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A SHORT

HANDBOOK OF LATIN Accidence and Syntax

WITH

Examples and Exercises

AND

Notes on Latin Idiom

BY

J. FLETCHER,

Professor of Latin, University College.

UNIVERSITY PRESS

TORONTO

1912

pft

PREFACE.

This book aims at presenting in brief form the essential facts of Latin Accidence and Syntax. Sections 1 to 30 of Part II cover the work in Latin syntax usually cov- ered by the First Year of the General Course in the University, and Parts II and III that covered by the work of the Second Year. For use in the composition classes of the Third and Fourth Years of the General Course, some passages of simple narrative, for trans- lation into Latin have been added.

For doing the Exercises a small English-Latin diction- ary will be required.

V

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Part I — Accidence.

Page

First Declension i

Pronunciation I

Second Declension 2

Third Declension 3

Fourth Declension 5

Fifth Declension 6

Rules of Latin Gender 6

Words that differ in Meaning in Sing, and Plural 7

Declension of Adjectives 8

Comparison of Adjectives 10

Adverbs • 73

Numerals 14

Pronouns 16

Conjugation of Regular Verbs 19

Deponents 27

Verbs in -10 of the IIL 28

Sum. Possum 30

Preteritive Verbs 33

Vole, Nolo, Malo 34

Fero 36

Fio 38

Eo 39

List of Irregular Verbs 41

Preposition 46

Part II — Syntax.

§1. Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative 47

§2. The Genitive 49

§3. The Genitive continued 51

§4. Indirect Narration 53

§5. The Dative 55

§6. The Dative with Verbs 56

§7. The Ablative 59

§8. The Ablative continued. 61

§9. Abl. of Place. Locative 63

§10. Abl. with Verbs and Adjectives 65

Pagi §11. Interrogatives 6(

§12. Relative Pronoun 6J

§13. Imperative, Negative Imperative, and Subjunctive in Simple

Sentences §14. The Tenses

§15. Supine, Gerund, and Gerundive. Pass. Periphrastic §16. Participle §17. Ablative Absolute §18. Future Participle. Act. Periphrastic §19. Ut-Clause with Verbs of Asking §20. Sequence of Tenses in Subordinate Clauses. §21. Indirect Question §22. Noun-Clauses continued / §23. Quornijius and Qum. §24. Verbs of Fearing. Modal Verbs §25. Local and Temporal Clauses §26. Syntax of Cum §27. Final and Consecutive Clauses §28. Causal and Concessive Clauses. §29. Qui with Subjun. §30. Conditional Clauses §31. Classification of Conditional Sentences §32. May. Can. Must. Ought §33. The Reflexive Pronoun §34. Quis, Quisquam, and Quivis §35. The Infinitive.

§36. The Infinitive Continued. Verbs of Hoping. §37. Comparative Clauses

§38. Exceptional Forms for the Conditional Sentence §39. Indirect Narration

§40. The Conditional Sentence in Indirect Narration §41. Indirect Narration Continued §42. Deliberative Subjunctive in Indirect. Virtual Oblique.

Assimilation. §43. Special Idioms §44. The Numeral §45. The Days of the Month §46. Roman Money §47. Weights and Measures §48. Resume of Syntax Rules

Part III— Latin and English Idiom. -^^^

§1. Latin and English Idiom in the Use of Words. The

Abstract Noun 147

§2. The Latin Verb for an English Noun. 149 §3. Other Substitutes for an English Noun: The Adjective.

Concrete for Abstract 151

§4. Res and Res Publica 153

§5. Personification. Hendiadys 156

§6. The Use of Adjectives and Adverbs 158

§7. Latin Idiom Continued. Modern Political Terms 162 §8. Metaphor. English words with two or more Meanings.

Words derived from Latin. 164

§9. Order, Emphasis, and Rhythm 166

§10. The Latin Period. 170

^11. Examples. Limit of Subordination, Detached Style. 174

Part IV. Passages of Simple Narrative for Translation into Latin. 179

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

PART I— ACCIDENCE.

I.— FIRST DECLENSION. Singular. Nom. Mens-a, a table. Gen. Mens-ae, a table's, or of a table. Dat. Mens-ae, to or for a table. Ace. Mens-am, a table. Voc. Mens-a, 0 table! Abl. Mens-a, from, with, in, or by a table.

Plural.

Nom. Mens-ae, tables.

Gen. Mens-arum, tables', or of tables.

Dat. Mens-is, to or for tables.

Ace. Mens-as, tables.

Voc. Mens-ae, 0 tables!

Abl. Mens-is, from, with, in, or by tables.

NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION.

Words of two syllables have the Accent on the penult: as, Mensa bonus.

Words of more than two syllables have the Accent on the penult, when the penult is long; otherwise on the antepenult: as, Ductorts. amabam, monui.

English equivalents for the distinctive sounds of the Roman letters are;

Long vowels:

a like a in father. i like i in machine.

e like e in grey. o like o in bone. u like 00 in root. Short vowels:

a like the first a in aha. i like i in fit.

e like e in met. o like o in or.

u like u in full.

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Consonants:

c and g are hard, as in come. and go.

Diphthongs. :

ae like ai in aisle. oe like oi in toil. ui almost like we.

i consonant like y in yes. V like w in wine.

au like ow in house. eu (rare) like a/f-oo. ei (rare) like ei in eight.

II. SECOND DECLENSION.

Singular.

Nom. Serv-us, a slave.

Gen. Serv-i, of a slave.

Dat. Serv-o, to or for a slave.

Ace. Serv-um, a slave.

Voc. Serv-e, 0 slave!

Abl. Serv-o, from, etc., a slave.

Nom. Puer, a boy.

Gen. Puer-i, of a boy.

Dat. Puer-o, to or for a boy.

Ace. Puer-um, a boy.

Voc. Puer, 0 boy!

Abl. Puer-o, /row, etc., a boy.

Nom. Magister, a master.

Gen. Magistr-i, of a master.

Dat. Magistr-o, to or for a master.

Ac. Magistr-um, a master.

Voc. Magister, 0 master!

Plural.

Serv-i, slaves. Serv-orum., of slaves Servi-s, to or for slaves. Serv-os, slaves. Serv-i, 0 slaves. Serv-is, from, etc., slaves.

Puer-i, boys. Puer-orum, of boys. Puer-is, to or for boys. Puer-os, boys. Puer-i, 0 boys! Fuer -is, from, etc., boys.

Magistr-i, masters. Magistr-orum, of masters. Magistr-is, to or for masters. Magistr-os, masters. Magistr-i, 0 masters.

Abl. Magistr-o, /rem, etc., a master. Magistr-is, from, etc., masters.

N.B. — The following nouns are declined like magister: Ager, field; aper, a boar; arbiter, a judge; auster, south wind; cancer, a crab; caper, a goat; culter, a knife; faber, a smith; liber, a book; minister, a servant.

N.V.&Acc. Mal-um, neut., an apple. Gen. Mal-i, of an apple. Dat. Mal-o, to an apple. Abl. Ma\-o, from, etc., an apple.

Mal-a, apples. Mal-orum, of apples. Mal-is, to apples. Ma\-is, from, etc., apples.

SECOND DECLENSION. 3

N.B. — Neuter nouns have the nominative, accusative, and voca- tive alike in both numbers, and in the plural these cases end in-a.

Nom.

Deus

a god.

De-i (dii)

di.

Gen.

De-i.

De-orum,

deum.

Dat.

De-o.

Deis (diis

, dis.

Ace.

De-um.

De-OS.

Voc.

Deus

De-i (dii).

di.

Ahl.

De-o.

De-is (diis

), dis.

Nom.

Vir, a

man.

Viri.

Gen.

Vir i.

Vir orum.

Dat.

Vir o.

Vir is.

Ace.

Vir um.

Vir OS.

Voc.

Vir.

Vir i.

Ahl.

Vir o.

Vir is.

III. THIRD DECLENSION.

Singular.

Nom.

Rex, 1

king

Pes, foot

Corpus, hody

Caput, hea

Gen.

Reg-is

Ped-is

Corpor-is

Capit-is

Dat.

Reg-i

Ped-i

Corpori

Capit-i

Ace.

Reg-em

Ped-em

Corpus

Caput

Voc.

Rex

Pes

Corpus

Caput

Ahl.

Reg-e

Ped-e

Corpor-e

Capit-e

Plural.

Nom.

Reg-es

Ped-es

Corpor-a

Capit-a

Gen.

Reg-um

Ped-um

Corpor-um

Capit-um

Dat.

Reg-ibus

Ped-ibus

Corpor-ibus

Capit-ibus

Ace.

Reg-es

Ped-es

Corpor-a

Capit-a

Voc.

Reg-es

Ped-es

Corpor-a

Capit-a

Ahl.

Reg-ibus

Ped-ibus

Corpor-ibus

Capit-ibus

Singular.

Nom.

Urbs,

city

Amans, lover

Marc, sea

Animal

Gen.

Urbis

Amantis

Maris

Animalis

Dat.

Urbi

Amanti

Mari

Animali

Ace.

Urbem

Amantem

Mare

Animal

Voc.

Urbs

Amans

Mare

Animal

Ahl.

Urbe

Amante {or i)

Mari

Animali

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Plural.

Nom.

Urbes

Amantes

Maria

Animalia

Gen.

Urbium

Amantium

Marium

Animalium

Dat.

Urbibus

Amantibus

Maribus

Animalibus

Ace.

Urbes

Amantes

Maria

Animalia

Voc.

Urbes

Amantes

Maria

Animalia

Abl.

Urbibus

Amantibus

Maribus

Animalibus

N.B. — Nouns in "s" preceded by a consonant take the Gen. Plur, in ium. The Pres. part, also takes the Abl. Sing, in "i," unless in the Abl. Absolute : as, Tullo regnante, in the reign of Tullus. Nouns in e, al, and ar, take the Abl. Sing, in -i, the Nom. and Ace Plur. in -ia, and the Gen. Plur. in -ium.

Singular.

Nom. Host-is, enemy

Nom. Nubes, cloud

Gen. Host-is

Gen. Nub-is

Dat. Host-i

Dat. Nub-i

Ace. Host-em

Ace. Nub-em

Voc. Host-is

Voc. Nub-es

Abl. Host-e

Abl. Nub-e

Plural.

Nom. Host-es

Nub-es

Gen. Host-ium

Nub-ium

Dat. Host-ibus

Nub-ibus

Ace. Host-es (-is)

Nub-es

Voc. Host-es

Nub-es

Abl. Host-ibus

Nub-ibus

N.B. — Nouns of two syllables in -is or- es (-i stems) have the Gen. Plur. in -ium and the Ace. Plur. often in -is.

Irregular Nouns. Singular Plural Singular Plural.

Nom. Bos, ox Bov-es V-is, force Vir-es

(Bov-um Bo-ura V-is Vir-ium

THIRD DECLENSION.

/Bo-bus

Dat.

Bov-i

\Bu-bus

V-i

Ace.

Bov-em

Bov-es

V-im

Voc.

Bos

Bov-es /Bo-bus

V-is

Abl.

Bov-e

iBu-bus

V-i

Vir-ibus

Vir-es

Vir-es

Vir-ibus

N.B. — The Nom. and Gen, Sing, of the common nouns of the III. Decl. are easily learnt, and, when these cases are known, the de- clension is simple. — Thus:

Singular

P

LURAL.

Nom.

Senex,

old man

Iter, route,

n.Senes

Itinera

Gen.

Senis

Itineris

Senum

Itinerum

Dat.

Seni

Itineri

Senibus

Itineribus

Ace.

Senem

Iter

Senes

Itinera

Voc.

Senex

Iter

Senes

Itinera

Abl.

Sene

Itinere

Senibus

Itineribus

Decline: lupiter, lovis; nix, nivis, snow; homo, hominis, a man; vox, vocis, a voice; onus, oneris, a load; laus, laudis, praise; rus, ruris, the country; flumen, fluminis, river; pars, partis, part; lex, legis, law.

IV. FOURTH

DECLENSION.

Singular.

Plural

N. Gf Voc. Fruct-us, m., fruit

Fruct-us

Gen. Fruct-us

Fruct-uum

Dat. Fruct-ui

Fruct-ibus

Ace. Fruct-um

Fruct-us

Abl. Fruct-u

Fruct-ibus

N.V.&Aee. Gen-u, n., a knee

Gen-ua,

Gen. Gen-us

Gen-uum

Dat. Gen-u

Gen-ibus

Abl. Gen-n

Gen-ibus

/

N.B. — Tribus, a tribe, and lacus, a lake, have ubtis not -ibus in the Dat. and Abl. Plur.; specus, a cave, and portus, a port, have both -ubus and -ibus.

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Domus, a house, is thus declined: —

Singular.

Plural

Norn.

Dom-us

Dom-us

Gen.

Dom-us

Dom-orum (uum)

Dat.

Dom-ui (-0)

Dom-ibus

Ace.

Dom-um

Dom-os (-us)

Voc.

Dom-us

Dom-us

Abl.

Dom-o (-u)

Dom-ibus

V.

FIFTH DECLENSION.

Singular

Plural

N. &

Voc. Di-es, m. Gen. Di-ei Dat. Di-ei Ace. Di-em Abl. Di-e

orf.,

, a day

Di-es, m.,

Di-erum

Di-ebus

Di-es

Di-ebus

VI. RULES OF LATIN GENDER. FIRST DECLENSION.

Nouns in -a of the first Decl. are Fem., except the names of males: as, Magna silva, a great wood. But: Magnus poeta, a great poet.

SECOND DECLENSION. Nouns in -us and -er of the second Decl. are Masc. Those in

um are Neut.: as, Longus hortus, a long garden; bonus puer, a good boy; multa bella, many wars.

THIRD DECLENSION.

1. Most nouns of the third Decl. ending in -er, -or, -os, -es (in- creasing in the genitive), -o (except -do, go, -io), are Masc: as, Career Romanus, a Roman prison; honor magnus, a great honor; fios albus, a white flower; paries altus, a high wall; sermo Latinus, the Latin language.

2. Most nouns of the third Decl. which end in -do, -go, -io, -as, -is, •aus, -X, -es (not increasing in the genitive), -s (preceded by a con- sonant), -us (in words of more than one syllable), are Fem.: as, Multitudo magna, a great multitude; imago cerea, a wax image; oratio longa, a long speech; aestas callida, a warm summer; avis rara,

RULES OF LATIN GENDER. 7

a rare bird.; laus parva, little credit; vox magna, a loud voice; clades nostra, our defeat; plebs Romana, the Roman populace; virtus divina, heroic valor.

3. Most nouns of the third Decl. which end in -c, -a, -t, -e, -1, -n, ar, -ur, -us, -"s (in words of one syllable), are Neut.: as, Lac album, white milk', poema longum, a long poem ; caput suum, his own head ; mare magnum, a great sea; animal ferum, a wild animal; limen altum, a high threshold; calcar acutum, a sharp spur; fulgur clarum, a bright flash; tempus antiquum, ancient time; ius magnum, a great right. State the gender of the following: —

Navis, navis, a ship. Carmen, carminis, a song.

Nix, nivis, snow. Radix, radicis, a root.

Litus, litoris, a shore. Animal, animalis, an animal.

Onus, oneris, a load. Mare, maris, sea.

Frigus, frigoris, frost. Rus, ruris, country.

Hiems, hiemis, winter. Turris, turris, a tower.

FOURTH DECLENSION.

Nouns in -us of the fourth Decl. are Masc, those in -u are^Neut.

FIFTH DECLENSION. Nouns of the fifth Decl. are Fern., except dies, a day, which is Masc. or Fern, in the Sing., but only Masc. in the Plur. For exceptions to the Rules, see Latin Grammar.

VII.

WORDS THAT DIFFER IN MEANING IN THE SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

Aedes, a temple.

Auxilium, help

Castrum, a fort

Copia, plenty

Finis, an end

Gratia, favor

Impedimentum, hindrance

Littera, a letter (of the alphabet)

Ludus, play

Opem (ace), help

Opera, labor

Sal, salt

lA

Aedes, a house (pi.). Auxilia, allied forces. Castra, a camp. Copiae, forces. Fines, boundaries. Gratiae, thanks. Impedimenta, baggage Litterae, epistle, literature Ludi, public games Opes, wealth Operae, work-people Sales, wit.

8

HANDBOOK OF LATIN,

VIII. ADJECTIVES. FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative, in -us, -a, -um, or -er, -a, -um, are declined like nouns of the First and Second Decl.

inus

Singular.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

Nom.

Bon-us

Bon-a

Bon-um

Gen.

Bon-i

Bon-ae

Bon-i

Dat.

Bon-o

Bon-ae

Bon-o

Ace.

Bon-um

Bon-am

Bon-um

Voc.

Bon-e

Bon-a

Bon-um

Abl.

Bon-o

Bon-a

Plural.

Bon-o

Nom.

Bon-i

Bon-ae

Bon-a

Gen.

Bon orum

Bon arum

Bon-orum

&c.

&c. Singular.

&c.

Nom.

Aeger, sick

Aegr-a

Aegr-um

Gen.

Aegr-i

Aegr-ae

Aegr-i

&c.

&c.

&c.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

Nom.

Tener, tender

Tener-a

Tener-um

Gen.

Tener-i

Tener-ae

Tener-i

&c.

&c.

&c.

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES OF THE SECOND DECLENSION

Unus, one, is

declined thus: —

Singular.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

Nom. Un-us

Un-a

Un-um

Gen. Un-lus

Un-ius

Un-ius

Dat. Un-i

Un-i

Un-i

Ace. Un-um

Un-am

Un-um

Voc. —

—

—

Ahl. Un-o

Un-a

Un-o

ADJECTIVES OF III DECLENSION. 9

Like Unus are declined: Uter, utra, utrum, which of the two (Gen. utrius); neuter, neither of the two; alius, -a, -ud, another; nullus, -a, -urn, no one; solus, alone; totus, whole; ullus, any; alter, era, -erum, the other. The genitive of alter is alterius.

ADJECTIVES OF III DECLENSION.

Adjectives of three terminations in -er, -is, -e or of two termin- ations in -is and -e, are declined according to the III Decl. Thus: —

SiNGUL

AR.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

Norn.

Acer

Acr-is

Acr-e

Gen.

Acr-is

Acr-is

Acr-is

Dat.

Acr-i

Acr-i

Acr-i

Ace.

Acr-em

Acr-em

,

Acr-e

Voc.

Acer

Acr-is

Acr-e

Abl.

Acr-i

Acr-i

Acr-i

Plural.

Norn.

Acr-es

Acr-es

Acr-ia

Gen.

Acr-ium

Acr-ium

Acr-ium

Dat.

Acr-ibus

Acr-ibus

Acr-ibus

Ace.

Acr-es

Acr-es

Acr-ia

Voc,

Acr-es

Acr-es

Acr-ia

Abl.

Acr-ibus Sii

?^GULAR

Acr-ibus

Acr-ibus Plural.

Masc

. and Fern.

Neut.

Masc. and Fern. Neut.

Nom.

Mit-is

Mit

-e

Mit-

es

Mit-ia

Gen.

Mit-is

Mit

-is

Mit-

•ium

Mit-ium

Dat.

Mit-i

Mit

-i

Mit-

•ibus

Mit-ibus

Ace.

Mit-em

Mit

-e

Mit-

•es

Mit-ia

Voc.

Mit-is

Mit

-e

Mit-

■es

Mit-ia

Abl.

Mit-i

Mit

-i

Mit-

■ibus

Mit-ibus

N.B. — All adjectives of three endings in the Nom. like Acer, and all adjectives of two endings in the Nom. like Mitis, have Abl. Sing. in -i; Nom. Neut. PI. in -ia; Gen. PI. in ium. But comparatives and

10

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

adjectives of one ending in Nom. have Abl. Sing, in-i or e ; compar- atives, the Neuter in -a, and Gen. PI. in -um. Adjectives of one termination, from Nom. in x or in s preceded by a consonant, like Audax or Oriens, have the Nom. PI. in -ia and Gen. PI. in -ium.

Adjectives of one termination are declined according to the III Decl. Thus: —

Singular.

Plural.

Masc

. and Fem.

Neut.

Masc.

and Fem Neut.

Nom.

Audax

Audax

Audac

-es

Audac-ia

Gen.

Audac-is

Audac-is

Audac

-ium

Audac-ium

Dat.

Audac-i

Audac-i

Audac

-ibus

Audac-ibus

Ace.

Audac-em

Audax

Audac

-es

Audac-ia

Voc.

Audax

Audax

Audac

-es

Audac-ia

Abl.

Audac-i (e) Audac-i

(e)

Audac-ibus

Audac-ibus

Irregular Adjs.

of the III Decl.

are :

Masc.

Fem.

Neut.

Mase.

6f Fem. Neut.

Nom.

Duo

Du-ae

Duo

Tres

Tr-ia

Gen.

Du-orum

Du-arum

Du

-orum

Tr-ium Tr-ium

Dat.

Du-obus

Du-abus

Du

-obus

Tr-ibus Tr-ibus

Ace.

Du-os(duo

)Du-as

Duo

Tres

Tr-ia

Voc.

Duo

Du-ae

Duo

Tres

Tr-ia

Ahl. Du-obus Du-abus Du-obus Tr-ibus

Tr-ibus

Mille, a thousand, is in the Sing, indecl. Millia; Gen. millium; Dat and Ahl. millibus.

In PI: Nom. and Aec

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

Most Adjs. are compared by means of the endings -ior (Masc. and Fem.), -ius (Neut.), for the comparative, and -issimus (a, -um) for the superlative: as, Altus, high; altior, higher; aXtissimns} highest; gravis, heavy, gravior, gravissimus.

The Comparative is declined thus: —

Singular. Plural.

Masc. and Fem. Neut. Mase. and Fem. Neut.

Nom. Mitior

Mitius

Mitior-es

Mitior-a

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

,11

Gen.

Mitior-is

Mitior-is

Mitior-um

Mitior-um

Dat.

Mitior-i

Mitior-i

Mitior-ibus

Mitior-ibus

Ace.

Mitior-em

Mitius

Mitior-es

Mitior-a

Voc.

Mitior

Mitius

Mitior-es

Mitior-a

Abl.

Mitior-e(-i)

Mitior-e (-

i) Mitior-ibus

Mitior-ibus

The comparative

Plus, more,

is irregular:

Singular

Plural.

Masc.

and Fern.

Neut.

Masc. and Fern

. Neut.

Nom.

—

Plus

Plur-es

Plur-a

Gen.

—

Plur-is

Plur-ium

Plur-ium

Dat.

—

—

Plur-ibus

Plur-ibus

Ace.

—

Plus

Plur-es

Plur-a

Voc.

—

—

Plur-es

Plur-a

Abl.

—

Plur-e

Plur-ibus

Plur-ibus

N.B. — Adjectives in -us preceded by a vowel, usually form the comparative and superlative by means of the adverbs magis, more, and maxime, most, respectively: as.

Positive Idoneus,yj^ Dubius, doubtful

Comparative. Magis idoneus Magis dubius

Superlative. Maxime idoneus Maxime dubius

But Adjs.in -quus, form the comparative and superlative regularly as, Antiquus, ancient, antiquior, antiquissimus.

IRREGULAR COMPARSION. I. Adjs. in -er have the superl. in -rimus: as.

Acer, sharp

Acrior

Acerrimus

Miser, wretched

Miserior

Miserrimub

Celer, swift

Celerior

Celerrimus

Pulcher, beautiful

Pulchrior

Pulcherrimus

Niger, black

Nigrior

Nigerrimus

Note. — Vetus, veteris, old, has no comparative, but has veterrimus in the superlative. Maturus, ripe, has both maturrimus and ma- turissimus.

12

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

2. The following Adjs. in -ills form their comparative regularly

in -ior, but their superlative in -limus: —

Comparative. Superlative.

Facilior Facillimus

Difficilior Difficillimus

Similior Simillimus

Dissimilior Dissimillimus

Gracilior Gracillimus

Humilior Humillimus

Positive. Facilis, easy Difficilis, difficult Similis, similar, like Dissimilis, unlike Gracilis, slender Humilis, low

3. Adjs. in -dicus, saying, -ficus, doing, or -volus, willing, form their comparative and superlative from the corresponding participle in -ens, as: —

Positive. Comparative Superlative.

Maledicus, slanderous Maledicentior Maledicentissimus

Munificus, lavish Munificentior Munificentissimus

Benevolus, kind Benevolentior Benevolentissimus

Note. — Egenus, needy, has egentior, egentissimus; and providus, foreseeing, has providentior, providentissimus.

4. The following Adjs. are irregular in their Comparison: — Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

Bonus, good Melior, better Optimus, best

Malus, bad Peior, worse Pessimus, worst

Magnus, great Maior, greater Maximus, greatest

Parvus, small Minor, less Minimus, least

Muitus, much, Plus, more Plurimus, most

Dives, rich Divitior, richer Divitissimus, richest

Dis, Ditior, Ditissimus

5. The following Adjs. are irregular in the superlative: — Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

Exterus, outward Exterior

Inferus, lower. Inferior

Superus, higher Superior

Posterus, behind Posterior

Note. — Mons infimus is the lowest mountain (of a range); mons

Extrernus and Extimus Infimus and Imus Supremus and Summus Postremus & Postumus

ADVERBS.

13

imus, the bottom of the mountain. Supremus mons is, the highest mountain (of a group of mountains); summus mons, the top of the mountain.

6. Some Adjs. have no positive, as: — Positive Comparative

Citerior, hither

Deterior, worse

— Interior, inner

Ocior, swifter

Prior, former

Propior, nearer

Ulterior, farther

From Senex {an old man) is formed, senior or natu maior, older,

and natu maximus, oldest.

From luvenis, a young man, is formed iunior or natu minor, younger, and natu minimus, youngest.

Superlative. Citimus, hithermost Deterrimus, worst Intimus, innermost Ocissimus, swiftest Primus, first Proximus, next, nearest' Ultimus, farthest, last

IX. ADVERBS.

Adverbs are formed from Adjs. of the II Decl. by changing -us or-er into -e; from Adjs. of the III Decl. by adding -ter or -iter to the last letter of the stem. Thus: —

Dignus (worthy), digne, worthily; pulcher (beautiful), pulchre, beautifully, ferox (spirited), ferociter, in a spirited manner.

The comparative ends in -ius and the superlative in -issime. Thus:. Digne, dignius, dignissime. Ferociter, ferocius, ferocissime.

Some adverbs are formed irregularly from Adjs., as: —

ADJECTIVE.

Positive. Bonus, good Bene, well

Malus, bad Male, badly

Multus, much Multum,

Parvus, small, little Parum, little Magnus, great Magnopere

ADVERBS. Compar. Superl.

Melius Optitne

Peius Pessime

Plus Plurimum

Minus Minime

Magis Maxime

Some adverbs, not derived from Adjs. are compared, as: — Positive Compar. Superl-

Diu, long Diutius Diutissime

Saepe, often Saepius Saepissime.

14

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

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16

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

XL PRONOUNS.

PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

Ego, /..

Tu

, thou,

you (sing).

Singular.

Plural.

Singular

Plural.

Nom.

Ego

Nos

Tu

Vos

Gen.

Mei

Nostrum

, nostriTui

Vestrum,vestr£

Dat.

Mihi

Nobis

Tibi

Vobis

Ace.

Me

Nos

Te

Vos

Voc.

—

—

Tu

Vos

Ahl.

Me

Nobis

Sui,

Te

of himself.

Vobis

Singular

Plural.

Gen.

Sui

Sui

Dat.

Sibi

Sibi

Ace.

Se

Se

Ahl.

Se

Se

DEMONSTRATIVE AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Hie,

this

Singular.

Masc.

. Fern.

Neut.

Nom.

Hie

Haec

Hoc

Gen.

Huius

Huius

Huius

Dat.

Huic

Huic

Huic

Ace.

Hunc

Hanc

Hoc

Ahl.

Hoc

Hac

Plu

RAL.

Hoc

Nom.

Hi

Hae

Haec

Gen.

Horum

Harum

Horum

Dat.

His

His '

His

Ace.

Hos

Has

Haec

Ahl.

His

His

His

PRONOUNS.

Ille

, that

Singular.

Mase.

Fem.

Neut.

Nom.

Ille

Ilia

Illud

Gen.

Illius

Illius

Illius

Dat.

Illi '

Illi

Illi

Ace.

Ilium

Illam

Illud

Ahl.

Illo

Ilia

Plural.

Illo

Nom.

IIH

Illae

Ilia

Gen.

Illorum

Illarum

Illorum

Dat.

Illis

Illis

Illis

Ace.

Illos

I lias

Ilia

Ahl.

Illis

Illis

Illis

N.B. — Like I lie are declined: Ipse, -a,

um, self, and

that 0

/ yours.

Is, he, this, that

Singular.

Masc.

Fem.

Neut.

Nom.

Is

Ea

Id

Gen.

Eius

Eius

Eius

Dat.

Ei

Ei

Ei

Ace.

Eum

Eam

Id

Ahl.

Eo

Ea

Plural.

Eo

Nom.

Ei (ii)

Eae

Ea

Gen.

Eorum

Earum

Eorum

Dat.

Eis (iis)

Eis (iis)

Eis (iis)

Ace.

Eos

Eas

Ea

Ahl.

Eis (iis)

Eis (iis)

Eis (iis)

Idem,

the same.

Singular.

Mase,

Fem.

Neut.

Nom.

Idem

Eadem

Idem

Gen.

Eiusdem

Eiusdem

Eiusdem

Dat.

Eidem

Eidem

Eidem

Ace.

Eundem

Eandem

Idem

Ahl.

F:odcm

Eadem

Eodem

17

18

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Plural.

Nom

. Eidem lidem

Eaedem

Eadem

Gen.

Eorundem

Earundem

L

Eorundem

Dat.

Eisdem

Eisdem

Eisdem

lisdem

lisdem

lisdem

Ace.

Eosdem

Easdem

Eadem

AM.

Eisdem

Eisdem

Eisdem

lisdem

lisdem

lisdem

RELATIVE

PRONOUN.

Qui,

who

Singular.

Masc.

Fem. J Quae^

Neut. /

Nom.

Qui ^

Quod/

Gen.

Cuius

Cuius

Cuius

Dat.

Cui

Cui

Cui

Ace.

Quem

Quam

Quod

Abl.

Quo

Qua

Plu

RAL.

Quo

Nom.

Qui

Quae

Quae

Gen.

Quorum

Quarum

Quorum

Dat.

Quibus

Quibus

Quibus

Ace.

Quos

Quas

Quae

Abl.

Quibus-

Quibus

Quibus

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.

Quis,

who?

Singular.

Masc.,.

Fem.

Neut.

Nom.

Quis^

QuaeX;

Quid

Gen.

Cuius

Cuius

Cuius

Dat.

Cui

Cui

Cui

Ace.

Quem

Quara

Quid

Abl.

Quo

Qua

Quo

REGULAR VERBS.

19

Plural.

Nom.

Qui

Quae

Quae

Gen.

Quorum

Quarum

Quorum

Dat.

Quibus

Quibus

Quibus

Ace.

Quos

Quas

Quae

Abl.

Quibus

Quibus

Quibus

Principal Parts

ii

XII. REGULAR VERBS.

Conjugation: Amo

Amo

Amare

Amavi

Amatum

Moneo

Monere

Monui

Monitum

Rego

Regere

Rexi

Rectum

Audio

Audire

Audivi

Auditum

ACTIVE VOICE— INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT.

1. Am-o

2. Am-as

3. Am-at

1. Am-amus

2. Am-atis

3. Am-ant

Singular.

Mon-eo Reg-o

Aud-io

Mon-es Reg-is

Aud-is

Mon-et Reg-it

Aud-it

Plural.

Mon-emus Reg-imus

Aud-imus

Mon-etis Reg-itis

Aud-itis

Mon-ent Reg-unt

Aud-iunt

1. Am-abam

2. Am-abas

3. Am-abat

1. Am-abam us

2. Am abatis

3. Am abant

IMPERFECT.

Singular.

Mon-ebam Reg-ebam Audi-ebam

Mon-ebas Reg-ebas Audi-ebas

Mon-cbat Reg-ebat Audi-ebat

Plural.

Mon-ebamus Rcg-ebamus Audi-ebamus

Mon ebatis Reg-cbatis Audi-cbatis

Mon-ebant Rcg-cbant Audi-cbant

20

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

FUTURE. Singular.

I.

Am-abo

Mon-ebo Reg-ara.

Audi-am

2.

Am-abis

Mon-ebis Reg-es

Audi-es

3.

Am-abit

Mon-ebit Reg-et Plural.

Audi-et

I.

Am-abimus

Mon-ebimus Reg-emus

Audi-emus

2.

Am-abitis

Mon-ebitis Reg-etis

Audi-etis

3-

Am-abunt

Mon-ebunt Reg-ent

Audi-ent

1. Amav-i

2. Amav-isti

3. Amav-it

PERFECT.

Singular. Monu-i Rex-i Audiv-i

Monu-isti Rex-isti Audiv-isti

Monu-it Rex-it Audiv-it

1. Amav-imus

2. Amav-istis

(Amav-erunt Amav-ere

Plural. Monu-imus Rex-imus Monu-istis Rex-istis

Monu-erunt jRex-erunt Monu-ere iRex-ere

Audiv-imus Audiv-istis /Audiv-erunt \Audiv-ere

1. Amav-eram

2. Amav-eras

3. Amav-erat

PLUPERFECT. Singular. Monu-eram Rex-eram Audiv-eram

Monu-eras Rex-eras Audiv-eras

Monu-crat Rex-erat Audiv-erat

1. Amav-eramus

2. Amav-eratis

3. Amav-erant

Plural. Monu-eramus Rex-eramus Monu-eratis Rex-eratis Monu-erant Rex-erant

Audiv-eramus

Audiv-eratis

Audiv-erant

FUTURE PERFECT. Singular.

1. Amav-ero Monu-ero Rex-ero Audiv-ero

2. Amav-eris Monu-eris Rex-eris Audiv-eris

3. Amav-erit Monu-erit Rex-erit Audiv-erit

REGULAR VERBS.

21

1. Amav-erimus

2. Amav-eritis

3. Amav-erint

Plural. Monu-erimus Rex-erimus Monu-eritis Rex-eritis Monu-erint Rex-erint

Audiv-erimus

Audiv-eritis

Audiv-erint

1. Am-em

2. Am-es

3. Am-et

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

Singular. Mon-eam Reg-ara

Mon-eas Reg-as

Mon-eat Reg-at

Audi-am

Audi-as

Audi-at

1. Am-emus

2. Am-etis

3. Am-ent

Plural.

Mon-eamus Reg-amus Audi-amus

Mon-eatis Reg-atis Audi-atis

Mon-eant Reg-ant Audi-ant

IMPERFECT.

Singular.

1. Am-arem Mon-erem Reg-erem Aud-irem

2. Am-ares Mon-eres Reg-eres Aud-ires

3. Am-aret Mon-eret Reg-eret Aud-iret

Plural.

1. Am-aremus Mon-eremus Reg-eremus Aud-iremus

2. Am-aretis Mon-eretis Reg-eretis Aud-iretis

3. Am-arent Mon-erent Reg-erent Aud-irent

PERFECT. Singular.

1. Amav-erim Monu-erim Rex-erim Audiv-erim

2. Amav-eris Monu-eris Rex-eris Audiv-eris

3. Amav-erit Monu-erit Rex-erit Audiv-erit

1. Amav-erimus

2. Amav-eritis

3. Amav-erint

Plural. Monu-erimus Rex-erimus Monu-eritis Rex-eritis Monu-erint Rex-erint

Audiv-erimus

Audiv-eritis

Audiv-erint

22

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

PLUPERFECT. Singular.

1. Amav-issem Monu-issem Rex-issem Audiv-issem

2. Amav-isses Monu-isses Rex-isses Audiv-isses

3. Amav-isset Monu-isset Rex-isset Audiv-isset

1. Amav-issemus

2. Amav-issetis

3. Amav-issent

Plural. Monu-issemus Rex-issemus Monu-issetis Rex-issetis Monu-issent Rex-issent

Audiv-issemus- Audiv issetis Audiv-issent

2. Am a

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

Singular. Mon e Reg e

Aud

2. Am ate

Plural. Mon ete Reg ite

Aud ite

FUTURE. Singular.

2. Am ato Mon eto Reg ito

you shall love

3. Am ato - Mon eto Reg ito

he shall love

Plural.

2. Am atote Mon etote Reg itote

you shall love

3. Am anto Mon ento Reg unto

they shall love

Aud ito Aud ito

Aud itote Aud iunto

• INFINITIVE MOOD.

Pres. Ama re Mone re Rege re Audi re

Perf. Amav isse Monu isse Rex isse Audiv isse

Flit. Ama turns Moni turns Rec turns Audi turus esse esse esse

REGULAR VERBS.

23

Pres

. Ama ns

Put.

Ama turus

Ama turn

tu

Gen.

Ama ndi

Dat.

Ama ndo

Ace.

Ama ndum

AM.

Ama ndo

PARTICIPLES. Mone ns Reg ens

Moni turus Rec turus

SUPINE. Moni tum Rec tum

tu tu

GERUND. Mone ndi Rege ndi

Mone ndo Rege ndo

Mone ndum Rege ndum Mone ndo Rege ndo

Audi ens Audi rurus

Audi tum

tu

Audi endi Audi endo Audi endum Audi endo

PASSIVE VOICE— INDICATIVE MOOD.

I. Am or /Ama ris '\Ama re T,. Ama tur

PRESENT.

Singular. Mone or Reg or

Mone ris f Rege ris

,Mone re iRege re

Mone tur Regi tur

Audi or /Audi ris \Audi re

Audi tur

Plural.

1. Ama mur Mone mur Regi mur Audi mur

2. Ama mini Mone mini Regi mini Audi mini

3. Ama ntur Mone ntur Regu ntur Audi untur

I. Ama bar /Ama baris '\Ama bare 3. Ama batur

IMPERFECT. Singular.

Mone bar Rege bar Audi ebar

/Mone baris fRege baris (Audi ebaris

(Mone bare (.Rege bare \Audi ebare

Mone batur Rege batur Audi ebatur

1. Ama bamur

2. Ama bamini

3. Ama bantur

2

Plural.

Mone bamur Rege bamur Audi ebamur

Mone bamini Rege bamini Audi ebamini

Mone bantur Rege bantur Audi ebantur

24

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

FUTURE. Singular.

I. Ama bor Mone bor Rega r Audia r

f Ama beris J Mone beris /Rege ris /Audie ris

\Ama bere \Mone bere I Rege re tAudie re

3. Ama bitur Mone bitur Rege tur Audie tur

Plural.

1. Ama bimur Mone bimur Rege mur Audie mur

2. Ama bimini Mone bimini Rege mini Audie mini

3. Ama buntur Mone buntur Rege ntur Audie ntur

1. Ama tus sum

2. Ama tus es

3. Ama tus est

PERFECT.

Singular. Moni tus sum Rec tus sum Audi tus sum Moni tus es Rec tus es Audi tus es

Moni tus est Rec tus est Audi tus est

1. Ama ti sumus

2. Ama ti estis

3. Ama ti sunt

Plural. Moni ti sumus Rec ti sumus Moni ti estis Rec ti estis Moni ti sunt Rec ti sunt

Audi ti sumus Audi ti estis Audi ti sunt

1 . Ama tus eram

2. Ama tus eras

3. Ama tus erat

PLUPERFECT.

Singular.

Moni tus eram Rec tus eram

Moni tus eras Rec tus eras

Moni tus erat Rec tus erat

Audi tus eram Audi tus eras Audi tus erat

1 . Ama ti eramus

2. Ama ti eratis

3. Ama ti erant

Plural.

Moni ti eramus Rec ti eramus Audi ti eramus

Moni ti eratis Rec ti eratis Audi ti eratis

Moni ti erant Rec ti erant Audi ti erant

1 . Ama tus ero

2. Ama tus eris

3. Ama tus erit

FUTURE-PERFECT. Singular. Moni tus ero Rec tus ero Audi tus ero Moni tus eris Rec tus eris Audi tus eris Moni tus erit Rec tus erit Audi tus erit

REGULAR VERBS.

25

1. Ama ti erimus

2. Ama ti eritis

3. Ama ti erunt

Plural. Moni ti erimus Rec ti erimus Moni ti eritis Rec ti eritis Moni ti erunt Rec ti erunt

Audi ti erimus Audi ti eritis Audi ti erunt

I . Am er

f Am eris

'\Am ere

3. Am etur

1. Am emur

2. Am emini

3. Am entur

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Mone ar Reg ar

Mone aris /Reg aris Mone are iReg are

Mone atur Reg atur

Plural. Mone amur Reg amur Mone amini Reg amini Mone antur Reg antur

Audi ar (Audi aris (Audi are

Audi atur

Audi amur Audi amini Audi antur

I. Ama rer /Ama reris * (Ama rere

3. Ama retur

1. Ama remur

2. Ama remini

3. Ama rentur

IMPERFECT. Singular. Mone rer Rege rer

Mone reris j Rege reris Mone rere ( Rege rere Mone retur Rege retur

l;

Audi rer Audi reris Audi rere Audi retur

Plural.

Mone remur Rege remur Audi remur

Mone remini Rege remini Audi remini

Mone rentur Rege rentur Audi rentur

1. Ama tus sim

2. Ama tus sis

3. Ama tus sit

1. Ama ti simus

2. Ama ti sitis

3. Ama ti sint

PERFECT.

Singular. Moni tus sim Rec tus sim Moni tus sis Rec tus sis Moni tus sit Rec tus sit

Plural. Moni ti simus Rec ti .simus Moni ti sitis Rec ti sitis Moni ti sint Rec ti sint

Audi tus sim Audi tus sis Audi tus sit

Audi ti simus Audi ti sitis Audi ti sint

26

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

PLUPERFECT. Singular.

1. Ama tus essem Moni tus essem Rec tus essem Audi tus essem

2. Ama tus esses Moni tus esses Rec tus esses Audi tus esses

3. Ama tus esset Moni tus esset Rec tus esset Audi tus esset

Plural.

1. Ama ti essemus Moni ti essemus Rec ti essemus Audi ti essemus

2. Ama ti essetis Moni ti essetis Rec ti essetis Audi ti essetis

3. Ama ti essent Moni ti essent Rec ti essent Audi ti essent

2. Am are

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

Singular. Mon ere Reg ere

Aud ire

2. Am amini

Plural. Mon emini Reg imini

Aud imini

FUTURE. Singular.

2. Am ator Mon etor Reg itor Aud itor you shall be loved

3. Am ator Mon etor Reg itor Aud itor he shall be loved

Plural. 3. Am antor Mon entor Reg untor Aud iuntor

they shall be loved

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Pres. Am ari Mon eri Reg i Audi ri

Perf. Ama tus esse Moni tus esse Rec tus esse Audi tus esse

Fut. Ama tum iri Moni tum iri Rec turn iri Audi turn iri

PARTICIPLES.

Perf. Ama tus Moni tus Rec tus Audi tus

Fm. Am andus Mon endus Reg endus Audi endus

DEPONENT VERBS. 27

XIII. DEPONENT VERBS OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

I 1st Conj. Miror, mirari, miratus sum, wonder. 2nd Conj. Vereor, vereri, veritus sum, /ear. 3rd Conj. Sequor, sequi, secutus sum, follow. 4th Conj. Blandior, blandiri, blanditus sum, flatter.

Pers., Miror

INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Vereor Sequor

Miraris,or Vereris, or

mirare Verere Miratur Veretur

Sequeris, or

Sequere Sequitur

Blandior Blandiris, or

Blandire Blanditur

Plural.

I Pers., Miramur Veremur Sequimur Blandimur

2. " Miramini Veremini Sequimini Blandimini

3. " Mirantur Verentur Sequuntur Blandiuntur

IMPERFECT. Singular.

1. Pers., Mirabar Verebar Sequebar Blandiebar

2. " Mirabaris, Verebaris, or Sequebaris, or Blandiebaris, or

ormirabare verebare Sequebare blandiebare

&c. &c. &c. &c.

FUTURE. Singular.

1. Pers., Mirabor Verebor Sequar

2. " Miraberis, Vereberis, or Sequeris, or

or mirabere verebere Sequere

3. " Mirabitur Verebitur Sequetur

Plural.

1. Pers.,Mirabimur Verebimur Sequemur

2. " Mirabimini Vcrebimini Scquemini

3. " Mirabuntur Verebuntur Sequentur

Blandiar Blandieris, or Blandiere Blandietur

Blandiemur Blandiemini Blandientur

28 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

PERFECT. Miratus sum Veritus sum Secutus sum Blanditus sum

PLUPERFECT. Miratus eram Veritus eram Secutus eram Blanditus eram

Miratus ero

FUTURE-PERFECT.

Veritus ero Secutus ero Blanditus ero

Mi

IMPERATIVE PRESENT.

Singular. Verere Sequere

Blandire

Plural.

Miramini

Veremini

Sequimini

Blandimini

Participles.

Pres.

Mirans, admiring

Verens

Sequens

Blandiens

Per.

Miratus,

Veritus

Secutus

Blanditus

having admired

Miraturus,

Veriturus

Secuturus

Blanditurus

Put.

about to admire.

1 Mirandus,

Verendus

Sequendus

Blandiendus

1^ about to be admired.

Note. — Deponents have a Perf. Part. Act., but with a passive form: as, Caesar locutus tacuit, Caesar having spoken was silent.

XIV. VERBS OF THE III CONJUGATION IN -10.

Some verbs in -io of the III Conj. have a distinctive form in the Pres. Ind. and drop the i before -Sr. Thus:

CONJUGATION OF CAPIO. Principal Parts: Capio, capere, cepi, captum, take.

VERBS OF THE III CONJUGATION IN -lO.

29

INDICATIVE MOOD. Active. Passive.

PRESENT. Singular Plural Singular Plural.

1. Pers., Capio Capimus Capior Capimur

Caperis, or

2. " Capis Capitis Capere Capimini

3. " Capit Capiunt Capitur Capiuntur

Capiebam

IMPERFECT.

Capiebar

FUTURE. I. Pers., Capiam Capiemus Capiar

Capieris, or

Capiemur

2. " Capies

3. " Capiet

Capietis Capiere Capient Capietur

PERFECT.

Capiemini Capientur

Cepi

Captus sum PLUPERFECT.

Ceperam

Captus eram FUTURE-PERFECT.

Cepero

Captus ero SUBJUNCTIVE.

Capiam

PRESENT.

Capiar

Caperem Per. and Pluperf.

IMPERFECT.

Caperer are regular.

2. Pers., Cape

IMPERATIVE. Capite Capere

Capimini

30

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Pres. Capere Perf. Cepisse Put. Capturus (

Pres. Capiens

INFINITIVE. Capi

Captum esse ; Captum iri

PARTICIPLES.

Put. Capturus Perf. Captus

Put. Capiendus

XV. IRREGULAR VERBS

Sum, / am. Possum, / am able i Sum Principal parts \ Possum [Prosum

Prosum, / benefit.

Fui Esse

Potui Posse

Profui Prodesse

1. Sum

2. Es

3. Est

1. Sumus

2. Estis

3. Sunt

1. Eram

2. Eras

3. Erat

1. Eramus

2. Eratis

3. Erant

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

Singular.

Possum

Prosum

Potes

Prodes

Potest

Prodest

Plural.

Possumus

Prosumus

Potestis

Prodestis

Possunt

Prosunt

IMPERFECT.

Singular.

Poteram

Proderam

Poteras

Proderas

Poterat

Proderat

Plural.

Poteramus

Proderamus

Poteratis

Proderatis

Poterant

Proderant

IRREGULAR VERBS.

31

2. Eris

3. Erit

1. Erimus

2. Eritis

3. Erunt

1. Fui

2. Fuisti

&c.

1. Fueram

2. Fueras

&c.

FUTURE.

Singular.

Potero

Prodero

Poteris

Proderis

Poterit

Proderit

Plural.

Poterimus

Proderimus

Poteritis

Proderitis

Poterunt

Proderunt

PERFECT.

Singular.

Potui

Profui

Potuisti

Profuisti

&c.

&c.

PLUPERFECT.

Singular.

Potueram

Profueram

Potueras

Profueras

&c.

&c.

1. Fuero

2. Fueris

&c.

FUTURE PERFECT.

Singular. Potuero Profuero

Potueris Profueris

&c. &c.

1. Sim

2. Sis 3- Sit

SUBJUNCTIVE

MOOD.

PRESENT,

Singular.

Possim

Prosim

Possis

Prosis

Possit

Prosit

32

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Plural.

I.

Simus

Possimus

Prosimus

2.

Sitis

Possitis

Prositis

3-

Sint

Possint

IMPERFECT.

Singular.

Prosint

I.

Essem

Possem

Prodessem

2.

Esses

Posses

Prodesses

&c.

&c.

PERFECT. Singular.

&c.

I.

Fuerim

Potuerim

Profuerim

2.

Fueris

Potueris

Profueris

&c.

&c.

PLUPERFECT. Singular.

&c.

I.

Fuissem

Potuissem

Profuissem

2.

Fuisses

Potuisses

Profuisses

&c.

&c.

«&c.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

Singular.

2. Es

None

Prodes

2. Este

Plural.

None

Prodeste

2. Esto, thou shall be

3. Esto he shall be

2. Estote, ye shall be

3. Sunto, they shall be

FUTURE.

Singular.

None

Prodesto

None

Prodesto

Plural.

None

Prodesto te

None

Prosunto

IRREGULAR VERBS.

33

Present. Esse Perfect. Fuisse Future. Futurus

Present. —

INFINITIVE MOOD. Posse >^ Potuisse

PARTICIPLES. Potens

Future. Futurus, -a, um

Prodesse Profuisse Profuturus esse

Profuturus, -a, -um

PRETERITIVE VERBS.

Memini

Meminisse

I remember.

Coepi

Coepisse

I begin, or / began

Odi

Odisse

I hate

Novi

Novisse

I know

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Perfect. Memini, -isti, etc. Coepi Odi Novi

Pluperf. Memineram, -eras, etc. Coeperam Oderam Noveram

Fut. Pf. Meminero, -eris, etc. Coepero Odero Novero

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Perfect. Meminerim, -eris Coeperim Oderim Noverim

Pluperf. Meminissem, -isses Coepissem Odissem Novissem

IMPERATIVE MOOD. Memento Mementote

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Per.

Meminisse

Coepisse Odisse

Novisse

Fut.

Wanting

Coepturus esse Osurus esse PARTICIPLES.

Wanting

Perf. Pass.

/Wanting

Coeptus Osus

Notus

Fut. Act.

J Wanting

Coepturus Osurus

Wanting

34

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

IRREGULAR VERBS— VOLO, NOLO, MALO.

j Volo Velle Volui / will, I wish, I am willing

Principal Parts

- Nolo Nolle Nolui / am unwilling.

Malo Malle Malui I prefer

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

Singular.

I. Volo

Nolo Malo

2. Vis

Non vis Mavis

3. Vult

Non vult Mavult

Plural.

I. Volumus

Nolumus

Malumus

2. Vultis

Non vultis

Mavultis

3. Volunt

Nolunt

IMPERFECT. Singular.

Malunt

I. Volebam

Nolebam

Malebara

2. Volebas

Nolebas

Malebas

&c.

&c.

FUTURE. Singular.

&c.

I. Volam

Nolam

Malam

2. Voles

Noles

Males

3. Volet

Nolet

Plural.

Malet

I. Volemus

Nolemus

Malemus

2. Voletis

Noletis

Maletis

3. Volent

Nolent

PERFECT. Singular.

Malent

I. Volui

Nolui

Malui

&c.

&c.

&c.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

35

PLUPERFECT.

I

Volueram

Nolueram

Malueram

&c.

&c.

&c.

FUTURE PERFECT.

I

Voluero

Noluero

Maluero

&c.

&c.

&c.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

Singular.

I.

Velim

Nolim

Malim

2.

Veils

Nolis

Malis

3-

Velit

Nolit

Plural.

Malit

I.

Velimus

Nolimus

Malimus

2.

Velitis

Nolitis

Malitis

3-

Velint •

Nolint

IMPERFECT.

Singular.

Malint

I.

Vellem

Nollem

Mallem

2.

Velles

Nolles

Malles

&c.

PERFECT. Singular.

i&C.

I.

Voluerim

Noluerim

Maluerim

&c.

&c. PLUPERFECT.

&c.

I.

Voluissem

Noluissem

Maluissem

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

Singular.

2.

None

Noli

Plural.

None

2.

None

Nolite

None

36

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

INFINITIVE MOOD. Pres. Velle Nolle Malle

Perf. Voluisse Noluisse Maluisse

PARTICIPLES. Pres. Volens (used as an adj. Nolens (used as an Adj. . .willing) . .unwilling)

Fero, / carry Principal Parts — Fero, ferre, tuli, latum

None.

PRESENT.

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

Indic.

SUBJ.

Indic Singular.

SUBJ.

I.

Fero

Feram

Feror Ferris

Ferar Feraris

2.

Fers

Feras

Ferre

Ferare

3-

Fert

Ferat

Fertur Plural.

Feratur

I.

Ferimus

Feramus

Ferimur

Feramur

2.

Fertis

Feratis

Ferimini

Feramini

3-

Ferunt

Ferant

Feruntur

Ferantur

IMPERFECT.

ACTIVE.

PASSIVE.

Indic.

SUBJ.

Indic. Singular.

SUBJ.

I.

Ferebam

Ferrem

Ferebar Ferebaris

Ferrer Ferreris

2.

Ferebas

Ferres

Ferebare

Ferrere

3-

Ferebat

Ferret

Ferebat ur Plural.

Ferretur

I.

Ferebamus

) Ferremu;:

Ferebamur

Ferremur

2.

Ferebatis

Ferretis

Ferebamini

Ferremini

3-

Ferebant

Ferre nt

Ferebantur

Ferrentur

IRREGULAR VERBS.

FUTURE.

37

ACTIVE.

SUBJ,

PASSIVE. Indic. Subj.

Singular. Ferar Fereris 2. Feres Ferere

&c. &c.

PERFECT. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. ,

Indic. Subj. Indic. Subj.

I. Tuli Tulerim Latus sum Latus sim

&c. &c. &c. &c.

PLUPERFECT. ACTIVE. PASSIVE.

Indic. Subj. Indic. Subj.

. Tuleram Tulissem Latus eram Latus essem

FUTURE PERFECT:

ACTIVE. PASSIVE.

Indic.

Subj. Indic. Subj

Singular.

Tulero

Latus ero

&c.

&c.

IMPERATIVE.

PRESENT

ACTIVE,

PASSIVE.

Singular.

2. Fer

Ferre

Plural.

2 Ferte

Ferimini

38 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

FUTURE. Active. PASSIVE.

Singular.

2. Ferto, you shall carry Fertor

3. Ferto, he shall carry Fertor

Plural.

2. Fertote, ye shall carry Wanting

3. Ferunto, they shall carry Feruntor

INFINITIVE.

Pres.

Ferre

Ferri

Perf.

Tulisse

Latus esse

Put.

Laturus, esse Latum iri

PARTICIPLES.

Pres.

Ferens

Wanting

Perf.

Wanting

Latus, -a, -

um

Put.

Laturus, -a,

-um Fer endus, SUPINE

-a, -um

Latum

Lata Fio, / become.

Prinicpal Parts-

-Fio, fieri, factus sum

PRESENT. PERFECT.

Indic.

SuBj. Indic.

SUBJ.

Singular.

I. Fio

Fiam Factus sum

Factus sim

2. Fis

Fias Factus es

Factus sis

3. Fit

Fiat Factus est Plural.

Factus sit

I. Fimus

Fiamus Facti sumus

Facti simus

2. Fiti

is

Fiatis Facti estis

Facti sitis

3. Fiunt

Fiant Facti sunt

Facti sint

IRREGULAR VERBS.

39

IMPERFECT

PLUPERFECT.

Indic.

SuBj. Indic. Singular.

SUBJ.

I. Fiebam

Fierem Factus eram

Factus esser

&c.

&c. &c.

&c.

FUTURE

FUTURE PERFECT

I. Fiam

Factus ero

2. Fies

Factus eris

&c.

&c. IMPERATIVE.

Fi

Fite

INFINITIVE.

Pres. Fieri

Perf. Factus esse Put.

Factum iri

PARTICIPLES.

Perf. Factus, -a, -um Put.

Faciendus, -a, -um

SUPINE.

Factum. Eo, / go. Principal Parts — Eo, ire, ivi or ii, itum.

PRESENT

PERFECT.

Indic.

SUBJ.

Indic. Subj.

i.Eo

Earn

ii or ivi Iverim or lerim

2.1s

Eas

&c. &c.

3. It

Eat

I. Imus

Eamus

2. Itis

Eatis

3. Eunt

Eant

IMPERFECT

PLUPERFECT

Iham

I rem

Iveram or leram Ivisscm or lissem

&c.

&c.

&c. &c.

40

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

FUTURE

FUTURE

PERFECT

I. Ibo

Ivero or lero

2. Ibis

Iveris or leris

&c.

&C. -

IMPERATIVE. PRESENT.

Singular

Plural.

2. I

FUTURE.

2. Ite

2. ItO

2. I tote

3- Ito

3. Eunto

INFINITIVE

PARTICIPLES

Pres\lTe

Pres. Act.

lens (gen. euntis)

Perf. Ivisse or lisse

Fut. Act.

Iturus

Fut. Iturus esse

Fut. Pass SUPINES.

. Fundus

Active. Itum.

Passive. Itu.

XVI. LIST OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS.

Ab-icio(iACio), -ere, ieci, -iectum. Ab-ripio (RAPlo),-ere,ripui,-reptum Ac-cido (CADo),-ere,-cidi. Ac-cipio (cAPio) ,-ere,-cepi,-ceptm Ad-imo (EMo),-ere,-enii,-emptum Ad-iuvo,-are,-iuvi,-iutum. Ad-orior, -oriri, -ortus sum. Ad-fero, -ferre, at-tuli, al-latum. Af-ficio (facio), ere, -feci, -tectum. A-gnosco ((g)nosco), -ere, a-gnovi,

a-gnitum (agnoturus). Ago, -ere, egi, actum. Alo, -ere, alui, altum. A-perio, -ire, aperui, apertum. A-scendo (scando), -ere, -i,-scensum A-spicio, ere, -spexi, -spectum. Audeo, -ere, ausus sum. Audio, -ire, -ivi, -itum. Au-fero, -ferre, abs-tuli, ablatum.

Compleo, -ere, -evi, -etum. Com-primo (premo), -ere, -pressi,

-pressum. Con-icio(iACio), -ere, -ieci, iectum. Con-scendo (scando), -ere, -scendi

-scensum. Con-sido, -ere, consedi, consessum. Con-sisto, -ere, constiti, constitum. Con-spicio, -ere, -spexi, -spectum. Con-stituo, -ere, -ui, -stitutum. Con-suesco, -ere, -suevi, -suetum. Con-sulo, -ere, consului, -suitum. Con-temno, -ere, -tempsi, -temptum. Con-tendo, ere,-tendi, -tentum. Con-valesco, -ere, -valui. Credo, -ere, -didi, -ditum. Cresco, -ere, crevi, cretum. Cupio, -ere, cupivi, cupitum. Curro, -ere, cucurri, cursum.

Bibo, -ere, bibi.

Cado, -ere, cecidi, casum. Caedo, -ere, cecidi, caesum. Capio, -ere, cepi, captum.

Compounds like accipio. Cedo, -ere, cessi, cessum. Circum-do, dare, -dedi, -datum I Claudo, -ere, clausi, clausum.

Compounds like includo. (^o-gnosco, -ere, -gnovi, -gnitum. (-o-go (ago), -ere, coegi, coactum. Col-ligo (lego), -ere, -legi, -Iectum Com-perio (pario), -ire, compcri,

compcrtum. (om-plector, -i, complexus.

Dedo, -ere, dedidi, deditum. De-icio (iacio), -ere, ieci, -iectum. De-fendo, -ere, -fendi, fensum. Deleo, -ere, delevi, deletum. De-scendo (scando), -ere, -scendi,

-scensum. De-sero, -ere, -serui, -sertum. De-silio (salio), -ire, -ui. De-sino, -ere, desii or desivi, desitum De-sisto, -ere, -stiti, -stitum. De-spicio, -ere, -spexi, -spectum. Dico, -ere, dixi, dictum. Di-gredior (gradior), -i, -gresuss

sum. Di-ligo, -ere, -Icxi, -Iectum.

Cf. deligo (rcg.).

42

HANDBOOK OF LATIN,

Disco, -ere, didici. Divide, ere, divisi, divisum. Do, dare, dedi, datum. Doceo, -ere, docui, doctum. Duco, -ere, duxi, ductum.

E-ligo (lego), -ere, -legi, -lectum. Emo, -ere, emi, emptum. Eo, ire, ivi (ii), itum. Ex-pello, -ere, -puli, -pulsum. Expergiscor, -i, experrectus sum. Ex-perior, -iri, -pertus sum. Ex-stinguo, -ere, stinxi, -stinctum.

Facio, -ere, feci, factum.

Compounds like afificio. Fallo, -ere, fefelli, falsum. Fateor, -eri, fassus sum. Ferio, -ire, percussi, percussum. Fero, ferre, tuli, latum. Figo, -ere, fixi, fixum. Fingo, -ere, finxi, fictum. Fio, fieri, factus sum. Fleo, -ere, flevi, fletum. Fluo, -ere, fiuxi, Frango, -ere, fregi, fractum. Fruor, -i, fructus sum. Fugio, -ere, fugi.

Gaudeo, -ere, gavisus sum. Gero, -ere, gessi, gestum. Gigno, -ere, genui, genitum. Gradior, -i, gressus sum. Compounds like digredior.

lacio, -ere, ieci, iactum.

Compounds like abicio. I-gnosco, -ere, -gnovi, gnotum. In-cendo, -ere, -cendi, -censum.

In-cludo (cLAUDo), -ere, -clusi,

clusum. Intel-lego, -ere, -lexi, -lectum. Inter-imo (emo), -ere, -emi, -emptum. Irascor, -i, -iratus sum. lubeo, -ere, iussi, iussum. lungo, -ere, -iunxi, iunctum.

Labor, -i, lapsus sum. Laedo, -ere, laesi, laesum. Lavo, -are, lavi, lautum. Lego, -ere, legi, lectum. Loquor, -i, locutus sum.

Malo, malle, malui.

Maneo, -ere, mansi, mansum.

Metuo, -ere, metui.

Mico, -are, -ui.

Mitto, -ere, misi, missum.

Morior, mori, mortuus surii (mori-

turus). Moveo, -ere, movi, motum.

Nanciscor, -i, nactiTS. Nascor, -i, natus sum. Neg-lego, -ere, lexi, -lectum. Nolo, nolle, nolui. Nosco, -ere, novi, notum. Nubo, -ere, nupsi, nuptum.

Obliviscor, -i, oblitus sum. Ob-sideo (sedeo), -ere, sedi, sessum. Ob-sto, -stare, stiti (obstaturus). Oc-cido (CADO), -ere, -cidi, -casum. Oc-cido (cAEDo), -ere, -cidi, -cisum. Of-ferre, obtuli, oblatum. Orior, -iri, ortus sum (oriturus). Os-tendo, -ere, -tendi, -tensum.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

43 i

Parco, -ere, peperci. Pasco, -ere, pavi, pastum. Pate-facio, -ere, -feci, -factum. Patior, -i, passus sum. Pello, -ere, pepuli, pulsum. Per-do, -ere, -didi, -ditum. Per-eo, -ire, perii, -itum. Pergo (rego), -ere, perrexi, per-

rectum. Per-petior (patior), -i, perpessus

sum. Peto, -ere, -ivi (-ii), -itum. Pono, -ere, posui, positum. Posco, -ere, poposci. Pos-sum, posse, potui. Premo, -ere, pressi, pressum.

Compounds like comprimo. Pro-do, -ere, -didi, -ditum. Proficiscor, -i, profectus sum.

Quaero, -ere, quaesivi, quaesitum. Queror, queri, questus sum. Quiesco, -ere, quievi, quietum.

Rapio, -ere, rapui, raptum. Compounds like abripio. Re-cumbo, -ere, -cubui. Red-do, -ere, -didi, -ditum. Re-icio (lACio), -ere, -ieci, -iectum. Rc-linquo, -ere, -liqui, -lictum. Rc-perio, -ire, repperi, repertum. Re-sisto, -ere, -stiti, -stitum. Re-spondco,-ere, -spondi, -sponsum. Rideo, -ere, risi, risum. Rumpo, -ere, rupi, ruptum.

Scindo, -ere, scidi, scissum. Scribo, -ere, scripsi, scriptum. Sedeo, -ere, sedi, scssum.

Sentio, -ire, sensi, sensum.

Sequor, -i, secutus sum.

Soleo, -ere, solitus sum.

Solvo, -ere, solvi, solutum.

Statuo, -ere, statui, statutum. Compounds like constituo.

Sto, stare, steti, statum. Compounds like obsto.

Stringo, -ere, strinxi, strictum.

Suadeo, -ere, suasi, suasum.

Sumo (emo), -ere, sumpsi, sumptum.

Surgo (rego), -ere, surrexi, sur- rectum.

Sus-tineo (teneo), -ere, tinui, -ten- turn.

Tango, -ere, tetigi, tactum. Teneo, -ere, tenui, tentum. Compounds, like sustineo. Ting(u)o, -ere, tinxi, tinctum. ToUo, -ere, sustuH, sublatum. Trado, -ere, -didi, ditum. Traho, -ere, traxi, tractum.

Ulciscor, -i, ultus sum. Utor, -i, usus sum.

Veho, -ere, vexi, vectum. Velio, -ere, velli, vulsum. Ven-do, -ere, -didi, -ditum. Venio, -ire, veni, ventum. Verto, -ere, verti, versum. Veto, -are, vetui, vetitum. Video, -ere, vidi, visum. Vincio, -ire, vinxi, vinctum. Vinco, -ere, vici, victum. Vise, -ere, visi, visum. Vivo, -ere, vixi, victum. Volo, velle, volui. Voveo, -ere, vovi, votum.

44 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

XVII. THE PREPOSITION.

Prepositions in Latin govern (with very few exceptions) either the accusative or the ablative, or both.

Prepositions with Accusative and Ablative.

In, sub (subter), and super.

Thus: In urbe, in the city (rest); in urhem, into the city (motion).

Sub muro, under the wall; sub murum, up under the wall. Super eo

pendet, it hangs over him; super eum volat, it flies over him (motion).

Prepositions with the Ablative. A (or ab), from, by; coram, in presence of; cum, with; de, from^ concerning; e (ex), out of; prae, in consequence of; pro, on behalf of; sine, without; tenus, up to (written after its case).

Prepositions with the Accusative. Ad, towards; adversus, against; ante, before; apud, beside; circum, (or circa), round; cis (or citra), on this side of; trans, across; contra, against; erga, towards; extra, outside of; inter, among; infra, below; intra, within; iuxta, near; ob, on account of; penes, in the power of; per, through; post, behind; praeter, past; prope, near to; propter, close to, on account of; secundum, along, behind; versus, towards (written after its case); ultra, beyond.

Translate into Latin :

I. Next day he descends from the mountain and pitches his camp beside the river. 2. Oh! that he had not led us towards Rome. 3. This done, he threw himself upon his sword. 4. Are we never to know in whose hands the decision rests? 5. Tell me when you intend to speak to him about it. 6. Do not speak in his behalf. 7. You will have the greatest influence with him. 8. They halted when they came within the cast of a spear. 9. Is there not a race that dwells beneath the earth? 10. After so many battles we are tired of war. 1 1 . You have come here after the manner of {in modum) fugitives. 12. In whose hands does the power lie?

13. It is a scandalous thing to take money for {ob) giving a verdict.

14. Do you think they love each other? {use inter se).

PART II.

LATIN SYNTAX.

PART II. LATIN SYNTAX.

§ 1. NOMINATIVE. ACCUSATIVE. VOCATIVE.

1. Some verbs like dicor (/ am said), videor {I seem), putor (/ am thought) and trador or feror (/ am said), prefer the personal to the English impersonal use: as,

Dicitur ille rex fuisse. It is said that he was king (lit., he is said to have been king).

Traditur Homerus caecus/fffis^e. //, is related that Homer was blind. J "^ ' '

Note. — The Nom. and not the Ace. is then used with the Inf.

2. Many verbs in Latin — and especially verbs of motion — prefer an impersonal passive use to the English personal use in the active: as.

Ad aedercLyentum est. They came to the temple (lit., it was come).

The English subject is then often expressed by a (or ab) with the Abl.:as,

Ab omnibus ambulatum est. Everybody walked.

Note. — This form is found in the Put. Inf. Pass.: as,Dicit urbem captum iri. He says that the city will be taken "(lit., that it is gone to laKe the city. Captum, supine).

3- Verbs that govern the Pat, are used impersonally in the Pass»> the Nom. in English JbeG4miifl^-tlia.r)at. in Latin: as,

Tibi credo. / believe you- But, Tibi creditur. You are believed (lit., it is believed to you).

Gloriae tuae invidetur.' Your glory is envied.

4. Verbs meaning to ask, teach, conceal, govern two accusatives, one of the person, another of the thing: as.

Me primum sententiam rogavit.'* He asked me my opinion first.

Quis te musicam docuit? Who taught you music ?

Nihil nos ceiat. He conceals nothing fro. n us.

When used passively, the Ace. of the person becomes the subject, and the Ace. of the thing is retained: as,

Filius musicam A_patre doctus est. The son was taught music by the father.

48 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Note. — Peto and quaero (/ ask) and postulo (/ demand) are followed by a (or ab) : as,

Pacem a Romanis petunt. They are asking peace from the Romans.

Causam a viro quaesivit. He asked the man for a reason {lit., from the man).

Librum ab amico postulavit. He demanded a book from his friend.

5. Verbs like cj:eo_an^Ja£io {elect), a2££llo {call), habeQ and duco {regard) take two Aces, in the Act. : as,

Eum consulem faciunt. They are electing him consul. Nos fratres app'eliavit. He called us brothers.

In the Pass., of course, both Aces, become Norn.: as. Is consul creatus est. He was elected consul.

6. The Ace. is used without a preposition to express duration of time: as,

Multos annos iam regnat: He has been reigning now for many years. Note. — The Pres. is used for the English Perf. with adverbs of time extending up to the present.

7. The Ace. is used to express the limit of motion with the names of towns or smalL islands : as, Roman rediit. He has returned to Rome.

Note. — Ad Roman would mean "to the neighborhood of Rome" With other nouns, a preposition is required: as, Abiit ad forum. He went off to the forum. In Africam venit. He came to Africa.

8. The Ace. (called the Ace 01 Exclamation) is often used to express indignation or surprise: as, O me miserum. Wretched man that I am!

9. The vocative is not, as a usual thing, preceded by O: as, Mihi crede, M. Antoni. Believe me, Mark Antony.

The vocative is used for the Nom. in, Macte virtute esto. A blessing on your valor { = be increased in valor).

Exercise I. I. Experience will teach you many things. 2. We will ask two magistrates from the "people. . 3. He will soon be made consul. 4. Only fools are fortunate. 5. They can teach us nothing. 6. It is said, Quirites, that the bravest have all been killed. 7. It seemed that all the cities had fought against us. 8. It seemed to many of us that the man was wise. 9. They can not be trusted or believed

GENITIVE, POSSESSIVE AND PARTITIVE. 49

lo. What can not be cured, we will endure, ii. You will all be answered soon. 12. They will never make him first magistrate againr '"I5. It ,was believed that he had suddenly crossed the river with all his army. 14. What an insulting (contumeliosus) honor!

§ 2. GENITIVE. POSSESSIVE AND PARTITIVE GEN., GEN. OF QUALITY, GEN. OF PRICE.

1. The genitive usually stands before the noun it governs and, if there is an Adj. with the noun, the Gen. stands between the two in order to give compactness to the phrase: as, Pulchra regis filia. The beautiful daughter of the king.

The Gen. is often used for an English Adj.: as, Corporis robur, bodily strength; regis exercitus, the royal army.

Note. — In phrases like ad Vestae {to the temple of Vesta), ad Apollinis {to the temple of Apollo), the governing noun templum or aedem is understood.

2. The Gen. is used with the verb esse, to be, in the sense of to belong to: as.

Hie versus Plauti non est. This verse is not Plautus's.

Summae est dementiae. // is the height of madness.

This Gen. may often be translated by a noun like part, mark, characteristic, duty, etc. : as,

Stulti est in errore perseverare. It is the mark of a fool to persist in error.

Note. — The possessive pronoun is used, however, instead of the Gen. of the personal: as, Tuum est parere: // is your business to obey inot tui est).

3. The Gen. denotes, as in English, the whole of which a part is taken: as.

Magna exercitus pars. A great part of the army.

This is called the partitive Gen. and is very widely used.

The governing worcT usually expresses number or amount: as,

Multi vestfum. Many of you. Quid novi? What news? (lit., what of new?)

It is common after satis {enough), nimisv(/oo much), parum {loo little), nihil {none), aliquid {some), tantum {so much), quantum {how much) : as,

^^'

50 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum. Enough eloquence, too little wisdom.

It is also found after adverbs of place: as,

Ubi gentium? Where in the world?

Eo stultitiae venit. He has rea-ched such a pitch of folly (lit., come thither of folly).

Note. — Nostrum and vestrum (not nostri and vestri) are used with partitives for of us and of you: as, Uterque nostrum. Each of us two. But, Memor nostri fuit, he was mindful of us.

4. The partitive Gen. must not, be used in the following cases:

(a) To express the English of, where there is no partition implied: as, Nos omnes, all of us,; tota Asia, the whole of Asia; nos trecenti venimus, three hundred of us have come.

(b) With an Adj. of the III Decl. as, Nihil turpe, nothing base (not turpis.)

(c) After a preposition: as. Ad multam noctem, to a late hour of the night (not ad multum). ^ ,

(d) If the governing word is in any case but the Nom. or Ace: as, Tanta pecunia, at so much money (not tanto pecuniae).

{e) After words like top, bottom, middle, etc., which are expressed by Adjs. in agreement: as, E summo monte, from the top of the hill; medio in foro, in the middle of the forum; ad imam quercum, to the foot of the oak;, reliquae copiae, the rest of the forces; primum ver, the he- ginning of spring; in extremo libro, at the end of the book.

5. A noun in the Gen. is added to another to express a. _g^alitv : as, Vir summi ingenii, a man of the highest ability,

The Abl. is much more commonly used, however, to express a quality, the Gen. denoting rather permanent qualities, the Abl. external and accidental ones: as, Vir longis cruribus, a man with long legs.

Quantity and amount are expressed by this Gen.: as, Agger viginti pedum, a mound of twenty feet high; puer decern annorum, a boy of ten years.

Neither the Gen. nor the Abl. of quality can be used without an Adj. Thus: A man of courage, vir fortis (or vir summae fortitudinis, not vir fortitudinis.)

Note. — The Adj. is usually magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, eius.

GENITIVE, POSSESSIVE AND PARTITIVE. 51

6. The price at which a thing is bought, sold or valued is expressed by the Gen., when the price is stated indefinitely: as, Magni, at a great price; parvi, at a small price; tanti, at so great a price; quanti, at how great a price; pluris, at a greater price; minoris, at a less price; maximi or plurimi, at the greatest price; minimi, at the least price.

Thus: Quanti id vendit? At what price does he sell it?

Minoris decumae venierunt. The tithes sold at a lower figure [veneo, to he sold, from venum, sale + eo, to go].

Note. — When the price is definitely stated it is expressed by the Abl.: as. Emit domum duobus talentis et pluris. i?e bought a house at two talents and more.

Exercise 2. I. This man was the bravest of all the soldiers. 2. It is the part of a good judge to obey the laws. 3. Two altars have been built in the middle of the city. 4. All of these cities will soon be taken by them. 5. The rich never seem to themselves to have too much money. 6. How much glory you have lost! 7. You can see stars from the bottom of a well. 8. They came at last to the top of the mountain. 9. There is much good and nothing mean in the man. 10. How much pleasure you will receive! 11. It is the~duT;y of child- ren to obey their parents. 12. This house belonged to the noblesf of the citizen's! 13. He has taught you, citizens, no good as yet. 14. Nothing human is alien to him. 15. It was my business to teach them" something n"few. 16. Men of genius are rare. 17. At what price will the ship be sold? 18. TTTis cit^ has always been most eager for revolution. 19. A useless thing is dear at a centl^(asj assis.) 0iifils\

§3. GENITIVE CONTINUED. GEN. WITH ADJS. AND

VERBS.

I. Adjs. that express plenty and want or contain a verbal notion are followed by the Gen: as,

Plenus avium, full of birds; paticns laboris, capable of labor; cupi- dus contentionis, desirous of strife; spei egcnus, destitute of hope.

Note I. — A Prcs. Part., when it loses all idea of time and simply expresses a quality, governs the (ien.: as, Amans patriae, devoted to his country; appetens gloriae, desirous of glory.

52 HANDBOOK OF LATI

/

. It is in that case compared like an ordinary Adj.

Note 2. — Similis {like), dissimilis {unlike), and proprius {peculiar to), are followed by the Gen. and (more rarely) the Dat.: as, Similis sui, like himself; virorum proprium, peculiar to men.

2. Verbs meaning to accuse, condemn, and acquit, take the Ace. of the person and the Gen, of the thing: as,

Accusat me furti. He accuses me of theft.

Repetundarum damnatus est. He was condemned for extortion (lit., things that should he recovered; supply rerum).

Sacrilegii absoluta est. She was acquitted of sacrilege.

Note. — The punishment, after such verbs as the above, is ex- pressed by the Gen. or (more commonly) the Abl.: as, Morte dam- natus est. He was condemned to death. Capitis (or capite) damnatus est. He was capitally condemned (caput, a man's political rights).

3. Verbs meaning to remind, remember, forget, or pity, take the Gen.:as,

Me beneficii sui admonebat. He reminded me of his kindness.

Note. — Admoneo may also take the Ace. of a neuter pronoun: as, Hoc nos admonet. He reminds us of this.

Huius diei semper meminero. / shall always remember this day. Officii ne obliviscaris. Do not forget your duty.

Miserere nostri. Pity us.

Note I. — Instead of memini, / remember, the phrase Mihi in mentem venit {it comes iMo my mind), may be used with the Gen. : as, Mihi in mentem venit eius diei. / recollect that day.

Note 2. — Miser-eor, -eri, -tus (or -itus) sum is / pity; but miseror, -ari, -atus sum, I deplore, bewail: as, Casum nostrum miseratur, he bewails our misfortune.

4. The five following impersonal verbs, expressing emotion, take the accusative of the person feeling, and the Gen. of the source of the emotion: as,

Miseret me tui. / pity you (lit., it fills me with pity for you).

Me non solum poenitet stultitiae sed etiam pudet. / am not only sorry for my folly but even ashamed of it.

Me fratris et piget et taedet. / am annoyed at and disgusted with my brother.

GENITIVE WITH ADJS. AND VERBS. 53

Note. — These verbs respectively express to fill with pity, annoy- ance, sorrow, shame, or disgust. They are all transitive. Thus: Eum facti nee poenitet nee pudet. He feels neither remorse nor shame for his act.

5. With interest and refert, it is of importance to, it concerns, iPthe person to whom it is of importance is expressed by a noun, the Gen. of the noun is used; if by a personal pronoun, the Abl. Sing. Fern, of the corresponding -possessive Adj.: as,

Multum regis interest. It is of much importance to the king. But: Mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, interest. It concerns me, you &c.

6. Interest and refert may have as subject an Inf., an ut-clause, a pronoun, or an indirect question: as,

Omnium interest bene vivere. It is for the interest of all to live well.

Multum interest ut copiae nostrae conveniant. // is of much importance that our forces should assemble.

Non possum dicere quantum id intersit. / can not say how important it is.

Nihil interest quot sitis. It makes no difference how many you are.

Exercise 3. I. It is the part of a fool to see the faults of others and forget his own. 2. I am sorry to have wounded ([offendoj. your feelings (ani- mus). 3. He used to say that it was not of so much importance to himself as to the country (res puhlica). 4. It is of great importance to all that the worst citizens should not elect the magistrates (use I'^f-)' 5- It ?s the proof of a good man to remember the poor. 6. Everyone is tired of this war. 7. It is the mark of a mean mind to love wealth. 8. They will soon be' sorry for their fault. 9. It is of the utmost importance not only to us but to you. 10. T^veryone will remind you of your fault. 1 1 . Snakes of great size can be found in the island. 12. It was of great importance to have a wise king. 13. Then at length we came to the temple of Apollo.

§ 4. INDIRECT NARRATION. ACC. WITH INF.

I. Verbs like / say (dico) and / think (puto) are followed in English by a /^a/-clause and in Latin by an Inf.: as,

Dicit vitam esse brevem. He says that life is short.

54 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Dixit vitam esse brevem. He said that life was short.

The part of the sentence dependent upon the verb of saying or thinking is said to be in indirect narration.

The "direct" form would be: Vita brevis est, life is short and it should be noticed that the tense of the main verb of the "direct" does not change, as in English, after a past tense, in Latin "indirect."

The subject of the Inf. is in the Ace. and the two together are called the Ace. with the Inf.

2. The following are examples of

Ace. WITH Inf.

Dicit eam scribere. He says that she is writing (direct: ea scribil , she is writing) .

Dicit eam scripturam esse. He says that she will write (direct: en scribet, she will write.)

Dicit eam scripsisse (heri). He says that she wrote (yesterday) (direct: ea scripsit heri, she wrote yesterday).

Dixit eam scribere. He said that she was writing (direct: ea scribit,. she is writing.)

Dixit eam scripturam esse. He said that she would write (direct r ea scribet, she will write.) " '■■■

Dixit eam scripsisse (heri). He said that she wrote (yesterday) (direct: ea scripsit heri, she wrote yesterday).

N.B. — The tense of the Inf. in Latin "indirect" is in every case the tense of the main verb in the direct.

3. The verbs of subordinate clauses are in the subjunctive in in- direct narration: as,

Dicit anulum, quem gerat, se sua manu fecisse. He says that he made with his own hand the ring he is wearing.

4. To express he, she, they, referring to the subject of the verb of saying or thinking, se is used, and suus to express his, her, or their: as, . Dicit earn sibi scribere. He says that she is writing to him.

Dixit si^suo iure usurum. He said that he would exercise his right. Negat se patrem eorum occidisse. He denies that he killed their father.

Exercise 4. I. They think that an opportunity is given to all. 2. They thought that an opportunity was given to all. 3. They say that an

*^n,

THE DATIVE ^ 55

. V^ . . ^

opportunity has been given. 4, They said that an opportunity ^jt" had been given. 5. They thought that this man's merit was very t"^ « great. 6. He said that office was always open in, this city to the -^^ best men. y^.They think they are the best.ff'o. I say that he is ading. 9^ said that he was reading. 10 He knew that this country was cold in winter and ho^in summer, ii. He thought ^

that it was base to lie. 12. He knew that the^days were longer here b^ . < . J^han with (apud) you. 13. He believed that the soul was immortal. Sj*^ ^» Hi*!^. All expected that he would attack'the city. 15. They knew thati^/vV* (T the multitude of the stars was great. *

§ 5. THE DATIVE.

1. The dative, as a rule, corresponds to the English to or for: as, Modum pone irae. Set a limit to anger.

Non mihi sed meis. Not for myself but for my friends. D^ mihi aliquid. Give me something (mihi, indirect obj.)

2. The Dat. is used with sum, / am, in the sense of to belong to, to have: as.

Est tibi liber. You have a book. Est tibi nomen Marcus. Your name is Marcus. Note. — Instead of the Nom. in the last example, the Dat. (Marco) or the Gen. (Marci) may be used.

3. The Dat. is used for the English from, after verbs meaning to take away : as,

Eam morti eripuit. He snatched her from death.

4. The Dat. is often used where we should expect a Gen.: as, Pompeio ad pedes se proiecere. They threw themselves at Pompey's

feet.

5. The Dat. is added to certain verbs (especially ^m, do, habeo, venio, mitto) to express the purpose or design of the action of the verb: asT^

Cui bono est? To whom is it useful? (lit., /or a good). Hoc mihi culpae dedit. He set this down to me as a fault. Nobis auxilio venient. They will come to our aid (lit., for an aid to us).

This is called the DaL^ of purpose, d. of service, or d. of work done.

6. Adjs. and adverbs followed by to or for in English, arc iisiialK followed by the Dat. in Latin: as,

Utilis rei publicac. Useful to the country.

3

56 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Tibi facile, nobis difficile. Easy for you, difficult for us.

Patri similis. Like his father.

Note. — But with names of persons, similis tends to take the Gen

Locus urbi propinquus. A place near the city.

Convenienter naturae vivit. He lives agreeably to nature. .».

Note. — Propior (nearer), and proximus (nearest) ,oiten take the Acc.;-prope, propius, proxime, always: as, Prope te sedet, he is sitting near you.

Adj s. expressing j^/we55 are followed by ad (with Ace.) rather than by a Dat. : as, Ad bellum gerendum aptus, fit for carrying on war. So too, natus (born), pa'ratus (ready) and rudis (inexperienced).

Many Adjs. are followed by in, erga, or adversus, for the English to: as, Acer in hostem, benignus erga amicos, fierce to the enemy, kind to friends.

Exercise 5.

I. He will pay you the money. 2. They say that he is most un- like himself. V3. He used to say that the sea was a destruction to sailors. 4. Remain here for a protection to this city. 5. Their march was more like a rout. 6. You will not be able to take credit (laus) away frolii him. 7. 'You will be a protection to us with your fleet. \8. I will give him as much credit as is due to a man so brave. 9. It is not in keeping with your moderation (§2, 2) to ask too much of us. 10. They^ll^ere all most friendly to us. 11. These men seemed like gods to the barbarians. 12. He told them that he was ashamed of himself. 13. It is very difficult for us'fo'go to the city. 14." None of us will ever forget his native land. 15. It is the part of ^■■^ . a good man to pity the poor. 16. He had come into the sight of the ^ I enemy (Dat.) 17. They have given him the name of "crazy"

(insanus). 18. He saidtTiatthe woman would be condemned. 19. It is the proof of a good man to obey the laws.

§ 6. DATIVE WITH VERBS.

I. Sum, I am, and its compounds (except possum, I am able) are followed by the Dat.: as. Est mihi liber. / have a book.

Amici non tibi desunt. Friends are not lacking to you. Proelio interfuit. He took part in the battle.

i

DATIVE WITH VERBS. 57

2. Most impersonal verbs are followed by the Dat.: as, Mihi licet et expedit. It is allowed me and expedient for me.

So too: Libet {it pleases), accidit and contingit {it happens), liquet {it is clear), convenit {it is agreed upon).

3. Verbs compounded with male, or satis, are followed by a Dat.: as,

Optimo viro maledixit. He reviled a most excellent man. Mihi nunquam satisfecit. He never satisfied me.

4. Transitive verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante con (for cum), in, inter, ob {on, against), post, prae {before), sub {under), or super {above), often govern an Ace. of the direct and a Dat. of the indirect object: as,

Populus Romanus bellum Gallis intulit. The Roman people made war on the Gauls.

Note. — In the Pass, the direct object of the Act. becomes the subject, while the indirect object is still retained: as, Bellum Gallis a populo Romano illatum est. War was made on the Gauls by the Roman people.

5. Intransitive verbs compounded with the above-mentioned pre- positions, often govern the Dat. : as,

Caesar exercitui praefuit. Caesar commanded the army. Consiliis consulis obstat. He opposes the plans of the consul.

6. The following is a useful list of verbs (other than those mention- ed) that govern the'Dat.

Credo, believe. Subvenio, aid.

Fido and Ignosco, pardon.

Confido, trust {in a person). Servio, serve.

Faveo, favor. I nv'ideo, envy.

Pareo, obey. Indulgco, indulge.

Nubo, wed (of a woman). Placeo, please.

Studeo, am zealous. Displiceo, displease.

< )bsto, stand in the way Repugno, oppose. Impero, command. ^Immineo, threaten. Suadi'.o, recommend. w Occurro, meet.

Persuadeo, persuade. Resisto, resist.

Irascor, am angry. Noceo, hurt,

I'empero, set bounds to, Medeor, heal.

58 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

7. The following verbs differ in meaning according as they govern the Dat. or Ace:

Consulere aUquem. Consult a person. Consulere aljcui. Consult a person's interest. Prospicere auquid. Foresee something. Prospicere alicui. Provide for some one. Cavere (aUquem). Be on one's guard against. Cavere (alicui). Consult interest of . Moderari (aliquem). Govern {some one). Moderari (alicui rei). Set limits to {some thing).

8. The verbs \(dp no {give) and circumdo {surround) have a double construction. Thus:

He surrounds the city with a wall. Urbem muro (abl.) circumdat, or Urbi murum circumdat.

They give him a crown. Eum corona (abl.) donant, or Ei (dat.) coronam donant.

9. The following are idiomatic uses of the Dat. with verbs: Mortem alicui minari. To threaten a person with death. Pecuniam alicui imperare. To demand money from a person. Aliquid alicui probare. Justify a thing to a person.

Aliquid alicui suppeditare. To supply one with something. Hunc tibi antepono. / prefer this man to you.

Hunc tibi posthabeo. / prefer you to this man (lit., / reckon this man after you).

10. Verbs that govern a Dat. can not be used personally in the passive; they are still joined with a Dat. and used impersonally: as,

Nemini a te invidetur. No one is envied by you. Dicit divitibus invideri. He says that the rich are envied (lit., that it is envied to the rich.)

Ne illi quidem nocetur. Not even he is injured.

Exercise 6. '

I. He fears for the safety of the country. 2. Everytnmg threatens us with death. 3. He used to say that everything threatened us with death. 4. My consulship did not please Antonius. ' 5. It is not a mark of wisdom for a man to revile men f^Inf.% 6". } will recommend that most excellent course \,res)) to him. 7. They could not be angry with those whom they love. 8. He says that he will

THE ABLATIVE. 59

consult US. 9. He cannot always consult his own interest. 10. He will prefer the safety of the country to everything. 11. No one was spared. 12, I believe that money has been demanded from almost (paene) all the states. 13. What pleases you, you do.

14. You Witr Take away the power from the best of the citizens.

15. This peace will satisfy no one. 16. We cannot prefer him to you. 1 7. The idle man will spme day repent of his idleness,

§ 7. THE ABLATIVE.

1. The Abl. without a preposition expresses motion from when joined with the name of a town or small island, or with domus or rus: as, Roma profectus, having set out from Rome. Domo, rure exiit, he set out from home, from the country.

In other cases, the preposition (a, or de) is usually expressed after Vbs. of motion, unless the motion is figurative: as,

De oppidis migrant. They are migrating from the towns.

Ab Italia decessit. He departed from Italy.

But (of figurative motion) : Oppugnatione desistunt, they desist from the attack; bello abstinuit, he abstained from war; civitatem dominatu liberavit, he delivered the country from despotism.

This is called the Ahl. of Separation.

2. The Abl. without a preposition is used after Adjs. meaning free from, in want of, sprung from (unless of remote origin): as, Cura vacuus, free from care; parentibus orbus, bereft of parents; consulari familia oxtJi§, sprung from a consular family.

But, Plerique Belgae sunt orti ab Germanis. Most of the Belgae are descended from the Germans.

3. The Abl. is used to expres cause, manner, means or instrument: as, Eum, gladio interfecit. He killed him with a sword.

Summa celeritate venient. They will come with the utmost speed, Neglegentia punitur. He is punished for carelessness. Note I. — The agent after a passive verb, is usually expressed by a (or ab) with the Abl. — ab before vowels and consonants, a before consonants only: as, Ab illis deserti sumus, we have been deserted by them; a (or ab) Caesare interfectus, killed by Caesar. A secondary agent (one through whose instrumentality a thing is done) is express- ed by per (with ace.) : as, Omnia haec per tc facta sunt. All this was done through your instrumentality .

7

60 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Note 2. — Unless to express a mental state, the Abl. of cause is not common. Cause is usually expressed by ob or propter (with Ace), on account of; by causa or gratia (with Gen.), for the sake of; and, of a negative cause, by prae (with abl.): as, Beatiores sunt propter illam scientiam,i^e3' are happier by reason of that knowledge; hoc rei publicae causa facit, he does it for the public interest; prae lacrimis loqui non potuit, he could not speak for tears.

Note 3. — The Abl. of manner is not used unless there is an Adj. with the noun; otherwise the preposition cum (with Abl.) is to be used: as, Hoc summa diligentia feci, / did it with the greatest care. But, Hoc cum diligentia feci, / did it with cart.

With the following very common nouns, cum may be omitted: Consilio {from design), casu (by chance), iure (rightly), iniuria (wrong- ly), iussu (at the command of), iniussu (without the command of).

Note 4. — The Abl. of manner is also used to specify that in respect to which a statement is true: as. Homines non re sed nomine, men not in fact but in name.

This is called the Abl. of respect or specification.

4. The Abl. is used to express military accompaniment or attendant circumstance: as.

Hoc praesidio profectus est. With this force he set out (only when with an Adj.)

Veneremur deos pura mente. Let us worship the gods with a pure heart.

In other cases With, when it meSins, together with, is cum (H-Abl.): as,

Cum fratre veni. / came with my brother. Cum febri, with a fever; cum telo, with a weapon.

Note. — Cum, when used with a personal or relative pronoun, is written afteritscase: as, Paxvobiscum, /^mcg be with you. Quicum is often written for quocum.

Exercise 7.

I. The letter was heard with great satisfaction. 2. He won the goodwill of all by his character. 3. He was killed by his own soldiers.

4. All have perished either (aut) by the sword or by pestilence.

5. I will say, with your permission (pace) that he acted with honesty.

6. He will come to our aid with a large army. 7. Born of^e nobl-

ABL. OF COMPARISON. 61

est parents, he did not abstain from crime. 8. I have heard that he behaved (se gero) with the greatest kindness (benevolentia) . 9. They could not hear him by reason of the clamor. 10. They say that he has been banished from Thebes (Thebae). 1 1. I regret that he could depart from Athens (Athenae) with resignation. 12. Some day they will be sorry for this thing. 13. All commero^ (mercatura) was exempt from taxation (vectigalia). 14. Freed from this fear, he will depart from Italy in peace. 15. He set out by ship (/>/.) from Brundisium.

§ 8. ABL. OF COMPARISON. ABL. OF DIFFERENCE. ABL. OF PRICE. ABL. OF TIME.

1. Instead of quam (than) after a comparative the Abl. is fre- quently found: as, Patre meliorest, He is better than his father.

Note. — With a Rel. pronoun, the Abl. must be used and not quam : as, Punicum bellum quo nullum maLJJLis fuit. The Punic War than which none was greater.

2. Plus and amplius (more) and minus (less), when joined with numerals, are indeclinable and do not afifect the case of the word to which they are joined: as.

Plus quingenti capti sunt. More than five hundred were taken.

Minus septingentos occiderunt. They killed less than seven hun- dred.

Plus tertia parte interfecta, se receperunt. More than a third part being slain, they retreated.

Plus annum tecum vixit. He lived with you more than a year.

Here the case following the comparative is the same as if no com- parision were instituted.

3. Comparatives are often joined with spe, opinione, exspectatione, iusto or aequo (right) solito (usual) : as,

Serius spe omnium. Later than all hoped.

Celerius opinione venit. He came sooner than was expected.

Plus aequo. More than right.

4. An Abl. is added to comparatives to define the Degree of difference as,

Multo me senior. Much older than I (lit., by much). So too paulo ante, a little before; paulo post , a little later.

62 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

5. The English the. . . .the with two comparatives (Anglo Saxon instrumental case, .by that. . . .by that) is expressed by quanto. . . . tanto (by how much. . . .by so much) or quo. . . .eo (by what. . . .by that), with two comparatives: as, Quo quis melior est, eo beatior, the better one is, the happier he is.

6. Price, when stated T^efinitely and in a few words like pretio, (at a price), auro (for gold), is expressed by the Abl. : as,

Unam orationem viginti talentis vendidit. He sold one oration for twenty talents.

So too, Religionem pecunia mutavit. He changed his religion for money.

7. Time at which (time when), and time within which, are ex- pressed by the Abl. without a preposition: as,

Hora sexta. at the sixth hour. Vere et aestate, in spring and summer.

Paucis diebus, within a few days.

Note I. — The preposition in (with the Abl.) is used of time to express emphasis: as, In tempore, at the right moment; in aetata provecta, in spite of advanced age.

Note 2 — Words that do not strictly denote time, require a prepo- sition: as, In bello, in the war. But when an Adj. is added, the prepo- sition is omitted: as, Bello Punico, in the Punic war.

8. The Abl., like the Gen., is used to express a quality: as, Vir summa virtute, a man of the highest courage.

It is never used without an Adj. Thus A man of courage is Vir virtute praeditus or vir fortis. ^

9. The case absolute is in Latirf the Abl. and not, as in English, the Nom:. as,

Urbe capta, copias reduxit. The city taken, he led back his forces.

Exercise 8. I. She sold her husband's (vir) life for gold. 2. Your house is larger than oura,. 3. He is braver than I. 4. He used to say that nothing was sweeter than the light of truth. 5. He could have been much happier than he was. 6. He has bought immortality with death. 7. The Sun is many times (use pars) larger than the Earth. 8. On the same night, on which Alexander was boifc, the temple' of Diana was burnt. 9. They will destroy (everto) thaMcity within the next (hie) three years. \ 10. They always built ships ^J:ime of peace.

C

ABL. OF PLACE. LOCATIVE. 63

II. The more you have, the better. 12. I believe that in appearance {species) the city is free. 13. He is an old man in body; he will never become old in mind. 14. They came here at night; at dawn they departed. »^I5. He said that he would send the money within a few days. 16. The war finished {Abl. abs.), I will return home.

§ 9. ABL. OF PLACE. LOCATIVE.

1. At a place (place where) was originally expressed by a separate case in -i (pi. -is). This case is called the Locative; it is seen in: Domi {at home), ruri {in the country), humi {on the ground).

2. To express at or in a place, when the noun is the name of a town or small island, the locative takes the following forms: If the noun was of the I or H Decl. Sing., the Locative takes the form of the Gen.; if not, of the Abl.: as,

Romae {at Rome), Rhodi {at Rhodes), Tibure {at Tihur) , \t\\ems ■{at Athens.)

3. To express at or in a place, when the noun is not the name of a town or small island, in with the Abl. is used: as.

In urbe. In the city. In Italia. In Italy.

But, if there is an Adj. with the noun, the preposition is often omitted: as,

Media urbe, in the middle of the city. Tota Italia, in the whole of Italy.

4. An Adj. cannot be joined to a noun in the locative case. Thus: Tota Corintho (not totius Corinthi), in the whole of Corinth.

The possessive Adj. may however be added to domi: as,

Domi meae. In my house. But, Vetere domo, in the old house. So too, Domum meam,/owj house; but Ad veterem domum, to the old home.

5. For phrases like In the city of Rome, the preposition is required: as.

In urbe Athenis diu domicilium habebat. He lived long in the city of Athens.

Antiochiae, in urbe opulcntissima, moratus est. Ifr delayed in the wealthy city of Antioch.

So too: Ab Italia domo iit. He luent from his home in J In >

64 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Ad urbem Romam legati missi sunt. Ambassadors were sent to- the city of Rome.

Rhodum ad patrem venit. He came to his father at Rhodes.

6. Motion along is expressed by the Abl. : as,

Ibam forte Via Sacra. / chanced to be going along the Via Sacra.

A Table of the common uses of the Abl. is appended.

Common Uses of the Abl.

I. Abl. of Separation. Metu liberatus, freed from fear (figur- ative). Roma profectus, having set out from Rome. ^f "2. Abl. of Instrument. Gladiointedectus, killed with the sword. I ,.• 3. Abl. of Manner. Summa diligentia, with the utmost care,

^ (not often used without an Adj.; cum

celeritate, with speed.)

4. Abl. of Specification. Homines non re sed nomine, men

not in fact but in name.

5. Abl. of Cause. Timore concidit, ^e co//a/)5e(i /row /mr (prep.

ob or propter more common).

6. Abl. of Degree of Difference. Anno senior, older by a

year.

7. Abl. of Quality. Vir summo ingenio, a man of the highest

ability (always with an Adj.).

8. Abl. of Price. Regna vendit pecunia, he sells kingdoms for

money.

9. Abl. of Comparison. Nihil est melius virtute, nothing is

better than virtue (always when with a Rel.). ID. Abl. of Place. Media urbe, in the middle of the city (usually with an Adj.

11. Abl. of Time. Postero die abiit, next day he went off. His-

decem diebus, within the last ten days.

12. Abl. of Attendant Circumstance. His ominibus proficis-

cere. set out with these omens.

13. Abl. Absolute. Deo volente, God willing.

ablative with verbs and adjectives. 65

Exercise 9.

I. He will spend (ago) his life in this city. 2. They said that he would soon come to Italy. 3. He preferred to live at Rhodes. 4. What place in the whole sea was safe? 5. The army will set out for its winter-quarters in Gaul. 6; He said that you would never remain in his house. 7. He lived at first at Carthage and afterwards at Athens. 8. You will not find braver men than these in the whole of Italy. 9. He has come here from the camp at Aricia. 10. I believe that he has studied in the learned city of Athens. 11. He was a man of great strength. 12. He set out from Rome where he had dwelt in the middle of the city. 13. Freed from the fear of war, the nation was able to drive all bad citizens from its borders. 14. He was thrown into prison by the tribune where he soon died of hunger. 15. Many things are more useful than money. 16. I do not think this thing dear at ten cents (as, assis).

§ 10. ABLATIVE WITH VERBS AND ADJECTIVES.

1. The verbs utor (use), fruor (enjoy), fungor (perform), potior (get possession of), vescor (feed on), dignor (deem worthy,) govern the Abl.: as,

Viribus male utuntur. They make a bad use of their strength. Urbe potitus est. He got possession of the city. Note. — Potior often governs the Gen.: as, Rerum potitus, when master of affairs.

2. Careo (be without), egeo and indigeo (need),3.\so govern the Abl. : as,

Sensu caret, he is devoid of feeling. Pane eget, he is in need of bread.

Note. — Egeo and indigeo (need) , govern also a Gen.: as, Pecuniae indiget, he is in need of money.

3. Opus est and usus est (there is need), take a Dat. of the person to whom and the Abl. of the thing: as,

Quid tibi opus est verbis? What need have you of words? So: Opus est consulto, properato. There is need of deliberation, haste.

4. The following verbs are also followed by an Abl.: Fido and con- fide (rely on); glorior (boast of), dolco (feel grief at), gaudeo (delight in): as.

66 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Natura loci confidit. He relies on the nature of the ground.

Casu meo gaudent. TheUfeel joy at my disaster.

Note I. — These verbs may also take a neuter pronoun in the Ace: as, Hoc gloriatur, he makes this boast.

Note 2, — Fido and confido take the Dat. of the person, but the Abl. of the thing: as, Non tibi sed exercitu meo confido, / do not trust in you but in my ar?ny.

5. The Abl. is used after the Adjs. dignus (worthy of), indignus (unworthy of), fretus (relying on) , praed'itus (endowed with), conten- tus (content with) and plenus (full of): as.

Poena dignus, worthy of punishment. Fretus praesidio tuo, relying on your protection. Virtute praeditus, endowed with cour- age. Plenus ira (or irae), full of anger.

Exercise 10.

I. He has filled the world with good things. 2 You do not know how to use a victory. 3. 1 shall perform an idle (vanus) office. 4. They used to live on milk. 5. I believe that he performed the duties of his office with fidelity and courage. 6. They are now without bread. 7. Use your opportunities and you will soon be worthy of honor. 8. I was considered (/^a&eo) more like him than you are. 9. They hope to make themselves masters of the whole of Gaul (Gen.). 10. He will take the city at the first onslaught. 11. In this way (modus) he will show that he is braver than they. 12. A man of the highest ability, he was considered unworthy of the lowest office. 13. He used to say that you could not buy friends with gold. 14. They have enjoyed (utor) peace for many years. 15. You wish to enjoy (fruor) life, do (fungor) your duty. 16. Show yourselves worthy of your liberty. 17. You do not lack skill (ars) so much as energy (industria).

§ 11. INTERROGATIVE FORMS.

I. Interrogative sentences in Latin (when not introduced by an intei^ogative pronoun or adverb) are usually distinguished by one of the interrogative particles, -ne, nonne, num. The order of words does not, as in English, mark an interrog. sentence.

INTERROGATIVE FORMS. 67

2. The particle -ne is appended to the most emphatic word in the sentence (which is, therefore, put first): as,

Omnisne pecunia dissipata est? Is all the money squandered ? Note. — Yes or No (in answer to a question) is expressed by re- peating the verb: as,

Amatne? Does he love? Amat, Yes. Non amat. No.

3. Nonne expects the answer Yes: as, Nonne puer amat? Does not the hoy love? The answer expected is, Amat, he loves (i.e.. Yes).

4. Num expects the answer No: as, Num puer amat? Does the hoy love? or The hoy does not love, does he? The answer expected is Non amat, he does not love, (i.e., No).

5. The following are the more common interrogative pronouns and adverbs:

Quis (or quisnam), who? Quo, whither?

liter, which of the two? Quando, when? (Cum is never

Quantus, how great? interrogative.)

Quotus, which in the series? Qui, how?

Quot, how many? Quam (with adj. or adv.), how?

Qualis, what kind? Quemadmodum, ) hnin?

Ubi, where? or quomodo, J

Unde, whence? Quoties, how often?

Cur, I Quamdiu, how long?

Quare, r why ? Quousque, how far?

Quamobrem, j

Thus: —

Quis es? Who are you? Qiujta hora est? What o'clock is it?

Cur id rogas? Why do you ask that?

Quae tandem causa te impellit? What motive, pray, impels you ?

Quisnam hoc fecit? Who, pray, has done this? Nam joined to quis, adds the idea of impatience.

Quod facinus admisit? What crime has he committed?

Note. — Quod is the adjectival form of quid, what? If qui 1 were used, it would take the Gen.: as. Quid facinoris admisit?

6. Whether. . . .or (in a double question) is utrum. . . .an; whether . . . .or not, utrum .... an non : as,

Utrum Pallas hoc fecit an luno? {Whether) has Pallas done this or Juno?

Utrum haec vera sunt an non? (Whether) is this true or not?

68 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Note. — Utrum is sometimes omitted, sometimes replaced by the enclitic -ne: as, Hoc an illud fecisti? Did you do this or that? Nos- tine me an ignoras? Do you know me or don't you know me?

7. An abrupt rhetorical question is often introduced by an: as, An servi esse vultis? Can it he that you want to he slaves?

Exercise ii.

I. Which of you two was present in that battle? 2. Who gave you the book? 3. Do you think that he will be sorry? 4. Do you say that he is unwilling to obey? 5. Will he come here to-day or to-morrow? 6. Are those your words or not? 7. Have you for- gotten your injuries? 8. Why do you ask a thing so foolish? 9. How do you know all this? 10. Does he know the glory of such virtue? 11. Do you think that death is an eternal sleep? 12. Who was milder than he? 13. Where are you going? Where are you coming from? 14. When will they do it? 15. Does not the sun shine (luceo) even for the wicked? 16. Whether is it water or wine? 17. How many ships can they muster (cogo)? 18. How bravely they died !

§ 12. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

1. The case of a Rel. Pron. is determined by the verb of its own clause; its gender, number and person by the antecedent: as,

Ego, qui te laudo, rex sum. /, who praise you, am king. Ego, quem tu laudas, rex sum. /, whom you praise, am king.

2. The relative — so often omitted in English — is never omitted in Latin: as,

Artem, quam novi, exerceo. / practise the art I know.

3. A relative may agree with the predicate of its own clause instead of with the antecedent: as,

Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est. Thehes, which is the capital of Boeotia.

4. The relative, like the Adj., when referring to one or more nouns of different gender, may agree with the last: as,

Neque homini neque ferae, quam semel conspiciunt, parcunt. They spare neither man nor heast that they once see.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 69

Note. — Other forms of agreement are common: as, Pater et mater qui mortui sunt. Father and mother who were dead (plural, and agree- ing with masculine rather than feminine).

Inconstantia et temeritas quae digna non sunt deo. Fickleness and rashness which are not worthy of a god (Neut. PI., because the antecedents are the names of things). /

5. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is often omitted: as, Dividebat agros quibus volebat. He distributed lands to those to

whom he wished,

6. When the antecedent is emphatic, the Rel. clause is thrown forward and the main clause introduced by is or idem (same): as,

Qui id fecit, is abiit. J^he man who did it, is gone.

The antecedent (when a noun) is in that case put in the Rel. clause: as,

Quos campos viridissimos videram, eosdem vastatos vidi. / saw the fields desolate, which I had seen very green.

7. A superlative referring to the antecedent is often put in the Rel. clause: as,

Urbem, quam habebant optimam, perdiderunt. They have lost

the best city they had.

So too, emphatic Adjs. of number and amount: as.

Duces arripiunt, qui pauci supersunt. They seize the leaders,

few of whom survive.

8. A noun used appositively as an antecedent, is attracted into the Rel. clause: as,

Abiit Roma, qua in urbe a puero habitaverat. He departed from Rome, a city in which he had lived from boyhood.

9. A relative referring to a whole sentence is expressed by id quod or quae res: as.

Invidiam vicisti, id quod difficillimum est (or quae res difficillima est). Your have vanquished envy, which is a most difficult thing to do.

10. What, as a relative, is translated by id quod or ea quae {tha^ which, the things which) : as,

Ea, quae recta sunt, laudantur. What is right, is praised. •

11. Pronouns and Adjs. are often followed by a corresponding Rel- Pron. These are called correlatives. Thus : —

Idem. . . .qui, the same. . . .as; talis. . . .(.[uaVia, such as; tantus. . . . <iuantus, as great as; tot. . . .(|uot, as many as: as,

70 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Idem est qui semper fuit. He is the same as he always was.

Res eodem statu quo antea stat. The matter stands in the same- position as before.

Talis est quslis semper fuit. He is of the same character as he al- ways was.

Tantam voluptatem habeo quantam tu. / have as much pleasure as you. '

Tot erant milites quot fluctus maris. The soldiers were as many as the waves of the sea.

Note. — The adverbs such,so (limiting Adjs. or Advs.) are expressed by tam: as, Tam bonus homo. Such a good man.

As good as you. Tam bonus quam tu.

12. The Adjs. primus (first), ultimus (last), solus and unus (alone),. are used adverbially in Latin, where in English they are used as predicates of a Rel. clause or joined to an Inf.: as.

Primus mala nostra sensit. He was the first who perceived our evils.

Primus venit; ultimus abiit. He was the first to come and the last to go.

13. For the the Syntax of the Rel. clause in Indir. Narration, see §4-3-

Exercise 12.-

I. I have never seen as large a meeting (concio) as this is. 2. I will show you such a battle as you have never seen before. 3. He who easily believes, is easily deceived. 4. What is crooked (varus) is base. 5. That part of the nation which had made war was punished (invert Rel.). 6. We miss (desidero) Pompey who was the light of Italy. 7. May you also enjoy that fortune and honor which come alike to all! 8. The few ships he had, he sent away. 9. He says that he will send them the best horseman he has. 10. How have you been able to build cities as large as these? 1 1. I believe that he was the first to call down philosophy from heaven. 12. No one even dared to wish for as much as heaven (say the gods) has bestowed upon us (defero ad). 13. He says that the good citizen is the man that loves his country. 14. He says he admires the animal that is called man. 15. The more clever (ca//i(/w5) a man is, the more, as__a usual thing (fere), he is distrusted (diffido-\-Dat.)

THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SIMPLE SENTENCES. 71

§ 13. THE IMPERATIVE, THE NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE, AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SIMPLE SENTENCES.

1. Commands are expressed by the Imperative: as Audite hoc, hear this. The negative particle is Ne: as,

Nimium ne crede colori. Do not trust too much to your complexion.

2. Instead of Ne with the Imperative, which is used mainly in poetry, Latin uses in prohibitions:

(a) Ne + Pres. Subjun.: as, Ne multadiscas sedmultum, Z^ono/ learn many things but much.

(b) Ne + Perf. Subjun.: as, Ne flumen transieris. Do not cross the river.

(c) Noli (PI. nolite) + Pres. Inf. : as. Noli id facere, Do not do it. Note. The last is the common form in Cicero.

3. Or (and not) in Neg. Imperatives is neve (neu): as, I Hud ne feceris neve dixeris. Do not do or say that. Sequere neve retrospexeris. Follow and do not look back.

4. The imperatives of facio and euro are also used in commands: as, Fac (cura) ut id sciam. Take care that I know that (let me know it.)

5. The Imperative in -to (PI. -tote) is used where there is distinct reference to the future: as, a,

Mortuum in urbe ne sepeU^roT Thou shall not bury a dead man in the city. r

Servus meus liber esto. Let my slave be free. It is chiefly used in Wills and Laws.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SIMPLE SENTENCES.

6. The Subjun. is used in simple sentences:

(a) In Wishes: as, Moriar, May I die! Felix sis. May you be fortunate!

The negative is ne: as, Ne vivam si scio. May I not live if I know!

(b) In Commands or Exhortations: as, Ne abcat, let him not go away. The negative is Ne.

(c) To soften an assertion : as,

Vclim ignoscas (ut omitted). I should like yon to pardon. Mallem te videre. / should prefer to see you. Credcres. You would have believed. Hoc dixerim. This I would have said.

3a

72 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

(d) In questions that imply deliberation: as,

Quid faciam? What am I to do? (What shall I do?)

Quid f acerem ? What was I to have done?

It is called the deliberative subjunctive. It is often introduced by an: as,

An ego non venirem? Ought I not to have come?

7. When the subjunctive is used in ivishes, utinam (Oh! that, would that!) is usually added. It is used as follows: —

When the fulfilment of the wish is possible, utinam is joined with the present or perfect Subjun. : as,

Utinam adsit. Oh! that he may be there (in the future).

Utinam adfuerit. Oh! that he may have been there (just now).

When the wish can no longer be realised, the Imperfect or Pluper. Subjun. is used: the Imperf. when the wish is referred to the present, the Pluper. when it is referred to the past: as,

Utinam adesset. Oh! that he were here (now).

Utinam adfuisset. Oh! that he had been here (in the past).

The negative is ne (rarely non) : as,

Utinam ne hoc in mentem incidisset. Would that it had not oc- curred to my mind!

Exercise 13.

I. Go away; depart from this city. 2. Let us not lose such an opportunity. 3. Thou shalt not kill. 4. Would that he were now alive! 5. You would have thought them vanquished. 6. Do not be troublesome. 7. I believe that he was buried in the same tomb in which his father lies. 8. Do not praise tha wicked. 9. May all such citizens perish! 10. Why should I enum- erate the multitude of their ships? 11. See that you write me soon. 12. Oh! that I had been living in those days. 13. I should like you to come to Rome immediately. 14. Oh! that I could find him. 15. Let us remember that life is short. 16. Do not lay (confero) the blame on (in) me. 17. Oh! that he may listen to (audio) you. 18. Restrain (coerceo) thy tongue, so shalt thou be able to restrain thy temper (animus) also.

§ 14. THE TENSES.

I. The Latin Present is used for both the English Pres.Indefinite and the Progressive Pres. : as, Scribo, / write or I am writing.

THE TENSES. 73

\

Note. — With Advs. of past time extending up to the present, it is used for the Eng. past: as,

lam diu cupio te visere. / have, long been wishing to see you.

2. The Imperf. expresses an action going on in past time: as, Saxa in eos devolvebant. They were rolling down stones on them.

It is, therefore, used to express repented, continuous, or habitual action: as,

Hunc saepe audiebant. They often heard him.

Hie ara vetus stabat. Here an old altar used to stand.

Consilium mutavit; videbat enim nihil confici posse. He changed his plan; for he saw that nothing could be done (imperfect of contin- uous action.)

3. The impf. has, therefore, often the force of the Eng. began, attempted: as, Ad proelium sese expediebant, they began to prepare themselves for battle; urbem servabam, / was trying to save

the city. \ ) /

4. The Latin Perf. represents both the Eng. Pres. Perf. (Perf. with have) and the English past indefinite: as,

Scripsi. / wrote, or / have written.

With postquam, ubi, cum primum, ut primum, ut, simul ac (or before a vowel, atque) it is used for the English Pluper. with when, after (that), as soon as: as,

Postquam haec audivit, abiit. After he had heard this, he went away.

5. The Fut. represents an/action as going on, and the Fut.-Perf. an action as complete, in future time: as,

Scribam, / shall write; scripsero, / shall have written. After when, if, etc., English often uses the Pres. tense referring to the future; as, / will send him, when he comes. In such a case Latin requires the Put., or — if the action of one verb is represented as over before that of "the other begins — the Fut.-Perf.: as, Eum inittam cum redibit or (rcdierit). / will send him, when he comes.

In fact, when there is a Fut. in the main clause, there is usually a Fut. or Fut.-Perf. in the subordinate clause: as, Haec ci vitas, dum crit, eum laudabit. This country, luhile it exists, will praise him.

\

74

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

CLASSIFICATION OF TENSES. 6. Latin tenses are divided into Primary and Secondary (or His-

torical), as follows: —

fPres.,

Primary Tenses.

Secondary (or Historical) Tenses.

Perf.

Fut.

Fut. Perf. j Imperf.,

Perf. (Pluperf.

Amat, he loves. Amavit, he has loved. Amabit, he will love. Amaverit, he will have loved. Amabat, he was loving. Amavit, he loved. Amaverat, he had loved.

Exercise 14.

I. You will do it when you please {volo). 2. When it is ordered it will be done. 3. After he had left the city, he fled to his father. 4. Philosophy flourished in Greece. 5. Whenever he came to a town, he shut himself in his litter. 6. I have long known that he was a fool. 7. Let those come who are (will be) able. 8. I had long thought that it could never happen. 9. They tried to prevent (prohibeo) our soldiers. 10 Whatever you do, I shall approve

11. I will not leave you alive; you shall die under the rod (abl.).

12. Whatever is about to be ,will be (fio). 13. They came up to our aid {dat.). and took the hill. 14. I have promised money to one. power to another {alter). 15. You will carry all these things to Rome. 16. Next year these same people were betraying their city. 17. They used often to contend with {cum) the bravest of the German tribes. 18. Let us go and render thanks {gratias agere) to the gods. 19. I shall not see him again {rursus), unless {nisi) he returns (/w/.).

§15. THE SUPINE. GERUND, GERUNDIVE, AND PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.

1. Latin verbs have two Supines, one in -um and one in-u: as, Amatum to love; amatu, to be loved.

2. The Supine in -um denotes purpose, and is used only after verbs of motion: as,

Legates mittunt pacem petitum. They send ambassadors to sue for peace.

(''ri

THE SUPINE. 75 \

3. The Supine in -u is used with a few Adjs. Hke mirabile (wonder- ful), facile, difficile, incredibile, etc. and with fas (right), nefas (wrong): as,

Mirabile dictu, wonderful to say; nefas est dictu, it is impiety to say it.

Note. — The supines in -u in common use are: Dictu, factu, visu, cognitu (to be learnt).

4. The Gerund is a verbal noun of the II Decl.: as, Docendo dis- cimus. We learn by teaching.

It is not used in the Nom., which is supplied by the Inf.: as, Videre est credere. Seeing is believing.

5. The Gerundive is a verbal Adj. with a Pass, meaning (possibly a Fut. Part. Pass.), as:

Hostis timendus. An enemy to be feared.

It is generally used for the Gerund, where the Gerund (if used) would be followed by an Ace, as:

Docendis viris discimus. We learn by teaching men (lit., by men to be taught: for docendo viros).

Note. — If the verb governs the Dat., the Gerund and not the Gerundive is to be used: as, Pauperibussubveniendo. By aiding the poor.

6. The Gerundive is used idiomatically to express purpose after a few verbs like give (do), give up (trado), have done (euro), mark out (denoto), hire out (loco): as,

Multos necandos denotavit. He marked out many for death (lit. to be killed). Aedem Victoriae faciendam curavit. He had a temple of victory built.

7. The Gerundive is used, with the verb, to be, to form a whole Conjugation (called the passive periphrastic)^ as:

Moncndus sum. / must be or, ought to be warned. Monendus eram. / ought to have been warned. This is the common way to express duty, propriety, or necessity: as, Afjua nobis bibenda est. We must drink water (lit., ivater must be drunk by us).

The agent is expressed by the Dat.

8. Intransitive verbs must be used in the l^ass. Peripliiasiic impersonally: as, Omnibus moriendum est, all must die; rchis l)acto standum est, ive must stand by the pad.

76 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

9. If a verb governs a Dat., the Pass. Periphrastic is (in accord- ance with rule) Impersonal, as:

Inimicis a nobis parcendum est. We should spare our enemies ( = it should be spared to our enemies by us).

The agent is then expressed by a (or ab) + Abl.

10. The Gerundive and Pass. Periphrastic of deponent verbs are Pass, as in other verbs, and, in the case of verbs that govern the Abl. (fruor, utor, fungor, etc.), may be used either personally or im- personally: as, Haec nobis fruenda sunt. These things must be en- joyed by us.

Utendum est iudicio. We must use our judgment.

11. The Gen. of the Gerund or of the Gerundive, is often used to express purpose, with causa, for the sake of, which is written after its case: as,

Hue querendi causa venerunt. They have come here for the purpose of complaining.

Vestis est frigoris depellendi causa. Dress is intended for keeping off cold (lit., is for the sake of, etc.).

12. The Gerund, and not the Gerundive, is to be used: (a) With verbs that govern the Dat.: as, Parcendo inimicis, by sparing ene- mies, (b) Where euphony would be violated :as, Amicos videndi causa. For the sake of seeing friends (not amicorum videndorum causa). The rule is often violated, (c) Where ambiguity results: as, Aliquid docendi causa. For the sake of teaching something (not alicuius, which would mean some one).

Exercise 15.

I. Then came the day for passing (fero) the law. 2. We should fight for our country. ^. We shall have to fight. 4.' He was very active in cutting down the enemy. ^. He imported wine into Gaul in order to tempt (illicio) the Gauls into Italy. 6. He was respon- sible (auctor esse + Gen.) for the attack on this city. 7." Rome must defend her allies. 8. We ought to march (eo) on Rome. 9. You must labor to preserve us from disaster (clades). 10. We must consult the interests of these people, i;^. They ought to have been ejected from the city. 12. The Senate thought that the thing should be rejected (reicio). 13. You will do more good by sparing them

THE PARTICIPLE. 77

than by killing them. 14. By assigning (tribuo) to each man his own, he restored peace. 15. The business of tilling the soil seemed to him the pursuit (studium) of kings.

§ 16. THE PARTICIPLE.

I. The participle has partly the nature of a verb and partly that cf an Adj. Hence the name (pars and capio). Like a verb, it has voice, tense, and number, and governs the same case as the verb from which it is formed; like an Adj., it has declension and gender and agrees with nouns.

2. Transitive verbs have in Latin three participles:

(a) A Pres. participle Act.: as, amans, loving.

(b) A Fut. participle Act.: as, amaturus, about to love.

(c) A Perf. participle Pass.: as, amatus, loved, having been loved.

3. The Latin participle is used to express an English clause in- troduced by who, when, while, as, if, though, because: as,

Non parcimus resistentibus. We do not spare those who resist us.

Epistola ad me scribentem venit. The letter came to me when {while, as) I was writing.

Eis vel morientibus non ignoscet. He will not forgive them, even though {if) they are dying.

Caesar haec veritus, suos eduxit. Caesar, because he was afraid of this, led out his men.

This is one of the most important features of Latin syntax. The principle may be stated as follows: — The Latin Part., apart from its adjectival force, is used to express the adverbial relations of time, condition, cause, concession, or attendant circumstance,

4. The Latin Part, must frequently be translated into English by a main verb: as,

Eum arreptum Romam trahebant. They seized him and began to drag him to Rome.

Ingressus consedit. He entered and sat down.

This is also a most important principle and, taken in connecticn with that of paragraph 3, largely accounts for the comjiactnoss <;f the Latin sentence.

5. The Pres. Part., used strictly, denotes time coiitcmporancous with that of the main verb: as.

Hoc dixit moriens. This he said while dying.

78 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

It is often, however, — especially in the oblique cases — used in a more general sense: as,

Pugnantium clamor. The shouting of combatants.

Note. — The Abl. of the Gerund is used by Cicero and Livy in- stead of the Pres. Part: as,

Laniando dentibus hostem exspiravit. Mangling his enemy with his teeth, he expired.

6. Of Latin verbs, deponents alone have a Perf. Part. Act. Thus: Locutus is having spoken, and secutus, having followed; but victus is not having conquered, but having been conquered; auditus is not having heard, but having been heard.

In place of the Perf. Part. Act., which is wanting, Latin uses generally the Perf. Part. Pass, absolutely: as,

Urbe capta, abiit, Having taken the city, he withdrew (lit., tht^ city taken).

The Abl. is — as has been remarked — the case absolute in Latin, and the use of the abl. abs. for the Pref. Part. Act. accounts for its common occurrence in Latin authors.

7. The Perf. Part. Pass, is often used with a noun or an abstract or verbal noun: as, Ab urbe condita, from the foundation of the city ; post expulsum patrem, after the expulsion of the father.

8. A demonstrative pronoun is not joined, as in English, to the Part. Thus: Those doing this, will be punished, is Qui hoc facient, poenas dabunt (not ii facientes).

Exercise 16. I. He bound the captives and set them in the midst. 2. I spoke these words to you as you were standing by {adsto). 3. He com- posed songs and recited them to the army. 4. On departing, he put me at the head of (praeficio) the army. 5. It is said that he was killed while sailing to Africa. 6. Most of them were seen while returning to their camp. 7. These evils must be cured. S. You will find the enemy shut in between the mountains and *' sea. 9. Having divided the booty among them, they went home. 10. Many books have been written on despising glory. II. He will attack you while you are crossing the river. 12. I believe that he will give up (dedo) his province and return im- mediately. 13. Many are prudent in selecting horses but imprudent in selecting friends. 14. We do not believe a liar (mendax), even if he speak the truth.

THE ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 7ii

§ 17. THE ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE.

1. The Abl. — as has been said — is the case absolute in Latin and the Abl. absolute is the common form used to express the Perf. Part. Act. of all but deponent verbs: as,

Hoc audito, ad castra rediit. Having heard this, he returned to 'he camp.

Note. Other substitutes are : (a) Cum + the Pluperf. Subj. (6) Postquam + Perf. Ind.

The Abl. Abs. is also used for the Eng. Pres. Part. Act. used — as it so often is — for the Perf. : as, Hoc consilio capto, subito abiit. Forming this design, he suddenly departed.

2. The Abl. Abs. is used, in translating into Latin, to express an English main clause or an adv. clause of time, cause, condition, con- /:essijn, or attendant circumstance, when these would naturally be represented by a Perf. Part Act.: Thus: —

They charged and defeated them. Impetu facto, eos vicerunt (Abl. Abs. for main clause).

Caesar, when he had learned this, returned to the senate-house. Caesar, hoc cognito, ad curiam rediit (time).

Though everything is lost, courage remains. Perditis omnibus rebus, virtus manet (concession).

As the general had been killed, they fled. Imperatore interfecto, ■diffugerunt (cause).

Note. — The Abl. Abs. is placed at or near the beginning of the sentence. It should not include more than a noun and Part., or a noun. Part., and Obj.: as. Me haec verba dicente, abiit. As {while) I -was saying these words, he went away.

3. Th Abl. Abs. must introduce a new subject. Thus:

The enemy, as they were retreating, laid waste the land. Hostes, se recipientes, agros vastabant (not hostibus sc recipientibus).

Manlius, having killed a Gaul, despoiled him. Manlius Galium caesum spoliavit (not caeso (^allo, eum spoliavit).

The Abl. Abs. would here be wrong because the nouns (hostes and Galium), which would naturally be in the Abl. Abs., are required in the sentence, one in the Nom. and the other in the Ace.

4. As the verb Esse has no Pres. Part., a noun in the Abl. Abs. is joined predicatively to an Adj. or another noun: as,

80 . HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Vivis fratribus. In his brothers' life-time (i.e., his brothers being alive).

Salvis legibus. Without violation of the laws (i.e., the laws safe)..

Te duce. Under your command {you being leader).

Te invito. Against your will {you being unwilling).

Re infecta. Without success {the thing being undone).

Duce non exspectato. Without waiting for a guide.

5. The following uses of the Abl. Abs. should be noticed:

Bruto consule. In the consulship of Brutus.

Suadente Gaio. By the advice of Gaius.

Adiuvantibus Gallis. With the assistance of the Gauls.

Te non adiuvante. Without your assistance.

Caesare necato. After the killing of Ceasar.

Te repugnante. In spite of your opposition.

Exercise 17. I. After wasting the land, they returned. 2. On receiving the letter, he left the city. 3. The money was paid in my presence. 4. They came to Italy, I believe, during the reign of Romulus. 5. Will he go away without consulting any one? 6. The enemy were disturbed by our arrival and we immediately attacked the camp 7. On the defeat of their army, the city surrendered. 8. When he had spoken thus, the ambassadors withdrew. 9. He promised not to fight against my will. 10. When the war is ended, we shall re- store our prisoners. 11. He was unwilling, in the absence of the first legion, to join battle. 12. This victory he gained with very few wounded. 13. He called his friends together and killed himself. 14. A gate was opened and they sallied forth. 15. He called the merchants together and consulted them. 16. They set out when the winter was not yet ended. 17. On the approach of summer they begin to sail the sea. 18. He ought to have told us when he would return. 19. I should have restored you the money.

§ 18. THE FUTURE PARTICIPLE AND THE ACTIVE PERI- PHRASTIC CONJUGATION.

I. The Fut. Part. Act. expresses futurity and intention: as,

Venio agros visurus. I come to see the fields.

Note. — This use is more common in poetry than in prose writers.

THE FUTURE PARTICIPLE. 81

2. From the Fut. Part. Act. and the verb to be, is formed a whole conjugation called the Act. Periphrastic Conjugation. Thus:

Amaturus sum. / am about to love (or / intend to love).

Amaturus eram (fui). / was about to love (or / intended to love). Etc.

This conjugation supplies the place of the Fut. Subjun. Act. which is wanting: as, Rogo quid facturus sis. / ask what you will do.

Note. — -The verb of an interrogative sentence, when dependent upon a verb of asking or the like, is in the subjun. and is called an indirect or dependent question.

Exercise i8.

I. Dees he intend to try {lento) the chances of war again? 2. Do you intend to seek the same office {honor) as before? 3. Tell me why you are about to attempt that. 4. Many birds, when seeking a warmer clim.ate {loca), will even cross the sea. 5. I believe that they took the city and set it on fire (use ignem inicio). 6. Why do you remain in office so long against the wish of your fellow-citizens? 7. Though defeated and almost crushed {opprimo) he was still reign- ing. 8. Leaving his province, he soon returned home. 9. These provinces lost, your revenues {vectigalia) will be lost. 10 Despoiled {privo) of his sovereignty, he will repair {peto) to some other land. II. When your merchants had been badly treated {tracto) by another nation, you made war upon it. 12, A judge ought to favor no- body? 13. The weather {tempestas) is not fit for sailing. 14. When you have done your work {Abl. Abs.) you must help me. 15. Do you not intend to keep the allies free from fear? 16. The ox was given us for ploughing {causa). 17. He said that he was about to speak upon the character {mores) of the man. 18. This nation, before the gift of citizenship, injured us greatly.

§ 19. UT-CLAUSE WITH VERBS OF ASKING.

I. Verbs meaning to ask, command, or advise, are followed by an ut-clause (with the Subjun.) and not, as in English, by the Inf.: as, Rogo te ut id facias. / ask you to do it. Imperat ut clipeos percutiant. He orders them to strike their shields.

82 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Moneo te ut aurum reddas. / warn you to restore the gold.

Note.— lubeo {order), and veto {forbid), take the Inf. and not the ut-clause: as, Eos pedem referre iussit (vetuit). He ordered {forbade) them to retreat.

2. After a Secondary tense (§14,6) the verb of the ut-clause be- comes Imperf. : as,

Rogavi ut id faceres. I asked you to do it.

Imperavit ut clipeos percuterent. He ordered them to strike their shields.

This is called Secondary Sequence and is a principle of general application.

Note. — The historical Pres. and the Pres. Perf. are frequently however, regarded as Secondary tenses (§14.6): as,

Quid petens? Ut servires? Seeking for what? To be a slave?

Rogavi eos ut emerent. / have asked them to buy.

3. When Not is required in the ut-clause, ne is used and not ut non: as,

Monui te ne uxorem duceres. / warned you not to marry. So Ne quis is used for ut nemo {that no one), ne quid for ut nihil {that nothtngTrne uljus for ut nullus {that no), and n^ unquam for ut nunquam {tfiat never): as, "~~~^~~ -

Te rogo ne quid facias. / ask you to do nothing.

Obsecravit eum ne fidem unquam violaret. He entreated him never to break his word.

4. Or, and not, after a verb of asking, is neve: as,

Te rogavi ne eum accusares neve multares. / asked you not to accuse and not to punish him.

Neither .... nor would be neve .... neve.

5. Verbs meaning to effect, or strive are also followed by an ut- clause: as,

Sol efificit ut omnia floreant. The sun makes everything flourish.

Cura ut id facias. Take care to do it.

So too, verbs meaning to decide, when the subject of the ut-clause is different from that of the main verb: as,

Decernit ut consules delectum habeant. // decrees that the consuls shall hold a levy.

But, Omnia pati statuit. He decided to suffer everything.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 83

6. Verbs meaning to warw, when stating a fact, become verbs of saying and require the Ace. with Inf.: as,

Nos monet hostes adesse. He warns us that the enemy is at hand, So too. Hoc tibi persuadebo te errare. / will persuade you of this, that you are wrong.

Exercise 19.

I. I will ask him to come. 2. Will they persuade him to return? 3. I beg you not to decree anything. 4. I urged (hortor) them to read their books. 5. I begged of them not to desert me. 6. He said that he had warned us to set out at once. 7. He decreed that no one should sell bread in the camp. 8. They were striving to defend the rights of the people. 9. He ordered them not to neglect (desero) the sacred rites {sacra) of the state. 10. I will ask him not to ask the gods for wealth. 11. Beg him not to come here to-day. 12. He said that he would strive with his utmost care to be dear to the citizens. 13. He ordered coined (signatum) gold and silver to be prepared. 14. Beg them not to fetter (obstringo) their minds by sloth. 15. They send ambassadors to announce that they are going to obey. 16. He says that he has chosen three men for drawing up (scribo) laws. 17. The army has gone there to plunder the temple (use causa). 18. He decided to repair all the ships 19. What have we left? (partitive Gen.)

§ 20. SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.

I. The Law of the Sequence of Tenses in subordinate clauses, re- ferred to in §19, is of great importance and may be restated as follows:

A primary tense in the principal clause, is followed by a primary tense in the dependent clause; a secondary tense in the Prin. clause, is followed by a secondary tense in the Dep. clause. Thus:

Primary. Rogat \ He asks

Rogabit I . He will ask

Rogavit '^^ "^ ^^"'^^ He has asked | >'"" ^' '"^'-

Rogaverit j He will have asked j

Secondary. Rogabat 1 He was asking \

Rogavit rte ut venires He asked :you to come.

Rogavcrat j He had asked j

84 HANDBOOK OF LATIN

So too, in Subord. clauses in Indir. Narration:

Dixit anulum, quern gereret, se sua manu fecisse. He said that he had made with his own hand the ring, he was wearing. (Impf. Subj. in Subord. clause of Indir. after Secondary tense).

The form in direct is: Anulum quem gero, mea manu feci. / have made with my own hand the ring I am wearing.

Dixit se, cum eorum consillia comperisset, rediturum esse. He said that, when he had ascertained their plans, he would return (Perf . changed into Pluperf. in secondary sequence).

Exercise 20.

I. He will easily persuade you not to come. 2. They have asked him to stand for {peto) the consulship. 3. We asked him to help us. 4. I will ask him not to do anything against their will. 5. I was afraid that he would ruin the country. 6. He said that he would obey all the laws that were passed. 7. He used to say that the life, which had been given us, was short. 8. A man of honor will never be persuaded to betray his country. 9. They begged him to bring the maid. 10. Then at last ((fewMw) he induced them to fol- low him. II. They forbade him to do his duty. 12. I warn you not to oppose us. 13. He will take the city at the first onslaught. 14. After holding a levy, they will depart from the city. 15. A shower of rain accompanied by a strong wind {Ahl. of accompani- ment) stopped (interimo) the battle. 16. In this way he will show that he is braver than they. 17. This booty can be sold for much money.

§ 21. NOUN CLAUSES. INDIRECT QUESTION.

1. A question dependent upon a verb of asking, knowing, telling, or the like, has its verb in the Subjun.: as,

Scio unde venias. /. know where are you doming from. Here unde venias {where you are coming from) is called an indirect (or dependent) question.

2. Whether (if), in an Indir. question, is Num: as,

Die mihi num venerit. Tell me whether (if) he haf come. Whether . . . .or is Utrum. . . .an; but or not is necne in the indirect and not annon as in the direct question : as,

NOUN CLAUSES. INDIRECT QUESTION.

85

Quaenjur utrum interfectus sit necne. The question is whether he has been put to death or not.

3. The law of sequence of tenses is observed in the indirect question. Thus: — Primary. Rogo \ fagas.

Rogabo rquidi egeris.

Rogavi j [acturus sis.

Secondary. Rogabam 1 Tageres.

Rogavi rquid-^ egisses.

Rogaveramj [acturus esses

/ ask \ (you are doing. Iwasasking\ (you were doing

I shall ask you have done I asked you had done.

'what\ (or did). \what'

I have asked you are going I had asked you were going

\ to do. J \ to do.

Note. — A Perf. Subjun. in an Indir. Question becomes Pluperf, after a secondary tense (in accordance with the Low of Sequence) : as, Rogo, num hunc Hbrum legeris. / ask whether you have read this book.

Rogavi num hunc Hbrum legisses. / asked whether you had read this book.

4. The Fut. Subjun. Act., which is wanting in Latin, is suppHcd by the Fut. Part, and the verb to be: as, Scio quid facturus siS; / know ivhat you will do. (Dir. quest. = Quid ages? What will you do?)

Sciebam quid acturus esses. / knew what you would do (Imper. after a secondary tense).

5. The Fut. Subjun. Pass, and the Fut. Subjun. Act. of verbs that have no Supine, are formed by means of the impersonal futu- rum sit (or esset) with an ut-clause. Thus:

Rogo num futurum sit ut puer discat. / ask whether the boy will learn.

Rogavi num futurum esset ut puer disccret. / asked whejher the boy would learn.

Non rogo quando futurum sit ut puer doceatur. / do not ask when the boy will be taught.

Non rogavi quando futurum esset ut puer docerctur. / did not ask when the boy would be taught.

6. After nescio or haud scio (/ don't know), dubito (/ doubt), I almost think, Whether is an: as,

86 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Constantiamne dico ? Nescio an melius patientiam possim dicere. Consistency, do I say? I don't know whether I can not better say long-suffering.

Dubito an eum primum omnium ponam. / doubt whether I should not put him first of all.

7. In sentences like You know the skill with which he speaks^ Latin prefers the Indir. question and puts the noun in the depen- dent clause: as,

Scis quanta arte loquatur. You know the skill with which he speaks.

Exercise 21.

I. Don't you know whether you have conquered or not? 2. I should like to know whether these are your words or not. 3. Ask him what he thinks about the matter. 4. Tell me if your friend ha& returned. 5. We all know how daring you are. 6. You will never believe how often I have advised them. 7. Take care to inform me when you will set out. 8. Why don't you ask him where he haS' been? 9. I almost think that the man is happy. 10. I did not know whether he was a wise man or a fool. 11. I saw what you would do. 12. I asked them where they had laid my book. 13. Did you know by whom the city was founded? 14. Tell me how many they are? 15. I will ask the road by which he will returijf 16. Do you think he knows what o'clock it is. 17. He said that it was of great importance whether you joined the popular party (populares) or the Optimates. 18. I did not know whether he had been killed (use pereo) justly or unjustly. 19. Do not say that you intend to desert us.

§22. NOUN CLAUSES CONTINUED. QUOD-CLAUSES, UT-CLAUSES WITH IMPERSONALS, DEFINING UT- ^ CLAUSES.

I. Quod with the Ind., meaning the fact that, often introduces a noun-clause in Latin: as,

Magnum est hoc, quod victor victis pepercit. This is an im- portant matter, the fact that, when victorious, he spared the vanquished.

Quod, with the Ind., is often found in this sense with verbs of emotion like gaudeo, (rejoice), queror (complain), glorior (boast), gratum est (it is pleasant), mirum est (it is wonderful) : as, ~~

NOUN CLAUSES CONTINUED. 87

Vehementer laetor quod scripsisti. I am very glad that you have written.

Mihi gratum est quod venisti. Your coming is very welcome to me.

2. A noun-clause, introduced by ut with Subjun., or by the quod with Indie, is used after Accedit, in the sense of it is added: as,

Hue accessit ut caecus esset. To this was added the fact that he was blind.

Accedit quod patrem tuum amo. There is added the fact that I love your father.

3. An ut-clause is used after the following Impersonal verbs and phrases: Accidit, evenit, contingit, fit, it happens; restat, reliquum est, it remains; fieri potest, ^7 is possible (lit., it may happen); nullo modo fieri potest, it is impossible; sequitur, it follows; tantum abest, it is so far from; expedit, it is expedient; convenit, it is agreed: as,

.Q^ fit ut nemo contentus vivat? How does it happen that no one lives contentedly?

Accidit ut primus id nuntiet. It happens that he is the first to announce it.

Tantum abest ut miremur omnes, ut nemo satisfaciat. So far are we from admiring everyone, that no one satisfies.

Convenit ut unis castris misceatur. It is agreed that they shall be united in one camp.

Convenit ut in unis castris misceretur. // was agreed that they should be united in one camp (secondary sequence).

4. A noun-clause, introduced by ut with the Subjun., is used to define a previous noun: as,

Commune vitium est ut invidia gloriae comes sit. It is a common vice that envy is the attendant of glory.

Cultus deorum est optimus ut eos pura mente veneremur. The best worship of the gods is that we should adore them with a pure heart.

Exercise 22.

I . He is very sorry that you cag^e to help us. 5^, It is a great thing liiat all willKe spared. 3. He lised to complain that men forgot their friends. 4. Why are you always boasting that you have done it '^ 5. It was their custom to sell their animals in the spring. 6. Is it not a wonderful thing their being unwilling to consult their own in- t( rests? 7. To this will be added the fact that the accused {reus) is a

^^

88 HANDBOOK OF lA^IN. -» <^ C^-^*^

rich man. 8. Setting out to attack the camp, he heard that it had been burnt by the enemy. 9. This is a new law that we should for- give our enemies, jo. Would that you had now as great a supply of good men as then! 11. I persuaded the father not to pay his son's debt [aes alienum). 12. He ordered them to bring the corn which they had promised. 13. Take care that I know what you are doing. 14. He said that the temptations (illecebra) of the city should be resisted. 15. Wonderful to say, they are glad that you have won (consequor) the office.

§ 23. QUOMINUS AND QUIN.

1. Verbs meaning to hinder, prevent, and the like, are followed in Latin by the Subjun. with quominus ( = by which the less, or not): as

Senectus non impedit quominus Uteris fruamur. Old age does not prevent us from enjoying literature.

Per me gtetit quominus ad te scriberet. It was owing to me that he did not write to you (secondary sequence; lit., hy which he did not)

Note. — Of verbs of preventing, Prohibeo is usually followed by the Inf. : as, Prohibent eum exire. They prevent him from going out.

2. Instead of quominus, after verbs of hindering, ne may be used ard, after a negative, quin: as,

Plura ne scribam, dolore impedior. / am prevented hy grief from writing more.

Nunquam me deterrere potes, quin loquar. You can never deter me from speaking (quin = qui ne, how not). ^

3. A common use of quin is after Non dubito/(7 do not doubt) or Non est dubium (there is no doubt) : as, Non dubito quin hoc feceris, I do not doubt that you did it.

Non erat dubium quin fecisses. There was no doubt that you had done it (Secondary sequence).

Non est dubium quin id facturus sis. There is no doubt that you will do it.

4. Quin is used after the following negative phrases: — Nemo est (quin). There is no one but.

Quid causae est? What reason is there against? Fieri non potest . It can not be but that. Temperare mihi non possum. / can not refrain from.

QUOMINUS AND QUIN. 89

Minimum (hand multum) abesse. Be very near.

Facere non possum. / can not help.

Thus: Facere non potuit quin bellum inferret. He could not help making war.

Nihil praetermisit quin nobis persuaderet. He left nothing un- done to persuade us.

Minimum abfuit quin omnes interficerentur. All were within a little of being killed.

Quid causae est quin id velit? What reason is there against his wishing it? (lit., tvhat of cause is there).

Fieri non potest quin exclamem. // is impossible for me not to cry out.

Negari non potest quin turpe sit fidem fallere. It cannot be denied that it is dishonorable to break ones word.

Num quis ignorat quin haec vera sint? Is any one ignorant that this is the truth?

Note — Quis means any after si {if), nisi {unless), ne, num, quo and quanto.

Exercise 23.

I. Nothing prevented us from building a city. 2. Nothing shall deter me from speaking the truth. 3. No one can doubt that he has returned. 4. He could hardly be prevented from laughing. 5. No one doubted that he had killed his friend. 6. They never saw him but {quin) they called him thief. 7. The storm will prevent them from coming. 8. We can not object {recuso) too thers dissenting {use quin). 9. No one is so wise that he can not learn 10. He has left nothing undone to finish this business. 11. It was owing to you that the wedding did not take place. 12. Nothing ever deterred him from praising what deserved praise. 13. I was afraid that they could not be prevented from making war. 14. I do not hesitate to say that lie has' gone away to see the king. ^ 15. He could not help sending a letter every day. 16. Tell me why you are so much distrusted. 17. Ask him whether the money ought to be restored \reddp), 'iS. He had a new temple built {use euro). 19. The more he promised, the riiorc angry I became. 20. He thought that it was owing to us that they had not fought {Impers. Pass.)

90 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

§ 24. VERBS OF FEARING. MODAL VERBS.

1. Verbs meaning to fear are followed by Ne for that and Ut (or ne non) for that not: as,

Vereor ne veniat. / am afraid that he will come.

Vereor ut veniat. / am afraid that he will not come.

The Fut. after verbs oi fearing is expressed by the Subjun., the Pres. Subjun. after a Primary tense, the Imperf. after a Secondary: as,

Timeo ne non labores sustineas, I am afraid that you will not endure your labors; timebam ne ea evenirent, / was afraid that those things would happen.

2. Phrases like Periculum est, there is danger, take the construc- tion of verbs oi fearing: as,

Periculum erat ne te verbis obrueret. There was danger that he would overwhelm you with words.

3. Many verbs (called modal verbs) take an Inf. after them to com- plete their meaning: as, Audeo (dare), cogo (compel), conor, (en- deavor), constituo and statuo (determine), cunctor and dubito (hesi- tate), cupio (desire), debeo (ought), desino (cease), disco (learn), incipio (begin), malo (prefer), nescio (not know how), nolo (be unwill- ing), obliviscor (forget), patior (allow), paro (prepare), possum (be able), scio (know how), soleo (be accustomed), vereor (fear), volo (be willing) : as,

Malo mori, / prefer to die; desine mirari, cease to wonder. Note I. — Of these verbs volo and nolo often take the Subjun, with or without Ut: as, Hoc (ut) facias velim, / should like you to do this.

Note 2. — Vereor (fear) has the Inf in Latin when fear has the Inf. In English: as, Veretur redire. He fears to return.

4. A noun or Adj. with the modal Inf. (and referring to the Subj. of the main vb.) is in the Nom. and not in the Ace: as,

Vult esse servus. He wishes to be a slave.

Exercise 24. I. I do not think that you are afraid to die. 2. There was great danger that he would attack the camp. 3. They thought that he was afraid that he should be captured by brigands. 4. I can tell you that all your plans are now clearer thajtj^the light. 5. He said that he was afraid that their prestige (auctoritas) in the provinces

VERBS OF FE4RING. MODAL VERBS. 91

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would be lost. 6. Relying upon our friendship, he does not hesitate to put the provincials (socius) to death. 7. He sent an envoy at sunset to demand {postulo) that we should withdraw all our garrisons from the towns. 8. He said that he would warn us never to enter the city. 9. Have you come to Gaul to sue for the consulship? 10. I believe that the city will be given up to the soldiers to be plundered. II. Do not let such an opportunity be lost of deserving well of your fellow-citizens. 12. Do you think that he has any (ullus) hope of getting possession of the camp? 13. He never seemed likely to sue (Fut. Part.) for the consulship. 14. They seemed to be free.

§ 25. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. TEMPORAL CLAUSES. POSTQUAM, DUM, PRIUSQUAM.

1. Adverbial clauses are of eight kinds:

(a) Local, introduced by ubi {where), unde (whence), and quo (whither) .

(b) Temporal, introduced by cum (when), dum (while), postquam (after that), priusquam (before that), etc.

(c) Final (those that denote an end or purpose.)

(d) Consecutive (those that denote a result.)

(e) Causal (those that denote a cause), introduced by quod or quia (because), cum or quoniam (since).

(f) Concessive (those that denote a concession), introduced by etsi, quamquam, quamvis, etiamsi (although).

(g) Comparative (those that denote comparison or proportion), introduced by ut (as), quasi, velut (as if) &c.

(h) Conditional, introduced by si (if), nisi (unless), dum (provided that). •

2. Local adverbial clauses add to the statement of the main clause the idea of place: as,

Nolo vivere ubi tyrannus est. / do not wish to live where there is a tyrant.

Quo vult et qua vult, vagatur. He strolls where he will and in what direction he will.

Note. — Ubi expresses rest; quo, motion towards; and qua, di- rection.

The verb of the local adverbial clause is in the Ind. except (a) in Indir. narration; (b) when it has a final force (i.e., is used to ex- press a purpose): as,

92 HANDBOOK O^^ATIN.

Dixit se, quo vellet, vagari. He said that he strolled where he wished (direct =quo volo, vagor. / stroll where I wish).

Massiliam abiit ubi exulet. He has gone off to Massilia to live in exile there. (Here the adverbial clause expresses both place and purpose; i.e., ubi = ut ibi, that there).

3. Temporal Adv. clauses introduced by postquam, simul, simul ac (or, before a vowel, atque). ubi, ut (primum), cum primum {after that) are followed by the Indie: as,

Simul atque haec audivit, abiit. After he had heard this, he went away (no sooner had he heard this) .

Note. — The perfect is used after these conjunctions for the Eng. Pluper.

4. Temporal conjunctions meaning while or until, like dum, donee, quoad, take the Indie, when they mean while, as long as: as,

Dum ea Romani parant, iam oppidum oppugnabatur. While the Romans were making these preparations, the town was already being besieged.

Note. — When the time expressed by the dum-clause includes the time of the action of the main verb, the Pres. tense is used in Latin not the past.

5. Dum, donee, quoad, meaning until, take the Ind. when used to express time alone: as,

Dum rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit. There was silence until Marcellus returned.

Note. — Dum {until) is followed by the Put. Pf. for the English Pres., when the action expressed by the verb of the temporal clause is to be over before that of the main ver.b begins: as,«

Non veniet dum scripsero. He will not come till I write.

But when Dum expresses some further idea of purpose or expec- tation it requires the Pres. Subjun. after Primary tenses and the Im- perf. after Secondary :as; '■ . ~"

Differant duto ira defervescat. Let them put off till their anger cools (i.e., in order that their anger may cool: purpose):

Dum naves cqnvenirent, exspectayit. He waited till the ships should assemble{ i.e., in order that they might assemble; purpose).

Impetum hostium sustinuit dum ceteri pontem interrumperent. He withstood the attack of the enemy till the rest should break down the bridge.

adverbiaj^Kauses. 93

6. Dum for dummodo, provide^^mt, is joined with the Subjun. : as, Oderint dum metuant. Let them hate, provided that they fear.

7. Prjysquam and antequam, take the Ind. when they mark simple prfority in time: as, Priusquam lucet, adsunt. They are here before it is light.

Antequam aliquo loco consedero, ne longas a me litteras ex- spectaveris. Before I settle (literally, shall have settled) somewhere, do not expect a long letter from me.

They take the Subjun. however to express the further idea of purpose or of an act anticipated or prevented: as,

Priusquam se hostes ex terrore reciperent, in fines eorum ex- ercitum duxit. Before the enemy recovered from their panic, he led his army into their territory (final ; = in order that they might not re- cover).

Priusquam pugnaretur, nox intervenit. Night came on before the battle was fought (result prevented).

Note I. — They are often written in two words: as. Ante rorat quam pluit, it drops before it rains. Written thus, they are often used for the English not. .until: as, Non prius respondebo quam tacueris, / shall not answer until you are silent.

Note 2. — Priusquam with the Subjun. became almost a fixed formula and was used to express simple priority in time: as,

Priusquam educeret in aciem, orationem est exorsus. Before leading forth to action, he began an harangue.

8. In Indir. Narr., the verb of a temporal Adver. clause is in the Subjun.: as.

Dixit eos, ut primum luceret, adesse. He said that they were there, as soon as it was light.

Exercise 25.

I. He falls into Scylla while he tries to avoid Charybdis. 2. While there is life there is hope. 3. He used to say that while there was life there was hope. 4. He was detained there until the consul was consulted. 5. Wait until you are obeyed. 6. After he had observed that, he went away. 7. He did not take part in the battle until his father was killed. 8. Let him wait until we arrive. 9. Our forces entered the city before the gates were closed. 10. Pro- vided that there is a wall between you and mc, I shall not be sorry.

94

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II. While this was going on (^Wf; word was brought that all our ships had been sunk {demergo). 12. They did not cease to fly until they reached the river. 13. Before he knew the joy of life, death took him away. 14. He decided to consult the Senate before he set out. 15. They did not know whether to praise or blame (culpo). 16. He was brought into such danger by commanding armies, that he wished to withdraw.

§ 26. THE SYNTAX OF CUM.

1. Cum, when, simply expressing a point of time (called cum tem- poral) takes the Indie: as.

Cum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius factionis principes erant Aedui. When Caesar came into Gaul, the Aedui were the leaders of the one party.

Cum rure rediero, tu Romae eris. When I return from the country, you will he in Rome.

In these sentences, cum is a Rel. Adv. and corresponds to a sup- pressed correlative tum {then) in the main clause.

2. Cum meaning since (called cum causal), requires the Subjun.: as.

Quae cum ita sint, Catilina, perge. As this is so, Catiline, go on.

3. When used with the Imper. or Pluper., cum usually takes the Subjun,: as,

Cum leges mutare vellet, prohibitus est. When he wished to change the laws, he was prevented.

Decessit Agesilaus cum in portum venisset. Agesilaus died when he had entered the harbor.

Note. — When used with the Impf. or Plpf. Ind., it refers to some definite point of time (eo anno, eo die.)

4. Cum with the Subjun., sometimes has a concessive force meaning although: as,

Pylades cum sis, dices te esse Orestem. Though your are Py- lades, you will say you are Orestes.

Note. — Hence it may express the English instead of with a verbal noun: as.

Cum dicere deberet, tacuit. Instead of speaking, he held his peace (lit., when he ought to have spoken).

i

THE S^»AX OF CUM. 9o

Cum hostes persequi deOB^, ad urbem rediit. Instead of (or ■without) following up the enemy, he returned to the city.

5. Cum with the Imper. or Pluper. Subjun., is a common substi- tute for the Perf. Part. Act., which is wanting in Latin: as,

Cum haec dixisset, abiit. Having spoken these words, he departed.

There are, therefore, four substitutes for the Perf. Part. Act.:—

(a) Cum + Imperf. or Pluperf. Subj. {b) Postquam + Perf. Indie. (c) The Abl. Abs. {d) The Perf. Part, of a synonymous deponent.

Thus: Having spoken these words, is: —

(a) Cum haec dixisset. {h) Postquam haec dixit, (c) His dictis ( = these things said), (d) Haec locutus.

6. Cum with the Indie, (called cum frequentative) is often used for •quoties, as often as, whenever.

In this sense, the Perf. is used for the Eng. Pres. and the Pluper. for the English past: as.

Cum rosam vidi, tum ver esse arbitror. Whenever I see the rose, .then I judge that it is spring.

Cum impetum fecerant, hostes cedere cogebantur. Whenever they made a charge, the enemy were forced to retire.

After cum, however, in this sense, the Subjun. is used by Livy and Tacitus.

7. Cum is never used interrogatively: When do you intend to speak? is Quando (not Cum) dicturus es?

Exercise 26.

I. When he had seen that their condition {res) was prosperous, he •set out from the city. 2. This being the case, let them take their things and go. 3. Who can tell me when he intends to return? 4. Having conquered the greater part of the island, he died there. 5. Whenever he came to a town, he demanded hostages. 6. When they had ar- rived at the top of the hill, they saw a broad plain below. 7. When you had finished your work, you should have helped your friend. 8. Seeing this, he marched against them at once. 9. In- stead of going to Athens, you remained at Rome. 10. He obeyed at a time when all had to obey. 11. Whenever he saw any one (say some one) badly clothed, he gave him his cloak {pallium). 12. When I hear him speak, I shall know whether he is an orator or not.

96 HANDBOOK O:

13. The battle was not ended until thFgeneral was killed. 14. The more they have, the more they ask for. 15. All agree {inter omnes- constat) that he preferred Demosthenes to ( say than) Cicero. 16, You will have to pay, when the day of payment (gerund) comes.

§ 27. FINAL AND CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

1, Instead of the Inf. of purpose, so common in English, Latin> uses most frequently to express purpose Ut with the Subjun.: as,.

Venio ut pacem petam. / come to seek peace.

Veni ut pacem peterem. I came to seek peace (Secondary sequence).

Such clauses arc called Final Clauses.

Note. — The Pres. Perf. is frequently followed by secondary se- quence: as,

Patronus exstiti ne iste desertus videretur. / have appeared as his lawyer that he might not seem deserted.

2. When a Comparative is used in the final clause, quo is used for that instead of ut: as.

Hoc facio quo sis tutior. / do this, that you may be safer. I 3. When a not is required in the final clause, ut becomes ne: asr I Hoc dico ne te laedam. / say this not to offend you (i.e. to avoid ^offending you).

4. The use of ut with other negative words (nemo, nihil, nullus, nunquam) is also avoided: as,

Portam claude ne quis excedat. Shut the gate that no one may go out (ne quis = ut nemo). r Abii ne quid viderem. / went away that I might see nothing (ne I quid = ut-nihil).

I Clamant ne ullum verbum audiatur. They are shouting that no J word may be heard (ne ullum = ut nullum). \ Hoc facite ne unquam vituperent. Do this thai they may never \ revile (ne unquam = ut nunquam).

^ 5. For et ne (following ut or a previous ne), neve (or neu) is used- as,

Hoc dico ut bono animo sit neve perturbetur, / say this that he may be of good courage and may not be disturbed Abibo ne eum videam neve audiam, / will go away that I may not see or hear him.

f

FINAL AND CONSEC'l^IVE CLAUSES. 97

6. The Rel. qui (called qui final) is often used with the Subjun. to express a purpose: as

Misit legatos qui pacem peterent. He sent ambassadors to sue for peace (qui = ut ei, that they).

Note. — Rel. adverbs, like ubi (where) and unde {whence), are used with the Subjun. like the Rel. Pron., to express a purpose: as,

Domum ubi habitaret legit. He chose a house where he might dwell (ubi = ut ibi, that there) ;

Cupit habere unde solvat. He wants to have means to pay (unde = ut inde, that thence.)

7. Instead of the Eng. Inf. of Purpose, the following forms may, therefore, be used for : He sent ambassadors to sue for pence.

ut pacem peterent (ut final). qui pacem peterent (qui final). ad pacem petendam (gerundive Ace. with ad). Legatos misit i P^^^^ petendae causa (gerundive Gen. with causa), ad pacem petendum (gerund Ace. with ad). pacem petendi causa (gerund Gen. with causa), pacem petitum (supine after verb of motion), 'pacem petituros (Put. Part. Act. : rare).

Consecutive Clauses.

8. Clauses in Latin that express a result (consecutive clauses) are also expressed in Latin by Ut (so that) and the Subjun.: as,

Ita vivit ut nihil habeat. He lives in such a way that he has nothing.

9. Ut consecutive is used after the following demonstrative words: Talis, such; tantus, so great, such; tot, so many; toties, so often; sic, ita, tarn, so; adeo, to such a degree.

10. The rule for the sequence of tenses (after a past tense) docs not apply to Consec. clauses. The Perf. Subjun. is used of a single act, the Imperf. of a repeated or continuous one: as,

Tantus timor omnes occupavit ut rex ipse fugerit. Such fear seized all, that the king himself fled (of a single act).

Tanta tempestas coorta est ut nulla navis cursum tencre posset. So great a storm arose that no ship could hold its course (of a con- tinuous act).

11. If a negative is required in the Consec. clause, ut non is used I and not — as in a final clause — ne: as,

98 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Tarn caecus fuit ut me non viderit. He was so blind that he du not see me (or as not to see me). So too, in a Consec, clause That no one is ut nemo, that nothing is ut nihil, that no (Adj.) i ut nullus, and that never is ut nunquam: as,

Talis erat ut nemo ei crederet. He was of such a character tha no one used to believe him,.

Tam improbus fuit ut nihil eum unquam a scelere revocaverit He was so wicked that nothing ever recalled him from crime.

Ita insulam vexavit ut ea restitui in antiquum statum nullo mode potuerit. He so harried the island that it could in no way be restorec to its ancient condition.

Exercise 27.

I. Let is go to Rome to see the games. 2. Why do they not sur round the city with a wall, that it may be more secure? 3. We an preparing arms, not to attack you but to defend the country. 4. I1 is so covered with trees that it seems a forest. 5. Take away his swore that he may hurt no one. 6. It may happen that you are some times (aliquando) wrong. 7. They took Cincinnatus from the plougl to make him consul. 8. The river was so deep that no one coulc cross. 9. It was so hard that no one could do it. 10. Do this, that no one may blame you. 11. He went away that he might not see us. 12. Having heard of the disaster, he sent out scouts (explor- atores) to ascertain (cognosco) the truth. 13. He used to say that while learning to command, we ought also to obey. 14. Remembei how well this man has deserved of his country. 15. Wait till the class is dismissed. 16. You ought to have waited till I returned.

§ 28. CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES.

I. Causal Adver. clauses state the cause or reason for the fact mentioned in the main clause. They are usually introduced by quod, quia (because) or quoniam (=quum iam, since now, seeing that) which are followed by the Indie, when the reason they introduce is given on the speaker's own authority; by the Subjun., when it is given on the authority of another: as,

Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet invent utem. Socrates was accused because (as was alleged) he was corrupting the young men (corrumpebat would mean that the speaker vouched for the truth of the charge). /

CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 99

N.B. — This use of the Subjun. is caWed virtual oblique and is very :ommon.

2. Cum, in the sense of since, is often used to introduce a causal :lause: as,

Haec cum ita sint, abibo. As this is so, I shall go away.

3. The Rel. Qui (called qui causal) is often used with the Subjun. 0 introduce a causal clause: as,

Pecasse videor qui a te discesserim. // seems I hive dyne wrong, nasmuch as I have parted from you (peccasse = peccavisse).

Note. — In this sense, qui is often strengthened by the addition of luippe or utpote, indeed, as being: as, Multa de me questus est juippe qui in me incensus esset. He complained at length of me, in- asmuch as he had been exasperated against me.

4. Qui causal is often found with the Ace. of exclamation: as, Me miserum, qui haec fecerim. Wretched that I am for doing this !

5. Non quod or non quo, with the Subjun., is used to introduce L rejected reason: as.

Hoc laudo non quod honestum sit, sed quod utile est. / praise this, lot because it is honorable but because it is expedient.

So too, Non quin, not but that: as,

Non quin me ames sed quod abire cupio. Not but that you love ne, but because I am anxious to go.

6. Of the Concessive conjunctions, Quamquam takes the Ind., [uamvis or licet the Subjun., and etsi the construction of Si (Section ;o) : as,

Romani, quamquam proelio fessi erant, tamen proccdunt. The Romans, although they were weary with fighting, nevertheless advance.

Vita brevis est quamvis (licet) supra mille annos exeat. Life s short though it extends beyond a thousand years.

Etsi falso in suspicionem venisses, tamen mihi ignoscere debuisti. Iven though you had been falsely suspected, still you should have pardoned ne (in suspicionem venire = the Pass, of suspicor, / suspect).

Note. — In Tacitus, Quamvis often has the Ind. and quamquam the )ubjun.

7. Quamvis may be used with single words as an adverb with no nfluence on the verb of the clause: as,

Hie, quamvis facetus, odio est. He however witty, is hated (or whatever his wit. [Odio esse, tq^ for an object of hate, is the Pass, of ►di, / hate].

OQJO esc.

100 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

8. The Rel. Qui with the Subjun., is often used concessively. I is called Qui concessive: as,

Caesar, qui haec videret, tamen aciem instruxit. Though Caesa saw this, still he drew up his line (qui =quamvis).

9. Latin Concessive conjunctions are used to express Englisl phrases like In spite of, notwithstanding, whatever: as,

In spite 0} his being a good man, he was condemned. Is quamquan vir bonus erat, condemnatus est.

However guilty he may he {whatever his guilt), he will he acquitted Is, quamvis nocentissmus sit, absolvetur.

10. Quamquam is often used co-ordinately, in the sense of and yei as,

Quamquam de illis satis provisum erat. And yet, with regard t them, sufficient provision had heen made.

Exercise 28. I. They are silent because they fear danger. 2. Aristides vva banished because he was just {virt. ohl.). 3. Oh wretched man, whi seest not that death is to be contemned! 4. He praises him becaus( he was self-restrained {{temperans) . 5. He was sorry because h( held the same political opinions as I {idem sentire de re p.). 6. Sinc( that is the case, I commend {laudo) the Bill {rogatio). 7. He wa thrown into prison because he had killed his friend. 8. Although hi was unwilling, he ordered the men to advance. 9. Though he i worthy of punishment, I pity him. 10. Do not hinder them fron coming here. 11. He was angry with me because I preferred gaii to friendship. 12. He kept asking them for the corn they hac promised {virt. ohl.). 13. It makes no matter to us how you got th( money. 14. They reached Rome before we knew that they had se out. 15. Although many dangers impend over me, I am deter mined to face {suhire) them. 16. And yet he has always contemnec pleasure. 17. Shall we ever know what his opinion is? 18. I an surprised that {quod) you write nothing for me.

§ 29. QUI WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC.

I. It has been seen that Qui is used with the Subjun. to express {a) A purpose: Legatos misit qui pacem peterent. He sent amhas sadors to sue for peace.

QUI WITH THE SUBJUN. CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC. 101

(b) A reason: Me miserum, qui hoc fecerim. Wretched that I am for having done this.

(c) A concession: Caesar, qui haec videret, tamen copias eduxit. Caesar, though he saw this, led out his forces.

It is much more widely used to express a Characteristic: as, * Non is sum qui hoc faciam. / am not the one to do it (qui = ut ego, ihat I). Here Is qui has the force of such as to, of such a kind as tu _

2. A Rel. Clause of Characteristic is used after the following: {a) Certain indefinite expressions: Sunt qui {there are some who),

liabeo qui (/ have who), reperiuntur qui {there are found who), nemo •est qui {there is no one who), quis est qui? {{who is there who?), nihil •est quod {there is nothing that), est cur {there is reason why), quotus- quisque est qui {how few there are who): as,

Sunt qui discessum animi putent esse mortem. There are some ■who think the departure of the soul is death.

Nihil est quod dicere velim. There is nothing that I wish to say.

Nihil est cur irascare. There is no reason why you should be angry.

Nihil habet quo se defendat. He has nothing to defend himself with.

{b) After dignus {worthy), indignus {unworthy), and idoneus or aptus {fit): as,

Dignus est qui ametur. He is worthy to be loved { = he is worthy ihat he should be loved = he deserves to be) .

(c) After Quam with a Compar. : as,

Maior est quam cui resisti possit. He is too great to be resisted ( = greater than to whom it can be resisted) .

Note. — Possum, I can, is u-sed impersonally, only when joined with a Pass. Inf.

{d) In Neg. and Interrog. sentences, after Tam, sic, adeo(5o),or tantus {so great): as. Nemo tam (or quis tam) ferreus est qui haec faciat. No one is (or who is) so iron-hearted as to do this.

3. Instead of Qui non, quin {who not) with thcSuhjun., is often used: as,

Nemo est quin sciat. There is no one who does not know. 4". Qui with the Subjun. is also used in a restrictive sense: as, Nemo, qui quidem paulo prudentior sit, hoc dubitat. No one who at least is a man of some sense, doubts this = {if, at least, he is.) So, too: Nemo, (juod sciam. A^^ one, as far as I know.

102 handbook of latin.

Exercise 29.

I. There are certain men whom we do not care to see often. 2- Who is there who does not hate the coward? 3. Is there anyone so- hard as not to be moved by these tears? 4,4. No one doubts that the soul is immortal. 5. Nothing is so obscure that it cannot be found out by inquiry {quaero). 6. Is anyone so foolish that he can under- stand nothing? 7. He is not the man to forget his friends^ 8. I will send you a man to tell you the truth. 9. Is he a fit person to be trusted ? 10. He was unworthy to obtain such an office. »/ii. You have committed a crime too great to be forgiven. ^12. How few there are who like him! 13. Why did you not ask him what he was doing? 14. This book is too difficult to- understand. Ji^. I did not doubt that he had spoken the truth. 16. Although the king was dying, he ordered them to surrender the city. 17. He used to say that gold was better than silver, and know- ledge better than gold. 18. He replied that, as soon as {cum primum) it was reported that an enemy was near, all who were in the country fled for refuge (confugio) into the town. 19. O happy Achilles- who found Homer for a herald {praeco) !

§ 30. CCNEITIONAL CLAUSES.

1. A conditional sentence contains (a) a main clause, (&) an adver- bial clause stating the condition on which the statement of the main clause is, or would be, true. The clause containing the condition is called the ^/-clause.

2. The common types of the conditional sentence are as follow's: —

IND.

IN

BOTH

CLAUSES.

If-Clause

Main Clause,

Si quis haec dicit,

errat.

If anyone says this,

he is wrong.

Si quis haec dixit.

erravit.

// anyone said this,

he was ivrong.

2. Si quis haec dicet (or dixerit), errabit.

// anyone says (lit., shall say or

said) this, he will he wrong.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 103

SUBJUN. IN BOTH CLAUSES.

3. Si quis haec dicat, erret.

// anyone were to (or should) say

this, he would be wrong.

4. Si quis haec diceret, erraret.

If anyone were saying this (now), he would be wrong.

5. Si quis haec dixisset, erravisset.

If anyone had said this (in the past) , he would have been wrong. Note. — Instead of the Eng. Pres. referring to the future (as irt type 2), Latin uses the Put., or — if the action of the verb in the if- clause is over before that of the main verb begins — the Put. Perf.

3. Unless (or if not with the force of unless) is nisi or ni: as,

Nisi arma sumpsisses, deletus esses. Unless you had taken up arms, you would have been destroyed.

Nisi medicus adesset, puer moreretur. If the doctor were not here, the boy would be dying. But when if not cannot be turned into unless, it is expressed by si non: as,

Cur mihi noces, si ego tibi non noceo ? Why do you harm me, if I do not harm you?

)4. Any, after si or nisi, is quis: as, Si quis ita fecerit, poenas dabit. // anyone does so, he will be punished (lit., shall have done so).

5. Whether. . . .or, introducing ab^native conditions, is expressed by sive (seu) . . . .sive (seu): as,

Sive adfuisti sive abfuisti, nihil dico. Whether you were present or absent, I say nothing.

Note — Sive.... sive must be distinguished from utrum...an, in- troducing a dependent double question and used as the Subj. or Obj. of a verb: as,

Utrum velit an nolit, rogo. / ask whether he is willing or un- willing.

6. But if, introducing a corrected condition, is sin (=si-|-ne, ij not); if not (without a verb) is si minus (or, rarely, si non): as,

Si rogas, respondeo; sin nihil rogas, taceo. If you ask, I answer; but if you don I ask, I hold my peace.

Si haec fecerit, gaudebo; si minus, aequo animo feram. // he does it, I shall be glad; if not, I shall bear it with patience.

4a

104 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

7. Nisi forte (or vero) is often used to express an ironical objection: as,

Nisi forte existimatis eum dementem fuisse. Unless indeed you think that he was mad ( = you surely do not think).

8. The verb of the if -clause in Indir. Narr. is in the Subjun,: as, Dicit se, si quid habeat, daturum esse. He says that, if he has

anything, he will give it.

Dixit se, si quid haberet, daturum esse. He said that, if he had anything, he would give it (secondary sequence).

Exercise 30.

I. If I had set out that night, I should have seen him. 2. If he is in command of the army (praesum) , the country will be safe. 3. If you should askme that, I should answer nothing. 4. If I am present, I shall speak. 5. If I knew the name of that flower, I should value it more highly. 6. If dogs barked in the daylight (luce), they would be killed. 7. Whether he reads or writes, he wastes no time. 8. Will you ask them how much I ought to give? 9. Whether you were absent or whether you were present, you will be punished. 10. Economy (parsimonia) is the art of using money with moderation {moderate). 11. Even a short life is long enough for (ad) living well. 12. Time would fail me to tell all. 13. By burning his ships, he taught the army that there was no hope of returning home unless victorious. 14. Wait till you know which of the two ought to be assisted. 15. When he learns the danger, he will advise you not to leave (excedo) the camp.

§ 31. CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCE S.

Conditional Sentences may be divided into three classes:

I. Simple present and past conditions.

II. Future conditions.

III. Conditions contrary to fact.

The first class includes conditional sentences in which nothing is said as to the fulfilment of the condition. These are easily recogni- sed when the other two classes can be distinguished. They have the Ind. in both clauses: as,

Pecuniam si habet, dat. If he has money, he gives it.

Pecuniam si habuit, dedit. // he had money, he gave it.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 105

Note. — Si rarely stands at the head of the sentence. Hence the common use of Quodsi {hut if) for si, at the head of a si-clause.

2. The second class includes those in which the fulfilment of the condition is referred to the future. Of these there are two types: —

{a) Where the condition is regarded as likely to be fulfilled: as,

Pecuniam si habebit, dabit. // he has (Old Eng,, shall have) money, he will give it.

Here the Fut. Ind. is used in both clauses. But the Fut.-Perf. is used in the ^/-clause, when the action of the Vb. of that clause is to be represented as over before that of the main Vb. begins: as,

Hoc si fecerit, morietur. // he does this (lit., shall have done), he will die.

(b) Where the condition is regarded as unlikely to be fulfilled. Such sentences have in English would or should in the main clause: as, Pecuniam si habeat, det. // he should have money, he would give it. Here the Pres. Subjun. is used in both clauses.

3. The' tJiird class includes those in which the condition is repre- sented as not fulfilled. Of these also there are two types:

(a) Where the condition is referred to the present. These have in English the word now (expressed or understood) in both clauses: as,

Pecuniam si haberet, daret. // he had money (now), he would give it (now).

Here the Imperf. Subjun. is used in both clauses.

(b) Where the condition is referred to the past. This type has in English would have in the main clause: as,

Pecuniam si habuisset, dcdissct. If he had had money, he would have given it.

Here the Pluper. Subjun. is used in both clauses.

Note I. — In sentences of Class HI., the ^/-clause may refer to the past, while the main clause refers to the present, or vice versa: as, I Hi si haec fecisscnt, vivcrcnt. // they had done this, they would now be alive.

Note 2. — The first type of Class HI. is also used of past time to express continuous action: as, Haec si sentircnt, sapientcs essent. // they had held these views, they would have been wise.

106 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

4. Provided that is expressed by dum, by modo, or by dummodo, all with the Subjun. (with ne for non in Neg. clauses): as,

Veniant dum ne maneant. Let them come, provided that they do not remain. « 5. Si, nisi, si non (or minus) may be used with single words: as,

Historia nihil nisi annalium confectio fuit. History was nothing but the compiling of annals.

Cum spe, si non optima, at aliqua tamen vivere. To live with some hope, if not the highest.

Note. — At tamen is always used with single words, never used to introduce a sentence.

Exercise 31,

I. If you wish, you can do anything. 2. If my slaves feared me in this way, I should think that I ought to leave my house. 3. Leap from the ship, gentlemen, unless you wish to betray the eagle to the enemy. 4. If they should say this, they would be telling a false- hood. 5. If I had thought this the best thing to be done, I would not have given him an hour to live. 6. If you follow them to the river, they will all be captured. 7. As long as he lived, he opposed me. 8. They would (use volo) not help you, if they could, and they could not, if they would. 9. If he were alive, we should hear his voice. 10. If you had not come to the army, you would have been seen by the magistrate. 11. Provided that there is a wall between you and me, I shall be free from fear. 12. They fought in such a

r narrow sea, that their ships could not be deployed (explico). 13. Provided that he is not killed, I shall be content. 14. I believe that no one ever assisted his friend as much as he. 15. You ought-

►to have returned home, as soon as you heard of your brother's death. 16. Will you ask him which of the two was the first to pro- pose (fero) the law.

§ 32. MAY, CAN, MUST, OUGHT. PERSONAL AND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

I. Except in wishes, commands etc. (§13), may is not expressed in Simple Sentences by the Subjun. Thus: Fieri potest ut fallar. / may be deceived. Licet vobis ire. You may go (permission).

PERSONAL AND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 107

2. An Adj. joined to an Inf. with licet is in the Dat., if the noun or pronoun is expressed, if not, in the Inf.: as.

Licet vobis esse ignavis. You may be cowards. Licet esse ignavos. We may be cowards (Wt., it is allowed to be cowards).

3. Ought or should, expressing moral obligation, is debeo or oportet with the Inf.: as,

Pecuniam solvere debes. You ought to pay the money.

The Eng. Perf. Inf. used after might, could, ought, is expressed in Latin by the Pres. Inf.: as.

Hoc mihi facere licuit. / might have done it.

Hoc facere potui. / could have done it.

Note I — Duty, obligation, etc. are usually expressed by the Pass. Periphr. Conjug. (§15).

Note 2 — Both licet and oportet may take the Subjun. (with or without ut): as,

Eum, ut libet, ludas licet. You may fool him as you please (ut omitted).

Ex rerum cognitione redundet oportet eloquentia. Eloquence must flow from knowledge of the subject (ut omitted).

, 4. Must, expressing strong probability, is Haud fieri potuit quin, it could not have been but that: ^s, Haud (or non) fieri potuit quin earn videret. He must have seen her.

PERSONAL AND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

5. The pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons are rarely expressed, except for emphasis or contrast: as,

Ego laudo sed tu vituperas. / praise, but you blame (pronouns expressed because in antithesis.)

Ego illud dicam. For my part I will say this (pronoun emphatic).

The personal pronouns of the 3rd person are wanting, but are supplied by the demonstratives Is, bic, or ille, this, that.

Note. — Is expresses the article a or the, used emphatically before a relative: as, Redde eum librum quem abstulisti. Restore the book which you took away.

6. The three Demonstrative pronouns. Hie, iste, ille, refer respec- tively to the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons: as. Hie liber, this book (near mej; ista opinio, that opinion of yours; illis dicbus, in those days.

108 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

7. In phrases like This is life, the demonstrative agrees in Latin with the predicate noun: as,

Haec est vita. This is life.

Ea demum est vera felicitas. This {and this only) is true happiness. Iste is used contemptuously: as, Iste homo, that fellow. It is also used of the other party to a suit, while hie means, my client.

8. Ille is joined to quidem {indeed), with a concessive force: as, Non multum ille quidem nee saepe dicebat, sed Latine loquendo

cuivis erat par. He did not speak much or often, hut in speaking Latin he was equal to any one { = although he did not . . yet . . ) .

It often begins a sentence to refer to a noun or noun-clause coming after: as,

Scitum est illud Catonis. The following saying of Cato is good.

Illud vereor ne fames in urbe sit. This is what {the following is what) I am afraid of, that there will he famine in the city.

In phrases like My house and that of my friend, Latin omits the demonstrative: as,

Domus mea et amici veniit. My house and that of my friend have been sold.

Note. — If a change of case is required, the noun is repeated: as, Liberi nostri cariores sunt amicorum liberis. Our children are dearer than those of our friends.

9. Idem, same, is often used to express also, at the same time, at once: as,

Cicero orator erat idemque philosophus. Cicero was an orator and, at the same time, a philosopher.

10. Ipse, self, may be added for emphasis to a noun, pronoun, or numeral: as,

Se ipsum interfecit. He killed himself.

Triginta ipsi dies. Exactly thirty days. • Adventu ipso hostes terruit. By his mere {very) arrival, he fright- ened the enemy.

Ipse is also added in the Gen. to a possessive pronoun to express the English own: as,

Mea ipsius culpa. My own fault.

Vestra ipsorum amicitia. Your own friendship.

This Gen. is in apposition with the Gen. implied in the Possessive (mea = mei, of me. Gen. of ego).

the reflexive pronoun. 109

Exercise 32. I. A law vshould be short. 2. Tell me when that friend of yours in- tends to set out for Rome. 3. It may be that he has advised them to surrender {se dedo). 4. You might have left the city immedi- ately (use possum). 5. If you are fortunate, you will see the same honours in your own house as you see to-day in that of your sister's.

6. He thought that these people excelled the rest (ceteri) in valor.

7. You have a small town, no doubt, but a very prosperous one.

8. The very fear of danger often brings {affero) disaster upon us.

9. He said that he would write to us himself. 10. You will hardly know (cognosco) yourselves. 11. Does not the following fact (res) show his worth, that all the cities have surrendered to him^^ 12. My client (hie) begs you to consider what crimes the other party (iste) has himself committed. 13. Restore us the freedom you have yourselves snatched from us. 14. Ask him why he has sent us the same things as before. 15. I for my part exhort you to obey the laws. What is done cannot be undone. 16. Do not tell me that they have lost the opportunity of seizing the hill. 17. Do not in- quire with regard to (de) that matter of yours. 18. If this could be done, life would not be highly valued. 19. They have fled from the fields to save themselves from the fire (use causa). 20. I did not know whether he praised or blamed us.

§ 33. THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN.

1 . A reflexive pronoun is one that refers to the subject of a verb : as, Tu te laudas. You praise yourself. Here te is a reflexive, re- ferring to the subject of laudas.

The first and second personal pronouns are used as reflexives of the first and second persons: as.

Ego me laudo, / praise myself; vos vos laudatis, you praise your- selves.

Note. — The suffix -met is added to a reflexive for emphasis: as, An tcmet contemnis? Do you despise yourself?

2. The forms Sui, sibi, se, usually refer to the Subj. of the main verb: as,

Brutus se interfecit. Brutus killed himself.

Dixit se id fecisse. He said that he did it{ Se refers to the subject of dixit).

110 ' HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Cicero effecerat ut Curius consilia Catilinae sibi proderet. Cicero' had managed that Curius should betray Catiline's plans to him (Cicero).

3. If it may do so without ambiguity, Se may be used quite gen- erally as a reflexive of the 3rd Pers. : as.

Reliquos se convertere cogit. He compels the rest to turn {them- selves) .

Haec per se expetenda sunt. These things are to he sought in themselves {i.e., for their own sake.)

So too: Sui compos, master of one's self; sui fiducia, self-confidence.

4. When him, her, etc., refer to the Subj. of a Subord. clause, ipse, is generally used: as,

Rogavit ut eos dederent qui ipsos prodidissent. He asked them /9 surrender those who had betrayed them (se would refer to the subject cf rogavit).

5. The rules for the use of suus are the same as for the use of se. Thus:

(a) Suus usually refers to the subject of the main verb: as, Eos gladio suo interfecit. He killed them with his sword.

{b) If no ambiguity arises, suus is used without any reference to the subject of the Vb.: as,

lussit eos ad sua quemque signa redire. He ordered them to return, each to his own standard.

Note. — Quisque, each, is often joined in this way with suus.

So too: Sui cives, one's own countrymen; sua sponte, of one's own accord.

(c) His, her, etc., referring to the Subj. of a subord. clause, are ex- pressed by the Gen. of ipse: as, Rogavit ne se dederent iis qui ini- mici sui et ipsorum essent. He begged them not to give him up to those who were his enimies and theirs.

Note. — In turning into Latin iJe ^^//ec? Caius with his own sword {i.e., Caius's sword), it is better to make Caius the Subj. of a Pass, verb, in order that suus may, as usual, refer to the subject: as,

Caius gladio suo ab eo interfectus est. Caius was killed by him with his own sword.

6. His, her, its, their, are usually expressed by the Gen. of Is: as, Dixit se eorum amicum esse. He said that he was their friend.

The possessive is not expressed in Latin, if no ambiguity arises from its omission: as, Patri pare. Obey your father.

THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. Ill

7. Inter se may be used to express the English reciprocal pronoun ^ne another: as,

Furtim inter se aspiciebant. They looked furtively at one another. Inter se differunt. They differ from one another.

Exercise 33.

I. Show yourselves worthy of your ancestors. 2. He says that he does not pity you but himself. 3. He said that there were many in V the city who would never forgive themselves. 4. We all know that the man who cannot restrain himself, cannot restrain his soldiers. 5. Hardly anyone would deny that his character changes as old age approaches {advenio: Abl. Abs.). 6. I believe that he was indignant (gravor) because they asked him to pay back (reddo) the money. 7. He said that birds returned to their homes in the spring. 8. They have sold themselves for gold. 9. I see that you are ashamed of your conduct (factum) and that Tie is not. 10. You know how to praise yourselves. 11. He said that riches were dearer to him than honor. 12. They put him to death before he was able to do much harm to the credit (fides) of the country. 13. We remained in the city until we were able to elect the man we favored. 14. They have always differed from each other on politics (res publico). 15. Do not defer until your opportunity is lost. 16. If they gave him the money, nothing would have remained to buy food. 17. If he should pay the debts of the poor, he would soon have the greatest influence (use multum valeo) with them?

§ 34. QUIS, QUISQUAM, AND QUI7IS.

I. The English any is expressed by the indef. pronoun quis, quae for qua), quid (or quod), after si (if), nisi (unless), ne, num, quo or c|uanto: as.

Si quis hoc dicit, errat. // anyone says this, he is wrong.

Nisi quid vis, abibo. Unless you want anything, I will go away.

Ne quid nimis facias. Do not do anything to excess.

Num quis infantibus irascitur? Is anyone angry with children?

Quo quis callidior est, co invisior. The more cunning anyone is, the more hated he is.

Note I. — Instead of cpiis, (luisciuain may be used for an emphatic

112 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

any: as, Si quisquam sapiens erat, is erat. // anyone was wise, he was.

Note 2. — Of the two Neut. Sing, forms, quid is a pronoun, quod, an Adj.: as, Vereor ne quid subsit doli, / am afraid lest any guile may lurk beneath; num quod officium aliud mains est? is any other duty greater?

2. Any, in the sense of any you please, every, is quivis (from quis» any, and vis, you wish) : as,

Non cuiusvis est adire Corinthum. It is not every one who can visit Corinth.

3. After a negative, any is quisquam, or — if used as an Adj. — ullusr as,

Nee quisquam hoc dicet. Nor will anyone say this.

Nee ulla res unquam atrocior fuit. Nor was anything ever more- atrocious.

Note. Owing to the prominent place given to the negative, Nee quisquam, nee ullus, often begin a sentence.

4. Quisquam and ullus are also used for a7iy aher virtual negatives such as vix (scarcely), sine (without), and comparatives and interro- gatives that expect the answer No: as,

Vix quisquam reperiri potuit. Scarcely anyone could be found.

Hoc sine ullo auxilio feci. / have done this without any help.

Fortior fuit quam quisquam amicorum. He was braver than any of his friends ( = none of his friends was so brave.)

Num tu me existimas ab ullo malle mea legi quam a te? Do you. think that I prefer my works to be read by anyone rather than by you?

5. Any, where it means some (i.e., not none), is aliquis or, rarelvr quispiam: as.

Si ad aliquam spem commodi Fortuna nos reservavit, bene est.^ // Fortune has reserved us for any hope of advantage, it is well.

Nemo est sine aliqua virtute. No one exists without some virtue.

6. Other compounds of the indefinite quis are:

(a) Quidam, some om;-n'certain one, a, used of a person or thing known to the speaker but not fully described: as.

Tempore quodam quidam homo Aesopo lapidem impegit. Once upon a time a certain man threw a stone at Aesop.

QUIS, QUISQUAM, AND QUIVIS. 113

Note. — Quidam is frequently used to apologise for the use of a bold or figurative expression: as, In vigilia quadam mansi. / kept (as it were) upon the watch.

(b) Nescio quis, some or other: used as a single word: as,

Nescio quis prope me loquitur. Somebody or other is speaking near me.

Hoc nescio quo pacto contigit. This, in some strange way, has happened.

(c) Quisque, each, every. It never begins a sentence: as,

Quod cuique contingit, id quisque teneat. What jails to each, let each person keep.

Quisque is frequently joined to the reflexive suus, in which case it is written after, never before, suus: as.

Suae quemque fortunae maxime poenitet. Every one is greatly dissatisfied with his own fortune.

It is frequently found with a superlative: as,

Ex philosophis optimus quisque confitetur multa se ignorare.

All the best of the philosophers admit that they are ignorant of many things.

(d) Ecquis: often used, instead of num quis, to express impatience: as,

Ecquis hoc ostium aperiet? Will anyone open this door?

{e) Quisnam, who, pray ? frequently used for quis in questions, to express impatience: as,

Quidnam tibi negotii fuit in meis aedibus? What business had you, pray, in my house?

Exercise 34. I. Scarcely any letters can reach us. 2. It seemed as if all loyal men {use bonus) were angry with us. 3. If all the loyal have perished, who is worthy to govern the country? 4. They felt that they could do anything to prevent Caesar from becoming king. 5. It is not everyone's fortune to attain such distinction. 6. Can anyone be- lieve tht he is ashamed of his mistake? 7. No one will attempt any- thing without some assistance. 8. I thought that he was more learned that any of his contemporaries (aequalis). 9. Was it of importance to anyone that this man should be spared? 10. Do not hesitate to say whether you need any help. 1 1 . I am afraid that some

114 HANDBOOK OF LATIN,

\

disaster is threatening. ^ 12. They begged that some part of their work might be reduced (minuo). 13. I am willing to send anyone at all, to find out what is going on. 14. Some poet or other has said that ill got (pario) is ill spent (use dilabor). 15. Do you think that justice ever injured anyone? 16. Let each one keep his own. 17. They say that he wishes to seem somebody. 18. Whenever he heard anything of that kind, he always said that the story {res) was well invented. 19. Whether they elect him or not, the country will n3ver be ashamed of him. 20. Tell the citizens whether you intend to support (faveo) him or not.

§ 35. THE INFINITIVE.

1. The Inf. is a neuter noun and is often used as the subject or ob- ject of a verb: as,

Humanum est errare. To err is human.

2. The Subj. of the Inf., if indefinite, is omitted: as, Incolumem redire licet. Owe may return unhurt.

3. Many verbs take an Inf. after them to complete their meaning: as,

Vincere scis; victoria uti nescis. You know how to win a victory; you do not know hoio to use one.

Such verbs are called modal verbs (§24).

4. In the historians, the Pres. Inf. is often used instead of the Impf. Ind. especially when a series of actions is described: as,

Caesar cotidie eos frumentum flagitare. Caesar kept importuning them daily for corn.

Pars cedere, alii insequi; neque signa neque ordines observare. Some retired, others advanced; they observed neither standards nor ranks.

This is called the historic Inf. It is common in Livy.

5. The Subj. of the Inf. is in the i\cc.: as,

Te hoc facere mirum est. That you should do this, is strange. Decorum est domos nostras patere hospitibus. // is a fitting thing that our houses should be open to strangers. This is a common use of the Inf. in Latin.

6. The subject of an Inf. depending on dicor (/ am said), videor (/ seem) , and the like is in the Nom : as, Homerus dicitur caecus f uisse Homer is said to have been blind.

THE INFINITIVE. 115

7". After verbs of saying and thinking, the Ace. with Inf. is used as explained in §4.

TENSES OF THE INF. IN INDIRECT NARRATION.

8. The tense of the Inf. in Indir. Narr. does not change like the tense in the English that-c\a.use, after a past tense: as,

Dixit nivem esse albam. He said that snow was' white (direct = nix est alba, snow is white).

Dixit eos non ignoturos. He said that they would not forgive (direct = non ignoscent, they will not forgive).

Dixit eos cotidie dormiisse. He said that they used to sleep every day (direct = dormiebant, they used to sleep).

Dixit urbem munitam esse. He said that the city had been forti- fied (direct = urbs munita est, the city has been fortified) .

Note. — The Perf. Inf. represents both the Impf., the Perf., and Plpf. Ind., of direct narration.

9. In translating English Indir. Narr. into Latin, it is necessary to find the tense of the direct. The tense of the main verb of the direct is the tense of the Inf. in the Indir.: as.

He said that he would go with the Tenth legion alone. Dixit se cum sola decima legione iturum (direct = ibo, / will go).

He said that he had learnt by experience. Dixit se experiendo di- dicisse (direct = didici, / have learnt).

He said that the gods were the friends of man. Dixit deos honii- num amicos esse (direct = Di amici sunt, the gods are friends).

Exercise 35.

I. There are some who hate all this philosophising (philosophor). 2. He said that it was his to obey. 3. He often said that the end of life was near for all. 4. All know that a poet is born and not made. 5. Not to be covetous (cupidus) is money. 6. After the war was finished they ordered that anyone who had plundered should be put to death. 7. I believe that he gives little money to the poor. 8. He says that he will lead them back to camp at dawn. 9. He told us that he could not write Liitin (Latine). 10. Did he say that he was a Roman citizen? ) 11. I returned as quickly as possible {quant cel- errime), but could not find anyone in (he h»>Mso. i?. Tlicn* wm*; ho

116 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

doubt that many of the enemy had been drowned (absumo) in the river. 13. All expected that he would attack the next day. 14. He said that to have faithfully studied the liberal arts, refined the manners (emollio). 15. It was reported that he was pressing on (contendo) to seize the city. 16. They answered that our credit (fides) had been much injured in the Provinces. 17. He ordered them to be told that he wished the road to be opened. 18. He said that before we could make war again, we must prepare another army. 19. By defeating him in two battles and capturing two camps, he easily persuaded the enemy to make peace.

§ 36. THE INFINITIVil CONTINUED. VERBS OF HOPING.

1. Verbs meaning to hope, promise, swear and undertake, are fol- lowed by a Put. Inf. and not a Pres. Inf. as in English: as,

Sperat se diu victurum. He hopes to live a long time. luro me haec facturum. / swear to do it. Promittit se venturum. He promises to come.

Note. — After such verbs as the above, the Ace. of the pronoun must be used before the Inf.

2. Memini, / remember, is used with the Pres. Inf. (and not the Perf.) of a past e\ient within the knowledge of the person referred to: as,

Meministis Tiberim corporibus compleri. You remember that Tiber was filled with bodies.

3. The Inf. is used in Exclamations: as,

Non puduisse verberare senem. To think of not having been ashamed to beat an old man!

4. The use of a verb of saying parenthetically is not common in Latin. Thus:

You were absent, he thought is Putavit te abesse.

Note. — Inquit, he says, is an exception. It is used to introduce the exact words of a speaker: as,

"Dicam tibi," inquit, "omnia." "/ will tell you," says he, "everything. "

5. In the use of the Ace. with Inf., care is taken to avoid the arii" biguity that may arise from joining a personal subject and an object together. Thus:

THE IXFINITIVE CONTIXUED. 117

Aio te Romanos vincere posse may mean I say that you can con- quer the Romans^ or, / say that the Romans can conquer you. To avoid ambiguity the passive may be used: as, Aio Romanos a te vinci posse.

6. An Inf. in Indir. for the Fut.-Pf. Act is formed from iuturum esse (or fore) and ut with the Peff. Subjun.: as,

Dicit fore ut ceciderit. He says that he shall have fallen (direct = cecidero, / shall have fallen).

Dixit fore ut cecidisset. He said that he should have fallen.

7. An Inf. for the Pluper. Ind. Pass, is formed from the Perf. Part. Pass, .and fuisse: as, He scCys that the city had been attacked be- fore the king arrived. Dicit urbem oppugnatam fuisse priusquam

rex advenerit (direct = urbs oppugnata erat, the city had been at tacked).

8. An Inf. for the Put. -Perf. of deponent or Pass, verbs is formed from the Perf. Part, and fore: as,

He said that the war would soon be finished. Dixit debellat^im mox fore (direct = debellatum mox erit, the war will soon be finished.)

9. Many verbs have no supine and, therefore, no Put. Inf., which is formed from the Supine. Such verbs form their Fut. Inf. by means of fore or futurum esse {to be about to be), and ut with the Subjun.: as,

Dicit fore ut haec poscant. He says that they will demand these things ( = he says it to be about to be that they demand these things) .

Dixit fore ut ea poscerentur. He said that these things ivould be demanded (Imperf. of secondary sequence).

/ think that it will happen to us. Puto fore ut contingat id nobis.

/ thought that it would happen to us. Putavi fore ut contingcret id nobis.

He says that this will be demanded. Dicit fore ut hoc poscatur.

He said that that would be demanded. Dixit fore ut illud posceretur.

Note. — This construction is often used ( as more convenient) even with verbs that have a Supine: as, Dixit fore ut rex mittcretur. He said that the king woidd be sent.

Exercise 36.

I. He exclaimed whiledying that the gods would avenge him. 2. He hopes that ho will do something for his count rw 3. 1 saw th:it

118 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

each of them was measuring the danger by his own fears. 4. We all hoped that he would recover. 5. To think that I should be here- and you in Italy! 6. I believe that he will gladly learn it. 7. To live honorably is to live happily. 8. I believe that then this empire will have been destroyed. 9. "Go forth from a city, " says he,, 'where you are envied by all." 10. They were afraid that they would be thrown from the Rock. 11. To think that he should estimate the lives of his countrymen at such a small price! 12. Even if you should elect the same magistrates again, they would never consent {volo) to propose this law again. 13, If anyone had in- jured me, I should not have avenged myself by violence. 14. They said that he was too good a man to be lost in that way. 15. Does not the sun by his motion measure out the course of the year? 16. He hoped to be able (pres.)to kill the king and seize the sovereign- ty. 17. He said that in that way I would have gained a crown. 18. He said that the city had been taken before they arrived.

§ 37. COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.

1. A comparative adverbial clause expresses agreement (or the opposite) with the statement of the main clause: as,

Ut sementem feceris, ita metes. You shall reap according as you do (lit., shall have done) your seeding.

The following words, used to introduce a comparative clause, are followed by ac (or, before a vowel, atque) for than, as, from, &c. :

Alius {other)-, aliter or secus {otherwise), similis {like), dissimilis- {unlike), par {equal), pariter or aeque {equally), perinde or pro- inde or iuxta {just), pro eo {in proportion): as,

Se gerit longe aliter ac to. He behaves very differently from you.

Siriiili fortuna atque antea utimur. We are having the same fortune as before.

Amicos aeque ac semet diligere oportet. We should love our friends as much as ourselves (lit., one should, &c.).

SYNTAX OF QUAM.

2. Unless with the Nom. or Ace, than after a comparative is ex- pressed by quam and not by the Abl. (§ 8, i): as,

Nemini tribuit plura quam tibi. On none has he bestowed more than on you.

COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 119

Note I. — Quam referring to an Ace. is followed by an Ace. by at- traction: as, Nunquam callidiorem quam eum vidi. / have never seen a cleverer man than he.

Note 2. — Quam is used after Tam is the sense of as: as, Tam mitis est quam tu. He is as mild as you.

It is also added to a Superl. to intensify: as, Quam maximam potest vastitatem efificit. He spreads as wide devastation as possible.

3. A comparative Adv. is usually followed by quam: as,

Nihil dulcius quam luscinia cantat. Nothing sings more sweetly than the nightingale.

Note. — Two Adjs.or Advs.are often joined idiomatically by quam: as, Ferocius quam prudentius pugnant. They fight with more

spirit than sense.

Consilia eius celeriora quam tutiora erant. His plans were more rapid than safe.

4. Comparative clauses introduced by quam take the construction of the main clause or the Subjunc. with or without ut: as.

Nee ultra saeviit quam satis erat. Nor did he show any needless cruelty (lit., nor was he cruel further than was enough).

Perpessus est omnia potius quam (ut) indicaret. He endured everything rather than inform.

Eum aggre^iamur potius quam propulsemus. Let us attack rather than repel him.

Note. — In the same way, quam connects two Infs.: as. Dixit se quid vis potius perpessurum quam exiturum. He said that he would endure anything rather than go forth.

X5- Comparative clauses of condition involving a suppositioHr require the Subjun., and (unless after a past tense) the Pres. or Perf. : as, Honores petunt, quasi honeste vixerint. They are seeking office, just as if they had lived honorably.

Eius crudeljtatem horrebant, quasi ipse adcsset. They feared his cruelty, as if he had been present himself.

^ Note. — This is an apparent violation of the principle of Class III (§31) of Conditional sentences. The fulfilment of the condition is viewed as future and improbable (Class II, b).

6. The following conjunctions are joined in this way witli the Subjun.: Tanquam si, quasi, velut si, as if: as,

Tanquam si hoc difficile sit. As if this were hard.

^«?A^

120 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

7 The English the. .the with two comparatives, is expressed in Latin in two ways: —

(a) By Quo. .eo (or quanto. .tanto) with two comparatives: as Quo (or quanto) quis est melior, eo (or tanto) difficilius suspicatur.

The better a man is, the more difficulty he has in suspecting.

(b) By Ut quisque. .ita with two superlatives: as, Ut quisque vir optimus est, ita difficillime suspicatur. The better a man is, &c.

Note. — This might also be translated: In proportion to a man's goodness, &c., or, In proportion as a man is good, &c.

8. The following are idiomatic uses of ut, as, with the Ind.: —

(a) Ut fortasse vere, sic parum utiliter respondit. Though his answer was true, yet it was not very expedient {concessive and restrictive)

(b) Valde frugi erat, ut servus. He was very thrifty for a slave.

(c) Multum, ut illis temporibus, valuit. He had great influence for that time.

(d) Multae etiam, ut in homine Romano, litterae. A good know- ledge of literature, too, for a Roman.

(e) Pauca, ut semper taciturnus erat, respondit. With his usual reticence, he made a brief reply.

{*[) Magnus pavor, ut in re tam improvisa, fuit. The panic was great, as was natural in so unexpected an occurrence.

Exercise 37.

I. I will make him as quiet (placidus) as a sheep. 2. He used to say that the diseases of the mind were more fatal (exitiosus) than those of the body. 3. He shall be punished as he deserves. 4. I will serve you as though you had bought me for money. 5. You are acting otherwise than I could have wished. 6. The more a man reads, the less often he knows. ^ ^7. I spoke just as I felt. 8. Our losses are too great to be estimated (§29, 2,c). 9. We receive no news from Asia, just as if the Province were closed. 10. They will giv^e you greater honors than they did your father. 11. Let us rejoice rather than complain. 12. He adds that he will be killed rather than that I shall be harmed (violo). 13. You will then be as happy as L 14. You think (sentio) differently from me about this matter. 15. He fled (confugio) to the river before they could seize him. 16. I lived there, just as if I was in my own house. 17. Aft-^r dismissing the army, he

/--

'^^6

EXCEPTIONAL FORMS FOR THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCE. 121

returned to Rome. i8. He sent him into Bactria to prepare food for the army. 19. He always prevented the army from pillaging 20. Do not take away from this man an office to which he has been elected by the whole people. 21. He is as mild as ever (/aw gwam). 22. As was to be expected in such a crisis, the general himself was the only man unmoved.

§ 38. EXCEPTIONAL FORMS FOR THE CONDITIONAL

SENTENCE.

1. Instead of the usual forms for the warn clause, of the condi- tional sentence the following forms in the Indie, are found: —

(a) The Act. Periphrastic (§18, 2.)

(b) The Pass. Periphrastic (§15. 7.)

(c) A verb or phrase denoting duty, possibilty, or propriety, like possum, oportet {it is necessary), debeo (/ ought): as.

Quid, si hostes ad urbem veniant, facturi estis? What would you do, if the enemy should come to the city? (hereTacturi estis, are you likely to do, do you intend to do, is another form for faciatis, would you do, the ordinary form).

Si unum diem morati essetis, omnibus moriendum fuit. if you had delayed a single day, all would have had to die (i.e., would have died) .

Si similem hostem habuisset, rr^agna clades accipi potuit. // he had hadn similar enemy, a great defeat would (or might) have been sustained.

Hunc, si ulla pietas in te fuisset, colere debebas. This man, il there had been any affection in you, you should have (i.e., would have)

honored.

•

Si ita putasset, melius ei fuit. // he had thought so, it would have been better for him.

Note. — The verb of the main clause, in such cases, is in the Ind. and not in the Subjun., as in the ordinary forms of the Conditional -cntence.

2. The forms given above are chiefly employed when the Condi- tional sentence "is used in a dependent clause: as,

/I

122 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Haud est dubium quin urbem, si possit, capturus sit. There is no doubt that he would take the city, if he could (dependent for capiat. he would take).

Non dubitavi quin urbem capturus fuerit. / did not doubt that he would have taken the city (consecutive sequence: =cepisset, he would have taken). ^

Rogo te quid facturus fueris. I ask you what you would %ave,)done. v^

Tanta caedes fuit ut non superfuturus fueris. So great was the slaughter that you would not have survived.

And so in the Pass.:

Eo fit ut, hoc si iussissem, clades accipienda fuerit. Therefore it happens that, if I had given the order, a disaster would have been sustained (or accipi potuerit).

Note. — These examples show the Roman fondness for strict ad- herence to rule. A form was found which would express that a clause was (a) conditional; {b) consecutive, an indirect question, etc. {i.e. a double dependence).

3. An if-clause with the Subjun. is loosely attached to a single word with the main idea suppressed: as,

Ausculto, si quid dicas. I am listening to see if you say anything (i.e., intending to speak if you should say anything).

Exspectabat si hostem elicere posset. He was waiting in the hope that he could draw out the enemy {i.e., if he could draw the enemy out, about to fight them).

Mortem mihi denuntiavit, si pugnavissem. He threatened me with death in case I fought (main clause of the conditional sentence contained in mortem : = si pugnaveris, moriere).

Nuntium ad te misi, si forte non audiisses. I sent a messenger to you, in case you had not heard (here the si-clause expresses purpose and therefore has the subjun.; =that you might hear).

Exercise 38.

I. What would you do, if they should see you? {Act. periphr.) 2. Tell me what you would do, if they should see you. 3. What would you j^avejdone. if they had prevented you from coming? 4. Thereis no doubt what you have done, if they had prevented you

EXCEPTIONAL FORMS FOR THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCE. 123

from coming. 5. The enemy were waiting in case our army should cross the river. 6. If you had wished to capture the city, you should have collected a larger army. 7. There was no doubt that; if you had wished to capture the city, you should have collected a larger army. 8. Can you doubt that, if his plans had succeeded {proceio), we should have been put to death? 9. The whole army might have been {possum) destroyed, if the victors had followed up (persequor) their victory. 10. I asked them whether, if the rest were killed, he would be likely to escape. 11. There is no doubt that, if you do not return, you will injure all of us. 12. Whether you were willing or unwilling, I shall always be grateful. 13. Even if he had been a stranger, you ought (debeo) to have helped him. 14. They poured round in the hope of finding some means of approach. 15. Had he done so, there is no doubt that he would have done it to the public disadvantage (contra rem p.). 16. Why was he exempted (use solve) from the law, in case he should be absent from the city? 17. The enemy were waiting, in the hope that we would cross. 18. There is no doubt that, if I had ordered it, you would have done it. 19. There was no doubt that, if he had not been there, the city would have been taken.

§ 39. INDIRECT NARRATION (ORATIO OBLIQUA)

1. The forms of the Inf. in Ind. Narration have been discussed in §35-

2. Subord. clauses in Ind. Narr. are in the Subjun. and the tense of the verb is determined by the Law of Sequence already explained in § 20: as,

Dicit se eos, quos ceperit, domuni misissc. He says that he has sent home those whom he has captured (direct = Eos quos ccpi, donuim misi, those whom I have captured, I have sent home).

Dixit se eos quos cepissct, domum misisse (ceperit changed to cepisset, in accordance with the Law of Sequence).

Dixit se, quoties potuissct, rediisse. He said that he returned, as often as he could (direct = Quoties potui, redii, 1 returned as often as I

could).

124 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Pronouns of the ist and 2nd person in Indir. become as in Eng- lish pronouns of the 3rd person. Thus:

ego, nos become se

mens, noster " suus

tu, vos " ille, illi

tuus, vester " illius, illorum

hie, iste " ille, is

Adverbs of present time become (after a secondary tense) adverbs of past time. Thus: —

nunc becomes iam, tunc

heri {yesterday)) " pridie {the day before)

hodie {to-day) " illo die {that day)

eras {to-morrow) " postridie {next day)

So: — Hie {here) becomes ibi {there).

3. A statement in a subord. clause of reported speech, made on the authority of the reporter himself, is in the Ind. and not in the Subjun. : Thus: Certior factus est Xerxes id agi ut pons, quem ille in Hellesponto fecerat, dissolveretur. Xerxes was informed that this was intended, i.e., to break down the bridge which he {Xerxes) had built over the Hellespont.. Here the Subord. Rel. clause {quem. . . . fecerat) has the Ind. because the statement is vouched for by the historian himself.

4. The Imperative of direct is in the Subjun. in indirect (after a secondary tense, in the Impf. Subjun., in accordance with the law of sequence): as,

Venire ne dubitaret. Let him not hesitate to come {he said) (direct = noli dubitare, ne dubitaveris or ne dubites).

Ne cunctarentur. Let them not delay {he said) (direct = ne cuncta- mini, do not delay).

5. Questions that expect an answer (in the 2nd. Pers. in direct) are put in the subjunctive in Indirect; rhetorical questions (exclama- tions and appeals, usually in the ist Pers. in direct), in the Inf: as,

(Scripsit) quid de praeda faciendum esse censerent? {He wrote) what did they think should be done with regard to the booty? (direct = quid. . . .censetis? what do you think?).

Quid esse turpius? cur eos dubitare? What was more dishonorable? why did they hestitate? (direct = quid est turpius? cur dubitatis? what is more dishonorable? why do you hesitate?)

INDIRECT NARRATION. 125

6. A Fut.-Perf. Ind. in a Subord. clause of direct narration, be- comes , in indirect, Perf. Subjun. after a prinary tense and Pluperf. Subjun. after a secondary: as,

Dicit eum qui id fecerit, poenas daturum esse. He says that the one who does this, shall he punished.

Dixit eum qui id fecisset, poenas daturum esse. He said that the one who did that, should be punished (direct = qui id fecerit, poenas dabit, he who shall have done that, shall be punished).

7. Indir. narration is often suddenly introduced into the narrative by the historians, without the governing verb of saying being ex- pressed: as,

Regulus reddi captiv^os negavit esse utile: illos enim bonos duces esse. Regulus denied that it was expedient that the captives should be restored: that they were good leaders.

Note. — Nego is the common Latin word for / say not.

Exercise 39.

N.B. — The tense of the main verb of direct is the required tense of the Inf. in Indirect.

I. He promised that he would not be wanting to his friends. 2. He called out (clamo) that, as far as he could, he would follow their steps. 3. He declared that the death of the father would not profit them until (priusquam) they had banished the son. 4. He said that he was ashamed of a country that could banish a man of such abil- ,^ j^, ity. 5. Did you not think that the women and children whom they had captured, should have been spared? 6. He was afraid that a nation which had been so shamefully betrayed (prodo), would never trust us again. 7. He said that he was ready to die for the country. Must they not all die some day? 8. He declared that they ought to march (eo) at once: that they could easily reach the defile (use enim). 9. The law (he said) forbade anything to belong to anyone who refused (nolo) to obey the magistrates. Let them, therefore, take away all his property from him. 10. He said that no one, who was worthy of his country, held such a view (use sentio.) Let them lay side (pono) their fear. Would they ever have such an opportunitv again ?

126

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

§ 40. THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCE IN INDIRECT NARRATION.

The rules of Ind. Narration may be readily applied to the forms of the Conditional Sentence. Thus:

Direct. Indirect.

I. Pecuniam si habet, dat. becomes Dicit se, si pecuniam ha-

beat, dare. If he has money, he gives it. '

He says that if he has money,

he gives it. Dicit se, si pecuniam habu-

erit, Bedisse. **

He says that if he had money,

he gave it. Dicit se, si pecuniam ha-

beat (or habuerit), datu-

ruin esse. He says that if he has money,

he will give it. Dicit se, si pecuniam ha-

beat, daturum esse. He says that if he should have

money, he would give it.

Dicit se, si pecuniam ha-

beret, daturum fuisse. He says that if he had money

{now), he would gi.e it. Dicit se, si pecuniam habu-

isset, daturum fuisse. He says that if he had had money, he would have given it.

Note I. — The future (habebit) in the ^/-clause of direct becomes Pres. Subjun. (habeat) in the Indir., after a primary tense.

Note 2. — The Pres. Subjun. (det), in the main clause, becomes Fut. Inf. (daturum esse) in indirect.

Note 3. — The Imperf. and Pluperf. Subjun. in the main clause (i.e., daret and dedisset), are expressed in indirect by the Fut. Part, with fuisse (i.e., daturum fuisse, to have been about to give).

Pecuniam si habuit, dedit

or (dabat). // he had money, he gave it.

2. (a) Pecuniam si habebit (or

habuerit), dabit.

// he has money, he will give it. {b) Pecuniam si habeat, det. j

// he should have money, he would give it.

3. (a) Pecuniam si haberet, daret

If he had money (now) , he would give it. (b) Pecuniam si habuisset, de- disset.

// he had had money, he would have given it.

THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCE IN INDIRECT NARRATION. 127

After a secondary tense, the verb of the if-clause is changed in .accordance with the rule for the sequence of tenses (§ 20). Thus: —

Direct. Oblique.

1. Pecuniam si habet, dat. becomes Dixit se, si pecuniam ha-

bere t, dare. Pecuniam si habuit, dedit " Dixit se, si pecuniam ha- (or dabat). buisset, dedisse.

2. (a) Pecuniam si habebit (or " Dixit se, pecuniam ha-

habuerit), dabit.' beret (or habuisset), da-

turum esse. (b) Pecuniam si habeat, det. " Dixit se, si pecuniam ha-

beret, daturum esse. .3. (a) Pecuniam si haberet, " Dixit se, si pecuniam ha- daret. beret, daturum fuisse.

(6) Pecuniam si habuisset, de- " Dixit se, si pecuniam ha- disset. buisset, daturum fuisse.

Note I. — The Fut.-Perf. in the zf-clause of direct, becomes Pluperf. Subjun. in indirect..

Note 2. — For 2 (b), the form Dixit fore ut, si pecuniam haberet, daret, is often found (§^6 9).

^

Exercise 40.

I. If anyone should attempt {conor) it, no one would oppose him. 2. Do you think that if anyone had attempted it, they would have opposed (MVrito) him? 3. He said that, if the harvest were large, the country would be rich. 4. Do you think that, if he had been so ignorant of the military art, he would have been victorious that day? 5. I am persuaded that, if he feels rcgfct for his act, they will acquit (absolvo) him. 6. If I had received the letter, I should have hastened as quickly as possible (quam and superl.) to Rome. 7. Although he had promised to spare them, they were led straightway to death. 8. I le answered that if he had known the danger, he would never have gone out. 9. If you used your own judgment, you would do better than anyone. 10. Do not you think that, if he were here, all would be well? II. And let no one say that there is no hope anywhere (usquam). 12. If you detain us, wc shall arrive too late (sgro). 13. They sent envoys to ask why we had not assisted them. 1 1 I > >

128 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

you think that he is a proper person to be received? 15. They said that he ought to have been appointed (praeficio) to the army, even if he had been in a private station {privatus).

§41. INDIRECT NARRATION CONTINUED. REPORTED SPEECHES.

The use of Indirect Narration is much more common in Latin than in English. It is of very common occurrence in the Roman his- torians.

The following passage from Caesar will illustrate its use in re- porting speeches:

INDIRECT NARRATION.

Caesar receives an Embassy from the Helvetii.

Is (the Chief) ita cum Caesare egit. Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem (se) ituros atque ibi futuros ubi Caesar eos esse voluisset. . . . Sin bello persequi persever- aret, reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani....Se a patribus didicisse ut virtute contenderent.

His Caesar ita respondit: Eo sibi minus dubitationis dari, quod eas res, quas legati commemorassent, memoria teneret. . . .Quod si veteris contumeliae oblivisci vellet, num etiam recentium iniuriarum memoriam deponere posse?

The Chief of the Embassy treated with Caesar as follows: If (he said) the Roman people would make peace with the Helvetii, that they would go to that part of the country and remain, where Caesar should wish them to remain. But if he should persist in harassing them in war, let him remember the reverse of long ago sustained at their hands by Rome. That the Helvetii had learned from their fathers to fight valorously.

To this Caesar made the following reply: That he felt all the less hesitation because he remembered the incidents the ambassadors had mentioned. But if he was willing to forget the insult of long ago, could he also lay aside the recollection of recent wrongs?

The Same in Direct Narration. Is ita cum Caesare egit: "Si pacem populus Romanus cum Hel- vetiis faciet, in eam partem ibimus atque ibi erimus ubi Caesar nos

INDIRECT NARRATION CONTINUED. 129

esse voluerit. Sin bello persequi perseverabis, reminiscere veteris in- commodi populi Romani . . . . Nos a patribus didicimus ut virtute contendamus. "

His Caesar ita respondit: "Eo mihi minus dubitationis datur,

quod eas res, quas legati commoraverunt, memoria teneo Quod

si veteris contumeliae oblivisci volo, num etiam recentium iniu- riarum memoriam deponere possum?"

The Chief of the embassy treated with Caesar as follows:" If the Roman people will make peace with the Helvetii, we will repair to that part of the country and remain wherever Caesar shall wish us to remain. But if you persist in harassing us in war, remember the reverse of long ago sustained at our hands by Rome. We have learned from our fathers to fight valorously. "

To this Caesar made the following reply: "I feel all the less hesi- tation because I remember the incidents the ambassadors have men- tioned. But if I am willing to forget the insult of long ago, can I also lay aside the recollection of more recent wrongs?"

Note I. — Faceret, is in the Subjun. because in a Subord. CI. in Indir., and Impf. in accordance with the law of sequence.

Note 2. — Ituros, Fut. Inf. for the main verb of direct (in the Fut. Ind.)

Note 3. — Voluisset, Plpf. Subjun. for the Fut. Pf. of direct and after a past tense.

Note 4. — Reminisceretur, Impf. Subjun. after a past tense for the Imperat. of direct.

Note 5. — Se, for the nos of direct.

Note 6. — Num posse, the Inf. of indirect for a rhetorical question (in the 1st pers.) of the direct.

Exercise 41. Translate into Latin and then turn into indirect narration after Dixit:

A.

1. I will do what I think is for the public interest {e re publico).

2. Seek an opportunity for protracting (traho) the war.

3. If we retreat, we shall benefit ourselves; if wc stand our ground, we shall benefit the enemy. *

4. Why do >'<ni <lisparage (elevo) the courage of your leaders?

130 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

B.

1. The liberty of the plebs, in whom resides (w^e 5Mm) the whole strength of the nation, has been sold for gold.

2. What do you suppose is the reason (causa) for this?

3. Do not forget that you are free men.

4. If you do this (fut. pf.), you will be glad.

C. I. Rome is laying a heavy burden upon me. 2. I will try to be worthy of the high opinion you have of me. 3. How will you enrol {conscriho) so many men? 4. Remember that Rome is despised by all. 5. If you defeat them in the field, all will fear you.

D.

I. The hill is held by the enemy. 2. If you wish to make peace, you will send an envoy to Caesar. 3. If we had taken away their ships from them, they would not have attacked us again. 4. Go away and forget your wrongs. 5. What do you want? Why are you asking us for the same things again? 6. Unless you go away, I will consider you all as {pro) enemies.

§ 42. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT. VIRTUAL OBLIQUE. ASSIMILATION.

1. The deliberative Subjun. after a past tense becomes Impf. in Indirect narration: as,

Nesciebat quo verteret. He did not know where he should turn (direct = quo vertam? Where shall I turn?)

2. A Rel. pronoun in indirect, when used (as it so frequently is) as a connective, is usually joined with the Ace. and Inf., but some- times with the Subjun: as. Dixit id cognitum esse omnibus, de quo falsam opinionem ortam esse. He said that this was known to all and that a false opinion had arisen with regard to it.

3. A Rel. clause in Indir., when its verb is omitted, has its subject in the Ace: as,

Dixit se eadem, quae ceteri sentirent, sentire. He said that he was of the same opinion as the rest.

But: Dixit se eadem, quae ceteros, sentire.

DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIR. 131

4. A Subjun. is used (§28, i) in a Subord. clause to express that the statement of the clause depends on some verb of saying understood: as,

Laudat Panaetius Africanum quod fuerit abstinens. Panaetius praises Africanus because (as he says) he was abstemious.

This is called virtual oblique.

Virtual oblique is used also when the words of another are quoted: as,

Frumentum, Aedui quod polliciti essent, flagitabat. He demanded from the Aedui the corn which they had promised.

5. The verb of a Subor. clause, when depending upon a verb in the Subjun., is itself in the Subjun. This is called assimilation: as,

Concedit ut absim cum aliquid agatur. He allows me to be away when something is going on.

6. Verbs of saying and thinking are not used parenthetically in a sentence in Latin. Thus:

You were, he said, mistaken. Dixit te errare. ) /

Cred«, / believe, so used, has an ironical sense: as, ) ) Cred«, etiam tabulae proferentur. The account-books, I suppose,

will even be produced.

Phrases like ut aiunt {as they say), ut opinor {as I think), ut puto

{as I fancy), are, however, found.

Inquit, he says (or said) is never used to introduce Indir. narration.

It is used in quoting the exact words of another. It is placed after

the first two or three words of the quotation: as.

At Caesar: "Minime vero," inquit, "hoc probo. " But Caesar

said: " I by no means approve of this. "

Exercise 42.

I. This man, they tell me, was born rich. 2. He did not know what he should do {deliberative). 3. I suppose that you are influenced {moveo) by the same things as I. 4. He used to walk at night be- cause he could not sleep. 5. He wondered that one augur did not smile {surrideo) when he went past {praeter) another {alter). 6. He sent them another king, as the one he had sent was useless. 7. You complain that we do not hold the same views (use sentio). 8. He did not know what he ought to answer (delib.). 9. He used to say that every one was the architect {faber) of his own fortune.

132 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

10. No friendship can exist (esse) between us, if you remain in Gaul.

11. He answered that no frienship could exist with them, if they re- mained in Gaul. 12. He begged them not to leave his death un- avenged. 13. He was sent there to consult with regard to the ransoming (redimo) of the prisoners (capHvus). 14. You should not always consult your own interests. 15. I believe that unless we had assisted them, all would have per- ished. 16. No one will ever forget his native {patrius) city. 17. He pited an army (he said) that was not worthy of a better leader. 18. It is said that after plundering the houses, they set them on fire (use ignem inicere). 19. Ask him whether he will attack them while they sleep. 20. They are determined not to survive {super- sum) the capture of the city.

§43. SPECIAL IDIOMS: OBJECTIVE GENITIVE. GERUND WITH PREPOSITION. ATTRACTION OF VOICE.

1. A Gen. is used with nouns derived from verbs, to denote the subject of the verb implied in the governing noun: as,

Morsus canis. The bite of a dog. Here canis represents the sub- ject of the verb mordeo {bite) implied in morsus. It is called the Subjective GenMve.

2. A Gen. is also used, with nouns derived from verbs, to denote the object of a verb implied in a governing noun: as,

Timor mortis. The fear of death.

Here mortis represents the object of timeo {I fear), implied in timor. Thus, propter mortis timorem=quod timeo mortem {be- cause I fear death).

This is called the Objective Genitive.

An Obj. Gen. may represent not only an Ace. but (a) a Dat.; {b) an Abl., or (c) a Prep, and its case: as,

{a) Quis enim est optimarum artium studio praestantior?

Who is more distinguished by zeal for liberal culture? {artium studio representing artibus studere).

{b) Ea magis ex aliorum contentione quam ipsa per se cognosci possunt.

Those qualities can be understood rather from a comparison ivith others than independently (aliorum = cum aliis. Lit. =///e race he runs with others) .

SPECIAL IDIOMS. 133

(c) Hiemis enim non avaritiae perfugium maiores nostri in so- ciorum tectis esse voluerunt.

Our ancestors wished that there should he in the homes of our subjects a refuge from winter, not a retreat for rapacity (hiemis = ab hieme; avaritiae = subject. Gen.).

So too:Aditus laudis, an avenue to distinction (laudis for ad laudem) ; fiducia virium, confidence in strength; dissensio rei publicae, dis- agreement on politics; contentio honorum, a struggle for office (Cf. contendode).

Note. — Only a Gen. case can regularly depend on a noun.

3 The Gerund and Gerundive are used with the Prepositions ad, in, de, e(ex), but rarely with any other: as,

Ad has res conficiendas spatium datiir. Time is given for accom- plishing these things.

In voluptate spernenda virtus cernitur. Virtue is discerned in the despising of pleasure.

4. Instead of other prepositions with a Gerund an equivalent con- struction is used: as, Damnatus est quia pecunias cepisset. He was condemned for taking money.

Hoc feci, te non sentiente. / did it without your perceiving it.

Eum damnant inauditum. They condemn him without hearing him.

Nunquam exercitum eduxit nisi explorato locorum situ. He never led out his army without examining the position of the ground.

Dicit ncc cuiquam persuadet. He speaks without persuading any- one.

Re infecta rediimus. We returned without accomplishing anything.

Cadere ilia non possunt ut haec non concidant. Those cannot fall without these falling with them.

5. Coepi means both / begin and / began, The active form is used when an Ajltiye Inf. follows: as,

Urbem aedificare coepit. He began to build the city.

The passive form (cocptus sum) is used when a Pggs. Inf. follows : as,

Urbs acdificari coepta est. The city began to be built.

This is an example of Attraction of voice.

Compare also: Veteres orationes legi sunt desitae. The speeches of the olden time have ceased to be read.

134 handbook of latin.

Exercise 43.

I. They felt respect (verecundia) for neither gods nor men. 2. He said that there was some consolation for their ill-luck. 3. Self- commiseration took possession (capio) of their minds. 4. Have they lost all interest {euro) in their own condition? {res) 5. Discrimination (discrimen) between things human and things divine was unimpaired (salvus). 6. Man has an immoderate desire for wealth. 7. A de- cision (discrimen) was allowed them with regard to all these matters- at once. 8. Are all your plans formed for attacking the enemy? 9. This was their first place of refuge (receptaculum) from that un- lucky field (pugna). 10. You showed what kind of magistrate you would have been. 11. He said that he had been thanked (use agere gratias) by the people because he had not despaired of the country. 12. He was too brave a man to be put to d^c.th. 13, Whether it is in the public interest {e re p.) or not, may be questioned; but whether it is or not, it is approved by all. 14. They never saw him without reviling him (use ut non). 15. He returned to Athene without waiting for the army. 16. These squabbles (contentio) were so disagreeable (acerbus) to me that I would never have re- turned, unless you had invited me. 17. If they had had a leader ta be compared with him, victory would not have failed (desum) them.

18. Ask them what they would have done, if an enemy had come to the city. 19. What do you mean {sibi velle) by praising me? (use quod). 20. Shall you ask him to leave the city immediately?

§ 44. THE NUMERAL.

1. Cardinal numerals are indeclinable except (i) unus, one; duor two; tres, three; (2) the hundreds, beginning with ducenti, two hun- dred; (3) the plural of mille, a thousand.

2. Mille, a thousand, is indeclinable, in the Sing., but in the PI. it is declined.

Note. — Mille, in the sing, is either an Adj. or a noun: as, Mille homines or mille hominum, a thousand men. In the PI. it is always a noun: as. Decern milla hominum, ten thousand men.

3. Compound numbers like 21, 22, &c., when between 20 and 100, are, written unus et viginti, duo et viginti, or viginti unus, viginti duo &c.

THE NUMERAL. , 135

Above one hundred, the greater number precedes (usually without et) : as, Ducenti unus, or ducenti et unus, two hundred and one: as,

Caesar Gallorum duo millia quingentos sex Ce-^t. Caesar cap' tured 2,506 Gauls.

4. First, second, third, in enumerations, is unus, alter, tertius: as, E quibus generibus, unum est ex iis qui.., alterum ex iis, &c.

Of these classes the first consists of those who . . the second of those, etc.

5. The ordinals are used in expressing dates: as.

Anno post urbem conditam septingentesimo quinquagesimo quarto natus est Christus. Christ was born 754 years after the foundation of the city.

A.D. millesimo octingentesimo octogesimo tertio = yl.Z). 1883.

Anno urbis conditae quinquagesimo quarto. In the 54th year of the building of the city {i.e. the beginning of the Roman era; subtract from 754 for year B.C.).

Quota hora est ? Hora prima, secunda, tertia, &c. What hour is it? Seven, eight, nine o'clock, etc. {i.e., reckoning from sunrise at six o'clock; time was measured by a sun-dial).

6. The distributive numerals are used:^

{a) To express so many at a time, so many each: as, Pueris binos libros donavit. He gave the boys two books apiece.

{b) To express multiplication: as, Bis bina quattuor sunt. Twice two is four.

{c) With substantives that have no Sing, or a different meaning in the Sing, and PI., respectively: as, Bina castra, two camps. (Castrum is a fort; duo castra = two forts) .

Note I. — With nouns like castra, the PI. of unus is used for one, not singuli: as. Ex unis duas mihi conficics nuptias. You will make me two weddings out of one.

Note 2. — When the distributives are used with a numeral ad- verb, they have the force of cardinals: as,

Tcr deni, thrice ten; vicies centena, two thousand.

7. Fractions with i for the numerator are expressed by an ordinal with pars: as,

Tertia pars, .\;centesima pars, ,7>o ( = ^ P<^''' Lvnt); millesima pars,

5a

r ^

136 ^HANDBOOK OF LATIN. '

8. Where the numerator is one less that the denominator, the car- dinals with partes v^,re used: as,

Duae partes, jrt, tres partes, f .

Tres quintae is f; quattuor septimae, i ; decumae ( tenths) tithes. Dimidio plures, half as many again ( = more by half) ; duplo plures, double as many; alterum tantum, as much again.

9. Ago is abhinc, followed by the words expressing time, in the Ace. or Abl.: as,

Abhinc decem dies (or diebus) Romam profectus est. He set out for Rome ten days ago.

Note. — Abhinc precedes the expression of time.

10. The following phrases may be noted:

Decem annos post. Ten years after (post is an adverb)*- Decem annos ante. Ten years before. Nonaginta annos natus. Ninety years old. Minor decem annos natus. Less than ten years old. Maior decem annos natus. More than ten years old. Priore anno quam e vita excessit. The year before he died. Pridie quam pervenit. The day before he arrived.

Postridie quam. . The day after. .

§ 45. THE DAYS OF THE MONTH.

I. Three days were used to divide the Roman month, the Kalends, (Kalendae), Nones (Nonae) and Ides (Idus): as,

Kalendis Martiis interfectus est. He was killed on the Ides of March.

Ad Kalendas solvet. He will pay by the Kalends.

Nonis Decembribus. On the Nones of December.

The Kalends fell on the ist, the Nones on the 7th or 9th, and the Ides on the 13th or 15th.

In March, July, October, May, the Ides were on the fifteenth day.

The Nones in these four months fell on the 7th (9 days before the Ides, according to the Roman method of reckoning).

In the other eight months, the Ides fell on the 13th and the Nones on the 5th.

Each month had the same number of days as at present.

THE DAYS OF THE MONTH. 137

2. The names of the twelve Roman months are:

lanuarius, Februarius, Martins, Aprilis, Mains, lunius, lulius (or Quintilis), Augustns (or Sextilis), September, October, November, December.

These are all Adjs. and are used in agreement with Kalendae, Nonae, Idus.

A particular date is either on one of these days or so many days before one of them.

3. The 3rd day before the Ides of March would naturally be Die tertio ante Idus Martias. Instead of that, they used Ante diem tertium Idus Martias (as if ante governed diem), or A.d. Ill Id. Mart.

The 3rd day before the Ides of March would, again, naturally be the I2th:but as they counted in the day from which they reckoned, it is really the 13th of March.

In turning our dates into Latin, i must, therefore, be added before the subtraction is made: as,

/ was present on August 3rd. A. d.iii. Non. Aug. adfui (date of Nones of August = the 5th ; 5 + 1 — 3 = 3) .

He was born Sept. 23rd. Natus est a. d. ix. Kal. Oct. (32-23 =9; 3c days in Sept. + 1 in Oct. + 1 ) .

He died on the 3rd of JtMe. A.d. iii. Non. lun. mortuus est (Nones on 5th; 6-3 =3).

/ spoke in the Senate on October 21st. A. d. xii. Kal. Nov. in Senatu dixi (31 +2-21 = 12).

Note. — The phrase ante diem came to be regarded as an indeclin- able noun, and was joined with a preposition: as.

He invited me to dinner for Nov. i6th. In a.d. xvi Kal. Dec. me in coenam invitavit.

§ 46. ROMAN MONEY.

1. The common coins in use in Rome during the last two centuries of the Republic were the As (over i cent), the sesterce, the denarius, and the aureus. The As was of copper, the sesterce and denarius of silver, and the aureus of gold.

2. The following table gives the relative value of these coins, true for approximately the last two centuries of the Republic.

138 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

TABLE OF ROMAN MONEY

4 asses = I sestertius (5 cents). 4 sestertii = I denarius (20 cents). 25 denarii = i aureus ($4.50) 3. The sesterce* was the common unit for expressing sums of money at Rome. It was used as follows: —

(a) Up to 2,000 the Num. Adj. was used with sestertius: as, Centum sestertii, a hundred sesterces; undeni sestertii, eleven

sesterces each.

(b) Above 2,000 and up to a million, the Neut. Plur. sestertia was used for the thousands: as,

Sestertia tria et quadringenti octoginta sestertii, 3,480 sesterces. Note. — Millia sestertium, is also used instead of sestertia.

(c) To express millions, the tens of the numeral adverb series (decies, vicies, etc.) are used with Centena millia sestertium, which, for the sake of convenience, is usually omitted: as,

Decies [centena millia] sestertium (for sestertiorum). One million sesterces (lit., ten times one hundred thousand sesterces).

Vicies [centena millia] sestertium. Two million sesterces.

Quadragies, etc. Four million sesterces.

Thus: Tu autem quadringenties sestertium, quod Idibus Martiis debuisti, quonam modo ante Kalendas Apriles debere desisti? How did you cease to owe before the first of April, the forty millions of ses- terces you owed on the Ides of March?

(d) When a sum requires more than one numeral adverb to express it, the numerals must be added together if the larger stands first, but multiplied if the smaller stands first: as,

Millies quingenties sestertium. One hundred and fifty millions. Ter vicies sestertium. Six million sesterces ( = 3X20X100,000).

(e) The Gen. PI. sestertium, used in expressing large sums, is sometimes treated as a neuter noun and declined: as,

Syngrapha sestertii centiens facta est. A bond of 10,000,000 sesterces was drawn up.

In vicies sestertio splendide se gessit. He kept up great state on a fortune of two millions.

Note. — Nummus (a coin) is frequently used instead of sestertius.

♦Sestertius is derived from semis (half) and tertius (third), i.e., the third a half- 2K; hence it is often written H S (ii semis). It was originally worth 2K asses.

ROMAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 139

§ 48. ROMAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. INTEREST.

I. The word As was used to express any unit, and it was divided into twelve parts (unciae) to express twelfths of the unit. The names of these divisions may be noted.

DIVISIONS OF THE AS.

As (the unit).

Deunx, gen.-uncis (de-uncia = one ounce off) =\^. Dextans,-antis (de-sextans = a sixth off) =|f. Dodrans, -antis (de-quadrans = a fourth off) =f^g. Bes, bessis = ,\.

Septunx, -uncis (septem-uncia) =^^. Semis or semissis, gen. semissis (semi-as, a half as) =1^2- Quincunx, -uncis (quinque-uncia) = j-V. Triens, -entis (tres) = t\. Quadrans, -antis (quattuor) = y\. Sextans, -antis (sex) = y\. Uncia = y\.

Note. I — Of the above divisions, semis, triens, quadrans, and sextans were used as names of coins.

Note 2. — Both inch and ounce are derived from uncia.

2. These divisions were used for dividing into twelfths any unit like iugerum {an acre), pes, {afoot), libra {a pound): as,

Arare semissem iugeri. To plough half an acre. Obeliscus centum viginti quinque pedum et dodrantis. An obelisk I25}i feet high.

Tres librae cum semisse. 3>^ pounds.

3. They were commonly used also in bequests: as, Heres ex asse. Heir to the whole estate.

Heres ex semisse. Heir to half the estate. Heres ex uncia. Heir to one-twelfth.

4. The same divisions were used for reckoning interest (usurae, lenus), which was due monthly. Thus:

Asses usurae {units interest, i.e., one a month for the use of a hundred), twelve per cent, per annum. It was also called ccntcsimae usurae (i.e.. ihe hundredth interest), because in one hundred months a sum equal to the j)rin(ipal {sors) would have been \r,i'u\.

140

HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

{i.e., {h per month)

The following table gives the Latin for Interest from i to 12% :

% per annum. Asses Deunces

Dextantes 10

Dodrantes 9 Besses

Septunces ^usurae ^ 7

Semisses 6

Quincunces 5

Trientes 4

Quadrantes 3

Sextantes 2

Unciae j \ i

So too: Binae centesimae, 24% per annum; ternae centesimae, 36% per annum, etc. Thus:

Pecuniam assibus usuris collocavit. He invested money at 12%.

Dodrantibus usuris grandem pecuniam apud eum collocavit. He placed a large sum of money in his hands at 9%.

TABLE OF SYNTAX RULES.

{To he illustrated from the author read).

1. The direct object is in the Ace, the Indir. in the Dat.

2. A Rel. agrees with its antecedent in Gen., Number and Per- son; its case is determined by the verb of its own clause.

3. Verbs, of making, chonsing, calling, &c. (factitives), take two accusatives.

4. Verbs of teaching and verbs of asking (except peto, quaero, and usually postulo) take two Aces.

5. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the Ace.

6. The Ace. is used in exclamations: as, O me miserum, wretch that I am!

7. The Ace. with Inf. is used as a noun, for an Eng. /Aa/-clause with should: as, Decorum est domos patere, it is proper that our houses should stand open.

TABLE OF SYNTAX RULES. 141

8. The genitive is used to express the whole of which a part is taken {partitive Gen.).

9. The Gen. is used with sum to express to belong to, and to express task, duty, mark, &c.

10. The Gen. is used to express quality, and indefinite price.

11. The Gen. of source is used with certain verbs oi feeling {pudet. &c.).

12. The Gen. is used with refert and interest, it is of importance to.

13. The Gen. of the charge is used with verbs of accusing, con- demning, ike.

14. The Gen. is used with admoneo {remind), memini, oblivisccr- misereor, egeo.

15. Adjs. followed in English by of (except worthy of) take the Gen.

16. Adjs. followed in English by to or for take the dative.

17. Many verbs take a Dat.: as, Parco {spare), credo {believe)^ pareo {obey), fido {trust), nubo {wed), studeo {be zealous for),. ohsto {stand in the way of), vaco {have leisure for), impero {command), suadeo {recommend) , irascor {be angry with,) subvenio {aid), ignosca {pardon), sen-io {serve), invideo {envy), indulgeo {indulge), placea {please), displiceo {displease), repugno {oppose), occurro {meet), resisto {resist), faveo {favor), noceo {hurt), licet {it is allowed), libet {it pleases), minor {threaten), medeor {heal), consulo {consult for) .

18. Verbs compounded with certain prepositions take the Dat.

19. Verbs compounded with male and satis, take the Dat.

20. The verb sum used with the Dat. means to belong to.

21. Verbs meaning to take away from take the dat (Tibi vitam adimo).

22. A Dat. {the dat. of purpose) is used with certain verbs to de- note purpose or object.

23. The Dat. is often used idiomatically for the Gen. (Cui ad pedes se iecit.)

24. The Abl. is used with a or ab to express the agent; but the Dat. is used with the Gerundive.

25. The Abl. is used to express cause, manner, .md nislruntcnt.

142 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

26. The Abl. {abl. of specification) is used to express that in respect to which a thing is or is done: as, Natura triquetra, triangular inform.

27. The Abl. is used to express measure of difference, separation, time, price, quality, and attendant circumstance.

28. Certain transitive verbs take the Abl. instead of the Acp. (utor, &c.)

29. Opus est takes Abl. of thing and Dat. of person.

30. Certain Adjs. are joined with the Abl.

31. A point of time and "time within which" are expressed by the Abl.

32. The comparative degree is often followed by the Abl.

33. The case absolute in Latin is the Abl.

34. Place to which, with the name of a town or small island, is expressed by the Ace. ; with the name of a country, a preposition is used.

35. Place from which, with the name of a town or small island, is expressed by the Abl.; with the name of a country, a preposition is used.

36. Place in which (place where), with the name of a town or small island, takes the form of the Gen., if the noun is of the first or second Decl. Sing.; otherwise, of the Abl. With names of coun- tries, a preposition is used.

37. To express place where with common nouns, a preposition is required, unless there is an Adj. with the noun: as. In urbe, in the city; but, Hac urbe, in this city.

38. Verbs of saying, thinking, &c., take the Ace. with Inf. for the English noun-clause with that.

39. Verbs of hoping take a Put. Inf.

40. Translate. They said he was at Rome by Dixerunt eum Romae <^sse or by Dixerunt eum Romae fuisse, according as the actual words used were, Romae est or Romae fuit.

41. The Inf. is often used for the Impf. in narration {historic Inf.)

42. Many verbs (modal verbs) take an Inf. after them to complete their meaning: as, Audeo (dare), cogo (compel), conor (endeavor), constituo and statuo (determine), cunctor (hesitate), cupio (desire), -deheo (ought), desino (cease), disco (learn), dubito (hestitate), incipio

TABLE OF SYNTAX RULES. 143

(begin), malo {prefer), nescio {not know how), nolo {be unwilling), •obliviscor {forget), patior {allow), paro {prepare), possum {be able), scio {know how) , soleo {be accustomed) , vereor {fear) , volo {be willing) .

43. The supine is used to express purpose after a verb of motion.

44. To express nouns in -ing use the gerundive, if the verb governs the Ace; if not, the gerund.

45. Duty and necessity {must and ought) are expressed by the passive periphrastic conjugation.

46. Intention is often expressed by the active periphrastic con- jugation.

47. The indirect question (after rogo,&c.) has its verb in the Subjun.

48. Primary tenses are followed by primary, secondary by sec- ondary {Rule of Sequence). This rule does not apply to consecutive clauses.

49. Qui final, qui causal, qui consecutive, and qui concessive, take the Subjun.

50. Verbs oi fearing take ne or ut with the Subjun.

51. Verbs of preventing (except prohibeo) take quominus with the Subjun.

52. Purpose is not expressed in Latin by the Inf.

53. The Fut. Ind. and Pres. Subjun. are used in Fut. conditions; the Impf. and Plpf. Subjun. in conditions contrary to fact.

54. Dependent clauses in Indir. narration (or after another Subjun.) take the Subjun.

5^. A Plpf. Subjun. in indirect narration represents a Fut.-pf. in a ■dependent clause in direct.

^ 56. Imperatives of direct narration become Subjun. in Indirect. ^ 57. Rhetorical questions in indirect are put in the Inf.

58. Verbs of asking, ordering (except iubeo), and advising take an Inf. in English, but ut with Subj. in Latin.

59. The Perf. Part. Act. is supplied in four ways.

60. Of two verbs connected by and, one often becomes a participle.

61. The English Pres. Part, is often expressed by the Perf. Part, ■or its equivalent.

62. English abstract nouns are often expressed by (a) the Inf.; {b) the Indirect question; (c) the Pres. Part.; {d) the Perf, Part.

63. The Latin Part, often represents an English finite clause.

64. Without joined to a noun in -ing, cannot be translated by sine with a (icrund.

144 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

65. The Fut. Subj. Act. is supplied by the Act. periphrastic conju- gation, and the Fut. Subj. Pass, by futurum sit ut.

66. The Fut. Inf. of verbs that have no supine, is supplied by fore ut. »

67. Postquam is joined with the Pf. for the Eng. Plpf.

68. Priusquam is usually joined with the Subjun.

69. Cum causal and cum with past tenses have the subjun.

70. Dum, while, takes the Ind.; dum, until, takes the Ind. of the past, the Subjun. of the Fut. ; dum, provided that, takes the Subjun.

71. Quin with the Subjun. is used after verbs of negative notion (non dubito quin, / do not doubt that).

72. Utinam, Oh! that, takes the Pres. Subjun. of the Fut., the Impf. Subjun. of the Pres., and the Plpf. Subjun. of the past.

73. The subjun. is used in simple sentences in wishes, commands, exhortation, and deliberative questions and to soften an assertion.

74. A verb that governs the Dat. is not used personally in the Pass.

75. Intrans. verbs of motion prefer the Pass, (impers) to the Act.

76. An ut-clause is used to define a noun or pronoun.

77. A quod-clause often has the Subjun. (virtual oblique).

78. Any is quis after si, nisi, ne, num, quo, and quanto; quisquam (ullus) after a negative or virtual negative; and quivis, when it means any at all.

PART III.

LATIN AND ENGLISH IDIOM IN THE USE OF WORDS.

PART III.

LATIN AND ENGLISH IDIOM IN THE USE OF WORDS.

Section i.

I. If a paragraph be taken from an English author, it is rarely found that even a single sentence (unless it is in a very simple style) can be translated literally or word for word into Latin. This is due to the difference of the two languages in the use of words as a med- ium for the expression of thought. Latin Idiom in this respect is something quite as distinctive as Latin Accidence or Latin Syntax, and much more difficult to master.

Take, for example, the following passage (from an English his- torian of Rome) on the retirement of the Gauls after the great in- vasion:

"The retirement of the invaders requires no explanation. Sudden and violent onslaughts, which swept all before them, gave place to discouragement at anything like prolonged opposition."

It may be noted that: (a) There is no Latin word for "retirement, " "invaders," "explanation," "discouragement," "opposition."

(b) The personification (so common in English) by which "re- tirement" is made the subject of the sentence is rare in Latin.

(c) The figurative use of words (as in "sweep") is rare and, as a usual thing, to be avoided in writing Latin.

By eliminating these characteristically English features (personi- fication, metaphor, abstract nouns), using verbs for the verbal nouns, using the specific name Galli for "invaders, " and changing the form of the narrative from third to first person, the passage at once approximates to the Latin form. Thus:

Neque enim est cur dicam quam ob rem Galli se receperint: quippc qui (inasmuch as they) repente et summa vi aggressi, cum diu resisteretur, animum demitterent.

Translation of English into Latin is mainly a process of simpli fication ; it is, as it were, a fusing and recasting of the English, in order to put in another form or mould the meaning contained. Indeed when the thought of a passage is clearly grasped and cxpres-^cd in its

148 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

simplest form {re-thought, as it were), Latin will often be found to be the natural form for the expression of the thought.

2. Practice in translating Latin into adequate idiomatic English, is therefore the best preparation for writing Latin.

"Most translations in our tongue, "it has been said, "are dull and wearisome, because they do not assume a new form in passing through the translator's mind. The mere substitution of English for Latin words does not produce a translation, unless the sentences and constructions are English also. "*

And so, conversely, the translation of English into Latin must adapt itself to the general characteristics of the Latin form of speech and the ideas expressed must assume a new dress as they pass through the translator's mind.

Some of the special characteristics of Latin Idiom may be illus- trated in detail.

The Abstract Noun.

3. Latin, as compared with English, has few abstract nouns, a defect which is supplied in many ways. Thus :

Use of the Indirect Question for an English Noun.

Latin often uses the indirect question where English uses an abstract or verbal noun: as,

Rogavit quot hostes essent. He asked the number of the enemy.

Scio cur redieris. / know the reason of your returyi.

Dicam tibi quo {whither) eamus. / will tell you our destination.

Quid de ea re sentiat exponet. He will explain his view of the matter. .tc-—

Vides quale periculum sit. You see the nature of the danger.

Exercise i. I. I see the suddenness of the danger (use quam, how). 2. Can you tell the source of that rumor? 3. I have heard the origin of the custom. 4. You see the character of the man. 5. Let us ask him the date of his departure. 6v Shall we ever know the manner of his death? 7. I did not khow the size of the city. 8. Let us wait that we may see the issue of the matter {use evado, turn out). 9. No cne foresaw the extent of the danger. 10. They knew the reason for * Pott's " Hin,s Towards Latin Composition."

THE LATIN VERB FOR AX ENGLISH NOUN- 149

his action, ii. The motive of his act was plain to all. 12. Tell me his opinion of the whole affair. 13. You know now the manner of his life from boyhood. 14. Have they discovered the enemy's position? 15.- How shall we ever know the time, place, manner and agents in this crime? 16. Have they gone-arWay to discover the size and character of the enemy's fleet? 17. Tell me the companions of your daily life and I will tell you your own character.

Section 2. THE LATIN VERB FOR AN ENGLISH NOUN.

1. The lack of abstract and verbal nouns in Latin is frequently supplied by a verb: as.

Id rogo, / make this request; idem promitto, / make the same promise:

nihil respondet, he gives no answer; hoc gloriatur, he makes this boast.

Eadem peccat, he commits the same sins; nihil succenset, he feels no resentment.

Brutus sensit contra se iri. B. perceived that an attack was being made upon himself.

Maiora deliquerant quam quibus ignosci possent. They had committed crimes too serious to be pardoned.

Inde longissime prospcctari poterat. Thence a very distant prospect could be obtained.

2. Verbs of motion, used impersonally in the Pass., are very often found where English uses a noun: as,

Pugnatum est, a battle was fought ;c\a.ma.tum est, a shout was raised; ad arma concurritur, there is a rush to arms.

Infelicissime pugnatum est. A most disastrous battle has been fought.

3. The five impersonal verbs (already discussed) that express the simple emorions, are commonly used for the corresponding abstract nouns in English: as, ^

Huius rei eum poenituit. This thing filled him with remorse. Me meae ignaviac piguit. ^felt vexation at my own idleness.

4. The Latin infinitive will often supply the place of an abstract noun: as,

Humanum est errare. Error is human.

150 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Liberius dicere mihi non licuit. Greater freedom of speech was not allowed me. So too: Beate vivere, happiness (also, beata vita); felicem esse, good fortune (lit., to he lucky).

5. The Pres. Part. Act., the Perf. Part. Pass., and the Gerund are very often found in Latin where English uses an abstract or verbal noun: as,

Mihi querenti, to my complaint; te repugnante, in spite of your opposition; indignantium voces, expressions of indignation.

Ab urbe condita. From the foundation of the city.

Propter classem amissam condemnatus est. He was condemned for the loss of the fleet.

Post expulsum filium. After the expulsion of the son.

Otiandi, non negotiandi, causa Syracusas se contulit. He re- paired to Syracuse for recreation not for business.

6. A noun-clause introduced by quod {the fact that) will often take the place of an English noun: as,

Mihi gratum est quod venisti. The fact of your coming is pleasing to me.

Idcirco adf ui quod ei subvenire volui. The reason of my presence was my wish to aid him.

Quod ei subveni mihi iucundum est. The reflection that I aided him is delightful to me.

7. An adverbial clause may frequently be used to turn an English abstract noun : as,

Hoc malum ut vitaret, abiit. For the avoidance of this evil, he went away.

Hoc accidit dum abfui. This occurred in my absence.

8. The Gen. is used with the verb sum, I am, to express words like task, duty, custom, characteristic, mark, token: as, ludicis est sequi verum, it is the duty of a judge to follow the truth (lit., to follow the truth is of, i.e., belongs to, a judge); hoc est praeceptoris, this is the business of an instructor; sapientis est res adversas aequo animo ferre> it is the characteristic of a wise man to bear adversity with resignation (lit., with an even mind).

Hoc est evertendae rei publicae. The tendency of this is the sub- version of the constitution (lit., this belongs to).

Note — With possessive pronouns, this genitive is not used, but the neuter of the corresponding possessive adjective: as, Tuum (not tui) est videre, it is your duty to see.

other substitutes for the abstract noun. 151

Exercise 2. I. After the expulsion of the kings, consuls were elected. 2. He kept silence in your presence. 3. They contemned my threats. 4. I will go to Rome to have an interview with them. 5. Will he make a voyage in the middle of winter? 6. You should yield obedience to the laws. 7. There was a general rush to the walls of the city. 8. I believe that he feels regret for his conduct. 9. Every evil seems harmless at its birth (nascor). 10. After a brief exhortation, he induced them to remain. 11. They feel neither shame nor sorrow for their folly. 12. He never lost his belief in the existence of God. 13. The resistance ceased after midnight. 14. On arriving at the gate, they immediately demanded admittance. 15. Is it the mark of a mean mind to love wealth? 16. There is a possibility that his political opinions are the same as your own. 17. The murder of Pompey was a dreadful (atrox) crime. 18. What is your opinion of such people?

Section 3.

OTHER SUBSTITUTES FOR THE ABSTRACT NOUN: THE ADJECTIVE. CONCRETE FOR ABSTRACT.

1. An adjective in Latin will often replace an English noun: as, Hortos venales habuit. He had gardens for sale.

So: Tumultus servilis, a rising of the slaves; iter maritimum, a journey by sea; vir honestus, a man of honor.

2. The neuter of an adjective (singular and plural) is most fre- quently used for an E^nglish noun: as,

Aliud est honestum, utile aliud. Honor is one thing; expediency ^ another.

Vera et falsa disiungunt. They distinguish truth and falsehood.

The neuter Adj. or pronoun is used in Latin to express an English noun for which the word thing might be used, but a more preten- tious noun is preferred. Thus:

Haec sequebatur, he pursued these objects; m.ij^iui .uisus est, he ventured on great enterprises; hoc unum me consolatur, this one consideration (or reflection) affords me consolation.

Hoc audeo diccre. / venture to make this assertion.

Hoc mihi molestum est me non esse bi^num civcm. This thought is painful to me, that I am not a patriot.

152 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Si modo haec stabunt. // only the present condition of the country continues.

Amissa erant per quae humus exciditur. The tools for digging the earth had been lost.

3. An English abstract noun may frequently be expressed by making it concrete, i.e., referring it to an individual: as,

Nullum poetam legerat, nullum oratorem noverat. He had read no poetry and was unacquainted with oratory.

Plurimum interest inter doctum et rudem. There is the greatest difference between learning and ignorance (lit., between a learned man and an ignorant man).

Ingeniosi non sunt quales esse nobis viJentur. Genius is dif- ferent from what we suppose it to be.

A plural noun is frequently so used: as,

Legibus parendum est. We should yield obedience to law.

Frumenta propter frigora matura non erant. The corn was not ripe owing to the cold.

Assiduos inter labores vitam degunt. They spend their lives in incessant labor.

4. In accordance with this love of the concrete is:

(a) The use of the name of the nation instead of the name of a city or country: as, Atheniensis, a man of Athens ; clades Can- nensis, the defeat of Cannae ; foedus Albanum, the treaty of Alba ; duo Arpinates, the two men of Arpinum.

Romani cum Karthaginiensibus bellum iam diu gerunt. Rome has long been making war upon Carthage.

ib) The disregard of the use of titles: as,

Videsne tu, A. Corneli, cacumen illud? Do you see that elevation, General? (of a private soldier to his general).

Id nosmet ipsos facere oportet, Phaedria. We must do it our- selves, sir (of a slave to his master).

(c) The disregard of the use of impersonal forms of reference: as,

De hac re iam Servium, virum amplissimum, audistis. With regard to this proposal, you have already heard an honorable member (of a previous speaker in the Senate).

So : Legem tam utilem tolli, Quirites, non ferendum est. The ab- rogation of so salutary a law, sir, is intolerable (addressed to the members of the Assembly not, as with us, to the Speaker.)

OTHER SUBSTITUTES FOR THE ABSTRACT NOUN. 153

Patres conscripti, my Lords (of the Senate); ludices, Gentle- men of the Jury.

(d) The more direct use of proper names obtained by transferring the epithet to an appositive: as,

Cato mens, vir doctissimus. My learned friend, Cato. So: Frater tuus, vir fortissimus. Your gallant brother.

(e) What may be called the "allusive use" of proper names: as, Tempora Numae minus apta. A period of time little suited to

Numa (i.e., irreligious).

Exercise 3. I. What object do you think, has he in view? 2. Some men pur- sue one object; some another. 3. Nor should men pursue ends they cannot attain. 4. He said that procrastination (cunctor) would be fatal (funestus). 5. He thought that flattery was wit (adj.). 6. I have already explained what I consider the qualifications of a general (adj.). 7. The secret of his unbroken success (res succedit) lay in his wisdom and foresight. 8. This is the advantage of ve- hemence and activity, that they soon learn to reform themselves. 9. Timidity, however, is more fatal. 10. A man once persuaded that an impediment is insuperable, has made it more difficult than before. 11. He will never discover the unreasonableness (use vanus) of his fears. 12. Tell him the hour at which we leave. 13. There was no longer any possibility of his escape. 14. All regard ingrati- tude with detestation (use verb), 15. The Roman loved oratory. 16. The betrayal of their plans threw them into confusion. 17. If I had made any proficiency in the art myself, I should not use these words. 18. Self-confidence {inf.) is a mark of arrogance. 19. It was a surprise to me that so wise a man as your father should have put confidence in their j^romises (say that your father, a very wise man). 20. He denied the possibility of their making war upon Rome. 21. He crossed the river when the cold was almost un- bearable. 22. Their judgment with regard to him is correct (use rerft).

Section 4

RES AND RES PUBLICA.

I. One of the commonest substitutes in Latin for the abstract noun is the word Res.

154 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Thus in one page of Livy, taken almost at random, the following uses are found:

Quietae res ex Etruria nuntiabantur. A peaceful condition of a if airs in Etruria was announced.

Omnibus conciliis eam rem agitari adferebatur. Word was brought that this question was being debated at all their meetings.

Tribunis iam diu nullam novandi res causam invenientibus. As the tribunes had for a long time found no motive for agitation.

Remotam a re publica iuventutem (esse dixit). He said that the youth of the nation were kept aloof from all that was of national concern.

Hibernacula etiam, res nova militi Romano, aedificari coepta sunt. Winter huts — a new departure for the Roman soldiery — began to be built.

2. The genitive rerum is often added to nouns that are beginning to be used as abstracts: as. Causa rerum, a cause; cognito rerum, study; repugnantia rerum, contradiction.

Hoc est praecipue salubre in cognitione rerum. There is this useful feature about study.

3. Nothing can better illustrate the general character of Latin diction than the use of res in such cases as the above.

In its highest literary form, Latin approximates to the colloquial forms of modern speech.

4. The use, too, in Latin of the word Res publica (the people's concern) is suggestive. It should be written in two words and each word given its full force and translated to suit the context. Thus:

Sin autem vos plus tum in re p. vidistis. But if you, on that occasion, showed more political insight (lit., saw more in regard to the people's interest).

Sullam in Italiam res p. revocavit. The political situation re- called Sulla to Italy.

Cunctam rem p. res tuae gestae amplexae sunt. Your reforms have covered the whole field of political activity.

Quid hunc hominem magnum aut amplum de re publica cogitare [putare possumus] qui pecuniam ex aerario depromptam .... Romae in quaestu reliquerit? What lofty or generous sentiments with re- gard to public duty can we suppose a governor to entertain who (when he goes out to his province), leaves behind him public funds withdrawn

RES AND RES PUBLICA. 155

from the public treasury at interest {in his private account) at Rome?

Res publica may mean, according to the context, 'the country,' the nation, the constitution, politics, etc. Thus:

Hoc evertendae rei p. esse dixit. He said that this tended to the subversion of the constitution.

Contra rem p. Against the interests of the country (opposed to e re p.).

Rem p. bene (male) gerere. To administer public affairs suc- cessfully {unsuccessfully).

5. Res, as has been well said, is as it were a "blank cheque" the value of which is to be discovered and filled up from the context. Other examples of its use are: Ea res offendit animos populorum Etruriae. This proceeding {the election of a king) offended the peoples of Etruria (animos used in the Latin way to define the action of the verb more closely).

Ut res docuit. As the fact showed.

Multae res in philosophia non satis adhuc explicatae sunt. There are many problems in philosophy which have received as yet no adequate solution.

Bonis tuis rebus meas malas res ludis. In your prosperity, you are mocking my misfortune.

Compare too:

Res secundae (or prosperae), prosperity; res adversae, adversity; res tranquillae, tranquillity; rea acclsae, impaired fortunes; res novae, a revolution; res novare, attempt a revolution; res repetere, demand satisfaction.

Exercise 4.

I. I hope that you will manage this affair in a way that (ut) will be worthy of your distinguished father. 2. This affront the Romans resented bitterly {aegre pati). 3. So sudden was the attack that they at once withdrew. 4. That year the administration of affairs was a failure both in politics and in war (use domi militiaeque) . 5. This incident however did not decrease their courage. 6. Have they told you how serious the danger to {gen.) their interests is? 7. Will you not devote yourself (incumbo)to the national cause? 8. Would you rather consider the men (auctor) or the measures? 9. I believe that the project will be |)(>stp()nf(l. 10. He has, I

156 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

believe, always deserved well of (de) his country, ii. The form of the constitution has often been changed. 12. This proceeding proved their salvation. 13, From these pursuits arises facility in speaking. 14. I have determined to relate the history of Rome from the foundation of the city. 15. Distrustful of their safety, they left the city. 16. You were wrong, not in your facts but in your dates (tempus) 17. Are you in any respect to be compared to him ?

Section 5.

THE ABSTRACT NOUN (Continued): PERSONIFICATION, HENDIADYS.

1. Latin avoids the personification of an abstract idea and there- fore an abstract noun used as the subject of a transitive verb is not common: as,

Virtute militum victoria parta est. The bravery of the soldiers won the day.

Metu subactus rem Romulo aperit. Fear made him disclose the facts to Romulus.

2. So too, the name of a mere instrument, as opposed to an agent, is not often the subject of a transitive verb: as,

Hac mercede adductus est ut portam aperiret. This bribe in- duced him to open the gate.

The pcetical style of Livy, however, tends to disregard this principle: as,

Tristem hiemem gravis aestas excepit. A sickly summer fol- lowed a gloomy winter.

Pavor tribunes invaserat. Fear had seized the tribunes.

3. The abstract noun will of course be used in speaking of a qual- ity itself, and (often) in ascribing a quality to an individual: as,

Virtus in recte agendo posita est. Virtue consists in right action.

In his artibus praestabant illi: probitate, industria, temperantia. In these qualities they were pre-eminent : uprightness, energy, and self-control.

But the severity and directness of Roman diction tends to re- place the abstract noun by concrete forms of expression.

4. The following are remarkable differences of Latin idiom as compared with English in the use of the abstract noun :

ABSTRACT NOUN (CONTINUED). 157

{a) For an emphatic attribute Latin often uses an abstract noun: as,

In armis militum virtus et locorum opportunitas multum iuvant. Valiant troops and strong defensive positions are important factors in military success (lit., goodness of positions).

Cum antea nondum huius auctoritatem loci attingere auderem. Since I did not as yet dare to set foot upon this time-honored spot.

(b) Latin does not join an adjective or adjectival phrase to an abstract noun, but prefers to use two abstract nouns connected by et instead: as.

Res iuventute geruntur et viribus. Business is transacted by youthful strength.

Omnia vi et armis sublata sunt. Everything has been taken away ty force of arms.

This is called hendiadys. It is a very common characteristic of Cicero's style: as.

Nihil est enim opere et manu factum quod non aliquando con- ficiat vetustas. There is nothing made by the work of man's hands that time does not at last destroy.

Insula Delos quo omnes undique cum mercibus atque oneribus commeabant. The Island of Delos, to which all men resorted from every country with cargoes of merchandise.

Publicani suas rationes et copias in illam provinciam contulerunt. The Publicani have carried their money speculations to that Province (lit., their plans and their wealth).

Other examples are:

Clamores et admirationes, stormy applause; clamor et admur- muratio, loud murmuring; non sine vociferatione et indignatione. not without loudly-expressed indignation; ratio et consilium, rational judgment; temeritas et casus, blind chance; metusct anxietas, an anxious fear.

Permissa est vulgo ultio et satietas. The glutting of its revenge was allowed the mob.

These are characteristic features of Latin diction and a striking exception to the usual idiom.

Exercise 5.

I. News of the rout of the army was received with cries of sor- row {part.). 2. Under these circumstances, the Senate perTiiltuvl

158 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

his return. 3. The result is (efficio) that man, if he obeys (part.) Nature, cannot injure man. 4. Natural shame (hend.) might have prevented him from being present. 5. They will always have a lively recollection of all his services to the country. 6. They have neglected the systematic study of literature. 7. All other philo- sophical systems he despised. 8. All these things were made by human handiwork (hend.). 9. They always dififered in party policy. 10. An abundant variety of food has been secured (invenio). II. These terrible threats of prosecution you should never have taken into account. 12. I had a thorough knowledge of his political views. 13. Fear and anxiety are inconsistent with such a dispo- sition. 14. The introduction of the games did not relieve the State from superstition or disease. 15. Towards them, as Christians (use cum, since) great cruelty was shown (use saevio). 16. Shouts of congratulation were heard in every part. 17. In a charge of this nature, inquiry should be made as to date, place, means, and agents. 18. The historians tell us that human society was a late development. 19, The impossibility of his performing this promise prevented his return. 20. The superiority of the enemy disheartened our allies. 21. Men will not wait for slow-footed (use tarditas) opportunity, in order to kill you.

Section 6. THE USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS IN LATIN.

I. One of the most striking features of Latin idiom is seen in the use of the Adjective. The common adjectives of quality in Latin, are the simple generic adjectives like magnus, parvus, amplus, tantus, ingens, summus, etc. The constant use of descriptive epi- thets with nouns, and especially abstract nouns, is contrary to the genius of Latin diction: as,

Cepit magnum suae virtutis fructum. He reaped the rich reward of his distinguished merit.

Quod maius testimonium quaerimus? What more convincing testimony do we require?

Auctoritatem eius magnis vestris iudiciis amplificatam..../ir*.s prestige enhanced by the highly significant judgments you have passed upon him....

THE USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS IN LATIN. 159

Tanta vis probitatis est ut earn vel in hoste diligamus. So attractive is the power of integrity that we love it even in an enemy.

2. The meaning and color of the adjective in the above examples is mainly drawn from the context. Frequently the descriptive epi- thet is omitted altogether: as,

Vultum atque aciem oculorum ferre nequibant. They could not face their fierce looks and savage glances.

3. Two adjectives qualifying one noun in Latin are connected by et: as,

Magnos et nitidos oculos habebat. He had large bright eyes.

4. An English prepositional phrase used as an adj. must be joined to its own noun by a participle or a relative clause: as,

Vox e templo missa (or quae e templo mittebatur) eos revocavit. A voice from the temple recalled them.

Vox e templo eos revocavit would mean A voice recalled them from the temple.

Note — Such an adjectival phrase may, however, be turned lit- erally, if it can without ambiguity be joined adverbially to the verb: as, Levis eius animus in magnis rebus spectabatur. His frivolity in great matters was noticed.

5. An English adjective often expresses a reason or makes some distinct predication which must be brought out explicitly by a separate clause: as,

Navis, cum fracta esset, cursum tenere non potuit. The shat- tered vessel could not hold her course.

Haec res imperatorem nostrum, qui belli esset peritissimus, non fefellit. This manceuvre did not escape our veteran leader.

6. Where the emphatic verb in English is put in a relative clause, Latin demands that it should be made the main verb: as,

A fresh blow came that crushed the city. Clades nova urbem afflixit.

The sentence in English often begins with // is, it was, etc.: as, // is you that I want. To volo.

The Adverb.

7. The use of the adverb in Latin is quite in accortlance with tho use of the adjective. Adverbs, except those expressing place and time, are few. This defect is supplied by:

160 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

(a) An adjective: as,

Hoc libens feci. / did it gladly.

Invitus haec dico. / say it reluctantly.

Imprudens erravi. / have erred inadvertently.

Eos vivus restituit. He restored them during his life-time.

So too: Iratus, in anger; metu perterritus, in fear.

Adversos, aversos aggredi. To attack in front, in rear.

(b) A noun : as,

Hoc consul fecit. This he did in his consulship (as consul).

So: Puer, in his boyhood; adulescens, in his youth; senex, in his

old age.

Ratione et via docete. Teach by method and system (=by a systematic method).

Hoc memoria et litteris proditum est. This has been handed down orally and in writing.

So too: Arte factus, artistically made; vitio creatus, informally elected; natura tardior, naturally rather slow.

Amicitiam nee usu nee ratione cognitam habent. They have known friendship neither practically nor theoretically.

Ea, quae ex me audistis, re probare possitis. May you be able to verify experimentally the principles you have heard from me!

Plura verbo quam scriptura mandata dedimus. We have given more commissions verbally than in writing.

(c) A comparative adverbial clause: as,

Feci perinde ac debui. I have acted honorably {in accordance with my duty) .

Poenas persolvit perinde ac meritus est. He was punished rightfully {in accordance with his deserts).

{d) A change of construction: as,

Abiisse videtur. He is gone apparently.

Dubitari non potest quin mortuus sit. Undoubtedly he is dead.

Peropportune accidit ut dives sit. Very fortunately he is rich.

Hoc cotidie facere soleo. / usually do it every day.

Manifestum est te errare. You are manifestly wrong.

{e) A verb: as,

Te oro obsecroque. / solemnly entreat you.

Clamo et testor hoc falsum esse. / loudly protest that it is false.

THE USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS IN LATIN. 161

Egi atque perfeci ut, quid vellem, facerem. / managed success- fully to effect my object.

This last principle is of wide application and largely accounts for the doubling of synonyms so common in Cicero: as,

Vident et sentiunt, they clearly see; tueri et conservare, to pro- tect in safety; expeto et postulo, / urgently request; velle et optare, to fervently pray.

Karthaginienses, homines in maritimis rebus exercitatissimos paratissimosque, vicerunt. They won victories over Carthage, a nation trained to the highest pitch of efficiency in naval warfare (lit., most highly trained and most highly prepared) .

Haec fides atque haec ratio pecuniarum, quae in foro versatur, implicata est cum illis pecuniis Asiaticis et cohaeret. The system of credit (hend.) in vogue in the Forum here, is indissolubly bound up with the payments that are made in Asia.

Exercise 6.

I. He considered him the ablest general of whom he had ever read. 2. The opinion (^xw/^wa/*"o) of the nation with regard to him .was most flattering. 3. They report that they are men of giant stature. 4. Can we believe that he entertains any noble or generous sentiment? 5. They say that he was a man of commanding ability. 6. Such an influential man would have been elected at once. 7. I defended the country in my youth; I shall not desert it in my old age. 8. Such confident expectation of the successful administra- tion of public affairs {remp. gero) was placed in him, that they made him consul. 9. We see that the attacks {impetus) of the enemy have been materially checked (use retardo and reprimo). 10. I was the last to perceive what he was aiming at. 11. The war by his arrival was reduced to comparative insignificance (use attenuo and im- minuo). 12. In their youth they ventured on many a glorious enterprise. 13. In the pursuit of noble ends, they will endure every hardship. 14. Indicate a motive for this detestable crime. 15. He saw that there was no possibility of retreating. 16. Their detes- tation of the monarch himself was even more inveterate than their detestation of the monarchical principle (regnum). 17. So deep was Roman resentment that annihilation was evidently in store for the van(|iiishc(i nation.

162 handbook of latin.

Section 7. LATIN IDIOM (Continued). MODERN POLITICAL TERMS.

1. A relative clause may be used to turn an English noun in -er or -or, expressing an agent: as,

Qui patrem meum interfecerunt. My father s murderers. Qui videbant ea, flebant. The spectators wept. Note — Nouns in -tor or -sor (expressing an agent), are common in Latin; but the relative clause in this sense is usual.

2. The verb sum will often take the place of a more emphatic or picturesque verb in English: as,

Per castra indignatio ingens erat. Intense indignation reigned in the camp.

Ex hoc est falsa opinio. From this a false opinion results.

3. Latin, in its love of the concrete, defines an act much more closely than English : as.

Corpora cibo curant. They refresh themselves with food.

Haec animos pavore levabant. These proceedings relieved them from their fear.

4. From the Latin love of the direct and concrete arises the con- stant use of the 2nd Pers. Sing, and of the 1st and 3rd Pers. PI., for the English passive or for the indefinite subject {one, people, etc.):3.s,

Hoc verum esse, si velis temporum memoriam replicare, rep- eries. The truth of this will be found, if the pages of history are turned over.

Nascimur ingeniosi, fimus eruditi. People are horn with genius, but are made learned.

Note — Several consecutive nouns in Latin in the same construction are written down one after the other without conjunctions: as,

Ilia arma centuriones cohortes non nobis periculum denuntiant. Those arms, officers, and battallions do not threaten us with danger. This is called asyndeton.

So, too, clauses : as, Redit iuvenis, rem narrat, implorat opem. The youth returns, tells his story, and begs for aid.

5. English political and scientific terms for which Latin has no equivalent, often present difficulty in translating into Latin.

A short list of such words, with a suggested translation, is addt'd:

LATIN IDIOM (continued). 163

Scelerum socius, accomplice. Nobiles, aristocracy. Quod cuique tributum est, assessment. Qui deos esse negat, atheist. Exculta hominum vita, civilization. Aequatio bonorum, communism. Qui rei publicae statum conservat, conservative. Turbulenti cives or populi turbatores, demagogues. Ardor animi, enthusiasm. Res quae exportantur, exports.

Dissentire de deorum cultu a ceteris civibus, heterodoxy. Rerum scriptor, historian. Divinus quidam afflatus, inspiration. Qui leges ponit, lawgiver.

Quae de moribus et officiis praecepta sunt, moral philosophy. Studium rei publicae, patriotism. Qui in re publica versatur, politician.

So: Ad rem p. accedere, enter political life; rem p. gubernare, ad- minister the government.

Falsae atque inveteratae opiniones, prejudices.

Oratio soluta, prose.

Rhetorum praecepta, rhetoric.

Rei p. regendae et constituendae peritia, statesmanship.

I'nius dominatus, tyranny.

Exercise 7.

I. War, disease, and famine threatened them simultaneously. 2. In those days a better fashion was in vogue. 3. Both besiegers and besieged were seized with a sudden panic. 4. Confusion {trep- idatio) prevailed on every side. 5. There was no way of distinguish- ing friends and strangers {use 2nd pers.). 6. He was able to endure cold, thirst, and hunger. 7. Are our own statesmen less able than those who lived in former times? 8. He announced that the measure was both practicable and expedient {use verbs). 9. He was abler tha any of his predecessors upon the throne. 10. Do not tell me that he was angry with the bystanders. Ii. He was much em- barrassed {confusus) when he began to speak. 12. Open flattery all men hate. 13. The disappointed soldiers began to murmur. 14. Firmness and dignity are con.sistcnt with true cour.r. 1 lie has

164 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

lost all the vigor of youth? i6. You are all familiar with his politi- cal career, 17. He preferred a government which was monarchical rather than democratic (use penes, in the hands of), 18. By appeals to prejudice {invidia) and acrimonious attacks upon his private char- acter, they easily prevented his reappointment.

Section 8.

METAPHOR. WORDS WITH TWO OR MORE MEANINGS. ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM LATIN.

1. In no respect does English idiom differ more from that of Latin than in the use of Metaphor. In Latin the use of metaphor is rare; in English, it is so common that it is used unconsciously. Thus:

Id ei occurrit. The thought struck him.

Regnum a maioribus traditum excepit. He ascended the throne of his fathers.

Sui similis brevi fuit. He soon showed himself in his true colors.

Rei publicae impendere multa pericula videntur. The political horizon seems overcast with clouds.

In translating English into Latin, metaphor should,as a usual thing, be dropped.

2. A metaphor may however be sometimes turned into Latin by expanding it into a simile. Thus, in the last example: Ut nubes mari saepe, ita rei publicae pericula nunc impendent.

3. The words quasi {as if), tamquam, velut, quidam, ut ita dicam, &c., are used to apologise for, or introduce, a figurative or unusual word: as,

E corpore, quasi e carcere, evolat animus. The soul flies forth from the prison-house of the body.

Philosophia omnium artium quasi parens erat. Philosophy was the mother of all the arts.

4. Roman metaphor is chiefly drawn from war, agriculture, navigation, the stage, the human body, building, fire, light. Thus:

Rem publicam gubernat. He holds the helm of state{i.e., administers the government.).

Partes {or personam) lenitatis agite. Take the role of leniency.

In tanto rei publicae incendio sisti non potest. In the midst of such public confusion, it can not be helped.

METAPHOR. WORDS WITH TWO OR MORE MEANINGS. 165

Sometines Roman metaphors do not seem in accordance with the genius of the English language: as,

In medullis populi Romani et visceribus haerent. They are en- shrined in the affections of Rome (lit., marrow and flesh).

5. Many English words are equivocal {i.e., have two or more meanings), and, in translating into Latin, these meanings must be distinguished, if necessary even with the aid of the English dictionary. Thus,

Vir est summa fide. He is a man of honor.

I lie est patriae decori (i.e., ornament). He is an honor to his country.

Dignus est summis populi Romani honoribus. He is worthy of the highest honors in the gift of the people {\.e., office, political distinction).

Laudem ei tribuunt. They pay him honor.

Sitit famam (gloriam or laudem). He thirsts for honor.

So, too: Pro patria mori. To die for one's country.

Rus homines eunt {i.e., as opposed to the city). People go into the country.

De rei publicae salute perturbatur. He is disturbed for the safety of his country (i.e., the political community).

Cum summo civium gaudio rediit. He returned, to the great joy of his country (i.e., countrymen).

In eorum fines iter faciam. / will march into their country.

6. English words of Latin origin differ usually in meaning from the Latin original.

Thus: Summum honorem {or magistratum) consecutus est. He obtained the highest office (obtineo =hold; officium =duty).

Sulla dictator pauperes vexabat. Sulla, as dictator, oppressed the poor {oppr\mo = crush or surprise).

Useful examples are:

Acquire (adipiscor, consequor,) act (facio), alien (externus), at- tain to (pervenio ad), barbarous (crudclis), cease (desino or desisto), class (genus), commonly (saepe), crime (scelus), crown (i.e., kingdom, regnum), desire (cupio), expose to {ohvcM) , famous (pracdarus), /a/a/ (perniciosus), fathers (maiores), fury (ira), heart (animus, indoles). heaven, (deus, di immortales,) injury (damnum), mortal (of a wound, mortiferum), nation (ci vitas, res publica), be obnoxious (odio esse), provoke (animum irrito), ruin (pernicies, intcritus), scene (locus or ubi)

166 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

secure (tutus), triumph (vinco), urge (agere cum. .ut), vile (turpis), world (omnes or homines), universe (mundus), study (cognitio).

Exercise 8.

Translate, without metaphor:

I. I lent him the support of my influence (auctoritas) in the House (use adiuvo). 2. He was overwhelmed by the tide of business. 3. Does not the moon revolve round the world? 4. Was not he world made by design? 5. If he had consulted the interests of the country, he would have been dear to the country. 6. Rome was mistress of the whole world. 7. I am afraid I shall never see him again in this world. 8. All this district he won with the sword. 9. The love of money is the root of all evil. 10. He has held the sceptre for more than thirty years. 11. The voice of warning was drowned in shouts of admiration. 12. He drew a broad line be- tween honor and self-interest. 13. That older world stood nearer to the dawn and saw truth with clearer eyes. 14. The enemy was reduced to submission without difficulty. 15. Their exasperation will be proportionate to the good nature with which they now pro- ceed. 16. Disaster now stared them in the face (impendeo). 17. This reverse damped their triumph. 18. The Forum would have been the stage for his genius. 19. The House assigned me this role, and I sustained the character to the best of my ability. 20. Defeat after defeat was inflicted upon the enemy by our generals, but there always remained the embers from which the flame of rebellion could be rekindled.

Section 9. ORDER, EMPHASIS, AND RHYTHM.

ORDER.

1. Conjunctions, relative and interrogative pronouns, relative and interrogative adverbs, usually stand first in their own clauses: as,

Quae cum ita sint, abeat. Under these circumstances, let him depart.

2. The following words never begirt a sentence: Quis (any), quisque (each), quoque (also), quidem (at least, indeed), vero or autem (but), enim (for), igitur (therefore).

ORDER, EMPHASIS, AND RHYTHM. 167

3. The usual order of words in a Latin sentence is as follows: (i) Subject; (2) adverbs of time, place and manner; (3) indirect ob- ject; (4) direct object; (5) verb: as,

Caesar enim illo die ei coronam dedit. For that day Caesar gave him a crown.

EMPHASIS.

4. The practice of indicating emphasis by position, modifies the regular arrangement and lends character and variety to the style: as,

Non video in mea vita quid despicere possit Antonius. / do not see in my career what any man can despise of the name of Antony (subject made emphatic by being put last instead of first). So, too, the verb is emphasised by being put not last, but first: as,

Irridet Clodius Senatum. Clodius is actually mocking the Senate.

Pecunia a patre exacta est crudeliter. The money was extorted from his father with every circumstance of cruelty (adverb at the end for emphasis).

In miseriam nascimur sempiternam. We are born to misery everlasting (adjective last, for emphasis).

Profiuens quiddam habuit Carbo et canorum. Carho had the gift not only of a flowing but of a musical style (adj. last and separ- ated from the word with which it would naturally go).

Note. — The use of the emphatic position renders many words, that are common in English, unnecessary in Latin. Thus:

Illius rei non mentionem faciam. / should not mention that affair at all.

Hoc non prius crcdam quam audiero legatos. That I shall not believe till I actually hear the envoys.

SPECIAL RULES OF ORDER.

5. The following are special rules of order (See Potts' Hints Towards Latin Prose) :

(a) Everything logically connected with the subject should l>c placed close to it: as,

Duo Numidac cum litteris ad Haniiibalcm miss! sunt. Two Numidians were sent to Hannibal with a letter (here the letter belongs to the Numidians).

'Oa

168 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Democritus, luminibus amissis, alba et atra discernere non poterat. Democritus could not distinguish black from white after he had lost his sight.

{b) A sentence should not, as a usual thing, have more verbs at the end than two: as,

Verres Siciliam ita vexavit ut in antiquum statum nullo modo restitui potuerit. Verres so harried Sicily that it could not possibly be restored to its former condition (the main verb of a final or con- secutive sentence is not put at the end).

Dixit se intelligere id agi ut aliquid falsi dicere cogeretur (the verb introducing oblique narration put, as usual, first). He said he saw that this was the aim, i.e., that the man might be compelled to say something false

So, too:

Ferunt eum incredibili memoria fuisse. They say that he had an incredible memory.

(c) The verb of an explanatory clause introduced by enim or autem, stands first: as,

Quae res unquam gesta est tanta? Licet enim mihi apud te gloriari. What such brilliant achievement has ever been performed? For I may boast before you.

\d) A colorless verb (like esse, solere, posse, coepisse, &c.) stands usually in the middle of a sentence: as.

Hi Solent esse utiles. These people are usually of service.

Sum, however, comes first in the sentence (i) when it means to exist, (2) to prevent the separation of closely connected words: as,

Est igitur haec lex. This law, therefore, exists.

Erat nemo quicum essem libentius. There was none with whom I would more gladly be.

(e) Words of opposite meaning, words of the same sound or deri- vation, and different cases of the same word, are usually written together for the sake of the contrast and the assonance: as.

Omnia unus Romae facere poterat. In his single hand he contrclled everything at Rome.

Mortali immortalitatem non arbitror contemnendam. / do not think immortality should be despised by a mortal,

Nihil aliud quaerere debetis nisi uter utri insidias fecerit. You should not ask any question tut which of the two waylaid the other.

ORDER, EMPHASIS, AND RHYTHM. 169

(/) Two words in antithesis are often found, one at the begin- ning, the other at the end: as,

Errare malo cum Platone, quam cum istis vera sentire. / pre- fer rather to he wrong with Plato than to be right with those gentry.

(g) When pairs of words are contrasted, the order of the words in the second pair is reversed: as,

Audires ululatus feminarum, virorum clamores. You would have heard the shrieking of women and the shouting of men.

Note. — This arrangement is called chiasmus (from the Greek letter chi, X). Thus:

ululatus feminarum,

X virorum clamores.

{h) Adjectives and attributive genitives (except those of posses- sion, number, and amount) usually follow their nouns: as,

Civis Romanus sum. / am a Roman citizen.

Princeps Senatus. The leader of the Senate.

Two nouns belonging to a genitive are not separated, unless for emphasis: as,

Huius orationis difficilius est exitum quam principium invenire. // is more difficult to find the beginning of this speech than the end.

(i) The negative should come as near the head of the sentence as possible: as,

Neque ipsi Lacedaemonii poterant. Even the Lacedaemonians were unable.

Non erit melius vocem misisse. You will find it better not to have uttered a sound (inf., when used as a noun, usually at the end).

RHYTHM.

6. The Latin writers paid particular attention to Rhythm (or the due alternation of short and long syllables). The favorite ending was the Cretic. Thus:

Ad miscriam nascimur sempTtgrnam. We are born to misery that is unending.

Patris dictum sapiens filii temeritas probavit. The wise remark of the father was verified by the rashness of the son.

A sentence should not close with the ending of a hexameter \ i <• (e.g.. esse videtur).

170 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

The occasional memorisation of a sentence from Livy or Cicero will soon produce a sense of the common combinations.

Exercise 9. I. When he was living there with great dignity owing to his many virtues, the Spartans sent ambassadors to him at Athens. 2. They deny that anyone should live who acknowledges himself guilty of homicide. 3. He felt that he was being taken to task (reprehendo) even by Brutus. 4. With what feelings do you think a man like Alexander lived? 5. Till to-day you have followed another general; now follow Caesar. 6. On this charge he was condemned, a charge of the most frivolous character. 7, Do not sacrifice (posthabeo) the safety of your country to the safety of your father. 8. I was unable to visit him; he lives in a remote part of the city. 9 Prosperity can- not be secured without zealous effort. 10. He was a man un- doubtedly worthy of all honor. 11. To think that men should eat human flesh! 12. It is glorious to die for one's country. 13. He used to say that silver was cheaper than gold, gold than virtues. 14. Danger comes to one from one quarter, to another from another (use aliunde). 15. My thoughts are at present employed (cogito) in guessing the reason of your absence. 16. I am distressed at not receiving any information from you by letter. 17. I am now coming to the point at issue (use ago). 18. They were bound to him by friendship of long standing. 19. A man of wonderful eloquence and profound learning, he did not escape condemnation.

Section 10. THE LATIN PERIOD. CONNECTION.

The Latin writers were fond of putting forward some promi- nent idea and grouping into one organic and harmonious whole (called a period) all connected ideas. This period they used with great skill and developed to a high degree of perfection.

Modern English style has taken quite a different direction: Every sentence contains, as a usual thing, a single idea with which the subordinate clauses (always very few and simple) are intimately connected.

To arrange the scattered fragments of an English paragraph into a Latin period, when the meaning of the passage is clearly seen, and

THE LATIN PERIOD. CONNECTION. 171

to recast it in the more direct and simple form of Latin speech, presents little difficulty. A few general remarks may be of value:

I. Latin usually shows the logical connection of each sentence with the preceding; and, in turning English into Latin, this con- nection must usually be expressed. Thus:

Hor alius was marching in advance. His sister met him before the gate. Princeps Horatius ibat;cui soror obvia ante portam fuit (cui = et ei, and him).

It was too late for him to regain public esteem. He had overlooked the threatening danger. Nee iam {by this) potuit studium populi re- cuperare. Non enim intellexerat {pick up) quae pericula sibi impenderent (enim, to connect).

Your whole charge is that I do not entertain a bad opinion of you. Omne autem tuum crimen est, quod de te non male existimem (autem, to continue the narrative; adversative).

2. The most common of all Latin connectives is the relative pro- noun. Thus:

Twice two is four. If this is granted, &c. Bis bina quattuor; quod si concessum erit, &c.

Note I. — The relative is often used for and with a demonstrative; hence the frequent use in Latin of quamobrem, quare, quam ob causam {and on account of this thing, ^fc).

Note 2. — When the antecedent is emphatic, the relative pronoun is put forward in the sentence: as.

Most people are servile to a man from whom they expect something. Plerique a quo aliquid sperant, ei {or eidem) inserviunt.

3. The subject of the main verb is often to be supplied in Latin from the relative clause: as.

When this word was brought him, he arose. Cui cum id esset nuntiatum, surrexit.

So, too: There are books with which, when we have read them, we are delighted. Libri sunt, quos cum legimus, dclcctamur.

4. For the sake of clearness and emphasis, a word is often repeated ii the head of each clause of a sentence: as,

'The panic and confusion were as great as if an enemy were be- sieging the city. Tantus pavor, tanta trcpidatio fuit, quanta si

liostes urbcm obsidercnt.

172 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

He promised but with difficulty, with frowns, and grudgingly. Pro- misit sed difficulter, sed subductis superciliis, sed malignis {niggard) verbis.

This is called anaphora.

5. The subject of a Latin sentence should be kept — as far as pos- sible— unchanged all through the sentence: as,

The matter was quickly dispatched and the legions returned. Qua re confecta, legiones redierunt.

When his friends asked him his opinion, he replied as follows. Ille, sententiam ab amicis rogatus, ita respondit.

N. B. The use of short coordinate sentences in English necessitates the repetition of the subject under different forms. In Latin the sub- ject when once mentioned, is not again referred to except by a pro- noun. In fact, when any idea has been once clearly stated, it is not repeated.

6. The subject should be taken out of a subordinate clause and put at the head of the sentence: as,

When Caesar heard this, he set out. Caesar, cum hoc audiisset, protectus est.

If the subject is changed, it should be expressed by the pronoun is or hie, when the new subject has been already mentioned in the previous sentence: as.

They came to the king at Pergamum. He received them kindly. Pergamum ad regem venerunt. Is eos comiter excepit.

7. The same noun or pronoun should — as far as possible— be kept in the same case all through the sentence: as.

When Midas was a hoy, some ants piled grains of corn upon his lips, when he was asleep. Midae dormienti cum puer esset, formicae in OS tritici grana congesserunt.

Note. — This will often involve the use of a subordinate clause (or a participial phrase) for an English main clause: as, Hannibal ordered him to leave the camp, but he soon returned. Qui, cum Han- nibalis iussu e castris exiisset, paulo post rediit.

This he persistently repeated and his whole discourse was spent in eulogizing virtue. Quibus constanter dictis, omnis eius oratio in virtute laudanda consumebatur.

8. A noun when the object both of the main and of the subor- dinate clause, is put at the head of the sentence: as.

THE LATIN PERIOD. CONNECTION. 173

// / cannot crush my annoyance, I will conceal if. Dolorem, si non potero frangere, occultabo.

And, generally speaking, the important word is to be taken and put at the head of the Latin sentence, in order that the subject of discourse may be emphatically and clearly indicated in advance: as,

When they saw that he had escaped the flames, they hurled darts at him and killed him. Quern, ut incendium effugisse viderunt, telis emissis, interfecerunt.

Note. — This will often involve a change of voice ( as in the last example) or the use of a pronoun in a subordinate clause: as,

When Hannibal was living in exile at the court of King Prusias, and was of the opinion that the war should he fought out to the end, the king refused. Rex Prusias, cum Hannibali apud se exulanti depugnari placeret, id facere noluit.

Exercise io.

I. For several days storms followed and they kept us within our camp. 2. Which wealth — if it fell to our lot — we would be dis- satisfied with. 3. Desires which arise naturally, are satisfied without difficulty. 4. When Hannibal had reviewed (recenseo) his troops, he set out for Gades. 5. After Alexander had killed his friend, he almost died of sorrow. 6. Do you believe that the mind is strength- ened by pleasure and weakened by abstinence? 7. There is no doubt that force would have been repelled by force. 8. The matter was universally approved of, and it was entrusted to the general. 9. When the Cretans sent ambassadors to him, he did not take away all hope from them. 10. If the occasion (say time) be favor- able for the change, we shall effect it with more case. II. The augur Tiresias (put the appositive second) is described {use fingo) by the poets as a philosopher, and he is never represented as bewailing his blindness. 12. By the common consent of the competitors, he won the prize for valor, but resigned it to Alcibiades, whom he devotedly loved. 13. Had Croesus been a happy man, he would have prolonged his happiness to the end. 14. Tatius corrupted this man's daughter with gold. She had happened to go outside of the ramparts to seek water. 15. This was observed and they altered their plan. 16. He had taken the city and the troops were marched home. 17. Such was my view and, if the Senate had supported me.

174 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

the country would be safe. i8. Heaven will requite you in accord- ance with your deserts. 19. He was tired of his journey and so his slave killed him. 20. This is a kindness which, if you confer it upon me, I shall not forget. 21. They felt more sorrow for the loss of their countrymen than joy at the rout of the enemy. 22. As soon as the enemy saw us, they made a charge, and we were quickly thrown into confusion.

Section ii.

EXAMPLES OF LATIN TRANSLATION.

The application of the principles and suggestions made in the preceding sections may now be briefly illustrated in translating English into Latin.

(a) ENGLISH PASSAGE.

So widely had disloyalty spread in Latium, that even some of the citizens of Tusculum, long closely connected with Rome, were found among the prisoners of war made from the Volscian army, and they brought the fidelity of the town into such suspicion that Camillus marched an army against it. A speedy submission, however, and a humble embassy to the Senate averted any actual severity.

REMARKS.

1. The natural subject is Tusculani (people of Tusculum).

2. The personification in "disloyalty," "fidelity," "submission," should not be preserved.

3. The metaphor in "spread" should be dropped. Say: "So many nations revolting. "

4. "Bring into suspicion" = in suspicionem adducere.

Cf. "To be suspected," in suspicionem venire; "to be forgotten," in oblivionem venire.

TRANSLATION.

Tusculani vero quidam inter captivos Volscos inventi, civitatem suam iam diu foedere cum Romanis coniunctam in tantam suspicion- em adduxerunt, ne (tot populis Latinis deficientibus) deficeret et

EXAMPLES OF LATIX TRANSLATION. 175

ipsa, ut Camillus in earn exercitum duxerit: in quam civitatem, de- ditione propere facta supplicique legatione ad Senatum missa, nihil tamen saevitum est.

(b) ENGLISH PASSAGE.

The extension of the Roman territory in the course of these wars is marked by the formation of four new tribes. The ten years of comparative peace abroad which followed, were occupied at Rome by the struggle over the Licinian proposals; and during that time, owing to the interruption in the election of the magistrates, the state was scarcely in a position to act with vigor.

REMARKS.

1. The natural subject is Romani, which need not be repeated at ''^ state. "

2. The personification in ''extension" and ''years" should not be retained.

3. The abstracts " course," formation," etc., are made concrete.

4. " Comparative" =as a general thing = fere.

TRANSLATION.

Romani autem quattuor tribus, agro inter haec bella aucto, addiderunt; sed decern sequentibus annis quamquam externae res quietae fere erant, cum de rogationibus Licinii certaretur comitia- que difTerrentur, strenue contra hostes agere non poterant.

(c) ENGLISH PASSAGE.

When Regulus reached Rome, he refused, as being no longer a citizen, either to enter the city or visit his wife and children. The Senate met outside the walls; but, instead of pleading the cause for which he was sent, he urged the Senators by no means to make peace or accept an exchange of prisoners. And this advice the veteran gave, although he knew that death awaited him at Carthage, remind- ing his hearers that, though military law had consigned to Carthage the [)ossessi()n of his body, his spirit was still kotnaii.

176 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

REMARKS.

1. The subject is taken out and put at the head of the sentence. It is not repeated at ''veteran/'

2. "Reminding his hearers,'' signal for indirect: part of a speech,

3. ''Law," not to be personified.

4. "Consigned" etc., expressed literally.

TRANSLATION.

Regulus, cum Romarf venisset, vel urbem intrare vel uxorem liberosque visere, ut non iam civis, nolebat atque Senatui extra muros convocato suasit neve pacem faceret neve mutationem capti- vorum acciperet; et ea hortatus est quanquam se Karthagini peri- turum cognoverat: corpus enim suum iure belli esse Karthaginien- sium, animum vero adhuc Romanum.

LIMIT OF SUBORDINATION. THE DETACHED STYLE.

It may be observed in conclusion that, though Latin prefers the complex sentence to the compound and subordination to coordin- ation, over-coordination should be avoided, as tending to obscure the clearness of the narrative. The subordination of three, or at most four, statements to the main predication, is suggested as the limit. The difficulty disappears with practice and especially before a thorough mastery of the meaning of the English.

For the sake of variety, the detached style is combined with the long Latin periods. It is used, as in English, in graphic, rapid, and detailed description, and, especially in speeches, for dramatic effect. Thus :

Palatinum muniit ; sacra dis aliis facit. He fortified the Palatine and instituted rites in honor of the other gods.

Bellum ab altero consule prospere gestum; Suessa in deditionem venit, Teanum vi expugnatum. The military operations of the other cousul were successful ; Suessa surrendered and Teanum was taken by storm.

Quid porro quaerendum est ? Factumne sit ? At constat, A quo? At paret. But what is the subject of investigation ? The fact (of the homicide)? That is admitted. The author of it ? But that is clear.

I

PART IV.

SIMPLE NARRATIVE FOR TRANSLATION INTO LATIN.

PART IV. SIMPLE NARRATIVE FOR TRANSLATION INTO LATIN

1. With ten thousand men Caesar sailed from Portus Itius, to where he saw the white cHffs of Britain shining over the waters. The Britons saw the enemy coming, and drew themselves up on the shore to prevent them from landing. Whenever the Romans tried to leave their ships, the brave islanders showered stones at them with such fury that the soldiers began to despair of ever being able to get to shore. At last a Roman standard-bearer jumped into the sea, calling on the soldiers to follow him, and not allow their flag to be taken by the enemy. Fired by his brave example, the Romans dashed after him, and at last succeeded in getting to land.

2. The victory was long doubtful. The wing commanded by Decius was giving way before the terrible onset of the Gauls, when he determined to imitate the example of his father, and to devote himself and the enemy to destruction. His death gave fresh courage to his men, and Fabius gained a complete and decisive victory. Gellius Egnatius, the Samnite general, who had taken the most active part in forming the coalition, was slain. But, though the League was thus broken up, the Samnites continued the struggle for five years longer. During this period C. Pontius, who had de- feated the Romans at the Caudine Forks, again appeared, after twenty-seven years, as the leader of the Samnites, but was defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus with great loss and taken prisoner. Being carried to Rome, he was put to death as the triumphal car of the victor ascended the Capitol. This shameful act has been justly branded as one of the greatest stains on the Roman annals.

3. This battle taught Pyrrhus the difficulty of the enterprise he had undertaken. Before the engagement, when he saw the Romans forming their line as they crossed the river, he said to his officers: "In war, at any rate, these barbarians arc not barbarous; " and after- ward, as he saw the Roman dead lying upon the field with all their wounds in front, he exclaimed, "If these were my soldiers, or if I were their general, we should conquer the world." And, thouxh his U)ss had Ix'cn inferior to that of the Romans, still so larfjc a number

180 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

of his officers and best troops had fallen, that he said, "Another such victory, and I must return to Epirus alone." He therefore resolved to avail himself of this victory to conclude, if possible, an advantageous peace.

4. Three days afterwards information reached him that the enemy were advancing with a formidable force upon Vesontio and were already three days' march beyond their frontiers. It was of the ut- most importance to prevent this place from falling into their hands and he saw that it was necessary to use every precaution. The town was not only well supplied with military stores but strongly fortified by nature and, if once secured by the Germans, certain to be strongly held in order to protract the campaign. The place is encircled by a river which encloses almost the whole town, while the inter- vening space is filled up by a mountain extending oh both sides to the banks. A wall, surrounding the mountain, gives it the strength of a citadel and joins it to the town. Caesar made a hurried advance and, by great good fortune arriving before the Germans, took posses- sion of the place and fortified it.

5. Brutus, being defeated by Antony near Philippi, betook him- self to flight to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy. One Licinius, observing a few horsemen pursuing him at full speed, threw himself^iTTtheir way in order to save the life of his general, telling them that he was Brutus. The horsemen, overjoyed at the nev*^ gave over the pursuit, and despatched messengers to tell Antony that Brutus was taken. Antony, when he received the intelligence, was at a loss how to treat the illustrious captive. ' But^he was soon delivefSd from liis uneasiness, for Licinius shortly afterwards came up and confessed who he was. In the meantime Brutus made his escape.

6. Fortune in another quarter served the Romans no less effec- tually. The Macedonian ambassadors, after having concluded their treaty with Hannibal, made their way back into Bruttium in safety, and embarked to return to Greece. But their ship was taken, oflf the Calabrian coast, by the Roman squadron on that station, and the ambassadors with all their papers were sent prisoners to Rome. A vessel which had been of their company, escaped the Romans and informed the king what had happened. He was obliged therefore to send a second embassy to Hannibal, as the former treaty had

/

^

Exercises. 181

never reached him; and, although this second mission went and returned safely, yet the loss of time was irreparable, and nothing could be done until another year.

7. There was a certain slave named Androcles, who was so ill- treated by his master that his life became unsupportable. Finding no remedy for what he suffered, he at length said to himself, "It is better to die than to continue to live in such hardships and misery as I am obliged to suffer. I am determined, therefore, to run away from my master. If I am taken again, I know that I shall be punished with a cruel death; but it is better to die at once than to live in misery. If I escape, I must betake myself to deserts and woods, inhabited only by wild beasts; but they cannot use me more cruelly than I have been used by my fellow creatures. Therefore I will rather trust myself with them than continue to be a miserable slave." Having formed this resolution, he took an opportunity of leaving his master's house, and hid himself in a thick forest, which was at some miles' distance from the city. But here the unhappy man found that he had only escaped from one kind of misery ^to experience another.

8. Confident that he could reduce the Aequians in a single battle, the Roman general immediately adva^jced with a large army which he drew up in fighting order on the plai^. Thither the enemy also advanced as soon as it was light. The battle was a spirited one, but the Romans were in the end victorious and drove the Aequians back to their camp. This engagement compelled on the part of the enemy the admission that the Romans were their superiors in the art of fighting pitched battles, and they now resorted to predatory incursions. In this guerilla warfare they were eminently successful, and spread consternation even to the gates of Rome,

9. Famine had now reached such a pitch that the besieged had actually begun to eat the leather of their shields, when the Gauls declared their willingness to accept a money payment as the price of evacuating the city. Their host was melting away with disease and they had received the intelligence that the Venetians, taking advantage of the absence of the fighting men, had invaded (iallij territory. They believed too that the Roman garrison had no lack of food. It was agreed accordingly that the (iauls should receive a thousand pounds of gold, provided they withdrew with all their forces from the territorv of Knme. Af the wei^^hiiii,' of f heboid i he

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y

182 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

Gallic chief had false weights brought and when the Romans exclaimed against the injustice, he threw his sword and belt into the scale. Hence the words, "Woe to the vanquished," were long remembered at Rome.

10. In the very year after the establishment of Military Tribunes, two new officers of state, called Censors, were appointed. These were both Patricians. Their business was to hold the Census, and perform the solemn rites with which every lustrum, or period of five years, was initiated; and their office was to last for the whole of this period. In later times the Censors obtained a very great and com- manding power, and became the chief and crowning dignity which a Roman burgess could reach. But it cannot be doubted that the cause of their creation was to take out of the hands of the Military Tribunes some of the most important functions attaching to the office of consul. But in the year 434 B.C. L. yEmilius Mamercus, himself, a Patrician and a man of highest distinction, introduced a change. He was in that year invested with the office of Dictator, for the purpose of conducting the war in Lower Etruria. His ser- vices were not required in the field, but he brought in a law by which the Censors were allowed eighteen months for the purpose of executing their business, and then were required to lay down their office; so that if Censors were elected for each lustrum, there would be three years and a half in each of these quinquennial periods during which there were no Censors.

11. This victory seemed to Pyrrhus to confer little or no advan- tage; for his loss had been very heavy and his hope of the arrival of reinforcements from Epirus was very slight. Therefore, when envoys came to him from Sicily with a request for aid against Car- thage, they found him inclined to accept their proposal. Rome, too, was not unwilling to facilitate the withdrawal of so formidable a foe, and, when one of the king's slaves brought a message to the consuls, offering to remove his royal master by poison, they sent the traitor back to the king with the announcement that the Romans scorned to vanquish their enemies by treachery.

12. He spoke as follows: "Many evils may lurk under the name of freedom, and men, ensnared by the sweetness of this name, have done acts which were worthy of death. This is what your magis- trates are doing now. You have allowed them perfect freedom of speech and, instead of tribunes of the people, they now show them-

Exercises. 183

selves the abettors of sedition. What would you say that a man de- served who himself deserted his post or recommended such a course to another? What would you say a man deserved who disobeyed his general or recommended disobedience to others? Would you not say that he deserved to die? But this is nothing in comparison to what your tribunes have done and are now doing. They have nc respect for our ancestors or for the institutions of our ancestors: they refuse to obey the law of the land; they are seducing the sol- diery; they are betraying the country. I ask you how long you intend to permit them to follow these seditious courses."

13. The Senate felt great regret at the military failure before Veii and were as much exasperated as the plebs at the defeat of the army and the destruction of the siege works by fire. They accord- ingly passed a decree ordering all the magistrates to abdicate at once and a new election to be held. Some opposition was offered to the execution of this decree on the part of those concerned; but when one of the senators threatened to compel by force the abdi- cation ordered by the Senate, all opposition ceased. Magistrates were then elected at the popular assembly, and came into office net on the 1st of January, which was the regular and usual day for enter- ing office, but upon October ist. The delinquent generals of the previous year were then brought to trial and condemned by the people to pay a large fine (multa) for incompetence in their command and treason to their country.

14. No sooner had the Gauls heard this, than they sent word to their kinsfolk, and, being reinforced by great multitudes, took the road to Rome. In the meanwhile the Roman allies had mustered at the Senate's call and everyone who could bear arms was supplied with them. It is clear that the whole of the Roman force took up a position near Veii to watch the enemy's movements, as was the case in A.U.C. 421 when an irruption of the same people was appre- hended. For our narrative relates that the Roman army crossed the Tiber and marched along its banks to the Allia; and that the generals had received sudden intelligence that the enemy were advancing by forced marches upon the city and were already cK ye at hand. They hoped to prevent him from ravaging the countiy before it. If they had only refrained from indulging in such a hope! A battle lost under the walls of the city need not necessiirily have involved its destruction.

184 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

15. Day dawned; the main army broke up from its camp, and began to enter the defile; while the natives, finding their positions occupied by the enemy, at first looked on quietly, and offered no disturbance to the march. But when they saw the long narrow line of the Carthaginian army winding along the steep mountain side, and the cavalry and baggage-cattle struggling at every step with the difficulties of the road, the temptation to plunder was too strong to be resisted; and from many points of the mountain, above the road, they rushed down upon the Carthaginians. The confusion was terrible: for the road or track was so narrow, that the least crowd or disorder pushed the heavily-loaded baggage-cattle down the steep below; and the horses, wounded by the barbarians' missiles, and plunging about wildly in their pain and terror, increased the mischief.

16. Their march often lay through deep valleys or under ridges upon which the brave mountaineers had taken up their position. These latter attacked the column in front and rear, both hand to hand and with missiles; they even rolled down rocks upon it from the hills. Again, it often lay along defiles with precipices on both sides, from which men and horses and beasts of burden continually fell. The woods, echoing with the discordant shouts of the natives, increased the confusion and alarm. They had some experience, too, of treachery. One day at dawn some venerable-looking chief- tains met them and offered them guides. These were accepted at once. But a number of armed men had been posted on a height that overhung the road, and there is no doubt that, if the army had not advanced in fighting order, it would have been brought to des- truction.

17. On the morning of the fatal day, M. Brutus and C. Cassius appeared, according to custom, in the Forum, sitting in their prae- torian tribunals, to hear and determine causes. There, though they had daggers under their gowns, they sat with the same calm- ness, as if they had nothing upon their minds; till the news of Caesar's coming out to the senate called them away to the performance of their part in the tragical act, which they executed, at last, with such resolution, that through their eagerness to stab Caesar, they wounded even one another.

18. There were other members of the party who were not prepared to wait and the leadership of this section seemed open to the man

Exercises. 185

who should be able to grasp it. Such a man was found in L. Sergius Catiline. An aristocrat by birth, he could only hope to gratify his wishes by the attainment of office, and he could only hope to attain office by service rendered to one of the great parties in the State. Earlier in life he is found in the Sullan party, and some of its worst excesses, the death of his own brother and that of Gratidianus by torture, were attributed to him. Since then, he was said to have removed wife and son by poison, to make room for a new wife. Such stories, however, circulated as they were by his political op- ponents, should not find too easy credence.

19. The struggle was over {use desino). Caesar had ceased to breathe, and for a moment the eyes of his assassins encountered each other across his body. When they looked around them, the hall was already vacant. The senators had fled with precipitation ; centurions, lictors, and attendants, who had accompanied the dictator within the precincts of the curia, had vanished from the scene, and the harangue which Brutus was about to utter commanded no listeners. Antonius, whose detention at the door gave him the fairest oppor- tunity of escape, had slipped through the crowd, exchanged clothes with a slave, and made his way unperceived to his house in the Car- inae. Fly, shut your doors, fly! was the cry of the panic stricken sen- ators; for none could tell where the next blow of the assassins might fall, or what movement their deed might excite among the mur- dered man's adherents.

20, He presses them, therefore, to turn their whole care upon the state; that it was not a Gracchus, who was now in judgment before them, but traitors, whose design it was to destroy the city by fire and the senate and people by massacre; who had solicited the Gauls, and the very slaves, to join with them in their treason, of which they had all been convicted by letters and their own confessions. That the senate, by several previous acts, had already condemned them: by their public thanks to him; by deposing Lentulus from his prae- torship; by committing them to custody; by decreeing a thanks- giving; by rewarding the witnesses; but, as if nothing had yet been done, he resolved to propose to them anew the question both of the fact and the punishment; that, whatever they intended to do, it must be determined before night: for the mischief was spread wider than they imagined; it had not only infected Italy, but crossed the Alps, and seized the provinces: that it was not to be su|)prcs8cd by delay and irresolution, but by (juick and vigorous measures.

186 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

21. On the news of Antony's retreat, Cicero presently quitted his books and the country, and set out towards Rome: he seemed to be called by the voice of the people to take the reins once more into his hands. The field was now open to him; there was not a consul and scarcely a praetor in the city, or any troops from which he could apprehend danger. He arrived on the ninth of December, and im- mediately conferred with Pansa (for Hirtius lay very ill), about the measures proper to be taken on their approaching entrance into the consulship.

22. At Tarentum too the people were not in any hurry about the war, and a party of peace were for negotiating {use ago); since the Romans, notwithstanding their distance, were already a menace to the Tarentines, and had been preparing for the war against them for several years, by the establishment of fortified places. The opinion that Pyrrhus should be invited gained the upper hand. The fact that this plan was adopted without hesitation, can be explained only by the general enthusiasm for Pyrrhus : the Athenians even had invited him, with his guard, to offer up sacrifices on the Acropolis. Pyrrhus received pressing invitations from the Samnites, Lucanians, and Tarentines; and we may add without hesitation, that all those nations offered him the supreme command.

23. Pontius was so elated by his success at the Caudine Forks, that he knew not what would be the best use to make of his victory; so he sent for his father Herennius and asked him what he thought should be done. On hearing that the Roman army was shut up be- tween two wooded hills, the old man said that they ought either to be all put to the sword, in order that their strength might be broken, or allowed to go uninjured, so that they might be won over by their enemies' kindness. But neither piece of advice was accepted. Finally terms were granted on condition that all the prisoners should pass under the yoke. The consuls were obliged to give up their armour and cloaks, and were the first to undergo the disgrace.

24. The confirmation of Caesar's acta by the Senate gave Antony an opportunity of securing enormous powers, and soon made it plain tht rejoicing on the part of the Optimates was premature. It was left to the consuls to decide what these acta were — with the help indeed of a committee {consilium), which seems, however, not to have met, — and Antony, who had got Caesar's papers from his widow, was able to carry on the administration unchecked. He con-

Exercises. 187

ciliated Lepidus by allowing his election as pontifex maximus, and Dolabella by allowing him to take the consulship; he obtained the disposal of a vast sum of money deposited by Caesar in the temple of Ops; and he was encouraged to ignore all opposition by the evidence of popular feeling in his favor.

25. Meanwhile another actor appeared upon the scene. This was young Octavius. He had been but six months in the camp at Apol- lonia: but in that short time he had formed a close friendship with M. Agrippa, a young man of his own age, who possessed great abilities for military life, but could not boast of any distinguished ancestry. As soon as the news of his uncle's assassination reached the camp, his friend Agrippa recommended him to appeal to the troops and march upon Rome. But the youth, with a wariness be- yond his years, resisted these bold counsels. Landing near Brun- disium almost alone, he there first heard that Caesar's will had been published, and that he was declared Caesar's heir. He at once ac- cepted the dangerous honor. As he travelled slowly towards the city, he stayed some days at Puteoli with his mother Atia, who was now married to L. Philippus. Both mother and stepfather at- tempted to dissuade him from claiming his inheritance. At the same time he had an interview with Cicero, who had quitted Rome in despair after the Funeral, and he left the Orator under the impres- sion that he might be won to what was deemed the patriotic party.

26. When the gods had been chased away from Greece and their realms were being divided among mortals, a certain man obtained* Parnassus as his share and made use of it as a pasturage for asses. Now the asses found out, some way or other, that the Muses used to live there, and they proceeded to make the following observations: "It was not for nothing that we were turned loose on Parnassus. No doubt the fact is that the world is tired of the Muses and it wants us to sing to it. Surely we shall make our race illustrious, forming our own choir and lifting up our voices in louder music than the Nine Sisters ever produced. And in order that no injury may be done to our fraternity, we will establish among ourselves the regu- lation that no individual shall be admitted to Parnassus whose voice is deficient in the true asinine charm. "

27. The letter which the Consuls sent to King Pyrrhus on this occasion was to the following effect: "The Roman consuls send greeting to King Pyrrhus. For injuries received we intend to offer

188 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

you the most determined opposition in the field, and in order at last to conquer you in the field and also as a proof of the honorable character of the people of Rome, we are anxious that your life should be preserved. Your most intimate friend has demanded a reward from us for compassing your death. This offer we have rejected with scorn. At the same time we judge it proper to send you this in- formation, that we may be acquitted at the bar of the other nations of the earth, of having instigated the crime. Take heed or you will perish."

28. The enemy was foiled in his first attempt and immediately altered his plans. He abandoned all idea of a siege and proceeded to blockade the place. A strong garrison was stationed on the neigh- boring hill and a camp was pitched on the level ground on the banks of the river. To enable him to ferry over troops at different points as occasion offered and at the same time to prevent supplies of corn from being carried up the river for the use of the besieged, a large fleet was got together and the only fortress on the other side of the river, still defended, was easily captured. An officer, who happened to be stationed with a handful of men on the bridge, had witnessed the capture of the fort by the invaders, and now saw them descend- ing the hill at full speed. Knowing that, if he deserted his post, they would immediately cross the river, he solemnly implored his countrymen to destroy the bridge with fire and steel. Thereupon he advanced to meet the enemy and maintained his position with a handful of men until warned, by the shouts of those who were toiling in his rear, that they had accomplished their object.

29. Porsena now proceeded to lay siege to the city which soon began to suffer from famine. Thereupon a young Roman named Mucins, resolved to deliver his country by murdering the invading king. He accordingly went over to the Etruscan camp; but, ig- norant of the king's person, he killed the royal secretary instead of the king. Seized and threatened with torture, he thrust his right hand into the fire of an altar blazing near-by, to show his enemy how little he regarded pain. One of the hostages given to the king was a noble maiden of the name of Cloelia. This young lady, eluding the sen- tries, escaped from the royal camp, which was pitched at no great distance from the river, and, swimming across the stream, returned to her home. Ambassadors were at once sent by the enemy to de- mand her surrender and to say that the king would regard a refusal

Exercises. 189

as a virtual violation of the peace. The hostage was accordingly restored; but the king, filled with admiration of the exploit, sent her back in safety to her friends.

30. There was a Roman law which ordered the officers of the people to be elected by the votes of the people, and forbade magis- trates to be appointed by the votes of their own body. In violation of the law, the Senate at the elections for the following year secured (efficio) the appointment of two of the people's tribunes. This pro- ceeding was regarded by the Commons as an outrage and their in- dignation was excessive. In order to weaken the force of their in- dignation, three members of the College of Tribunes laid information against the two generals who had been defeated the previous year in the neighbourhood of Veii, and sought to stir up the Commons against them. "You have now," they said, "power to take ven- geance upon the guilty pair who have brought sorrow into your homes and ignominy upon the country."

31. Pausanias relates in his book on Attica that the Athenians having been praised by Pindar in a song, valued so highly the testi- mony of that sublime poet that they sent him numerous gifts on that account and set up his statue in the city. It is not therefore wonderful if in those days there were many excellent poets, since those who excelled in that art were rewarded with the greatest gifts and the highest honors. In our age the once harmonious choir of the Muses is reduced to silence and the avarice which has closed the purses of the rich, has dammed up the streams of the waters of Heli- con. Another writer tells us that for commending the city of Athens, Pindar was fined by his countrymen, who were displeased because he bestowed commendation upon foreigners rather than upon his own. When the Athenians learned this, they sent double the sum that had been exacted as a fine, and honored him with a brazen statue.

32. Semiramis is said to have gained a throne from a very low rank of life by an exceedingly clever ruse. She had by degrees ob- tained such influence over king Ninus, that nothing was so great that she would not dare to ask it of the king, or that the king would venture to refuse her, if she did ask it. So having once thrown out in conversation that there was something that she desired very much and the king having told her to name it openly and fearlessly, whatever it might be: " I should wish you," she siiid, "to grant me

190 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

this favor, that I might sit on your throne and administer justice for a single day and that all should obey me just as they do you. "

33. The king laughed and granted her what she requested. Im- mediately it is proclaimed that on an appointed day all men should obey the commands of Semiramis; that such was the king's pleasure; that for that day she was placed over them all with sovereign author- ity and power. When the day arrived, the queen sat on the throne in royal pomp. Vast crowds assemble before her. She at first issues some commands of no great importance. When she saw that all men obeyed her in earnest, whatever she commanded, she orders the royal body-guard to arrest the king himself; they arrest him. To bind him in chains; he is bound. To put him to death; he is put to death. In this manner her reign of a day is made perpetual. This is the queen who surrounded Babylon with walls of brick and whose famous hanging gardens were the object of such universal admiration among the nations of the ancient world.

34. On one of our officers being ordered out, the Rajah assured him that in attacking our cantonments (castra) he had not acted on his own will or judgment, but under compulsion from his people; that, though nominally commander, his authority over his soldiers was hardly equal to that which they exercised over himself. He was not, he added, so ignorant as to believe that his forces could defy the power of England; but he had found it impossible to resist the general rising of his nation. Now that he had discharged the duties of a patriot, he earnestly warned the general to save himself and his soldiers. He offered his solemn oath to guide them in safety through his own territory to the next cantonments.

35. The rights of the commons in this country are not highly re- garded. The common people are found in the army and are not exempt from military service; but they are not admitted to the coun- cil of the nation. They pay taxes and are almost crushed by them; but if they venture on any enterprise on their own responsibility, they are considered to have committed a crime. A noble has nearly the same power over them that a master has over his slaves. They have therefore been in the habit, from time immemorial, of joining them- selves to some of the greatest of the nobles that they may not be al- together without assistance. When they are loaded with debt, they are often made over to him like slaves. When a dispute arises between the commons and the nobility, it is decided by the nobility;

Exercises. 191

and, if the commons do not submit, they are excluded from the religiaus functions of the nation.

36. Reaching the lake at sundown, they pitched their camp at the very mouth of the pass, and next day entered the defile. They saw some of the enemy in front of them, but they did not know that others had taken up their position in the rear and overhead; and that, in fact, they were completely surrounded. A thick mist from the lake now settled down upon the pass. Between the hills and the lake is a narrow plain, and on this the line was drawn up; but before a shout arose or a sword was drawn, the enemy began to advance in even order upon them. At the same time, fighting began on both flanks^ where the enemy's horse had taken up their position. The general, in view of the danger, showed considerable resolution, and encour- aged the troops to stand their ground; but the word of command was drowned by the shouts of panic; and so thick was the mist that the soldier could not see which way to turn. Some writers state that an earthquake occurred at the same time as the battle; but, if it did (ms^/io), such was the din and confusion that few of the combatants observed it.

37. Both Marius and Sulla served as lieutenants to the consuls in this war, and commanded separate armies in separate parts of Italy. But Marius performed nothing in it answerable to his great name and former glory; his advanced age had increased his caution. After so many triumphs and consulships, he was fearful of a reverse of for- tune. So that he kept himself wholly on the defensive and like Fabius of old, chose to tire out the enemy by declining a battle, content with snatching some little advantage that opportunity threw into his hands, without suffering the enemy, however, to gain any against him. Sulla, on the other hand, was ever active and en- terprising. He had not yet obtained the consulship, and was fighting for it, as it were, in the sight of his fellow citizens, so that he was constantly urging the enemy to a battle, glad of every occasion to display his military talents and eclipse the fame of Marius.

38. Common danger makes common foes, and the Senate detct- mined to support the Etruscans against the barbarians. All they did however was to send three ambas.sadors to warn the ()auls> not to meddle further with the affairs of Clusium. for Clusium was an ally of Rome. The barbarians took slight notice of the nics-SiiRC and continued the war. Now it chanced that a battle was fought before

192 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

the city while the three Roman ambassadors were still at Clusium; these envoys, forgetting the peaceful character of their mission, took part with the Clusines against the Gauls. Thereupon the barbarians, in fierce resentment, demanded to be led straightway against the city whose sons were so faithless; but their chiefs restrained them, and sent an embassy to Rome, demanding that the envoys should be surrendered.

39. In acknowledgment of the capture of Veii, the senate ordained a public thanksgiving {supplicatio) of longer duration than had ever before been ordered. The dictator had vowed a tenth part of the spoil to the Pythian Apollo. It was resolved to make a golden bowl equal in value to this tenth. To defray the expense, a tax would have had to be levied by the government, but to relieve them of the necessity for this, the women of Rome freely surrendered their gold ornaments for the purpose — a highly meritorious act for which they were rewarded by the senate with the privilege of riding in carriages through the city, a right which men enjoyed only during the term of their offices. A ship of war, with three envoys on board, was despatched to carry the offering to Delphi; but it was captured by the Liparaeans and taken to Liparae.

40. The Grecian fleet, as we have seen, had stayed among the Cyc- lades, to punish the islanders who had aided the barbarians. Them- istocles seized the opportunity of enriching himself at their expense. He first demanded a contribution from Andrus; and when the An- drians refused it, he told them that the Athenians had brought two powerful gods to second their demand, Persuasion and Force. The Andrians replied that they also had a pair of ill-conditioned gods, who would not leave their island, nor let them comply with the will of the Athenians, Poverty and Inability {Impotentia) . The Greeks, laid siege to Andrus ; but it made so vigorous a defence, that they were at length compelled to abandon the attempt and return to Salamis.

41. Notwithstanding the almost insuperable difficulties of this- voyage, he persevered in his course with his usual patience and firmness; but he made so little headway that he was three months without seeing land. At length his provisions began to fail; the crew was reduced to the scanty allowance of six ounces of bread a day to each -person. The admiral fared no better than the meanest sailor. But even in this extreme distress, he retained the humanity which distinguished his character, and refused to comply with the

Exercises. 193

earnest solicitations of his crew, some of whom proposed to feed upon the Indian prisoners whom they were carrying over, while others in- sisted on throwing them overboard, in order to lessen the consump- tion of their small stock.

42. Soon the whole route was blocked with snow and the advance of the column was extremely slow. Despair appeared on every face, but difficulty and hardship only served to signalize the splendid mil- itary qualities of the commander. The whole army was exhausted with fighting and the toil of road-making (use munio), but they had at last reached the summit of the Alps, and now Italy was almost in sight. A rest of two days was allowed to recruit, and the camp was pitched upon the top of the ridge. During these two days, he drew up the army on a height which commanded a distant view, and pointed out the level plains of Italy, stretching beneath the moun- tains. "These mountains, " he said, "are the ramparts of Italy; when they are once scaled, the Roman citadel will soon be in our hands."

43. The gift of pay in return for military service was welcome to the army, but not equally welcome to the tribunes of the people. "You will find," they said, "that this gift of the Senate's, like the robe (palla) of Nessus, is steeped in poison. If you banish yourselves, from your homes in this way, you will not be able to elect magistrates or to institute reforms. In fact the liberty of the Commons of Rome has been sold for money. You have accepted pay for your service in the field and, in return for that, you will be considered the slaves of the Senate. Who can tell how long you will have to remain in the field? Who can tell when you will be allowed to visit your homes? Such slavery as this was never known in the country, even under the rule of dictator and decemvir."

44. This prince had already been deprived by Csesar of part of his dominions for his adherence to Pompey, and was now in danger of losing the rest, from an accusation preferred against him by his grandson of a design alleged to have been formed by him against Cie.sar's life. The charge was groundless and ridiculous; but, under his present disgrace, any charge was sufficient to ruin him; and Caesar's countenancing it, so for as to receive and hear it, .shewed a strong prejudice against the king, and that he wanted only a pretence for stripping him of all that remained to him.

45. The Romans treated Mithrichites with unexampled injustice. They first took from him Phrygia, because their attention had been

194 HANDBOOK OF LATIN.

directed to the importance of that state. This he never forgot. Then they endeavoured to injure him otherwise in every possible way, and to limit his power more and more. Under these circum- stances he grew up thristing for revenge. During the Cimbrian war, the Romans had no time to keep their eyes on him. He was a man of great mind, and, having now grown to the age of manhood, he formed a profound plan of revenge. He first tried to strengthen his kingdom. He carried on wars on the Bosphorus and there sub- dued all the nations as far as the Don. His general built fortresses there. His whole plan was directed against Rome; and had he been a contemporary of Hannibal, it is very probable that Rome would have been crushed. If he had only ruled another people than Asiatics, the destruction of Rome would have been possible.

46. On the 9th of December, when the flight of Catiline was known, Cicero delivered his second speech, which was addressed to the people in the forum. The Senate proceeded to declare Catiline and Man- lius public enemies, and decreed that Antonius should go forth to the war while Cicero should remain to guard the city. Cicero was an- xious to obtain other evidence, which would justify him in appre- hending the conspirators within the walls. This was fortunately supplied by the ambassadors of the Allobroges, who were now at Rome, having been sent to seek relief from certain real or alleged grievances. Their suit, however, had not prospered and Lentulus conceiving that their discontent might be made available for his own purposes, opened a negotiation with them and disclosed cO them the nature of the plot.

47. But they thought it more prudent to reveal all to Q. Fabius Sanga, the patron of their State, who in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the instructions of the latter, the ambassadors affected great zeal in the undertaking and obtained a written agreement signed by Len- tulus, Cethegus and others. They quitted Rome soon after mid- night on the 3rd of December, accompanied by one T. Volturcius, who was charged with despatches for Catiline. The ambassa- dors were seized, as they were crossing the Mulvian bridge, by two of the praetors, who had been stationed in ambush to intercept them. Cicero instantly summoned Lentulus, Cethegus, and the other con- spirators to his presence. Lentulus being praetor, the consul led him by the hand to the temple of Concord, where the Senate was al- ready met; the rest of the accused followed, closely guarded. Vol-

Exercises. 195

turcius, finding escape impossible, agreed, upon his own personal safety being insured, to make a full confession.

48. If he had imprisoned and punished him at this time as he deserved, the whole faction were prepared to raise a clamour against him, by representing his administration as a tyranny, and the plot as a forgery contrived to support it. By driving Catiline into rebellion, he made all men see the reality of their danger; while, from an exact account of his troops, he knew them to be so unequal to those of the state, that there was no doubt of his being destroyed, if he could be pushed to the necessity of declaring his intentions, before his other projects were ripe for execution. He knew, also, that if Catiline was once driven out of the city and separated from his accomplices, they would ruin themselves by their own rashness, and be easily drawn into any trap which he should lay for them.

49. Antony left Rome about the end of September, in order to meet and bring over to his service four legions from Macedonia, which had been sent thither by Caesar on their way towards Parthia, and were now, by his orders, returning to Italy. He thought him- self sure of them, and by their help to be master of the city; but, on his arrival at Brundisium on the eighth of October, three of the legions to his great surprise, rejected all his offers, and refused to follow him. This affront so enraged him, that, calling together all the centurions, whom he suspected to be the authors of their dis- affection, he ordered them to be massacred in his own lodgings, to the number of three hundred, while he and his wife Fulvia stood calmly looking on, to satiate their cruel revenge by the blood of these brave men.

50. The Senate met again the next day, when Antony thought fit to absent himself, and leave the stage clear to Cicero. Cicero ac- cordingly appeared, and delivered the first of those speeches, which as being imitations of the speeches of Demosthenes, were called afterwards his Philippics. He opens his speech with an account of the motives of his late voyage and sudden return; of his interview with Brutus, and his regret at leaving him. "At Velia," he says, " I saw Brutus: with what grief I saw him, I need not tell you; I could not but think it scandalous for me to return to a city, from which he was forced to retire, and to find myself safe in any place, where he could not be so; yet Brutus was not half so much moved by it as I, but, supported by the consciousness of his noble act, shewed not the least concern for his own case."

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PA Fletcher, John

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