0i:^xMSMiS^^^~

JJ:BC. LIBRARY

THE LIBRARY

THI IMVF.RSITV (II BRITISH COLUMBIA

Born 1871 In Walo, Krvcd in the Himalayas wilh the
BHiikh Trampon Coqn and in the Boxer Rebellion,
helped conslnjcl ihc CP.R, foughl with the Canadian
Expeditionary Force 191417, a reaideni of Vancouver
(or forty yean, itill a reader at 94, donated hit collcetion
of 4.000 iKxiki in 1969.

THE

SILK INDUSTRY

OF

JAPAN

BY

L Honda,

DIRECTOR

OF THE

Imperial Tokyo Sericultural Institute*

t^

TOKYO

The Imperial Tokyo Sericultural Institute.

1909.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2010 with funding from

University of British Columbia Library

http://www.archive.org/details/silkindustryofjaOOhond

PREFACE.

This work is intended to introduce to the world
the sericultural industry of Japan, giving a full descrip-
tion of the history and the present state of this industry,
and also venturing upon some impersonal opinions as
to the possibility of its further development in the future.
It is, therefore, a humble hope and assurance of the
author that the reader may get some idea of the
general features of the sericultural industr}' in this
country.

In the compilation of this book, the author owes
valuable assistance to Messrs. C. Tsuji, T. Hayashi,
Y. Tsuchiya, Y. Machida, C. Yokota, Experts of this
Institute, and to Mr. T. Mitani, an Assistant-Expert.

IWAJIRO HONDA,

Director of the Imperial Tokj-o Sericultur.^1 Institute.

Tolcyo, March 30th, 1909.

I'ltlNTIT) UY Tin: YoKOriAMA RONBHA.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Chapter I. History of the Sericultural Indus-
try of Japan 1

Chapter II. The Present State of Sericultural

Industry ii

Chapter III. Government Enterprises for Seri-
cultural Industry 25

I. Instruction* and Investigations.

A. Sericultural Institutes.

B. The Higher Sericultural School.

C. The Prelectural Schools of Sericulture.

D. The Prefectural Institutes of Sericulture.

E. Schools and Institutes Providing the Sericultural

Course in the Curriculum.

F. Experiments and Investigations.

II. Encouragements.

A. Exchequer Subsidies for Industrial Schools.

B. Exchequer Subsidies for Agricultural Training

Places and Experiment Stations.

C. Special Subsidies for As;ricultural Experiment

Stations and Agricultural Training Places.

D. Encouragement for the Increase of Mulberry

Plantations.

E. .Subsidies from the Local Government Offices.

F. Circuit Lectures.

G. Competitive Exhibitions.

III. Pi^ECAUTIONS AGAINST SiLKWORM DISEASES.

IV. Conditioning of Raw Silk.

Chapter IV. Sericultural Associations 39

I. The Sericultural Association of Japan.

II. The Takayama-sha and the Kvoshin-sha.

III. Sericultural Guilds.

IV. Sericultural Cooperative Societies.

V. Miscellaneous Societies.

rAGE

Chapter V. The Cui;ri\AiioN of Mulbkrries. ... 4:;

I. The Varieties.

H. The Modes or Propagation.

A. By Seedling.

B. By Graftinc:;.

a. Branch Grafiing.

1. Cutting Graliing.

2. Splice Grafting,
li. Root Grafting.

C. By Cutting.

n. Common Cutting.

I1. Tiie " Kiniaki " Metiiod.

c. The •' Sudare-buse " Method.

D. By Layering.

a. The " Shumoltu-dcri " Metliod.

b. The " Voko-buse " Method.

c. The " Karalcasa-dori " Ntethod.

d. Tiie Mound Layering Method.

in. Plantation and Managfment.

IV. Cl'Ltivaiicn.

V. Crops.

VL The Injuries to thi; Mulbekkiks caused ry
Diseases, Insects and Fkost.
A. The Diseases of the Mulberries,
I. The Mulberry Dwarf Trouble.
2- The " Mompa " Disease.

3. The Pourridie.

4. The Agaricus Mellens.

5. The Bacteria Disease.

P.. 'I'he Injurious Insects of the Mulberr\-.

1. 7 he Scale Insect of the Mulberry.

2. Leafrollers.

3. Hemelophira atrilineata Bull.

4. Apriont- rugicoUis Chev.
s. Slug.

6. Field Mice.
C. Frost Damage.

Chapter VI. Thk I-'pfdinc; of Sh.kwok.ms 73

I. The V^akietiks oi Silkwroms.

II. The Silkworm Rearinc. House and Instruments.

A. The Situation of the Silkworm Rearing House.

B. The Direction of the Silkworm Rearing House.

C. The Construction of the Sllkwoim Rearing House.

D. Instruments.

III. The Silkworm Seed or Grain.

A. Rgg-card Making.

l'.. Precautions with the Seed.

in

IV. Rearing of the Silkworm. paQK.

A. Brushing.

B. Feeding.

C. The Chopping of Mulberry Leaves.

D. The Preservation of Mulberiy Leaves.

E. The Extention of the *' Silkworm- Bed."

F. Litter-clearing.

G. The Protection of Silkworms after Moulting.

H. The Temperature and Ilumidiiv of the Kearine
Room. " ^

I. Application of Fire.
J. The iMounting of the Silkworm.
K. The Protection of Silkworms after Mounting.
L. The Gathering of the Cocoons.

V. Diseases of Silkworms.

1. Pebrine.

2. Grasserie.

3. Muscardine.

4. Flacherie.

5. The '• Uji " Disease

Chapter VII. Manufacture of Raw Silk 132

I. Reeling Methods.

1. Hand-reeling (TV-.c^^^rz).

2. Sedentary reeling {Za-gttri).
3 Foot-reeling {Aslii-bimii).

4. Machine-reeling.

II. Machines and Instruments.

A. Reding Machines and Instruments.

1. The Frapping Reeling Instrument {DZ-tori-kikai).

2. The Hand-reeling Instrument (7>^«rz-/f/i(«').

3- The Sedentary reeling Instrument (Zf7-^/rz-/i;?-^j/).

4. The Foot-reeling Machine {Ashi-bitini-kikai).

5. The Reeling Machine.

P>. Kc-ieelmg Machines and Instruments.

1. The Re-reeling Instrument by Pulling (Sha-kuri).

2. The Hand Re-reeling Machine {Temawashi).

3. The Rs-reeling Machine.
C. Cocoon Drying Chamber.

III. The Cocoons.

A. Handling.

B. Stifling.

C. Drying.

D. Storing.

IV. Reeling.

A. Cooking.

B. Discovering of the Filaments,

C. Reelinsr.

IV

V. Finishing and Packing.
A. Re-reeling.

H. Drying.

C. Inspection.

U. Dressing.

E. Packing for Shipment.

VI. Waste Silk.

A. Chappy Silk.

B. I'lo.ss.

C. " DohyO."

D. " Furi."

R. The Snapped Unreclable Part of the Cocoon.s.

Chapter VIII. Sai.fs of Raw Sir.K

I. ''Dziyari."

II. " Hamauri.'

A- The Process of Consignment.

B. The Process of Forwarding Raw Silk.

C. The Process of Executing a Sale.

D. The Examination of Raw Silk,

E. Customs and Usages in Dealing.

F. Charges for I*'ffeciing a Sale.

G. E.xporters and Dealers of Raw Silk.

III. Direct Export.

A. The Modes of Direct E.xport.

B. The Piocess ot Shipping.

C. Documentary Bills and Exporting Charges.
I). Colltction of Prices and Selling Charges.

E. Direct Fxpcrters at Yokohama.

F. Amount of our Exported Raw Silk and its Destinations.

PAOK

166

Chapter IX. Wild Silkworms. ...

1. Antherea yamamai Guer-Men.

2. Antherea pernyi Guer-Men.

3. Caligula Japonica Moore.

Chapter X. Conclusion

170

191

THE

Sericultural Industry

OF

JAPAN.

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY OF THE
SERICULTURAL INDUSTRY OF JAPAN.

The existence of silkworms as early as in Jindai (the Sacred
Age) is stated on record, but whether their rearing was then
practiced as an occupation is not ascertained. During the
reign of the 14th Emperor, Chu-ai, 199 A,D., Koma-O, a
descendant of a Chinese Emperor, came over to Japan and got
naturalized, paying a tribute of precious things from China,
among which were included some silkworm eggs. This was the
first introduction of Chinese silkworm eggs into this country
ever known in history. Some ninety years later, Tsud/.uki-no-
Kimi, son of Koma-O, also came over to Japan bringing with
him the inhabitants of 127 districts of his countr}-, who were,
accordingly, distributed among various quarters of this Empire
and ordered by the then Emperor O-jin to engage in silkworm
rearing. This took place some 1020 years ago, and tiic leal
origin of the sericultural industry of Japan may be said to have
dated from that time.

( 3 )

Tlie succeeding Emperor Nin-toku sliowed his warm interest
towartl this industry by sending the Empress to visit Nurinomi,
a Korean lady, who was engaged in silkworm rearing at Tsu-
d/.uki in the province of Vamashiro. This Imperial encourage-
ment gave the people an affective inducement to pay further
attention to this industry.

Another important event in the history of sericulture in
Japan is to be met with in the reign of the 21st Emperor
Yu-ryaku, who induced the Empress, by way of setting an
example, to try rearing silkworms in person. The Emperor also
gathered all the naturalized Chinese, who had been scattered
throughout various districts, and made them imdertakc this
industry more exclusively undci the leading of Miki-no-Kimi, a
descendant of Koma-O after six generations. An Imperial
decree was also issued, encouraging the cultivation of mulberry
trees in a greater extent in all places fit for such plantation.
This reign is indeed marked by the imprecedented progress of
sericulture in ancient Japan.

In the celebrated Constitution of Prince Sho-toku, promul- • '
gated in the reign of the 33rd Empress Suiko, about 1300 '' j^^|/>
years ago, one clause is inserted to secure to the people freedom ^
from public services during the sea.sons of farming and silkworm
rearing. Eire warming was even practiced, as is recorded, in
regulating the temperature of the rearing room in such remote
days

Some years afterwards, in the reign of the 36th Emperor
Ko-toku, .some 1260 years ago, a new system of collecting taxes
was inaugurated, whereby taxes were made payable in silk
textures, which caused a subsequent increase in the production

( 3 )

of silk fabrics. The 42nd Emperor, Bum-bu ordered by a
special decree that every family should cultivate mulberry
trees according to its class, vi/,., 300 trees for the first class, 200
and 100 for the second and the third respectively.

Up to this time sericulture had been restricted to the
central and south-western parts of Japan, but during the
reign of the 43rd Empress, Gem-myo, some of the rich families
in the central part of Japan were transferred to the north-
eastern part, and therefrom dates the origin of the sericulture
in the north.

In the reign of the 60th Emperor, Daigo, some loco years <?O0/4
ago, the districts producing silks of a superior quality were the
following prefectures : —

Miye, Aichi, Shiga, Gifu, Hyogo, Okayama, Hiroshima,
Wakayama, Tokushima.

The districts producing silks of a medium quality were
the following : —

Fukui, Ishikawa, Niigata, Kyoto, Tottori, Shimane, Yama-
guchi, Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi, Fukuoka, Nagasaki, Saga,
Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, and the southern part of Shidzu-
oka.

The districts producing silks of an inferior quality were the
following : —

The northern part of Shidzuoka, Yamanashi, Kanagawa,
Tokyo, Chiba, Ibaraki, Nagano, Gumma, Tochigi.

Thus it will be noted that the geological distribution of
sericulture at that time was quite different from that of to-day,
this industry flourishing more in the central and south-western
parts than in the north-eastern districts.

( 4 )

The practice of silU-raisincj liacl been kept on in as lively a
condition as before until twenty years later, by which time,
however, farmers be^^jan to pay less attention to this industry,
resultin^jj in the gradual decrease of the production of silk ; this
was especially the case in the turbulent era of Gem-pei (the time
of the contest of the t\Ao rival families of Minamoto and Taira).

It is an undeniable fact that the prosperity of industry of
any kind depends upon, and goes together with, the political
vicissitudes of a countr}'. The peace Japan had been enjoying
up to this time with little interruption had offered favorable
conditions for the general development of sericulture, and the
mode of paying taxes in silk fabrics, as has already been j/\^^
mentioned, had induced the people to give stronger efforts for "^
the production of silk. But from the end of the 12th century '2/ A/
to th.e end of the 16th century, the country was disturbed by , H^

/ 'j c

civil discord ; wars were frequent, farmers were overburdened
with heavy taxes, and the youth were called off from farming
for military service.

In this state of things, it was but natural that no due atten-
tion should have been devoted to such a delicate industry as
sericulture. Another drawback was also brought on the practice
of silk-raising by the [)revalence of the use of cotton clothing, y ^

which had been gaining ground against the use of silk fabrics _^hj
in the north-eastern and central parts of Japan some 4C0 years k

ago. The chief silk-producing districts at that time are given
below : —

Chiba, Ibaraki, Gifu, Nagano, Gumma, Fukui, Ishikawa, , \'^

Niigata, Kyoto, Tottori, Shimane, Ilyogo, Okayama, Ehime,
Saga, Kumamoto, Miyazaki, Kagoshima.

( 5 )
This geological distribution of sericulture shows some
difference as compared witli tliat of looo years ago. The
sericultural sphere seems to have moved somewhat in the
north-eastern direction.

Towards the close of the i6th century peace began to
prevail in the country by the establishment of the Tokugawa
Dynasty, and industry of every description received fresh
encouragement, sericulture naturally resuming its long-suppress-
ed development. But as a result of frugality being the funda-
mental principle kept through in all state affairs by the
successive Shogiin, the use of silk for clothing was permitted only
to " Samurai'' (military clan), and common people were strongly
prohibited from wearing silken clothes, which gave considerable
restriction to the demand for silk.

It may, however, be noticed that by the reign of the ii8th
Emperor, KOkaku, about loo years ago, the prevalence of the
sericultural industry was moving still northwards. Here are

given the chief silk-producing provinces at tluit time :

Shiga, Gifu, Nagano, Gumma, Tochigi, Fukushima, Miyagi,
Yamagata, Fukui, Ishikawa, Tokyo. Yamanashi, Kyoto, Hyogo.
After this time sericulture met with more or less encour-
agement; but at the time of that dreadful famine which
occurred in 1785, devastating the whole country, the Shdgun
issued a decree absolutely prohibiting the common people from
wearing silk clothes, which influence was felt not only by silk
traders, but extended to all silk-raisers.

Upon the opening of Yokohama harbor for foreign trade
at the beginning of the Meiji era, tiie sericultural industry of
Japan assumed a new asfiect. Wide markets being now open,

( c^ )

the ever increasing demand for Japanese silk gave a fresh
stimulus to the development of this industry, and the amount of
exported sill< has enormously increased year after year, till at ,,
present silk has assumed the foremost position of all exports •>", J
from Japan, so much so that both the government and the ' ,^5

people are giving every j)ossible attention not only to the
encouragement, but also to the further betterment of this \

inchistry.

Thu-^ far we have treated of the gentral survey of the

histoiy of the sericultural industry in Japan before the Restora-
tion. Here we are led to observe more at length the changes
and growth of this industry since the beginning of the Meiji era.
It is to be well remembered that about fifty years ago, the
silk-raisers of Italy ami France, alarmed by the fearful ravages *
of pebrine, imported Japanese eggs with the view of introducing f/i^ ^ w
a healthy stock- to replace the nati\'e races. The annual export ''

of our egg-cards reached sometimes the enormous figure of over *'(^

i,ooo,coo. In fact, the production of silkworm eggs was a profit- I ^

' «»^
able branch of industry at that time. Rut since .M. Pasteur "j

introduced his system of egg selection, the number of such ex- i'

ported egg-cards gradually decreased to 4,000 in 1S86, to 800 in |'f '

1895, till at present the export is reduced literally to nothing.

Silk-reeling had so far been performed by means of the

simple hand-wheels, but in 1869 Ono-gunu established a factory

for 100 reelcrs at Tsukiji, Tokyo, introducing filatures after the fjj^l,

I'rench model. This factory was removed three years later to , '

Nihonniutsu, Fukusiiima prefecture, where it still remains by the

name of the Sosho-kwan. In 1870, the government also

started a factory at Tomic^ka in Gumma prefecture, in which new

\

( 7 )

filatures were set and a Frenchman, Paul Bruner, was employed
as an instructor, and the factory commenced its work in the
following year. This gave rise to the successive establishment
of many other factories in various localities, and at present we
have throughout Japan 2,320 of those factories which employ
more than 10 reelers each, the total number of the reeling
basins provided therein amounting to 128,152.

Formerly, local silk-raisers used to sell off their products at
Yokohama. In 1875, a certain Chotaro Hoshino of Gumma
prefecture tried the direct export of sUk through Kindon & Co.,
No. 89, Yokohama, which attempt, however, resulted in
failure. In the following year, this man in company with a
Momotaro Sato of Chiba prefecture, succeeded in executing
the sale of 400 /cin^ of his silk at the price of ¥65cf per /ci'n
to a certain American merchant of New Jersey. This was the
first instance of the direct export that has ever been known.

The establishment of the Uoshin-kwaisha at Yokohama in
1879 opened the way for the direct export, and the Yokohama
Specie Bank inaugurated the following year afforded a great
facility to its practical management.

It is a matter of coun^e that the silk of forty years ago
should have been much inferior to that of to-day. A greater
part of the silk at that time was reeled from yellow cocoons, and
consequently assumed a yellowish tint, which, however, not
being much admired by the dealers concerned, gradually gave
place to the white silk, so that at present the latter enjoys a
vmique importance in the field of this industry. The silkworms
that had been reared in Japan were in the main the univoltine

* h'/i = 0.6 Kilogramme. t ¥ =-- ^ Dollar.

( >^ ;

race iKitchini,^ in spring, but the rearing of the bivoltine race had
also been tried for the summer crop. About fifty years ago,
however, it was found by chance in Nagano prefecture that the
silkworm eggs of the univoltine race preserved in a cave would
retard their hatching until autumn. By this means the so-called
autnuDi silkivornis are now reared with satisfactory results, and
the practice is quite extensive.

The stifling and drying of cocoons had usually been done
by the heat of the sun, thus causing not a little harm to the
quality of the silk so produced. The stifling apparatus by fire
heating invented by the Tomioka factory, therefore, may be said
to have been a great improvement in the metliod of cocoon
preservation. In 1888, S. Morita succeeded in applying the
canning method to the {)reservation of cocoons. In 1899,
the Scricultural Institute at Ni.shigahara invented a certain
cocoon drying apparatus fit for the practice in Japan, and
brought its recommendation into public notice, which called
forth many other successive improvements in the preservation
of cocoons.

The government has frequently sent abroad specialists in
order to make them investigate and observe the state of the
sericultural industry in Europe and America, and foreigners
have often been employed for the further betterment of the
industry in japan. In 187^, the Sericultural Experiment Place
was opened by the Department of Home AfTairs at Naito-
Shinjiku, Tokyo, which, however, was abolished in i87(). As
already mentioned, the fearful silkworm disease that had
prevailed in P'rance and Italy some years before, induced the
government to est.iblish the .Station for the Investigation of

r

y

( 9 )

Silkworm Diseases in 1S84, at Yamashita-cho, Kojimachi-ku,
Tokyo, Careful examination practiced in this station proved
the presence of pebrine in Japanese silkworms also. As an
immediate measure, official regulations for the examination of
silkworm eggs were promulgated in 1886, whereby silkworm
eggs were made to undergo strict examination before practical
use. Some months later, this station was moved over to
Nishigahara, a suburb of Tokyo, and there students from
various silk-raising districts were trained in the methods of ex-
amining pebrine. This continued for three consecutive years, '^(t*^^\
after which, the scope of this training was somewhat widened,
and instruction was given there more at lengtli in the general
knowledge of sericulture.

Induced by the general development of society, another
extension was introduced in the scope and system of this sta-
tion, which was, thenceforward called the SericuUtiral Institute,
according to the regulations issued in i8g6. Three years later,
another institute on the same basis was established in Kyoto,
where experiments and instructions concerning silkworm rearing
were exclusively conducted.

The need of reeling equipments being strongly felt by the
Tokyo Institute, the Filature Department was newly established
in 1902 in addition to the Silkworm Department, and experi-
ments and instructions regarding filature work were carried on
there, so that these two Departments might combine their
efforts for the perfection of the work aiined at.

Besides these two Institutes, many sericultural schools and
institutes on a lower standard sprang up in a later date in
various localities.

( lO )

It is a most desirable as well as an essential thing in the
sillc trade V)oth for the buyer and the seller to have an accurate
knowledge of the quality and weight of the silk intended for
such trade. In order to meet this necessity, which had long
been felt and acknowlegded, the government established in 1895
two Silk Conditioning Houses, one at Yokohama and the other
at Kobe. The number of tests operated in the Kobe Con-
ditioning Mouse, was, however, almost nil, while in the Con-
ditioning House at Yokohama operations increased abundantly,
so that the former was at length closed in 1897, and its business
was carried over to the later. Since that time the number of
operations in the Yokohama Conditioning House has been
ever increasing, and at present the Silk Conditioning House has
attained such importance that it is now considered to be an in-
dispensable institution in the silk trade of Japan.

These governmental encouragements detailed thus far,
combined with energetic endeavors on the part of sericulturists
at large, have brought forth the prosperity and state of develop-
ment that the sericultural industry of Japan is enjoying at
present, as will be illustrated in the following chapter.

*

CHAPTER II.

THE PRESENT STATE OF SERICULTUKAT.
INDUSTRY.

The sericultural industry of japan has been given so
much encouragement and protection from various quarters since
the Restoration that it has attained remarkable progress and is
now carried on almost everywhere throughout the Empire
except in Saghalien,

Generally speaking, the production of silkworm eggs is
undertaken on a comparatively large scale, and is more common
in Nagano, Fukushima, Gumma, Aichi, Saitama, Yamanashi,
Gifu, Yamagata, Shiga, and Tokyo prefectures, while there are
few, if any, who attempt silkworm rearing as an exclusive
industry, this being carried on mostly as a supplementary
employment of farmers. It may, therefore, be noted that
silkworm rearers are found all over the country, though, of
course, their number may vary according to the district.

In Japan, mulberry trees can be cultivated everywhere
between the Hokkaido and Formosa in an area extending over
23 degrees of latitude, which fact renders the rearing of
silkworms possible at any place so far as economic circumstances
allow. In fact, the number of those families, in which silkworm
rearing is practiced, constitutes fully fifteen per cent, of all the
families throughout Japan.

The reeling of silk from cocoons had long been performed
by means of a '^sedentary reeling^' apparatus as a supple-

( '2 )

iTientary eniploynient of farmers, but since the introduction of
filature or reeling machines some forty years ago, professional
reelers have increasctl in number a great deal. Some are,
however, still engaged in reeling with a somewhat improved
scdcutarr reding apparatus, while others use what may be
called a ''foot reeling'' apparatus, a modification of the
sedentary reeling apparatus and filature machine, the result
being the co-existence of the professional reelers and farmer
reelers, with a variety of scales in the standard of their
work.

Filature machines are usually used in factories, where
reeling is performed on a large scale. Among all the prefectures
of Japan, Nagano stands foremost in filature work. Gumma,
Yamanashi, Fukushima, Aichi, Saitama, Gifu, Yamagata,
Tok>o, Miye, Shidzuoka, Miyagi, Kanagawa, and Niigata
following successively.

In order to give some idea as to the geological distribution
of the sericultural industry in Japan, we insert here the tables
showing the number of the families engaged in silkworm
rearing, the amount of silkworm eggs, of cocoons, and of raw
silk produced in each prefecture. The map attached is also
intended to illustrate the development of the industry in each
prefecture.

N. li. The number of the families rearing silkworms given
here is the figure for 1907. The amounts of silkworm
eggs, of cocoons and of raw silk are the average figures for
the last fi\'e years.

MAP OF JAPAN

WITH
STATISTICAL SCALE OF COCOON PRODUCTION

j '^ ^ramagata^ J'V'^'L^

L.I /- i ^ \

i

j J'rodiictionof Cocoons.

I Above
\lZ0O0.0O0
ESafframs.

7pOO.OOO-lCI<l)OCpOO

fpoojaooifioofioo

Y,000,000-4/)00,000

kooo,ooo-:iooo.ooo

IsoqpOO -1,000,000

yoa.ooo - 500,000

Undo- 100,000

( 13 )

Number of Families rearing Silkworms, 1907.

Prefectures. Families engaged

Tokyo 29.103

Kyoto 25.210

Osaka 1.894

Kanagawa 37-3^4

tlyogo 33.316

Nagasaki ^-33^

Niigata 44-757

Saitama 98.078

Gumma 7S-^7^

Chiba 36.433

Ibaragi 49.102

Tochigi 15.253

Nara 5.733

Miye 36.323

Aichi 7r.888

Shidzuoka 53-286

Yamanashi 47.43°

Shiga 24.989

Gifu 62062

Nagano 108.004

Miyagi 25.733

Fukushima 63.183

Iwate 21.189

Aomori 3 454

Yamagata 41-333

Akita 14.365

Fukui 27.449

( '4 )

Prefectures. Families engaged.

Ishikawa 20.153

Toyama 14.037

Tottori 18.665

Shimaiie 25.133

Okayama 13.057

Hiroshima 6.962

Yamaguchi 18.483

Wakayama 9.670

Tokushima 24.950

Kagawa 3.485

Ehime 20.708

^-^"'^1^' 35.546

Fukuoka 12.676

Oita 24.325

Saga 25.506

Kumamoto 33 901

Miyazaki 17. 141

Kagoshima 27.597

Ol-;ina\va 484

Ilokl^aido 7-797

Tot.il 1. 421. 030

A^. J). Silkworms arc reared in three seasons in Japan, i. e.
spring, summer and autumn. But generally the families
rearing '^^priiig silkworms''' are the same as those of the
"summer'' and "autumn rearing^ Thus the above
mentioned statistics are the number of the spring raisers
only.

( 15 )
Production of Silkwoiiii-eggs.

Prefectures.
Tokyo
Kyoto
Osaka
Kanagawa
Plyogo ..
Nagasaki
Niigata ..
Saitama ..
Gumma ..
Chiba
Ibaragi ..
Tochigi ..
Nara
Miye
Aichi
Shidzuoka
Yamanash
Shiga

GifLl

Nagano ..

Miyagi ..

Fukushima

Ivvate

Aomori ..

Yamagata

Akita

Cellular
Reproduction.

No. of Moths.
894.047

4.470.950

27.759

1.237.528

444-341

912,521
2.322.906
2.923.613

473-377

788.811

416.068
5.060.608
r.695.774
1. 390.710
3.634.267
2.331.992
1.936.428
5-551-302
14.916.648

2. TGI. 922
4.704.051

224-373

265.128

4.604. ICO

421.840

Industrial

Reproduction.

Sheet.

79-389

50.302

I. 518
15.098
26937
11.085
59132
29.548
205.789
24.21S
51.815
72.227

6.459
64.918

•12.933
66.220

183.787
306.838
186.356
2,41 1. 281
58.S22
363.011

> 4-033

4.158

121.439

( '6 )

Prefectures.

Fukui

Ishiknwa

Toyama

Tottori

Shimane

Okayama

Hiroshima

Yamaguchi

Wakayama

Tokushinia

Kagawa

Ehime

Kochi

Fukuoka

Oita

Saga

Kumamoto

Miyazaki

Kagoshima

Okinawa — —

Hokkaido 1.098.026 3S-72i

Cellular
Reproduction.

No. of Mollis.
320.516

Industrial
Reproduction.
Sheet,
66.967

178.412

I 1.020

645.761

56.426

1. 318.787

33.082

2.457.144

18.482

176.200

10.777

373.409

6.170

218.813

5.960

695.689

1.695

1.398.084

10.044

23.322

1.047

1.274. 118

21.344

1.005.722

22.281

287.792

3.556

693.563

15-223

1 69. 1 I 7

5310

3.848.845

26.900

270.336

19.786

401.251

16.227

Total 88.740.558 5.349.216

A'. /!. The egg-grains on a card of the '' industrial reproduction"
arc the result of the deposits of 100 female moths.

( 17 )
Production of Cocoons.

Prefectures.
Tokyo ...
Kyoto ...
Osaka ...
Kanagawa .
Hyogo
Nagasaki
Niigata
Saitama
Gumma
Chiba ...
Ibaragi
Tochigi
Nara ... ,
Miye ...
Aichi ...
Shidzuoka
Yamanashi
Shiga ...
Gifu ...
Nagano
Miyagi
Fukushima
Iwate ...
Aomori
Yamagata
Akita ...
Fukui ...

Quantity.

Kg
2.961 523

2.005.715

86.377
2.821.985
2.01 1.526

119-743
2. 412. 819
8.198.651

8.337-739
2.852.164
4.107.404

1-483.179

358.179

2253.599

5.213.547

3.295.146

4.267.899

2.565.666

5.501.020

17.281.278

2.614.065

7.604.622

1.465. 109

142.312

3.904.096

634.968

1.233-384

( i8 )

Prefectures. Quamily.

Ishikawa 1.050.135^

Toyama 539-631

Tottori 1.147.194

Shimane 1.075. 176

Okayama 637.592

Hiroshima 281.512

Vamaguchi 430.873

Wakayama 430.123

Tokushima 697.089

Kagawa 97-774

Ehimc 954.533

Kochi 1. 114.840

Fukuoka 284.024

O'ta 739903

Sa.cra 31S.553

Kumamoto 1.374.946

Miyazaki 645.090

Kagoshima 654.013

Okinawa 6.71 1

Hoklcaido 270.753

lotR\ 109.199.260

Production of Kaw Silk.

Piclccturcs. Ou.iruity.

Tokyo 213.425

I^y<Jto 143.380

Osaka 2.944

Kanagawa 159.842

( 19 )

Prefecturers. Quantity.

Kg.

Hyogo 125.848

Nagasaki 6.930

Niigata 158.848

Saitama 397.720

Gumma 590.801

Chiba 74.212

Ibaragi 126.38S

Tochigi 47-872

Nara ii-707

Miye 195. 23S

Aichi 413-616

Shidzuoka 187.209

Vamanashi 449.687

Shiga 143-833

Gifu 353-242

Nagano 1.839.540

Miyagi 182.334

Fukushima 425.308

Iwate ... ... 77.440

Aomori 3-626

Yamagata 283.489

Akita 47.981

Fukui 104.586

Ishikawa S7-^3S

Toyama 69.562

Tottori 74.092

Shimane 79-319

Okayama 47 9'*^ 4

( --0 )

Prefecturers.
Hiroshima
^'amagucbi
W'akayama

Tokushima

Kagawa

Khimc

Kochi

Fukuoka

Oita ...

Saga...

Kumamoto

Miyazaki ..

Kagoshima

Okinawa ..

Ilokkaidr...

Total ..

Quantity.

Kg.
26.936

23-977
25.320

22.534
2.100
101.976
83.894
19.080
39712
19.729

95-339

55.657

31.297

i6j

6.892

7.631.095

Besides, in order to show the state of sericultural industry
in Japan, let us give the principal statistics as follows: —

\ve.\ of MiiUjoir.v farms, mv.i to 11)07.

'i'ear. Farm

•903 ...

1904 ...

1905 ...

1 906 . . .

1907 ...

AveracTc..

Acre.
782.302

796.432

•'533.27I
>'^93.923
957.943
852.774

( 21 )

Annual production of Silk worm-eggs ami the Niniiher

of Fa mi lies engaged in the Egg-card

manufacture, 1903 to 1907.

Year.

1903

Families
engaged.

17.404

Cellular
Reproduction.

No. of Moths.
44.791.423

Industrial
Reproduction.

Sheet
5.163.072

1904

18.031

57.612.006

5.530.658

1905

14.189

56.672.349

5.039.934

1906

13.514

96.781.913

5.077.176

1907

15.101

l87.945.IOI

5.935.242

Average

15.648

88.760.55s

5.349.216

Number

of Families

engaged in Silkworm

Rearing, 1903 to 1907.

Year.

Spring.

Summer.

Aiilumn.

1903

1. 445. 220

587.782

652.997

1904

1.474-587

587.215

7 1 2.6 1 8

fc,05

1.484.750

549.649

746.038

1 906

1.407.766

564.619

S04.554

1907

1. 42 1. 030

593.190

890.136

Average

1.446.671

576.491

761.269

Annual production of Cocoons, 1903 to liH)7.

Year.

Spring
Cocoons

Summer
Cocoons

Antumn
Cocoons

Total
amount.

1903

61.947.913"

14.204.849

20.836.942°

96.989.704

1904 ...

69-390.354

14.657.015

2i.S87.224

105.934-593

1905 ...

66.423.057

13.784.061

2i.S9O.636

lO2.C97.754

1906

69.918.887

15.505.452

25.94S.2i6

I 11.372.555

1907 ...

84.035.635

17.596.306

27.969.752

129.601.693

Average . .

70.343.169

15- 149.536

23.7C6.554

109.199.599

( 22 )

NuiuIkm- oI' Haw Silk iiiaimradiirors, ltK)3 to HM)7.

1. Total Manufacturers.

Year.

I90.-5

1904

1905 .

1906

1607

Aveiaijr

Manulacturers Manufacturers Manufacturers Manufacturers

having; under having 10 to having 50 to having above

10 basins. 49 basins. 99 basins. 100 basins.

Total.

407.224
397.885
392.581
399.230

3.809
2.916

3.770
3.498

603

597
619
606

307
330
369
335

402.475
408.055

411.943
401.728

397.339
404.308

II. FiLA'fUKE MaNUI-ACTUKERS.

Veai.

Manufacturers

having under

10 basins.

Manufacturers

having 10 to

49 basins.

Manufacturers

having 50 to

99 basins.

Manulacturcrs

having above

100 basins.

Total.

1903

—

—

—

—

—

1904

—

—

—

—

1905 ...

5.173

1.677

560

297

7.707

1906

4.392

1.6 1 1

564

326

6.893

I9U7 ...

4-839

1. 615

566

364

7.384

Averaj^c..

4.802

1.634

563

Z^i-J

7.328

111. MANUh.\Cl UKERS LSlNti SEI )1:N1 A K V Rl-.Kl.lNG

Instruments.

^ear.

Manufacturers

having under

10 basins.

Manufacturers

having 10 to

49 basins.

Manul

havin

99

laciuicrs
ig 50 to
basins.

Manulacturcrs

having above

100 basins.

Total.

1903

—

—

—

—

—

1904
1905

354-792

^■777

22

9

356.600

1906

350.227

1. 116

6

2

351. 35>

1907

351.133

1.954

24

4

353-115

Aver.

I Lie.

352.05!

1. 616

17

5

353.089

( 23 )

Year.

1903

1904

19OS

1906

1907 ..

Average.

IV. DoppiONi Makufaciurers.

Manufacturers Manufacturers Manufacturers Manufacturers

having under having 10 to having 50 to hining above

10 basins. 49 basins. gg basins. 100 basins.

47-259
43.266
36.609
42.378

355
189
201

248

12
27
30
26

Total.

47.636
43.484
36.841
42.653

Annual production of Raw Silk, 19C3 to 11)07.

Year.

1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
Average

Amount of

production by

Filature.

4.361. 591

4.486,268

4.526.655

5.282.258

6.169.778

4.965.3 I I

Amount of
production by
Sedentary reeling.
Kg.

2.554.871
2.491.433
2.369.958
2.456.254
2.598.3CO
2.494.162

Total.

Kg.
6.916.462

6.977.701

6.896614

7.738.512

8.768.078

7.459473

Annual production of Doppioni, U)03 to 1*J07.

Year. Quantity.

1903

Kg

575 573

1904

509994

1905

4'2.588

1906

475228

1907

-\^?>.1>1>7

Average

487.342

( 24 )

Annual production of Waste Silk, 19C3 to 1907.

Year. Quantity.

N. n.

1903 ... .

Kg

. ... i.47S.9'8

1904 ... .

1.640.398

i9"5 ... .

1. 716.822

1906 ... .

1. 948.014

1907 ... .

1.996.873

Average

1.755.605

Tlie waste sil

k includes " NosJii '

' and " Kibiso.''

CHAPTER III.

GOVERNiMENT ENTERPRISES FOR
SERICULTURAL INDUSTRY.

The present development of the sericultural industry of
Japan owes a great deal to the encouragement from the Im-
perial Households. Not to mention those given by our ancient
emperors, O-jin, Nin-toku, Yu-ryaku, the late Empress Dowager
was, as is well known, personally engaged in rearing silkworms,
reeling and even weaving in the Aoyama Detached Palace. It
may also be noted here that H. I. M. the Empress and H. I. H.
the Crown Princess were pleased to visit the Tokyo Sericultural
Institute last year in order to see how the work of sericulture
was being done there. In fact, the Crown Princess is giving a
great encouragement to the industry by her personal experi-
ments in silkworm rearing in the Royal Palace, every season.
In response to the Imperial wishes the government is also
giving every encouragement and assistance to this industry,
which may be summarized as follows : —

I, INSIRUCTION AND INVESTIGATIONS.

The enterprises as regards instruction and investigations
vary a j^reat deal. Here we shall give some of the chief details.

A. Sericultural Institutes.

Sericultural Institutes originated, as mentioned in the
preceding chapter, in the Station for the investigation of

( 26 )

Silkworm Diseases established in 1884, At present there are
two of them, one in Tokyo, the other in Kyoto, both under the
direct control of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce,
intended to give instruction and to conduct experiments con-
cerning sericultural industry. The Tokyo Sericultural Institute
is situated at Nishigahara, Tokyo, and the scope of the work is
divided into the five departments, viz., (i) The Silkworm
Department, (2) The Filature Department, (3) The Summer and
Autumn Silkworm Department, (4) The Department of Reports,
(5) The Department of General Affairs. The Silkworm and the
Filature Department conduct experiments as well as give instruc-
tion, while the Summer and Autumn Silkworm Department
conducts experiments exclusively, and has its branch office at
Matsumoto, Nagano prefecture. The Silkworm Department
provides instruction to the male students, the course of study
extending over three years. The students to be admitted
therein must all be the graduates of Middle Schools and their
number must not exceed sixty. The Filature Departnient
gives instruction to both male and female students, the course
of study and the number of the students in the Male Depart-
ment being just the same as in the Silkwonn Department,
whilst in the case of the female students, the instruction is
divided into two courses, Regular and Special, the former
admits twenty students, all of whom juust be tlie graduates
of the Higher Course of the Primary School, engaged in
filature worl:, and the term of study extentls over two years;
the latter adn^its fort\' students, all of whom must be the
graduates of the Lower Course of the Primary .School, engaged
in filature work, and the term of studv extends over ten months

it

( 27 )

The total number of the graduates from this Institute up to
190S, is as follows : —

Silkworm Department 2,002

I male 98

Filature Department<

'female 172

Total 2,272

As to the present state of these graduates, some are
teaching either in governmental or in private schools, some are
working in prefectural government offices with credit and skill,
while some are personally engaged in the actual managem.ent
of this industry ; and most of the female graduates are employed
in filatures and factories as women teachers, all affording every
possible effort and playing an important part in the development
of the sericultural industry throughout Japan,

Besides instruction, the Silkworm, Filature and Sununer
and Autumn Silkworm Departments conduct various experi-
ments and investigations, and the results collected and printed
are distributed to those interested in this industry. The Institute
also sends out its officers to different localities from time to time
and gives lectures in order to disseminate the general knowledge
of sericulture.

Egg-cards of elaborate j^eparation are also distributed to
silkworm rearers with the aim of propagating superior varieties
of silkworms. All queries concerning sericulture propounded by
the general public are readily answered by the expert officers of
the Institute.

The Kyoto Sericultural Institute is situated at Kinugasa,
Kyoto, and its scope of worl^ consists of the four departments,

( 28 )

viz., (i) The Silkworm Department, (2) the Female Department,
(3) the Department of Reports, (4) the Department of General
Affairs. The Silkworm Department provides instruction as well
as conducts experiments, while the Female Department gives
instruction only. The instruction of the Silkworm Department
which is limited to male students, is divided into two courses:
Regular and Special ; the former is just the same as that of the
Tokyo Scricultural Institute in its term of study and the
number of students to be admitted, while in the latter the
stated number of students is sixty, the term of study extending
over seven months, and the applicants for admission must be the
graduates of the Higher Course of the Primary School, who
have been engaged in .sericulture. The Female Department
provides instruction in sericulture and the stated number of
students to be admitted is sixty, the qualification for admission
being the graduation from the Higher Course of the Primary
School, the term of study extends over two years.

The number of graduates from the Silkworm Department
up to 1908 was 6S8, while the i^'emale Department has no
graduates so far, having been established only last year.

The present state of these graduates may be said almost
the same as that of the Tokyo Sericultural Institute.

H. The Higher Scricultural School.

This school is to be established at Uyeda, Nagano
prefecture, under the direct control of the Minister of Education
with the same curriculum and course of study as that of the
Tokyo Sericnltural Institute. Its actual opening will take place
within a year or two.

( 29 )

C. The Prefectural Schools of Sericulture.

The SericLiltural Schools under the direction of prefectural
governors are the following four : —

Nagano-ken Chiisagata Sericui.turai. Schooi,.

(a.) The Nagano-ken Chiisagata Sericultural School,

0.) The Fukushima-ken Sericultural School,

(r.) The Toyama-ken Sericultural School,

{//.) The Ilyogo-ken Sericultural School.

The former three have the same standards of instruction as
the Middle School and the last the same as the Higher Course
of the Pimary School.

Besides these, there are thirteen sericultural schools
established by oy^?i (county). As for private institutions, there

( 30 )

FUKUSHIMA-KEN SeRICULTURAL SCHOOL.

are many of them ; two of them named below arc somewhat
noteworthy. They are the Takayama-sha Sericultural School,
at Fujioka-machi, Tano-gori, Gumma prefecture, and the
Kyoshin-sha Sericultural School, at Kodama-machi, Kodama-
gori, Saitama prefecture.

D. The Prefectural Institutes of Sericulture.

Sericultural Institutes under the control of prefectural
governors are all intended to give training to the students, to
conduct various experiments, and to send their officers through-
out different districts in order to give guidance to those engaged
in silk-raising. The standards of instruction given therein
vary according to the districts, where such institutes are
situated. The sites of those Institutes are shown below : —

( 51 )

{a.) The Hokkaido Sericultural Institue, Sapporo, Hokkaido.
(&.) The Niigata - ken Sericultural Institute, Nagaoka-shi,

Niigata prefecture.
(c.) The Miye - ken Sericultural Institute, Komata - mura,

Watarai-gori, Miye prefecture.
(d.) The Aichi-ken Sericultural Institute, Hotei-machi, Nishi-

kasugai-gori, Aichi prefecture.
(e.) The Aomori - ken Sericultural Institute, Shinjo - mura,

Higashitsugaru-gori, Aomori prefecture.
(/.) The Shimane-ken Sericultural Institute, Hirata-machi,

Hinokawa-gori, Shimane prefecture.
(ji^.) The Okayama-ken Sericultural Institute, Ninomiya-mura,

Komota-gori, Okayama prefecture.
{/i.) The Saga - ken Sericultural Institute, Koshiro - machi,

Koshiro-gori, Saga prefecture.

Besides these, there are five sericultural institutes established
by counties. Private institutes are innumerable, the one at
Ayabe-machi, Ikaruka-gori, Kyoto prefecture, called the Jotan
Sericultural Institute, enjoys some reputation. As to such
temporary institutes and training places as are open only during
the rearing season, they are indeed countless.

E. Schools and Institutes providing the Sericultural
Course in the Curriculum.

In the Agricultural College of the Tokyo Imperial University
instruction is given in sericulture besides other subjects, and
various sericultural experiments are performed both theoretically
and practically. The same is the case with the Morioka Higher
Agriculture and Forestry School and most of the agricultural

( 32 )

schools in various prefectures and counties, in which sericulture
is placed among the subjects of studies provided. Moreover,
in nearly all agricultural training places, sericultural instruction
and investigations assume the chief feature of their works. So,
it might safely be added that the instruction and investiga-
tions concerning sericultural industry are now being undertaken
in every part of Japan with energy and assiduity.

F. Experiments and Investigations.

Sericultural experiments and researches are sometimes
conducted likewise in local Agricultural Experiment Stations,
as in the various institutions above described, and the results of
such experiments and researches are usually published in book-
form and distributed free of cost to the sillc-raisers at large with
a view to improve this industry.

II. FInxouragements.

These previous)}' mentioned equipments for instruction,
experiments, and investigations have no otlier aim than the
improvement and propagation of the silk industry, but further
attempts are very frequently made by the central government
and the lower local offices to give direct and substantial
encouragement in stimulating the rapid progress of the industry,
which fact may be illustrated in the following articles.

A. Exchequer Subsidies for Industrial Schools.

At the establishment of any industrial school in the
country, the government sometimes gives aid towards its fund,
or affords a subsidy for its annual expenses.

( 53 )

B. Exchequer Subsidies for Agricultural Training

Places and Experiment Stations.

This kind of subsidy is granted alike as in the preceding case.

C. Special Subsidies for Agricultural Experiment
Stations and Agricultural Training Places.

Tha government may sometimes order any local Agricult-
ural Experiment Station to undertake a certain specified
experiment, for which a special subsidy is often granted. To
quote some examples : annual subsidies have been given to the
four Agricultural Experiment Stations in Miyagi, Gumma,
Miyazaki, and Shimane prefectures, and the Sericultural
Institute in Miye prefecture, for their respective specified
experiments concerning mulberry cultivation. The eleven
Agricultural Experiment Stations in Fukushima, Yamagata,
Nagano, Gumma, Aichi, Shiga. Okayama, Fukuoka, Kagoshima,
Ishikawa, and Tottori prefectures, also received subsidies
respectively for experiments regarding the varieties of
silkworms.

D. Encouragement for the Increase of
Mulberry Plantations.

The government has been giving a certain amount of
.subsidy to induce the enlargement of mulberry plantations.

E. Subsidies from the Local Government Offices.

Local Government Offices likewi.se afford subsidies for the
establishment or support of industrial schools and agricultural
training places.

( 34 )

1'. Circuit Lecturers.

The effectual improvement of silkworm reariiv^ and filature
ca'ri only be attained through the combined efforts all those who
follow the proper methods of silk-raising based upon scientific
investigations. So in all prefectures, counties, towns, and
sericultural associations, those who are well qualified in the
knowledge and practice of sericulture are employed as circuit
lecturers in order to give direct guidance and encouragement to
those engaged in this industry. Some circuit lecturers are
employed all the time, while others are only for the silkworm
season. In either case, such lecturers are supplied from among
the graduates of the before-mentioned schools or institutes, so
that the efTect of this system is very encouraging.

G. Competitive Exhibitions.

These exhibitions aim at giving encouragement to sericult-
urists by collecting and exhibiting their products and giving a
chance to study the manners and devices taken by others and
the results actually achieved, thus giving a stimulus for the
betterment of this industry. These are usually undertaken by
the central government, or the local offices, but sometimes
private associations may open such exhibitions imder the
auspices of the government, or local offices. Prizes or certifi-
cates of excellence are given to those whose exhibits have
shown superiority cither in quality or manufacture. The
number of such exhibitions has also increased to the annual
figure of fifty.

( 35 )

III. PrECAUI KJNS AGAINSl' Sll.KwORM DiSF.ASKS.

While the government is thus on one hand striving for the

dissemination and progress of sericultvu'e by every jjossible

means, it is also on tlie other hand, talking great |)ains for the

precaution against silkworm diseases by the compulsory force of

law so that the modes for preventing such diseases may be

observed in every particular. Tliis was so done, because the

acute contagion of these diseases can not, as is usually the case,

be properly checked by mere individual endeavors. The first

promulgation of such regulations came in the form of " the Law

for the Examination of Silkworm-Eggs " issued in 1886 with the

intention of preventing the most fearful silkworm disease, pc^brine.

The enforcement of this law was postponed for some time, and

the matter was left to the discretion of each prefectual

administrator. This indulgence, however, instead of bringing

the desired effect, rather tended to loosen the observation of this

law. Consequently, another law No. 22 was issued prescribing

the Regulations for the prevention of Sillcworm Diseases, thus

giving uniformity to the methods and the practice (.0 such

precautions.

Here are cited some chief articles of these regulations : —

Art. I. Silkworm diseases prescribed in this law are five in
number as follows : —

Pebrine, Flacherie, INIuscardine, Grasserie and ' Lj'i' -disease.

Ar'I'. 2. All silkworm-egg producers, silkworm rearers, raw silk
producers, cocoon dealeis, and those engaged in stifling and
drying cocoons shall come under the control of this law.

( 36 )

Art. 3. Those parties stated in the preceding; article shall
strictly folk>w the prescribed methods necessary for the
prevention of the various silkworm diseases.

Mi( K<>-.t i-,i'it Ai i;.\an;in\iiox ok i hk, fkmaik moth.

AK'J'. 4. Silkuornvetjt^ productis shall observe the following
provisions : —

{(7.) Silkworm e^g-cards for reproductive purposes shall be
prepared according; to the cellular system.

(/; ) Silkworms of iin[erfect growth, or cocoons of inferior
quality shall not be used for reproductive purposes.

{c.) Silkworm rearing room-- and implements shall be
disinfected e\er\' year or at e\ery rearing season.

{(/.) All such silkuorui egg-c.irds hatched off, silkworms
in the course of rearing, cocoons, pierced cocoons,
moths, and eggs, that are intended for reproductive

i I

o
'■J

'Jl

! <

mmm ^

( 37 )

purposes shall umlergo strict examination by the
office in cliarge.

The offices for the prevention of the silkworm diseases
are 132 in all throughout Japan, the number of the offices
employed therein, amounting to 3.175, the annual expenses
paid out for this purpose by the central government or prefectural
offices reaches the vast sum of nearly ¥r,030.000.

IV. CovDri loNiNG uF Raw Silk.

A greater part of the raw silk produced in Japan is exported
into Europe and America, mostly into the latter, and its con-
sumption at home is comparatively very small, the export of
silk fabrics being likewise limited to a small figure.

As the filament of raw silk is very fine, it requires special tact
and delicacy to get at the true quality of raw silk, and its strong
humidity renders its weight subject to constant change, which is
a source of serious difficulties in the dealing with raw silk. The
government, therefore, judged it an indis|)ensable measure for
removing these difficulties to ha\e some institution established
for the conditioning of raw silk, and in consequence, in 1895 the
law No, 32 was issued prescribing the regulations relating to
the Silk Conditioning House. The construction of this institution
was commenced at Yokohama, the central market of silk trade,
and the inauguration took place in August of the following year
(1896). The management of this house was modeled after the
regulations of the Conditioning Houses in Europe and America,
more particularly after those at Lyon, and the work is classified
into the following inar operations: —

( 3« )

I.

2.

3-

A-

Te.st tur net weight.
Test for conditioned ueicdit.
Test for boil-off.

Test for qualit}' (winding, si/.c, cleanliness, tenacity and
elasticity).

. A certificate is made out of each test in two languages,
Japanese and French, the latter being intencled for foreigners;

At the beginninL,^ of this establishment, the intended
purpose of this house was not full}' understood by the people,
so the requests for conditioning; were not very numerous, but
the usefulness antl value of this institution was gradually
recognized, and the number of tests began to show rapid
increase }'ear after year, s<j much so that in 1901 and 1907 an
extensive enlargement was made in its building, apparatus, and
oflicials, giving a fresh impetus to its work, and at present 1,000
tests for net weight 600 tests for conditioned weight, and 500
tests for quality are daily executed in this house with ease.

The followifig table shows the annual number of tests
performed in the Silk Conditioning House at Vojxohama for the
last five years.

Year.

TrstS loi
net wciglit.

1 csts lor
tondiiioned uci'^lu.

Tcsi.s lor
([ualit)-.

Tests for
l)oil-ofr".

Total.

1904 ...

... 35

4i,99«

28,544

6

70,581

1905 ...

... 13

32,527

27,909

76

60,525

1906 ...

0

45,196

35,503

59

80,758

1907 ...

5

37,^07

46,824

4

74,640

I90S ...

10

43.036

54,666

1 1

97.723

2- *

■Si

< p

CHAPTER IV.

SERICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS.

The existing number of those private associations intended
for the progress and improvement of sericulture may be num-
bered by the hundred, among wiiich the Sericultural Association
of Japan stands foremost. Here we shall describe some of the
chief examples of such associations.

I. The Skricui/i URAL Associaiion of Japan.

This association was estabHshed in February, 1892, for the
furtherance of sericulture by malting investigations and re-
searches in the theory, art, and practical management of the
industry, and at the same time, for the mutual exchange of
knowledge among the members ; and after going through many
changes and transforniations, it has attained to the present
state of prosperity. The office is at Sanchome, Nishiki-cho,
Kanda, Tokyo. It has at its head the Honorary President and
Patron H. I. H. Prince P\ishimi, and Paron Masanao Matsudaira
takes the present presidency, with 30 councillors appointed from
among the influential men in the sericultural circle. Its Board
of investigation includes many noted scholars and sericulturists
throughout the country, and the members reach the enormous
number of 6o,oco, thus forming an association of unique impor-
tance in the sericultural field of Japan. The scope of work
managed in this association is summarized as follows : —

( 40 )

1. Making investigations and researches regarding sericulture.

2. Making, in case of necessity, petitions to the government on

behalf of the scriculturists.

3. Giving answers to queries concerning sericulture pro-

pounded by the government ofifices in charge.

4. Giving answers to queries concerning sericulture from the

general public.

5. Giving efforts for the expansion of the market for our silk,

6. Forming connections with sericultural associations abroad.

7. Investigation of the services rendered by sericulturists and

their recognition.

8. Opening competitive exhibitions of sericultural products,

implements and apparatus.

9. Giving lectures and instruction in sericulture.

10. The compiling and translation of books on sericulture to be

distributed among the members.

11. The publication of monthly reports to be distributed

among the members.

12. The publication of a series of lectures on sericulture for the

benefit of those interested in the industry.

13. Giving efforts for the development of the co-operative work

concerning sericulture.

14. Introduction and supply of teachers and experts in

sericulture.

15. Giving encouragement to the growth of this industry by

every possible means.
This association has its branches in every prefecture
throughout the country, and a firm connection is constantly
kept alive between the main office and the branches, so that

( 4F )

the object of the association may be executed effectively.
Women's departments are also attached to this association in
various districts so that the female members may be induced to
cultivate the admirable virtues of frugality and economy as well
as to improve their mutual intercourse.

II. The Takavama-sha and the Kyoshin-sha.

There are a great number of those corporations intended
for the improvement and growth of the sericultural industry,
but the above mentioned two are the most important.

The Takayama-sha.

This association is at Fujioka-machi, Tano-gOri, Gumma
prefecture, established in 1873, and its function is to give
supervision and encouragement to the members, as well as to
train instructors who are to be sent out to various districts to
improve the management of the industry, thus contributing a
great deal whether directly, or indirectly, to the development of
sericulture. The present number of the members is some
40,000, and those who are trained therein amount to some
2,400.

The Kyoshin-sha.

This association is at Kodama-inachi, Kodama-gori, Sai-
tama prefecture. Since its establishment in 1877, it has passed
through many variations. Its function is exactly the same as
that of the Takayama-sha, highly conducive to the furtherance
of the industry. It has some 36,000 members, and those
trained therein are some 3,200.

( 42 )
III. SkRICUI/I URAL CiUii.ns.

Tlie <Tovcniinetit issued in 189S a law relating to the Chiet
Exports Guilds with a view to induce the improvment of the
chief exports from Japan. The law of this kind was later found
necessary not only for exports, but also for all th.e chief products
of Japan, and accordini^U', in 1890, the scope of this law was
extended so as to cover the <Teneral products by the promul-
gation of the revi.sed law relating to the Chief Products
Guilds. These guilds under this law are jurichcal per.soris or
eis.sociations organized by those engaged in the same occupation
in a certain locality with the purpose of removing defects and
increasing profits iti the practical management of their occupa-
tion by the joint efforts of the members. The enforcement of
this law proved effectively likewise in making the silk raisers
combine themselves into such guilds, with the result that their
products ha\e been much improved to the immense benefit of
the members. As the promulgation of this law was a matter of
quite recent occurrence, the establishment of these guilds is not
yet so universal as is desired.

The [present number of such institutions is as follows : —

Sericultural Guilds 67

Silkworm-egg Guilds 35

Raw Silk Guilds 21

Silkworm Rearers' Guilds 1

Silkworm Rearers' and Silkworm-egg Pro-
ducers' Guilds 2

Double Cocoon Reelers' (juilds 1

Total 129

( 43- ).

In order to keep ^c<'miection amon<:; these guilds, two or
more of them unite themselves in ;i guild-union, wliich is also a
juridical person or association prescribed b}' the law. The
number of these unions is as follows :- — ■ ; ■

Sericultural Guild-union 5

- ■ : . ; i
Silkworm-egg Froducers';Guild-union i

Raw Silk- Producers' Guild-union i

Total 7

IV. SERICUI/IURAJ. CO-OrEKATlVE SuCIETIES.

In March, 1898, the go\ernnient issued the law relating to
the Co-operative Society, the object of which is to induce the
industrial as well as economical expansion of the people, and the
societies organized in conformity to this law are sanctioned as
juridical persons or associations. The present mmiber of the
societies concerning sericulture established under this law is
shown below : —

Socieities iov I'roduction, Sales, and

Consumption 2c6

Credit Societies 1,1 39

Societies with the combined function of

the above two sorts of societies ',091

Total 2,442

Thus it may be seeen that the sericultural co-operative
societies occupy 57 9^ of the whole number (4,264) of the
Industrial Co-operati\'e Societies.

( 44 )

V. MiSCElIJ.ANKOUS SOCIKJIES.

Besides those above mentioned societies, there are thousands
of those societies, whether temporary or standing, that have to
do with sericultural, scientific, or miscellaneous technological
investigations.

*

CHAPTER V.

THE CULTIVATION OF MULBERRIES.

The total area of the mulberry farms in Japan is 957552,61
acres, according to the investigations in 1907. It is 7,44
per cent., comparing to the total cultivated lands, 12876465,735
acres and over 16,2 per cent, to the total farms antl they tend
to increase gradual!}' year after year.

The percentage of the mulberry farms to the cultivated
lands in each prefecture is as follows : —

Prefectures. Percentages. Prefectures. Percentages. Prefectures. Percentage.

Gumma

. 31,5

Iwate ... .

. 7,7

Akita ... .

. 4,2

Yamanashi .

■ 30,2

Ibaragi ... .

. 7,5

Shimane

. 4,1

Fukushima .

. 21,6

Shidzuoka .

■ 7A

Ishikawa

. 4,0

Nagano

.. 21,4

Shiga ... .

.. 7,1

Miyazaki

. 3,5

Saitama

. 15,6

Hokkaido .

. 7,1

Wakayama .

. l,Z

Tokyo ... .

. 15,0

I\Iiye ... .

. 6,8

Nara ... .

. 3,0

Yamagata .

. 14,6

Hyogo ... .

. 6,4

Oita ... .

. 3,0

Kanagawa .

• 14,4

Fukui ... .

. 5,4

Kumamoto .

. 2,8

Gifu

. 13.9

Tokushima .

5.3

Ehimc ... .

. 2,7

Miya.c;i ... .

. 13,5

Chiba ... .

■ 5.0

Kochi ... .

. 2,0

Kyoto ... .

. 10,3

Niigata ... .

. 4,6

Ok ay a ma

■ 1,9

Aichi ... .

.. rc,o

Tochigi

. 4.6

Kagoshima .

. 1,9

Tottori ... .

.. 8,1

Toyama

. 4,4

Yamaguchi .

. 1.4

Saga ... .

.. 1,2

Kagawa

. 0,9

Osaka ... .

. 0.4

Hiroshima .

i.i

Nagasaki

.. 0,6

Okinawa

0,1

Fukuoka

. 1,0

AonK-)ri ... .

. 0,6

( 4<^> )
I. TnK Vakikih.s.

On account of tlic fact that wild mulberry trees are found
in the llokkaidr*, the island of llachijo and the Lu-chu group,
Japan is thought to be one of the lands where the mulberr)-
ijrows Tiaturaliy.

The \ariety most widely cultivated n(j\v-a-days, is one of
the white mulberry species, the Morus alba, according to the
classification by De Candolle but all jjnds are indigenous except
the Kosr. transplanted from China. Although over four
hundred names of mulberries are found, there are not a few
synonyms in the lists, owinq; to local nomenclature.

These are practically classifietl into three varieties, early,
middli' and Lite, according to the period of budding. The early
varieties are used to feed the silkworms of the first and second
age, because they bud earliest among others and their leaves
harden also earliest. Those which belong to this variety and
are most widely cultivated, are as follows: —

Fnslii-maii\iri, Ic/ii-liei, Jago-ioase, Yanaj^n'-ila, Slii'ro-u'ase',
O'lliirimcn.

The middle varieties bud in tlu' mitldie between the early
and the late season and serve to rear the silkworms of tlie third
and fourth age. The following arc the important ones among
these varieties : —

l\,>in>}L-i. Kiiiiiini-ryn, lfi{\>-j/i\', l>iini-t>i, Aka<^i, Koso.

'1 he late varieties bud latest among the three and supply
t4)cir leaves chiefly to the fifth age worms. The principal
varieties bclotvjintr to this class are as follows: —

( 4/ )

• 'Nesinni^gayts/ii, Jifi-moiiji, Yamauaka-t'akastLkc, Hosoye,
Yotsumr, Obafa.

■ II. TnK .Modes of Piu)rA(;ArioNS.

There are four modes of propai^ations commonly prac-
tised : Seedling^, grafting, cutting, layering. Kach mode has
different modifications as follows : —

( ciumn
Seedling<

iSprin

Grafting

Summer seedling

Spring seedling

< Cutting grafting
Branch grafting <

(. Splice grafting

r Cutting grafting
Root grafting < , "

(. Splice grafting

Common cutting

Cutting \ The Kivia-ki method

The Sudare-hiise method

The SlminoJcii-dori method

The Yoko-busc method

Layering *( ,^, ^

The Karakasa-dort method

Alound layering

A. Seedling.

By seeds, we may obtain a new variety which has different
characteristics from the original and often tends to degenerate
into the wild \ariety. It is not profitable to propagate the
■plants by means of sowing seeds, on iiccount of the waste of
time, but bj'^ this method growers may sometimes set not only
plants superior to the parent-st(Kk-, but if they use the phints as

( 4S )

the stocks of p^rafts, healthy and lonj; lived speciiTJeiis may be
obtained, (^n account of the latter advantage this method is
popularly practiced in some districts.

In the practice of this method, well ripened berries arc
collected from the end of April to the middle of June.
Then they are soon planted either by rubliinj:^ them against
each other, mixed with ashes or fine sand, or by taldng off their
pulp and washing them in water. Sowing seeds in the same
year that they arc gathered is called '^ sitiinncr sccdlivoy The
seed, washed in water as described above, arc well dried in
the shade, placed in a box or a dry straw bale and buried in a
dry sandy soil. The next spring they are taken out and sown.
Thus this method is called " sprim^ scedliv(^y the seeds being
preserved and sown in the next year, after their production. On
account of the fact that the power of germinations is injured
in seeds preserved a long time, sniniiicr scai/iii^^ is widely
practiced. A seed bed has been beforehand tilled and
manured. The surface is leveled down, covered with earth, and
then seeds are sown in the propcjrtion of one or two grains per
one-tenth foot .square.

Then the seeds are covered with soil, and straw is scattered
over them for protection from dryness. Esjecially when the
weather is fine and dr}-, water is splashed over them both
morning and evening to l;eep the proper moisture. When the
seeds germinate, the straw is tal^en off and a fence, about
two feet in height, is made round the bed and a cover is
spread over it, when the sun shines or when it rains heavily,
the young plants are well taken care of to keep them from
injury.

( 49 )

At the beginning very dilute liquid manure is applied to
them but the concentration should be made stronger as they
grow on. Wiien their height is two or three inches, thinned
out and weeded. Afterwards they are gradually reduced in
number, until the distance between every two plants is some
five or six inches. Thus the plants will grow on from two to
three feet in height by the close of autumn, when tiie
leaves fall.

B. Grafting.

The well grown and vigorous shoots are selected as scions.
Then with their terminals and roots are cut off and only their
middle parts are used. There are three different periods of
cutting, (i) shoots are cut off after the fall of the leav^es and
before the autumnal frost, and preserved until the next spring ;
(2) shoots are cut off about lO days before grafting and preserved
by stricking them in potatoes or radishes ; (3) they are cut off
at the time of the actual grafting. The first and second method
are widely practiced but the third but rarely, owing to the fact
that the scions take up the juice of the stock with difficulty,
when they contain too much sap in themselves and good
results can scarcely be obtained. Grafting is practiced about
two or three weeks after the buds have begun to develop.
The grower should take special care of the following two points
ingrafting, namely, (i) that the cut surfaces of scions and stocks
are flattend, both the cambiums and the barks of each shouUl
be brought so closely into contact that both air and water may
he completely excluded, so that it can not enter into the
inserted part, (2) that the shoots, with the short internodc,

( 50 )

which lia\c two to throe buds, aiul arc about two to live inches
in length, serve as scions. Stocks are cut off from two to five
inches in length, and grafting is practicetl on the sniooth surface,
where the texture of the barl^ is not disturbed. Soft straw, after
being soaked in water oxernight, is used to tie up the
inserted part.

a. Ihanch drafting.

1. Cutting Cirafting.

The proper stocks, ha\ ing been selected beforehand, are cut
off three or four inches from the ternu'nal part when an extended
period of fine weather seems probable. One jjart of the baric,
with the small wood, is cut off with a sharp knife and the cut
surface is made smooth. A scion, having a smooth and even cut,
is inserted in this part. The fit should be so complete as to
contact clo.se and firm in all parts and be bound together .so
properly as not to mo\e. Then the grafted plants are trans-
planted to a seeds bed.

2. Splice (irafting.

This grafting is i)racticed commonly in case where stocks
and scions are of a .same si/c. h'or tliis puriJO.sc both are cut off
and the cuts are made of the same size and the same form.
Then they are ])laced in close contact and bound together in the
same iiianner as the jircvious method.

b. Root (irafting.

" I\x)ot /^raf/iii^ " is practiced when stocks are wanted. This
metlu)d can not be distinguished from *' haiu/i gmftinji^" except

( 5« )

that roots are used in the place of the stocks. Roots are dug out
and cut off five or six inches long and shoots, prepared with two
or three buds, are grafted to them by ^^ cutting f^raftin^'' or
^^ splice grafting'' according to the size of the roots.

C. Cutting.

This is a method to propagate mulberries by taking advan-
tage of the fact that the plants are capable of producing a new
individual by divisions. Cuttings are generally more easily pre-
pared from the shoots which are in the low part, and have a
short internode or are in an oblique position, than by those in
the opposite cases and they are always taken off beneath a node.

a. Common Cutting.

There are two ways in this method, namely, shoots are
either cut off about lo inches long in early spring, when the
buds have not yet developed, or they are preserved until the
spring planting after cutting them between the late autumn
when the leaves fall and the earl}' winter. The latter method is
most widely used because the cuts will b\- that time have been
quite cured and the cuttings will strike root vigorously. For
the preserving of the cutting, a pit seven or eight inches in
depth, is dug out in a sand\-, well-drained and shady place. The
cuttings are placed in it layer by layer, covering each layer
with sandy soil one or two inches deep until the pit is filled up.
A mound of earth is drawn up over it and the surface is covered
with straw or straw-mats to keep in the moisture. The farms
for the planting of cuttings are deeply tilled and manured.
Ridges, three or four feet wide, are made on which holes are

( 52 )

o|x.'netl, sloping towards the south, with .i stick, having the
same size as the cuttings. They arc inserted in tlie holes so deep
that only two buds will be above the surface of the ground.
Their bases are hardened ; straw and dry hay is scattered over
the fields to protect them from diought. When the buds grow
one or two inches long, other buds are tal<en off, leaving only
a single, most vigorous one in every cutting. The dilute
manure is sprinkled near the base of the plant and the earth
between the ridges, is drawn thickly to it as the bud grows.
Thus we will have plants, five or six feet in height, until the
close of the autumn.

b. The " Ki-maki " Method.

in the early part of July, the new shoots, over three feet
high, of the " Imsh planted'^ mulberries {iicfj^ari-kuiL'a) are
turnetl down on the ground and buried with earth or straw,
leaving their terminal parts remaining, about six inches long,
upon the surface. After the leaves fall, the shoots, bleached in
the earth, are taken out, and after being cut off some four or
five inches in length are placed in dry soil until the spring. In
the other way, the shoots are taken out in the coming spring
and cut f>ff. In both cases, the cut shoots are planted, until
the budding commences in the spring. For this purpose, seed
beds have been ])reparecl beforehand and ridges, two feet in
width, are made, on which small trenches, four or five inches
wide, are dug out. The cuttings are laid in them in an oblique
position, keeping them five or six inches from each other when
they are covcrctl with fine soil, so that their terminal parts are
not exposed.

( 53 )

The soil over them in trodden down slightly, straw is
scattered over the \\ hole, to ])rotect the plants from the damage
caused by dryness, wind and rain. When buds grow three or
four inches, dilute liquid manure is aj)plied and afterwards they
are nursed as described before.

c. The " Sudare-buse " Method.

This method is practiced on buds in the spring. On the
farm, tilled and manured, trenches, about eight inches deep, are
opened, so that they are from three feet and six inches to four
feet from each other. The soil is heaped up on both sides. One
end of the cutting, one foot and three inches to one foot and
nine or ten inches in length, is put into a mound on one side of
the trench, as deep as three or four inches and the other end is
placed in the other mound on the opposite side. The distance
between every two cuttings is about four or five inches. The
exposed part of the cutting is covered with bamboo leaves, straw
or green grass to protect them from dryness. Dilute night-soil
is applied occasionally. When the young shoots grow to be four
or five inches high, all of them, except two, are taken off, and
afterwards earth is drawn up two or three inches high, when
these two shoots are six or seven inches in height. Thus we
will get the young plants some five or six feet high, by the
close of the autumn. They are taken out in the autumn or the
next spring and transplanted in other fields, after cutting them
in the middle into two ]")arts if they have two new shoots.

D. Layering.
In this method, roots are made to spring out from twigs or

( 54 )

branches Ijy Iniryinq; tliem completely or only their middle parts
in the soil, <m- by drawinj:^ earth to tlie bases of new shoots,
turned down to the ground, and then when they have sprouted,
they are sejiarated from the mother plants, as individuals.

a. The *' Sliumoku-dori " Method.

I'Or pr.iclicinLj this method, all the branches of a Inish
pliDitid mulberry are taken off in the middle of April, leaving
only three or four straight and vigorous ones which have a
moderate size. When the buds grow three or four inches high,
trenches, three or four feet in length and four inches in depth,
are opened in the place where they are laid, in which fertile soil
is set. The earth surrounding the trenches is made to be three
or four inches liicfher than the surface <\ the ''round. Then the
shoots to be laid down, are cut off three or four inches in length
at the terminal parts and bent, so as to turn them stcmward.
Thus the downward buds .ue got rid of. At lirst the twigs
are f.istened down at a (Jistance of about one inch above the
ground and after one week, they are brought in contact with
it, then earth is drawn n\) to them, by using a rich soft soil.
Afterwanl they are toi)-dresseil with dilute liijuid manure in the
latter i)art of June and the shoots are covered with earth to the
depth of one or two inches, at the same time an incision is made
at the bent part of the shoots, one or two inches long, by
parth' strii)i.ing off the bark. In the middle of July the plants
are again manured, earth is drawn up to the de])th of one or
two inches and the bark is again stripped off, leaving only a
small part which will be completely stripped of bark at the end
of the month. In the close of the ,-iutumn, the shoots are taken

( 55 )

out wlicn the weather is fine, and are cut off into somethinc^ like
a knocker shape, whicli serve as sprouts,

b. The " Yoko-huse " .Metliod.

This method is [)opularly practiced in some districts of the
prefecture of Shiga. According to this method, new sprouts are
obtained from those of the previous year, without using the old
stock as in the preceding method. J^'or this purpose, a well-
drained and fertile Ijed, which has been thoroughly cultivated,
is used, and vigorously rooted sprouts, without cutting their
terminal parts, are planted on the ridges, which are about three
feet wide, sloping them about 40 degrees and keeping them
some four or five feet from each other. When buds develop
about one inch, the shoots are brought down to the ground and
the buds are reduced so as to have, say, one in every six or
seven inches of the shoots. On the buds turning straight, their
bases are covered with earth. Afterward they are treated just
as in the preceding method, ami thus ntw plants are produced
at the close of the autumn.

c. The " Karakasa-dori " Method.

In order to [practice this method, branches are cut off
before budding and earth is drawn up to the bases of the
mother trees. When new shoots grow from one foot and six
inches to two feet, radiate trenches, less than five inches in
depth, are opened round the mother trees. At the bottom of
the trenches, well decomposed compost is placed, and covered
with earth in <i thin ]a}'er. Then the new shoots are tL.rned
down into the trenches and burieil, leaving some four or five

( 5" ;

leaves in the terminal part on tlic surface of the ground, after
stripprinc; off all the leaves except these. Afterward they are
occasionally manured. Thus during tlic dog days or thereabouts
the bark of the bent |)art is stripped off partly and the incision
is made gradually greater until the shoot becomes separated
from the mother tree in the late autumn or in the coming
spring as new sprouts.

d. The MoiMui La}'ering .Method.

Tiie young mulberries on budding, are planted in a trian-
gular positions in well cultivated fields, keeping them five or six
feet from each other. The next year tlie stocks are cut off
some three or four inches high above the surface of the ground
before the growth commences. In this state they arc left and
when the new shoots reach one foot in height, earth, mixed
with compost, is drawn up to the lower part of the shoots, and
covered with other soil some three or four inches deep. After-
wards those arc properly manured and sometimes before or after
September, the parts between the stocks are tilled. The shoots
arc cut off in the autumn or the next spring. Thus sprouts are
taken off from the same mother tree in a similar manner every
year.

111. I'L-VNTAllON ANI» M A .\ A< lEMKNT.

The preparation of farms for the planting of young
mulberries sliould be commenced in the autumn or the winter of
the preceding year, h'or this purpose, the whole farm is deeply
spaded out and well decomposed compost (300 /ctuati* to 500

* k-r/7u — 3,75 kilograiTiK.

( 57 )

kzvan per taji\) is scattered on it, after mixing it with surface
soil. Then the soil is turned upside down, by deep tilling antl
in the next spring cultivated once more. In the warm districts,
the season of the planting of mulberries is in the autumn when
the leaves fall, but in the very cold or snowy districts, it is
practiced in spring when snow and ice disappear. The best
season for planting is believed to be about the time of the vernal
equinox.

For the convenience of rearing silkworms, the early,
middle and latf varieties are generally planted in some
proportion.

The proportion is changed, according to the j^eriod of
the silkworms' brushing in relation to the budding of the
early varieties. It is shown in general in the folknving
table :—

In the di.stricts where the hi llie districts

hatched silkworms are early w here the opposite

brushed, compared wth the is the case,
budding of mulberries.

Early varieties 20 9^ 10-15 °/o

Middle varfieties 30 Oq 20-25 o/g

Late varieties 50 o/^ 60-70 o/g

Young mulberries are planted, deeply or shallowl\-, sepa-
rately or closely, accroding to various circumstances. In case,
the soil is loam with a well-drained subsoil, or sand with a deep
surface soil, the mulberries should be planted one or one and a
half feet deep, keeping them five feet from each other, and the
distance between the ridges should be some six feet. In the
opposite case, when the surface soil is shallow and the subsoil is

t tan = 0,245 acre.

( 5S )

cla}- ;in(l cjf had drainaL^c, nv when tlic sandy but poor, the
plant"^ sliould be planted seven or eight inches deep, keeping
tlicn> two feet antl Vive inches to three feet froni each other
anil the distance between the ridi^es should I)C some fi\'e or six
feet.

Hcfore planting; the young i)lants, their roots are dressed.
l"'or this purpose, the number of roots and their future growth
are ascertained by looking at their forms. The roots injured by
cut or diseases, and those which ha\'e no prospect, owing to bad
growth, (M- are of no use, arc thrown out. Also the overgrown
parts of the roots which are to remain, and any withered and
tufty radicles are removed. There are two ways of planting,
namely, Mizobcri-iiyc (planting in trenches) and Tsubobcri-
iiyc ([planting in pits). The latter may be practiced only when
the whole farm is deeply tilled, but otherwise the former is
widely used. In planting, the direction ami the width of ridges
are at first determined according to the features (^f the fields.
Then ropes are streched along the direction, and trenches or
jiits are dug \\\> to the projur de|)th and width, in which
compost is placed, covering it with earth some two or three
inches deep. The earth trodden down slightly, the young
plants are laid in and their roots are put in the proper position.
Then the jjlanter liolds the shoots upright with one hand and
covers the roots with dry, '[xwc soil, gathering it \\\^ with other
hand. The i)lant is moved slight!)' and then the earth is
trodden down. Again the soil is drawn up some four or five
inches tleep, in shape like an inverted basin. In " />/ijiifi>ij^ in
fnnc/us," the earth on the foot of the plant, is leveled down
with a spade, after tlnishing, the ojieration. If the shoots

( 59 )

have not been cut off V)eforeliand, they should be taken off
with a sharp sickle soon .ifter planting. At first, the
trenches or pits are filled, leaving some four or five inches
under the surface of the ground and gradually leveled up, as
the buds grow, by putting in the earth some two or three
times, which serves at the same time as weeding. After
transplanting, the mulberries are pruned in various ways and
so trained as to facilitate their cultivation, their manage-
ment, the gathering of the leaves and the forcing of the
growth. Thus the methods of plantation are generally
classified as four : —

The bush plantation {A^i-gari-jitaii-).

The dwarf-plant plantation {Chn^arl-jitate).

The high-grown-plant plantation {Takagari-jitate).

The full-grown plantation plant {Kydhoku-jitatc).

The fourth consists of many ways among which the
" Akita inriJioiV is widely used and is thought to he a good
one.

The " bush plantation " {Ncgarl-jitatc) : Many disadvan-
tages are caused on account of that in this method, mul-
berries are planted close to each other and many shoots are
made to come out froui the stock by cutting them off on a
level with the ground every year, that is to say, it is incon-
venient to manure and cultivate them ; the leaves of the lower
part of the stem are almost all stained ; the tlamages caused by
frost and snow arc most severe ; antl the plants get easily
attacl^:ed by racJiitis and are soon decayed. Hut this method
has the following advantages at the samo time ; the plants grow

( 6o )

quickly and yiekl a cidp in a short period ; the leaves are soft for
a long time ; it is convenient for gathering them and other
management and there is less fear of insects and funjii which are

The "dwarf muliserry plantation" [Ne^ari-jiiaii:).

easily driven off even in the case of their attack. For these
reasons, this method is popularly used in level districts. Ac-
cording to this method, 600 to 900 mulberries are planted per
/(111. They are well manured and should not be harvested in the
year when i>lanted. In the following sirring, the shoots arc cut
off before the buds develop, leaving one or two of them. Then
they should be well manured and cultivated as in the j)revious
year. In the third >ear, the leaves may be supplied to the
annual silkworms and in the fourth, the plants will yield an
ordinary crop.

( 6i )

The "dwarf-plant plantation" {CJtugari-jitate) : This is
popularly practiced in the prefectures, of Fukushima, Gumma
and Tokyo. According to this method, 400 to 700 mulberries
are planted per tan. All the buds, except certain vigorous
one, which have come forth in the next spring after plantation,
are removed and manure is sufficiently applied. Before budding
in the spring of the second year, the plants are cut off one to
three feet above the level of the ground and two or three buds

The "HKiH-(.KOUN mi-lberrv plantation " {Chii^ari-jitale).

on the end are made to grow. Then the plants are carefully
nursed as in the previous year. In the third year the leaves
may be gathered and supplied to the spring silkworms. From
the fourth year we will have an ordinary crop.

The " Iligh-grown-plant plantation" ijakagi-jitati^ : This
is one in which the mulberries are trained to some four or five

( 62 )

feet above the surface of the ij^roiiiid and is widely practiced in
the mountainous districts of Gumma and \'amanashi. According

The " fl'll-ououn muli!i;urv plan r.\i ion " (^Tnka^ari-jitate).

t<j this method of i)lantation, 300 to 500 mulberry trees are
planted jK-r tan. h'or practicint; this, a single and most
vigorous bud is left remaining after transplanting, and the
removing of all of the others, and the trees are so managed as
we do those in the preceding method of plantation. In the
spring of the third year they are cut off some five feet in height ;
all buds are then taken off, leaving only two or three at the
terminus. Afterwards the same management as in the preceding
case is performed.

The Akita mftliod of plantation : This is practiced in
some districts in the prefecture of Akita. Fifty to hundred trees

( 63 )

The '■'■ Akita" system of

MULBERRY PLANTATION

(^Akita-niethod)

are generally planted
in every tan, according
to this method of plan-
tation. In February of
the next year after
transplanting, when
the buds will not

The Mulberry 'i ree of Akila-method.

develop, the vigorously grown shoots are cut off about four feet
high above the surface of the ground, and weak f)nes are taken
off near this bases. Thus the main trunk is carefully nursed.
On the shoots, thus cut off, three vigorous buds are left in
a triangular position, after removing all of the others. Until
the autumn they will have grown some five or six feet in
height. Before budding in the spring of the third year, each
shoot is pruned to fioin some two to two and a half feet
in length, but the weakei ones are sl^orter. Again two or
three vigorous buds are left on each shoot aftt r taking (^{\ all
the others. Thus in the autumn, the height of the shoots will
be over si.x or seven feet. In the fourtii \-ear, the shoc^ts are cut

( ^-^4 )

off to the lieii^ht of one foot and five or six inches and again
two or three buds are left on eacli of them, which will grow
some five or six feet until the autumn. Thus the mulberry
trees are i)runed and trainetl until we finish the operation in the
fifth year, and we may gather an abundance of leaves in the
sixth year.

As described above from the year ot transplanting to the
sixth, the trees are prunetl in the spring but in the seventh, in
the summer. After this, spring and summer pruning are
alternately performed. We call it '^ siiuivur pruning'' inasmuch
as that after 'the developing of the leaves, shoots are cut off,
leaving some one or two inches in length and the leaves are
applied to rear the annual silkworms, and '" spring pruning'' is
that in which shoots are pruned in the middle of February in
such a way that the mature or woody shoots are cut off shorter
than the [^ unripe ones and the leaves of the now shoots are
gathered to feed the sununcr si/kzihrnis.

IV. Cultivation.

Ihe mulberry farms are cultivated generally three times,
l)eside tillage for manuring or weeding, namely : —

The first time about one month before budding.

The second time s >on after the gathering of the leaves.

The third tinie after the fall of leaves in the autumn.

Hut when the soil is moist or lumpy, owing to heavy clay,
one more tillage is necessary at the end of September or in
the beginning of October.

( 65 )

The first or spring tillage is in general done by means of
the " level tillage " but sometimes mounds are opened by tilling
both sides or one side of the ridge, and earth is drawn to the feet
of the the plants. The soil between the ridges is dug out so as
to make a small trench which will be gradually filled up in
manuring or weeding. The second tillage, that is, the tillage
after gathering the leav^es, is done by means of level tillage^
but if it is difificult to practice it or it is not necessary owing to
the light soil, the earth between the ridges is dug up deeply by
tilling both sides of the ridge and afterwards the opening is
filled up when the trenches for manuring are prepared. The
third, or autumn tillage is done by tilling one or both sides of
the ridge. The earth on the bases of the plants is piled up
between the ridges. The fourth tillage is performed between
September and October and the methods of cultivation are
changed, according to the conditions of the farms. In the case
of level fields, they are cultivated in a shallow manner, by
drawing the earth to the feet of the plants, and if there are any
ridges, they are leveled down.

The depth to be tilled varies, according to the hardness of
the soil and the depth of planting, but as a general rule, about
one foot is the standard, except in the fourth tillage, and in the
spiring, summer and autumn tillage always the same depth is
lield. Weeding is practiced rather rarely, because weeds are
hoed down, in cultivating and manuring practically they are
weeded once or twice from midsummer to autumn. For this
purpose, in the wet and stiff clay soil, they are buried by spading
over the surface soil not deeply while in the sandy soil, they
are picked out or cut down with a sickle.

{ 66 )

The manures arc nitrojjcnous and late-acting in many cases,
on account of the fact that the mulberry is a perennial crop and
requires less phosphate and lastly the soil in Japan is in general
rich in potassium salts. The fertilizer which is most widely
used, is the compost, consisted of night soil, horse dung, the
litter of the silkworms, straw, weeds, fallen leaves and dust.
Besides which, there are not only the commercial fertilizers, but
also soybean cakes, herring refuse, SJiocJiu refuse, ammonium
sulphate, chili saltpetre, Sake refuse and S'loyjt refuse are
also popularly in use. The manure is applied generally at the
following two seasons : —

The first time in the spring after the first tillage.

The second time in the summer after pruning or gather-
ing the leaves.

The fertilizers are in many cases given between ridges or
stocks and the depth of the manuring is the more variable,
according to the properties of the manures and the soils than
that of planting, say, eight or nine inches to about one foot for
a clay soil and compost or farm yard manure ; three or four
inches to six or seven inches for a sandy soil and a liquid or
quick-acting manure. In all cases, the manure is applied in the
small trenches which are soon filled up with earth. In the
cutting of the mulberries, shoots should be taken off close to the
stock, without leaving any foot to them, but farmers are so busy
in the time of gathering leaves that they are not capable of
practicing such careful treatment. For this purpose, the shoots
are taken off somewhat higher and are afterward cut off again in
the proper position. This operation is done at midday when

( 67 )

the weather is fine, within a week after cutting, by taking off
the shoots also to the stock with a sharp sickle and so leveling
and smoothing their cuts as much as possible. The cutting is
so operated that the outside buds on the bases of shoots, are
made to develop, for the purpose of setting many shoots spread
outwards from the stock. The pruned shoots of mulberries are
bound together during the winter. This is because the shoots
are kept from drooping, the surface of the ground may receive
such an abundance of sunlight, that the soil would be warmed
and dried, the shoots are kept from being broken by snow
and the damage, caused by the late frost, is lessened. At
the close of the autumn, when the weather is fine, the
low part of the shoots is loosely bound together, then after
the leaves fall, their upper part is also bound together at
two points, and the time, when their ties are unbound, is
from the finishing of the spring tillage and manuring, to that
of budding.

V. Crops.

The period of gathering the leaves and cutting the shoots is
changed, according to that of the rearing of the silkworms, but
generally it is as follows : —

P'or the rearing of the spring breed, — both the gathering
of the leaves and the the pruning of the shoots are undertaken
in the spring.

For the rearing of the autumn breed, — in the spring the
shoots are pruned before budding and in the autumn the leaves
are gathered.

( 68 )

Plucking of Mulbf.ury leaves.

For the rearing of the summer and autumn breeds, — in tlie
spring the shoots are pruned before budding and the leaves are
gathered in the summer and autumn.

For the rearing of the spring and autumn breeds, — in the
spring, the leaves are gathered and the shoots are pruned, in
the autumn the leaves are again gathered.

For the rearing of the spring, summer and autumn
breeds, — in the spring the leaves are gathered and the shoots
are pruned, in both summer and autumn, the leaves are again
gathered.

When we gather the leaves and cut off the shoots in spring,
it is always to collect the leaves only until the fourth age of the
silkworms, but afterwards the shoots arc cut off little by little,
in order to rear the silkworms of the fifth age with them,
without plucking off the leaves.

( 69 )

The yield of the nuilberry varies according to the fertility
of the soils, the ways of cultivation, the varieties of climate, the
varieties of the mulberry and the management, but the usual
crop in the biisJi-plantation is about 600 kzvan of the shoots,
including their leaves which are about 200 kivaii, in every
tail.

The results of the experiments conducted by the Tokyo
Sericultural Institute, concerning the comparative crops of the
early, middle and late mulberry leaves per tan respectively,
gathered in the proper periods are shown below : —

Early Varieties ...<

If

rFor the tni:
Middle Varieties... <

(.For the fou

F'or the first age 146,851

For the second age 367,183

For the third age 485,401
rth age 633,613

Late Varieties For the fifth age 934,728

In the same institute, the crops, concerning the different
varieties are also investigated with the following result : —

Early Varieties.

the number

of

stocks

the weight

of
the leaves

the weight
of

the stems

the weight

of
tlie shoots

total

the average
weight of
leaves in

one stock

e-

g.

'A-

c.'-

K.

Shiro-wase .

. 48

36,507-

14,117.

89.456.

140,080.

75»-

Fushi-magar

.. 63

45.599-

17,211.

82.386.

1.45. 196.

718.

Tago-wase..

68

422,701.

19,614.

92,836.

159,151.

6S4.

Ichi-bei

. 64

46,573-

15.241.

88,622.

150,436.

725.

0-chirimen..

. 69

28,44c.

n.078.

63.574-

103,093.

412.

( 70 )

Hi<l(IIo Varieties.

of
stocks

Kumon-ryu. . 41

Roso 39

Tsuru-da ... 51

Aoki 5)

Akaki 36

the number the weight the weight

of

the leaves
e.
50.356-
52,q66.
5S,57G.
49,652.
60,754 •

of

the stems

K.

H.536-
1 5,748-
2 1, ego.
20,412.
22,658.

the weight

of
the shoots

61,792.
92.035-
83.215-
80,512.
83.^)83.

total

119,164
160,749
162,881
150,576
167.195

the average
weight of
leaves in
one stock

K.

1030.

•334-
1 140.

801.
1677.

Nezumi-

gayeshi
Jyumon-ji

Kobata ...

Late Varieties.

the number the weight the weight the weight

Yotsuine ...
Yamanaka- |
takasuke .. (*

ut
slocks

73
6g
46
81
52

of
the leaves

63,974
67,806
53,866
56,191
55,934

of

the stems

e
27,604.

27,246.

23,528.

23.615-
20,084.

ol
the shoots

B.
98,^35-
102,371.
84,927.
86,298.
7S.943-

the average
weight of
total leaves in

one stock

(,'•

189,913
197,424
162,321
166,104
154,961

865.

974-
1171.

690.
1069.

VI. The Injuries to the Mulberries caused
iJY Insects, Diseases and Frost.

A. The Diseases of the Mulberries.

There are different kinds of diseases, namely, mulberry-
dwarf-troublc and many diseases, caused by parasitic i\nv^\.
Now \vc will describe briefly these diseases :

I. The Mulberry-dwarf-trouble.

This di.scase is characterized by the sprouting of many
feeble .shoots from the stock, after their being cut off for their

( 71 )

leaves, by the shrinking and wrinkling of the leaves on the
shoots, and by the fading of the leaves into a pale green for the
want of their normal amount of chlorophyl. Some of the
varieties liable to be attacked dy this trouble, while others are
not, but in general, Negari mulberries (the kind of the
mulberries cultivated as bushes) are more liable to be troubled
by this disease than Chiigari and Takagari mulberries (dwarf
and high-grown-planted mulberries). This disease is caused
physiologically by the want of the preserved nutrients, especially
nitrogen, in the stock, on account of the cutting off of the
shoots while they were growing vigorously. The only cure for
the disease is to select the healthy varieties and to gather their
leaves and shoots properly.

2. " Mompa " Disease.

This disease is caused by the parasite, called the Stypinella
purpurea (Tul.) Scbr. In many cases, the mulberries in the
farms which are newly prepared by breaking up the forest land,
are attacked, but in the old farms, the disease is found only in a
damp soil. On the roots of the diseased plants, one finds the
filament entangled like vines which will cause the roots to decay,
and a mass of purple and vein, like filaments, on the base of the
stocks. The remedy is to open a deep ditch, because this
disease is an infection of the roots caused by their having too
much moisture.

3. Pourridie.

The cause of this disease is the parasitic growth of a fungus,
called Dematophora necatrix Hartig. The fungus shows itself

( 72 )

in the shape of white flakes, like a cotton cover, on the roots
which will be soon decayed and then the trunks will die.
When the mulberry plants are attacked by this disease, it is
better to pull them up at once and burn them.

4. The Agaricus mellens.

This is a disease, caused by a parasite, called Armillaria
mellea Vahl.. The roots of the diseased mulberry rot greatly,
then their leaves become yellow and soon fall, and at last their
trunks die.

5. Bacteria Disease.

This disease is caused by a bacteria, called Bacillus
cubonianus Macch. Both the branches and leaves are attacked,
especially, the trunk of the diseased mulberry rots into black
and finally dies. The shoots of the Ncgari mulberry are injured
in many cases and also those of the Takagari mulberry are often
attacked in the districts, where the mulberries are often damaged
by severe frosts.

Beside those described above, there are several l<inds of
fungi which arc the parasites of the mulberry and cause several
diseases : namely, Septobasidium pedicellatum (Sch.) pat., Schero-
tinia libertiana Fuck., Septogloem mori Bris. et Cav., Aecidium
mori (Barch.) Diet., Phyllactinia corylca (Has.) Karst., etc.

\\. The Injurious Insects of the Mulberry.

There arc many insects injurious to the mulberry, now we
will describe in short about the very most injurious ones among
them in the following pages.

i 73 )

I The Scale Insect of the Mulberry
(Diaspis pentac^ona Targ.).

This insect dwells on the trunk of the mulberry and lives
on the sap of the tree to its great injury. The distribution of
the insect in wide and it injures the Ncgari mulberry and
also "^the Takagari one. The female insects attach themselves
closely to the branches or the trunk, concealing themselv^es
under the scales where they secrete themselves and live on the
juice of the tree, by sucking it with their long rostrums stuck
into the bark. They lay eggs in the scales and the larvae
which come forth from the eggs are distributed over the
branches. The larvae which are female, attach themselves to
the bark and secrete the scales, and those which are male, spin
v^hite and elongated cocoons in which they are metamorphosed
into chrysalids. Then the winged male insects come out from
the cocoons to couple, inserting their generating organs into the
scales of the female. Thus the insect reproduce its kind thrice
a year. In order to protect the mulberries from this insect, we
examine, whether the young plants have any scales of the insects
or not and get rid of them, if there are any. The mulberry
farms should be always made to be so far as is possible exposed
to sunshine. If the farms have been once attacked b}^ the
insects, they should be scratched with a bamboo spatula and the
insects killed during the winter, if this is insufficient, the syring-
ing with kerosene emulsion, kerosene and the mixture of lime
and sulphur are recommended.

( 7-} )

2. Leafrollers.

There are several l;inds of tliese insects among which the
Archips crateagona lib. and Exartema mori Mats, are common
in their injury to mulberry plants, lioth of them injure the
buds of the mulberries in the early spring. In the middle of
May they roll the leaves by sppinning in which operation the
insects become pupae. The small moths come forth in June
and lay eggs on the slender shoots. The pupae of the insects
are often killed by a parasitic bee.

3. Ilemelophira atrilineata But). .

This insect dwells on the mulberry through all seasons and
lives on the buds and leaves. Especially, the insect injures
greatly the young buds in the spring time. The larvae are
grayish brown and just like a dead twig. When fully grown, the
insect is 60 mm. in lenghth. The anterior part of the body is
small, while tha posterior becomes gradually greater. The tho-
racic legs are composed of three segments, while the abdominal
has two. The insects mature from the middle to the latter part
of May, then they are imprisoned within oval, pale brownish and
coarse cocoons, that are spun in the crevices of the trunk or on
the base of the tree, in which the insects change into a pupa.
After about one week-, the moths appear and lay eggs on the
mulberry leaves or branches which will be hatched about three
weeks afterwards. The growth of the insects is sometimes quick
and sometimes slow and they are cither divoltini or trivoltini.
The insects are easily destroyed from winter to early spring,
when the larvae stick themselves on the branches like dead

( 75 )

twigs. Here we add that the insects have a parasite called
Kaniodoki-bachi (y. Logas sp.).

4. Aprione regicollis Chevr.

This insect injuries the mulberries in both periods, that
of the larva and that of the imago. The larvae saw their
way into the trunk of the mulberries, especially, tJic high-
grown-platited imilbcrrics and dwell in the wood. After two
or three years, they become mature. The injured trunk is
retarded in its growth, or killed outright. The mature insects
deposit eggs in June or July under the bark of the shoots
which they turn up by biting. The injured shoots are after
broken down by the wind. The imago is one of the large
coleopters, 37 mm. in length and a pale green in color.

Their eggs are elongated ellipses of a light greyish white
and their longer diameter is 2,4 mm, , The full grown larvae are
60 mm. in length and of a pale yellowish white color. Its head
is a dark brown and it has strong mandibles which are quite
proper for biting. The method for destroying them are either
to pour the insecticide into the holes of the wood which are
made by the insect or to stab the eggs on the branches. The
eggs have, as an enemy, a parasitic bee which I should be
propagated for their destruction.

There is also a small coleopter, called Clytanthus cubineusis
Chevr., which injures the mulberries in a similar way. Beside
those described, the important insects, injurious to the mulberries,
are as follows : —

Anomoneura mori Sehw. {Ki-jiravii)
Glyphodes pyloalis Walk. {Siiki-vnis/ii.)

( 76 )

Diacrisia imparilis Butl. {Sn-inushi.)
Porthesia similis Fuessly. {Kinkc-nnishi.)
Phyllotrcta funesta Baly. {Hivic/ia-vius/ii.)
l^aris deplanata Roel. {HiiJiczo-viushi^
etc. .

There are two animals that are injurious to the mulberries
besides these insects, one is a slug and the other a field mouse.
The following is a brief description of them.

5. Slugs.

The slugs injure the mulberries cultivated after the
biish-plantcd mulberries by eating their buds, which come out
after the leaves have been plucked. They live in a wet place
along a stream. This kind of slugs is called Limax agrestis L. .
For protection from the slugs, the dust of quick lime may be
scattered about on the farms in the evening.

6. Field Mice.

The mice eat during the winter the bark of the mulberries,
gnawing the cortical layer of the root to the woody part, until
the tree will die at last. This kind of mice is called Microtus
montbelli M.E. and they live in every district. During the
winter, when the mice can find no food in farms, they do
injury to the mulberries ; especially in the snowy districts the
injury is serious. For killing the mice, Mereskowskys bacillus is
practically employed.

C. Frost Damage.
The mulberry leaves are often damaged by the late frost,

( 77)

after the buds have developed. The frost damage is either
severe or light, according to the climatical conditions of the
years or the districts, sometimes there is no fear of the damage.
In the nothern part of Japan, frost damage has been caused
hitherto once in three or four years. The damage is caused by
the freezing of the young buds and leaves to death. The frozen
mulberries show such a wretched conditions that they have no
green leaves but only black. A good method for protecting the
mulberries from frost, is esteemed to be the smoking of the
mulberry farms, otherwise there are no means except that of
wrapping up the shoots with straw or matting, or covering the
leaves with these means of protection against the extreme cold.

*

CHAPTER VI.

THE FEEDING OF SILKWORMS.
T. Tii?: Varieties of Silkworms.

The sillavorms, reared at present in our country, are only a
single species of the insect considered from the point of zoology,
but through natural and artificial selections for many centuries,
a large number of varieties have been established. These in-
numerable varieties are classified according to the number of
'crops' in a year as follows: — the annuals, the bivoltines and
the polyvoltines. The annuals produce one brood, the bivoltines
two broods and the last more than three broods in a year.
Among these varieties the annuals are conceded to be the most
profitable for silk growers on account of producing the greatest
amount of silk for a certain quantity of the mulberry leaves given
to them, the bivoltines produce the middle amount of silk, and
the last the smallest; while in feeding, the polyvoltines are the
most vigorous and the easiest to be reared, the bivoltines are
next and the annuals are rather difTicult to be fed. In other
words, the varieties which produce the great amount of silk for
a certain quantity of the mulberry leaves taken by the silkworms
are weak, and those of the opposite sort are vigorous.

Varieties are often named after the colorations of their
cocoons, namely, the white, yellow and green cocoon varieties.
Those which are reared at present in our country, are chiefly the
white cocoon variety. Although the green ones were papularly

( 79 )

fed formerly on account of their being healthy, now their feeding
is very rare, owing to their producing an inferior grade of raw
silk, which has not a bright lustrous tint. The remarkable
differences between the qualities of the filaments of three kinds
of the cocoons can not be found, but from the results of the
comparative investigation concerning the boiling off of the raw
silks reeled from these cocoons, we may conclude that the raw
silk from the white cocoons has the least boiling off, while the
others have the greater. Still from the numbers of the moults
during their life-periods, the silkworms are classified into two
kinds, that is, three moults worms and four moults ones. The
former moult thrice from the time of hatching to that of spin-
ning a cocoon, and the latter four times during the same period.
On account of the fact, that the latter worms produce a large
amount of the better grade of silk, although they have longer
* cycles ' than the former, they are widely reared, while the
former are very rarely. Lastly, according to the seasons of the
cultivation, the worms are classified into the spring, mmvicr and
autumun breeds. Though this classification is popularly used, it
does not mean that they are different varieties, but only shows
the different seasons of their feeding. The spring- breed is
allowed to hatch after the budding of the mulberry trees, the
snvivicr breed soon after the " vw7inti7ig'" of the spring worms
and the autumn at about the commencement of the autumn'
say, from the former part of August to the middle of September.
The silkworms reared in spring, are almost all annuals, but
according to colorations, sizes, markings, and the shades of colors
on the body, and whether the cocoon is large or small, long or
short, oval or round, and whether its granulations are coarse or

( «o )

not, v^irious names arc ^^iven as follows: — Aka-biki, Ao-biki,
Mata-ninkashi, Koishi-marJi, Tsuno-mata, Kasnri, Ilinic-ko,
Kiiina-ko, etc. Besides the above, several hundreds of the races
may be found, but those which are widely reared for practical
purposes, are only two or three races, namely, the Ao-biki, the
]\Iaia-vnikasJii, the J\oi.<;hii)iant, and the Shira-tavia, which are
healthy, easy to feed, comparatively productive, and moreover
produce good silk.

The silkworms fed tluring the summer and autumn are the
annuals, bivoltines, hybrids obtained by crossing the former two
races and rarely polyvoltines. So there are many names of the
races, but only HakjL-ryUt Kas7iri, and YanoJia are widely reared,
being conceded to be the superior ones.

It is general that the silk produced by the summer and
autumn worms, is inferior to that of the spring. Formerly the
annuals were commonly reared while the summer breeds were
reared only in a certain district, and even those summer breeds
were nothing but the second generation of the so-called bivoltines.
But about 40 years ago a method was invented, by which the
grains of the second breed of the bivoltines were preserved in a
cool storage, and by this means the first breed is made to hatch
in summer and the second breed in autumn. Thus we achieve
the ability to rear the autumn breed. The season of the feeding
of the new worm is suited to the leisure of the farming classes,
and by this rearing of silkworms they may conveniently
distribute their labours. On these accounts, the new genesis of
the worms was welcomed by the sericulturists. The invention
of the autumn breed has made active i)rogress during a short
period.

Q,^

^

^ ^

r^i^; ^

i -:*

lO.

c :)

^^ ^.

^sv^

V

Varieties of Silkworms.

I.

fCois/ii-tnaru.

6.

Onhoaka-tnaru.

2.

Ao-ziku

7.

Chinese race.

3-

luisiiri.

S.

Korean race.

4-

Kiirohtxm-seihaku.

9-

French race.

5-

A ray a.

lO

liALlAN RACE

^ .^ ? g I

g Id __

'? - S ^ "*

a z

^ _ o p.

\C r^ >I C' G

^1

( 8r )

A natural cold cave, called Fukctsu has been found in
every district as a storage for the eggs of the annuals and
bivoltines, which are taken out and hatched at any times, as one
pleases, from spring to autumn. Thus silkworms may be fed
several times a year. It is said that the fact that the recent
sericulture in our country has brought forth such prosperity, is
greatly due to the discovery of Fiikcisu.

A cave or Fuketsu is often found in a rocky place in the
volcanic districts. Cold air is always blowing in a Fukctsii
through the crevices of the rocks and the interior temperature is
so low that even in the hottest day of summer it is kept below 40
degrees F. . When the eggs are preserved in this cave, their
nuclei are in the same dormant state even in summer or autumn
that they are in winter. If the eggs are taken out and kept at
a temperature of over 70 degrees F., they will hatch after one or
two weeks.

II. The Silkworm Rearing House
AND Instruments.

As the sericulture industr)- in Japan has been practiced in
general case as an accessory occupation of farmers, many of
them have reserved one part of their dwellings for the culture of
cocoons, and except a few have not built any special building.

Whether the situation and construction of the silkworni
rearing house are suitable or not, has a great influence on the
health of the worms, and also the facilitation of the actions, and
the amount of the labours of the rearers depend greatly upon
them. For these reasons, those who wish to build a silkworm
rearing house should select at first the situation properly, and

( 82 )

J#^ >

imMHI

'■Hk.

Silkworm Reaking House.

then construct the house so completely that it may be hygienic
for the silkworms, facilitale the actions of the rearers and
diminish their labours.

A. The Situations of the Silkworm Rearing House.

A suitable place for building the silkworm rearing house
should be dry, open and airy. On the contrary, the moist,
narrow and closed place which is surrounded with hills, forests,
houses, etc., is not proper for the building. However as it is
impossible on account of the topographical conditions in various
places that all the sericulturists in different localities can select
the fittest situation for their silkworm rearing houses ; therefore,
the Imilders should endeavour to search as carefully as they can
for the most suitable place and to compensate for the unavoida-
ble defects of the situation in the construction of the house itself.

( «3 )

For example, when the place is moist, trenches are du^ out
round the house or stagnant water is drained off by the under-
ground sewers, but if this is impossible, the surface of the ground
is elevated for drying, by piling up the earth into a mound.
The house is built with a high floor and an upper or third story,
so that the damp vapours arising from the ground, are avoided
as much as possible and at the same time accommodations for
ventilation are arranged. Especially should this be so, when
hills, forests and houses are close to it. In short, a dry and airy
place is suitable for building the silkworm rearing house and
damp sultry place is not proper for such a building. But there
is no exception in this case to the universal rule that profit
always follows loss. Thus a silkworm rearing house built at the
most proper place, may have much profit in view of the fact
that the silkworms are easily protected from the unfavourable
conditions of the climate, such as hot and oppressive weather,
and may spin a good grade of cocoons, which may be easily
unwinded in reeling. But at the same time the house has such
disadvantages that much fuel is needed to keep the rooms
warm in the feeding of the young worms of the sj^rino breed,
and also the growth of the silkworms is often retarded by the
drying of their litters too much. On these accounts, the house
is suited for the rearing of the last age worms of the spring
breed and the worms of the sumvicr and aiituvin breeds. On
the contrary, although the silkworm rearing" house in an
unsuitable place, as described above, has rather gloomj- rooms
and often gets so sultry, in the feeding of the last age worms
of the spring breed and the worms of the siiiiniicr and autianu
breed, that their health is at times impaired ; oti the other

( S4 )

hand, the expenses for fuel can be spared in warming" the
nursery in the first period of the rearing of the s/>ri)i^Q breeds
and also there is but Httle fear of injuring the silkworms by
the overdrying of their Utters.

In selecting the situation of tlic nursery for feeding the
young worms of the spring breed, and the mature ones of the
same breed, and the worms of the suvtvur and ajituvin breeds,
the rearers usually consider profoundly the above relations.

B. The Direction of the Silkworm Kearing House.

The silkworm rearing house is in general constructed towards
the south, for the reason that the room facing the south has
something exhilarating and in its influence is always hygienic
and also it is convenient to have ;i rich full draught of the
breeze from the south which is the ordinary wind during the
summer in our country, the rooms are easily kept it a moderate
temperature, both the left and the right sides of the house being
exposed to the rising and setting sunshine ; while the house
built along the north and south directions, facing towards the
east and the west, is so brightened on the front and back side,
by the rising and setting sunshine, that in spring the rearers
may have the profit of sparing fuel by utilizing the heat caused
by the sunshine, but in summer, when the temperature becomes
gradually high and fire is unneccessary to warm the rooms, the
rearers may often be troubled by a too high temperature, caused
by the rising and setting sunshine. Moreover bad ventilation
is an unavoidable defect in the nursery, constructed in this
direction.

( '^5 )

C. The Construction of the Silkworm Rearing House.

There are in general two kinds of silkworm rearing houses,
one storied and an upper storied house. Rarely there are three
storied houses.

Now we will investigate the advantageous and disadvanta-
geous points of these constructions in the following pages.
Only on the point of the facilitation of the actions of the rearers,
a one storied house is the best of all, but if space is unsufficent
to build it or the ground has too much water or any adjacent
obstruction prevents it from aeration, the upper or third
storied house, is better. Though a one storied house tends
to become somewhat damp, it is convenient at the same time to
keep warm. On this account, it is suited for rearing the young
worms of the spring breed. The upper and third story, being
quite dry, such constructions are better than a one storied house
as a nursery during the summer and as mounting house, but the
difference of temperature between day and night being great,
they are not suitable to rear the young worms of the spring
breed.

The inside of the silkworm rearing house is usually divided
with walls. The common extent is 12 feet to 15 feet by 12
feet to 1 8 feet. When the depth is too great, the room
becomes .so damp and unhealthy for the sill<worms that they
sometimes fall successively into Grasserie, Muscardine, etc.,
while too spacious rooms are difficult to regulate in respect to
the interior temperature as the rearer wishes and also are not
suitable for nursery purposes.

The floor is made two feet in height when the place is

( S6 )

moist ami one and a half feet when it is dry. A small window
with a door which may be easily opened and closed, is made in
various places under the floor. The board of the floor is about
one inch in thickness and nailed down so closely each other,
because if there are any open spaces in the floor, the regulation
of the inner temperature is diflicult.

The ])roper distance between the floor and the ceiling is
from eight and half feet to ten feet. If it is too low, the air of
the interior becomes musty, while if it is too high, it is difficult
to regulate the interior temperature. The windows for ventila-
tion, prepared with a door which is opened and closed by means
of two ropes, are made at the four corners and the middle of the
ceiling. Their sizes depend on the extent of the ceiling. But
the common sizes are that the windows at four corners are about
one hundredth and the middle ones about five hundredth of the
ceiling. It is indispensable for the silkworm rearing house to
have al.so the preparation for ventilation of the roof.

There are several kinds of roofs, such as, tile, shingle and
thatched roofs. Among which the last is the best suited for
the nursery, so as to slowly conduct the outside heat and the
tile roof is next. The shingle one is not suitable for a silkworm
rearing house on account of the fact that if affords the least
protecting from the influence of the outside temperature.
Surrounding the nursery a gallery is made in order to regulate
the sudden change of the outside temperature and to facilitate
the actions of the rearers. The south and north sides of the
gallery are from four and half feet to six feet in width, and the
cast and west over three feet as one pleases. In the middle of
the nursery a hearth is prepared, which is made of fireproof

( 87 )

stones or bricks and covered so as not to hinder the working of
the industry.

D. Instruments.

Whether the instruments for feeding the silkowrm.s are
suitable or not has also an influence on the health of the
silkworms and the facility of their treatments. Finally it
concerns the economy of the enterpise.

Now the principal instruments will be explained in the fol-
lowing pages. The frame-work : On both sides of the nursery.

W"

^

i

it is made along

S^fl^^^^^^^^A.

r

the wall for the
reception of the
trays. Boards,
I inch by 8
inches serve as
the uprights.

L ^BHHBMI

m

k.'

^

Implements
for preparing

r

1

Silkworm Foon.

the tops touch-
ing the ceiling.

m

Light bars of
bamboo to sup-
port the trays
should be sus-

^

Kl^AKINd IMI'IVMENIS.

pended across

the uprights horizontally with a proper space, about ten inches,
between every two bars. The closer distance is not good for
ventilation and becomes unhealthy for the silkworms.

( «« )

'1 lie silkwoinis trays: These arc made of split bamboo;
there are two forms, the circular and rectangular, with various
sizes, but those popularly used and found to be convenient for
practical purposes, are the rectanj^ular 3.5 feet by 2.5 feet with
a level border. The circular ones, 2.5 feet in diameter, are also
widely used. The circular tray is made very easily, but in
actual use, the rearers may have much trouble to cut the
mattings ami nets, so as to fit to it, their being generally
rectangular, and moreover their borders cut, should be repaired.
Still their handling is troublesome and they become worn out
and wasted in a short time. Another kind of trays is the one
connected with a matting which is lined, but it is very incon-
venient in handling.

Mats: These are better made as light as possible but
not so light that husks (which are often scattered on them) and
silkworms ' excrements may leak down. The Itodadc mats
(the other name the Minagaxva mats) woven of cotton or
hemp thread as the warp and of straw as the woof, are conceded
to be suitable for the practical use.

Nettings: Those which are used until the fourth age, are
made of cotton threads. There are different kinds of nettings
with various sizes of meshes, o. i inch, 0.15 inches, 0.2 inches,
0.3 inches, and 0.5 inches. These nettings serve chiefly for the
removing of the litter and the taking out of the late moulting
worms after ceasing to give them the mulberry leaves. The
nettings used during the fifth age are made of straw ropes, hemp
or J uncus communis and are chiefly used for the removing of
the litter. The most suitable size of the meshes in some 2
inches. Jiesides the instruments described above, basins, the

( 89 )
knives for cutting the mulberry leaves, the sickles for cutting
the mulberry branches, sieves, winnows, the tray holders and
feather brushes are wanted. As the instruments for mounting,
Ebiragomo (the special matting for spinning cocoons) and
Mahishi (the straw cocoonage) are necessary. There are
several kinds of the cocoonage among which Orhvara and
Mukade-inabushi are practically used. The former is a cradle
made of straws folded and the latter consists of one or two
ropes, with straws inserted cut 6 inches in length, with the
shape of a caterpillar with long and thick hairs. The important
instrument for graining is a moth frame which is a ring, with a
funnel shape, made of thin zinc plate. The suitable size of the
large opening is from some 1.8 inches to 2 inches in diameter,
the small one 1.8 inches and its length some 0.5 inches to
I inch. There are two kinds of moth frames, namely, the
individual and the connected which consists of 28 rings (these
are for one egg-card). Another convenient frame is a board,
about one inch thick, of the same size as the egg-card,
with 28 holes, some i.S inches in diameter, which are lined with
zinc plates.

Ill, The Silkworm Seed or Grain.

The silkworm eggs, laid on a card is sometimes called seed.
Whether seed is good or not, has a close relation to the crops
of cocoons. How expert the rearer may be, he can not raise
abundant crops from unsound seed ; so the egg-card manufact-
urers should endeavour to produce sound seed with the most
skilful arts and the most profound attention. Or how excellent

( oo )

the seed may be, the rearer can not get the most vigorous
silkworms, if the seed should be improperly preserved .and
protected, so the rearer should take great care of the seed to
keep it sound and free from disease.

A. Egg-card Making.

Egg-cartl manufacturers select cocoons for reproductive
purposes after fmishing the following examination on 'the
original silkworms and the cocoons collected : —

(i.) The growth of the original worms.

The number of diseases during the period of feeding, is
examined and if many of the silkworms are attacked by
Flacheric, Tebrinc, etc., their cocoons are not used for reproduc-
tive purposes.

(2.) The cjuantity of the cocoons collected.

If the quantity of the cocoons collected for one utoimne*
of ** ants'' is less than 5.5 kilograms, that is short crojis, they
are not utili/ed for the same ]iurposes.

(3.) The examination of lV:brine.

If when the pupae are examined under the microscope,
over 1 5 per cent, of them are found to be attacked by Pcbrine,
the cocoons are not employed for the preparation of seed.

After the above examinations, the size, color, luster and
the roughness on the outside layer or granulation of the cocoons
are next examined. Thus the cocoons which have the qualities
peculiar to their variety, and a middle size, are selected for the

• »wow»/<' — 3,75 grams.

( 91 )

raising of eggs. The cocoons thus selected, are arranged on
trays, placed on the frame-work in the nursery which is
ventilated and whose inner temperature is regulated always
to keep at from 70 to 75 degrees F. just as in the feeding
of the silkworms. Three weeks in the case of the annuals
and 17 or 18 days in the case of the bivoltines or the
polyvoltines passing, after pupation, the moths appear. The
cocoons are covered with papers at night before the moths come
forth. Newspapers may serve as the covers, which are per-
forated in the shape of the feather of an arrow to the amount of
at least five or six in every square foot. The moths rest on top
of the paper after passing through the apertures of the covers,
soon after escaping from their silken prison. Ihe cover
facilitates the picking up of the moths and prevents the cocoons,
left by the moths, from being stained with their excretions. If
the temperature of the nursery is moderate, the exist of the moth
is generally made in the morning between four and eight o'clock.
The female moth appears soon after the male does. While
they are pairing, the couples are kept quietly in a dark room,
carefully shutting out the wind. If the room is bright or the
wind blows in, an accidental uncoupling occurs. Pairing is
allowed to continue for five or six hours. Between noon and one
o'clock in the afternoon, the couple are separated Before the
female moths are transferred to the egg-cards, t]ie\- are allowed
to excrete urine. For this purpose, some 60 or 70 moths are
placed on a piece of paper which is shaken a little while by one
end. Then after some five minutes more they are shaken again,
for the purpose of causing them to urinate. After this
operation, for industrial rc/^roducticu . the corresponding number

( «J2 )

of the moths for one
cL;fi-caicl, is transferred
to a card for the laying
of its eggs, while, for
ii-llular reproduction,
each moth is individu-
ally placed in a frame.
During the laying of
the eggs, the proper
temperature is between
75 and 89 degrees F.
and the proper hu-
midity is about 70 per
cent. When the tem-
perature is too low, the
moth takes too long
time to deposit its eggs
and moreover produces
less eggs. When it is
too wet, the egg-cards
arc stained by scales
from the wings and their .ittachmcnt to the egg-surfaces.
In the proper temperature, the moths commence to lay their
eggs at 6 o'clock in the evening and finish the operation
at about 10 o'clock at night. In the method of imiitstrial
rtproihictioti, the moths are soon picked out and disposed of,
while in the cellular plan the moths are carefully collected.
The making of common egg-cards by industrial reproduction
is the method in which about a hundred moths are allowed to

'..KM.II.AR S\STEM KfiCi-CARn

( 93 )

lay their eggs indiscriminately on a card, i foot 2 inches by
9.25 inches, while in celhilar nprodtictioii. a card of the same
size with that of industrial reproduction, is divided into 28
divisions to which the number is given, and small frames are
placed in every division, in each of which, one female moth
is kept to lay eggs. After finishing their laying eggs, each
of them is placed in the bag of the cellular which has the
corresponding number, for their microscopical examina-
tion.

B, Precautions with the Seed.

Even if the seed be sound, yet if it has not been carefully
protected, it becomes feeble, and in the worst cases, fails to
hatch. The seed of the annual remains about ten months in
this form, and during another two months, it is metamorphosed
first into the larva, next the pupa and finally into the moth,
which will lay eggs again. The eggs are exposed to various
changes of temperature during these periods, namely, at the
beginning they are kept very warm, then they are gradually
allowed to become cold, and are again warmetl up in the spring,
when the egg hatches.

On account of the fact that the nucleus of the egg is
constantly changing in the state of its growth, according to the
change of temperature, the methods of precaution should be
varied in accordance with this fact. Generally, the period of
the necessary precaution is divided into four, according to the
growth of the nucleus. Now the methods for the exercise of
precaution in every period will be explained in the following
pages : —

( 94 )
(I.) I'rec.'iiiti(Mis tluriiij^ the first ijcriotl.

The first period is one week after the eggs have been laid,
namely, the period during which, the light yellow eggs turn
gradually to a drab grayish color, proper to the egg. The eggs
change not only their outer aspects during this period, but their
interiors also undergo a remarkable change. They are placed
on the trays, which are sometimes put into frame-work after
supplying them with enough fresh air owing to their strong
respiration, and the temperature in the room is kept between 70
and So degrees F., thus avoiding away sudden change.

(2.) Precautions during the second period.

The second period extends over from the end of the
first period to the close of December. On account of the fact
tliat although at the beginning of the period, it is still warm,
the respiration of the eggs becomes gradually weak and their
unclei fall into a dormant state in the autumn ; the precautions
taken during this period are the simplest amongst all.

The egg-cards are put into a frame-work or hung down by
means of threads in a room clear and well ventilated. At the
end of this period, the excretions of the moths, the scales on
their wings, and any other dirt, attached to the eggs, which
tnay often injure the larva in hatching, are washed off. For this
purpose, several vessels of fresh water are allowed to remain for
a while to permit the water to attain the same temperature as
the air; then, the eggs are dipped into the water. After some
four or five hours, they are taken out of the water one by one,
and placed on a board, which has been prepared beforehand, in
order to that they may be brushed softly and washed carefully.

( 95 )

After this operation, fresh water is poured on them, and they
are transferred to a clean room, putting on the trays, where they
are dried in air and then kept in conservation,

(3.) Precautions taken during the third period.

By this we mean the precautions necessary between the
close of December and the period of the mulberries' budding.
At the beginning of the winter, the eggs become dormant and
breathe so feebly that the eggs, laid by a hundred moths (they
weigh some 30 grams at the time when laid), are not injured for
want of oxygen even in a sealed vessel, if only one litre of air is
given to them during this period. The eggs in the dormant
state are capable of beginning their growth at any time when
they are kept at a temperature of over 50 degrees F., but they
are so injured by their growth being stimulated out of the
regular time, that the sound seed may often become weak and
in the worst cases it may become of no use. Hence the precau-
tions taken during this period are nothing but that the eggs
in the dormant state are kept in stillness so as not to be exposed
to any sudden warmth. The limit of the temperature in every
month during this period is shown in the following list : —

i December under 40 degrees Fahrenheit
January „ 35

Februarj' ,, 40 ,, ,,

March „ 45

^April „ 50

The keeping of the eggs at a constant temperature, notwith-
standing the change of the external teinperature, is carried out
by one of the following methods : —

( 96 )

The first mothod : A double case is made for conservation.
The space between the outer and the inner case is at least over
6 inches, which is filled up with non-conductor of heat, such as
saw-dust, etc. The case may serve to conserve 2CX3 egg-cards.

The second method : A store house is built for con-
servation, which consists of two buildings one over the another.
The walls of both buildings arc made thick to prevent them
from being affected by the external heat.

The third method : The eggs are conserved in a cave or
Fukcfsit, or in a store house specially prepared for cooling,
among which the latter is very convenient for storing on account
of the operators being able to regulate the inner temperature as
he wishes.

(4.) Precautions during the fourth jjcriod.

This is the precaution taken between the end of the third
period and the hatching of the eggs. This period is about two
weeks, and is often called the period of incubation. The purpose
of the precaution in this period is to make the nucleus of the
egg grow up regularly by a steady rising of the temperature.

The standard temperatures during the period of incuhatioji.
arc as follows : —

Day.

Standard teniperatuie.

Day.

Standard

temperature.

1st day

55 degrees F.

8th day

62

degrees F

2nd ,,

56

9th ,,

64

3rd ,,

57

loth ,,

66

4th ,,

5S

nth ,.

68

5th ,.

59

1 2th „

70

6th „

60

13th „

72

7th „

61

14th „

72

( 97 )

By the rising of the temperature as shown in the above
table, the color of the eggs turns to a grayish white by the
eleventh day, a few of them will hatch by the thirteenth day
and a great many of them by the fourteenth day. The pre-
caution taken during this period is to raise the temperature
regularly, without making any mistake, to let a sufficient
quantity of fresh air into the room for the respiration of the
eggs and at the same time to keep the air sufficiently humid so
as not to dry them too much.

IV. Rearing of the Silkworm.

The time for innihatio)i determines the time of " brushing " ;
and the time of brtisJiing has very much to do with the crop of
mulberry leaves and the quality of cocoons produced. In case
brushing be carried on too early, the growth of the silkworms
will be rapid, and the quality of the cocoons spun by such
silkworms will prove excellent, while the crop of mulberry leaves
will be considerably affected. If, on the contrary, brnshitig be
undertaken too late, though we might expect a larger crop of
mulberry leaves, they will lose some of their nutriment, and
become too corase as food for the young silkworms, spoiling the
growth of the worms and the quality of the cocoons. Moreover,
maggots are more apt to injure such late hatched silkworms,
and high atmospheric temperature and humidity would give
much trouble to the latter ages of their silkworms. So strict
care must be taken to determine the proper time for incubation
in consideration of the budding of mulberry leaves. It
usually done and satisfactory in result to take out the egg-cards

( 9S )

from the preservation room at the budding of the first leaf of
the early-budding variety, and keep it in the standard tempera-
ture mentioned before. This date of budding varies somewhat
according to the place and year. In Tokyo and its vicinities, in
the experience of more than ten years, the earliest date was
April iith., a\u\ the latest April 23rd., the average date being
1 6th., cjr 17th., of April, which will, therefore, be the best time
to commence the process of inc7ibatioii in a usual year, but in case
the budding takes place very much Liter, incubation must be
commenced one or two days before the day of budding, and if the
reverse is the case, incubation should be undertaken one or two
days after the day of budding. This is so done, because in such
a year that budding takes place too early, we may inevitably
expect abnormally cold weather after the budding to retard the
due development of mulberry leaves, while in the year of late-
budding, a sudden warmth after the budding will cause the
rapid growth of the mulberry foliage.

A. Brushing.

By brushinj^ is meant the reception of newly-hatched
silkworms into a feeding tray from the egg-card by brus/i-
ing them off. Delicate treatment is required in brusJiin^
off the young silkworms, as they are extremely small and
weak' in body, and may be lost or wounded through the
slightest carelessness. Various methods of brnshing have been
advocated, but the one most widely practiced at present is
the IJiJiiotoshi method, a brief explanation of which is given
below.

( 99 )

Some silkworms hatch out usually one day after silkworm
eggs have assumed a whitish gray color. These early hatched
worms are called HasJiiri (forerunners), and they must be
brushed off and discarded, as they arc not likely to spin good
cocoons. The egg-card, after these early hatched silkworms
have been brushed off, is wrapped up in abroad sheet of Mijio
paper, so that the young worms may not crawl off the card and
be lost, and in this state it must be kept until the next morning,
when under proper temperature and humidity the young silk-
worms begin to hatch out at five or six o'clock and the hatching
for the day goes on until about ten o'clock in the morning. In
ordinary cases, some 70 per cent, of the eggs on the card hatch
out in one morning, but in some rare cases, the percentage may
fall below 50. In such cases, the egg-card must be covered up
again and kept untouched in a room with a temperature of 70
degrees F. until the following morning, when the process of
briisJiing is to be taken up anew. This method must not be
resorted to, when the natural atmospheric temperature is above
72 degrees F., as it may tire out the worms in the act of
hatching.

Brushing should be carried out at about eleven o'clock in
the morning. In the first place the egg-card is taken out of the
wrapper and the young silkworms that may have crawled over
to the back of the card are gently brushed off by means of a
feather-broom. Then the card is turned over and held up tight
with the egg-side downward, some tive inches above a sheet of
paper weighed beforehantl, and a few succeeding taps are given
the card on its back witli the fcaher-broom or any other thing
near at hand. Most of the W(irms are removed from the card in

( »oo )

this \v;iy, but the rest still clingin<^ to the cartl have to be
brushed off on the paper with a feather-broom, and then all the
worms received are weighed together with the paper, and thus
the net weight of the newly hatched silkworms is determined by
reducing the weight of the paper.

Silkworms immetliately after hatching are called d/i/s
and the weight (A such }'oung silkworms is technically termed
" rt;// li'ci^/it." As ant i^wi^i^/U is very essential in determin-
ing the approximate number of silkworms, and a slight error
in iDit ii'cioJit might bring an utter failure in all later plans, an
accurate balance and strict care must be used in weighing such
ants. As a rule, allowing 90 per cent, for hatching, the eggs
laid by 100 moths will gain an ant tvc^c^Jit of between 4^ and
5 inoiiniu\ and one uioviiiu- of ants usually contains from 9,500
to 10,000 ants.

After the weighing has been finished, millet or rice husk is
sprinkled o\er the paper just to cover the ants, and mulberry
leaves chopped fine arc also scattered over just to equal the
quantity of the ants. These mulberry leaves are not meant for
food, but merely for the purpose of inviting the ants to come out
over the liusk. Some thirty minutes later when all the ants
have crawled out of the husk, a fresh supply of husk is again
scattered over them, and the a)its and husk are then evenly
mixed up by gently jumbling them with the feather-broom and
the fingers. The usual (juantity of husk required for this
purpose is 2 .i,'-J*iper one nwninic of a)its. After this, the ants
and husk together are taken over into a bowl with a paper
sheeting, over which they are to be scattered with })ropcr

* « ^5 — J pint.

( 'OI )

evenness, giving one square foot for one momuie of ants. Some
twenty minutes after this, almost all the ants come crawling
out over the surface, upon which the mulberry leaves are then
given as food for the first time. Here begins the most impor-
tant yet intricate process of feeding, which shall be treated of
under the next heading.

B. Feeding.

The growth of the silkworm varies a great deal according
to the difference of temperature and humidity. Necessary
variations must be given also to the methods of feeding, to the
litter-clearing, and to the extention of the silkworm-bed in
consideration of the temperature and humidity, under which
the rearing is undertaken. Taking 70 degrees F. of temperature
from and from 75 to 80 per cent, of humidity for our example,
we shall describe here the methods required in the proper
rearing of silkworms.

Young silkworms are observed to take food at more frequent
intervals than the old ones, and the soft mulberry leaves requir-
ed for the young worms dry up more readily than the coarser
leaves that are fit for the older worms ; therefore it is advisable
to feed the younger silkworms with a smaller quantity of food
at more frequent intervals, and according as the age of the silk-
worms advances, to increase the quantity of mulberry leaves for
each feeding and decrease the number of feedings in a single
day. Supposing that the temperature and humidity of the
rearing room are as those before mentioned, the appropriate
number of feedings in one day in each age of the silkworm is
as follows : —

( J02 )

No. ol fctdiiii;s in one day-

1st age From 7 to 8 times

^ 2nd , „ G „ 7 „

Srtl „ 5 „ 8 „

?tli „ 4 „ 5 M

Some feed their sillcworms less frequently in one day than
is shown in the above table, for the mere purpose of saving the
labour of feeding; it is, however, a bad practice, when the health
of silkworms is taken into account, for, if too much food is given
in one time, as is naturally the case, the silkworms may be led
to take such leaves as are fouled by their own excrements, which
would affect their health unfavorably and induce some con-
tagious diseases. This is also unprofitable from an economical
point of view, as many leaves may be left unconsumed. The
quantit}' of the leaves to be given in one time, must be modified
in accordance with the temperature, humidity and appetite of
the silkworms. Generally speaking, in warm and dry weather,
silkworms show evidences of a stronger appetite, .so that they
must be given more food, while on a wet and cold day, they
seem dull and want but little food.

During two or three days after every moulting, the appetite
of the silkworms decreases, so that the quantity of food must
also be decreased, Init as the time for the next moulting
approaches, silkworms gradually. regain their usual appetite, and
they must be fed accordingly. After all, the .serect of feeding
is to make the silkworm eat as much as it pleases, and leave as
little leaf as possible unconsumed. If much food is left un-
consumed in the tray, it is tiot only uneconomical, but makes an

( >03 )
accumulation of litter, which is very objectionable for the health
of silkworms So in feeding silkworms, a delicate and sympathe-
tic discretion must be exercised as to the quantity of food and
the appetite of the silkworms as well as to the cleanliness of the
tray. The quality of the mulberry leaf varies according to the
variety and state of its development : some are coarse, and others
soft ; the younger leaves are invariably softer than the older
ones. As the digestive power of the silkworm varies also
according to its age, care must be taken in feeding silkworms
with such leaves as are in the proper state of development. If
young silkworms are fed with coarse leaves, they are likely to
attain an irregular growth, and if very coarse leaves are given,
they may fall victims to .some kind of disease. If on the
contrary, older silkworms are given only soft leaves, they may
grow very fat, but become also subject to diseases.

The thickness of the mulberry leaf varies somewhat
according to the variety ; and the thick leaf is not suitable for
young silkworms. So the early-budding variety that is used for
young worms should be selected from among those varieties
whose leaves arc thin, and the late-budding variety with thicker
leaves should be cultivated for the use of the older worms. The
quantity of moisture contained ni the mulberry leaf has \eiy
much to do with the health of the silkworm. If silkworms are
fed with leaves with too much moisture, they may grow fat but
become more subject to disca.ses, while the leaves with scanty
moisture will cause the imperfect growth of the worms and good
cocoons can not be expected to be produced by such silkworms
The appropriate degree of moisture can be attained when ico
mouiuw of live leaves has been reduced to 95 or 90 viovintc.

{ t04 )

For so doing ample care is required in tiie preservation of the
mulberry leaves, and the temperature of the rearing room must
always be properly regulated. I n addition to these require-
ments, the regular distribution of mulberry leaves in the tray
must be carefully observed.

As young silkworms seldom move about very far, the
uneven distribution of mulberry leaves in the tray may cause an
uneven feeding, which naturally leads to the irregular develop-
ment of those silkworms. As their age advances, silkworms
become more active in motion ; neverthless the uneven distribu-
tion of the mulberry leaves in every tray will cause some
irregulalities in their growth.

C. The Chopping of Mulberry Leaves.

Mulberry leaves are chopped so that they may be evenly
distributed among the silkworms in the tray. Chopped mulber-
ry leaves are used for the silkworms from the first age to the
beginning of the fifth age. They must be cut square, their sizes
corresponding to the age of the silkworm. Irregularly chopped
leaves will be quite contrary to the object of chopping and end
in the waste of labour.

IJ. The Preservation of Mulberry Leaves.

As previously mentioned, mulberry leaves wet with rain
drops or with much moisture arc liable to cause silkworm
diseases. So prudent silkworm rearers will do well to keep
some surplus mulberry leaves in store to prepare against rainy
weather or to give chances for evaporation of the moisture in

( I05 )

the leaves. But a misguided method of preservation will often
result in the withering or the fermentation of the leaves, making
them quite worthless for practical purposes. There are two
methods for the preservation of mulberry leaves ; one is suited
for the preservation of plucked-leaves, the other for leaves left
on their twigs and branches. Plucked-leaves, are convenient for
preservation, taking up a much smaller space, but they often
become fermented, while in the case of leaves left on their
twigs, though they are free from that danger, yet they have the
defect of requiring a larger space. Mulberry leaves for young
worms, wither fast, but as they are usually plucl<ed from the
branches, their volume is small, and if kept in a jmil or an
earthen pot in such a way as to prev^ent'hard pressing, they may
be preserved more than 24 hours without any injury. The
silkworms in the fifth age consume a greater quantity of mulberry
leaves, and their preservation requires more bulky equipments of
the storage. The mulberry preservation room, must be kept at
comparatively a low temperature, with but little light and
ventilation. An underground room will make an ideal place of
storage. Branch with their leaves left on ]>:ept vertical in
loosend bundles can be preserved for two or three days without
injury. Plucked leaves must be preserved in baskets (Sjft. long,
2|ft. wide, and 8 in. deep) and put on racks in the preservation
room. Sometimes, roughl}'' woven bamboo mattings are used,
on which some five kivan of plucked-leaves are set in regular
lines and rolled up and tied in two places. If this roll is kept
in an underground room in a vertical position, the leaves may
be safely preserved for two or three days.

( io6 )

E. Tlie I^xtcntinn of the " Silkwonn-Bed.'

In sonic five weeks that LO\er the pericul from the hatching
of the sill^uonn to its niaturit}', the silkworm rapidly increases
in its wcic^ht to the extent f»f about 10,000 times. Its growth
is especially remarkable in the first age, at the end of which it
attains the weight some 15 times its weight at the time of
hatching. After from the second to the fifth age, the increase
is from 4^ to over 5 times in each age. As the growth of the
silkworm is thus wonderfully rapid, the dimensions of a bed
allotted for each silkworm must also be widened, according as
its age advances.

Different rearers follow different methods in extending the
dimensions of the silkworm-bed, but here again moderation has
much to do with the health of the silkworm and the econom-
ical interests of silkworm rearing. The narrow bed may some-
what save in the use of mulberry leaves and in the labour of
feeding, but silkworms thus situated are apt to attain an
abnormal development and, in consequence, a good crop can
hardly be expected, while in case too wide a space be allowed
for the silkworm-bed, though it may be very encouraging
for the health of the silkworm, the labour of feeding and
mulberry leaves will be wasted to some extent, so that this is
also defective from an economical point of view. On the whole,
narrow beds arc preferable to wide ones for the younger silk-
worms, whereas in the ca<:c of the older worms the reverse is
the case.

The dimensions of the silkworm-be<l fit for the silkworm in
each age is shown in the table below : —

( lO/

From the first to the
middle day.

sq. ft.

Fron:
day

I the middle
and later.

sq ft.

1st age...

I- 3

5

2nd „ ...

3- 9

12

3rd ,, ...

... ... 12-18

30

4th „ ... .

18-30

60

5th „ ...

60-90

90

iV. />'. The table shows the dimensions required for the silk-
worms of one uioDimc of original ant zveigJit.

The process of extending the silkworm-bed is generally
carried about just before the silkworm attains its full-growth in
each age. In the first age, it is performed three times, in the
first day, in the third day, and in the fifth day, after the hatching
respectively. From the second up to the fourth age, it is con-
venient to perform this twice, each at the time of the first
and the second litter-clearing, while in the fifth age, it is usually
done once together with the first litter-clearing.

F. Litter-clearing.

The excrements of silkworms and the unconsuined mulberi}
leaves remaining in the tray are inclusively called litter.
The accumulation of litter in a feeding tray should be strictly
guarded against, as it is bound to give excessive moisture to the
tray, and render the silkworms subject to various diseases. So
it is absolutely necessary to keep the trays always clear of litter,
but if the humidity of the rearing room be properly regulated
and the methods of feeding be justly followed, litter-clearing
will be sufficient, say, once or twice in each age from the second

( I08 )

to the fourth age of the silkworm. In the fifth a<je, however,
the excretions of the silkworms become very lively, and the
rainy weather makes the rearing rooms all the more clamp, so
that the litter should be cleared off once or twice every day.
In the first age, silkworms are so small in size that they may be
lost in the very act of litter-clearing ; therefore, it is advisable
to postpone this process until the time of moulting, unless an
excessive amount of moisture is observed in the feeding tray.

The litter-clearing from the second up to the fourth age, is
practiced three times in each age; the first clearing is to be
performcdwhen the silkworms have been fed three or four times
after moulting ; the second clearing is in the middle of each age,
and the third clearing is just before moulting, when the silk-
worms show a dull appetite. The litter is usually cleared off by
means of nettings, but it is as commonly done by sprinkling rice
husk in the tray, upon which the silkworms crawl out, and then
arc carried over to other trays by means of a feather broom.
The former method is applied to the silkworms in the fifth age,
while the latter method is followed between the second and the
fourth age.

(j. The Protection of Silkworms after Moulting.

W hen silkworms have attained a certain state of develop-
ment, they drop their appetite entirely and have a rest for some
time. Silkworms in this state are said to be " s/ir/>ifi^." A
new skin develops in the course of slccpiug^, and they awake
casting off their old skins. This process is called moulting.
The skins of the silkworms that have moulted are delicate and
extremely sensitive tf) trivial changes of temperature and

( 109 )

humidity, so that special care is necessary for the protection of
such worms. As sleeping silkworms are fond of airly and dry
spots, they should be given a place as clean and dry as possible,
and special care is required to prevent them from being left
buried under the litter. In case some silkworms do not go to
sleep even if fed four or five times after the last litter-clearing
has been performed in that age, they must be transferred by
means of netting into another tray to be fed therein, lest other
silkworms that are sleeping should be covered up by the litter.
During this period, the rearing room must be kept from any
noise, and it is also desirable to keep the temperature one or two
degrees lower than usual in the room. When any silkworms
have finished moulting, draught and excessive light should be
carefully kept from them, as those silkworms would crawl off
from them and be crowded to one side. It is customary and
better to resume feeding after all the silkw'orms have finished
moulting. Should the silkworms that have moulted be observed
as restless owing to an abnormal rising of the temperature, or a
sudden attack of storm, they had better be given food, even
though there be some one per cent, of the silkworms, still
sleeping in the tray. Under ordinary conditions of weather and
proper methods of protection, those silkworms that have finish-
ed moulting do not like moving about, and keep their beds for
about 30 hours after moulting. But in case of a high tempera-
ture or a stormy day, or should they be affected by any bodily
disorder, they will keep moving about in the tray incessantly.
In such a case as this, if food is not given them, they may be
compelled to succumb to some harm or other. In an ordinary
case, twelve hours after moulting is considered the best time to

( "o )

resume (cctlinLj. Mulberry leaves to be given to nioultetl worms
should be of a somewhat softer (juality, as their digestion has
not yet regained its original activity. The quantity for one
meal must also be moderated by one or two per cent., and some
gradual increase should be made later.

II. The Temperatine and lluniidity of the
Rearing Room.

The growth of the silkworm is very much affected by the
difference of the temperature in the rearing room, and the
method of rearing must be considerably modified by the
humidity. So that temperature and humidity play an
important part in the physical development and economical
rearing of silkworms. We shall give here a resume of the
different number of days required from tlic hatching of
silkworm eggs to the spinning of the cocoons in the different
temperatures.

Avtrafje lempcralure. No. of days required.

65 degrees F. Some 40

70 ., „ 35

75 .. .. 30

So „ „ 24

As is shown above, the number of days required for the
rearing of silkworms in one generation varies according to the
different temperatures of the rearing room ; nevertheless, if
properly reared and protected, they may attain due develop-
ment and spin cocoons in any case. \Vc may, however, infer
from this table a certain moderate degree of temperature, in
which silkworms can he reared with the most satisfactory results.

( III )

Silkworms usually grow up properly and can be reared with
little trouble in a temperature of between 65° F. and 75° F.
In a lower temperature, their growth is slow and ununiform,
while in a higher temperature, though their growth may be
quick, they are more subject to various diseases. Silkworm
rearers have, therefore, to be very careful in keeping the rearing
rooms at the proper degree of temperature. In the first stage
of the spring yield of silkworms, usually a low atmopheric
temperature prevails, while in the summer and autumn yields,
the temperature is mostly high. In the former case, such
rooms are recommendable as are convenient to retain iieat
supplied by some heating apparatus. In the latter case, cool
rooms should be selected, so that the effect of excessive light
and heat may be averted and cool air may be let in to prevent
the sudden rising of the temperature. In case the atmospheric
temperature rises to 90° F., no matter whatever protection may
be given, silkworms lose their appetite considerably, and in
consequence, they spin cocoons of an inferior quality.

The influence of humidity on the growth of silkworms is
not so remarkable as that of temperature ; nevertheless, it
affects a great deal the hatching of silkworms and the quantity
of mulberry leaves consumed. If the air in the rearing room
be too dry, mulberry leaves will dry up quickly and become
wasted, and at the same time, the scanty moisture in the
leaf will render the silkworms that should eat such leaves
subject to incomplete development as well as to diseases,
while, on the other hand, in case the air in the rearing room
contains too much moisture, the nnilberr\- lea\cs may not
wither up so readily, and the waste ma}- be smaller

( '12 )

accordinj^Iy, hut sit is quite as probable that tlic litter and
silkworm-beds may become moistened, inducing tlie fall of
the appetite of silkworms, and the steady development of
micro-organisms, to which many silkworms would fall victims
with wondrous rapidity. In fact, the moderation of the
humidity, together witli that of the temperature, is an
indispensable condition in the rearing; of silkworms. The
humidity fitted for this purpose lies between 70° F. and SO° F.
Should the air in the rearing room be observed over-dried,
sprinkle water on the floor or sweep the floor with a wet cloth,
or in case- any fire be found in the room, get a kettle on it so
that the water in the kettle may be evaporated and make the air
in the room contain more moisture. If, on the contrary, the air
should be observed to be saturated with moisture, throw open
the windows and any other openings, and contrive to dry the
room by means of fire-heating. In case the temperature of the
room be so high that fire should not be used, parched rice husk,
or lime must be sprinkled over the tray so as to hasten the dry-
ing of the litter. Some two ])wunnc of lime will be effective if it
is sprinkled over a square foot of the feeding tray.

I. Application of Fire.

Fire is used in the rearing room for heating and drying
purposes, as already referred to. There is another way of
applying fire used with equal frequency and substantial benefit.
In case there is no breeze in the air and the room is close and
stifling, a fire is often made for causing the circulation of air-
currents in the room. This great benefit of fire may, however,
turn out as great a cause of destruction through its misguided

( "3 )

application. If the rearinc^ room is not properly equipped for
free ventilation, the room will naturally become filled with
carbonic acid j^as produced by the combustion of charcoal in
the room, which will do great harm to the silkworms. The
repeated failures of those who use fire in the rearin^^ room
lie in this point. Such men are strongly adviced not to neglect
to open the windows and doors as that the carbonic acid gas
may escape and fresh air may come in through so as to Iceep
the circulation of air-currents always active in the rearing room
In case fire is used as a mere contrivance of ventilation, not
onl}' should the windows be wide open, but the paper-shutters
round the room should also be kept open for a proper duration
of time.

J. The Mounting of the Silkworm.

When the silkworm has attained its full-growth in the fifth
age, its appetite fails all of a sudden and its body assumes an
amber color and it throws out a fine thread from its mouth,
restlessly moving about in search of a place fit for spinning
a cocoon. A silkworm in this state is called i)iatur-'d. The
process of transferring these matured silkworms into another
tray fitted out for this special purpose is termed " vwimting.''*
The most important thing that requires special attention in thi.-^
process is the determination of the proper state of maturit\' of
the silkworm. Over-matured sillcworms must needs have lost a
great deal of its thread before mountiu^^ which is in itself not a
slight loss, and moreover, its body becomes shrivelled up and
loses the activity of motion. Such a worm is most likely to
spin a deformed cocoon, or a d(nil)le cocoon. If, on the other

( I«4 )

hand, those silkworms that have not yet fully matured, do not
commence spinning at once, but crawl about the tray, spoiling
other cocoons with their excrements. Such silkworms, as an
inevitable result of their unfinished feeding, spin out a smaller
quantity of silk, and so are of less value for reeling purposes, and
are not cither fit for reproductive ]-)urpose because of their
imperfect growth.

Silkworms are said to be properly matured, when the first
nine or ten segments of their bodies have become transparent
and the last two or three segments remain not yet transparent.

Rearers must not
lt)se a moment to
pick up such silk-
worms that have
attained this state
of development.

The number of silk-
worms to be mount-
ed in a certain area
a{ the " rofootiai^c"
varies according to
both the kind and

ClCM irjillK COCOONAGE.

the con.struction of the lonwiiaj^c. In the case of the '* folded
straiv cocoonaficy fifty worms may be taken in a square foot,

( 115 )

while in the case of the ^^ centipede cocoonage'' the minimum
is sixty. Silkworms packed in too densely are apt to spin
deformed cocoons, stained cocoons, or double cocoons, spoiling
the profit of the cocoon crop very much,

K. Protection of Silkworms after Mounting.

In a i)roper temperature silkworir.s finish spinning their
cocoons in 48 hours after iiioiinting, and in another 4S hours
undergo the last moult and become pupae. The quality of the
cocoon depends" to a great extent on the protection given during
this process. The defect in the luster and the reeling off of the
cocoon is chiefly due to an imperfect protection in this stage.
The items of protection required during the spinning of the
cocoon are mainly as follows: —

([) The temperature of the room must be l<ept between 75'
and 80° F.

(2) The air in the room must be kept as dry as possible under

70° of humidity.

(3) The room must be well ventilated.

(4) The sun-rays must be evenly let into the room, and

excessive rays should be kept off.

Should the temperature of the room fall below 70° F. in the
course of the spinning, the silkworms often suspend their work
until some higher degree of temperature is attained. In such
cases, the layer of the cocoon- wall is likely to become doubled
with an intervention between. If such suspension takes place
twice, a threefold layer will be the result. Cocoons of such
construction cannot usually be reeled off completely, but only

( !ir. ,

the outer layer is .iwiilable. So any cxces>ively K>\\ tempera-
ture of the room slioukl be raised t<> a desirable det^ree by
firc-hcatini;;. If, liowcver, the temparaturc of the room be
higher than So° V. at the time <>f jiioioifiiij:;, silkworms
commence siiinnint,^ at any randoni places witliout talcing' the
trouble to find propci- spr.ts, and in most cases arc apt to spin
double cocoons, whiil) cannot be used for the material of
superior silk fabrics. Cocoons spun in a room with excessive
moisture do not dry ([uicldy and their filaments stick together
too much, so that much dillficulty is felt in reeling such cocoons,
and this is especially the case with such cocoons that arc spun
in a high temperature in addition to a strong humidity.
Prudent care should therefore be taken in having the room l^ept
dry while the spinning is going on. In case the air in the room
be of a high humidity, though moderate in temperature, the
room must be. dried by fire.

As si)inning rooms are filled up with cocoonrr^i^cs, they arc
liable to become ill-ventilated and spoil the health of the
silkworms, liad ventilation usually prevents the proper drying
of the room, so that all windows and doors have to be duly
opened so as to have the room well kept under proper humidity
and ventilation.

If excessively strong sun-raj's should shine upon a certain
side of a cocoon, the worm inside is apt to make the wall
of the cocoon thicker specially «in that side, thus forming
a cocoon of uneven thickness in its wall. So in the course of
spinning care must be taken to make the sunshine evenly over
a cocoon.

As prcviouly mentioned, silkworms finish spinning cocoons

( 117 )

in some 48 hours, so the regulation of humidity is important
mostly ckiring the first 48 hours after mounting.

After this, the room must be left open so as to induce the
drying of the cocoona^c^es by leading in fresh currents of air.

L. The Gathering of the Cocoons.

Generally silkworms turn out pupae inside the cocoons
within four days after monntiiig-, but at the time of this
transformation their bodies are very soft and assume a light
yellowish tint. In this stage any rude treatment will readily
hurt their bodies and spoil the layers of the cocoons with the
blood that has been pushed out. Two days later, their bodies
turn a deep brown and become hardened, and less subject to
any harm from outside. This is, therefore, the best time for
gathering cocoons.

Cocoons gathered arc generally sorted into "the following
classes : —

(i) Cocoons of a superior quality, that ha\e the proper shape

with a thick wall, fit for the material of the best raw silk.

#

(2) Cocoons of a medium quality, that are deformed, stained

with dead siljcworms inside, with a wall of uneven,
thickness, or tliat are of imperfect construction.

(3) Cocoons of an inferior quality, that have very thin walls.

(4) Double cocoons, that have Ijeen spun by two or more

silkworms.

Cocoons destinetl for reeling must be drictl immediately
after they have thus been sorted, while those intended for
reproductive purposes have to pass an examination stated in a

( MS )

preceding chapter, after which anotlier strict selection must
be made before they can be kept in preservation for theii
intended purpose.

V. Diseases or Sir,K\voKMs.

Several diseases are found at jircscnt in our country during
the breeding of silkworms. Among them those which cause
great damage to sericulturists are lYbrine, Grasserie, Muscar-
dine, Flacherie and the Uji disease. The damage sustained
by our sericulturists due only to the latter is estimated at
15,000,000 yen every year, while that caused by the others
is at least more than several ten millions of yoi. It is not
only in recent years that these diseases have been prevalent,
but they seem to have been found from the most ancient
times. One of them, described at the earliest time in our
country is Muscardine just as it also prevailed in Europe.
This disease was already described about a thousand years
ago, then came Pdbrine and Flacherie in 17 12, Grasserie in
1817 and the Uji disease in 1814. But in the former times
none of the proper ties of these diseases were thoroughly
investigated. At the period, when sericulture was not so highly
practiced as it is in these days, few of these silkworm diseases
were prevalent ami if the}' were so, the damage due to the
diseases seems to have been insignificant. On the contrary, at
present the sericulture of our country having been so much
enlarged that it lias penetrated and prevailed in every district
and so much improved that silkworms arc reared twice or
thrice a year, the diseases have also grown to such an extent
that they liave ever threatend t<j <lestroy our sericulture. But

( 119 )

happily, they have been prevented according to the methods
discovered by L, Pasteur and other authorities. Thus our
sericulture has achieved to be such success as a safe enterprise
which will not fall into any risk on account of those diseases.

Now we will describe briefly these various diseases in the
following pages.

I. Pebrine.

Pebrine is a disease caused by the parasitic growth of a
small ovoid organism, which is found to be Nosema bombycis
Naegeli, a species of Sporozoa. The eggs of the diseased moth
carry the germs of the disease and the worms which result from
them are stricken down with it and it infects any healthy
worms which come in contact with the germs which adhere to
instruments or to the walls of the breeding chambers. The
germ in the body of the silkworm develops into Amaeba
which is distributed into every part of the body through the
walls of the alimentary canal and grows up absorbing nutrient
from the sick silkworm. Thus the micro-organism propagates
by the direct division. After a while the primitive sphere
appears in its interior in which spores are produced and finally
it changes into a syst state. The spore is ^if- in length and 2fi
in width, transparent and luminous. The ovoid micro-organism
is found in quantities on every part of the worms, but especially
in great many in the cells of the mucous membrane of the
alimentary canal, the fatty tissues, the muscles, the cutaneous
tissues, silk glands and reproductive organ and the cell attacked
by the organism, being swallen and finally destroyed, we can
clearly distinguish the injured parts in such simple tissues as

( I20 )

the muscles .md silk jijlands. On account of the fact that the
propaj^ation of the Nosema bombycis is 'generally slow, although
there arc exception sometimes, the diseased silkworm is not
caused a sudden death but it L;r.idii.illy presents the symptoms
of decay. The silkworm may be attacked with I'cbrine in all
periods of its existCTKc, when the worm is youn;^ or mature,
or while it is moulting, or also after it becomes a moth. The
worm attacked with Pebrinc presents the following symptoms.
The color of the diseased worms turns a grayish white and
they appear to be rather shiny in their n^oulting and finally
they are not capable of moulting or even if the worms can moult,
they eat but little and remain small and fade in color. Even in
their growing periods they remain small l)eing retarded in their
growth. One can discern a few black spots in their skin,
but the spots are not so many, as in the diseased worms of the
I^uropean species : when the worms are attacked with I'ebrine
at their maturity, they are not capable of spinning cocoons, they
gradually shrivel up and finally die; those which contract the
disease in the pupal stage, often produce black spots in the part
of their rudimental wings and legs; finally the moths attacked
with tlie disease show a blade color on their tails, their scales
on that part falling down and black- spots appearing on the
wings. The worms thus attacked with Tcbrine may often
accomplish all the phases of their existence, but their growth
is always retarded.

1 hat the eggs of the di.seased moths carry themselves the
germ (if the disease is due to the parasitic growth of the micro-
oiganism in the reproductive organs. The spore is t)ften
I arasitic to the egg cell and is often enveloped by the shell

( '21 )

while the egg is growing on, otherwise, it attaches itself to the
surface of the egg. In both cases the spore causes the disease
to attack the worm which results from the egg. Hence the
selection of the eggs free from the spore under a microscope is
of great importance to prevent the disease, and this is the fact
which has been discovered by E. Cornalia and L. Pasteur some
50 years ago.

In order to prevent the disease from spreading the follow-
ing means are practiced : —
(i) The careful examination of the seed.

Seed is raised by the cellular system and the moths are
examided under a microscope. If we find the spore in them,
the eggs which the infected moth has laid, are not used for
breeding purpose, recognising them as being also infected. The
other method by which one part of the eggs is examined under
a microscope, being troublesome in actual practice, the former
is preferable for all practical purposes.

(2) The washing of the seed.

In order to get off the spores that have attached themselves
to the surface of the eggs, the egg-card is dipped into fresh
water in winter and washed carefully, both before and after
brushing the surface softly.

(3) The disinfection of instruments and breeding chambers.

In order to destroy the spores on instruments and in breed-
ing chambers, they are disinfected. For tlie disinfection of
breeding chambers, the formalin solution is sprinkled upon
them and for that of instruments the solution is also used or
sometimes steaming is recommended.

( 122 )

(4) Precautions durincj the breedinc^ of sillcworms.

The diseased worms are picked out as soon as possible, the
litter is often removed to clean the bed ; the inner temperature
and moisture are so regulated as to avoid sudden changes and
mulberry leaves arc given to the worms in such proportions as
to breed them vigorously.

2. (irasseric.

This disease is said to be caused by the parasitic growth of
a kind of protozoa or some other organism. The cause which
produces Grasserie is not well known at present time,
however it has been known to be one kind of a contagious
silkworm disease, because if the healthy worms are fed
with mulberry leaves stained with the liquids that ooze from
the diseased worm or they are injected with the liquid, they are
always diseased. If we examine the liquid of the diseased worm
closly under a microscope we find in any case an innumerable
quantity of luminous corpuscles of a polyhedrons or spherical
shape. The corpuscles peculiar to the disease are found not
only in the blood but in the cells of various tissues in the silk-
worm body among which we find a great many of them in the
fatt}' tissues ami the tracheal membrane. The size of the
polyhedrons golbtiles is variable, but the largest one is 5-6^ in
diameter. I~^onic recognize them to be the spores of the injurious
organism but others attribute them to the accessory products of
the same organism and do not regard them as being the very
cause of the disease. The blood of the diseased worms, revealing
the presence of an enormous quantity of polyhedrous globules,
as we have described alcove, becomes milky. On this account,

( 123 )

the skin of the worm changes into a milky white, losing its
proper color and presents an appearance approaching trans-
parency. The body is distended as if it were suffering from a
form of dropsy and its segments arc especially swollen up. The
skin, being feeble, the milky blood oozes through it out of the
body of the insect.

The diseased worm does not moult at the proper period,
its body swells up, its skin becomes gradually a grayish white
and finally the worm dies changing into a milky white color.
If worms are attacked with the disease a short time before
maturity, they never ripen but swell up and die without
spinning their cocoons. Even if they make a cocoon, they die
in it before their pupation, sometimes a few of them may change
into moths but very rarely.

For the prevention of the disease the following methods
are applied : —

(i) The disinfection of breeding chambers and instruments.

On account of the fact that the liquid of the diseased
worms disinfected with steam or the formalin solution, loses its
contagious qualities, the disinfection of the breeding chambers
and instruments is necessary as a preventive.

(2) Precautions during breeding.

The accidentally diseased worms should be taken out and
the removal of the litter is of course necessary. Grasserie
being caused by the bad breeding, the inner temperature
and moisture are well regulated, the ventilation is kept well
in hand, and the mulberry leaves arc given at proper times
and proportions.

( i-M )

,v Muse. Ill line.

Muscanliiic is caused by the inirasitic i^rowth of a fungus
called Iiotrytis bassian.i l>als. . This injurious fungus propagates
1))' tlic spore and often causes great damage to the feeding of
silkworms. When the sjjoro attaches itself the skin of worms, it
begins to vegetate under the proper temperature and moisture,
anil gives out a filament called mycelium which develops
through the skin into the interior of the body and absorbs its
nutrients from the worm. The mycelium tluis prolonged for
a certain time and then branch, .md produces an oval bulb called
a conidium at its end. These conidia fall into the blood and
develop for a little while to f(M-m secondary conidia. At this
period all the tissues of the insect have been devoured by the
formidable parasite and it can not escape from death. The
time between the beginning of the parasitic life and the death
of the disea.sed worm varies according to the age of the worm
and the temperature during breeding, but as a rule young worms
will die in shorter time than full grown ones and when the
temi)erature is high, the diseased worm will die sooner than
when it is low. The shortest of the periods is three days and
the longest is two weeks. The conidia and the secondary
conidia again give out mycelium which will branch soon after.
15y this time the dead worm takes on a petrified aspect and
always bends a little. The dead body presents often a reddish
violet color, owing to the j)ropagation of the Bacillus prodigiosus
I'^liigge in it. The myceliums which occupy the dead body
j)roduce special branches called conidiophores which exude from
the skin and extend over the body fruitfully. After two days.

( 125 )

these conidiophores are so numerous that tlie body seems to be
covered with white fleece. On the conidiophore the conical
sterigma are produced on which spores are formed. When the
spore is produced innumerably, tlie body presents an aspect as
if covered with wliite powder. The spore is spherical and its
size is 2« to 3/^ in diameter and buds on one side or sometimes
two.

The worm stricken with this disease does not show any
remarkable symptoms at the beginning and has every ap-
pearance of good health, but it begins to cease taking leaves,
to be in agony and to show an intense impulse of its dorsal
vessel a few hours before its death ; moreover irregular brown-
ish black spots often appear in the skin of the ventral or the
lateral part of the body. In short it is always impossible
to be aware of the presence of the disease until the first few
worms have been suddenly stricken and die. The disease
is specially characterized by the fact that the dead body
becomes hardend after some days, and sometimes presents a
reddish violet color which afterwards changes into white.
Muscardine attacks not only the larvae but also both pupae
and moths.

Beside Muscardine we find several kinds of silkworms
disases caused by parasitic fungi. Those which have been
known up to the present time are as follows : Xomuraea
pracina Delacroix, Oospora destructor Delacroix, Isaria densa
Link (A. Giard.), Isaria farinosa Fr., Isaria funosorosca Cashimir
Wze., and a variety of Aspergillus species, etc. These injurious
fungi cause sometimes great damage, but tliey are not so serious
as in the case of the Muscardine.

{ i-'^3 )

In order to prevent the iliscases caused by liotrytis bassiana
atul other funf^i the follow! ncj articles should be noticed : —

(i) The disinfection of l^reedinp^ chamlier and instruments.

By disinfecting the breeding chambers and instruments, the
surviving spores of the injurious fun<^i which have devoloped in
the pievious breeding are destroyed.

(2) Precaution during l)rceding.

The worms attacked accidentally with the fungi are
distinguished from healthy ones and are so far as possible taken
out previous to their forming spores and the litter is often
removed to clean the silkworms tray. Since a damp atomos-
phcre greatly assists the growing of the fungus, we should avoid
too much wetness in the breeding chambers so far as possible.

4. Flacherie.

Machcrie is a disease caused by parastic microbes. Al-
though the silkworms in every stage are attacked by this
disease, it especially happens at the end of the fifth age and the
following days up to the time of moulting, causing serious
damage to the sericulturists. Various bacteria arc injurious to
the silkworms among which ]>acillus sotto Ishiwata, and Strepto-
coccus bombycis Cohn. are important. The former is a bacillus
with a rod like shajjc. The length is 2,6-C/i and the width is
1,5-2//. The body is covered with a fruitful crop of fme cilia
witli which the bacillus moves violently. It forms an endospore
in the mitldle or one side of the body. This endospore is oval
and i,6/i in the hjnger diameter. The bacillus produces a kind
of toxin in thi'^ endospore and its pathogenic action is due to

( i27 )

the production of the toxin. So the bacilhis which has been
swallowed by a silkworm causes its sudden death after from
thirty minutes to an hour. As we have described above the
subjects attacked by the disease during suddenly in many cases,
we can not perceive clearly the particular symptoms of the
malady. The form and color of the body of an affected worm
are not distinguished from those of a healthy worm, but in
looking at the body carefully, we will find the following
symptoms : The two or three segments near the head are
somewhat transpearent at the beginning of the disease and the
silkworm raises its head, shaking it right and left. The posterior
part has always a wrinkled skin ; the legs losing the power to
hold the body, the worm easily falls down if only touched, it
becomes soft and flabby to the touch. The bacillus attacks not
only worms but larvae and moths, lurking for a while in the
body after contagion.

The second microbe is a streptococcus which is round and
has a diameter of o,9«. If exists in the connection of two or
several individual with each other. These bacteria do not cause
such a severe malady as the ones just mentioned. The diseased
worm presents the first disorder after the great many multiplica-
tions of the microbes in the mucous membrane of the alimentary
canal. It injures vigorous worms but little, but on account of
its causing a formidable malady to the wealc ones, often a great
many of them are suddenly condemned to death.

The symptoms of the disease vary according to the period
attacked, worms stricken with this disease after their moulting
ramain small and lose their vital aspect ; those attacked with it
during the active period of feeding also remain small and finally

( .2S )

die or the fore part of the hod}' is swallen up and becomes
transpearcnt and the end part shrinks into a remakably small
compass. The streptococcus attacks worms at any staj^c but it
especially injures them before moulting^.

By the followin;;:^ directions the rearer can pre\ent the
disease : —

(i) liy the ch'sinfection of the silkworm chambers and
instruments.

By disinfectinfj of the silkworm chambers and instruments
any bacteria left are destroyed.

(2) By the selection of healthy seed.

On account of the fact that vigorous silkworms arc little
attacked by the disease, healthy seed is selected and protectetl
completel}'.

(3) Precautions durini^ breeding.

A proper temperature and moisture are kept, good ventila-
tion is indispensable in the nurseries; that a proper quantity of
food be given to the worms ; of course the affected or attacked
silkworms are taken out and the removal of the litter is often
practiced.

5. The " Uji " disease.

This disease is caused by the parasitic growth of a insect
called Ugimiya (Cro.ssocosmia) .sericaria Rondani. This parasitic
maggot caused great damage to our .scriculturists. The cause
of the disease is due to the worm's swallowing the eggs of the
fly wiiich are laid on mulberry leaves. The fly lays eggs
between the middle and the hitcr of IMaj' on mulberry leaves.

^

r

^

^. -^ la i.-. ---->«>.•■

mm

to

tJgiuiiya (Crossocosiiiia) ScricarLiic RoND.

( 129 )

which are jjiven to the worms after the third age. Tiie female
and the male imago of the maggot are different in size ; the male
is 15 mai. in length and its wings are 30 mm. in length and
female 14 mm. in length and its wings 28 mm.. The body is
blackish brown and covered with coarse hairs. We always find
some seven or eight thousand eggs in the female body among
which several thousand eggs are actually laid. The female flies
do not lay their eggs in any one place but in so many places that
the number of eggs laid on one mulberry leaf being only one or
two, at most seven or eight, thousand of the leaves receive the
eggs of only a single female fly. The egg is black and shiny
and has the marks of a regular hexagonal shape, like the meshes
of a net. The form of the egg is an elongated oval, its length
is 0,33 mm. and its width is 0,2 mm.. As soon as the Ggg is
laid, its nucleus begins to develop and finally hatches into a
tiny larva soon after it is swallowed by the poor worm. The
larva or maggot escapes into the body space through the wall of
the alimentary canal and finally invades a ganglion. The time
from the hatching until it reaches this stage, is only one hour.
Thus the maggot lives on the ganglion and after one or two
weeks it comes out again into the body space and remains in the
inside of a stigma, turning its hind end to the stigma and
stretching its mouth into the interior of the body. In this posi-
tion, the maggot grows adsorbing the nutrient from the diseased
worm. After the maggot continues one to three weeks in this
state, it matures and leaves the patient, that is ten to fourteen
days after the worms has spun a cocoon. Either when the
worm is attacked with the disease while it is ycung or when it is
injured by several maggots, the worm is killed before it spins a

( '30 )

cocoon. The mature maggot is of a cylindrical form whose one
end is round and the other pointed, it is yellowish white, 20 mm.
in length, 6 mm. in width and consists of 12 segments. It
moves very actively and lies low in the ground escaping out of
the nurseries through a narrow space. The maggot that has
thus buried itself in the ground, changes into a chrysalis whose
puparium is a blackish brown and elongated oval. Passing the
winter in earth, the maggot re-api)ears as an imago or fiy in the
middle of April, of the next spring. Many of the flies swarm
about mulberries and lay eggs on the leaves which repeat the
same cycle.

The worm attacked witli the disease presents different
symptoms. In the case of an attack by a single maggot, the
silkworm has every appearance of good health and accomplishes
all the stages but after pupation, the stigma of the pupa is
always black and it can never change into a moth. On account
of this fact, the parasite causes a serious damage to our egg
producing. Either when the worm is stricken with this disease
while it is young, or when the worm is attacked by several
maggots, it presents such sysptoms as Tarcko (the hanging
worm) that means the worm which hangs down on the edge of
the tray and dies, Kubiiiiagari (the worm benting its anterior
parts) or sometimes Hadaka-sanagi (the naked pupa) that is the
pupa which does not imprison itself in a cocoon.

In order to prevent this disease the rearer should take the
following measures: —

(1) The maggots which come for the from cocoons should be
killed.

( 131 )

(2) The rearer should sweep and dust under the floors of the

mulberries after the breeding^ is finished and destroyed
the puparium of the maggot which lies low in the ground
to pass the winter.

(3) Alulberry leaves which are suspected of carrying the eggs of

the fly should not be given to silkworms and especially
the leaves should be carefully selected to feed the worms
of the fifth age.

^

CHAPTER VII.

MANUFACTURi: OF RAW SILK.
1. Kl KI.INC Mi-vmoDs.

There are three principal methods of reeling cocoons here,
at i)resent, ^^ Itaiid-rcclitiii''' {Tc-^iiri), *' sedentary reeling"
{Za-guri), and " luncliine-reeling."

There was the " JIa/>/^iiig ine/hod" i^iata-ki-dori or Do/eri),
which is the most primitive one for reelinj.,^ and now out of use.
The method of Iiand-reeling is its improved form which is usetl
in some remote districts ; then comes the sedentary reeling
which prevails in many parts of Japan ; the most improved
method is that of niaehine-reeling; tlie method called ^* foot-
reeling " {Ashi-hnmi) is a combined form of the sedentary
and viaeliine-reeling methods. The hand-reeling and the seden-
tary reeling methods have come down to us from ancient time?,
but iiiaeliine-reeling was introduced from Italy and France about
fourty years ago.

Details of these methods are as follows : —

I. Uand-rccliiiL;' {Te-gitri)

In hand-reeling, there is a reel which is revolved b}' a rod
with the right hand of the reeler, and a pan is used for
both the boiling and the reeling of cocoons. Tiic index finger
and the middle-fmger of the left hand serve for twisting the silk-
threads; of course we can get only two or three twists in this

( 133 )

way. The reeler, in this case, has to stop the work as soon as
the filaments are broken and she can reel only one thread at a
time. The raw silk produced h}- this method is course and
does not have the uniform denier.

2. Sedentary reeling iZa-j^uri).

In this method only one pan is used for the boilincj and
the reeling of the cocoons, as in the case of Jiand-rceliiii^. The
reeler can, generally reel only one thread at a time, but some
can reel two threads at a time, though this is rarely the case.
The reeler must determine the nubmer of filaments which she
will attach to a single thread; the number varies according to
denier of the siilc thread. The cocoons are first boilctl, then the
true uniform filaments are found out. The required number of
them is passed towards the angular point of a brass wire which is
kept just over the pan, then it comes into contact with folded
hairs which are fixed to a short wooden post, both for the
purpose of uniting the filaments and also for getting rid of the
water from the raw silk. Then the thread passes through a
bamboo stick which moves to and fro and thereby prevents the
thread from accumulating on a part of the reel, and at last it
passes to the reel. Sometimes the Kennel system is adopted
in this method for twisting and imiting the filaments.

By this method, the reeler can work without stopping
operations for the reason that she can add a new filament by
means of her right hand when one filament is broken, while her
left hand is engaged in revolving the reel by the handle which
is fixed to the wheel. Of course, by this method, the production
and quantity of the raw silk are better than in that of liauil-

( 134 )

nu/inj;, but it is by far inferior to those \aricties of raw silh
produced by the iunihi)u-rccli)ij^\wci\\oOi.

3. Foot-reeling {As/ii-biiini).

In this method, there is only one pan for the boiling and
the reeling of cocoons, and not two as in the case of machim-
rccling. The water is heated by a charcoal fire. The operation
of reeling by this method is similar to that of the viachim-
rcclifio, except that the reel is revolved by the feet of the reeler.

4. Machine-reeling.

Tlie inaLliiiu-rccling method is c|uite different from tiiat of
luxiid-riclino^ and the scdcntalry reeling. There are prepared
two pans, one is for the boiling of the cocoons and the other is
for the reeling, and the reels arc revolved by mechanical
energy. By this method, we can produce a superior grade of
raw silk, as the cocoon filaments are well united by complete
twisting, and both the hands of the reeler can be devoted to
the throwing of filaments to manitain the continuous uniform
denier of the raw silk.

The energy used is of .several kinds, human labor, water
l^ower, steam power, and electricity. The human labor is used
in very rare cases and it will be gradually decreased. At
present, most of the filature works use steam power; electric
power is not used so much but it will be introduced into the
filature works in the near future on account of its cheapness.

There are two systems of reeling by machines, one is the
Kennel system and the other is the Chambon system. The
former was introduced from Italian filature factories and latter

( '35 ;

Filatures at Suwa, Nagano Prefecture.

from France. And there is another from of twisting apparatus
which is modified from the Kennel system and it is called the
Inasujna system. Most of the filature factories of Japan have
adopted the Kennel system, and the Chambon system has been
adopted in a few filature factories in which a very Ime or
superior raw silk is produced, but it is more difficult to reel b)'
this system than in the case of the Kennel system. Well united
superior raw silk can not be produced by the Inazufna systcui
and most of the factories have been converted to the use of the
Kennel system, so we can see it but rarely now.

There are two kinds of reels in the macJiiiu-rccling system,
one is for ''double reeling-" (or reeling with small reels) and the
other is for ''direct reeling'' (or reeling with large reels). All
the filatures adopted the Jireef reeling systein, wlicn the

( 136 )

}fiailntu-rciliiii^ vuthod was introduced from Murope, but the
result was not so good. The managers of filature factories
perceived, after many cxj)erimcnts, that the lUrcd rcclvi'^
method is not suitable here, on account of the humidity of
the Japanese climate. So, tliey changed it to the double
rceitn^rr sysfijii, though it required much more expense for
changing the system.

There are many defects in the raw silk produced by the
dirni system. As the climate of Japan differs from the Con-
tinental climatic conditions, the raw silk round on the large reels
docs not dry well, and it does not unwind freely again, as its
different parts stick to one another when they come into contact
with the frame of the reel and harden when they become dry.
Besides, it is difficult to keep the uniform denier of the law silk
in all its parts, because we examine the denier of the raw silk
only at the time of reeling and the worker becomes careless for
the maintenance of an uniform denier. These defects can be
avoided to some extent by the double reeling system.

The number of the silk threads which are reeled by a reeler
at a time is not the same in all cases, in the Chambon system
a reeler can reel two threads only, hut in the Kennel system she
can reel two, three, or four tlircads according to the silkfulness
of the worker. Generally, many filatures adopt the tzvo-thread-
system at the Kennel method.

Also, there are several methods of reeling cocoons,
(jener.dly, cocoons float on the water while being reeled, but
there is another method in which they are forced to sink in the
reeling water, and then reeled. Tiie cocoons are boiled and
reeled by tiie same reeler though rarely different persons are

( 137 )

employed for the two purposes. When tlie European reelinji;
method was introduced into Japan, the latter method was
adopted in all filatures as in the case of European filatures,
but the result was not good because quarrels arose between
the reelers and those who boiled the cocoons.

There are two methods of arranging the cocoon filaments
in the reeling pan ; in the one method, in the first place, the
true uniform filaments are found out and kept in the reeling
pan and then thrown up at the time of reeling, but in the
other method, only the ends of the filaments are gathered,
not arranged uniformly, and in the course of the reeling itself
the reeler finds out the uniform filaments and throws them
up without stopping the revolution of the reels.

The raw silk produced in the former method is superior in
quality, but much more silk can be reeled in a certain time by
reeling by the latter method, but the silk so produced shows
some inferiority in its equality. Most of the filatures prefer the
latter method, reeling silk of medium quality.

II. Machines and Instruiments.

Reeling machines can be divided into two kinds, i.e.,
reeling and re-reeling machines.

Reeling machines include flapping rctli)ig {Do-tori), Jiand-
reeliiig {Tc-guri), sedentary reeling {Za-gnri), foot-reeling {Aslii-
bmni), and luachine-rccling {Kikai-dori).

There are three ways of re-reeling, (i) by pulling [Slin-iiiri)^
(2) by turning with the hand {Tejnazc^sl/i), and (3) by the use of
a machine.

V '>^ )

different kinds <>f energy can be applied to these various
kinds of machines. The implements for the Do-tori method,
hand-i<.'ork method, and the scdctitary rccliuf; method, are
turned by hand and that of the foot-rccliui^ method is revolved
b}' the rceler's feet. These implements serve to assist in the
home insiistry of our countr}', but in all filatures, machines are
used for reeling silk, whose moti\e powers arc [)roduccd by
water, steam, or electricity.

The wooking and mechanism of each of these instruments
and machines is as follows :

A. Reeling Machines and Instruments.

I. The Frapping reeling instrument {Dotori-kikoi).

This instrument was prevalent from the most ancient times
in Japan, but at present, there is no example of the use of
it. The construction is very simple ; it consists of a cylindrical
piece of wood, which serves for the purpose of the reel, and a
suppport, and an axis which is fixed to the cylinder. The
cylinder )s made of light wood and supported by the axis on the
support and revolves round the axis.

The diameter and the length of the cylinder are about 5
inches and 2 feet respectively. The height of the staiul is
about 6 inches. The worker can not reel continuously with this
instrument. At first, she must gather five or six filaments and
twist them with her palms, then she turns the cylinder by
frapping with htr hand, and winds the silk on the cylinder.
After reeling ofr the twisted part of the silk, she must stop
frapping the cylinder ami twist the filaments again, and so on.

( 139 )

2, The Hand-reeling instrument {Tf-^nri-ki'/cai).

This is a little more improved instrument than that of the
frapping reeling: About forty years ago, it was prevalent
mostly in the mountainous and remote localities, but more
improved instruments took the place of it, by and by, and it is
used there only in rare cases at present.

The construction of the instrument is very simple and it
consists of a rectangular reel and its stand. The circumference
of the reel is nearly 2\ feet. The reel revolves round on axis
which is on the stand ; the cross section of the stand is i^ inches
square ; the length of the stand is fitted according to the height
of the reeler who reels while sitting down and the length and
the breadth of the base or support of the stand are 8 inches and
I foot respectively.

The reeler turns the reel by putting in a bamboo stick,
whose length is about i foot, between the frames of the reel by
means of her right hand, while the left hand is enaged for the
purpose of twising the cocoon filaments.

3. The Sendentary reeling instrument {Za-gnri-kikai).

This instrument is more improved than that of the hand-
rr^7///f^ and it is used in many parts of Japan as an impoitant
instrument of house-industry. There are two kinds, one is the
Zyo-sJiiu-za-giiri (which means the one that prevails mainly in
the Zyo-shiu district), and the other is the dsliiu-za-guri {\\\\\z\\
means the one that is prevalent chiefly in the Oshiu district).
In the former, the reel is revolved by means of toothed wheels
and in the latter two wheels and a belt are used. In both of

f ,.lo )

Tmi; SF.iiEMAin i;r.Ki,iN<. machine {Zii-^tt'i.)

X.\\c\v., several l>.incls of
apj)aratus for reeling
silk are prepared as
follows; (i) A bamboo
stick which moves to
and fro and over wliich
the silk is made to
pass, and then wound
uniformly round tlic
reel ; (2) Folded hairs
which arc fixed to a
small wooden post and
serve to unite the
filaments ; ( 3 ) The
brass wire which has

the form of a \' at whose ani^ular point filaments are to be
projected ; (4) The rectangular reel whose circumference is i
foot and 9 inches.

The recler turns the reel !>}' tlie handle which is fixed to
the large wheel with her left hantl antl she uses the right hand
to adjust the filaments, so as to maitain the denier of the
raw sillc.

4. The l-'oot-reeling machine {Ashi-buini-kikni).

This is a simple machine which is a combined adoptation of
the reeling njachine with the scdiiitnry instrument. It consists
of a reeling table, a reeling hoKler, and several utensils for reel-
ing silk. The table and the reel hoUler are connected. On the
reeling table, a «lctachable iron pan is placed which serves to

( Ml )

IkjII aiid reel
the coccKjns ;
two ^or tlirce
porcelain bot-
toms which
h a V e \' e r y
small holes,
are fixed in
the twisting
apparatus in
one horizontal
line upward a
few inches
from the pan,
and^ they are
used for the
purpose of
avoiding; nobs
o f-_ the silk,
getting rid of water from the filaments, and collecting the
filaments which go to form a sillc thread. Besides, there is a
twisting device which is an aboptation of the Kennel system.

In a part of the holder, there are; (i) Two wheels, one is
very large and the other very small whose diameter is about one
tenth of the former ; (2) The axis of the reels; and (3) Aya-furi
which are small pieces of wooden or iron posts fixed on the top
of the reel holder, but which move to and fro, and which have
glass or enameled iron round hooks in their ends. The Aya-furi
has to prevent the sillc thread from accumulating too much o\\

The Foot-rekmnc; machine (^.ishi-bum.)

( '42 )

any one part of the reel. The small wheel revolves round the
wooden rod which is the axis of the reels also, and the axis of
the Iar<Tc wheel is connected by wooden rod to the wooden plate
which is to he moved In' the feet of the jicrson reelinc; the silk.
The small wheel is in close contact with the large wheel just
abo\e it, and when the lar^'e wheel turns by the wooden rod
which is set in motion b}' the foot of the rceler, the reels revolve
as the small wheel also is turned, because it is in close contact
with the larger as has been already stated.

Hy using this machine, both the hands of the worker are
at full liberty to throw up the cocoon filaments, and at the same
time her feet scr\e to assist in the turning of the reels. The
filaments which go to form a silk thread, first, pass through the
hole of a porcelain bottom and are twisted by the twisting
apparatus, then ])ass through a hook- of the Ar^-fnyi 'Uid go
to the reel.

5. The J\eeling machine.

This is one that modified from the European silk reeling
machine. It consists of two parts ; a reeling table ; a reel
holder. On the reeling table, there are two basins and two jK^ts
for each worker, one of these basins serves for boiling the
cocoons and the other for reeling. To both the two pans,
water and steam are conducted by means of pipes. The pots
are used to hold water and to contain the waste silk or chrysalis
after they have been reeled off their filaments. I^esides there
are the porcelain bottoms and the twisting apparatus which
are of three kinds, namely the Kennel system, the Chambon
system, and the fiia.-iii/ia system.

( '43 )

Filature.

In a part of the reel holder, there are the large and the
small wheels which are in close contact with each other ; the
axis of the reels being fixed to the smaller one, and the shaft
to which the large wheel is attached ; the contrivance to stop
the revolution of the reel ; and a iron or wooden rod which
moves to and fro, and to which three or four glass or enameled
hooks are attached {Aya-fiiri-ki).

There are two kinds of reels in this machine, one of which
is small and the other large. The former serves for the double
reeling method and the latter for the direct method. The
number of the reels for a reeler varies according to the number
of the silk threads to be reeled by the reeler at a time.
Generally it is two, three, or four, but sometimes there are

( M4 )

six, ci<^ht ar even twenty for a reelcr according to the
construction of the niachinc.

In the construction of the reeling machines, difierent kinds
of materials are employed in \'arious ways, wood entirely;
iron ; and partly iron antl parti}' wood, etc.

1). Ive-rceling Machines and Instruments.
I. The re-reeling instrument by pulling {S/ia-kiiri).

This was prevalent from earliest years in Japan, but
it was Very incompletely constructed, as the apparatus to wind
the sillv on the reel uniformly was not yet prepared.

The constructi(jn is very primitive. It consists of a long
reel and its sujjport. The length and circumference of the reel
are nearly 6 feet and 4 feet resjjectively. The height of the
support is about 4 feet. At one end of the reel axis, a small
handle is fixed and on the handle a rope is tied, its length being
3 or 4 feet. The reel is revolved by pulling the rope by the
hand of the worker and the manner of pulling is said as S/in-
kit-rn in Japanese, .so this instrument is called Slui-hu-ri.

2. The Iland-rc-reeling machine (Ti-mawas/ii).

This is a more improved one than the first, and it is used
much by sericulturists who manufacture silk in their houses.

The machine consists of a reel and the holder of the reel.
in the holder, there are several apparatus ; they are (1) wheels,
(2) contrivances to stop the revolution of tiie reel, and (3) the
Aya-fnri-ki. At the end of the large 'wheel, a handle is
attached by means of which the reel is tun ed with the hand of
the person operating it.

( '45 )

The form of the reel is rectangular or hexagonal, and its
length and circumference are i^ feet and 5 feet respectively.
Generally, there is only one reel but sometimes two or three
reels are used in one machine and that rather rarely.

3. The Re-reeling machine.

This is the mobt improved one for re-reeling sillc, and
several mechanical powers are used as its motive power, that is
to say, water, steam, or electricity. It is constructed on a large
scale in filature works, and in one machine from twelve to
twenty-five, or even fifty reels are placed continuously in one
line or double lines. The steam pipe is laid in front and under
or behind and above the reels. The diameter of the steam
pipe is from 2 to 4 inches and it serves to dry the silk on
the reels while in the process of re-reeling. The materials
used in the construction of the machine are of various kinds ;
(i) wholly wood, (2) wholly iron, (3) partly wood and partly
iron. The Aya-furi-ki is of the same sort as that used with
the reeling machine, and usually one Aya-fiiri-ki is prepared
for each reel, but sometimes for the whole line of the reels,
one Aya-ftiri-ki ox\\y is. constructed.

C. Cocoon ]3rying Chambers.

Cocoon chying chambers are generally of two sorts : one
is used for drying cocoons by heat and the other by steam.
The former is called the cocoon desiccator by means of heat and
the latter the cocoon desiccator by steam.

Now we will explain the principal parts of the construction
of the cocoon desiccator which is popularly used now-a-days.

( •4^> )

Among desiccators of the lirst kind we lind Niskigahara,
Taniquchi and Nakahara systems. The NisJiigahara system is
the most widely used among all of them, so that we will
describe its principal parts below.

This system was designed in 1S98 in the TokyO Sericultural
Institute. The desiccating chamber is of brick work. The
inner side is seven feet in height, an entrance is made on one
side and a fire grate is opened on the front side which is
connected with iron pipes of a fjj shape under the floor of the
chamber. The ends of the iron pipes are connected with each
other and open into a chimney above the fire grate. The
external air is circulated into the chamber through the holes
opened in the wall. The air thus passed in is warmed by the
heated iron pipes. The floor of the chamber is made of an iron
plate which we call the '^obstructing heat plated On the iron
plate, clean sand is placed one and half inches deep. On the
wall that touches the behind part of the iron plate, innumerable
small holes are opened which we call the "rcr^Z/Vr//^;/-/;^/^." In
the chamber a frame work is made for the reception of cocoon
trays which are made as deep as the thickness of one and half
cocoon. In the front part of the chamber, another plate is
prepared to lead out the waste hot air, which is circulated in
the chamber, through '^ejecting hole" in the upper part of the
wall to the chimney where the air leaves the chamber.

Among the second sort, [to, Miiicrignzua and American
systems are best known. The last one is most widely applied
for operators upon a large scale.

( 147 )

III, The Cocoons.

It is hardly necessary to say that the utmost care must be
taken in selecting the best cocoons, as the quality of the raw
silk greatly depends upon them. Their handlinir, ho\ve\er, is

Buying of Cocoons.

not less important in obtaining a good grade of raw silk, as
■even the best cocoons are very often spoiled by improper
handling. The method named below is considered to be a good
practice.

A. Handling.

The live cocoons and the dry cocoons are handled in
different ways, of which here we explain liow to handle the
live ones.

( M^ )

As soon as the live c«)Coons arc taken in hand, they are
classified, accordintf to their quality and stored in proper places.
Should they need stifling and drying, they must be placed in
the drying room at once or, if necessary, forwarded to other
places without delay.

When the live cocoons are to he left without treatment,
they must be put in the cocoon trays, placed one over the
other ; or they must be piled upon the wooden floor or on the
waterproof pa^jcrs, to the height of about three inches in the
former case and about one foot in the latter.

When a considerable amount of cocoons are to be stored for
a comparatively long time, the room nuist be provided with
shelves, on which the cocoon trays may be so placed that the
air passes freely between the cocoons and prevents them from
getting roasted.

The cocoons w ith dead worms inside, or discolored cocoons
very often spoil the other good ones near them so that the bad
must be picked out carefully and must at once undergo the
process of stifling and reeling.

The live cocoons are to be classified, according to their
quality: tin lustre, the size, the thickness of the layers
and the difference in their moulting periods being taken into
consideratioii. Usually they arc classified into two or three
groups.

The cocoon crop comes in at a season very limited in its
duration, so that when cocoons are wanted in any tpiantity, they
must be purcha.sed very quickly and stored with the greatest
care possible. \'ery often the best kind of cocoons are handled
improperly and the result is that they are invariably attacked

( '49 )

by maggots, or mould and the be.^t grade of good silk will never
be unwound from them.

When a large quantity of live cocoons arc purchased, it
is better to stifle and dry them first and then store them. But
as quickness is essential in handling the live cocoons, they
should preferably be stifled and dried at the same time and
stored immediatly afterwards.

Here we are going to explain how to stifle, dry and store
the cocoons in which the drying machines, etc. will be touched
upon at the same time,

B. Stifling.

The object of stifling consists of killing the [)upae inside the
cocoons before they appear as moths and at the same time, the
killing of the maggots that are parasites in the silkworms.

The proper time for stifling and the methods are as
follows :

Stifling must be done immediately after the silkworm has
spun the cocoon, that is, within seven days after the mounting in
the case of the 5/r///^ breed and five days in that of the ajttJiinn
breed. If stifling is too early, it ma}^ kill the silkworm before
he has finished spinning or even if it has already changed into
a pupa by that time, its skin may be so delicate that it may
easily break oi)en during the treatment and spoil the inside of
the cocoon. The damage from this cause is the greatest when
the worms are just changing into pupae.

The methods of stifling are different but the essential thing
is to keep the cocoon layers in a perfect condition and to get
through with it as quickly and as economically as possible.

( >50 )

Three methods are generally used, i.e., " sttain-siijlh!^,"
" i/ri stijlin^^'" and "steam and dry stifliii<^y In a wet country-
like Japan, the dry stijiivg is preferred to tlie others.

CCCOON' llKVIN<i.

C. Drying.

The object of dryinj^ is to dri\e out the moistuic from the
body of the pupa after stifHn<^ ami to kcci) the characteristric
nature of the cocoons for an unlimited period, l^elow are
explained some methods of drying and also the care to be taken
during the trcatmcut.

There arc two ways of driying, i.e., the natural and the
artificial methods of drying. In the natnral drying the cocoons
are dried by the circulation of the air only, while in the artificial
method they are dried by heat and consequently this saves a
great deal of time.

( 151 )

Although the natural drying is very simple, it takes a
longer time, a considerable amount of room, and more hands to
do it, thus making the expense of drying much higher, and
moreover it spoils the lustre of the thread and makes the reeling
a good deal harder, moreover the cocoons are apt to be
attacked by mould, not to speak of rats and mice and certain
insects. To put an end to these difficulties, the system of
artificial drying was devised.

The most essential part in drying is the circulation of
the air in the drying chamber. When the air is saturated
with the evaporations from the body of the pupa, it needs
frequent thanging, otherwise, the drying with never be done
successfully. Although the time needed in drying greatly
depends upon the temperature, it is not less affected by the
humidity which in its turn is lessened greatly b}' tlie circula-
tion of the air. So during the drying the air must be
changed as much as the necessary temperature of the chamber
permits.

D. Storing.

The object of storing is the keeping of the cocoons froni
getting wet again after drying and to keep thcni from the
attacks of vermin such as rats, mice, insects, bacteria and
vegetable mould.

The i)rocess and care necessar\' in storing are explained
belows.

There are three ways of storing ; by bagging, b\- canning
and by storing in a warehouse.

( "52 )

(</) iia^t;ing : About one kolcii^ of the cocoons is put in a bag
made of thick paper and then sealed and the bags are
stored in piles in an ordinary storehouse. These bags
arc to be treatetl with Sliibu-kaiui or waterproof paper
to keep the moisture out.

\b) Canning: About live to-\ of the cocoons are put into a tin
or zinc can and the cover is put on tight and the cans are
hermetically sealed. They are also stored in piles in a
storehouse or in any Icind of room.

(< ) Storing in a warehouse : The entire storehouse is divided
into compartments of about one hundred forty-four or
one hundred eighty .square feet each. The four sides and
the top and bottom are protected by zinc plates, the
joints being soldered tightly and the bags are piled in
good shape. The cocoons are put in paper or cotton
bags and placed in the sections.

Special attention must be paid to the location of the store-
house, which must be built on dry soil and its construction
must be tight enough to keep out the moisture. If possible
the house should be built on a high place, otherwise it may
be necessary to raise the grountl by filling in so as to get rid
of the dampness.

Cocoons must not be put in a storehouse before the final
drying. When they are brought in, they must be dried until
they reach the weight which perfectly dried cocoons ought to
have.

* one )iokH of live cocoons weighs about 375 kilograms.
\ one to of live cocoons weighs 3,75 kilograms.

( 153 )
IV. Reeling,

The process of dravviiiL^ silk thread from the cocoons is
called reeling. The amount of silk thread drawn differs more or
less according to the quality of the cocoons, but usually we get
about ten moviinc of silk thread from one sJio'^ of cocoons (about
270 to 280 cocoons) and a reeler reels about eighty vionivw of
silk thread in a day of ten working hours.

A. Cooking.

With the object of softening and dissolving the gelatinous
substance, scricm, in the outside layers of the silk thread, which
makes them stick to each other, the cocoons are cooked.

The cocoons are so placed in a basin, filled with water to
about eight-tenths of its depth, that they cover the surface
of the water. The cooking is done by raising the tempera-
ture of water gradually, first wetting the surface of every
cocoon in the basin by stirring. Care must be taken not
to actually boil the water while cooking. The boiling of
the water causes some of the cocoons to sink to the bottom
and makes the reeling work somewhat difficult. Nor should
the cocoons be stirred more than what is absolutely needed.
Too much stirring is apt to cause much precipitation and also
to waste much silk. If the cooking is over done, the thread
obtained will be less in quantity and of a poor quality,
although it makes the reeling easy, while under-cooking makes
it hard to reel and the thread obtained will lack unformity in
titre and will be full of knots. The proper degree of cooking is

one sho of live cocoons weighs 375 grams.

( <54 )

the most important thiiif^ to ccmsider. Of course, it depends
upon the quaHt}* and the conditions of the cocoons, hut, as a
general rule, the best time to stop cooking is when the cocoons
begin to be a little gray and they give a smooth and agreeably
clastic feeling to the fingers, and the filaments arc easily drawn
from the cocoons.

B. IJiscovering the Filaments.

In order to draw out the silk threads from the cocoons
without getting them tangled up, it is necessary first to seek the
ends of the threads. There are two ways of doing this,
according to the conditions of the cocoons at the time. The
first method is applied to the new cocoons, that is, the cocoons
from which no thread has }'et been drawn. The cooked
cocoons are stirred Ijy a dipper handle or a stick and the
thread-ends that float out from the cocoons are picked up by
contact with it. The second method is applied to the ^^ lost
thread cocoons^ the thread-end of which has been lost by its
breaking off, while the reeling process was going on. For this
purpose we use a kind of broom, made of rice ears, whose upper
ends spread apart while the lower ends are tied together, thus
making a broom shape. The cocoon surface is swept over
slowly with this broom and the filaments are thus picked up by
contact with it. \\\ this second method, the basin must be
filled with water and after boiling the water the lost tJircad
cocoons are jiut in the basin and as soon as the cocoons start
to rise up to the surface of the water, the boiling should be
stopped and that will be the ti'.ne to begin discovering the lost
threads.

( '55 )

When the thread-ends are found by tb.e above methods,
the next thing is to find the true thread-ends. To do this, take
the filaments thus sought in the left lumd and shake them up
about seven or eight inches above the surface of the water
and after two or three trials of a general character, m.ake
the final search very carefully. And then after the waste silk
in the hand has been put aside, the true thread-ends are put
together and hooked to the hanger.

C. Reeling.

The reeling is to be done immediately after the cooking
and discovering the true thread-ends is over. The cocoons
are thrown into the basin filled with water at a temperature of
of about 160° F. .

A number of thread-ends drawn fiom the cocoons (the
number being different according to tlic titre) are passed
through a porcelain ring. After that, in the Kennel method,
these threads are twisted after passing over the upper and
lower rollers or, in the C^hambon method, they are twisted
first and then fastened to the reeling frame after passing
through the guide rings and the hooks of the counter cranks.
The thread is reeled up by revolving the frame The speed
of revolution must not Ije too fast, or the undoing of the
cocoons can not keep uj) w^ith the motion of the fiame,
which causes the thread to break off often, during the reeling
and much time is wasted in fixing it, and moreover, this
method gives the thread too many knots. Ikit if the speed
is too slow, a much less amount of thread is obtained, making
the reeling more expensive and the thread drawn is slow in

( <50 )

tlrying whicli not only spoils its lustre, hut causes the filaments
to stick together. The nuinlxir of the revolutions depends
upon the size of the reeling; frames, the number of thread-ends
put together, the skill of the reelers, the quality of the cocoons,
the titre of the thread, etc., hut usually when an ordinary reeler
is given ordinary cocoons and wants to reel the thread of the
quality of fourteen ilcnicr with a quadruple jiiachinc, the proper
revolutions per minute are believed to be 250 for small
frames, and 100 for larger ones. The water must be changed
from time to time during the reeling as dirty water spoils
the lustre of the thread. In order to maintain the uniform
titre of the thread, a new filament must be added every
time the old one is about io end. To do this, pick up
the cocoon to be added with the right hand, tal^e hold of
its thread-end with the left hand, drop the cocoon in question
near the other cocoons from which the thread is being
drawn, grasp the new thread-end with the right hand with
its face down, hang the thread-end on the middle part of
the first finger, and push it against the trunk thread with
the first finger of the left hand, which is now i:)laced outside
of that of the right hand, cut the end of the new filament
between the thumb of the left hand and the first finger
of the right hand and at the same instant, turn the right
hand face up, throw the cut end of the new filament against
the trunk, about one inch below the porcelain ring and thus
the addition of a new filament will be affected.

The number of twists taken gives not a little effect to
tlie lustre and the sticking of the thread as well as to the
Working expen.ses. Too many twists make the wor]< difficult

( '57 )
and lessen the strength of tlie tlircad, on the contrary, too
few twists make the thread hard to dry, thus spoiling both
the lustre and the adhesion of the filaments to each other.
As a general rule, the proper number of twists for the
thread of fourteen denier is about 300 in the Cliambon
method, and about 250 in the Kennel method, the length
of a twist being about nine inches in the former and eight
inches in the latter.

V. Finishing and Packing.
A. Re-reeling.

The reeling machine usually used in Japan is what is called
the double reeling system. So after the reeling has been done, it
is necessary to re-reel it into the skeins of the standard length.

{ '5S )

The way to do tlii;; is to moisten a pretty well dried frame
with water and place it vertically on the table in front of the
re-reeling machine, and then hang the thread-end on the glass
hook of the counter crank, after passing it through the guide
ring and reel up the thread on the new frame. Or, in another
method, the frarae is hung horizontally on the supports, placed
about from six to nine feet in front of the re-reeling machine
and about five feet above the floor. The former is called the
" 7'crtical method''' and the latter the " Jiorirjontal method!'

As the frame revolves, the thread is reeled up in a slanting
direction on the frame by the action of the counter crank.
Care is to be tal^cn not to wet the entire frame before re-reeling,
but just the corners. The revolution should be about 120 to
130 per minute and must be kept uniform during the re-reeling.
Reel about ten uiommc of the thread on one frame. Usually a
reeling frame of about five feet in the entire outside measure
used, so that four skeins of silk thread are reeled on one
is frame.

1^. Drying.

When the thread is re-reeled, it is not easily taken off the
frame, on account of too much moisture being contained in it.
The threads are usually put in a special drying room before
being taken off the frame, so as to dry them to contain just the
amount of moisture, that is officially approved.

C. Inspection.

The (juality of the raw silk (lustre, knots, strength, etc.)
is affected by many causes, among which the ])rincipal ones

C(iM HI K )XiN(; « >r l\.\w mi.k.

1. CoNDiTioNiNCi Ovens.

2. Machines for testing the Sizes ami tut. Winping.

3. Machines tor iesting thf. Cleanliness.

( 159 )

are the quality and selection of the cocoons, the method of
stifling and storing, the quality of the water used in cooking,
etc.

The uniformity in titre depends greatly upon the skill of
^he reelers, the number of the revolutions of the reeling machine
and the kind of machine used.

The lustre is inspected in a dark room specially made for
this purpose, to which the light is admitted from the north
window only, the other three sides being painted black to
prevent the dimming of the reflection. Different manufacturers
give different numbers of classes, but usually sillc threads are
classified into four or five grades according to their lustre. The
silk of the fourth or fifth class is usually consumed by the local
customers and is not exported abroad.

To inspect the titre, take about two hundred winds
of the silk thread of the ten uiomuic grade on a standard
frame and after drying measure it with a special scale for
measuring the titre. If it is detected that it differs by over
three denier from what is wanted it is rejected for export
purposes.

The inspection of knots is made at the same time with the
thread reeled for measuring the titre, by looking over the thread
on the frame. If it contains too many knots, rejection must
follow.

The strength is tested by the serimetre, every time the silk
thread is taken from the different kinds of cocoons. If the test
falls short of the required strength, the silk thread must
be rejected.

( '6o )

1), Diessini^.

To make the handling and shipping easy the raw silk must
be properly dressed. Tlie first thing is to mark both eiids of
tiie thread on the skein, so as to make it easy so find them
when re-reeling is needed. For this purpo.se, there arc three
wavs in common use.

Finishing of Raw Silk.

(ri) Sukiii-doDic. Only the outside end is fastened at the
middle of the skein with a few threads. The objection
to this method is that it is pretty hand to find the
thread-end ami especially when the first end is lost, it is
impossible to fiiul the other end.

(/) Wa-dotnc. Both ends are folded together four or five
times and wound round tlu; skein. In this method the

( i6i )

thread-ends thus fixed are apt to be broken while
handlinfT.

(<•) Wari-domc. Both ends are folded together four or five
times, twisted and pushed into the skein and fastened at
one end of the skein after winding it around. This
method seems to be most convenient for finding the
thread-ends and they will not be easily broken while
handling. The proper position for fastening the thread
ends is between the corner and the middle part of
the frame.

Two pieces of cotton yarn are used to keep the form of the
skein. They are usually No. 42 Sarashi-ftitako threads and are
sewed with five stitches across the skein and with five more in
the opposite direction, i.e., about an half from the fastened
thread-ends.

After the thread-ends are fastened, the skein is ready to be
dried and dres.sed.

There are several ways of dressing up the raw silk skeins.

{(i) Tcppd-zukuri and Sog^c-zukiin'. These two are very awk-
ward to handle and the threads arc easily tangled up,
so they are not used at present.

{b) SJiiinada-z2ikitri. It has the same trouble as the above
mentioned, so it is seldom used.

(<-■) Orikacski-cuktiri. This method of dressing is used in
Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures, and some of the
export silk is dressed in this style. In this, a stick is
passed through the ends of two skeins and supported
by a pair of columns of about one-eighth of an inch

( l62 )

square and three inches high, standing on a board.
The skeins are stretched out beyond another pair of
coknims on the same board and another stick is phiced
on the skein and the skein is folded on the stick.
Then the stick at the other end of the skein is pushed
into the first end and turned so to give a twist to the
skein. After five skeins were dressed in this way, they
are tied together with cotton threads. Even in this
method, the threads are very often tangled up while
they are being handled.

{d) Nc::i-ziiktiri. This is the one in common use and the
greater part of the export silk is dressed in this style.

Two iron needles are bent like fisli iiooks and fastened to
a column by first attaching them to a thick board. Two
skeins of the raw silk are placed side by side and a pair of
bamboo sticks are passed through both ends of the skeins.
The stick at one end is rested on the hooks on the column
and the skeins are given some five twists by turning the stick
at the other end. Then they are folded once and twisted
again. Then the end held by the hand is forced into the other
end. Care must be taken to give the proper twists. Usually
in a skein of eighteen to nineteen jiioiinnc the first twists are
five and the last ones number three. After being thus dressed
up, a brass needle is passed through the ends of six of these
bundles, placed side by side. And the five of these are placed
one over the other. Covers are put on and the whole mass
is placed under a screw press and pressed down to a height
(jf about four inches. After that the package is fastened by

( i63 )

threads at three places and put in a tough and smooth paper
cover.

E. Packing for Shipment.

To pack the raw silk for the purpose protecting it from
damage and making the handling easy, we usually wrap it in
Sliilm-kami, a sort of water-proof paper and then put it in oil
paper covers. Fifteen or sixteen of these packages are placed
in a box and the cover is put on tightly so as to keep out the
moisture and insects. xA.fter the marks, numbers, and the
address of both parties, etc., have been put on, ropes are put
round the whole to prevent damage and then a straw mat is
placed over it, and it is tied with some more strong ropes. The
boxes used for this purpose are usually made of the three-
quarters of an inch board of Japanese cedar or Japanese cypress.
To prevent damages from friction, the inside is planed smoothly
and one part of the outside of the box is planed to unite upon it
the necessary formations. The board of the box must be
fitted tightly and kept from breaking by the use of cross pieces
on the outside.

The above is the way the local manufacturers ship their
raw silk to Yokohama. For export, a little different way of
packing is used. Twenty eight to thirty two packages of raw
silk are put in a cloth bag and tied with ropes at two places.
After the SJubu-kami, toughened paper and oiled papers have
been used, they are again wrapped in two sheets of mats. The
mats are sewed together and strong ropes are tied round them
in every direction. And then the mirks, numbers, addresses
are written on the cover.

( ^Cm )

W. Was IT. Sii.K.

A. Chappy Silk.

While searching^ for the true thread-end?, \\c t^et the thread
from the coarse, loose outside layers surrounding the cocoon.
This unreelable part is dried up and used as the raw material
for silk spinnin^j.

B. Floss.

This substance we get by .Ntretching the unreelable part
above mentioned before drying. Usually it is two and a half
feet long. When it is about six feet long, we call it especially
the "Awi,- JIossJ" To make this, stretch we take the wet
chappy silk and tic it round two pillars of about a half inch
square standing on a board. About twenty uiovniic are taken
ofT at one 'time, and dried in tlie sunshine. Twenty to thirty
of these are put into a bundle and thirty of these bundles are
made into a package This floss is one of the best raw
materials for silk spinning.

C. " Dohyo."

The innermost la) ers of the cocoons are not fit for reeling.
These are dried and separated from the hotly of the pupa and
used as a raw material for silk spinning.

IX " Furi."

To produce this take the innermost layers of the cocoons
and dip them in water and separate the cocoon layer from the
body of the pupa by stirring them with a bamboo brush. The

( 165 )

cocoon layers are washed in water several times and dried in
the sun and thus we get what we call Fiiri. This also gives a
good raw material for silk spinning.

E. The Snapped Unreelable Part of the Cocoons.

When we take the unreelable parts from the inner layers of
the cocoons and boil them in water with the addition of some
soda and treat them as mentioned in the previous article, then
we get cocoon layers softened like silk cotton. This is also a
good raw material for silk spinning.

*

CHAPTER VIII

SALES OI' RAW S[I.K.

I. " DZIVARI."

The sale of niw silk for home consumption is termed
Dr:iyari. This is carried on either by direct clearing with sill^
producers, or through the medium of brokers. The raw silk
used for home consumption is usually of an inferior quality or
such silk as is suitable for the export trade owing to the amount
produced being too insignificant, though it is of good quality.
It may, however, be noted that the recent increase of the
export of Habittnc has causad a greater demand for raw silk for
home consumption.

II. " IIa.m.v-uki."

The raw silk destined for export is forwarded to Yokohama,
the export market for silk, where it is sold off to the export
merchants through the incdium of the raw silk dealer. This
kind of sale is termed Havta-vri, as it is effected at Yoko-
hama. The greater part of the raw silk- produced in Japan is
.sold off l)y this process.

A. The Process of Consignment.

The consignment of raw silk from the local sillc raisers to
the raw silk dealers at "\'okohama is performed in two different
ways ; one is by the method of unlimited consignment, the other

( '67 )

that of limited consignment. In. the former method no
restrictive condition is put on the consignee as to the mode of
sale, quotation, or the time of such sale, while in the latter case,
the quotation, time, and mode of sale must be strictly followed
according to the instructions of the consignor. In this case, it
is customary for the consignor to take from the raw silk dealer
a note of consent to the conditions agreed upon, so that the
consignor may be assured that the sale shall be executed in
accordance with his desires. This method, however, has its
defects in this point that the consignee can not exercise his own
discretion, as in the case of unlimited consignment, as to the
situation of the market and the most suitable time for effecting
a sale, and naturally lacks the activity which is the most
important factor in all business transactions.

B, The Process of Forwarding Raw Silk.

When any local silk producer wishes to send his silk to
Yokohama for sale, he must first have his silk packed properly
in cases, each containing some nine kiuan, and have it forwarded
by the transporter to an}' traustworthy raw silk dealer at
Yokohama. In case the j^roducer desires to get the money for
the silk paid at once, he can do so by negotiating a documentary
bill to the bank in his locality, to which he has to present the
bill of lading together with the insurance policy on his goods.
Though the value allowed for the documentary bill varies some-
what according to the credit the producer enjoys, the usual rate
is 70 per cent, of the price of the goods to be forwarded. This
having been done, the producer must send to the raw silk dealer
the whole set of the documents, while the bank notifies its

( i68 )

correspondent bank at \'okohania of the completion of this
process. Upon this, the raw silk dealer goes to the latter bank
and receives the goods that have arrived there against the
bill of ladinj;- and the decumentary bill, after paying the sum
of money stated in the documentary bill and its interest. When
the goods have boon identified with those stated in the bill
of lading, the raw silk dealer notifies the ower of the goods
of the arrival of the goods, and then commences the process
of selling the same at once. In case the goods received
should prove defective or tlamaged, he must notify his consignor
to that effect without any unnecessary delay,

C. The Process of Executing a Sale.

In selling raw silk- to the exporter, the raw silk dealer sends
his clerk to the exporter's or the exporter himself may come to
the raw silk dealer's house, and make up some agreement there.
When such an agreement has been arrived at, the raw silk
dealer takes a few books of the silk to the exporter's as
specimens, which are accordingly put under examination, and
if they prove satisfactory, the exporter makes a provisional
contract of purchase, fixing the price and quantity required.
Upon this, both parties clap their hands by way of swearing
to keep the contract. This is termed Ti-mvasv (clapping
hands). This done, the raw silk dealer sends the whole of
the goods to the exporter's warehouse against the warrant.
Then the exporter examines the goods comparing the same
with the specimens offered. After the goods have passed
this examination, the real contract is made, and then after
weighing the whole of the gtjods, the exporter pays out the

( i69 )

price. Should the goods, however, prove inferior or defective
upon examination, the contract may be cancelled and the
goods be set back to the raw silk dealer, or be bought with
some deduction on the price settled in the provisional contract,
or in some cases, as is often done, the sale may be executed
after discarding the defective portion.

D. The Examination of Raw Silk.

The examination of raw silk is chiefly carried on macros-
copically, but mechanical examinations; are often practiced such
as the following operations ; —
(i) Two twisted skeins are taken out of each case for each test-

(2) Twenty filaments out of each skein are put in test for size.

(3) The amount of silk wound and the number of breaks made

in an hour should be examined.

(4) Tenacity and elasticity are put in test.

(5) The number of ]<nots and knobs are examined.

In order to aim at accuracy in the examination and
quickness in the transaction, the mechanical examination is
generally requested to the Silk Conditioning House, and the
raw silk dealer presents the certificate of such examination
received beforehand from the Conditioning House in dealing
with the exporter, or asks the Conditioning House for the
examination of the raw silk after the provisional contract has
been made.

1*1. Customs and Usages in Dealing.

Raw silk is usually sold by its net weight, but should it be
observed to contain too much moisture, one half of the whole nf

( TO )

the goods is selected in the i)icseiice of both the exporter and
the dealer, and sent over to the Conditioning Mouse for ex-
amination. If the difference between the net and the condition-
ed weight be over 2 jier cent., the deah'ng weight of the silk is
determined by deducting the difference. The weighing at the
actual deliver}' of the goods is termed Kii'au-kii'aii (weighing).
All the tare (basket, calico bag, wrapper, etc.) must be deducted
from the gross weight according to their materials, and in the
case of the cord used for making a book a deduction of 0.75 kin
shall be made, any fraction below a quarter i/v'// being cut off.
A weighing' charge of fifty sen per case is due to the weigher.

In the dealings of raw sill^-, no credit is allowed, and the
goods arc always delivered against cash. There is another
mode of buying raw sill-: called the ''^ prcliminarv contract^' in
■which the exporter makes a prcliniinnry contract of purchase
with local silk {producers through the medium of the raw silk
dealers. The quality of raw sillc, its price, and the date of de-
livery are all specified in this contract, and the contractors are
bound to follow the terms without any variation whatever on
account of the current price of the goods at the time of delivery.

F. Charges for Effecting a Sale.

The sale of raw silk- for export at \'okohama requires these

charges : —

/ I. I. 5^0 of the selling pircc for selling commission.

^ y 2. 0.03 0/0 ,, ,, for daily interest on

documentary bill.
^ i
^ I 3- Yo. 12 per bale for carriage.

\ 4. ¥0.50 per bale for weighing charges.

( '7' )

I- 3)59^ of the selling price

2. ¥o. 1 5 per bale

3. ¥0.275 per bale

for selling commission.

for carriage.

for weighing charges.

Trade mark.

Dealer.

m

Tomitaro Hara.

^

Yasuhei Mogi.

^

Mitsukage Ono.

®

Sakutaro Shibusawa.

cs

Kataio Okumura,

l)ip CAflc of the Rrancl

^

" \ 4. ¥0.075 per bale a month for storage.

G. Exporters and Dealers of J\.a\v Silk-.

Dealers of raw silk at Yokohama are as follows : —
Name of Company.

Hara Gomel Kaisha.
Gomel Kaisha Mogi & Co.
Ono & Co.

Shibusawa & Co.

Yokoliama Branch of the

Shinyei Kabushiki Kaisha.

Gomel Kaisha Tanaka & Co.

Watanabe & Co.

Ogawa & Co.

Imai & Co.

Kimura & Co.

Kaneko & Co.

Ito & Co.

Gomel Kaisha Kojima & Co.

Yajima & Co.

Otani & Co.

Wakao & Co.

Yamada & Co.

Inouyc & Co.

Nakazawa Sc Co.

Sasamoto & Co.

Okada & Co.

-3^

Shinshichi Tanaka.
Bunshichi Watanabe.
Katsusaburd Ogawa.
Dirosaburo Imai.
Riuyemon Kimura.
Masakichi Kaneko.
Kinbei Ito.
Genzaburo Kojima.
Zenshichi Yajima.
Kahei Otani.
Ikuzo Wakao.
Komakichi Yamada.
Sadakichi Inouye.
Gosaburo Nakazaw a.
ToyojirCi Sasamoto.
Shinbei Okada.

Name ol Comjiany.

Abe Gomel Kaislia

Tr.iile mark.
+1

Kakuwa & Co.

'^

Anzai Gomci Kaisha

(B

Iwakura & Co.

^

( 1/2 )

1 )ealer.
Taichi Abe.

Zensuke Kakuwa.

Tokubei Anzai.

Minoru Iwakura.

Ichihara .S: Co. (§) Matashicbi Ichihara.

I'lxporters at Yokohama are as follows: —

Vivaiiti Bros.

Siber Wolff &'Co.

Sulzer Rudolph & Co.

F. Strahler & Co.

L. Mottet.

Jardine Matheson & Co.

Jewett & Bent.

Siber & Co.

Pila & Co.

Henri Pernardin & Co.

Vavier & Co.

Comes & Co.

Otto Streuli.

Varenne & Co.

Carlowitz & Co.

Boyer Mazet Guiliice & Co.

C. Eymard & Co.

Nabholz &: Co.

P. Dourille.

Herbert IJent &: Co.

Montel & Co.

( 173 )

R. Schmidt Scharf & Co.

Langin & Co.

Yokohama Branch of Mitsui Bussan (iomei Kaisha.

Yokohama Kiito Gomei Kaisha.

Doshin Kabushiki Kaisha.

Hara Gomei Kaisha.

III. Direct Export.

The raw silk raised by local silk producers is some-
times exported through the medium of direct exporters at
Yokohama.

A. The Modes of Direct Export.

The direct export of raw silk is executed by means of (r)
consignment and (2) exportation to fill orders. In the former
case, the producer entrusts the sale of his silk to the direct
exporter fixing the destination of such export. In the latter,
the producer sends abroad through the direct exporter his silk
reeled in accordance with the order placed previously in his
hand.

B. The Process of Shipping.

In the direct export of raw silk, the silk producer must first
of all send his .silk packed properly to the direct exporter at
Yokohama stating its destination, who will accordingly examine
the goods received against the invoice, and if he finds the goods
in proper condition, he will notify the producer of their arrival.
A close examination is then carried into operation on the
quality of the silk, and an invoice is drawn up stating the

( 174 )

quality, quantit)-, atul C(ist price, which is to be sent over
with the goods to the branch offices of the direct exporter
in America or France, and a duplicate of the invoice should
also be sent to the producer for reference. The silk is so
packed as to weigh some 150 pounds per case, classified ac-
cording to its quality. In case the silk is to be exported to
America, from one to four books togther with each invoice,
must be sent in a separate bale as samples. The branch offices
in America or France receive these goods and execute the sale
properly.

C. Documentary Bills and Exporting Charges.

In drawing a documentary bill, the amount usually
allowed for the silk intended for direct export is 80^ of the
current price of the silk plus the exporting charges. The silk
that is sent abroad as samples is not idcluded in the docu-
mentary bill. The branch office abroad is notified of this
amount after it has been converted into American or French
currency according to the current rate of exchange of the bill
four or six months after sight. At the completion of the sale,
the branch office settles the accounts after deducting the value
of the bill.

The charges for exporting silk to America and France are
roughly estimated as follows : —

rt ( Packing and Shipping charges ¥2.00 [)er bale.

5 1 Freight $6.00 per 100 lbs. gross.

«^ J Charge for consular certificate ¥5.02 per lot.

S ( Marine Insurance premium ¥0.50 per ¥ico.

( 175 )

y ( Packing and Shipping charges ¥2.00 per bale.

Fregiht ¥8.00—9x0 per 1 12 lbs. gross.

Xi

o (^ Marine Insurance premium ¥0.75 per Yioo.

D. Collection of Prices and Selling Charges.

As sale on credit is customary in the markets of America
and France, the branch office of the direct exporter executes
the immediate collection of drafts drawn at such sale, since the
direct exporter will be held responsible for all losses that may be
caused by the bankruptcy of the purchaser, or by unforeseen
and unavoidable accidents. After collection has been finished,
the account sale is mailed over to the head office, which will
accordingly settle the account with his consignor.

The selling charges in America are as follows: —

Charges Ad varokin 5^0 of the selling i-)rice.

Direct exporter's commission 3^ „

Insurance against purchaser's bankruptcy

1.5^
Marine insurance premium 0.5^^ ,, ,,

Charges according to weight 3 cents per pound.

(storage, carriage, storing charges,

fire insurance premium, etc.)

The selling charges in P" ranee are as follows : —

Direct exporter's commission 3 ^^ of the selling piii^e.
Broker's commission premium 0.5^0 ,, ,,

Fire Insurance premium o.\°/o ,,

( 1/6 )

Marine insurance premium o-5?^ "'^ /;/5//rr^ value.

Storage, carriage, storing

charges, wires, postage, and

testing Fes. 15 per bale.

E. Direct Exporters at Yokohama.

(i) Yokohama Branch of the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha.

(2) Yokohama Kiito Gomei Kaisha.

(3) Yokohama Doshin Kabushiki Kaisha.

(4) Hara Gomei Kaisha.

F. Amount of our Exported Raw Silk and its Destination.

The destination of our exported raw .sillv and refuse silk,
and its amount and v'alue are shown below : —

tc f?

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( ^77 )

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( I7S )

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CHAPTER IX.

WILD SILKWORMS.

In Japan \vc rear not only the domestic silkworm (Bombyx
mori L.) but two species of wild ones. There are several known
species of sillcworms found wild in our country. The Kuzcako
(Bombyx mandarina Moore) which has the same ancestor with
the Bombyx mori, Yainaviai (Antherea yamamai Gucr-Mcn)
Saknsan (Antherea pernyi Gucr-Men), Sliotyn (Caligula japonica
Moore), and Cliosan (Attacus cynthia Drury). Among wliich
we will sketch in the following pages about those which have
practical use.

I. Antherea yamamai Gucr-Mcn.

Antherea yamamai is an indigenous silkworm in our coun-
try. Over one thousand years ago the sillcworm was already
described, from which it is thought that the silkworm has been
known from the most ancient times. At the present time silk-
worms may be found in the forests of every district.

Their feeding was undertaken for the first time about
ninety years ago in the prefecture of Nagano. Afterwards they
were introduced into the neighboring districts. About forty
years ago, their rearing was encouraged by the Financial
Department, and along with tlie general rising of varous other
industries among the people, the rearing became widely
pracicted in every district spreading over the boundary of the
prefecture of Nagano. Especially at Kita-a.-^umi-gori, Nagano,

( I. so )

a guild called the iMatsukawa-gumi has been organized to carry
on the enterprise energetically. Hut the attempt ended in
failure owing to the difficulties of the work of rearing silkworms
and people became fully aware of the disadvantages of the
undertaking, according to the circumstances of the districts.
At present the limit of the feeding sphere has become nar-
rower, and the wild silkworms seem to be almost the special
product of Minami-a/.umi-gori and Kita-a/umi-gori, in Nagano
prefecture. Although the}' are reared to some extent in other
prefectures, such as Ibaragi and Chiba, yet the business is
practiced by all the farming people of Nagano.

According to the latest investigations, the number
of the breeding houses in the prefecture of Nagano, is 216
and in the others about fort}-. The yield of the cocoons
varies greatly year by year and the number collected in
1907 was some S,<435,Soo; their price also varies yearly and in
the same year that of the superior class of i.coo cocoons was
about fivejr;/.

The bush of Ouercus serrata Ihumb. is the best of all
as a feeding bush. Some of the other trees and shrubs on
which the worms may feed are the Ouercus glandulifera Bl., oak
(Ouercus dentata), the.stnut (Castanea vulgaris) and others of
the Ouercus species, but the cocoons of tlu: worms which are
reared with the leaves of thes«.: plants have thin and weak-
layers.

l-'or the plantation of the Quercus serrata, a coarse sandy
place along a stream or a hill side facing towards the south east,
is preferable. The sprouts should be prepared beforehand by
the seedling process. The seeds gathered in the autunni, are

Ant he Via yamajnai Gu£r-Men.

( i8i )

immersed in water for one or two days, then, they are sown
either soon or at the close of March in the next spring after
having been preserved in the earth, mixed with fine sand.
Thus they germinate in May. The young plants, thus grown,
are dug out in the following spring and transplanted. In the
second year the beds are changed and the young plants are
cultivated as vigorously as possible. Tliey arc transplanted in
the third year to the farms for permanent plantation, and are
planted in the ground in the proportion of one in five or six
square feet. Afterw^ards they are so managed that the height
of the stems as well as the branches will be six feet and that
they may produce as many lateral branches as possible and if
over grown, they should be cut off properly. Then weeding is
practiced from time to time, Tlius when after about ten years,
the vigour of the trees may be impaired, then, they are cut
down from their bases and new shoots are made to come out
Irom their stumps.

The moths come forth from the latter part of August to
the former [)art of September and lay eggs. For the preparing
of seed, the cocoons which have a healthy pupa and thick
laj'ers, are selected and placed in layers with a silky pedical
upward in a shallow box. The moths usually emerge at the
end of thirty or forty days after they have entered into the pupal
condition. Their wings are a bright yellow, a brown transverse
line runs through them and a large transparent eye spot lies on
both the fore and hind wings. Their length is 30 mm. (male)
and ly mm. (female). One or two pairs of female and male
moths are transferred in a small bamboo basket within which
they are allowed to couftle and lay eggs. The baskets have a

( IS2 )

bell shape, a diaineter of about eight inches, a height of about
ten inches and the width of the mesh is about one inch. After
a while, the female moths will deposit their eggs on the outside
of the basket, by putting their posterior parts out of the meshes.
When the egg-laying process is finished, the moths arc removed,
and the baskets bearing the eggs, are hung down by means of
string in a cool place, protected from sunshine, rain and dew.
In January of the next year, the eggs are scratched off from the
basket with the fingers and washed with clean water, then, they
are spread over a wooden frame with a bottom made of
hemp-cloth and are kept hanging down in an airy place. The
eggs are nearly round and are of a darlc grayish brown color.
Eefore they are hatched out, the eggs are pasted on the middle
of a long piece of paper in the proportion of ten to fifteen grains
per each piece, in order to bind them around the branches of
the food producing trees. This operation is practiced when the
first worms are hatched. A tree which spreads its branches
about six feet square, receives some five pieces of the papers.
Hatched larva distribute themselves over every part of the food
trees and grow by eating the leaves. The newly hatched larva
has a dull ochre brown head and light yellow body but after
being full grown, the color of the body changes into green and
the subdorsal part of each segment is covered very coarsely with
yellow liairs.

The number^of the days during each age of development is
as follows : -

The first age i 5 days

The second age 10 ,,

The third age lO .,

( i83 )

The fourth age lo days

The fifth age 15 ,,

Total 60 „

On account of the fact that the worms are fed in the Open
fields, the climate has so great an influence upon them that in
the rainy years, many of them will die and moreover their
cocoons have thin layers ; in the years of drought the cocoons
have small sizes. Although these climatical influences are not
capable of being avoided, the rearers should notice the following
points, while they are feeding the worms ; whether they are in
want of food, owing to the incomplete growth of the leaves or
the worms have eaten them all up, by gathering together in one
place, as it sometimes happens. The rearers should endeavour
to keep the worms and the leaves in the proper proportion,
looking after the food plants from time to time.

There are several enemies to attack the worms : sparrows,
Manchuria great tit'^, cuckoos, field mice, squirrels, tree frogs,
spiders, wasps, ants, etc. For the protection against these
enemies a kind of scarecows is made here and there, a gun with
a blank cartridge is fired off occasionally, trenches are dug out
round the food trees, or the weeds under the trees are got rid of.

The mature worms finish spinning their cocoons in one or
two days, then, after three or four days the cocoons are col-
lected. On account of the fact that they are colored so green
and are so wrapped up with leaves, that they are often over-
looked, it is difficult to gather them. In general, a skilful
gatherer may collect five hundred cocoons in one day. Seventy
per cent, of the total amount of worms distributed, is usually
lost during the feeding season, so that about seventy thousand

( iS4 )

seed-grains are distrituted among the food bushes in one clid^,
but the crop is only about twenty thousand cocoons.

The cocoons are of a bright green color and oval. Their
length is 46 mm., their breadth 23 mm. on the average. The
average length of the filaments taken out by unwinding a single
cocoon is 520 metres and the average titre 5.41 denier. The
thickness of tlic filaments of the cocoons is greatest in the
outside layer and is gradually reduced in the innermost layers.

For reeling the cocoons have been stifled beforehand by
steam or heat, and then have been boiled. After these opera-
tions, they are reeled in the same way as we do in the case of
the cocoons of the domestic silkworms. On account of the
imperfect unwinding of the filaments, owing to their sticking to
each other by means of a gummy substance, to the cooking and
reeling water should be added small pieces of Marseilles soap.
About eight monimc of raw silk may be reeled on the average
from a hundred cocoons. The produced raw silk is light green
and strong, its luster is fine.

The product is partly made into cloth in the district that
has produced it, and is partly used to comply with the demands
from other parts. In 1907, 1090 kilograms of raw silk was sent
into Gifu, Tochigi. Niigata, and Aichi prefectures from the
Minami-azumi districts of Nagano. Its market price varies
sometimes, l)ut at present one kzvan of it costs about 65 yen.

2. Antherea pernyi (iuer-Men.

A. pernyi originated in China, where it seems to have
been reared in the north part from the most ancient times, and
* one cAo =- 245 acres.

Ant her ea pervyi Guer-Mex.

( 185 )
was imported into Japan at first in 1S75. At that time the
worms were experimentally reared at Sapporo in the Hokkaido,
and in Tokyo. They excited the curiosity of the people and
were gradually propagated into every district, but many of the
rearers had no experience in the matter and reared them only
for their own amusement. For these reasons, almost all of the
rearers failed and were compelled to stop the work of feeding
silkworms. The districts of the feeding of the worms became
narrower and narrower.

The rearing of the worms began in 1880 in the prefecture
of Nagano, where the people fed them in the same way as had
been used in the rearing of A. yamamai, and now ]\Iinami-
azumi-gori and Kita-azumi-gori in the same prefecture are the
most important among all the districts for the feeding of these
worms. Besides these districts, the rearing is practiced to some
limited extent in various places in the prefectures of Ibaragi,
Tochigi and the Hokkaido.

According to the investigations carried on in, 1907, the
number of the houses of the rearers of the spring breed is 170,
the crop amounts to 5,495,600 cocoons and these of the aiitmnn
breed to 97, the crop being some 745,000 cocoons. The yield
of the other districts is so small that it is not necessary to
describe it here.

As food plants of the worms, O. serrata Thumb, is pre-
ferable. They may be fed with other plants, Q. glandulifera
Bl., O. dentata, Q. glanca Thumb., Forma serica, O. glabara,
Castanea vulgaris, etc., but they produce inferior cocoons, when
they are reared with these leaves. The food plants arc similarly
managed and cultivated as in the former case.

( 'S6 )

A. pcrnyi appears twice a year. The spring breed comes
forth in the latter part of May, matures after about 50 days and
spins a cocoon. The autiunn breed emerges in the middle of
August and spins a cocoon after about 40 days.

The cycle is shown as follows : —

The spring breed.

The number o[ the tlays of the first ago 6 days

„ „ the second age 7 ,,

., ,, the third age 9 ,,

I, ,> the fourth age 13 ,,

the fifth age 15 „

Total 50

The moths appear at the end of 25 days after they have
become pupae, couple and lay eggs which will hatch after about
two weeks,

Tiic autumn breed.

The number of the days of the first age 4 days.

,, „ the second age 5

,, „ the third age 6

,. the fourth age 10

„ „ the fifth age 14

Total 39

The worms pass the winter in the pupal state and the
moths appear in the early part of May of the next year and
deposit eggs after coupling. The wings of the moths are a
yellowi.sh brown and each of them have a transparent, circular

( i«7 )

spot surrounding which is a border of red and black lines. The
body-length of the male is 32 mm., that of the female some
40 mm..

For the selection of the breeding stock-, cocoons should be
thoroughly differentiated after they are gathered. The cocoons
fot the spring breed are i)laced side by side in a basket which is
put away during the winter and the early spring in a well venti-
lated and rather warm j^lace, kept away from the direct sunshine
When the moths appear, each one or two pairs of them are
then transferred into such a bamboo basket as that we use in
case of A, yamamai, within which each pair is allowed to couple
and lay eggs. The latter are scratched off from the basket with
the fingers after two weeks. The aiitinnn breed deposits eggs
in the same waj^ which are scratched off after one week. The
eggs are oval, their diameter 3 mm. For the rearing of the
worms, about twenty eggs ore pasted on each piece of paper and
before hatching, they are distributed among the food shrubs in
such a way that each piece is bound up and around the
branches, with the eggs turned down, avoiding the direct
sunshine. About 130,000 eggs are scattered in every cJio.
Thus after hatching, the rearers should endeavor to keep the
uniform distribution of the worms, looking about the feeding
bushes from time to time, and also take care to protect them
from their enemies. A. pernyi is more vigorous and less
attacked by diseases than A. yamamai. On this account,
it is less necessary to select carefully the feeding places. Even
in the most unfavorable conditions for A. yamamai, such as
the luxuriance of foliage and too much rain, the former may
grow up healthy and vigorous. The cocoons are gathered

( '^^ )

several days after the worms finish spinning and being brown
and just like the withered leaves, their collection is a trouble-
some work to any one without skill and experience.

The yield in every one clio is from 20,003 to 25,000
cocoons. The cocoons of the spring breed have somewhat
different qualities from those of the ivitiann breed; namely,
the latter unwind with more difiiculty than the former, so
the spn//£- cocoons are chiefly used for filature, while the
mituuui ones are used for breeding purposes. Their length
is two inches, and their breadth on the average one inch.

The average length of the filaments of a single cocoon is
650 metres and the average titre is 4.86 denier. Their titre
varies so that small in the outer layer, gradually becomes great
in the niiddle and then again small in the innermost.

For reeling the cocoons, a special method is adopted owing
to the difficulty of unwinding them. A method which has been
hitherto practiced in the prefecture of Nagano, is to steam the
cocoons a long while with some soda before reeling them, but
the improved method is to treat them with hydrochloric acid,
then, to boil them several hours with bicarbonate of soda and
soap, and afterwards to real them on a plate. I'rom seven to
eight inomnic of the raw silk may be reeled from lOO cocoons on
the average. The raw silk- is a light brown color and similar
to that of the Indian lussah. It is partly woven in its own
habitant and partly in compliance with the demands of the
weaving factories in the prefccturers of Gifii, Tochigi, Niigata,
Aichi, Kyoti) and Saitama.

In 1*^)0^, Si 2 kilograms of the raw silk were produced
at Minami-a/.umi-gori, Nagano. The market price varies from

( 189 )

year to year, but on the average the price of yamamai raw silk
of a superior quality is about 35 yen per kiuaii.

3. Caligula japonica Moore.

Cocoons of the SJidsan or Caligula japonica arc found
wild in the forests of every district in our country. There are
none v/ho rear the worms, but only their cocoons are gathered.
The districts, where the cocoons are found, are different some-
times, but at present they are collected in Iwate, Fukushima,
Tochigi, Nagano, Gumma, Yamagata and Miyagi prefectures in
the north eastern part of Japan and in Hiroshima, Okayama, in
both of which they are found in large numbers, and in some
districts of Kyushu and Shikoku in the south western part.

The worms appear once a year. In the vicinity of Tokyo,
the eggs hatch from the latter part of April to the early part
of May. The larvae feed themselves on the leaves of camphor
trees (Cinnamomun camphor), Chestnuts (Castanea vulgaris),.
Rhus vernicifera. Walnuts (Juglans species), etc.. Tliey mature
from fifty to sixty days after hatching, moulting four times,
they then come down from the trees to spin cocoons on the
twigs of shrubs, three or four feet high above the surface of the
ground. The cocoons are an elongated oval in shap, composed
of net-woric layers and one end is open. The moths come
forth about August or September, couple soon after and lay
eggs oil the twigs at the lower part of the trees that produce
leaves for their food. The eggs will hatch during the next
spring.

The moths have grayish brown colorations, with green
lines on their wings. On each of their hinder wings lies an eye

( 'oo )

spot whose inner side is bordered successively by concentric
rings, differently colored and their fore wings also have a
grayish spot in shape like a boat. The mature larvae are green
and provided with long white hairs. The cocoons of the
worms, not being fit to reel, are developed into floss silk which
is then cither spun into threads or used for various [)urposes
without being spun.

The cocoons may be gathered from July to May of tlie
next spring. On account of fact that when they are left in a
field for a long w^hile, their qualities become vitiated, the
superior ones may be collected at any time until the autumn.
They are boiled with a little soda at first, thus softened, and
washed with water, they are pressed with a machine, and then
stretched into floss silk, after the pieces of leaves and the cast-
off-matter of the worms on them has been picked away. The
floss silk, made into a moderate size, is hung down in a room.
After tlrying, we will have a yellowish brown silk which has a
fine lustre and feels soft.

The amount of the cocoons produced, varies every year,
according to the climate, but on the whole, the annual produc-
tion is about 188,800 kilograms, that is to say, 50,000,000
cocoons.

Although floss silk is more or less in demand in the interior,
the greater pait is exported chiefly into France and Germany
and next into England and Hong-kong.

According to the relation between demand and supply, the
market price of the floss silk varies so greatly as to be some
350 j^// per 100 kin, when dear, while it costs the half of that
price, when cheap.

CHAPTER X.

CONCLUSION.

The progress and the present state of the sericultural
industry of Japan has, we presume, been clearly and fully treat-
ed of in the preceding chapters. Here we shall conclude by
giving another review of the state of this industry in the past
and the present so that we may form some opinion as to the
future development of this industry.

I. The Sericultural Industry of Japan has a
Long History and a Firm Standing,

The origin of the sericultural industry of Japan is very old,
but the first stage of its development was in the reign of the
emperors Chiu-ai and O-jin. The warm encouragements given
by the successive emperors and empresses had indeed very much
to do with the rapid progress it attained after that time.

Another important cause in the growth of this industry was
the adoption of silk fabrics for the payment of taxes as well as
for wearing purposes. By this time, silk-raising attained such
an importance that it was considered one of the most lucrative
branches of industry. Thus aided by the Imperial encourage-
ments, the foundation of this industry had been so strongly laid
in the hearts of the people that even the long series of political
as well as economical vissicitudes that this industry passed
through, could not entirely destroy it, until towards the close of
the Tokugawa Regime it began to show signs of a new life. At

( 192 )

this juncture, the port of \'ok-ohama was fortunately opened for
foreii^n trade and the exportation of our silk was practiced there
for the first time, which led to the sudden activity of this long-
suppressed industry.

Since the Restoration in 1S67, the newly established
government, in sympathy with the desire of the Imperial House-
hold, turned its utmost attention towards the improvement of
the industry by bringing in many equipments in the way of
protection and encouragement with the same enthusiasm that
was shown by the Imperial Courts in ancient times. These
governmental enterprises combined with the individual efforts
of the people have an ample share in the development and
prosperity the sericultural industry of Japan enjoys at present,

II. The Presen'i- Developmeni- of the Industry
OF J.M'AN IS Sound and Whoi.esome.

As the silkworm rearing in Japan is managed mostly as a
subsidiary work of farmers, being pacrticed at less busy times of
farming, it is naturally safe from any serious fluctuations in its
work and management, such as might be caused by a single
failure of a crop or sudden falls in the prices of cocoons.
The worl^ of filature, on the contrary, being carried on as a
special industr}', is subject to the fluctuations of the prices of
raw silk and various f)ther economical circumstances, far more
than silkworm rearing. 15ut many years' experience of those
concerned in this industry have succeeded in discovering
effective measures to overcome these difficulties, so that practical
management has become much easier and safer, being less
subject to serious apprehensions. Moreover, as has often been

( 193 )
referred to, the recent perfection of the equipments for sericultu-
ral education, the encouragement, and protection as well as for
the prevention of silkworm diseases, have caused a remarkable
advancement in the knowledge and practical art of silkworm
rearers and raw silk reelers, giving safety and steadiness to the
management of this industry.

Ill, The Progress of the Sericultural Industry
OF Japan has Reasonable Causes.

We have already seen that the recent striking progress of
the sericultural industry in Japan is due to a great extent both
to the Imperial encouragements and to the dauntless endeavors
of the people, but at the same time we must take into considera-
tion another important factor, the presence of the various con-
ditions necessary for the practical management of this industry.
As the climate of Japan is generally mild, the cultivation of
mulberry trees and the rearing of siTlcworms are carried on quite
extensively from Formosa to Plokkaido, and the geographical
feature of the country being mountainous, the level land fit for
the cultivation of rice and wheat is rather scarce, while we can
meet with everywhere tracts of sloping land, which are favorable
for mulberry plantation. pThe green hills and deep forests that
can be found everywhere throughout the country are natural
reservoirs of water, so that water power is freely applied to
mechanical purposes, thus giving a strong facility to the
improvement of the reeling industry.

As silkworm rearing is rather a tedious process of handling
he delicate insects, it naturally admits of little or no room for
the application of mechanical force, depending very much on

( '94 }

manual labor. I'ii.iturc, on the other h.ind, has adopted the
factory-system introducin<j hij^hly inn)roved reeling machines.
Nevertheless, manual art has much to do with the reeling work,
which is the most important process of filature. The natural
artistic skill and the hereditary customs of the Ja^ianese are
very favorable for the mastery of the delicate process of reeling
work.

Most Japanese farmers are engaged in the cultivation of tlie
land only, and stock-breeding is not yet widely practiced, as a
result of which, some waste of the time of laborers cannot be
avoided between .sowing, weeding, and harvest, even though
enough care is taken for the regular distribution of labor in the
cultivation of rice, wheat, vegetables, and other products. Silk-
worm rearing is indeed praticed by taking advantage of such
surplus of labor, without requiring any heavy expense for its
special purposes. Moreover, this work can be easily managed
by women and girls, who would be less productive in other lines
of work. , This is indeed another great economical merit of this
industry. In short, Japan is gifted with every favorable con-
dition natural, geographical, and economical, for the progress
of sericulture, which she has attained throughout the long
course of her eventful history.

IV. The Production of JataiNEse Silk occupies

TiiiKiY Five Per Cent of That of the Whole

World, and ris Greater Part is Exported

lO IHE WORLT3'S MARKETS.

The silk-producing countries throughout the world are fully
twenty. l?ut those countries that produce so much silk as to be

( 195 )

able to meet the demand of the world's markets are only three
or four. According to the report published by the silk-dealers'
guild in Lyons, the total output of silk throughout the world
in 1907, amounted to 24,500,000 kilograms (the figures for the
four Eastern Asiatic countries being those for exported silk)
The silk exported from Japan in the same year was 6,350,000
kilograms, while the total output of Japanese silk reached
8,760,000 kilograms. So Japan produced 35 per cent, and
exported 25 per cent, of the total output of silk throughout the
world in that year. The comparison of the figures with the
statistics of 1897 will give some idea of the increase of our silk-
production during the last ten years: —

Year.

"World's product.

Japan's product.

Japan's export.

Kg.

Ks.

Kg.

1897

i7.OOO.COO

5.760.000

3.500.000

1907

24.5CO.OOO

8. 760.000

6.35O.OCO

Thus it may be seen that the quantity of raw sillc supplied
to the world's markets by Japan ten years ago was 3,500,000
kilograms, making 20 per cent, of the total output of the world,
while at present, the rate has increased to 26.5 per cent.

These considerations led to the conclusion that it would be
more profitable for Japan to increase the export of raw silk
than to attempt the furtherance of silk weaving industry, and
in accordance with this view, efforts are being made now both
by the government and the people with an unanimous intention
for the further increase and betterment of our raw silk. The
filature instruction in the Tokyo Sericultural Institute and the
silk conditioning work at Yokohama described in the preceding
chapters are intended with this special obj'ect in view.

( 190 )
V. TlIK SEKICULTUKAL IXDUSIRY OF JaI'AN

Promises a Further DEVELOPMExr,

The development of the scricultural industry of Japan in
the past has already heed dwelt upon at length. In conclusion,
we shall try to make some observations and rcmarlcs as to the
possibility of its future development.

The area of land used for the annual production of 8,oco,ooo
kilograms of Japanese silk covers 400,000 cho, and the labor
required for the purpose is supplied by the farmers at less busy
times of farming. The total area of uncultivated land fit for
agricultural purposes extends over some 4,500,000 cJio through-
out the Enii)ire with the exclusion of P'ormosa, and this vast
area of land is more fitted for the cultivation of mulberries in
every respect. It goes almost without saying that the national
expansion of Japan will not long leave such land unclutivated,
the necessary sequel to which will be the utility of the same
chiefly for scricultural purposes.

As already alluded to, silkworm rearing depends chiefly on
manual labor with little chance for the application of machinery.
The supply of labor, therefore, constitutes a problem worthy of
much deliberation in the management of this industry. In
Japan, however, the vast population together with the favorable
economical circumstances has been effective in preventing the
want of labor-supply, and the annual increase of population by
half-a-million furnishes us with a strong reason to hope that we
may make use of the surplus population for the cultivation of
such valuable yet untouched land as well as general scricultural
management.

. ( 197 )
It has been an old custom in Japan that women should
not partake in any labor but those pertaining to their
household duties, depending upon their husbands for subsist-
ence. In fact, it is not rare cases to be met with that girls
born in the heart of a large city should grow up to waman-
hood without the least idea about the refreshing verdure of
rice fields so common in Japan. Happily, however, this
sedentary habit is gradually giving way to the present pressure
and those women are increasing in number who propose to
be engaged in some sort of lucrative industry. And it is
much to be gratified that this tendency is also given en-
couragement by more sensible classes of the community.
Under such a state of things, there is little or no fear that
sericulture, which is an industry best fitted for the delicate
character of woman, should be neglected by the prudent
house-wives and daughters of Japan. In fact, it is to our
great satisfaction that the female education in sericulture is
making a steady progress.

To sum up, the present state of land and labor-supply is
thus favorable, and other various conditions are as satisfactory,
while the customary modes of life of the people are, as abovi
mentioned, perfectly fitted for the economical management of
sericulture. Moreover, the government and the people are
unanimous in giving efforts for the furtherance of the industry,
and above all, the Imeperial Household, the leading force of all
national activities, in all times has condescended to set an
example to the people by personally being engaged in the work
of silkworm rearing. It may, therefore, safely be predicted
that the expansion and development of the sericutural industry

( 198 )

of Japan in the future will be far greater than what it has been
heretofore.

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