different stages of, 265. common remedies for, 265, 266. common method of treating, ineffectual 264. effectual method of treating, 266, 267. effectual method of treating, expense of, 267. cheap method of keeping under, 267, 268. cheap method of keeping imadens cuts of arrangements for, 267, 2 evident contagiousness of, 269, 270. propagated by inoculation, 269, 270. is it propagated otherwise than by ino- culation? 270. does not originate spontaneously in U.S., 222, 223, 269. originates spontaneously in England 223 Hoof-rot. See Hoof-aal. Hoove, cause and treatment of, 272, 273. 308 Are. INDEX. i Horns, objectionable. Page 166. method of shortening, 192. j cause and treatment of maggots under the, 192. _ Hoppling sheep, how performed, 193. Hospital for feeble sheep, in winter, 199. Hound’s-tongue, the burr of, injurious to wool, 174. Hungary, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 115—117. advantages of, compared with those of other countries, 117. climate of, 115, 116. soils of, 116. land tenures in, 116. want of market facilities in, 116, 117. Prince Esterhazy’s flock in, 116. sheep dogs of, 284. Hydatid in the brain, 254, 255. causes of, 254. prevalence in England of, 254. not very common in U. S., 254. barbarous popular method of treating, 255. proper treatment of, 255. iF Ileum, cut of the, 232. Illinois, advantages on prairies of, for wool growing, 96—103. Saxon sheep introduced into south of, 27. rot prevails in south of, 222. {n-and-in breeding, effects of, 169. Independent Tartary, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 118. Indiana, advantages of, for wool growing, |’ 96—103. Inflammation of the bladder. See Cystitis. of the brain. See Phrenitis. of the eye. See Opthalmia. of the intestines. See Enteritis. of the larynx. See Laryngitis. of the lungs. See Pneumonia. of the liver. See Rot. of the stomach. See Gastritis. of the udder. See Garget. of the membrane lining the thorax. See Pleuritis. of the mucous membrane lining the bronchial tubes. See Bronchitis. of the mucous coat of the smaller intes- tines. See Diarrhea. " of the mucous coat of the larger intes- tines. See Dysentery. of the mucous membrane lining the nasal passages. See Catarrh. of the cellular tissue of the tongue. See Blain. Intermaxillary bone, cut of the, 236. Intestines, cut of the, 232. Iodine, use of, in sheep medicine, -275, 276. Towa, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 96—103. - Italy, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 13; exports of wool from, 110. exports of woollens from, 208. area of, 113. population of, 113. soil and climate of, 113. ~ vasturage of, 113. Jejunum, cut of the, 232. J>hn’s-wort, bad effects of, on sheep, 271. bad effects of, how treated, 271, 272. Jagular vein, the best place for bleedang, 274, éune grass. See Blue grass. K. Kalmia angustiflora, poisonous to sheer ,27/ antidotes for, 271. Kentucky, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces Inge) 8, 21. woollen factories in, 17. . woollen goods manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep bred in, 27. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 27 47, 48 adaptation of mguntain lands of, for sheep husbandry, 47, 48. Kidneys, structure and functions of the, 233. L. Lacteals, the, 231. Lambs, how fed in winter, 215, 216. should be wintered separately, 199, Lambing, proper time for, 175. shelters necessary for, 175. assistance when to be rendered ewe in 175. care of the newly dropped lamb, 176. changing dams, how done, 177. irritation of the bag, how managed, 177. the convenience of pens in, 177. pinning of young lambs after, 177. Lard, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Larynx described, 235. Laryngitis, little known in U. S., 238. Laurel, low, poisonous to sheep, 271. Leg, treatment of, when fractured, 273. Leicester sheep, origin of the, 142, cut of the, 142. cut of the microscopic appearance of wool of, 136. general description of, 143, 154. characters of as breeders, 143. degree of hardiness of, 143. points aimed at by breeders of, 144. introduction of, into U. S., 144. Lentils, value of, as a fodder, 218. straw of, value of, as a fodder, 213. te of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211 Lice, method of destroying, 192. Lime, chloride of, use of, in sheep medicine 276. carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice. 276. as a fertilizer in the South, 67—70. as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68. ‘ as a fertilizer, Johnson’s opinions con- cerning, 68. as a fertilizer, Von Thaér’s opinion con: cerning, 68. as a fertilizer, Petzholct’s opinion con cerning, 69. cerning. Page 69. Linseed, use of, to guard the end of a pro- bang. See Choking. caked, value of, as a fodder, 213. oil, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Little Bucharia, exports of wool from, 118. Liver, structure and functions: of the, 232 2305 diseases of the. See Rot. Lolium perenne. See Rye grass. | Lombardy, advantages of, for sheep hus- | bandry, 113. é Long wool, the goods in which it is em- ployed, 143, 151. the sheep which produce it, 143, 149, 151. market for, in U. S., 154. | Loss.of cud, not a disease, 272. Louisiana, population of, 17. | number of sheep in, 17. | pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. | woollen goods manufactured in, 17. | price of land in, 60. | Lucern, unsuccessful in the North, 33. succeeds on the southern mountains, 47. | value of, as a fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Lunar caustic, use of, in sheep practice, 276. | Lungs, structure and functions of the, 235. hepatization of the, described, 239. diseases of the, 239, 240. Lupins, white, as a green manuring crop in the South, 74. Lupinus albus. See Lupins. , Lymph, the, 231. | Lymphatics, the, 231. 7 M Ke ° | Madia, value of, as a fodder, 213. Maggots on sheep, cause and treatment ef, 192 Malta, exports of wool from, 110. Man, Isle of. See Guernsey and Man. Mangel wurzel, value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. _ Maniplus, structure and functions of the, 229. cut of the, 228. Manufactures of wool. See Woollen Manu- factures. Manufactories. See Woollen Factories. Manufacturers of wool, American, their suc- cess identified with that of the wool growers, 161. have not properly discriminated in the prices of different qualities of wool, 160. combinations of, to lower prices of wool, 161. _Manures, table of comparative values of, 40. | the available ones in the South, 67—76. green, use and economy of, 70, 72, 74,75. i the cheapest, for the South, 73—75. | where applied in a proper rotation of i crops, 84. | Manyfolds. See Mantplus. | Marking sheep, the brand for, 191, suitable pigment for, 191. how and when done, 191. ¥: , INDEX. 329 ae ee a ee _Lime, as a fertilizer, Chaptal’s opinion con- | Marking sheep, on the ears, how done, 179. Marl, as a fertilizer, South, 67—70. as a fertilizer,.when valuable, 68, 70. as a fertilizer, expensiveness of, 70. Meadow fox-tail grass, flourishes on the southern mountains, 47. Medicago sativa. See Lucern. Medicines, list of, for sheep, 274—277. directions for administering into the sto- mach, 273. Mercury, preparations of, in sheep medicine, 275, 276. Merinos, introduction into the U. S., 132. their gradual spread in the U. S., 132. causes of their subsequent decrease in UnSs, 158; 159. their rapid restoration to public favor in U. S., 160, 161. ° Spanish families of, 132. Spanish, amount and quality of woal yielded by, 133, 135. K Spanish, cut of wool of, 135, 137. French family of, described, 133. French, amount and quality of wool yielded by, 133, 135. French, cut of wool of, 135. American families of, described, 133, 134. American, amount and quality of wool yielded by, 55, 134—137. American, cuts of wool of, 135, 136. American, cut of ram of, 131. American, cut of ewe of, 134. American, hardness of, 137. American, profits of a premium flock, of, Hoe American, prices of wool of, 55. range of climate endured by, 137. countries successfully introduced in, 17 18. consumption of food by, compared with other breeds, 137. as breeders and nurses, compared with other breeds, 137. proportion of wool to amount of food consumed, compared with the English breeds, 156. as mutton sheep, compared with English breeds, 158. for production of fine wool, compared with Saxons, 163, 164. crosses with Saxons, 134, 138, 141, 164. crosses with native sheep, 164. crosses with Southdowns, 170, 171. crosses with Leicesters, 171. 4 the best varic:y of sheep for the Seuth, 163, 165—168. proper size of, 165. proper form of, 166. proper weight of fléece of, 165. proper length and density of wool of, 167. proper evenness of wool of, 167. proper style of wool of, 168. proper amount of gum on wool of, 167. proper quality of skin of, 166. points to be avoided in, 168. Mesentery, cut of the, 232. Mesenteric glands, the, 231. Mexico, adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 105. exports of wool from, 110. expo wool from, to U.S. in 1846, 124, ; 330 Mexico, sheep dogs of. Page 284—286. Microscupic views of wool, 135—137, 145. Middle wools. See Southdown wool. Midriff. See Diaphragm. Millet, productiveness oe South, 37, 38, straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211, 212. vaiue of, as a fodder, 213. Milt. See Sp leen. Miscellae oats, diseases, 27 1—273. 4 Mississippi, population of, 17. * number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep bred in, 27. latitude, &c., of, compared with Aus- tralian, 27. Missouri Territory, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 96—103. Modena, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, LPS: « s Mates wodl, 90. Morea, exports of wool from, 110. Greece. Morocco. See Africa. Mountains of the South. See Mountain zone, under head of Southern States. Mud, as a fertilizer. See Swamp mud. Muriate of soda. See Salt. Muriatic acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Mutton, economical food for slaves, 56, 57. its effects on the system compared with other meats, 56. the quality of, in different breeds of sheep, 153, 154, 158. Also, see the different breeds. sheep, the English. See Sowthdowns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds. sheep, where they constitute the most profitable variety, 153, 154. sheep, vse between varieties of, 153, 154 sheep, unadapted to most parts of the South, 154, 155. sheep, less profitable in the South than Merinos, 158. “See N. Naples, gepentaged of, for sheep ams onl 113 Nasal bones, cut of the, 236. Native sheep (so called) of the U. S., origin of, 130 general characteristics of, 131. crosses with other breeds, 131, 164. policy of grading up with the Merino in the South, 164, 170. selection of, to cross with Merines, 170. do not cross successfully with Saxons, 164. Nerves, the, 236. Nervous diseases, the, 251. New England, advantages of, for wool growing, 95. New Jersey, advantages of, for wool grow- ing, 95. New Leicester sheep. See Tecate! New Oxfordshire sheep. See Cotswolds. New South Wales. See Australia. New York, population of, 17. » ” * INDEX. ee ° New York, sheep introduced in by the Dutch colonists, 130. Y 4 number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21.- woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. grass lands of, how managed, 32. price of grazing lands in, 53. price of sheep in, 53. cost of producing wool per pound in, 61. profits of wool growing in, 53—55. Nitrate of a . See Lunar caustic. Nitrate of potash, use of, in sheep medicine 276. Nitre. See Nitrate of potash. Nitric acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. North Carolina, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. amount of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories i in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. price of land in, 44, 60. adaptation of mountain lands of, te sheep husbandry, 44—46. Norway, exports of wool from, 110. climate and flora of, 104, 105. Numbering “sheep, advantages of, 178. See Registering. Von Thaér’s system of, 179. cuts illustrating, 179. O. Oats, selne of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent: of nitrogen in, 214. value of straw of, asa fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Odessa, exports of wool from, 117. (Esophagus, course of the, 234—236. entrance of, into stomach, 228, 229. obstructions of the, how treated, EVER (Esophagean canal,structure and functions ot the, 229. Ckstrus ovis, description of, 256. natural history of, 256, 257. cuts of, 256. Ohio, advantages of, for wool growing, 95. Omentum, description of the, 228. One crop system of the South, 81. exhaustion of land consequent on the, 81, 82. exhaustion of land consequent on the, De Candolle’s, Macaire’s, Mirbel’s, Braconnet’s and Gyde’s theories and experiments on, 81. Opium, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. pthalmia, treatment of the, 239. Orchard grass, unsuccessful in New York, 33: flourishes on the southern mountains, 62. Orkney, wool of, 90. Otter sheep of the U. S., 129. Ovaries, the, 233. P; . Palsy, nature and treatment of, 253. Pancreas, structure and functions of the, 238, Panicum ‘milliaceum. See Millet. ° aa INDEX. ss — 7 Panicum sanguinale. See Crab grass. Papal States, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry. Page 113. Parietal bone, cut of a section of, 236. Parma, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, as Parotid glands, the, 236. Parturition. See Lambing.. Pastures, the natural ones of the South, 33, 34, 36, 4448, 59, 60. how formed on sterile lands, 73—75. Patagonia, portion of, in wool zone, 105. Paunch. See Rumen. » Peas of the South, 39. substitute for clover in the South, 39, 41. value of, as a fodder, 39, 41, 213, 214. value of, in the production of live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. value of, as a green manuring crop, 74, 75. what time plowed under for green ma- nure, 75. haulm of, valuable as a fodder, 39, 213, 14 214. haulm of, valuable as a manure, 40. chemical analysis of, 39. Pedigree, only, value of, 171. Pelt-rot, description and treatment of, 255. Pens for the lambing season, how con- structed, 177. Pennsylvania, adaptation of, to sheep hus- bandry, 95. Pepper, black, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Pericardium, the, 234. Persia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 104, 118. Peru, exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool to U.S. in 1846, 124. Pharynx, the, 235, 236. Phleum pratense. See Timothy. Phrenitis, rare in U. 8., 253. Pia mater, the, 236. Pimento, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Pindars, value of, as a fodder, 213. Pinning, fatal to lambs, how managed, 177. Pleura, the, 234. Pleuritis, little known in U. S., 238. Pleurisy. See Pleuritis. Pneumonia, nature and treatment of, 239, 240. Poa pratensis. See Blue grass. Poisonous plants to sheep, 271. Portugal, exports of wool from, 110. Potatoes, Irish, as a winter feed for sheep, 41, 213. value of, in the production of live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. sweet, winter feed of sheep, 41. e Poudrette, as a manure, South, 67. Prairies of the Western States described, 95—107. advantages on the, for wool growing, 95—107. . natural grasses of the, 96—99. natural grasses, succulent during but a short season, 96, 97. naturai grasses, rapidly exterminated, 96. natural grassesy will not alone support sheep, 96. natural grasses, make poor hay for sheep, 98. 331 ‘duce winter pasturage, 98. Prairies of the Western States will not pro- time of winter ctrage, 98. 97 ecessary on, cost of sheep husbandry on, compared with Eastern States, 99 * or a fuel, fences and buildings on, 99. difficulties in the way of the shepherd : system on, 100, 101. ‘scarcity of water on, 101. me of, variable and excessive, 102, 103. climate of, States, 102. climate of, compared with Southern States, 102, 103. climate of, unfavorable to fine wooled sheep, 103, - Pregnant ewes, how managed. See Ewes. Prussia, for general description of, see Ger- many, 114—116, exports of wool from, 110. exports of woollens from, 108. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 116. climate of, 104, 115. management of sheep in, 139. Pulse, place for feeling the, 274. natural rapidity of, 274. Purging. See Diarrhea. Pylorus, the, 228, 231. compared with Eastern , R. Rabies, uncommon in U. S., 253. Racks, for feeding sheep, 200—203. box, cut and description of, 200. hole, cut and description of, 200. sparred, cut and description of, 201. hopper, cut and description of, 202. Rams, method of castrating, 180, 181. dangerous ones, how managed, 193. importance of careful selection in, 172. objections to several running in the same flock of ewes, 197. necessity of selecting ewes in reference to quality of, 197. proper age of, to put ty ewes, 197. different methods of putting to ewes, 198 how fed when running with ewes, 199. time allowed to run with ewes, 199. number of ewes those of different ages will serve, 197. not allowed to run with ewes in sum- mer, 193. Rambouillet Merino. See French family of, under head of Merinos. Rape, as food for sheep, 62. flourishes on southern mountains, 62. Rectum, the, 232. Red-top. . See Herds grass. Red water. See Dropsy, acute. Registering sheep, Mr. Grove’s and author’s method, 180. importance of, 178. Respiratory passages, the, 235. Respiration, how produced, 234. Resting lands, meaning of the term in agn culture, 82. : theory of, 82. inexpediency of, 82. Reticulum, description of the, 228. 332 Reticulum, functions of the. Page 230. Rice, value of, as a fodder, 213. ae a winter feed of sheep, 213, 214, Root aes cut of, 203. Rot, not known in most parts of U. S., 222. other diseases mistaken for, 222. bas appeared in Tennessee and Illinois, 222. prevalence of, in Europe, 221, 222. causes assigned for the, 223, 248, 249, symptoms of the, 247. post-mortem appearances of, 247. cuts of the fluke-worm of, 248 suddenness with which it is engendered, 249. English custom of selling rotted sheep to the butcher, 249. treatment of the, 249, 250. Rotation in crops, necessity of, 81, 82. necessity of, in the South, 78—83. a system of, recommended for the South, ~ 83—85. Rumen, structure of the, 228. cut of the, 228. functions of the, 229. unnatural distension of the. Rumination, the process of, 230. Russia, climate of, 104, 117, 118. soil and products of, 117. face of the country in, 117. ’ the south of, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 117. the south of, compared with Hungary, See Hoove. 117. the south of, compared with prairies of the U.S., Merinos introduced i in, in 1802, 117. Merinos, rapid increase of, in, 117. exports of wool from, 110, 117. exports of wool to U.S. in 1826, 124. Ruta bagas, as sheep feed, 213, 216. Rye, cd winter pasturage in the South, 40, une of grain of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. dry straw of, value of, in different states, asa fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Rye grass, unsuccessful in New York, 33. flourishes on southern mountains, 47, 62. Ss. Sacking wool, how performed, 189. proper sacks for, 189. Salt, necessary for sheep in summer, 194, necessary for sheep i in winter, 218. INDEX. . =~ arate sheep, German management of, 116 139) introduction of, into: U. S., 140, 141. deterioration of blood of, in U. S., 141. quantity and quality of wool of, in U.S, 141, wool of, in U. S., comparéd with parent stock, 141, 142. generel ‘description of, 141. meg of, as breeders and nurses, 1395, 41. seas of, in hardiness, 139, 141. ~ how far adapted to climate in northern states, 162. superseded the Merinos for a time in 8.1159: rapid decrease of, in the U. S., 160. dislike to, among northern farmers, 162. compared with Merinos for growing fine wool, 163. improved a a cross with Woritios, 136, 127, 141 crosses of, "with native sheep, 141, 164. Saxony, soils of, 114. climate of, 104, 115. face of the country in, 114. management of sheep i in, 116.. Scab, description of, 258. cuts of the acaris producing it, 259. habits of the acarus, 258. circumstances under which the acarus makes its attacks, 258. short-wooled sheep comparatively ex- empt from, 259. wy contagiousness of, 259. prevalence of, in England, 259. treatment of, 260, 261. Scotland, (included, in most respects, in de» scription of England.) exports of wool from, to U.S. in 1846, 124. mountains of, only kept in pacters by sheep, 71. Scours. See Diarrhea. Sedge grass, eaten by sheep, 49. Selection, annual necessity of, in flocks, 190. rules for, 190. form of a register to expedite, 190. hade, necessity of, in sheep pasture, 195. Shearing, proper time of, 184. time between, and washing, 184, cut of arrangements for, 164. rules and regulations for, 185, 186. of lambs, objected to, 186. of sheep, semi-annually, objected ta, 186. Sheds for sheep, cuts of, 205, 208 the cheapest, 208. Shelter for sheep in winter. Stills, &c. See Sheds, effect, in conjunction with fodders, in in- | Sheep, bred in all climates, 17. creasing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. as a medicine, 276. box, for salting sheep, cut of, 194. Saltpetre, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Sainfoin, 33, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Sardinia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 113. Saxon sheep, origin of, 138. cut of ran, 138 varieties f, 139. microscopic appearance of wool of, 136. number of, in the southern states and i in New York, Lie indispensable for support of poor lands, 71 indispensable to support tillage in Eng- land, 71, 72. system of sustaining tillage lands by, in England, 71, 72. poor lands improved by, in’ northern states, 72. system of i iniprovine poor lands by, in the South, 73—76. better manurers than other stock, 71, 72 INDEX. _——. Sheep, improve the character of the vegeta- | South America, for other particulate of, see tion. Page 57. extirpators of briers and shrubs, 57. emia rick by death, in breeding, 57. impropriety of feeding, in yards with other stock, in winter, 210. comparison of breeds of, 153, 154, 163, 164, 7 comparison in respect to weight of fleece, 154, 156, 157. comparisen in quality of wool, 154. comparison in consumption of food, 154, 156. ' comparison in proportion of wool to food consumed, 156. comparison in hardiness, 156, 157. comparison in longevity, 156, 157. comparison in mutton, 153, 154, 158. comparison in bearing hard stocking, 154, 155, 156. comparison in profitableness in the South, 156, 157. how they should be catfght and other- wise handled, 174. washing of. See Washing sheep. shearing of. See Shearing. (for other particulars of the management of, see the different heads.) cordial, how compounded, 250. dogs, of the ancients, 278, 279. dogs, of Spain, 280-2284. dogs, of Spain, cut of, 281. dogs, of France, 286. dogs, of Hungary, 284. dogs, of England, 287. dogs, of England, cut of, 287. dogs, of Scotland, 288. dogs, of Scotland, cut of, 288. dogs, of Mexico, 284—286. dogs, of South America, 285. core sheep must be familiarized with, 28 Silesia, climate of, 104, 115. face of the country, 114. character of the soil, 114. " Slave cloths, description, 85, 86, 89, 90. expense of imported, 85, 86, 89. actual first cost of, 90, 91. great profits of manufacturers of, 90, 91. should be manufactured in the southern states, 87. offers of northern manufacturers to fur- nish below present prices, 90, 91. cost of manufacturing as good or better plains in the north, 86. cont of manufacturing ‘‘ at the halves,”’ cost of manufacturing by hand on plan- tations, 89. Smith’s Island sheep, 129. Smyrna wools, quality of, 90. Snuffles. See Catarrh. South America, portion of, in the wool zone, 105 climate of, 104, 105. exports of wool from, 105. sheep husbandry in, 105. edvatteee of, for wool growing, 105, advantages of, compared with U. S., 105, 106. pampas of, compared with prairies of sheep dogs of, 285. 333 Buenos Ayres, &c. Southdown sheep, origin of, 144. cut of ram, 145. cut of ewe, 146. cut of wool viewed through microscope, 145 general description of, 144, 145, 148, 154 value of, as a mutton sheep, 146, 147. weight and quality of fleeces of, 146. wool of, deficient in felting properties, 145, 146. introduction into U. S., 147. | South Carolina, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. price of land in, 59, 60. neglect of grass cylture in, 31. hay imported into, 31. adaptation of soils of, to grass cukure, 31, 32,34, 59,°80. adaptation of climate of, to grass culture, 36 system of cropping in, 32, 79. system of cropping compared with New Mork, 32033" system of cropping, change in, recom- mended by legislature, 79, 80. system of cropping, utility of sheep husbandry in effecting such change in, 85 cost of keeping sheep in, 59, 60. winter pasturage for sheep in, 58—60. adaptation of mountains of, to sheep pasture, 47, 59. present method of managing sheep in, 59, 60 wolves in, 64. Southern States, what states included under this designation, 30. area of, 30, 94. natural features and geology of, 30, 31. quality of soils of, 30, 35, 42, 69. profits of sheep husbandry in, 58—62. profits of, compared with other hus- bandry in, 76, 77. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 77 advantages of, compared with other states and countries. See Wool grow ing. advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- bandry, 62. advantages of, for migratory sheep hus bandry, compared with Spain, 62—64. expense of keeping sheep in, 59, 60. expense per pound, of growing wool in, 61. expense per pound, of growing wool in, compared with New York, 61. prejudice in; against sheep husbandry, and causes of, 72, 81° sheep exposed to dogs and wolves in, 64 compared with other countries in above particular, 65. prices of land in, 44, 46, 47, 60. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, 52, 70—72. amelioration of stevile and worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, more cheaply than by the available manures, 67. . 334 pf INDEX. * Southern States, amelioration of sterile and; Southern States, mountain zone of, 30. worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, more cheaply than by marl. Page 68—70. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, considered cheap: est in England, 71, 72. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils | _ by sheep husbandry, considered cheap- est in the Northern States, 73. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, why preferable to cattle husbandry, 71, 72. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, other means available in conjunction with, 74, 75. method of forming pastures on sterile soils of, 73, 74. / effect of present one-crop husbandry in, 78—81. sheep husbandry; basis of convertible husbandry in, 52, 78. convertible husbandry in, the strong ne- cessity for, 82. convertible husbandry in, recommended by a_committee of the legislature of South Carolina, 79, 80. convertible husbandry in, recommended in Judge Seabrook’s Report, 80. rotation of crops for, proposed, 83—85. should rear their own products for con- sumption, 76. should manufacture their own coarse woollens, 85—89. cost of manufacturing and importing these in, compared, 86—87, 895—93. cost of manufacturing slave cloths in, by hand, 88. divided into three zones, 30. the territorial limits of these zones, 30, 31 tide-water zone of, 30. natural features and geology of, 30. quality of the soil of, 30, 35, 69. comuares with portions of New York, 4 compared with Flanders, 35. how ameliorated, 35, 68. adaptation of, to the grasses, 31—38. adaptation of, to clover, 32, 36. adaptation of, to other fodders, 38—41. causes of failure in acclimating grasses IN} al, oe proper grasses to introduce in, 37—40. natural grasses of, 36, 37. natural pastures of, 33, 34. number of sheep per acre which could find subsistence in, 58, 94. winter pasturage of, 31, 40, 58, 59. prices of land in, 60, 61. present system of cropping in, 32. climate of, adapted to growing fine wool, 23—29, ; hilly zone of, 30. ’ face of the country and geology of, 42. quality of the soil, 42. method of enriching soils of, 72. adaptation of, to grasses and grains, 27, method of forming pastures in, 74. adaptation to sheep husbandry, 43, 59. price of lands in, 59, 61. climate of, 42, 59. ouality of, west of the mountains, 51. altitude of the Blue Ridge, Alleghany, and Cumberland chains, 43, 63. altitude of, compared with the moun tains of Spain, 63 shape of the mountains of, 43. geology of, 43. character of the soil of, 44, 46, 49, ' large portions of, arable, 43. © table lands on, 43. - grasses of, 43, 44, 47, 59, 62. white and red clover, lucern, and rye grass flourish on, 47. _ timothy and orchard grass flourish on, 44, 62 ~# adaptation of, to pasturage, 44—47} 59, 62 adaptation of, tosheep husbandry ,44—51, 59 adaptation of, to Hon. T. L. Clingman’s statements concerning, 44, 45. adaptation of, to Mr. H. M. Earle’s state- ments concerning, 46. . adaptation of, to Col. E@Colston’s state- ments concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Hon. W. L. Goggins’s statements concerning, 47. _ adaptation of, to Hon. A. Stevenson’s statements concerning, 47. adaptation of, to, Hon. A. Beatty’s state- ments concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Mr. C. EF. Kramer's statements concerning, 48. adaptation of, to Hon. R. F. Simpson’s statements concerning, 59. adaptation of, to Mr. N. Murdoch's statements concerning, 62, , winter pasturage on, 47—49, 59. adaptation of, to turnips and other tod- ders, 62. climate of, 44—51, 59. climate of, shown by vegetation of, 50, Os climate of, compared with that of New York, 49, 50. price of lands in, 44, 46, 47, 48, 59. wolves in, 64. Spain, sheep husbandry of, 62, 63. great decrease in wool growing in, 111. _ migratory sheep husbandry of, and its disadvantages, 113. advantages otf, for migratory sheep hus- bandry, compared with those of south- ern states, 62, 63. evil effects of the Mesta in, 113. height, climate, and vegetation of moun- tains of, 62, 112. general advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 62, 63, 112. soil and products of, 112. number of sheep in, 112. decreased exports of wool from, 110,111. exports of wool to U. 8S. in 18386 and 1846, 111, 124. other exports from, 112. sheep dogs of, 280—284. Spear grass. See Blue grass. Spergula arvensis. See Spurry. Sphenoid bone, cut of, 236. Spirit of salt. See Muriatic acid. of tar, use of, in sheep practice, 277. Spleen, structure and functions of the, 231 232. Spurry, asa green manuring crop, South, 74. | —— a —____-. Staggers. See Hydatid in the brain. Stell, description of the. Page 206, 207. cut of outside one, 205.. Oe cut of ancient ones, 206. . — ," cut of inside circular ones, 207. cut of circular one, with racks, &c., 207. Sternum, the, 228. St. Helena, exports of wool from, 110. Stomachs of the sheep, description of, 228—| 231. j cuts of the, 228. structure and functions of each of the, 228, 229. ‘ course of the food through the, 229, 230. conflicting theories concerning, 230. Storing wool, 189. Also see Wool depots. Storms, bad effects of cold ones after shear- ing, 191. Sturdy. See Hydatid in the brain. Sulphate of copper, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 275. Sulphate of magnesia, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 275. Sulphur, use of, insheep medicine, 276. Sun-scald, cause and treatment of, 191. Swamp mud, its value as a fertilizer, 70. Sweden, exports of wool from, 110. Sweet-bread. See Pancreas. Syria, climate of, 104. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 117, 118... 4 iM Table 1. Of population, number of sheep, pounds of wool, woollen factories, and value of manufactured goods in south- ern states and in New York, 17. | 2. Of average weight of fleeces in southern states and New York,18, 20, 21. 3. Of average weight of fleeces in four counties of each of the above states, 20. vA 4. Of comparative value of manures,40. 5. Of the flowering of plants, &c., in New York, 49. 6. Of thermometrical observations in New York, 50. 7. Of the average prices of wool in New York, 53. 8. Of importations of wool into Eng- land every fifth year, from 1810 to 1840, 110. 9. Of importations of wool into U. S. annually, from 1837 to 1846, 124. 10. Of importations of wool into U. S. in 1846, with countries from which imported, 124. 11. Of woollens annually imported into U. S., during twenty-five years, 125. 12. Of increase of population in U. S., from 1790 to 1840, 127. 13. Ofincrease of population and amount of wool required in U.S., at different periods, for one hundred and fifteen years, 128 14. Of the progressive reductions in du- ties on wool and woollen, under the ‘¢ Compromise Tariff’’ of 1833, 159. Tagging, necessity of, 173. ow performed, 173, 174. cut explanatory of, 173. - INDEX 335 = s 4 ° Tar, propriety of feeding of, to sheep, 194. uses of, in sheep practice, 277. Tariffs on wool, of France, 106. _ of England, 106. of U.S., on wools and woollens, enacted in the years 1824, 1828, 1832, 1833, 1841, 1842, and 1846, 158, 159. effect of those of U.S. on the prices of wool, 159, 160.” effect of those of U.S. on importations of wool, 159, 160. effect of those of U.S. on importations of woollens, 160. effect of those of U. S. on domestic pro- duction of wool, 159. ect of those of U. S. on the quality of domestic wool, 159, 160. frauds practised in invoicing coarse wools imported into U. S., under that of 1842, 107. effect of that of 1846 on manufacturés of U. 8., 106, 125, 126, 161. effect of “fluctuations in, on manufac- tures, 126. } Tasmania. See Australia. Taugida. See Crimea. Tayfor, Col. John, of Virginia, his erroneous views in relation to sheep husbandry, Teeth, number and description of, 237. indicative of the age, 237. : cuts of, at different ages, 237. difference in the retention of, by different breeds, 238. causes of premature loss of, 238. should be removed in some cases, 238. Temperature, influence of, on quality of wool. See Climate. Tennessee, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep introduced in, 27. fine wooled sheep, wool of, not deterio- rated in, 27. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 27, 48 adaptation of mountains of, to sheep. husbandry, 48. price of lands in, 47, 48. Tetanus, unusual in U. S., 253. Thibet, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 118 wool exported from, 118. Thoracic duct, the, 231. Thoracic viscera, the, 234. Thorax, the, 234. ns Thyroid glands, the, 236. diseases of the, 270, 271. “ Ticks, mode of destroying, and keeping out of flock, 192. "ys Tobacco, use of, in sheep practice, 277, Timothy, the favorite meadow grass, 3 a: as the food of sheep, 212. success on southern low.ands question- able, 37. ~_ succeeds on southern mountains, 44, 62 Toe-nippers, description and use of, 182 cut of, 183. Tory weed. See Hownd’s-tongue. Trees, clumps of, for winter shelter, 207. orth, \ * » 336 Trifolium repens. See Clover, white. Trifolium pratense, See Clover, red. Troughs, for feeding roots or grain. Page 203. for feeding roots or grain, cuts of, 203. for folding wool, 187. for folding wool, cut of, 187. Tunica arachnoides, the, 236. Tunisian sheep, introduced into U. S., 15] character of, 151, 152. Turbinated bones, cut of the, 236. Turnips, succeed on the southern mountains, 62 how fed off by sheep in England, 72. value of, as a fodder, 213, 216. ; Swedish. See Auta baga. Turnsick. See Hydatid in the brain. 8 Turpentine, spirits of, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 277. Turkey, soils and climate of, 118. soils and climate of, in Europe, 114. * face of the country in, 114. population of, 114. Institutions of, unfavorable to sheep hus- bandry, 114. “exports of wool from, 109, 110. exports of carpets, 108. Tuscany, advantages of, for sheep @us- bandry, 113. Typhus fever, not common in U. S., 238. U. Ukraine, Merinos introduced in, 117. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 117. United States. number of sheep and pounds of wool in, in 1839, 123. breeds of sheep in, 129. exports of wool to England for thirty years from, 110. exports of wool in 1845, 1846, 122. annua. imports of wool of, from 1837 to 184}, 124. annua imports, from what countries, in 1846, 124. - annual imports of woollens, from 1821 to 1845, 125. annual consumption of woollens in, 126, 127. annual consumption of woollens in, per head of population, 127. proportion of woollens consumed in, do- mestic, 126. proportion of woollens consumed in, im- ported, 126. i proportion of domestic made in manufac- tories, 126. proportion of domestic made in families, 126. : increase of population in, 127. amount of wool which will be requisite for population of, at different periods, for one hundred and fifteen years, 128. !' adaptation of, to sheep husbandry. See Southern States, New England, Prai- ries, and the states by name. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com- pared with Germany, 116. , adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, Mr. proves opinion concerning, 116. ptation of, to sheep husbandry, com- pared with other countries. See Wool growing. INDEX. . a United States, woollen manufactories of. See Woollen factories. tariffs of, on wool. See Tariffs. (for all other particulars concerning, eee names of the things in relation .@ which information is sought.) Uraguay, in the-wool zone, 105. Ureters, the, 233. Urethra, the, 233. Urinary organs, description of the, Uterus, description of the, 233. * "ie V. Vagina, description of the; 233. Van Diemen’s Land. See Australia. Veins, description of the, 234. Vena cava, the, 234. Ventricles, the, 234. Verdigris, use of, in sheep praetice, 277. Vetches, dried into hay, value of, as a fodder, 213 Veterinary works, character of American, 219. character of English, 219. how far English ones are applicable in URS. 220: ” Virginia, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. wool grown in, 17. average weigit cf fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 42, 47, 60. adaptation of mountains of, to sheep husbandry, 47. ‘ adaptation of north-western, to sheep husbandry, 60. winter herbage on mountains of, 62. winter pasturage in other parts of, 60. cost of keeping sheep in, 60, 61. price of lands in, 60. Vitriol, blue, value of, in sheep practice. green, use of, in sheep practice, 276. oil of, as a caustic in sheep practice, 276. W. Washing sheep, cut of apparatus for, 181. vats and yards for, -181. directions for, 182. : time to elapse after, before shearing, 184. Water necessary for drink of sheep, 195, 218. Weaning lambs, proper time for, 195. how managed, 195. Welsh plains, for slave cloths. See Slave cloths. Ty Wheat, value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. straw of, value of, in different states, ag a fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. chaff of, value of, as a fodder, 213. bran of, value of, as a fodder, 213. Wind-pipe, the, 235. Winter feed. See Fodders. Wire grass. See Bermuda grass. Wirtemberg, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 114. INDEX. Wisconsin, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry. Page 95—103. é W ‘ves, in the Southern States, 64. how guarded against, 65. See Sheep dogs. Wool, Pe in which it can be profitably grown, 103, 104. fabrics of. See Woollens. chemical analysis of, 214. quality of that of different breeds com- pared, 154. growth of, influenced by quantity of feed, 28. growth of, influenced by kind of feed, 214. quality of, influenced by climate, 23—29. quality of, influenced by climate, opinions of eminent judges on this point, 23— grows softer and longer in warm cli- mates, 28, 29. quality of, made coarser by abundant feed, 23. can this tendency of abundant feed to coarsen, be counteracted? 24, 28. felting property of, accounted for, 137. terms used to express different qualities of, 161. fine, proper characteristics of, 167, 168. fine, proper amount of yolk and gum of, 167. fine, proper length of, 167. fine, proper evenness of, 167. fine, proper softness and elasticity of, 168. fine, proper serrations of, 168. fine, proper color and brilliancy of, 168. Merino and Saxon compared, 163. euts of Merino and Saxon, 135—137. middle character and uses of, 110, 145, 146. middle character of, the sheep which pro- duce it, 145. cut of the Southdown, 145. long, character and uses of, 143, 151. long, character of the sheep which pro- duce it, 143, 149, 151. cut of Leicester, 136. comparative profit of growing fine and coarse in U.S., 154—163. comparative value of fine and coarse for strength and wear, 157, 158. not a fair discrimination in prices of, made by manufacturers of U.S., 160. promised improvement in above parti- cular, 161 ahenee of, in manufacturing, 86. 88, | iW | prices of, in New York, for fourteen | years, 53. i prices of, in England, 25. amount of, grown in U. S., 123. amount of, grown in Southern States, 17. , amount of, grown in New York, 17. average weight of, per fleece, in Southern States, 18, 20. average weight of, per fleece, in New| York, 18; 21, 53. | amount of, grown in U. S., does not | meet home consumption, 123—126. amount of, annually grown in U.S., 123. amount of, consumed in U.S., 123—197. | amount of, consumed per head ir TI. S., 127. : 337 ‘ Wool, amount of, imported into U. S., from 1821 to 1846, 124, 125. amount of, exported from U. S., 122. amount of, manufactured in U. S., 126. 127. amount of, required to supply demand in U. S., at different future periods, 128. table of imports of, into England, 11 table, brought down to 1846, 294. increase in amount of, imported into England, from 1771 to 1840, 123. increase in amount of, imported into England, from 1840 to 1846, 294. increasing demand for, throughout tne world, 123. one of the most marketable agricultural products, 77. amount of, grown in different countries. See names of countries. comparative profits of nae in differ- ent countries. See Wool growing. can be more profitably grown in southern than northern U. 8., 163. will northern compete with Southern States in growing ? 162. method of washing, 181. method of washing, cut of arrangements for, 181. method of shearing, 184. method of shearing, cuts of arrange- ments for, 184. method of doing up, 187—189. method of doing up, cut of arrangements for, 187, 188. method of storizg in wool room, 189. method of sacking, 189. room for storing, how arranged, 189. depots, origin and objects of, 289, 290. depots, plan and regulations of, 290. depots, advantages of, 291. depots, peculiarly advantageous to the southern wool grower, 292. Woollens, some processes and facts in manu- facturing of, described, 87, 88. amount of, made in factories of U. S., 126, 127. amount of, made in families in U. S., 126, 127. amount of, made in Southern States in 1839, 17. amount of, made in New York, in 1839, V7: amount made in families decreasing, and causes, 89. amount imported into U.S., from 182] to 1845, 125. a « amount consumed in U. S., 126, 127. amount consumed per head in U. S., W27. : amount required for future consumption mm UL S 128" for slaves. See Slave cloths. Woollen factories, table of, in Southern States, and in New York, in 1839, 40. rapid increase of, in the North, 86. further increase of, called for, 125, 126 128. great profits of, in the North, 86—93 125, 161. would be equally profitable in the South, 86 stability of, in U. S., 125, 126, 161. foreign competition defied by, under uresent tariff, 125. 338 wr INDEX. " 4 a Woollen Wesocoriée: injured by vacillating | Wool growing, in Mexico, 105. legislation. Page 126. in Modena, 113. Wool growing, probable increase or decrease in Naples, 113. © , of, in various countries, 121, 122. . . in Papal States, 113. * in U. S., advantages for. See names of in Parma, 113. states "and regions. in Persia, 104, 118. in Alabama, 42, 47, 60. _ in Prussia, 114, 116. in Florida, 42, 60. in Russia, 117. 4 in Georgia, 42, 47, 60. in Sardinia, 113. in Illinois, 27, 95—103. in Saxony, 116. in Indiana, 95—103. in Silesia, 104, 114, 115. in Iowa, 95—103. | in South America, 105, 106.’ in Kentucky, 27, 47, 48. | in Spain, 62, 112. ra in Louisiana, 18, 30, 38. in Turkey, 114, 118. in Mississippi, 27, 38. in Tuscany, 113. in Missouri Territory, 95—103. in Ukraine, 117. in New England, 95. in Van Diemen’ s Land, 121. in New Jersey, 95. in Wirtemberg, 114. in North Carolina, 43—46. Wool market, of t e world, 108, 109, 123. in Ohio, 95. of England, 108, 110, 294. in Pennsylvania, 95. of France, 108, 109. on prairies, 95—103. of German States, 114, 295, 296. in South Carolina, 47, 58—60. of United States, 123—128. in Tennessee, 27, 48. foreign producers cannot compete with in Virginia, 42, 47, 60. us in that of U. S., 108, 122, 123. in Wisconsin, 95—103. U.S. producers can compete in foreign Wool growing in foreign countries See with foreign producer, 108, 122, 296. names of countries. ae pe of increase in, universally, 123 in Afghanistan, 118. in Asia ee 118. W ool aL See Yolk. in Austra lias 119—121, 294. in Austria, 1 Y in Baden, 114. ° in Bavaria, 114. in Beloochistan, 118. | Yards for sheep in winter, 199. in Buenos Ayres, 105, 106. necessary in the North, 200. in Cabul, 118. Yoking rams, how done, 193. in Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119. | Yolk of wools, chemical analysis of, 182, in China, 118. proper amount of, in fleece, 167. in Crimea, 117. Youatt, his character as a veterinary writer, in England, 111. | 219, in France, 111. ? in Germany, 114—116. 7z, in Great Bucharia, 118. : in Greece, 114. : in Hungary, Nilay Zinc, carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice, in Independent Tartary, 118. Dare in Italy, 113. | sulphate of, use of, in sheep practice, in Lombardy, 113. | 239. - t APPENDIX. SueEep HUSBANDRY IN SouTH CAROLINA..... alee alent sisjais ticle os Venn e aleetatetene ct OT SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS...... Eos Tain SN sis). od a., ay oS 806 4 SHEEP RAISING IN STTRIMCAR.. c'aie co cso. oielle|a 6.0 e\e.ninit e/a)s etn elni eine ejeialeiejcieicintavain ein aioe 820 TY) QONnNA & dab fig’ , My fs iV a re iet . ' i y nN i iy bh ‘ ie fe) J ‘ ww 2G yi vias > i * vere Pe ge fee cis Dy took gelpohon,. le ! et emer Ty wernt iw ih shypsanni » the ie eet. : ‘Piy: a) hop OT MAY § vd. ene ot, sas “ee wh, ‘an. , ‘sai hy ae Dh! were Mate | il ul.