NRLF

UNIVERSITY FARM

SF375
58

Edward J. Wickson.

The Shepherd's Manual.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE
ON

THE SHEEP.

DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR AMERICAN SHEPHERDS.
BY

HENRY STEWART.

NEW YORK:

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,

245 BROADWAY.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by the

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE v-vi

CHAPTER I.

THE SHEEP AS AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT 8-11

Antiquity of Sheep Husbandry— The Future of Sheep
Husbandry— Its Effects upon Agriculture— Demand for
Mutton Sheep— Value of the Wool Product— Extent of
Pasturage in America.

CHAPTER II.

THE SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF A FLOCK 11-33

Selection of a Sheep Farm— Effects of Soils upon the
Health of Sheep— What is a Good Pasture ?— Value of
Certain Grasses — The Western Plains as Sheep Pasture —
Pastures— Fodder Crops— Root Crops— Folding Sheep—
Dog Guards.

CHAPTER HI.

MANAGEMENT OF EWES AND LAMBS 33- 49

Marking Sheep— Record for Breeders— Management of
Rams— Care of Ewes— Care of Lambs— Selecting Lambs
for Breeders— Prevention of Disease— Dipping Preven-
tive of Parasites.

CHAPTER IV.

WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 49- 81

Barns and Sheds — Feed Racks — Feeding Value of Differ-
ent Fodders, Roots and Grains— Experiments in Feeding —
Profit of Feeding — Raising Eaniy Lambs for Market —
Feeding Sheep for Market — Value of Manure — Markets
for Sheep.

(3)

iv THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

CHAPTER V.

PAGE.

BREEDING AND BREEDS OF SHEEP 81—143

How Breeds are Established — Improvement of Flocks —
Cross Breeding— Breeding for Sex— Maxims for Breeders
— Native Breeds — Improvement of the Merinos — The Me-
rino Fleece — Long- Wool Breeds — Medium and Short-Wool
Breeds— Foreign Breeds -Cross-bred Sheep— American
Cross-breeds.

CHAPTER VI.

THE STRUCTURE AND USES OP WOOL 142-167

The Method of Growth of Wool— Its Peculiar Structure
—Its Composition— The Yolk— Classification of Wools-
Character of Merino Wool— Washing Wool— Shearing-
Packing and Marketing the Fleeces — Production of Wool
in the World — Comparative Values of Wool in Different
Countries — Favorable Conditions for Producing Wool in
the United States.

CHAPTER VII.

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE SHEEP 168-349

Physiology of the Sheep— The Teeth— The Bones- The
Vital Functions, Respiration, Circulation, and Digestion —
The Causes and Prevention of Diseases of the Sheep— Dis-
eases of the Respiratory Organs, of the Digestive Organs,
of the Blood — Enzootic Diseases — Epizootic Diseases —
Diseases of the Urinary and Reproductive Organs, of the
Brain— Parasitical Diseases of the Intestines, of the Skin
—Diseases of the Feet— Diseases incident to Lambing—
Special Diseases— Diseases of Lambs.

TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT MEASURES.,

PREFACE.

The following Manual is designed to be a hand-book for Amer-
ican shepherds and farmers. It is intended te be so plain that a
farmer, or a farmer's son, who has never kept a sheep, may learn
from its pages how to manage a flock successfully, and to be so
complete that even the experienced shepherd may gather some
suggestions from it. When the author, some years ago, began to
keep sheep, he sought in vain amongst the published works a
simple practical, comprehensive book upon sheep and sheep-keep-
ing, suited to his necessities. The excellent works upon the
Merino and Fine Wool Husbandry by Mr. Randall, were the only
ones to be obtained that were adapted for the use of an American
shepherd, and these referred to a special branch of sheep husbandry
which is becoming every year a less and less prominent one. The
other books on this subject then extant, were either English works
or compilations from them, and were out of date and incomplete.
None of the works gave a description of the modern improved
breeds of sheep which have of late become so deservedly popular ;
or any full or satisfactory account of the diseases of sheep, and
the remedies proper for them under the modern systems of treat-
ment which have grown out of the more accurate scientific knowl-
edge of the present day ; nor could any information as to the
vastly increased scope of this branch of agricultural industry in
America, be found in any book. It was necessary to learn by
experience — in this case, as in all others, a costly teacher — how to
meet the needs of the modern improved sheep in our climate and
(5)

YI THE SHEFHEED'S MANUAL.

under our methods of culture. The results of personal experi-
ences of some years with the characters of the various modern
breeds of sheep, and the sheep-raising capabilities of many portions
of our extensive territory and that of Canada, most of which have
been visited with a view to the effects upon our sheep of the va-
rying climate and different soils ; and the careful study of the dis-
eases to which our sheep are chiefly subject, with those by which
they may eventually be afflicted through unforeseen accidents ; as
well as the methods of management called for under our circum-
stances, were finally gathered into the shape in which they are here
presented to the shepherds of America, with the hope that they
may be as acceptable and useful to them as they would have
been, when he first undertook the care of a flock, to

THE AUTHOB.
NEW YOKE., 1370.

The Shepherd's Manual.

CHAPTER I.
THE SHEEP AS AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT.

From the earliest ages the sheep has been a source of profit to
mankind, and its keeping and rearing an important industry.
Abel, the second son of Adam, chose sheep-herding as his employ-
ment, and although his elder brother chose to cultivate the soil,
the pastoral life became the favored occupation of the human race
in its early periods, and the more toilsome tillage of the ground
was followed from necessity rather than from choice. With a
sparse population, a scarcity of labor, but at the same time an
ample territory, the cultivation of flocks became in early times the
readiest means of providing food and clothing, increasing the com-
forts of man and of accumulating transferable wealth. Although
at first sight it is a singular circumstance, yet on reflection it is
seen to be a necessity of the case that the territory upon which the
flocks of the ancient patriarchs were fed and tended, is still the
home of shepherds, and that there, for forty centuries, flocks have
wandered from pasture to pasture under the care of their nomadic
proprietors. Where the physical features of the country were
favorable to pasturage, there the first civilized occupation was that
of keeping sheep, and so it remains to this day.

In view of its bearing upon the future of sheep husbandry in
the United States, it is important to remember this fact, that where
peculiarly favorable physical features of the country were present,
and the shepherd occupied the land, there the shepherd and his
flock retain possession until this day. Thus, at the time of the
conquest of Spain by the ancient Romans, that country was cele-
brated for its flocks and the quality of its wool, and to-day the
(7)

8 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Spanish Merino is equally celebrated, although through adventi-
tious circumstances, but chiefly political disturbances, its pre-emi-
nence has been lost to Spam, and other countries enjoy its fruits.
As civilization progressed stage by stage, and garments of man-
ufactured wool displaced those of skins, careful breeding began to
improve the fleece, and varieties among sheep became fixed in
type. Before the Christian era the fine wools of Italy were noted,
and the fineness of the fleece was cultivated to a degree unknown
to us of the present day. The sheep of that period were housed
and clothed, their skins were oiled and moistened with wine, and
their fleeces were combed and washed repeatedly, in order that
the quality of the wool might be refined as far as possible. Al-
though this excessive refinement destroyed the vigor and impaired
the constitution of the sheep, yet their descendants, inferior in
form, as might be expected, are still fine-wooled sheep. Thus far
the improvement in sheep operated only towards refining the
fleece, and the carcass was a secondary object, only cared for so
far as it could serve as a vehicle for carrying the wool. The lamb
of the flock was considered a choice morsel, but the mature sheep
was neglected as an article of food. It is only in recent times that
the excellence of mutton has been made an object hi the improve-
ment of sheep. At the present it is only in sparsely populated
countries that sheep are cultivated for wool alone, while in densely
peopled localities the production of mutton is of greater consider-
ation than that of wool, or at least is of equal value to it. At the
present time, proximity to, or distance from market, decides the
choice of breeds, and in fact this consideration alone has in some
cases been the moving influence in the creation of new varieties
or breeds specially adapted to certain localities. In a similar man-
ner the necessities of sheep-breeders have led them to make some
important modifications in their methods of agriculture, so that
while the character of their flocks has been changed for the better,
their agriculture has been improved, the product of the land in-
creased, and its value advanced, until profitable sheep culture has
become synonymous with the most profitable farming. In fact,
the character of the farm has been indexed by the character of the
flock reared upon it. This improvement has in greater part oc-
curred only in connection with the rearing of mutton sheep. To
feed these heavy bodied sheep profitably, it has been found neces-
sary to raise large crops of cheap roots and luxuriant green crops ;
and to raise these crops, the most skillful tillage, the cleanest cul-
ture, and the most liberal manuring have been requisite. In this
way the product of the soil has been vastly increased, and the

PRODUCTION OF MUTTON. 9

sheep, directly and indirectly, has been both the gainer and the
means of gain.

The demand for mutton as an agreeable and cheap food is stead-
ily increasing. The markets of the city of New York alone re-
quire more than one million sheep per annum. Farmers formerly
habituated to the daily use of pork are becoming mutton eaters,
and the convenience of a few sheep upon the farm merely to sup-
ply the family table is now appreciated to a much greater extent
than ever before. This cultivation of sheep for mutton alone is a
branch of agriculture which is yearly becoming more important.
As yet we possess no native variety of mutton sheep. The carcass of
the "native " sheep, so called— but which is really a heterogeneous
mixture of all those breeds which have been brought to this coun-
try, and which having been permitted to increase promiscuously,
have perpetuated only their poorest qualities— is unworthy the
name of mutton ; and those flocks of imported sheep of better
character, such as the Southdowns, Leicesters, or Cotswolds, are
either allowed to deteriorate, or are kept for breeding purposes.
It is very true that a really good carcass of mutton rarely finds its
way to our markets, except from Canada, where almost the sole
attention is given to breeding sheep for mutton. At the same time
there is a demand for mutton, both of that substantial kind which
is represented by legs of 16 to 20 Ibs. in weight, handsome saddles
and good shoulders, and that more delicately flavored kind repre-
sented by the small legs or quarters of the Welsh sheep.

Unfortunately this fact is not generally known to farmers, and
if it were, it is equally unfortunate that we as yet have not the
kind of sheep to meet the demand. Before this excellent and
wholesome food can become as popular as it ought to be, and
sheep keeping can become as profitable as it may be, farmers must
be better informed as to the character of the sheep needed, the
manner in which they may be bred, and the methods by which
they may be fitted for the market This necessary information
must include a knowledge of the modern breeds which have
usurped the place of the old kinds, and the peculiar management
of the new races of sheep, as well as of the special crops needed
for fodder, and the methods of cultivating them. Heretofore in
place of this practical information, American farmers have been
treated to long dissertations upon the origin and history of the
sheep, and descriptions of foreign breeds which are of no possible
value or interest to them.

The sheep, in addition to its value as a food producer, yields to
its owner an annual tribute in the shape of its fleece, which in the

10

aggregate is a most important contribution to the comfort and in-
dustry of the people. In 1870 there were nearly 30 millions of
sheep in the United States, and the wool production in that year
amounted to 120 million pounds, estimating the average weight of
the fleeces at 4 pounds each. The value of this wool in the farm-
ers' hands would reach at the lowest estimate, $40,000,000. But so
far from being anywhere equal to the demand for this staple, the
supply was less than our yearly needs by a quantity equal to a
value of more than $40,000,000, and wool to this amount is annu-
ally imported from foreign countries. Besides this in wool, there
is annually imported with it the value of $20,000,000 in foreign la-
bor, which has been expended in manufacturing wool into cloth
and other woolen goods. Our own necessities, therefore, demand
an increase in the supply of wool equal to our present production.
This wool, if produced here, would not only use up a large quan-
tity of corn now. thrown upon the markets of the world, and
therefore enhance the value of that which would remain for dis-
posal ; but its manufacture into cloths and goods would employ a
large number of persons who are now engaged in raising agricul-
tural products for sale, and are therefore in active competition
with other farmers. The encouragement of sheep cultivation,
therefore, has a national importance, and is a subject which bears
directly upon the interests of farmers. To increase the wool pro-
duct to a par with the necessities of the country at the present
time, would alone involve the passage through their hands of
'$60,000,000 yearly — an immense sum, which now goes into the
pockets of foreigners, instead of those of our own people.

The scope for an increase in our wool product is comparatively
boundless. A full third of the territory of the United States is a
grand sheep pasture of the most favorable character. Vast plains
bearing abundance of the most nutritious herbage, in the most
healthful climate, and the very best conditions for the profitable
breeding of fine and middle wool sheep, and which are valueless
for any other than pastoral purposes, stretch from the 100th me-
ridian for 500 miles west to the Rocky Mountains, and from north
to south for 1,500 miles. In addition to this vast tract, upon which
a hundred million sheep could feed and thrive with ease, there are
immense mountain ranges, extensive valleys, and again beyond
these, great plains, altogether covering a still larger area, of which a
great portion is admirably fitted for the pasturing of sheep. With
so great a scope for the cheap production of wool, it seems to be
a strange thing, that instead of exporting largely of this staple, as
we might and should do, the United States on the contrary is one

PRODUCTION OF WOOL. 11.

of the largest buyers in foreign markets. Again, on the Atlantic
seaboard there are millions of acres of land now useless that would,
if cleared and cultivated, make excellent sheep farms for the pro-
duction of the choicest mutton sheep. There are numberless salt
marshes upon which sheep, naturally fitted through long years of
adaptation for just such pasturage, could be made to yield mutton
of the most delicate flavor. There are also hills and rocky moun-
tains upon whose sweet herbage hardy races of sheep could be
made to thrive with profit ; and further inland, highly cultivated
farms, where heavy crops of green fodder and roots could be raised,
that might carry flocks of large framed sheep, yielding combing
W0ol — now so much used in clothing materials for both sexes,
and the demand for which is always ahead of the supply. And
further south, where it is possible to pasture sheep the year
round, but where those which are now kept are so neglected
that some of them are never shorn, there is .also vast room to
change the overdone cotton production for the equally easy but
more profitable production of wool which in that climate, by the
exercise of proper care, may be grown of the finest quality of
staple. What a vast field opens upon our view when we consider
the extent of the territory which we possess suitable for sheep cul-
ture ; and what profit and increase of national wealth is there in
this business to those who undertake it as the occupation of their
lives — not only for a short period and intermittingly, and then to
be abandoned for some other temporary speculative business — but
with a desire and determination to succeed through the exercise
of patience, perseverance, and skill.

CHAPTEE II.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.

The selection of a suitable farm should be the first care of a
person who intends to devote his time and capital to the rearing
of sheep. To become a successful shepherd, requires that a person
should have a liking for the business, and possess tact, patience,
and perseverance sufficient to resist the temptations which may
arise at seasons of depression to abandon it for some other tempo-
rarily more promising pursuit. Having a determination to stick

12 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

to his flock, he must have a farm suited to its special needs or it
will not thrive. Sheep cannot bear damp ; and undrained pastures
are fatal to their welfare. Luxuriance of herbage is not generally
favorable unless the land is heavily stocked and the pasture kept
short and closely cropped. Old permanent meadows, in which a
variety of grasses are found, are better than artificial meadows
which form part of a rotation with other crops. With a portion
of such permanent meadow, there may be many cultivated crops
grown upon the other portions of the farm upon which the sheep
may be folded with benefit both to themselves and the land.

The land most suitable for sheep is one that is naturally drained,
with a sandy loam or gravelly soil and subsoil, and which bears
spontaneously short, fine, herbage, largely mixed with white clover.
It should be rolling, and may be hilly in character rather than flat
and level. Any low spots or hollows in which aquatic or marsh
plants grow, are very objectionable, and should be thoroughly
drained. One such spot upon an otherwise admirable farm may
infect a flock with deadly disease. No domestic animal is more
readily affected by adverse circumstances than the sheep, and none
has less spirit or power to resist them. Virgil, the ancient poet, a
close observer of such matters, says of them, " Oves semper infelix
pecus" (Sheep are always an unhappy flock), and many shepherds
since his day have found reason to hold the same belief. But the
experienced sheepmaster has no fear on this score. He knows
that a reputation for success with sheep is " never gained without
merit, nor lost without deserving," and that failure is not want
of luck, as is so frequently declared, but the consequence of ignor-
ance or bad management. The careful shepherd will not wait
to cure, he is prompt to prevent ; and every defeat is made a new
lesson for study and an example for future avoidance. It is by
long experience that shepherds have learned that the first requi-
site for success in their business is, the choice of a farm upon which
their flocks will enjoy perfect health, and that dry ness of soil and
of air is the first necessity for their well being. By a careful and
judicious choice in this respect, most of the ills to which sheep are
subject, with all their contingent losses to their owners, are
avoided.

The character of the soil upon which sheep are pastured has a
great influence in modifying the character of the sheep. Upon
the kind of soil of course depends the character of the herbage
upon which the flock feeds. Certain soils, such as those consist-
ing of decomposed granite or feldspar, and which are rich in pot-
ash, are not generally favorable for sheep. Even turnips raised on

ON SOILS. 13

such lands sometimes affect the sheep injuriously, producing dis-
ease under which they waste away, become watery about the eyes,
fall in about the flanks, and assume a generally unhealthy appear-
ance. Upon removal to a limestone, or a dry sandstone soil, sheep
thus affected, improve at once and rapidly recover. The lambs,
as might be expected, are most easily affected, and many are yearly
lost by early death upon lands of an unfavorable character. As
a rule, lands upon which granite, feldspathic or micaceous rocks
intrude, or whose soils are derived from the degradation of such
rocks, should be avoided by the shepherd. Such soils are, however,
not without their uses, and fortunately are excellently adapted to
the dairy. The soils most to be preferred are sandstone and lime-
stone lands, of a free, dry, porous character, upon which the finer
grasses flourish. The soils which are derived from rocks called
carboniferous, which accompany coal deposits, or are found in the
regions in which coal is mined, are those upon which sheep have
been bred with the most success. The original home of the Lei-
cester sheep, as well as that of the famous Shropshires, is on the red
sandstone ; the Lincoln is raised on the alluvial soils based on
limestone ; the Cotswold has had its home for centuries on the
limestone Cotswold hills ; the Southdown, Hampshiredown, and
Oxforddowns, are native to the chalk hills and downs of southern
England ; the Scotch Cheviot and the hardy black-faced Scotch
sheep thrive on sandstone hills and mountains of trap rocks which
rise amongst them ; the fine wools of Yorkshire are produced on
magnesian limestone soils ; and to come to our own soils, we find
the American Merino reaching perfection on the limestone hills of
Vermont, beneath which fine marbles are quarried. Unfortu-
nately this is the only instance we possess of having given a local
habitation to a race of sheep in America ; but how soon we shall
have produced or acclimated several breeds of sheep, which will
take their peculiarities from the locality in which they are bred
and raised, is only a question of time. Peat or marsh lands are
unfavorable for sheep farms. Salt marshes near the coast, how-
ever, may be excepted from this general condemnation, as the
saline herbage acts as a specific against some of the parasitic dis-
eases— the liver-rot mainly — to which sheep are subject upon
marshy pastures. The Romney-marsh sheep of England are bred
successfully upon the alluvial soils of reclaimed marshes, and pro-
duce good wool and a heavy carcass. The gigantic Lincoln, the
largest sheep bred, originated and thrives in perfection upon
drained alluvial soils.
The dry, friable nature and porous character of the soil has as

14 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

much to do with the health and growth of sheep as the geological
character of the rocks upon which it is based, or from which it has
been derived. The census returns of England show that the high-
est percentage of sheep to the 100 acres, is found precisely NY here
the soil is naturally drained and dry, and the lowest, where clay
abounds, and damp, cold soils with rank, coarse herbage are gen-
eral. In our own country, although the time has been far too
short as yet for this condition to operate largely, we find the same
fact curiously developed, and Ohio and western Pennsylvania,
with their extensive coal bearing formations underlying dry roll-
ing fields, possess more sheep than any other district, while New
York, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, which cover an extensive
deposit of limestones and sandstones, with naturally dry soils, come
next on the list. The vast stretch of prairies in the Mississippi
Valley, and of plains west of the Missouri to the Rocky Moun-
tains, chiefly underlaid with limestones and sandstones, and especi-
ally remarkable for a dry, porous soil, which bears a rich carpet
of the best sheep pastures in the world, have already proved them-
selves to be well adapted to the successful growth of flocks bear-
ing fine and medium wools. The rich alluvial valleys of the east-
ern rivers where naturally or artificially drained, have been found
to be fitted for the production of large bodied sheep bearing the
lustrous combing wools. All these localities with the hills and
valleys of the Middle States will in course of time have their flocks
suitable in character to the circumstances in which they are kept.
But it will only be in consequence of persistence in careful breed-
ing and culture, that the final type for each locality will be
reached ; for while the effects of soil and locality are unavoidable
and imperative, the shepherd must be able to discover these effects
and aid in giving them their due development if early success is
to be secured. But in whatever locality it may be, if the soil
is not naturally drained, profitable sheep farms may be sought
in vain. The profit from sheep raising as a special business will
not permit of high-priced lauds. Where sheep are kept only as a
branch of general farming, it may pay to drain the soil artificially ;
but without drainage, natural or artificial, sheep cannot thrive.
The sheep must have a dry foot or disease follows.

The character of the herbage depends upon that of the soil, and
the character of the sheep is governed by that of the pasture. It
is a very casual observer who thinks that all kinds of grass are the
same, and are equally proper for sheep. The sheep itself
knows better than this, and every shepherd has learned that
his sheep will seek particular spots in preference to others in the

ON PASTURES. 15

same field. It has been well said that " the dead earth and the
living animal are but links of the same chain of natural existences,
the plant being the connecting bond by which they are tied to-
gether." The flesh and wool of the sheep, therefore, are but pro-
ducts from the soil, and contain nothing but what has existed in
the plants which the sheep have consumed. When wool is clean
and dry, 100 pounds of it contain 17 pounds of nitrogen, and 5
pounds of sulphur. When the pasture is sufficiently nutritious
and the sheep is in good health, a quantity of soapy, greasy matter,
called yolk, adheres to the fleece. When this is abundant it is a
proof that the food of the sheep is healthful and sufficient. When
it is deficient, and the wool is harsh and dry to the touch, it is a
sign that the sheep's health is suffering from defective nutriment.
This yolk contains a large proportion of potash. To be properly
nutritious, the food must contain this needed sulphur and pot-
ash, along with nitrogen . and other necessary matters. A fair test
of the requisite quality of the food of the sheep may be taken from
the composition of the flesh and blood of the animal, for there is
nothing in the flesh, skin, bones, or wool that does not exist in
the blood. The following are the inorganic or mineral materials
contained in the ash of the blood and flesh of an animal :

Blood. Flesh.

Phosphate of Soda 16.77 45.10

Chloride of Sodium 59.34 ) ,- «.

Chloride of Potassium 6.12 )

Sulphate of Soda 3.85 trace

Phosphate of Magnesia 4.19 )

Oxide and Phosphate of Iron 8.28V 6.84

Sulphate of Lime 1.45 )

100.00 97.88

The bones of the sheep contain from 60 to 70 per cent of phos-
phate and carbonate of lime, with a little magnesia. The excre-
ment, both solid and liquid, of the sheep contain a large variety of
mineral elements, which are also necessary to the healthful animal
economy. The urine contains two per cent of mineral matter,
and the dung 13| per cent, the composition of which is as follows :

ASH OF URINE.

Sulphate of Potash 2.98

Sulphate of Soda 7.72

Chloride of Sodium 32.01

Chloride of Potassium 12.00

Carbonate of Lime 82

Carbonate of Soda 42.25

Carbonate of Magnesia 46

Phosphate of Lime, Magnesia, and Iron 70

Silica !............ JL.06

100.00

16 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

ASH OF DUNG.

Silica 50.11

Potash 8.32

Soda 3.28

Chloride of Sodium 14

Phosphate of Iron 3.98

Lime 18.15

Magnesia ." 5.45

Phosphoric Acid 7.52

Sulphuric Acid 2.69 '

99.64

When it is seen how much earthy matter is needed to build up
a healthy organism, and supply the waste of the sheep, it is evi-
dent that the food must be of a character consistent with these
demands, and if by reason of deficiency in the soil, these matters
are not supplied, the animal suffers, or is not fully developed. The
grasses or other herbage upon which the sheep subsist, must there-
fore be such as will supply the peculiar needs of the animal, or
they must be supplemented by additional food. When sheep feed
upon grasses deficient in the required earthy matters, they become
weak in constitution, and predisposed to disease. To prevent dis-
ease and keep the flock in health, the pasture must be supple-
mented by other feed which will supply the deficiency, and thus
the cost of maintaining the flock is increased. A pasture that will
supply all the necessary nutriment must contain those varieties of
grasses that have been found by experience most suitable for
sheep. Of the common grasses there are several varieties which
have a high reputation for this purpose. The best of these are of
a low growth and creeping habit, with fine, short herbage. The
grasses known as PJileum pratense, (Timothy) ; Arrhenatherum ave~
naceum, (Tall Oat Grass); Poa annua, (Annual Spear Grass);
Poa pratensis, (Kentucky Blue Grass) ; Festuca ovina, (Sheep's Fes-
cue) ; Poa serotina, (False Red-Top) ; Agrostis vulgaris, (Red-Top) ;
Dactylis glomerata, (Orchard Grass,) when closely pastured ; Alope-
curus pratensis, (Meadow Foxtail,) with Trifolium repem, (White
Clover) ; or Plantago lanceolata, (the Narrow-leaved Plantain or Rib
Grass,) and some other common plants, form a desirable herbage
for sheep. The Buffalo Grass and the species of Bouteloua, com-
monly called mesquit grasses of the west, with the large variety of
leguminous wild plants, make up a pasture that cannot be excelled.
The occasional dressing of pastures with bone-dust, salt, and sul-
phate of lime, is of great service, and furnishes a supply of those
mineral matters which are indispensable.

The value of the different pasture grasses are -shown by the fol-

VALUE OF VAEIOUS GRASSES.

17

lowing table of analyses made by Professor Way. These are of
the green, fresh plants as taken from the field when in full growth.

COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GRASSES, (100 PARTS,) TAKEN FRESH
FROM THE FIELD.

||

i

||.

|

1

NAMES OF GRASS.

.

|l

|

Ill

I

1

1

*3

I

i|£

I

V

Sweet-Scented Vernal,

(A ntkoxanlhum odoratum)

80.35

2.05

.67

8.54

7.15

1.34

Meadow Foxtail,

80.20

2.44

.52

8.59

6.76

1.55

Tall Oat Grass,

(Arrhenatherutti avenaceum)

72.65

3.54

.87

11.21

9.37

2.36

Yellow Oat Grass,

(Avena flavescens)

60.40

2.96

1.04

18.66

14.22

2.72

Quaking Grass,
(Brizo, media)

51.85

2.92

1.45

22.60

17.00

4.17

Orchard Grass,

(Dactylis glomeratd)

70.00

4.06

.94

13.30

10.11

1.59

Hard Fescue,

(Festuca duTiusculd).

69.33

3.70

1.02

12.46

11.83

1.66

Timothy,

(Phlewn pratense)

57.21

4.86

1.50

22.85

11.32

2.26

Blue Grass,

(Poo* protensis)

67.14

3.41

.86

14.15

12.49

1.95

White Clover,

( Trifolium repens)

79.71

3.80

.89

8.14

5.38

2.08

Narrow-leaved Plantain, Rib Grass,

(Plantaao lanceolatd) . . .

84.78

2.18

.56

6.06

5.10

1.32

Several of these grasses — the oat grasses, quaking grass, orchard
grass, timothy, and blue grass, for instance — are seen to be of high
nutritive value, but yet some of the other grasses and plants found
in good pastures are not to be despised on account of their seem-
ingly defective character as shown by these analyses. Some of the
less nutritious kinds are greedily eaten by sheep, and in furnishing
a change of diet, as well as by reason of their aromatic properties,
help to stimulate the appetite and preserve the health.

Besides the grasses and other plants mentioned, there are sev-
eral having an aromatic or astringent character, which are pur-
posely introduced into pastures for their medicinal effect upon the
sheep. Parsley, Yarrow, and Wormwood are the plants chiefly
so used. Pcirsley, (Garum Petrosetinum, or Petroselinum sativum,
of the older authors), is a biennial plant well known as a garden
herb. It is greedily eaten by sheep, and acts upon the liver and
kidneys, or is so supposed to act ; for this reason it has been con-
sidered and recommended by shepherds as a preventive of those

18 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

diseases known as " rot," and red water. Hares and rabbits, which
are also subject to the rot, and the presence of the accompanying
parasite, the " liver fluke," will travel long distances in quest of
this herb, and ground upon which it abounds will very soon be
eaten bare by them. For these reasons it is usual in England to
sow one pound of seed per acre in permanent pastures where it
reproduces itself from seed. It is a biennial plant seeding the
; second year of its growth.

Yarrow, (Achillea MillefoUum), a plant of the order to which
chamoinile belongs, is a perennial bitter astringent herb natural-
ized in this country from Europe. Sheep are greedily fond of it,
and it is not to be doubted that this instinctive desire is prompted
by a natural need for it, not so much as a food, but as a medicine
and a tonic. It is usually sown in out of the way places on the
borders of pastures or lanes to which sheep have access, and where
they can go when instinctively desirous of the plant without being
driven, and so that it may not become troublesome as a weed by
unduly spreading in the pasture. It thrives best on sandy banks
or the hilly borders of woods upon sandy soil. The Ox Eye
Daisy, (Chrysanthemum Leucanihemum), a plant of the same botan-
ical order with the Yarrow, is also readily cropped by sheep, the
blossoms being especially attractive to lambs. Another related
plant, the well known Mugwort, (Artemisia vulgaris\ sometimes, but
improperly, called wormwood, also naturalized here from Europe,
is greedily eaten by sheep. It is also bitter and aromatic and tonic
rather than nutritive. But these aromatic plants must not be sup-
posed to be worthless as food, for the analysis of yarrow shows it
to be possessed of nutritive qualities ; 100 parts of the dry herb
contain, according to Professor Way, as follows :

ANALYSIS OF YARROW.

Albuminoids or Flesh. Formers .............. 10.34 per cent.

Fatty Matters ............................... 2.51 '

Carbonaceous or Heat Producing Matters. . . .45.46 '

100.00 " "

Amongst other common plants readily eaten by sheep is goose-
foot, or " Lamb's-quarters," (Chenopodium album), which grows
plentifully all over our states and territories, being one of the most
common weeds upon newly broken prairies west of the Missis-
sippi, and which belongs to the same botanical order of plants as
the beet and the mangel wurtzel. In addition there are several
varieties of sea weed and other maritime plants which grow upon

GRASSES OF THE PLAINS. 19

the shores that are useful for the subsistence of sheep. These
plants are rich in the mineral constituents of common salt, in
starch and albumen, and in some localities, flocks of sheep upon
the sea coasts and islands exist wholly upon this adventitious pas-
turage. A notable case is stated in a recent publication, of a large
flock of several hundred sheep which, for years, has subsisted and
thrived wholly upon sea weed and wild herbage on an island off
the coast of Maine, and there are many others in which farmers
adjacent to the sea coast in that state and other parts of New
England, subsist their sheep chiefly during the winter upon the
sea weed which is cast upon the shores. These cases, however, are
only valuable as showing how these really hardy and easily accli-
mated animals may be made to thrive and yield their valuable pro-
ducts of food and clothing, under the poorest conditions as surely,
if not with equal profit, as under the most favorable circumstances.
The value of the herbage which covers the wide plains of the
west cannot be predicated as yet from any chemical analysis or
scientific examinations. In the light of practical experience we
do not need these useful aids and helps. The fact that the grasses
which cover those plains have supported and fattened countless
millions of buffalo and antelope, and the experience already gained
in keeping sheep on the plains, are amply sufficient to attest the
nutritive value of those grasses. The Buffalo-grass, (Buchloe dao
tyloides), is one of the most nutritious of all grasses. Its creeping
root stems are always green and of great sweetness. It is low in
its habit as suits a pasture for sheep, and furnishes good feeding
the year round. Stock that have fed upon it without any help from
other feed have been found in spring fat and in condition for the
butcher. Meat produced upon this pasture has a delicate flavor,
is tender, and has solid fat. Milk from cows fed upon it bears a
cream of the richest character and the highest color. It prof ers dry,
light soils, which are the very best soils for sheep pastures, and
it forces its roots to a depth, or several feet beneath the surface,
where it finds moisture even upon the dry plains where the annual
rain -fall is scarcely equal to 10 inches. One of the several kinds
called " Bunch-grass," (Festuca scabrelld), is another valuable grass
common in these regions. It is exceedingly nutritive and cures
on the stalk, thus affording winter pasture. Other species of Fes-
tuca are common, " Sheep' s-fescue " already noted, being abun-
dant. For hay for winter use there are many varieties of highly
nutritious grass. Indian or Wood-grass, (Sorghum nutans), is four to
five feet in hight, and is full of a rich, sweet juice, which is very
palatable and nutritious. There are several other grasses of almost

20

equal value which enable the flock-master to provide abundant
supplies of hay to carry his stock over those short periods when
pasturing is prevented by snow storms. The variety of native
grasses suitable for sheep pastures is thus seen to be ample, and no
country in the world is better provided, while few countries are so
well supplied with them, as are the United States and territories
over the whole length and breadth of their vast surface.

The stocking of the pasture must be closely looked to. Over-
stocking causes scarcity of pasture, and a deficient supply of nu-
triment. It also causes the sheep to take up much sand and earth
into their stomachs with their food, which gives them an unthrifty
appearance, and sometimes induces disease and death. Sheep
pastured on overstocked fields may be recognized by the worn
condition of their teeth, and cases have occurred in which this test
has indicated a difference of two years in their age. Four-year-
old sheep have exhibited the worn mouths of six-year-olds. Un-
derstocking is an error on the other side. Unless the pasture is
closely cropped, the herbage becomes hard, unpalatable, and indi-
gestible, and the sheep do not thrive upon it. It is a well proved
adage that " 24 hours' grass is best for a sheep, and 8 days' grass for
an ox. " This indicates that the close bite of a sheep should be
accommodated by a very close herbage. Tne tender growth of a
thick, short pasture is precisely what is wanted, and if the flock is
not numerous enough to keep it short, the field should be divided
into plots, and those not cropped closely should be pastured down
by cattle or left to be mowed. For the better stocking of the pas-
tures it would be well, if practicable, to divide the flock, sorting
lambs and yearlings from wethers and aged ewes, and putting the
former upon the best and tenderest pasture. This is a point of
great importance in the management of a flock, and should be
clone whenever the welfare of the younger or less vigorous sheep
requires it. Where the range is extensive, and ample pasture is
provided, any supplementary provision further than an occasional
feed of corn, oats, bran, or oil-meal, is unnecessary. These addi-
tional foods should be supplied whenever the condition of the pas-
ture requires it, and constant watchfulness should be exercised to
discover the moment when the pastures fail. It is not that the
growth of the sheep is arrested then, but the quality of the wool
suffers from the moment that the condition of the sheep begins to
deteriorate. The secretion which supplies the matter of which
the wool is formed, is then lessened, and the fiber is weakened at
that particular spot. If the adverse condition continues for some
days or weeks, the weakened fiber forms what is called a " break "

SUPPLY OF WATER. 21

in the wool. When the wool comes to be carded or combed, the
tension overcomes the resistance of the fiber which breaks at this
weak spot, and the broken fibers go to waste. " Break " in the
wool greatly reduces its value, and as it is wholly caused by defi-
cient nourishment or excessive exposure, it is a loss readily avoided
by proper care. The extra supply of food must be judiciously
proportioned to the needs of the sheep, as over supply will result
in an equal disadvantage by unduly stimulating the condition arid
leading to a reaction when the stimulus is withdrawn. Evenness
in the fleece, although it may be of poor quality, is better than un-
evenness, for even if there be only one short break in a fiber
otherwise of general excellence, the whole is reduced by this single
break to one-half Us proper length. One neglect of a few days
duration is really worse for the fleece than comparatively poor
feeding, if it is only adhered to with regularity. Poor feeding and
general care, result in a gradually diminished growth and weight
of fleece, but yet may not affect the health, while irregular feed-
ing affects the health and ruins the flock completely.

The supply of water is of the greatest importance. A living
spring or a clear flowing stream with dry gravelly banks is the
best source of supply. Wells are better than ponds or pools.
Stagnant water is exceedingly objectionable. Hard water is better
than soft, and water containing much saline or other mineral
matter, is a valuable help to the pasture as furnishing many neces-
sary substances. When water is exposed to the atmosphere it
deposits the greater part of any mineral matter it may contain,
and becomes soft. It is then rendered of less value for stock pur-
poses. There are some waters that contain potash, lime, soda,
magnesia, iron, and sulphur in combination with oxygen, carbonic
acid, and chlorine to the amount of 15 to 20 grains per gallon, and
such water is a source of nourishment to sheep. Pond or marsh
water is highly injurious, as is also running water in which aquatic
plants are found. It is from drinking such water, as much as from
pasturing on un drained soils, that the liver flukes, parasites always
accompanying the disease termed the rot, gain access to the stom-
ach and intestines of the sheep. A deficiency in the necessary
mineral matters may be obviated by giving the sheep stated sup-
plies of a mixture of common salt, sulphur, saltpeter, sulphate of
magnesia, (epsom salts), phosphate of lime, bone-dust, or fine bone,
with a small portion of sulphate of iron, (copperas). A small tea-
spoonful of this mixture given once a week to each sheep will help
greatly to a healthful condition, and resist the tendency to disease
caused by inferior pasture or soft water. The study of the plants

22 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

suitable for a pasture, the character of soils, and the water, should
be part of the education of every shepherd.

The exposure of the pasture is another important consideration.
Long continued cold winds are productive of great discomfort and
sickness, and often cause serious loss amongst the flock. On the
sea coast, exposure to the moist sea breezes injures the quality of
the wool, and renders it harsh and deficient in quantity. Of two
adjoining flocks upon opposite sides of a hill facing north and
south, the sheep exposed to the north winds will be several pounds
less in weight, and their wool will be whiter, harsher, more uneven,
and less healthy looking, than those of the flock upon the south side.
This experience is very common. The lambs will also be less
thrifty. Of this, many notable cases occur every season where
sheep and lambs are pastured and fed for the markets. The small
size of sheep raised upon mountain pastures is a case in point.

Where the pasture is circumscribed or poor, it may be supple-
mented by sowed green crops to be fed on the ground, or cut and
fed in racks upon the pasture, or cut and carried to yards and fed
there at night in racks. Of these, rye, clover, mustard, rape, tares,
and oats and peas mixed, furnish an abundant supply. Rye is
sown early in the fall for winter and early spring feeding. For
this purpose it should be sown thickly, three bushels per acre
being a fair allowance upon fairly good soil, early in August up
to the middle of September. The sheep may be turned upon the
crop in December, and at intervals as may be found proper, up to
April, when it may be plowed down for a spring crop. Upon
light lands, where the winters admit of it, as in some of the middle
and southern states, this may be made an excellent means of im-
proving the soil ; some additional feed, as bran, pea-meal, corn, or
cotton-seed-meal, (freed from the hull which is indigestible and
injurious), will much assist in this improvement of the soil as well
as in bettering the condition of the sheep.

After rye, clover sown the previous spring, but not pastured,
will come in turn. This will furnish pasture through the summer
if kept well stocked down, and a choice portion should be fenced
off for the lambs. By changing from one part of the field to an-
other, as one portion is eaten down, the new growth will be tender
and fresh. After June a part of the clover will run to seed, and
when the field is plowed in August or September, the seed will
help to re-sow the ground, which may then be sown to wheat or
rye. This makes an excellent preparation for these crops on lands
of a somewhat light character.

White Mustard, (Sinapis alba), may be sown in May or June for

FODDER CROPS. 23

feeding in August and until rye is ready. It is difficult to eradi-
cate from the soil when it once becomes a weed and has been
allowed to take possession. But a careful farmer will have no
trouble if he manages the crop so as to prevent the seed being
shed. When sown in August, mustard affords valuable feed dur-
ing the winter, and although the ground may be covered with
several inches of snow, the sheep will scrape off the covering and
get at it. In this way a plot of mustard may furnish a green bite
all the winter where the snow fall is light. In the spring it should
be plowed down early and not allowed to blossom, and a spring
crop taken so that the ground is plowed again in the fall. Treated
thus, the plant cannot ripen and shed its seeds and become trouble-
some. Mustard has a pungent flavor, and contains a large propor-
tion of sulphur ; it is on this account a healthful fodder for sheep,
and is very much relished by them. It belongs to the botanical
order of Cruciferce.to which the cabbage, rape, and turnip, belong;
a family of plants rich in sulphur, lime, phosphoric acid, and other
mineral matter demanded for the sustenance of sheep. Two pecks
of mustard seed per acre are sown, and for a heavy crop of fodder
rich soil is required.

Rape, a variety of Brassica campestris, is a very hardy plant, and
produces a heavy burden of fodder which is readily eaten by sheep.
It is very similar in habit to mustard, and should be fed off in the
fall and winter or early in spring. Two pecks of seed are required
for an acre. For fall feed it should be sown in July or early in
August. Both mustard and rape succeed very well in the north-
ern, western, and middle states, and would thrive equally well in
most of the southern states if sown somewhat later and fed off
during the winter. These plants when sown late ripen their seed
early in the second year.

Turnips are a very frequent fodder crop in those parts of Eng-
land where sheep are largely raised, but the practice of allowing
them to be fed off from the ground is fast becoming obsolete, and
the plan of taking up the crop and cutting and feeding the roots
in troughs upon the fields or in yards is substituted in its place.
But the English climate is excessively moist, and rain falls two
days out of three on the average. It is for this reason, and the in-
jurious effect upon the sheep of the exposure upon muddy fields
to cold wintry rains, that the practice is falling into disuse. In
parts of the United States we have every advantage for making
use of so cheap and convenient a plan of feeding sheep upon
these root crops that are not injured by moderate frosts. Where
the fall of snow is light and soon melts away, as in Virginia, Ten-

24 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

nessee, Missouri, and the states south of these, this system of win-
ter feeding has been practiced for many years by the better class
of farmers with success. Mr. C. W. Howard, of Georgia, a
highly trustworthy gentleman, a farmer and a frequent writer
upon agricultural topics, and who has given much attention to the
culture of fodder crops, communicated some time ago to the Rural
Carolinian the following directions and facts in regard to the cul-
ture of turnips for sheep feeding in the open field in the south :
" Take a field, plow it deeply with a two-horse plow, subsoil if
possible, harrow thoroughly and roll. Lay off the land in rows
two-and-a-half feet apart, with a wide and deep furrow. If there
be not stable manure, apply three to five hundred pounds of Am-
moniated Superphosphate of Lime ; the addition of some potash
would be useful ; throw the dirt back with two furrows, and level
the ridge with a board. Use the Weathersfield drill, or some
other, costing about nine dollars. Sow with it two pounds of seed
to the acre. The "Weathersfield drill opens the furrow, drops the
seed, covers, and then rolls it by one and the same process. When
the plants have formed the third leaf, which is rough, thin them
out with the hoe and hand to about eight inches apart, give them
a good plowing with a narrow scooter, and the cultivation is
completed. The cultivation of an acre of turnips will cost as
follows :

Plowing ..$ 2 00

Harrowing 50

Boiling 50

Seed.. 100

Sowing: 25

Hoeing and Thinning 2 00

Plowing 1 00

Fertilizer 1000

$17 25

" The result will vary according to the soil, the season, and the
cultivation. Five hundred bushels is a poor crop. One thousand
bushels is a good crop. Fifteen hundred bushels is an extraordi-
nary crop. This number of bushels, (1,550), was made last year
by Dr. Lavender, of Pike County, Ga. That gentleman took the
premium at the last Georgia State Fair. His statements deserve
implicit reliance. They were made under oath. His process of
obtaining this remarkable yield was as follows :

" * The soil was a sandy loam. Turned over a heavy clover sod
in June with a Dixie plow ; harrowed twice with a Nishwitz har-
row on the 21st of August ; ran twice in the furrow, deposited in
the bottom of the furrow 3,600 pounds of stable manure, com-

FOLDING OK TUBNIPS. 25

pounded with 100 pounds of the Stono Phosphate ; let it stand six
weeks, then applied as above stated. Cultivated with a cultivator
by horse power — no hoeing ; left about six plants to the yard ;
had only one rain on them after plowing, and that a light shower.
Sowed two pounds of seed to the acre ; planted by hand through
a guano bugle, and then rolled.'

"What does it cost to raise a' bushel of turnips? If we make
500 bushels to the acre, the cost will be about four cents per
bushel ; if 1,000, the cost will be about two cents per bushel. This
does not include gathering, storing, and marketing, because the
use that it is proposed to make of the turnips involves none of these
expenses.

" What use, then, is to be made of the crop ? Feed them off on
the land with sheep, the process ordinarily known as folding.
For this purpose a portable fence is necessary. (These are de-
scribed hereafter).

" The fold should not include more turnips than the sheep will
eat off clean in twenty-four, or, at the utmost, forty-eight hours.
If it be larger, the turnips will be wasted. Sheep not accustomed
to turnips, may at first refuse to eat them. But let them get quite
hungry, and then sprinkle some salt upon the turnips. After they
once get a taste of them the only difficulty will be to get enough
of them. One thousand sheep will consume an acre of' turnips in
twenty-four hours ; one hundred in ten days and nights. With
these data, the size of the pen can be graduated. One-tenth of an
acre should be the size of the fold or pen per one hundred sheep.
One acre of turnips will support one hundred sheep for ten days,
three acres one month, nine acres three months. This is not the-
ory, but the result of actual experiment. The enemy of the turnip
is the fly. There are two means of preventing the ravages of this
troublesome insect. One is very thick seeding, the other is dust-
ing the young plants as soon as they are above ground, with un-
leached ashes, or air-slacked lime. After they reach the rough
leaf there is no further danger from this source. The thinning
should take place as soon as the rough leaf is formed. If this
thinning is delayed, the crop will be seriously injured."

For the northern states the culture of the turnip, ruta-baga, su-
gar beet, mangel, and cabbage, is as follows: the preparation of the
ground being alike for all, the time of sowing alone being differ-
ent. Sugar beets and mangels are sown from April to June,
the early sown crop being invariably the heaviest. Ruta-bagas are
sown June 15th to July 1st. Cabbage for late crop is sown in
seed beds in June to be transplanted in July. Yellow Aberdeen
2

26

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

turnips are sown in July, and white turnips in July or August.
The soil is prepared by previous plowing and manuring, and made
fine and mellow ; the seed is sown in drills 30 inches apart, and
thinned out to 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows. A crop of roots
grown 18 inches apart, each root weighing 6 Ibs. , will yield 34 tons,
or 1,100 bushels to
the acre. For beets
or mangels, 4 Ibs.
of seed per acre is
required if sown
with a drill ; of
ruta-bagas and tur-
nips 2 Ibs. of seed is
sown. The best beet
is Lane's Improved
Sugar Beet ; the
best mangel, the
Long Red ; the
best ruta-baga, the
Purple-top Swede ; the Aberdeen turnip is better than the white,
and nearly as good as the ruta-baga ; the white turnip has the ad-

Fig. 1.— PIT FOB BOOTS.

Fig. 2. — BOOT-CUTTEB.

vantage that it can be sown late and follow an oat, barley, or rye
crop. The harvesting is done by cutting off the tops with a sharp

FEEDING ROOTS.

ot

hoe and plowing a furrow on one side of the row of roots, when
they may be pulled from the ground with the hoe or by drawing
a dull harrow over the field. The crop is saved by keeping the
roots in cellars or pits. Pits are simply conical heaps covered
with straw and earth sufficient to keep out the frost, a foot of
straw and a few inches of earth being sufficient protection, (see
fig. 1). Roots should be sliced or pulped when fed, as they are
more readily eaten,
and there is no dan-
ger of the sheep
choking by swallow-
ing too large pieces.
A simple cutting ma-
chine is shown in fig.
2. It consists of a
wooden wheel fur-
nished with long
knives set at an angle
similar to the irons
in a plane, which cut
the roots into thin
slices. Fig. 3 is a
pulper in which, in-
stead of knives, there
are 144 sharp chisel Fi£- 3.— BOOT PULPER.

points made of quarter-inch steel, (see a), by which the roots are
torn into shreds and reduced to pulp.

When crops are fed upon the ground, a special arrangement of
temporary fences is used. These are constructed of hurdles, of
which there are several kinds. One of the most readily con-
structed hurdles is made of light stakes pointed at the ends and
fastened together with bars of split or sawed saplings or laths, such
as are shown at fig. 4. These are made in panels about nine feet
long, with stakes five and a half feet high. A line of these hurdles
is set across the field, enclosing a plot in which the sheep are con-
fined, until the crop on the ground is consumed. The shepherd
takes a light pointed iron bar with which he makes holes in the
ground to receive the pointed lower ends of the stakes, and drives
them down firmly by striking the tops with a wooden mallet. As
the crop is eaten, the line of hurdles is moved along the field until
the whole is consumed. Much economy in labor of setting the
hurdles may be exercised by laying out the plots in a certain man-
ner. For instance, if a square field of ten acres is to be fed off, the

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

plan shown in fig. 5 will be found very convenient. The distance
across the field is 220 yards. This is the least length of hurdles
that can be used. But if the field is divided off into strips across,
the whole of the hurdles must be moved each time, and if the field

Fig. 4. — HURDLE.

is divided into eight strips, there will be seven removals of every
hurdle, or the whole length of netting. In the plan here shown,
only half this work is necessary, and a field may be divided into
eight sections by moving half the hurdles seven times. For in-
stance, plot 1 is fed by placing the ^
hurdles from a to b, and from c to d.
Plot number 2 is fed by moving the
line from e, d to b, e. The next setting
of the hurdles is from e to/, the next
from b to g, the next from h to i, the
next from b to k, the next, and last,
from I to m. There will be eight
settings of 110 yards each, instead of
seven of 220 yards each, which would
be necessary should the field be fed off
in the usual manner of strips across it.

In place of these hurdles, netting of cocoa-nut fiber or hempen
cord is often used. This is supported by stakes driven into the
ground and hooks, (see fig. 6). Netting of this kind is made in

f.3 e

1

i

f

2
f

3
$

6 i

i

7 TO

* 8

Fig. 5.— PLAN FOB SETTING
HTTRDLES.

PORTABLE- FENCES.

England in lengths of 100 yards, and widths of 4 feet, at about $9
the 100 yards. At this price it could be imported with profit, and
probably cheaper than it could be manufactured here. Another
form of hurdles not quite so portable, but more easily moved and
set is illustrated at fig. 7. They are 12 feet long, and are made of
a stout pole bored with two series of holes 12 inches apart. Stakes
six feet long are put into these, holes, so that they project from
them three feet on each side of the pole. One series of holes is
bored in a direction
at right angles to
that of the other,
and when the
stakes are all pro-
perly placed, they
form a hurdle the
end of which looks
like the letter X.
The engraving
shows how these
hurdles are made
and the method of
using them. A row
is placed across
the field. A strip
of ten feet wide is
set off upon which
the sheep feed.
They eat up all the
herbage upon this
strip and that which they can reach by putting their heads through
the hurdles. The hurdles are then turned over, exposing another
strip of forage. When this is fed off the hurdles are again turned
over, and so on. The chevaux-de-frise presented by the hurdles
prevents any trespassing upon the other side of them, and by using
two rows the sheep are kept in the narrow strip between them.
Their droppings are therefore very evenly spread over the field,
and it is very richly fertilized by them. At night the sheep
are taken off, and when the field has been fed over, they are
brought back again to the starting point and commence once more
to eat their way along. When the crop is cut and fed to the sheep,
a somewhat different arrangement is made. This may be made a
valuable means of improving land. A badly run-down field in-
fested with weeds, may be cleared of rubbish, fertilized, and

Fig. 6. — SHEEP NETTING.

30

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

PENNING SHEEP IN THE FIELD.

31

brought into grass or clover by judicious management in this way.
Portions of such a field may be set off with hurdles as before de-
scribed, a rough shed erected in which the sheep may be secured
at night, and in which an ample supply of bedding or diy earth, or
other absorbent is placed beneath them, and here the crop grown
upon another part of the farm, aided by purchased food, if such
be available, is fed in portable troughs
or racks. A very convenient rack is the
one shown in fig. 8. This is extremely
portable, and may be moved from one
part of the field to another with great
ease. Where sheep are permanently
kept, and fixed arrangements are made
for the flock, it is frequently found con-
venient to provide a permanent and safe
shed, in a central position, in which they
may be confined at night, and from which
they can be turned into different fields or
portions of the farm. A shed that has
been found very convenient in use is
shown at fig. 9. It is built at the center
of four fields, and has doors opening into
each of them, and is so arranged that it
may be entirely closed from all but the
one which may be in use at the time.

For the protection of the sheep at
night, small paddocks may be fenced in
around this shed, and safety from dogs
secured by the use of dog guards. These
consist of wires made to run above the
fence or at right angles with the top of
it, as shown at figures 10 and 11.

The separation of the flock into parts
consisting of ewes and lambs, weaned
lambs and weaklings, and rams and
wethers, is very necessary. Ewes and
nursing lambs should be provided with
the best and tenderest pastures; the weaned lambs and weak
sheep should have a place where they can be furnished with some
extra feed without interference from stronger neighbors, and
rams and wethers may do well enough on the coarser herbage.
A frequent change of pasture is very advantageous for the flock.
Sheep naturally love change, and after they have wandered over a

THE SHEPHERD'S MAKITAL.

field will become restless, and try to escape. The best method of
keeping them contented and quiet, is to change their pasture as
soon as they are observed to wander about restlessly. They are

Fig. 9,— SHEEP SHED.

then losing flesh. To restrict sheep to one kind of food for a
period of more than thirty days, has been found to seriously im-
pair their health. " Fresh fields and pastures new " are therefore
necessary to their welfare, and their health cannot be maintained

I.! •

Fig. 10.— DOG GUARD.

. 11.— DOG GUARD.

unless this peculiarity is recognized and accommodated. It is
better to divide fields into paddocks where small flocks are kept,

EWES AND LAMBS. 33

and where the pastures are extensive, to reduce the size and in-
crease the number of the fields. Where the pasture is an open,
unfenced tract, the flock should be driven some distance to a new
locality every month.

The attention of the shepherd during the summer season will be
constantly exercised in seeing that every portion of the flock re-
ceives a proper share of the pasture, that the pasture is not over-
stocked ; that proper shelter is provided from midday heats ; that
failure in pasture is immediately remedied by a supply of fresh
green fodder or extra food, such as wheat-bran, oil-cake-meal, or
corn-meal ; that pure water is supplied at least twice a day; that
a certain portion of salt, or a mixture of salt and sulphur is pro-
vided and given regularly ; that on the first symptom of indispo-
sition, affected sheep are removed from the flock to some place
where they may receive proper care and medicine; that the
attacks of flies are warded off by proper preventives ; that para-
sitic enemies are destroyed, and hi short hi caring in every possi-
ble way for the welfare of his charge, watching closely for the
most minute evidence of the first symptom of trouble that may
occur, always remembering that "an ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure." To this end he should study closely the
habits of his sheep in health, make himself thoroughly acquainted
with the symptoms of disease and the habits and methods of at-
tacks of those living enemies which trouble the flock, and be pre-
pared by adequate and exact knowledge of the proper preventives
and remedies, to apply them instantly, correctly, and effectively.

CHAPTEE III.
MANAGEMENT OF EWES AND LAMBS.

In the management of sheep, how to procure the most profit
from the flock is the greatest consideration. It is not exactly how
to increase the flock most rapidly, nor to produce the heaviest
carcasses or fleeces, but to produce such animals as will return the
most money for the expenditure and labor involved. In some lo-
calities the sale of an early lamb will bring in more money than
that of the mother with its fleece. Where there is a market
for lambs, it is evidently the most profitable to keep such sheep,

34

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

and to keep them in such a way as will produce the highest priced
lambs. Where mutton is the most profitable, there a different
management must be adopted, and frequently a different breed of
sheep must be kept. Where wool only is the object, still another
different course will be chosen. Whichever end is to be gained,
the care of the breeding ewes and the lambs will be a subject of
much solicitude. But what would be a proper course in one case
•would not be at all proper in another. A few general principles
are involved in the management of ewes and lambs, which will
first be explained, after which the special management proper to
be adopted for each special case will be considered.

The period of gestation of the ewe is 150 to 153 days. Five
months in round numbers may be taken as the period during
which the ewe carries a lamb. The coupling of the ewes and
rams should be so timed, that the lambs may be dropped at the
most desirable season. It will be found a great convenience to
mark the ranis and ewes, or such of them as may be selected to
breed stock animals from. Where a small flock only is kept, or
where special care
is given to the im-
provement of the
breed, every sheep
should be marked
by a number, that
the time of its coup-
ling may be noted,
and the date of the
expected birth of
the lamb be known. The best method of marking is by means of
metallic ear marks, (fig. 12), made by C. H. Dana, of West Lebanon,
N. H., inserted in the ear in different ways, to distinguish the sexes
easily. The method of keeping these records may be as fol-
lows : A book is provided which is ruled with six columns. At
the head of these columns are written the number of the ewe, that
of the ram, the date of service, the expected time of the lamb's ap-
pearance, the date when it is actually dropped, and any remarks
worthy of note. The following diagram exhibits this clearly :

12. — METALLIC EAR-MARKS.

No. of Ewe.]No. of Bam.
137 ~~4

When served,

To Lamb.

Lambed. \Remarks.

Sept. 26, '75 Feb.26, '76 Feb.28,'76] Twins.
Under the head of remarks should be written anything that may
be desirable to remember in regard to the character of the produce
of the animals coupled. A ewe that produces a fine, large, active

CAKE OF THE RAM. 35

lamb, that is a good nurse, and that rears a profitable market
lamb, or that rears twins successfully, is a valuable animal to re-
tain in the flock so long as she remains productive. Such ewes
have been kept until 10 or 12, or even 16 years old, and to be able
to identify a ewe of this kind is very necessary when the greatest
profit is the object sought, and more especially in those cases when
the special business is to rear market lambs or increase the flock
rapidly. No more than 30 ewes should be apportioned to one
ram in any season, unless he be a full grown one and in vigorous
health, and it would be well to observe the rules laid down in a
succeeding chapter especially devoted to breeding, for the man-
agement of the ram at this season. If the ram is equal to the
work, 50 ewes may be given to him, but it is better to err on the
safe side in this matter, as overwork simply means barren ewes
and loss of lambs. At the breeding season the ram should be
smeared upon the brisket every day with a mixture of raw linseed
oil and red ocher, so that he will leave a mark upon each ewe that
may be served. As the ewes are served they are to be drafted
from the flock and placed in a field or yard by themselves. Two
rams should not be kept together in a small breeding flock, as
quarreling and fighting are certain to result and great damage
may occur. If two rams are necessary, each may be used on
alternate days. Wethers are a nuisance in a flock of ewes at this
season, disturbing them and keeping them and themselves from
feeding. A plan followed with advantage where the flock consists
of heavy bodied sheep, and where the necessary attention can be
given, is to keep the ram in a yard or paddock by himself, out of
sight of the ewes, and to allow a wether to run with them. As
each ewe comes in season, the wether singles her out and keeps
company with her. On the return of the flock from the pasture
at night, the ewe or ewes in season are turned in to the ram until
they are served, when they may be removed at once, or left with
him until the morning. In the morning, if any ewes have come
into heat during the night, they may be served before the flock is
turned into the pasture. This is continued until it is known that
'all the ewes are in lamb. By this method a ram may be made to
serve double the number of ewes that he would if allowed indis-
criminate access to them, and exhaust himself in useless and need-
less repeated exertions.

As soon as the ewes have been served, the time of each is entered
in the record as previously described. They are carefully pre-
served from all worry by dogs and needless driving or handling.
Peace and quietness at this season will tend to the production of

36 THE SHEPHEED9S MANUAL.

quiet and docile lambs. The shepherd should make himself very
familiar with them, and by giving salt or meal in the hand, or a
small dish, reduce them to a condition of perfect docility. Any
ewes that have either refused Ae ram or have failed to breed,
should be dosed with two ounces of epsom salts and be stinted in
their feed for a few days to reduce their condition. This will
generally be effective in bringing them into season. Good fair
condition is better than an excess of fat, but ewes in poor condi-
tion cannot be expected to produce other than poor, weak lambs ;
neither will an excessively fat ewe produce a strong lamb. Some
extra food will now be needed by the ewes, and should be given
at first in small quantities. Bran, crushed malt, and crushed oats
and corn mixed, are the best kinds of food. Oil-cake, either of
cotton-seed or linseed, unless used with great caution, is not always
a healthful food for ewes in lamb. Any food that actively affects
the bowels, either way, is to be avoided. Half a pint a day may be
given of the first mentioned foods, and a change from one to an-
other may be frequently made. So long as pasture is to be had,
this allowance will be sufficient. When the winter feeding com-
mences, the ration of grain should be gradually increased until, at
the period when lambing time approaches, a pint daily is given.
Cold watery food is highly dangerous at this time, and roots
should not be given in large quantities, nor at all unless pulped
and mixed with cut hay and the grain. Turnips or other roots
that have been highly manured with superphosphate of lime has
been said by several experienced English breeders to be pro-
ductive Of abortion. Water should be given in small and frequent
quantities. It is best to have running water or water from a well
always at hand for the ewes. If the ewes have not heretofore been
kept apart from the rest of the flock, they should now be sepa-
rated. The general treatment of the ewes up to this time should
be such as will keep them free from all excitement, and in good,
healthful condition. The record should now be consulted, and as
the ewes near their time they should be removed into a part of the
stables or sheep barn, where each one can have a small pen to
herself. These pens should be made so that light can be shut out
if desired. Here they are permitted to drop their lambs in perfect
quiet ; by this means few ewes will disown their lambs, and no
lambs will be lost by creeping into feed racks or out of the way
places. The pens should not be larger than 5x4 feet. As soon
as the lamb is dropped and the ewe has owned and licked it, and
the lamb has once sucked, all danger, except from gross careless-
ness, is passed. The ewe will be greatly helped by a drink of

CARE OF THE EWK

slightly warm, thin oat-meal gruel well salted. The lamb will be
benefited by a teaspoonfui of castor oil, given in new rnilk, if the
first evacuations do not pass away freely. These are apt to be
very glutinous and sticky, and by adhering to the wool to close
the bowel completely unless removed. Warm water should be
used to soften and remove these accumulations. The anus and
surrounding wool should then be smeared with pure castor oil.
If the lamb is not sufficiently strong to reach the teats and suck, it
should be assisted once or twice. Any locks of wool upon the
ewe's udder, that may be in the way, should be clipped. If the
lamb is scoured, a
teaspoonfui of a
mixture of one
pint of peppermint
water and one
ounce of prepared
chalk should be
given every three
hours, until it is
relieved. When
the ewe refuses to
own the lamb, she
may be confined
between two small
hurdles, as shown
in fig. 13. Two
light stakes are
driven in the
ground close to-
gether to confine
the ewe's head and keep her from butting the lamb. If she is
disposed to lie down, as some obstinate ones will do, a light pole
is passed through the hurdles resting upon the lower bar beneath
her belly. Thus confined during the day, she is helpless, and if
the lamb is lively, it will manage to get its supply of food. The
ewe should be released at night. One day's confinement is often
sufficient to bring an obstinate ewe to reason.

A twin lamb, or one deprived of its dam, that may need to be
reared by hand, may easily be fed upon cows' milk. A fresh
cow's milk is the best fitted for this purpose. Ewe's milk is richer
in solid matter than that of the cow, and the addition of a tea-
spoonful of white refined sugar to the pint of cow's milk will
make it more palatable to the lamb. At first not more than a

Fig. 13.— HURDLES FOR EWE.

38

THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL.

quarter of a pint of milk should be given at once. The milk should
be freshly drawn from the cow, and warmed up to 100 degrees
before it is fed. A convenient method of feeding milk to a lamb
is to use a small tin can with a long spout, such as is used for oil.
An air-hole is punched in the cover or cork and a piece of sponge
covered with a cloth is tied upon the end of the spout. The flow
is thus made easy and equal, and the lamb sucks in a natural man-
ner. The accompanying illustration, (fig. 14), shows the method.
A very short time is sufficient to familiarize the lamb with this
kind of foster mother. To encourage the flow of milk in the ewe

Fig. 14. — FEEDING LAMBS.

and the corresponding growth of the lambs, the food of the ewes
should be of the best character. Clover hay, bran, and crushed
oats, with some pea-meal, are the most preferable foods, produc-
ing a rich milk in abundance. The ewes must not be allowed to
fall off in condition, or the lambs will fail. During mild weather,
sugar beets may be given in moderate quantity with advantage,
but mangels or Swede turnips, (ruta-bagas), should be avoided as
too watery and deficient in nutriment, and productive of scours in
the lamb. In cold weather roots are apt to reduce the tempera-
ture of the animal too suddenly if given in any but small quanti-
ties, and consequently decrease the flow of milk. Pea straw is a
favorite and nutritious food for sheep, but it will be found profit-

DOCKING AND CASTRATING LAMBS. 39

able to give only the very best at hand to nursing ewes. The
after growth and condition of the lambs will greatly depend upon
the maintenance of a thrifty and continuous growth during the
first three months of their existence.

At the age of a week the operations of docking and castrating
the male lambs, may be safely performed. At this age the young
animal suffers but little, there is no loss of blood, and the wounds
heal by the first intention. The rough and ready method of clip-
ping off the tail an inch from the rump, first drawing the skin
upwards, and of clipping off the scrotum and testicles altogether
with a pair of sharp sheep-shears, will be found perfectly safe if
done before the lamb is two weeks old. The nerves being very
slightly sensitive at this time, the painful, and when later per-
formed, dangerous operation of emasculation is only slightly felt,
and within an hour a lamb bereft of tail and generative organs
will frequently be seen skipping playfully in the sunshine. To
dock an older lamb is a more troublesome operation. To do this
with facility, a block of wood about a foot high, a sharp, broad
chisel, and a wooden mallet, are required. The operator stoops
with bended knees, the block being in front of him, takes the lamb
with its head between his knees and its tail in his left hand, hold-
ing the chisel in his right hand. Backing the lamb's rump up
close to the block, he lays the tail upon it, and drawing back
the skin of the tail up to the rump, holds the chisel lightly
upon the tail close to and below the fingers of the left hand.
When all is ready he directs an assistant to strike the chisel
smartly with the mallet, by which the tail is instantly severed
about two inches from the root. A pinch of powdered bluestone
(sulphate of copper), is placed on the wound, and the lamb is re-
leased. To castrate an old lamb with safety, the scrotum should
be opened by a long free incision with a sharp knife at the lower
point, the animal being at the tune turned upon its back and
secured in that position. The scrotum should be held in the
hand tightly enough to keep the skin tense. The cut should be
made only through the skin and coats of the testicle, and not into
the gland, by which a great deal of pain is spared to the animal.
The gland will escape from the scrotum at once if the opening is
made large enough. It may be taken in the left hand and the cord
and vessels scraped apart, not cut, by which bleeding is prevented
and healing made m ore certain and rapid". The opening being made
at the bottom of the scrotum, allows the blood and any pus that
forms hi the wound;to escape freely. It might probably be bene-
ficial to insert a small plug of tow in the wound, projecting out of

40 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

it a short distance to prevent the edges from healing until the in-
flammation has subsided. This method of operation is a safe one,
and if it is neatly done, the losses need not be one per cent, while
frequently three lambs out of five may be lost by any other
method.

While the lambs are still with the ewes, and although the ewes
may be well fed with a special view to the thrif tiness of the lambs,
yet a supply of additional food for the latter will be of great ad-
vantage to them. To furnish a young animal with all the food
that it can digest, and that of the choicest character, is to create a
sturdy, thrifty, strong constitutioned animal that will be prolific
in reproduction and long lived. To advance the maturity of
an animal is also to lengthen its life, for it matters not at which
part of its productive career we add a year, it certainly, so far as
profit is concerned, lives a year longer for us. If a yearling ewe
can be made to produce a healthful, strong lamb, or a lamb can be
brought by care to maturity for the market at eighteen months in-
stead of thirty months, this result is simply equal to a profit of 40
per cent. And feed is the agent by which this profit is secured, of
course made available by proper care in selecting the breeding
stock. To provide the means whereby the lambs may procure the
extra feed needed for their rapid development, many contrivances
have been brought into use. Generally these are modifications of
the plan of providing a pen or yard adjoining that in which the
ewes are kept, with " creep holes " in the fence through which the
lambs can gain access to it. In this yard some feed, consisting of
oats, rye, and wheat bran ground together very finely, is placed in
troughs or boxes, and lightly salted. They will soon find this, and
will resort to it several times a day. A very simple and conve-
nient " lamb creep " is figured at fig. 15, and has been illustrated
and described in an English journal, the Agricultural Gazette. It
is very frequently used by English farmers, and is worthy of being
adopted by us. It consists of a small double gate or two half gates
set at such a distance apart that the lamb can easily force itself
through between them. An upright roller on each side of the
opening assists the lamb hi getting through the space, and prevents
it from rubbing or tearing its wool. The gates are pivoted at top
and bottom, so that they will open a little either way ; a wooden
spring being fixed so as to keep them closed after the lamb has
passed in or out. The lambs pass in or out at will. Creeps of
this kind can be made so as to occupy a panel of fence or a gate-
way, and of a portable character, so that they can be easily fixed
to the fence-post on each side by a wire or withe, and removed

WEANING LAMBS.

41

when no longer needed. But, by whatever means it maybe done,
the lambs should be supplied with some additional concentrated
and nutritious feed. As a gentle laxative in case of constipation,
a few ounces of linseed oil-cake-meal will be found sufficient, and
far better than physic. Linseed oil, (raw), or castor oil, a tea-
spoonful of either at a dose, will be found safe and effective for
either constipation or diarrhea, unless of a serious character.
As lambs progress towards the period for weaning, the extra

Kg. 15. — LAMB CBEEP.

food should be gradually increased, unless they can be removed
to a good pasture of short, tender grass. In this case even a small
allowance at night on their return to the fold will be beneficial.
The weaning should be very gradually done. The sudden remov-
al of the lambs from their dams is injurious to both. It too ab-
ruptly deprives the -lambs of their most easily digested and most
agreeable food. It forces them to load the stomach with food for
which it is hardly yet prepared, and suddenly arrests their growth

4:2 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

both by a stinting of food and by the nervous irritation conse-
quent upon their sudden deprivation. The dams in full flow of
milk, thus at once deprived of the means of relief, are subjected
to the engorgement of the udder, with the consequent congestion
of all the organs connected therewith. This shock is very injuri-
ous, and frequently produces inflammatory disorders of the blood
or garget. To avoid these ill effects of the sudden change, it is
well to remove the lambs to a distant pasture, along with some
dry ewes or wethers for company. The novel experience of a
fresh pasture will cause them to forget then- dams, and they will
utter no complaints nor manifest any uneasiness. At night they
should be turned into the fold with the ewes, whose full udders
they will speedily relieve. By withdrawing any extra feed hith-
erto given to the ewes, somewhat gradually, (in no case is it wise
to make a sudden change in the management of sheep), their sup-
ply of milk will gradually decrease, and in two weeks the whole of
the lambs may be weaned with perfect safety to themselves and
the ewes.

After having been weaned, the lambs should have the first
choice of pasture and the best and tenderest cuttings of the fodder
crops. Many farmers have found it advantageous in every way
to turn newly weaned lambs into a field of corn in the month of
August. The corn is too far grown to be injured, the suckers
only will be nibbled by the lambs, and the weeds which grow up
after the corn is laid by, will be eaten closely. The lambs also
have the benefit of a cool shade, and where such a field can be
conveniently applied to this purpose, there are several reasons
why it might well be done.

The condition of the ewes must not be neglected at this time.
The chief danger is in regard to those that are heavy milkers.
Such sheep should be closely watched, and the milk drawn by
hand from those whose udders are not emptied by the lambs.
The first approach to hardness or heat in the udder should be
remedied by an immediate dose of an ounce of epsom salts dis-
solved in water, and mixed with a teaspoonful of ground ginger.
The next two days 20 grams of saltpeter should be given each
morning and evening, to increase the action of the kidneys. These
remedies will generally relieve the udder, and will tend to greatly
reduce the secretion of milk. If hay is given in place of grass,
and the ewe confined in a cool darkened pen, the drying up of the
milk will be hastened.

As the improvement of the flock can be better made from within
than by giving the sole attention to bringing new blood from

SELECTION OF LAMBS FOB BREEDING. 43

without, it will be very important to select the best lambs, both of
rams and ewes, for breeders. The selection should be made
chiefly in reference to the purposes for which the flock is kept,
and strength of constitution, rapidity of growth, size, tendency to
fat ; fineness, length or quality of wool, and prolificness and cer-
tainty of breeding, in the parents as well as, so far as can be
judged of, in the lambs themselves, should be made the tests by
which the selection is determined. If the production of early
lambs for market is the object, the produce of those ewes which
bring single lambs of large size and quick growth will be chosen
to increase the flock ; if the production of mutton sheep, then those
lambs from ewes which drop twins, and are good nurses, ought to
be kept ; and if wool of any particular kind is desired, then the
selection should be made chiefly in reference to that. On no ac-
count should weakly lambs, or those ewes which are poor nurses,
or fail to breed, or which exhibit tenderness of constitution, or are
wanderers, or of uneasy, restless dispositions, be retained ; but
such unprofitable animals should be closely weeded out and fat-
tened for sale or for slaughter. The choice of ram lambs is of
chief importance, for the influence of the ram runs through the
flock, while that of the ewe is confined to her produce alone. To
select a lamb for a stock ram is a matter requiring a knowledge of
the principles of breeding, and some tact and experience. The lat-
ter qualifications cannot be acquired from books, but must be
gained by practice ; nevertheless, much as to the selection of lambs
may be learned from a careful consideration of what will be found
in the succeeding chapter, which is specially devoted in part to
this important branch of the shepherd's knowledge.

The proper age for breeding differs with the class of sheep bred.
The Merino is not mature enough for breeding until fully two or
three years old. Other breeds which mature more quickly are
ripe for breeding as yearlings, but there is nothing gained by suf-
fering any sheep less than a year old to reproduce. A young ram
in its second year may be allowed to serve a few ewes, if he is
vigorous and well grown. A ram at two years may serve 30 ewes
in a season, and after that from 50 to 60 or 70, according to the
manner hi which he is kept, and if he is restricted to no more than
one or two services of each ewe. The strength and vigor of the
lamb certainly depends on that of the ram by which it is sired, as
well as on the condition and character of the ewe. Ewe lambs of
less than a year old. should be kept in a separate flock by them-
selves where they may not be disturbed by the rams. The second
year they are capable of breeding, and if they have been well

44 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

cared for, will produce as large lambs and as many twins as older
sheep. The young ewes having their first lambs are apt to be ner-
vous, and need careful attention at yeaning time ; it is then that
the great convenience resulting from having a docile and friendly
flock, well acquainted with, and confiding in, their shepherd, is
manifest. The young ewes should not be put to the ram until the
older ones are served, so that they will not drop their lambs until
the spring is well advanced, and the pressure upon the shepherd
becomes lighter. As a rule they are poor nurses, and if the season
is cold, will lose many lambs. If they are not allowed to have
lambs until April or May, so much the better ; it will then be neces-
sary to keep them from the ram until November and December.
Difficulty in parturition is sometimes experienced with young ewes,
and assistance is often needed. This should be given with the
utmost gentleness and tenderness. When the presentation is all
right and natural, and the fore feet appear, but difficulty occurs in
ejecting the head, a very slight and slow drawing upon the feet
may help the ewe in expelling the lamb. Sometimes in her ner-
vous struggles the head may be turned backwards, and does not
appear when the fore legs have protruded. In this case the lamb
should be gently forced backwards, and the hand or fingers, well
oiled with linseed oil, and the finger nails being closely pared, are
inserted, and the head gently brought into position, when it will
be expelled without further trouble. For more difficult and ab-
normal presentations, the services of an experienced shepherd will
be needed, but such cases are very rare, and will very seldom oc-
cur if the flock has been carefully attended to, and has not been
overdriven, or worried by dogs, or knocked about by horned cattle.
When a ewe loses her lamb it is best to make her adopt one of
another ewe's twins. This may be done by rubbing the skin of
the live lamb with the dead one, removing the dead one and shut-
ting up the ewe and live lamb together in a dark pen. When a
lamb loses her dam, it may be given to a ewe that has lost her
lamb, or from which her lamb has been taken, or with care it may
be brought up by hand without difficulty. In every considerable
flock it will pay to have a fresh cow on hand at the lambing sea-
son, to fill the place of foster mother to disowned or abandoned
lambs, or to assist those whose dams for any reason are short of
milk.

The question as to when a lamb becomes a sheep, although of
no practical utility, has sometimes been of sufficient importance
to require a decisive reply. A legal decision was given in an
English court not long since, which is probably as reasonable as

PKEVENTION OF DISEASE. 45

we may expect, and may be accepted as being authoritative. The
question arose out of the killing of some sheep on a railroad by a
passing train, and it was denied that the complaint was properly
made, the animals being lambs, and not sheep. The judge decided
that lambs ceased to be lambs, and became sheep as soon as they
had acquired their first pair of permanent teeth. This change of
teeth generally occurs when the lamb is a year old. At this period
the middle pair of the first teeth drop out, and a pair of the per-
manent incisors appear. At one year and nine months, two more
of the first teeth are dropped and two more permanent incisors,
one on each side of the former pair, appear. Nine months later,
two more permanent incisors appear in a similar manner, and nine
months later still, another pair are produced, so that at three years
and a quarter the sheep has eight permanent incisors or nippers,
and is then called a full-mouthed or perfect sheep. These periods
of dentition are irregular, and in some of the early maturing
breeds, the first pair of permanent teeth will appear before the
end of the first year, and at 16 months, four permanent incisors
may be found. The earlier maturity of the high bred and high
fed races of sheep, such as the Leicester, Cotswold and Shrop-
shire, sometimes amounts to a gain over the common breeds of
nearly a year in time, and full-mouthed sheep of no more than two
years and a half old are not uncommonly met with.

The diseases to which lambs are subject are but few, and those
are mainly the result of carelessness in their management. The
lamb, which appears so delicate and tender an animal, is really
hardy, and resists much ill treatment, else with so little consider-
ation as they usually receive, the race would soon become almost
extinct. Damp and cold are especially to be guarded against in
the spring, and filthy yards at all seasons. With clean pens and
dry, clean bedding, they will resist the severe dry colds of a north-
ern January, and thrive and grow while snow storms rage, if
only well sheltered. Sunshine has a remarkable effect upon
lambs, and the warmth of the sun will often revive and strengthen
a weak lamb that appears past relief. Extremes of damp and im-
pure air in close pens, and bad drinking water, will produce diar-
rhea and paralysis, and these are the chiefly fatal disorders to
which they are subject. Constipation is produced by want of
proper laxative food, and permitting them to feed on dry, withered
herbage that has lost its nutritive qualities beneath the storms of a
winter. If the directions as to their treatment heretofore given,
are followed, there will rarely be any need of remedial measures,
and prevention will be found better than any amount of cure. If,

46 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

notwithstanding all possible care, some weakly lambs are found
to require treatment, the simple purgatives already mentioned in
this chapter, viz : a teaspoonful of castor or raw linseed oil will be
found effective, after two or three doses, in removing the trouble-
some matter from their intestines, and restoring the bowels to
healthful action. If in any case, a stimulant seems to be needed,
as when great weakness and prostration are present, the safest is a
teaspoonful of gin, given in a little warm water with sugar. A
still more gentle stimulant and anodyne, but one very effective in
prolonged diarrhea, is prepared by adding to a pint of peppermint
water, one ounce of prepared chalk, a teaspoonful each of tinc-
ture of opium and of tincture of rhubarb ; it is worthy of the
name given to it by shepherds, viz : " lambs cordial," and at the
lambing season no shepherd should be without a supply of it.
The dose is a teaspoonful for a lamb of a few days old, up to a
tablespoonful for one of a month. Exposure to cold rains should
be specially guarded against, and if by inadvertence a lamb is found
chilled and rigid from such exposure, it may generally be restored
by means of a bath of warm water and a teaspoonful of warm sweet-
ened gin and water. After the bath the lamb should be gently
dried, wrapped in a warm flannel, and placed near a fire or in a
wooden box in a gently heated oven of a common stove. Where
the flock is large, and the kitchen is not within reach, the shepherd
should have the conveniences of a shed and an old cooking-stove
in which he can keep a fire sufficient to heat a water bath, and pro-
vide a warm bed in the oven for any lamb that may need such
attention ; if the flock numbers several hundred head in all,
there will seldom be a day in our changeable spring seasons when
there will not be one or more patients to be treated. The specific
diseases to which lambs are subject will be found treated of at
large in Chapter VII.

As the season progresses, and shearing time for the ewes has
passed, the lambs will be found covered with ticks, unless care has
been exercised to free the flock from this tormenting pest. These
ticks are wingless, broad, plump, dark red insects, about a quarter
of an inch in length, and covered with a very tough and leathery
integument. They are known scientifically as Melophagus ovinus,
and produce a puparium which is nearly round in shape, red in
color, and as large as a radish seed or duck shot. The legs of the
tick are short and stout, and it adheres with great tenacity to the
wool. By means of a proboscis as long as its head, it pierces the
skin and sucks the blood of its victim to such an excess that when
numerous, they have been known to almost entirely empty the

REMEDY FOR TICKS. 47

veins and deprive a lamb of life. The draft upon the vitality of
lambs inf ested with ticks is very great, and sufficient to arrest their
growth altogether. To rid the flock of these pests is therefore a
necessary labor in the spring or early summer, and if need be,
again in the autumn. The easiest remedy is to dip both sheep and
lambs, as soon as the sheep are shorn, and again in August or
September, in a decoction of tobacco mixed with sulphur. Coarse
plug tobacco, or tobacco stems, which are cheaper than the leaves,
and equally effective, are steeped in water at a boiling heat, but
not boiling, at the rate of four pounds to twenty gallons of water.

Fig. 16.— DIPPING SHEEP.

One pound of flowers of sulphur is then stirred in the liquid, which
is brought to a temperature of 120 degrees, and kept so during the
dipping by the addition of fresh hot liquor. During the dipping,
the mixture is kept stirred to prevent the sulphur from subsiding.
The dip may be conveniently placed in a trough or a tub large
enough to allow of the immersion of the sheep or the lamb, which
is taken by the feet by two men and plunged into the bath at the
temperature mentioned, where it is held for a minute or two until
the wool is thoroughly saturated. The animal is then placed in a
pen with a raised floor sloping on each side, to a trough in the
middle, along which the superabundant liquor escapes into a pail
or tub placed to receive it. The method of dipping, (shown at

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

figures 16 and 17), is calculated for small flocks, or for a few hun-
dred lambs. For larger flocks, a larger tank is provided, 12 feet
long, three feet wide, and four feet deep. A fenced platform leads
from a pen hi which the sheep are gathered, up to the edge of the
dipping tank, and the sheep are taken one by one from the pen,
led up the platform, and pushed into the tank in which the dip
is sufficiently deep to cover them. As the sheep plunge into the
dip, they are seized, and kept beneath it, except the head, which
alone is sufiered to emerge above it. If hi their struggles a little
of the dip should enter their nostrils, no harm results, but the hot
tobacco water is, on the contrary, often beneficial to those sheep
which are affected by catarrh or grub in the head, and the violent
sneezings which follow may help to free them from these trouble-
some parasites which often inhabit the nasal sinuses. The sheep
are rapidly passed
from hand to hand
along the tank un-
til they reach the
end, where there is
a sloping plank
upon which they
can walk up to
another platform.
Here they are al-
lowed to remain
while the excess of
dip is squeezed
from their wool.
From this the
liquid drains into tubs, and is carried to the boiler to be re-
heated, and then returned to the tank for use again. The cost of
dipping a large flock, numbering several thousands, in this man-
ner twice in the season is five cents a head, and the improvement
in the quality of the wool, which results from the cleansing of the
skin from dust, grease, and the accumulated refuse of its secre-
tions, and its increase in quantity consequent upon the greater
comfort of the sheep and their escape from the persecution of
ticks and other parasites, is estimated at 20 cents per head, so that
the cost is repaid more than three-fold. The comforting knowl-
edge to the humane shepherd that his flock is freed from a most
annoying torment, is also something, which, although it does not
enter into a pecuniary calculation, and is not measured by dollars
and cents, yet is not on that account unworthy of consideration,

Fig. 17. — TROUGH FOB DIPPING LAMBS.

WINTER MANAGEMENT. 49

There is no greater satisfaction to the owner of a flock, who cares
for his sheep, and takes pleasure in their welfare, and in a measure
loves the gentle kindly animals, and is interested in managing them
so that they may enjoy all the comfort possible for them, than to
know that, so far as any efforts of his are concerned, nothing is
left undone that can add to their contentment, and that they are
spared every discomfort and pain that it is possible to prevent

CHAPTER IV.
WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.

The change from green, succulent food, to that of a dry and
concentrated character, is one that needs to be cautiously made.
As the summer departs and the fall rains occur, succeeded in their
turn by the more rigorous storms of whiter, conditions arise which
call for a complete change of management on the part of the shep-
herd who looks for profit from his flock. It may be a question
with some if quality of feed or shelter is the more important con-
sideration in the best management of sheep. Certainly abun-
dant experience has shown that with the most careful and
judicious feeding, sheep, which when well tended are in reality
hardier than are generally supposed, have passed safely and
thriftily through a winter's storms with no more shelter than
that afforded by an open shed; and that they have of their
own free will refused the shelter, and have chosen to rest upon
the bare snow, at times when the air has been dry and clear. But
no case has as yet ever occurred in the experience of any shepherd
in which sheep have thrived without ivell selected, proper, and
abundant food, and cases are always occurring in which sheep
are greatly injured by excessive carefulness in this matter of
shelter. To feed well and judiciously, may therefore be
regarded as the first duty and interest of the shepherd ; and to
shelter the flock only so far as to maintain it in healthful con-
dition, avoiding exposure to unusual rigors of heat or storm,
will be not exactly a second duty, but one that attaches to this
first interest as being intimately associated with it rather than
separated from it. Nevertheless, as before a flock can be fed, it ia
3

50

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

necessary to have a store of food and a feeding place, it may be
well to consider first the subjects of shelters or barns, feed racks,
and facilities for watering.

The first requisites for the comfort of sheep in their winter
lodging are a dry clean floor, a tight roof, and abundant ventila-
tion. The site of a sheep-house should therefore be well drained,
and of such a character that it can be kept clean and free from
filth. It should, if possible, be on high ground which slopes each
way from it, but at any rate it should slope to the south or south-
east. The house should be well roofed and provided with rain
troughs and spouts to carry the water away from the yard into
either a covered drain or a cistern. It should be open at the front,
protected only by a projecting roof, and the walls, if of boards,
need not be battened over the joints, as the air which will enter

Fig. 13.— SHEEP BABN.

through these cracks will be no more than will be needed to keep
that within fresh and pure. Some more carefully protected shelter
must be provided for the use of yeaning ewes and young lambs,
in a part of the house or in another building, but until the appear-
ance of the lambs is looked for, this warmer shelter will not be
needed. The loft over the lower apartment will be used for stor-
ing hay or other fodder, and space for this purpose may be econ-
omized by having the upper floor only so far above the ground
floor as will allow the shepherd a comfortable passage beneath it.
A building which is well arranged and convenient is shown in
figures 18, 19, 20, and 21. The following description with the
illustrations are taken from the American Agriculturist. It con-
sists of a barn, shown at fig. 18, about 20 feet wide, 16 feet high

BARNS AND SHEDS.

51

from basement to eaves, and as long as desirable. This is intended
to store the hay or fodder. The posts, sills, and plates are all 8
inches square, the girts and braces are 4 inches square, the beams
2x10, are placed 16 inches apart, and are cross-bridged with
strips, 3 inches wide. The hay is piled inside, so that the feed
passage below, over
which there are trap-
doors, is left uncov-
ered. The hay is
thrown down through
these doors, and falls
upon a sloping shelf,
which carries it into
the feed racks below,
(see fig. 19). The
basement under the
barn is 8 feet high,
and is of stone on
three sides ; the front
is supported by posts
8 inches square, and 8
feet apart. Between
each pair of posts a
door is hung upon
pins, (fig. 20), which
fit into grooves in the
posts, so that the door
may be raised and Fig. ^.-SECTION OF BUILDING.

fastened, in such a manner, as to close the upper half of the space
between the posts ; or be .held suspended half way, leaving the
whole open; or be shut clown and close the lower half; or be
removed altogether. By this contrivance at least half the front
of the basement must be left open,
whether the sheep be shut in or out.
The floor of the basement should be
slightly sloping from rear to front, so
that it will always be dry. Fig. 21 shows
the plan of the basement. The feed-

Fig. 20.— HANGING DOOR
FOR BARN.

passage is shown at c ; the stairway to the root-cellar at b, and the
root-cellar at a. Fig. 19 gives a section of the whole barn. The
hay-loft is above, and the passage-way and the doors, by which the
hay is thrown down to the feed-racks below ; as well as the sloping
shelf by which the hay is carried into the feed-racks are shown.

52 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Below the feed-rack is the feed-trough for roots or meal. A door
shuts off this trough from the sheep at the front, while the feed is
being prepared, and when it is ready, the door is raised, and held
up to the feed-rack by a strap or a hook. The feed-rack is closely

Fig. 21. —GROUND PLAN OP BARN.

boarded behind, and this back part, which is in the feed-passage,
slopes forward to the front, so as to carry the hay forward to the
bottom. The front of the rack is of upright slats, smoothly
dressed, two inches wide, and placed three inches apart. The
boards of the feed-trough are smoothly dressed and sand-papered,
and all the edges are rounded, so that there is nothing by which
the wool may be torn or rubbed off from the sheep's necks. It
will be seen by this arrangement, that there is no dangerous thing

Fig. 22.— SHEEP SHED FOR A SMALL FARM.

by which a sheep or a lamb might be hurt, nor a place where it
can get into mischief. The root-cellar is at the rear of the base-
ment, and is reached by the stairs already mentioned. The cost
of the barn here described, if built of pine or hemlock lumber, in

BARNS AND SHEDS.

53

54

THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL.

a plain manner, and of sufficient size to accommodate 100 sheep,
would be from $300 to $500.

Another sheep-house suitable for small farms, that is designed
for small flocks, is shown at figure 22. It is altogether open
in the front on
the ground floor,
and is intended
to face to the
south. This is a
very cheap and
convenient shed
for a small flock ;
it has an enclosed
yard attached to
it. A shelter in-
tended for a large
flock is shown at

figure 23. This

building was

erected by Mr.

George Grant, of

Victoria, Kansas,

for his flock of

7,000 sheep. The

walls are of stone,

and the roof of

boards. The main

structure is 570

feet in length,

and the three

wings are each of

equal length. The

width of each of

the sheds is 24

feet, and thehight

of the walls 10

feet. At one cor-
ner of the " cor-

Fig. 21.— MB. SHAW'S SHEEP SHED.

ral," which is the name given on the western plains to such sheds
as this and other enclosures, is the shepherd's house, in which he
resides, and is at all times near his flock, and able to render imme-
diate attention. A shed of this character is rather costly in its
construction, and a small capitalist would find it beyond the limit

BARNS AND SHEDS.

55

of his resources. One of a cheaper construction and less perma-
nent character, but nevertheless of equal value for shelter so long
as it lasts, is shown in figure 24. This shed was built by Mr.
Shaw, of Syracuse, Kansas, and was found to answer every pur-
pose. It is made of posts set in the ground, which support a single
sloping roof that is thatched with coarse hay from the river bot-
toms adjacent to his location. The enclosure contains a windmill,
watering trough, stack-yard, and feed-racks, and is intended to
accommodate a flock of 200 to 300 sheep- The length of the en-
closure is 200 feet,
and the width 100
feet, making in all
600 feet of shed.
Figure 25 represents
the sheep-fold of
Mr. Henry Nason,
of Orange C. H.,
Virginia, in which
his flock of 300 ewes
sheltered from

d

cl

A

IS

the weather as well
as from dogs and
thieves by night.
This flock is kept
mainly for the pro-
duction of early
lambs for market.
Especial attention
ia given to the com-
fort and care of Fig. 25,-PLAN OF MB. NASON'S SHED.

the ewes and the lambs, and warm separate pens are provided for
them when they require them. The yard, «, is 100 feet square,
divided by a hurdle fence, shown by the dotted lines, into as many
portions as may be desired. The entrance is at £, where there is a
gate hung upon a post, c, in such a way as to open or close each
lalf of the yard. The yard is enclosed on three sides by a
shed 10 feet high, with a roof sloping both ways. The ground
loor, 7 feet high, is appropriated for sheep pens, and the three
feet above for a hay loft. The shed is 12 feet wide, and has a
row of separate pens 6 feet wide, upon the north side. On the
other sides there are narrow doors for the sheep, seen at <?, c?, and
sliding shutters, e, e, 8 feet long, and 3£ feet high, which are also
used for entrances to the shed. The yard is closed at the front by

56 THE SHEPHEBD'S MANUAL.

a fence 10 feet high. There are no outside windows, and only two
doors, and but one of these, that at /, is locked from the out-
side, so that the turning of one key secures the whole enclos-
ure from trespassers. There is a second yard, 150 by 135 feet,
upon the south side of the sheep yard, with an open shed facing
the south, and divided into pens 9 feet deep, for cows or sheep,
and a pig pen 35 feet square, at the south-east of the sheep yards.
These sheds are made of inch boards, nailed up and down upon
the frame work, and the roof is of boards, with a sufficient pitch to
shed rain perfectly.

In estimating the size of the sheds required for any given num-
ber of sheep it will be safe to allow 10 square feet of floor to each
sheep, when a yard adjoining the shed is provided, and there is
abundant ventilation in the shed ; and 12£ square feet when there
is no yard, but only the most ample ventilation by means of boards
at the eaves, to be let down, and trap-doors in the roof to be
opened. Space may be economized if thought desirable, and the
expense of the sheds reduced, by having a second floor for the
sheep which is reached by means of a sloping passage-way of
planks upon which cleats are nailed crosswise to afford a foothold.
Sheep will readily ascend a gang-way of this kind, and will choose
the upper in preference to the ground floor. The upper floor
in this case must be made perfectly close and tight, of matched
boards tarred at the joints, and ample dry bedding should be pro-
vided to absorb all the moisture. This floor should not be
less than seven feet above the ground floor ; this will secure suf-
ficient ventilation if the lower, doors are double, and the upper
halves are kept open, and there are a sufficient number of open
windows or ventilating boards or spaces. A shed 20 by 50 feet
will comfortably contain 100 moderate-sized sheep ; 75 large Cots-
wold or Leicester sheep have been accommodated in a lean-to shed
of this size, with ventilating boards and traps in the roof. In
this shed there was a ventilating board arranged near the bottom
by partly opening which, a plenty of fresh air could be admitted.
On the whole, the sheds with a half open front, that may be closed
wholly or partly, with a yard adjoining, will be found preferable
to those which are made to be entirely closed.

A convenient barn which furnishes space for shearing, room for
the storage of wool, pens for lambs and ewes, and lofts for fodder
and straw, with ample open sheds and a roomy yard, is shown at
figure 26. It can be made larger or smaller, to suit the needs of a
large or small flock. The main building, of which this is a repre-
sentation, is raised four feet from the ground upon posts, and the

BAKNS AND SHEDS.

space thus gained furnishes additional shelter. This barn has the
advantage of being suitable for a cattle barn in case sheep-keeping
is abandoned for a
time, and is well
adapted to either west-
ern or eastern sheep
or stock farming.
As perfect cleanliness
and pure air are ne-
cessary to the health-
fulness of the flock,
the matter of litter in
the sheds and yards,
as well as the drain-
age of the roof and
floor, are to be well
provided for. Eaves-
troughs, gutters and
waste-pipes should be
provided and made
to discharge into a
drain, which will car-
ry the rain water be-
neath the ground,
away from the yard.
The litter should be
dry, plentiful, and of
a kind that is absorb-
ent. If plentifully
given, and if the right
kind, it may be allow-
ed to accumulate for
the whole whiter
without removal, and
in so doing there will
be less odor in the
shed than if it were
cleaned out weekly.
The litter and the
droppings are trod-
den down very compactly, and the mass being thus kept from
the access of air, only a very slow decomposition occurs which
gives off no more smell or vapor than can be absorbed by the fresh

58 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

litter daily thrown down in the shed. Hardwood sawdust, dry
seasoned peat or swamp muck, forest leaves, dried spent tan-
bark, long or cut straw, chaff, or even sand, make very good litter
and absorbents. If a supply of these materials can be procured,
sufficient for daily use in a crowded pen or yard, the straw, which
would otherwise be needed for this purpose, may with great
economy be reserved for fodder. If straw or corn-fodder cut into
small pieces, is fed in the racks once a day, there will be a certain
portion pulled out on to the floor which will add to the litter. If
straw is used for litter, it should be cut into chaff, which will
much facilitate the removal of the manure in the spring. This is
especially convenient if pea straw is used, for when a quantity of
pea straw and manure is trodden together, they form such a
tangled mass that it is a most tiresome labor to fork it up and re-
move it. Corn-stalks should not be thrown under foot for the
same reason. If it is thought proper to remove the litter and
dung periodically, every week for instance, then the floor should
afterwards receive a heavy coating of dry litter. In case the ma-
nure is removed, it should not on any account be heaped in the
yard. It will undergo an active fermentation and become hot,
giving forth clouds of vapor in damp weather, and at all times
pungent gases. Some of the sheep will choose the manure heap
to lie upon at nights, and every one that is suffered to do this will
inevitably sicken, and become affected with catarrh or pneumonia,
or lose its wool in patches. Either the litter should not be cleaned
out at all, or it should be removed to a distance from the yards.
It is easy to manage matters either way, so that the air of the shed
will be pure and free from offensive smell, if proper attention is
given, and the shepherd is watchful and careful of the condition
of the floors of the shed.

The feed-racks should be so made that the sheep can procure
their feed without tearing the wool from their necks or filling
their fleeces with dust, chaff, or hay-seed. The floor of the loft
should be made close and tight, using either matched boards or
double boards laid so as to break joints, and prevent the dropping
of dust from above. A rack for hay or straw should be made in
the manner shown at figure 27; it should be 3i feet high at the
front. The bars are only three inches apart. They should be
made of ash, chestnut, or oak strips, dressed and smoothly sand-
papered, and an inch thick by one and a quarter wide. The front
of the rack should slope backwards at the top 3 or 4 inches. This
prevents hay or clover dust from falling out upon the sheeps'
heads. At the rear of the rack sloping boards are fitted, so that

FEED BACKS.

59

as part of the hay is eaten, the rest falls down to the front where
the sheep can reach it. The end of the rack should be closed with
bars in the same way as the front, so that young lambs cannot
creep in and get lost. For want of this precaution a fine lively
young lamb will sometimes get into a tight place, where it may
become chilled and die. This rack may be made of any length,
and should ex-
tend all round the
shed in order to
give the greatest
possible extent
of feeding room.
The form of this
rack prevents the
sheep from
thrusting their
heads between
the bars and
wearing the wool
from their necks,
or from stran-
gling themselves
by getting their
heads fast be-
tween the bars, which they will do with many of the racks in
common use, of -which the bars are frequently too far apart.

For feeding cut or pulped roots, or fine feed, such as bran-meal
or grain, a rack made on the plan of that shown at figure 8 on
page 31, will be useful. The rack there figured is a portable one
intended for use in the field or yard, but a fixed rack similar to it
may be made in the shed if desired. The bars placed over the
rack prevent the stronger sheep from crowding the weaker ones
from their feed, and getting more than their share, and also pre-
vent the more active ones from leaping into the trough in their
eagerness to procure an undue portion of food.

The variety of foods suitable for the winter feeding is extensive.
Hay, straw, pea and bean haulm, corn-fodder, roots of various
kinds, corn, oats, peas, rye, buckwheat, cotton-seed and linseed
oil-cake-meal, and bran, furnish a variety of food from which a
proper choice can readily be made. The relative feeding values
of these various substances used as food, will determine their rela-
tive money values, and as these differ and fluctuate from time to
time, it is often necessary, to secure the most profit on the feeding,

Fig. 27.— FEED-BACK.

60

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

to choose the food that is most economical in use, although it may
be the highest in price. Clover hay is the most valuable single food
for winter use, if it has been cut when in blossom, cured so as to
preserve all its good qualities, and kept free from damp and mold.
Where the main object hi view is the production of market lambs,
clover hay should furnish the chief subsistence of the ewes. It
will also be found preferable as the staple and cheapest fodder
when sheep are purchased for feeding for market, and the most
rapid growth of flesh is desirable. Well cured pea straw will be
chosen by sheep next to clover hay and before timothy or any
other hay. Oat straw is readily eaten by sheep, and is a healthful
food, especially if harvested before the oats were dead ripe. Bar-
ley, wheat, and rye straw will help to keep life in a flock, but are
not sufficiently nutritive to contribute much to the growth of flesh
or wool, and should be used only as adjuncts to roots and grain,
or oil-cake-meal. Rye straw is apt to be sprinkled with dust of
ergot, a fungus which is frequently found growing on the heads of
rye, and which has a highly injurious effect upon pregnant ewes,
producing abortion or premature births of the lambs. Rye straw
is also frequently the cause of great inflammation of the stomachs
and intestines of sheep, from the penetration of the mucous coats
by the sharp awns or beards of the heads. Cases have occurred
in which the stomachs of sheep fed on rye or bearded wheat straw,
have been found after death thickly studded with the beards,
which caused inflammation of the coats of the stomachs and con-
sequent death. Such straw should be avoided as food, and used
only for litter. The haulm of beans when well cured and saved,
is both palatable and nutritious, and the leaves of corn-stalks fur-
nish a food which is useful as a change of fodder, but is not nutri-
tious enough of itself to support sheep in good condition. The
relative values of the various dry fodders above mentioned may be
estimated from the following tables, hi which their composition
and the proportion of actual nutritive matter contained are given.

COMPOSITION OF HAY, STRAW, AND CORN-FODDEB.

IN 100 PARTS OF

Water.

Ash

Organic
Matter.

flesh
Form-
ers.

Fat,
Starch,
& Gum.

Crude
fiber.

Meadow Hay

14 3

6 2

79 5

8.2

41.3

30.0

Red Clover Hay

16 7

6 2

77 1

13 4

29.9

35.8

Pea Straw

14 3

4 0

81 7

6 5

35 2

40 0

Bean Straw

17 3

5 0

77 7

10 2

33 5

34 0

Wheat Straw

Rye Straw . .

14.3
14 2

5'.5
3 2

80.0
82 5

2.0
1 5

30.2
27 0

48.0
54 0

Barley Straw

14 3

7 0

78 7

3 0

32 7

43 0

Oat Straw

14 3

5 0

HO 7

2 5

38 2

40.0

Corn Fodder...

14.0

4.0

82.0

3.0

39.0

40.0

FEEDING VALUE OF HAY AND STKAW. 61

The composition of clover hay here given is of that cut when in
blossom. If cut when ripe, this hay has 4 per cent less of flesh-
forming material, 9 per cent less of fat, starch, sugar, and gum, or
material for f orming fat and sustaining respiration, and over 12 per
per cent more of crude fiber or indigestible matter.

COMPARATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUES OP HAY, STRAW, ETC.,
IN ONE HUNDRED PARTS.

Meadow Hay (as the basis) is estimated at 10.0

Clover Hay 12.5

Pea Straw 16.5

Bean Straw 18.6

Wheat Straw 2.0

Rye Straw 1.6

Barley Straw 2.0

Oat Straw 1.8

Corn-fodder, (leaves), (estimated) 2.5

The different quantities of these several fodders which would
have to be fed to produce equal nutritive effects, may be tabulated
as follows, each quantity given being equivalent to 10 pounds of
common meadow hay of mixed grasses of standard quality.

QUANTITIES OF VARIOUS FODDERS EQUAL TO 10 POUNDS OF
HAY IN FEEDING VALUE.

Meadow Hay 10 pounds.

Clover Hay 8

Pea Straw 6

Bean Straw 61/!

Wheat Straw 52

Bye Straw 61

Barley Straw 52

Oat Straw 55

Corn-fodder.... ...40

The last two tables must be taken with some qualifications.
The values of these different articles of fodder are subject to very
great variations, arising out of the conditions of their growth
and the time and manner of harvesting, curing and preserving
them. With the single exception of corn-fodder, however, the
estimates here given will approach v6ry nearly the actual feeding
values as found in practice ; the corn-fodder will be found of
somewhat higher value than indicated by the above figures, esti-
mated from a comparison of its constituents with those of oat

62 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL.

straw. Generally, those who have fed this material largely, and
who have taken pains to harvest it when the corn is just glazed,
and before the frost has stricken it, and to cure and house it care-
fully, will agree that it at least more nearly approaches in value to
good meadow hay than to oat straw, while some careful, intelli-
gent, and observant feeders will insist that is very nearly, if not
quite equal as fodder, to ordinary meadow hay. The impossibil-
ity of subsisting sheep upon straw will be manifest when its value
Is compared with that of bay; for if 3 pounds of hay would sup-
ply a sheep of 100 Ibs. live weight with sufficient nutriment to
maintain it in a thriving condition, as it should do, 17 to 20 Ibs. of
straw would be required as an equivalent, which is a quantity that
no sheep could possibly be made to consume. Therefore, when
sheep are wintered in the straw yard, unless they have a sufficient
supply of grain along with the small quantity of straw they can
be made to consume, they must live in a state of semi-starvation,
a condition in which unfortunately not a few flocks are expected
to exist. Roots furnish a staple food of the greatest value for
winter feeding of sheep. When fed in proper quantities, their
laxative effect healthfully opposes the tendency of dry hay or
straw to produce costiveness, and in addition they supply a con-
siderable proportion of needed phosphates and sulphur for the
growing animal and its fleece. But if fed in excess, the large
quantity of water they contain, and their large bulk, especially
when they are fed in the winter, reduce the temperature of the
animal too much, and gradually act unfavorably on the health.
When ewes in lamb are fed roots in any but very small quantities,
abortion is frequently produced, and this ill effect has been noticed
more conspicuously when the roots have been manured heavily
with superphosphate of lime. This has been noticed by some ex-
tensive feeders and breeders in England", where that fertilizer is
largely used in root culture, and their experience should serve as
a warning to us. The reason assigned for the loss of lambs by
abortion when many turnips are fed, is not only that the foetus is
affected by the presence of a mass of very cold matter in the stom-
ach of the ewe, but that there is an irritation produced in the in-
testines by this unacceptable food, which causes the death and ex-
pulsion of the foetus. ' Nothing of the kind has occurred in flocks
that have been largely fed on cooked roots, supplied at such a
temperature that would prevent a chill to the animal. It may,
therefore, be understood that it is the low temperature, generally
near freezing, and often below it, at which the roots are given,
and nothing in the roots themselves that act thus injuriously.

FEEDING VALUE OF BOOTS.

63

Knowing this, the ill effect likely to be produced, may easily be
avoided.

The roots that are generally fed to sheep are sugar beets, man-
gels, ruta-bagas, yellow turnips, and white or cow-horn turnips, and
are to be preferred hi the order in which they are here enumer-
ated. Their comparative nutritive value may be gathered from
the following table, the estimates hi which are from analyses by
Drs. Voelcker and Lankester :

TABLE OF THE NUTKITIVE ELEMENTS OF BOOTS.

IN 100 PARTS OF

1

fl

^

§

I

k

Sugar Beets

81 5

1 00

15 40

1 3

on

87 78

1 54

8 60

1 12

96

Kuta-bagas

89 40

1 44

5 93

2 54

62

Yellow Aberdeen Turnips

90 57

1 80

464

2 34

65

White Globe Turnip. . . .

90.43

1.14

2.96

2.00

1.02

Considering the large quantity of water contained in them, roots
may be considered as highly nutritious food, and when fed hi con-
junction with dry fodder, and in proper proportions, are greatly
conducive to the health and growth of the sheep. Their effect
upon the quality of the wool, especially the lustrous wool of some
of the long-wool sheep, is very favorable. The proper quantity
of roots to be given depends upon the kind of sheep. As a
safe guide, it may be estimated that one bushel of roots will be a
sufficient daily allowance for 10 sheep weighing 150 Ibs. each, live
weight, if along with the roots, \\ Ib. of hay and £ Ib. of meal or
bran per head be given. The question of food rations will, how-
ever, be considered at length in another place.

Grain, or preparations of grain of various kinds, furnish the
concentrated foods, which are found needful to maintain sheep in
a healthful condition, or to induce rapid growth and fattening for
market. These foods exist in abundant variety, but no one alone
can be fed with the greatest benefit for any length of time. A
change of food is both acceptable to, and healthful for sheep, and
the difference in the money value of these articles of food, which
exists at nearly all times, makes it necessary to exercise a judi-
cious choice hi this respect, in order to secure the greatest profit.
The feeding value of these various substances used as whiter feed
for sheep, varies greatly, as may be seen from the following table :

64

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

COMPARATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUES OP GRAINS AND GRAIN
PRODUCTS.

IN 100 PARTS OF

I

Fleshform-
ers.

^
1

i

\

Corn

14.4
14.3
14.3
14.3
14.3
14.5
14.0
8.3
11.0
11.5
13.1
12.5
11.65
8.0
4.2
t Of this

10.0
12.0
9.0
22.4
11.0
25.5
9.0
41.0
40.00
28.3
14.0
14.5
11.75
23.0
8.8
11 per c

68.8
60.9
65.9
52.3
69.2
45.5
59.6
*33.4
t38.5
41.3
50.0
53.5
64.42
44.7
76.3
ent consi

5.5
10.3
8.5
9.2
3.5
11.5
15.0
9.0
4.5
11.0
17.8
15.0
8.29
17.5
8.0
stsoffat

2.1
3.0
2.5
2.5
2 0
3.5
2.4
8.3
6.0
7.9
6.1
4.5
4.2
6.8
2.7
and oil.

Oats

Barley

Peas

Rye

Beans

Buckwheat

Cotton-seed-cake without husks
Peanut Cake.

Linseed Cake

Bran (Wheat)

Bran (Rye)

Snorts, (Wheat)

Malt Sprouts

* Of this 16 per cent consists of oil.

The analyses here given, however, are but an obscure guide as
regards the comparative values of the different substances for pro-
ducing fat. It is very important to arrive at a clear idea of this
in feeding sheep, because the quality of the wool depends greatly
upon the secretion of a requisite amount of yolk which consists in
great part of oil and a matter approaching in character to wax,
to say nothing of the desirability of rapidly producing fat. The
fat-forming elements in any article of food consist of starch, sugar,
gum, oil, and fat, all carbonaceous matters, or matters rich in car-
bon, with the addition of certain proportions of hydrogen and
oxygen. The chemical composition of these elements is very sim-
ilar, and in some of them is nearly identical. Thus an animal fed
upon starch or sugar, may become fat, and it is well known that
bees fed upon sugar are able to produce either honey or wax from
this food. In the processes of digestion and assimilation, starch,
sugar, and gum, are changed to fat. This fat is either consumed
in the process of respiration, or is stored up in the tissues of the
body, and increases the weight of the carcass. But in the con-
sumption of food rich hi starch, a much larger portion is necessary
to produce a given weight of fat, or a given result in the process
of respiration, than is required of a food rich in fat or oil. The
relative values of fat or oil, and starch, as nutritive elements, is as
one of the former to two and a half, nearly, of the latter, or exact-
ly, as 10 is to 24 ; that is, 10 Ibs. of oil or fat will go as far in pro-
ducing fat or in maintaining respiration, and the natural heat of

SELECTION OF FOOD. 65

the body, in which process carbon is used up, as 24 Ibs. of starch
or sugar. Thus any food that contains 10 per cent of fat is of equal
value to another which contains 24 per cent of starch. On ref-
erence to the table it will be found that corn contains 68.8 per
cent of fat formers, while cotton-seed-cake contains only 33 per
cent. But corn contains 5 per cent of fat, and cotton-seed-cake
16 per cent. The relative values of the two substances will
therefore be as follows:

Starch, Fat, \ Equivalent Total

Sugar, etc. or | to Starch. Fat-formers.

Corn 63.8 5.0 or 12.0 75.8

Cotton-seed-meal 17.5 16. or 38.4 55.9

If the quantities of flesh-forming elements of each are added to
the above totals, it will be seen that cotton-seed-cake having four
times as much flesh- formers as corn, is the cheaper food of the
two. Again, whole flax-seed contains 55 per cent of fat-form-
ing elements, but as 37 per cent of these consists of oil, which is
equivalent to 88.8 per cent of starch, the total fat-forming power
of flax-seed is therefore equal relatively to 106.8 per cent hi pure
starch. Cotton-seed free from the husk, and flax-seed, are there-
fore the most nutritive articles of feed for fattening. It is worth
while here to call attention to the high value of the peanut after
the oil is expressed, as food for stock animals we possess. As a
substitute for oil-cake-meal where it cannot be procured conve-
niently, the following mixture has been suggested, viz :

Ground Linseed 40 Ibs.

Wheat Bran 60 "

Flour ol Bone 4 " —104 Ibs.

The constituents of which per 100 Ibs. are :

Flesh-formers, (albumen) 27 Ibs.

Fat-formers, (fat 11 pei cent) 51 "

Ash or Saline Matter 7 "

Water 15 " —100 Ibs.

This makes a most valuable combination of feeding substances for
a young growing animal, or a ewe giving milk. The greater nu-
tritive value of fat is explained by physiologists from the fact that
it is directly digested and assimilated, and enters into the circula-
tion and nutrition of the animal without change, except a very
fine mechanical division of its particles. On the other hand, starch
and sugar undergo a series of chemical transformations in the
course of which much of their volume and effect are expended.

In choosing a variety of food then, for a special object, as for
instance the feeding of a young growing animal ; or the fattening
of a mature animal and the sustenance of a sheep that produces a

66 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

fleece rich in oil or yolk, as that of a pure-bred Merino, those
foods which would furnish abundant flesh should be chosen for the
one, and those rich in starch and oil for the others. By thus
choosing judiciously and skillfully, there is an economy in the cost
of the food, and the object sought is gained at the least expense.

Much may be gained by varying or mixing the food of an ani-
mal so as to stimulate the appetite ; for a healthy animal will in-
crease in weight in proportion to the food consumed so long as di-
gestion and assimilation are perfect. If a sheep only eat 3 Ibs.
of hay per day, but will eat and digest in addition 6 Ibs. of sliced
turnips or beets, with a pound of bran sprinkled upon them, a
manifest advantage is gained. If changing the hay for straw, 10
Ibs. of turnips and 1 Ib. of bran or oil-cake-meal can be consumed,
the money value of the food may be reduced, and the sheep be
equally well fed.

In estimating the amount of a sheep's food, it is necessary to
take into consideration the age and condition of the animal.
Whether it be in a growing state or in a state of maturity, its
weight, and also the drain upon its vitality, as in the case of a rani
serving a number of ewes daily ; or a ewe in lamb, or suckling a
lamb or a pair of them. On this account it is absolutely necessary
to grade the flock and provide different quarters for those which
need special f ceding or care. As a guide for the estimation of a
proper quantity of food, and for a judicious selection of the kinds
which may be fed, it will be useful to consider the following
instances.

In an experiment recently made by Dr. Voelcker, the chemist
of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England, four sheep
were fed for seven weeks upon 196 Ibs. of clover hay, 49 Ibs. of
linseed-cake-meal, and 3,743 Ibs. of mangels ; equal to a daily ra-
tion for each of 1 Ib. of clover hay, 4 ounces of linseed-cake-meal,
and 19| Ibs. of mangels.

The nutritive elements contained in this daily ration were equiva-
lent to 4i ounces of flesh formers, 53£ ounces of fat formers, and
4f ounces of mineral matter.

Upon this mixed diet the sheep thrived and gained weight as
follows :

Weight at Weight at Gain in

commencement. end of 7 weeks. weight.

No.l 153 Ibs. 1701/4 Ibs. 17V4 Ibs.

No. 2 334 « 151V4 " I7'/* "

No 3 1W " 187 " 17 «

No 4.. 135" 155 " 20 "

EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 67

The gain on the average was equal to one pound in three days ;
or an increase in weight of one pound for every 56 Ibs. of food
fed ; or for every 62 ounces of dry matter contained in the food.
This is a very good instance of a typical fattening food for an or-
dinary sheep of this size. The results of a large number of exper-
iments made in feeding roots to sheep, go to show that 150 Ibs. of
ruta-bagas*, or mangels, fed in open yards, or 100 Ibs. fed in yards
with sheds for protection, may be expected to produce one pound
of increase in live weight. When 1| Ibs. of a mixed feed of oil-
cake and peas were given daily, along with 18£ Ibs. of ruta-bagas,
fed under shelter, the gain was equal to 2 Ibs. for every 100 Ibs. of
roots, and 4£ Ibs. of mixed peas and oil-cake ; showing that 4£ Ibs.
of peas and oil-cake produced an increase of one pound in the live
weight. A number of experiments in feeding clover hay with
linseed-oil-cake-meal, have established the fact that, allowing 6 Ibs.
of oil-cake-meal for one pound of increased live weight, it required
11 to 13 Ibs. of hay to make an equal gain. In feeding peas and
beans with roots and hay, 8 Ibs. of the mixed grain was found to
produce an increase in weight of one pound. When oats were fed
with the roots, there was one pound of increased weight for 7 Ibs.
of the grain. When barley was substituted, 6 Ibs. of the gram
produced a gain of one pound. These interesting experiments are
recorded in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol.
I, p. 169; Vol. VII, p. 295; Vol. VIII, pp. 27, 28, and 256; Vol.
X, p. 358, and the Highland Society's Transactions ; and are sub-
stantiated by experiments made by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, of
Rothamstead, in which they found that 272£ Ibs. oil-cake, 252£
Ibs. clover hay, and 3,753 Ibs. ruta-bagas, fed together, produced
100 Ibs. of increase. These results must of course be accepted as
subject to variations in the quality of the various feeds, the kind
and condition of the sheep, the state of comfort and repose in
which they are kept, and the care and attention given to them.
But making every allowance for contingencies, it may be safe to
estimate from these results, that the relative quantities of the differ-
ent feeds required to produce one pound of flesh, are as follows

Ruta-bagas fed in open yards 150 Ibs

Ruta-bagas fed under cover 100 " '

Good clover hay 12 "

Beans or peas !!!!""" 8 "

Oats

Barley ........".."."/.!".!!

Linseed-oil-cake-meal ]

Linseed-oil-cake-meal, and peas mixed ,

7

The last quantity mentioned, curiously enough corroborates the

68

personal experience of many shepherds, and the remark heretofore
made to the effect that much is often gained by varying or mixing
the diet of sheep. In this instance the same effect is gained by the
use of three-fourths the quantity of the mixed feed, as by the
whole quantity when given separately. The actual money cost of
the feed may thus be estimated nearly enough for all practical
purposes. In estimating the values of the kinds of food more
commonly used in the United States and Canada, there are but
few really trustworthy data to depend upon, as the careful experi-
mental feeding of animals for scientific information, has rarely
been attempted. We have nevertheless amongst the current agri-
cultural literature of the day, many recorded results contributed
by careful and eminently capable and trustworthy men. From
amongst these the following have been selected as being practical
and to the purpose. In an article communicated to the Country
Gentleman, by the Hon. George Geddes, of Fairmount, N. Y., in
May, 1875, are given, the cost of feeding, and the gain in weight of
290 sheep fed by Mr. O. M. Watkins, of Onondaga County, during
the previous winter, and particularly the cost, etc., during the
month of January. The flock consisted of 100 grades, being half
Merino and half Cotswold ; another 100 that were Merinos, and 90
were called full-blooded Cotswolds, (probably high grades). All
these sheep were fed alike, each having one pound of corn daily
— half of it fed early hi the morning, the other half at sunset.
Straw and chaff were fed during the day, and one feeding of hay
at night. The corn was worth 80 cents for 60 pounds, the hay $10
a ton. The quantity of hay fed was reported as equal to 1.3
pounds to each sheep per day — making 40 pounds for the month,
worth 20 cents. The corn for the same time was worth 41 cents,
making the cost of corn and hay for each sheep for the month,
61 cents.

The 100 Merino and Cotswold grades increased from 117£lbs. each
to 128J pounds, this being a gain for each sheep of 10£ pounds, and
making the cost of each pound 5.67 cents. The 100 Merinos weighed
Jan. 1, 94J pounds each, and Feb. 1, 101^ pounds— gaining 7£ pounds
each, at a cost of 8.4 cents. The 100 so-called full-blooded Cots-
wolds weighed 118 pounds each Jan. 1, and Feb. 1, 123J — gaming
only 5J pounds each, at a cost of 11.6 cents per pound. Upon
these facts, Mr. Geddes comments as follows : " The manure made
during the time by these sheep, I consider worth more than the
manure that would have been made by the same number of pounds
of beef cattle. Thirty-two steers, each weighing 1,000 pounds,
would almost exactly equal the total number of pounds of these

PBOFIT IN FEEDING. 69

three flocks of sheep when they were weighed in the yards on the
1st day of January. All the labor involved in feeding and taking
care of the sheep, would not equal that of cleaning the stables for
the steers. Mr. Watkins purchased the 290 sheep well, and sold
them well, and he reports his winter's doings with them as follows :

Cost of 290 sheep, (nearly 4c. per lb.), $1,260 61

do. 435 bushels of corn, at 80c 34800

do. 13 tons of hay, $10 13000 $1,73861

Feb. 28th, sold 270 at $8 each 2 160 00

do. do. 18 culls, $4 each 7200

Two sheep got cast ; sold pelts for $2 each. 4 00

" This pays over $1.71 for the trouble of buying and selling and
risk on each sheep, if we call the manure pay for the labor of caring
for the sheep. The price of hay is here very low this season, but
corn is very high. Straw and chaff we consider as of but little
value for manure, unless worked over by the feet of some animal,
and used as an absorbent for their manure. For this reason we
credit the sheep with the work of converting a large quantity of
straw and chaff into available food for plants.

" I do not give Mr. Watkins' experience as an average, for it is
far better than any average that he can make for a series of years.
Nor do I think it is by any means conclusive as between the
breeds of sheep that he fed. The grade Merino and Cotswold I
sold him the 21st day of last December. They were all ewes, 2
and 3 years old, and were a very even, and in all respects a desira-
ble lot. The other flocks I did not see, but I suppose, from in-
formation, that they were not so even or desirable,; and sheep here
usually called full-blooded Cotswolds, come from Canada or the
border, and are not very good, perhaps they are mostly the culls
of the flocks they came from. After all reasonable allowances
have been made, the lesson of this winter's work of Mr. Watkins
is certainly that sheep are much more profitable makers of meat
than steers, such as can be bought hi Buffalo in the fall of the year,
and they are still better manufacturers of straw and other coarse
forage into manure."

Both the facts here given, and the relator's comments, are very
valuable. From the statement as to feed and gain hi weight, the
following deductions as to the value of the corn fed for producing
increase of weight, may be made. Taking the three flocks, we
have the following results for each, accepting the feeding value of
hay as previously given, as a basis for a portion of the increase:

70 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

GRADE MERINO AND COTSWOLD, AVERAGE GAIN, 10f LBS.

Feed consumed. Gain in weight. Ibs. of feed for 1 Ib. of gain.

40 Ibs. of hay. 8y4 Ibs. 12 Ibs.

30 Ibs. of corn. ?ya Iks. 4 Ibs.

MEBINOS, AVERAGE GAIN, 71/* LBS.

Feed consumed. Gain in weight. Ibs. of feed for 1 Ib. of gain.
40 Ibs. hay. 8y4 Iks. 13 Ibs.

30 Ibs. corn. 4 Ibs. ?ya Ibs.

COTSWOLDS, AVERAGE GAIN, 5y4 LBS.

Feed consumed. Gain in weight. Ibs. of feed for 1 Ib. of gain.
40 Ibs. hay. 8i/4 Ibs. 13 Ibs.

30 Ibs. corn. 2 Ibs. 15 Ibs.

These different flocks were evidently uneven in quality, and as
Mr. Geddes, who sold the first flock to Mr. Watkins, is an excellent
and experienced farmer and stock feeder, it may easily be sup-
posed that the sheep were in excellent condition and well pre-
pared for fattening. The productive value of corn, in the case of
this flock, may well be considered as exaggerated, as in the other
instances it would be diminished by reason of the poorer quality
of the sheep. A mean may therefore be taken, and the gain result-
ing from feeding the corn estimated as between the two gains
of 4 and 7-J-, thus giving an average of about 6 Ibs. , and bringing
corn to an equality of value with barley or linseed cake, if not
showing it to be superior to either. If the result of feeding the
first flock be taken as the basis for the estimate, it would certainly
show corn to be a feed of the highest value for fattening sheep ;
but one result can hardly serve as a basis upon which to found
such a rule. Mr. R J. Swan, of Geneva, N. Y., in a communica-
tion in the Third Vol. of Rural Affairs, stated his plan of winter
feeding ; he gives to each hundred fattening sheep, two bushels,
(126 Ibs.), of corn, or the same quantity of oil-cake-meal per day,
with wheat straw in racks three times a day, up to the 1st day of
March ; afterwards feeding hay instead of straw, and reducing the
corn or oil-cake-meal one-half. The lambs are fed hay three times
a day, with three pecks of oil-cake-meal, or corn-meal, per 100. It
is to be presumed that hay is fed ad libitum, although this account
would have been more satisfactory had the quantity fed been
stated. In a prize essay by Mr. Jurian Winne, of Albany County,
N. Y., the following hints for the winter feeding of sheep are
given : " By feeding liberally with roots, and not too much gram,
during the first week at least, the change from green feed to dry
will be less apt to affect the sheep. In feeding, unless a person
can do it himself, which is very seldom the case, the feeder should

METHOD OF WINTER FEEDING. 71

be instructed with great care, how much gram is to go to each
yard or stable according to the animals it contains. An over-feed
at the commencement is almost sure to bring on the scours, and
after the sheep are over it, it will take at least two weeks' good
feeding to put them where they started from. My mode, to avoid
mistakes, is to number my yards and stables, and count the sheep
in each yard and stable — allowing to each sheep one-half pint of
gram per day to start with, unless they have been fed grain pre-
viously, when I allow a little more. I then make out a schedule
thus : No. 1 — 60 sheep at one-half pint per day is 15 quarts, which
divided into two feeds, is 7£ quarts to a feed ; so I write on the
schedule, * No. 1—60 sheep must have 7J- quarts at a feed morning
and night,' — No. 2 at the same rate according to number, and so
on until I get them all. This paper is tacked up in the place
where the feed is kept, and by going with the feeder a few tunes
to show him and see that he makes no mistakes, if he is a good
man he can do it as well as the farmer himself. As soon as the
feed is to be increased, a new schedule is made out accordingly,
and so on, until the sheep are fed one quart each per day, when I
consider them on full feed, especially if the feed is corn, beans, or
oil-meal, or a mixture of either. If oats or buckwheat compose
part of their feed, they should have a little more. Regularity of
hours is very important. Sheep should not be fed one morning at
five o'clock, the next at six, and the third at seven. Our rule is
this : Grain and oil-meal are fed at half-past five A.M. As soon as
the grain is finished, hay is given — no more than the sheep will
eat clean. The different yards and stables are carefully fed each
day in the same order, which is important to avoid confusion and
mistakes — beginning with No. 1, and so on through the list.
After breakfast, water is given, going around twice to see that all
are well supplied. The roots are next cut, (ruta-bagas, which I
consider best), and of these to my present stock of about 350 sheep,
I am now feeding 10 bushels a day. At eleven o'clock straw is
fed. Twelve is the dinner hour, and immediately after dinner the
roots are fed. The troughs and tubs are now all examined, and
replenished with water if necessary — also salt, salt and ashes,
browse, litter, and anything else that may be needed, is supplied.
The evening and next morning's feeds of grain and oil-meal are
next prepared, and hay got ready for both night and morning.
At 4 P.M. feeding the gram is again commenced, followed as before
by hay, after which the water tubs and troughs are emptied and
turned over, and the work is finished for the night."
The value of roots for winter feeding is very inadequately esti-

72

mated in the United States, but it may be well questioned if a flock
of sheep can be profitably or successfully kept without them. A
certain portion of water must be taken with the food every day.
The more intimately this is mixed with the food, the better for the
digestive process. In feeding 12 Ibs. of roots to a sheep 80 to 90
per cent, or 4J to 5 qts. of water are given in "them. By the pro-
cess of mastication the water is intimately mixed with the solid
matter, and a semi-liquid pulp is formed exactly fitted for the ru-
minative and digestive processes of the stomach. By cutting or
pulping the roots, and sprinkling or mixing the ration of meal,
bran, or grain, upon or with them, the whole food reaches the
stomach in the most appropriate condition possible. Digestion
proceeds uniformly, the stomach does not need to be supplied
with a large quantity of water at any time, and its solvent juices
are not diluted and weakened. The bowels act regularly, and
constipation, one of the most troublesome disorders of the flock
when on dry food, is avoided and prevented. But the daily ration
of roots must be apportioned with care and judgment. For lambs
5 to 6 Ibs. daily will be sufficient ; for two-year-olds and mature
sheep, 10 to 15 Ibs. will be an ample allowance ; the smaller quan-
tity being enough for a Southdown, and the larger for a full grown
Cotswold, Leicester, or Lincoln. For a Merino a much less
quantity should be apportioned, as this breed cannot produce a
fleece of good quality, or great weight, without being supplied with
enough oily matter to secrete the large amount of yolk which their
fleece contains.

Of all the roots usually grown, the sugar-beet is the best for
sheep, being the most palatable, and containing the greatest pro-
portion of solid nutritious matter. For every 100 sheep to be fed
with roots at the rate of ten pounds per head per day, during the
feeding season of 5 months, about 4 acres devoted to this crop will
be required, yielding about 18 tons, or 550 to 600 bushels per acre.
This is a small estimate, and only half the yield of a good or a
possible crop, but is near that of our average crops. The amount
of food necessary to keep a sheep in good thrifty condition has
been determined to be 15 pounds of actually dry substance per
week for each 100 Ibs. of live weight. As grain and hay contain
about 14 per cent of water, this allowance will be equal to about
18 Ibs. of hay or grain, or nearly 3 Ibs. per day. But as for the
perfect digestion of the food, a certain bulk is requisite, the mixed
daily ration should be composed of such proportions of bulky and
concentrated food, that 7 to 9 pounds are required to produce an
increase of one pound in live weight. From the data previously

RAISING LAMBS FOR MARKET. 73

given, it will not be difficult for the intelligent reader and shepherd
to arrive at a correct judgment, and conform his plan of feeding
to the peculiar circumstances of his flock, and with a view to the
greatest profit.

EARLY MARKET LAMBS.

There are some special objects in the winter feeding of sheep
which require particular methods of management to ensure suc-
cess. In regard to feeding store sheep, and when the chief object
is the increase of the flock, and the healthful growth of the fleece,
nothing need be said beyond what has been given in the preced-
ing pages. But special management is needed for the production
of early market lambs, and for the fattening of sheep purchased to
ensure profit both in money and manure ; in regard to these cases
some special explanation may be pertinent. The production of
market lambs, if rightly managed, may be made very profitable.
This business maybe followed on a suitable farm anywhere within
150 miles of a good market. The markets for lambs are found
chiefly in the large cities, Washington, New York, Boston, Phila-
delphia, Baltimore, and Albany being the chief eastern markets,
and St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Chicago, the chief western ones.
Some few of the southern cities offer good markets for lambs early
in the spring. April, May, and June are the months when the
prices are the most remunerative ; after June the prices per pound
for lambs are but little more than those for sheep. In April and
May, a lamb weighing 40 pounds will often sell for $10. Those
farmers who make the raising of early lambs a special business,
follow one of two methods. In one case they keep a permanent
flock of ewes, selected for their good character as nurses and
milkers, quiet in disposition, docile, and easily managed, and ready
to act as foster mothers to other lambs whose mothers have
been sent away. The other plan is to purchase, late in the sum-
mer, a flock of ewes, as well selected as may be, from which to
raise a crop of spring lambs ; the ewes are then shorn, and after-
wards fattened and sent to market before the year is complete.
Which of these two methods would be the best to adopt depends
upon circumstances. The first plan needs for its successful opera-
tion a farm suitable for pasturing sheep, or which has at least
sufficient suitable summer pasture for the flock. For the second
plan little or no pasture is required ; a rough field in which the
ewes may run while being fed for market, or a run upon the clover
sod to be plowed for corn in May, being all that is required. A
4

74 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

stock of ruta-bagas, which keep in excellent condition until June,
if needed so long, is provided as a substitute for grass while the
ewes are being fattened. This latter plan is well suited as an
additional industry upon grain or dairy farms, in which some
additional capital may be turned over with a prospect of its being
returned in less than a year with a gain of 100 per cent in money,
besides a valuable addition to the manure heap.

The selection of ewes and a ram from which to raise market
lambs, is the chief point for consideration, the wool being a sec-
ondary object. The form of the sheep and their temperament are
the first points to be regarded in their selection ; but if the flock is
to be kept permanently, it is best to procure sheep which will
yield a good fleece as well as a good lamb, as this will add to the
profit. Single lambs of good size, are more profitable than twins,
which will generally be of smaller growth. It matters little
about the breed, as this is not a point with the marketmen, although
a black-faced Southdown is most in favor with them, because of
its usual plumpness and fatness. A lamb from a grade Merino
ewe, and a Southdown or Shropshire ram, is fat at any age, and is
soon ripe for market, and will sell better than a larger lamb that
is more bony and less plump. A cross from a grade Merino ewe
and a Cotswold ram, is the next best lamb, if not altogether as
good a one. A large bodied, short-legged, broad backed, native
ewe, with some Merino and Southdown blood in her composition,
is, perhaps, all things considered, the best sheep that can be chosen
for a dam. A pure bred Southdown, Shropshire, or Cotswold ram,
makes the best sire, the preference to be given in the order in
which they are here named. Ewes that produce twins should be
weeded out of the flock, and those which bring a large lamb, and
have plenty of milk, and are gentle and kind to their lambs, should
be kept as long as they will breed. Ewes have been kept until 13
years old that have yearly brought and raised a lamb to maturity
for market, without missing a season, or losing a lamb. One ewe
of this kind may be made to pay the interest on $100 each year,
and it would be well to raise the ewe lambs of such choice dams
to replenish the flock. Some ewes will raise twins, and by skill-
ful management, a ewe whose lamb has been sold may be made
to foster another lamb, or at least be forced to help feed it. If the
ewe shows any reluctance to adopt the strange lamb, she should
be confined hi a small pen, at stated times, and the hungry lamb
turned in to her. The lamb will generally succeed in getting all
the milk from her. If she is more than usually reluctant, she
should be held while the lamb sucks, or be confined hi stanchions

CHOOSING THE EWES. 75

(as described in a previous chapter), for a time, until she becomes
reconciled. The ewes thus made to serve as foster mothers will,
after two or three seasons, accept the situation, and readily adopt
the second lamb. In some flocks a lamb has occasionally sucked
three ewes, and in some cases, some enterprising lambs will forage
around and get a meal from any ewe that will permit it to suck.
It will be necessary to curb the enterprise of such lambs occasion-
ally, lest they rob the others. When a flock of ewes is purchased
each year, in August or early in September, they must necessarily
be picked up in the most convenient manner, either from passing
droves, or some well known drover may be engaged to procure
them. Fairly good ewes may generally be procured by either of
these methods for about $3 per head. In selecting ewes from a
drove, care should be taken to examine the teeth to ascertain their
age, and none less than three or four years old, or what are called
"full mouthed" ewes, should be chosen. The ram should be
chosen in this case as in the previous one. Whatever breed may
be selected, compactness of form and vigor should be looked for,
rather than size ; a moderate sized ram, with a large roomy ewe,
will produce a better lamb than a pair of the opposite characters.
High condition in the ram is not desirable ; a merely fair condition
is more conducive to certainty in getting lambs ; nor in this busi-
ness is it best to confine the ram ; the exercise with the flock being
better for the animal's health than confinement. If the flock is
too large for the one ram, it should be divided and separated, or
two rams used, each being shut up on alternate days ; no more than
50 ewes can be served by one ram in the time during which the
service is required — or at most 40 to 60 days — for this is the time
during which the season for selling lambs continues. The ram
should not be less than three years of age. As ewes go five months,
or about 150 days with young, those ewes that are served in the .
latter part of August will have lambs in January, and these lambs,
without any forcing, can be made marketable in April. All of the
lambs should be dropped before the middle of March, and it will
be found advisable and convenient to so apportion the ewes to bo
served, that the dropping of the lambs may be spread over the
whole of this period as regularly as possible. The presence of
dogs about a flock of this character should not be permitted.
They are not only entirely useless, but are really an annoyance and
an injury. After the lamb is a few days old, if thought necessary,
it may be taught to suck some warmed, sweetened cow's milk, and
any help to its growth, in the shape of extra food, will be useful.
There is danger, however, of over-feeding a young lamb, which

76 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

may be worse than under-feeding it, and caution is to be exercised
in this respect ; no more should be attempted than to encourage a
healthy, thrifty growth. After the lamb is four weeks old, it may
be taught to lick some fine bran, with a little salt mixed with it, or
a little sifted oatmeal. As a rule, it will be safer to depend on
increasing and enriching the ewe's milk, rather than to force the
lamb to swallow food which its stomach is not as yet able to com-
pletely digest. It is highly important to prevent the lambs from
being annoyed and depleted of their blood by ticks or other vermin.
To this end the ewes should be dipped in the fall to rid them of
ticks, and if a few should appear in the spring upon the lambs,
they should be freed from the insect pests by careful hand-picking,

Fig. 28.— PACKING BOX FOR LAMBS.

repeated if necessary. In case the ticks should be too numerous
for hand-picking, the lambs may be dipped. This will be abso-
lutely necessary if they are to be kept until after the ewes are
shorn, as then the ticks will leave the ewes on which they are
unsheltered, and seek refuge in the closer fleeces of the lambs.
When this happens, the growth of the lambs is suddenly stopped,
and it is often the case that some of them are tormented until they
finally die.

The marketing of the lambs is one of the most important parts
of the business so far as profits are concerned. As has been said,
the early lambs bring the highest prices, but it may be that the later
lambs will be found the most profitable, as being less costly and
troublesome to rear. When the proper market has been found,

PROFIT IX RAISING LAMBS. 77

and a trustworthy commission agent to whom they can be sent for
sale has been selected, the method of packing for shipment should
be well considered. A roomy box, in which the lamb can stand
or lie, but cannot turn round, should be procured for each lamb.
Figure 28 represents a crate in which the author has shipped many
lambs to market without a single case of accident from any cause.
The size is 36 inches long, 24 inches high, and 18 inches wide. It
is made of lath 2 inches wide by 3 quarters thick. The best fast-
ening for the top was found to be four pieces of soft twisted tarred
hempen cord of the kind known as lath twine, and used for tying
bundles of laths, at the saw mills. This form of box is also suit-
able for shipping stock lambs ; these have been safely sent hi them
from New York to Charleston, S. C. , and also as far as Denver,
Col. In case of shipping to a distance, a bag of feed is tied to one
of the upper corners of the box, containing sufficient to last through
the journey, and a feed trough is fixed at each end of the box, so
that in case the lamb is carelessly put in wrong end foremost, or
happens to turn around, a trough is ready for use where it is
wanted. On the shipping card should be plainly printed directions
to the express agent to give half a pint of feed and water twice a
day to the lamb. Shipments for short distances should always
be made by express, so that there may be no delays. The time of
shipment should be so arranged that the commission agent may
be on hand to attend to the lambs on their arrival. For distances
of not over 100 miles, the time of travel is so short that no feed or
water is needed on the way, but the lambs may be fed lightly
and watered before they are placed in the boxes. In this way the
lambs travel with so little inconvenience that no loss of weight
occurs, a matter which, when the price is 25 cents a pound, is
worth consideration. The business of marketing lambs is exten-
sively carried on in the neighborhood of large cities in the east,
and thousands of ewes are yearly purchased in Ohio and western
parts of New York and Pennsylvania by drovers from New Jersey,
and eastern New York, and Pennsylvania, in the early fall, for
selling to farmers who keep them over winter, raise lambs the
next spring, and sell lamb's fleeces, and the fattened sheep within
twelve months, and repeat the operation yearly with great profit.
As an illustration of what may be done in this way, the following
may be cited : " Fifty-five ewes were purchased at $3 per head, and
until winter were pastured in a rough field at the rear of the farm,
where they more than earned their keep and care, by the service
they performed in destroying weeds. The account for one year,
opened and kept expressly for this flock, is as follows :

78 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL.

DR.

Cost of 55 sheep $165.00

Value of hay, turnips, bran, meal, and oil-cake, fed. 305.84

Freight and charges on 24 lambs 7.92

Balance of profit and loss 145.64

$524.40
CB.

24 early lambs sold at from $7 @ $10 each $192 00

8 lambs, @ $4.50 3600

12 lambs, @ $3.50 42.00

8 lambs kept, @ $4.00 32.00

9 Ibs. pulled wool, @ 30c 2.70

182 Ibs. of wool, @35c 63.70

52 sheep on hand ( 3 killed by dogs) 156.00

$524.40

This leaves a profit of nearly 100 per cent, on the original cost
of the sheep, and in addition a large pile of valuable manure, of
which no account was kept."

FATTENING SHEEP FOR MARKET.

Where the distance from market prevents profitable shipments,
and the home market furnishes insufficient encouragement to
breed early lambs, the purchase of sheep for fattening may be
made a special business with great advantage. In this business
the proper choice of sheep and shrewdness in purchasing are as
necessary to success as are skill in feeding and choice of proper
food. Where grades of Leicester or Cotswold sheep, such as are
known in the American markets as Canada sheep, can be secured,
those are the most profitable to purchase. The next best sheep are
grade Southdowns ; but little profit is to be made out of our native
sheep in feeding them for mutton. They are poor feeders, and
difficult to clothe with flesh or fat, and the farmer who would pur-
chase sheep to feed for profit, should avoid them. He had better
keep such sheep for breeding, crossing them with a thoroughbred
Cotswold ram and feeding the produce.

A statement given by Mr. Jurian Winne, of Albany Co., N, Y.,
in the Annual Eegister of Rural Affairs for 1867-8-9, will be found
of interest. In this case two lots of sheep from a large flock were
set apart for feeding ; they consisted of 60 grade Leicesters from
Canada, and 61 Merinos; they were weighed Feb. 10th, and a
careful account was kept of the food consumed during 46 days, up
to March 28th, when they were weighed and sent to market.
The selection was simply made as a test, and to avoid the trouble

VALUE OF SHEEP MANURE. 79

of keeping an accurate account of the whole flock, which were
treated in exactly the same manner as these. The following
figures give the result :

Feb. 20, 60 grade Leicesters weighed 8,870 Ibs.

March 28, 60 grade Leicesters weighed 9,878 Ibs.

Gain in weight 1,008 Ibs.

Feb. 20, 61 Merinos weighed 6,909 Ibs.

March 28, 61 Merinos weighed 7,389 Ibs.

Gain in weight 480 Ibs.

Cost of feed for the first lot $174.43

Cost of feed for the second lot 144.78

Against the cost of feed there are the gain in weight at 10£ and
10| cents a pound respectively, the advance in price upon the
whole weight, consequent upon the improved condition of the
sheep, and the manure left. On the whole, there was a profit upon
the first lot and a loss on the second one. Experience teaches that
the proper selection of the breed of sheep is a very important con-
sideration. It would be wise for such as have not had experience,
and who do not understand how to choose sheep for feeding, as
well as how to feed and market them judiciously, to avoid the
business, until by small ventures, they have learned how to succeed
with larger ones. To buy judiciously is the great point, for "a
flock well bought is half sold."

VALUE OF MANURE. — The manure of sheep is naturally rich ;
their mastication and digestion are so perfect that seeds of weeds
are utterly destroyed in the passage through their intestines, and
additional value is readily given to the manure by feeding a por-
tion of concentrated food, such as oil-cakes, corn-meal, or bran.
The urine and dung of the sheep are both very rich in fertilizing
elements. The urine contains 28 parts in 1,000 of urea, which is a
highly nitrogenized substance, and 12 parts in 1,000 of salts, rich
in phosphoric acid ; the remainder is water. The fresh dung con-
tains :

Of water 68.0 per cent.

Animal and vegetable matter 19.3 per cent.

Saline matter or ash 12.7 per cent.

100.00 per cent.

The organic matter is rich in nitrogen, so much so, that 36 parts
of the dung contains as much nitrogen as 54 parts of horse dung,
63 parts of pig's dung, 125 parts of cow's dung, and 100 parts of
mixed barn-yard manure. The manure yielded is dry, and con-
tains less water than that of other farm animals ; thus for 100 Ibs.

80 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL.

of dry fodder, the horse or cow yields 216 Ibs. of fresh manure —
equal to 46 Ibs. dry — while the sheep gives but 128 Ibs. of moist
manure — equal to 43 Ibs. dry. It ferments very quickly, and needs
therefore to be kept solidly packed under foot, and free from
access of air, or to be turned frequently when heaped in the yard.
"When the manure, made in the ordinary course of feeding, pos-
sesses this high relative value, it may readily be believed that when
fattening sheep are highly fed with stimulating food rich in albu-
men and phosphates, the starch and oil only being assimilated hi
the production of fat, and the others being used only in part —
their dung forms a very rich and valuable manure. This is thor-
oughly well understood by English farmers, who practise the
feeding of sheep more with a view to the value of their manure
than for profit in other ways, and it is unfortunate for us that we
do not so thoroughly appreciate this as to practise it ourselves. The
following quotation from a paper upon this subject, read by an
English farmer at a meeting of a farmers' club, and reported hi an
English agricultural journal, very clearly sets forth this view:

" The manurial value of oil-cake, when used regularly on a farm,
can scarcely be over-estimated, the dung made in the stalls being
so vastly enriched as to enable it to be spread over an extended
acreage, with better results than could possibly be obtained from
the same bulk alone, whatever the area to which it might be ap-
plied, and the effect is discernible on the color and quality of the
pasture for a much longer period. The improvement effected on
grass-land by cake-fed stock is an example of the utility and value
of this excellent food which every one can understand, its action
in this way being quicker, and so distinct as to be unmistakable.
With sheep the improvement is peculiarly striking when netted
[confined by nets or hurdles] over a pasture field and largely cake-
fed, the droppings, both liquid and solid, being so regularly dis-
tributed over the surface, that every rootlet is reached and nour-
ished, and the herbage is accordingly forced into extraordinary
luxuriance."

Another special branch of sheep keeping, which offers advan-
tages to farmers favorably situated for it, is the raising of a good
class of sheep to meet the demands of those who purchase for the
purpose of raising lambs, or for winter feeding and fattening.
Where markets are too distant to enable these branches of sheep
husbandry to be profitably followed, a good class of stockers or
drover's sheep might be raised. Half-bred, long-wool mutton sheep
could be raised in every western state and shipped to the great cen-
tral markets of Kansas City, Chicago, St. Louis, Buffalo, and else-

BREEDS OF SHEEP. 81

where, to be disposed of to drovers, or to farmers themselves who
are seeking a supply of store sheep. This would give an oppor-
tunity of increasing the supply of long wool, so much needed, and
of decreasing that of fine wool now too plentiful to maintain prices
satisfactory to fine wool growers. The season for marketing these
sheep would be hi August and September, the time in which they
are most in demand, and one in which the western pastures gener-
ally fail. It may be that in a few years, at some or all of these
points, and many others, there may yet be seen great sheep mar-
kets at stated periods, something like those of Ireland, Scotland, or
England, at which 40,000 to 80,000 sheep are offered for sale, and
bought and paid for in a couple of days. When sheep breeding
becomes fully developed in America, these markets will probably
have been found needful, and have grown and developed from
necessity, as has been the case elsewhere, and such an economical
and convenient division of labor as this may become a regular and
systematic part of the business of sheep farming.

CHAPTER V.

BREEDING AND BREEDS OF SHEEP.

The strength and vigor that results from the fixity of type,
which is so marked a characteristic of wild races of animals, come
through what is called the natural selection of parents. It is the
natural force and strength of the most vigorous in perpetuating
their kind, together with the hardening influences of exposure,
which give them their strong constitution and great power to
resist misfortune. The race is perpetuated only by the strongest,
because weaker members perish from the hardships necessarily
borne by a wild race, or are driven off or destroyed in the desper-
ate conflicts which occur between the males at the breeding season.
To gain strength and vigor, the most skillful breeder could follow
no more effective course than the one here indicated. The natural
power possessed by the thoroughbred male animal to transmit his
qualities, which power is recognized amongst breeders by the
term " prepotency," fixes the type of the race which through this
influence becomes homogeneous ; every member presenting exactly
the same character in form and habit. But when a race of ani-

82 THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL.

mals becomes domesticated, necessities arise which call for some-
thing more than mere vigor of constitution, although this should
always remain a vital point in the breeders estimation. The sole
aim of the stock breeder is profit, and this lies not so much in a
long life as in early maturity. The total result of six or ten years of
the life of a wild animal is crowded into two or four years of a
domesticated one. The capacity for consumption of food, and the
ability to turn a larger quantity of food into flesh or wool in a
shorter time are gained by the skill of the breeder, and in course of
time the quality of the product is refined and improved until hardly
a semblance of the original stock remains in the highly-bred, im-
proved animal. The rapidity with which these effects have been
produced by some of the most skillful sheep-breeders is wonderful,
and the names of Bakewell and Webb will be remembered, and
their successes perseveringly emulated for many years to come.
No animal is more easily improved in character, and none yields
more readily to the breeder's art, than the sheep. But the reverse
is also true, for if on the one hand success rapidly rewards the
successful breeder, failure as rapidly warns the unsuccessful one
that he has made a mistake, and must immediately retrace his
steps.

The management and selection of any existing breed of sheep, or
of the production of any new breed or variety, must be a question
of profit. The point for the farmer to consider is, what kind of
sheep will pay him best to keep, taking into consideration his
locality, his soil, the crops he can conveniently raise with which
to sustain them, and his markets for disposing of his wool and his
animals, whether as lambs or as store sheep, or fat sheep fit for
the butcher. For want of thorough acquaintance with the habits,
characteristics, and peculiarities of the various breeds, many a
farmer has made a fatal mistake, and failed, when otherwise he
might easily have been successful. The results of these mistakes
in selection, and errors of management, have led to much dis-
appointment and disgust. One of the most serious errors of our
breeders and farmers, is the endeavor to maintain up to a
certain standard of excellence in this country, in spite of all the
differences of climate and varieties of food, the highly bred races
of English sheep, which have been imported from time to time.
Nearly every flock of all the pure races has failed to keep up to
the original standard, although new importations have been added
to them. The farmer who has purchased a few sheep from such
flocks, being without the requisite knowledge as to their manage-
ment, or not possessing the fitting food for them, has found them

SELECTION OF BREEDING ANIMALS. 83

to dwindle away from day to day until only a sorry remnant has
been left which has been finally absorbed into a flock of hardier
natives, or has disappeared altogether. Had these farmers judi-
ciously purchased male animals only, and used them, under
proper restrictions, for the improvement of their native sheep,
they would in time have possessed flocks which they could have
managed successfully and profitably, and have secured a perma-
nent type suited to their locality and circumstances. But the
improvement of a flock by breeding requires much patience and
perseverance, and a fixed idea of some result to be gained. In
breeding, good results rarely come by hap-hazard or accident.
There must be a distinct end in view, and there must be appropri-
ate and painstaking efforts made to reach that end. The breeder
must have a clear idea, not only of what he wants to gain, but of
what he wishes to get rid of, and he must know the character of
his flock intimately. One who knows all this can so accurately
describe the kind of ram he needs to improve his flock, that a
conscientious breeder from whom he may purchase the needed
animal, can choose him as well, if not better, than he can himself.

In breeding to improve- a flock, the qualities of both parents
must be considered, remembering that the male exercises the
greater influence in determining the character of the offspring. A
pure-bred Cotswold ram, crossed upon a Merino ewe, for instance,
will produce an offspring that much more resembles himself than
it does the dam. This principle is well recognized amongst breed-
ers. Nevertheless, the very best of the females should be chosen,
and the faulty lambs culled out each year, until the finest only
remain. During this time it would be prudent for the farmer to
retain no males of his own breeding, but to secure by purchase or
hire from some capable professional breeder, such changes of
males as may be necessary. Much good may be done by unselfish
breeders in the way of letting pure-bred rams for a fair considera-
tion to neighboring farmers who may not have the means to
purchase one outright. By changing rams occasionally, two
farmers may very profitably help each other without expending a
dollar for the necessary new blood.

The points sought for in rams, with which to improve a flock,
are those which directly add to the value of the sheep, or those
which are evidence of the possession of valuable qualities. Thus
the abundance of yolk, or the fineness of the wool, or its curl, or
the depth or form of carcass, upon which depends the quality and
the quantity of the fleece, are esteemed in the Merinos ; in the
Southdown, the small head and leg, and small bones, with the

84 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

black muzzle and legs are highly regarded, as these denote quick
fattening properties, and hardiness of constitution. The breadth
of shoulder, the straightness and levelness of the back, the breadth
of loin, and the spring of the ribs and rotundity of the frame of
the Cotswold, Leicester, and other heavy-bodied sheep, indicate
capacity for feeding and digestion, and laying on of flesh, and are
therefore regarded as valuable points. Large bones are an unfavor-
able point, as they denote an abstraction of nutriment which
should otherwise go to the formation of flesh and the greater
value of the carcass. The absence of horns, for the same reason,
is desirable in sheep bred for mutton. A soft, mellow feeling of
skin and the tissue underneath, and a softness of the fleece, are
indicative of a tendency to the rapid formation of fat. A round
frame and broad loin indicate the existence of abundant flesh,
where it is the most valuable, and a general squareness of the out-
line of the figure proves the existence of large muscular develop-
ment and consequently heavy quarters. In short, for sheep which
are not kept solely for the production of wool, what is wanted is,
all the flesh possible with no more bone than can carry it, and that
the flesh should be where it will be the most valuable, viz : on those
parts which bring the highest prices on the butchers' stalls — the
loins and quarters. Where wool is the sole object, weight and
fineness of fleece alone need to be considered. Where wool and
mutton are each equally sought for, the matter becomes compli-
cated by many considerations, each of which should be studied
with a view to give the preponderance to those which have the
greatest special or local importance.

In crossing breeds, we seek to increase the size, improve the
shape, or hasten the maturity of the sheep ; or improve the length,
quality, or closeness of the fleece. But it will not do to select at
random any ram which may happen to possess the qualities
desired, without regard to some aflBnity of character with the
ewes, lest lambs should be produced that are weak hi constitution,
or shapeless mongrels, through too wide a disparity between the
parents. Experience has shown that the Leicester ram has made
a greater improvement with long-wool sheep than with the short-
wool breeds, and that the Southdown has made a more successful
first cross upon the latter. The Cotswold has been very success-
fully crossed upon the Merino, the Hampshire-down, the South-
down, and other races, and as the parent of cross-bred races, this
most valuable breed has gained the highest reputation. As a rule,
the first cross between a superior and high-bred race, and an infe-
rior one, produces the best sheep for breeding together ; further

CHOICE OF A RAM. 85

crosses often produce animals which deteriorate in breeding, the
progeny regaining more of the character of its inferior parentage,
and losing that of the superior one. Judgment and caution are
needed in selecting those results which have been successful, and in
rejecting those which are unfavorable, also in continuing the inter-
breeding for a sufficient length of time to eliminate all the defects
which may reappear at times in the progeny. It is only after
several generations that animals can be produced, which may be
permitted safely to perpetuate their kind without further careful
selection. During the intervening period, very close watchfulness
is necessary ; the form of the animal, the preponderance of the
desired points, as well as those that are not desirable, the charac-
ter of the fleece, and the soundness of the animal's constitution,
should all be patiently studied. Great contrasts between breeding
animals should be avoided, as being dangerous to uniformity, and
a gradual approach to a desired end by several steps will be found
more certainly effective than to endeavor to attain it by one or
two violent efforts.

The selection of rams for breeding is a matter of the greatest
importance. Not only the character of the flock, but the number
of the lambs, to some extent, depend upon this. For general
purposes, the ram should be chosen for his perfection of shape
and fleece, rather than for his size or weight. For mutton sheep,
whether long wool or medium wool, a round barrel, broad loin,
fine bone, short legs, close wool, especially upon the back and
loins, small head, full fore arms and thighs, and a mellowness of
flesh within the fore legs upon the ribs, where a poor sheep
never carries any fat, and in general an evenness of excellence,
rather than any special single point of superiority, whether
of size of body, or length, or weight of fleece, should be
sought. A very heavy, large-bodied ram, will probably pro-
duce very irregular lambs, which will disappoint the breeder ;
while a well knit, more even, smoother but smaller ram, will pro-
duce lambs of great uniformity and resemblance to himself, and
very frequently, and especially so if out of well selected ewes,
greatly surpassing him in size of carcass at maturity. In breeding
from a large ram upon small bodied ewes, unless there is some
special reason against it, a ram with a small head should be chosen,
and the ewes selected should be wide across the loins, with a broad
rump and wide pelvis. From a disregard of this it is sometimes
the case that severe labor or death in parturition occurs amongst
the ewes. In the first coupling of the young ewes, the greatest
care should be exercised in selecting the ram, for its influence may

80

and sometimes will extend beyond his own immediate progeny,
and modify that of future sires upon the same dams. While this
influence of the first male is not so general as to afford a basis for
a rule, yet observation has shown it to be of sufficient force to
entitle it to the consideration of careful breeders. The influence
of the ram upon the sex of the progeny, is something equally
worth considering, although it is as yet somewhat undetermined.
In theory it is supposed to be exerted through a natural provision
by which the fecundity of a race increases along with the better
opportunities it enjoys for its subsistence. Thus it is reasoned,
when animals are well fed and cared for, and are not allowed to
breed early, their produce will be in greater part females, permit-
ting a more rapid increase, in consistence with their more favor-
able opportunities for development. On the contrary, when ani-
mals are sparely fed or exhaustively used, and allowed to breed
early, the tendency of nature is to restrict the production by the
birth chiefly of males. This theory receives confirmation through
the tendency of the early breeding and exhaustively producing
Jersey cow to have male calves, and through some observed facts
in sheep breeding.

One of the facts directly pertinent to this matter is recorded in
the Anncdes de V Agriculture Fran$aise, as follows. It was proposed
at a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Severac, to divide a
flock of ewes into two parts, that an experiment might be made to
test the question of breeding for sex. One flock of ewes was put
into an abundant pasture, and was served by very young rams.
The other flock was put into a poorer pasture, and was served by
rams not less than four years old. The result is given in the tables
which follow ; the flock from which the excess of female lambs
was expected, being served by rams 15 months to 18 months old,
produced three twin births, and the flock expected to yield the
most male lambs, and which was served by rams over 4 years old,
produced not one double birth.

Flock for female lambs served by rams under 18 months old .

Sex of the Lambs.

Age of Ewes. Males. Females.

Two years old 14 26

Three years old 16 29

Four years old 5 21

Total 35 76

The excess of female lambs in this flock is very remarkable, as
is also the excess of male lambs shown in the next table.

ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESS. 87

Flock for male lambs served by rams over 4 years old :

Sex of the Lambs.

Age of Ewes. Males. Females.

Two years old 7 3

Three years old 15 14

Four years old 32 14

Total 55 31

The result certainly justified the expectation, but it can scarcely
be held to be anything more than suggestive for further research
or experiment, rather than conclusive for the founding of a rule.
The following well considered remarks made by the Hon. A. M.
Garland, editor in charge of the sheep and wool department of the
National Live-Stock Journal, at a meeting of the Madison Co., (111.)
Farmers' Club, May 8th, 1875, are sufficiently valuable and perti-
nent to be recorded here : " One essential to successful breeding is
a persistent endeavor to attain the standard that has been fixed
upon by the breeder as his idea of the perfect animal. While the
sheep will be found to conform more readily than any other ani-
mal, except perhaps the dog, to certain well understood physio-
logical laws, the attainment of all the desired characteristics, and
their incorporation into the life and constitution so as to insure
transmission with the desired force and certainty, is a labor involv-
ing not alone judgment and taste, but patience as well. Mythology
tells us of the goddess who leaped full-armed from the head of
Jove ; but the attainment of perfect ends without the employment
of patient and laborious means, is not among the blessings that
surround the business man in this material age. He who expects
to accomplish in a year what others have only completed in a life-
time of labor, is pretty surely doomed to gather the bitter fruit of
disappointment, and the chances are largely in favor of pecuniary
loss as well. It required over fifty years of labor, and care, and
study, to bring the nine-pound fleece rams imported by Humphrey
and others, up to the 25 and 30 pound shearers that head a number
of the flocks of the present day. The highest types of the Cots-
wold and Southdown are the result of an expenditure of time, and
money, and study, equal to that bestowed upon the Merino in the
United States in the last half a century. Such facts as these afford
small encouragement for those young men who see visions, and
those older ones who dream dreams, of a speedy fortune and an
assured fame by the establishment of an intermediate breed of
sheep— one that will combine in a single animal the good qualities
of all the breeds and the weak points of none. Any of the estab-

88 THE SHEPHEBD'S MANUAL.

lished types will improve what is known as our common native
sheep, sufficiently to justify the payment of a fair price for a choice
ram. Grades from these flocks of common sheep, bred towards
the long wools, the Downs or the Merinos, will be found profita-
ble stock to the average farmer. Care should be had to breed all
the time in the same direction — that is, always using the best rams
of their kind within reach, having due regard to prudence in
making the purchases. The first cross will usually show a greater
change from the standard of the coarse-wooled mother than subse-
quent ones, though an occasional cropping out of her less desira-
ble characteristics may be expected, but should not discourage the
effort at improvement as persistent crossing by pure-bred rams
will bring its reward in a sightly flock of grades, that can be de-
pended upon to reproduce their characteristics with reasonable
certainty."

" In and in " breeding, or breeding between near relatives, is a
subject which has given rise to much discussion, and to much
diversity of opinion. The truth seems to be that close breeding
up to a certain point is necessary to secure a fixed type, and when
judiciously done, it may be the means of securing most valuable
results. The English sheep breeders who have become most noted
for their successes, have bred very closely, a most conspicuous
example being Mr. Bakewell with his improved Leicesters. Proba-
bly no race of animals were so closely interbred as this. But it is
questioned by some breeders if the limit of safety in this respect
has not been overstepped, for no race so strongly exhibits in their
defects the evil results which follow from too close breeding for
any considerable length of time. The small light bone, the bald-
head, the prominent glassy eyes, the thin, delicate skin, the ten-
dency to tuberculous diseases, and other scrofulous affections, all of
which are characteristic of some classes of the Leicesters, are the
very evils which are known to follow from too close sexual affini-
ties. Safety certainly lies in the avoidance of this sort of breeding
to any great extent, and as a general rule for ordinary breeders, it
may perhaps be laid down, that to breed a ram to his own lambs
may be permitted, but to breed to the second generation of off-
spring should be avoided. To change the ram the second year
would be to act on the side of safety, and except in rare instances,
and for the attainment of clearly apprehended results, this should
be the limit of close breeding. To breed a ram to his own ewe
lambs is regarded as safer, and not so close breeding as breeding
full brother and sister together, and yet to attain certain desired
ends, this is and has been done, and will often be done by breeders.

MAXIMS FOB BREEDERS. 89

It may be questionable, however, if the results sought might not
be as certainly and more securely gained by using less closely re-
lated animals. Mr. Edwin Hammond, a noted breeder of Ameri-
can Merinos, who has done much to develop this breed, seldom
used rams with which to make his crosses that were not of his
own flock. His famous ram 'Sweepstakes, came from a closely
in-and-in bred family ; but because the most skillful breeders have
succeeded in producing conspicuously favorable effects, it must
not be concluded that other less capable breeders or farmers who
know but little of the science of breeding, can hope to achieve any
satisfactory measure of success. Besides, it should be considered
that we only hear of the successes of these breeders. Their fail-
ures are at once put out of the way, and no record is made of
them ; in fact a portion of their skill, and not an inconsiderable
portion either, consists hi instantly recognizing their failures, and
in summarily disposing of them.

In summing up these few general remarks upon breeding, the
following may be accepted as maxims for guidance to those as yet
not familiar with the principles of the art. Breed for some well un-
derstood object. Learn and know the character of every ewe and
ram in the flock. Remember that the male gives his impress upon
the progeny most strongly. Purity of blood in the male is an
absolute necessity. It is cheaper to pay a fair price for good rams
to a capable breeder, who makes the production of breeding ani-
mals his business, than to attempt to raise one's own breeding
stock. Animals that are not pure-bred, when coupled, tend toward
reversion to the inferior stock rather than to progression towards
the superior. Animals, as sheep, that are easily impressed favora-
bly, as easily retrograde ; the rule works both ways. To feed well, is
the co-efficient of, to breed well ; without good feeding good breed-
ing is of no avail. Breeding lays the foundation, feeding builds on
that. The first cross is the most effective, the next is but half as
effective, and so on until, as in the increasing fraction ya, 3/4, 7/s,
"/is, 31/32, 63/64, etc., etc., unity is approached by diminishing
quantities, and is thus never reached ; so the higher we breed the
less advance is made in proportion. That a type so fixed that the
breeders care in selection can ever be relaxed will never be reached.

NATIVE BREEDS OF SHEEP.

THE MEXICAN SHEEP.— Since the first discovery of America
by Europeans, more than four centuries ago, there have been nu-
merous importations of sheep into both South and North America.
The first of these importations consisted doubtless of the common

90 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

native sheep of Spain, designated by Dr. L. T. Fitzinger, the
author of a paper upon the races of domestic sheep of Europe,
(presented to the Imperial Academy of Science in Vienna, in 1860),
as the landschafy or common rustic sheep, (Oms aries). This sheep
bore a very meager fleece of coarse wool. It is probable that all
that part of the American continent which became subject to its
Spanish discoverers, including the islands of the West Indies, was
stocked with this common race. At that period the Spanish gov-
ernment very jealously guarded the Merino sheep, and forbade
their exportation, even to their own American colonies. It is
known, however, that a few Merinos were occasionally smuggled
into Peru, and that to these was due the superior character of the
wool of that country, which exists up to the present century.
Elsewhere, however, the character of the dominant race of sheep
was very inf erior, and it now so remains ; the imports of wool
from South America into the Uuited States being coarse in quality,
and rating only as among the third class. Of a similar character
to this is the race of sheep known in our western territories as
" Mexican." Their origin is clearly the same as that of the native
South American sheep, and their appearance is identical with that
of the sheep represented in ancient Spanish paintings as the ordi-
nary race of the country, the property of the peasantry. It may
be concluded as most probable, if not certain, that this race, one
of the ten primitive or distinct original races which inhabited Eu-
rope, as determined by Dr. Fitzinger, (whose classification is con-
firmed by other scientific men), unaltered by more than three
centuries of acclimatization, is now represented by the bulk of the
flocks which roam over Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona,
parts of California, and more recently Colorado. These sheep are
hardy, wiry animals, weighing about 40 pounds, and yielding when
unmixed with any Merino blood, a fleece of about two pounds of
coarse wool. Of late this inferior race has been improved to
some extent by crossing with pure Merinos from Vermont and
other eastern states, and is found to make an excellent basis
whereon to build up an improved and useful race. These sheep
are of but little value, and in flocks are sold and bought at about
$1.50 per head. The business of shipping rams westward to sup-
ply this demand, from almost every state where Merinos are kept,
has already reached respectable dimensions, and is rapidly increas-
ing. The result cannot fail to build up, in course of time, a valua-
ble class of native sheep well suited to these localities. These
improved sheep produce a fleece weighing about 4 pounds of grade
Merino wool, which will supply to a very great extent local manu-

NATIVE BREEDS. 91

factories of such woolen goods as are in demand in the western
country, and thus render the far western states independent, so
far as regards their supply of woolen manufactures, of the eastern
factories.

THE VIRGINIA SHEEP. — A native race of greater pretensions,
and far greater value than the preceding, sprung from the first
importation of English sheep in Jamestown, Va., in 1609. The
original settlers of this new Dominion were in part men of wealth
and position. The stock they imported would naturally be of the
best that could be obtained, and the favorable climate of the
country for sheep-raising, would tend to preserve the sheep from
degradation. Repeated importations of excellent sheep were
made during the succeeding two centuries, by prominent Virgin-
ians, amongst whom were the Washingtons, and various members
of the Custis family. Thus was founded a class of more than
usually good, heavy bodied, long-wool sheep, which still exists and
is famed for producing excellent early market lambs. Of late
years considerable Leicester, Cotswold, and Southdown blood has
been mingled with the old stock. Although the Virginia sheep
can hardly claim to be considered as a distinct breed, yet they
certainly furnish a very good basis upon which, by careful selec-
tion and interbreeding, to found a breed thoroughly well adapted
to the locality, as they are already acclimated and possess estab-
lished qualities.

THE IMPROVED KENTUCKY SHEEP. — An account of the efforts
which have been made to produce native varieties of sheep, would
not be complete without the mention of what has been called the
" Improved Kentucky Sheep." This breed or race originated with
Mr. Robert Scott, of Frankfort, Kentucky, who crossed the com-
mon native sheep of the locality, with Merino, Leicester, South-
down, Cotswold, and Oxford-down rams. This was begun about
40 years ago, by selecting 30 native ewes, which were bred
to a selected Merino ram. The yearling ewes of this cross were
bred to an imported Leicester ram. The ewes of this cross were
served by an imported ram of the Southdown breed. The pro-
duce of this cross were then bred to a ram of mixed blood, three-
fourths Cotswold and one-fourth Southdown. The next two
crosses were made by Cotswold rams, and the next by an Oxford-
down ram. The produce of the last cross were bred to Cotswold
rams again. This brought the flock up to 1855, when a mixed
Cotswold, Oxford, Leicester, and Southdown ram was brought
into service. After this the rams produced by this very mixed

92 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL,,

breeding were used. In 1867 Mr. Scott furnished an account of
his sheep for the annual report of the Department of Agriculture
for 1866, in which he gave some very flattering testimonials which
he had received from various parties, to whom he had sold his
sheep, with pictures of rams and ewes of his flock. At that time
his flock consisted of about 200 ewes and 50 yearling rams. Since
then nothing further has been made public regarding this so-called
improved sheep. Unfortunately the system of breeding followed
by Mr. Scott could not have any definite or favorable result, as it
is opposed to all the principles from which favorable results could
have been anticipated. An animal thus produced could not be
anything else than a mongrel, and although it might at first pre-
sent a promising appearance, yet no certain characteristics could
be expected to appear in its progeny. No such hasty process as
this could be made permanent, for there had been no fixed type
produced by any of the crosses upon which to build a further cross,
to be in turn fixed permanently upon the race. No " breed " has
ever been thus produced, nor can a " breed " by any possibility be
established by this course of breeding while physiological laws re-
main in force. This example is here cited as a warning and a
caution, rather than as one to be followed by those persons who
have an ambition to found a new or improved breed of sheep.

THE AMERICAN MERINO. — One of the most successful instances
of the fortuitous results of sheep breeding, exists in the establish-
ment of the American Merino. In a Treatise upon the Australian
Merino, by J. R. Graham, superintendent of an extensive sheep
station on the Murray River, (published in Melbourne, in 1870),
the following testimony is given : " Of all imported sheep, those
of our first cousins, the Americans, are the best. The best rams
imported into Melbourne of late years were some American rams."
This coming from so capable a judge, and in competition with the
best selections of Merino sheep to be procured elsewhere in the
world, may be taken without question as proof that the American
Merino is the best sheep of its class in the world. It is therefore
interesting to trace the course through which this breed has been
brought to its present excellence, which enables it to stand alone
on its own merits, beyond any capability of further improvement
by any variety of Merino sheep now existing in any part of the
world.

The history of the American Merino commences with the
present century, and with importations of choice sheep from
Spain. The honor of the first importation seems to belong to Mr.
William Foster, of Boston, who managed, " with much difficulty

THE AMERICAN MERINO. 93

and risk," to bring with him from Cadiz, two ewes and one ram.
Unfortunately his enterprise came to naught, for presenting these
valuable and costly sheep to a friend, this friend made them into
mutton and ate them. This same friend afterwards paid $1,000
for a Merino ram. One ram was imported in 1801, and was used
on the farm of a French gentleman, Mr. Delessert, near Kingston,
N. Y. This animal weighed 138 Ibs., and his fleece, well washed
in cold water, weighed 8 Ibs. 8 ozs. He was a very fine ram, and
finally founded a valuable flock on the farm of E. J. Dupont, near
Wilmington, Del. Later hi the same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of
Zanesville, Ohio, imported a pair of Spanish Merinos, which re-
ceived a premium at the fair of the Massachusetts Agricultural
Society the next year. In 1802 Mr. Livingston, the American
Minister to France, sent two pairs of French Merinos home to his
farm on the Hudson Kiver. In 1807, Mr. Livingston imported
some choice Spanish ewes from France, and in 1808, his flock be-
gan to acquire a wide reputation, his rams selling for $150 each,
and half-blood ewes and rams for $12 each. In 1802, Colonel
Humphreys, the American Minister to Spain, sent 25 rams and 75
ewes, selected from the choicest flocks in Spain, to Derby, Con-
necticut. From what particular family of Merinos these sheep were
selected, does not appear, the evidence, however, seems to point to
the fact that they were Infantados, or sheep from tlie flock of the
Duke of Infantado, one of the chief grandees of Spain at that
period. This flock was bred and improved by Col. Humphreys,
with much success. At the death of this gentleman, in 1818, his
flock was scattered, and only two or three then obscure farmers had
the luck, or precaution, to preserve them pure and distinct. On
the rise of the Merinos into their future high reputation, these for-
tunate persons were brought into notice as the possessors of flocks
of pure Merino sheep. But the most extensive and noteworthy
importation, and that which gave form and character to the
American Merinos, was that of the Hon. Wm. Jarvis, the Ameri-
can Consul at Lisbon, in 1809 and 1810. This consisted of 3,850
sheep of the flocks of Paulars, Negrettis, Aqueirres, and Montarcos
of Spain. These flocks, consisting of nearly 50,000 head, had
been, for political reasons, confiscated and sold by the Spanish
government, with other property of the four grandees who had
owned them.

Of the imported sheep, 1,500 came to New York, 1,000 to Bos-
ton, and the remainder to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Alexandria,
Norfolk, Richmond, Portland, Wiscasset, and Portsmouth. An-
other shipment of 2,500 followed in 1810, and were distributed

94 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

between New York and Boston. These sheep were of the prime
flocks of Spain, and Spain's loss was our gain. Mr. Jarvis re-
served 350 of the sheep for his own use. A few other minor im-
portations of Spanish sheep were made by other parties in 1810 and
1811. The knowledge that we had thus obtained the very best
sheep in the world, started a speculative fever, which was increased
by the war with England in 1812, when Merino wool sold for
$2.50 a pound. Imported rams were eagerly purchased for $1,000
to $1,500 each, and ewes sold for $1,000 a head. Many flocks of
pure or grade sheep were started in all parts of the country, and
much care was taken in the breeding of them. This lasted until
the peace of 1815, when sheep that were valued at $1,000 a head,
in 1809, sold for $1.00, and of course all interest in breeding then
ceased. Afterwards, under the stimulus of various protective tar-
iffs, the business revived, and fine wool-growing again attracted
attention.

In 1824, 77 Saxon Merino sheep were imported by G. & T.
Searle, of Boston, and this was followed by several other importa-
tions by the same parties. By bad management much loss resulted
to the importer;., and in consequence of the poor quality of the
sheep, the whole business was a failure for all coocerned, includ-
ing the purchasers. The inferiority of the Saxon breed was mani-
fest, and these sheep, which yielded a fleece of but 2-£ to 3 Ibs. per
head, could not compete with the Spanish sheep, which produced
4J- Ibs. of well washed wool per head, of nearly equal value, al-
though not quite so fine as the Saxon wool. The Saxon sheep
have all disappeared since 1846. Then the American Merino came
into general favor. This class of sheep, in 1840 to 1845, consisted
of several families of distinctly marked varieties, due chiefly to the
various courses of breeding followed by their several owners. The
distinguishing peculiarities of these families consisted mainly in
their size and hight of carcass, length and fineness of wool, the
pendulous dewlaps and skinfolds of the rams, and the amount of
yolk in the fleece, and its consequent greater weight and darker
color. Up to the period in question, the choicest flocks were to
be found in New England, on account of the greater care there
taken in breeding. Some of the Connecticut and Vermont breed-
ers had taken great pains to improve their flocks, and much emu-
lation existed amongst them in this respect. Gradually, differ-
ences became merged and blended by the continued purchase of
rams by the owners of defective flocks, from the more careful
breeders, and finally only the two families, the Paulars and the
Infantados continued to be bred as distinct in all parts of the

INCREASE OF SIZE AND FLEECE.

95

country. Since then these separate families, their crosses, and those
between them and other pure flocks, have been greatly improved.
The carcass has become larger and heavier, and the fleece has
been increased in weight. This is shown by the following table,
taken from a more extensive one published about 70 years ago by
Petri, who visited Spain for the express purpose of examining the
Spanish sheep, and from some measurements made by the Hon.
H. S. Randall, of Cortland, K Y., and published in his valuable
work on " Fine Wool Sheep Husbandry," as well as from number-
less well authenticated weights of fleeces. The table is as follows :

NAMES OF FLOCKS.

Negretti Ram

" Ewe

Infantaclo Ram

" Ewe

Guadeloupe Ram

" Ewe

Estantes of Sierra de Somo Ram.
H tt tt K u Ewe.
Small Estantes Ram. . .

Ewe

American Merino Ram

Ewe

Ewe...

" " Ewe...

Ibs.

97

67
100^

70

97V

69

42
30
122
114
122
100

8 8

in.

These differences, it will be observed, occur in those respects
which add greatly to the value of the animal, the heavier weights
of carcass, the shorter neck, the shorter legs, and the very greatly
increased width of loin. All these points of improvement tend to
show an animal of excellent physical vigor and constitution.

As to the fleece : in 1800 to 1813, the imported Merinos yielded
3£ to 4 Ibs. of brook-washed wool, in the ewe, and 6 to 7 Ibs. in the
ram. The heaviest fleeced ram imported, that of Mr. Dupont,
produced 8£ Ibs. of brook- washed wool. In 1845 the product had
increased to 5 Ibs. for some small flocks, and 9 Ibs. for rams. Mr.
Stephen Atwood, of Vermont, reported in this year that his heavi-
est ewe's fleece was 6 Ibs. 6 oz., and his heaviest ram's fleece, 12
Ibs. 4 oz. In 1849, a ram, belonging to Mr. Randall, produced 13
Ibs. 3 oz. of well washed wool. Up to this period the Merinos
had been under a heavy cloud, and improvement had not occurred
so rapidly as it has done since then. The weights of the fleeces of

9<5 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

those early days of the American Merinos are far surpassed now,
and the average of some small flocks reaches over 10 pounds of
washed wool. Many remarkable reports of recent shearings might
be selected from various agricultural journals, which go to show
a greatly increased production of wool per head, and the reports
may doubtless be accepted as in the main correct. In the Ohio
Farmer of June 19th, 1875, are reported weights of some fleeces of
pure-bred American Merinos, viz : of a flock of 44, an aged ram's
fleece weighed 20 pounds ; 34 yearling ewes' fleeces weighed 410
Ibs. 3 oz., an average of over 12 pounds, and 9 aged ewes' fleeces,
108 Ibs. 7 oz., an average of 12 pounds. The wool was 3 inches
long, of a clear white color, and therefore free from excessive
yolk. Also of a flock of 80 ; 19 ram lambs, average age 13J-
months, sheared 325J Ibs., average 17 Ibs. 2 oz. per fleece; 13
rams, 2 to 6 years old, sheared 225£, or 17 Ibs. 5 oz. per fleece ; 48
ewes produced 668 Ibs. 6 oz., or 14 Ibs. nearly per fleece. The
extreme weights of the ram lambs' fleeces were from 14 Ibs. to 20
Ibs. ; of the rams, 14 Ibs. to 24 Ibs. 4 oz., and of the ewes, 12 Ibs. .
to 18 Ibs. These fleeces, being doubtless unwashed, would shrink
one-third in washing. In the Michigan Farmer of July, — , 1875,
the weight of 16 fleeces is reported at 168£ Ibs. of washed wool,
an average of 10i Ibs. each ; 10 ewes yielded 91 Ibs.. ; 3 yearling-
rams produced 45 J- Ibs., and three yearling ewes 32 Ibs. The
Detroit Tribune, about the same time, reports a flock of 43
ewes and wethers which produced 399 Ibs., an average of
about 9^ Ibs. of washed wool. Seven yearling rams sheared
lOOi Ibs., being 13 months' growth of wool; one of these fleeces
weighed 15 Ibs., and the sheep after shearing weighed 49 Ibs. One
6-year ram sheared 19 Ibs. unwashed wool. Another flock of 33
ewes produced 318 Ibs. of wool, washed on the sbeeps' backs 9
days previously. These reports are selected at haphazard, upon
casually glancing over a few of the papers which are in the habit
of publishing news of this character, sent by known correspond-
ents. In all these cases the names and addresses are given with
the reports, but are withheld here, as they are in no way excep-
tional, or surpass the reports of the flocks of numberless other
farmers or breeders. Indeed, many thoroughly trustworthy re-
ports are constantly being given of greater weights of fleece than
any of these. The following reports of the weights of the premi-
um fleeces sheared at the annual meeting of the American Wool-
Growers' Association of 1875, may be given as finally conclusive
of the fact under consideration, viz : the gradual improvement and
present high value of the American Merino in the hands of Ameri-

DESCRIPTION OF THE AMERICAN MERINO. 97

can breeders, until it has now no superior in the world as a wool
bearer, or as an improver of inferior races of sheep.

Weight of Sheep. Weight of Fleece. Age of Fleece.

1st Premium Ram ... 180 54 Ibs. 29 Ibs. 11 mo. 21 d:iys.

2nd " " 148 Ibs. 23 Ibs. 13 oz. 1 yr. 4 "

1st " Ewe 108 Ibs. 17lbs. 3 oz. 11 mo. 22 "

2-yr. old Ewe uot entered for pr. 22 Ibs. 8 oz. 1 yr. 5 "

It is impossible, in the limited space that can be here devoted to
this breed, to rehearse the means by which these sheep have been
gradually brought to this excellence. For these details the reader
who would study the subject of fine-wool sheep breeding, is referred
to the excellent work of Mr. Randall before referred to, in which
it is treated of at length. The portrait on the next page gives
a remarkably accurate general view of a first class American
Merino ram. It represents the ram " Golden Fleece," bred and
owned by E. S. Stowell, Cornwall, Vermont

The description of a high brel American Merino, of such excel-
lence as may be readily found in numerous flocks at the present
time, may be. summed up as follows, giving prominence to the
several most important characteristics, viz :

TJie Carcass should be plump, medium size, round, deep, not
long in proportion to roundness, the head and neck short and
thick ; the back should be straight and broad, the breast and but-
tock full ; the legs short, well apart, an9 strong, with heavy fore-
arm and full twist. This compact figure indicates a hardy con-
stitution, ease of keeping, and good feeding properties.

Skin. — The skin should be of a deep rich rose-color, thin, mel-
low, loose, and elastic on the body. This indicates a healthy, well
conditioned animal. A pale or tawny skin indicates impurity of
blood, or at least weakness of constitution, and is therefore ob-
jectionable.

Folds and Wrinkles. — These are permissibb to a certain extent.
The fashion in this regard has doubtless passed beyond the bounds
of wisdom, and excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin is un-
sightly and useless, if not worse. In shearing, it causes a waste of
time, and gives no adequate return in wool. A deep, soft, plaited
dewlap on both ewes and rams, and some slight wrinkles on the
neck of the ram, satisfied the early breeders in this respect While
heavy neck-folds on the ram, and short ones back of the elbow
and on the rump, are tolerated by breeders at the present time, yet
it is simply fashion, and adds nothing to the value of the animal,
but on the contrary is dearly paid for in the increased cost of
shearing. An exception to this may be taken in respect of rams
5

98

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

THE FLEECE. 99

to be used in improving the poor, smooth-skinned native race
common on the western plains, in which case a heavy yolked and
much wrinkled ram may be found desirable.

The Fleece. — A sheep bred exclusively, or chiefly, for wool^ must
necessarily be valued in proportion to the value of the fleece. The
wool of a pure-bred Merino of any value, should stand at right
angles to the skin, presenting a dense, smooth, even surface on the
exterior, opening nowhere but in those natural cracks or divisions
which separate the fleece into masses. These masses should not
be small in size, or they indicate excessive fineness of fleece ; a "
quarter of an inch is the limit in this respect ; nor too large, lest
the wool be coarse and harsh. The length should be such as, corn^
bined with thickness of staple, will give the greatest weight of
fleece. Medium wool is generally in greater demand than fine
wool, and it is more profitably produced. Two to three inches is
probably the most desirable length of fleece for profit. A change,
however, is taking place in this respect, since the practice of
combing Merino wool has become general, and three inches
and over is a frequently desired length of fiber. It is not
desirable to have the face covered with wool long enough to fold
up in the fleece. If the eyes are covered with such wool, the sheep
is either blinded, or the wool must be kept clipped close. The
ears should be small, with a coat of soft mossy hair about half
way to the roots, and for the remainder, covered with wool. A
naked ear is very objectionable. Evenness in quality in every
part of the sheep is very desirable, if air growing up through the
wool on the thighs, the neck-folds, or scattered through the fleece
here and there, is not to be allowed. The wool should be sound,
that is, of even strength from end to end of the fiber. It should
be highly elastic and wrinkled, curved or wavy. The number of
these curls, or waves, to the inch, is not so much a test of excel-
lence as their regularity and beauty of curvature. A folding back
of the fiber upon itself is not so desirable as a gentler curve. (See
Chapter on Wool).

Pliancy and Softness to the feeling in handling, is an excellent
test of quality, so much prized by manufacturers, that practiced
buyers will sometimes form an accurate judgment of a fleece by
handling it in the dark with gloved hands.

Yolk. — To what extent the yolk should exist in the wool of the
Merino, is a matter of dispute, and in some degree a matter of
taste. A certain portion of yolk is absolutely necessary to the
existence of a good fleece, and beyond this it is questionable if any

100 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

excess of yolk answers any good purpose. This is considered at
some length in the Chapter on Wool, where it naturally belongs.
When it is in such excessive quantity as in a fleece which weighed
19| Ibs, before washing, and only 4 Ibs. afterwards, it is decidedly
objectionable, except in the case of a rain chosen to impart greater
yolkiness to a flock which is deficient in this respect. In general,
as wool is the object sought, no more yolk is necessary than the
quantity required to promote the growth of the fleece and lo keep
it in good condition, soft, pliant, and thoroughly well lubricated.

FOREIGN BREEDS.— LONG- WOOL SHEEP.

Long-wool sheep are properly natives of the rich low-lands of
England, which are productive of abundant, succulent, nutritious
pasture. But there have been great improvements in agriculture
during the past century, which have enabled fanners lo produce
enormous crops of clover, artificial grasses, and roots, and to pur-
chase large supplies of rich concentrated foods, such as the various
oil-cakes. As one result of this improved agriculture, the long-
wool sheep have been taken from the alluvial lands where they
originated, to the uplands, where they have greatly increased in
number, and also improved in character. The fact that these large
bodied, heavy fleeced sheep have been found far more profitable
than the lighter short-wool sheep, has been the all-sufficient cause
of this adaptation of the race to new conditions, for profit is the
moving power in every industry, and what is, is simply because it
is profitable, and for no other reason in this day of eager search
for increased comfort and wealth. The profit of long-wool sheep
consists not only in their weight of meat and fleece, but in their
rapid growth and early maturity. In the change of locality allud-
ed to, and from circumstances of feed and management, some of
the ancient breeds have disappeared altogether, and other breeds
have been much changed by extensive crossing with the most popu-
lar and highly bred of them. The Ion ir- wool sheep of the present
time may be divided into two classes ; one of which still remains
localized in low rich alluvial soils, and drained marshes of certain
parts of England; this, includes the Lincoln and the Romney
Marsh breeds. The other class belongs to dry arable plains, or
farms devoted to grain, grass, and root crops, and other specialties
of mixed farming. This class includes the Leicester, Cotswold,
and Oxford-down breeds.

THE LINCOLN is the heaviest bodied sheep in existence. In
1836 a three-shear sheep of this breed, (40 months old, or about

Tllli LIKCOLV SHEEP.

101

102

that age), was slaughtered in England, which dressed 96i Ibs. the
quarter; a two-shear sheep dressed 91 Ibs. per quarter, and a
yearling dressed 71 Ibs. per quarter. In a report on Lincoln sheep,
it is stated that thirty 14-inonths-old wether lambs, slaughtered at
Lincoln Fair, averaged 140 Ibs. each, dressed weight, and 100 to-
gether of the lambs clipped 14 Ibs. of washed wool apiece. The
usual practice of the Lincolnshire breeders is to feed the sheep
until about two years old, when they will have yielded a second
fleece weighing 10 to 14 pounds, and will dress 120 to 160 Ibs.
dead weight j'or the butcher. The wool of this breed is very long
and lustrous, measuring nine inches and over. The origin of the
present highly improved breed, was a race of heavy-bodied sheep
which in its pure state is now practically extinct. It inhabited the
low alluvial flats of Lincolnshire, and the adjoining localities, on
the eastern coasts of England. These sheep were large and coarse,
with a long, ragged, oily fleece, which nearly sv;ept the ground.
They fed slowly, but made much inward fat, and their meat was
well flavored, fine grained, juicy, and not too much overlaid with
fat on the outside. A century ago this was the established char-
acter of these sheep. When the improved Leicesters of Mr. Bake-
well came into notoriety, the intelligent Lincolnshire breeders ob-
tained some of his rams, and by admixture of their blood, in time
established a distinctly new breed. In connection with a system
of farming, in which heavy crops of roots and green fodder were
the chief productions, this improved breed became fixed in its
character as the heaviest producers of mutton and wool in the
world. In one instance 26i Ibs. of wool was taken from a 14-
months old lamb. From 1862 to 1870, the majority of prizes for
long- wool sheep at English fairs, were taken by the Lincolns, but
it was not until the former date, that the breed was given a dis-
tinct place as a separate class at these shows. Since then it has
achieved great prominence, and become very popular for crossing
upon other breeds, for the production of feeding sheep, and for its
yield of long, lustrous, and worsted wools. The Lincoln requires
the best and richest soils, and succulent herbage, and can only
thrive under the best management and veiy high farming. At
present it is questionable if we in this country have any place in
our agriculture which this sheep can profitably fill, unless it be in
a very few instances, where the highest skill of the breeder is ex-
ercised under peculiarly favorable conditions of soil and climate.
A fine flock of these sheep was imported by Mr. Richard Gibson,
of London, Canada, and has been carefully and successfully culti-
vated by him. A portion of Mr. Gibson's flock has been recently

THE ItOHNEY MARSH SHEEP.

103

104

purchased by Mr. William A. King, of Minneapolis, Minn. Mr.
George Grant, of Kansas, also has a Hock. Their adaptability to
our climate is therefore in a fab* way of being thoroughly tested.

THE ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP.— This breed is also an inhabitant
of low, alluvial lands. Its home is in south-eastern England, in
the extensive marshes of the county of Kent, which are ditched
and diked in the same manner as those of Holland. It has ex-
isted there from time immemorial, and has fed on the rich clay
lands which are so productive of herbage as to be capable of carry-
ing 14 sheep to the acre. This breed has also been much improved
by crossing with Leicester rams. It is hardier than the Lincoln,
and survives much neglect. It is rarely sheltered, even hi severe
weather, and the lambs are generally pastured during the winter
in the stubbles upon the adjoining uplands, where they undergo
many privations. It is not improbable that this hitherto neglected,
but valuable and hardy sheep, could find suitable homes upon our
eastern coasts, and rich river flats, where it would serve a better
purpose than the more highly bred and delicate Leicester, in im-
proving, or displacing, our less valuable native sheep. The charac-
teristics of the Romuey Marsh sheep are : a thick, broad head and
neck, long carcass, flat sides, broad loin, full and broad thigh,
neither heavy nor full fore-quarter, thick, strong legs and broad
feet; wool long, somewhat coarse, and coarsest on the thighs;
much inside fat, and a favorite animal with the butcher. There is
a tuft of wool on the forehead. The fleece weighs from 7 to 10
pounds, is of long staple, sound quality, and bright and glossy ;
it is in demand by French and Dutch manufacturers for a sort of
mohair fabric known as " cloth of gold," (Drap ffor). At three
years old the wethers dress from 100 to 120 Ibs., and the ewes
from 70 to 90 Ibs. After a moderate amount of crossing with the
Leicester, it was found that to persevere further in this direction
tended to make these sheep less hardy, and the cross was at once
abandoned. Inter-breeding amongst the cross-bred sheep main-
tained the improvement without sacrificing the hardiness and
vigor of constitution, which renders this breed so well adapted to
its bleak and wind-swept pastures.

THE LEICESTER.— It was more than a hundred years ago that
the old Leicester sheep fell into the hands of Mr. Robert Bakewell.
They were then large, heavy, coarse animals, having meat of a
poor flavor, a long and thin carcass with flat sides, large bones, and
thick, rough legs. They were poor feeders, and at two or three
years old made 100 to 120 Ibs. of mutton. The wool was long and

THE LEICESTER SHEEP.

105

106 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

coarse, and of only moderate value. By a course of breeding,
about which he was very reticent even to his friends, and which
he kept secret from other breeders, Mr. Bakewell totally changed
the character of these sheep, and built up for himself a reputation
as a successful breeder, which is second to that of no other in the
world. Of his system of breeding, the most that is known is, that
he commenced with the inferior, old Leicester^, selecting the best
of them he could find. He apparently used any animal whatever,
without reference to breed or color, nor did he regard relationship,
if he considered those coupled together would be most likely to
produce the results that he wished to attain in the offspring.
His object was to produce an animal that would yield in the
shortest time, and with the least consumption of feed, the largest
amount of flesh and fat, meanwhile not neglecting the fleece. His
ideal sheep was to him precisely what the desired Short-horn was
to the Culley Brothers, Mr. Bates, or Mr. Booth ; and all these
breeders gave their whole soul to the attainment of their one
single object. The Culley Brothers were pupils of Mr. Bakewell,
and it is but just to give him some share of the honor attained by
these originators of the Short-horn. Each of these breeders bred
in-and-in, both frequently and closely, and each of them went out-
side of the breed he was building up and improving for foreign
blood, when anything was to be gained by it. It is stated of Mr.
Bakewell that he used sheep of six or seven different breeds, and
one visitor to his establishment, reported that, in going about the
stables alone, early one morning, before Mr. Bakewell had risen,
he saw a black ram, but a very magnificent animal, hidden away
in a pen. In course of time his success was recognized by the best
test — that of the market value of his sheep. He began in 1755 ; in
1760 his rams were let for an annual sum of about $4 each. In
1780 he received $50 for the season's use of a ram. In 1784 the
price was raised to $525. In 1786 one ram was let for $1,575. In
1789 he received $6,300 for the use of three rams, all born at one
birth ; $10,500 for seven others ; and $15,750 for the use of the
remainder of his flock. Twenty-two_hundred dollars was paid by
each of two breeders for the use of one ram for their flocks alone,
he reserving one-third of his use for himself, making the yearly
value of this one ram equal to $6,600. After his death, Bake well's
system of close breeding was followed by his successors, but with
the effect of reducing the value of the breed to the farmer. The
sheep became delicate, and weakened in constitution, reduced in
size, less prolific, and less careful of their lambs. New blood,
chiefly of the hardier Cotswold, has been of late years introduced

THE COTSWOLD SHEEP. 107

with the effect of restoring their lost qualities. The modern im-
proved Leicester is without horns; with white face and legs, a
small, fine head, bare on the poll ; a large, bright, and very promi-
nent eye ; square and deep neck and shoulders ; straight, flat, broad
back ; deep body ; hind quarters tapering somewhat to the tail, and
not so square as in the- Cotswold ; clean legs, and fine bone. The
flesh is good, but overloaded with outside fat. The fleece is fine,
glossy, silky, white, and of but moderate length, averaging 7 to 8
pounds in weight. The skin is thin, soft, and elastic, and of a
very delicate pinkish tinge, when the animal is in full health. The
Leicester cannot by any means be called a hardy sheep, as it requires
good keep, careful shelter, and skillful treatment to maintain it in
thriving condition. When ailing it gives way at once, and de-
clines rapidly. It matures rapidly and early, and at twelve months
old when well fed, will dress 100 pounds, and at two years reaches
a weight of 150 pounds. A four-year-old ram in prime condition
has weighed 380 pounds live weight. For use in this country, the
Leicester cannot compete with the Cotswold, nor is it fitted in any
way to become the farmer's sheep, excepting hi very rare cases,
when its services might be desired to refine a Cotswold cross in the
hands of a breeder who thoroughly understands his business.

THE COTSWOLD. — This breed has become so common in Ameri-
ca, and has been bred so extensively without fresh importations of
new blood, that it may well be adopted as a native sheep. Many
excellent flocks are now self-sustaining, and under their American
nativity, lose nothing of their original excellence. The Maple
Shade flock, originally the property of Mr. John D. Wing, of
Dutchess County, N. Y., but some years ago divided, and now
owned by other parties, is one of many instances of the successful
acclimatization of this most valuable sheep. The Cotswold' has
an ancient history. It is said to have been introduced into Eng-
land from Spain, by Eleanora, Queen of Henry II, of England, in
the twelfth century. Although there is nothing more than tradi-
tion to support this, yet there is some corroboration of it in the
fact that in Spam there has long existed, and is now, a breed of
coarse, long wool sheep not unlike the original Cotswold hi some
respects. It is known, however, that in fifty years after this early
date, the wool of the Cotswold sheep was a source of material
wealth, and was jealously guarded by law. Three centuries after
this, (in 1467), permission was granted by the English king, Ed-
ward IY, as a royal favor, to export some of these sheep to Spain.
They were originally very coarse animals, with thick, heavy
fleece, well adapted to their home upon the bleak exposed Cots-

108

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

DESCEIPTIOK OF THE COTSWOLD. 109

wold hills. So valuable and staple a breed could not long remain
without improvement. Naturally, the sweet nutritious herbage
of the limestone soil covering these hills, favored this improve-
ment, and as the pastures became enclosed, and agriculture im-
proved in character, the flocks improved with it. When the Lei-
cester became the most popular sheep of England, it was made to
assist in this course of improvement of the Cotswolds. It gave to
the breed a better quality, a smoothness and refinement, and a
greater aptitude to fatten, while it did not lessen its ancient hardi-
ness of constitution. The modern Cotswold is still capable of en-
during hardship and exposure, and is at home on all sorts of soils.
It produces a large carcass of excellent mutton, and a heavy fleece
of valuable combing wool, adapted by its peculiar character for a
class of goods of wide consumption, it being in demand for vari-
ous manufactures from the small matters, such as worsted dress
braids, up to various kinds of cloths for men's and women's
garments. Moreover the breed matures at an early age. It is
not unusual to find sheep of 120 Ibs. and over, at a year old. A
full-grown sheep, exhibited at a Christmas cattle market in Eng-
land, dressed 344 pounds, or 86 Ibs. per quarter. The weight of
the fleece should average 8 Ibs. for a flock of all kinds, and some
of our naturalized flocks surpass this weight of fleece. Many
ewes have shorn 11 Ibs. each. The fleece of " Champion of Eng-
land," whose portrait is given on the opposite page, weighed 18
Ibs., and the fleeces of the ewes of the same flock, weighed from
11 to 16 Ibs. The description of a well bred Cotswold is as fol-
lows : The face and legs are white, but sometimes dashes of
brown or gray derived from the original stock, may be found on
both face and forelegs. The head is strong and massive, with
sometimes a Roman nose, without horns, and having a thick fore-
lock of wool upon the forehead. The neck and forequarters are
not so square and heavy, nor the brisket so prominent, as in the
best Leicesters, but the hind quarters are square, full, and broad,
and the thigh solid and heavy. The back is straight and broad,
and the ribs well sprung, giving a round body ; the flanks are
deep; the legs are clean, of moderate length, but the bone is not
so fine as in the Leicester. The general style and appearance is
good and attractive, and indicative of a vigorous, active, and hardy
animal, and a prime mutton sheep. They are active and well
fitted for gathering a living upon a pasture in which a Leicester
would hardly thrive. The lambs are active and hardy, and the
ewes are good mothers. The fleece is closer upon the back than
that of the Leicester, and only in aged rams exposes the skin along

110 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL.

the middle. The wool sometimes reaches a length of 9 inches, and
although coarse, is soft and mellow. In some of these sheep, the
fleece is beautifully waved. No breed is more valuable for cross-
ing than this. It has helped to establish several permanent cross
breeds; the Oxford-downs and the Shropshires in England; a
Cotswold-Merino in Germany, and another of this cross, which is
well under way in this country, and last, but not least, a very
promising cross breed, originated on the Beacon Farm, Long
Island, by Mr. William Crozier, and called the Beacon-downs. It
has, moreover, been used to produce many cross-bred market
sheep in various parts of England, and is extensively used by our
sheep-raisers in the production of market lambs. Being capable
of adaptation to almost any locality, and producing a wool which,
both in its pure state and in its grades, is of wide availability in
the woolen manufacture, it may justly claim to be the most valua-
ble sheep we have acquired, and to promise a more extended use-
fulness than any other we at this time possess, or can probably
procure.

THE OXFORD-DOWNS.— This is one of the newly established
cross-breeds, which has made a favorable reputation, and promises
to become permanent. It has already been introduced here, and
has made its appearance on several farms, the owners of which
possess more than usual enterprise. It is classed among the long-
wool sheep, but it is only since 1862 that it has gained the honor,
or has been awarded the justice of a separate class at the English
fairs. It has rapidly extended its domain in England, and as a
wool and mutton producer, firmly holds all it gains. It originated
in across of a Cotswold ram upon a Hampshire-down ewe, made in
or about the year 1830, by Mr. Twynham and several other farmers,
of Hampshire, England. The produce was a sheep heavier than the
clam, and resembling the Cotswold in size and fleece. The wool,
however, was finer and firmer than that of the Cotswold, and
from five to seven inches in length. The first cross rams and
ewes were bred together, no further cross being made. By con-
tinued care the best points have been preserved, and the constitu-
tion nnd character of the first cross have been maintained. The
result is, a sheep that is found profitable to feed on a mixed farm ;
hardy, producing at 14 months old a carcass of 80 to 88 Ibs. , and a
fleece of 8 or 9 Ibs. of wool, which is in great demand in the
worsted manufacture. By good feeding these weights are much
increased. At the Smithfield, (London), fat cattle show of 1873,
a pen of three 22-months-old shearlings weighed alive 895 Ibs. , or
an average of 298 Ibs. each. Rams have been known to shear 20

THE OXFORD-DOWN SHEEP.

Ill

112 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL.

Ibs. of wool for their first fleece. The Oxford-down has a head
much like a Cotswold, with a tuft on the forehead, but with dark
face and legs, which are derived from its other parent, the Hamp-
shire-down ; a thick set somewhat curly fleece, a round barrel on
short legs, and yields, when less than two years old, a mutton con-
sidered by its friends as superior to the Southdown of the same
age, but inferior to it when older than two years. Its native
locality is a district at the foot of the Cotswold hills, an area of
mixed soils, abounding in springs, and requiring much draining.
At particular seasons in the winter, neither the Cotswold nor the
Southdown could be made to thrive upon these wet soils, but the
cross-bred sheep have successfully withstood the inconvenience
without being affected with the usual disease of the district, such
as giddiness, or water on the brain. They have been found very
profitable feeders, requiring but little purchased food, and stand-
ing the exposure incident to folding upon green crops in the winter,
without difficulty. Good rams of this breed bring about $60 per
head at the ram sales.

MEDIUM AND SHORT-WOOL SHEEP.

THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. — The Shropshire is one of the cross-
bred sheep that owes its origin in part to the Cotswold, the other
parent being an original breed of sheep common to the district,
and known as the " Morfe Common " sheep. This word " com-
mon " does not express quality, but is used here as referring to an
unenclosed tract of land known as "common land," or public
property; such tracts formerly existed in many localities in Eng-
land, and to a considerable extent in the early settlements in New
England. These sheep of Morfe Common, (which was a tract of
600,000 acres of land), were the original stock upon which crosses
of Cotswold, and afterwards of Leicester and Southdown, were
made at various periods. This course of improvement appears to
have been begun about 1792. From the unequal admixture of
blood, the Shropshires vary somewhat in character, sometimes
possessing the character of a short-wool, and sometimes that of a
medium-wool sheep. The original sheep was horned, black or
brown faced, hardy, and free from disease, producing 44 to 56 Ibs.
of mutton to the carcass, and a fleece of 2 Ibs. of moderately fine
wool, which was used in the cloth manufacture. After three-
quarters of a century of cultivation, they are now without horns,
with faces and legs of a dark or spotted gray color ; thick, meaty
neck ; well shaped, rather small and fine head ; neat ears well set

THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP.

113

114:

on the head ; broad, deep breast ; straight back ; a good, round bar-
rel ; and clean legs with strong bone. They are very hardy, thrive
well on moderate keep, are quickly fattened, and produce at two
years old, 80 to 100 Ibs., or even 120 Ibs. of excellent meat, which
brings the highest price from the butcher. The ewes are prolific
and-good mothers. The fleece is heavier than that of the South-
down, being longer and more glossy, and weighs on the average
about 7 Ibs. of marketable wool. The portraits on the preceding
page are of some members of a flock imported from England
ki 1874, by Mr. J. T. Hoyt, of Suisun City, California. This
sheep possesses many valuable qualities for our uses, and promises
to make a satisfactory farmer's sheep in localities where medium
wool and choice mutton are profitable, and where the flocks have
to depend upon pasture for the greater part of their support. Its
close, well set fleece, and hardy constitution, will also help to carry
it through considerable exposure and variable weather, without
injury. Prize rams have sold in England for $500 each, but at the
annual ram sales, the prices run from $50 to $150. There are sev-
eral flocks of this breed kept in different parts of the United
States and Canada, which promise to become sources of supply.

THE SOUTHDOWN.— The modern improved Southdown de-
scended from an old established breed of sheep, which have inhab-
ited the hilly portions of England from the most ancient periods
of known history of that countiy. In the southern part of the
country, and in the counties of Sussex, Kent, Hampshire, and
Dorsetshire, there is a range of low hills, underlaid with chalk,
which descend gradually on the south to the sea coast, and on the
north merge into rich cultivated lands. These low hills or
" Downs," have a diy soil, and are covered with a rich, sweet,
short, dense herbage. Upon this favorable soil the ancient breed
throve without special care, and when skillful breeders, emulating
the success of Mr. Bakewell with the Leicesters, commenced to
improve it, they speedily raised its character. At first the Sussex
or Southdown sheep were small, and with few good points ; long
and thin in* the neck, narrow in the forequarters, high in the
shoulders, low behind, sharp on the back, and with flat ribs ; their
only good points being a good leg. Their mutton, however, chief-
ly from the excellent character of their pasture, was of the best
flavor, and highly valued. By the careful attention of Mr. Ellman,
of Glynde, the defects were weeded out, and after 50 years of con-
stant selection of breeding animals, he brought his sheep into
repute and favor, as the first of the short-wool breeds. Mr. Jonas
Webb, of Suffolk, continued the course of improvement from 1822,

THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP.

115

116 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

but it was only in 1840 that he gained a premium for his stock at
an exhibition. After this he took a prize at every exhibition of
his sheep, and in 1843 the Highland Society paid him the compli-
ment of having portraits of his prize sheep taken for the museum
at Edinburgh. In 1855 Webb's Southdowns were exhibited at the
Paris exhibition, and a ram, for which $2,600 had been refused,
was presented to the Emperor Napoleon. Since Mr. Webb's
death, many breeders have made a wide reputation with the
Southdowns, and at the present time they hold the position of
being decidedly the best mutton sheep in the world. As yearlings
they yield 75 to 80 Ibs. in dressed weight, of the choicest meat in
the market, and a flock of high character will produce an average
of 6 Ibs. to the fleece of a wool in demand for flannels and soft
goods. The ewes are prolific breeders and excellent mothers.
These sheep, as they are now bred, are without horns and with
dark brown or black faces and legs. The size is medium ; the
body round and deep ; the forequarters are wide and deep, and the
breast is broad. The back is broad and level ; the rump square and
full, and the thigh full, and massive. The legs are short with fine
bone. The form is smooth, even, fine, and symmetrical, without
coarseness or angularity in any part. The habits of these sheep
are active, and they are docile and contented. They are able to
accommodate themselves to any district, or style of farming, where
moderately good pasturage is to be had, and are well suited as
gleaners upon an arable farm. Mr. Webb's farm was mostly all
under tillage. For the improvement of our native sheep in a par-
ticular direction, they arc not to be surpassed, and in this respect
they rival the Cotswold. Indeed, there is scarcely a cross-bred
race of sheep in England, or Europe, but has been indebted to the
Southdown for some of its smoothness, rotundity, hardiness of
constitution, and excellence of flesh. It is an excellent feeder, its
lambs are active and hardy, and as the producer of market lambs
from grade or pure Merino ewes, the Southdown ram has no su-
perior, or equal, if the favor with which the dark faces and legs
of the lambs are received by butchers is considered There are no
fatter lambs come to market than those of a cross of Southdown
and Merino. The Southdown has become thoroughly naturalized
in America, and its dark face and compact fleece, impervious to
the heaviest rains, have left their mark upon a large proportion of
our natives, ranking in this respect next to the Merino.

THE HAMPSHIRE-DOWNS. — The Hampshire- downs have of late
rapidly risen in favor. Previous to our late war, many of them
were imported into the southern states under the impression that

THE HAMPSHIRE-DOWN SHEEP.

117

118

they surpassed their rivals and progenitors, the South downs, in
adaptation to the climate. Amidst the vicissitudes of a state of
war, no stock so rapidly suffers and disappears as sheep, and as
Spain lost her Merinos in the French war of last century, so it is
probable that the south has lost her Hampshire-downs. It is a
valuable race of sheep, occupying a place where a larger animal
than the Southdown is required. It originated in a cross made
about 70 years ago between a native, white-faced, horned sheep of
the district, and the pure Southdown. The prepotency, or natural
vigor and force of the Southdown ram, entirely changed the char-
acter of the breed in a few generations. The horns disappeared,
the face became black, the frame was made more compact, the
back broader and straighter, the barrel rounder, the legs shorter,
and the quality of the flesh superior. The cross retained its
ancient hardiness, its Roman nose, and massive head, and large
size. It became, in fact, a larger Southdown, maturing at an early
age, and faMing rapidly. The large size of the lambs of this breed
make it specially valuable under certain circumstances ; at a year
old they weigh 80 to 100 Ibs. The fleece reaches a weight of 6 to
7 Ibs. of wool suitable for combing, being longer than that of the
Southdown, and not so fine. The mutton of the Hampshire-downs
is not overloaded with fat, and has a good proportion of juicy, well
flavored, lean meat. Tins breed is occasionally crossed with the
Cotswold, when it produces a wool more valuable for the worsted
manufactures than that of the pure Cotswold.

THE DORSET SHEEP. — This is a breed which Inhabits a district
in the south of England, where it has been preserved intact for a
long period. It has some very valuable characteristics, one of tho
chief of which is its fecundity, and its ability to breed at an early
season. The Dorset ewes take the ram in April, yean in Septem-
ber, and the lambs are fit for market at Christmas. A large pro-
portion of the ewes produce and raise twins or triplets. A flock
is mentioned owned by Mr Pitfield, of Bridport, Dorset, Eng., con-
sisting of 400 ewes, which raised 555 lambs in one season. The
ewes are ready 'for the ram immediately after yeaning, and may
thus produce two crops of lambs in a year. Where market lambs
can be disposed of, this peculiarity may be turned to good account,
and with great profit. Both rams and ewes are horned. They
have white legs ; white, broad, and long faces, with a tuft of wool
on the forehead ; black nose and lips ; low, but broad shoulders ;
straight back and deep, fuL brisket ; the loins are broad and deep ;
the legs are rather long, but light in the bone. A related and
neighboring breed known as " Pink-nosed Somersets," have pink

THE DORSET SHEEP.

119

120

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

noses, and are not so valuable. The Dorsets are hardy, very quiet
and docile, and submit to any reasonable management with facili-
ty, adapting themselves readily to changes. They mature early,
weigh 100 Ibs. dead weight, at two years old, when folded upon
turnips alone, for which kind of feeding they are well suited. The
fleece is close and heavy, yielding 6 Ibs. of white, soft, clean wool
adapted to combing purposes. The lambs are sheared for their
fleeces of " lambs wool." When crossed with the Southdown, the
Dorset ewes produce mostly single lambs, which, when shorn, yield

Fig. 39.— DORSET EWES OF MB. PiTFiEi/o's FLOCK.— (From a Photograph.)

about 2 Ibs. each of valuable wool, and make, when mature, a
larger and better feeding sheep, with a heavier and finer fleece
than the dams. A few Dorsets have been introduced into Vir-
ginia, but have attracted no notice beyond the simple fact of their
existence there. They certainly possess some valuable points for
our use which should make them good subjects for experiment.

THE CHEVIOT. — The Cheviot hills traverse the boundary be-
tween England and Scotland. These hills have given their name to
a very hardy breed of sheep, the origin of which is perhaps some-
what fancifully dated back to the attempted invasion of England
by the Spanish Armada. When this formidable and dreaded fleet
was wrecked upon the stormy British coasts, it is said that some
of the sheep with which the ships were provided, swam ashore and
escaped to these hills, where they bred and multiplied. They
were originally small, light-boned, hardy sheep, and were spread
over most of the hilly part of the Scottish lowlands. A hundred
years ago the attention of breeders was drawn to the Cheviots, and
they were greatly improved in size and value. It is said that a

THE CHEVIOT SHEEP.

6

122 THE SHEPHEBD'S MAHUAL.

Lincolnshire cross was used for this purpose, and that a Leicester
cross was tried and failed. It is now a most useful breed, and
when fed upon sweet, dry herbage, produces a very choice mutton,
much sought after by the epicure. It is without horns, the head
and legs white, but sometimes, though rarely, dun or speckled, the
face good, but strong featured and massive ; the eyes lively ; the
body long, set upon clean, fine legs ; the hindquarter and saddle
full and heavy ; the forequarter light, as in all mountain breeds,
and in habit they are quiet, docile, and submissive to restraint. As
a mountain breed they stand first in every respect, and yet are
very useful lowland sheep. They fatten quickly on turnips, after
pasture, without grain, and make a dressed weight of 80 Ibs. at 3
years old. The ewes are good mothers, and the lambs are very
hardy, spending the whole season on the hills without shelter, ex-
cept in drifting storms of snow, when, without protection, they
would be in danger of being buried in the drifts. The final dispo-
sition of the Cheviots, when full grown, is to be sold to southern
farmers, who raise a crop of cross-bred lambs by a Leicester ram,
and fattening the ewes when the lambs are weaned, sell both to
the butchers, turning over their capital with interest within one
year. Upon good pasture the fleece becomes fine, and sells for a
higher price than when they are fed upon coarse grass. The
fleece yields about 5 Ibs. of medium wool, which furnishes the
material for the useful and fashionable Scotch tweeds and Cheviot
cloths. No wool is in greater or steadier demand than this class
of clothing wool.

THE BLACK-FACED SCOTCH SHEEP. — This breed is without
doubt the oldest hi Scotland. The story of its origin is obscured
by tradition. It is known, however, to have existed, much as it
now is, for several centuries, having disputed possession of the
hills whereon Norval's " father fed his flock," with the wolves and
foxes of the semi-civilized period, which preceded the last political
settlement of Scotland with England. Since the union of the two
countries, great improvements have taken place in Scotch agri-
culture, and the Black-faced sheep have gained with it. They are
a horned breed, the horns of the ram being massive, and spirally
curved. The face is black, with a thick muzzle ; the eye is bright
and wild ; the body square and compact, with good quarters and
abroad saddle. They are very muscular and active, and remarka-
bly hardy, able to endure the privations incident to a life of con-
tinual exposure upon bleak and storm-beaten mountains. Only
the heaviest snow-drifts, followed by thawing, freezing, and crust-
ing of the snow, overcome them. They instinctively herd together

THE BLACK-F1CED SCOTCH SHEEP.

323

124: THE SHEPHEBD'S MANUAL.

in storms, and although completely buried in a snow-drift will
manage to push the snow from their bodies and form a cave over
them, in which they will live upon what scanty herbage may be
within their reach, until help comes. Thus buried, these sheep
have lived for two or three weeks before they have been found
and extricated After every storm the shepherd's first duty is to
explore the drifts and release the imprisoned sheep and lambs.
This hardiness fits them for their roving life upon their rocky
heather-covered pastures, the heather in part furnishing their sub-
sistence. They dig the heather from beneath the snow, or -feed
upon it when all else is covered. They are docile, and easily
handled with the help of the sagacious Colley dogs, and are gen-
erally sufiiciently able to help themselves in emergencies. Their
activity is such that the dog is sometimes unable to head off a
straying flock, or even to get abreast of it when instinctively
bound to change their abode. Three days before a storm they are
on the alert, and seek lower ground and shelter. At lambing
time, the ewes find retired spots, and year after year return to
the same locality to rear their lambs. When removed from their
native haunts, they have been known to journey night and day a
distance of 60 miles, and to swim a large river, to return to their
old pasture grounds. As ah instance of the sagacity and activity
of the sheep, it is recorded that a small flock which were thus on
the way to a former pasture ground, were obstructed by a canal
which had to be crossed. As they could not easily pass this ob-
stacle, the flock, headed by an old wether, traveled along the bank
until they overtook a canal boat which was passing along in the
center of the canal. The cunning wether sprang on to the boat
and thence to the opposite bank, the whole flock following in In-
dian file. These sheep are kept in large flocks, sometimes of sev-
eral thousand, and frequently of one to four thousand. The
lambs will survive a surprising amount of cold and hunger, and are
on their feet almost at the moment of birth. The ewes take the
greatest care of their lambs, and will remain with them for several
days, even after accidental or untimely death.

The mutton of this breed is of peculiarly fine flavor, and the
saddles are in great request. The carcass weighs about 65 Ibs., and
the fleece averages about 3 Ibs. of washed wool. The breed im-
proves easily under the care of a judicious breeder, but the natural
qualities of this sheep are such that it is fitted for a place where
no others would profitably thrire, and a change in its character
that would cause it to lose this quality would unfit it for its posi-
tion, and deprive it of its chief value. How vast the room in our

THE WELSH MOUNTAIN SHEEP. 125

exposed mountain localities, or on our unsheltered northern plains,
for such a sheep as this ; a race hardy and self-dependent, and
that would produce choice mutton, and a fleece well adapted for
rural manufactures of coarse cloths, carpets, blankets, and rugs.

THE WELSH MOUNTAIN SHEEP. — This breed is said to be one
of the indigenous races of Britain. Formerly, it probably roamed
over hill and lowland of the whole of Wales and adjoining parts
of England. Of late, more profitable breeds have usurped its
place in the cultivated lowlands, and have driven it into the re-
motest pastures or stretches of barren moor, bearing only gorse
and heather, upon the sides and summits of the Welsh mountains.
Here it has so far found a resting place, furnishing those very
small, but highly appreciated legs and hind quarters, which are
valued on the tables of wealthy Englishmen as the rarest deli-
cacies. These legs weigh about 4 Ibs., and the whole hind quar-
ters from? to 10 Ibs., and are sold at the confectioner's and fancy
grocer's shops, at two or three times the price of ordinary mutton.
A recollection of the tender sweetness of one of these Welsh legs
is apt to give a higher appreciation of these small sheep than
might be profitable for a farmer to entertain, yet it is a question
if there are not many localities amongst our mountain ranges,
where flocks of these small hardy sheep could be kept with profit.
As might be expected, these sheep are hardy and good nurses to
their lambs, rarely producing more than one, except when crossed
with improved breeds. The rams are horned, but ewes rarely
so ; their faces are white, rusty brown, speckled, or gray. The
head is small and is carried high ; the neck long ; the shoulders
low ; the rump high ; the chest narrow ; the sides flat ; and the
girth small. The average fleece yields about 2 Ibs. of wool, the
best of which furnishes the material for the valued Welth flannel,
which never shrinks in washing, and of which sheets and blankets
are made that last a lifetime. The Welsh wool is all home-spun,
and is woven at home into all sorts of clothing and domestic
goods ; the farmers and their families being wholly clothed in
woolen. The cloths are home dyed, either black, blue, or red.
The red cloth furnishes the material for the women's cloaks, which
are universally worn, and which when a French army landed on
the Welsh coast, in 1797, were mistaken by them for the red coats
of British soldiers, and ltd to their immediate and unconditional
surrender before the mistake was discovered. This race of sheep,
comparatively so puny, is a source of much comfort and wealth to
the Welsh people, and attempts to supplant it by the Cheviot and
Black-faced sheep, have so far failed. No other sheep can com-

126

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

THE SPANISH MEBINO SHEEP. 127

pete with them on their native mountain tops, and none are more
profitable on the lowland pastures, than a cross upon them of
small pure-bred Southdowns, Cotswolds, or Leicesters. The flocks
usually kept number from 50 to 500 head.

THE SPANISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN MERINOS. — The Merinos
of Spain, France, and Germany, although they now possess differ-
ent characters and habits, have the same origin. The French,
Saxon, and Silesian flocks, were all originally from Spain. The
Spanish Merino existed as a distinct race 2,000 years ago, and the
fine robes of the Roman Emperors were made from the wool of
the Spanish flocks. There is no history or tradition as to their
origin which can be accepted as reasonable by any practical
shepherd. It is probable, however, that the fine wooled
sheep, which we read of in the ancient histories, were rather
the natural product of very favorable conditions of soil and
climate by which inferior races were greatly improved, than of
any direct efforts to breed them up to a desired standard. Yet
luxurious Romans may undoubtedly have created a demand for
fine wools, which Spanish shepherds knew how to produce by
coupling suitable animals, for the art of breeding was well under-
stood in those ancient days, and many of the maxims of modern
breeders are simply reproductions of those in vogue as long ago as
the early Christian era. The finest sheep of Spain, when they
first attracted notice, were found widely scattered over that coun-
try, divided into varieties occupying distinct provinces, and those
varieties, again, were subdivided into large flocks, owned by
wealthy proprietors, each of which flocks possessed such marked
characters as would entitle it to be considered as a distinct family
or sub-variety. The system of culture by which these various
families became possessed of their special characteristics, are well
described in an essay by Dr. R. R. Livingston, which was pre-
sented to the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, of New
York, in the year 1809. It is unnecessary here to do more than to
refer to this work. It is sufficient to record the fact that, at a
very early period of modern history, Spain possessed the only
valuable flock of fine wool sheep in the world, and that all other
naturalized races of Merino, our own included, have been derived
from that country. It may be added, that to a great extent, if not
altogether, Spain has lost her pre-eminence, and breeders do not
now resort thither for fresh importations. The Spanish sheep are
estimated to number ten millions, in which are included Merinos
of the two now remaining families, the Infantado or Negretti, and
the Escurial, and various other fine and coarse wool sheep. The

128 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL.

Negretti sheep are of more interest to us than any other of the
Spanish sheep, as it is of this breed alone that any are now
brought to this country. The Escurial sheep are of little value to
us, either for breeding or crossing with our own. They are rep-
resented here by the Saxon and Silesian Merino, which have de-
scended from them, as will be hereafter explained. The Merino
cannot thrive in a moist climate. A wide range of dry, upland
pasture is necessary for them, and they do not require a very nutri-
tious herbage. Wet pastures are very unhealthful for theia, and
the liver rot and diseases of the lungs carry them off from a large
flock by thousands, in unfavorable seasons. On this account, the
Merino has not thriven in England, and it now exists and thrives
in those countries only where the climate is dry and warm, or
even hot.

THE FRENCH MEBINO.— As this variety has been imported to
some extent into the United States, and possesses some value for
crossing upon our native Merinos, or other sheep, it is important
to notice its character and peculiarities. It originated from an
importation of a flock of over 300 Spanish sheep, selected from
the finest flocks of Spain in 1786. This flock was placed upon a
public farm, for the improvement of stock, at Rambouillet, near
Paris. In the selection from various sources, it appears that the
flock was of a mixed character, but by careful breeding, through
a course of years, the differences became merged into a breed of
sheep, which surpassed its ancestors, in the opinion of its French
owners. It was in increased size of carcass and weight of fleece,
that the improvement was chiefly, if not wholly, made. In 1825
they became the largest pure Merinos in existence, with remark-
ably loose skin, and immense neck-folds. In 1842 there were
flocks of these sheep in France, whose fleeces weighed 14 Ibs. for
ewes, and 20 to 24 Ibs. for rams. At this time a flock was imported
into this country by Mr. D. C. Collins, of Hartford, Ct. The wool
of these sheep was considered by a competent judge as equal to
the best Spanish Merino wool. It was of a brilliant, creamy color,
on a rich, soft, pink skin, which was loose and wrinkled. Their
form was fine, their constitution excellent, and in size they were
much larger than the American Uerino. In 1846, Mr. Taintor,
also of Hartford, commenced to import these sheep. His rams
sheared from 18 to 24 Ibs. of unwashed wool, and ewes from 15 to
20 Ibs. The ewes weighed alive from 130 to 200 pounds, and the
rams from 180 to 300 pounds. There was much less yolk or gum
in the fleeces than in those of the Spanish sheep, and there was
consequently less loss in washing the wool.

THE FRENCH MERINO SHEEP.

129

The French Merino soon spread through the northern states,
but many breeders became dissatisfied with their tenderness,
as compared with the Spanish breeds, and they rapidly fell into
disfavor. They were not fitted for our rough farming, and re-
quired more care than American farmers are inclined to give to
their stock. The best of these animals were found, with proper
care, to be profitable, but the inferior ones were entirely worth-
less. Under such circumstances it is not surprising that they
should fall out of the race in competition with naturalized Spanish
Merinos, which, even when inferior, were still valuable, in propor-
tion to the good qualities they retained. In France the Merinos

Fig. 43. — FRENCH MEEINO.

have favorably competed with the English breeds as mutton sheep,
and it is only recently that the French agricultural journals
are beginning to compare the profits from the Southdowns with
those from the Merinos.

At the Vienna International Exhibition in 1873, the French
Merinos were largely represented, and were very favorably
noticed. The specimens there exhibited were large and well
formed, the skin was free from large folds or wrinkles, and the
wool was long, fine, strong, and thickly set on the skin. The best
of them, however, came from Germany. The ram, whose portrait
is here given, was exhibited by Herr Kannenberg, of Gerbin, near

130 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Kosternitz, in Pomerania. Its wool was 3 inches in length, very
thick upon the skin, very equal in quality, of fair strength, and
covered the legs and ears. The sire of this ram clipped 27 Ibs. of
unwashed wool, which, when washed in hot water, yielded 17 Ibs.
of clean wool. Ferdinand Schwartz, of Lappenhagen, exhibited
a French, (Rambouillet), Merino ram, whose fleece weighed, un-
washed, 31£ Ibs., equal to 15£ Ibs. of washed wool. This animal
had three neck-folds, but no "rose" or rump fold. His wool was
2f inches long, and thickly set upon the skin.

Prince Schaumberg-Lippe, of Post Stalitz, Bohemia, exhibited
some combing or delaine wool Merinos, of French blood, whose
fleeces were of the extraordinary length of 5 to 7 inches. The
yield of the whole flock, of more than 800, is said to average 14£
Ibs. per head of unwashed wool, which shrank in scouring in the
factory, 58 per cent. It is impossible • to consider the excellent
points and intrinsic merits of the well bred French Merino, and its
poor success, so far, in this country, without being forcibly remind-
ed of the lack of wisdom of a course frequently and periodically
pursued by American breeders and farmers, and nowhere more
strikingly shown than in the past experience of our sheep husbandry
with its sudden and excessive vicissitudes. The ' * ups and downs "
of this industry, every few years, is one of the strangest manifesta-
tions of unsteadiness ever recorded in any pursuit It is unfortu-
nate for us that we can hardly restrain ourselves from over san-
guine expectations on the one hand, or on the other hand, when
results do not meet our anticipations, from the utmost depression.
Being too ready to form opinions, and to act in obedience rather
to our sudden impressions than to our mature judgments, we enter
into new enterprises without consideration, and abandon them in
a panic. Thus a thing excellent in itself, and of inherent value
to us, is extolled to the skies without justice at the outset, and
then with equal want of justice, is condemned and sacrificed as
utterly valueless, because it has failed to turn all it touched into
gold. This is the history of all our agricultural manias. And the
French Merino has been made the subject of just such exalted ex-
pectations, and of just such deep denunciations. Yet there is a
place for this breed in our agriculture which it will hold and keep
at some period in the future in spite of past adverse experiences.

THE SAXON MEBINO.— In 1765 the King of Spain, on the appli-
cation of his brother-in-law, Prince Xavier, sent 300 Merinos of
the Escurial family into Saxony. These sheep, naturally the finest
wooled and the least hardy of the Spanish flocks, were so bred as
to still further increase the fineness of the fleece, and to diminish

THE SAXON MERINO. 131

their strength of constitution. The ewes yielded from a pound
and a half to two pounds of washed wool, and the rams from two
to three pounds. The wool was almost free from yolk, and re-
mained clean and white ; the staple was from one Inch to an inch
and a half in length. The body of this sheep was thin, the legs
long, the neck long and thin, the skin pale, and the constitution
weak. Yet the beauty and extreme fineness of the wool were
such (a fiber, not of the finest, measuring 1/6to of an inch in dia-
meter) that it overbore the objections to the defects of the sheep.
While this is the general character of the Saxon sheep, there are
a few breeders who have striven with success to give them more
size and greater compactness of form.

The management of the noted Saxon flock of Baron Sternberg,
from which most of our recent importations of these sheep have
been made, is worthy of note here. This flock consists of 1,200
head : 600 ewes, 100 rams. 260 lambs, and the rest wethers and
yearlings. They are kept in one large brick stable, 330 feet long,
63 feet wide, and 30 feet high ; this is well ventilated, and made
to be closed in severe weather. The ewes, rams, etc., are kept in
divisions separated by hurdles, supported by stakes driven into
the floor. In these are placed fodder-racks and feed troughs.
Above the stable are hay and straw lofts, floored with boards,
which are covered with several inches of beaten clay. The litter
and manure remain in the stable six months at a time, until it is
in a compact, solid mass, three or four feet thick. The sheep are
stabled here from November to April, and foddered on straw, hay,
turnips, and brewers' grams. In summer they are taken out to
graze from 9 to 12 in the forenoon, and from 3 in the afternoon
until sunset. Great care is taken in coupling the ewes ; those
rams being selected that are needed to cover defects or improve
weak points in the ewes. Mere fineness of wool is not aimed at.
The greatest possible size of carcass compatible with tine clothing
wool, and a fleece at least 2J Ibs. in weight, are the desired objects.
The weak and inferior Iambs are killed off when young, and the
flock is rigorously weeded of all but healthy animals. The value
of the land upon which this flock is kept with profit is $200 to
$300 an acre. The importation of Saxon Merinos into the United
States have shown that this breed cannot, under ordinary circum-
stances, profitably compete with other varieties of Merinos, on ac-
count of the cost of the shelter and extra care needed for its
proper management, and the smallness of the fleece. The supe-
rior fineness of the wool does not bring a sufficiently high price to
make up for the deficiency in weight. In competition with the

132 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

American or French Merino, the Saxon has been found unprofita-
ble for the production of wool in the present condition of the
•woolen manufacture, yet there may occur cases in which it can be
made useful at some future time, when the demand for very fine
wool may return under the influence of the changes of fashion.

THE SILESIAN MERINO. — The Silesian Merinos have become
already a successfully acclimated breed in the United States. This
breed became established through importations from Saxony as
well as from Spain. The flock out of which the only importa-
tion into America was made, became naturalized in Silesia by an
importation of Infantado and Negretti Merinos, in 1811, by
Ferdinand Fischer, of Wirchenblatt. Mr. Fischer personally se-
lected 100 Infantado ewes and 4 Negretti rams, and these sheep
have been interbred without admixture from that date to the
present. So careful has been the breeding, that since its com-
mencement over 60 years ago, the pedigree of every sheep of the
flock has been recorded. This purity of blood is one of the most
valuable characteristics of the flock in question, in which, having
acquired an offshoot from it, we are especially interested. Perfect
purity of blood gives force, or, to use the breeders' phraseology,
prepotency to the breed used in crossing on other races, and in-
sures uniformity of improvement. If this general opinion of
breeders is founded on fact, as must be admitted, then the value
of the flock to be referred to, can hardly be questioned, and it
might truly be designated as pure Spanish, instead of, by reason
of its accidental location, Silesian. As it is, however, generally
known as Silesian, and is as well entitled to that name as are the
French Merinos to theirs, it is convenient to continue its use. The
American Silesian Merinos were imported from the flock of Mr.
Fischer, by the late Mr. Win. Chamberlin, of Dutchess Co., N. Y.,
from 1851 to 1856. In all, 212 ewes and 34 rams were imported.
The ewes shear from 8 to 11 pounds of unwashed wool, the rams
from 12 to 16 pounds. The wool is from two inches and a half to
three inches long, dark on the outside, without gum, but with
plenty of oil of a white and free, but not sticky, character. The
ewes weigh, alive, from 110 to 130 Ibs., and rams from 145 to 155
Ibs. They are hardy, good breeders, and the ewes are good nurses.
After some years' experience with them, Mr. Chamberlin has
stated that they do not deteriorate, but that the wool grows finer,
without losing in the weight of the fleece. They mature slowly,
and do not reach their full size until four years old ; after eight or
nine years they become lighter in weight. The mature sheep are
as large as the ordinary American Merino. The Silesian is simply

CKOSS-BRED SHEEP. 133

a very high-bred Spanish sheep, resulting from the union of two
of the best families, and bred for more than half a century for a
particular purpose by one breeder, or what is really equivalent to
that, a father and son. The fleece is superior hi fineness to that of
any other Merino we possess, and for a really fine wool, is un-
rivalled. It is fortunate that the Silesian Merino begins its career
in America under such favorable auspices, and that the shepherd
in charge of the flock, Mr. Carl Heyne, so thoroughly under-
^stands its requirements and management. It is to be hoped that
the conservative and judicious management of this flock will help
to establish it successfully, and to launch it on a long course of use-
fulness. Rams and ewes of this flock are already being distributed
by sale throughout the country, and the original flock now numbers
over 800 head. One peculiarity in Mr. Heyne's management,
is especially noteworthy ; the lambs are yeaned very early in the
winter. This is of course a matter of choice on the part of the
shepherd, but it involves the greatest excellence of management,
and the provision of roots for the maintenance of the nursing
ewes, along with a perfect arrangement for shelter and warmth
during the winter season. It is obvious that few American breed-
ers, and still fewer farmers, would find it possible or profitable to
incur the necessary expense of this sort of management for the
amount of profit realized from the wool alone.

CKOSS-BRED SHEEP. — It is a somewhat suggestive fact that just
now the most profitable sheep in Europe are cross-bred. The
cross-bred races in England are what the English farmers perti-
nently designate the ' ' rent-paying sheep, " that is, that there is more
money in them than in any others. The cross is made between
the strictly mutton sheep and the strictly wool-bearing sheep.
The sheep raised chiefly for wool are of slow growth and late in
maturing. The high-bred mutton sheep are high feeders, and re-
quire the most careful treatment. They have been refined so
highly that they no longer possess the requisite constitution, nor
are they so prolific as to satisfy the wants of farmers who depend,
not upon the high prices obtained by breeders for their stock, but
upon those offered by the purchasers of meat and wool, who can
only give what the inexorable necessities of the markets enable
them to pay. The cross-bred sheep are of quick growth and early
maturity ; their mutton is acceptable hi the markets ; their fleeces
are of wide adaptation to woolen manufactures, and they are
easily fed and make a greater weight of marketable meat with a
comparatively small consumption of food. In Mr. Lawes' experi-
ments, related in the Royal Agricultural Journal, it was found that

134 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL

the cross-bred sheep could be fed more cheaply, for the same
weight of flesh, than the pure breeds, with but one exception,
that being the Cotswold. The same necessity to make the most
profit on the least expenditure, exists with American as with the
English, French, and German farmers, and we are discovering, as
they have done, that the cross-bred sheep bring the most money
to their owners. In England, through the operation of this fact,
there has been established for some years past a system of ram
sales, at which breeders of pure blood sheep offer their surplus
rams for sale or for hire by the year. By this means farmers are
enabled to select for themselves such breeding animals as they
may need. These sales are attended by purchasers from all parts
of Europe, Australia, and South America, and also by a few of the
more enterprising breeders of the United States and Canada, or
their agents. At the Vienna Exposition of 1873, where there were
exhibited several cross-breeds of sheep which were highly satisfac-
tory, the favorable results of this system were prominently set
forth. The most conspicuous of these was

THE COTSWOLD-MERINO. — These are fine examples of sheep.
They are without horns, with bare faces resembling the Cotswolds,
but with the pink noses of the Merino; the ears are slightly
drooping, and the top-knot shorter and less abundant than in the
Cotswold. The wool is much finer than in the Cotswold, very
bright, with good curl, thickly set on the skin, and well filled
with liquid yellow oil, but free from solid yolk or gum. The
fleece is better closed than that of the Cotswold, and is easily kept
free from dirt and dust. The flesh is firmer than that of the Cots-
wold, and thicker than in the Merino, both back and ribs being
well covered. The girth taken over the wool averages 5 feet 8
inches. The wool is scant below the knee and hock. This is the
character of the first cross. When interbred without further
crossing, this character has been well maintained. The cross-bred
animals and their produce are of strong constitution, mature
quickly, becoming prime fat at 12 to 14 months old, and weigh
alive at that age 140 to 148 pounds. The flock from which some
of the specimens exhibited at Vienna were taken, numbered 340
head, and was bred by the Moravian Sugar Factory Company, of
Keltschan, Austria. The sheep are fed upon waste beet pulp from
the factory, a small quantity of oats, hay, and oil-cake, in addition
to clover pasture and mangels, which completes the round of the
year's feeding. The mutton is held in high esteem, and brings
the extreme price of 8 cents per pound, live weight, after the
fleece is sheared.

THE MERINO CROSSES. , 135

There are many other flocks similarly bred in Austria and Hun-
gary, and all are reported as being equally satisfactory. In refer-
ence to these sheep, a German agricultural journal published in
Vienna, in its issue of June 2, 1873, remarks as follows : " We"
cannot sympathize with the complaints of the admirers of high,
fine wool, looking as we do upon the farmer as a merchant who
must keep up with the times, and supply the wants of the market.
As the public have ceased to ask for the very fine cloth which was
so highly valued 50 years ago for its beauty and durability, no one
can complain that the manufacturer turns his attention to cloths
of coarser quality, suitable to the present public taste. When the
manufacturer no longer requires so much of the high, fine wool,
the price falls, and the farmer ceases to produce an article that is
no longer profitable." There could certainly be nothing more
pertinent to our own case than this. The same need has found its
same remedy here, and the Cotswold-Merino is largely bred for
the production of market lambs, and some of our best breeders are
giving their attention to the establishment of permanent flocks of
this cross, with promising results.

THE SOUTHDOWN-MERINO. — This cross has been tried with
success ia Germany upon a middle quality of land, not sufficiently
productive to support the heavier bodied Cotswold-Merinos. The
first cross-bred sheep possess good feeding qualities, and when bred
together without further crossing, keep well up to the standard of
the parents. The Arch Duke Albrecht has a flock of 1,400 of this
cross, of which some specimens were exhibited at Vienna. The
wool is rated as middle fine, weighing 3£ Ibs. to the fleece in the
shearlings, and 3 Ibs. in the two shearlings. This cross made
upon grade Merinos, is very common in the United States, where
early market lambs are produced, there being no fatter, better, or
more desirable lambs to the butcher, although there are heavier,
than those from this cross. As in the Cotswold-Merinos, the first
cross is the best for interbreeding.

THE LEICESTER-MERINO. — This cross is a somewhat unusual
one, and does not appear to have been made with a view to the
permanent establishment of a new race of sheep, except in rare
instances where the possession of a suitable breed of Merinos and
the taste of the proprietor have been coincident. In one case only
has the effort to establish this cross been reported in any publica-
tion of wide circulation. The history of a flock of about 500 Lei-
cester-Merinos, bred by M. E. "Pluchet, of Trappes, France, given
to the Central Agricultural Society, of France, in January, 1875, is

136

THE SHEPHERD'S HAKUAL.

THE COTSWOLD CROSSES. 137

published by Eugene Gayot, the well known writer upon live
stock, in the Journal d> Agriculture Pratique, of the 27th of May
following, with a portrait of one of these sheep which is reproduced
here. The course followed by Mons. Pluchet during the 36 years
of his persevering effort is very suggestive and instructive. He
commenced in 1839 by coupling his Rambouillet Merino ewes,
weighing about 68 pounds when dressed for the butcher at 3 years
old, with a pure Leicester ram of moderate size. The effort to
produce what he wanted, by one cross only, failed. At first the
lambs were too small, and the fleece was too light. Greater suc-
cess was made by crossing the half-blood ewes with rams of
quarter Leicester blood. The produce, containing three-eighths
Leicester, and and five-eighths Merino blood, were much improved,
giving a much longer and better fleece than the half or quarter,
bloods. After continuing a course of breeding the produce of
this cross together, up to 1856, a new type of animal, entirely dif-
ferent from its ancestors, resulted. The carcass was much larger
than in the Merino, the wool was not so long as that of the Lei-
cester, but finer and softer ; the face was free from wool, and the
head was square, with large, prominent eyes. The bone was
remarkably fine ; the flesh solid, and the ewes were prolific and
remarkably good nurses; but neither the carcass nor the fleece
were sufiiciently heavy to be profitable. The ewes of this cross
were coupled with a pure Leicester ram, and the produce being
eleven-sixteenths Leicester, were again crossed with rams of three-
eighths Leicester, or of the previous cross. The sheep thus pro-
cured were 8|- sixteenths Leicester and 7|-sixteenths Merino, or
nearly half bloods. The close in-and-in-breeding of 1his cross
gave a race, of sheep that, when fed on the same pastures as the
original Merinos, produced exactly the same dead weight of meat
of superior quality at 24 months, that the Merinos gave at 36
months, and a fleece weighing 9£ Ibs. in the yolk, which sold at a
higher price per pound than the Merino fleece. Under the cir-
cumstances in which Mons. Plachet was placed, the result was
very profitable, and the new race he originated occupies a place
which neither of the original parents was able to fill. Under a
system of close breeding, without fresh admixture, the quality and
character of this flock are maintained, and the ewes continue to
be both prolific of lambs and milk, and are excellent nurses,

COTSWOLD-LEICESTER. — A very handsome cross-bred is pro-
duced by the union of the Cotswold ram with the Leicester ewe.
The fleece of this cross is of a silky fiber, beautifully waved and
curled. The wool partakes of the fineness and luster of the Lei-

- — _

140 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

\

It was found to maintain its original character perfectly, produc-
ing a sheep which yielded a fleece of wool closer and finer than
that of the Cotswold, but not so long, weighing from 11 to 13 Ibs.,
and a much heavier carcass of mutton of a quality equal to that of
the Southdown which weighed, at three years old, 150 Ibs. The
ewes are prolific, the lambs strong, healthy, and maturing quickly,
reaching a live weight of 140 to 160 Ibs. at twelve mouths. They
are found to be equally suitable to the light pastures of Long
Island, with either the pure Southdown or the pure Cotswold, and
are perfectly at home beneath the hot summer suns of our climate.
It is a coincidence which is not at all remarkable, being founded
on common necessities, that in producing this and other crosses,
the Germans and ourselves have taken up the same materials to
work with. The climates of both the United States and southern
Germany are similar ; the summers are hot and dry, and the win-
ters compel the use of preserved and dry food for a considerable
length of time. The breeds which would be suitable to the mild,
moist, and even climate of England, are not exactly adapted to
Germany or the United States, and we must hesitate to follow, or
must follow with great caution, the lead of the English breeders.
But the example or success of the Germans may be made more
safely applicable to our circumstances, inasmuch as the conditions
in both cases are similar. This coincidence is a proof of the fact,
that in working out these changes, breeders and farmers are forced
to follow certain natural laws, and that as they work in conform-
ity thereto, they succeed, but when they oppose these laws, they
must necessarily fail. It is in exact accordance with this fact that
we find it difficult or impossible to preserve, for any length of time,
the condition of sheep imported from England, more especially
of the more highly refined breeds ; but that we can easily accli-
mate their produce, or build up cross breeds which will be more
profitable and convenient for us to keep. With our wonderful
diversity of climate, soil, and surface, and with the varied demand
for staples for manufactured fabrics, there is opened a field for
the exercise of the breeder's skill in producing new races to accom-
modate these conditions, and to meet these demands, which is
hitherto unexampled in the history of agriculture. This is no
mere matter of conjecture. It has been clearly demonstrated by
experience and practice. "Wool of the cross between the Cots-
wold or Leicester rams on Merino ewes has been imported into
New York from New Zealand and Australia, for some years past,
to meet the demands of the manufacturers of delaines and other
staple goods. Our wool-buyers have been in the habit of going to

THE VALUE OF CROSS-BRED SHEEP.

141

142 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

those distant countries to select wools suitable for their needs
which they cannot procure at home. The heavy expenses involved
act as a protection to this industry here, not to speak of the pres-
ent import duty levied on foreign wools. Large quantities of this
cross-bred wool are also used in England, where it cannot be pro-
duced so cheaply as here. It would be strange indeed if we can-
not, with our vast territory, equally favorable in climate and soil
with those distant regions of the southern hemisphere, at least
compete on equal terms with the shepherds of those countries,
more especially as we enjoy an immense advantage, which they
do not, in having a market at our very doors for the mutton which
these sheep so profitably produce. In short, the production of
American cross-bred sheep offers a most enticing field for experi-
ment and labor both to the skillful breeder and the enterprising
farmer. For the first in keeping up a supply of pure bred rams,
and in improving their quality so as to meet the demand of the
farmer ; and for the latter in seeking out, selecting, and using these
pure rams on our native sheep with proper knowledge, judgment,
and skill, so as to supply the demands of our own manufacturers
at least, if not those of other countries. To do this there must be
an actual contact and interchange of ideas and experiences be-
tween the woolen manufacturer and fhe breeder and farmer, by
means of which the needs of the one and the opportunities and
duties of the others, may be mutually explained and made known.
Neither branch of our native wool industry can flourish as it
should and might without this interchange of views and the
recognition of an identity of interest.

CHAPTER VI.
WOOL— ITS STRUCTURE AND USES.

Wool in its character and structure in no respect differs from
hair. When hair is soft, pliable, and of a spiral or wavy form, it
is what we call wool. Wool, like hair, is the outer covering of
some species of animals, and is a growth from the skin. The skin
of an animal is a composite structure consisting of two portions,
the outer and insensible layer called the epidermis, and a highly
sensitive, vascular and nervous layer beneath this, called the

STRUCTURE OF WOOL.

143

derma. It is in the derma that the hair is rooted, and from it
that it is nourished. The hair, (or wool), consists of two portions,
the shaft, or that which pierces through the epidermis and forms
the outer coat or fleece, and the bulb or root which is imbedded in
the derma. The bulb of the hair is rooted in a gland called the
hair follicle, and from this it derives the cells which form the outer
surface of the hair. These cells are converted into flat scales, in-
closing the interior fibrous structure of the hair, and as they are
successively produced, they overlap like shingles on a roof, or the
scales of a pine cone, forming the imbricated coat of the hair to
be hereafter described at length. Rising into the hair bulb is the
hair germ, which furnishes the hair with nutrition, and the ele-
ments of its growth. On each side of the hair follicle is a gland
which secretes a viscid fluid. These glands, known as the sebace-
ous glands, open by small canals into the sheath of the hair. Other

Fig. 47.— SECTION OP SKIN HIGHLY MAGNIFIED, SHOWING THE GROWTH
OF THE HAIB.

sebaceous glands open independently upon the surface of the epi-
dermis. They secrete a fluid which serves to lubricate the skin,
and in the sheep supplies the oil and yolk that fill that pur-
pose for the fleece and prevent any injury to the wool by con-
tinued rubbing, or " cotting," or felting, in consequence of the
wearing and friction, while upon the sheep's back. In a healthy
skin this secretion with those of other glands, (called the sudori-

144

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

parous glands), which are situated in the derma, amount to a total
quantity which surpasses that of the evacuations from both the
bowels and kidneys.

In fig. 47 is shown the structure both of the skin and the hair,
the engraving, (from Chauveau's Comparative Anatomy of the Do-
mestic Animals), representing a section of the skin highly magni-
fied. The epidermis is shown at A, the derma at B, the hair follicle
at c, the sebaceous glands at 1, the bulb or root of the hair at 2, the
hair at 3, a fat cell at 4, a sudoriparous or sweat gland at 5, and at 6
the excretory duct of this gland, or pore of the skin.

Hair or wool is composed of three layers. The outer one, the
epidermis, is very thin, consisting of the flattened cells or scales
overlapping as previously mentioned. In wool these imbricated
scales are highly developed, and fill a most important office, giving

Fig. 48.— APPEARANCE OP WOOL WHEN HIGHLY MAGNIFIED.

to it much of its value as a material for the manufacture of cloth.
When examined by a microscope of high power,- a fiber of wool
presents the appearance shown in fig. 48. The discovery of the
serrated surface of wool which is generally attributed to Mr.
Youatt, was previously announced by M. Monge, in Annales de
Chimie, in 1795. This serrated or toothed surface confers upon wool
its felting property. When wool is carded it is torn to pieces and
mixed and twisted in every direction. The waved or curved
structure of the fiber of some qualities of wool aids in this twisting
and entangling of the fibers, (see fig. 49), and the points of the
scales projecting as so many minute hooks hold the entangled
mass together closely and firmly. Pressing, rolling, or beating

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL AND HAIR.

145

the wool together, causes it to adhere in a compact mass, in
other words causes it to felt firmly together, and the more
firmly, the more it is rolled, beaten, or worked. These scales
are very minute and numerous; in the length of one inch of a
fiber of fine Saxony wool, there are no less than 2,720 of them ; in
Southdown wool there are over 2,000, and in the Leicester wool
there are over 1,800 of them to
every inch. Upon the whole sur-
face of a fiber of Merino wool one
inch long and V75o of an inch in
diameter, there are over 23,000 of
these points. The more numer-
ous they are, and the more waved
or curled the wool, the better its
f elting quality.

The second layer, the cortical
substance, is the thickest portion of
the fiber. It also contains the
coloring matter. It is fibrous and
striped lengthways. The central
portion of the fiber consists of the
medullary substance, or marrow,
and occupies a narrow, irregular
cavity. Hair or wool is not hollow or tubular, as is frequently
supposed, but solid, and consists of these three portions. The fiber
grows from the root, and increases by addition of cells continuous-
ly formed in the follicle. It is thus seen that the growth and per-
fection of the wool depends in the most intimate manner upon
the nutrition and perfect health of the animal. An interesting
and valuable addition to the natural history of wool and hair has
recently been made through some investigation ordered by the
Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, for the purpose of
identifying the presence of sheeps' wool in manufactured goods, the
materials of which are ostensibly the hair of the cow and calf.
The investigations were made by Professors John L. LeConte and
J. J. Woodward, of Washington, D. C., with the help of a micro-
scope magnifying nearly 100,000 times, (310 diameters). The full
report of these investigators^ is published in the Bulletin of the
National Association of Worn Manufacturers, Yol. V, No. 7, 1875,
(Boston), a publication of the greatest value to intelligent wool-
growers as to all woolen manufacturers. After describing the well
known structure of hair and wool, the report proceeds : " But not-
withstanding this similarity of structure, most of the individual
7

Fig. 49. — FIBERS OP WOOL.

146 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

hairs of the cow and calf are so unlike the majority of those of
the wool-bearing animals in their size and shape, that it might
seem easy to make the distinction. They are much shorter, much
thicker at their base, taper rapidly towards the point ; the medulla
occupies a larger proportional part of the whole hair, and the free
edges of the scales of the cuticle, which are so disposed as to form
from twenty to forty imbrications to the Viooth of an inch, lie
quite smoothly upon the surface of the hairs, so that their con-
tours, as seen under the microscope, closely approximate continu-
ous lines. These characters are so well marked that the coarser
hairs of the cow and calf can readily be distinguished from the
woolly hairs of any of the wool-bearing animals. On the other
hand, however, the majority of the woolly hairs of the sheep offer
a combination of characters which are never found in the hairs of
the cow and calf ; namely, each of these hairs extends from half
an inch to several inches in length without any medulla, and
without perceptible taper. They present at frequent but irregular
intervals, well-marked, one-sided, more or less spirally arranged
thickenings of the cortical substance, which give to the wool its
curly character. The mean diameter of each hair varies from
Veooth to the Yioooth of an inch, or even less ; and the scales of the
cuticle are so arranged that their free edges project somewhat,
forming well-marked imbrications, of which usually from fifteen
to thirty can be counted in the Viooth of an inch. The fine hairs
of the goat and kid, from the Yioooth to the Yaoooth of an inch or
less in diameter, also run from half an inch to an inch or more,
without perceptible taper, without medulla, and are clothed with a
cuticle resembling that of sheep's wool, but are almost, or alto-
gether, devoid of the irregular thickenings of the cortical sub-
stance which characterizes the latter. Similar hairs are found in
certain deer, and some other animals, but never on the cow or
calf." The report is accompanied by highly finished heliotype
illustrations of samples of different kinds of hair and wool.
The chemical composition of pure, dry wool, is as follows :

COMPOSITION OF PURE WOOL.

Carbon 49.25 per cent.

Hydrogen 7.57 " "

Nitrogen 15.86 " "

Sulphur 3.66 " "

Oxygen 23.66 " "

100.00 " "

The fibers of fine wool are very closely seated upon the skin.
The pure Merino has from 40,000 to 48,000 fibers on a single

THE YOLK OF WOOL. 147

square inch ; the original coarse wooled breeds have from 5,000 to
6,000 fibers on an inch. The twentieth cross of a pure Merino
ram upon a coarse wool race had no more than 25,000 fibers to the
square inch ; this fact shows very forcibly how long a period
it may take to remove the effects of one cross, for if this state-
ment be true, the presence of only Yi,048,687, (less than one mil-
lionth part), of impure blood is sufficient to reduce the fineness of
the fleece nearly one-half. The yolk which is secreted from the
glands of the skin is an alkaline substance, partaking of the char-
acter of a soap. At its secretion it is liquid, and in some breeds
of sheep it remains in this state, moistening and softening the
fleece ; in other breeds, particularly some families of the Merinos,
the yolk thickens or dries into a sort of gum or wax of an orange
yellow color, which adheres to the wool in scales, and greatly adds
to its weight. The yolk or " suint " has been found by Dr.
Voelcker to consist of a combination of fatty acids with potash,
forming a potash soap which is soluble in water. When dried,
the yolk contains 59 per cent of fatty compounds, with some nitro-
gen, and 41 per cent of mineral matter, of which from 60 to 84 per
cent is potash. In some places this potash is profitably recovered
from the refuse liquid of wool washings. In November, 1865,
Maura ene and Rogelet communicated to the Chemical Society of
Paris, the details of their experiments on the nature of suint,
•which led them to take out a patent for the manufacture of potash
salts from this source. They showed that suint is made up of
wulral fatty salts containing much potash, but not more than
traces of soda, and rarely even that; that the soluble portion
yields on evaporation and calcination a mixture consisting mainly
of carbonate of potassium, with chloride, sulphate, phosphate, and
alumino-silicate of potassium in smaller quantities, also a little
lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron and manganese, the average
composition being

Carbonate of potassium 86.78

Chloride " " 6.18

Sulphate « " 2.83

Other substances 4.21

100.00

The yolk soluble in water forms from 20 to 22 per cent of the
weight of the fleece, and besides this, the fleece contains from 7 to
10 per cent of oil, which is not removed in ordinary brook wash-
ing unless it be in part dissolved by the action of the supera-
bundant potash of the soapy yolk. When the oil and yolk
are removed by washing, the wool becomes harsh and dry to

148 THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL.

the touch. The presence of a considerable amount of yolk in the
fleece is justly supposed to indicate a superior quality in the wool,
and -while excessive yolk is undesirable, it is a disputed point just
•when that excess begins. A fleece of Merino wool that loses one-
half in washing, can scarcely be said to have an excess of yolk.
Many breeders do not hesitate to go beyond this, and insist that
no amount of yolk can be called excessive. In this view they are
supported by the high authority of Mr. Youatt, who has said :
" farmers never bestow a thought on yolk, and neither understand
nor care about it ; this question without doubt will some day be
regarded as one of the very cardinal and essential points of the
sheep." Mr, Randall, our highest authority on fine wool, in his
work previously referred to, does not favor the production of yolk
to an excessive extent. He very justly remarks that when manu-
facturers cease to pay the same price for excessively yolky wools
as for those which are only moderately yolky, the breeding of
sheep that produce four pounds of yolk for one pound of wool,
must go out of fashion. Perhaps this matter may safely be left in
the hands of the manufacturers, who are not apt to pay for what
they do not want ; and while they continue to buy excessively
yolky wool, it will be most profitable for the farmer to produce it.

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOLS.

Wool is generally classed as short and long. It is also graded as
superfine, fine, medium, and coarse. The terms carding and combing
wools are no longer sufficiently distinctive, as many kinds of wool
are now combed that were formerly carded, and the continued
improvement of combing machinery gradually adds to the list of
combing wools. Merino wools of less than three inches in length
are now combed, as are the short wools of the Southdown grades.
It is very important for wool-growers to know exactly the wishes
and needs of the wool manufacturers, and to seek this knowledge
should be their constant aim. At present, and for some time past,
the coarse and medium wools have, in many parts of the country,
borne the same price as the finest Merino wools ; in some markets
fleeces of one-quarter and half-blood Merinos have sold for more
than those from full-blood animals. The quotations of wool hi the
New York Mercantile Journal of July 29th, 1875, were as follows:

NEW YORK, MICHIGAN, AND INDIANA WOOLS.

Super Saxony fleece ." , . .50c.(

Full blood Meriuo .50c.(

i to t blood Merino 48c.<

Common fleeces 45c.<

Combing wool

VALUE OF MEDIUM WOOLS. 149

OHIO AND PENNSYLVANIA WOOLS.

Choice Saxony fleece XX 50c.@53 c.

Full blood Merino X : 4&c.(3)50 c.

$ blood Merino 50c.@54 c.

i blood Merino 45c,@47ic.

ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, AND IOWA WOOLS.

Super Saxony 45c.@50c.

Full blood Merino 45c.(o)50c.

f blood Merino 46c.(o)50c.

The demand of manufacturers is clearly for medium wools, the
3 reduce of half-bloods or grade Merinos, or of crosses of Merinos
with Southdowns. The chief difficulty in wool-growing is the
tendency on the part of farmers to run in a crowd upon the same
variety and quality ; at one period it will be fine wool, at another
combing wool, and often they are led to breed without knowledge
or judgment. A great variety of wools is needed to meet the de-
mands of manufacturers, and .when a farmer has become possessed
of a flock of the right sort, his best course is to keep to it, and not
change because a temporary decline in his class of wool discour-
ages him for a season. In addition to these grade Merino wools,
there is a constant and increasing demand for combing wools for
worsted and coarse fabrics.

Combing wools are those fitted for a process known as combing,
which consists in drawing out the fibers so that they are straight
^nd parallel, the shorter portions of the wool called " noils " being
removed by the operation. The fibers are then spun into worsted
yarns ; the ends of the fibers being covered in the spinning, these
yarns are smooth and lustrous. In carding, the fibers are placed
in every possible position with regard to each other ; the ends
projecting from the yarn, form a nap hi the woven fabric which
covers and hides the threads. Carding wool must therefore be
short and full of curls ; combing wool, on the contrary, needs to
be long and free from curls and of a bright and lustrous surface.
Long Merino wools, although they are combed for making fine
cloths without nap, and for delaines, cashmeres, coburgs, and other
dress goods, are not designated combing wools, but as delaine
wools. Common flannels require in their manufacture the coarsest
common native wools up to medium Merino wools. For fine
flannels, fine to the finest wools are used; for blankets, the most
ordinary native wools, " noils," medium Merino wools and South-
down and grade Southdown wools are used. For shawls, all
grades of Merino wools, up to picklock, are used ; some fleecy
varieties are made of worsted combing wools ; felted cloth skirts
and other goods are made of the lowest grades of wool, but the

150 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

finer kinds, as piano and table covers, are made of medium Merino
wools. Knitted goods, such as undershirts, vests, drawers, hose,
etc., require a great variety of wools from the lowest qualities up
to the high grades of Merino ; certain fancy varieties requiring
the finer kinds of combing wools. Fancy cassimeres, meltons,
beaver cloths, and overcoatings, require chiefly medium grades of
Merino wool, a small quantity only of the finer grades being re-
quired for the best qualities. For mixing with shoddy, which is
an extensive manufacture, the finest and longest Merino wools are
found the most profitable, as such wool carries the greatest quan-
tity of the short fiber of the substitute. Ladies' cloths, cloakings,
and thin dress goods require fine long Merino wool ; the finest
and longest Merino wool is used for men's fine worsted coatings.
Serges, moreens, alpacas, lastings, mohair lusters, furniture dam-
ask, reps, bunting for flags, webbings of all kinds, sashes,
picture cords, tassels, and soft goods, such as nubias and shawls,
braids and bindings, are all made of the long combing wool
of the Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, or their grades.
For various carpets, coarse Texan or Mexican and California
wools are used, and similar grades of foreign wool known as Chili
and Cordova carpet wools. This enumeration indicates as closely
as need be, what kinds of wool the American farmer may grow
with safety and without risk of wanting a market. Considering
that the imports of wool of many of the grades mentioned, and of
the recapitulated woolen goods, amount every year to fifty mil-
lions of dollars or over, there would certainly seem to be no danger
that the farmer will lack a profitable market for any kind of wool
he may find it convenient to grow.

PURE AND GRADE MERINO WOOL.

It will be noticed how large a proportion of the foregoing man-
ufactures derive their material from the Merino, either directly in
its pure state, or indirectly as grades or cross breeds. Some infor-
mation as to the character of the Merino wool, and the tests by
which superior breeding animals may be known and selected for
the improvement of native sheep, will therefore not be out of
place. The character of a Merino fleece may be judged by the
following tests, viz :

Strength of Fiber.— This is indicated by the amount of grease in
the wool, abundance of oil or yolk indicating a healthy condition
of the animal. The first sign of disease is a change in the charac-
ter of the secretions, and the skin being the chief secreting organ
of the body, it is there that the change may be soonest noticed.

HOW TO JUDGE WOOL.

151

The moment the health of the sheep fails, the growth of the wool
is arrested, along with the secretion of the oil or yolk, and the
continuity of the strength of the fiber is destroyed to the great
reduction of its value.

Fineness. — In a perfect fleece, the wool should be equally fine
over the whole body ; coarser wool may be looked for, if any-
where, on the top of the shoulders and the rump, and a weaker
quality on the breast and belly. The finest wool is but V13oo of
an inch in thickness, ordinary wools YTBO to YSSO of an inch in
diameter.

Curl. — The curl of the wool is very important. This is the
waved or crimped character of the fiber which in the perfect wool
consists of minute bends or crimps. There should be a perfect
regularity in these waves, which ought not to be so abrupt as to
appear as folds. In very fine wool there should be at least 30 of
these waves to the inch in length. (See d, e, fig. 49.)

Thickness. — This quality refers to the closeness of the fibers
upon the skin. A pure Merino should have from 40,000 to 48,000
fibers upon every square inch of its skin. The weight of a fleece
must necessarily depend on this characteristic.

Closure of the Fleece. — The closure of the fleece on its outer
surface is of great importance, for the reason that a well closed
fleece is im-
pervious to
dust and dirt
which would
otherwisefind
its way into
the wool and
injure its
quality. The
closure is ef-
abundance of yolk

Fig. 50.
focted by the

Fig. 51.

which gathers at the ends of the
wool, and mats the fibers together.
The viscid gum gathers dust, that
coats the fleece with a black surface, which feels to the hand
as a firm crust. When the crust is pressed the elasticity of
the fleece is at once perceived. Upon parting the fleece to inspect
the wool, the experience or ignorance of the operator is at once
perceptible. He should grasp the fleece at the points of the fibers
with the fingers and thumbs of both hands, and part the surface

152

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Fig. 52.

Fig. 53.

gently, exposing the wool to the skin. The wool, on opening the
fleece, should appear beautifully white and glossy, or rich yellow
or orange colored, according to the style of the sheep. The fleece
is then closed carefully without allowing any dust to fall down
into the opening. The appearance of the open fleece should be
banded with varying colors of light and darker yellow or orange,
as in fig. 50, or when opened, as
a cup in fig. 51. .A well closed
fleece will exhibit a surface as
shown at fig. 52, and a badly
closed one will appear as at fig.
53. The well closed fleece is di-
vided into small sections, which
are tabular or flat and smooth
upon the surface ; when the fleece is uneven in length, it cannot
close well, and a few fibers only are matted together ; the surface
is then dotted and not smooth ; this forms the defect known as
" toppiness" The defects in wool may be enumerated as follows :

" Stripy " or Watery Wool, generally shows itself in inferior ani-
mals on or near the shoulder, where the best wool ought to be.
The wool subject to this defect is devoid of those beautiful natu-
ral curves or waves which are characteristic of really good wool.
When compressed in the hand, it has no elasticity, and handles in
a dead and lifeless manner, more like flax than wool. Such wool
is only fit for making inferior goods. This defect is a sure
proof of impure blood, and no sheep exhibiting it should be bred
from.

Toppiness is not of much importance as affecting the quality of
the wool, but it indicates a defect in the breeding of the sheep. It
has already been described. When this defect, however, extends
to a matting together of the wool at the ends of the points, a
quantity of noils are made in working the wool, and there is a
waste. When toppiness is found in the fleece of old sheep, it be-
comes a more serious objection, as it is quite possible that a lamb's
fleece may be toppy by reason of uneven growth in its early life,
and after having once been shorn, the defect may not reappear.

Broad-topped Wool is seriously defective, and very decidedly
reduced in value ; no animal having this defect should be kept in
a flock having any pretentions to character for excellence. It
consists in an interlacing of the ends of the fibers which are split
from the top downwards. The fleece appears in good condition
superficially, with a good even top, but the surface is divided into

DEFECTS OF WOOL. 153

broad masses or " tops," and when one endeavors to part these to
examine the wool, the mass is found to be almost felted together,
and must he torn apart. This matted wool is dead, and breaks off
in the process of manufacture, causing very great loss of material.

Felty Wool is that which has a tendency to felt together on the
sheep's back. The defect is caused by an absence of yolk, and in
highly yolked sheep, by a continued wet season, which washes
the yolk from the fleece. It is a direct result of low condition
from poor feed, or of chronic ill health. Some sheep are consti-
tutionally subject to "felty wool," and should be weeded out of
the flock.

Cloudy Wool is that which adheres together from the bottom of
the fleece upwards, but not in so great a degree as in felty wool.
A flossy appearance is discovered at the bottom of the staple,
which is removed by the comb. In clothing wools this is not so
objectionable as in combing wools ; in the latter the floss is thrown
out and becomes waste. This is also a constitutional defect, and
sheep so affected should be weeded out of an otherwise good flock.

Kemp is very easily detected, and although it may be found in
but a few spots at first sight, it indicates that it exists all through
the fleece. It consists of coarse, white hairs, projecting from the
surface of the fleece, on the face, the forearm, the inside of the
flank, and in rams on the scrotum also. Whenever it is apparent
in these places, it will invariably be found through the greater
part of the fleece, chiefly on the whole of the belly, half-way up
the sides, on the rump, thighs, and shoulder. In these places,
short white hairs will be found in the staple, at the roots of the
wool ; and as these hairs will not take any dye, they injure the
fleece for the manufacture of dress goods or fine cloths. Kemp
lessens the value of the wool nearly or quite one-half, and should
make a breeding animal worth no more than its weight as mutton.
On some heavily wrinkled Merino sheep, these kempy hairs may
be seen on the edges of the wrinkles, and on the back of the head,
but nowhere else. But it is even then a fatal objection to such
sheep as breeders, for this is kemp, and may appear in all the pro-
duce of such sheep, and there can be no certainty but some of the
produce may be badly affected.

Break in wool renders the fleece absolutely worthless for any
combing purpose, and however fine the staple, or otherwise good
in quality, it can only then be manufactured into a class of goods
for which inferior wool is used. It is exactly what its name im-
plies. When a breachy staple is taken and stretched, it parts with

154 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

great ease at the middle or some portion of its length. There
is a weak spot, and if the fiber is examined with a microscope, it
will be found very much attenuated at that spot, and of a dull,
dead appearance. From what has been already said about the
structure and growth of wool, it will be easily understood that
when by bad management, neglect, starvation, overfeeding, irreg-
ularity in feeding, want of water, or any other evil which affects
the condition or health of the sheep, the growth of the wool is
temporarily stopped, even for a day, this suspension of growth
must inevitably be marked by a weakness in the fiber, which can
never be remedied. As the wool grows, this weak spot is carried
forward, and if the evil is soon removed and the sheep recovers
quickly, it is still there and there it remains. No defect is so fre-
quent as this ; to avoid it, the flock must be kept with perfect
regularity, and must receive no check for however short a time it
may be. This involves the most skillful and careful management,
which is unfortunately too rare. Regular poor feed may make an
inferior staple, but one worth more than a breachy staple, which
may result from one single neglect in the course of a season. Want
of water causes more break in wool thr.n any other evil to which
sheep are subjected by careless owners or ignorant shepherds.

Uniformity in the fleece covers many minor defects, and to de-
termine the evenness or uniformity of the fleece, the shoulder is
first examined. Here the finest and best wool should be found.
Taking this as the standard, the wool from the ribs, thigh,
rump, and breech, is compared with it ; the nearer the latter ap-
proaches this in quality, the better. If it is all equal in fineness,
the fleece will be " even " in regard to fineness. If the wool on all
the parts mentioned is reasonably regular in length, and near to
the standard in this respect, the fleece is " even" as regards length
of staple. The density is then tested. The hand is closed upon a
portion of the rump and on the loin, and if the fleece is found to
be as dense and elastic or springy on those parts as it is at the
shoulder, the fleece is " even " as regards density. A perfect fleece
will be found of nearly equal fineness from the shoulder to the
thigh; of nearly equal length at the shoulder, rib, thigh, and back;
of equal density on the shoulder and across the loins, and free
from any of the defects before mentioned.

Most of the points here indicated, both as regards defects and
good qualities, refer to other wools as well as to that of the Meri-
no; those points which depend on the peculiar character of
Merino wool and its excessive yolkiness will be readily understood
as necessarily applying to that alone, and those which depend on

WASHING WOOL. 155

the organic structure of wool and the condition of the sheep, to
all sorts of wool alike.

Wool in its natural condition contains many impurities, dirt of
all kinds, sand, dung, and the usual secretions of the skin, and be-
fore it can become fitted for the uses of the manufacturer, it must
be freed from these impurities. The wool-buyer, who generally
comes between the farmer and the manufacturer, does not demand
that the wool should be thoroughly cleansed, but only freed from
its grosser impurities. No washing that the farmer could give
his fleeces would be sufficient for the purpose of the manufacturer,
who scours the wool in hot soapsuds before he can cleanse it suffi-
ciently. But nevertheless, the buyer prefers the fleeces to be
partly cleansed, and this partial cleansing is what is generally
known as " brook washing."

WASHING THE WOOL on the sheep's back is the usual practice.
There are several methods of doing this. Where a brook or river
can be used for the purpose, all that is needed is to choose a place
where the water is waist deep, and the bottom is gravelly. A
muddy or sandy bottom is to be avoided, as it will be impossible
to prevent some of the bottom from being stirred up and mingling
with the fleece. Cases have been known in which such a bottom
has been chosen for this purpose with the special object of adding
to the weight of the fleece by the admixture of sand. It is hardly
necessary to say that this mode of cheating can never be profita-
ble ; if one lot of fleeces thus adulterated be palmed off upon the
buyer, his remedy may be a severe one, and at the best the cheat
will not be forgotten. Generally, however, buyers are not to be
imposed upon, but look sharply enough after their own interests
to discover all attempts at dishonesty, and to make the perpetrator
pay soundly for his error. In washing and making up wool, the
most thorough honesty will be found to pay well in the long run,
and a reputation for fair dealing will often be found to have a
direct money value, especially when the market happens to be
against the seller.

Soft water is to be preferred for washing wool. Hard water
leaves the wool harsh and dry to the hand, and detracts from its
appearance in the market. Soft water leaves the wool soft and
mellow, and it more rapidly recovers it? tone and elasticity when
washed in water free from lime. The ground having been chosen,
the sheep should be closely penned upon the bank of the stream ;
the side of the pen next the stream should be narrow, with a pas-
sage-way leading to the water. A plank platform, projecting over
the bank, from which the sheep can be plunged directly into the

156 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

water, is very convenient. The washers enter the stream and re-
ceive the sheep from the hands of the drivers, plunging them
bodily beneath the surface, two or three times. - In catching the
sheep and handling them in the water, the assistants should avoid
pulling the wool. If a sheep is hauled around by the wool, the
skin is bruised, and, the wool is injured and weakened at the
bruised spots. To catch a sheep it should be seized with the right
hand by the hind leg above the hock, firmly with the whole hand,
yet without unnecessary violence. The pressure upon the sinew
above the hock joint paralyses the leg for a
moment, and the sheep will rarely struggle.
The left hand is then slipped around the
breast, and the shepherd has perfect control
of the heaviest sheep, without pulling in the
least upon the wool. A crook, fig. 54, is a
convenient implement with which to catch
wild or unruly sheep. It is quietly passed
in front of the leg, which is seized and held
while the shepherd secures the sheep in the
way described. After the sheep is thorough-
ly soaked, the animal's head is held above
water, while the fleece is shaken and squeezed,
so as to free it from dirt. As many as pos-
sible of the tags and matted locks around
the breech should be opened and cleansed.
When this has been done, the sheep is
passed to another washer, who finishes the
washing, and directs the sheep to the bank, squeezing the water
from its fleece as it emerges from the stream. A clean, grassy
bank should be chosen. Some long wool sheep, with heavy fleeces,
which hold a great quantity of water, may need some help to get
upon their feet as they reach the bank. Ewes that have not
lambed should be handled carefully in the washing, although it is
rarely, in well managed flocks, that ewes are allowed to be in lamb
at this time.

This method of washing is often very disagreeable and injurious
to those who practice it. Where ague is prevalent, or where
rheumatism is feared, it is better to choose some other plan. A
rough dam may be made in a small stream, and a spout placed in
the dam. beneath which the sheep may be washed. A sparred
roadway may be laid across the stream, through which the water
will escape. By wearing rubber thigh boots, and a rubber apron,
the washers may be kept dry, and avoid the danger of long con-

WASHING THE SHEEP.

157

tinued exposure to chilly water. In fig. 55 is au illustration of
this method of washing. For a large flock, the spout may be
made to extend across the whole dam, so that several sheep may
be washed at the same time, each sheep being passed from hand

Fig. 55. — ARRANGEMENT FOR WASHING SHEEP.

to hand, until finished by the last one. With sufficient help, one
sheep per minute may easily be washed by this method. After
the sheep are washed, they should be kept in a clean field, and in
a clean yard at night, for the week at least before shearing, to per-

158 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

niit the fleece to dry and to regain sufficient yolk to recover a soft
and mellow handling.

TAGGING AND TRIMMING THE FEET.— If the sheep are very
dirty, and have not been kept trimmed about the tail, it is advisa-
ble that they should be tagged before they are washed. The
coarse soiled tag-locks about the hinder parts, and the belly of the
rams and wethers, may be clipped off in the spring and thrown
into a basket or barrel to be soaked and washed by themselves.
The same time will be the most convenient to trim the feet, which
is a more necessary thing to do than is generally supposed. The
toes of old sheep, upon soft pastures, will grow long and turn up,
and cause lameness, or the soles and edges of the hoof will become
ragged and worn, the horn turning under at the edges. In this
condition the feet gather filth or small stones and gravel, which
work into the hoof and cause disease. Foot-rot is in many cases
thus engendered. The feet should then be trimmed at washing
time, if not oftener. A sharp knife may be used to pare the ragged
edges of the hoof and the sole, and toe nippers to shorten the toes.
A pair of common wire-workers' cutting nippers may be used for
the latter purpose. The edge of the nippers should be filed sharp,
with the bevel on the inside, and brought to a smooth edge with
a piece of oil-stone.

SHEAKING. — Sheep should not be shorn until the weather has
become warm and settled. May is the usual time for shearing in
the northern states. The tools of the shearer are a pair of shears,
and if desired, a shearing-bench upon which sheep may be placed
to avoid the necessity of his stooping so much as is required when
the sheep are laid upon the floor. The common shears with a
thumb piece upon one side, and an easy spring no stronger than
will be sufficient to make the shears open freely when released
from pressure, is the best tool for the shearer. Several new and
patented shears have been introduced, which the inventors claim
may be used even by inexperienced persons without danger of
cutting the sheep's skin. A trial of these shears does not support
this claim, and the common shears are not yet superseded by any
of these so-called improvements. The shears should be brought
to a fine, sharp edge upon a fine oil-stone. The bevel of the cut-
ting edge should be about 35 degrees, or somewhat more than that
of a common pair of scissors, and less than that of a plane iron.

The floor of the shearing room should be kept perfectly free
from straw, chaff, or litter, and if a boy is kept constantly at work
with a broom hi his hand removing dirt, tags, and rubbish, his

SHEARING. 159

time will be well employed. The shearer has better control over
the sheep when on the floor than on the bench, and the handling
is not the same under both circumstances. In shearing on a bench
the shearer catches the sheep by the left hind leg, backs it towards
the bench, and rolls it over upon it. He then sets the sheep on its
rump, and standing with his left foot upon the bench, lays the
sheep's neck across his left knee, with its right side against his
body. The two forelegs are then taken under the left arm, and
the fleece is opened up and down along the center of the belly by
small short clips with the shears. The left side of the belly and
brisket are then sheared. The tags are clipped from the inside of
the hind legs and about the breech, and thrown upon the floor.
They should be swept up at once and gathered into a basket, and
by no means allowed to mingle with the fleece wool. The breech
is then shorn as far as can be reached. The wool from the point
of the shoulder is then clipped as far as the but of the ear. The
wool is shorn around the carcass and neck to the foretop, pro-
ceeding down the side, taking the foreleg and going as far over
the back as possible, which will be two or three inches past the
back bone. When the joint of the thigh, (the stifle), is reached,
the shears are inserted at the inside of the hock and the wool shorn
around the leg back to the thigh joint. The wool over the rump
is then shorn past the tail. The sheep is now completely shorn
on one side, and two or three inches over on the other side, along
the back from neck to tail. It is then taken by the left hind
leg, and swung around with the back to the shearer, leaving
some wool beneath the left hip, which will ease the position of the
animal, and keep it more quiet. The wool is then shorn from the
head and neck down the right side, taking the legs and brisket on
the way. The fleece is now separated. The job is completed
by clipping the tags and loose locks from the legs.

To shear on the floor, the sheep is set upon its rump, with the
head thrown back beneath the left arm of the shearer, and its
back toward him. The wool is then opened at the neck, and
clipped downwards in regular lines on the right side from belly to
back, and over the spine as far as possible on the other side in
much the same manner as has already been described. The sheep
is then laid on its shorn side, and the shearer, kneeling on the left
knee, and straddling the sheep, with the left foot laid over the
sheep's neck, removes the fleece from the left side, and finishes
by removing tag locks from the legs and scrotum. In bad shear-
ing, the greatest injury to the fleece takes place on the back, and is
caused by the operator .not raising his hand, so as to keep the

160 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

points of the shears close down to the skin. This is known
as " cutting through ; " it takes place when the sheep is being
shorn on one side ; and, in shearing over the back, the points of
the shears cut nearly or quite through the fleece, from the inside
to ths out ; then, when the animal is being shorn on the other, or
" turning out " side, the shears are again pointed upwards, and the
cuts on the first and last side overlap each other, causing the fleece
to part in two halves all along the back. No good shearer makes
second cuts; the fact that wool has been left by the first cut
proves that the shears have not been held properly ; and the wool
removed by a second cut being perfectly useless, entails a severe
loss on the manufacturer, and greatly lowers the repute of the
brand in the markets. Cutting through, and a habit of continually
making second cuts, are the most objectionable characteristics of
the unskillful shearer. A sheep may be shorn so close as to satisfy
the most exacting employer, and yet it may be shorn very badly ;
and the only conclusive test of good shearing, or the reverse, is to
be found not on the outside of the animal, but on the inside of the
fleece.

"When the sheep's skin has been unavoidably cut in shearing,
each cut should be smeared with tar, which will prevent flesh flies
from depositing their eggs in the wound, and probably avoid after
trouble.

It is said to be a fact that newly shorn rams are incapable of
breeding until their fleeces have recovered considerable growth.
Some evidence in support of this assertion is given in a pamphlet
published in Australia, in which the author, Mr. J. B. Graham, the
superintendent of an extensive sheep "station" on the Murray
River, states that in a flock of 4,000 ewes and 100 rams newly
shorn, he had but 165 lambs, and on another occasion a flock of
100 ewes, which were drafted with 4 rams, newly shorn, produced
only 9 lambs. On another station when the ewes were coupled
with newly shorn rams, there were not 5 per cent of lambs. This,
if a fact, is more curious than important in this country, where,
except in California, sheep are not shorn near the breeding season.
If wool were not shorn, it would be shed annually, or its growth
would be rendered uneven, and its fiber weakened at the season
when the coat of an animal covered with hair is usually shed. A
fleece that is suffered to grow for two seasons, shows very dis-
tinctly the division between the growth of each year. This, how-
ever, occurs only in those countries where the winter and summer
climates differ considerably, and where the transition from one to
the other is sudden. Where the climate is nearly even throughout

TYING FLEECES.

161

the year, as ir. California or Australia, the fleece will continue to
grow on, without change. At least this is the case with the Meri-
no, whose fleece has been known to grow to a length of 22 inches
in a continuous period of six years hi Australia. In California a
fleece was shorn in 1874, which weighed 52 pounds; this was
doubtless the result of two or three years' growth. The retention
of the fleece for an indefinite period is a peculiarity of the Merino,
which is not known to appertain to any other variety of sheep.

PACKING THE FLEECE. — The manner in which the fleeces are
made up has no little influence upon the price at which the wool
will sell. Wool buyers prefer to have the fleece loose, light to

£. 56.— TABLE FOB TYING WOOL.

handle, and elastic ; and tied up so that it can be easily opened if
need be. The method of packing in Ohio and Western Pennsyl-
vania, is to lay the fleece upon a table, turn in the head and tail,
then the flanks, and roll it up in a neat roll, tying it with a string
at each end. This method is shown in figure 56. Sometimes the
fleece is tied with one more string across the ends, but this is
rarely necessary, excepting when the wool is very short. A fleece
thus tied is light, easily handled, shows the quality of the wool,
and can be felt all through. The effect of the manner of putting
up the fleece is seen in the following quotations taken from the
wool market report of Coates Bros., Philadelphia, of July 1st, 1875.

162

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Ohio, Pennsylvania, and "W. Va. fleece 50c.(_

New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin fleece, XX..46c.(g
Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri fleece, XX 45c.(

The difference of 4 to 5 cents per pound is the value of the extra
care in making up the fleeces. The difference is even greater than
this, for New York, Michigan, andWisconsin wools of better qual-
ity than some Ohio
wools, are bought
at the regular rates
quoted, simply be-
cause the Ohio
fleeces come to
market in better
shape. This is no
unreasonable dis-
tinction, as will be
seen when the man-
ner of sorting wool
is explained fur-
ther on.

There are various
kinds of wool tables
for packing the
fleece other than
that shown in figure
56. One hi common

Fig. 57. — PLAN OF WOOL TABLE.

use in New York is thus described in the American Agriculturist
of May, 1872, with the accompanying engravings, to which the
letters refer. It is made of three boards one inch thick, and
twelve inches wide.
The center one, fig.
57, is divided at
equal distances at
a, a, and connected
with hinges open-
ing upwards. The
two outside boards
are joined to the
center square by
hinges at b, ft, 5, b, Fi^ 58--WOOL TABLE CLOSED-

also opening upwards. At c, c, c, c, screw on the springs, cutting
away the wood underneath so that they may lie flush with the
boards when pressed down. At d, e?, d, d, make a cut one inch deep

PACKING WOOL.

163

with a thin saw, to hold the ends of the strings. A hook is made,
(e, fig. 58), of hard wood, one inch thick and fourteen inches be-
tween the jaws, and the box is done.

To use it, first fix the strings from the cuts d, d, d, d, in the di-
rection of the dotted lines on fig. 58. Lay the fleece with the

clipped side down-
wards on the
boards, bring up
the sides, which
secure by placing
across them the
hook, as in fig. 58 ;
then close the ends,
which the springs
will keep in their
places ; tie the ends
of each string tight-
ly over the wool;
then remove the
hook, and the box
will fall back, leav-
ing the fleece tight-
ly packed and tied.
Nothing should
be tied up in the
fleece, nor should
coarse twine nor too
much twine be used.
All tags and waste
wool should be
scrupulously kept
out of the fleece, as
it should not only
look good, but
should be good.
This observing of
little things is one
of the ways in which wool growing is made a profitable business.
Tag locks and dirty wool should be washed in a tub with soft soap
and cold water and sold by itself. The soft soap tends to give tub-
washed wool a mellow handling free from harshness.

When the grower ships his wool to a distant market, he necessa-
rily packs the fleeces hi bales. The bale should be solidly packed

Fig. 59.— PACKING WOOL.

164 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL*

both for economy in freight, which in light bulky articles, is
charged according to bulk and not by weight, and for the better
condition of the fleeces on their arrival at their destination. A
convenient method of baling the fleeces, is to hang the sack from
a trap-door in the wool loft, as shown in figure 59. The fleeces are
handed or thrown to the packer, who places them in the sack,
pressing them down close with his bare feet, and, as he reaches the
top, with his knees ; a handful of tags is put in each corner of the
sack and tied tightly to make a handle by which the package can
be hauled about in its transportation to market. When filled, the
bale should be plainly marked with the exact weight, tare, and
net weight, upon one of its sides.

SORTING. — When the wool reaches the dealer, it undergoes a
process of sorting. The same fleece contains wool of various de-
grees of fineness, and it must be prepared for the manufacturer,
who purchases only exactly what he needs for his particular use.
The fleece is unrolled, and the sorter selects the fine locks from
the coarse ones; the neck, shoulder, and side wool from the thigj,
and haunch wool ; and this from the belly and breech wool. Each
fleece is sorted into from six to ten different qualities, which are
selected by the sorter with surprising quickness and certainty. A
well rolled fleece is much more quickly handled than one made up
disorderly, and the saving of the time of a highly paid workman,
is of itself sufiicient to enhance the value of a well packed fleece
over that of an opposite character several cents a pound.

The final disposition of the wool, after it has reached the manu-
facturer, is not within the limits of this book, although the vari-
ous processes of scouring, dyeing, oiling, plucking, carding, comb-
ing, breaking, drawing, roving, spinning, reeling, and weaving,
are all of the greatest interest to the wool grower, as relating very
intimately to his share of the general industry, and showing how
far the best management of his flock goes to ease the labors, and
facilitate the operations, of the numerous artisans concerned in all
these various branches of the manufacture, and consequently
adding to the value of his raw product. The perfection of the
various processes cannot be better illustrated than by the facts
that in only ordinary spinning, a pound of wool is made to extend
three-fourths of a mile ; in superfine spinning, it stretches to a dis-
tance of 22 miles; and that the very finest woolen yarn hitherto
spun, will reach a distance of 95 miles for every pound. Fifteen
hundred fibers of the finest wool laid side by side will cover only
one inch of space, and 2,225,000 of them placed compactly to-
gether, will make a bundle only one inch square. How much evil

WOOL PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD.

165

then may the ignorance or carelessness of the shepherd or the
wool-grower, work to the possible benefit to the world through
this industry, by reducing the value of a staple upon which so
much of the labor of mankind is expended.

The wool production of the whole world is estimated by Mr. H.
C. Carey, at 1,800,000,000 Ibs. This estimate is rendered proba-
ble by comparison with the estimates of the production of those
countries of which we have more or less accurate knowledge
through official reports. An estimate of the number of sheep and
pounds of wool produced in the following countries in 1866,
made by the London Statistical Society, and published in their
journal, here reproduced. To this is added in the last column
the number of sheep mentioned as existing in those countries
in the official reports ef their governments published since that
date :

TABLE OF SHEEP AND WOOL PRODUCTIONS OF THE FOLLOWING
COUNTRIES IN 1866.

COUNTRIES.

Millions
Sheep and
Lambs.

Millions
Ids. Wool
Produced.

Years.

Mllions
Sheep and
Lambs.

Great Britain

34.1
37.4
1.7
8.4
10.0
45.3
1.6
1.7
1.9
25.3
1.0
0.6
30.4
22.1
11.0
16.6
0.4
2.5
32.8

160.0
152.2
6.1
28.8
38.0
90.8
6.1
6 4
7.0
52.1
6.2
3.5
91.2
74.4
24.8
31.1
1.3
7.6
117.6

1873
1874
1874
1874
1865
1863
1871
1865
1871

1871
1866
1872
1865
1867
1871
1867
1873
1874
1872
1872
1863
1867
1872

29.4
45.0
1.5
11.6
9.8
45.1
1.6
1.7
1.8

.8
.5
24.0
22.0
11.0
20.0
0.4
2.5
*34.0
1.5
.5
2.0
.3
2.4

Australia

New Zealand

Cape of Good Hope

Russia

Sweden

Denmark

Holland

Italy

Austria, including Hungary
Switzerland rr.

Greece y '*• r

United States

Wurtemberg ... ...

Bavaria =

Portugal

Total

289.0
not include

964.6
;d.

* Lambs

It will be noticed that this list is unfortunately very imperfect,
and that those countries only are mentioned whose product enters
into commerce, and which is published in government reports, and
is therefore more easily figured up by the statistician than that of
such countries as the states of Northern Africa, Asia, and South

166

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

America. The average weight of fleece, the relative value of the
wool per pound (in American dollars and cents), and the yearly
income from each sheep, in wool, is given in the following table :

TABLE OF THE PBODUCE AND PRICE OF WOOL AND YEA.RLY
VALUE OF THE FLEECE IN THE FOLLOWING COUNTRIES IN 1866.

COUNTRIES.

Pounds
Wool

per SJieep.

Price per
pound of
wool.

Annual
Revenue
per sheep.

Great Britain

4.7

.25

1.17

Australia

4 1

37

1 51

Tasmania .

3 5

38

1 33

3 4

27

90

Cape of Good Hope

3 2

33

1 05

2 0

21

42

3.7

.19

.68

Norway •..

3 7

17

62

3 7

23

85

2 1

.41

85

Holland

6 0

19

1 14

6 0

18

1 08

France

3 0

.18

54

Spain

3 5

41

1 45

Italy

2.2

.21

.46

1 9

38

72

Switzerland

3 0

18

54

3 0

14

42

United States

5 4

40

2 16

General average...

3.6

.26

.94

The most striking item in the above comparison is the greatly
larger annual revenue derived from each sheep in America than
elsewhere. When we take into account along with this, the lower
price of our lands, the American shepherd will be seen to have a
far more profitable business than that of any other sheep owner in
the world. Much of this advantage is doubtless due to the higher
prices received by the wool-grower through the operation of the
protective duties levied upon foreign wool. Some of it is cer-
tainly due to the greater weight of the fleece consequent upon the
improvement which has been made in our sheep. With two ex-
ceptions the average weight of American fleeces is the highest in
the list. But by far the greater advantage exists in the higher
comparative price of wool, which is only exceeded very slightly in
two instances, those of Spain and Germany, and in these countries
the bulk of the wool is of the finer sorts which bear a high market
value. The benefit accruing to wool-growers by the present tariff
is unmistakable, and although this is not the place to discuss the
question, it continuance would certainly seem to be very desirable.

The following table gives the number of sheep, (omitting lambs),
enumerated in the decennial census reports of the United States
for the years named :

NUMBER OF SHEEP IN THE UNITED STATES. 167

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

1870.
Number.

241,934
803
161,077
2,768,187
120,928
83,884
1,901
22,714
604
26,599
419,465
1,021
1,568,286
1,612,680
855,493
109,088
936,765
118,602
434,666
129,697
73,560
1,985,906
132,343
232,732
1.352,001
2,024
22,725
11,018
248,760
120,067
619,438
2,181,578
463,435
4,928,635
318,123
1,794,301
23,938
124,594
826,783
714,351
59,672
580,347
370,145
43,063
552,327
1,069,282
6,409

1860.

Number.

1850.
Number.

370,156

202,753
1,088,002

117,107
193
18,857
40
30,158
512,618

769,135
991,175
259,041
17,569
938,990
181,253
452,472
155,765
114,829
1,271,743
13,044
352,632
937,445

2,355
376
310,534
135,228
830,116
2,617,855
546,749
3,546,767
86,052
1,631.540
82,624
233,509
773,317
753,363
37,332
752,201
1,043,269
10.157
included witli
332,954

371,880

91,256

17,574

174,181

27,503
150
23,311
560,435

894,043
1,122,493
149,960

1,102,091
110,333
451,577
177,902
180,651
746,435
80
304,929
762,511

384,756
160,488
377.271
3,453,241
595,249
8,948,92-9
15.382
1,822,857
441296
285,551
811,591
100,530
3,262
1,014.122
1,310,004

Virginia.
124,896

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Connecticut

Dnkota

District of Co umbia

Florida

Idiho

Illinois

Indiana ..

Iowa

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland ,

Massachusetts.

Michigan

Mississippi

Nebraska

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina

Ohio . .

Rhode Island

South Carolina

Texas

Utah

Virginia

West Virginia

Wisconsin

Total..

28,477,951

22,471,275

21,723,220

The increase since the last census, (1870), in the western states
and territories, is very great. For instance, the estimated clip of
wool in California, as reported by Messrs. E. Grisar & Co., of San
Francisco, for the three decennial periods named, and for 1875,
was as follows :

1854 175,000 Ibs.

1860 3,055,325 »«

1870 30,072,660 "

1875 43,532,323 "

168 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

"While some of this very great increase will result from the rapid
improvement in the character of the sheep, yet there is neverthe-
less reason to suppose that the number of sheep in California now
reaches at least 5,000,000, which is nearly double the number of
1870.

In Colorado, persons engaged in the sheep industry, estimate
the flocks to amount to about one million ; and in the neigh-
boring territories of Dakota, Wyoming, New Mexico, and Arizo-
na, this industry has become so wonderfully developed during the
past five years, that a reasonable estimate would give the whole
present number of sheep pasturing upon those plains as at least
2,000,000, where in 1870 there were little more than 120,000. The
profitable character of the business of rearing sheep upon these
magnificent and costless pastures, is tending to still further attract
the attention of stock men and capitalists, who are establishing
flocks in almost every available portion of these territories. A
business in which capital used with care and skill returns a profit
of 75 per cent, cannot fail to become developed with rapidity in
so favorable a locality. What the limit of the productive capacity
of these broad pastures may be, it would be hazardous to attempt
to prognosticate.

CHAPTER VII.

THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP; ITS DISEASES
AND THEIR REMEDIES.

GENERAL VIEW OF ITS ANATOMY.

The structure of the sheep more nearly resembles that of the
ox than any other of the domestic animals. It possesses a less
degree of nervous energy than the horse, ox, .or pig, but it is capa-
ble of enduring greater extremes of heat and cold with less incon-
venience, and possesses a more vigorous digestion than those ani-
mals. The most of its nervous energy is expended on its diges-
tive and assimilative functions, and the least proportion upon its
sensitive and locomotive organs. None of our domestic animals
so completely digests coarse fodder, or so thoroughly and profita-
bly turns the most nutritious food into flesh and fat as the sheep.

THE BOKES. 1G9

In this respect it is the most valuable and profitable feeder the
farmer can make use of ; at the same tune no other animal is so
feeble and defenseless, nor so soon succumbs to disease of a debil-
itating or exhausting character. Its circulatory system being
weak, it is on the other hand comparatively free from inflamma-
tory diseases, to which the horse and ox are especially subject.

This peculiarity of the character of the sheep may be inferred
from a view of its skeleton, fig. 60, in which the small space occu-

— SKELETON OF THE SHEEP.

pied by the heart and lungs, is very marked in comparison with
the large abdominal space which gives ample room for the diges-
tive organs. The bones of the sheep number 226, including 32
teeth. These bones are disposed as follows :

Vertebral column .................... .................. 43

Head, (without teeth) ................................. 28

Teeth, (in the adult) ................................... 32

Thorax or chest ........................................ 27

Shoulders ...... ..... ............. .................... 2

Arms and forearms ..................................... 6

Fore feet, (20 in each) .......... ........................ 40

Pelvis ................................................ 2

Thighs and legs ................... 8

Hind feet, (19 in each) ................................. 38

226

The structure of the head of the sheep is such as to secure great
strength. In horned sheep, the upper portion of the skull is more
strongly built than in the polled or hornless ones. This structure
is necessary to protect the brain from the shocks consequent on
the mode of warfare of the rams, which are pugnacious annuals.
8

170

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

and especially of those which are armed with heavy horns. The
skull consists of two tables or plates, half an inch or more apart,
the outer thick and tough, the inner hard and brittle. These
plates are connected by ridges of bone, which divide the space
between them into compartments called sinuses. This, structure
gives the skull exceeding strength and ability to resist blows and
punctures by sharp substances. The bones of the head are joined
together by sutures or dove-tails, which are also conducive to ex-
treme strength. In this manner the brain is protected, and the
horns are provided with a solid and elastic foundation. The form
of the head is shown in figure 61, in which 1 is the occipital bone ;
2, parietal bone ; 3, core of right frontal
bone ; 4, the left core covered by its horn ;
5, superciliary foramen ; 51, channel des-
cending from it ; 6, lachrymal bones ; 7,
zygoma ; 8, nasal bones ; 9, supermaxili-
ary bones ; 10, premaxiliary bones ; 101,
its internal process; 11, incisive opening.
The cavity which contains the brain is
less than a third the size of the rest of the
skull, the larger portion being devoted to
the functions of eating and smelling.
The space devoted to mastication is large,
and the space occupied by the nostrils,
which are the breathing passages, rela-
tively small. Most of the bones of the
face are hollow, and are divided into sev-
eral sinuses and cells by which the head is rendered light and
strong. The sinuses and cells are lined with membranes which
secrete mucus, and are therefore called mucous membranes. The
inner cavity of the skull is lined with several membranes which
still further add to its strength, and to the security of the brain.
The teeth of the sheep consist of incisors or cutters, and molars or
grinders. There are 8 of the former, all being upon the lower jaw,
and 24 of the latter. Upon the upper jaw, in place of cutting
teeth, the sheep has, in common with most of the ruminants, a
cartilaginous plate or cushion, upon which the teeth of the lower
jaw impinge when the mouth is closed. The sheep has no canine
teeth or tusks. There is a long space of the jaws on each side be-
tween the incisors and molars, which is destitute of teeth. The
milk teeth, or deciduous or temporary teeth of the sheep, are
twenty in number; the eight incisors on the lower jaw, and three
molar teeth on each side of both jaws or twelve in all. The two

Fig. 61.— BONES OF A
KAM'S HEAD.

THE TEETH. 171

central front teeth appear either before or soon after birth, and in
about three weeks after birth, the whole of the twenty temporary
teeth appear. The first change in the teeth occurs at the age of
three months, when the lamb cuts a permanent molar tooth. The
next change, also occurs at the back of the mouth, when at nine
months old, another, the second permanent molar tooth appears.
At one year old the lamb has but eight permanent teeth, or two at
the back of each side of each jaw. The age of fourteen months is
marked by the appearance of two permanent incisor teeth at the
center of the front of the jaw. In judging of the age of a sheep,
the condition of the molars may be studied with advantage. If a
sheep is certified to be not exceeding one year old, and the fifth
molar, (the second permanent one, and the last one on each jaw), is
found to be sharp on the edges and but slightly worn, the age may
be regarded to be properly stated, even though the central pair of
front teeth have already appeared. But if these teeth are well up
and the last molar is ^ orn and smooth, and there is a space be-
tween this tooth and the angle of the jaw, the sheep is certainly
over a year old. The sixth molar tooth is in its place at the age
of eighteen months, and this is the only test of this age of the
sheep. The second pair of front teeth, one on each side of the
first pair, appear at twenty-one months of age, and at two years
are fully grown and stand well up from the gum and level with
the first pair. After the sixth molar is cut, the three forward and
temporary molars are replaced by permanent teeth, which are
fully grown at the age of twenty-Seven months. At two years
and a half the third pair of front teeth have become fully grown,
although in some forward sheep of the quickly maturing breeds,
these teeth may appear at two years of age. Generally they indi-
cate an age of two years and a half. At the age of three years, in
the Cotswolds and other forward breeds, the fourth and last pair
of front teeth appear; but in other breeds they are not present
until three and a quarter or three and a half years. The sheep is
then what is known as " full mouthed." The following table of
the periods of dentition will be found useful in determining the
age of a sheep :

At one month, 8 temporary front teeth and three temporary molars on
each side of each jaw.

At three months, a permanent molar is added to these three.
At nine months, the second permanent molar appears.
At fourteen months, two permanent incisors appear, (as a, a, fig. 62).
At eighteen months, the third permanent molar appears.
At twenty-one months, there are four permanent incisors, ( a,a, fig. 63).

172

THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL.

At twenty-seven months, the temporary molars are changed, and per-
manent ones appear.

At thirty months, there are six permanent incisors, (a, a, fig. 64).

At thirty-six to forty-two months, there are eight permanent inci-
sors, (a, a, fig. 65).

It has been decided in an English court of law, that a lamb be-
comes a sheep when the first pair of permanent incisors have ap-

Ct

Fig. 62. Fig. 63.

peared. When the mouth is full toothed, the sheep is considered
as mature, or full grown, when the teeth begin to show signs of
wear, the sheep is " aged."

The composition of the bones of the sheep and of the marrow
con tamed in their cavities differs in no respect from that of the
bones and marrow of other domestic animals. Bone consists of
animal matter and earthy salts ; usually in the following propor-
tion, viz : phosphate of lime, 55 per cent ; carbonate of lime, 4 per
cent ; phosphate of magnesia, 3 per cent ; soda, potash, and com-

Fig, 64.

Fig. 65.

mon salt, (chloride of sodium), 3 per cent, and 35 per cent of gela-
tine. These proportions differ to some extent with the kind of
bone, its solidity, and the age and condition of the animal from
which it is taken. The bones of the skeleton are joined together
by means of cartilages, or ligaments, which form what are known
as articulations. Where the bones move one upon another, their
ends, or the parts brought in contact, are covered with cartilage.
Every bone is enveloped in a highly sensitive lining or membrane
called the periosteum. Although the bones seem to be solid and
insensible matter, chiefly composed of earthy salts, yet they are
highly sensitive, and are formed of tissue which is penetrated by

THE STRUCTURE OF BONE.

173

an infinite number of minute canals known as the Haversian canals
which are from y2oo to Vasooth of an inch in diameter. These canals
are parallel to the length of the bone, and frequently communicate
together, forming an intricate net-work, which may be seen when
a section of the bone made lengthwise
is highly magnified, as shown in figure
66. In a cross-section of the bone
these canals appear as at fig. 67, being
surrounded by concentric layers, a,
through which radiating tubes, 5, of
the minutest size, penetrate.

The periosteum is a highly vascular
and nervous membrane which covers
the entire bone, except the cartilagi-
nous surfaces which move upon each
other at the joints. It connects the
outer surface of the bones with the
tendons, ligaments, and muscles.

The marrow is a fatty, pulpy sub-
stance, which fills the central canals
and the spongy tissue of the bones. It is pink in color, and
contains merely a trace of fat in young animals, but as age ad-
vances, it becomes yellow and less solid, and contains 96 per cent
of fat. The bones are penetrated and lined within and without
with numerous arteries, veins, and nerves. Some of these arteries
penetrate the bones by appropriate openings, and divide into
branches which form a net-
work that lines the inner
surface of the bones, and
another that penetrates the
substance of the marrow.
Other arteries penetrate the
spongy portions of the
bones, and others form a
net-work which belongs to
the periosteum, and which

Fig. 66.— THE HAVERSIAN

CANALS.

O

Fig. 67.— CROSS-SECTION OF BONE.

enter the substance of the

bones by means of the

Haversian canals. Veins accompany these arteries, and are

very numerous where the spongy tissue is abundant. Nerves are

abundant in the marrow and the spongy tissue, but few in the

compact tissue. Portions of the vertebra are remarkable for the

numerous nerves they contain. By means of the arteries and

174 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL.

veins, the bones receive nutriment and means of growth or repair,
and by means of the nerves they become sensitive.

The skeleton or frame work is clothed with flesh or muscular
tissue. The muscles consist of bundles of fibers which possess the
power of contraction when excited by sensations communicated
by the nerves. The muscles are very diversified in shape, some
being spread out in fan shape, some being thick and bulky, and
some long and thin. The fibers are intermingled with fat or with
cellular membrane. It is in the abundance of the cells which con-
tain the fat, and in the power to assimilate food to supply the fat,
that a sheep of a good breed or character is distinguished from one
of a poor or bad character. The abundance of fat cells both within
and upon the surface of the muscles gives the soft mellow hand-
ling which distinguishes an excellent mutton sheep. The muscles
are either directly connected by the ends of their fibers to the peri-
osteum or covering membrane of the bone, as in the scapula or
shoulder blade ; or the ends are gathered together closely and in-
terlaced with the stronger fibers of the tendons or ligaments which
are attached to the bones. By the contraction of the fibers of the
muscles and tendons, the movements of the joints are made. In
the muscular portions of the sheep consists the whole value of the
carcass to the butcher, and the whole art of the breeder and
feeder of those heavy-bodied breeds, known as mutton sheep,
is concentrated in the effort to increase the muscular development
in those parts of the carcass, as the loins and legs, the meat of
which is most highly valued. The muscles are enclosed hi the
skin which forms the covering of the animal. The protecting coat
of the animal grows upon the skin. This is either hair or wool,
both being of similar construction and composition, differing only
in form or degree of fineness and texture.

The brain occupies the cavity of the skull, and is the central seat
of sensation and intelligence. From it proceeds the spinal marrow,
which is a continuation of the brain, and which occupies a cavity
through the center of the spine or backbone, from the head to the
tail. The brain is largely supplied with blood by means of the
carotid arteries, and the jugular veins serve to return the blood
from the brain to the heart and lungs. In the sheep the brain is
very small as compared with the size of the body, its average
weight being but 4£ ounces, while that of the dog is 6| ounces.
This difference in the development of brain reasonably accounts
for the superior intelligence of the shepherd dog, one of which
easily controls and guides the movements of a thousand sheep.

The nerves proceed from the brain and spinal cord, and pen)

THE VITAL FUNCTIONS. 175

trate in a net- work of the most astonishing fineness to the remot-
est portion of the body, every portion of which, however minute,
being endowed by the nerves with the faculty of sensation. In
the sheep there are forty pairs of nerves, ten of which proceed
from the brain, and thirty from the spinal cord. Each of these has
its plexus, or system of branches and net-work. The nerves con-
sist of bundles of white filaments or threads. The different senses,
sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch, are supplied by the nerves,
which proceed directly from the brain. Another important brain
nerve is the par vagum, or pneumo-gastric nerve, which proceeds
to the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, and the bronchial or breathing
apparatus. It is this nerve which gives the breathing, circulating,
and digestive organs their power of motion independent of the
will. Any injury or disease of this nerve affects these vital func-
tions, and its division or destruction occasions instant death. The
spinal nerves convey both sensation and motion. The spinal cord
of the sheep weighs one ounce and three-quarters.

The vital functions of an animal are respiration, circulation, and
digestion or nutrition. By the first the system is supplied with
oxygen, which is one of the sources of animal heat and is the agent
by which the blood is purified. By the second, the tissues or
living structure of the animal are supplied with nutriment and
relieved from dead and used up matter, and by the last the blood
is replenished with fresh supplies of nutritive elements.

Respiration commences at the moment of birth and continues to
the moment of death. It consists of an inspiration or in-drawing
and an expiration or out-forcing of air. The motions necessary
to these alternate actions are made by the diaphragm, a membrane
which divides the chest from the abdomen. When this membrane
is relaxed it is convex or rounded towards the chest. "When its
fibers contract, it is straightened or flattened, and of course en-
larges the cavity of the chest and causes a rush of air to fill the
enlarged space. This alternate contraction and relaxing of the
muscles of the diaphragm cause the motion of the chest, which is
observed in breathing. A corresponding movement is also made
in the abdomen, as may be noticed in the flanks of hard driven
animals. The lungs occupy the largest portion of the cavity of
the chest, and enfold the heart. They are two in number, the
left and the right ; the left lung is divided into two parts, called
lobes ; the right is divided into four lobes, of which one is curved
around the heart. Fig. 68 shows this peculiarity, 1, 1, being the
right lung ; 2, 2, the left : 3, the trachea or windpipe ; 4, the heart ;
5, the carotid arteries ; and 6, the vena cava, or great vein which

176

THE SHEPHESD'S MANUAL.

carries the blood which has circulated through the body to the
heart, from which it is forced to the lungs for purification. The
lungs are composed of a spongy, highly elastic mass of cells.
"When the cavity of the chest is enlarged by the contraction of the
diaphragm, this elastic mass swells and fills the cavity. The cells
enlarge, and vacuums are formed in them to fill which a stream of
air is immediately directed. The air
rushes through the nostrils into the
trachea or windpipe, and thence into
the bronchial tubes, which penetrate
the mass of the lungs in all direc-
tions, as the branches and twigs of a
tree. By these bronchial tubes, air
is carried into every portion of the
lungs, where it meets the blood
brought thither from every extremity
of the body by means of the vena cava
through the heart. In this contact
the blood, loaded with impurities,
and deprived of the oxygen which
is needed for the support of the
body, parts with its load of offensive
matter, and takes up from the air
whatever oxygen it requires to re-
store it to a state of purity, and to
enable it to fulfill the functions of
circulation once more. The air having performed this office, is
expelled from the lungs by the relaxing of the muscles of the
diaphragm, and is expired. The expired air is highly charged
with carbonic acid and vapor of water, nearly the whole of its
oxygen having been absorbed by the blood. It is also charged
with other products of the constant decomposition or waste of the
tissues of the body, or of unnecessary matters which have entered
the circulation through the digestive organs.

Circulation consists in the constant motion of the blood from
the heart through the arteries to the inner and outer surface of
the body, and through every tissue of which the body is composed ;
thence back by the veins to the heart ; thence to the lungs, where
it is purified and fitted to again serve for the nutrition of the body ;
it is then sent from the lungs to the heart to start again upon its
round to the extremities.

The blood is the most important part in the system of an animal.
It consists of a white fluid colored red by very small globules,

Fig. 68.— THE LUNGS EN-
VELOPING THE HEART.

THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 177

called the blood corpuscles. From the blood the tissues of the
body derive materials for their nutrition, growth, or repair, and
for their secretions. The blood is replenished with new matter
from the digestive organs, which dissolve and prepare the food
for this purpose. To carry on circulation, an apparatus is pro-
vided which consists of the heart, the arteries, the capillaries which
form the connecting link between the extremities of the smallest
branches of the arteries and those of the veins; the veins; the ar-
teries of the lungs ; the lungs with their capillaries, and the veins of
the lungs. There is thus a double circulation as it were, which
may be readily understood by a reference to the diagram, fig. 69,

in which C I) represents
the left auricle of the
heart, which forces the
blood through the arteries
E, in the direction of the
arrows to the fine net-
work of the capillaries;
then to the veins F, and
Fig. 69.— DIAGRAM OF THE oiEOULATioN. thence to the right auricle

of the heart, A B. From

this it is forced through the right ventricle which opens from the
right auricle into the pulmonary artery G, still following the course
indicated by the arrows, into the net-work of the capillaries of the
lungs, from which it is conveyed by the pulmonary vein Ht into
the left ventricle, whence it passes to the left auricle, on the same
course over again. The heart is a mass of very strong muscular
fiber, having the four cavities just mentioned, and being supplied
with valves which regulate the flow of the blood. The muscles of
the heart contract and expand with regularity, performing what
we usually term its " beats," four times or thereabouts for every
inspiration of the lungs. In a young sheep the heart beats 80 to
90 times in a minute ; a full grown one, 70 to 80 times, and in a
very old one, 55 to 60 times. At each contraction the blood is
forced through the arteries and their branches to the capillaries.
These capillaries are exceedingly small, being from y20oo to Yseooth
part of an inch hi diameter, and inosculate or join together again
and again, forming a net-work of the closest character, so close
that the finest needle cannot penetrate the skin or membranes any-
where without wounding one or more of them, and causing an
escape of blood. While circulating in this net- work of capillaries,
the blood gives up to the tissues amongst which it circulates, the
materials needed for their growth and increase, and also to sup-

178 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

ply the waste of matter caused by every mechanical movement of
the animal; for every contraction of the fibers of the muscles
causes a decomposition and destruction of some portion of their
substance. Hence is explained the waste of matter or loss of
weight caused by excessive exertion or insufficient food. Here
the blood also absorbs the dead, used up matter created by this de-
composition and destruction of tissue, and carries it off from the
system. This it does by means of the skin, the kidneys, and the
lungs, through which the blood is filtered as it were of matters
useless to the system by means of these capillaries ; and the excre-
tions of perspiration both sensible and insensible, that of the urine,
with some others, are thus thrown off. In this manner the blood
becomes depleted of its nutritive properties, and absorbs the wastes
of the system in its intricate course through these infinitely small
capillaries. It enters them from the arteries a bright red, and
leaves them a dark, blackish purple fluid. It courses onwards
through the veins loaded with impurities, to the lungs, which it
enters still a dark fluid ; here it passes through a second set of
capillaries much finer than the former, in which it is exposed to
pure air contained in the cells of the lungs ; the carbonaceous mat-
ters it contains come in contact with the oxygen of the air, and are
decomposed, burned in fact, giving forth the heat needed for the
continuance of life ; when the blood thus rendered pure, leaves
the lungs a bright red once more, again fitted to fulfill its func-
tions. Before entering into the lungs, the blood receives a new
supply of matter from the lymphatic vessels, called lymph, which
is derived from the digested food. The vessel which conveys the
lymph or chyle, is called the thoracic duct, and passes upwards
into the cavity of the chest in close contact with the vertebrae or
spine. The temperature of the blood of the healthy sheep is 100°.
The blood is now believed to possess vitality ; while its circulation
exists it is fluid, and when it is dead it coagulates. The cause of the
coagulation of the blood is not known, and there is a difference
between its coagulation in and out of the body. If a part of the
body be wounded, the blood which escapes from the divided ves-
sels, coagulates between the edges of the wound, forms a clot of
organized material, throws out new vessels, and gradually restores
the wounded parts. It is this coagulating property which saves
the life of a wounded animal and directly leads to recovery ; if
the blood remained fluid, the least wound would cause a flow
which would not stop until the vessels were empty and the animal
dead. The constituents of the blood are exactly those of flesh.
Digestion is the process by which food is taken into the body,

DIGESTION. 179

masticated, dissolved by the stomach and intestines, and rendered
fit for absorption by the lacteals and lymphatics, and assimilation
by the blood. The parts concerned in digestion are the lips, teeth,
and tongue, the salivary glands, the gullet, the stomach, the intes-
tines, the liver, the lacteals, and the thoracic duct which connects
the digestive process with the direct function of circulation and
nutrition. The lips are used by the sheep in gathering its food,
very much as they are used by the horse, and to a much greater ex-
tent than by the ox. The sheep's lips are thin, and very active in
their movement. The upper lip is divided by a groove, or fissure,
so that each half can be moved independently of the other. The
sheep possesses no muffle or broad space between the nostrils on
the upper lip, which in health secretes a liquid which appears in
small drops upon its surface, as in the ox. The teeth have been
already described. Their office is well known. The tongue serves
to convey the food to the teeth, and from the teeth to the gullet,
and also the cud from the gullet to the teeth. The salivary glands
secrete a fluid which moistens the food during mastication, and
which also possesses some of the character of a solvent, or a pre-
paratory digestive agent, in being able to convert starch into solu-
ble dextrine and sugar, and thus prepare it for digestion by the
stomach. The glands are three in number, and are named the
parotid, the submaxillary, and the sublingual. The first is situated
at the outside of the angle of the lower jaw ; the second is placed
on the inside of the lower jaw, near the angle ; and the third is
beneath the tongue. Ducts from these glands give out the saliva
naturally whenever the membranes of the mouth are excited by
the presence of food ; or unduly, as in some diseases which cause
an excessive secretion of the fluid. The gullet conveys food or
drink from the mouth to the stomach. The pharynx is the upper
part of the gullet, by which it is connected with the mouth. It is
separated from the larynx, the entrance into the windpipe or air
passage, by a cartilaginous lid called the epiglottis, which, when
food is swallowed, closes the larynx and allows the food to slide
over it. The pharynx, gullet, stomach and intestines, together
form what is termed the alimentary canal. The gullet, also called
the oesophagus, is a very strong, muscular tube, lined with insensi-
ble white membrane. The fibers of the muscles run spirally
around the tube, in opposite directions, and thus cross each other.
By the contraction of these muscles, gradually extending down-
wards, food is carried into the stomach ; while by their contrac-
tion in an upward direction, the food is brought back to the
mouth to be masticated the second time in the process of rumina-

180

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Fig. 70. — RIGHT SIDE OF THE
STOMACH.

tion. The food taken up by the lips and ^eeth is ground and
mixed with saliva in the mouth, passed backwards by the action
of the tongue to the gullet, and then forced into the stomach.

The stomach of the sheep consists of a large irregular sac or pouch,
divided into four compartments, generally referred to as distinct
stomachs, or the first, second, third,
and fourth stomachs, (see figs. 70, 71,
and 72), or the rumen or paunch,
seen at 6; the reticulurn or honey-
comb, c ; the omasum or manyplies,
d-, and the abomasum, or rennet, or
true digestive stomach, e. The gul-
let is seen at a, and the duodenum at
/. The functions of the stomachs
of the ruminating animals are known
only somewhat obscurely. Anatomy
only teaches their form and charac-
ter, and leaves all the rest hi doubt,
or to be decided by experiment and
observation. From the structure of
the stomachs we are able to form a generally complete idea of the
process of digestion which goes on within them ; of some of the
details there is nothing certain as yet to offer. The first two
stomachs are placed parallel to each other, and the gullet ends
almost equally in each, as seen at a
in fig. 72, which shows the inside
formation of the stomachs. The
second stomach, c, communicates
with the third by the oesophagean
canal, g, which opens into the third
stomach, (not seen in figs. 70 and 71),
and ends there. The fourth stomach
is connected with the third by a
distinct opening. The paunch, &, is
the largest compartment, being four
times the capacity of the other three
together. It is divided into four in-
complete compartments by muscular
walls, and is lined with a membrane covered by a multitude of soft
pillars compressed closely together, which make an uneven surface.
The second stomach, c, is lined with cells having five or six sides
from which it takes the common name, the honeycomb. These
two compartments, or stomachs, are in reality one, the latter being

Fig. 71.— LEFT SIDE OF THE
STOMACH.

THE STOMACH. 181

simply an appendage of the former. The cesophagean canal which
leads from the second stomach to the third, performs a very im-
portant function in the act of rumi-
nation, or it is supposed -with reason
so to do, as will be explained further on.
The third stomach or " manyplies,"
in the sheep the smallest of the stom-
achs, is lined with a number of leaves
or folds, placed lengthwise, by which
the surface is greatly increased. The
fourth stomach joins the third, and
communicates with it by an opening
immediately opposite to the O3sopha-
gean orifice. The fourth stomach is
lined with a membrane which secretes Fig. 72.— INTEKIOR OF THE
the gastric juice, the true digestive STOMACH.

solvent. It opens directly into the duodenum or small intestine.

Rumination, or chewing the cud, is a process which distinguishes
a class of animals, known as ruminants, from all others. For the
performance of this process the complicated stomach above de-
scribed is provided. To understand this important alimentary
process, it is necessary to ascertain first, into which of the stom-
achs the food passes after its first mastication ; second, in what
manner and by what process the food is rejected by these stom-
achs and returned to the mouth for a second mastication ; third,
to which of the stomachs is the food finally transmitted for com-
plete digestion.

Some careful experiments, by the French physiologist, Flourens,
have to a great extent determined these questions ; and the com-
parative anatomist, Chauveau, has summed up the functions of the
stomachs of ruminants as ascertained from every modern source
of information as follows :

1st. The rumen is a sac in which the food swallowed during
feeding time is held in reserve, and is softened, and whence it is
ed to the mouth during rumination.

The reticulum partakes of the functions of the rumen, to
•which it\)lays the part of an accessory or reservoir ; the food con-
tained hi it being always diluted by a larger quantitjr of water.

3rd. The czsophagean canal carries into the omasum the food
swallowed the second time, or after rumination, or even those por-
tions of food which the animal swallows in wry small quantity and
in a finely divided or softened condition the first time.

182 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

4th. The omasum completes the maceration or reduction of the
food to a sufficiently fine condition for digestion, by pressing it
between its leaves.

5th. The abomasum is the true digestive stomach, and finally
dissolves the food by its gastric secretion.

In these processes the cesophagean canal performs a peculiar func-
tion. The ordinary food of the ruminating animal is coarse in
texture, aud when swallowed is bulky. When it enters into the
stomach and meets the opening of the oesophagean canal, it forces
open, by its bulk, the muscular lips of which the opening is com-
posed, and drops partly into the first, and partly into the second
stomach. M. Flourens has satisfied himself, by careful experi-
ments upon a living sheep, that when the animal ruminates, a por-
tion of the food swallowed previously and now contained in the
first and second stomachs — which are really one— is forced by a
contraction of the stomach into the oesophagean canal, and this then
contracting, closes all the other openings except that of the gullet,
and at the same time compresses the morsel of food into a pellet or
ball, which is immediately forced by the upward muscular con-
traction of the gullet into the mouth. When it has been chewed
and mingled with the copious secretion of saliva which takes place
during rumination, it is again swallowed. Being now softened
and in a semi-liquid condition, it passes over the lips of the open-
ing of the canal, without forcing them apart, into the second
stomach, and enters the third stomach ; a small portion of it only
escaping into the first and second stomachs. When fine or semi-
liquid food is first swallowed, it follows exactly the same course,
the same being true of water when drank. From the third stom-
ach the food passes on to the fourth stomach to be finally disposed
of. It has been found that the pellets of food, returned to the
mouth for rumination, are of the precise size, shape, and form of
the portion of the oesophagean canal between the first and third
stomachs. Sheep have been dissected with these pellets ready
formed in the canal for transmission to the mouth.

The intestines of the sheep are of great length, being twenty-
eight times longer than its body. In the duodenum, which is the
upper portion of the intestines that directly communicates with
the lower orifice of the stomach, the partially digested mass of
food undergoes still further changes. As it passes from the stom-
ach it is termed chyme. In the duodenum the chyme is mingled
with the bile, which comes from the liver, and the pancreatic juice,
a secretion of the pancreas, or " sweet-bread," and becomes fitted

THE LIVER. 183

for absorption by the lacteals which communicate with the intes-
tines. It is now termed chyle, and is a white milky fluid which
enters the thoracic duct and mingles with the blood as previously
described. The refuse and insoluble portion of the food, with un-
used portions of the bile pass on through the lower intestines, and
is discharged by the rectum as dung.

The liver is a large organ with the appearance of which almost
every person is familiar. It is called a gland, because its office is
to secrete a fluid which is peculiar to it, and it is the largest gland
in the body. Its secretion is called the bile. Its position in the
body is below the diaphragm and adjacent to the stomachs, with
the third of which it is in direct contact. It is enveloped in the
peritoneum or membrane which covers and also encloses the whole
of the contents of the abdomen, and forms as it were a sac or bag,
one-half of which is doubled into the other half. The liver hi sub-
stance is granular, consisting of grains, or lobules, from one-tenth
to one-twentieth of an inch in diameter. Its color is reddish
brown. The lobules of which it is composed are closely packed,
and are held together by fine tissue and a net-work of minute
veins and ducts. Each lobule is connected with a blood vessel at
its base, and another vessel comes from the center of the lobule
and joins the former one at its base. Between these two is an
exceedingly fine net-work of capillary vessels similar to those pre-
viously described. By means of arteries and veins called portal
canals, which enter and ramify through the substance of the liver,
the blood is carried into and through the substance of each lobule
in streams of exceeding fineness. From the blood thus passing
through the lobules, the gall or bile is secreted by small cells not ex-
ceeding Vioooth of an inch in diameter, and is collected into minute
vessels called biliary ducts, from which it is gathered into larger
ducts, which pour their contents into the great bile ducts. There is
a receptacle in the liver of the sheep known as the gall-bladder, to
which the gall is carried from the hepatic duct by another duct
named the cystic duct. When the gall contained in the gall-blad-
der is required for use, it returns by the same duct into the hepatic
duct, and thence into the great bile duct which ends in the duo-
denum, below the stomach.

The gall is an alkaline fluid of composite character, containing
soda, two peculiar acids, (glycocholic and taurocholic, the latter of
which contains sulphur) ; mucus ; cholesterine ; stearic, oleic, and
lactic acids, with potash and ammonia, and a peculiar coloring
matter. It is in fact a sort of liquid soap. The bile is poured
into the duodenum by the great bile duct. Near this duct is

18-4 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

another from which flows the secretion of the pancreas or
sweet-bread. This fluid is slightly alkaline and very similar to
the saliva. Its office is supposed to be to change the un dissolved
starch in the chyme into sugar, and to form an emulsion with the
oil or fat of the food, and prepare it for absorption directly into
the blood or into the lacteals. The office of the gall is to neutral-
ize the acidity of the chyme derived from the gastric juice, which
is an acid fluid, to assist in the transformation of starch into su-
gar, and the absorption of oil or fat. It is the chief agent in
changing the chyme of the stomach into the chyle, which is the
perfected source of nutrition of the blood. The perfect action of
the liver is therefore absolutely necessary to the sustenance and
the life of the animal. The quantity of gall secreted by the liver
of the sheep every twenty-four hours is from 3 to 5 pounds. The
whole of this, however, is not destroyed in the performance of its
office, but a large portion is taken into the system in the circula-
tion, the surplus being regained from the blood by the secreting
cells of the liver and again returned for duty to the intestines.
Another office of the liver is to prepare crude albuminous matter
of the blood for final absorption into it. It is also able to form
sugar from other carbonaceous matters conveyed to it in the chyle
absorbed by the lacteal vessels. Thus the liver acts as a filter, in
separating detrimental matters from the blood, besides supplying
a necessary agent in digestion, as well as for respiration. Its im-
portance in the animal functions cannot be over-estimated.

The lacteals are a series of small absorbent vessels which form a
net-work in connection with the coats of the intestines, and pro-
ceed to the thoracic duct, where they terminate. They exist much
more numerously in connection with the small intestines than
with the lower ones. Their chief seat is the mesentery, which is
the thin membrane which supports the small intestines. The lac-
teals enter the numerous glands of the mesentery, and pass
through them, uniting to form larger vessels and becoming fewer
and fewer in number, being finally reduced to two or three ducts
which end in the thoracic duct. The lacteals absorb the chyle,
which is presented to them in the intestines, convey it to the glands
In which it is enriched and perfected, and thence convey it to
the vessels which terminate in the duct from which the new nutri-
tive matter is poured into the large vein near its junction with the
heart, to enter into the circulation.

The chyle is very similar in its composition to the blood, differ-
ing from it chiefly in the absence of coloring matter, or the red
globules which give the color to the blood. It coagulates on

THE EXCBETORY ORGAN'S. 185

being allowed to rest, although the clot is softer than that of the
blood.

The thoracic duct extends from the loins to the neck, and its
course is along the spine. It is the principal trunk of the absorb-
ent system, and, as has been explained, is the connecting link be-
tween the digestive organs and the circulatory system, as the pul-
monary artery and vein is the connecting link between the circu-
latory and respiratory system.

2Jie spleenis another organ which is very important, as being the
seat of a rather obscurely understood disease, known as splenic
apoplexy. It consists of a spongy mass of tissue of a mottled blue
or purplish gray color. It is suspended near the great curvature
of the stomach, but of its functions nothing is precisely known.
It is supposed to act as a reservoir of blood for the portal vein ; it
is also supposed to destroy the red globules of the blood, as it
has been discovered to contain blood globules in a state of decom-
position. It is, however, known that, in the course of researches
to discover the uses of this gland, animals from which it has been
removed have recovered from the operation, and have continued
to live in apparent good health. The fact of its engorgement
with blood in the disease of ruminants known as splenic fever or
apoplexy, and its increase of volume in certain bilious disorders,
would tend to show that its functions are in some way closely
connected with the circulation, and perhaps with the digestive
processes and nutrition.

The Urinary or Excretory Organs. — The urine is separated from
the arterial blood by the kidneys. These organs, with the liver
and the lungs, are employed in the purification of the blood. The
liver separates compounds abounding in hydrogen, the lungs those
which abound in carbon, and the kidneys those abounding in ni-
trogen. The nitrogen eliminated through the kidneys exists in
the form of urea, a crystalline substance which readily decomposes
and gives off its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. There are two
kidneys, one each side of the spinal column. The kidneys are
attached firmly to the loins ; in the sheep they are shaped like a
bean, and are imbedded in fat. They perform a double office, or
two separate functions, one being to discharge from the blood any
excess of water that may accumulate in it ; the other being to rid
the blood of excess of saline matter and the products that result
from the waste of the tissues. The blood enters the kidneys by
arteries, and the urine, separated as by a filter, through a very com-
plex system of capillaries, flows into two white ducts termed ure-
ters, which pass it onwards to the bladder. The urine of the

186 THE SHEPHERD'S HAKUAL.

sheep is not so copious as that of the cow in proportion to its size,
but possesses a larger proportion of salts. The following is an
analysis of sheep's urine :

Water 96.0 per cent.

Urea with some albuminoids and coloring matter 2.8 " "
Salts of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, silica, iron,
alumina, and manganese T . . 1.2 " "

100.00 "

In fig. 73 is shown a section of the substance of the kidney
highly magnified, in which appear the uriniferous, (urine carrying)
ducts or tubes, (a, a), surrounded by the secreting glandular sub-
stance, (&, &), which is enclosed in the net-work of the arteries,
(c, c), and the fibrous tissue, (tf, d).

The bladder is situated hi the pelvic cavity, or the lower part of
the abdomen. It is composed of two coats, the outer one being
muscular, and capable of contracting so as to expel its contents.
One half is enveloped in a third coat, and the other half in the
/, tissue of the pelvic

0 . n «••'••-

region, and masses of
fatty matter. The mus-
cular coat consists of
fibers Placed in various
directions, lengthwise,
crosswise, oblique, and
spiral, so that in the act
of contraction the blad-
der is reduced in size
Fig. 73.— STBUCTUBB OF THE KIDNEY. evenly and in every

direction. A strong muscle encircles the opening, from which the
urine is discharged, and which is called the neck of the bladder. The
contraction of this muscle closes the neck and retains the contents,
its relaxation opens the orifice and Callows the contents to be ex-
pelled. From the neck of the bladder proceeds the urethra, by
which the urine is discharged. In the ewe the urethra is very
short, in the ram it is much longer, and passes down from the
anus along the abdomen to the extremity of the penis. The func-
tions of the bladder are very important. It serves as a reservoir
for the urinal fluid which is constantly secreted by the kidneys
and retains it until a considerable quantity has been accumulated,
and thus spares the animal from otherwise continually dribbling
away the urine as it is secreted.

The Eeproductive Organs. — These are entirely different in the

THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 187

male and female. The female organs are more abundantly devel-
oped than those of the male, and have more intricate functions to
fulfill. They consist of two secreting organs called ovaries, which
are charged with the elaboration of the ovum or egg ; the uterine
tube through which the ovum passes on leaving the ovary;
the uterus or womb in which it rests after its impregnation,
and in which it remains until it is fully developed ; and the
vagina or canal through which the foetus or young animal when
perfected is discharged. In addition there are two mammas or
milk-producing glands enclosed in the skin, and attached to the
lower part of the abdomen and inner parts of the thighs, each of
which has a set of secreting glands and milk ducts flowing into
a tube which has its orifice in the teat. These milk glands are
called the udder. The ovum is a cell about Viooth of an inch in di-
ameter, which is contained in another cell or ovisac, of which the
ovaries contain a certain number. At stated periods called the
oestrum or condition of " heat," the ovaries become excited and
distended, and discharge one (or more) of these ovisacs, which, par-
taking of the condition of the ovaries, becomes distended and bursts,
releasing the ovum, which, when it is brought into contact with
the impregnating fluid of the male in the uterine tube, undergoes
a change, enters into the uterus, and hi course of time becomes a
living animal. When the female is not brought into connection
with the male at the season of heat, the ovum undergoes no change,
but passes on to the uterus, where it is absorbed. The impregna-
ted ovum, when it reaches the uterus, becomes grafted upon its
lining membrane and draws directly from the mother's blood the
materials for its development.

In the male the reproductive organs consist of two glands, which
in the ram are suspended in a sac between the thighs. This sac is
called the scrotum. The glands, called the testicles or testes, are
each enclosed in four envelopes, being separate and distinct from
each other. One of these envelopes is a portion of the peritoneum
or lining of the abdomen, which descends through an opening in
the abdomen. This opening remains afterwards, and it is thus
that in castrating the ram, the inflammation which often takes
place, spreads into the abdomen and destroys the animal. The
glands are oval in shape, and consist of a grayish pulp. They are
attached to the spermatic cord and artery, and their function is to
secrete the spermatic or impregnating fluid, which is alkaline, and
contains minute filaments not larger than YBOOO to Vsoooth of an inch
in length. These filaments possess the power of independent
movement for some days after their expulsion from the organs of

188 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

the male. A canal or duct called the 'Das deferens, leads from the
testes to the outward and exposed male organ. In the ram this
organ has at its extremity a small spiral appendage called the
vermiform, (or worm-like), appendage. This has a very narrow
orifice, and is often on this account the seat of obstructions which
are difficult to remove.

The testicles of the ram are very large in proportion to its size,
and the whole reproductive powers are highly vigorous, enabling
him, when well nourished, to serve effectively a hundred ewes in
a season.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.

In judging of the symptoms of disease in the sheep, it is neces-
sary to take into account the nature, constitution, and habits of
this animal. The diseases of the sheep are numerous and more
generally fatal than those of other domestic animals. The diges-
tive organs of the sheep are largely and powerfully developed, and
its capacity for the production of blood is very great. Yet its
needs for this large supply of blood is not to support its nervous
system, which is feebly developed, nor its muscular exertion, of
which it is incapable to any great extent, nor its circulation, which
is onty of inferior amount, but the surplus must necessarily go to
the production of flesh, fat, and wool. In the sheep, therefore,
the production of flesh, fat, and wool, is the chief of its functions,
and the greater part of its vitality is expended in this way, leaving
but a small amount to sustain the comparatively weak vascular
system. The sheep is unable to sustain severe muscular labor ; and
slow movement, except for very limited periods, is all that it is
capable of. From the small brain development of the sheep, its
weak nervous and circulating system, it is to a great extent free from
diseases of an inflammatory character. From the large exercise
of its digestive powers, it is to be expected that diseases of the di-
gestive organs should be frequent and serious, and this we find
to be the case. From the same causes that render it compara-
tively free from diseases of an irritating character, it with more
than usual readiness succumbs to those in which debility and the
exhaustive effects of parasites are the chief features. Indeed it is
to the attacks of parasites, both external and internal, that sheep
owe their most troublesome and fatal disorders. Infectious or
contagious diseases have greater scope for action amongst sheep
than amongst other domestic animals, by reason of their gathering
together in large flocks, and thus being more exposed to unwhole-

THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. 189

some influences than those animals which are usually kept singly,
or which when kept in large numbers, naturally break up into
small separate herds. The structure of the foot, and the manner
of the growth of the crust and sole are such as to subject it to dis-
ease in that organ from which other animals are free. In the
management of a flock of sheep, it is necessary to bear in mind the
peculiarities and habits, so that the watchful care of the shepherd
may be given as far as possible to exercise precautions which may
prevent disease. Fortunately our climate is so well adapted to
these peculiarities and habits, that our flocks suffer from far fewer
diseases than those of other less favorable climates, and at present
many diseases prevalent in other countries are unknown to us ex-
cept by report. Precautions to be effective must be intelligently
exercised, and it is only by thoroughly understanding his flock
that the shepherd can know what to avoid and what to do. The
symptoms which indicate approaching disease should be instantly
recognized, or the threatened danger cannot be averted. Then the
timely remedy may be employed, which is rarely ineffective, while
that which comes later is rarely serviceable or effective. The
remedies to be administered must be consistent with the peculiar-
ities of the sheep. Possessing but a weak vascular and nervous
system, and a small supply of circulating blood, bleeding is rarely
called for, and can be employed only with danger of doing harm
in place of good. For the same reason tonic and stimulating med-
icines are more frequently needed, and may be given in larger
doses. Purgatives, especially saline ones, for the same reason,
always demand an accompanying: stimulant.

Purgatives are frequently called for, as the digestive organs
so abundantly developed and largely exercised, are readily dis-
eased or disordered, and disturbance of the system rarely occurs
without sympathetically or otherwise involving those organs.
The veterinarian used to study the diseases of the horse, and to
apply his reasoning to the peculiarities of that animal, is too apt to
lose sight of the vast surface of the stomachs of the sheep, the in-
sensibility of much of this surface, and the fact that medicine ad-
ministered with the food or in solid form, will most probably fall
into the rumen, where it will be ineffective. So too the shepherd,
who consults veterinary works, will be misled to a great extent,
and be induced to believe the too common idea that it is folly to
physic a sheep, and the best treatment is to cut its throat at once.
In treating sheep, purgatives are useful to reduce fever, to lower
inflammation, and to restore tone to the stomach and liver. They
should always be given in a liquid form. Of all the purgatives,

190 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Epsom Salts and Linseed Oil (always raw) are the most suitable
and effective. The action of stimulants given along with a purga-
tive is always beneficial.

Stimulants, of which Ginger, Gentian, Aniseed, and Pepper-
mint-oil are the most usual and useful, restore the tone of the
stomachs and excite them to action, thus aiding hi the operation of
the purgative, which might otherwise still further enfeeble them.

Bleeding, when it is necessary in the outset of inflammatory dis-
orders or local excitements, should be performed by operating on
the veins under the eye (see fig. 76) or the ear ; the inside of the
fore arm is a convenient place ; when a large quantity is to be
taken, the jugular vein of the neck may be opened by first cut-
ting off some of the wool, pressing the vein with the finger, and
cutting it lengthwise — never crosswise — with a sharp lancet. Never
less than two ounces or a wine-glassf ul should be taken, and rarely
more than half a pint.

In referring to the diseases hereinafter treated of, as far as
possible, the causes to which they may generally be attributed,
with the means of prevention, will be given. The remedies men-
tioned will be those to be given to a full-grown animal, for lambs,
one-half or less of the doses should be given, and for very young
lambs, still less should be given.

The most prolific causes of disease are over-feeding, under-feed-
ing, irregularity of feeding, want of water, drinking impure water,
impure air, damp, and over-driving. If these were avoided there
would be but little complaint of the frequent troubles, difficulties,
and losses in keeping sheep. While they exist, medicine, at the
best, is but a temporary expedient, effective only during the time
in which extra care is used. When this care is allowed to relapse
the trouble will infallibly recur.

CAUSES, PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT, OF DISEASES
COMMON TO SHEEP.

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

Catarrh is very common during the fall, winter, and spring. It
will be found on close observation to be rarely absent in any flock.
In our diy climate, subject, however, to sudden changes of temper-
ature, catarrh, or cold, is mostly due to exposure to damp hi open
yards, or to too high a temperature in sheds or pens, rather than to
exposure to the weather in open fields. Flocks that are more care-

DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 191

fully tended and housed than usual, are found to be more subject
to it than others. Of two flocks equally well fed, but one of
which is carefully shut up every night and protected (?) from every
draft of fresh air, and another whose bed is the snow in an open,
airy, dry yard, it will be the first that will be troubled with cough
and discharge from the nose, while the latter will be free from it.
Fresh air, ample ventilation in partly open sheds, dry yards and
clean, dry bedding, and protection from chilling rain-storms in
winter, with whatever protection may be needed immediately after
shearing, should the weather be cold and rainy, will generally be
amply sufficient to prevent any trouble from this complaint. Chas-
ing by dogs and consequent over-heating, and over-driving, are
certain causes, and these should be carefully avoided. The judg-
ment of the shepherd should be exercised in exceptional cases, act-
ing always under the general rule that dry cold is rarely hurtful
to sheep, while they suffer from wet or damp cold, and that moist,
warm, steamy, close atmosphere, especially when confined in sta-
bles, will inevitably produce cold or catarrh, which if not at once
remedied will generally result in serious disorders of the lungs.
This disease consists of inflammation of the lining membrane of
the throat, windpipe, nostrils, and the sinuses of the head. It
produces an increase of the secretion of mucus and consequent ir-
ritation and coughing. When long continued, the cough becomes
dry and deep seated, showing that the lungs are involved.

The treatment consists in removal of the causes, good nursing, ad-
ministering slightly warm mucilaginous drinks, as oat-meal gruel or
linseed tea, along with a gentle stimulant, such as half a teaspoonful
of ground ginger. The antiseptic effect of a small quantity of clean
pine tar rubbed upon the sheep's nose, some of which the animal
will lick off and swallow, will be beneficial. If there is fever, and
the nose is dry and hot, the following may be given, viz :

Epsom Salts !/a ounce.

Saltpeter 1 dram.

Ground Ginger 1 dram.

This should be mixed with molasses and placed on the back part of
the tongue with a long, narrow bladed wooden knife or spatula.
The animal's head should be held up until the whole is swallowed
in repeated small quantities. Or the dose may be mixed with
thin gruel and administered by means of a small horn.

Bronchitis is simply a deep-seated catarrh which affects the bron-
chial tubes or air passages in the body of the lungs. It is danger-
ous, inasmuch as the inflammation readily spreads and affects the
lungs. In bronchitis the cough is more severe than in catarrh,

192 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

the pulse and the respiration are both quickened, there is some
fever, and the appetite fails. The treatment is the same as that
prescribed for catarrh, but to be continued longer, changing the
dose to the following, to be administered for three or four days,
reducing the quantity of saltpeter gradually one-half.

Linseed-oil 1 ounce.

Saltpeter 1 dram.

Powdered Gentian 1 dram.

Bleeding must not be attempted in this disease. Quietness is in-
dispensable, and a clean, airy, but solitary, pen should be provided,
and a plenty of pure, fresh water supplied.

Pneumonia or Inflammation of the Lungs. — This is a more fre-
quent disease than is generally suspected. Many sheep exhibit
the peculiar symptoms of pneumonia, and are too far gone for re-
covery before their too careless owners are aware that they are
affected. High-bred imported sheep, the Leicester more particu-
larly, are very liable to this disease, which is generally fatal to
them. It consists of inflammation of the substance of the lungs,
and frequently follows neglected attacks of bronchitis, the inflam-
mation easily and quickly passing from the lining membrane of
the air-passages to the cellular tissue of the lungs. Washing in
streams of cold spring water, or sudden chills from exposure to cold
showers, quickly succeeding hot weather, or when heated with
driving, or after shearing, or too close penning in warm stables in
cold weather, are the usual causes. It is rarely that this disease
develops fully without previously passing through the earlier
stages, or without some serious mistake in the management of the
sheep ; and it is only by instant attention and proper treatment
that its usually rapid and fatal course can be arrested.

The symptoms are a quick and labored breathing with painful
heaving of the flanks ; a painful cough ; discharge of thick yellow
mucus from the nostrils, high fever, and great thirst ; hard, quick
pulse ; constant grinding of the teeth, together with loss of appe-
tite and rumination. On examination after death, the lungs are
found to be hard and gorged with blood, and if thrown into water
they sink to the bottom. The disease usually terminates in death
in from twenty -four to thirty-six hours.

Treatment is of no avail unless commenced immediately. Bleed-
ing from the jugular vein, until the animal staggers, is the first and
most effective remedy. If found necessary, this should be repeated
in six hours. Two ounces of Epsom salts should be given imme-
diately after the bleeding ; if this does not cause free purging, one
ounce more may be given in three hours. Copious purging is not

DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 193

to be dreaded in this disease with sheep as with the horse. Injec-
tions of thin oat-meal gruel, strained, should be given every two
hours. After the bowels have been well evacuated, the following
may be given twice a day in oat-meal or linseed gruel :

Powdered Digitalis 1 scruple.

Nitrate of Potash 1 dram.

Tartar emetic 1 scruple.

to be continued several days. As soon as the sheep improves and
begins to move about, a pint of gruel may be given every three
hours with half a dram of powdered Gentian. Warm drinks of
dissolved gum Arabic, or linseed-meal tea, hi which a little honey
is dissolved, will be useful. The nostrils should be freed from
accumulated mucus by washing or sponging with a mixture of
equal parts vinegar and water, or of one ounce of acetic acid with
a quart of water. Some of the acidulated water should be squeezed
into the nostrils to clear them as far as possible.

One dram doses of tartar emetic alone have been given with
benefit in this disease. As it is in nearly every case avoidable by
proper care and precaution, and is rarely cured when once well
seated, it will be by far the best policy to prevent its occurrence.

Pleurisy, or inflammation of the membrane covering the lungs
and the lining of the cavity of the chest, is produced by the same
causes as pneumonia. It frequently accompanies this latter dis-
ease. It most frequently follows the careless washing of sheep or
their exposure to cold winds with wet fleeces, or from a severe
chill after having been sheared. After an attack of this disease,
and a seeming recovery, an adhesion of the lungs to the sides of
the chest often takes place which prevents the sheep from thriving
and keeps them in poor condition, from which they cannot be
recovered. Wide-spread causes, chiefly those arising from the un-
favorable condition of the weather, sometimes affect the flocks of
extensive districts, and lead to the supposition that the disease is
epizootic or contagious. This, however, is not the case.

Prevention consists in watchful care to protect the sheep from
sudden change of the weather at a time when they are more than
usually exposed to its ill effects ; also from a too sudden change
from housing to open pasturing in the spring. All sudden changes
in the management of sheep should be made with caution, a
change, even from poor to rich feed, may produce this or other in-
flammatory diseases, and care must be exercised in this respect.

The symptoms are similar to those of inflammation of the lungs ;
more pain is experienced, and the sheep exhibits more distress,
sometimes moaning in agony. After death, the cavity of the chest
9

194

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

is found filled with fluid ; the surface of the lungs is highly in-
flamed, and covered with livid patches, but their substance is not
affected. Generally no trace of disease is found elsewhere.

The treatment consists in copious bleeding as for pneumonia,
but more blood may be taken with benefit. The following may
be given :

Powdered Digitalis .............................. 1 scruple.

Nitrate of Potash ................................ 1 dram.

Nitrous Ether, (Spirits of Nitre) .................. 3 drams.

to be administered in linseed-meal or oat-meal gruel twice a day
for four or five days. When recovery be-
gins, the following tonic may be substituted :

Sulphate of Iron .................... ya dram.

Infusion of Quassia or Chamomile.^ pint.

dram.

Ground Ginger

i/fl

If the animal is valuable, it may sometimes
be saved after the effusion of serum in the
chest has occurred to a considerable extent,
by tapping the cavity with a trochar and
canula, (fig. 74), and drawing off the fluid.
When this effusion has taken place, it may .
be discovered by tapping the sides of the
chest, when a dull dead sound only is heard ;
also by a gurgling sound during expiration,
which is painful and difficult. The trochar
is inserted cautiously between the eighth and
ninth ribs, and the canula left in the opening
through which the fluid flows. Generous feed-
ing and great care are needed after tapping.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

Choking. — Sheep are not often troubled
with obstructions of the gullet, except when
fed upon cut or sliced turnips, or permitted
to consume the shells of turnips which have
been scooped out by them in the field. When
a sheep is thus choked, the head is held
down, saliva flows from the mouth, breath-
ing is difficult, and the stomach becomes dis-
tended with gas, or air swallowed in the ef-
forts to dislodge the obstruction. When this occurs, the sheep's
head should be raised and held firmly between one man's legs,

£. 74. — TKOCHAR
AND CANULA.

COSTIVENESS. 195

while another pours a teaspoonful of linseed oil or melted lard
down the throat and endeavors by gently manipulating the gullet
to work the obstruction downwards. If this is ineffectual, a pro-
bang should be used. This is a flexible thin rod, as the wash rod of
a rifle, or a piece of light rattan or other tough elastic material. A
soft ball of tow, or of strips of linen cloth is securely fastened to the
end of the rod. This is well soaked with sweet oil or lard, and
gently inserted into the gullet until it meets the obstruction, when
it is to be forced downwards without violence, a few gentle, but
smart taps on the upper end with a light stick being generally
more effective than continuous pressure. If the lining of the gul-
let is injured in the operation, and the sheep refuses to eat, gruel
or other liquid food should be given until the soreness disappears.
If the obstruction cannot be removed in this way, the sheep had
better be slaughtered. If it is a valuable animal, an effort which
is frequently successful, may be made to save it by cutting open
the skin and the gullet upon the obstruction, and removing it. The
opening in the gullet is then closed by a stitch made with a sur-
geon's curved needle, and the wound in the skin closed separately
in the same manner. The sheep should be securely held during
this operation. Soft food should be given until the wound is
healed. (See Treatment of Wounds).

Costiveness — Stretches. — This complaint is more frequently a
symptom of disease than a disease itself. Yet it frequently occurs
when changing the flock from pasture to dry food. The dung
then becomes dry, hard, and scanty, and is discharged irregularly.
The termination of the bowel is red and inflamed, and when void-
ing dung, the sheep grunts or moans as with pain. Care in chang-
ing the food is a preventive, and a few ounces of linseed-cake-meal
daily will obviate the difficulty. Injections of warm soap and
water, or of one ounce of linseed-oil, will relieve the bowels, and
one ounce of linseed-oil given by the mouth will generally bring
about a cure.

When the costiveness is of long continuance, from neglect, the
sheep may be perceived stretching itself, spreading the feet apart,
raising the head, curving the back, and extending the abdomen.
This may also occur from obstruction of the bowels, which, how-
ever, is rare with sheep, but is most frequently caused by costive-
ness. A teaspoonful of Sublimed Sulphur, (Flowers of Sulphur),
mixed with a small quantity of molasses or lard, may be placed on
the tongue to be swallowed, once a day, for a week. A regular
allowance of a mixture of four ounces of Sulphur with one pound

196 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

of salt, placed where the sheep can have access to it at will, is a
sure preventive of costiveness.

DiarrTiea or Scours. — A looseness of the bowels, without pain,
fever, or other complications, frequently occurs when sheep are
turned to pasture in the spring, or turned on to rich succulent
green food, as clover, rape, or turnips. It is sometimes perceived
when they are exposed to the hot sun in early spring without
shelter. It is not dangerous of itself, but as the disease very
quickly interferes with the process of nutrition, the blood is soon
affected, and the more serious blood disorder, dysentery, super-
venes. Diarrhea may generally be prevented by careful regula-
tion of the food, and avoiding sudden changes, and the regular
supply of salt. It is quickly subject to proper treatment, which
consists of the administration of astringents and cordial prepara-
tions. The following mixture should always be kept on hand by
the shepherd, ready for instant use :

Prepared Chalk 1 ounce.

" Catechu 4 drams.

" Ginger 2

" Opium Va 4

to be mixed with half a pint of peppermint water and bottled for
use. Two large tablespoonf uls of this is given night and morning
to a sheep, and half as much to a lamb, always previously shaking
the mixture well. Cotton-seed-cake-meal is both an excellent pre-
ventive and remedy for this complaint, and a supply should be
kept for use. Half a pound a day should be given to a sheep.

If any mucus or glutinous substance appears in the dung it is
a proof of the existence of irritating matter in the intestines, and
a laxative should be given previously to the above. This may be

Linseed-oil 2 ounces.

Powdered Ginger 1 dram.

OK

Epsom Salts 1 ounce.

Ginger i/a dram.

Gentian i/2 dram.

to be given in infusion of linseed-meal.

Hoven, or distension of the rumen, is not uncommon in sheep.
It consists in the formation of gas in the first stomach, or rumen,
by which it is so much distended as to press injuriously upon the
diaphragm or membrane which encloses the chest. This prevent-
ing the contraction of the diaphragm interferes with the respira-
tion. It appears as an enlargement of the left side of the abdomen,
by which the skin is tightly drawn until in apparent danger of

BLOATING. 197

bursting. It is caused by the rapid fermentation in the stomach
of very succulent green food, which has been greedily swallowed
while wet with dew or rain. The stomach may at the time be
disordered, and its digestive powers impaired ; or the distension
may be produced by other diseases of which it is an attendant or
a symptom. In such a case it indicates a decrease or chemical
change of the alkaline secretions of the rumen. The treatment
should be immediate, lest suffocation ensue. An alkaline fluid
poured into the rumen, frequently alleviates the symptoms and
removes the trouble. This may be

Ammonia Water (Aqua Ammonice) 1 teaspoonful

Water Va pint.

to be administered through a horn. A hollow, flexible probang,
which should be kept for this purpose may be inserted through
the gullet into the rumen, by which a means of escape for the
gas may be made. The alkaline liquid mentioned may be
poured into the stomach through the tube of the probang, or
an opening may be made through the flank into the rumen with
the trochar and canula, (fig. 74), or by a small bladed knife. This
opening should be cautiously made at the spot where the greatest
swelling is found. In the latter case a quill should be inserted
into the hole to allow the gas to escape. If the passage be stopped
by solid matter, a wire may be put through the quill to restore the
opening. The ammoniacal liquid previously mentioned, or a solu-
tion of a teaspoonful carbonate of soda in quarter of a pint of
water may be injected through the quill with a common syringe.
Afterwards the following may be given with the horn :

Epsom Salts 2 ounces.

Ginger 1 dram.

Water 1 pint.

If the production of gas still continues, a dram of chloride of lime
dissolved in water will tend to remove the gases generated by the
now decomposing food.

Where none of these appliances are at hand, the following sub-
stitutes may be used, viz : Flour, lard, and salt, to form a bolus
mixed with one dram of carbonate of ammonia, at the early stage,
or one dram of chloride of lime at the later stage. Small boluses
of this mixture to be placed on the root of the tongue or into the
gullet, so that they may be swallowed. Sulphuric ether is some-
times given in doses of two drams each in cold water, it is a valu-
able stimulant and antispasmodic when the animal becomes rigid
or convulsed.

198

THE SHEPHEBD'S MANUAL.

The after treatment should be tonic, and the food should be

light and not bulky. Bran
or oat-meal, scalded and
well salted, and given
with 1 dram of ginger
would be useful. The
return to copious green
food should be gradual,
until the stomach has re-
gained its tone.

Poisoning. — At certain
seasons sheep are tempted
to devour injurious herbs
or plants. St. John's-
wort, when frequent in
pastures, produces sore
mouth and irritation of
the intestines, which
quickly disappear when
the sheep are removed to a
more wholesome pasture.
The Sheep-Laurel, Lamb-
kill, or narrow-leaved Kal-
mia, (Kalmia angustifoUa)^
(see fig. 75), is eaten by
sheep which have access
to it at certain seasons,
chiefly during the winter
and spring, and is often
fatal to them. The symp-
toms of poisoning are dis-
inclination to move, froth-
ing at the mouth and nose,
lessened pulse, stagger-
ing gait, and blood-shot
eyes. Immediate attention
should be given, as death
generally occurs within
twelve hours. To dilute
the mass of poisonous
food, and to expel it
from the system as soon
This may be done by

Fig. 75. — SHEEP-LAUBEL.

as possible, is the proper treatment.

DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 199

giving two ounces of Epsom salts in a pint of warm water, and re-
peating the dose of water without the salts in an hour. Injections
of warm soap suds will help to remove the injurious matter from
the bowels. To prevent the danger of poisoning by carefully re-
moving all injurious plants from the pastures or fences around
them would be the obvious duty of the careful shepherd. The
large leaved Laurel, (Kalmia latifolid), is also eaten occasionally by
sheep. In England, the yew tree, which is common in hedges,
causes the loss of hundreds of sheep every year. Sheep should
not be allowed to feed on pastures which have been dressed with
gypsum, lime, soot, or any chemical fertilizer until after one or
two copious showers have washed the herbage clean.

Inflammation of the Bowels.— This disease, (the braxy of the
English shepherds), is not frequently met with in this country,
except as an adjunct to some complicated inflammatory blood dis-
ease. It, however, sometimes occurs as the result of continued in-
digestion, or the consequence of feeding upon dry, innutritions
pasture, combined with bad water in hot weather. The first
symptoms are weeping and redness of the eyes, weakness and
staggering, loss of appetite and rumination, inaction of the bowels,
swelling of the flanks, high fever, and diflScult breathing, a puck-
ered up appearance of the mouth and nostrils, which gives a pecu-
liar wo-begone and pained expression to the face ; a tight skin
and rapid emaciation. After death, the stomach is found filled
with putrid food, and distended with gas; the bowels are gangre-
nous and in a state of decomposition ; the liver is partly decom-
posed and filled with degenerated bile ; the spleen is gorged with
blood, softened, enlarged, and not unfrequently ruptured, ulcer-
ated, and exhibiting a seriously diseased condition. The latter ap-
pearance seems to identify this complicated and fatal disease with
the splenic apoplexy or Texan or Spanish fever of cattle. Death
is often very sudden, many sheeep left in apparent health at night,
being found dead in the morning ; at the most, two or three days
is the usual course of this disease.

To prevent it, when circumstances favor its appearance, an abund-
ant supply of pure water and a change of pasture should be provid-
ed. Low grounds should be avoided, and everything done that can
ameliorate the circumstances of privation in which the flock may
be temporarily placed. It is not epizootic, and the removal of the
causes will prevent the spread of the disease. A supply of salt,
mixed with one per cent each of sulphate of iron, ginger, and gen-
tian, to be given every evening to the sheep on their return from
pasture, will be a useful preventive. The treatment should con-

200

sist of bleeding from the jugular vein, at the first appearance of the
disease. Bleeding from the vein on the abdomen has also been
practiced with success. Mild aperients — an ounce of Linseed or
Castor Oil or Epsom salts— are useful, and should be followed by
twice daily doses of one dram of Sulphite, (not sulphate), of Soda.
The food should be liquid and demulcent, such as oat-meal gruel,
infusions of linseed or solutions of gum arabic. Except the ani-
mal is a very valuable one, it will be hardly worth while to at-
tempt a cure in a case of serious character, as the recovery is slow,
and the f ollowing debility is of itself often fatal, after a costly and
protracted course of treatment.

Concretions of Foreign Bodies in the Stomach. — Sheep are some-
times observed to purposely swallow earth in small quantities. In
pasturing green fodder crops or roots, much earth, and sometimes
small stones, are swallowed. In eating hay, or other dry fodder,
foreign matters, such as nails, pieces of wire, or glass, will some-
times find their way into the stomachs. All these matters cause
much irritation, and sometimes death. The trouble is shown by
a suspension of the appetite, the sheep lag behind the rest, stand
for long periods without moving, grind their teeth, poking out the
nose, and depressing the ears. When the flank is pressed a grunt
of pain is heard, and there is violent purging. When these symp-
toms are observed, and the sheep are known to have been in
danger of swallowing any of these substances, this cause may be
suspected.

The only treatment that can be of use is to give daily doses of
one ounce of Epsom Salts, and feed scalded bran or corn-meal in
the shape of thick mush in order to remove the foreign matter
with the food if possible. If this will not be taken, oat-meal or
corn-meal gruel should be given copiously with the horn.

Balls of wool and earthy matter are sometimes found after death
in the stomachs. These are gathered by the sheep nibbling them-
selves when irritated by lice, ticks, or scab. Generally they exist
without suspicion of their presence until death occurs, and in
many cases without known ill effect on the animal. It would be
safe to avoid possible danger in this direction by keeping the flock,
especially the lambs, free from parasitical and irritating insects.

Congestion of the Liver. — When sheep are highly fed upon stim-
ulating food, and have but little or no exercise, the liver is apt to
become gorged with blood. This fullness of blood is termed con-
gestion. It is occasioned by disordered digestion, and when it
exists to a serious extent, occasions further complications of this

DISEASES OF THE LIVER. £01

important organ. It produces constipation, dullness, and a yellow-
ish tinge of the eyes. As soon as this latter sign appears, there
should be no delay, lest inflammation supervene.

The treatment consists in giving an active purge, to be repeated
every morning, until the bowels are in their usual healthy condi-
tion, the yellowness of the eyes has disappeared, and the appetite
has returned. The purge may be the following, given in molasses
placed upon the tongue :

Epsom Salts 1 ounce.

Calomel 3 grains.

The patient should be supplied with slightly warm drink soon
after swallowing the medicine.

Inflammation of flie Liver. — By neglect, the disease, last men-
tioned, may result in inflammation of the liver. When this hap-
pens the system becomes fevered ; the nose and mouth hot and
dry ; the breath fetid ; the ears cold ; the eyes pale and glassy ;
the pulse is irregular ; breathing is slow, and the expirations short
and sudden ; the dung is dry, hard, black, and glazed with a greasy
yellowish-green mucus ; the urine is highly colored, scanty, hot,
and smells disagreeably. Pressure on the right side, near the
short ribs, produces pain, and the animal moans.

The treatment consists of purgatives and injections. For a pur-
gative, the following may be given twice a day in infusion of lin-
seed or gum arable or in molasses, well mixed together and placed
on the tongue :

Sulphate of Potash 2 drams.

Calomel 5 grains.

Powdered Opium 1 grain.

Injections of warm water and castile soap may be given until the
bowels act freely.

When improvement occurs, and the appetite returns, great care
in feeding should be observed, and only the most easily digested
food should be given. Pulped sugar beet, scalded clover-hay
chaff, linseed-meal, boiled malt, or sifted corn-meal, may be given
with linseed tea for drink, or water acidulated with a few drops
of aromatic sulphuric acid.

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD.

The blood being the very foundation of the life of the animal,
must exist hi a state of purity, or the vital functions are at once
disordered. Anything, therefore, that vitiates the blood or unfits
it for the proper performance of those functions which have been

20'Z THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

already explained, produces what is known as blood diseases, or
diseases originating in and communicated to various organs by
the blood. These may be classified as follows :

1. Diseases arising from an impaired, increased, or arrested
function, or process, viz : rheumatism, plethora, anasinia, scrofula,
dropsy.

2. Diseases called enzoblic because arising from animal poisons,
originating either within the subject, or communicated by the same
poisons originating in other animals, viz : influenza, dysentery,
red-water, heaving or after pains, navel-ill in lambs, black-leg or
quarter-ill or anthrax fever.

3. Diseases arising from animal poisons of unknown origin, and
which are highly contagious, and freely communicated from one
subject to another, hence called epizootic diseases, viz : Epizootic
aphtha, small pox.

Fortunately these diseases so fatal in their operation, and so un-
controllable in their course, are easily prevented by proper precau-
tion and ordinary hygienic or sanitary measures. Also in the salt,
sulphite of soda, we have a valuable remedy against those ferments
which are the active agents in the majority of blood diseases.

Rheumatism. — This disease is attended with considerable fever,
constitutional disturbance, and the presence of acid matters in the
blood. It affects the serous membrane, as the coverings of the
joints, the substance of the tendons and ligaments, the enveloping
membranes of the heart, lungs, spinal marrow, bones, muscles, and
the brain. As it has a disposition to change its locality almost in-
stantaneously, and to pass from one joint to another, or one part
to another, (a process known as metastatis), and affects all these
important parts of the body, the seriousness of the disease is evi-
dent. It consists in a peculiar inflammation of the parts affected
which causes acute pain when they are called into action. When
it passes from the acute to the chronic state, it causes serious
changes in the structure of the joints affected. Its symptoms are
general uneasiness and stiffness, a diminished or capricious appe-
tite, and sometimes, suspended rumination. The dung is hard and
scanty, and the urine is high colored and deficient in quantity.
One of the joints is found hot and swollen; in an hour or two
this is relieved, and another is found affected. It generally attacks
in spring those animals which have been half starved or exposed
to cold or damp during the winter. Rams, which have been over-
worked the previous season, are often affected. Young ewes are
rarely troubled with it. If not remedied by proper treatment, the

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 203

animal suffers from continued fever, general prostration, severe
pain and emaciation, and eventually dies miserably. The treat-
ment consists of a moderate purgative at first, suck as :

Epsom Salts 2 ounces.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether 4 drams.

Ginger 1 dram.

to be followed by

Sulphate of Potash 2 drams.

Sulphuric Acid 530 drops.

Water V* pint.

to be given dissolved in water night and morning. Protection
from cold and damp, and soft, laxative food are required. Lin-
seed-meal, either solid or made into gruel, ic a useful addition to
the food. As this disease is apt to become chronic, the patient
should be fitted for the butcher as soon as possible. A rheumatic
ram will beget rheumatic lambs.

Plethora consists in a too rapid production of blood, by which
the system is engorged, and important organs become congested.
It is caused by over-feeding with rich albuminous food, and is
counteracted by a simple purgative, or bleeding from a vein on the
face or the jugular. Its effects appear in a flushed condition of
the visible membranes, labored breathing, staggering and sleepi-
ness. It never occurs except in animals in high condition, such as
those prepared for exhibition, and which hi case of over fatigue,
or excessively hot and damp weather, suffer greatly, and sometimes
fatally, from engorgement of the vessels of the lungs or train, or
both.

Anamia or Pining. — This term, "the bloodless condition," in-
dicates the nature of the disease. There is a condition to which
sheep may be brought by the effects of dysentery, or by parasites
in the lungs or intestines, which much resembles this disease. But
there is an abnormal state of the blood caused by imperfect nutri-
tion, which is in itself a disease, and not a symptom. When from
continued wet weather the pasture becomes rank and watery, the
flock appears at first in an excellent and thrifty state, but in a
few days the animals are found lying listless, with drooping heads
and ears, watery eyes, and the expression of the face miserable
and painful. A few days afterwards the skin is tightly drawn, the
wool becomes of a peculiar bluish cast, the skin beneath of a
pearly white color, the eyes are also of a pearly bloodless appear-
ance, and death is busy in the flock. On dry, rich clover pastures
the same effects are sometimes experienced. The disease never
appears on steep, rocky hill sides, where the pasturage is short and

204 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

sweet, nor on those pastures which are scant, but yet nutritious,
and intermixed with coarse herbage ; nor on lands that are abun-
dantly supplied with lime. It is impossible to know beforehand
whether the pasture will produce this effect or not, as it seems
most probable that the geological character of the soil has most to
do with it But when once a farm, a pasture, or a field, is found
to induce this ailment, sheep keeping may be abandoned upon
it, unless the flock can be immediately changed to some other part
of it where it will thrive. A change from a pasture field to a corn
field, where the picking amongst the hills furnished but scanty
feed, has been found to produce an immediate change for the bet-
ter. No treatment, other than a change of locality, can be indi-
cated, and if the farm does not supply this, the flock must be dis-
posed of or removed. The disease unfortunately is not well un-
derstood, for it is sometimes found very destructive to lambs and
yearlings, which are chiefly affected by it It is frequently
confounded with a parasitical disease hereinafter referred to, but
a post-mortem cximination of a subject will easily identify it as
being different from it as shown by the absence of parasites in the
stomach, lungs, or air-passages. An adequate supply of supple-
mentary food would of course act as a remedy, but the cost of
this would defeat its object and render the flock unprofitable.

Scrofula — Tuberculosis. — This disease is almost surely fatal in
course of time, although at first the sheep subject to it may be
brought, by proper treatment, into condition for the butcher. It
is a question, however, if the flesh of scrofulous animals can be
safely consumed as food, but yet many such go yearly to the
butchers to be thus disposed of. It would certainly seem that the
use of such animals as food should be carefully avoided, and the
sale of then- flesh prevented as injurious to the public health, for
no taint is more readily conveyed to the system than scrofula. It
is supposed to consist of a diseased condition of the blood, by
which the lymph, or white, serous, uncolored portion of it is unfit-
ted to nourish properly the tissues of the body and to be built up
into organized matter. Lest the accumulation of this imperfect
blood should embarras the system, it is deposited in various parts
where it is productive of least inconvenience, and the nutrition of
the body goes on, as well as it may, with the remainder of the
blood thus separated from the useless and injurious portion. But
it is frequently the case that there is not sufficient left to supply
the waste of the tissues, and a gradual falling off in condition oc-
curs. The symptoms of " consumption," a very significant term,
as the chief organs are slowly consumed, then appear. The pulsa-

Z3TZOOTIC DISEASES. £05

tions of the heart are loud, so as to be heard on applying the ear
to the ribs; the poise is feeble, the appetite irregular, and a slight
cough exists, caused by the efforts to throw off the accumulating
and offending matter from the rungs. In time, the giands of the
body become loaded with the deposited matter; those of the throat
and neck, the parotid and snbmaxfllary, being most commonly
and extensively affected, and greatly swollen. The symptoms
gradually increase in intensity, and there is much fever and ema-
ciation, with discharge from the nose and eyes. The skin is tight
and pate, and the body appears almost free from blood, as in
anaemia. At this period there is no help for the animal, for death
is only a question of time.

The treatment in the earlier stages is to administer some of the
preparations of iodine, such as the following :

Iodide of Potassium 5 grains.

OB
Iodide of Iron 10 grains.

to be finely powdered and mixed with molasses, and placed on the
root of the tongue, so that it is swallowed. The above dose to be
given daily. The latter preparation is to be preferred. The
swellings may be robbed daily with iodine ointment Koscroro-
loos animal should be osed for breeding, as the disease Is heredi-
tary. High-bred sheep are the most sobject to this disease, and
** in-and-in breeding" tends greatly to produce iL

In some localities an enlargement of the glands of the neck,
similar to the disease known as yoitre in mankind, is frequent
amongst sheep. This is supposed, doubtless with reason, to be
caused by the water drank, as in such cases the removal of the
flock to distant pastures has led to the disappearance of the dis-
ease. The occurrence of the symptoms above described, however,
will be sufficient to indicate the true character of scrofula as dis-
tinguished from any accidental swelling of the glands.

Droptg consists in the effusion of a watery or serous fluid in the
abdomen. It is accompanied with inflammation of the lining
membrane of the abdomen, the peritoneum, from which the fluid
is secreted. It is caused by feeding upon rank, succulent, watery
herbage, by which the blood is insufficiently nourished. A
change to dry food, or scanty but more nutritious pasture, allevi-
ates the disease at once. A cure is generally effected by the use
of diuretics, aperients, and tonics. The treatment will be the ad-
ministering of the following, or such others as may produce the
desired effect:

206 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Nitrate of Potash 1 dram.

Sulphate of Soda 1 ounce.

Ginger 1 dram.

If the animal is in low condition, the sulphate of soda may be re-
placed by the following, viz. :

Linseed-oil 2 ounces.

ENZOOTIC DISEASES.

Influenza. — This disease being due to causes which occur over
an extended locality, is liable to affect a large number of animals
at the same time. It is erroneously supposed to be infectious. It
consists of inflammation of the nasal and bronchial passages, con-
siderable fever, and great prostration, with general disturbance of
the system. There is redness and weeping of the eyes, running at
the nose, cough, great weakness, loss of appetite, indigestion, with
impaction and sometimes hoven, or distension of the rumen. It
is prevalent after continued cold and damp weather, and is most
severe where the ground is low and undrained, or in river bottoms
or valleys, where morning and evening mists abound. When
Ihese conditions occur, the flock should be kept on high, dry
ground, or in dry, sheltered yards, and carefully protected. Their
food should be somewhat improved, linseed-oil-cake or corn-meal,
buckwheat, oats, or rye, being added. A dose of the mixed salt
and sulphur, (1 quart of salt with 4 oz. of sulphur), should be given,
and any ailing sheep should be well nursed and treated to warm
gruel. These precautions will generally prevent a serious attack.

The treatment, when the disease becomes severe, is to give a
light dose of some saline purgative, such as

Epsom Salts »/a ounce.

Ginger 1 dram.

in a quarter of a pint of water, or mixed with molasses or honey.
For a large flock the medicine may be mixed in bulk in proper
proportions, and a quarter of a pint given to each sheep by means
of a horn. Those more seriously affected should receive the fol-
lowing, viz :

Tincture of Aconite 10 drops.

Solution of Acetate of Ammonia 1 ounce.

To be given every four to six hours, decreasing the aconite at each
dose until five drops only are given, when it may be suspended,
and only repeated in an emergency
L If the eyes are much inflamed, they should be washed with a

ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 207

solution of one grain of sulphate of zinc, and 20 drops of lauda-
num, in one ounce of water. After recovery, the feed should be
laxative and nutritious ; bran mashes, and boiled oats, or corn-
meal mush, with a little powdered ginger or gentian, and a pinch
of powdered blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper), in each mess, would
be useful. If not readily taken hi the food, this tonic may be
given for a few days in honey or molasses. Shelter is absolutely
necessary during treatment and recovery.

Dysentery may be distinguished from diarrhea by its more se-
vere symptoms, there being much fever ; the dung is mixed with
blood and mucus, has a fetid smell, is discharged frequently, and
is generally in hard lumps and scanty ; it is also voided with pain,
and the sheep arches its back and moans in its passages. The
wool feels harsh, and after a short time may be pulled off in hand-
f uls. Sudden changes of pasture, from poor to rich, or from rich
to poor ; dry, indigestible food ; scanty or impure water ; severely
hot and damp weather such as produces rust in grain, and negle'ct-
ed diarrhea, are the chief causes. Where large flocks are kept on
extensive ranges, the best course is to remove to some other pas-
ture, where the water is good, the ground high and dry, and other
favorable conditions abound. The treatment proper for this dis-
ease is to give a laxative in the first instance, as follows :

Linseed-oil.. 2 ounces.

Powdered Opium 2 grains.

to be given in linseed tea or oat-meal gruel. The linseed or oat-
meal should be continued several times during the next twenty-
four hours, both as nutriment and for its soothing qualities. The
next day, and for several days, the opium should be repeated with
one dram of ginger. An occasional dose of linseed-oil may be
given if thought necessary. It can do no harm, in any event, if
given every other day. The effect of a hot sun, in an unshaded
pasture, is very aggravating to this disease. Sheep suffering from
it should be kept, if possible, in a cool shed, and separated from
the rest of the flock. A pasture that has been occupied by such
sheep will certainly infect others that may feed upon it during
warm weather, the dung conveying the poison to the herbage.

Red- Water. — When sheep are suffered to pasture upon succulent
green crops, such as rape, mustard, or turnips, late in the fall or
in the early winter, and the fodder is covered with hoar frost or
sleet, or when they are forced to scrape their food from beneath
the snow, swallowing a large portion of snow with their food, or
when the stock water is drawn from filthy ponds or sloughs, they

208 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

are subject to a peculiar disorder which often affects the majority
of the flock quite suddenly, and is known as red-water. In this
country this disease is rare, being known chiefly in the south-west
and west, along with the last mentioned disease and some other
disorders originating from exposure and unwholesome food or
water, under the general name of murrain. The symptoms of
this disease agree with those of a so-called " unknown and new
disease" affecting sheep in the west, which has been described
recently by correspondents of the Agricultural Department at
Washington. The sheep affected appear dull and stupid, and
stagger, carrying the head upon one side, the eyes are staring, and
sometimes blind, and the bowels are obstinately costive. They
die in a few hours. When opened the belly of the sheep is found
filled with a red fluid wrongly supposed to be blood. There is
also general congestion of the principal organs.

As a preventive, the use of salt is recommended, and a table-
spoonful of pine tar given to each sheep every ten days has been
found useful. A pound of Epsom salts dissolved in water with
two oz. of ground ginger, may be given to every ten sheep. The
simple removal of the causes and a brisk .purgative or diuretic
would doubtless lead to a recovery if given in time. When
inflammation occurs from neglect, the bowels become affected, and
death is rapid. The peculiar nature of the sheep makes treatment
at this stage almost hopeless, but if it is attempted, that prescribed
for inflammation of the bowels would be proper.

After-Pains in Ewes, or parturient apoplexy, arises in conse-
quence of a feverish condition at the time of lambing. It oc-
curs about the second or third day, and its presence is shown by
panting, straining, heaving of the flanks, a staring look, scanty
and high colored and strong smelling urine, costiveness, and swell-
ing and redness of the external hinder parts, which finally be-
come purple and black. After death the whole system is con-
gested, and the veins filled with black blood ; the uterus or womb,
is charged with pus, the absorption of which poisoning the blood,
is the cause of death. This disease is easily prevented by reduc-
ing the condition of the ewes when it can safely be done. The
safe time is some weeks before lambing, when a gentle purgative
should be given and the food gradually reduced. A bran mash
with 15 grains of saltpeter may be given daily for a few days. A
very gradual course of depletion only should be adopted. If,
after lambing, trouble is anticipated, the appearance of the ewe
should be closely watched. If the pains occur, the following
sedative should be given at once :

ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 209

Camphor Va dram.

Laudanum 60 drops.

These are mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue ; the
dose may be increased one-fourth for large ewes when the pains
are excessive. One ounce of solution of acetate of ammonia may
be given four hours afterwards, and repeated twice at equal inter-
vals. If a fetid discharge takes place from the vagina, a solution
of one dram of chloride of lime to a pint of warm water may be
injected. The food of the ewe should consist principally of infu-
sions of linseed or oat-meal gruel. Bleeding is injurious, as are
also violent purgatives.

Black Leg, Quarter IU, or Anthrax fever, is known as the
"black spaniel" of the English shepherds, the cliarbon of the
French, and as one of the "murrains" of our western states,
where it is most frequent in this country. It affects young and
thrifty sheep, and is rarely found amongst old or poor stock. It
appears in the spring or early summer, and also in the fall months ;
and mostly in wet seasons, when the pasture, under the fervid heat
of the sun and unusual moisture, grows luxuriantly. Then the
sheep, with vigorous appetite, gorge themselves to repletion, the
digestive organs are overtaxed, the blood is disorganized, and be-
fore any trouble is suspected, the sheep drop and suddenly die.
When the carcasses arc examined, and the wool which leaves the
skin at the least touch, is removed, the body is found to be swollen
and blackened in large patches, chiefly on the forequarter, the
flank, or the hindquarter. Air is gathered beneath the skin, and
on opening the body, it is found decomposed and filled with black
blood. If the flock is then observed, some will be found lame
and limping, and on examination the sides or quarters will be
found swollen, and when the hand is passed over these spots, the
•wool readily comes off, and a crackling sound is heard from the
motion of the air or gas collected beneath the skin. The mouth
and tongue are found to be inflamed and blistered, and the eyes
red. The urine is dark, the bowels constipated, and the dung
when discharged is bloody. By and by the animals are unable to
stand, and fall upon the side, stretch out the limbs, and protrude
the tongue ; the belly is swollen, and in a few hours the sheep is
dead. The disease is much worse in rich bottom lands, or moist,
black soils, and rarely appears on hilly ground, or gravelly,
dryjjoils. To prevent this disorder, it is only necessary to pre-
vent the causes, to ensure regular feeding, and avoid sudden
changes from poor to rich food or the reverse. The treatment

210 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

should be an immediate purgative. The following may be given
in oat-meal gruel or any other thick mucilaginous liquid :

Sulphate of Soda 2 ounces.

Mowers of Sulphur \ ounce

Powdered Myrrh .'.1 scruple.

A teaspoonful of spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water may be
given in six hours afterwards. If taken at the commencement of
the symptoms, this treatment will probably be effective, but if
later, the uncertain remedial action of nature alone can be de-
pended on.

EPIZOOTIC DISEASES.

Aphtha, or "foot and mouth disease," which has grievously
affected the herds and flocks of Europe, is not unknown in Ameri-
ca. Fortunately our drier climate, or some other preservative in-
fluence, has very greatly circumscribed the course of this disease.
It has appeared in various parts of the country, but only sporadi-
cally, or in scattered cases, and never yet has it swept over an
entire district. Nevertheless, no one can be sure that it never will
so appear, and as an isolated case requires the same treatment as
any other, it is well that the disease should be described here. It
is a true blood disease, belonging to a class of eruptive fevers aris-
ing from a poisoning of the blood, and is highly contagious under
favoring circumstances. It affects alike cattle, sheep, pigs, hares,
and rabbits. It appears as an eruption of watery blisters upon the
lips and tongue, and between and around the hoofs. The first
symptoms are a fit of shivering, succeeded by fever, cough, and an
increased pulse. This is succeeded by a failing of the appetite,
tenderness over the loins, flow of saliva from the mouth, and
grinding of the jaws. Blisters, small and large, appear on the
mouth and tongue, which break and become raw, causing great
pain. The feet are swollen and also covered with blisters, which
break and become sore, causing the animal to walk with difficulty
and shake its feet or kick or lie down persistently. In from ten
to fifteen days the disease runs its course, in favorable circum-
stances, and the animal recovers gradually, and is never affected
afterwards. Otherwise the symptoms increase in severity, the
sheep lose condition rapidly, from inability to eat or move about ;
the hoofs are sloughed off, and sometimes even the bones of the
feet are cast off, leaving only a stump. In-lamb ewes when
affected, abort. It is considered, where this disease is virulent,
that the cheapest and most effective plan is to stamp it out by the

SHEEP POX.

slaughter and burial of every infected animal, and the removal of
those that are well. In the simple form, a single brisk purgative,
such as two ounces of Epsom salts, with a small quantity of gin-
ger, generally results in a cure ; to repeat the dose is dangerous.
The mouth should be washed in the following solution twice a day :

Alum in powder 1 ounce.

Tincture of Myrrh 1 fluid ounce.

Water 1 quart.

The feet, if affected, should be washed with soap and water, or
with a weak solution of sulphate of copper, then dressed with car-
bolic ointment ; and afterwards bound up in a cloth so as to keep
sand or dirt from irritating the sensitive surfaces. Sulphur should
be burned in the sheds as a disinfectant and purifier, and the drink-
ing water should be acidulated with one dram of aromatic sul-
phuric acid to a gallon of water. All sick animals should be
isolated.

Sheep Pax, or variola, is a formidable and fatal disease, which is
very frequent in the central and eastern parts of Europe, and has
recently been introduced into England by means of importations
of infected sheep. Although unknown in its severe type in this
country, yet we have no security against its introduction at any
day. It is recorded in a German publication that on one occasion
every sheep in a whole district was swept off by this disorder, the
sheep dying without any apparent reason, as though they had
been poisoned. The only known preventive is artificial inocula-
tion by means of lymph taken from one of the mildest cases.
These communicated cases are exceedingly mild. The practice of
housing sheep is very productive of this disease, and it is when
sheep are kept in small flocks and well supplied with fresh air and
general good care that the disease makes no headway. Whenever
our flocks shall be overcrowded, and poorly cared for, this disease
may be apprehended. Sheep-pox is not identical with the human
small-pox, but is yet of the same type, produced by the same
causes, has very similar characteristics, and is equally contagious.
It cannot, like that of the cow, be communicated to mankind, nor
to other animals than sheep, even by inoculation, and belongs ex-
clusively to them. It is a true blood poison, caused originally by
the absorption of impure matter into the blood, probably through
the lungs, and the course of the disease is an effort of nature to
throw off the poison by the eruptions which appear on the skin.
There is a period of incubation of the disease, which lasts nine
to eleven days after infection, and during which no symptoms
whatever appear. After this the sheep sicken, refuse food, and

212 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

suffer from quickened breathing, a hot, dry skin, an unquenchable
thirst, redness of the eyes, and a discharge from the nostrils.
At this period the eruption occurs on the body just as in the hu-
man small-pox. The bare skin under the arm-pits shows the first
indications of the eruption. Pustules or pimples surrounded with
a red ring, (the areola), appear, and gradually after three days,
come to a head, and take on a white appearance. It is at this
stage of the disease that the matter is collected and preserved for
the purposes of inoculation. The symptoms decrease at this stage
and the sheep improve. The pustules dry up and form scales or
scabs which fall off and lea^e in their places "pits" or marks.
But it may be that these pimples run together or become " conflu-
ent " and ulcerate. If this happens, the sheep almost invariably
die. Otherwise the recovery is rapid.

Treatment by medicine is entirely unavailing. Good nursing
of the patients, and the use of sustaining stimulants with laxative
and demulcent food includes all that can be done. Linseed-meal,
rice-meal, and oat-meal, made into drinks, and given warm, with a
small quantity of sugar, or molasses and ginger, will be sufficient
in the shape of food. Pure soft water made slightly warm, and
acidulated with a few drops of aromatic sulphuric acid, should be
given for drink.

Hopeless cases should be ended at once. If at the last stage the
symptoms become worse, and the pimples, instead of becoming
brown and drying up, ulcerate, and run together in chains, the
animal should be killed and buried in a deep pit with plenty of
lime thrown on the carcass. Every portion of the dead animal
will convey infection, and in no case should the wool be taken
from it, unless it be at once tub-washed in boiling hot soap-suds.

On the appearance of the disease in a neighborhood, the unaf-
fected sheep should be inoculated. A quantity of the matter from
the white pimples is kept in bottles and diluted with water to the
consistency of cream. A needle mounted in a wooden handle —
a shoemaker's curved awl will answer the purpose excellently —
is dipped into the fluid and is thrust beneath the skin of the fleshy
part of the tail. This rarely fails to communicate the disease
which is so slight as seldom to interfere with the feeding of the
flock. In a paper published in the Journal of the Eoyal Agricul-
tural Society of England, Vol. XXV, Part 2, 1864, written by a
gentleman who had had charge of flocks of Merinos varying from
a few thousand up to twenty-five thousand, in Russia, and who
always practiced inoculation, the author states that although the
sheep under his charge were constantly exposed to contagion

DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 213

from neighboring flocks, in which thousands died from neglect of
this precaution, yet he never lost a single adult animal from the dis-
ease. In those countries where the disease prevails, every shep-
herd has an inoculating needle amongst the implements of his
profession.

As we are as yet exempt from this disease, and as it is readily
communicated by contact with the skin or fleece of a diseased
sheep, and with the present rapid communication between this
country and Europe, an animal might easily reach here within its
period of incubation, constant watchfulness should be exerted
to prevent its importation. That we shall always be exempt, is
too much to reasonably hope for.

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.

The urine of a healthy sheep is alkaline. Under some circum-
stances the urine becomes acid. This abnormal condition pro-
duces a disordered condition of the highly sensitive urinary or-
gans. If the flow of the urine is obstructed, it is absorbed into
the circulation, and a variety of diseases are produced, all of
which have one constant distinguishing symptom, viz : tlie strong
smell of urine given out by the other secretions of the system, but
especially by the secretions of the skin. The blood is poisoned
by the absorption of the matters which the urine should have car-
ried off, and a high condition of fever is consequently produced.
Male animals are more frequently affected than females, by reason
of the peculiar structure and length of the urinary canal, already
described. Fattening animals are especially subject to urinary
disorders, and such need close inspection and great care.

Inflammation of the Bladder is the most frequent of the urinary
diseases. Feeding upon second growth clover, which often con-
tain lobelia, St. John's- wort, rag weed, and other irritating plants;
or upon excessive quantities of corn-meal, or drinking hard wa-
ter, are the chief causes. The acid and consequently irritating
character of the urine inflames the inner coats of the bladder. The
inflammation spreads to the muscular substance around the neck
of the bladder, and this is contracted, closing the opening.

Retention of Urine is therefore the direct consequence, and this
involves the serious complications already mentioned. The symp-
toms are uneasiness, constant lifting the hind feet and stamping
with them, spreading them out and straining in the endeavor to
void urine. As the attempt is abandoned, the animal moans in
pain. There is general disturbance of the system, fever, and costive-

214 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

ness. The remedy is to bleed copiously from the neck and to
give the following to a large animal.

Linseed-oil 2 ounces.

Laudanum. 2 drams.

For smaller animals the dose should be reduced proportionately.
If there is no improvement the second day, the bleeding should be
repeated from the other side of the neck, and one ounce of linseed
oil be given daily until relief is procured. Diuretics and saline
purgatives should be avoided. After improvement the food should
be light, and infusions of linseed-meal or of gum arabic, would be
useful.

Sediment in the Urinary Canal. — Highly fed sheep, or those
fed on dry pastures, which are deficient in water, or those care-
lessly denied a full supply of water in winter, when they are fed
grain in less or greater quantities — rams and wethers especially —
are those which are subject to this disorder. Females, from the
large capacity of the canal, are never, or very rarely, affected. But
in male animals the peculiar appendage, called the vermiform, or
worm-like appendage, through which the canal finds its exit, be-
ing very small, an easy obstruction is offered to the passage and
discharge of any sandy or muddy deposit of the urine. Small
stony concretions are often discovered attached to the wool or
hairs around the vent on the belly of the sheep. When these are
noticed, extra care should be exercised to give abundant water by
which the deposit may be dissolved and carried away. When the
deposits have been arrested in this narrow passage, the urine is
seen to pass drop by drop and the animal exhibits great pain and
uneasiness. All the symptoms of retention of urine then appear.
The treatment is to place the animal on his rump and draw the
penis out of the sheath. It will be found inflamed and tender.
It should be fomented with warm water, and the urethra or canal
below it gently pressed with the fingers to force out the urine and
with it the sediment. If this is successful even in part, some
sweet-oil should be applied to the parts, and a rather large dose
of linseed-oil be administered along with an antispasmodic to act
on the neek of the bladder, viz :

Linseed-oil 3 ounces.

Extract of Belladonna 10 grains.

On the following day the urethra should be again examined, and
the manipulation be again repeated. One dram of Carbonate of
Potash should then be given, dissolved in water, three times
a day. If fever is present, the belladonna may be repeated,
but only in case of urgency. No saline purgatives are to be

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 215

given in affections of the bladder. If the sediment cannot be passed,
it will be necessary to remove it by an operation. A lengthwise in-
cision is made, with a small sharp knife blade, at the junction of
the vermiform appendage with the urethra, on the lower surface,
and the stones or gravel are removed by pressure. It may be dis-
covered in this manner, that the obstructions exist all along the
urethra, in which case there is no hope of recovery, and the ani-
mal may be slaughtered. In case of wethers the vermiform
appendage of the penis may be cut off at once. In rams it may be
saved if possible, although it is not absolutely necessary for suc-
cessful stock getting. It may be well, however, to be on the safe
side, and save the part out of respect to the generally accepted be-
lief that it is needful. It is known, however, that many rams
which had lost the part by this operation, did not lose their useful-
ness in consequence.

Calculi, or stone in the bladder. For this disease there is no
remedy, and if after the fact has been ascertained by the previously
described operation, or in any other way, the animal may be killed.

Clap or Gonorrhea. — This disease affects the sheath and ^enia)
of the rani The first symptoms are very similar to those of sedi-
ment in the urethra. There is gre.at pain in urinating, and the
urine comes by a few drops at a time. In course of time a white
acrid discharge escapes, and this, in case of neglect causes ulceration,
which may destroy the organ. Rams thus affected should not be
used, as the disease is contagious, and the symptoms are aggrava-
ted. The causes are excessive work and want of cleanliness. The
treatment consists of turning the animal on its back, withdrawing
the penis gently, holding it with a soft linen cloth wetted with the
lotion mentioned below, until all the diseased parts are seen.
The organ is then bathed and washed thoroughly with the follow-
ing lotion, viz :

Spirits of Camphor 4 ounces.

Sugar of Lead 1 ounce.

Sulphate of Zinc 2 ounces.

Water 1 quart.

Mix and bottle for use. If any of the ewes have become diseased
by contact with a diseased ram, a soft linen cloth may be wrapped
around the finger, dipped in the solution, and inserted in the parts
until they are thoroughly washed. Or a portion may be injected
with a syringe. A daily dressing should be given until a cure
commences, afterwards twice a week will be sufiicient. One ounce
of linseed oil should be given every other day until the urine
passes freely. The food should be laxative, and nothing stimulat-

216

ing should be given until a cure is effected. Copious demulcent
drinks should be given, such as infusions of linseed, oat-meal, or
gum arabic.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN.

Water on tTie Brain, (Hydrocephalus).—This is a constitutional
fault which is present in the ewe, or the ram, used in breeding. It
exists in the lamb at birth, and the head is generally so unnatur-
ally enlarged that it is killed as not worth raising, or it dies before
it has arrived at maturity. If there are many cases in a flock, the
ram should be changed ; if the ewes are at fault, they should be
disposed of by feeding for the butcher. There is no cure, and an
animal so deformed is a disagreeable object at the best, and it
should be destroyed at birth.

Apoplexy — Staggers. — Some of the high-bred sheep, the Leices-
ters more especially, as well as some native sheep that have been
poorly kept and fed, are subject to occasional attacks of giddiness
and blindness, in which they stagger about and run against walls,
fences, or other obstructions, evidently unable to see. The attack
comes on suddenly, the sheep stops and stands staggering, or still

moves on its former course
with eyes dilated and prom-
inent, but unconscious of
impediments. The appear-
ance of the eyes and mem-
branes shows that the vessels
of the head are full of blood,
and post-mortem examina-
tions have shown the brain to
be highly congested, and some-
times the vessels ruptured.
Fig. 76.— THE FACIAL VEIN. Pressure of blood on the brain

is the cause of these symptoms. Plethora from continued high
feeding, or from indigestion or other disturbance of the condition
of the digestive organs, produces this determination of blood to
the head. Removal of the causes, depletion of high conditioned
animals, by saline purgatives, or the restoration of the tone of poor
conditioned ones by good food and tonics, tend to a cure. Bleed-
ing from the facial vein (a, fig. 76), is often useful in extreme cases.
Inflammation of the Brain (P7irenitis).—The causes which pro-
duce apoplexy, if long continued, result in inflammation of the
brain, and this produces frenzy. The affected animals are very

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 217

violent, dashing hither and thijher regardless of danger or damage
to themselves. Lambs thus affected leap and throw themselves
about as if in violent play, until they fall and die in convulsions.
The only remedy is copious bleeding from the neck, and active
purging with salts. In this case no accompanying stimulant is
needed, and for a full-grown animal, the dose may be increased
one-half above the usual quantity. There is always congestion of
the brain accompanying this disease, and treatment must be in-
stant, lest in the muscular excitement the vessels of the brain be
ruptured and sudden death ensue.

Paralysis— Trembles.— This disease is a different manifestation
of the effects of pressure of blood upon the brain from the two
diseases previously described. In this disease, in addition to the
base of the brain, the spinal marrow and the nervous system con-
nected therewith are affected, the congestion occupying a consid-
erable portion of the vertebral canal. Its effects are varied. In
some cases the animal loses the power over some of its limbs ; the
hinder half of the bodies of some are lendered incapable of mo-
tion ; in others, the sheep stands, trembles violently, with ( the
head drawn back or to one side, the jaws are tightly closed, 'and
froth is forced through the teeth and lips ; the breathing is hur-
ried, and the fit which lasts for a short time, recurs at short inter-
vals. At other times the animal, which may appear perfectly
well, will suddenly spring from the ground, scream, and fall dead.
Others will fall deprived of motion, and remain sprawling, with
limbs stretched out, until they die of starvation. The power of
swallowing is gone, and there is generally very great difficulty of
breathing in consequence of the affection of the pneumo-gastric
nerve and the resulting paralysis or spasmodic condition of the
muscles of the throat and chest. Animals in poor condition sub-
jected to cold and exposure, suffer mostly from this peculiar form
of disease.

The treatment proper to these varied cases, depends upon
whether the patient is in the active or collapsed condition. On
the first attack, bleeding from the facial vein is the proper remedy,
and generally gives immediate relief. But after the animal has
passed through this stage, a condition of collapse follows, and in-
stead of depletion, the opposite course is necessary to be taken.
Tonics and stimulants are then needed. Warm milk or gruel,
sweetened and mixed with ginger, followed by a teaspoonful of
aromatic spirits of ammonia, or one scruple of carbonate of ammo-
nia, mixed with gum water of cold linseed tea, should be given.
If the bowels are constipated, a dose of linseed-oil (but no salts),

10

218 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

should be given. The body may be swathed in a rag dipped in
hot water, to which an ounce of ammonia water has been added.
On recovery, the food should be generally improved in character,
and a daily dose of one scruple of sulphate of copper may be
given with some meal, or mixed with molasses and placed on the
tongue. This disease is the most frequent one of the kind from
which our flocks suffer.

is a very similar disease to the preceding. It occurs
chiefly in young or poor sheep which are turned out to feed early
in the morning when the herbage is covered with hoar-frost or
snow. The rumen being chilled, causes the blood to determine to
the brain, and the animal becomes convulsed. No treatment can
avail anything, but prevention is everything.

Lockjaw, which is a violent excitement of the nervous system,
sometimes occurs in consequence of exposure to wet and cold, and
sometimes in consequence of injury to the nerves through the vio-
lent twisting of the spermatic cord and vessels in the operation of
castration. The jaws are closed, but can be moved laterally, and
there is grinding of the teeth ; the head is bent round, the neck
twisted, and one or more of the limbs are rigid. In this condition
the sheep may remain a day and then die, or if it remain longer it
may recover. A warm bath, if the sheep is not too large, is use-
ful ; and the animal should be kept warm and in a quiet place. A
dose of two ounces of Epsom salts should be given, followed by
two drams of laudanum after two hours. Warm gruel, with a
quarter of an ounce of ginger, should be given two or three times
a day. Quiet and warmth are indispensable to a cure.

Palsy. — This disease consists in a total suspension of action in
the nervous system, generally in consequence of exposure to se-
vere cold and wet. Lambs that are thoroughly chilled by cold
rain and winds, or newly shorn sheep similarly exposed, are the
most frequent subjects. Ewes having been exhausted by pro-
tracted labor, or by abortion ; or newly dropped winter lambs, that
have been neglected, also suffer from it. Heavy feeding on man-
gels or watery roots has been known to produce it, and it has
been stated recently that roots grown upon land that has been
heavily dressed with superphosphate of lime, have produced this
complaint in several English flocks. It is very questionable if the
phosphate has any direct agency in producing it. The sheep suf-
fering from it lie totally helpless, the whole body being incapable
of movement, the respiration is almost stopped, and the eye is
dead looking and lifeless, the eyelids quivering occasionally.

PARASITICAL DISEASES. 319

The treatment consists in the application of warmth, and a
stimulant such as mustard or ammonia and sweet-oil rubbed on
the brisket and the spine. The following dose may be given twice
a day, viz :

Spirits of Nitrous Ether 2 drams.

Powdered Ginger 1 "

" Gentian 1 "

Warm drinks should be given at short intervals. If the animal is
purged, the chalk mixture prescribed for diarrhea should be given.
If the palsy is not relieved by this treatment, the following may
be given :

Tincture of Nux Vomica 4 drops.

OB

Strychnine »/4 grain.

diffused in a quarter of a pint of linseed gruel, and the dose slightly
increased, afterwards repeated. In the case of a valuable animal,
this potent medicine should be given with great care, or only by a
veterinary surgeon.

PARASITICAL DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES.

Parasites which infest animals are divided into two classes, in-
ternal parasites called entozoa, and external ones which are called
epizoa. Since the natural history of microscopic animals and
those which undergo changes only to be discovered by the use of
the microscope, has become better known, much in regard to some
peculiar diseases of animals, is now understood. Formerly it was
believed that spontaneous generation of minute animalcule could
occur, and that parasites were " bred " by diseased matter. What
was then supposed to be the consequence of certain diseased con-
ditions is now known to be the cause of them, and the whole subject
of parasitical disease is in course of satisfactory explanation. But
as yet there is much to learn, and the investigation of the subject
is surrounded with difficulties. The most important of all the in-
ternal parasites which injuriously affect the sheep is undoubtedly
that known as

The Liver Fluke, the distoma hepaticum of Rudolphi, or the
fasciola hepatica of Linnaeus, which inhabits the gall bladder and
ducts, and penetrates the substance of the liver. Its presence
in this organ produces disorder of its functions and a diseased con-
dition of the animal known as

The Rot, oi' tfw Liver Rot. — This disease has been the most
dreaded by the shepherd for centuries past. It has carried off

220

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

Fig. 77. — SHEEP AFFECTED WITH
ROT.

millions of sheep in a single year, in Australia and South America,
and is very prevalent in Europe. In 1830 two million sheep died
in England of this disease. It exists in America both in imported
sheep and the native flocks, and thousands die every year of it
without their owners having knowledge of the cause. The symp-
toms of the disease are, however, very marked and significant. In

the healthy sheep the conjunc-
tiva, or the membrane which
covers the eyeball in front, and
lines the eyelid, is brilliantly
red ; so much so, that those un-
used to observe these things
closely, would suppose the eye
to be highly inflamed. When
affected with the rot, the con-
junctiva is pale and eyeball
yellowish. When this sign ap-
pears, and the sheep is found to
be ailing, it is certainly infested with flukes. There are other
symptoms which indicate less certainly this disease, because they
are found present in other ailments also, but this symptom is pe-
culiar to this parasite. As the
disease progresses, dropsy is
always present, and a wa-
tery tumor or bag appears
beneath the lower jaw. The
skin is pale and bloodless,
and the wool is dry, harsh,
ragged, and readily parts
from the skin. The skin is
drawn tightly, and the spine
is arched and prominent, as
seen in figure 77. The ap-
petite is irregular, and de-
praved, and the thirst excessive. These symptoms increase until
the sheep dies completely emaciated.

The fluke is a member of a family of sucking worms (similar to
the leeches), known as distomaB. It is a flat, oval shaped animal
more thickly conical in front, and has a sucker or mouth. Where
the thicker part joins the flatter hinder part, there is a second
sucker upon the underside. In figure 78 are shown the full grown
flukes as taken from the gall ducts of a sheep, and in figure 79 are
represented immature flukes from the same animal. The fluke is

THE LIVER FLUKE.

221

a highly organized animal. It possesses a branched intestinal
canal arid digestive organs, seen at figure 80, and a fully devel-
oped circulatory system seen at figure 81. These figures are life-
size. The fluke possesses the power of self-impreg-
nation should a second individual not be present
for copulation. It propagates by means of eggs,
which are produced in great numbers, and which
pass with the bile into the intestinal caDal, from
whence they are voided with the dung of the sheep.
Fig. 79. rp^ 6ggS nee(j to ke -Cashed by rain Or flood into

stagnant water to become developed. The embryo, covered with
ciliae or arms — the locomotive organs — leaves the shell and swims
in the water. It is then believed, from our present knowledge of
its habits, to penetrate the bodies of snails or other amphibious
molluscs, and thus pass a stage of its existence. These soft-bodied
molluscs being swallowed by the sheep which graze in low, moist
pastures, along with the herbage ; the parasites contained in them
are introduced into the stomach,
from which they pass by the
gall ducts, into the liver, and
thus complete the round of their
existence. They collect hi
masses, sometimes closely pack-
ed in the gall ducts, obstruct the
flow of the gall, and set up
irritation, and thus produce
jaundice, by which the mem-
branes are colored yellow. At
this first outset of the disease
the sheep seems to thrive and
make fat rapidly, but the fat is
highly colored, especially that of the kidneys and brisket. Some
English feeders have purposely exposed their sheep to the flukes
to hasten the fattening. But this stage passed, the structure of
the liver becomes changed from the irritation and pressure ; the
gall ducts become enlarged into extensive cavities, which are filled
with flukes and their eggs. The pain thus caused makes the ani-
mal restless and thin. The partial destruction of the liver, and
stoppage of its functions, causes diarrhea, dropsy, and the disor-
ganization of the blood, which constitute the fatal rot. The
course of this disease is rapid. At the latter end the whole system
is deranged. The breath is offensive, a deep distressing cough with
fever racks the animal, the skin is covered with yellowish and

Fig. 80.

Fig. 81.

222 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

black patches ; the abdomen enlarges from the accumulated fluid ;
the animal is very weak, and lies with its head thrust out, solitary
and separate from its fellows until it dies. On opening the sheep,
the whole carcass is literally rotten. Yellow serum follows the
knife everywhere, the abdomen being filled with it. The liver is
found full of hard spots and ulcers, and the ducts filled with flukes.
The treatment consists wholly in prevention or in attention at
the first stages. When the rot has become developed, no medi-
cine avails anything. It is wholly and surely prevented by keep-
ing the sheep on dry pastures and away from stagnant water. The
fluke there can find no development. Low pastures should be
drained, ponds fenced off, and well water used for drinking pur-
poses. Hay from low grounds may even communicate this dis-
ease. When these preventive measures cannot be wholly carried
out, the sheep should be abundantly supplied with salt, and on
the first appearance of suspicious symptoms, the following mixture
should be administered, viz:

Saltpeter I1/? ounce.

Powdered Ginger 1

Carbonate of Iron (colcothar of vitriol) ya "

Salt 1 pound.

Boiling water 3 quarts.

The above to be mixed, and when nearly cool, 9 ounces of spirits
of turpentine are to be added. The whole is bottled in quart bot-
tles for use, and when administered should be well shaken to mix
the ingredients thoroughly.

Infected sheep should be kept from food all night, and on the
following morning, before feeding, each should receive two ounces
(a wine-glass full) of the mixture by means of a horn. No food
should be given for three hours. The medicine is repeated every
fourth day for two weeks.

Sheep may live and thrive, and yet carry flukes. How many
they can tolerate without serious injury, is a question that will
probably never be satisfactorily answered. It is proper that the
shepherd should be always on his guard against them, for the
reason that this animal is now known to be native in this country
as well as in almost the whole world. Deer, antelopes, and hares
have been found infested by them. A careful and trustworthy
naturalist, Mr. Joseph Batty, a member of Prof. Hayden's explor-
ing expeditions, has discovered over a hundred flukes in the liver
of one hare in Minnesota. A fluke, of which figure 82 is a draw-
ing from nature, reduced one-half, was taken by Mr. Batty from
the liver of a deer in the winter of 1874-5. The liver in question

THE LUNG THREAD-WORM. 223

was filled with them, and a number of them are now preserved
in the museum of the Smithsonian Institute at Washington. The
author found them (along with numerous specimens of atrongylus
filaria, in the lungs), in the flock of South-
downs belonging to Royal Phelps, Esq., of
Babylon, L. I., and also in his own Cotswold,
Leicester, and native sheep, which had been
allowed to pasture occasionally along the banks
of a stream, and to drink for a whole summer
at a running spring in which many watercresses
and other aquatic plants grew. In these cases
the medicine above prescribed brought about
an entire cure.

As the course of the disease is rapidly ex-
haustive, sheep that are affected should be well
fed with nutritious and easily digested food ;
Fig. 82.— FLUKE a pint per dav^ for each gheep^ of Hnseed-oil-

5EB' cake-meal mixed with bran, will be of the
greatest service on their recovery, or as soon as the appetite returns.
The Lung Strangle. — The "lung thread-worm," (strongylus
filaria], lives in the wind-pipe, the bronchial tubes, and the tissues
of the sheep's lungs. It is a white, thread-like worm, from one
inch to three inches in length. Its natural history is supposed to
be as follows. The worms present in the lungs breed and produce
eggs, which contain fully developed young, wound up in a spiral
form in a thin shell. These embryos soon leave the shell and
move about in the tubes, causing great irritation and a secretion of
mucus, upon which they feed and grow. It is not certainly known
as yet if the sheep in the violent coughing caused by the irritation
expels any of the eggs or young worms, and that they then pass a
portion of their existence in the open air, finding their way into
the lungs of fresh bearers by the trachea in the passage of the
food through the mouth or gullet, or from the stomach in the act
of rumination ; or if the worm completes its whole existence in
the lungs of its bearer. It is most probable that the former sup-
position is the true one, as it explains the fact that the worms are
often found in young lambs in such quantities as to cause suffoca-
tion. Besides, it is known that flocks which follow other sheep
upon pastures, or which feed upon fields that have been manured
with sheeps' dung, have been attacked with this disease. An in-
teresting case in point is stated by a Pennsylvania correspondent
of the Country Gentleman of March 25th, 1875. Some ram lambs
were pastured in a field upon which their dams had been kept the

224 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

previous year, and which had been top-dressed with manure from
the sheep sheds. Nineteen out of forty of the lambs died. The
f ollowing year twenty-three lambs died, and the post-mortem of the
physician showed the fact that the larynx and trachea were cov-
ered on their inner surface " with a frothy mucus, generally white,
but here and there of a yellowish hue," also in this mucus were
"several worm-like bodies about one-half a line in diameter, and
from one to two inches in length." Under the microscope these
proved to be articulates, some of which contained what seemed
to be ova. A microscopic examination of the mucus showed these
ova in various stages of development. The worm -like bodies were
undoubtedly the lung thread-worms under consideration. For
several years afterwards the lambs which pastured on the top-
dressed meadows took the disease and died. The symptoms which
indicate the presence of this worm are a loss of condition, a con-
stant and severe cough, a dropsical condition, as shown by the
watery tumor beneath the throat, and a pining and wasting away.
The skin is pale, and the eyes pearly, and bloodless. After death
there is no sign of disease, except the presence of the worms in the
lungs and windpipe, and complete emaciation. The means of
prevention are obvious. Pastures or meadows should not be top-
dressed with sheeps' manure unless they are to be plowed and
sown to grain crops, and if a pasture is found to be infected, it
should be plowed up and re-sown. All sheep having the charac-
teristic cough should be fattened and killed.

The treatment proper in this case is the same as that recom-
mended for the liver fluke, and the mixture mentioned on page
222, should be administered as there stated. Turpentine and salt
are found to be almost sure remedies for internal parasites of all
kinds, and extra feeding to resist the draft upon the system will be
useful.

Hydatids or Bladder -Worms. — The association of the dog with
the sheep upon farms, is productive of much mischief in addition
to the vast annual slaughter of the latter occasioned thereby. The
great majority of dogs are infested with tape-worms. The eggs
of the tape-worms discharged in the dung of the dog upon fields
and pastures are swallowed by the sheep with the herbage, and the
larval state of the worms is developed within their bodies, either in
the lungs, the abdomen, or the brain, causing disease which is
often fatal. The larvae of the tape-worm exist in the shape of
watery bladders, or sacs, which contain the undeveloped worms.
These peculiar creatures are known as bladder- worms or hydatids.

HYDATIDS OR TAPE-WORMS.

225

Ffe. 83.

One of these occupies the abdominal cavity of the sheep, and is
called the

Diving Bladder-worm, Cysticercus fcnuicollis or C. tcsnia margina-
ta. These bladders are often free in the
abdomen, are sometimes enclosed in the
fat, and sometimes are attached to the
liver and intestines. They are pear-
shaped, and in size from that of a walnut
to that of a hen's or even a goose's egg.
These bladders or cysts, when fed to a
dog, have produced the mature tcenia
marginata upwards of three feet in length
in the course of three months. The eggs
of this tape-worm have been fed to lambs, and have produced the
hydatid, or bladder-worm, of which hundreds were found hi the
abdomen of some of the lambs, which died soon after receiving
the eggs.

Figure 83 is a representation of the Cysticercus tenuicollis, with
the head turned out-
wards, and with the
head contained within
the neck of the blad-
der. Another of these
hydatids is the

Many-headed Blad-
der-worm, or Cysticer-
cus tcenia echinococcus.
— This finds a home
in the lungs and liver
of the sheep and other
ruminants, and also
infests mankind. Fig-
ure 84 is an illustra-
tion of the liver and
lungs of an infected
sheep. As many as
several hundred cysts
have been taken from
one sheep. This is a
most dangerous para-
site, for if taken into the human stomach, it may produce " bladders"
in the brain, as it actually has done in well authenticated cases,
which are certainly fatal. The cysts reproduce themselves by a

INFECTED WITH HYDATIDS.

226

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

species of budding, and thus rapidly increase and spread through
the bodies of their bearers. The most common of these hydatids is
The Brain Bladder-worm, or Ccenurus cerebralis. — This produces
the common disease known as turnside, or giddiness, in which the
sheep turns its head to the left or right, and walks round and
round in a circle in the direction in which the head is turned,
until it falls giddy and exhausted. The presence of this parasite
has been discovered in the liver of our gray squirrel, and in rab-
bits, as well as in numerous sheep in this country. In the sheep
it is generally found hi the brain, although it is not peculiar
to that organ. It is only there, however, that it produces the
usual disastrous effects upon the sheep. Figure 85 represents the

Fig. 85. — HYDATID IN THE BRAIN. Fig. 86. — BRAIN WITH FOUR HYDATIDS

brain infested with but one hydatid (a) ; in figure 86 it has four of
them (a, b, cy d). In size they are from that of a pea up to that of a
hen's egg. The hydatid is a bladder filled with a viscid fluid, and
covered on its outside surface with marks or oval slits. These
slits are the spots to which flask-shaped appendages are affixed
within, and are the openings which lead to the interior of these
appendages. On examination with a common pocket lens, a por-
tion of .the bladder appears as in figure 87. The appendages are
the necks and heads of the immature tape-worms, each head hav-
ing four suckers and a series of hooks which are characteristic of
the mature creatures, and by which they afterwards attach them-

HYDATIDS IN THE BRAIN. 227

selves to the coats of the intestines, while they suck the juices
therefrom. These heads increase by a process of budding, and
often amount to dozens, and sometimes hundreds hi number. The
pressure exerted by these bladders upon the brain, produces the
peculiar symptoms exhibited, and the act of turning to one side or
the other, helps to determine the seat of the hydatid in the body
of the brain, which
is found to be on
that side to which
the sheep turns.
The natural histo-
ry of this parasite
is as follows :
When the head of
a sheep, containing

the bladder-worms Fi g^^^g MAGNIFIEI).

of this species, is

devoured by a dog, the larvae are transformed within him into
tape-worms. This worm (tcenia ccenuri^s) at maturity, or its eggs,
being voided by the dog upon the grass of a pasture, are swallowed
by the sheep, are hatched in its stomach, and penetrate all parts
of the body, perishing everywhere except in the brain, which is
its usual habitation. There they develop, remaining dormant,
until chance favors their round again. Old sheep are rarely
affected by this parasite, the lambs suffer chiefly from them. One
infested dog will void thousands of eggs which not only escape
with the dung, but being attached to the anus, are carried about
and dropped in a multitude of places.

To prevent the spread of this parasite, it is necessary only to
prevent the heads of 'affected sheep from being devoured by dogs
or hogs, or to keep dogs from the pastures. The heads of sheep
dying from the disease should therefore be burned, and not thrown
out. The treatment of sheep subject to the parasite consists in an
operation by which the skull is pierced and the bladder punctured,
when the water in it escapes and is absorbed, leaving the worm to
perish. The pressure and irritation upon the skull causes some
absorption of its substance, and a soft spot is caused over the blad-
der. This may be easily felt by pressure of the finger. A curved
awl may then be inserted through the skull and the bladder pierced ;
or by means of a tubular saw (or trephine), a round piece of bone
is cut out of the skull, a flap of the skin first being laid back, and
the bone being lifted, the bladder is laid bare and removed. The
skin is relaid and held in place by a stitch or plaster, and the

228 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

wound heals. No other remedy than these is safe or certain, and
these frequently fail. This class of parasites possesses some
importance to the shepherd, not only from the loss occasioned
amongst his flock, but from the danger of the results to the
consumers of mutton. The farmer's or shepherd's own dog may
be the means of injury to his flock, and he should take means to
free the dog from the tape-worms by means of proper medicines,
of which the powdered areca nut is the most effective, as well as
to prevent vagrant dogs from stocking his pastures.

The areca nut is administered as follows. Previously, one scru-
ple of jalap, for a dog of 20 to 30 pounds in weight, should be ad-
ministered, and a brisk action of the bowels set up. This may
also be procured by giving the dog a quantity of butter or any of
the common purgatives. Immediately afterwards half an ounce
of the powder of areca nut is to be given in pills or in some ac-
ceptable food. Some locks of tangled wool dipped in grease or
melted fat are given at the same time to be swallowed. The
worm is killed or paralyzed by the areca nut, is entangled in the
wool, and all together are expelled by the purge. The mass should
be immediately burned or buried at a perfectly safe depth in the
ground. Applied to every dog at intervals of three months, this
treatment will free them from tape- worms, and prevent danger of
the sheep becoming infested with them.

Tape-worms, (tcenia pUcata), in the intestines. The sheep them-
selves are sometimes infested with mature tape- worms. This is
easily explained by the possibility of the sheep swallowing along
with their pasture some of the eggs which may have been voided
by any of the numerous bearers of these worms, both domestica-
ted and wild. It has been stated that the intestinal tape-worm is
very rare, if not unknown, in sheep in this country. This would
seem to be erroneous. A correspondent of the National Live
Stock Journal of September, 1875, from Missouri, reported his
lambs all dying of a strange disease in which the first symptom
was a falling off in condition, followed by a mild diarrhea. This
occurred in June, and continued up to August, when 30 out of 60
were dead, and nearly all the remainder were ailing. On exami-
nation after death, the small intestines were found " packed full
of tape-worms." This can hardly be a unique case, and we may
very well conclude that tape-worm in the intestines is one of the
parasitical diseases that we have to combat.

Generally the symptoms developed by the presence of tape-
worms are voracity of appetite, alternating with a refusal of food ;
loss of condition, desire to swallow earth, stones, sand, or ashes ;

PAKASITES OF THE SKIK. 229

the passage of soft dung, mixed with mucus, which becomes
attached to the vent and tail, causing a very filthy condition ; and
the evidence of internal pain. The sheep finally dies greatly ema-
ciated. There is no means of prevention, as the eggs may be
dropped by rabbits, squirrels, skunks, and other wild animals
which frequent the fields. The treatment most effective is to
administer turpentine as follows :

Linseed-oil 2 ounces.

Spirits of Turpentine Va to 1 ounce.

This should be repeated twice a week for two weeks. If this
is not effective, 3 ounces of the Powdered root of Male Fern
may be given. The dose to be repeated in one week. In six
hours after this is administered, a purgative of linseed-oil should
be given. The food should be of the best kind until the lost con-
dition is restored.

Tape-worms in any of their forms of life, affect only young sheep
and lambs. When sheep attain the age of two years they are safe
from them, and it is very rare indeed that one older than this be-
comes infested with them.

Hair-worms in the Intestines.— jA. species of " hair-worm" called
from its peculiar formation iricocephalus, is not uncommon in
sheep. It infests the stomach and intestines, causing obstinate
diarrhea, and rapid wasting of flesh. These worms burrow their
heads into the membrane lining the organs, and suck out the
juices. The irritation produces diarrhea, which submits to no
treatment while they remain. A cough is often present along
with the diarrhea. Other species of worms, of habits identical
with these, and producing the same injurious effects, also infest
the sheep, but more particularly lambs and yearlings. Salt in doses
of half an ounce, given on alternate days with one dram doses of
sulphate of iron, the salt being given on one day and the iron the
next, is a very sure remedy for this class of parasites, and the dis-
eases which result from their presence. To counteract the debili-
tating effect of these parasites, the food should be of the most nu-
tritive and digestible character, and linseed in some shape should
not be omitted.

PAKASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN.

Of the epizoa or external parasites of the sheep, the most formid-
able is the Scab insect, or Acarus scdbiei. This is a minute mite
which attaches itself to the skin and penetrates the surface, lodg-
ing itself in the tissues and causing intense irritation or itching,

230

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

and the secretion of a serous exudation which dries upon the sur-
face and forms a scab. This disease was well known to ancient
shepherds, and an exact description was given by the poet Virgil
in his Georgics. It is mentioned by the historian Livy, as being
very virulent in his time. But up to a very recent date the cause
of the disease was not correctly known. Youatt's work on the
sheep, published in 1840, by the English " Society for the Diffusion
of Useful Knowledge," states it to be caused by bad keep, starva-
tion, over-driving, dogging, exposure to cold and wet, and other
causes of a suppression of the perspiration. He mentions the acari
as carriers of the disease, but not as the cause. In an attempt to
account for the origin of the insect, he makes the following re-
marks, which in the light of our present knowledge are a curious
relic of the ignorance which existed 40 years ago, and which has
not yet quite passed away. " Physiologists are beginning to ac-
knowledge the working of a mysterious but noble principle — the

springing up of life
under new forms,
when the com-
ponent principles of
previous beings are
decaying, or have
seemingly perished.
Thus, if we mace-
rate any vegetable
substance, the fluid
will teem with my-
riads of living be-
ings, called into
existence by the
process we are con-
ducting, or rather
by that power of
Nature, or that prin-
ciple which was bestowed by the author of Nature, that life
ceasing in one form shall spring up in others, and this while the
creation lasts. Thus we have probably the hydatid in the brain
of the sheep, and the fluke in its liver ; parasitical beings, which
we recognise in no other form and in no other place. They were
the product of the disease of the part. In like manner the acarus
of scab may be called into existence by the derangements which
our neglect, or unavoidable accident, or disease, may have made in
the skin of the sheep. Scab may be, and is, of spontaneous ori-

Fig. 88.— FEMALE SCAB INSECT.

THE SCAB-MITE. 231

gin, as well as the product of contagion ; and the acarus, having
sprung into life within the pores of the skin, obeys the laws of all
living beings as to its after existence and multiplication."

It shows with what caution speculations should be indulged in,
and how much safer it is to say " we do not know," than to haz-
ard explanations which may be wide of the truth and misleading.
It has long been known that the origin of the existence of all ani-
mal life is an egg produced and fecundated by parents, and the
scab-mite being no exception to this law, comes forth from an egg
and springs into life just as a chicken does. In both cases the egg
is deposited and hatched, and produces the mature animal. The
female scab insect, seen at figure 88, is larger than the male,
which is shown at figure 89, magnified
2,500 tunes. One male suffices for many
females, and is longer lived than the
female. The latter dies after producing
her eggs, which she deposits in the pores
of the skin, or in the furrows of the scab
which she has helped to produce. Her
eggs are numerous, and being hatched in
three days, her progeny increase rapidly.
One female acarus can produce a million
and a half of progeny in 90 days. This
facility of increase explains the rapidity Fig. 89.— MALE SCAB
with which the disease spreads through a

flock, and proves the necessity for instant and energetic remedies
or effective preventives.

The symptoms first observed are restlessness and uneasiness, and
the observant shepherd will have his suspicions aroused and search
for the cause on the first appearance of these symptoms amongst
his flock. As the disease progresses, the sheep are found rubbing
or scratching themselves, or biting or nibbling amongst their
wool. The attention should then be directed to the parts rubbed
or bitten. If scab is present, the skin will be at first white in
color and of a thicker texture than the rest, and moist or covered
with a yellow exudation. Later these parts are covered with scab
and the wool falls off or becomes loose. If a lock of this wool be
laid upon a sheet of white paper, the mites will be seen with the
unaided eye, as they crawl from it. If the disease is neglected,
the scabby spots enlarge and increase in number, the wool appears
ragged all over, and falls off in patches. Upon these bare spots
dense brown or yellow scales are seen, and if the sheep can reach
a fence or a post, the scabs are rubbed until they bleed and be-

232 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

come sores. The condition of the sheep falls off rapidly, and it
becomes a wo-begone object, such as is shown in figure 90.

The treatment is by dipping in a liquid which penetrates and
softens the scab so that it can be removed, and which poisons the
insect. There are many preparations used for this purpose, some
of which are objectionable on account of their poisonous proper-
ties, such as mercurial or arsenical compounds, and which are
no more effective than the following perfectly safe one. This
consists of tobacco and sulphur in the proportions of four ounces
of the first, and one of the second, to the gallon of water. The
water is brought to a boiling heat, and the tobacco, either coarse
cheap leaf or stems, which are equally good, is steeped, (but not
boiled), in it until the strength is exhausted. The sulphur is then

Fig. 90. — SHEEP AFFECTED WITH SCAB.

stirred in the liquid. When it has become reduced in tempera-
ture to 120 degrees, it is ready for use. The sheep are entirely
immersed in the liquid so that the wool is completely saturated.
Hard crusts of scab are broken up and removed with care, and
the raw surfaces are well washed with the decoction. The dip-
ped animals should be kept in a yard until the wool no longer
drips, lest the pasture should be fouled, and the sheep sickened by
the tobacco juice. After ten days the dipping is repeated to de-
stroy any newly hatched mites. With care the most badly in-
fected locality may be completely freed from this pest, and it will
never appear if the sheep are dipped twice each year as a preven-
tive. The gain in the growth of wool and in its improved quality
will more than repay the cost of the operation. (See page 48.)

The Sheep Tick (MelopTiagus ovinus), has been already referred
to (page 48) ; if the process of dipping, just described, is regularly
practiced, this parasite will be easily vanquished, and its annoying
presence prevented. This insect propagates only by single eggs,
or rather the perfect pupa is expelled singly from the female,

THE SHEEP-TICK.

233

which is therefore termed pupiparous ; it does not, therefore, in-
crease very fast, and is easily kept under. It is too well known
to need minute description, its dark
red, tough, leathery-skinned body be-
ing a most conspicuous object, when
the wool of almost any sheep in the
co an try is examined. The pupa and
mature sheep-tick, greatly magnified,
are shown at figure 91.
The Sheep-louse (Trichodectes
ovis), is known as the red
sheep-louse. Its head is of a
red color, and the body pale
yellow, marked with dark

bands. It is found on the side

SHEEP LOUSE.

Fig. 91. — SHEEP-TICK AND PUPA.

of the neck of the sheep, and the inner parts of the thighs and
arms. It causes much irritation, by which the sheep is impelled
to thrust its head between the bars of gates or
fences, or to kick and stamp with its legs. Oc-
casionally sheep are found strangled by becoming
fixed in their attempts to rub their necks, or with
their legs broken in attempts to rub them upon rails.
Lice are rarely found on the yolky wooled sheep, but
on the drier fleeced breeds they often cause much
unsuspected mischief. Those sheep which are regu-
92- larly dipped, are also free from this pest. To rub
parts mentioned with the following preparations
is generally an easy remedy.

Lard ............................................ 1 pound.

Flowers of Sulphur ............................... 2 ounces.

Creasote ......................................... 20 drops.

one pint of sweet oil may be substituted for the lard. This louse
is small, and the illustration, figure 92, is of one highly magnified.
The Sheep Gad Fly ((Estrus oms). — T^his is a most troublesome
pest, causing much discomfort to the sheep. It is a fly with two
wings spreading over one inch, and a stout body over half an inch
in length. In the summer months they disturb the sheep in the
pastures by the efforts they make to deposit their eggs upon the
animal's nostrils. When they succeed in their efforts, the sheep
often becomes half frantic, and races violently over the pasture,
sometimes seriously injuring itself by becoming overheated.
Where the fly abounds, the sheep crowd together and stop feed-
ing, holding their noses to the ground, and stamping with their

234 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. .

fore feet. The grub, when hatched from the egg, crawls up the
nostril, and lodges in the sinuses of the head, where it remains
feeding upon the mucus secreted by the membranes, until the fol-
lowing spring. In entering the nostrils and in leaving them, they
cause much irritation to the sheep. The remedy lies in prevent-
ing the fly from laying its eggs, and this is done by smearing the
nostrils of the sheep with tar, diluted with grease or butter. This
is both distasteful to the fly and fatal to the egg. By preparing a
pailful of the mixture, and smearing the noses of the sheep with a
brush, as they pass one by one through a half opened gate, every
morning during fly time (July and August), the sheep will be
spared much annoyance. When grubs are crawling clown the
nostril early in spring, they may be quickly dislodged by blowing
tobacco smoke into the nose through a pipe.

The Maggot, so called, is a formidable enemy of the sheep. It
Is the larvae of the common flesh fly (Sarcophaga carnaria), the
blue-bottle fly (musca Ccesar), and the meat fly (musca vomitoria),
all of which deposit their eggs or living larvae upon decaying ani-
mal matter. When sheep are wounded by accident, or are allowed
to become filthy when troubled with diarrhea, these eggs or larvae
are deposited in vast numbers ; the ovaries of a single Sarcopha-
gus having been found to contain 20,000 eggs. The maggots soon
become active, and spreading from their quarters, attack the skin,
which they irritate and cause to secrete a serous fluid. In time
the skin is pierced, and the flesh suppurates and wastes away,
being devoured by the multitude of maggots which crawl upon it.
In wet seasons the mischief is greatly increased. To prevent them
it is necessary to carefully remove the wool from about the tail so
that filth may not gather ; to watch for any accidental wound ; and
in warm wet weather, for any dirty tags of wool upon which the
flies may deposit eggs. In case any maggots are found, there is
no better application than common crude petroleum, or whale-oil,
both of which are repulsive and fatal to fly and maggot. A sheep
that is " struck " with maggots will remain separate from the flock,
and may be lost sight of unless the flock is counted at least once
a day, and the straggler found. Weaning time, when the ewes
may suffer from caked udder, is an especially critical period, and
then extra watchfulness is called for.

DISEASES OF THE FEET.

Sheep are subject to many disorders of the feet. The structure
of the sheep's foot is different from that of the horse. It possesses

CONTAGIOUS FOOT-ROT. 235

no laminae which connect the outer crust or horn with the sensi-
tive parts within, but the crust is connected with the bone by a
vascular structure, by which it is also secreted. The growth of
the hoof of the sheep is not from the coronet downwards, as in
the horse, but from the whole inner secreting surface. In this lies
both the weakness of the sheep's foot, and the rapidity with which
repairs are made, when it is injured or diseased. The wall or
crust surrounds the outside of the foot, and turns under at the
edge of the sole and toe, and it is impossible to distingush where
the crust ends, and the sole begins, both being so much alike in
structure. The crust is harder and tougher than the sole, which
is soft and elastic, like India rubber. As the toot wears down by
contact with the ground, the crust is worn off to a sharp edge upon
the outer margin ; when the wear and growth balance each other,
the foot is in perfect condition ; but when either is greater than
the other, the conditions of disease are at once established, and
unless removed by proper treatment, lameness occurs.

Another peculiarity of the sheep's foot is the interdigital canal,
which commences in a small opening about one inch above
the foot, passes downwards and backwards between the toes
and ends in a pouch which is curved upwards upon itself.
The canal is covered with hair, and is studded with glands which
secrete an oily fluid. This fluid overflows at the opening, and
moistens the skin between the toes, preventing chafing and sore-
ness. The peculiar structure of the foot of the shesp, under unfa-
vorable circumstances, gives occasion to several serious diseases.
Of these the most frequent and important is

Foot-rot. — This disease is contagious, and may spread through
the flock, if preventive measures are not taken. It consists of an
inflammation of the whole hoof, the formation of blisters upon
the heels and between the toes, which break and form discharging
surfaces, and in a few days, ulcers, which suppurate and excrete
fetid matter. The fore feet are the most usually affected. When
this happens the sheep may be observed to go around feeding
painfully upon their knees. If no attention is given, the hoof is
lost in course of time, and a wounded stump only is left. It is
caused at first by wet pastures in which the feet become foul, the
horn becomes detached under the sole, and harbors filth which
softens the sole, and influences the vascular tissue beneath it.
Neglect completes the conditions under which the disease oc-
curs. The treatment should be immediate on the appearance of
the first lameness, for when the ulcerative stage has arrived, the
cure is long and difficult, the whole condition of the animal being

236 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

involved. As soon as lameness is perceived, the sheep should be
examined. All raw, loose, or diseased horn should be cut away
with a sharp knife ; any excessive growth of horn at the toes
should be removed, and if any pus or matter is found beneath the
horn, that should be pared away until it is all exposed. The feet
should then be washed clean with carbolic soap and water twice a
week, and after each washing a piece of tow or lint dipped into
' the following mixture should be bound on the foot and between
the digits, viz :

Oxide of Copper 4 ounces.

Arsenic Va "

Acetic Acid 3 "

Honey 8 "

Or the foot may be thoroughly smeared with the following oint-
ment, viz :

Finely Powdered Blue Vitriol 1 pound.

Verdigris Va "

Linseed-oil 1 pint.

Pine Tar 1 quart.

This will dry on the foot and will not be washed off by the wet
grass as a solution would be.

The following remedy is in general use amongst French and
German shepherds :

Chloride of Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate) 15 grains.

Acetate of Copper 30

Sulphate of Zinc. . . 30

Acetate of Copper 30

Sulphate of Zinc 30

Hydro-chloric Acid (muriatic) 2 drams.

Water 2 ounces.

The diseased parts to be touched daily with a feather dipped in
the above solution. In case the disease has made considerable
progress, and the sheep are found feverish and generally ailing,
each sick one should receive, according to circumstances, a dose
of one to two ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in half a pint of
water. At the expiration of two days the following should be
given, viz :

Nitrate of Potash Va ounce.

Flowers of Sulphur % "

mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue until swallowed.
This may be repeated once a week until the feet are well.

When the disease becomes virulent, the foot is swollen, sinuses
are formed, and ulceration progresses until the whole foot is
deeply involved, and the sheep fails to eat, loses flesh, and is in a
condition of fever from blood poisoning by the absorbed matter.

COMMON FOOT-EOT. 237

The case is then often unmanageable except at greater cost than
the value of the sheep. Fortunately such a termination rarely
occurs, unless through great neglect or the most unskillful man-
agement. In such a case the foot should be washed, the loose and
separated horn removed with care, and the foot poulticed with a
warm carrot or turnip poultice twice a day for three days, and the
following should be administered at once :

Epsom Salts 2 ounces.

Laudanum 1 dram.

After the feet have been cleaned by the poultice, the treatment
before mentioned should be continued until recovery is made.
The patient being unable to move without great pain, should be
kept in a pen with a clean floor free from straw or chaff, or any-
thing that would irritate the foot or convey infection elsewhere.

A method recommended by the Hon. H. S. Kandall, who has
successfully treated many of his own flock in this manner, is to
procure a large tub or trough in which three sheep can stand at
one tune, and to pour into this tub a hot saturated solution of blue
vitriol (sulphate of copper), until it is four niches deep. The
sheep having had their feet washed, and all loose horn pared off,
are placed in the tub on their feet and held there by an assistant.
The first sheep is kept in the foot-bath until the fourth is ready to
go in, when it is taken out ; when the fifth goes in, the second is
turned out. Thus each sheep remains in the bath about ten min-
utes, giving time for the solution to penetrate every part of the
diseased hoof. After the bath, the sheep are kept in a dry grass
field. One application of this remedy served in every case, to
make a complete cure. This troublesome disease is rarely known
in this country upon dry pasture, and generally yields at once to a
simple paring of the feet and shortening of the overgrown toes, a
cleansing from all filth or irritating matter, and a dressing with an
astringent ointment such as the first above mentioned.

Common Foot-rot or Gravel, is not contagious, and being the re-
sult of accidental circumstances, is cured by their removal, together
with simple auxiliary treatment. It consists of an inflammation
of the internal parts of the foot, the formation of matter, its escape
at the top of the hoof, the separation of the horn or crust from
the diseased parts, and as a matter of course, extreme lameness.
It is caused by an excessive wear of the crust of the hoof upon
stony, gravely pastures, or by excessive growth of the crust or
toe, in low moist meadows. In either case, foreign matter enters
between the crust and the sole, and pressing upon the sensitive

238 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

parts beneath, causes inflammation, which not being at once rem-
edied, increases with the above results. The means of prevention
are obvious.

The treatment consists in removing the offending matter with
great care and tenderness by means of the knife or a small probe,
as a knitting needle or wire, cleansing the foot, and washing it in
astringent and antiseptic solutions, such as the following :

Chloride of Zinc 1 ounce.

Water 1 quart.

sulphate of copper or sugar of lead may be substituted for the
chloride of zinc. In very bad cases the treatment for malignant
foot-rot should be adopted. Removal from wet pastures is neces-
sary to a cure, and for some tune afterwards, or the trouble will
quickly recur.

Epizootic aphtha (foot-and-mouth disease), is highly contagious,
and will rapidly spread through a flock. It affects the feet as well
as the lips and tongue. The treatment has been already described
in this chapter.

Inflammation of tJie Interdigital Canal. — This is of frequent
occurrence when sheep are driven upon sandy or dusty roads, are
pastured on sandy lands, or are permitted to lie in muddy yards.
Offending matter enters the canal and causes inflammation, which
spreads to the interior of the foot, and results hi swelling and great
tenderness. Removal of the irritating matter by means of a small
probe or the trimmed end of a feather dipped hi oil, and bathing
the foot in warm water and vinegar, are generally sufficient to re-
move the trouble. When sheep become lame, and the foot is
found hot, with no sign of outward cause, this may be at once
suspected.

Canker of ihe foot is a very obstinate disease. It consists of in-
flammation of the sole of the foot, which gives way to a growth
of spongy sprouts instead of the natural hoof, and a discharge of
white curdy matter which has a most offensive odor. It is a simi-
lar disease to thrush or canker of the frog in horses. The most
frequent causes are folding the sheep in yards or sheds, where the
dung is allowed to collect in a mass which ferments and heats, and
from neglected cases of common foot-rot or inflammation of the
interdigital canal.

The treatment consists of the removal of all the separated hoof
at the first and every future dressing, along with any that may
appear sound, but has dead offensive matter beneath it. The foot
should then be washed in a solution of one dram of chloride of

DISEASES INCIDENT TO LAMBING. 239

zinc in a pint of water, and a pledget of tow or lint dipped in a
mixture of one part of common (not fuming) nitric acid with
three parts of water, should be applied to the whole of the cank-
ered surface. This should be repeated frequently, until a cure is
made.

LAMBING AND DISEASES CONNECTED WITH IT.

The number of lambs raised in proportion to those that are
dropped is far less than it ought to be. Probably ten per cent of
the lambs annually dropped, are lost through negligence or want
of simple methods of protection. Many are lost through neglect
of the condition of the ewes. The lambing season is one that calls
for great patience on the part of the shepherd, rather than for
great skill. A well disciplined flock, well provided with shelter
and quiet retreats for the ewes, will raise a larger proportion of
lambs than a neglected one. Dogs about a flock at lambing time
are an unmitigated nuisance, and cause many losses. When the
lambs begin to drop it is not difficult to discover those ewes that
will come in, in twenty-four hours. The parts become red and
swollen, and the udder swells and fills^ It is at this period that
the ewes need close watching, both to discover anything that may
go wrong, and to render assistance when it is needed. If the ewes
have been carefully tended, there is rarelv any difficulty encoun-
tered that may not be overcome by simple measures, yet amongst
the most carefully tended flocks there will be some occasional
cases which will call for the treatment herein described as ap-
plicable to the disorders mentioned.

There is rarely any necessity for manual assistance to the ewes
at lambing time. Sometimes in cases of protracted labor it will
be necessary for the shepherd to ascertain if the lamb is in proper
position, with the fore feet and head first ; if it is, the ewe may be
left alone with safetv. If the position is unnatural, help should
be given by an experienced shepherd. If no aid can be obtained,
it is dangerous for an inexperienced person to assist, lest he may
be too hasty and rough in his help. If the lamb is presented in
such a manner that it cannot be expelled, it should be gently
forced back again by some person with a small hand, the hand
being smeared with sweet-oil. It should then be gently brought
into such a position that the feet shall be presented first, with the
head lying upon them, and not doubled back. If the hind parts
are presented, the feet should be gently brought up after the lamb

has been pushed back. If the placenta or after-birth has not
come away in due season, it may be gently pulled by the hand,
when it will be generally expelled in a short time. If the ewe is
weak, a little warm gruel, sweetened and flavored with ginger,
may be fed with a spoon or given with a horn. It is the poor, lean,
badly kept ewes which, suffer most in lambing ; those in good condi-
tion, or even fat, rarely experience any difficulty.

Parturient Fever rarely attacks our native sheep, but imported
sheep are sometimes subject to it. It generally occurs within a
few days of lambing. The first symptoms are refusal of food,
twitching of the hind legs and ears, dullness and stupidity; the
head is carried down, the eyes are half closed, and a dark colored
discharge flows from the vagina. If the lamb is now dropped it
is dead, but the ewe, if kept quiet and well nursed, will generally
recover in two or three days. But if the lamb is not then expelled,
the symptoms grow worse, the ewe suffers from fever, and moans
with pain, and the discharge is very offensive. The lamb, if ex-
pelled at this stage, is in a high state of putrefaction, and the ewe
falls into a condition of collapse, from which she rarely recovers.
If the lamb is not expelled, the ewe dies.

The treatment should consist of the removal of the ewe from
the flock to a quiet pen, on the first appearance of sickness. She
should -be well cared for, and fed with warm gruel of linseed or
oat-meal. As soon as the dark colored discharge occurs, the lamb
is almost certainly dead, and beginning to decompose, and its re-
moval is necessary. The vagina should be washed with warm
water, and the finger, smeared with the extract of belladonna,
should be introduced into the passage every three hours until it is
sufficiently dilated to allow of the expulsion of the lamb. Two
tablespoonfuls of the following medicine should be given twice a
day, viz :

Calomel ' 8 grains.

Extract of Hyoscyamus 1 dram.

Linseed Tea Va pint.

At the same time a quarter of a pint of the following should be
given alternately with the above :

Epsom Salts 8 ounces.

Nitrate of Potash Va "

Carbonate of Soda 2 "

Water 1 pint.

The above mixtures should be shaken up before giving them.

GARGET.

After the bowels have been operated upon, these mixtures are
omitted, and the following given :

Nitrate of Potash Va ounce.

Carbonate of Soda 1 .

Camphor 1 dram.

Gum Water ". 8 ounces.

An eighth of a pint to be given twice a day. The ewe should be
fed chiefly upon thin oat-meal gruel and milk, or infusion of lin-
seed. After the lamb has been expelled, the uterus should be in-
jected with warm milk and water, or if there is a very offensive
discharge, one dram of chloride of lime dissolved hi a pint of
warm water, should be injected instead of the milk and water.

Abortion.— This disease is not frequent amongst sheep, and
when it occurs can almost always be traced to the excessive use of
roots in cold weather, when the ewe is heavy with lamb. It has
also been known to occur in consequence of, or after, the heavy
dressing of turnip or mangel land with superphosphate, the crop
having been fed to the ewes, but this is probably in consequence
of the greater succulence of the roots so grown, rather than the
direct action of the phosphate. The distension of the stomach
with cold, watery food, so greatly reduces the temperature of the
abdominal viscera as to destroy the life of the foetus, which is pre-
maturely expelled, with all the disagreeable consequences to the
ewe described in the preceding paragraph. Chasing by dogs is a
very frequent cause.

The treatment is preventive and alleviative. Caution in feeding
roots to in-lamb ewes in any but small quantities, or in avoiding
fright, excessive exertion, and worrying, will prevent its occur-
rence. When it has happened, the following may be given with
some nourishing liquid food, viz :

Epsom Salts i/a ounce.

Laudanum 1 dram.

Powdered Camphor ." i/a "

The latter two only may be repeated the second day.

Garget. — This disease consists of inflammation of the udder or
milk glands. It rarely occurs, except in those ewes which have
lost their young and are not supplied with foster lambs, or when
the teats are not opened readily by the new-born lamb ; or at
weaning time. If the ewe is in good condition, and has a large
flow of milk, which is not drawn off, the udder becomes gorged,
inflamed, and finally festers and suppurates. In this way some
ewes may lose part or the whole of the udder, and their useful-
ness as breeders be destroyed. It is also occasioned by allowing
11

•242 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

a nursing ewe to lie in the wet and cold in the pasture or the
yards. In the summer time, when lambs are taken from the ewes
and sent to market, a ewe may become gargeted, and if neglected,
may become a victim to myriads of maggots which will breed in the
festering udder. Ewes are thus lost occasionally. It is obvious that
prevention will be most effective. When garget has occurred, the
Treatment is to give a purgative and diuretic to reduce the flow
of milk and any fever that may exist. This may be the following :

Epsom Salts 2 ounces.

Nitrate of Potash. 2 drams.

Ginger 1 "

to be given in water, and repeated in twenty-four hours. The
udder should be bathed in warm water, and a solution of carbon-
ate of soda be injected into the teats by a small metal syringe, and
afterwards milked out. The disease may result in the permanent
injury of the udder, or the closing of one or both of the teats, in
which case the ewe should be discarded as a breeder.

Inversion of tlie Uterus may occur in cases of severe labor,
when the ewe is weak. The womb is turned inside out, and pro-
trudes from the body as a red bladder. From ignorance this is
sometimes cut off, and the ewe destroyed. The parts should be
gently washed in warm water and cleansed from all foreign mat-
ter. The ewe should then be held so that the hinder parts are
raised, and with a small hand well greased with sweet-oil, or pure
fresh lard, the womb should be returned, gently working it into
its natural position by the thumbs or fingers. The finger nails
should be closely pared, lest they may wound the tender parts.
A needle with a strong linen thread or fine catgut, should then be
passed through the skin upon both sides of the vagina, and tied
so as to form a loop across it which will prevent the uterus from
again protruding ; 20 to 30 drops of tincture of opium should be
given in some warm gruel, and the ewe left to rest upon a soft bed
in perfect quiet with her hind parts raised above the level of her
head, for several days.

SPECIAL DISEASES, OPERATIONS, AND ACCIDENTS.

Ophthalmia. — This is a disease of the eye frequently caused by
cold, or by grazing in stubble fields, when the straws of the stub-
ble will occasionally wound the eyes. It is perceived at once by
the tenderness and redness of the organ, a flow of tears, and a
discharge of pus from the corner of the eye. It is readily cured

CASTRATION OF RAMS. 243

by washing the eye with a solution of four grains of sulphate of
zinc in an ounce of warm water, and keeping the sheep in a dark
stable for a day or two. If the eye is seriously inflamed, and the
sheep distressed with pain, give a dose of an ounce of Epsom salts
dissolved in water, and twenty drops of laudanum may be added
to the zinc solution above mentioned with good effect.

Castration. — This necessary operation should be performed as
early as possible, as there is less danger of evil effects following it
than when the lamb is older. The lining membrane of the scro-
tum is a continuation of that of the abdomen, and when inflam-
mation follows the operation, it is readily communicated to the
abdomen, and peritonitis or inflammation of the membrane lining
the cavity and enveloping the bowels results, and this is generally
fatal. A lamb a week old may be deprived of the whole scrotum
and testicles, by one stroke of a pair of shears, without any danger
or the loss of more than a few drops of blood. But when the
lamb has become spme months old, the organ has become fully
developed as to nerves and vessels, and a more careful operation
must be performed. An excellent method is for the operator to
sit upon a long bench, with one of the lamb's hind legs beneath
each of his thighs, the head and fore legs being held by an assist-
ant. Taking the scrotum in the left hand, he presses the testicles
towards the lower end, making the skin tight and smooth. He
then makes a free incision with a sharp knife at the bottom of
the scrotum beneath each testicle; the membranes which sur-
round them are cut through, the cords and vessels which are at-
tached to them, are scraped, not cut asunder, and the operation is
completed. To castrate a mature ram, an incision is made at the
bottom of each compartment of the scrotum, each testicle being
removed separately, the cords and vessels being always scraped
asunder. The main point to secure is, to have the wound at the
bottom of the scrotum, so as to allow the pus, which will form
within it, to escape. If this pus is retained hi the wound, it
becomes absorbed, inflammation is communicated to the adjacent
parts, and a fatal termination is likely to ensue. To prevent
this, a small lock of wool is sometimes left in the wound, by
which it is kept open and the danger averted.

DocMng.— This operation should be performed on all the lambs
when a week or two old. It is then but slightly painf ul. The
best method is to take the lamb between the knees, holding its
rump closely against a block of wood. Then drawing the skin of
the tail towards the rump, with the ringers of the left hand, a

244 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

sharp chisel is held by the right hand upon the tail, below the
fingers, and two inches from the rump ; a boy gives the chisel a
smart rap with a light mallet, and the tail is severed at one stroke
with a smooth cut which leaves the bone in a good condition to
heal quickly. A p"inch of powdered copperas may be placed on
the stump of the tail to stanch any bleeding, and to keep off flies.

Fractures of the limbs sometimes occur through neglect to let
down bars when sheep are entering or leaving a fold or field, or
through other accidents. These are easily repaired by bringing
the broken ends of the bone together in the proper position, and
binding the limbs in splints of wood. The splints should be
wrapped with strips of cloth to prevent them from chafing the
limbs, and the bandage should be made secure, but not so tight as
to interfere with the circulation. The bandage should be worn three
or four weeks, and if occasionally examined, there will be no need
to shut up the patient from the rest of the flock. An excellent
splint is made by soaking coarse brown paper in water and wrap-
ping it around the broken limb and then binding it with bandages
of muslin. When the paper dries a very firm support is given if
sufficient is used.

Wounds, either punctured, incised, or lacerated, may occur from
a variety of causes. When a sheep is wounded, the first thing to
be done is to wash the wound with a soft cloth or sponge and
warm water. If blood flows freely from an important artery, and
it cannot be stanched by the use of brown sugar or powdered cop-
peras, the bleeding end of the artery should be sought, and twisted
two or three times, which will usually stop the flow. A sheep
will rarely bleed to death, except from a wound which severs the
arteries or veins of the throat. It may faint from loss of blood,
and the flow may then, or soon afterwards, stop. If the wound
is a clean cut with smooth edges, it should be closed, the
wool being clipped around it, and two or more stitches taken
through the skin at the edges, by which they may be kept together.
The stitch should be passed through the skin in two places directly
opposite each other on either side of the wound ; the thread
should then be tied tightly enough to keep the edges in contact,
but no more, and tire ends cut off. Other similar stitches are to
be made, and the wound is dressed upon the surface by smearing
it with an ointment of tar and powdered blue vitriol. If the
wound is punctured and deep, it should be dressed by injecting
with a syringe a few drops of compound tincture of benzoin, and
inserting in it a plug of lint or tow dipped hi the same. This will

DISEASES OF LAMBS. 245

keep the wound open until it heals from the bottom. If allowed
to close before the bottom is healed, an abscess will be formed,
which will need to be opened. If the wound is in such a
position that the pus formed cannot escape freely, it should be
removed twice a day by means of a feather or a swab of linen
at the end of a small stick, and the plug soaked in tincture of
benzoin inserted. If any foreign matter, such as a splinter of
wood, remains in the wound, it must be removed, if necessary
by enlarging the wound, before it can heal. A wound that is dif-
ficult to heal from its depth and narrowness, may sometimes be
made more tractable by opening and enlarging it at the top.
Lacerated wounds will need to be treated as both incised and
punctured wounds. Where the torn parts can be brought to-
gether, stitches should be made, and where the flesh is separated
from the surrounding tissue, the fragments may be cut off. The
deeper parts should then be treated as punctured wounds. Such
wounds are long in healing, because skin is reproduced only from
the edges of the sound surface. As many of the lacerated por-
tions of skin as possible should be brought together, so as to form
edges from which the^new growth may start. It will be a ques-
tion if the value of the sheep in this case will repay the time and
labor spent in treating it. If not, to take its skin at the outset
may be the most advisable course. To cure a large wound in the
fly season is a work of much trouble.

Sprains are not uncommon accidents in a large flock. They are
reduced very easily by rest, and the use of a liniment such as

Olive-oil 1 pint.

Ammonia Water... 2 ounces.

DISEASES PECULIAR TO LAMBS.

Lambs frequently fall victims to some diseases which seem to
affect them more virulently than they do grown-up sheep, or else
the young animal having less strength or vitality than the mature
one, more easily succumbs to those diseases. In its earlier life
it is also affected with some disorders peculiar to its condition.
These diseases call for special treatment. The most troublesome
ailment to which lambs are subject, are those of the digestive or-
gans, and chief amongst this is

Diarrhea or " White Scours". — In the unweaned lamb diarrhea
takes the form generally known as " white scours." This appears

246 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

as a liquid discharge of a white color, which is simply the passage
through the bowels of undigested milk. It is caused by a change
in the quality of the ewe's milk, which is not coagulated in the
lamb's stomach, and remains as an irritative agent, exciting the
bowels to undue action, by which the milk is discharged soon
after it is swallowed, almost without change. The food of the ewe
probably has much to do with this, as the trouble is most frequent
when the ewe is fed upon rank, succulent, watery herbage, or an
excess of roots. When this cause does not exist, it arises from a
disordered condition of the lamb's stomach. When the former
cause is suspected, the ewe should be treated. The food should
be changed to other kinds of a more solid and nutritious charac-
ter. A poorer pasture should be provided, or hay be given for a
few days, along with some crushed oats and corn, or malt, linseed,
cotton-seed-meal, bran, or peas. The lamb should receive the
following daily, until recovered, viz :

Linseed-oil 1 teaspoonful.

Essence of Ginger 5 drops.

When the cause exists within the lamb, two teaspoonf uls of the
following astringent mixture may be given night and morning,
after the before mentioned has operated, viz :

Prepared Chalk 1 ounce.

Powdered Catechu 4 drams.

" Ginger 2 "

" Opium "A "

Peppermint Water , 1 pint.

to be mixed. Shake before administering.

Sometimes the discharge consists of a pale, greenish liquid, sim-
ilar to whe}'- ; this is the result of indigestion, as the food of the
lamb taken in excess is coagulated in the stomach, and accumu-
lates sometimes to several pounds in quantity. When this occurs,
in addition to the looseness and color of the dung, the lamb is
dull, walks raoodily behind the ewe with its head drooped, and
the abdomen is !iard and swollen. The following should then be
given twice, viz : Carbonate of Magnesia, half ounce, mixed in
water, to be followed by half an ounce of Epsom salts in a teacup-
f ul of water, after which the astringent medicine should be given.
This course of treatment should be followed in case of the " green
scours," which may happen after weaning, when the lamb is
turned upon clover pasture. Sometimes the presence of worms in
the stomach and intestines will cause a looseness of the bowels.
In such a case the discharge from the bowels will be mixed with

DISEASES OF LAMBS. 247

slime or mucus. The treatment should then be as follows : give
to a year-old lamb

Linseed-oil 1 ounce.

Powdered Opium 3 grains.

Starch 1 ounce.

mixed in boiling water to make a draught. A teacupful of rice
water should be given twice a day. The above to be repeated the
second day. After the irritation of the bowels is removed, give
the following:

Linseed-oil 2 ounces.

Spirits of Turpentine 4 drams.

to be repeated weekly for a month if considered necessary.

Constipation. — When this occurs, the dung is scanty and at long
intervals passes in lumps, which are glazed and hard. There is
pain at the times of discharge, which is evinced by the arching
of the back, and peculiar but expressive actions of the lamb. The
treatment consists hi injections of warm water, with two or three
half-ounce doses of linseed-oil, given at intervals of six hours.
The food should consist of oat-meal, or linseed gruel, sweetened
with molasses ; if it will not be taken hi that way, it should be
given by means of a horn.

Spasmodic Colic produces severe pains, occurring in paroxysms.
The lamb falls and struggles, or remains with eyes fixed, as if
convulsed. It is generally an accompaniment of constipation, and
always of indigestion. The treatment is to give the following
mixture, viz:

Tincture of Rhubarb 1 dram.

Carbonate of Soda 1 "

Warm Water sweetened with Molasses 2 ounces.

This should be administered slowly with a spoon. After the
spasms are relieved, give half an ounce of linseed-oil.

Paralysis. — This disease may occur through a severe chill or
exposure to cold rains, or as a symptom of chronic indigestion
from inaction of the stomach. The latter is to be suspected when
the appetite is depraved, and sand, earth, and coarse matter is
eagerly swallowed. In the former case, a warm bath, with fric-
tion upon the spine, with spirits of turpentine, or ammonia water,
followed by a few days nursing, may be found useful. In the
latter case, the symptoms and post-mortem appearance show that
the base of the brain, the spine, and the nervous system proceed-
ing to the stomach are affected. The lamb suffers severely as if in
great pain. It is unable to rise upon its hind legs, and is con-

248 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

vulsed with spasms ; the teeth are ground together, and the breath-
ing is quick and hard, and death generally results. The only defi-
nite directions that are likely to result favorably, are to prevent
the disease by watching the condition of the lamb after it is
weaned, and to provide such food as shall keep it in a thriving
condition. Poverty of blood being the direct cause, any treat-
ment that will avoid that condition will be helpful. A small
quantity of linseed-cake-rneal, bran, or ground oats, should be
given daily after weaning, and until the first winter is past. Lambs
of rapidly growing breeds cannot endure stinting in food, the de-
mands of their constitution must be supplied to its full capacity,
or the health suffers, and instead of becoming simply poor and
stunted, they become diseased. Disease thus induced cannot be
expected to submit to medicine, and the only natural remedy is
apt to be applied too late to be of service.

Pale Disease, Husk, Verminous Bronchitis, — This disease con-
sists in the presence of worms in the air-passages of lambs. These
produce great irritation and violent coughing. The interruption
thus resulting to the aeration of the blood in the lungs, causes gen-
eral disturbance of the system. The appetite fails, the condition
rapidly falls off, and anamia, "pale disease," or "the bloodless
condition," takes place, beneath which the lambs rapidly sink.
How the worms, iu large numbers, find their way into the air-pas-
sages of so young animals, is a query which as yet cannot be satis-
factorily solved. They are there, however, and that fact must be
sufficient for the shepherd. These worms are a species of strongy-
lus or thread worm, closely akin to the fatal " gape-worm " (also
a strongylus), which destroys so many young chickens. It is the
same species which inhabits the lungs and bronchial tubes of the
sheep. The lamb being less robust, is carried off with greater ease
by these attacks, than the full-grown sheep. Prevention is the
best remedy. Lambs should not be allowed to follow sheep
upon the same pasture, nor to pasture upon meadows that have
been top-dressed with manure from the sheep stable or yards. No
medicine can reach the lungs, except through the blood, and but
few affect them in this way. Sulphur, turpentine, and assaf oetida,
are in part exhaled through the lungs, and these medicines alone
can be depended upon to reach these parasites.

The treatment recommended, therefore, is to administer the fol-
lowing, viz :

Linseed-oil Va ounce.

Spirits of Turpentine Va dram.

Assafcetida »0 grains.

TABLE OF MEASURES. 249

to be given early in the morning, for three successive days, before
feeding or turning to pasture, and no feed to be given for three
hours afterward. Afterwards the following to be given daily :

Molasses or Honey 1 pound.

Flowers of Sulphur 4 ounces.

one tablespoonful to be given every morning for ten days.

The food should be of the most nutritious and digestible char-
acter, and if the appetite fails, the food, until the appetite returns,
should be given by means of a horn, in the shape of gruel or infu-
sions of oatmeal, linseed, or corn-meal, sweetened with sugar.

TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT MEASURES.

For the more ready use of the prescriptions mentioned in the
preceding chapter, the following table of approximate equivalent
measures is here given :

FLUID MEASUBES.

One teaspoonful = One fluid dram.

One tablespooiiful = Half a fluid ounce.

One wine-glassful = Two fluid ounces.

One tea (not coffee), cupful = A quarter of a pint

One tumblerful = Half a pint.

It will be more convenient, as well as more accurate, to have an
apothecary's graduated glass, which is not very expensive, and
will allow all the needed measurements to be made in a single
utensil. This is a conical glass upon a foot, and provided with a
lip to pour from ; they may be had of the capacity of one or two
ounces up to a pint ; one of four ounces will be the most conve-
nient ; the measures are marked on the glass, the sign f 3 standing
for fluid dram, and f § for fluid ounce ; Ss is used for half of either.

A set of apothecary scales and weights may be bought for a
dollar or less. The grain weights are of thin sheet brass, with
number of grains indicated by dots. ^ stands for scruples, and 3
for dram ; the number of each being indicated by numerals follow-
ing the sign ; Ss is used for half of either.

INDEX.

Abortion, Prevention of 241

After-pains in Elwes 208

*American Merino, Description of

the 92

Analysis of Ash of Urine 15

Dung 16

Fodder 60-61

Grains 64

Manure — 79

Roots 63

Wool 146

Yolk 147

Anatomy of the Sheep 163

Anaemia, Treatment of 203

Anthrax Fever, Treatment of 209

Aphtha, Treatment of 210

Apoplexy, Treatment of 216

*Barn for Sheep. Description of.. . 50
*•" " Small Farm 52

* " a Convenient 57

* Beacon-Down Sheep, Description

of the 138

Bile, Composition and Uses of 183

*Blackfaced Scotch Sheep, De-
scription of the 122

Black-leg. Treatment of ,209

Bleeding, how Performed 190

* Bone, Structure of 173

Brain of the Sheep 174

" Water on the, Treatment of.216

" Worms in the 81

Breeds and Breeding Sheep 81

Crossing 84

" Foreign 100

" Native... 89

Breeders, Maxims for 89

Breeding for Sex 86

In-and in 88

Bronchitis. Treatment of 192

Cabbage, Culture of 25

Canker of the Foot, Treatment of .238

Castration, Performance of 30-243

Catarrh, Treatment of 191

* Cheviot Sheep, Description of
the 120

Choking, Treatment of 194

* Circulation of the Blood 177

Clap, Treatment of in Rams 215

Colic, Spasmodic Treatment of 247

Corn, Comparative Value of 65

Costiveness. Treatment of 195-247

Cotton-Seed-Cake-Meal, Value of.. 65

* Cotswold, Description of the 107

*' Improvement of other

Breeds by the 84

250

* Cotswold-Leicester, Description

of the 137

Cotswold-Merino, Description of

the 134

Cotswold-Southdown, Description

of the 138

*Crook 156

Cross-bred Sheep 133-142

Diarrhea, Treatment of 196-246

Digestion, Process of. 179

Digestive Organs, Diseases of the. 194

Dip for Lambs and Sheep 47

Diseases of Lambs 245

" " the Sheep, Observa-
tions on 188

•* Causes and Prevention of.190

" of the Blood 201

" " " Bowels 199

" " " Brain 216

" « " Digestive Organs.. 194

" Enzoatic 206

" Epizootic* 210

Of the Feet 234

" Parasitic 219

" of the Reproductive Or-
gans.* 214

" ** " Respiratory Or-
gans 190

" " " Skin 229

" Special 242

" of the Urinary Organs. . .243
Docking Lambs 243

* Dog-guards for Fences. 32

* Dorset Sheep, Description of thellS

Dropsy, Treatment of 205

Dung, Analysis of Ash of 16

Dysentery, Treatment of 207

Ear Marks 34

Enzootic Diseases 206

Epilepsy, Treatment of 218

Epizootic Diseases 210

Ewes, Garget in, Treatment of — 42

in Lamb, Care of 36

Number for One Ram ... 35

Period of Gestation of 34

Record of Service of 34

Selection rf for Breeding. .. 43
Yeaning, Treatment of. . .36-45
and Lambs, Management

of 33-37

Eyes, Disease of the 242

Fattening Sheep for Market 78

* Feed-Rack 31-59

Feeding, Experiments in 66-68-70

" Boots.... 27

INDEX.

251

Fences, Portable 27

Flax-Seed, Nutritive Value of. ... 65
Flesh and Blood, Analysis of Ash of 15
" Quantity Produced by Cer-
tain Foods 67

Flesh-fly, the 234

* Fluke, the Liver, Description of. 220
Fodder Crops 22

" Analysis of 60

" Nutritive Value of 61

Foods for Winter Feeding 59

" Composition of Various 60

4i Choice of 65

" Proper Allowance of 72

" Quantity of, Needed 66

" " for a Pound of

Flesh 67

Foot, Description of the 235

44 Rot, Treatment of 236

Foot-and-Mouth-Disease 210-238

Fractures of the Bones 244

* French Merino, Description of. . .128

Gad-fly, the 233

Garget, Treatment of 241

Giddiness or Turnsick, Treatment

for 226

Grains, Nutritive Value of Various 64

Grasses, Composition of Various.. 17

" Suitable for Pasture . . . , ,^ 16

* Hampshire-Down Sheep, Descripv _,
tionof. 116

Heart, Structure and Functions of. 177
Hoven, Treatment of ,196

* Hurdles, Use of 23

* " for Refractory Ewe 37

* Hydatids in the Brain 226

Inflammation of the Bladder 213

" " Bowels 199

" " " Brain 216

" " Liver 201

Influenza, Treatment of 206

Intestines of the Sheep 182

Kentucky, Improved, Sheep 91

* Kidney, Structure of the 186

Lacteal Vessels 184

Lambing, Diseases Connected with.239
Lambs, Castrating 39-243

* " Dipping 48

*' Diseases of 45-245

" Docking 39-243

" Feeding 40

44 Laxative for 41

44 Newly-born, Care of 37

" Raising Early Market 73

44 Twin, Feeding 37

*'" Weaning 38

Lamb's-Cordial 46

* Lamb-Creep 41

* Laurel, Poisoning by 198

Leicester, Improvement of Other

Breeds by 84

* " Description of the 103

* Leicester-Merino, Description of
the 135

* Lincoln. Description of the 100

Linseed-Oil-Cake-Meal, Value of... 64

44 44 '4 " Substitute

for 65

Litter for Sheds 58

Liver, Congestion of the 200

" Description of the 183

44 Inflammation of the 201

" Rot. the 219

Lockjaw, Treatment of 218

* Louse, the Sheep 233

* Lungs of the Sheep 176

Lunor,worms in the, Treatment f or.223

Manure, Value of 79

Markets 8-73-81

Market Lambs, Methods of Raising 74

* " '4 Box for Shipping.. 76

14 Profit of 78

Measures, Explanation of 249

Merino, American 92

" French 128

Saxon 94-130

Silesian 132

Spanish 8-127

44 Importation of... 93

" Improvement of .. 95

Maturity of 43

* Ram, Portrait of 98

Wool, Value of 94

" Weights of Fleeces 96

Mexican Sheep 90

Mustard, White, for Fodder 22

Nerves of the Sheep 74

* Nets for Folding Sheep *9

Oil-Cake, Feeding Value of 64

" " Manurial Value of 80

Ophthalmia, Treatment of 242

* Oxford-Down Sheep, Description
ofthe 110

Pale Disease of Lambs 248

Packinp Fleeces 161

Palsy, Treatment of 218

Paralysis, Treatment of 217-247

Parasitical Diseases 219

Parsley, Value of in Pastures 17

Parturient Apoplexy and Fever.208-240
Pasture, Dry, Necessary for Health 14
Change of, Advantageous. 31

Extent of, in the U. S 10

Exposure of 22

Grasses Suitable for 16

Management of 20

Suitable for Sheep 12

Pining, Treatment of 203

Plants, Poisonous 108

Plethora, Treatment of 203

Pleurisy, Treatment of 193

Pneumonia, Treatment of 192

Poisoning, Treatment of 198

Pox, Sheep, Treatment of .211

Prices of Wool in the World 166

Production of Wool in the World. .165

Purgatives, Use of 189

Ram, Selection of the 49

Red- water, Treatment of 207

Reproductive Organs, the 187

Respiration, Process of 175

Respiratory Organs, Diseases of. . .190
Retention of Urine, Treatment of ..213

Rheumatism, Treatment of 202

*Romney Marsh Sheep, Descrip-

252

THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL.

tion of the 104

"Boot-Cutter 26

* " Pulper 27

Roots, Culture of 26

Cutting 27

Feeding 27

Nutritive Value of. 63

Quantity Needed for a KJock 72

* Storing in Pits 28

Rot of the Foot, Treatment of 2:36

* " in the Liver, Treatment of 222

Rumination, Process of 181

Salt Necessary for Sheep 33

Saxon Merino, Description of the. .130

* Scab, Treatment for 232

Sea-Weed Eaten by Sheep 19

Scrofula, Treatment of 204

Shearing Sheep 158

* Shed for Pasture 32

* " Mr. Geo. Grant's 53

* " Mr. Shaw's 54

Sheep, Census of, in U.S.'50/60,170.167

11 When a Lamb Becomes a ... 45
Shelter, Effect of, on- Consumption
ofFood 67

* Shropshire Sheep, Description of. 112
Silesian Merino, Description of thel'32

* Skeleton of the Sheep 169

* Skin, Structure of the 143

Soils Suitable for Pastures 12

Sorting Wool 165

* Southdown Sheep, Description of 114

-Merino, Description

ofthe 135

Spanish Merino, Description of the!27

Spleen, Functions of the 185

Sprains 245

Stimulants, Use of 190

* Stomach of the Sheep 180

" Foreign Bodies in the.. 200

Stretches, Treatment of 195

Summer Management of Sheep 11

* Table for Tying Wool 162

* Tape-Worms 228

Tagging and Trimming Sheep 158

* Teeth, Growth of the 45-171

* Tick, the Sheep 233

Ticks, Dip for. .. 47

* Trochar and Canula 194

Turnips, Cultivation of 24

Folding Sheep Upon 25

" for Winter Feeding.. 24

Urinary Canal, Sediment in the 214

'• Organs, Functions of the. 185

Uterus, Inversion of 242

Urine, Analysis of Ash of 15

Virginia Sheep 91

* Washing Sheep 155

Water, Necessity of 21

" Quality of 21

* Welsh Mountain Sheep, Descrip-
tion of the 125

Western Plains, Value of, for Sheep

Pastures 19

Winds, Effects of, on Condition... 22

Winter Management of Sheep 49

Womb, Inversion of 242

Wool, Break in. 21

" Classification of .148

" Composition of 156

* " How to Judge of 150-153

* " Packing 161

" Prices of 149

u Quality of, a Test of

Health 15-150

" " " Merino 99

" Sorting .. 165

" Structure of 142

" Value of Imports of 10

* " Washing of 155

" World's Production of 165

* Worms, the Bladder 224

* " 'in the Brain 226

' ' in the Bronchial Tubes . . 223

* " in the Intestines 229

* " in the Lungs 223

Wounds 244

Yarrow, Description of ...... 18

YolkinWool 99

" Composition of 147

The items marked with a * are illustrated.

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