•OLOGYUB. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. FROM THE LIBRARY OF DR. JOSEPH LECONTE. GIFT OF MRS. LECONTE. No. BIOLOGY ua SKETCHES THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY GEOLOGY NEBRASKA. SAMUEL AUGHEY, PH.D., LL.D., Professor of Natural Sciences in the University of Nebraska, Corresponding Member of the Buffalo Academy of Sciences, Correspond! g Member of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences, Etc. OMAHA, NEBRASKA : DAILY REPUBLICAN BOOK AND JOB OFFICE. 1880. Nfc Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1880, BY SAMUEL AUGHEY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress. PREFACE. ^T^HE continual demand for some of my papers on the geology of Ne- braska, now out of print, suggested the preparation of this volume. It includes in a revised form the most important of my publications on our geology. The greater part of this work, however, is entirely new, and in- cludes many facts and observations now for the first time made known. I had intended to give a much fuller treatment of the Loess deposits and pe- riod, but the materials have accumulated to such an extent that it was thought best to reserve them for a separate volume. In preparing this work I have always kept in mind the many letters of inquiry continually being re- ceived about the State- such questions as are mot»t frequently asked of a naturalist about Nebraska. Only a small part of the State has received a de- tailed geological examination, and therefore many material points could barely receive mention. In the sketches of our geological history, I have attempted to give an idea of the chain of events that resulted in the present order of things in Nebraska. My conclusions on many points are very dif- ferent from others, but I have come to them by a careful study of our geol- ogy for fifteen years, with all the means which I could command. Wherever I have used the works of others it is acknowledged in the text. It is possi- ble that there are omissions of this kind, as I may not always have remem- bered whether myself or another first observed a fact or discovered a princi- ple. All such omissions, if any, are unintentional. It was intended to in- clude a new geological map of the State in this work, but I have not been able to satisfy myself about the accuracy of some of the boundaries of geo- logical formations, and therefore postpone its publication till spring. • I am under obligations to Prof. C. D. Wilber for important suggestions; and to many persons over the State, whom I cannot mention in detail, who have provided me with specimens from their localities. I am also under great obligations to the Burlington & Missouri River Railroad in Nebraska, to the Union Pacific Railroad, to the Atchison & Nebraska Railroad, and to other roads for transportation and other favors. Without the aid thus re- ceived, it would have been impossible to make many of the investigations included in this work. Wherever I have gone in the State I have received all possible help from the people in making geological and other natural his- tory examinations. Hoping that this work will help others to understand, the physical conditions of our State, and stimulate an interest in our natural history, I submit it to the people of Nebraska. SAMUEL AUGHEY. UNIVERSITY OF NERRASKA, January 1st, 1880. 101283 CONTENTS. PART FIRST— PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Chapter. 1'ajrr. I. Topography and General Character of Nebraska ... 3 II. Climatology of Nebraska . . . . . . . .17 III. Moisture and Rainfall 34 IV. Evidences of Increasing Rainfall — Sources of Rainfall . . 41 V. Waters of Nebraska ......... 52 VI. Drainage of Nebraska, and Character of its Water . VII. General Flora of Nebraska VIII. Forest Trees and Shrubs of Nebraska, with Notes on their Dis- tribution 84 IX. The Wild Fruits of Nebraska . 97 X. Wild Grasses 108 XI. Fauna of Nebraska — Vertebrates 117 XII. Insect Life . . . 131 XIII. The Locusts— Mollusks 130 XIV. Healthfulness. — Reserve Forces and Probable Future of the Race in Nebraska . M5 PART SECOND— GEOLOGY. Chapter. I'ajre. I. Carboniferous Age in Nebraska ....... l(jl II. Mediaeval or Me^ozoic Times in Nebraska 173 III. Mediaeval or Mesozoic Times in Nebraska, Continued . . 107 IV. The Cenozoic Age in Nebraska. — Eocene Tertiary Epoch . . 209 V. The Tertiary Period, Continued— Miocene Epoch . . .221 VI. Tertiary Period, Continued — Pliocene Epoch .... 232 VII. Quaternary Age — Glacial Period to the Loess — Superficial De- posits . 252 VIII. The Quaternary Age and Su erficial Deposits, Continued — Loess Period . 2(55 IX. Quaternary Age and Superficial Deposits, Continued. — Terrace Epoch. — Alluvium. — Sand Hills. — Alkali Lands. — Timber, and Cause of Change of Climate . . ... X. Economic Geology Appendix . . . . . . . . . .3.9 PART FIRST. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. TOPOGRAPHY AND GENERAL CHARACTER OF NEBRASKA. Position — Surface— Bottom Lands — Tables of Elevation — Average Ele- vation and Grade— How to gain a Conception of its Topography — Num- ber of Valleys — Exceptional Features of the Niobrara River Region — Sand Hills — Bad Lands. "VTEBRASK A occupies a position near the centre of the Republic. 1 i The parallel of 40° is its southern boundary, and the Missouri River, the Niobrara and the Keya Paha rivers form the Northern boundary as far west as range twenty west of the sixth principal meridian. West of this point the parallel of 43° forms its northern boundary. Its eastern boundary is the Missouri, whose direction here is a little east of south. This brings the southeast corner of the State to the 95° 25' meridian. The 104 meridian west of Green- wich marks its western boundary down to latitude 41°. Below this point a line a few miles west of the 102° meridian constitutes the western boundary of the State. This notch takes out of the southwest corner of the State, 7,300 square miles. Were it not for this offset the State in shape would approximate to a parallelo- gram. The extreme width of the State from north to south is 208.5 miles, and its length from east to west is within a fraction of 413 miles. In area the State approximates closely to 75,995 square miles, or nearly 48,636,800 acres. Taking Ohio, which has an area of 39,964 square miles, as the type of a model sized state, it is seen that Nebraska contains almost twice as much territory. The area of Nebraska is 12,359 square miles larger than all the New England states combined. It contains 20,000 more square miles of territory than Iowa. England and Wales combined have less area by 17,000 square miles than Nebraska. In extent of territory it is an 4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. empire, and yet as we shall see hereafter, few states have really so little waste land as Nebraska. It lies in the same path in which the currents of emigration have been flowing — in the line of the great States of the Union, and must in the nature of things receive their overflow of population. SURFACE OF THE STATE. The surface of Nebraska is exceedingly varied. There are in- deed no elevations that can be dignified with the name of mountains, but in the northern and western parts of the State there are lofty hills of very varied character. Generally the ascent is gentle, though occasionally it is precipitous. Unlike the ridges of the east which are so generally the result of elevations and subsidences of the earth's crust modified by subsequent aqueous agencies, the hills and rolling lands of Nebraska are mostly wholly caused by erosion. In the east the body of hills is mainly made up of massive rocks, here it is partly composed of loosely compacted drift materials, but mainly of Loess. In fact, Nebraska emerged so recently geologically from the waters of the Loess age, that it still exhibits as a whole many of the phenomena of a recently drained lake bed. The gen- tly rolling lands of three-fourths of the State appear very much like the suddenly petrified waves and billows of the ocean. Sometimes extensive stretches of surface are met with that appear to be level, but closer observation shows even these to be gently undulating. From these last mentioned forms to the few isolated sections of lim- ited extent,broken by canyons with precipitous sides, the transition is gradual. Every shade of form and surface connects the two varieties of relief. The BOTTOM LANDS are the most conspicuous modifying feature of the landscape of the State. In crossing the State at rf'ght angles to the direction of the streams, the bottom lands are met with every few miles. They are huge, generally shallow troughs, in breadth proportionate common- ly, to the size of the streams. They range in width from a quarter of a mile on the smaller streams to twenty-three miles on the Platte and the Missouri. They are frequently terraced, and the terraces like broad steps gradually lead to the bordering bluffs which in turn are very varied in height and form. Frequently the low terraces on the bottoms have had their edges so worn away that their charac- ter is concealed. What was once a terrace has become a gentle slope. TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 5 A good example of this character are the slopes on the bottoms be- tween Crete and Beatrice, and between Ashland and Lincoln. The bottoms with their bordering lines of bluffs wind and vary in direc- tion as much as the serpentine movements of the streams them- selves. The bluffs are steepest and roughest on the Missouri, es- pecially towards the north line of the State. On the middle Nio- brara they frequently assume the exceptional character of borders to deep canyons. Even on the Missouri there are very few that cannot be successfully cultivated. Occasionally it is hard to tell where the bottom ceases and the bluffs begin. This is owing betimes to the ter- races that ascend the bluffs, and sometimes to the lowness of the bluffs whose rounded outlines like the sides of a shallow basin merge gradually into the bottom. Sometimes the wind has worn the sides of a bluff into stair like forms. The observer not infrequent- ly meets portions of a bluff standing out in isolated, perpendicular walls like huge battlements. The innumerable tributaries that creep quietly and unexpectedly into the main bottoms compli- cate still further these forms of landscape. The traveler with poe- try and art in his composition is often tempted to ascend a bluff adjoin- ing a valley, which lying at his feet, enables him to trace it as far as the eye can reach. The upland plain on the other side, whose inequal- ities are wavelike, gives a sharply outlined background to the pic- ture of the valley. He is at a loss to which to assign the palm of greatest beauty. The effect is intensified wThen upland and valley are dotted with homesteads and cultivated grounds. The quiet beauty that comes from human industry then blends with the sub- limity of nature. The dominant geometrical form observed in the forms of the sur- face is the curve. The observer never gets outside of curves. They intrude themselves everywhere. They are not uniform mo- notonous curves, but curves infinitely varied. Rarety is a straight line needed to relieve from sameness, but wrhen it is needed it is there. The streams, the terraces, the bluffs, the valleys themselves all follow curves. There are short curves and long curves; regu- lar and irregular curves; infinitely varied, seemingly in confusion, but all full of profound expression — the expression of matchless beauty. " The curve is the line of beauty." Here nature has put forth her best efforts to exemplify this law. No artist has yet suc- cessfully painted Nebraska scenery. It still awaits the master mind who can catch with his artist's eye these superb forms of 6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. quiet beauty and place them on canvass. A remarkable feature is the commonness of beautiful landscapes. Almost every mile along the river valleys affords them. The bottoms along the bluffs at every turn are sculptured with beautiful coves, which, sheltered from wind and storm, afford favorite building spots formany people. ELEVATION OF NEBRASKA. The greater part of Nebraska is a plateau. This will be appar- ent by an examination of the following list of 'elevations above the sea level. For convenience the elevations are given, first in lines running along the Missouri, and then in lines running east and west. Those marked with a star were taken by myself with a barometer and are only proximately correct. Those along the Republican Valley from Orleans westward, were taken by D. N. Smith, Esq., of Burlington, Iowa, and I have reason to believe from observations taken with him that they are proximately cor- rect. The observations in northwestern Nebraska not marked with a star were taken by Captain W. S. Stanton, of the engineer corps, U. S. A. The remaining determinations of heights have been taken from the railroad surveys of the State. The e'evations are in feet. Southeast corner of the State on the bottoms. at the mouth of the Nemaha River *878 Brownville 919 Nebraska City 964 " " at low water of the Missouri 919 Plattsmouth 984 Omaha, U. P. Depot '... 1,056.26 " low water of Missouri 983.26" " high " " " 1,002.26 Blair 1,111 Tekamah *1,040 Decatur '. *1,052 Dakota City *1,069 Ponca *1,178 St. James *1,185 Green Island *1,204 Niobrara *1 ,240 ELEVATIONS NEAR THE SOUTH LINE OF THE STATE. Falls City 904 Beatrice *1,278 Fairbury 1,324 TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 7 Belvidere '. x 509 Red Cloud Bloomington Orleans 2,150 Arapahoe 2,250 Indianola 2,600 Culbertson 2,760 State Line 3 QQQ Head of the Republican in Colorado 4,050 ELEVATIONS ALONG THE LINE OF THE B. & M. R. R. IN NE- BRASKA. Plattsmouth 934 Omaha Junction 1,001 Louisville ', .1,041 South Bend 1,002 Ashland 1,102 Greenwood. 1,141 Waverly 1,137 Lincoln 1,164 Highland 1,429 Crete 1,369 Dorchester 1,502 Fairraount 1,657 Harvard 1,815 Juiiiata 1 ,985 Keiiepaw 2,064 Lowell 2,086 Kearney Junction 2,163 ELEVATIONS ON THE B. & M. R. R. FROM NEBRASKA CITY TO YORK, VIA LINCOLN. Nebraska City 964 Dunbar . . .1,069 Syracuse Palmyra . Bennett.. Cheneys . Lincoln . . ,064 ,154 ,154 ,444 ,164 Woodlawn 1,194 Germantown 1,584 Seward 1,449 York *1,473 ELEVATIONS ON THE LINE OF THE ATCHISON & NEBRASKA RAILROAD. Rulo *887 Falls City 904 8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Salem ; 917 Humboldt 989 Table Rock 1,036 Tecumseh . 1,120 Sterling 1 ,193 Summit 1,375 Lincoln 1 ,1 64 ELEVATIONS ALONG THE LINE OF THE UNION PACIFIC RAIL- ROAD. Omaha, Union Pacific R. R. Depot 1,050 Papillion 1 ,009 Elkhorn. 1,187 Fremont 1,220 Schuyler 1,372 Columbus 1,469 Clarks 1,647 Lone Tree 1,723 Grand Island 1,887 Wood River 2,011 Gibbon 2,083 Kearney 2,143 Elm Creek 2,278 Plum Creek 2,406 Willow Island 2,547 Bradley 2,673 North Platte 2,825 O'Fallon's 3,012 Alkali 3,074 Ogalalla 3,225 Brule 3,301 Julesburg 3,535 Lodge Pole 3,835 Sidney 4,108 Antelope 4,747 Pine Bluffs 5,061 ELEVATIONS ALONG THE LINE OF THE FREMONT, ELKHORN AND MISSOURI VALLEY RAILROAD. Fremont 1,220 Nickerson 1 ,222 Hooper 1,248 Scribner 1,227 Crowell 1,296 West Point 1,337 Wisner 1 ,404 Norfolk * 1 ,428 TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 9 ELEVATIONS ALONG THE NORTH LINE OF THE STATE. Niobrara *1,240 Mouth of Keya Paha , . . .*i,960 Mouth of Snake River *2,690 Camp Sheridan, Old Spotted Tail Agency *3,490 Camp Robinson 3,764 State Line on Cottonwood Creek 3,781 Indian Creek, northwest corner of State 4,013 Scott's Bluffs, thirty miles north of Pine Bluffs *G,051 Clark's Bridge, north of Sidney 3,707 Niobrara River, southeast of Fort Robinson 4,118 White Man's Fork on State Line, south of U. P. R. R 3,188 From the preceding data it is estimated that the eastern half or the State along the line of the Union Pacific Railroad has an average elevation of 1,700 feet, the western half 3,525 feet. The average elevation of the whole line would be 2,612 feet. Along the south line of the State the elevation of the eastern half averages 1,200 feet; the western half 2,672 feet. Along the north line of the State the data given makes the eastern half beginning at Ponca 1,353 above the sea level. The western half averages about the same as that of the line of Union Pacific Railroad. It is proportionately greater along its middle and less along its western portion. This would give an elevation of 2,312 feet for the whole State. This is a much smaller elevation than is usually given for the State, but it is the more accurate because based on elevations along the north and south line, as well as through the centre of the State from the east to west. Estimates heretofore made place the mean elevations at 2,550 feet. For the first one hundred miles west from Omaha the ascent is at the rate of five and a half feet to the mile. The second hundred miles increases the ascent to seven feet ; the third hundred, seven and a half feet, and the fourth hundred to ten and a half feet to the mile. The ascent on the last fifty miles on the west end of the State is eighteen feet to the mile. While these figures are not exact they are close approximations to the truth. The calculation has been made for the line of the Union Pacific Railroad, but the south line of the State differs very little from this. A similar gradual ascent characterizes the northern line of the State. It will be observed that the second and third hundred miles have almost the same gradual ascent. After this the ascent in- creases quite rapidly until it reaches eighteen feet to the mile. The 10 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. increase of elevation going north and west on the eastern boundary of the State along the Missouri is much less. Taking the mouth of the Nemaha as our starting point, whose elevation is 878 feet, and comparing it with the elevation of the Missouri bottom at Omaha, which is 1,002 feet we have a difference of 124 feet, or a rise of one and a fourth feet to the mile. The fall between Omaha and Dako- ta City is even less than this. In western Nebraska the difference in elevation between the south line of the State and the Union Pacific Railroad approxi- mates to 352 feet. On the west line of the State the ascent con- tinues going north until at Scott's Bluffs an elevation of 6,051 feet is reached. Although this is only approximately correct, as I took the observations with a barometer, yet there is little doubt that this is the highest point in the State. From here there is a gradual de- scending slope to the north line of the State with some intervening inequalities and depressions in the valleys of the Niobrara, the White Earth, and Indian Creek. From the Republican River on the West line of the State to Big Springs in the same meridian on the Union Pacific Railroad there is an ascent of 352 feet. From this latter place there is a still further rise of 283 feet to the Niobra- ra River, or a total ascent along this line from south to north of 635 . feet, against a corresponding difference of less than 200 feet along the eastern border of the State. It will also be remembered that the lowest part of the State is its southeast corner, and the highest part is a point north of the Union Pacific Railroad on Scott's Bluffs. Take the State therefore as a whole and it will be seen that it slopes tnainly toward the east and in a minor degree toward the south. The only exception to this rule is the extreme western line of the State, where the Colorado notch has taken from Nebraska territory a section which legitimately should belong to her. Because of this shortening of our southwestern border, Pine Bluffs, the last station of the Union Pacific Railroad in Nebraska is near the south line of the State. From here the ascent toward the north continues only for about thirty-six miles to Scott's Bluffs from which there is a grad- ual descent to Indian Creek near the northwest corner of the State. But eastward from this point the descent is generally south and still more east. As would be expected from such relief forms the great majority of the tributaries of the main streams, except those of the Niobrara, flow towards the southeast. Prof. Wilber has re- marked that lines drawn along the main divides of the State on any TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 11 map would enclose the drainage systems in forms resembling huge oags. The open end representing the mouths or lower ends of the rivers will face the east or southeast. How TO GAIN A CONCEPTION OF NEBRASKA TOPOGRAPHY. Conspicuous as are the valleys of Nebraska no good idea of its topography can be formed by following them exclusively. Thou- sands pass through the Platte Valley from east to west without comprehending the physical features of the State. In fact, I have met many old freighters across the plains who entirely mistook its character, because they had followed mainly the valleys. This, too, is one cause for the misstatements of tourists, who have described Nebraska as a monotonous, level plain. To gain a clear conception then of Nebraska topography, one must cross the valleys and divides nearly at right angles. In do- ing this it will be observed that the most rolling lands generally border the valleys or bottoms. Advancing, the rolling and some- times broken character gradually disappears when the divide is reached which separates the last from the next drainage system. Here the land swells out into a gently undulating plain that varies extremely in extent. The extent of such a divide may be limited to a half mile or may extend for thirty or more miles. These swells or long tongues of undulating lands are found on the divides between nearly all the rivers of the State. Occasionally between the lesser streams a single low bluff, a few hundred feet wide, and only slightly raised above the general level, marks the divide. Among the most conspicuous of these divides are the beautiful up- lands between the Republican and the Platte, between the Platte and the Blue Rivers, and between the forks of the Blue Rivers. Between the Blues and Nemahas, and between the forks of the lat- ter similar divides exist. North of the Platte, conspicuous for their beauty, are the divides between the forks of the Elkhorn, and at the headwaters and between the forks of the Logan, and between the Elkhorn and the Loups. In fact they are met with between most of the streams of the State. Some of these high uplands have great numbers of shallow basin-shaped depressions whose soil and grasses closely resemble those of the bottom lands. They are evi- dently the remains of lakes that until recently occupied their sites. Indeed some of them still retain this character, being filled with water the whole year round, varying from one to ten feet in depth. 12 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Between these last and swamps and bogs, every kind of transition form is found. Fillmore, Clay, York, Hamilton, Franklin, Phillips and Wayne Counties have a notable number of these old lake beds. NUMBER OF NEBRASKA VALLEYS. Nothing is more surprising to one who studies the relief forms of the State than the amazing number of valleys or bottom lands. Some writers have stated that there were several hundred. It would have been more correct to have reported several thousand. Take the region of the Republican as an example. On an average a tributary valley comes into the main bottom from the north side every two miles. Now as this river flows for two hundred miles through the State, it would give one hundred for this section alone. Counting, however, the streams that come in from the south side, and those flowing into its larger tributaries, this number should be multiplied by at least four, giving four hundred valleys great and small for this region alone. Now add to these valleys those that are tributary to the Platte, the Blues, the Nemahas, the Elkhorns, the Logan, the Bows, the Missouri between its larger tributaries, the Niobrara and the Loups, and it will increase the number to thousands. It is true that many of them are narrow, ranging from one fourth to a mile in width, but still they are valleys with living or extinct stream beds in the middle or towards one side of them,' and having all the physical features of the larger river bottoms. As already intimated there are a few minor valleys among the smaller tributaries of the upper Elkhorns, Bazile, Loups, Niobra- ra and Republican, in the stream beds of which the water no long- er flows, but as will be shown further on many of them are regain- ing, and all of them will in time, their former supply of water. Thus can be seen why over the larger part of Nebraska the settler can have his choice between bottom and upland. The great body of these bottom lands, though composed of the richest mould and modified alluvium and Loess materials are perfectly dry. It is true that swamps are occasionally met with, but they occur at long in- tervals and are the exception. No one can gain any idea of the number of these bottom lands by looking at a map. Neither can they ^be found on the plats of the government surveys, though in the latter they are more fully given than in the former. In fact, counting in the small tributaries with their narrow bottoms, not less than twenty-five per cent of the TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 13 entire surface of the State is made up of bottom lands. This is a higher estimate than I formerly made, but I have come to it by in- creased study of the physical features of the State. EXCEPTIONAL FEATURES OF THE NIOBRARA RIVER REGION. The Niobrara River is the least known of all the drainage sys- tems of the State. It deserves to be better known, and in the near future will be visited and studied by the geologist and the artist. It holds concealed many unrevealed wonders for the student of na- ture and of art. For the first ninety miles from its mouth the Niobrara is not greatly different from other Nebraska rivers, save in the exception- al rapidity of its current, and its sandy flats and numerous islands. Its bottom is also narrower in proportion to the size of the river than other streams of the State. In going up the valley it is observed to change rapidly at about longitude 99° 20'. The bluffs contract and become lofty. In fact, the river here flows through a deep canyon. It retains this charac- ter for the next 180 miles or to about longitude 102°. The sides of the canyon are often three hundred and sometimes four hundred feet high. The walls are mostly composed of silicious, and yellowish, whitish and calcareous rocks. They are often capped with a hard grit which preserves their vertical character, and often causes them to be undermined and assume an umbrella form. In this cany on re- gion it is next to impossible to follow along the immediate banks of the river, owing to the numerous isolated buttes and walls that rise perpendicularly from near the water's edge, making walls across the line of travel hundreds of feet high. No indication of the river's existence is here given in approaching it from either side, except by the trees that sometimes rear their tops above the canyon, and which grow near the water's edge. The sides of the canyon are worn into innumerable labyrinths by the numberless springs that have been, like the main river, chiseling the rocks for ages. These lateral canyons are exceedingly mazy in their windings. Nowhere else have I ever seen such cool, clear, strong and sparkling springs as here abound. Their number is astonishing. They are met with in places for miles every few hundred feet or yards. At the lower end of this canyon region the rocks are of cretaceous age. Towards the west end the cretaceous becomes covered with tertiary rocks. Vegetation in the canyons of the Niobrara is 14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. prolific. In places pines and cedars abound. Near the east end of the canyon region the oak,ash, cottonwood and elm, and occasionally box elder are intermingled with pines — which sometimes, however, are entirely wanting. Grass, too, is abundant. Here formerly was the paradise for elk, deer and antelope, wolves and foxes. Food and shelter, the agencies most important to preserve brute life was spe- cially abundant. No wonder that the Indian tenaciously clung to this region. Here the chase always supplied him with abundance of food. To him it was also consecrated ground. Here in the laby- rinthine canyons among the trees, druid like, with the light of the sun shut out, he communed with the shades of his ancestors. Here he heard as he did nowhere else the voice of the Great Spirit in the rustle of the leaves and the sighing of the winds. Where the river enters the canyon it is about eighty-two yards wide. It narrows towards its source, and before the west line of the State is reached it is reduced in breadth to ten or fifteen feet. The water, however, is remarkably clear and cool. Above the canyon the valley is well covered with grass and a great abundance of rushes. Wood, however, in this part of its course is rare. A large part of the entire middle portion of the Niobrara River, as first observed by General Warren, flows lengthwise of an anti- clinal ridge. In the canyons, for example, the rocks dip away from the river on each side. In places where I had opportunity to measure the angle their inclination away from the stream amounted to from ten to fifteen degrees. It is probable that the river has been outlined only since the close of the submergence that attended the gla- cial age. Flowing along this anticlinal ridge when it first emerged it has continued in its old rut as the continent was rising, cutting down its bed about as rapidly as the uplifting took place. It is probably a continuation of some uplift and break eastward from the mountains similar to the one seen near Camp Robinson. Over a portion of the western end of the Niobrara River this anticlinal ridge on top of which it flows is not visible. The cutting of the river still continues, but its rate is uncertain but probably about a foot to the century. As would be expected the tributaries of the Niobrara that flow into it from the north or south are very short. The larger ones in- variably flow parallel or nearly so to it. The Keya Paha and Snake River are the most conspicuous instances. I have no doubt that hereafter it will be found that the Keya Paha occupies a TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 15 depression beyond the anticlinal ridge along which the Niobrara flows. In the canyon region, in going to the Niobrara,when within twelve or fifteen miles of it I invariably found myself going up hill. It was rarely sensible to the eye, but the barometer noted it distinctly. When the river was reached it lay from one hundred and fifty to four hundred feet below. On the north side it was again down hill for a short distance. Some of the head waters of the Loup originate close to the Niobrara, because of this ridge on top of which it flows. This makes it impossible to drain much of the country from the south. For the exceptional meteorological conditions here the reader is referred to Chapter III. SAND HILLS. South of the valley of the Niobrara and its canyons, and com- mencing about longitude 100° are the far famed Sand Hills. The sands of these hills are partially moveable. Where they monopo- lize the ground travel is difficult, both because of the inequalities of the ground and their shifting character. They vary in height from a few yards to several hundred feet. Their shape approximates the conical form. A curious character of these hills is the conical depression so frequently found on or near their summits which are made by the winds. Many of these have the form of craters. Sometimes these crater-like excavations occur on the sides of the sand hills. Indeed almost every kind of wind sculpturing occurs among them, and the observer is surprised at every step at the strange forms that meet him. It is a fine field for the study of the opposite effects on landscape of wind and water agencies. Such crater-like holes freshly formed are destitute of vegetation. Form- erly these " barren holes " were abundant in the sand hill regions. Now the great body of them are grown over with grass, and new ones in process of forming are only met with at longer intervals* But by no means is so large an extent of country covered by them as is sometimes represented. In going southward from the Nio- brara after wandering among the sand hills for ten or fifteen miles they, are found often suddenly to cease, and a grass-covered prairie of great richness to take their place. There are also extensive sand hills at the head of the Loups. Between these sections there is generally a gently rolling prairie with occasional sand hills dotted over them. There are also sand hills south of the Platte from Kearney eastward several miles in width, and on the upper Repub- 16 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. lican. The character and origin of these sand hills will be dis- cussed in the chapter on the superficial geology of the State. Suffice it here to say that these sand hills are being covered by the increas- ing rainfall of the State with nutritious grasses, and are becoming fine grazing grounds. While principally composed of sand they also contain a large amount of potash, soda and lime, and these fertilizers start vegetation as soon as there is a sufficiency of moisture. BAD LANDS. The bad lands run into northwestern Nebraska, but cover a very limited area mainly beyond the White River. They are made up of indurated sands, clays and marl, and occasional layers of thin hard rock. They have been cut up into deep canyons and ravines by atmospheric agencies. The sides, until the talus at the bottom is reached, are often vertical and sometimes capped at the top with a hard rock that projects beyond the sides. Often without a parti- cle of vegetation the isolated cones, columns and peaks look in the distance like towers, pyramids, cathedrals and obelisks, resembling the ruins of the eld cities of the Orient. The geological age and the character of the fossil plants and animals will be discussed in the chapter on the Tertiary Age. CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 17 CHAPTER II. CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. Temperature— Tables of Temperature— Mean Temperature of Summer, Winter and Spring— Bulletins— Autumns— Mean Temperature of the Year- Extremes of Temperature— Winds— Storms of Winter— Purity of the atmos- phere— Ozone. THE factors that enter into the determination of climate are tem- perature, forms of relief, condition of the atmosphere, geo- graphical position and rainfall. Before giving the characteristics of the climate of Nebraska, it is important to look at the most im- portant facts that produce them. For this purpose the following meteorlogical tables are introduced. TEMPERATURE. There has been much misapprehension about the temperature of Nebraska. Sometimes it has been represented as possessing a semi-arctic climate; and again that its summers are of a torrid char- acter. To show the real facts in the case, the following tables of daily temperatures for a year are given from the reports of the Sig- nal Service. The stations are on the U. P. R. R., three hundred miles apart, and approximate closely to the mean temperature for the whole State. In addition to the tables of the Signal Service, no exhibit would be complete without the results obtained by Dr. A. S. Childs, of Plattsmouth, one of the most careful, conscientious and accurate scientific observers in any country. He has been constantly report- ing, first for the Smithsonian and then for the Signal Service, since 1 866. Prior to that year he had also been reporting at intervals. The tables prepared by him follow these twro from the Signal Service. 18 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. •UTK •XBK S! M ~-UJK e?3S£3S3Scig8$S33Sg3$3§u!SS33:$33Ss' — \ S5 •UIK -*i 8 "£ 'UTW «^""fHco^w^NiH^MWcococoeise«-*cUit>.esCSf— (•*J*CD^fCOOiC^t>-<^'^l^-<^CO»O-*Tt<-^«W^T«'^T»^e^C<5«( tf t* CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. S^*osC t»^ t« »-H*oot--^'>»-»f'v»o 5 ? S S 7 »3 3 3 3 «e » 6 • '"IK . Z to « « 9 9 9 •• M» 4> ^i ss 20 PHYSIC A I, GEOGRAPHY. ON 00 S 00 I i t« « o c 0) OS |M 3 S 8 H 1 S 7° 35 55 6 14 13 17 9 55 2.65 31.31 1868 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 20 83° 61 53° 75 13° 47 00° 4,-S 84° 1 27.20 2 85 14 55 14 36 6 15 37.85 1869 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 21 61° 47 75° 72 44° 45 10° 47 42° 39 00 5 85 9 60 24 55 7.35 47.35 1870 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 22 14° 46 17° 70 00° 47.64° 46 61° 22 00 4 60 9 50 9.10 8 90 32.10 1871 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 22 28° 49 5-z° 71.97° 42 94° 46 82" 18 00 2.25 4.60 19.70 5.70 32.25 1872 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 22 "81° 37 80° 74.22° 47 71° 45.69° 12 80 1.85 7.70 13 00 8 80 31.35 1H73 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 17 75° 46 92° 76 22° 48 79° 47.58° 10 06 4 30 35 50 12 20 7.45 49 45 1874 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 20.88° 48 13° 78 50° 51 13° 49.81° J>8 35 3 80 9 75 20 52 15 04 49 11 1875 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 15 06° 45 55° 71 67° 47 31° 45.09° 29 26 2 08 12.48 28 70 6.96 50. t -2 1876 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 29.17° 47.77" 72 89° 46 73° 49 20° 22 00 2.10 10 35 20 41 9.88 42.74 1877 WTinter. Spring. S 'miner. Fall. 22 95° 47 23° 70 88° 49 69° 47.77° 23 30 1.81 14 46 18 17 11 18 40.62 1878 Winter. Spring. Summer. Fall. 33.18° 52 73° 72 85° 51 98° 52 64° 17 60 3 57 12 64 22 48 4 78 53 87 1879 Winter. Spring. 21 84° 52 98° 22.45 1.89 10 26 The winter season in the above table includes December, January and February. Spring, the next three, &c. 22 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. TABLE « C." Gives the date of each day, from 1861 to 1876, inclusive, on which the mercury of the thermometer has fallen below zero, as also the degree. December being taken as the first month of the succeeding civil year. The usual sign — denoting below zero. TABLE C. 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 Jan20 -20 Dec23 - 6 Jan 16 -10 21 -24! 27-3 Feb 2 -10 Nov27 - 2 NOY22 - 2 28-9 Dec 7-6 Dec 5 -10 Decll'- 1 12 - 6 Jan 1-8 NOY 9 - 7 Jan 6-8 23-3 Jan 9-8 5-5 29-4 8 -16 13 -20 6-2 7-2 24-6: 11 - » Decl4 - 4 9-7 14 -16 9-3 8-6 25 -13 12 -13 30 - 2 *10 -10 15 -15 21-3 9-6 27 -12 13 -1.2 31 -24 11 -14 16 -10 26-4 11-6 31-6 14-7 Jaii 1 --33 Jan 22 - 1 21 -18 27 -10 12-4 Feb 7-7 15-8 2 -151 24 -10 22 -30 29 - 1 15 -19 8-3 17 -17 3-5 25 -10 28-8 Feb 8-8 16 -26 18-2 4-4 26 -10 Jan 1(5 ~:5 9 -1C 17 -25 30-7 5 -10 27-7 17 -It; 2;> - 4 18 -13 6 -15 28 -10 18 -1? 21 -1( 20 - 8 7 -32 Mar 2 - 5| 19 - 8 23 - x 21-8 8-6 4 61 20 -;; ''4 - \ 24 - :$ 9-8 9 -17 21 - . Mar •> - \ 27 -16 11 -10 24 - i 13 -:0 29 -15 Feb 4 -.0 14 - 9 31 - 8 12 -M 16 - 1 Feb J - 5 14 -IX 17 - 1 ti -12 15 -K 24 -4 8 - r> 16 - f 9 -22 Marl.' - 1!) -12 11-3 28 -10 •December 10th, 1865, David Jardine Iro/e to Deaih. T1.BLE C.— (Continued.) 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 Dec 8 - 9 9-8 Jan 8 - 7 16-4 Dec21 - 4 22 -11 Nov29 - 6 Dec 3-6 Nov27 - 4 28 - 1 Dec 3-1 20-7 Dec.28 - 3 29 -10 Nov^l - 1 29 - 7 10 -14 17-7 23 -16 4 -12 29-5 Jan 4-3 Jan 2-5 Decl7 - 8 11 -30 18 -13 24-9 19-1 Dec 9 - 3 14-6 3-1 JsnlO - 2 23 - 5Febl9 - 8 26-3 20-1 16 - 1 15 -10 4 -10 Feb 1 -12 24 - 8| 20 -12 Jan 13-9 25-6 20-5 23 -9 5 -18 3 - 1 Jan25 - 2 Mar 8-2 14-4 26-4 21 -20 24 -14 6-8 4-3 Feb 4 -10 14-5 17-4 Jan 23 -10 23 -20 Feb 9 - 1 8 -19 Mar20 - 4 22-1 15 -11 18-7 24-2 24 -16 23-4 9 -21 27-7 Feb 9-7 25-6 25 - 3 24-6 10-9 Mar 4-2 10-2 27 - 5 26-8 12 -11 6-5 12 -10 28 -111 27-10 13 -20 15 - 4 13 - 3 31 -12!Jan 8-3 14 -19 Febl2 - 1 9-9 15 -10 13 - 6 10 14; 16-1 14-5 16 - 8 18-7 17 -17 30 - 3 18-7 31 -10 * ^4-7 Feb 2-4 27 - 8 3 -12 28 -23 4 -21 29 -14 6-6 31 - 7 7-7 Feb 1 -10 8-2 2-4 9-2 20-3 15 - 1 22 - 4 17-9 23-2 25-7 Mar 3-4 27 - 1 Mar 3-3 In these sixteen years only twice as low as 32*and four times to 30*. CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 23 During the same period of 19 years, embraced in table "C," the mercury has risen to 100° and upwards as follows: 1857. July 15, 102°, August 5, 100°, August 13, 101°. 1859. July 14, 101°. 1860. July 15, 100°, July 20, 104°, July 24, 100°. 1861. August 3, 100°, August 4, 104°, August 5, 104°. 1866. July 23, 100°, August 6, 101°. 1868. July 18, 100°, 20, 106°, 21, 100°, 28, 101°. 1873. August 30, 101°. 1874. July 7, 102°, 8, 105°, 14, 103°, 18, 100°, 23, 104°, 24, 107°, 25, 113», 31, 110°, August 9, 100°, 10, 111°, 19, 100°, 21, 102°. Dr. Childs' remarks of the above last two months "that the heat was unparalleled on any record made in the United States." During this period of nineteen years eleven have passed without raising the mercury to 100 degrees. The force or velocity of the wind is now generally rated on a scale of 10, as follows: 1 . Indicates a very light breeze of 2 miles an hour. 2. Indicates a very gentle breeze of 4 miles an hour. 3. Indicates a very fresh breeze of 12 miles an hour. 4. Indicates a very strong wind of 25 miles an hour. 5. Indicates a very high wind of 35 miles an hour. 6. Indicates a gale of 45 miles an hour. 7. Indicates a very strong gale of 60 miles an hour. 8. Indicates a very violent gale of 75 miles an hour. 9. Indicates a hurricane of 90 miles an hour. 10. Indicates a most violent hurricane of 100 miles an hour. This velocity is measured and registered by rather a costly in- strument named an anemometer. Without an anemometer, the observer notes the direction from which the wind comes, and estimates its force as i, 2, 3, and 6. This observation and record is made three times a day — the same as with other meteorological instruments. In table "D," I give a sum- mary of these observations for the year 1874. 24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. TABLE "D." Direction and force of wind for the year 1874. N. NE. E. SE. S. SW. W. NW. Total. Dec. 1873 Jan. 1874 14 14 2 6 3 3 fi n 11 14 •2 25 88 l»6 135 February. 21 7 5 19 17 10 19 105 March 30 23 g 28 13 20 If; 12 159 April 13 30 6 53 23 8 " n 19 Ih8 May 4 14 4 64 68 ^ 15 182 June o 2 5 59 (53 10 g 13 160 July ... g 6 27 26 74 15 10 172 August 21 6 55 37 26 7 1 4 157 September. 14 5 16 28 17 25 9 20 134 October 6 4 12 11 33 20 •>5 128 25 2 6 5 43 22 7 31 141 Total 170 107 150 349 454 165 118 220 1733 By exchanging the totals of March and April, as also by trans- ferring 50 from the total of south, to the total of north, and this gives nearly the mean of ten years past. Tables "A," «B," "C" and «D," are all from Dr. Childs. The following table of the direction and force of the wind is t.iken from the report of the Signal Service. It shows how many times the wind blew from the eight cardinal points, from July, 1877, to July, 1878. Station. Wind :_ I I 1 G 1 g | be V | s C w >? Si 2 I £ Q) 5 | I Z* w 1» •5 3 9 3 1 w O 1 ft I I 1 ft 2 £ ft CO p 3 00 fl I r N. 13 14 11 31 21 22 3fi 33 19 18 14 12 51 39 63 81 N.W. 13 17 12 14 23 18 22 10 18 19 19 17 56 47 49 50 W. 3 1 4 5 2 4 6 0 6 7 2 20 6 11 10 S. W. 6 3 6 3 1 6 4 1 5 S 4 4 17 13 10 11 Omaha 4 8. S. E 40 12 24 19 38 12 18 15 22 9 24 12 24 4 23 5 17 13 8 9 11 17 21 16 39 85 47 78 36 71 21 E. 2 7 2 2 6 2 8 3 3 8 19 6 30 15 10 8 -.- | N.E. 3 3 1 2 4 0 2 1 4 11 10 4 25 10 7 3 Calm. 1 4 4 3 2 5 2 8 R 2 2 8 12 13 9 15 I Blank 9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 N. 9 7 6 7 5 12 5 11 1 2 8 8 16 24 18 28 N.W. 5 15 14 34 34 28 47 23 39 29 33 17 101 37 82 98 W. 5 2 8 8 16 19 12 12 11 3 3 21 10 32 43 S. W. 5 5 6 6 4 4 4 5 0 nl 0 3 7 13 16 13 NorthPlatte- S. S. E. 35 12 21 19 10 18 4 5 11 4 5 5 7 9 10 7 11 10 6 11 5 13 14 23 22 34 70 54 25 27 22 21 E. 9 12 8 7 5 10 3 3 11 11 18 7 40 28 20 16 N.E. 11 11 19 19 9 8 4 11 9 12 12 14 33 36 47 23 ICalm. 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 2 4 6 6 Blank 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 25 MEAN TEMPERATURE OF SUMMER. From the preceding tables it will b« seen that the average mean temperature of the summer months, that is of June, July and Aug- ust, in Eastern Nebraska, is between 72° and 74°; or, more accu- rately, close to 73°. At North Platte it averages slightly higher. Now, the summer isotherm of 72° starts about one-third of the distance north of the south line of New Jersey, runs northwest till it strikes the Appalachians in Pennsylvania, then goes south and west, appearing again a little south of the east edge of Ohio, and from there keeps a westerly direction until it strikes the Mis- souri near Sioux City. There it follows the Missouri around its big bend in Northeastern Nebraska and into Dakota Territory, until it reaches almost to the 46th parallel. From this last point it again moves a little south of west, passing through a small cor- ner of Northwestern Nebraska, and thence on to Fort Laramie, and thence southward, mainly near to or along the foothills, until the loftier regions of Mexico are reached. The summer isotherm of 76° is almost parallel with the last, passing through Northern Kansas, but not reaching the State line. Included between these two isotherms is a large part of Southern New Jersey, Southern Pennsylvania, the southern half of Ohio, a«d the greater part of Indiana and Illinois, the southern half of Iowa, and the whole of Nebraska except a very small patch in the northwestern corner of the State. Kentucky, Vir- ginia, Maryland and Delaware are also necessarily included be- tween these isotherms. Nebraska, therefore, has a mean summer temperature considerably higher than States in the East in the same latitudes. There are some advantages in this high summer temperature, particularly in fruit culture. It is well known, for example, that some of the finest grapes only mature where the summer temperature is from 68° to 72°. Our fine soils and nat- ural drainage, therefore, would be without avail were it not that these conditions are complemented by a high mean summer tem- perature. THE MEAN WINTER TEMPERATURE. The winter months are regarded as embracing December, Jan- uary and February. The mean isochimal, or line of equal mean temperature of 20°, according to the Smithsonian Reports, includes the south half of the State, and the northeastern portion as far as 26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. one hundred miles west of the Missouri. This line enters the State near its northwest corner, and then passing southeast, and then in an easterly direction, slightly north of a line half way be- tween the Platte and the north line of the State until it reaches within about one hundred miles of the Missouri. It then makes an angle, turning to the northwest, and mainly keeping that direc- tion until it strikes the mouth of the White Earth River. Cross- ing Northern Iowa, it strikes the northwest corner of Illinois, then turns northeast to Green Bay, and thence to the coast by way of the Straits of Mackinaw. From this it appears that all of Ne- braska, except the small part north and west of the line just de- scribed, has an average temperature like Northern Illinois and Ohio. The portion north and west of the line described has a mean winter temperature slightly lower, if the Smithsonian data can be trusted. The number of observations, however, on which this isochimal line was based through Northern Nebraska were no- toriously few and imperfect. My own conviction is that future, more perfect data will assign the whole of Northern Nebraska to at least the isochimal line of 20°. MEAN TEMPERATURE AND CHARACTER OF SPRING. The next season of greatest interest is that of spring. What in other words is the mean temperature of March, April and May ? The best exhibit of the spring temperature is found in Dr. Childs' table, " B." From that it is seen that the mean temperature of spring for the last ten years was 47°, 47'. The reports of the Signal Offices at Omaha and North Platte do not differ materially from this determination. The Nebraska Weather Service, inaug- urated first by Prof. Bailey, and now conducted by Prof. Thomp- son, Superintendent of Public Instruction, gives the following bulletins for the spring months confirmatory of the above, with additional facts of great importance : Bulletin for March. — " Highest temperature recorded, 92° at Palmyra, at 2 p. M., on the 2yth; lowest 21°, at Desota, on the 1 4th. Average noon observations for the whole State, 52°. Low est noon temperature 15°, on the ist. Highest noon temperature 92°, on the 27th. Average of all the observations gives the tern perature of the ist at 20°, and of the 2yth at 86°. Four stations report over an inch of rainfall, viz.: Weeping Water, 1.25 of an CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 27 inch; Sterling, 1.08; Desota, 1.43; Logan Valley, 1.04. Average of all stations east of 6th principal meridian, ^ of an inch. West of that line, i-io of an inch. March, 1878, had more than three times that amount. Wild geese first seen in Cedar County on the 4th, at Kearney on the yth. Adder's tongue in bloom at Table Rock on the 3Oth. Meadow larks seen at Logan Valley in Cedar County on the 23d; plover and curlew on the 25th. Prevailing winds of the month from the northwest and westerly points, but considerable also from the southeast." S. R. THOMPSON, Director. Bulletin for April, 1879: — " Highest noon temperature re- ported from several stations, 84°; lowest, 29°, at Logan Valley, Cedar County. Noon observations average 60°. Rainfall for all stations east of 6th principal meridian average 2 inches; west of that line 2^/3 inches. Minden Station reports 9.93 inches. As there may be some mistake about this, it is not included in the averages. Rain- fall of April, '79, almost the same as April '78 It seemed drier this year because at the beginning of April, 1878, the ground was very moist, while in 1879 it was comparatively dry. Prevailing winds from southeast. Plums in bloom on the loth, in the north part of the State; peaches on i9th; apple trees on 23d. Box elders in leaf on 28th. Vegetation several weeks later than last year." S. R. THOMPSON, Director. Bulletin for June, 1879: — Temperature — The highest noon temperature was 100°, reported at Humboldt, Richardson County. The highest at no station was less than 87° ; generally it was above 90°. The lowest was 50° reported from Weeping Water. The gen- eral report averaged about 60° for the lowest noon observation. Light frost on the night of the ist, at Inavale, Webster County, also at Kearney on night of the 2d. Rainfall — During first ten days of the month the rainfall was very slight; from many stations none at all are reported. During the two last decades — ten days — the rainfall was abundant and evenly distributed. The average of all stations reported east of the sixth principal meridian is 4.88 inches, and for all west of that line 5.46 inches. The greatest fall reported at any one station east was at Mission Creek, Pawnee County, being 8.25 inches, and the smallest amount reported was at Palmyra, Otoe County, it being 28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3.07. The largest fall reported west was at Minden, Kearney County, which was 10.30 inches, and the smallest fall was near Genoa, Platte County, it being 3.25 inches. The average for the State was just 5 inches. Prevailing winds were from the south and southeast. June loth a severe storm reported from Inavale; high wind with hail and rain; injuring crops and destroying buildings. Storm of June 25th was severe in many parts of the State, the wind doing some damage to buildings and beating down the corn. Crops — General reports very encouraging. Wheat damaged in some localities by chinch bugs. S. R. THOMPSON, Director. From the preceding bulletins the general character of the spring months can be determined. March is often characterized, as else- where, by frequently changing winds and sudden rises and falls of temperature. Pleasant weather sets in in April. The genial sun- shine and the bursting into life of the vegetable kingdom in this stimulating climate renders this a most inspiring season. AUTUMNS. Nothing in the Nebraska climate is more notable than its pe- culiar, long, mild, dry autumns. It can be seen from Dr. Childs' exhibit that the average temperature for the ten years end- ing with 1875, for September was 62° 20', and for October 50° 64', and for November 35° 61'. The average for the entire three months for the ten years ending in 1875 is 49° 49'. The signal service reports the temperature at Omaha for September, 1878, as 66° 6', and for October, 51° i', and at North Platte for the same year, for September, 64° 6', and for October 44° 6\ It will also be observed that excessive rains seldom fall during these months. The autumns are therefore exceedingly mild and long. Some- times there is a short rough spell in October, but almost univer- sally it is followed by mild weather which is often prolonged into December, and has been known to last till January. These long "Indian Summers" are here, even more than elsewhere characterized by a curious haze which mellows the light of the sun. It has the curious effect on "high strung" natures of rousing the poetic sensibilities, and giving the weird shadowy experi- ences of dream land. It is a most favorable season for toil, mental and physical. The numberless things to be done on the farm become, during this season, almost a pastime to the agriculturist. Existence to a healthy body now is a pleasure and toil a delight. CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 29 MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THE WHOLE YEAR. The mean temperature of the whole year in Nebraska, not- withstanding the extreme cold of winter, is remarkably high. The mean yearly isotherm of55°, for example, which passes through Washington, D. C., Cincinnati, and southern Iowa, strikes the Missouri River a little south of Nebraska City, and then moving a little north of west crosses the Platte near Columbus, and thence in a northwesterly direction across the State. This mean annual isotherm therefore embraces over one-half of the State. The mean yearly isotherm of 52^° which passes through Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, crossing the centre of Iowa diagonally, strikes the Missouri River above Sioux City, thence following the river for some distance takes in the whole of Nebraska not included in the yearly isotherm of 55°. The yearly isotherm of 57^° passes south of Nebraska. A portion of south- ern and southwestern Nebraska is therefore included between the yearly isotherms of 571^° and 55° and the balance between 55° and 52^°. EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE. In Dr. Childs' record (Table) ofnineteen years the mercury rose to 100° F., and upwards, twenty-nine times, or on an av- erage a little more than a day and a half a year. The hot- test year was that of 1874, when in July and August, the thermometer rose to 100° and upwards on twelve different days. On July I3th it rose to 113°, it being the hottest day accord- ing to Dr. Childs' record, in nineteen years. In table C, it will be seen how many days during the time from 1 86 1 to 1876, the mercury fell below zero. It will also be seen from this record that while the mean temperature of Nebraska is high for a region in these latitudes, its extremes are great. And yet no acute suffering or other ill consequences flow from it. As we will hereafter see, the heat of summer is modified by the breezes that fan the land. On the other hand, the severe cold of the extreme days of winter are made endurable by the dry ness of the atmos- phere. The dryness is so great and potent that the cold is not felt here more when the thermometer marks twenty degrees below than it is in Pennsylvania when only at zero. The reason of this is well understood. It is moisture that intensifies the sensation of chilliness. Every one knows the meaning of a drizzly, chilly day. It is because the atmosphere in the east is more filled with moisture 30 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. that makes the sensation and effect of cold so much more severe there than here. It is owing to this fact also that a temperature which is fatal to fruit buds in the east has no effect on them here. THE WINDS OF NEBRASKA. The atmosphere is rarely quiescent in Nebraska. While hur- ricanes are very rare, storms are more frequent in winter, and gentle zephyrs and winds are almost constant. These great- ly modify the heat of summer and the cold of winter. When the thermometer is up among the nineties, even a south or southwest wind makes the weather endurable. At this high temperature the atmosphere is almost certain to be in per- ceptible motion from some direction. By reference to table D of Dr. Childs' and the report of the U. S. Signal Office on winds, it will be seen that the prevailing winds in the winter are from the north and northwest. With the coming of Spring there is a great change in this respect. The winds veer around and a strong cur- rent sets in from the south, blowing from the Gulf of Mexico, but entering the interior is deflected by the earth's motion and becomes a southwest wind. This remains the prevailing wind during the whole of summer, and often until late in autumn. It sometimes happens that this southwest wind commences to blow during the coldest days of winter, when the curious phenomenon is observed of snow melting when the thermometer is at, a little above, or even below zero. This of course is caused by the temperature of the coming current of air being much higher than that of the place. This character of north and northwest winds in winter, and south and southwest winds in summer, with some local exceptions is the dominant character of the atmospheric movements between the Mississippi and the mountains, and the gulf to an unknown dis- tance north. THE STORMS OF WINTER. From no cause has Nebraska, in company with Iowa and Kansas suffered more in popular estimation than from the re- puted severity and frequency of its storms. And yet they occur at comparatively long intervals. During one-half the years none 'are experienced of any severity, and when they do come the laws that govern their occurrence are so well understood by at least the older citizens of the State that little damage is suffered from them. One of the laws of their occurrence is their periodicity. When the first one of the season comes whether it is, CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 31 in November, December or January, a similar one is almost sure to occur within a few days of a month from the first. Those whose necessities therefore or business calls them out during the winter season need only note the date of the first to know when to guard against the next. It is rare, however, that more than one of these periodical storms is of great severity. When the storms commence they are rarely heralded by any- thing except areas of low barometer. Even this warning is some- times absent. The wind generally blows gently at first from the north, northeast or northwest. It is often preceded and accompa- nied by a fall of fine snow. Sometimes the storm of wind does not commence till the snowfall has ceased. The wind gradually increases in intensity, accompanied by a falling thermometer. Its violence increases until the snow is blown into huge drifts, and sometimes all that fell during several days seems mingled with the atmosphere, so that it is impossible to recognize roads, or even the points of the compass. Progression becomes impossible except in the same direction with the wind. This is an extreme case, but a truthful one, and fortunately of rare occurrence. Such storms last from one to three. days, and a few instances are on record where they have lasted five days. When the wind ceases to blow the thermometer reaches its lowest point, and the intensest cold that occurs in these latitudes is experienced. In a few days the ther- mometer rises, the weather becomes moderate and pleasant, and all about the storm is apt to be forgotten. So mild does the weather often become in December and January between these storms, that men work in the open air in their shirt-sleeves. This is what often deceives the unwary, and especially new comers. I have known men, starting off in new settlements for loads of woodr going in their shirt-sleeves with a single coat in reserve in the wagon, to be caught in such storms, and losing their way, to per- ish. Proper observation and care as we have seen would avoid such suffering and disaster. Notwithstanding, however, these storms of winter, there are many more days here during winter when men can work comfortably in the open air than in the East. CLEARNESS AND PURITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE. A number of circumstances combine to make the atmosphere of Nebraska exceptionally pure and clear. Its mean elevation of 2,312 feet above the sea, its general slope towards the east and 32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. south, its distance from the sea, the constant motion of its atmos- phere, the general character of its finely silicious soil and perfect natural drainage, and its general freedom from swamps, bogs and sloughs, all combine to give the State the purest possible atmos- phere. Its constant breezes sweep away or mingle with the gen- eral current of the atmosphere such impurities as may have been generated from any cause. Only during the Indian summer of autumn is there a haze that obscures distant objects. Fogs seldom occur. It is remarkable at how great a distance' objects can usually be seen. Often when a bluff is ascended the larger limbs of a tree can be counted from eight to twelve miles distant. Objects univer- sally appear to be much nearer than they really are, to strangers coming from the East. I have sometimes been amused to see them going through the same experience that befell me during my first residence here — the experience of shooting at prairie chickens when they were a quarter of a mile off, under the supposition ^that they were close by. Only gradually does the eye get accustomed to measure distances in such a clear and rare atmosphere. In fact, judging from the European meteorological reports, the atmosphere of Nebraska is as clear, and much purer, than trje far-famed skies of Italy and Greece. Owing to this pureness of the atmosphere, clouds, when formed, are exceptionally clearly out lined. They stand out as most con- spicuous objects in the sky. Nothing can surpass their evening or morning splendors. The sunsets are remarkable for the brightness and variety of their coloring. I have seen many magnificent sun- sets in the mountains, but never anything to compare for extent, coloring, form and grandeur, with those that so often occur on the rolling prairies of Nebraska. Another prominent feature of the Nebraska atmosphere is the allotropic form, called ozone, that oxygen so constantly assumes. The amount of this in the atmosphere is very much greater than in the East. During 1869 and 1870, while engaged almost con- stantly in traveling and exploring over Northern Nebraska, I car- ried with me much of the time the so-called Shoenbein test papers.* These turned blue in a short time when exposed, thus indicating the presence of ozone in the atmosphere. This rarely occurs in the East, and even but slightly after a thunder-storm. Many other *Paper moistened with a solution of potassium iodide and starch, and kept until wanted for use, in a tightly-stoppered bottle. CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 33 experiments were made, all indicating that the atmosphere was exceptionally rich in ozone. The cause of this condition of our atmosphere is probably two- fold. First, it is due to the comparative dryness of the atmosphere. Second, it also results from the highly electric condition of the at- mosphere. The greater the elevation, other things being equal, the more abundant is the electricity (Tyndall). A friction electric machine can be charged here on almost any day in the year with ease. In the East during much of the time this cannot be done. Now, one of the most potent of all agencies for the formation of ozone is the silent discharge of electricity through oxygen, or through the atmosphere which is in part composed of oxygen (Barker). In fact, as Barker has shown in practice, there is no agent so efficient for the formation of ozone as Siemer's Tube, through which there is a constant silent discharge of electricity from a Ruhmkorff coil. Now, through our dry atmosphere, there is a constant electric discharge, which generates ozone in immense quantities. The bearing of ozone on the question of health will be considered under another head. 34 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER III. CLIMATE CONTINUED. MOISTURE AND RAINFALL. Abundance of Moisture — The Rainy Season — Decrease Towards the West — Vapor in the Atmosphere — Rain Charts and their Explanation — Excep- tional Conditions of Rainfall in the Niobrara Region and its Cause — Compara- tive Estimates with Europe. T^ ASTERN Nebraska has an abundance of moisture. This may lj appear like an exaggeration to those who were educated to be- lievethat Nebraska was an arid region. And yet there is nothing in the natural history of the State better established than that there is here an abundance of rainfall. When the snows of winter disappear the ground is in good con- dition to be worked. Sufficient showers come during early spring to excite the crops of cereal grains, grasses and corn to an active growth. Sometimes it is comparatively dry between the spring showers and the June rains. These come sometimes earlier than June — in the last of May, and sometimes not till the last of June and constitute the rainy season for the State. It begins whenever the "big rise" of the Missouri and the Platte occur. This rainy season lasts from four to eight weeks. In fifteen years I have not known it to fail. During its continuance it does not indeed rain every day, except occasionally for a short period. Generally during this period it rains from two to three times a week. It is more apt to rain every night than every clay. In fact during the whole of this season three-fourths of the rain falls at night. It is not an unusual occurrence for rain to fall every night for weeks, fol- lowed by cloudless days. This rainy season of June occurs at a period when crops most need rain, and owing to the regularity of its occurrence, drouths sufficiently severe to destroy the crops in eastern Nebraska, \vhere there is proper cultivation, have not yet been known. Even in 1874, when the drouth in some parts of the State was damaging, there were some fields of corn that produced CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 35 good crops where the majority were failures. The successful fields were the ones that were well and deeply cultivated. After the wet season of June, which sometimes extends into July, is over, there are rains and showers at longer intervals until and during autumn. During winter it rarely rains. Snow falls in winter, but seldom to a great depth. The snows generally range in depth from one to ten inches and in a few extreme cases to fifteen inches. During the majority of winters, as can be seen from Dr. Childs' table A, no snows fall over eight inches in depth. West of the looth meridian the amount of rainfall gradually decreases from the yearly average of thirty inches, at or near Kearney Junction to twenty inches at North Platte. If the last two years only were taken into the account, even there and almost to the west line of the State the rainfall would be estimated at thirty inches. It will hardly as yet average that much for ten years, though for reasons stated hereafter there will be that amount of rainfall over western Nebraska in the near future. Even the relative amount of moisture in the atmosphere is high. This is evident from the reports of the Signal Service at Omaha and North Platte. It reports as much vapor on an average in the atmosphere at Omaha as exists in the States in the Mississippi Valley. At North Platte which represents western Nebraska, the atmosphere contains a comparatively large amount of vapor. The following table, taken from the report of the Signal office for the year ending June 3Oth, 1878, gives the vapor in the atmosphere for each month. Monthly and annual mean relative humidity; from observations taken at 7 a. m., 2 and 9 p. wi., &c. N. Platte. Omaha. July, 1877 Pr Cent. 47. 2 Pr Cent. 02.4 August, 1877 .. 57.5 «G7 4 September, 1877 52.9 09.0 October, 1877 04.8 73.6 November 1877 64.3 73.7 December, 1877 ' 08.4 77.8 January 1878 08.4 78 6 February 1878 . 00.3 73.1 March 1878 01 4 64 8 April 1878 ; ; 54.5 59.8 May 1878 04.4 63.6 June 1878 09.7 71.1 Annual Means 01.0 09.0 36 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. In addition to the preceding table it may be repeated here, that according to Dr. Childs' tables the amount of rainfall during the year ending November 3oth, 1877, was 40.62 inches; for the year ending November 3oth, 1878, was 53.87 inches. The average for the ten years ending November 3Oth, 1878, was 42.86 inches. In order to exhibit the areas of certain quantities of rainfall to the eye, I have constructed the following rain charts for the State. The first chart gives the average rainfall during the ten years ending November 3Oth, 1868. The second gives the average rainfall for the ten years ending November 3Oth, 1878. In constructing these charts I have availed myself of all the Smithsonian Reports, the Signal Office Reports, and my own observations of fifteen years. It will be seen that my results are very different from those hitherto obtained by an exclusive dependence on the Smithsonian Reports. By comparing these two maps it will be seen that there is a con- stant increase of rainfall in the State. Chart No. I. — This chart gives the areas where a certain aver- age amount of rainfall occurred from 1859 to 1869. The rainfall during the years nearest to 1859 had less, and the years nearest to 1869 had more than that indicated on the chart. In other words, the amount of rainfall towards 1869 approximated already closely to that of the next period. These facts, however, cannot be ex- hibited on the diagram. From the Missouri River in Eastern Nebraska to a line running across the State from north to south, from above Dakota City and near to Sioux City on the Iowa side, the average rainfall during these ten years was thirty inches. From this line to another that starts near the mouth of the Bow River in Cedar County, and which runs a little west of south to near Kearney Junction, and then southeasterly to a point on the State line half way between the Blue and Republican rivers, the rainfall for the same time was twenty-six inches. The next line west of this starts a little above the mouth of the Niobrara, and crosses the State diagonally to a point a little east of North Platte. The space enclosed between this line and the preceding received a rainfall during this period that averaged twenty inches. The next line west of the last starts about longitude 101°, runs southwest until it strikes the Niobrara, and then southerly until it reaches the south line of the State oppo- site Big Springs. An average yearly rainfall of sixteen inches fell here during this same period. West of this line the average rain- CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 37 ANNUAL AVERRGE RAINFALL FROM 1859 TO 1869, ANNUAL AVERAGE RAINFALL FROM 1869 TO 1879 38 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY. fall was not determined, but it could not differ much from the pre- ceding space. Chart No. 2. — On this chart we have the mean annual rainfall between 1869 and 1879. Along the Missouri, as far west as to the line which starts near the mouth of the Big Sioux River, and crosses the State southerly and then southwesterly, and then a little east of south until it strikes the south line of the State where the Blue River emerges from it, over this space the mean annual rainfall during this period was thirty-eight inches. Closer to the river the rainfall was still greater. Between this last line and the next which starts on the Missouri a little south of the mouth of the Bow River, runs diagonally in a curve until near Kearney, and then south to the south line of the State, this section thus bounded receives an average annual rainfall of thirty-two inches. West of this last line there is another, which starts at the mouth of the Ni- obrara, curves southwesterly to a point a little east of North Platte, and then slightly southwest to a point a little west of Culbertson, on the Republican River. An average annual rainfall of twenty- six inches covers the space bounded by these lines. The next line west commences on the north line of the State at the mouth of the Keya Paha, runs southwest across the State, striking the south line half way between Culbertson and the west line of the State. The space between this line and the last receives an average annual rainfall of nineteen inches. Between this line and the next west, which starts a little east of the 101° meridian, runs in a curve south- westerly to a point near Lodge Pole, on the Union Pacific Railroad, and then south to the south line of the State. The space bounded by this and the last line receives an average annual rainfall of seventeen inches. West of this line the rainfall is not definitely determined, but it probably does not differ materially from the preceding sec- tion. It should be remembered in examining these charts, that towards each line the amount of rainfall shades into the next di- vision. EXCEPTIONAL METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN THE NIOBRARA REGION. In Chapter I., some exceptional physical features were noted in the Niobrara region. These exceptional physical features no doubt help to produce the exceptional meteorological conditions. Of late years more than formerly, in these sections during June, July and CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 39 August, there are almost daily thunder-showers. There is little snowfall in winter, but when the hot weather approaches these storms are almost constant. Every time it has been my fortune to be there, every day there was a thunder-storm, and on some days several. The morning sun would appear with wonderful clearness, and the heat would become intense by two o'clock, and then in a few minutes clouds would form and thunder peal. After the outpouring of the clouds, which generally lasted from thirty minutes to an hour, the clouds would vanish and the sun appear. Frequently there was another thunder-shower during the early hours of the night. The cause of these frequent showers appears to me to be this : At the head of the Elkhorn and the Loups, and between these rivers and the Niobrara, there are great numbers of small lakes and ponds and sloughs. These are underlaid by an impervious clayey stratum, so that the only escape possible for the waters is by overflow and evaporation. Some drain into these rivers, but many have no visible outlet. Near to and among these lakes are the Sand Hills, already described. The sun shining on these hills heats them up to an extreme degree, and necessarily also the at- mosphere around and above them. I have experienced a tempera- ture myself here in the shade of 110° F., when the register at Plattsmouth marked only from 85° to 90° F. The consequence is, that the evaporation is enormous. The atmosphere becomes super- saturated with moisture. The least fall now in temperature, pro- duced by a change of wind or other cause, creates cloud, the play of lightning and rainfall. My own experience in this region is not a solitary one. Captain W. S. Stanton, of the Topographical En- gineers of the U. S. A., had a similar experience. The " cattle men" who have invaded that region testify to the same facts. This region of showers covers the entire section occupied by both lakes, sloughs, ponds, and sand hills. With the increasing moisture all over the State, it will be interesting to note the changes as the Sand Hills become more covered with grasses. The rainfall there will then probably continue to increase, but will be more equally distributed. Comparative Estimates with other Regions — Europe:— While therefore many will admit that there is an abundance of rainfall east of the looth meridian, they still claim that west of that line it is too dry for the successful production of anything but stock. 40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. They point to the less amount of rainfall west of that line, and ask how a region that receives so little can be utilized for agricultural purposes. Two replies can be made. The fallacy of this conclusion can be seen at once if we compare the rainfall in western Nebraska with that which obtains in some of the most favored spots of the old world. The following table I have taken from Guoyot: Table of Rainfall. Depth in Inches British Islands, 32 Western France, 25 Eastern " 22 21 Central and North German}7, 20 Hungary, 17 14 Northeast Portugal . 11 Madrid 10 Paris itself, according to the researches of Arago, has only an average annual rainfall of twenty inches. (Cosmos, vol. I, p. 331.)* Now it is true that there are many rainy days in western France (152) and in central and north Germany (150) yet if we count in the nights when it rains and the days and nights when it snows, there is not so much difference as at first imagined between the wet days of Nebraska and middle and western Europe. Regions in Europe with less rainfall than even western Nebraska, are made successful in agriculture. Less toil than is expended to make the dry portions of Europe a garden would make western Nebraska agriculturally rich. Even, therefore, judged by European stand- ards, western Nebraska is already sufficiently watered for the needs of certain kinds of agriculture. Not only is western Nebraska far removed from desert condi- tions, but every part of North America. No sections of its low or table lands have the aridity that Humboldt and Ehrenberg found [Cosmos] between the valleys of the Irtish and the Oby. There with temperature of 74° / the dew point was at 24°. The air therefore contained only .10 of aqueous vapor. The structure of North America makes genuine desert conditions impossible. There are dry and arid sections but the aridity nowhere produces a genu- ine desert comparable to the Sahara. * See also lor early rainfall in Central Europe, Gasparins' Researches. RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 41 The second reply to those who object to the little rainfall in western Nebraska, is that the rainfall is increasing from year to year. This fact will be considered in the next chapter. CHAPTER IV. EVIDENCES OF INCREASING RAINFALL IN NE- BRASKA—SOURCES OF RAINFALL. Appearance of New Springs— Increasing Size of Streams— Changing Vegeta- tion—Former Character of Vegetation— Causes Producing Increased Rainfall —Wrong Reasons Assigned— True Reason, the Increased Absorptive Power of the Soil, produced by Cultivation— Experimental Proofs— Special Ab- sorptive Power of Nebraska Soil— Extension of Sufficient Rainfall over Western Nebraska— Original Sources of Rainfall— Effect of Change in the Direction of the Winds — Moisture from the Rivers — Amount of River Sur- face Exposed to Evaporation— Temperature of the Rivers— Nebraska ef- fected by the Amount of Precipitation in the Mountains. SOON after I first came to the State in 1864, it was reported that some new springs had made their appearance at the base of the bluffs facing the Missouri bottom and river in Dakota County. On investigation this was found to be correct. This phenomenon was observed in other portions of the State. It has occurred, for ex- ample, during the last few years in the Pierce precinct in Lancaster County. Up to this time I have a record of one hundred and fifty springs that have made their appearance during the last ten years where they were never known before. This same appearing of new springs has been noticed by many observers in the State, and is particularly familiar to the older settlers of the State. Connected with this same line of facts is the phenomenon of the appearance of water in old creek beds, where it apparently had not been flow- ing for ages. Manv of the smaller tributaries of the Elkhorn, the Logan, the Bows, the Loups and the Niobrara, with beautiful small bottoms and old stream beds in the midst or one side of them, and which were perfectly dry when I first knew them in 1865 and 1866, are again living streams. Indeed many of them, especially towards the head of the Elkhorns, that had sod grown over the stream beds which were even difficult to find so nearly obliterated 42 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. were they, are again supplied with water, not merely during part of the year, but apparently permanently. Still another fact in the same connection is the increasing size of the streams of the State. Old settlers observe this. It is a phe- nomenon that every old settler must notice, who has been inter- ested in matters of this kind. The changing vegetation of the State proves the same fact. There was a time within the memory of many now living when the buffalo grass was the most conspicuous vegetable form west of the Missouri. When Lewis and Clarke passed up the Missouri in 1804, it was almost the only grass that they found growing along this portion of their route. Fremont observed the same thing as late as 1842. The first settlers in this territory found it abounding along all the river counties. The early freighters across the plains depended most on it for pasturage for their cattle. Now how changed. It has almost entirely disappeared for two hundred miles west of the Missouri. There is comparatively little of it now on the third hundred. Every year it is retreating further west- ward. Its place is supplied with grasses indigenous to moister climates. Where formerly the ground was covered with grasses from two to four inches high, there is now a carpet of green from six inches to four feet high. Many of the blue joints and sorghum grasses exceed even this height. Still other forms besides the grasses, characteristic of moist regions, are occupying the spaces left by the retreating buffalo grass. There is also an increase in the spontaneous growth of timber. Wherever there are abandoned cultivated fields, and the prairie fires are kept away, and the tract is left unmolested from other hindering causes, thick growths of cottonwood and sometimes box elder frequently, soon monopolize the ground. This is especially true of lands in close proximity to existing timber belts. There is an increasing disposition to do this all over eastern Nebraska. Where formerly there was not suffi- cient moisture to start the seeds into life on the high lands, which are scattered each year by the winds, birds and rodents, there is an abundance. In fact it is questionable, if prairie fires were en- tirely repressed, whether groves of timber would not now gradu- ally creep over all the unoccupied lands of Nebraska. The proofs, therefore, that the rainfall of Nebraska is steadily increasing, are manifold. If space permitted, many more could be given. It is therefore probable that the early explorers of this region were cor- RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 43 rect in ascribing to it a partially desert character. And yet even then they could only have been partially correct. No desert can support countless thousands of buffalo, elk, deer and antelope as the plains of Nebraska did when Lewis and Clarke made their first voyages of discovery up the Missouri. The probabilities are, that those eminent explorers confounded the appearance of a section closely pastured, and in some places made bare by the pasturing, of those immense herds of buffalo of which they speak, with the barrenness that a true desert always exhibits. A land that is sup- plied with sufficient moisture in such a climate as this, to produce food for such an affluence of animal life, can always be made avail- able for the purposes of a high civilization. CAUSES THAT ARE PRODUCING INCREASED RAINFALL. Various reasons have been assigned to account for the increased rainfall of the State. Some have maintained that the cause is secular - — that there are great periods when the moisture of a region in- creases for ages independent of any human agency, and that when it has reached a maximum it commences to decrease, which contin- ues until it reaches a minimum. According to this theory, this region is now in a stage of increasing moisture. The advocates of this theory point out the fact that the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and Lake Mono, lying at the eastern foot of the Sierras,are both undoubt- edly rising.* One of the objections to this theory is that the geo- logical causes which produce increased rainfall, are not now spon- taneously operative. Western America passed through many such revolutions during the progress of the later geological ages, and their causes are well understood. When, for example, .the region of the plains was much lower than at present, and were dotted over with great fresh water lakes, a much moister climate than the present must have prevailed. The country between this and the Pacific is not now sinking — it is rather rising at the rate, according to Whitney, of a foot or two to the century. Denudation keeps it at about the same level. Unless therefore the cause is extra terrestrial we cannot ascribe the increasing rainfall to merely secu- lar changes. There are no cosmical causes definitely known that would cause an increase of rainfall over an isolated region of the earth. That cause, therefore, as a producer of increased rainfall must also be dismissed. *On Lake Mono see LeCutes' paper on the existence of volcanoes around Mono, read before National Academy, April ISth, 1879. 44 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Another theory tenaciously held by some, is that the increased rainfall is produced by the iron on the railroad lines of the State and the wires of the telegraph lines. A few also believe that it is effected by the disturbance of the atmospheric circulation through the concussions of locomotives and moving trains. The objection to these views comes largely from the fact that in the older States where railroad lines are much more numerous and have existed much longer, no increase of rainfall has been noticed. A more plausible theory is, that the planting of trees has been the cause of increased rainfall. This, I admit, is a helping cause, but cannot be the main cause of increased rainfall. In Nebraska increase of rainfall commenced before the number of trees planted equaled the number destroyed. Comparatively few of the first settlers planted trees. Again, the statistics of forestry in the east, in Europe, in Asia, show that forests modify temperature, the vio- lence of winds and equalize rainfall, but do not increase it. While therefore it is admitted that the growth of forests exercises the hap- piest influences on climate, it is still evident that we must look elsewhere for the permanent causes of increasing rainfall. The same argument that applies to forests can be used in reply to those who insist that increased rainfall is due to the pro- ductions of corn and the cereal grains. It may be that the continued and combined action of these causes has some effect in increasing rainfall, but it must be small. There is, however, an other cause, not heretefore mentioned, most potently acting to pro- duce all the changes in rainfall that the facts indicate have taken place. What then is that cause? // is the great increase in the absorptive power of the soil, 'wrought by cultivation, that has caused, and continues to cause an increasing rainfall in the State. Any one who examines a piece of raw prairie closely, must observe how compact it is. Every one who opens up a new farm, soon finds that it requires an extra force to break it. There is nothing extra- ordinary about this. For vast ages the prairies have been pelted by the elements and trodden by millions of buffalo and other wild animals, until the naturally rich soil became as compact as a floor. When rain falls on a primitive soil of this character, the greater part runs off into the canyons, creeks and rivers, and is soon through the Missouri on its way to the Gulf. Observe now the change which cultivation makes. After the soil is broken, the rain as it falls is RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 45 absorbed by the soil like a huge sponge. The soil gives this ab- sorbed moisture slowly back to the atmosphere by evaporation. Thus year by year as cultivation of the soil is extended, more of the rain that falls is absorbed and retained to be given off by evapora- tion, or to produce springs. This, of course, must give increasing moisture and rainfall. In order to test the accuracy of this theory, which struck me as the only true explanation of this phenomenon as early as 1867, I, at various times, made some experiments. The first accurate experi- ments I made in May, 1872. I went east of the Antelope, about a mile, from Lincoln, to a farm now owned by Mr. Hawley, after a heavy rain. With a rule, six inches square was marked off, of un- broken prairie, and this was taken up six inches deep and placed in a porcelain dish that had been previously weighed. The same amount to the same depth, was taken from a cultivated field. The difference in weights between the two specimens was sufficiently great to prove that the cultivated land absorbed at least during this rain, twelve times as much moisture as the uncultivated. The specimens were taken from lands only a few yards apart. After another rain, from near the same locality, a square foot three inches deep, was lifted and compared with a-n equal amount from an ad- joining field. The specimens were first weighed, then dried and then weighed again. The difference in this case indicated that ten times as much moisture had been absorbed by the cultivated ground as by the unbroken prairie. In June, 1873, similar experiments were made and with the same results. Where the rainfall is slight, the difference will not be found to be so great. Much also depends on the lay of the land ; care must also be taken that the cultivated land that is experimented with, lies adjoining unbroken prairie, as there is often considerable difference in rainfall, espec- ially in thunder storms, in the space of a quarter of a mile. In all cases the experiments were made immediately after or during the intermissions of rainfall. After only slight rains, the difference in absorptive power was only as four to one. The mean, however, of fifty of these experiments, gives an average absorptive power of cultivated ground over unbroken prairie of nine to one. To make allowances, however, for possible mistakes, I will make eight to one the basis of our future calculations on this subject. When the first settlements were commenced in Nebraska the rainfall of the State was not over twenty inches. Of these twenty 46 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. inches probably not more than five inches soaked into the ground. Cultivated soil, however, absorbs nearly all the rain that falls. Where thirty-two inches of rain now falls in Nebraska on cultiva- ted ground, not less than twenty-four inches are absorbed by the soil. Some of this is slowly given back into the atmosphere, and some of it goes to form the new springs of water that are making their appearance in so many places. Any one can see that this must make an enormous difference in the moisture of the atmos- phere and on rainfall. Before the settlement of the State, and be- fore the consequent cultivation of the soil, what rain did fall, as already stated, soon left the State through creeks and rivers. Now the greater part of what does fall on all cultivated or broken ground, is retained by the soil which becomes a reservoir of water to sup- ply growing crops, and to give greater humidity to the atmosphere. ABSORPTIVE POWER OF NEBRASKA SOIL. No soil in the Eastern States has so great an absorptive power as the land in Nebraska. There, as a general rule, the underlying hard rock is soon reached, and during excessive rains the thin soil is so supersaturated with water that excessive denudation of the soil is common. A thin soil also dries out, because there are no stores of moisture below from which it can draw supplies. Here, however, the superficial deposits are of very great thickness. The loess itself, ranges from two feet to two hundred feet, and often where it is thin, there are below it great bodies of drift. The av- erage thickness of all the superficial deposits — loess and drift — is considerably over one hundred feet. This thickness, therefore, of surface materials constitutes the huge sponge that absorbs ex- cesses of rainfall, and retains it to be given back to the atmosphere only gradually. Here, then, we have a cause competent to account for the in- creased rainfall of the State — a cause that not only has operated thus far but is continuous. Through the operations of this cause, the rainfall will become even more abundant than it has yet been, especially over the central and western portion of the State. The area of cultivation is extending rapidly each year, and continual en- croachments are made on the lands in western Nebraska, that have been condemned as barren because of a deficiency of rainfall. Last year a large amount of land breaking was done near to and west of the looth meridian in the Republican Valley and the table lands RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 47 adjoining it. And it is a remarkable fact, that last winter, (1879), there was an exceptionally large fall of snow, and this summer an abundant rainfall in the same region. In fact, this snow and rain- fall extended all over Western Nebraska. The question is often asked whether the causes now producing the increased rainfall over the eastern two-thirds of the State will ever be sufficiently operative over the extreme western third as to make it an agricultural region. Of this I have no doubt. It prob- ably will take a longer time to produce this change here than it did in eastern Nebraska. The cause of this will be discussed pres- ently. When the great body of the land near to and west of the looth meridian is once cultivated that is capable of cultivation, the sufficiently and increasingly moist region will encroach gradually on the dry region until it is entirely crowded out of the State. And the reason why this cause will be slower here in its operation is because extreme western Nebraska is under the lee of the Rocky Mountains. The moisture-bearing winds do not strike it so direct- ly as they do eastern Nebraska. This is better understood when THE ORIGINAL SOURCES OF THE RAINFALL OF NEBRASKA ARE CONSIDERED. These sources are mainly of a two-fold and combined character. One source is the moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Mexico; the other is the enormous evaporation from those rivers of Nebras- ka that have their source in the Rocky Mountains. Rains are most apt to fall when there is a change in the direc- tion of the winds. If the wind, for example, has been blowing for days from the southwest, south, or southeast, and turns around and comes from the north, rain is almost certain to fall. There will also be a fall of rain if the change is from the north to the south. Any one looking at a map of the United States will see that the south wind coming directly upon the west end of the Mexican Gulf, would strike Red Willow, Furnas, Dawson, Custer, Elk- horn, and Kiiox counties. Whenever, therefore, all of Nebraska, including these and the counties east of them are bathed by this moisture-bearing wind from the Gulf, either after a north wind or followed by one there is precipitation of moisture into cloud and generally rainfall. When the wind is slightly from the southeast, extreme western Nebraska shares in this rainfall, otherwise it does so to only a limited extent. This is, it appears to me, one reason 48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. •why there has been less rainfall in this section than in eastern Ne- braska. As, however, there are trusty indications of a regular rate of in- crease of rainfall for western Nebraska, similar to that going on in eastern Nebraska the probabilities are that when the eastern two- thirds of the State are once properly cultivated, and its rainfall averages forty inches, that of western Nebraska will approximate twenty-eight or thirty inches, and that in this State is sufficient to produce successfully the cereal grains, cultivated grasses and corn. The second source of rainfall for Nebraska is the moisture from, the rivers that flow from the mountains. These rivers are the Platte, the Niobrara to a small extent, and the Missouri and its tributaries. The flood time of these rivers is always a rainy season for Nebraska. This rainy season comes earlier or later as the "big rise" is earlier or later. Then the moisture that is wafted here by the winds from the Gulf, is reinforced by the moisture that is evaporated from these rivers; and the consequent precipitation into cloud and rainfall, constitutes the rainy season for Nebraska. A map of Nebraska shows how two of these rivers run the whole length of the State, and that the mighty Missouri is east and north of it. The Missouri too, it should be remembered, has a course of four hundred miles along eastern Nebraska, for though the State is little more than two hundred miles from north to south, the serpentine windings of the river give it at least double that length. We have, therefore, a length of four hundred miles of the Missouri, and (for the same reason as applied to the Missouri) at least six hundred miles of the Platte, or one thousand miles of river aver- aging one mile broad, or one thousand square miles of rapidly mov- ing river surface, exposed to a warm atmosphere, from which the evaporation is simply enormous. The Niobrara, counting its wind- ings, adds five hundred more miles of evaporating surface. Unlike the floods of eastern rivers, these "big rises" last for a considerable length of time, often indeed from its beginning to its close, over two months. What adds greatly to the rapidity of the evapora- tions is the difierence of temperature between the waters of these rivers and the atmosphere. Lewis and Clarke', during their famous expedition up the Missouri in 1804, spoke of the sameness of the temperature of the water of the Missouri and its tributaries with that of the atmosphere. If no difierence existed then, it does now. For example, the signal service at Omaha for June, 1878, report a RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 49 mean temperature of 68° 4'. My own determinations for the tem- perature of the water of the Missouri at the same point, being a mean of many observations for this month, give 63° 9', showing that the temperature of the water is for this month 4° 5' lower than that of the atmosphere. The mean temperature for July, 1877, at Omaha, as determined by the signal office was 76°. For this month the signal office also report the mean temperature of the river 73^°. The temperature of the water at the Platte at its mouth, approxi- mates more closely to that of the atmosphere, it being for June, 1878,68° and for June 1879, 67° 9'. At North Platte the tem- perature of the waters of the Platte is much lower, it being for June 65° and for July 68°. It should also be remembered that the temperature of the water is much more uniform than that of the atmosphere. Its daily oscillations are small. It is rarely during twenty-four hours the same as that of the atmosphere. From all these causes then the evaporation from the surface is very great and the winds carry the moisture in various directions, until finally it is again deposited as rain. NEBRASKA AFFECTED BY THE AMOUNT OF PRECIPITATION OF MOISTURE IN THE MOUNTAINS. As the seasons of greatest rainfall in Nebraska are the seasons of greatest rise in the Missouri and the Platte, and as the magni- tude of these rises is dependent on the amount of snowfall in the mountains, the moisture of the plains is to this extent dependent on the amount of precipitation there during the winter season. A question, therefore, in which every one here is interested, is whether the amount of moisture there is decreasing, is station- ary, or is on the increase. Some scientific authorities have ex- pressed the opinion that the whole Rocky Mountain region is in a comparatively rapid process of drying up, and that the amount of rain and snowfall must be less each decade and century. One of the theoretical arguments presentedin proof -of this view is, that in ages geologically recent, the Rocky Mountain area was a region of great lakes, and that it then lay at a much lower level, but that now the lakes have nearly all disappeared, and that it is still rising at the rate of a few feet to the century, and that, therefore, in the nature of things, the drying-up process must continue. The facts relied on for this opinion, are mainly that wherever the mountain sides are from any cause denuded of their timber, no young trees 4 50 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. take their place. In other words, whenever the mountain sides become bare of forests, they remain so. It has also been asserted that many groves along the sides of the mountains and on the summits were dying off without any apparent cause, except the increasing dryness of the region. I am now confident that the ad- vocates of this theory are mistaken in their theories and their facts. It is true that since the miocene tertiary age or even since the cre- tacious, the amount of water. in the form of great lakes has on the whole been decreasing. But there are limits to these processes. There have been many revolutions in the condition, geological and meteorological, of central and western North America in the meso- zoic and cenozoic ages. For example, during the earlier ages the greater part of western Nebraska was dry land. But it gradu- ally and slowly commenced to sink, and in the course of centuries that are numberless, the Gulf of Mexico extended itself in a north- westerly direction over our plains to the Arctic sea. The uplift- ing of the Rocky Mountains that commenced at the close of the cretaceous age, inaugurated the area of making of dry land which has continued to the present time, but with many intermissions. My limits will not permit me to discuss these interruptions. But these facts in geological history do not warrant us to conclude, be- cause in the most recent periods the tendency has been to continued elevation and dryness, that this tendency must continue. Rather should the opposite conclusion be reached, that sooner or later the limit of elevation and dryness will be attained, and that a reaction must follow as in the past. This reaction must for countless ages in the future bring increasing moisture. Now, the facts of the present operations of nature in the mountains do not sustain this theory. The advocates of the increasing dryness of the mountains evident- ly make many of their observations at "long range." They have viewed mountain sides and tops like some newspaper men have battles — a great way off. Commencing at Georgetown I have climbed every mountain side and examined every mountain top that I could see where the timber had been destroyed from any cause. The whole number of such places that I examined was twenty-seven, and in every instance I found countless numbers of young pines and sometimes deciduous trees coming up to take the place of the old ones. Often when I looked at a mountain side from a distance nothing could be seen but old trees deadened by RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 51 fire. When, however, the spot was reached the ground was often so covered with young trees from one to five years old that it was difficult to penetrate through the mass of tangled limbs. Where small areas were not crowded with young trees the grasses were growing with a luxuriance that surprised many of the old residents of the mountains. Take for example the side of Griffith Mountain on the south side of Georgetown. The timber here was removed for fuel and other purposes. In spots over its denuded surface countless numbers of young pines, spruce and quaking asps from six inches to four feet high are making their appearance. Where squirrels and birds failed to plant seeds for another forest luxuriant grasses and magnificent flowers cover the ground. Every nook and corner among the rocks seems to be utilized for plant life. I found the same condition of things on the mountain sides around Middle Park. As all who have visited this beautiful region will remember, the mouutain slopes are here very densely timbered, and wherever I found the timber here destroyed by fires a young crop was struggling to take its place. On going north from Grand Lake for twenty-five miles along the western base of the main range, and in sight of the Rabbit-ear mountains, about twelve miles of my route, passed through fallen timber that had been destroyed a few years ago by a huge fire. Some sections of this desolation was already covered by a dense growth of pine from two to four feet high, while in other spots the young trees were just be- ginning to make their appearance. In some places it was hard to tell whether the grasses or the trees would gain the mastery. This section of the park is rarely visited, owing, probably, to the absence of roads or trails, and yet no part is more beautiful or has grander scenery. I was accompa nied by D. N. Smith, of Burlington, Iowa, and both of us were conducted by a notable guide, George W. Cole, whom we found exceedingly intelligent and perfectly reliable, and who never flinch- ed when we were in a tight place. The rapidity of growth of the mountain timber has also been underestimated. I measured a great many pines and spruces in Berthoud Pass that had made a growth of from five to eleven inches during the year. Some quak- ing asps on Willow Mountain had made a growth of fourteen inches. These facts, which, if space permitted, would be greatly multi- plied, demonstrate that those are greatly mistaken who insist that 52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the Rocky Mountain region is drying up. The evidence, so far as it goes, points in the other direction, and proves that it is increasing. The agency of man probably has something to do with this, just as it has in Nebraska, but our limits will not permit a discussion of this point. CHAPTER V. WATERS OF NEBRASKA. Lakes— Springs— Wells— Artesian Wells— Saline Springs— Rivers— Mis- souri— Platte — Republican — Niobrara — Keya Paha — White River — Elklio rn Logan — Bow Rivers — Nemahas — Blues, Loups, etc. IN striking contrast to past geological times, there are now no large lakes in Nebraska. There are, however, a great numbej of small lakes in the State. From their small size and their dis- tance from railroads they have thus far attracted little attention. Those along the Missouri, such as the ones in Dakota and Burt counties, have been produced in recent times, some of them indeed within a few years. The " cut-offs " of the Missouri often leave small lakes. The one northwest of Dakota City is about five miles long. Similar lakes, in, a similar way, have been formed on the Elkhorn,the Platte and the Blue rivers. Many of these, however, in the interior, are the remnants of what was once, in loess times, a vast inland lake that covered the larger part of Nebraska.* An extensive region of small lakes is found at the head of the Elkhorn River. Of the lakelets that exist here, over thirty in number, many of them are of great beauty with sandy or pebbly bottoms. A still more extensive lake region exists at the headwaters of the North Loup, and between that and the Niobrara River. Most of these are of fresh water, but a few are saline or alkaline. At the head of Snake River, a tributary of the Niobrara, there are a num- ber of small saline and fresh water lakes. Perhaps the most exten- sive groups of saline lakes are those at the head of Pine Creek, also one of the tributaries of the Niobrara. There are also a number of alkaline and fresh water lakes between the heads of the Dismal and Middle Loup. In my notes of exploration and travel there is *See chapter on Superficial Deposits of Nebraska. WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 53 a list of over one hundred, and no doubt there are many more that have not been noted. In addition to these there are great numbers of ponds that almost approach in size to the dignity of lakes. Some of these lakelets at the head of the Elkhorn were in former years, when first visited, remarkable for the number of fishes that they contained. Unaccustomed to the presence of man, they seemed to have no fears of him. At least, when I waded into them they gathered around me in huge shoals. The alkaline lakes can always be detected on sight. No grass or other vegetable forms grow near the water, wliile at fresh water lakes luxuriant growths of vegetation extended to the very water's edge. With the in- crease of rainfall going on over the State, the level of these lakes will naturally rise, and many of them that are now isolated will become connected and cover much more extended areas than at present. A prominent characteristic of most of these lakes and lakelets is the wonderful clearness of the water. A silver three or five cent piece thrown into them can be distinctly seen at the bot- tom with the naked eye, even when they are from fifteen to twenty feet deep. This I ascertained in many instances by actual measure- ment. Most of the deeper lakes, especially of the northern and western portions of the State, have gravelly, -coarse, sandy or peb- bly bottoms. Here formerly, much more than at present, was a paradise of water fowl. SPRINGS, WELLS, AND ARTESIAN WELLS. In the eastern half the State springs are abundant, and wherever the lay of the land and the underlying rocks are favorable to their existence. It is well known that however abundant rainfall and moisture may be, no springs are produced unless the waters that percolates through the soil are arrested by some impervious layers along which they can be carried to some break or cut, where they can flow out. Such impervious layers in Nebraska, are of two gen- eral types. The first type, are those on or among the underlying rocks, along which the water flows until it emerges on Lill sides or edge of valleys. In south-eastern Nebraska, many springs appear on top of limestone strata that underlie loosely, compacted sandy rocks or shales. Where the Dakota Group of sand rock exists, springs frequently proceed above some harder layers of this deposit. Warner's Spring, southwest from Dakota City, in the bluffs, is an instance of this character. Another is a famous spring near Teka- 54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. mah, in the bluffs, called sometimes, from the color of the rocks, Yellow Springs. The former has the rock above the spring cov- ered with Indian hierogliphics. Occasionally springs proceed from or near the line of junction between these rocks and the next below. Some impervious layers of clayey, brownish shale in the Fort Ben- ton Group, also arrest the downward course of water and leads it to the next break or valley of erosion to appear as a spring. The se ond class of springs are those that proceed from between different kinds of layers of the drift and loess. The drift is specially remarkable for the number of clayey layers that are inter- posed between layers of sand and pebbles. These layers of clay carry the water to the nearest cut, where they form springs. Where these layers of clay do not exist, the water is carried along the top of the underlying rocks, if these happen to be hard or com- pact, and springs as in the former case appear on the edges of the valley. Many of the springs that emerge from the bluffs of all the river valleys owe their origin to these causes. This explains, too, why in many sections of the State, springs are found (often several of them on every quarter section of land), and why in other por- tions of the State they are found only at long intervals. The more broken or rolling, other things being equal, the more abundant they are. On the long reaches of nearly level land springs occur at much longer intervals. On and near the top of the level water sheds springs occur still more rarely. Water, however, is abundant even here. Wells or borings always obtain it. Over the greater portion of the State, shafts or holes sunk down from fifteen to fifty feet are sure to obtain it in abundance. The exceptions to this rule are some portions of wide divides in such counties as Fillmore, Clay, Adams and Phelps, where there is a great thickness of loess and drift to be penetrated before impervious strata, capable of holding water are reached. Many farmers prefer land with no springs or running water on it. There is less waste, they claim. A well with a wind mill attached supplies water to man and beast in whatever quantity needed. A wind mill and reservoir attached to a well not unfrequently is made to water a thousand head of cattle daily, besides supplying the wants of a household. Artesian Wells have been bored in a few places. The one in the public square in Lincoln is one thousand and fifty feet deep. It was put down in the hope that fresh water would be found. This effort WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 55 was a failure. At five hundred and sixty feet saline water spout- ed up a in powerful current. The contractor, Mr. Eaton, however, was uncertain whether the brine was here first struck, or whether a current of fresh water only forced it to the surface. It was cer- tain that strong brine was found at the horizon between seventy and two hundred and fifty-five feet in the reddish sandstones of the Dakota Group. It did not, however, flow to the surface. The weight of evidence favored the conclusion that the salt water above was forced to the surface by the stronger currents below, especially as the tubing was so defective that all the waters encountered were intermingled. Between the level of five hundred and sixty feet and the end of the boring other artesian currents were struck, and the mingling of all that were encountered has given a well of water which, for variety of salts held in solution, is unsurpassed anywhere. An artesian boring was also made in Beatrice to the depth of twelve hundred feet, without, however, obtaining a flow of water to the surface. One has also been put down in Omaha, and a good flow of pure water obtained at a depth of 750 feet. On the whole, the geological formations of Nebraska are favorable for such wells. The general slope is upwards to the west and slightly towards the north. And although the tertiary strata overlie the cretaceous as we proceed westward, yet their thickness is far less than the rise of the country. The pressure of water, therefore, from between underlying rocks is sufficient to force it to the sur- face from some point between five hundred and twenty-five hundred feet. SALINE SPRINGS. There are several localities where saline springs or bogs exist. One of these is in Lancaster County, near Lincoln. The largest here covers approximately five hundred acres. Others of smaller area are not far distant. In this largest basin the water emerges in hundreds of places, and exhibits the curious phenomenon of vary- ing in depth through the day. It is highest during the morning. It decreases through the day, and is at its lowest point about three o'clock in the afternoon. About this time any one passing over the basin and closely observing it will see the salt water bubbling up at hundreds of places. Where it comes up in this way the water contains about ten per cent, of common salt; at least that is the mean of several analyses, and is also indicated by the salometer. Many diverse opinions have been expressed about the value of 56 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. these salt basins. Some have regarded them as of little value and incapable of supplying brine in quantity sufficient to make it pos- sible to compete with the great salt-producing sections of Mich- igan and New York; others again have placed an extravagant value on them, representing them as capable of building up princely fortunes for any who are fortunate enough to possess the capital to work them. The truth is probably somewhere between these extremes. If the salt water that flows away and is lost were placed in reservoirs and evaporated by solar heat, a richly remu- nerative business could be built up. Sooner or later this will be done. When the artesian well on the Government Square in Lin- coln reached a depth of 560 feet, there was a heavy flow of salt water to the surface. The salt water, however, had been struck long before, but it did not flow out. The salt-giving rock is the reddish, porous sandstone that lies between seventy and two hun- dred and fifty-five feet in depth. It is because this artesian well \vas sunk down over a thousand feet and came in contact with many other strata of rock containing different kinds of water, that the flow now embraces so many different chemical elements An- other artesian well had previously been bored on the north s'de of the main salt basin. This one struck a flow of salt water at about the same depth as the one on the Government Square. There is some uncertainty in the mind of Mr. Eaton, who made the borings in Lincoln, whether the " great flow " was produced by salt water, or whether the fresh water that was then struck simply combined with and forced out the salt water. All the known facts, however, go to support the view that salt water is here abundant, and only needs to be properly handled to make it a most profitable industry. There are also saline springs and lakelets beyond and near the head of the Elkhorn and Loup rivers, and at long intervals toward the northwestern corner of the State on tributaries of the Niobrara flowin^ from the south. I visited these under such unfavorable £•> circumstances for investigation, that I am not prepared to report on their extent or probable value. THE RIVERS OF NEBRASKA are distinguished for their breadth, their number, and some of them for their rapiditity and depth. In fact, the name of Nebraska means land of broad rivers. Chief of all, not only of Nebraska, but of the United States, is the Missouri, because it gives character to all the rivers that unite with WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 57 it below down to the gulf. Forming the eastern border of the State, and a small extent of its northern boundary, and being tor- tuous in its path, at least five hundred miles of the river are on its western and southern side in Nebraska. It is deep and rapid. Its bed is moving sand, mud and alluvium. It no where in Nebras- ka has rock bottom. Before rock can be reached a thickness of from forty to one hundred feet of sand and mud must be penetrated from low water mark. Its immediate banks, sometimes on both, and almost always on one side, are steep — often, indeed, perpen- dicular or leaning over towards the water. It is generally retreating or advancing from, or on to one or other shore. It is the shore from which it is retreating that is sometimes gently sloping, while the one towards which it is advancing is steep. This steepness is produced by the undermining of the banks and the caving in that follows. Near the bottom there is a stratum of sand which being struck by the current is washed out and the bank falls in. Many acres in some places have been carried away in a single season: The prin- cipal part of this "cutting" is done while the river is falling. One of the places, famous in early Nebraska history that the Missouri in this way destroyed, is the town of Omadi, in Dakota County. Almost the entire town site is now in the river. When the river is low and winding through bottoms fringed with, in many places, dark groves of cottonwood and other timber, it is a sad,mel- ancholly, weird stream. When it is "on a big rise," however, and presses forward with tremendous volume and force towards the gulf it becomes surpassingly grand and majestic. It is now full of eddies, and whole trees that have been undermined and have fallen into the river are dragged forward at a fearful velocity. It is never fordable. Boats of various kinds were exclusively used for crossing the river until the advent of the railroad bridge at Omaha. Another is now building by the B. and M. R. R. at Plattsmouth, The water always muddy or full of finely comminuted sand, the currant rapid and full of whirling eddies. It is a dangerous stream to trifle with. Often, indeed, during flood times does the boiling, seething mass of water look as if it had been stirred up at bottom with the sand by some mighty convulsive movement of the earth. Few that fall into it ever reach the shore alive without assistance. The clothes are soon saturated with the sediment of the river which is always turbid or muddy, and sinks the victim to the bottom. So well understood, however, is this feature of the Missonri that no more 58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. persons are drowned in it than in other rivers of corresponding- magnitude. The peculiar character of the Missouri gives unique- ness to the scenery along its shores. A position on some of the terraces or bluffs overlooking the river give views of unsurpassed beauty. There is one such of remarkable grandeur above lona, in Dixon County, where the river touches the bluff, throwing its wide bottom into Dakota Territory. From this point the river can be seen towards the east for fifteen miles. The jdark cotton wood groves, the curves of the river, the Dakota plain on the northern side, studded with homesteads, constitutes a picture that rivals in beauty the most famous scenes in the world. Another equally fine view of the river can be had from the top of the bluff on the road from Ponca to the Missouri bottom. With some obnoxious elements attached to its character, it is as we have already seen, a storehouse of blessings to the sections through which it flows. Had it not been for the Missouri the set- tlement of this region would have been indefinitely delayed. It is a highway to the commerce and markets of the world; and on this highway the first emigrants reached Nebraska, and sent off their products to other regions. As the Missouri is navigable for two thousand miles above Omaha it was a great highway for traffic with the mountain regions of Idaho, Dakota and Montana. Since the building of railroads its business has fallen off. Vessels still run from Sioux City and Yankton to the upper Missouri and the Yellowstone. Latterly there are indications of a revival of business on the lower Missouri. Joseph A. Conner, Esq. has this season (Summer of 1879) shipped three boat loads of produce to St. Louis from Plattsmouth. The last load took down sixty car loads of corn and twelve hundred hogs. It cost him fifteen cents per hun- dred against twenty-seven cents which the railroads charged. Unfortunately, this competition only lasts through the summer. The Missouri is not navigable for five or six months through the winter season. Next in importance to the Missouri is the Platte river. For length it approximates closely to twelve hundred miles. Its head waters originate in the mountains, and many of them rise in beauti- ful lakelets fed by the everlasting snows. No lakelets for example can be more interesting than those between the spurs of mountains twelve thousend feet above the sea level, wrhere the Cache Le Poudre river is born. Though precipitous and eratic in Colorado WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 59 and Wyoming, by the time it reaches Nebraska it is broad, shallow, sandy, but still with a rapid current. It flows through the whole length of the State from east to west, dividing the State, but leaving the largest part on the north. In places at low water it can IDC forded, though teams are sometimes in danger of sticking fast in the quick sands. It is not navigable. It has been bridged at Fremont, Schuyler, Grand Island, Kearney Junction, North Platte and other points. An important point on the river is North Platte, where it forks, one branch being known as the South Fork, enters the State from Colorado near the angle of the southwest corner, or near the parallel of 41°. The North Fork enters the State from Wyoming near latitude 42. The average volume of water at North Platte is greater than at its mouth, though it receives in the meantime some large tributaries, the most important of which are the Elkhorn, Papillion, Shell Creek, Loup and Wood River. A few held that this was caused by evaporation. The tributaries, however, that enter the Platte from the north more than supply the waste from this cause. The explanation of this phenomenon is found in the character of the bottom and its continuation with the Drift under- lying the uplands south of the Platte. The bottom of the Platte is extremely sandy, and is continuous with a sandy, gravelly and pebbly deposit of the Drift under the Loess as far as to the Repub- lican. It will also be seen in the lists of elevations that have been given that the general level of the Republican is three hundred and fifty-two feet below that of the Platte. There is therefore a descent from the Platte to the Republican, and along such a formation that there is easy drainage from the one into the other. That there is such drainage on an extensive scale I have no doubt. Wading in the Republican in August, as I have done for many miles at a time, I noticed on the north side water ozing out of the drift continuously every few feet in places, and rarely at greater intervals than every few rods. Nothing of the kind was noticed on its southern shore. Where tributaries of the Republican from the northwest cut deep enough to strike the drift they share in the reception of this water from the Platte. Few, however, do this. Flood time for the Platte is generally about the same time as that of the Missouri — sometimes a few days or weeks earlier, but the continuance of both is so long that they meet, though they rarely culminate together. 60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The Platte drains principally from the northwest. Its water shed on the south is generally only a few miles from its valley, while on the norrh it extends in places to within thirty-six miles of the north line of the State. If the bottoms and channel of the Platte were favorable for it there would be an abundance of water for navigation. It is next to impossible for railroads going to the mountains to do all the business that will be demannedof them when the Platte Valley and the mountain regions are once developed. Cheaper freights than these that railroads furnish will also be demanded. Then a canal can be built along side of the Platte to receive its waters from the mountains to the Missouri. It could be made as the Suez canal was, largely from artificial stone. For such a canal the valley of the Platte is one of the best in the world. No one now living may see such a work, but Nebraska is capable of sustaining a population so dense that such a canal will be a necessity. The Republican River rises in the Colorado Plains, near range 49 west of the 6th principal meridian. Here anciently there was a lake whose basin was about four miles across. The outlet, or river draining it, however, long since cut down the narrow rim and drained the lake. Its head here in the old lake is 4,050 feet above the sea. A few small springs new rise below the site of this old lake, and produce a tiny streamlet a foot across. Other streams, about or nearly as large, soon join it, but at the State line I could still, — when there in the spring of 1877, with D. N. Smith, — jump across it. Along this part of its course there are a few beautiful little lakelets into which and from which it flows. Here the water is cool, and clear as crystal. When it re- ceives the waters of the Arickaree, about seven miles east of the State line, it assumes its characteristic character. It now becomes shallow and sandy, and in places rapid. Its principal tributary in this portion of the State is the Republican Fork, and comes from the southwest. Its junction with the Republican is in range 38, west. Frenchman's Fork is an important tributary that rises in Colorado, and, flowing southeast, joins the Republican at Culbert- son. After this the most important tributary from the southwest is the Beaver. Red Willow and Medecine Creeks, from the north- west, are also important tributaries. An immense number of small creeks flow, every few miles, into the Republican, especially from the north. This river, unlike the Platte, increases regularly in WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 61 breadth and volume all the way from its source to its exit from the State, in Nuckalls County. It is forded in many places, and the only clanger is from quicksands. There is little danger with a team that does not balk in the water. It is already bridged in va- rious places. As was stated in the discussion of the Platte River, the Republican receives by subterranean drainage a portion of the waters of the former. The Niobrara River, from its source, in Wyoming, to its mouth, is 460 miles long. Its source, in Wyoming, is 5,100 feet above the sea level. At the State line it is about ten feet wide, and of beau- tiful, clear, running water. Its elevation here above the sea level approximates closely to 4,594 feet. It continues to be clear and sparkling, but widening to about fifteen feet down to longi- tude 103° 15'. From this point it widens rapidly until, in longitude 102° 30', it is from sixty to eighty yards wide. Here it enters a canyon whose walls are high and steep. This canyon region con- tinues down to longitude 99° 20', or about 180 miles. After its emergence from the canyon it is still a broad, rapid, sandy river to its mouth. Owing to its rapidity and quicksands, it is exceedingly difficult to ford in the lower part of its course. At least, this was my own experience. After sticking fast in the quicksands a few times, and being compelled to take a wagon apart and carry every- thing to shore, the river loses all romance for the explorer. In the lower part of its course there are many low islands, mostly cov- ered with timber. It flows into the Missouri in range 6, west, and 32, north. There are numerous tributaries of the Niobrara, most of which are of small size. On the south side, the first of importance is the Verdigris. This beautiful stream, which rises in Antelope County and flows north through the west end of Knox County, flows into the Niobrara six miles from its mouth. Between this and the mouth of the Keya Paha, on the south side, there are a great num- ber of small tributaries. From the mouth of the Keya Paha to the Wazihonska there are also a great number of small tributaries, and the most of these are remarkable for the great number of fine springs of water which feed them, and for the groves of pine and oak on their narrow bottoms and on their bluffs. The word Wazihonska signifies, in the Dakota language, " the place where the pine extends far out." This stream is about forty-five miles long, and its valley, though much narrower, closely resembles that 62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. of the Niobrara. Snake River is the next tributary of importance. Its mouth is near longitude 100° 45'. Its bed is thirty-five yards wide, and it has a narrow valley. Its bluffs are covered with pine. Beyond Snake River there are no large branches coming in from the south. The Keya Paha is the first large tributary above its mouth on the north side of the Niobrara. It is about 125 miles long. Where I crossed it, fifty miles above its mouth, is has a fine valley, three- fourths of a mile wide, with a good soil, and some cottonwood timber. The bed of the river, like that of the Niobrara, is sandy, but its waters are clear, and delicious to the taste. At its mouth it is about fifty-five yards wide. The next tributary from the north- west is Rapid Creek, which, however, is only nine yards wide at its mouth. It connects with the Niobrara in longitude 100° 23'. Its valley is in some places half a mile wide, and the soil is, judging from the vegetation, quite fertile. A few small trees fringe its banks. It is about fifty-five miles long. Reunion Creek, which flows into the Niobrara at longitude 101° 18', has hardly any bot- tom, and flows between lofty rock bluffs, very hard to ascend or de- scend. At its mouth it is fifty-eight yards wide, and has clear, cold, rapid-running water. At longitude 101° 30' a creek flows into the Niobrara, a little more than half the size of Rapid Creek, which it closely resem- bles. Above this there are a great number of small rivulets, which flow into the Niobrara, many of which are dry except in rainy weather- They, however, indicate the former abundance of water here, and will, with the growing moisture and rainfall of the State, again, no doubt, become permanent fresh-water streams. The peculiarities of the exceptional characters of the Niobrara region are given in a former paragraph under this head. The White River flows through Northwestern Nebraska It enters the State from Wyoming, flows eastward and northeast- ward, north of the Niobrara, until it enters Dakota Territory, a little east of longitude 103°. It has its source not far from that of the Niobrara, near a sudden descent of 500 feet, south of Hat Creek Station, on the road from Fort Laramie. This abrupt de- scent, when approached from the south, is not suspected until it is reached. Sometimes this descent is a slope that a team can climb, and again it changes to a bare wall five hundred feet high. Nu- merous brooks flow down the gullies and ravines formed on the % WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 63 side of this steep ascent and wall, and these go to form White River. The road from Hat Creek Station to Camp Robinson, thirty miles distant, lies near its base. " From Hat Creek the trend is a little south of east for thirty-eight miles to the point where this road makes its steep and difficult ascent." «« Beyond this point it runs northeasterly for a few miles, then southerly un- til it meets and terminates the northern bluffs of White River, iii the prominent landmark called Soldiers' Grove Cliffs, north of and overlooking Camp Robinson." * * * "It was traced eastward to Camp Sheridan, forming the southern border of White River valley." — (Captain Stanton.) Hence, the river and its valley are shut out from the rest of Nebraska by this natural barricade on the south. On most maps of the State, this range is represented too far to the north. It forms in the midst of a valley otherwise easily traversed. The White River in Nebraska has many small trib- utaries, many of which are beautiful, clear rivulets. Except the ridge just mentioned, it flows through a rather gently rolling country. The Elkhorn River, is one of the most beautiful streams of the State. It rises west of Holt and Elkhorn Counties. Near its source the valley widens to a very great breadth, and the bluffs bordering it are low and often almost inappreciable. In the region of its source especially south of the centre of the valley, are a great number of beautiful, small, fresh water lakes. Within a region eighteen by twelve miles square, there are at least twenty of these lakelets, most of which drain into the headwaters of the West Fork of the Elkhorn. It soon becomes in size a respectable stream. In the eastern border of Madison County it receives the North Branch of the Elkhorn, which rises in the southern part of Knox County. Unlike the West Fork, or main branch, it does not originate in a lake region, but in a region of innumerable small springs. The channel is full of water holes, between which the water often in midsummer flows under-ground. Soon it looses this character and becomes a rapid, clear, deep and beautiful stream. The general direction of the main river approximates to 250 miles. Its direction is southeast. It empties into the Platte in the western part of Sarpy County. For a large part of its course, the Elkhorn flows over rock bottom. It has considerable fall, and its steady, large volume of waters will render it a most valuable manufacturing region. 64 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The Logan is the most important tributary of the Elkhorn. It rises principally in Cedar County. Of several branches of this river, it is impossible to tell which is the longest or deserves the name of principal stream. They all originate in bogs or old filled up lake beds. Large beds of peat are here found. After erne -gi ig from these bogs, which lie in the midst of the most beautiful and gently rolling lands conceivable, these Logan streams soon become constant, clear, and rapid. The bottoms are pebbly or sandy. There are many of these branches in Wayne County, which through their instrumentality, has among the finest physi- cal features of any sections of the State. There are numerous smaller tributaries of the Elkhorn, all of which have characters in a miner degree like the parent stream. The general direction of all these Logan rivers, is southeast, until Burt County is reached, after which it is south, until a junction is formed with the Elkhorn in the eastern portion of Dodge County. The Bow Rivers in northeastern Nebraska are not known as they deserve to be. They are known as the East, the Middle and the West Bows. No rivers of the State have interested me more. The water is clear and cold. They originate in the coolest and most delightful springs of mostly soft water. In the centre of Cedar County, near Curlew, there is a spring of cold water that emerges from a bluff strong enough to turn a mill. In fact, almost every half mile, along these rivers, these magnificent springs make their appearance. Except the East Bow, their general direction is northeast. The East Bow flows northwest until it unites wTith the Middle Bow. Below St. James, all united they join their waters to those of the Missouri. Sooner or later, when fish cul- ture receives the • attention in this State, which it deserves, these Bow Rivers will become noted as trout streams. The Nemahas early became noted rivers in Nebraska. The north branch of the Nemaha runs in a southeasterly direction, diagonally through Johnson and Richardson Counties, until it unites with the main river, in the latter county. Its length is about sixty miles and increases regularly in size, from its source to its mouth, by the addition of numerous tributaries. The main Nemaha rises in Pawnee County, takes a southerly direction into Kansas, then turns northeast into Richardson County and then flows a little south of east, until it unites with the Missouri near the southeast corner of the State. Its length is but sixty miles, WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 65 but it receives so many comparatively large tributaries, that its magnitude at the end of its course is much greater than many much longer rivers. The bottom lands of these rivers are broad, often beautifully terraced, and the bordering bluffs are gently rounded off. The impression left on the mind, after traversing these valleys, is that their beauty cannot be surpassed. The fall -and size of these rivers and their larger tributaries, will supply motive power to an immense number of manufacturing industries. The Little Nemaha is a smaller edition of the " Big Nemaha." It rises in Cass County, flows in a southeasterly direction through Otoe, and Nemaha Counties, and unites with the Missouri near Nemaha City, in Nemaha County. It also has numerous tribu- taries. It is a beautiful stream of water, and with its characteristic wide bottoms and gently rounded bluffs, gives character to the counties through which it flows. The Blues are among the most important rivers of Nebraska. The main branch with its tributaries drains eight counties, which are among the best in the State. It is about 132 miles long. It rises in Hamilton County, and after flowing for thirty-six miles, a little northeast, it curves around and follows a southeast direction through Butler, Seward, Saline, and Gage Counties. It enters Kansas from the Otpe Reservation, where it ultimately unites with the Republican. The Middle Fork of the Blue also rises in Hamilton County, and flowing first a little north of east, unites with the North Blue at Seward. Its length is about sixty miles. The West Fork of the Big Blue rises in Hall County and flows a little north of east through Hamilton, then east through York, and then southeast through Seward, and finally unites with the main Blue, five miles above Crete in Saline County. School Creek and Beaver Creek are tributaries of the West Fork of nearly the size of the parent stream. Turkey Creek is also a large tributary from the northwest, which unites with the Blue near the line of junction, between Saline and Page Counties. All these Blue Rivers and their tributaries, few of which can even be alluded to, are remarkable for the amount of water which they carry off, and the great beauty of the bottom lands through which they meander. The uplands between the bottoms are also for the most part gentlv rolling and composed of the richest soil. The bottoms are often terraced, and the materials in such cases are mostly of a Loess character. The bluffs bordering these bottom 5 66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. lands are generally gently rounded off, and infinitely varied. It is doubtful whether the mind could imagine a section better sup- plied with rivers and creeks and rivulets giving an abundance of water privileges of the best character. There is such an abun- dance of water in these rivers and their tributaries, and the fall adequate, that the motive power is ready to propel a vast amount of machinery for manufacturing industries. With superior water privileges and the choicest lands a dense population must here rapidly accumulate. There is still another Blue River that rises in Adams County and flows in a southwesterly direction through Clay, Nuckolls, Thayer, and in the southeast corner of Jefferson County, enters Kansas where it finally unites with the " Big Blue." About no miles of this river are in Nebraska. In its most important features, it resembles the " Big Blue." Like the last, it is a magnificent stream. It also has numerous tributaries, which are in miniature, what the parent stream is. The Lottos, next to the Niobrara, are the most unique rivers in Nebraska. Even these streams, however, have many things in common with the other rivers of Nebraska. The whole length of the middle or main Loup approximates to 250 miles. It rises a little east of the 102° parallel and fifty miles from the north line of the State. My barometer indicated 3,230 feet above the sea level for this point. There are a great number of small lakes and lakelets. I counted nine within a radius of ten miles. Some of them drain into the Loup. It flows in a southeastern direction until the southeast corner of Howard County is reached, when it turns first a little north of east, and then a little south of east, and unites with the Platte, near Columbus, commencing at its lower end on the north side. Its first important tributary is the Beaver, and then Cedar Creek, which originally took its name from the Cedar Groves along its banks. The North Loup also rises among a cluster of small lakes, a little east of the 101° meridian and forty- five miles from the north line of the State. Here I found a dozen of small lakes within a radius of eight miles, and many of them of great beauty, with pebbly and sandy bottoms, and with water clear as crystal. Calamus Creek is its most important tributary. I regret that I failed to reach its source. The entire length of this Loup, until its junction with the Middle Loup is 150 miles. Its general direction is southeast. Perhaps there is no more interest- WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 67 ing and beautiful valley in all Nebraska than the North Loup. The water is of crystal clearness and the fertility of the valley is very great. The scenery is varied. This judgment formed twelve years ago, is more than confirmed since its settlement. Corn and the cereal grains are most successfully produced. Timber and fruit trees are grown with an ease surpassed nowhere in the State. On the south side the main tributaries are Mud Creek and the South Loup. This latter river rises immediately beyond the west boundary of Custer County, and flows in a southeasterly direction into Buffalo County, and then northeast to its junction with the Middle Loup in Howard County. There are a large number of smaller tributaries. The rivers are in places excessively sandy and quite rapid. The quality of the bottom lands vary more than in other Nebraska valleys. There are many sandy elevations here. At the ordinary level there is a somewhat sandy loam, rich in humus and of a dark color. In depressions slightly below the level of the former, and often of a cloggy texture, the alkaline soil occurs. Slightly elevated above both these varieties is a coarser sandy soil. These different soils often shade into each other, and again they are sharply outlined. The good soil, however, greatly predominates over the inferior varieties. Very little of the alkaline soil however can be called poor. Cultivation permits the waters to percolate through it and carry to lower levels the excess of alkaline matter, and much is consumed by the crops that are cultivated, especially in wet seasons. Here as elsewhere over the State, where these soils occur, a few years of cultivation often renders them equal to the best in the State. Towards the head of the Loups the sand hills in places crowd the bottom lands. Where they occur travel is difficult. Often where they are most abundant they suddenly cease and the country changes to a gently rolling plain of first and second class land. Some explorers have pronounced one-half of the region of the Loups waste land. This is certainly by one-half too high. And if one-fourth of the upper Loup region is taken up with sand hills they still make choice pasture or grazing grounds. It is remarkable that where twelve years ago the sand hills were comparatively bare they have now, through the influence of increasing rainfall, become covered to some extent with a growth of nutritious grasses. This is proof, if any were needed, of the abundance of mineral fertilizers which these sands contain. 68 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Salt Creek derives its name from the number of saline springs and bogs that unite with it in Lancaster County. It is formed near Lincoln by the junction of Oak Creek, Middle Creek, South Creek and other small' streams. From this place it flows in a northeast- erly direction until it unites with the Platte below Ashland. It is a rather deep stream with a muddy bottom. Its valley is composed of remarkably fine bottom lands. The slope from the bottom up to the top of the bluff on the southeast side is exceptionally gentle. In many places it is impossible to tell where the bottom leaves off and the upland begins. The characteristics of the salt springs are discussed under the head of the Historical, Superficial and Econom- ical Geology of the State. There are many other rivers of Nebraska to which our limits will not permit us even to allude. Important, however, among these are the Weeping Water in Cass County, the Wahoo in Saunders County, Elk Creek in Dakota County, and South and West Iowa Creeks in Dixon County. All possess more or less of the general character of Nebraska rivers. Traveling over the State in almost any direction, and the study of a good map, demonstrates that this State is eminently the land of many and broad rivers. Many of the smaller streams, however, in eastern Nebraska are losing their character of broad and shallow streams. They are becoming deep streams. They have, since the settlement of the country, been cutting deep between their banks. Many streams which sixteen years ago could be stepped across are now wider, and very much deeper than then, and running between such high banks that they can only be readily crossed by bridges. Shut out from the influence of the sun their evaporation is much less, and their size increases from this cause as well as from the increase of rainfall. The water supply, therefore, of Nebraska, is most bountiful. Rivers or creeks — often both — are found in every county. The number of rivulets is enormous. Where springs fail to appear water can be obtained by wells. THE WATER POWER of Nebraska is simply enormous. As the rise of the State towards the west approximates to seven and a half feet to the mile, the fall of most of the streams averages at least one-half of that. Were the streams straight, they would average the same fall as the rise of the country, WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 69 but fhey all meander more or less through their wide bottoms. Every few miles, however, places can be found on most of the creeks and rivers where the fall is from seven to ten feet to the mile, and even more, for the reason that the descent is very irregular, being much greater at some points than at others. Where there is no fall for a mile, it is made up by a more rapid descent further on. Counting in then all the creeks and rivers of the State the motive power that is now wasted and waits tobe'used is beyond calculation. The dams built across the Nebraska rivers are best modeled after those of the beavers. These brute engineers constructed their dams by laying sticks and twigs up and down the streams across their, currents, and filling in the interstices with mud. It has been found by experience that mill dams constructed in this way, with brush, wherever there is no rock bottom, most successfully resist the action of floods. In fact, very few dams well built on this plan have ever been disturbed by the severest freshets. 70 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER VI. DRAINAGE OF NEBRASKA AND CHARACTER OF ITS WATER. General Character of the Drainage — Character of the Water — Source of Impurities — Character of the River Water — Temperature of the Missouri River Water — Water of the Platte, Republican and Bow Rivers. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE DRAINAGE. FROM the preceding presentation of facts, and the discussions concerning them, it is clear that the drainage system of Ne- braska is complete. The State, as a whole, slopes eastward, and a little southward. There is little flat land. The great body of the State varies from a very gently, almost imperceptibly rolling region, to one that is made up of rounded, hill-like masses, with long, gentle slopes. The subsoil is the best in the world for drainage, being made up principally of Loess materials, and, where these run out, is composed of Alluvium, or Drift. The Loess contains eighty per cent, of finely comminuted silica, and as this deposit is of enor- mous average thickness, it absorbs excessive rainfall like a sponge. The Alluvium also contains a large amount of silica, and the Drift is noted for that material. The average elevation of the whole State is about 2,312 feet above the sea. In the lay of the land, therefore, its physical character, its slope, and elevation above the sea, it is in the best possible condition for perfect drainage. It is owing to this combination of causes that farmers are seldom, in the wettest weather, delayed more than a day or two in plowing. In fact, as soon as the rain ceases, in most soils, they can plow with- out injury to the land. It is also owing to these causes that Ne- braska possesses such admirable natural roads. Twelve hours after the heaviest rains the roads are comparatively dry. It is true that roads that cross creek bottoms are sometimes an exception ; and this is because occasionally there are longer or shorter distances here that are underlaid with strata of clayey material. Here the DRAINAGE AND CHARACTER OF WATER. 71 water stands longer, and in the rainy season the mud may continue for a few weeks or a month. Such cases only attract attention be- cause of the general dryness of the roads. Less road taxis needed than in any other State. The obstacles to good roads are the creek and river crossings, which are everywhere being rapidly bridged. It is sometimes objected that there are peat bogs in the State, and, at long intervals, a few marshes. These are, however, the remnants of old lakes, and these, having a small accumulation of clay on their bottoms, retain the water, and make possible that accumulation of peaty matter, much of which may eventually be- come important for fuel. CHARACTER OF THE WATER. The commonest ingredient of the water of springs and wells is carbonate of lime. Then follow, in minute and varying quanti- ties, in different springs, carbonate of potash and soda, sulphate of potash, magnesia, soda and lime, chlorides of sodium, and potas- sium, and iron and free carbonic acid. Many springs are free from the most of these salts. Carbonate of lime, the commonest of these impurities, is seldom present in injurious quantites. Perhaps three-fourths of the springs and wells of the State contain it, in amount varying from a trace to distinctly hard water. There are many springs and wells whose waters are remarkably soft. Those along the Bow Rivers are mainly of this character. Generally, where springs emerge from the gravel beds and pebble, or strata of sand in the Drift, the waters are soft, and otherwise remarkably pure. Wells sunk into such deposits are also apt to be free from lime, or contain it in only minute quantity. On the other hand, water obtained in the Loess, whether from springs or from wells, has a perceptible quantity of carbonate of lime, and a small quan- tity of iron in solution. There are also strata in the Drift contain- ing a large amount of lime, and this often is the source of the hardness of the water that proceeds from this deposit. In general, the water of springs and wells is remarkably clear and cool, and free from injurious ingredients. The reader, of course, under- stands that such a thing as absolutely pure water is an impossi- bility, except by distillation. It is the salts that natural water con- tains that make it palatable. It rarely happens that any organic matter is present in a spring or well, unless it gets there through the carelessness of men. This leads us to consider the 72 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. SOURCE OF IMPURITIES. Sometimes the water of springs and wells has a disagreeable taste from an excessive quantity of iron that is present. It may be a peroxide of iron, but more frequently it is a sulphate or sulphu- ret. This is particularly the case with springs and wells that flow over or through rocks of Cretaceous age, abounding in iron pyrites, the decomposition of which, and combination with the \vater, gives it its peculiar iron and sulphur taste. The Dakota group, for example, abounds in peroxide of iron, and the Fort Benton group in iron pyrites. Seme strata of the upper carbon- iferous equally abound in the compounds of iron. I have some- times been called on to decide the character of such water, on the supposition that it was impregnated with organic matter, but, on analysis, nothing could be found except iron and sulphur, besides the ordinary salts that are universally present. Such waters are probably more disagreeable than unhealthy. Impurities from the presence of organic matter in water are far more fatal to health. There is no need for the occurrence of such cases, but, unfortunately, through ignorance or carelessness, they do occur. It sometimes happens that filth is permitted to accumulate near wells, and, too often, all unsuspected, drains into them from the surface. Owing, however, to the porous nature of the soil, filth more frequently drains into them by subterranean passages. I have frequently been called to examine well water that was be- lieved to be the cause of illness in families. Often I found organic matter, which frequently was partly composed of uric acid. The source could universally be traced to a sewer, vault or cattle-yard near by. In fact, in such a soil as that of Nebraska, no filth, and especially no sewer matter, should ever be placed within seventy- five feet of a well or spring. It is almost absolutely certain to drain into a well if closer than that. One hundred feet, or more,, would be a safer distance. This is often inconvenient, and some- times nigh impossible in towns. Under such circumstances, where \vater works cannot be provided, families should depend on filtered cistern water for household use. Where rainfall is as abundant as here, cisterns can be made capacious enough to supply water for households during the whole year. More sickness, I am confident, is caused by well water that has been permitted to become tainted DRAINAGE AND CHARACTER OF WATER. 73 by foul matter than from all other causes. Even in the country, where these faults could so readily be avoided, wells are too often located alongside of the cattle-yard, or close by a cesspool. The inevitable consequence is, that the water sooner or later becomes impure, by the presence of decayed animal matter. Another source of impurity, though by no means as dangerous as the last, is the curbing used for wells. The water of wells often gains a bad repute by the disagreeable taste and odor given to it by the cottonwood or pine lumber which is used to protect them from caving at the bottom. The first settlers, before stone quarries were opened, or brick were burned, resorted to this method to secure their wells. It is still practiced to a large extent in many sections of the State. Frequently, in examining wells that were declared to be unfit for use, nothing was found the matter with them except this wooden curbing, which had imparted to it its own taste. CHARACTER OF RIVER WATER. The waters of the creeks and rivers of Nebraska must neces- sarily vary a great deal in character. That of the Missouri is the most peculiar. It is always muddy. It has this character to the mouth of the Yellowstone, above which the Missouri is, for a larger part of the year, a clear stream. It is the Yellowstone that gives character to the Missouri, it being, like the Missouri below their junction, turbid to its source. In 1873 I collected water from its channel, at Omaha, during high water, when the bank was nearly full, and in October, during low water, at the same place. The sediment was separated by filtration, and the amount was as fol- lows: At high water, 403.7 grains from one gallon; at low water, 51.9 grains from one gallon. This result differed slightly from that of Prof. Emmons, of the Iowa geological survey. His determination was as follows: At high water, 404 grains per gallon; at low water, 52 grains per gal- lon. The amount of suspended sediment at high water is, there- fore, upwards of seven times as much as at low water. It was found, however, that the amount of solid matter held in solution, was greatest at low water. This would naturally be expected, as during flood time the sediment has but recently been added to the water, but by the time low water arrives, the river has exercised its solvent powers. In the chapter on the Superficial Deposits of Nebraska, the reader will find analysis of Missouri River sedi- 74 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ment. Only a qualitative analysis was made of the water with the following result: Carbonate of lime was present in the largest quantity. Next came carbonate of soda, iron in various forms and carbonic hydro- chloric acid. In smaller proportions there was present sulphuric acid, magnesia, and organic matter. Only a trace of potash appeared. Iron was clearly most abundant at high water. The temperature of the Missouri River at Dakota City during May, 1869, was 60° June, 1869, was 62° July, 1869, was 70° August, 1869, was 73° September, 1869, was 66° October, 1869, was 54° November, 1869, was 36^° December, 1869, was 35° The above were my own observations. The following are taken from the report of the United States Signal office at Omaha during 1877 and 1878. Temperature at bottom . Average depth of water. JUly Max. 77 Min. 70 64 4fi 32 32 87 Feet. 26 io 10 10 14 10 72 6« 45 38 October ..... March 52 Mav June During several years between 1873 and 1879 I attempted to ascertain the temperature of the Missouri at Plattsmouth, but the result did not differ materially from the above. Though the water of the Missouri is muddy, yet when it is allowed to settle and become clear, it is singularly sweet, and in summer, when cooled with ice, it is even delicious. I have seen barrels filled with Missouri water, in July and August, and whether standing in the sun or shade, no infusoria or other minute animal forms could be detected with the microscope, even after a week's exposure. I have had no such experience with any other river water anywhere. Probably, one reason of this is, that the sediment held in suspension, by the water, carries to the bottom, as it settles, all organic matter. Eventually infusoria appear in it — in DRAINAGE AND CHARACTER OF WATER. 75 from ten to twelve days, while with ordinary water, under the same circumstances, they can be found within a week. The waters of the Platte do not differ materially from those of the Missouri. It holds almost as much sediment in suspension during flood time, but materially less during low water. In 1874, I took a sample from the Platte, near Omaha Junction, in flood time in June, and one from the same place, at low water in Octo- ber. The following result was obtained by filtering. At high water, 397 grains from one gallon; at low water, 39 grains from one gallon. It is seen from this result that the amount of sedi- ment held in suspension by the Platte^ during high water, is over ten times as great, as during low water. The difference is much greater than between high and low water, in the Missouri. In other words, the Platte much more nearly becomes clear than the Missouri. The qualitative analysis also showed the presence of lime, soda, iron, carbonic and hydrochloric acid. Then in less quantities followed sulphuric acid, magnesia, potash, and organic matter. There was less lime and iron, and more potash than in the water of the Missouri. Analyses varied considerably between high and low water, and between samples taken at different places. The above is, therefore, only an approximation to the correct composition of the water. The temperature of the Platte waters is comparatively high. At or near its mouth, its average for June, 1879, was 69°; for July, 76°, and for August, 78°. When, however, the water of the Platte is left to settle, and become clear, it can safely be used for domestic purposes. It is purer than that which is used by the majority of mankind. On analysis, it is found, that the water of the Republican closely resembles that of the Platte. As it receives by drainage a consider- able quantity of the water of the Platte, and flows over similar deposits, this similarity in chemical character would be expected. The Niobrara River varies in different parts of its course in the quality and temperature of its waters, more than any other river in Nebraska. Where it enters the State, it is a clear, sparkling stream, and before it reaches the canyon region, it approximates in character to that of the upper Platte. Here, however, it flows between lofty walls and receives such a vast number of cold springs of water, that the whole river partakes of their character. After it emerges from this canyon region, it again gradually approxi- mates in the character of its water to that of the Platte. 76 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The Bow Rivers, as we have already seen, are peculiar in the great number of pure springs of water, that are found along their whole length. Their mean temperature is, therefore, somewhat lower than that of other rivers of the State. And yet because of the springs with which they are directly fed, large sections of them never freeze, even in the coldest winters. For reasons previously stated the water of these rivers is less hard than that of other rivers of the State. The only other river with which I can compare it, in these respects, is the Bazile, and in a still less 'degree, the Verdigris. The Bazile, like the Bows, is largely fed by springs flowing directly .into it. The waters of the remaining rivers that rise within the State have many points in common. One of them is the blackish hue that is given to them after rains and during flood time. This is caused by the organic matter which is brought down by every rivulet from the black surface soil of the State. This black soil being from one to twenty feet in thickness, all the water pouring into the rivers, after rains, is more or less, loaded with it. This, then, gives to the waters those ingredients which constitute its dis- solved substance. Among these in addition to the organic matter, is lime, salts of soda, potash and magnesia, and iron. In minute quality, also, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid. When flood time is over, the streams that rise within the State, are proximately clear. The Blues have in places, a blue tinge, and yet objects can be seen at the bottom, where the water is from two to four feet deep. GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRASKA. 77 CHAPTER VII, GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRASKA. AN OBSERVER casually passing over the State little suspects the wealth of vegetable forms that clothe the land. To under- stand, however, its botany, this one fact needs to be borne in mind, namely that Nebraska is the meeting place of two somewhat diverse floras. Here the plants indigenous to dry regions and those common to humid sections come together. The slope of the land eastward is so gentle that Rocky Mountain forms come more than half way to meet their distant relatives from the moister regions of the Missouri and Mississippi. In fact here Rocky Mountain plants by slight and gradual change in environment, have adapted them- selves to a climate very different from their native habitat. The same can be said of forms whose centre of dispersion was the Mis- sissippi basin. Hence it is that the best botanical floras of the schools — such as Gray's Manual and Wood's Class Book — do not describe many of our floral forms. Singularly enough what they leave off can mostly be found in Porter's and Coulter's Colorado Flora. The former were only intended for the region east of the Mississippi, but this section, in addition to that, grows many of the plants of the Rocky Mountains. This is one reason why there is such a wealth of vegetable forms in the State. It has drawn for its supplies from two diverse regions, and owing to the magnifi- cence of its climate, and the richness and variety of its soils, it has successfully acclimated plants from high, dry and cold regions, and those from low, humid and hot sections. I have thus far collected over 2,100 species and varieties of plants from this State.* Com- paring this number with the lists from other States, it will be seen that our wealth of native varieties and species is exceptionally great. And yet the harvest to be gathered, especially among the lowly cryptogamic forms, is hardly touched. * See my Catalogue of the Flora of N«brafka, published by the University of Nebraska, 1875. The next edition will hare at least 100 additional species. 78 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The highest of all the orders, the Crowfoot Family (Ranuncu- lacece) is represented by forty-two. Characteristic among these for their humble beauty are six species and one variety of Anemone. Five species and one variety of Crowfoot (Ranunculus) are abun- dant in their season. The Larkspurs (Delphinium) are still more abundant. No species, however, of this family is so remarkable for its beauty and abundance as the Columbine (Aquilegia.) They are a conspicuous form along the line of the Burlington & Missouri Railroad in Nebraska, between Ashland and Plattsmouth. Here they grow to a size, and attain to a beauty rarely witnessed elsewhere. Among the early flowering plants the violets here, as elsewhere, hold a conspicuous place. No temperate region is complete without them. Eleven species adorn our prairies and woodlands. One of them, the Downy Yellow Violet ( Viola pubescens) is found only in the belts of timber. The Larkspur Violet ( V. delphinefolia) and the Arrow-leaved Violet ( V. sagittatd) are the most abun- dant. Their abundance sometimes is so great in woodlands that they give a violet hue to the ground and exclude all other forms. In the Pink family no flower is so abundant as the Starry Cam- pion (Silene stellatd). Its favorite locality is the thick underbrush of woodlands. The Mallows are represented by some delicately beautiful forms. Chief among these is one with scarlet flowers and branching stems (Callirrhoe involucrata). Another (C. triangulate?}, is more abun- dant, and only less beautiful than the last. Another, with a scarlet salmon color, shading into yellow purple, grows in patches cover- ing the ground. This is one of the most desirable for cultivation. Two species of Hebiscus are abundant, but one of them (If. trior- num) which has become abundant in many parts of the State, is a foreigner, having escaped from cultivated grounds. The Pulse Family (Leguminosce) are exceedingly abundant in species and individuals. One of the earliest of the species of this order to bloom is the Ground Plum (Astragalus caryocarpus), so called by the early " voyageurs" over the plains. Its young tender pods are no mean substitute for peas, as I many times ascer- tained by experience when camped on the unsettled prairies. Its purplish violet racemes of flowers which often shade into white, are the most conspicuous forms on the plains in their season. There are nineteen other species of Astragalus in the State, many of which with intense scarlet flowers are marvelously beautiful. GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRAtitfS 79 They increase in the number of species towards the western part of the State, their centre of distribution being the Rocky Moun- tains. Other characteristic forms of this order are the Psoraleas, Prairie Clovers (Petalastemon violaceus and P. candidus], Tick- Trefoils (Desmodiums), and Indigo Plants (Baptista). Baptisia leucophaea, with its large racemes of cream-colored flowers, is abundant, and arrests the attention of every one traveling over the prairies when it is in bloom. The Wild Senna (Cassia Mart landicd) is exceedingly abundant and largely sensitive, and full of beautiful yellow flowers is one of the most interesting plants in the State. Still more highly sensitive is the Sensitive Brier (Shrankia uncinatd). Its rose-purple flowers are in small heads, and is most abundant in Southwestern Nebraska. Of the Rose Family there are fifty-nine species in the State. Of these the wild plums are the most conspicuous. These are found in almost every county, and grow to a size and spread into varie- ties, and attain a richness of flavor rarely equaled elsewhere. The Cinquefoils (Potentilld) are represented by fourteen species. The wild strawberries, raspberries and June berries are all well repre- sented. Of wild roses there are at least four species. Occasion- ally one of these (Rosa blanda) becomes a nuisance, its eradication being difficult from old formerly abandoned fields. The Evening Primrose Family (Onagraccd) gives many beautiful forms to the State. One of these ((Enothera biennis] which has been successfully reduced to cultivation, is found growing in West- ern Nebraska with flowers three and four inches in diameter. Another one, growing in Central and Western Nebraska, is still larger, but with a low stem, and the flowers light yellow, with orange veins. One of the commonest forms of this order in Eastern Nebraska is (Enothera serrulata. Its flowers are yellow and its leaves narrow and serrulate. All the species of this order increase towards the western limits of the State. One of the most curious of all orders is the Cactus Family. Of this order there are in this State twenty species and varieties. Along the eastern counties the commonest forms are Opuntea vulgaris and O. Rafinesquii. They increase greatly in numbers of species and individuals towards the central and western portions of the State. One of the most beautiful is the Cereus caespitosus. It is of a short cylindrical form, writh rose purple flowers two and three inches in diameter. The yellow flower becoming green of 80 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. C. viridiflorus is scarcely less beautiful. Many admire most the large, deep purple flower of C. fendleri, and the scarlet one, open day and night, of C. gonacanthus. The varieties of colors among these flowers is exceptionally great, shading from pink purple to yellowish green, and from deep scarlet to rose purple and yellow. The Honeysuckle Family is represented by fourteen species, the most common being the Yellow Honeysuckle (Lonicera flavd}. The Sweet Wild Honeysuckle (L. grata] is abundant in the State. The Hairy Honeysuckle is rarely met with. The Bush Honey- suckle (Diervilla trifida), so common in the East, is also abundant here on the borders of woodlands. The Composite Family is the most abundant in the number of species of any in the State, there being at least 244 different forms. Some of the earliest and some of the latest flowering plants belong to this order. One of the former is Townsendia grandiflora. Almost stemless, crouched among the dead grass, it is a most beautiful object amid the bleakness of early spring. There are nineteen species of sunflowers. These in the latter part of sum- mer and autumn everywhere attract attention, and still later by their seeds furnish food to great nnmbers of grouse, quail and other birds. The beautiful blazing stars (Liatris) are represented by six species. The asters here find a most congenial home, as twenty- eight species adorn our prairies. The Golden Rods (SaKdago), so well loved by the bees, are represented by twenty species. The Coreopsis, so much sought after and cultivated in the east is represented by eight species. A short distance northeast of Fairmount, acres are covered with these golden-hued flowers, to the exclusion of all other forms. One of the most uni- versally spread of this order is Aplopoppus rubignosus, and A. spinulosus. The former is peculiar in being "viscidly pubescent," the flowers in subglobose heads, and generally have many, on erect stems from ten to eighteen inches high. It is one of those curious forms that has spread over the State from the lofty regions on the west. The finest representative of the Lobelia Family is becoming ex- ceedingly rare. I refer to the cardinal flower (L. cardinal is], which was abundant along the Missouri wooded bluffs, but is now rarely met with. The Figwort Family finds here a most congenial home. Twenty species of Pentstemon grace the State; only six, however, are found GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRASKA. 81 in the eastern counties. They increase rapidly westward, until the mountains are reached, where they have their greatest develop- ment. Among the most beautiful are P. grandiflora and P. ceru- leus. P. albidus is only found along our western border. More of these beautiful species deserve a place in the garden than have yet been admitted there. The scarlet Castilleias, in western Ne- braska, are not less beautiful than the last. The rose-purple Gerardia also abounds in places. It is curious that a homely mem- ber of this tribe, the common mullein of the East, though not native, has, since its accidental introduction, spread rapidly over eastern Nebraska. The Verbenas are among the most generally spread species of the State. Some of the native nine species of the State are found in every county. Verbena hastata is most abundant. V. bracle- asa is at home in every county. I have seen it grow at the very edge of the Bad Lands, and at the foot of the Sand Hills. Of the forty-eight species of the Mint Family, perhaps the most attractive is Salvia azurea, which grows here from four to five feet high, with showy, azure blue flowers, in a spike-like raceme. The Polemonium Family receives here a wonderful develop- ment in the number of individuals. Phlox is the most abundant. In June, in many places, the prairies are made scarlet by their numbers. Some of the counties along the Elkhorn and its tribu- taries are particularly remarkable for their numbers. The Logan bottoms, in Wayne County, in former years, had a most extra- ordinary profusion of these flowers. The Gilias are most abundant towards our western limits. One form, however, {G. tricolor^ first described from California, is frequently seen in eastern Ne- braska. Of the Convolvulus Family, the most interesting form is the Bush Morning Glory (Ipomcea leptopkylla). Its purple, funnel-form flower, three inches long, is a most attractive object in southwestern Nebraska. The dodder, also, unfortunately, abounds in our woods. The Night- Shade Family is represented, among many others,, by the Potato-Beetle weed (Solanum rostratum). It was intro- duced from the mountains by freighters across the plains. It is the original plant on which the potato beetle fed, before the more luscious potato came in its way. The Gentian Family is most fully represented by the type genus Gentiana. Of the fourteen species that here belong to this order, 6 82 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. nine belong to this genus. They are rarer than in former years, G. crinita, or fringed gentian, being now rarely found. One species, with a short stem, is a very late bloomer in autumn. It is of a very deep blue color, and appears after the first frosts. The Milkweed Family is particularly rich in species of the genus Asclepias, of which there are fourteen different forms. Asclepia verticillata, with its greenish-white flowers, is rapidly, for some reason, increasing in southern Nebraska. - The Buckwheat Family is represented by forty-two species. The ioint-weeds (Polygonuni) are the most abundant. Of these there are nineteen species and varieties. Polygonum amphibium and its two varieties, are the most abundant, it being found abund- antly in low, swampy ground. The Missouri bottoms seem to be its centre of distribution. The plant is remarkable for the large amount of tannic acid which it contains. The Spurge Family is conspicuous in the State, not for the number of species, as there are only twenty-two, but because of the singular appearance of a few forms. Euphorbia marginata, so abundant in every county, is conspicuous for its beautiful silver- white margined leaves. These are recognized a great way off. This plant is cultivated in the east for its beauty of form. Here, in places, its very abundance makes it a nuisance. E. hetero- phylla, on the other hand, has a beautiful scarlet-red base to its upper leaves. This species does not make itself so conspicuous as the last, as it needs to be sought after to be found. The Orchis Family is well represented by twenty-nine species. Only a few are abundant. The Great Western White Orchis (Habernaria leucophced) is found sparingly in all low lands. Its cream-white raceme of flowers are remarkable alike for their beauty and their delicious odor. The common Lady Slippers (Cypripediuiri) are abundant in some woodlands. C. pubescens is most frequently met with, and grows to a size rarely observed in the east. The Iris Family is chiefly remarkable for the great number of individuals of one species, namely, the Blue-Eyed Grass (Sisyrin- chium Bermudiand}. When in bloom, it is observed everywhere on the prairies, because of the attractiveness of its numerous, tiny, star-like, blue and white flowers. The Lily Family furnishes one of the earlie&t of our flowering plants, namely, the Dog's-Tooth Violets (Erythronium). E. GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRASKA. 83 Americanum and E. albidum often make their appearance when snow still covers some of the hillsides. Three species of Lily grow wild, and the almost universal Solomon's seal. One of the most peculiar of all species is the so-called Soap Plant (Tucca an- gustifolia). It is exceedingly abundant in western Nebraska, and very rarely met with in the eastern counties. It contains a large amount of alkaline matter in its tissues, and hence its popular name, it frequently being used by " voyageurs ," in the absence of soap, for washing. The plants do not bloom every year, but when a flower-stalk is produced it bears from a dozen to one hundred and twenty large, greenish, cream-colored, lily-like flowers. Its leaves are long, narrow, numerous and pointed. Abundant among the plants of the State are the sedges. They bear such an external resemblance to the grasses that they are commonly confounded with them. There are at least one hundred and fifty- four species in the State, varying in size from forms only a few inches high, to flags, in ponds and sloughs, six feet high. They can generally be recognized by their three-cornered stems and solid culms, differing in this respect from the grasses, whose culms are round and hollow, or, at least, are not angled. As everywhere else, the genus Carex is represented by the most species, more than two-thirds of all in the State belonging to it. The higher Cryptogamia (Flowerless Plants) are well repre- sented in the State. Thirty -six species and varieties of ferns flourish in our woodlands. Four species of Lycopods are also met with. Over one hundred species of mosses have been identified. At least sixty-two species of lichens are scattered over the State. The Fresh Water Algae are exceeding abundant, and of these ninety-two species have been detected. In this department I have only skimmed the surface, but hope to renew my labors in this field, when many more will be added to the number of our species. As some features of our flora have a special interest, I will dis- cuss them more in detail in the following chapters. 84 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER VIII. FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS OF NEBRASKA, WITH NOTES ON THEIR DISTRIBUTION. IN the early reports on Nebraska it was represented that some half dozen species of forest trees were native here. Such reports •were evidently made at random. It has too often happened that men with a respectable acquaintance with natural history felt com- petent to to describe the physical aspects and flora of a region after going through it on horse back at a gallop. Only after the most painstaking labor of fourteen years have I found many of the species contained in this list. Since my own catalogue of our Flora was published, and after I had given a list of our trees and shrubs to different parties for publication I discovered some additional species within our borders. One of these is the common white walnut or butternut ( Juglans cinerea ), that turned up in Dixon County, a few miles from lona, in a woodland that I had frequently ex- amined before. Simon Baltzley first informed me of its existence. I have no doubt that still more trees remain to be added to our Flora. There are so many sequestered canyons clothed with timber, which no botanist has yet visited, that it would be extraordinary indeed if some of them did not contain species as yet unknown in the State. I have shown elsewhere that in times quite recent, geo- logically, Nebraska was heavily timbered with a varied forest veg- etation.* When the causes commenced to operate that finally re- duced its area to present limits, some of the species retired gradu- ally to such protected localities as favored their perpetuation. One of these causes probably was forest and prairie fires, inaugurated by primitive races, for the chase and for war. Some species are now confined to spots where fires cannot reach them. Another cause was probably the encroachment of the prairie on the timber area, caused by the ground being so compacted by the tread of countless numbers of buffaloes, that tramped out growing shoots^ *Chapter on Superficial Deposits ef Nebraska. FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 85 and unfitting the soil for the burial, germination and growth of seeds. Since the buffalo has retired, and prairie fires are repressed, and rainfall is increasing, the area of timber lands is spontaneously -extending again in many directions. The following is my corrected list of our trees and shrubs. For the sake of convenience, the trees and shrubs are placed in separate lists, but the botanical order is preserved in both : FOREST TREES. 1. Papaw (Asimina triloba.) This species is generally a shrub in Nebraska, but I found a few in Richardson county that reached the dignity of small trees. Found only in southeastern Nebraska, and most abundant in Richardson County. 2. Linwood. Basswood. (Tilia Americana^ Most abundant along the bluffs of the Missouri. On the Elkhorn, Upper Loup, Ne- maha, etc. Have seen it as far as the 102° meridian on the Nio- brara, and on the Upper Republican. One of our native trees, most deserving of cultivation. 3. Var. Pubesceus of this species is found along the Missouri bluffs, south of the Platte, and on the lower Republican. 4. Hop Tree (Ptelea trifoliata.) Tree and shrub. Grows to the size of a small tree in St. John's timber in Dakota County. Found also on the Niobrara. Have not met with it south of the Platte. 5. Staghorn Sumach. (Rhus typhina.} Rare. Have seen only a few specimens in Dakota and Dixon Counties. 6. Ohio Buckeye (.sEsculus glabra.) Occasional in southeast Nebraska. Most abundant on the Nemaha, and in Nemaha and Otoe Counties. 7. Sweet Buckeye (A. Jlava.) Rarer than the preceding, but lias about the same range. 8. Sugar Maple (Acer sacckarinum.) Rarely found native in Nebraska. I have only observed it in the Plyburg timber in Da- kota County. 9. Silver Maple (Acer dasy carp um.) Rare in Nebraska. Found one growing during the last year, for the first time, on bottom near the borders of Cass and Otoe Counties. 10. Red Maple (Acer rubrum.) Abundant among other timber along most of our water courses. 11. Box Elder (N eg undo ace ro ides ^ One of the most abun- dant trees in the State. It ^rows largest and finest in northeast 86 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Nebraska. Many trees of this species, near Ponca, are two feet in diameter, and from forty to fifty feet high. On the Missouri bot- tom, in the same section, they often grow in dense thickets. Is found to the west line of the State in south Nebraska, and to the 102° meridian along the Niobrara and its tributaries. Also on the Platte, in places, on the Elkhorn and the Loups. One of the easiest of our trees to propagate. 12. Red Bud. Judas Tree (Cercis Canadensis^ Common along the Missouri bluffs. Occasionally on the Platte, Republican, Elkhorn and Loup. Sometimes a shrub. 13. Coffee- Tree (Gymnocladus Canadensls^] Nowhere abun- dant. It is often met with in most of the larger timber belts of the State. I have found it of larger size and more frequently in Dixon and Dakota Counties than elsewhere in the State.- I no- ticed a few near the mouth of F airfield Creek on the Niobrara. 14. Honey Locust (^Gleditschia triacantkos.) Common south of the Platte, but rare north. A few on the Loup and on the Re- publican. 15. Water Locust (G. monosperma.) Rare in Nebraska* Found only a few growing south of the Nemaha in Richardson County. 1 6. Wild Red Cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica^) Southeastern Nebraska. Saw the finest in Richardson County. Grows there thirty feet high. 17. Wild Black Cherry (P.serotina?) Southeastern Nebraska, along the Missouri bluffs and on the Nemaha. 1 8. Choke Cherry (P. Virginiana^ Common along the Mis- souri bluffs, on the Republican, Nemaha, Niobrara and Loup* Only occasionally reaches the dimensions of a tree; generally a shrub. 19. Scarlet Fruited Thorn {Cratcegus coccinea.) Tree small. As frequently a shrub as tree. Widely spread over Nebraska wherever there is timber, but nowhere abundant. In the form of a tree it formerly could be frequently found along the Missouri timbered bluffs, from the Omaha Agency to the north line of the State. 20. Black Thorn (C. tomentosal) A low tree, but often a mere shrub. It exists of tree size on the middle Niobrara. 21. White Ash (Fraxinus Americana.) Grows in northeast Nebraska to a magnificent size, and is comparatively abundant. FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 87 Found in less numbers south of the Platte. Have seen it near the west line of the State, on the Arickaree, and on the Niobrara as far as the 101° meridian. Also found on the Elkhorn and the Loup and Blue Rivers. 22. Red Ash (F. pub esc ens?) Very rare in eastern Nebraska. Have met with it sparingly on the Republican, Arickaree, and on the Niobrara. Occasionally found on the Elkhorn and Loup. 23. Green Ash (F. viridis.) Medium sized. Common in east- ern Nebraska. Found a few in southwestern Nebraska, on the Arickaree, on the Niobrara, Loup, Elkhorn ank Bazile. 24. Black Ash (F. sambuctfolia.) Rare. Found it for the first time during the last few years near the Nemaha, in Richardson County. 25. Blue Ash (F. quadrangulata?) Tree here of medium size. Next to White Ash in abundance. Most frequently found in south- eastern Nebraska. I have seen a few of them on the Republican, Elkhorn, Loup and Niobrara. 26. Slippery or Red Elm (Ulmus fulva.) Found' widely spread, but nowhere very abundant over eastern Nebraska. It is apt to be met with in timber belts along water courses. It is met with at intervals along the Republican, Nemaha, Elkhorn, and on the Niobrara. 27. White Elm (U. Americana^ Same localities in the main as the last, but more abundant. 28. Cork White Elm (U. racemosa.} A few in Dakota and Dixon Counties. Still more rarely met with in Cass, Otoe and Nemaha Counties. Found a few on the Niobrara, east of the mouth of the Snake river. A fine specimen on Mr. Master's grounds, a few miles east of Nebraska City. 29. Wahoo Elm (U. alata.} Rarest of all our elms. Have only seen three specimens in Nebraska — one in Cass and two in Richardson County. 30. Hackberry (Celt is occidentalism] Common in eastern Ne- braska. It is sparingly represented on the Republican, is more abundant on the Niobrara. A few are also found on the Elkhorn and the Loups. 31. Red Mulberry (Morns rubra.} Found sparingly all along eastern Nebraska, and generally on the timbered bluffs of the Mis- souri. The finest trees occur in Dakota and Dixon counties. It also occurs on the Niobrara as far west as the loist meridian. 88 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 32. White Mulberry (M. alba?) This species is supposed to be a foreigner introduced into the State. As I have some doubts about this, I give it a place in this list. Have only found it on the Missouri bluffs, southwest from Dakota City. 33. Buttonwood (Platanus occidentalis?) Have found it only in Cass, Otoe, Nemaha and Richardson Counties. Most abundant in Otoe. The bottoms of the Missouri afford it a congenial home, and here it flourishes. In some groves it has excluded most other forms. 34. Butternut (Juglans ctnerea.) Rare in Nebraska Know of but one tree native to the State. This was first found by Simon Baltzley, Esq., near Ionia, in Dixon County, on the Missouri bot- tom, near the bluffs. 35. Black Walnut (/". nigra.) On the whole the most valuable of our native trees. It was formerly quite abundant in eastern Nebraska. Owing to the high price of the lumber, millions of feet have been shipped away, the bulk of it going to St. Louis. In 1865 and 1866 a half million feet of lumber was taken from Dakota County alone. In Dakota and Dixon Counties there are yet some of these Black Walnuts standing, forty feet without a limb, and from three to five feet in diameter. They are found on the Republican, on the Loup, and on the Niobrara and Elkhorn. When raised from the seed, and not transplanted, they are com- paratively fast growing. One of the most desirable trees for cul- tivation. 36. Shell Bark Hickory (Carya alba?) Found, at long inter- vals, in southeastern Nebraska, and still more rarely north of the Platte. 37. White-heart Hickory (C. fomentosa.) Have only seen a few of this species, in Richardson and Nemaha Counties. 38. Pignut Hickory (C. porcina.) Mostly in northeastern Ne- braska, and on the Niobrara. 39. Butternut Hickory (C amara.~) Our commonest species. Have observed it sparingly in every county along the Missouri, and also at long intervals on the Republican and Elkhorn. Often these hickories only reach the dimensions of shrubs. 40. Burr Oak ( Quercus macrocarpa.} Our most abundant spe- cies of oak. Found all along the Missouri, on the Niobrara and its tributaries, as far as to the iO2d meridian, on the Elkhorn, the Upper Loups, on the Nemaha, Republican, etc. FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 89 41. Var. Olivce formis, of the above, is found principally in northeast Nebraska 42. Post Oak (Q. obtusiloba.} Sparingly on the Elkhorn and Niobrara. 43. White Oak. Variety of. (Q. alba. Var. Gunnisonii.) Rather abundant in some of the canyons leading into the middle course of the Niobrara, also a few on the Upper Loup. Rare in eastern Nebraska. 44. Yellow Chestnut Oak (Q. primus. Var. acuminata.) South- eastern Nebraska; occurs sparingly. 45. Swamp White Oak (Q. bicolor.) Most abundant in tim- bered bottoms and edge of bluffs, in northeast Nebraska and on the Niobrara. More sparingly represented south of the Platte, in the counties bordering on the Missouri. 46. Yellow Chestnut Oak (Q. castanea.) Southeastern Ne- braska. Sparingly on the upper Niobrara. 47. Dwarf Chestnut Oak (Q. prinoides.} Though this is a shrub, it in exceptional cases grows to the size of a small tree. Eastern Nebraska, Elkhorn, Nemaha and the Niobrara. 48. Black Jack Oak (Q. nigra.} Occurs sparingly in south- eastern Nebraska, and most abundantly in Richardson County. A few in northeast Nebraska, on the Niobrara and Elkhorn. 49. Scarlet Oak (Q. cocdnea.} Occurs sparingly along the Missouri, on the Nemaha, Elkhorn and Niobrara. 50. Var. tinctoria of the above is a rarer form. I have obtained it only from Otoe County, through Mr. Masters. 31. Red Oak (Q. rubra.) Found on the Niobrara, Bazile, Mis- souri, Elkhorn and the Nemaha, but nowhere in large quantities. 52. Swamp or Pine Oak ( Q. palustrus). Have only found it on the Missouri bluffs and between north of the Platte and on the Niobrara. 53. Iron Wood (Carpinus Americana). Very sparingly repre- sented in most of the eastern woodlands of the State. Most abundant in Northeastern Nebraska. 54. Paper Birch (Betula papyraced). Only occasionally repre- sented along the wooded bluffs bordering the Missouri bottoms. Found it once on the Niobrara, near the mouth of Rapid Creek. 55. Red Birch (B. nigrd]. Rare in Nebraska. Found my first and only specimen three years ago, on the timbered bluffs in southern part of Dakota County. 90 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 56. Glaucous Willow (Salzx discolor]. Generally a shrub, but on the Missouri bottoms and on Willow Creek, a tributary of the Republican, sometimes becomes a small tree. Is widely spread over the State. 57. Long-headed Willow (S. rostratd). This generally a shrub, but often reaches the dimensions of a tree on the Missouri bottoms, and especially in the St. John's timber in Dakota County. Found on the Niobrara, Republican and Loup. 58. Black Willow (S. nigrd]. Abundant on the Missouri bot- toms in a few localities. Largest trees occur in St. John's timber in Dakota. It is also found on the Republican, on Willow Creek, Nemaha, Elkhorn, Loup and Niobrara. 59. Shining Willow (S. lucidd]. Generally a shrub, but on the islands of the Platte and low Missouri bottoms it often reaches the size of a small tree. Found also on the Elkhorn, Republican, Loup and Niobrara. 60. Long Silver-leaved Willow. (S. longifolia var-argophylld}. Also generally a shrub, but is found of tree size in St. John's timber, in Dakota County. It is also found on the Loup and Southeastern Nebraska. 61. American Aspen (Poputus tremuloides^] I found this species within our western border, only during the last few years. Oil Upper Republican, North Branch of Platte and Niobrara. 62. Cottonwood (P. monilifera.) This is the most widely spread and abundant tree in the State, being found, with few exceptions, on our western and northern border, wherever trees grow at all. It apparently does equally well on upland or bottom. It constitutes extensive forests on some of the Missouri bottoms. Some trees in the St. John's timber, in Dakota County, five feet in diameter at the butt, were over three hundred years old, as that \vasthe number of rings that were counted on them. 63. Angled Cottonwood (P. angulata^] Rare. Found only in northeast Nebraska. 64. Balsam Poplar (P. balsamifera^] Have found it only in Cedar County, and on the Niobrara. 65. Var. Candicans of the above have found only on the middle Niobrara. 66. Western Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa^] Canyons and low bluffs in western Nebraska and on the Niobrara. 67. Pinus flexilis. Rare. Fonnd a few growing northwest and southwest of Sidney, and finer ones on the Niobrara. FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 91 68. Engleman Spruce (Abies Englemanii.) Have found it only on the Niobrara and tributaries. 69. Douglass Spruce (Abies Douglassii.) On the Niobrara and its tributaries. 70. White Cedar (Cupressus thyotdes.) Northeast Nebraska, along the Missouri and on the Niobrara. 71. Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana^] Generally scattered over the State where timber occupies bluff lands or dry bottoms, but abundant only in a few localities in northeast Nebraska, on the Niobrara, and on the Loup. Extensive groves occur on the Loups and their tributaries, and on the Niobrara and its tributaries. It is one of the most hardy and most easy to cultivate of all our ever- greens. A slow grower, it is still a most desirable tree, because of its great hardiness, and when trimmed into shape, of great beauty. After subtracting from the foregoing list ten kinds that are as frequently shrubs as trees, the number of species and varieties that are left is still sixty-one. In the St. John's timber, in Dakota County, and at the edge of the bluffs, I once on the space of two acres counted eighteen species of the trees included in this list. Facts like these demonstrate the great adaptation of Nebraska to the growth of forests. A little assistance from man, and nature will again gradually clothe a large part of the plains with a cover- ing of timber. SHRUBS. 1. Papaw (Asimina triloba^) Southeastern Nebraska. Some- times becomes a small tree. 2. Creeping Barberry (Berberh repens.) On Loup and Nio- brara. One foot high in the mountains; here from one to two feet high. 3. Downy Hudsonia (Hudsonia tcmentosa^ In counties border- ing the Missouri, and occasionally in Johnson, Lancaster and Satmders. Everywhere rather rare. 4. Shrubby St. John's Wort (Hypericum prolificum.) Have seen it only on south side of the Nemaha in Richardson County. 5. Naked Clustered St. John's Wort (H. mtdiflarum^ Widely spread over eastern Nebraska, but nowhere abundant. Have seen it on the Republican, on Wood River and the Elkhorn. 6. Prickley Ash (Zanthaxyfam Americanum] Along the Mis- souri, Niobrara, Blue, Republican, etc. 92 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 7. Hop Tree (Ptelea trifoliata^ Only found a few specimens in Dakota and Dixon Counties, and on the Niobrara. 8. Smooth Sumach (Rhus glabra?) Common in Nebraska. 9. Dwarf Sumach (/?. copallina?) Only met with at long in- tervals in the eastern counties. 10. Fragrant Sumach (R. aromatica^] Have found this only on the Niobrara. 11. Alder-leaved Buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolius^] Have only met it at long intervals in northeastern Nebraska. 12. New Jersey Tea (Ceanothus Americanus.) Common. 13. Dwarf Redroot (C. ovalis.) Widely dispersed as the fore- going, but not so abundant. 14. Climbing, Bitter Sweet (Cetastrus scandens?) Common in woodlands. Have seen it as far west as 101° meridian. 15. Spindle Tree (Euonymus atropurpureusl) Only occasionally found on the borders of timber belts. 16. Strawberry Bush (E. Americanus.) Rarer than the preced- ing, but found at long intervals over the greater part of eastern Nebraska. 17. Var. obovatus of the preceding, I found only in Dakota County. 18. American Bladder Nut (Staphylea trifolia.} Common along the Missouri bluffs, on the Nemaha. Occasionally on the Blues and on the Niobrara. 19. False Indigo (Amorpho fruttcosa.) Common along all our principal water courses. 20. Yellow or Red Plum ( Prunus Americana?) Found in the thickets in and bordering timber belts, in canyons, draws and narrow valleys in almost every county in the State. In many places very abundant. 21. Chickasaw Plums (P? chicasa.} Same distribution as the preceding. 22. Dwarf Cherry— Sand Hill Cherry (P. Pumilla.) Found most abundantly in central and western Nebraska, on sand hills and on sandy land. 23. Choke Cherry (P. Vtrgimana.} Found all along the Mis- souri, on the Niobrara, Platte, Nemaha, and in places on the Re- publican. Sometimes becomes a small tree. 24. Nine Bark (Spircea apulifolta.} This shrub grows from four to six feet high. On the Niobrara, and rarely in eastern Nebraska. FOEEST TREES AND SHRUBS. 93 25. Var. parvifolia occurs only rarely, on the Niobrara. 26. Meadow Sweet (S. salicifolia.} On low grounds in eastern Nebraska. Have seen most in Dakota County. 27. Cercocarpus parvifolius. Diffusely branches from the ground, with tomentose leaves six to eight lines long. Have found it only on the Niobrara. 28. Scarlet Fruited Thorn (Crataegus coccinea.) This sometimes becomes a small tree. Not abundant, but widely spread in wood- lands over eastern Nebraska. 29. Black Thorn (C. tomentosa.) Sometimes a low tree. Most abundant along the Missouri and on the Niobrara. Found at longer distances on the Blue, Republican, Elkhorn and Loup. 30. Var molts of the above I have seen only once on the Re- publican. 31. June Berry (Amelanchier Canadensis.) Frequently met with in woodlands over eastern Nebraska, on the Republican, Elkhorn, and quite abundant on the Niobrara. 32. Var. Botrychium. Only on the Niobrara. 33. Var. Ablongifolia. Quite small. Southeast Nebraska. 34. Var. Alnifolia. More abundant than the type form, and in the same localities. 35. Climbing Prairie Rose (Rosa satigera.) Northeastern Ne- braska. Have found the most in Dakota County. 36. Swamp Rose (R. Carolina.) Most abundant in Northeast- ern Nebraska, and rare south of the Platte. 37. Dwarf Wild Rose (R. lucida.) Abundant everywhere. 38. Early Wild Rose (R. olanda.) Found all over the State. 39. Wild Gooseberry ( Riots cynosbati.) Northeastern Nebras- ka, and on the Niobrara. 40. Smooth Wild Gooseberry (R, Rotundifoltum.) Common all over Nebraska, in woodlands, sheltered valleys, ^canyons and draws. 41. Swamp Gooseberry (R. lacustre.} Abundant along the Missouri bottoms and in spots on the Nemaha, Platte, Elkhorn,. Loup and Republican. 42. Smooth Wild Gooseberry (R. hirtellum.} Common in most woodlands in Nebraska. Many forms of gooseberry have not yet been reduced to order. They grow here with an exceptional lux- uriance. See chapter on Wild Fruits. 43. Wild Black Currant (R.floridum.) Occasionally found OB 94 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the Missouri bottoms and its tributaries, and on the Republican. Most abundant on the Niobrara. 44. Missouri Currant (J?. aureum.) Rare in southeast Ne- braska. On the Loup and the Niobrara, and occasionally on the Elkhorn. 45. Dwarf Cornel (Cornus Canadensis^] This barely a shrub. Stem mostly subterranean, and only five or six inches above ground. On the Niobrara. 46. Round Leafed Cornel (C. cirdnnata?) Occurs sparingly in most of the woodlands in eastern Nebraska, on the Republican, and more abundantly on the Niobrara. 47. Kinnikinnick (C. sertcea.) More abundant than the last. Found in most of the woodlands of the State. 48. Red-osier Dogwood (C. stolonifera^] Most abundant in the timber belts and their borders in northeastern Nebraska, and on the Niobrara. Rare in south Nebraska. 49. Rough-leaved Dogwood (C. asperifolia^) Sparingly in tim- ber belts in southeast Nebraska. Have only met it in Dakota and Cedar counties in north Nebraska. 50. Panicled Cornel ( C. paniculata^) Rare. Only found a few on the Niobrara. 51. Alternate-leaved Cornel (C. alternifolia^ Rare. Only in northeastern Nebraska. 52. Cornus pubesceus. North branch of the Platte, and on the Niobrara. 53. Wolf berry (Symphoricarpus occidentalism) Common in timber belts and their borders. 54. Snowberry (S. racemosus.) Common on the prairies and bor- ders of woodlands. 55. Var. parciflorus of the above mostly in southeastern Ne- braska. 56. American Woodbine (Lonicera grata.) Rare. Only in north- east Nebraska. 57. Yellow Honeysuckle (L. flava^) Rather abundant. Have seen it on the Niobrara as far west as 102° meridian, and on the Republican as far west as the Arickaree. Lines the sides of wooded bluffs and their borders. 58. Hairy Honeysuckle (L. hirmta.) Rare. Have only ob- served it once on the side of a bluff above Ponca, and once near the Yellow-banks on the Elkhorn. FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 95 59. L. involucrata. On the North Platte and on the Niobrara. 60. Bush Honeysuckle (Diervilla trifida.) Counties on the Mis- souri, north of the Platte and on the Niobrara. 61. Elder (Sambucus Canadensts.) Sometimes is here ten feet high. Common and abundant. 62. Red-berried Elder (S. pubens.) Rare. Have seen it only on the Niobrara. 63. Maple-leaved Arrow- wood (Viburnum acerifolium.) Have seen it only on the Niobrara. 64. Var. paudflorum. Extreme western Nebraska, and the Nio- brara. Rare. 65. Button Bush ( Cephalanthus occidentalism) Sparingly in east- ern Nebraska, along the Missouri. 66. Small Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus.) In bogs at the head waters of the Loups and their tributaries. Four to nine feet high. 67. Dwarf Bilberry ( V. caespifosum.) Rarely met with in north- east Nebraska, and on the Niobrara. 68. Bearberry (Archtostaphylos Uva-ursi.) In the middle Nio- brara region. 69. Canadian Sheperdia (Sheperdia Canadensts.) On the Nio- brara. 70. Buffalo Berry (S. argentea.) Common in northeastern Ne- braska, in most timber belts, especially on the Missouri bottoms, and on the Platte. Is very abundant on the Republican, and in places almost to the west line of the State. On the Elkhorn and Loups. Abundant on the Niobrara. Deserves cultivation for its beauty, hardihood and fruit. Grows sometimes into a small tree. 71. Dwarf Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinoides.) On the Missouri bottoms and edge of bluffs. Nemaha, Elkhorn, and on the Niobrara . 72. Beaked Hazelnut (Corylus rostrata.) Northern and north- eastern Nebraska. 73. Wild Hazelnut ( C. Americana.) Abundant and widely dis- tributed. Along almost the whole length of the Niobrara, on the Elkhorn, Missouri bluffs, Platte, Loups and Republican. 74. Sweet Gale (Myrica gale.) In Dakota, Dixon and Cedar counties, and on the lower Niobrara. 75. Sweet Fern (Comptonia asplenifolia.) Found occasionally on the sides of bluffs over eastern Nebraska. 96 PHYSICAL, GEOGRAPHY. 76. Low Birch (Betula pumtlla.) Found rather frequently in most of the timber belts on the Missouri, Nemaha and Niobrara. 77. Western Birch (13. ocddentallis^) Have found it only on the Niobrara. 78. Green Alder (Alnus vtridts.) Have found it only on the Niobrara. 79. Speckled Alder (A. in f ana.) Sparingly in Northeastern Ne- braska. 80. Smooth Alder (A. serrulata.) Rare in eastern Nebraska. Have only found half a dozen specimens along the counties on the Missouri. Si. Hoary Willow (Satix Candida.) Common in low situations over the greater part of Nebraska. 82. Dwarf Gray Willow (S. fristis.) In eastern Nebraska; most abundant north of the Platte, and especially on the Niobrara. Rarely on the Republican. 83. Bush Willow (S. humilisl) Missouri bottoms, Niobrara. Loups, Elkhorn, Logan, Platte and Republican. 84. Glaucous Willow (S. discolor?) Sometimes a small tree. Republican River, Willow Creek, Loups, Elkhorn, and Missouri bottoms. 85. Heart-leaved Willow (S. cordata.) Lower Niobrara,. Platte, Nemaha, Republican, and occasionally on the Missouri bot- toms. 86. Narrow-leaved Willow (S. attgustata.) Common over the State. Have observed it on the west line of the State on the Re- publican and Niobrara. On Loups, Elkhorn, etc. 87. Long Beaked Willow (S. rostrata.) Habital same as the preceding. Often a small tree. 88. Shining Willow (S. lucida.) Low bottoms in eastern and northern Nebraska, and on some of the tributaries of the Repub- lican. 89. Long Silver-leaved Willow (S. longifolia, var. argophylla.} Mostly a shrub, but sometimes becomes a tree. Loup Rivers, Ni- obrara, Republican and Missouri. 90. Stalk-fruited Willow (S. pedtcellaris.) On the Niobrara. 91. Common Juniper (Juniperus communts.) Missouri River,, counties north of the Platte, and the Niobrara. WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 97 CHAPTER IX, THE WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. PLUMS. — Prunus Americana. — Its appearance, habits, abundance, and qualities.— P. Chicasa.— Hybrids.— A late variety.— Cultivation.— Stock for grafting peaches, plums, and apricots. — Hardiness. — The Curculio. — P.Pumila, or sand-hill cherry. — P. Pennsylvanic. — P. Virginica. — STRAWBERRIES. — Fra- garia vesca. — Delicious and abundant. — F. Virginiana — RASPBERRIES. — Ru- bus Occidentalis. — R. Triflorus. — R. Strigosus. — R. Villosus. — HAWTHORNS. — Crataegus tomentosa. — C. Malis. — JUNE BERRIES. — Araalanchier Canadensis. — A. Alinifolia. — WILD CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. — Ribes Hirtellum. — R. Rotundifolium. — R. Lacustre. — R. Cynosbati. — R. Floridum. — GRAPES. — Vitis sestivalis. — V. Cordifolia. — Re-classification and hybrids. — Wine. — THE MULBERRY. — THE BUFFALO BERRY. — Shepherdia Argentia. — THE EL- DERBERRY.— THE PAP AW. — Asimina triloba. — NUTS. — Juglans nigra. — Carya Alba. — Corylus Americanus. WILD fruits are a prominent feature of Nebraska. They lux- uriate in its rich soil and almost semi-tropical summers. Among the wild fruits of this State the plum family is a remarka- ble example of how nature herself sometimes ameliorates and im- proves her original productions. There are three type species of plums in the State, namely, Pru- nus Americana, P. chicasa, and P.pumila. Of these there is an al- most endless number of varieties. In a plum thicket in Dakota County, covering only a few acres, I counted, while in fruit, nine- teen varieties of Prunus Americana and P. chtcasa, varying in size from a fourth to an inch and a quarter in diameter, and in color from almost white and salmon, to many shades of yellow, tinged with green and red, and from a light, dark, and scarlet red, to pur- ple tinged with different shades of yellow. Such instances are fre- quent over most portions of the State, the plums being common in almost every county, especially along the water courses, and border- ing the belts of timber. These plum groves in spring time present a vast sea of flowers, whose fragrance is wafted for miles, and whose beauty attracts every eye. The varieties of the Prunus 7 98 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Americana have oval or obovate leaves (broader at the tip than where the stem is attached), with saw-toothed or doubly saw-toothed edges and very full of veins. The fruit is globular or oval, and ranges from a half-inch to an inch and a quarter in diameter, the latter being an exceptionally large size. The color is all shades of yellow, with some red and crimson. Its juice is pleasant, but its skin is tough and acerb; and its stone is sharp edged or margined. The shrub varies in height from six to twenty-five feet. The fruit ripens in August and the first half of September. These are the prevailing characters, but they vary greatly, some of the varieties producing fruit which is a great improvement in size and taste on the type species, while others again have deteriorated. Nearly all the varieties part readily from the stone. Still more subject to change is the Prunus chicasa, which grows from four to twelve feet in height, sometimes thorny, and always with long, narrow, almost lance-shaped, acute leaves, whose edges are set with very fine teeth. The fruit is globular, of all shades of red, and from half an inch to an inch or more in diameter, of pleas- ant (some varieties, of delicious) flavor, thin-skinned, and contain- ing an almost round and entirely marginless stone. Most of the varieties of this plum do not part readily from the stone. The fruit ripens the latter part of July and in August. I have found many forms that cannot be readily classed with eith- er of these species, but seem to be a cross between the two. In fact these plums often hybridize. This is not strange where both species often grew together in such compact thickets that it is difficult to penetrate them. When the pollen of the one is carried to the pis- tils of the other species the young plants that come from the seeds must exhibit some characters which are common to both. One variety of the Prunus Americana, that grows from six to ten feet in height, and has greenish white fruit, occasionally tinged with yellow, rarely ripens its fruit. I have seen its fruit hard and green towards the end of October; but when plucked, even then, and stowed away in an empty room, it readily ripens, like pears when similarly treated. Occasionally a tree is found producing a little round red plum, slightly larger than a morella cherry, which bears double fruit. Delicious as some of these wild plums are, their size and flavor are much improved by cultivation and pruning. It is easy to pro- WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 99 duce an early and fruitful grove of these plums from the seed. A tree grown in my former grounds in Dakota City yielded thirty- nine blossoms the second year from the seed, and seven hundred and ninety the third year. It is also found that these wild plums are magnificent stock on which to graft the peach, other varieties of plums, and the apricot. Their great hardiness, and the readiness with which they unite with the old cultivated plums, makes them invaluable to those who raise such fruit. Alas! there is one drawback to this picture. The everlasting enemy of the plum, the curculio,* is also present. The young fruit sets each year by the million, but some of the finest groves are sometimes for years in succession prevented by this cause from bearing much fruit. Yet so great is the vitality of the plum fami- ly in this State that some varieties will succeed even in despite of the curculio. One such grove I found years ago along the bluffs southwest of Dakota City. The trees were laden with fruit even when all the other groves in the neighborhood were almost entire- ly shorn of their treasures. The foliage indicated a hybrid between the two species under consideration, at least it possessed some char- acteristics that belonged to these two separately, along with others of its own. The fruit was large for wild plums, the skin tough, though comparatively thin, and could readily be pared. The flesh was hard and acid until it was fully ripe, when it became juicy and melting. I have no doubt varieties of this kind could be selected from these ample stores of nature which would be of incalculable value to the horticulturist. The dwarf or sand-hill cherry, so famous on our western plains, is really botanically a dwarf plum, (Prunus pumild) — and therefore we speak of it last. The stem is smooth, depressed, trailing or semi-erect, from eight to twenty-four inches high. The leaves are obovate lanceolate, tapering to the base, sometimes a little toothed towards the apex, and pale underneath; the flowers numerous, two to four in a cluster. The fruit varies greatly, but is generally about half an inch long and three-eighths broad, ovoid, dark pur- ple, brown purple, brown, reddish, or nearly black, generally sweet, sometimes delicious and occasionally almost insipid. It is enor- mously productive. The shrub has a spreading habit, form- ing dense masses, sometimes covering from thirty to sixty * Conotrachelus nenuphar, commonly spoken of as the "plum weevil." 100 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. square feet of ground, but usually the tufts are not more than fifteen to twenty-five feet in area. It suckers abundantly from the roots, and propagates in this way as well as by seeds. It is found over the greater part of the western half of the State, and while it is not excluded from the richest soil if dry, it seems to be partial to sandy localities, rich in alkaline earths. As this plum is nearly related to some of our cultivated varieties of cherries, and the sta- mens and pistils of the flowers are large in both, it will require no great skill to produce a cross between them. And as Fuller has remarked ("Small Fruit Culturist"), a cross between the dwarf plum and a Bigarreau or Morella variety, retaining the dwarf hab- it, vigor, and productiveness of the former, with the flavor of the latter, would be an acquisition of incalculable value, and would com- pletely revolutionize cherry culture. However this may be, the best varieties of the dwarf cherry are valuable as they come from the hand of nature. Many an explorer and traveler in the unset- tled regions has been refreshed by them, and the day is not distant when this fruit will, as it deserves to, have a place in the gardens of all the people. Three species of wild cherries grow in various parts of the State. The wild red cherry, (Prunus Pennsylvania], grows sometimes to the dimensions of a small tree. Its leaves are oblong, lanceolate,, pointed, margins finely saw-toothed, green on both sides, flowers on long stems, and the fruit of a light red color, sour, very small and of little merit. The wild black cherry, {Prunus scritina), is val- uable only for its wood, which is close grained, reddish or brown- ish, and highly esteemed by the cabinet maker for the high polish of which it is capable. The lance oblong, smooth leaves are taper pointed, glandular and saw-toothed. The flowers are produced in long clusters (racemes); its fruit is reddish or purplish black, ripen- ing in autumn. Though the fruit is not sought after by human be- ings, it is eagerly devoured by birds. The bark is a remarkable tonic. I have only noticed the tree in the southeastern part of the State. The choke cherry (Prunus Virginica), is a tall shrub with greyish bark, oval, oblong, or obovate and abruptly pointed thin leaves, very slender, sharp saw-toothed, and from two to three inches long. The flowers are in a short close cluster. The fruit ripens in summer, and is of a dark red color, and very astringent to the taste, but rather agreeable. WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 101 STRAWBERRIES. Two species and one variety of strawberries, with endless modi- fications, are common all over Eastern Nebraska. They flourish on the sides of the bluffs, and at the edge of timber belts, from which they creep far out on the prairies. Perhaps the commonest straw- berry is Fragaria vesca, which has produced the Alpine, Wood, Perpetual, and many other varieties. Here it is mostly slender, •with thin dull leaves, strongly marked by the veins, calyx open or reflexed after flowering; and fruit inclined to be conical or elongat- ed, much like the so-called lady finger, and fully as large and high scented. The runners often creep several feet. This strawberry varies so much that I have often been unable to distinguish it from the Fragaria Virginiana except by one character, its seeds (akenes], which are always superficial, and seem to stick out of the berry. So abundant is this fruit in some seasons that the ground in its favorite retreats seems absolutely red with it. Once when making a survey of some timber lands in Dakota County, on a sultry July day, and almost exhausted by the heat and from thirst, I unexpectedly came to a patch of these berries in an opening of the woods. Never be- fore was I so grateful for fruit, and fruit that was delicious enough to adorn the finest tables in Christendom. As already intimated, this species is the most variable of all the strawberries. It is found all over Europe and in all the high and on many of the low lands of Ndrth America. Its tendency to become everbearing, so strikingly exemplified elsewhere, is also characteristic of it in many places in Nebraska. I have noticed localities where it produced a succession of ripe berries for two months. The other species common to this State is Fragaria Virginiana. It is the original of the American scarlet and innumerable other va- rieties. It can be distinguished from the former by the seeds (akenes) being sunk in the flesh of the berry. Its runners are seldom over a foot long. Its flowers however are staminate, that is, its male and female organs arc on different plants. There is an insensible gra- dation between this species and the variety Illinoiensis of Gray, which is coarser and larger, and the hairs which are scattered over it, especially on the flower stock, are rougher. The strawberries of Nebraska need to be thoroughly examined. Certainly where there is such a tendency shown to varieties and improvement, some of the most promising, under the skillful treatment of the gardener, would become permanent additions to our list of desirable small fruits. 102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. RASPBERRIES are represented in Nebraska by three species. A black raspberry, a variety of Rubus occidentalism is common in every county. It is a profuse bearer, and the fruit is nearly a third larger than the Amer- ican blackcap. It is most abundant along streams and in woodlands and their borders. Where it is cultivated the canes make a much stronger growth than in their native wilds, though even there some varieties seem equal to any produced in gardens. A dwarf rasp- berry, (Rubus triflorus^ and the wild red, (Rubus strigosus^) were sent to me in flower during the past season from the western part of the State, previous to which I was not aware that they existed with- in our borders. They have not yet been found in the eastern part of the State. BLACKBERRIES. Of these only one species has yet been found in the State. This is the high blackberry, (Rubus villosus). It is rather abundant along some of the streams and timber belts in the southeastern part of the State. Wherever this wild variety is transplanted into gardens and cultivated, it bears large quantities of delicious fruit. HAWTHORNS. Though unimportant as fruits the hawthorns should not be over- looked by the amateur horticulturist. The blackthorn (Crat&gus torn entosd], and its variety malis, are most abundant. It is a shrub or small tree from six to twenty-five feet in height. The leaves are oval, abrupt at the base, margins sharply saw-toothed or cut into many small lobes, and downy beneath, especially when young. The flowers are compacted into clusters (corymbs) of from six to thirty flowerlets in a bunch. The fruit is scarlet or orange, from two-thirds to three-fourths of an inch long and rather pleasant to the taste. The fruit of the variety mails is dull red and more insip- id. Though not esteemed by man, the fruit is eagerly sought after by prairie chickens and quail. I have seen hundreds of these wild fowl atone time feasting on this fruit, which they seemed to prefer in its season to all other food. THE JUNE BERRY. This fruit is abundant in some portions of Nebraska. It is a small tree or shrub, from ten to thirty-five feet in height. There are ap- parently three or four species, but they run so much into each other, WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 103 that botanists as yet treat them as one species with many varieties. It is known as Amelanchier Canadensis. The variety most common here is Alinifolia, with roundish, blunt leaves, which are toothed towards the summit. The flowers, which are white, are produced in long loose clusters (racemes). Berry purplish, sweet, and gener- ally deliciously-flavored. This berry has always been a favorite with the Indians. They dry and mix it with pemican (preserved meats), to which it gives a delicious flavor. Nothing is supposed to give more daintiness to an Indian feast than June berries boiled in the broth of fat meat. Children of every age equal the Indians in their admiratioji and enjoyment of June berries. It would " pay" to cultivate them for "the litttle ones" alone. WILD CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. There are four species of gooseberries growing wild in the State. One of these, a " Smooth Wild Gooseberry" (Ribes hirtel- luni), has smooth stems, short thorns, or none, and smooth, small, purple, and sweet berries. It is not very abundant. Another " Smooth Wild Gooseberry" (R. rotundifoliuni), in its many varieties, is met with constantly, especially in the timber and along our streams, and is a most abundant bearer. The leaves are nearly smooth, roundish, three tofivelobed and truncate at the base ; stems slender and from one to three flowered. It grows from two to four feet high, the stems having whitish bark. One variety of this spe- cies bears a berry, long, large, and green. Another variety, which grows from three to four feet high, sets its canes thickly, and they are covered with slim thorns of a brownish, purplish color. The fruit is as large as a Houghton, sometimes larger, somewhat veined, and of a clear, glossy, transparent color, oval or round, and some- timely slightly flattened at the ends, and with a rich vinous flavor. I have found a few specimens three-fourths of an inch in diameter when ripe, and never observed them to be affected with mildew. So abundant are they that the Indians often pick many bushels per day for weeks in succession and carry them to the various markets. They bear transportation well. Many citizens are now well sup- plied with these berries from stocks transplanted from the woods into their own grounds. I have myself planted the Houghton in a row alongside of this wild variety, and the latter proved superior in productiveness and hardiness to the former. The Swamp Goose- berry (R. lacustre), whose young stems are clothed with bristly 104 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. prickles, and small weak thorns, and whose leaves are heart-shaped, and from three to five parted, and the lobes cut, and whose fruit is bristly, small, and disagreeable, is unimportant. Even birds gener- ally give it a wide berth. The "Wild Gooseberry" (R. Cynosbati), with pubescent leaves, slender peduncles and spines, and a large berry armed with long bur-like prickles, is no better than the last- In a few localities it is quite abundant. Two species of wild currants abound. The " Wild Black Cur- rant" {R. floriduni) is remarkable for its large flowers. The leaves are from five to seven-lobed, doubly saw-toothed, and generally sprinkled with resinous dots, slightly heart-shaped, and the racemes are downy, drooping; the fruit is round-ovoid, black and smooth, and in smell and flavor much like the black currant of the garden The Buffalo or Missouri currant also abounds in many localities. It is remarkable for the spicy fragrance of its yellow blossoms, and is often cultivated for ornament. Its fruit is of little or no value. BLACK HAWS. Recently the Black Haws (Viburnum Prunifolium) have turned up in Nebraska. They escaped my notice until my attention was directed to them by J. Gillman Esq., of Otoe County. The leaves and fruit have since been sent to me. They are found in some of the tim- ber belts of Otoe, Cass, and Nemaha counties. Though not specially sought after for its fruit except by birds, its broadly oval leaves, its beautiful form and flowers make it a desirable tree to give variety to cultivated grounds. GRAPES. Two species of grapes, with a great number of hybrids and va- rieties, abound in Nebraska. It is hard to realize without seeing it, with what luxuriance the vine grows in this State. Some of the timber belts are almost impassible from the number and length of the vines, which form a network from tree to tree. Straggling vines are sometimes found far out on the prairies. Where deprived of any other support they creep along the ground and over weeds and grass. The Summer Grape (Vitis cestiva/ts) can generally be recognized by the downy character of its young leaves, which are smooth when old. They are simple, rounded, heart-shaped, and often variously lobed. The panicles are compound, long, and slen- der. The berries are small, from one-third to one-fourth of an inch in diameter; color black with a bloom, ripe in September and October. WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 105 The Frost Grape (V. cot dif olid] has thin leaves, heart-shaped, sharp-pointed, sharply and coarsely toothed, and sometimes ob- scurely three-lobed. The bunch is compound, large, and loose. The berries are small, about one-fourth of an inch broad, and blue or black with a bloom, very acerb, and ripening after frost. Very late in autumn, when dead ripe, these grapes become comparatively sweet. As already intimated there are many forms that cannot well be classified with either of these species. Some appear to be hybrids, and some approach one or the other more closely, but va- rying much from them. In the opinion of some of our best bota- nists a thorough re-examination and a new classification of these wild grapes is needed. There is as much difference in flavor and quality as there is in form. Future investigation and culture will no doubt produce from these wild grapes varieties that will be em- inently worthy of cultivation. Their superior hardiness, the ease with which they can be grown, their early bearing, and the compar- atively fine flavor of many of them, entitle them to more attention than they have yet received. A great deal of wine has been manufactured from these grapes in some portions of the State. The wine has a fine body, is rather dark, and in a year or two is much like the Oporto in flavor and color. It is sometimes shipped to other States to mix with wines manufactured from cultivated grapes to give them body and color. THE MULBERRY. Alonp- the bluffs of the Missouri and some of its tributaries the o Red Mulberry (Jbforus rubrd} abounds. Sometimes it is a mere shrub, and sometimes it reaches the dimensions of a small tree. Though called the reel mulberry, its fruit in Nebraska is as often of a blackish color, as reel or brown. Its sweetish blackberry-like fruit is eagerly sought after by many of the settlers, and seems to be one of the special delights of prairie chickens, quail, \vild tur- keys, and other birds. At least I have often found them feasting on this fruit. This tree or shrub is easily cultivated, and is often transplanted for ornament and for its fruit into cultivated grounds. THE BUFFALO BERRY. The Buffalo Berry (Shcpkerdia argent ea] is found on the banks of the Missouri, the Niobrara, the Platte, the 'Republican rivers, and many of their tributaries. Though not yet seen in cultivation it deserves a place in every fruit garden. It varies from the habit 106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. of a shrub to that of a small tree. The leaves are oblong, silvery white, the branches rusty white, and sometimes quite thorny, with numerous thorn-like limbs. The flowers are small, yellow, dioecious, the sterile ones with a four-parted calyx, and eight stamens. The fertile flowers have a calyx, shaped like an urn, which en- closes the ovary that becomes the berry-like fruit. The fruit is roundish, varying in color from a dull red to a scarlet, slightly, but only slightly, acid, and until quite ripe, somewhat astringent, though agreeable. It is an enormous bearer, the fruit being produced in very compact masses in the axils of the branches. The fruit ripens in early autumn, and if left un- disturbed hangs until winter. The plant is very hardy, and can be grown in any good soil. The only drawback to the cultivation of this fruit is that it is dioecious, and one of each sex must be planted to obtain fruit, though if many be planted in a row or cluster, one staminate or male tree will be enough to fertilize seven or eight pistillate plants. It is one of the easiest of all fruits to propagate. After the berries are gathered and the seeds removed from the pulp, they can be planted at once or kept in sand until spring. They ought to be sowed in drills and covered about two inches deep. At one year old they should be transplanted into ordinary nursery rows, about four feet apart. In three years from the seed they will bloom, when they can be examined, and labels attached to the stam- inate plants, after which, for convenience sake, each kind had bet- ter be placed in a row by itself. Wherever this berry becomes known it is at once a favorite, and being so hardy and easily propagated it soon could supply the set- tler with an abundance of delicious berries. Among the purposes for which it is used is' the manufacture of jelly, of which it produces an article that for richness of flavor is surpassed by no other fruit. Sheperdia Canadensis, which is found on the Niobrara is scarcely less beautiful than the Buffalo Berry. Its fruit is less insipid than represented, and is even esteemed by many. The berry is yellow- ish red. THE ELDERBERRY. Many of the emigrants from the eastern States are glad to find an old favorite, the Elderberry, Sambucus Canadensis, among the wild fruits of Nebraska. Though the shrub which produces this berry has a rather rank smell, especially when bruised, and its fruit is seldom eaten in a raw state, yet the berries are really so delicious, WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 107 when prepared with skill, that wherever they abound they are eag- erly gathered, and dried for future use, or manufactured at once in- to various kinds of jellies or sauce. A good article of wine is fre- quently made from them. The stems are half woody, from five to ten feet high; leaves pinnate; leaflets from seven to eleven, ob- long, the lower often three parted; the flowers are small and white, in compound clusters or cymes; fruit, black purple. It grows abundantly all over eastern Nebraska. THE PAPAW. The Papaw, Asimina triloba, is one of the four North American representatives of a large tropical family, which is generally aro- matic. Over three hundred species grow in the two tropical hemi- spheres. Its yellow fruit is from two to three inches long, is pulpy ^ with many flat seeds, fragrant, and ripe in October. The tree is from ten to twenty feet high. The leaves are thin, obovate, lance- olate, and pointed. The flowers are dull purple; the petals are veiny, round-ovate, and the outer ones from three to four times as long as the calyx. The flowers appear with the leaves and some- times precede them. It is only found in the southeastern part of the State, and though of no practical value, botanically it is of much interest. NUTS. Though nuts are not always classed with fruits it seems proper in this place to mention the few that abound in Nebraska. First in the list is the nut of the noble Black Walnut (Juglans nigra). A few years ago this tree was abundant over eastern Nebraska. So valuable, however, is the wood, and so high the price it brings in market, that in many places where great numbers formerly existed it is becoming quite rare. Fortunately, this tree is so hardy and is so easily grown from the seed, that great numbers are started in the artificial groves that are planted all over the settled portions of the State. The nuts are almost as much of a favorite with adults as with children ; and wherever the trees remain they should be carefully preserved to supply the means for future groves, and for the intrinsic value of their fruit. In a few places along the Missouri the Shell-bark Hickory (Car- ya alba) abounds. Though not in sufficient quantities to supply the markets with hickory nuts, it is worthy of cultivation for its timber, which is valuable for many purposes besides fuel. When once 108 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. grown, groves of hickory will also supply an almost unfailing har- vest of nuts. The Hazel Nut ( Corylus Americanus), is widely distributed over the State. It grows here from four to seven feet high. The nuts have been as much of a favorite with the Indians as they are now with the children of the white settlers. CHAPTER X. WILD GRASSES.* The Most Valuable ones of Nebraska, with Notes on Their Perpetua- tion, and the Disappearance of the Buffalo Grass. — Origin of our Flora. VTEBRASKA is remarkable, among other things, for its wild 1M grasses. They constitute everywhere the covering of the prairies. Even where old breaking is left untilled, the grasses vie with the weeds for possession, and often in a few years are victori- ous. Every close observer, passing through the State, in summer, must notice the great number of species, and their vigorous growth. I have in my collection 149 species of grasses that are 'native to the State. Of the sedges so closely related to them, there are also at least 150 species. Of course there is a great difference in the value of these grasses. Some of them are seldom or never touched by cattle, while others are sought out by them at all seasons. The fol- lowing, so far as I have observed, are the most valuable: Sorgum nutans, Bouteloua hirsuta, Andropogon furcatus, Bouteloua curtipenclula, Andropogon scoparius, Bouteloua oligostaclmi, Andropogon Virginicus, Festuca ovina, Buchloe Dactyloides, Poa serotina, Sporobolus heterolepis, Stipa viridula. It is impossible to give a correct estimate of the proportions in which these grasses are found in Nebraska, as they vary a great * First published in the New York Tribune, with the following note: " We take pleasure in introducing to the readers of the Tribune Prof. Samuel Auyhey, of the University of Ne- braska, an earnest, enthusiastic and thoughtful student, who is most esteemed where best known. In this, his initial article, he does not write from compilation or hearsay. He has been over nearly every square mile of the territory in question, some portions of it many .— \Ed. Tribune.'" WILD GRASSES. 109 deal from year to year in different parts of the State. In the eastern half Andtopogon furcatus, A. scoparius, Bouteloua curtipendula, B. hirsuta, Sorgum nutans and Sporobolus heterolepis supply perhaps about two-thirds or three-fourths of the grazing and hay lands. For the purpose of ascertaining the value of these grasses, com- pared with cultivated ones, I have made an analysis of Sorgum nutans and Andropogon furcatus. The analysis of red clover, white clover and lucerne is that of EinhofF and Cronie. For convenience, they are placed in parallel columns : Sorgum Anclropogon Red White. Water 74.0 Starch 1.9 Woody fibre 14.0 Sugar 3.5 Albumen 21 Extractive matter and gum. ... 2.9 Fatty matter 0.0 Phosphate of Lime 1 .0 100.0 furcatus. Clover. Clover. Lucerne. 76.0 76.0 80.0 75.0 1.8 1.4 1.0 2.2 14.0 13.9 11.5 14.3 1.8 2.1 1.5 0.8 1.6 2.0 1.5 1.9 3.7 3.5 3.4 4.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.& 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 The substances which produce fat, such as sugar, starch, and gum, contain the three elements of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Those that produce muscle, blood and nerves, like albumen, contain in addition to the preceding, nitrogen. Now, an examination of the above analysis shows that all the essential qualities for the best food for cattle are contained by these wild grasses. They are at least equal, if not superior in these particulars, to the best cultivated forage and hay crops. It will also be noticed that in phosphate of lime, so essential for the growth of bones (uand brain food?") these grasses are equally well supplied. The buffalo grass also contains three and six- tenths per cent of saccharine matter. I have not had time to carry out this analysis any further. First in the list of Ne- braska grasses is Sorgum nutans, Gray. The only popular name that I have heard is one that I proposed myself, namely, sorgum grass. When growing in the early part of the season, it is not easy to distinguish it from blue joint. As soon, however, as its tawny, russet-like spikelets in a dense panicle, make their appear- pearance, it is known at a glance among any number of other species. Toward the end of the season, the panicle nods. Spike- lets are generally in pairs or threes, and are ciliate with a ring of 110 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. bristles at the base. The lower paleae are tipped with a contorted awn. It grows from three to six feet high. I have seen it remarked that some seasons it does not produce seed. If that is the case in this State, I have failed to observe it. This grass has been increas- ing rapidly in Nebraska. It competes successfully with all its rivals for the possession of the soil. The amount now growing is treble what it was ten years ago. This season it monopolized the ground where, in former years, only stray stalks were seen. It produces the best hay if cut just before frost. For hay and for pastures it is one of the noblest of the grasses. I often noticed, when camped on the plains, that it was the first choice of horses after the buffalo grass that was within reach was all consumed. Whether it can be domesticated, remains to be seen. Three years ago an attempt was made to grow it on the Agricultural Farm, but the locusts ate it as fast as it came up. It did not survive the third time it was eaten off. Andropogon furcatus, Muhl. — This is also a valuable grass in this State. It is sometimes called blue joint in the West. It is often confounded wite Andropogon scoparius, and even with Sorgum nutans. It is distinguished by having from three to five straight and rather rigid hairy spikes, from three to five inches long, to- gether at the naked summit (Gray), and of a purple color. Occa- sionally there are lateral spikes. The stem is from four to six feet high. Some years it does not fruit, but the cause is not clear to me, as this occurs in wet and dry seasons. Andropogon scoparius, Mich. — This grass is in some places even more abundant than the former, but generally it does not seem to be able to compete with it in the struggle for existence. I am not sure which of these two is the most valuable for feed. It is dis- tinguished from the former by not being more than half as tall and by having a paniculate stem, one side of which is furrowed. The spikes are simple, lateral, and growing from the end on rather long peduncles, two or three being found on each sheath, and of a purple color. It is generally slightly silky and hairy. It is generally dif- ficult to distinguish these two grasses until they begin to flower. Andropogon Virginicus, L. — In a few localities in Southern Ne- braska this grass is common. Though elsewhere it is of little re- pute; here I have often seen cattle grazing on it, and apparently enjoying it. No complaints have been made about it when used for hay. The stem is flat below, and somewhat downy with scattered WILD GRASSES 111 hairs. The leaves are long, narrow and carinate. Two or three spikes are together in different appressed clusters. It grows from three to four feet high. Bouteloua oligostachya, Torr. — Until within a few years, this grass was only occasionally met with in eastern Nebraska, though com- mon in the middle and western portions of the State, where it has often been classed with the gramma grasses. This common name, however, is indiscriminately applied to several other species in as many different genera. It is rapidly moving eastward. This year it was so abundant in Lancaster County that it in many places mon- opolized the soil, as could be seen on the wagon road between Lin- coln and Milford. It is distinguished by spikelets of flowers hang- ing from one side of the axis or inflorescence. From three to five spikes are supported on each stalk. The color ranges from purple to indigo blue. Its height varies from ten to sixteen inches. It is exceptionally smooth and hairless, and is a perennial. For grazing, this grass is exceedingly valuable, and where it grows thick and strong, as it is beginning to do in many of the eastern counties, it makes most excellent hay. Bouteloua curtipendula, Gray. — This grass is abundant in many places. It grows from one to three feet high, but the leaves are scanty, and it is not much sought after by stock. It is, however, a grass of great beauty. It can always be easily recognized by its racemes, which are from eight to fifteen inches long, and contain from fifteen to sixty small spikelets of a purple or scarlet color. For its beauty it deserves a place in the garden, if not in the field. Bouteloua hirsuta, Lagasca. — This species is frequently confounded with B. oligostachya. The whole stalk is somewhat hairy. When ripening, the spikes are curved, short, and somewhat bristly, be- cause of the great number of stiff hairs that grow from the dark colored glands of the glumes. In sterile situations in the western part of the State, it is short, but further east, where it is increasing rapidly, it is from ten to sixteen inches high. Though perhaps not so valuable as the preceding for forage and hay, yet here herds of cattle are often seen grazing on and apparently enjoying and fatten- ing on it. Sporobolu s heterolepis, Gray. — This grass is abundant in some por- tions of the State. It makes good hay, for which it is often used. It grows from twenty-five to thirty inches high. Its leaves, which grow from the base of the plant, are thread-like and remarkable 112 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. for being as long as the stalk, and bending over gracefully until the tips touch the ground. It has a great tendency to produce stools. The stalk is naked above, bearing a small loose panicle whose sharp-pointed spikelets bear round seeds. The seeds, when bruised, give out a strong odor, which is offensive to some olfactories. It does not fruit in some dry seasons. Spartina cynosuroides, Wild. — This grass is abundant in some places, but unfortunately, it is worthless. It is known as cord, and fresh water grass. It makes a poor article of hay, but its very abundance tempts many to use it for this purpose. Only extreme hunger will induce animals to eat it. It can be recognized by its- slender stem, which grows from two to six feet high, and its narrow leaves, which are sometimes three and four feet long, and half slen- der points. The entire leaf, except the margins, is smooth. The straw-colored spikes are from two to three inches long, and from five to fourteen in number. They are scattered and spreading. A wide berth should be given to it. Triticum — It sometimes happens that grasses which are compar- atively worthless in one regard are valuable in another. This may come from the improved quality that soil, climate and situation give. Several species of Triticum which are everywhere regarded as almost worthless, in Central and Western Nebraska afford, in the early part of the season, good pasturage. It can be recognized by the character of the glumes, among which are the single spikelets at each joint, and placed with the side against the axis of inflorescence. Several species of Festuca abound in portions of the State, and make valuable forage. Festuca ovina, L., is the most valuable. The culms and leaves are hard and wire-like, but exceedingly nutritious. The panicle is small and narrow, and the spikelets flat, numerous, and from two to six flowered. This grass has a tendency to grow in dense tufts, and is sometimes of a purple color. The stalks grow from ten to twenty-four inches high. Bromus kalmii, Gray. — This grass is only abundant in the west- ern part of the State, although it is occasionally met as far east as the Missouri. It is a perennial, producing a simple panicle, with spikelets drooping from simple capillary stems, and densely covered with silky hairs. These are sometimes flat and sometimes round, wThen matured. It grows from one to three feet high, and affords good forage. Some species of Poa abound in Nebraska. They WILD GRASSES. ] ! 3 are very nutritious, and wherever found afford rich food for stock. Poa serotina, Ehrh, is perhaps the most important. It may be recognized by its open panicle, which branches in fives, the spike- lets being pediciled, acute, a little flattened, and from two to four flowered. The flowers are acute, green, and occasionally tinged with purple. It grows from two to three feet high. Poa Pratensis, L., is not native to the State, but has spread from old Fort Calhoun, north of Omaha, where it was probably intro- duced many years ago by the hay which the Government sent to the troops at this point. It has spread from this place over twenty- five miles of territory. Ihichloe dactyloides, Engl. — This is the famous buffalo grass which once grew over the whole region from the Missouri to the moun- tains. It is so well known that it scarcely needs any description. It rarely exceeds two or three inches in height, except the male flower stalk, which may reach five or six inches. The male flowrers are in flat spikes on the top of the stock. The seed-producing flowers are almost covered by the leaves close to the earth. Both kinds of flowers are borne by the same plant, though the contrary was once believed. It forms dense tufts, spreading by stolens, form- ing broad mats. Engleman first detected the true botanical rela- tions of this plant. This grass has always been a favorite with all kinds of stock. Often when camped on the plains, my lariated horses and mules would touch no other grasses until all the buffalo grass within their reach was consumed. This always occurred, no matter what other kinds of grass were present. This grass, before the advent of the white man, was the chief food of the buffaloes, which, in countless numbers, occupied the plains. It will be found that wherever the buffalo grass is not highly valued, it is confounded with Munroa squarrosa, Torr., which is an almost worthless species. It bears some resemblance to buffalo grass, and is often mistaken for it. But it is an annual with many branches from the base, creeping, and with the leaves clustered together. Of the disap- pearance of the buffalo grass, and my theory as to the cause, I will have something to say presently. A word in conclusion as to the way to perpetuate prairie pastures* A complaint often heard in Nebraska is that in a short time the best of prairie grasses, such as sorgum nutans, Andropogon furcattis, etc., will, under severe pasturing and mowing, soon be exterminated, and their place be occupied by weeds. Where no chance is given 8 114 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. to the prairie grasses to recuperate, this is undoubtedly the case. It is found, however, that where fields of the best wild grasses are inclosed, and only mowed when mature, they will remain good meadows for many years. It soon kills these grasses to mow them early in the season, when or before they are in flower. I have fre- quently seen tracts of land inclosed where weeds had already gained partial possession, and by leaving them lie untouched for a number of years, the ground would again become thickly matted over with these rich grasses. With a little care, the new settler in Nebraska can get his supply of hay and pasture of the best quality from the prairies for a great number of years. He can be supplied, at least, until his own industry and advancement will prompt him to raise the cultivated grasses. Many of these wild grasses deserve to be experi- mented with. They have done so much to enrich the West already, that their cultivation, if possible, would be a great agricultural gain. DISAPPEARANCE OF BUFFALO GRASS. Buffalo grass {Buchlce dacty hides] was once common all over Nebraska. Other species were present, but this grass was more abundant than all the others put together. It has now almost en- tirely disappeared from the eastern half of the State. Here it is now found only in isolated spots, which sometimes are slight de- pressions in the surface, some times elevations, and sometimes on a level with the plain. In examining the last retreats of this grass to ascertain the cause of its pertinacious life in such places, I inva- riably found that they were spots where the excess of alkali had entered into slight chemical union with the other ingredients of the soil, and more or less hardened it. This seems to indicate that such soils wrould be favorable to the cultivation of this grass ; but whether this is the case, and whether, supposing this was possible, it is worthy of cultivation, remains to be determined by actual ex- periment. The manner and the cause of the disappearance of this grass is exceedingly curious. It cannot be caused by the ingress of domestic cattle. I have known whole counties from which the buffalo grass disappeared long before any domestic cattle or culti- vation had interrupted the work of nature. For example, I vis- ited Wayne County, Nebraska, for the first time in 1865, when as yet there was not a single wrhite man or any domestic cattle within its bounds. And yet the buffalo grass wras even then rapidly disap- pearing, and in a few years more was almost entirely gone. Many other instances of the same kind could be given. WILD GRASSES. 115 Some old frontiersmen claim that the perpetuation of this grass depends on its seeds being scattered by the buffaloes, and that when they ceased to visit their old haunts it would necessarily have to die out. But it is difficult to understand why the foraging of domestic cattle would not have the same effect. It cannot be ascribed to the buffaloes' manner of cropping this grass. These animals some- times pastured this grass more closely and constantly than domestic cattle. I have sometimes followed a herd of a few thousand buf- falo and they seemed to eat the short, sparse grass in places almost out of the ground, leaving almost bare soil behind them. Causes with which neither the buffaloes nor domestic cattle have anything to do, evidently produce its extermination. The rate of its disap- pearance varies somewhat. In northern Nebraska it retreated west- ward at the rate of about twenty miles a year, until it reached its present eastern boundary. Along the Republican Valley, during some years, it has retreated at the rate of thirty miles a year, and other grasses, alreadv mentioned in this chapter, took its place. In other years it has retreated more slowly. In favored localities it lingers behind several years longer, but even the alkali spots finally give it up. It is remarkable that the grasses that take its place are such as are indigenous to comparatively moist regions. I suggest, therefore, that change of climate, especially increase of rainfall, has most to do with this phenomenon. In Chapter IV was shown the constantly increasing rainfall in the Stitc. It is the only fact com- petent to explain all the phenomena accompanying the disappear- ance of this grass on which the millions of buffalo, elk, deer and •antelope had previously fed for ages. ORIGIN OF OUR FLORA. One of the questions that most frequently occurs to the thinking mind is when and how did our Flora originate? Did it originate here, or did it come by migration from some other region: The earliest memorials of our present Flora are found engraven on the rocks of the lowest member of the cretaceous rocks of the west, known as the Dakota group*. In the chapter on the cre- taceous deposits, the geological features of these rocks are given. Here are found impressions of the first oaks, cottonwoods, willows, maples, gums, hickories, walnuts, plums, cedars, pines, grapes, etc. The formation in which these early memorials are found, stretches *See Lisquereux, Report on Cretaceous Flora. 116 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. through Kansas, Nebraska, Northwestern Iowa, Minnesota, Can- ada, and is found to appear in Greenland. At the opening of the next, or Tertiary Age, in its lowest mem- ber, the Eocene, it makes its appearance in the far north in Green- land. Many of the species are identical with those now common in Nebraska. It is true that Heer pronounces these to be Miocene, but Dawson has shown them to be of Eocene age. (Report on Geological Survey of Canada.) By the time thai the Miocene age commenced, they were still among the conspicuous forms in high northern latitudes. They emigrated southward with the gradually advancing cold of the Pliocene Age, and when the Gla- cial Age spread its mantle of ice over the north, they found a re- treat in the southern United States and Mexico. At the final re- treat of the glaciers, this Flora advanced northward, and found a home in central North America. The nearest allies, therefore, of our present Flora are the vegetable forms preserved in the rocks of the Tertiary Ages, in high northern latitudes. All life, vegetable and animal, probably commenced far north, and moved southward. The old idea, that it must have originated in tropical regions, has been eliminated from scientific belief by the advance of knowledge. This view also accords best with what is known of the history of the globe. The first known dry land was in high northern regions, Arctic lands first became cool enough to sustain vegetable and ani- mal life. (Heer.)* *See on this subject Gray's Forest Geography and Archaeology, Heer's Flora Fossilis Arc- tica; Dawson's Reports on Canadian Geology; Saparta, "Ancienne Vegetation Polairr*": Hooker's Presidential Address to the Royal Society. FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 117 CHAPTER XI. FAUNA OF NEBRASKA.— VERTEBRATES. BUFFALO. — DEER FAMILY. — CARNIVEROUS ANIMALS. — INSECT EATING ANIMALS. — BIRDS. — The Leading Varieties — REPTILES. — List of our Reptiles. FISH CULTURE. — List of Known Nebraska Fishes. BEFORE the advent of the white man, Nebraska was a par- adise for wild animals. Game of many kinds was amazingly abundant. Even the Indian could not keep it within clue limits; it took immense numbers of the carniverous animals to do this. MAMMALS. Here was the empire of the buffalo, (Bos Ameriiamts?)* The early settlers and the old freighters across the plains tell wonderful stories of the immense herds of buffalo which they so often en- countered. Had I not myself, years ago, found large herds in places where there are now flourishing villages, these stories would appear like exaggerations. It is to be feared that the days of the buffalo are numbered. What the Indian alone could not accomplish, has been done by the remorseless war made on the buffalo by the white man. Now he is rarely found within the State. If he is perpetu- ated it will be done by domesticating him. Already some domesti- cated buffalo are found among the cattle herds in western Nebraska. Whether this experiment will be successful cannot yet be deter- mined. No animal deserves to be perpetuated more than the buffalo. Buffalo robes are among the most important of commer- cial articles. Who has not been made comfortable bv one? The buffalo is as readily tamed as the ox, and can be reared with as little difficulty. He is exceedingly hardy. He might be profitably reared for the pecuniary value of his hide. His flesh, which is con- sidered coarse, would no doubt be refined by civilized environment. Even the buffalo's milk is a fair substitute for that of the domestic cow.f . "It will be understood tliat 1 only follow popular usage in calling this ai-imal a buffalo. It i» * bison. No true buffalo has a hump on his back. |See an exhaustive treatise on the buffalo, in Hay den's Report for 1875. 118 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Next to the buffalo, the elk (Cervus Canadensis)wa&the largest and finest native animal. It was formerly exceedingly abundant and is still often found in the northern and western portions of the State. Never shall I forget the magnificent herds of elk that crossed my path on the Niobrara and Elkhorn in 1866 and 1867. Their bulky bodies, huge antlers, and numbers, made them a pic- ture never to be forgotten. Four species of deer were formerly found here, and two of them very abundantly. These were the common deer (Cervus Virgin- ianus), the white tailed deer (C. leucrus), the mule deer (C. macro- //j), and the blacktailed deer (C. columblanus). The first and the last of this list were the most abundant, at least those are the species that I have most frequently seen myself roaming the prairies, and whose skins most frequently found their way to the traders. The special habitat of the black tailed deer was north Nebraska, and especially the Niobrara region. Next to the buffalo in numbers comes the Pronghorn Antelope (Antilocapra Americana], It was formerly common to meet these on the prairie in herds of from twenty to five hundred. Only a few years ago it was yet common to meet herds of hundreds of these beautiful and graceful animals in central and western Ne- braska. They are now mostly confined to the northern and west- ern portions of the State. The antelope remains abundant after the buffalo and elk are gone, and when but few deer remain, and yet the last of them disappear before the deer is entirely exter- minated from a district. The antelope is more disposed to go in herds than the deer; it frequently brings forth two at a birth, and while buffalo, elk and deer last they are often passed by, by fron- tiersmen. Their natural curiosity makes them an easy prey. It is well known that they will go close to a white covered wagon, or to a rag stuck on a ramrod in the ground, to ascertain what it is, The hunter, concealed in the grass, or behind or on one side 6f his wagon, easily secures one. Bears have probably always been rare in the State. I have met but one in all mv explorations in the unsettled portions. That one was on the Niobrara, and a black one {Ursus Americanus}. I have also been reliably informed by old settlers that one was killed in the early history of Otoe County, on the Missouri bottom. I have been told by Indians that the cinnamon bear was formerly occasion- ally found on the Niobrara, but I regard this as doubtful. FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 119 Two raccoons are common. in Nebraska, namely, the common raccoon (Procyon loter), and the black-footed raccoon (P. ffernan- dezzii]. The former is the most abundant. The Carnivora are well represented. The Panther (Felts con- color}, is the largest, or at least the most powerful. I have only seen it a few times on the Niobrara and the Loup. The Wildcat (Lynx rufus), is comparatively common in the wooded sections of the State. At rare intervals specimens of the Red Wildcat (L.fasciatus] are taken in north Nebraska. The common Canada Lynx (Lynx Canadensis], is widely distributed over the State, but few of them have been captured. Several varieties of the timber wolf formerly were common in the State, but are now rarely heard of. The varieties were Canus occidentalls^ Var. nubilus and the White Wolf (C. occidentalism Var. griseo-albus}. I have several times found this latter species lingering on the flanks of herds of buffalo, apparently on the look- out for any old animal that could not keep up with the herd, or was unable to defend itself. The Coyote, or Prairie Wolf (Canis latrans^) was formerly exceedingly abundant. When on exploring expeditions in unsettled sections, trie cooking of supper would invariably bring them around us through the night. They never venture to make an at- tack under such circumstances. I doubt whether a man is ever in danger from them. Settlers have destroyed so many by poison that they are now rare in the oldest portions of the State. A few, however, linger on even here. Foxes have here disappeared more completely than the wolves. Formerly the Prairie Fox (Vulpes macrourus) was comparatively abundant, but is now rarely seen. The Swift (V. velox), however, yet holds his own in central and western Nebraska. The Gray P^ox ( V. Virginianus), was never abundant. The only specimens that I saw were in Pierce County, in 1869. A few specimens of the American Sable (Mustela Americana] have been taken in northwestern Nebraska, but their presence within our borders is rare. The weasels, however, are abundant, there being at least seven species within the State. The most abundant are the Common Weasel (Putorius noveboracensis), the Long Tailed Weasel (P. longicauda) and the common Mink (P. visori). Those less frequently seen are the Least Weasel (P. pusillus}, the Small Brown Weasel (P. cigognanii), the Little Black Mink (P. nigrescent), and the Black Footed Ferret (P. nignpas.} • 120 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The Wolverine (Guleo luscus) is yet found in central and western Nebraska, but it has never been abundant. The American Otter (Lufra Canadensis) is found more or less abundantly in all the rivers of Nebraska. As would be expected, the Skunks are also here. Two species are common, namely, Mephitis mephitica and M. occidentalis. The American Badger ( Taxidea Americana] was formerly common all over the State. The advance of settlements has almost exterminated it from the eastern part of the State. Rodents are common here as elsewhere, but I am less confident as to the accuracy of my list. Many more must remain to be added to it when the State is once thoroughly examined with reference to this point. Among the Rodents (gnawers), the squirrel family (sciuridae] are well represented by at least ten species. Among these are the Western Fox Squirrel (Sciurus ludovicianus^ the Gray and Black Squirrel (S. Carolinensis) and occasionally, in northern Nebraska, the Pine Squirrel (S. Hudsonicusl) Even the Flying Squirrel (Pttromys volucella] is sometimes found on the timbered bottoms of the Missouri. The Chipmuck (Tamias striatus) is rare, but the Missouri Striped Squirrel (T. quadrivittatus] is common/>ver a large part of the State. Say's Squirrel (Spermaphilus laterahs) is abun- dant in some localities, and the Striped Prairie Squirrel (S. triaeccm- Uneatus, is abundant all over the State. The Gray Gopher (S. Frank- lint]^ which is classed in this section, is common ontheprairies. Two species of Prairie Dogs formerly disputed between them the territory of western Nebraska. One of them (Cynomys lu- dovicianus) formerly lived in villages over the whole length of the State, from the Missouri to its western limits. It is now mostly confined to central and western Nebraska. Many thousands collect together in these villages. The other species (C. Gunnisonii). sometimes called Short Tailed Prairie Dog, is now only met in western Nebraska. Two species of Woodchuck were formerly rather common in Nebraska. The common Woodchuck (Arctomys monax), is found at long intervals. The Yellow Footed Marmot (A. jlaviventer). probably only found on the Niobrara. I never saw it alive, but met trappers who had skins of it obtained in that locality. The Beaver (Castor Canadensis), was until recently common on all the streams of Nebraska. Even on the larger streams, like FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 121 the Platte, the Missouri and the Republican, where they could not build -dams, they constructed excavated houses in the banks. Sections of trunks of cottonwood are yet found along these rivers, from eight to fourteen inches in diameter, which were gnawed off by beavers. They are now mostly confined to western and north- ern Nebraska, though a few linger on most of the streams of the State. The value and beauty of its fur causes a constant war to be waged against it by Indian and white man. Of the Gophers, the Pouched Gopher (Geomys bursarins), is the most common, being found all over the State. The Short-headed Gopher (G. breviceps], is only rarely found in south Nebraska. The Northern Pocket Gopher, (Themomys talpoides), whose habitat is placed far north by Coues and Allen, I found on the north side of the Niobrara in north Nebraska. The Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys ordi^ occurs in western and northern Nebraska on the Loup and Niobrara. A rodent for which I know no popular name, but related to the above is rather common over western and central Nebraska. It is known among naturalists as Perognathus fasdatus. It is, without the tail, four inches long and mouse like. The Yellow Pocket Mouse (Cricetedipus flavus), smaller than the house mouse is also common over central and western Nebraska. The Wood Rat (Neotoma Floridana), is a native of Nebraska, but is only met with at long intervals. The Bushy Tailed Wood Rat (/V. cinerd], only occurs on the Niobrara. At least that is the only section from which I have obtained or heard of it. The White Footed Mouse (Hesperomys leucopus), is frequently found in almost every county in the State. Another rodent (H. sonariensis], closely related to the above, is still more abundant. It has a shorter tail and lighter color than the preceding. The Michigan Mouse (ff. Michiganensis), found sparingly all over Nebraska. The Missouri Mole Mouse (If. leucogasfer), is quoted as abundant in Nebraska by Coues and Allen, but I have found only one specimen here. The Little Harvest Mouse (Ochetodon humilis), is common south of the Platte, but rare north of that river. The Common American Meadow Mouse (Avicola riparius), is sparingly represented on the prairies of the State. The Prairie 122 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Meadow Mouse (A. austerus], is rather abundant over the State, both on high bottoms and uplands. Still more abundant every- where is the Western Prairie MeadoAv Mouse (A. curtatus}. The Pine Mouse (A. pinetarutri), occasionally occurs along the Missouri. The Jumping Mouse (Zapus H'tdsonius], is found only in the wooded portions of Nebraska. At least I have never met it any- where on the prairies. The Musk Rat is found in almost every stream of the State, and though much reduced in numbers by trapping still holds its own. The Porcupine is present in the State in small numbers. It is the Yellow Haired Variety {Erethizon epixanthus}. The Hares are well represented in Nebraska. The Prairie Hare (Lepus campestris), is found in central and western Nebraska. The Varying Hare (L. Americanus), in some of its varieties, is common in the State. The Gray Rabbit (L. sylvaticus), is still more abundant than the former. The Jackass Hare (Z. caltotis}^ is abundant in western and central Nebraska, and more sparingly as for east as the Missouri. I have captured specimens within a mile of the Mis- souri bottom. Cones and Allen give its habitat here only as west- ern Nebraska.* The Insectivara are represented by only a few species. Five of these are shrews, belonging to one genus, namely, Sorex pachvurus, S. richa, S. Cooperi, S. Haydeni and S. Hoyi. I have not ascertained their relative abundance. Another genus of shrews (Blarina) is represented by three species, namely, B. talpoides, B. brevicauda and B. exilipes. B. brevicauda is the most common and abundant, being found almost everywhere in the State. The Moles are more abundant in individuals. One of them (Scallops Argentatus) is abundant everywhere. Two others are rare, namely, Condylura cristata and Uratrichus gibbsii. One Marsupial is rather common in the wooded portion of the State. It is the common Possum {Didelphis Virginiana^] From the foregoing it is seen that at least eighty-two species of mammals are native to Nebraska. BIRDS. The bird Fauna of Nebraska is remarkably developed. It is particularly rich in genera, of which there are at least one hundred and fifty-six in the State. The species amount to at least two hun- *For an exhaustive discussion of the Rodents, see " Cones' aud Allen's Monographs of North American Rodentia." FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 123 dred and forty-nine.* At least, that is the number whose eating- habits I have studied and described in a former publication. Since the publication of that work, nearly a dozen additional species have come to light within our territory. The fullest order is that of the Perchers (Passeres), of which there are eighty genera and one hun- dred and forty-seven species. Among these, the Singing Birds (Oscines) are represented by sixty-nine genera and one hundred and thirty-three species. The next division of this order, the Clama- tores, are not so abundant, there being only eleven genera and four- teen species. At the head of the Singing birds stands, of course, the glorious Robin, \vhich is becoming more abundant each year. Four addi- tional species of Thrush are here. The Mocking Bird is sparingly represented in south Nebraska, and the Cat Bird generally along the timber belts of water courses all over the State. In places the Sandy Mocking Bird is abundant. The common Blue Bird is in every community. The Western Blue Bird, formerly rare, is in- creasing in many places. Eight species of Wren, led off by the House Wren, abound. The Blue-eyed Warbler is common in all sections, but the Cserulean Warbler only along the wooded bottoms. This genus (Dendraecd) of warblers is represented by fourteen species, some of which are only here during their migrations. One of them (D. disco/or) is very abundant, and breeds here. Of the Thrushes, the Golden-Crowned is the most abundant, #nd breeds within the State. One of the commonest birds is the Maryland Yellow Throat, and is on the increase in all parts of the State. Over the greater part of the State the Yellow Brested Chat is found. Six species of Swallow make their summer residence here. The most abundant is the Cliff Swallow. Its special home is in northeastern Nebraska. On one chalk cliff, east of the town of Niobrara, I counted twenty-one hundred nests which were made by this bird. There were other points near by where there were almost as many. The purple Martin is also common, and breeds here. The vireos are represented by seven species, the most abundant of which is the Red-eyed Vireo, which can always be found in summer in the timber belts along the Missouri and other rivers. The Butcher Bird (Collurio borealis], which was formerly rare, is *See the writer's fannal list and Natural Food of Birds, published in Report of U. S. En- tomological Commissions for 1878. 124 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. now becoming; abundant. Its old habit of impaling insects and small reptiles on thorns, is perpetuated here. The American Gold Finch, or Yellow Bird (C. cristatus], is a regular summer visitant. The buntings make things lively in winter. Five species come to Nebraska during this season. Among these, the Snow Bunting (Ptectrophanes nivalis] is the most common. The Chestnut-collared Bunting is scarcely less common, and breeds here. Ten species, at least, of sparrows come to Nebraska, some of which are only present during their migrations. One of the most abundant is the Yellow-winged Sparrow. Great numbers of Lincoln's Sparrows pass through Nebraska on their migrations. The Long Sparrow is becoming more abundant each year, but the Tree Sparrow is only present in winter. The Chipping, Clay-colored and White- throated Sparrow are all rather common. The Cardinal Grosbeak (Cardlnalis Virginianus}, is common in southern Nebraska. This beautiful bird so much admired as a caged pet, is rapidly on the increase. One owned by Mrs. Chap- man in Plattsmouth, often wants to share half its worm or insect with its mistress. The American Starlings are represented by many species. Among the most common are the Bobolink, Cow-Blackbird, Red-winged Blackbird, and Yellow-headed Blackbird. All these are very abundant. One of the most abundant as well as most popular of Nebraska birds is the Meadow Lark. Its magnificent song in spring can be heard in all parts of the State and cheers every heart. The orioles are becoming more abundant each year. The Balti- more and Orchard Oriole are especially becoming common. The Grackles are also here in large numbers, particularly Brewers and the Crow-Blackbird. The crow family is most largely represented, as elsewhere, by the Common Crow, though the Magpie is found in northern and western Nebraska. The Blue Jay is unfortunately found in places in large numbers. It is well known that it is destructive to the eggs and young of other birds, and should there- fore be kept reduced in numbers by being made a target for sportsmen. The Fly Catchers are well represented by eleven species. The King Bird is one of the most common. The Arkansas Fly Catcher is common only along wooded streams. The Least Fly Catcher is the most abundant, being found in almost every part of the State. FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 125 The Plccarlan Birds are represented by eleven genera and fifteen species. Among these are the common Whippoorwill, in the eastern part of the State, and Nuttall's Whippoorwill in central and western Nebraska. The Night-Hawk (Chordciles Virgini- anus} is common and breeds here. The Chimney Swallow is abundant in the older settlements of the State. The Humming Birds are represented by two species. The Belted King- Fisher is most frequently seen in the eastern part of the State. Seven woodpeckers are at home in the State. The Hairy, Yellow-bellied and Red-headed Woodpeckers are the most abundant. The latter is rapidly on the increase. Birds of Prey are here in large numbers, though only a few that live exclusively on other birds. Among these is the Barn Owl which lives on insects. The Snowy Owl is here in winter. The Burrowing Owl so abundant in western and central Nebraska is a very large destroyer of insects, mice, and small reptiles. The Swallow-tailed Hawk, the most beautiful air sailer in America^ feeds almost exclusively on insects. It is sparingly represented all over the State. The Pigeon Hawk and Coopers Hawk are unfor- tunately abundant all over the State. The American Merlin and Sparrow HawTk and Hen Hawk are common. Smainson's Buzzard is onlv abundant along timbered streams of water. The Golden and Bald Eagle are both occasionally seen in Nebraska, especially the latter, which has been known to breed here. The Pigeons are very sparsely represented here, there-being but two genera and two species. The wild Pigeons are abundant during some years. The common dove is very abundant all over the State. Gallinaceous Birds are represented by only six genera and as many species. The Wild Turkey was formerly exceedingly abun- dant in all the woodlands of the State but is now much reduced in numbers. The Sharp-tailed Grouse has been reduced to a small number. The Prarie Chicken was once very abundant in Nebraska. Hunting them with dogs now keeps their numbers very much reduced. Quails are very abundant during some years. They are common over the greater part of the State. The Wading Birds are represented here by twenty-six genera and thirty-seven species. Among these, the King Plover is abun- dant during its spring and fall migrations. The Piping and Moun- tain Plover are also common. Wilson's Phalerope is only common 126 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY. in eastern Nebraska. Wilson's and the Gray Snipe are abundant during the migrating seasons. The Least and Baird's Sandpiper are also common during their migrations. The great Marbled Godwit breeds in the State. The greater and lesser Tattler abound here along rivers and creeks. The Wood Tattler occasionally breeds here. The most abundant of the tattlers is the Barlraniian or Upland Plover. It is very abundant during its migrations and many remain to breed. The Long-billed Curlew was formerly very abundant and still is in the new sections of the State. Gun- ners easily frighten it away and the following season it rarely returns. The Great Blue Heron comes occasionally to our rivers. The White Heron, Snowy Heron and American Bittern are rare in the State. The Whooping and Sand Hill Crane are "both in Nebraska, and the latter quite abundantly. The three species of rail in the State occur at long intervals. The American Coot, or Mud Hen, is often met in the State, and is remarkable for feeding on insects and mol- lusks. The Anserine Birds, to which the swans, geese and ducks belong, are fully represented in the State. Ten genera and at least twelve species have been noted in my previous publications, and since then several more species have come to light. The Trumpeter Swan is here, but very rare. The White Brant is very abundant during its migrations. The common Wild Goose is equally common at these seasons. The Mallard was formerly exceedingly common in the State during its migrations, but is now much less so, owing no doubt to the manner in which it is hunted down. Many formerly brought forth their young in northern Nebraska. The Green-winged Teal is also abundant during its migrations. The Blue-winged Teal and Shoveller are rarer than the preceding. The Wood Duck is common in some years, and breeds in north Nebraska. The Butter Ball and Ruddy Duck are common along the Missouri and on its tributaries for a short distance. Of the Totipalmate Birds, only two species of Pelican visit the State. Of the Long-winded Swimmers, there are four genera and ten species, one of which I found since my previous list was published. Of the Gulls, the Ring-billed and Franklin's Rosy Gull are the most common during the migrating season. Of the Terns, the FAUNA OP NEBRASKA. 127 Least Tern and Black Tern are the most abundant. They breed in Nebraska. The Diving Birds are represented in the State by only one species, namely, the American-eared Grebe. It is particularly abun- dant on the Platte and the Missouri. This brief sketch will, I trust, give some idea of the affluence of bird life in Nebraska. I have in another work, already alluded to,* shown how highly insectiverous the most of our birds are, and what vast millions of insects they destroy. Bird life is the poetry of animal life. Every sentiment of admiration for exquisite beauty, for the charm of song, for utility, and abhorrence for the infliction of needless suffering, calls on cultivated and refined natures to protest against the needless destruction of birds. REPTILES. Owing to the large amount of time devoted to the other depart- ments of our natural history, I have been unable to do much with our reptiles and fishes. The following is therefore only a partial list of such as I have found in the State : Soft Shelled Turtle (Trionyx ferox). Missouri. Snapping Turtle (Chelonoura serpentina). In most of our rivers. Painted Tortoise (Emys pi eta]. Missouri and Platte rivers. Painted Tortoise (Emys guttata). Widely dispersed. Wood Terrapin (Emys insculpta). Widely dispersed. Geographic Tortoise (Emys geographicd). Common. Pseudo graphic Tortoise (Emys pseudo graphicd). Rare. Mud Tortoise (Kinosternon Pennsylvanicwri). Rare. Musk Tortoise (Sternothacrus odoratus). Have seen but one in the State. Common Box Tortoise (Cistuda Carolina). Common. Blanding's Box Tortoise (Gistuda Blandingii}. Rare. SAURIANS. Blue Tailed Skink (Suncus fasciatus). Rare. Fine-lined Lizard (Lygosoma quinquelineatus}. Rare. Horned Toad (Phrynosoma carnutd). West Nebraska. Brown Swift (Tropidolopis undulatus}. Niobrara region. Chiroter lumbricoides. Southeast Nebraska. Glass Snake (Opiosaurus ventralis]. South Nebraska. *N»tural Food of Birds. 128 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. SNAKES. Black Snake {Coluber constrictor.} Common. Pilot Blacksnake Racer {Coluber Allegheniensis]. Rare. Milk Snake. House Snake {Coluber eximius). Seen occasion- ally. Ring Snake {Coluber punctatu*s}. Seen at long intervals. Grass Snake Coluber vernalis}. Rare. Coluber testaceus. West Nebraska. Water Snake {Trophidonotus sipeciori). Seen at long intervals. Striped Snake. Garter Snake {Trophidonotus taenia}. Rare. Yellow Bellied Snake {Ttopkidonotus leberis]. South Nebraska^ Small Brown Snake {Tropkidonotus DeKayi}. Some seasons rather abundant. Little Garter Snake. Ribbon Snake {Leptophis saurita]. Rare. Only in timber. Bull Snake {Pituophis melanoleucas\ Common. Northern Rattlesnake. Yellow Rattlesnake {Crotalus durissus)~ Sparingly. Most abundant in North Nebraska. Michigan Rattlesnake {Crotalophorus miliarius). Rare. Western Rattlesnake {Crotalophorus tergeminus). Rare. Massasaugua. Prairie Rattlesnake {Crotalophorus Kirtlandt]. Now supposed to be the same as the preceding. Formerly abun- dant.* Harlequin Snake {Elaps fulvius). Rare. AMPHIBIANS. Bullfrog {Rana pipiens). Common. Northern Bullfrog {Rana hariconensis]. Rare. Spring Frog- {Rana fontinalis). Rather numerous in favorite localities. Marsh Frog. Leopard Frog {Rana palustris). Common and abundant. Shad Frog. Lopard Frog {Rana kalecina). Common. Wood Frog {Rana sylvaticd}. Common in timber along the Missouri. Common Toad {Bufo Americanus). Common. Missouri Toad {Bufo cognathus]. Occasional. Northern Tree Toad {Hyla versicolor). Along the Missouri. *For the use of the rattles of the Rattlesnake, see the writer's paper, published in the 'American Naturalist," Feb. ,1872. FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. • 129 TAILED BATRACHIANS. Yellow-bellied Salamander (Salamandra fymmetrtca). Occa- sional. Violet-colored Salamander {Salamandra subviolaced]. Rather common. Blotched Salamander (Salamandra fasciata). Common. Long-tailed Salamander (Salamandra longicaudd]. On the Ni- obrara. Striped-back Salamander (Salamandra bilineata). Rare. Red Salamander (Salamandra rubrd). South Nebraska. Rare. Blue-spotted Salamander (Salamandra glutinosa}. Rare. Banded Proteus (Menobranchus latter alls]. Rare. Allegheny Hell-bender (Manapoma Allcghcniensis}. Occa- sional. FISHES. The following list of our fishes includes only the few that I have identified. For reasons already stated, I could not devote myself to a special investigation of our fish fauna. One-half of our species are not included in this list. The waters of Nebraska are eminently adapted. to the artificial propagation of fish. Even the trout can be successfully reared in many of our streams, especially in some like the Bows, in north Nebraski. These Bow Rivers are largely made up of the most delicious springs along the greater length of their course, and where these are most abundant never freeze over in winter. The Bazile is equally well adapted to this industry. There are also many kinds that will flourish in the Elkhorn and its tributaries, the Nemahas and their tributaries, and the Blues and Loups and their tributaries. There are other rivers and their tributaries that could be stocked equally well with choice fish. BONY FISHES. Many-lined Bass (Labrax multilinealns}. Missouri River. Pike Perch (Leuciaperea griscd). Occasionally found in the Missouri. The Growler (Grystes salmoides}. Rare. Missouri and Ne- maha. Black Bass (Centrarchus fasciatus). Elkhorn, Logan, etc. Centrarchus pent acanthus. Nemaha. Rare. Pond Fish (Pomotis vulgaris). Common in most of our streams. 9 130 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Three additional species of Pond Fish (Pomotis) not identified. Lake Catfish (Pimeloidus nigricarts}. Missouri, Platte. Common Catfish (Pimeloidus cattis}. Common. Forked Tail Catfish (Pimeloidus furcatus). Missouri. Brazen Catfish Pimeloidus deneus). Platte and Elkhorn. Blue Catfish (Pimeloidus celurescens.) Missouri, Republican, Ne- maha, Elkhorn. Yellow Catfish (Pimeloidus cupreus}. Probably same as Brazen Catfish above. Channel Catfish {Pimeloidus -pallidus). Missouri, Platte, Blue, Elkhorn, etc. Mud Catfish {Pimeloidus nebufasus). Common. Black Bullhead (Pimeloidus xanthocephalus}. Missouri and Nio- brara. Four additional species of catfish I failed to identify. Chubsucker {Labeo ). Only occasionally seen. Sucker {Catast»mus ). Missouri. Black Buffalo Fish (Catastomus elongatd]. Common. Shiner (Stilbe chrysoleucas). Platte, Missouri. Black- nosed Dace (Lends cus abronascus). Same as above. Vermillion-eyed Dace (Lenciscus bigutlatus). Platte, Bow, Blue, Elkhorn, etc. Chubb Big Head (Lencisctis cephalus). Bow Rivers. Minnow (Hydrargira ). Common. Muskallonge (Esox ester]. Missouri. Rare. Common Pickerel (Esox reticulatus]. In most of our streams. Missouri Trout (Salmo Lewisi). I caught one in the Bow and one in the Iowa Creek, in Dixon County. Probably wandered down from the upper Missouri. Gar Pike (Lepidosteus ). Common. Western Mud Fish (Amia occidentalism. Rare. Common Eel (Anguilia tenuirosttis). Elkhorn River. Rare. CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. Sturgeon (Aeiphensex maculosus). Missouri. Rare. Lamprey (Pteromyzon ). Elkhorn. Rare. INSECT LIFE. 131 CHAPTER XII. INSECT LIFE. Number of Species. — Predatory species.— Chinch Bug.— Army Worm. — Hessian Fly.— Potato Beetle. — Insects that prey on orchards and groves. IN articulate animal life, the most important class is that of in- sects. As in temperate latitudes generally, they are more nu- merously developed in genera, species and individuals than any other section of the animal kingdom. In fact, they dispute with man the empire of the world. During spring and summer they are omnipresent ; when the naked eye does not recognize them the microscope brings them to light. In Nebraska the number of species is very great, approximating to eight or nine thousand. About one-fourth of these are predatory and non-injurious species, leaving not less than six thousand, or two and a half injurious species to every species of plant in the State. This calculation is based on the original constitution of the State, and not on the con- dition into which it has been brought by civilization. The great body of injurious species are so few in number that they rarely do any damage that is noticeable. Here, as elsewhere, only excep- tional conditions, as a rule, develope injurious species to a tempor- ary and damaging multitude. Judging from observation for fif- teen years, the insects which we have most to dread are the chinch bug, army worm, Hessian fly, potato beetle, the insects which prey on our orchards and groves, and the locusts. THE CHINCH BUG is the dread of the agriculturists of the Mississippi Valley. It some- times occurs in Kansas in enormous numbers, and the probabilities are that it is more to be dreaded on the plains of Nebraska than even the locust. I fear it is on the increase. At least, during the lae,t season more have been sent to me for examination than ever before. And although most persons are familiar with its gen- eral life-history, I will repeat it, because I believe that here it has slightly changed its habits; at least, some individuals 132 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. have done so. The reports say that about June the eggs are laid on the ground or among the roots of plants, and that this process of egg-laying lasts fifteen or twenty days, and that they number about 500 for each female. In fifteen days the eggs hatch out. The bright red larvae remain under ground, sucking at the roots of plants. The full grown insect is one-twelfth of an inch long, of a black color, with white wings, and appears from the middle of July to August. A second brood hatches out still later in the summer, and further south a third brood. Evidently some of the perfect insects survive the winter, harboring under rails, boards, leaves and grass. I found them frozen solid, apparently, during the last winter, when hunting for locust eggs, but they soon revived when brought into a warm room. Now here I have found the chinch bug vary from this history in this, that it occasionally de- posits its eggs on the lower part of the plant itself, as I ascertained by bringing such plants home an 1 observing their transformations. As the damage done by this insect sometimes in western States like Illinois reaches as high as $73,000,000 in a season, it is important to note the remedies that have been devised against them. Lady bugs (Coccinellidae) destroy them, as also lace-wing flies. During the last summer I dissected several quail, whose stomachs were filled writh these bugs. The protection of quail, therefore, must have a salu- tary influence on restraining their increase. The methods devised against the chinch bugs are various. Among the best are ditching to keep them from traveling from one field to another, and keeping the ground constantly stirred. They appear to dislike ground that is yielding, or that dirties their bodies. By ditching, as many as forty bushels have been destroyed in one day. One plan is to drag a log through the ditch to kill them, and another is to dig pits in the ditches in which they are buried or otherwise destroyed. THE ARMY WORM (Ltuicania unipucto^) as far as I know, has not yet done any injury to the crops of the State. I was at least three years in the State before I found a single moth of this insect. The first one I found was in the autumn of 1867. No more came across my path till 1869. The first autumn (that of 1871) that I spent at the Univer- sity, I found great numbers, and on the whole they have been in- creasing ever since. Here probably two broods are raised in a year. The eggs are laid near the roots of the prairie grass in June or July, and lie dormant till the next spring. INSECT LIFE. 133 Remedies. — Hence a successful method of warring against them has been the burning of plots of grass where they abound. Mr. Walsh, the former eminent entomologist of Illinois, after a long study of this insect, became confident that this is an infallible rem- edy. And of course, where the larvae or worm makes its appear- ance, ditching must be resorted to as in other cases with marching destructive insects. And I have no doubt that our immunity thus far from occasional depredations from this enemy has been the yearly burning of large tracts of the prairies of this State. And just in proportion as this practice is abandoned for other reasons will the dangers from this source multiply. I have received a few letters from different portions of the State complaining about the appearance of THE HESSIAN FLY. This is no indication that it will become troublesome, and yet, to be forewarned is often to be forearmed. I have had no experience to amount to anything with this insect. Habits. — But it is said to deposit its eggs in the long slits of wheat, grass, barley and rye blades, etc., both in spring and fall. In from live to twenty days the eggs hatch. The larvae crawl down be- tween the leaf and the stock until they reach a joint, where they rest and suck the sap. They mature in from four to five weeks. The pupa has a striking resemblance to a flax seed, and is found at the same place where the larvae was sucking the sap. In April, May or the first of June, the winged insect appears, and commences egg-laying. Remedies. — It is also said that large numbers of the pupae are de- stroyed by cleaning off all the stubble by deep plowing, but especi- ally by burning over the fields. Quicklime scattered over the fields after harvest has also been relied on in some places in the east as a remedial agent. Strewing the fields in April and May with wood ashes has also been found efficacious. The larvae of the wheat midge \Diplasis destructor] has also been sent to me this season, but to what extent it prevails in the State I am unable to say. FRUIT DESTROYERS. I have observed no indications of any special increase in the species that prey on orchards and groves, except in the case of plant-lice, which have been abundant for several years past. It is well known that the species are exceedingly abundant, ; 134 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. and that they increase with marvelous rapidity, a single pair being capable by the end of the season of producing millions. The con- ditions of their great increase during some seasons and their de- crease during others are not well understood. During this season they were abundant not only on the milkweeds, amorphas, and some few sun flowers, but were specially abundant on oak trees, on the willows, elms and cottonwoods, though I am not advised as to any particular damage that they have done. It is claimed by many that a moderate increase of plant-lice is an advantage where apiaries are kept, because of the heavy honey dew that some species produce. This is questionable, but it is one of those compensations of which nature is so full. Something at least is gained, if when the vigor of vegetation is impaired by the sucking of wood-lice, the bees pro- duce double their ordinary stores. For a few years, in many por- tions of the State, there has been an alarming increase of the COTTONWOOD LEAF BEETLE, or, as it is known to science, the Plogiodera scripta. Nowhere has it done more injury than in Lancaster County, though it has been sent to me to identify from many other places. Some of the groves beyond the Antelope, and many of the cottonwoods on the State Agricultural Farm, were despoiled of their leaves by this insect. It prevailed as far north as Dakota and Dixon counties. I saw trees stripped of their foliage by it in Burt and Washington coun- ties. It has done more or less damage in at least twrenty counties of the State. During this season, however, it has greatly declined in numbers, and in the damage it has been doing for several past years. What has caused all this decrease I am unable to say, but one element of the process has been the work of predatory insects. I have found ichneumons and chalcis flies at work on them. Rainy seasons also seem to be injurious to them. This, however, has been denied. The fears, however, that many began to entertain that this insect was going to place an embargo on the cultivation of the cot- tonwood, is proved to be not well founded. Prof. Culbertson I think has somewhere given an account of its life history, and the best methods of counteracting its work, and that, therefore, I need not here repeat. During this season, also, the various species of borers have not, so far as I am advised, made any special inroads on the trees of th e State. I have no doubt the increase of our insectiverous birds has had much to do with lessening the number of many of our insect enemies . INSECT LIFE. 135 Since the first settlement of the State, THE MATERIAL CONDITIONS IN RELATION TO INSECTS have greatly changed, and are still in process of change, and more rapidly than ever. Forests have been removed in some places, and planted in hundreds of others. Whole counties have been rapidly transformed from raw prairies to cultivated fields. The old balance between insects and plants has been disturbed. The natural food of the insects has been removed, but the insects themselves pro- bably remained. No alternative then remains but for the in- sects, in accordance with natural law, to adapt themselves to the changed condition. If man takes away their natural fond, they will naturally confiscate, or try to, some of his. For the loss of the -spontaneous vegetable productions of the State, they find compen- sation in corn fields, vineyards, orchards, gardens, wheat fields and clover and timothy and clover fields. If the new vegetable forms introduced into the State had only native foes to fight, the struggle for existence would not be so severe. But in addition, other foes, old enemies from their native climes, follow them. The apple tree and the vine, the peach and the pear, in their westward march, have gathered the foes of all climes and all lands, until their numbers are legion. Friends and Enemies. — Still with the enemies that have accumu- lated, came some friends, often in disguise. Vast numbers of insect parasites often make their appearance to re-establish again the broken harmony of nature. Thus ever changing man keeps nature in tur- moil in her efforts to adapt herself to the newly imposed conditions. Insect enemies sometimes make their appearance and increase with •such amazing rapidity as to threaten the entire destruction of some horticultural or agricultural industry. Finally an enemy stealthily makes its appearance, sometimes from the native region of the plant, and sometimes from other lands. The abundance of food favors its rapid increase, until in a few years it has almost wholly destroyed the source of its food, when both fall back to the narrow dimensions, and the obscurity from which they had emerged. This continued disturbance and readjustment of the relations between in- sect life, horticulture and agriculture must, in the nature of things, continue for a generation. This involves the continued need of watchfulness and special labor in the entomological field. We need for our State 136 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. A MANUAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, — such a one as Harris prepared for Massachusetts — that is, one similar in plan, but very different in specific detail. For one-half of the insects that are troublesome in Massachusetts do not give us any concern here, while the great body of our injurious species were unknown in Harris' day. But while there is a great need for such a work, it cannot yet be prepared, because many of our in- jurious species are as yet neither known nor studied. But every friend of horticulture can aid in the preparation of such a work, by keeping a careful record and close notes of the habits and life-history of such species as come within his observations. CHAPTER XIII. THE LOCUSTS*— MOLLUSKS. Nativity. — Spring History and Migration. — Numbers that Light Down.— Egg Laying. — Manner of Egg Laying. — Hatching. — Departure of Locusts. — Destructiveness of Locusts. — How to Combat and Destroy the Locusts. — Nature's Methods of Destroying Locusts. — Invertebrate Enemies. — Ver- tebrate Enemies. — Extent of Locust Invasions. — Probable Future of Locust Depredations — Mollusks. NOTHING in the natural history of Nebraska has excited such general interest as the locust question. Where then, do they .breed, how frequently do their visitations occur, and what is the amount of damage which they do? The migrating locust, ( Caloptenu s spretus^) is native to the high and dry regions of the Rocky Mountains. Its permanent habitat is the region between latitude 43° and 53° north, and 103° and 114° west of Greenwich. Even some portions of this section are sometimes deserted for a few years for other grounds, but always somewhere within this territory they will be found to exist. In a majority of years some locusts will also be found to breed south of the above line, along the region west of longitude 105° 30'. The *The reader is referred for a detailed account of the Locust question to the Report of the IT S. Entemolojrical Commission for 1877, which includes the writer's investigations and con- clusions on this subject at greater length and fulness. THE LOCUSTS. 137 great interior region between the Wasatch and the Sierras over much of its territory will be found to harbor a few during most years. W henever, therefore, over these regions the conditions are favorable they increase to astonishing numbers. These favoring conditions are exceptional dryness and warmth. If two such seasons follow each other in the native habitat of the locust they are sure to migrate. Their Spring History and Migration. — After they hatch out in the spring it takes about seven weeks before they reach their full growth. During this time they moult five different times, and each time change slightly in color. Only at the last moult are full wings acquired, the thorax flattened and the insect ceases to grow. Where now they cover the ground in their native haunts from their abundance the scanty vegetation is soon exhausted. It is now that they manifest their peculiar instincts. They take short flights for several weeks, apparently to test and strengthen their newly ac- quired wings. The warm pleasant days with gentle winds are the favorable peiiods for flight. When all is in readiness they rise from eight to ten o'clock in the forenoon and move ofF with a rapidity dependent on the wind, varying from three to fifteen miles an hour. They do not move in broad sheets, but in columns like fleecy clouds from one to five thousand feet thick. They some- times continue their flight through clear, warm, moonlight nights, but more generally come down between three and five o'clock to feed. On the following day they continue their flight if the weather is favorable. A change of wind or fall of temperature brings them to the ground at any time. From their native habitat they move mainly in an easterly, southeasterly, and southern direction. Moving in this direction those that commence migrating from Montana by the middle of July reach Nebraska and Kansas some time in August or September. They do not always deposit their eggs where they first light down. Frequently they remain from one day to three weeks and then move farther on before egg laying- is commenced. The Numhers that Light Down is often enormous. In 1866 in Cedar County, during Julv, they appeared in such numbers that the sun was darkened. The limbs of trees bent down and broke under their weight. It was exceedingly difficult for one to move through the living mass. Others have had, and reported similar experiences. It is true that such cases are extreme and exceptional, 138 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. and occur at long intervals over limited areas. It has been no un- common thing, however, for them to be so abundant as to entirely cover the ground. Egg Laying. — The time for the commencement of egg laying varies somewhat in different years and localities. Generally it commences about the middle of August and continues to severe frost, and lasts therefore from six to eight weeks. In 1876 the locusts were laying eggs far into October. The female generally lays three times, at intervals of from three days to three weeks. Each egg mass contains from twenty to thirty-five eggs. Place and Method of Egg Laying — The places for egg laying are not uniformly the same. They seem to prefer ground that is high and dry, and somewhat compact. Low lands, however, that are •dry are much used for this purpose. Road sides are frequently honeycombed with holes, but comparatively few egg 'masses are found there. New breaking is generally fuller of eggs than any other kind of ground. The number laid is often simply enormous. I have often found sections of land where the eggs averaged from ten to fourteen thousand, and in rare instances to upwards of twenty- one thousand to the square foot. These enormous numbers are only reached during years when the locust swarms are exceptionally dense. Manner of Egg Laying. — When the female is about to lay her eggs she selects a spot and " forces a hole in the ground by means of the two pairs of horny valves, which open and shut, at the tip of her abdomen, and which from their peculiar structure are ad- mirably fitted for the purpose. With the valves closed she pushes the tips into the ground, and by a series of muscular efforts, and the continued opening and shutting of the valves, she drills a hole until in a few moments (the time varying with the nature of the soil) the whole abdomen is buried. The abdomen stretches to its utmost for this purpose, especially at the middle, and the hole is generally a little curved and more or less oblique. Now with hind legs hoisted straight above the back and the shanks hugging more or less closely the thighs she commences ovipositing." (Riley.) Before the eggs come out there exudes from the end of the body a mucous matter \vhich fills the bottom of the hole and bathes the valves. The eggs separately, by convulsive throbs, are placed in order in the hole. The mucous matter binds all the eggs together. When the locust is through with this process, she fills the upper THE LOCUSTS. 139 end of the mass with the same mucous matter, and then shuts up the hole carefully. This mucous after hardening is only pervious to water under frequent changes of temperature and during long wet seasons. When severe frost comes the old die off rapidly and at the ap- pearance of permanent cold weather they have all disappeared. Hatching* — It often happens that during the long dry autumns of Nebraska, great numbers of the earlier laid eggs hatch out and soon perish with the cold of winter. Many eggs also become segmented in autumn and whether they survive till spring in a healthy condition is still with many a disputed question. My own opinion, derived from the closest observation, is that all such come out in the spring, if they come out at all, in a sickly condition and soon perish. Sometimes, too, as happened in 1877, there is much warm weather in January and February, during which great num- bers hatch out that invariably perish by the subsequent cold weather. During spring the great hatching months are March and April. In these months cold always interrupts the process. This occurred in the Spring of 1877? when there were many cold days and chilly winds, and as a consequence hatching was not over till early June. Departure of Locusts. — As already stated, a few days after the last moult on favorable days they are disposed to migrate. No ex- ception to this rule is known in the region of the plains. It is pos- sible that where they are few in number in their native habitat they do not always migrate, but even that is uncertain. In Nebraska, Iowa, Dakota, Kansas and Missouri they are disposed to return to their native regions. They therefore move mainly northward and westward. Their instincts seem to force them to dryer and higher regions, where they originated. Such was specially the case when countless millions left the Stale in 1876. During 1877, ^e sPrmg of which was rainy, cold and chilly, the greater part of those that hatched out soon perished, and the few that survived seemed sickly and demoralized. These survivors first mainly moved northward, and then moved southward, and finally were seen to move in all directions; often two columns, one above the other, moving in op- posite directions. The greater part of this season's product of lo- custs evidently ran out, and perished by too long a stay in a region un adapted to them. Destructiveness of Locusts. — When the migrating locusts make their appearance in Nebraska, the cereal grains are already har- 140 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. vested. Wheat, oats and barley are safe. Corn and the gardens are the victims, if they come before the former are sufficiently ripened to resist their attacks, which is not always the case. A swarm of locusts in July or August can ruin a field of corn in a few days, and sometimes in a few hours. Often the fields are only partially de- stroyed. Sometimes the silk and foliage is partially eaten off, and the ends of the ears bared, so that the crops cannot mature. If they leave at this stage of their proceedings, all is well, and if not, their eggs are deposited and the wheat crop endangered during the coming spring. The countless numbers that are hatched out, if the spring is favorable to them, become exceedingly voracious. As they soon commence to move by jumping in one direction, when abundant, they are apt to devour everything in their path. This continues until they are old enough to fly, when they depart for other regions. Generally some corn can be saved in spring, and late planting may entirely escape. Often the third planting of corn during locust years yielded a fair crop. The cereal grains, however, have in some places, and during some years, been largely destroyed during the time between the hatching out and flight of the locusts. How to Combat and Destroy the Locusts. — No successful method has yet been devised to destroy the locusts on their first appearance in migrating swarms from the northwest. The injury, as already stated, which they now do is to the corn crops and the gardens, and sometimes to young growing fruit and forest trees. The eggs* however, which are laid in autumn, have been frequently destroyed by repeatedly harrowing the ground, breaking up the nests, and ex- posing them to the action of rain and cold and birds. Hon. R. W. Furnas, of Brownville, who first to my knowledge devised this method, found it to be very successful. Plowing them under very deep, also destroys great numbers. When they hatch out in spring in destructive numbers, the most vigorous methods need to be em- ployed. One of the most successful ways of destroying them is the digging of ditches around fields across the path on which they are moving. If the trenches are made from twelve to fourteen inches deep, and still deeper holes dug every few rods in the trenches, the young locusts first get into the trenches, then into the holes, where, unable to get out, they can be destroyed by piling ground on them. I have known many farmers to save their entire crops in this way in the very midst of the most infected districts. THE LOCUSTS. Ill Still others have saved their crops by a system very generally in use in the spring of 1877. Pans made of sheet iron, from five to ten feet long, low in front and high behind and at the sides, with cross partitions from front to rear, is the general plan of the ap- paratus used. A little coal oil is placed in these pans, and dragged over the fields by hand or horse power. The young locusts jump into or over the pans, and even the fume's are fatal to them. In this way I have known fourteen bushels to be captured in one day by one man. The combination of these two plans — ditching and coal oil pans — will save any farm in the spring from the ravages of the brood hatched in that locality, if commenced in time. Unfortunately, farmers too often simply look on until their crops are partly destroyed, before anything is done to protect them- selves. It requires energy and decision to do this, but when it is properly commenced and persevered in, it is successful. Nature's Method of Destroying Locusts. — Nature has placed limits to the increase of the individuals of a species. When there is an undue increase from exceptional favoring conditions, either natural enemies soon proportionally increase or the need of food compels migration, which often forces to unhealthy regions. This is the case with the migrating locust. Its native habitat is a high, dry region, where the rainfall is from ten to twenty inches a year. It cannot long endure a combination of low altitudes and moisture, combined with extreme and sudden changes of temperature. Hence, the locust can never become localized in Nebraska. The memorable spring of 1877 is a notable illustration of this fact. In March and April immense numbers hatched out, and then followed cold rains, with sudden alternations of extremes of temperature. Countless millions of young locusts died. Many spots where the ground seemed to be covered with them, none could be found in a few days. Nothing often convinced me that death was the cause ot their disappearance, until, getting down on my hands and knees and examining the ground;with a huge magnifying glass, I found their dead carcasses. 'The young brood just hatched out disap- peared as if by magic from whole counties. The localities where much damage was done were exceedingly few. In fact, the brood was so impaired constitutionally that it fell an easy victim to the extremes of a moist climate in a comparatively low altitude. I also noticed, in previous locust years, that moisture accompanied by an extremely hot or cold day was always fatal to many of them. 142 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY. Invertebrate Enemies. — It is a law of nature that the undue devel- opment of any animal is checked sooner or later by a like increase of its natural enemies. Were it not for that law, the slowest breed- ing species would soon overrun, to the exclusion of all other ani- mals, its own special habitat. Among locust egg destroyers, no insect equals in efficacy the An- thomyia egg-parasite (Anthomyia angustifrous}. A few were noticed in 1874, and by 1876 it destroyed about ten per cent of the eggs in Nebraska, and Prof. Thomas reports an equal destruction in Kansas,, Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota. He also remarks that " we never dug for five minutes among the locust eggs, anywhere in our travels during May, without finding this parasite, in various stages of development." It is a small white magot, and is found in the locust egg pod extracting the juices and leaving nothing but dry dissolved shells. From this magot is developed a small gray two- winged fly, about one-fourth of an inch long. The common flesh fly, many species of Ground, Blister, Soldier and Dick beetles, also prey on locust eggs. After the locusts emerge from the eggs, their greatest insect enemy is the Locust Mite (Trombidium locustarium}. It also preys on the eggs. The parent mite lays from three to four hundred eggs, and therefore increases at a prodigious rate. The young mite manages to fasten itself on the locust, especially during and after rains, and mostly lodges under the base of the wings. Such numbers are often found lodged on single locusts as necessarily to produce death. During locust flights, I have frequently seen hundreds fall to the ground, which, on examination, proved to be partially destroyed by these mites. Ground beetles, Asilus flies, Flesh flies, Digger Wasps and Tachina flies, especially the latter, also feed on locusts and destroy great numbers. Hair worms, Spiders, Soldier-bugs and Dragon flies also prey on the locust. Vertebrate Enemies. — Among vertebrates, no animals equal the birds as destroyers of insects, and especially of locusts. The num- bers of locusts which birds consume is simply incalculable. Many species in locust years live entirely on them, and most do so par- tially. Often each bird of a species captures several hundred during each day. In fact, after many years' study of this subject, and after dissecting more or less of several hundred species, I have been forced to the conviction that even the gramnivorous birds cannot be excluded from the list of locust enemies. The reader will find THE LOCUSTS. 14S the record of each case of dissection of over 200 species of our birds, which I made during many years, in the report of the U. S. Entomological Commission for 1877. It is clear to my mind that few as yet appreciate the great and commanding importance of protecting our birds. If this was properly done, few species of in- sects would ever increase to destructive numbers. Unfortunately,, the savage is still dominant in man, and many calling themselves cultivated regard it sport to maim and kill innocent birds. Such a course destroys the harmony of nature, and one of the consequences is the devastations of insects. Extent of Locust Invasions. — Unfortunately, the human mind has a tendency to exaggeration. Owing to this, during every lo- cust invasion, the damage done has been over-estimated. In 1874^ 1876 and 1877, they did much damage, but by no means as much as was reported. The drouth, and human indolence and carelessness, did much more. I knew men during these years that never touched their corn after it was planted, and of course, got none, as they did not deserve any, who yet charged the locusts with destroying their crops, though none had come within five miles of their home- steads. Sometimes there are many years between locust invasions. It rarely occurs that the whole State suffers at once. While the small visitations have been frequent, the destructive ones occurred at long intervals and over comparatively small areas. Future Locust Depredations. — One reason for the destructiveness of locusts heretofore has been the small area in the thickest settle- ments under cultivation. The locusts seemed to select the corn- fields and gardens for their feeding grounds. When the area under cultivation is trebled, the amount of damage which they can do will be more than one-half less. Another more potent agency against their increase and destructiveness is the increasing rainfall of the State. We have already seen how the wet season of 1877 de- stroyed the greater part of those that appeared that spring. Dur- ing each coming decade the number of similar seasons will increase* The instincts of the locust will also prompt it to remain away from a region so hostile to its existence. While, therefore, the presence of the locust in the trans-Missouri region is extremely undesirable, it is by no means the pest that it sometimes has been represented to be. Human energy and skill can in a large measure counteract their injurious effects. UNIVERSITY OF 144 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. MOLLUSKS.* Though not directly connected with the main question of this chapter, yet, for convenience, the following brief enumeration of our moluscan fauna is given. There being no sea-coast, only land and fresh water forms are native to the State. Of these, the air- breathers are well represented. The Vitrianas, a subfamily closely allied to the snails, are represented by seventeen species. Of the snails proper (Helicince), there are thirty species, the most abundant of which is the Spotted Snail (Helix alternata]. There have been classified of the Pupinae twelve species, of Succiniae eight species, of Zonitinse seven species, these last being distantly allied to the preceding group. The fresh water shells are even more abundant than the preceding land shells. Thus far, there have been found of these thirteen species of Limnaea, eight species of Physa, two of Bullimus, twelve of Planorbis, one of Segmentina, four of Ancyclus, two of Valvata, three of Vinipera, three of Melantho, two of Amnicola, two of Pomatiopsis and five Melanians. These fresh water shells having but one valve in a spiral are often .all popularly designated as water snails. But the most abundant of all our fresh water shells are the so-called clams (Unios and Anadontas]. Of the Unios there are at least sixty-seven species, of the Margaritanas two, and of the thin-shelled, muddy-bottom loving Anadontas there have been fourteen species found in the State. These are the numbers that I have identified, but as I have examined only comparatively small sections of our rivers, it cannot be possible that all the species came in my way. Many more species must, therefore, be added to our list. In fact, I have often waded in our rivers for miles with- out finding a single shell, and then, coming upon a hard or solid bottom of limestone, the bed appeared lined with Unios of many species. Before we know what our rivers contain of our molluscan fauna, they must be closely examined along their whole length, a task too severe for any one investigator. *For a specific list of our Land and Fresh Water Shells, the reader is referred to the writer's Catalogue of the Land and Fresh Water Shells of Nebraska, published in Bulletin 3, Vol. III. of U. S. Geological Survey. HEALTH FULNESS. 145 CHAPTliR XIV. Healthfulness. — Reserve Forces, and Probable Future of the Race in Nebraska. IS Nebraska a healthy region? That is a question which is more frequently asked than any other by many classes contemplating removal to Nebraska. Among the special questions asked are: Do fever and ague, dyspepsia, consumption, etc., exist here? No spot on the globe is absolutely free from disease, but this State is singularly exempt from its severe forms. Fever and ague are rarely met with. The fact is that less malarial diseases exist here than in any other western State. When they do occur it is owTing to limited local causes, or extraordinary exposure, and they are generally successfully treated by the simplest remedies. The bad cases that have been met were invariably contracted elsewhere, and came here in the hope of having the disease cured by our climate. They never were disappointed if they here gave nature a chance to exert its full health-making power on their bodies. Every effect must have a cause, and the cause of this general exemption from this class of diseases is probably found in the peculiar climate and surface conditions of the State. The general drainage of the State, as we have seen, is the best possible. Its general slope is east and south, the southeastern corner being the lowest. The rivers with the smaller streams that flow into them have high banks, on top of which the flood plains begin, and extend to a greater or less distance back to the bluffs where there is another rise to the general plain above. The rivers themselves are gener- ally comparatively rapid, and their flood plains are rarely a dead level, but descend gradually in the direction of the main streams. And although often the flood plain is slightly higher next to the river than it is next to the bluffs, the water that tends to accumulate there is carried off by the lateral tributaries that join the main stream. As these smaller tributaries are met with every few miles, and often on an average every mile, the drainage of even the great majority of the bottom lands is complete. 10 146 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Besides these favoring conditions the soil is principally Loess and Modified Drift and contains from sixty to eighty per cent, of sili- cious matter, very finely comminuted, which readily permits all \vater from rains and snows to percolate through it. Beneath the Loess unmodified Drift occurs, and this being made up of sand, pebbles and boulders, all the conditions for complete drainage are completely supplied. Even the black, rich surface soil, so wonder- ful for its fertility, contains silicious material in sufficient quantities to produce good drainage. The consequence of such inclination of the land and character of the soil and subsoil is that over large areas in the State standing water is unknown. Indeed, many citizens of the State, who have not traveled much, fancy that there is no standing water within its boundaries. There are, however, a few limited localities where swamps and bogs exist, such as a por- tion of the Missouri bottom in Dixon and Burt counties, and on small portions of the level prairies, in Clay, Webster, Fillmore and Saline counties. Even here the general elevation of these counties, and the constant movement of the winds seems to counteract the conditions of the surface that favor malarial diseases. Not only does the atmosphere seem to be constantly in motion, but is also comparatively dry. In summer and autumn the prevailing- winds are south and southwest. In winter the prevailing winds are from the north and northwest. In spring the winds, as else- where, are exceedingly variable, and seem to be nearly equally divided, between north and northwest, and south and southwest. Often in the spring the prevailing winds are from the northeast. The air is always remarkably pure and generally clear. All these are conditions that are unfavorable to- the production and propaga- tion of miasmatic poisons. An additional reason for the healthfulness of Nebraska might be the presence of an unusual quantity of ozone in the atmosphere. I merely suggest this as a partial explanation of this fact, as no single cause, but many combined, produce the healthfulness of a region. In the section on the Atmosplierc of Nebraska, I have shown that the atmosphere of Nebraska is exceptionally full of ozone, caused probably by its highly electric condition, and the constant movement of electricity through dry air. As is well known, ozone is found in the east in perceptible quantities only after thunder storms, by which many suppose it to be produced. As here during much of the time, before as well as after thundci HEALTHFULNESS. 147. showers, there is a perceptible quantity of ozone in the atmos- phere, sufficient at least to respond to the Shcenbein test papers, it must have some effect on health. That its effects are salutary, especially in the destruction of malarial poisons, is the conviction of the best medical authorities. The bane of some otherwise favored localities in America, is consumption. In Massachusetts, for instance, the vital statistics of the United States show this to be one of the commonest causes of death. Now, whatever maybe the cause, Nebraska has a singular immunity from this and kindred diseases. During a residence of nearly fifteen years in the State I have not known .of a single case of consumption to be contracted in Nebraska. There may have been such cases, but I have not been able to find any after diligent inquiry, or even to hear of such.* Many indeed have died of this disease in the State, but so far as I have learned the particulars of their cases, they all came into the State in an advanced stage of the disease, and sometimes here succumbed to it, only because o'f a want of proper care and remedies. On the other hand, hundreds come here with the disease who are cured by the climate alone. I know, for example, one young lady who was sent here from Philadelphia, apparently far gone with consumption, and reduced almost to skin and bone, and too weak to walk. She immediately commenced to improve, and in a year weighed one hundred and forty pounds. I admit that this was an extreme case and that she had the best atten- tion and care, but it shows at least the possibilities in this direction of this climate with such adjuncts. This same lady was struck by cupid, got married, and is now the mother of three healthy, rosy children. Many more instances of a similar kind could be given. I have known a great number of asthmatic subjects to come here, and soon all symptoms of the disease disappeared. Some years ago a young lady, a relative of my family, came to visit us from Penn- sylvania. She had not been able, from difficulty of breathing, to lie down in her old home for six months before she came here. The first night in Nebraska she was able to lie down and sleep comfortably till morning. In a few months she seemed perfectly restored, which proved to be permanent for years after her return home. It is also curious that horses with the heaves lose all traces of this disease when *Since writing the above, I have learner! from Or. Livingston of Plattsmouth, an eminent physician, that one ciixe of consumption contracted in .Nebraska came to his professional knowledge. This, however., is exceptional. 148 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. brought to Nebraska. Bronchitis also here readily yields to the influ- ence of the climate. Inflammation of the lungs seldom occurs, and when contracted, readily yields to treatment. A volume could easily be filled with cures wrought by this climate on this class of patients. Of course the climate cannot perform miracles. No one should ex- pect to be cured here who is in the third stage of pulmonary disease. Sick ones who come for health should be sure to go where they can get rest and be provided with home cemforts. When scarlet fever and measles appear they are generally in their mild forms. They rarely appear as epidemics. As to typhus and cerebro-spinal fevers they are comparatively rare. Physicians of eminence assure me that the mortality from these diseases in other States is compar- atively much greater than here. The chief complaint that I have heard from citizens of Nebraska concerning its healthfulness is that it tends to produce rheumatism and nervous disorders. On diligent inquiry, however, I have al- most invariably found that the great body of those complaining in this direction are such as have been insufficiently clothed during the colds of winter, or have exposed themselves to an extent or indulged in practices that would have produced these diseases in any climate. The tendency always is, in a new State, among the first energetic settlers, to great exposure. Many start for the West with barely enough to reach their destination. Often little is produced the first year on the homestead, and the old clothes are made to do duty the second year. Until the new homestead is fairly under cultivation (which sometimes takes several years), the new immigrant is often put to great straits for groceries and clothing. Of course, when the immigrant brings along money or stock to carry him over the first year, it need not be so, but thus far the majority have not been of this class. The circumstances, too, of a new country, stimulate to great risks and enterprises. Men will often start off on long journeys, through sparsely settled districts, ford streams, and in many other ways subject themselves unnecessarily to flood and storm. The consequence is that the principal diseases in some sec- tions and seasons, have been rheumatism and neuralgia. I was once laid up with rheumatism, but it was after working in the Elkhorn River, with the water above my middle, when the thermometer was fifteen degrees below zero, trying to extricate my team which had broken through the ice. For this I could not blame the climate. Turkish baths soon took the rheumatism out of me. And yet with HEALTHFULNE8S. 149 all these circumstances favorable to contracting rheumatism, statis- tics show that most of the States have more deaths from this cause than Nebraska. Even California has double the number of deaths from this cause. It has sometimes been objected that the extremes of temperature and of other conditions in Nebraska, must be unfavorable to health. There is, however, a great difference between an extreme and a de- structive climate. That Nebraska has no destructive climate, is at once apparent, from the great variety of its vegetable forms and the exuberance of its natural animal life. Extremes of climate up to a certain point, while they may be injurious, and even destruc- tive to the weak individuals of a species, rather benefit the normally healthy and strong. There is a greater variety of vegetable and animal life in the extreme climate of Nebraska than in the more moderate and equatable climate of England. It even favors those gradual changes of specific characters that advance the grade of vegetable and animal life. Compare, for example, the extremes of climate in Massachusetts and Nebraska. In the former, a warm, mild day is frequently changed to a cold one by a moisture-laden wind suddenly blowing from the northeast. These winds blowing there from the cold currents of the Atlantic, that come from the Labrador coast, chill the body to an extreme degree, and too often sow the seeds of consumption and other diseases which are the bane of that region. The character, therefore, of the northeast winds renders the climate there a partially destructive one. The north- east wind, on the other hand, in Nebraska, is dry in autumn and winter, and even in spring and summer, until the June rains come. And then they become laden with the moisture of the already warmed up waters of the Missouri and the Platte. Our moist winds here come from the Mexican Gulf, and are south and south- west, rather than north, east and northeast, as in Massachusetts. Our climate is therefore extreme, without being destructive. Its health conditions are the reverse of those in the Eastern States. Our extremes can be comparable to the Turkish bath, which stimu- lates into activity the functions of the body. Nearly everyone who comes into the State feels a general quick- ening and elasticity of spirits. The appetite and digestion improve wonderfully. Mind and body are lifted up. All this occurs even with the execrably prepared food eaten in the most of the rural dis- tricts. For in most of the rural districts, hot biscuit, green with 150 • PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. soda, is still the form of bread usually eaten. Now this improve- ment in physical and mental condition cannot arise simply from change of locality. It must originate from our peculiarities of climate. I have myself felt in this State as I have never felt it elsewhere, especially when camping out, faraway from settlements, and alcne with nature and God, how luxurious existence was, and how pleasant life was intended to be. One needs but to go through the fever and ague stricken districts of other States, and then pass through the rural districts of Nebraska, to notice the contrasts be- tween the sallow complexions found in the former region, and the hue of health and glow of spirits found here. Owing to these facts, Nebraska must sooner or later become a health resort. In addition to the health producing properties of the climate, there are in various sections of the State mineral \vaters of high medicinal value. One of these is the artesian well on the Government square in Lincoln. It throws up a strong column of water from a depth of a thousand feet. It is used in two bathing establishments in the city. In the one at the Com- mercial Hotel, besides many others, over twelve hundred Turkish baths were given during the last (the first after opening) year. Some remarkable cures have already been performed here, es- pecially on rheumatic and neuralgic patients: This water is also believe s ii! ! ill liflj! ^ ^jS^iSfc.5 S»F ^S^Mfi^ E- K | ' i' OQ O e I! ~ c s H c ll (N AMKIU C'ave Deposits. Peat. Alluvium. Terraces. Loess. Saxicava Sand Forest Bed Champlain Clay. Glacial Drift. Pliocone. Miocene. Eoegne. &,=.J s£=s!= ]||||| pill c . a ^5 -~ X1 Triassic Sandstone Marl. Coal, &c. Atlantic Coast N Arizona, C..lifon Souora, &c. ! . r » * s = 55 I II A 1 "3 s ^ ii S 1 i i • 11 Historic ill HOO 1 ^ OJ fc, J « ^ 1 1 I Ifl 0! - 73 a III * ^ t • r. x § s C t o 2 » a C D < i PH P W 1 i g g * c ^ < '71 f- . 35 S r- P- K P*H 2 g C C 91 r ^ H o o 2 w ^j o •soi[Bj PUB sunadsoiSuv jo sSy ^l»«-> O Jo aSy | d 3 | o N 1 B; N tt p C SB N 0 s i il 1 1 I! 09 • 3 1 2 - . • If ii~z i - i^ 1 1 i i 1 11 | & |*i .& i 5, & x x A ||3 M "c 3 Zl ff $ •3 ° |^^5 ^ !? Y, ''< ^ £,* •' <4 i ; H K i] 1 1 Permian Dolomites. Upper Coal Measures . Lower L oal Measures. ( 'arb Conglomerate . Sub-carb Limestoi e •^|S3S± ft . It 5S ** ^ o a) III 09 i • M *ds l«!i 8 s - £ '5 ~ = Sfl|3*i Iil|ili|i Helderberg. i Onondaga Salt Group. ill Hudson River Shales. Utica Shales Trenton Chazy Limestone. TQuebec Group. \ Calciferous Saudrock. \ Potsdam Saiidstone. ") St .Johu's Group. Huron ic System. Itaurentiau System. i 2 i y X v" — 2 « ll 'Jl II »• _g 2 K 4- U = •r (_ EPO( ' Permian. Upper Coal M Lower Coal M ( arb. Coi.gloi I'pper Sub-ca: Lower Sub-ra M - ' 5 J 1 !t S8S . a « § »3 • £2 = tb? ^> £i^ ri-s 5 353 £~s ^ ^•S< ^)xO O cc 2 = * Hudson. Utica. Treuton. Chazy. Calcif erons . 1 s ' o Oi Huronian . Laureutian . • ll i ji | 'f gg 02 J PERIODS. PKltMIAN. j \ CAKBOXIFKKO 2 ? 5 I wi O ^ i il 1 i r ^ c ~ HEIvDEKBKIi SAILNA. NIAGARA HUDSON. TKKSTOX CALCIFEROl PRIMORDIA EOZOIC. O H b •tnu.mns.uHld.r -um.iung aaAvoT 03 ^ t— ' CC -J2 H / W*?- !« | * g - d § ® ~§£* 5§ & 3 ^ 1 8 1 1 3 c J• C ^ r r 0 p32S^ 5 S K ?• s K f£ " o 3 •satfowY ,o agy -**IV J" a»Y 6 3 ' Q | 1 C N W ^ i ' 2 II . PART SECOND.— GEOLOGY. CHAPTER I. CARBONIFEROUS AGE IN NEBRASKA. Preceding Conditions. — Carboniferous Age Proper. — Age of the Nebraska Rocks. — 4 Different Opinion. — Section at Nebraska City. — Coal Features of the Carboniferous Age in Nebraska. — Vegetation of the Coal Age. — Animal Life of the Coal Age. — Climate of the Coal Age. — Permian Age. — Its Tran- sition Character. — Character of the Permian Rocks. PRECEDING CONDITIONS. IT does not enter into the plan of this work to treat of the early condition of the globe, or even to discuss the earlier periods of Palaeozoic times. Suffice it to say that our globe was once companion star to the sun, and that after it had cooled down sufficiently, the oceans were at first probably universal. Then came a nameless period when lofty uplands were formed towards the far north that supplied the materials for the old sea bottoms that were afterwards uplifted . and became known as the Archaeon highlands of Canada and the United States. The two- well marked divisions of these old deposits are known as Lau- rentian and Huronian rocks. As the rocks of these ages still left in Canada are forty thousand feet thick, and at least as extensive in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierras, and still greater in Bohemia and Bavaria, after being subjected to numberless ages of erosion, the time represented by their deposition was greater, probably, than the whole of geological history since their close. So far as we now know, during all this immense age there was no dry land in Ne- braska. Then followed what the geologists call Palaeozoic times, because of the antique or old life form of all the animals and plants in the old world. The earlier portions are known as the Silurian ages, during which invertebrate life was dominant, and the continent was ii 162 GEOLOGY. growing and extending southward from its Archaeon nucleus. The next age, called often the age of fishes, and also known as the De- vonian, followed, but neither in this or in the preceding Silurian was any dry land in Nebraska. By the close of this age, however, the continent in its southern extension had reached the south line of what is now New York, and many islands also existed still farther south, and in some places west. The Appalachian region seemed to have been rich in low islands, covered with a colossal vegetation. The sub carboniferoos period, which had such a re- markable development in some sections of Illinois, Kentucky, Iowa and Missouri, and which was the stage preparatory to the carbon- iferous period proper, is not represented by any known deposits in Nebraska.* Even the millstone grit so common in the East, under the coal, has not here been found. Whether it exists at all in this region can only be ascertained when borings or shafts reach its geological equivalent. We come now to The Carboniferous Age Ptoper. — This is a geological age of the most absorbing interest, because of the general character of the time, and because during its progress the first dry land appeared in Nebraska. The carboniferous age was one of the most wonderful in all the history of the globe, for during its progress the thickest, most extensive and most valuable of all the coal beds were formed. It has excited the most profound interest alike of the political econ- omist, the statesman, the chemist and the geologist. To understand the probable history of geological events in Ne- braska during this period, let us look at the oldest coal beds that are nearest to us. These are the beds along the Des Moines River and some of its tributaries extending westward within from seventy- five to one hundred miles of the Missouri. The coal here, which Dr. White regards as of Lower Carboniferous age, is from one to seven feet in thickness. Worthen first, and then Dr. White to a much greater extent, investigated these beds. Meek also carefully re-examined them. Subsequently I passed over the same region, attempting as Meek and White had done before me, to estimate the thickness of the rocks that lapped over the coal bearing strata as far west as the farther or Nebraska shore of the Missouri. Meek's objective point was Nebraska City, and mine was Plattsmouth. I shall therefore use Meek's observations to supplement my own. *The opinion of Marcou and Geinitz (Bulleton Geological Society of France, XXL, etc., New Series), that some of our Nebraska rocks are sub-carboniferous, was shown long ago, by Meek, to be a mistake. CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 163 At and near Des Moines there is no millstone grit such as is found at this horizon farther east, and therefore the lower coal beds rest, as White and Meek have observed, on the sub-carboniferous rocks. • West of the Des Moines River, as also shown by these ge- ologists, the coal measures belong to a higher geological horizon, and most probably to the middle series, though there is no serious palasontological or physical break between these and the lower rocks of this age. On going southwestward from the Des Moines, in the deep valley of Middle River, which lies about two hundred and fifty feet below the plain, the rocks here dipping slightly to- wards the southwest. Here the increasing thickness of the upper coal measure beds can be distinctly seen. The upper bed of the middle series is last seen at Winterset, at the very bottom of the valley, and all the beds above for two hundred and fifty feet belong to the still higher series, consisting largely of heavy beds of light yellow limestone, sandy micaceous shale, black laminated shale, blue, drab and reddish clays, and occasionally a few inches of im- pure coal. In these upper beds are found almost identically the same fossils as on the Nebraska side of the Missouri. Amoned above high water j 8 feet. : : 2 J _ Total below drift 70 feet. LJ * See Meek's report iu " Hayden's Final Report on Geological Survey of Nebraska," p. S3. t This section i* slightly different from that of Meek aud Marcou. because taken a little below theirt*. CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 165 Now the thirty fossils in bed 3, and the sixty-six in bed B, of this section are all of them in the Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri coal fields characteristic of the Upper Carboniferous and not of the Permian, though some of the genera are known to pass into it. They cannot therefore be Permian, as Marco u and Geinitz supposed. The beds, on the other hand, at Bellevue and Omaha which they re- ferred to the Sub-carboniferous, contained the characteristic organic forms that characterize the true Upper Carboniferous everywhere else in this country. These distinguished foreign geologists at- .tempted to generalize on American rocks by the principles that interpret aright European geology, and hence they were led into a blunder. Here, almost universally the vertical range of species is much greater than in Europe. American geology must be studied independently of European systems, or at least cannot be interpreted by them. Coal. — Thus far no thick workable beds of Coal have been found in our carboniferous measures. The question rises whether there is any probability of any valuable beds being found anywhere in the State. Truth compels the admission that such a result is un- certain and even doubtful. Mr. Broadhead, one of the State Geologists of Missouri, has long since reached that conclusion with reference to the Upper Carbon- iferous measures of that State, where, owing to changes of level and numerous natural exposures a great thickness of these beds had early and easily been examined by him. He gives sections through these rocks extending to a depth of nearly two thousand feet before reaching coal two and a half feet thick, all above being only from a few inches to two feet in thickness. Dr. White's numerous sec- tions observed in many places west of Winterset to the Missouri show clearly that the upper series thicken westward and south- westward, and not by the super-position of newer beds, but simply by the thickening of those seen at that place. At a few places a considerable thickness of these upper beds have also been examined in Nebraska along the Missouri, and with the same result as in Missouri and Iowa. Mr. Croxton, as early as 1865, made an arte- sian boring near Nebraska City, to the depth of three hundred and forty-four feet. Shales, limestones, micaceous sandstones and cal- careous sandstones constituted the materials passed through, but no indications of coal were met until at the depth of one hundred and eighty-nine feet, a bed fifteen inches thick was struck. None was 166 GEOLOGY. struck after that. An artesian boring has also recently been made near the west end of the Union Pacific Railroad bridge at Omaha, to a depth of seven hundred and fifty feet. This point, which is the lowest yet reached along the river in Nebraska, by borings, was- struck without encountering any beds of coal. For this depth therefore these upper measures, at least at this place are barren. At Lincoln, on the public square, the artesian boring was put down to the depth of a trifle over a thousand feet. A little before this point was reached the contractor, Mr. Eaton, reported going through a thirty inch bed of coal. As Lincoln is at least one hun- dred and eight feet above the level of Omaha, it is clear that the boring of the Union Pacific well at that place did not reach the horizon of the coal bed reported by Mr. Eaton. This bed of coal is probably in the lower coal measures and is the geological equi- valent of the Des Moines beds. These Des Moines coal beds or their equivalent would therefore be struck at Plattsmouth some- where between eight hundred and one thousand feet below the surface. According to my own calculations made in traversing the space between Des Moines and the Missouri, it would be about nine hundred feet. Prof. Meek believed that Omaha, where the upper coal measures are exposed at a lower horizon, borings would strike the geological equivalent of the Des Moines beds under one thousand feet, and at still greater depth further down the river.. Owing to the facts developed by the artesian boring at Lincoln, it is probable that all these estimates were too high and that these Des Moines coal beds or their equivalents would be reached between Plattsmouth and Omaha at a depth of between eight and nine hundred feet. The question then returns whether there are or can be no good workable beds of coal anywhere in these Upper Measures. The old Nuckolls coal bed, worked near Rulo, in Pawnee County, in Otoe County, and at several places in Cass and Johnson counties,, ranges from eight to eighteen inches in thickness, and in places is a fair article of coal. The bed at Aspinwall, which is from twenty- two to twenty-four inches thick, is not certainly its geological equiv- alent. The same remark applies to a comparatively pure bed of light coal, from eighteen inches to two feet in thickness, on the In- dian Reservation south of Rulo, near the State line. But no beds thicker than these have yet been found in these Upper coal measures, and as we have seen, the probabilities are against their existence. CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 167 If extensive basins of coal existed in them they probably would have been observed in Missouri, where they have been more thor- oughly explored. With the Lower Coal Measures the case stands different. These are the coal bearing measures in Iowa and Mis- souri, and at least in one place (Lincoln), where they have been penetrated, a respectable coal bed was reported. All the chances then are in favor of finding large workable beds at this horizon. This is a question that should speedily be settled at public expense. If there are workable beds, the State should have the benefit of it as- soon as possible. An artesian boring within six miles of the Platte River, near its mouth, to a depth of one thousand feet; another near Nebraska City and one near Rulo, would settle this question*. Features of the Carboniferous Age in Nebraska. — All the students of geology admit that the Carboniferous age was a very long one — an age whose length could not be measured by thous- ands, but by millions of years. During the greater part of this great age, Nebraska was occupied by an arm of the ocean. Some- times for long periods this sea was turbulent, as is indicated by the rocks, which so generally change their character within a few miles. A sand rock often, when followed for a few miles, changes to a shale, then to indurated variously colored clays, and then a con- glomerate. Owing to this feature, the exact equivalent of the rocks at widely different stations is hard to distinguish, except -along river bluffs, where the strata are exposed for long distances. The lime- stones having been formed in deep water, are more constant in character over extensive areas, but even these sometimes exhibit sudden transition characters. They present various forms and col- ors, such as silicates of lime and magnesia, nearly pure limestone, yellow, gray and white limestone, and shaly, rotten limestone. Many of the shales and conglomerates exhibit the character of off- shore deposits. If future borings brings to light beds of coal in the lower coal measures, it will be proof of the existence at that time of dry land near by, and of a boggy, swampy condition on the sites where they are now found. As one foot of bituminous coal rep- resents from nine to eleven feet of original peat, and many centuries are required for the formation of such an amount of vegetable matter, and as these beds represent only an infinitesimal amount of the time during which the events of this age were in progress, it is *See on the subject of this section, Meek's Report in the Hayden Surveys. 168 GEOLOGY. additional proof that its length was beyond all calculation. But during its progress, deep seas and shallow seas, quiet seas and tur- bulent seas, and vast bogs and swamps near to slightly elevated land masses, in turn predominated. Vegetation. — The vegetation of the Carboniferous age was re- markable for its luxuriance and its antique form. In organization it was below the high modern types, but many of its forms were exquisitely beautiful, synthetic and complex. The conifers that then existed, and which were the most advanced in type of all the vegetable forms, flourished mainly on the uplands. The most of them were closely related to Araucarian pines, which still flourish in low latitudes and mainly south of the equator. The fern family, of which a few diminutive representatives still linger among us, culminated in that age, many species growing to the dimensions of trees, and with a gracefulness and beauty unsur- passed by any vegetable form at the present day. Many hundreds of species flourished over the -forming coal fields of the west. In fact, one-half of the coal plants were probably ferns. The calamites of that day, which grew to tree size, were also abundant. The scouring rushes (Equtsetae), which seldom reach over one or two feet in height, are their modern representatives. Two great orders,, more abundant in the number of individuals than any others, the Lepidodendrids and Sigillaria are no longer in existence. They, along with the calamites, formed a large part of the material of the coal. The Lepidodendrids had a dense bark, underneath which was a dense mass of loose tissue, through the centre of which ran a small cylinder with a distinct pith. Such a structure unfitted it For anything like bearing timber, but adapted it most admirably, when flattened down, for flakes of coal. The sigillarids, with " trunks fluted like Corinthian columns," and ornamented with seal- like impressions in vertical ranks, and " with few large branches and long needle-like, tapering leaves," were unfitted for anything except to minister to the beautiful and to make coal. It is remark- able that in that distant past, long ages before man appeared, the jungles and forests of the globe were as remarkable for beautiful forms as the woodlands of to-day. The Deity, however, was there to enjoy it. Animal Life. — Animal life during this age was abundant, though, as in the vegetable kingdom, the forms were mostly antiquated. One of the most abundant of all in individuals was the curious little CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 169 animal, already referred to, and which is frequently called fossil wheat or rice. It is, however, a lowly animal, classed with the protozoans, and known a&Fusilina cylindrica. The shell is small, half cylindrical and bluntly pointed at the end, and averaging about the .size of a grain of rice. Its shell is composed of seven or eight closely coiled whorls. Unlike its condition in Europe, it here ranges all through the coal measures. It is questionable whether it is anywhere in America as abundant as it is here in Nebraska. In Johnson County in many places around Tecumseh, it constitutes almost the entire fabric of many rocks, often from four to ten feet in thickness. It is often present in enormous numbers in shale, and where it is decomposed, hundreds can be picked up, already by the decomposition of the matrix lying loose and cleansed ready to be placed in a cabinet. All along the carboniferous exposures in Nebraska, it is abundant, in limestone, sand sto-ne and shale. The massive compact limestone from Stout's quarry, on the north side of the Platte, at South Bend, contains immense numbers of these -Fusilina, which gives the rock great beauty when polished. Corals, which are now confined to low latitudes, were abundant in Nebraska during Carboniferous times. Five species have thus far been identified here. The most characteristic grew into a curious form remotely resembling a short ram's horn. It is known by the name of Campophyllum torquium. A loose bed of shale in the bluffs at Rock Bluffs contains an immense number of them. The Crinoids were represented by seven species at least, and some of them existed in great numbers. While the heads of these sea lilies, as they are sometimes called, are only occasionally found, owing no doubt to their original fragile character, their screw-like stems are abundant in all the rocks. As elsewhere during Carboniferous times molluscan life flourished here. The Polyzoa were represented by eight, and the Branchi- opods by twenty six species, of which eight were Producti.* Among these one known as Productus Semireti(ulatus is quite large and was one of the most abundant animals in the^e old Carbon- iferous seas. Those known as P. longispinus, P. prattenianus, and P. Nebraskensis are also abundant. Two species of thin flat shells called chonetes granulifera and C. glabra, make up the almost entire mass of some limestone rock at Plattsmouth and other places along the Missouri. No shell is perhaps so widely dispersed as the one *The Producti are now mostly classed with the Articulata. 1 70 GEOLOGY. called Athyrus subtilita. It occurs in almost every layer of the Carboniferous rocks and of many sizes. Among the Spirifers the most abundant and beautiful is 6". cameratus. Lamellibranchs (two valved shells with gills in laminae on the sides) were repre- sented in Nebraska during this age by at least forty species. The Gasteropods (one valved, like snails. Belly creepers) were abundant in individuals and species, not less than eighteen forms having thus far been identified. Of chambered shells there was one strait species {Orthoceras cribrosum) and two coiled ones, {Nautilus occidentals and N. ponderosd). Of the five species of Crustaceans found fossil in these rocks three are trilobites of the genus Phillipsia. Vertebrate life so far as is now known was represented here in Carboniferous times principally by fishes, of which eight species have been described by Orestes St. John. Many more have been found which have not yet been identified. Climate. — The vegetable and animal life of the Carboniferous Age indicates that its climate was not subject to extremes, at least during the epochs when the rocks were deposited, whatever it may have been during the transition intervals. It was neither intensely hot nor cold. It was just such a climate as a constantly murky, cloudy atmosphere, over semi-continental levels and flats would naturally produce.* Tyndall has shown that a slight addition to our atmosphere of carbonic dioxide would raise its mean tempera- ture many degrees. If our atmosphere then, at that time, as many geologists believe, contained the greater part of the coal deposits of the globe in the form of carbonic dioxide gas, it would have made it a huge hot house. This would account for the uniformly warm temperature that then existed far into the arctic regions. CLOSE OF THE CARBONIFKROUS AGE. In the eastern portion of the continent the Carboniferous Age was evidently closed by the Appalachian revolution. This great uplift was evidently continental in character, the level of the land on each side being raised along with it. This was no sudden con- vulsion. The Appalachians commenced to rise long before the close of the age and during its progress a point was reached when the old conditions were passed and new ones inaugurated. Vege- *The theory that the Coal Age was produced by a period of high eccentricity of the earth'* orbit, during times similar to the subsequent glacial ages is best discussed in CrolPs work o» " Climate and Time." CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 171 table and animal life partook of the change and the whole move- ment inaugurated or constituted THE PERMIAN AGE. This age was the last volume in the history of Palaeozoic life. The great Appalachian revolution was only partially completed, for the upward movement still continued. The peculiarities of the coal age had ceased, but its impress was left on Permian times. While the upward movement was advancing towards completion, at many places, especially in Europe and Asia, around the borders of the old coal fields, depressions still exi.-ted for extensive seas which received the sediments that entombed and preserved the or- ganic remains of the age. Hence we have records of the earlier part of the age, but none of its latter portion, because the conti- nents reached such an elevation that all the seas were drained, and no place was left to stow away the debris and worn out life of the period. The process of uplifting, therefore, was continued until the continent was raised far above its present level, during which none of its memorials could be preserved. The whole latter por- tion, therefore, of the Permian, a portion of time incalculably long, is a lost interval in geological history. For the first time in geo- logical history the conditions were favorable for the complete drainage of the continent. Lofty mountains produced great rivers and steep inclinations towards the sea. Clear skies, took the place of murky ones in the previous age. The seasons gradually became more changeable and varied. The old vegetable and animal life was not adapted to these conditions and hence it had. to change or perish. As a matter of fact during this last interval occurred those mighty changes in the fauna and flora of the globe which trans- formed the Palaeozoic life into the middle or Mesozoic world. In the United States the Permian deposits occur mainly in Kan- sas and Nebraska. Here the western boundary of the Permian passes a little west of south, a few miles east of Lincoln, extending to Beatrice, and thence into Kansas. Opposite Lincoln it is only a few miles broad, but widens going southwest and through Kansas. Towards the west at Lincoln and Beatrice it passes under the Dakota group of the cretaceous. It is, however, as already inti- mated, only the lower Permian that is here represented. In the earlier Permian this portion of the continent was not raised above the old carboniferous seas, and of course it received the sediments brought down by the rivers and creeks from lands sloping towards 172 GEOLOGY. the west on the east, north and northeast. These lands were partial- ly the upraised carboniferous sea bottoms. As elsewhere, the pro- gress of elevation left the latter Permian here without any memorials "of its existence. It is possible that in some section of the old world, not yet geo- logically explored, remnants of this as yet lost interval will be re- covered, or discovered. If so, we will no longer be compelled as now to people this age with the changing life that then must have existed. The old notion of cataclysmic changes of sufficient force to destroy all life, and subsequently entirely new creations has long since been abandoned. "Nature rarely turns a sharp corner." Life has not ceased on the globe since it began. In obedience to new conditions it has ever been changing into new forms. And in no period of world history have the transformations been so great as during the Permian Age. Character of the Permian Rocks. — Near and around Beatrice there are many exposures of yellowish, occasionally bluish magne- sian limestone, full of geode cavities lined writh cale spar.* This rock is arranged in layers from four inches to two feet thick; and the whole series of strata are from twelve to twenty feet thick. Below this there is a bed of yellow compact limestone from eighteen inches to three feet thick. Next below, there is a thickness of from eight to twelve feet of a dark grayish clayey limestone, also full of geode cavities, lined with crystals of cale spar, and sometimes of silica or silicate of lime. This stratum often becomes light colored on exposure to the air. Occasionally it becomes massive cream colored limestone. Wherever, therefore, such beds as thus de- scribed are found in Nebraska, bordering the Upper Carboniferous rocks, they invariably indicate our Permian deposits. Towards the east, in Pawnee County, they runout, as the carboniferous then be- comes the surface rock, which, on the contrary, in a westward direction, run under the Permian. Above the first of these Per- mian rocks there is a bed of variegated clay, and sometimes of pot- ter's clay, whose geological age is uncertain, but which probably belongs to the Dakota Group of Cretaceous rocks, w^hich comes in next above. This Dakota Group, itself, can be recognized by its dark gray, brownish and red sandstones, which around and west- ward from Beatrice overlies the Permian. *These geode cavities are now generally believed to be formed by cavities left in the original eediinents by covered up sponges, that subsequently decayed. MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZO1C TIMES. 173 CHAPTER II. MEDIEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES IN NEBRASKA. Absence of Deposits of the Triassic and Jurassic Periods. — Cause of this Absence. — Length of these Periods in Nebraska. — Cretaceous Period. — How it Originated. — Divisions of the Cretaceous. —Dakota Group. — Its Character, Extent and Remarkable Flora — Origin of this Flora. — Climate of the Dakota Group Epoch. — Fort Benton Group. — Its General Character. — Length of this Epoch, and its Vegetable and Animal Life. — Niobrara Group Epoch. — Extent of its Deposits, and General Character. — Vegetable Remains. — Animal life of this Epoch. — Rhizopods, Mollusks and Fishes. — Reptiles, their Great Abundance and Peculiar Character. — Final Disappearance of this Reptile Fauna. TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC PERIODS. ''INHERE are no known deposits of the Triassic and Jurassic .L periods in Nebraska. The deposits of the next or Cretaceous period rest directly on the Permian. Two explanations of this fact are possible. First, the Triassic and Jurassic deposits may once have been here, and were removed before the Cretaceous was laid down by denudation. Or, second, this region may have been a land surface during these periods. This latter view seems to be the most probable, and best explains all the facts of this portion of our geo- logical history. We have already seen that the Carboniferous Age was brought to a close by an upward movement of the continent, and that this movement continued through the Permian, until much of the pre- vious water surface was drained, and made it impossible to preserve the memorials of its latter history. The same events that prevented the preservation of the memorials of the Permian, would, if con- tinued, prevent the deposition of Triassic and Jurassic rocks. With a large degree, therefore, of certainty, we may rest assured that during these periods Nebraska was an extended land surface, and if so, there must have flourished here for countless centuries the peculiar vegetable and animal life of those times. Length of the Trio-Juro Periods. — The length of the Trio-Juro periods can be ascertained only relatively. Not even an approxi- mate estimate can be -made, but all geologists admit that they were 174 GEOLOGY. very long periods. In the Rocky Mountains the Triassic deposits lie in unconformable masses, directly on or against the Archaean islands that form the back-bone of the continent.* Here the Tri- assic forms a series of sandstones from three hundred to one thous- and feet thick, whiph are loose, friable sediments wherever there is an approach to a horizontal position. "On approaching the Arch- aean, the Trias always is composed, or largely made up of con- glomerates, the materials of which were derived, from the shores against which they abut." — Clarence King. Towards the eastern part of the Uintas the Trias thicken still more, reaching finally a depth of from two thousand to twenty-five hundred feet.. Still farther westward the Trias diminishes in thickness and increases in compactness and the quantity of conglomerates. From these facts Clarence King concludes that there was a land mass towards the west, during this period from which the materials that enter into its deposits were derived. Overlying the upper beds of Triassic rocks, which are intercal- latecl with gypsum and dolomitic limestone, are the Jurassic beds, which are first met in the eastern flank of the Colorado range. Here they are only two hundred and fifty to two hundred and sev- enty-five feet in thickness, and increase westward, until, on the Wasatch, they are eighteen hundred feet thick. The Jurassic is almost entirely made up of soft clays, clayey calcareous marls, and intercalations of fine lithographic limestone. These rocks are therefore a lime and clay deposit. — Clarence King. The maximum development of the Triassic and Jurassic, east of the Wasatch, is not less than thirty-eight hundred feet. Immediately above the Jurassic, on the eastern foothills, lies a " heavy bed of conglomerate, which is the base member of the Dakota Cretaceous. * * "The upper clay and sandstone beds directly under the bottom of the Dakota conglomerate have been called by Marsh the Atlantasaurus beds." — Clarence King. Hay- den and Meek have shown that it is probable that the Jurassic beds extend eastward beneath the Cretaceous. As the Cretaceous extends in turn beneath the Tertiary, it is possible that there may be Jurassic beds in western Nebraska that cannot be observed, ow- ing to the thickness of the overlying deposits of later geological periods. This is the more probable, since during Jurassic times there was a deepening of what had been the old Triassic seas, and a *King's Report ou the Fortieth Parallel. MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 175 deposition, as we have seen, of clay and calcareous marls and fine limestones, where previously sand and other shallow water de- posits were taking place. At least in the Jurassic, water communi- cation existed directly with the ocean, as is indicated by the abun- dant marine life that is preserved in these deposits. Now, the length of these periods must have been exceedingly great, during which 3,800 feet of sediment was deposited, especially as a large part of them were of a character that never, so far as is now known, accumulate rapidly. The Jurassic beds at least, which are made up almost exclusively of soft clays, clayey calcareous marls and intercalated beds of thin lithographic limestone, must have been deposited with extreme slowness. Some authorities esti- mate the increase of sediment at a foot to the century, and others at only a few inches. Even at the larger figures, a foot to the cen- tury, the time involved would be 180,000 years for the Jurassic alone. Elsewhere, especially in Europe, the deposits of the Jurassic are thicker even than this, and therefore the probabilities are that this estimate is far too low. The preceding Triassic period was only one-fourth shorter than the Jurassic. This would give for the two periods combined 31^,000 years. (See Dana's Manual, page 491.) During all these long centuries, therefore, and far into the Cre- taceous, as we shall presently see, the greater part, and perhaps the whole of Nebraska existed as an extended land surface. The events that occurred here during these periods can never be certainly known. The imagination alone can, with the few data from the vegetable and animal life of the time, fill out imperfectly this lost page in our geological history. Vegetable Life. — Nebraska during these periods, owing to its position, and because bounded on the west and southwest by seas of great extent, had a warm, temperate and moist climate. The pecu- liar vegetable forms of the Mediaeval world must then have flour- ished here. Among these, in the Triassic period, were huge tree ferns, cycads and conifers, these last being principally araucarians, a family which is now mainly confined to South America and Aus- tralia. In the succeeding Jurassic, the vegetation was similar, and the conditions on the whole still more favorable for a gigantic growth. In this period were re-introduced the conditions favorable to the production and preservation of a vegetation for the formation of coal. To this period belong some of the coal fields of Scotland and England, of India and China. Either to this or the preceding 176 GEOLOGY. Triassic belong, also, the coal fields of Eastern Virginia and North Carolina. It is probable that while the conditions under which coal was accumulated in all geological times were.similar, the plants dif- fered exceedingly. The higher cryptogams obtained in carbonifer- ous times, but in the Triassic Ferns, and especially conifers and cycads, were the common forms. (Le Conte). The Jurassic was eminently the age of naked seeded trees (gymnosperms), especially of the Cycads, which at that time culminated m the number of species and individuals. In fact, three- fourths of all the fossil Zamiae and one-half the cycads known from all the geological formations, are from the Jurassic. No one can look at a cycad, with its long, fern-like leaves, without admiring its beauty. These vegetable forms are now confined to low, moist latitudes, but for immense periods of geological time they were the dominant type on what are now the plains of Nebraska. Here, in those times, along with tree ferns and araucarians, they made immense thickets and forests. Animal Life. — The Mesozoic was eminently a Reptilian Age. All kinds of vertebrate life took on more or less of this type. Ne- braska, being then a land surface throughout the Triassic and Ju- rassic periods, we will omit the consideration of the animal life pe- culiar to the seas. The land, however, with the peculiar vegetation referred to in the preceding section, and with its warm, temperate climate, was eminently adapted to the support of a land reptile fauna. What this fauna was, we can only imagine from the reptilian remains preserved in the deposits of these periods nearest to us. Many are found in western Kansas and eastern Colorado. The foothills are of Jurassic age, and are composed of clay and sand- stone beds, overlaid directly by a heavy bed of the peculiar con- glomerate of the Cretaceous Dakota Group. These beds, as al- ready remarked, have been called Atlantosaurus beds by Marsh, from the prevalence in them of huge remains of Dinosaurs. No land animals of such gigantic size have ever been discovered else- where in deposits of any geological age. The most important lo- cality for these remains is at Morrison and Canyon City, where the Atlantosaurus immanis (monstrous sized lizard) was found. Its femur was eight feet four inches long, which would indicate, on the principles of comparative anatomy, an animal walking on all fours of over one hundred feet in length and over thirty feet in height. It approximated closely in size to the limits beyond which locomo- MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 177 tion would be impossible, owing- to the specific gravity becoming too great to be moved by muscular power. Apparently, to over- come this 'obstacle, its bones were made partially hollow, similar to those of birds. Atlantosaurus montanus was almost as large as the preceding. Eleven additional reptile forms were found in these lo- calities, some of which were also of gigantic mould. One of them, however, Creosaurus airax, was a small carniverous Dinosaur. It is also curious that among these gigantic forms there were two of the smallest Dinosaurs yet discovered. One of them was not larger than a cat. Another reptile found here is the type of a new group, and is named by Marsh Stagosaurzis armatus. A crocodile found here had biconcave vertebras like a fish. A small animal, structured like a possum (marsupial), was also found among these remains. As observed already, some of these remains are the most gigantic land animals yet discovered. No land vertebrates approaching them in size have ever been discovered anywhere else. Thev probably represent but a tithe of the fauna of that period. As the general slope of the continent at that time was westward, and many great rivers must have flowed from the direction of Nebraska into the old Jurassic sea, it is almost absolutely certain that these gigantic land animals were carried there from the east, and that they repre- sent the fauna of this territory during the Jurassic period. If, there- fore, we picture to ourselves the climate of that time, its curious forests of tree ferns, conifers, zamias and cycads, full of all sizes of reptilian life, and especially of the gigantic forms, along with a few lonely mamalian species, and some reptilian birds, it will give a faint idea of what Nebraska and much of the adjoining State of Kansas was during the Triassic and Jurassic periods. Close of the Jurassic Period. — The Jurassic period was brought to a close by a further contraction of the cooling globe. One of the results of this contraction was, according to Whitney, the up- rising of the Sierras. The rocks of the next period (Cretaceous) lie unconformably on or against its side. At the same time, the Wasatch, almost parallel with the Sierras, and the Uintas, almost at right angles with the last, also came up from the bottom of the old Jurassic sea. This probably raised the whole of this portion of the continent to so high a level as to drain the whole of what had been the Jurassic sea, and constituted it a land surface until the middle Cretaceous period. 12 178 GEOLOGY. THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD. As is well known, the name Cretaceous is taken from the Latin Creta, meaning chalk, which is exceedingly abundant in deposits of this age in Europe. This, the closing period of the Mesozoic or Reptilian Age, is well represented in the rocks of Nebraska. It is somewhat remarkable, however, that no equivalent of the Euro- pean lower Cretaceous has yet been found in the West. The equiv- alent of the lower green sand of the English Cretaceous is there- fore not present here. It is even questionable whether the upper green sand, or middle Cretaceous, is here represented. The follow- ing is probably the explanation of this fact. As has already been stated, the Sierras, Wasatch and Uinta uplifts probably raised with them the adjoining territories that had been covered by the old Ju- rassic seas. During the whole of the period represented by the lower green sand of the European Cretaceous, the entire Rocky Mountain region was dry land. Whether its utmost height was reached at the close of the Jurassic, or whether it continued rising far into the Cretaceous, is only a matter for conjecture. The weight of evidence is, however, at present in favor of the former view. In Europe the lower and middle Cretaceous were periods of subsidence, and therefore it is probable that this was the case here. This sink- ing extended over a large part of the Rocky Mountain region, and embraced the plains of Nebraska as far east at least as Fort Calhoun, on the Missouri, and north of that point to a considerable distance beyond it. From Fort Calhoun, the eastern line of subsidence ex- tended in the opposite direction first southward and then southwest- ward, entering Kansas a little west of the Otoe reservation. At least this far east the lower member of our Cretaceous system is found. It may once have covered the whole of the State, as there are indications that it has been removed from the Carboniferous and Permian by denudation. What adds greatly to the probability of this view is the fact that small areas of Cretaceous rocks are marked by Prof. White, in his geological map of Iowa, in the latitude of 41° 30' as far east as the southeast corner of Guthrie County. If that view is the correct one, then this Cretaceous subsidence extended much farther eastward. Divisions of the Cretaceous. — Nowhere in this country is the Cretaceous so well represented as in the far west, and on the upper Missouri. The following is the detailed section prepared by Meek and Hayden. Having gone over much of this ground myself, MEDIEVAL OR MESOZO1C TIMES. 179 their divisions on the whole appear to me the best possible. I have changed the descriptions of Meek and Hayden slightly to make them correspond more particularly with the geology of Nebraska. DIVISIONS. LOCALITIES. § Gray ferruginous and yellowish sand- Fox Hills, near Long w ^ stone and arenaceous clays containing Lake above Ft. Pierre r 5 massive molluscan, and reptilian fossils. and along Big Horn §25 Maximum thickness, 500 feet. Mountains. Not in. Nebraska. ^ O 02 £ ^ g 3 Dark grey and bluish plastic clays, also Sage Creek. Chey- C/3 &H containing massive fossils near the upper enne and White River PS O ^* part, also reptilian remains. Maximum above the Bad Lands. £ « 6 thickness, 700 feet. Not in Nebraska. Pn ^•^ P^ P W fc •s 8 Middle nearly barren of fossils. Lower Fort Pierre out to 2 2 r_j -H Zone contains many massive chambered Bad Lands, down the &3 vj * . — shells. Dark bed of fine unctuous clay, Missouri to Gr'tBend. rH J?5 H — containing carbonaceous matter, with Knox County on Ni. ^T veins and seams of gypsum, masses of obrara and on upper P sulphuret of iron, small scales, fishes, Republican. local, filling depressions in the bed below. 180 GEOLOGY. DIVISIONS. LOCALITIES. Lead gray calcareous marl, weathering Bluffs along the Mis- . •d g to a yellowish or whitish chalky appear- souri below the Great M ance, containing man}r large scales of fish- Bend, greatly devel- g es and many ostrea congesta attached to oped below the mouth .** cci fragments of Inoceramus. Passing down of the Niobrara, and OH J D O into yellowish and whitish limestone con- on to Dakota County i* taining many Inoceramus problematicus, along the Missouri. o £ ostrea congesta, etc. West of this line ex- o -i 2 tends an underlying .« H rock to Kansas. Most <• H extensive group of PQ O cretaceous rocks in £ Nebraska. Maximum DQ thickness 200 feet. W s ^ Dark gray laminated clays, sometimes Fort Benton on the H 02 D- during much of the time, only a vast marsh or bog, full, no doubt,, of low islands, and subjected often to incursions from the sea, and again constituting an estuary, and occasionally even becoming a fresh water lake. All this is evident from its vegetable and animal remains, which sometimes are marine, sometimes land, and some- times of brackish and fresh water types. From the Triassic to the Cretaceous, and through its groups to the upper boundary of the Fox Hills, only marine forms are found, except in a very few in- stances where a few fresh water species exist underlaid and over- laid by a true cretaceous fauna. The materials of this Laramie Group are, like the preceding,, principally sandstones, but varying a great deal more in litho- graphic character in different sections. Intercalated with the sand- stones, at various horizons, are clayey and shaly layers, and a few beds of pure clay, and many strata of carbonaceous shales. The principal colors are buff, pink, red and various shades of yellow* Sometimes the dip is slightly east or west, or even entirely horizon- tal. Its undulations are wave like, and the inclination of the flanks are always under 5° or 6°. — (Clarence King.) The thickness of this series of beds ranges from 1,500 to 5,000 feet. This group can be studied to great advantage at the exposures along the railroad east of Separation station, where colored sand- stones, some clayey beds, and a number of coal seams, leaf impres- sions and carbonized stems are found, and often exposed. No- where, however, is it seen on a grander scale than in the Upper Missouri, where it was first noticed and reported on by Lewris and Clarke, as early as 1804. From a Mandan village on the Missouri,, they traced these lignitic measures to the Yellowstone, and for a great distance along this river. The length of these measures, as observed by these explorers, was over six hundred miles. After- MEDIJEVAL. OR ME8OZOIC TIMES. 203 wards, Audubon and Morris explored the same region, and gave details similar to those of Lewis and Clarke. No one, however, has done so much to make known the character and the great extent of this group as Dr. Hayden. Commencing his explorations in 1854, and continuing them down to the present time, he reduced to order the data which others as well as himself accumulated. Lesquereux> speaking of his work in this field, remarks: " His researches show the constant vigilance and circumspection of a master, attending to the performance of a great work, the building of a monument whose plan has been prepared by serious scientific studies." Hay- den considers that the area of the Lignitic (Laramie) on the Upper j Missouri cannot be less than 100,000 square miles, without taking j into account the great belt that extends far north from the United States into British America.* Altogether, from British America to the Black Hills, the area covered is not less than 125,000 square miles. Between the Black Hills and the Rocky Mountains, there is still another area of 1,700 square miles. The extent of the southern basin, which commences south of Cheyenne and extends to the Colorado plains, east of Denver, and southward to New Mexico, has not yet been estimated. The most characteristic feature of this group, as already indicated r is the great number of carbonaceous shales and true coal beds which it contains. Fifteen and twenty coal beds sometimes occur in the course of a thousand feet. — (King). Artesian borings at Rock Springs station in 700 feet brought to light seventeen coal seams, the principal bed being eleven feet thick. Some beds are known | and worked that are over thirty feet in thickness. When the great extent of this coal field is considered, it becomes apparent that it is only second in importance to the coal fields of the Carboniferous Age. As is well known, the coal belongs to the series of lignites, and is a superior article. Vegetable Life. — The vegetable kingdom had now become clearly modern, the Mesozoic features having passed away. The Flora of this group has been carefully studied by Lesquereux, who has de- scribed from this and the Green River Groups 329 species. This is probably only a fragment of the rich flora of that time, but it is enough to show its general character, and the kind of forests that must have obtained also over the land surface of Nebraska. j- In *Hayden's Annual Report for 1874, p. 20. jSee Lesquereux's Tertiary Flora, Vol. VII. of IT. S. Geological Surveys of the Territories, F. V. Haydeii, Geologist. 204 GEOLOGY. his list of Flowerless plants (Crypt ogamice), there are a few fungi, one lichen, eight algae, one moss, four lycopods, twenty ferns, four colamites, etc. The Flowering Plants (Phcznogamice), were most fully developed. Among the naked seeded were one zamiae and sixteen cone-bearing trees. These latter first appeared in the Devonian, and apparently culminated in the Tertiary, from which at least 200 species have been described. Among these in the Laramie Group were eight sequoias, the genus to which the giant trees of California belong. Five species of grasses have also been described. The Palms, "those noble children of the sun," were represented by at least three genera and fifteen species. One beech (Fagus), flourished at that time. No family, however, surpassed in the number of indi- viduals the Oaks (Quercus), of which eighteen species have been described from this group. At the present time there are only thirty species known to the-entire United States. Even the Chest- nut (Costanea), was then already present. Four species of Willow (Saltx) must have been, judging from their remains, abundant. Curious enough, the Cottonwood (Populus) was then represented by at least twelve species. The Sycamores (Platinus) have left the remains of five species in this group. Most wonderful of all is it that already twenty-three species of Fig tree ('Ftcus) have been described. Whether their fo62,was equal to the fig of the present time, is uncertain, but if so, the monkeys that appeared in the Green River Eocene had fine living. Ash (Fraximus), Dogwoods (Cor- nus), and the Grape-vine ( Vitis], were all at home in this group. That noble, majestic and beautiful named tree, the Magnolia, which is the pride of the south, flourished during these times, as the re- mains of four species attest. Eight species of the Maple family (Acerinecz), and nineteen of the Buckthorn (Rhamnece}, also abounded. That noble tree, the Black Walnut (Juglans), which had appeared first in the Dakota Group Cretaceous, had now increased to six species. Five species of Sumach (Rhus) were in company with the last. Even an Eucalyptus flourished at this time. Many other forms, to which my limits will not permit me even to allude, illus- trate the wonderfully rich and divergent type of the Flora at that time — a Flora that combines many semi-tropical and high temper- ate characters. Animal Life. — The Animal life of the Laramie Group has been regarded as unique and exceptional. Its marine forms are al- MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 205 most entirely Cretaceous, while its lacustrine species are most closely allied to the Tertiary. Oysters (Ostrea) are the most abundant in species and individuals of all the marine forms. The following marine mollusks of Cretaceous type are reported from this group; the first three being given by King, and the re- mainder by Meek.* Avicula Nebrascana. Nucula cancellata. Ammonites lobatus. Ostrea glabra. Ostrea subtrigonalis. The following brackish water species are also given from this group, by Meek : Cyrena, one species. Carbicula, five species. Carbula, three species. Certhida, one species. Hydrobia, five species. Micropyrgus, one species. The following are the fresh water species : Unios, four species. Sphaerium, five species. Limnasa, one species. Planorbis, four species. Bullimus, three species. Goniobasis, nine species. Viviparus, eight species. Campeloma, three species. Valvata, three species. There are some others inhabiting both brackish and fresh water, A few land shells of the genera, Helix and Hyalina are also found mingled with the above. The most remarkable, however, of all the facts connected with the animal remains of this group, is the presence of reptilian re- mains of Cretaceous type. At Black Buttes station, about half-way up the base of the bluff, are laminated light gray shales over a coal *See Meek's Invertebrate Palaeontology of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the Upper Missouri, Vol. IX. of U. S. Geological Surveys, F. V. Hayden, Geologist. 206 GEOLOGY. bed two feet thick. Here are found marine and fresh water shells. About 100 feet from the top, in a dark gray sandstone filled with leaves and stems, Bannister, and afterwards Cope, exhumed the body of a Dinosaur (Agathaumus sylvestre). Four species of Dino- saurs have also been described by Leidy, from the Judith beds (Laramie) in Montana. Still. others, from this same group in Col- orado, have been described by Cope. It is therefore a fact that a Cretaceous vertebrate fauna flourished during this Laramie epoch. According to Lesquereux and New- berry, a Tertiary flora existed here at the same time, as we have already seen. Cope, summing up the evidence, remarks: "There is, then, no alternative but to accept the result that a Tertiary Flora was contemporaneous with a cretaceous fauna, establishing an uninter- rupted succession of life across what is generally regarded as one of the greatest breaks in geological times." "The appearance of mammalia, and sudden disappearance of Mesozoic types of reptiles in the immediately next epoch, may be regarded as evidence of mi- gration, and not of creation. Lizards, tortoises and crocodiles, con- tinue from the Mesozoic through the Tertiary to our own time, without great modification of structure. The Dinosauria, how- ever, disappeared from the land, exterminated by the more active and intelligent mammal. Herbivorous reptiles, like Agathaumas and Cienodon, would have little chance in competing with the powerfully armed mammals of Tertiary times. This transition series, therefore, of Hayden, is such in fact as well as in name, and Paleontology demonstrates his conclusion " that there is no real physical break between the well marked Cretaceous and Tertiary Groups." This rich Tertiary flora and Cretaceous fauna flourished then during this epoch also over the plains and in the lakes of Ne- braska. COAL IN THE CRETACEOUS. No question about the Cretaceous in Nebraska is more frequently asked than this: Is there coal in workable quantity in any of the groups of this period in Nebraska? There is no question about the Cretaceous in the mountains being coal bearing. On this sub- ject, Clarence King observes*: " In the extreme western exposures in the territory of the Wasatch and Uinta ranges, coal beds appear at the very base of the series, immediately upon the capping mem- bers of the Jura; and from that horizon to the summit of the series, *Systematic Geology, p. 539. * MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 207 throughout the whole 12,000 feet, they recur in that region. They increase in frequency after the close of the Fox Hills Group, and are most abundant through the 4,000 or 5,000 feet of the closing or Laramie Group of the series." In illustration of this statement, it is reported by Emmbns that a bed of coal ten feet thick, of excel- lent quality, is located south of the Uinta at Ashley Creek, in the Dakota Group. Of equal excellence is another bed of coal of equal thickness in the Fort Benton Group, higher up in the series, but near the same place. Another thick coal bed, on the south side of the Uintas, is reported by Marsh, in the Niobrara Group. Coal is also reported in workable quantities in the Fort Pierre, and in still larger quantities in the Fox Hills Group. The inference, therefore, is legitimate that there were betimes, during the progress of the Cretaceous Age, extended land surfaces in this region, fol- lowed by subsidences. Were there such subsidences and land surfaces in Nebraska dur- ing this period? Thus far none to the same extent have been found. At a few places in the Dakota Group, and also in the Fort Benton, thin beds of lignite have been found. The thickest, thus far, have been observed in Dakota and Dixon counties, where they range from six to sixteen inches, but the lignite coal is of inferior quality. As the strata are almost horizontal, and few canyons cut through them, their study in Nebraska, in the absence of borings, is difficult. It is possible, though hardly probable, that at some points in our extended territory there may be basins of coal of good quality in these deposits. Even in the mountains, the thick beds occupy depressions in the strata, and soon thin out, only to increase again in thickness farther on. To settle this question in Nebraska definitely, will require many borings, over a large area of our ter- ritory. One of the most favorable regions for testing for these lignite coals is in northern and northwestern Nebraska. CLOSE OF THE CRETACEOUS AND TRANSITION PERIODS. With the close of the Laramie epoch, the whole series of con- . formable strata, which had commenced with the Dakota Groups ceased. When the last sediments of the Laramie Group had been laid down, there occurred one of the great geological revolutions in the history of the globe. Frorn the eastern base of the mountains to the Wasatch, the whole region was thrown into a series of folds, and undulations. The Uinta Range, with its broad, flat anticlinal, 208 GEOLOGY. was made at this time. The whole chain of the Rocky Mountain,, was lifted up, so as to leave a broad depression eastward of the Wasatch, and on both sides of the Uintas. — (King.) The Laramie Group was turned up at all angles, from a few degrees to a vertical position, as it is now found in many places beneath the superincum- bent Tertiary. This upturning affected also the Cascade Range, which was then first outlined. The whole region of the plains sympathized with this movement, so that they became an extended land surface. Nebraska now certainly, for the first time since the early Cretaceous, over its whole territory became a land surface. The elevation in the mountains became sufficient to give free drain- age to the sea, and exclude the oceanic waters. The great interior sea became so completely exterminated, and the continent so elevated, that it has never since been subjected to the sway of the ocean. Henceforward, fresh water lakes became dominant, down to the borders of our own times. THE CENOZOIC AGE. 209 CHAPTER IV, THE CENOZOIC AGE IN NEBRASKA. — EOCENE TERTIARY EPOCH. Causes that Produced the Cenozoic Age. — Tertiary Period. — How Divided. — Eocene and Its Divisions in the West. — Eocene Not Represented in Ne- braska. — Why Discussed Here. — Its Peculiar Modern Vegetable and Animal Life, and its Origin. — Vermillion Group of the Eocene. — Its Vegetable and Animal Life. — Green River Group, and Its Organic Remains. Fort Bridger Group, and Peculiar Scenery. — Its Animal Remains. Uintah Group. — Close of the Eocene. culmination of those physical changes that had been in pro- JL gress during the whole of the latter portion of the Cretaceous period inaugurated the Cenozoic Age. We have already seen that successive portions of ihe old Cretaceous sea bottoms became dry land. After the Dakota and Fort Benton groups, the first extended land surface wrested from the Cretaceous sea was the Niobrara Group. Portions of the Fort Pierre Group were next added. The Fox Hills and Laramie are not exposed in Nebraska, but both may and probably do exist in northwestern Nebraska beneath the super- incumbent Tertiary. In fact, the Cretaceous period came to a close by a very gradual uplift, not of single mountain masses or chains, but by the elevation of the whole western portion or half of the continent, along with mountain folding. Heretofore the highest portion of the continent existed in the east with the Appalachian chain as the central axis; now it came to be the western portion, with the Rocky Mountains as the main axis. The emergence of the continent was most complete towards the north. The great American Mediterranean Sea, which from the middle Cretaceous period had extended from the Wasatch to the meridian of eastern Nebraska and middle Kansas, had separated the continent into two elongated bodies of American land. This great sea had now become virtually extinct by the continued conti- nental uprising, thus " giving free drainage to the sea, except along a basin-like depression extending from the Wasatch Range east- H 210 GEOLOGY. ward to the meridian of 107° 30', with a north and south extension not yet definitely known. This depression was immediately occu- pied by an early Eocene lake, whose northern portion corres- ponded with approximate accuracy to the present drainage basin of / Green River. Southward it extended through portions of Utah, Y__ New Mexico, Colorado, and probably Arizona." — (Clarence King). Along with this uprising of the western portion of the continent,, there was an epoch of mountain making at the close of the Laramie period, as already stated. The Wasatch and Uinta mountains- were further folded and raised, and the Colorado range was greatly elevated. This folding helped to make the depression towards the Wasatch and on each side of the Uintas, which became the bed of the great Eocene lake, referred to above. This emergence to- wards the north, and on the west of the continent, the greater ele- vation of its mass, and the retreat of the seas necessarily produced great changes of climate. The mean temperature had gradually become lower, and the extremes greater. The climate also became drier. And yet it was warmer and moister than at present, as is- evident from the vegetable and animal life of the time. All the old Cretaceous forms had disappeared, or had been, by changes of environment, transformed into the modern representatives. Thus was inaugurated the Cenozoic Age. The Cenozoic Era, or Age of Mammals, comprises two periods^ namely: First, The Tertiary; second, The Quaternary. TERTIARY PERIOD. Lyell divided the Tertiary into three divisions, which were named from the number of species of fossil shells which they con- tain, and which are living in existing seas. They are the Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. Other divisions are in use in the east and south, but as Lyell's method is most convenient, and his divisions the most characteristic of the west, they are followed in this work. Eocene Epoch. — As already stated, there are no deposits of this period in Nebraska. During the whole of it, Nebraska was an extended land surface. The forces that had finally lifted the conti- nent from the embrace of the sea, during the closing centuries of the Cretaceous period, had extended their work to the region of the plains, and made them dry land. During the whole of the Eocene,, therefore, Nebraska was an extended land surface. What really occurred here during this period, can only be inferred from the veg- THE CENOZOIC AGE. 211 etable and animal life that is found entombed in the Eocene beds of the mountains. The record there is comparatively full — here there is none whatever. At the present day nearly 500 species of Nebraska plants grow in the mountains, and on the foot-hills. The proportion of animals common to the two regions is still greater. In Eocene times the differences in level and climate were probably not near so great as now. It is therefore highly probable that the larger number of vegetable and animal forms, that then flourished around the shores of this old Eocene lake in the moun- tains, also lived in Nebraska. Unfortunately, many species, also, that then existed here did not range so far west, and therefore no * memorials of their presence have been preserved. Clarence King has recognized four groups of the Eocene, which he has named as follows: 1. Vermillion Creek Grotip. — This is the Wasatch Group of Hay- den. Lowest Eocene, 5,000 feet thick. 2. Green River Group. — Hayden and King. Middle Eocene, 2,000 feet thick. 3. Fort Bridger Group. — Hayden and King. Lower and middle horizon of the upper Eocene, 2,500 feet thick. 4. Uinta Group. — King. Upper Eocene, shading into Miocene, 500 feet thick. In these groups we have the most complete memorials of the higher land and fresh water life of the Eocene of the continent. The Gulf Alabama Eocene beds are much less complete, as they begin at a much higher horizon than the Vermillion beds. As the Eocene is not present in Nebraska, I will omit the lithological and physical description of these beds, referring only to such particulars as may throw light on Nebraska's geological history during those times. The Length of the Eocene Epoch was very great. This is inferred ^ ->. from the 12,000 feet of sediments that were accumulated in the ) / bottom of the Rocky Mountain Eocene lakes. Many of the sedi- ments of the Green River and Fort Bridger groups are of the character that accumulate with extreme slowness. A large part, too, of the upper beds, where they constitute the surface rocks, has ' been removed by erosion. Their original thickness, therefore, must have been much greater than at present. The estimates of time, however, are made from the remnants of these beds. It has been estimated that at the most rapid rate, not more than one-fourth 212 GEOLOGY. of an inch of solid sediment, on an average, could accumulate in a year. It was probably far less rapid than that, but even at that rate, over half a million of years were required to accumulate these 12,000 feet of sediments that are left from these old lake beds. During the progress of these deposits, there were occasional oscil- lations of level and interruptions in the accumulation of materials. This is indicated by the shifting of the shore lines westward, and the slight unconformability of the Green Riverbeds with the under- lying Vermillion. We can best understand the progressive movements, and the ad- vanced position of those times by considering the vegetable and animal life which is found entombed in its various groups. It was the great changes in climate resulting from the changes in physical geography, that either exterminated the vegetable and animal life of the preceding Cretaceous period, or by gradual change of environment transforming them into the advanced stages which they exhibited during the opening centuries of the Eocene. Life during the Vermillion Creek Period. Wasatch of Hayden. — In the sediments of this group (5,000 feet thick), have been found, and described by Lesquereux, forty-six species of plants. Among these are found the following notable forms: One Cypress (Taxodium .dubium), one Giant Cedar (Sequoia Heerii), one Sweet Gum Tree {Liqitidamber gracilis), six species of Cottonwood (Populus), one Alder (Alnus Kefersleinii), one Birch (Betula Stevensoni\ five Oaks , two Hazel-nuts (Corylus), two Beeches (Fagus), five figs , two Sycamores (.Platanus], two Dogwoods (Cornus), one Magnolia, one Papaw (Asimina mioceneca), one Grape-vine, three Walnuts (Juglans), and twenty-one other species. These vegetable forms, according to Lesquereux, are, when compared with Euro- pean fossils, all of Miocene type, though found here in the lower Eocene. In fact, of the fifty-six species, thirty-one are identical with the European Miocene, or the Arctic Miocene Flora. Accord- ing to the same authority, they are indicative of a warm temperate climate. This is specially indicated by the presence of the Magno- lia, Fig Trees, Sequoias and Cypress. Animal Life of the Vermillion Group Epoch. — The peculiarity that marked the animal life of the earliest Eocene was the sudden appearance of mammals of a high type. Though highly generalized compared with their more modern representatives, the transition forms connecting them with the animals of the preceding Cretace- THE -CENOZOIC AGE. 213 cms period are unknown. If the period of transformation was the preceding Laramie period, which is regarded by Hayden as a transition group between the Cretaceous and Tertiary; then the ev- olution of their forms occurred elsewhere, where no records have, been preserved. It probably, however, was near by, and may have been the region of the plains in Kansas and Nebraska; and if so, during the early Eocene they came by migration around the shores of the Vermillion lake, in whose sediments their remains were pre- served. The distinguishing peculiarity among the mammals that now appeared in large numbers was the tapiroid features that marked them all. They were mostly odd toed (Perissodactyls}, like birds and dinosaurs. It has been observed by zoologists that as dinosaurs in the character of the sacrum, vertebra, ischium, etc., were related to, or had mammallian characters, so the tapiroid mammals of the Eocene had also dinosaurian features. The dinosaurs were still more closely in their organization related to birds, so that it is un- certain of many of them whether they were most reptile or bird. It is possible, therefore, that at some time along the transition pe- riods of the Mesozoic the dinosaurian branch divided, one part pro- ceeding towards or transforming into birds, and the other into the mammalia. Among the lower Eocene Vermillion animals Cope has des- cribed three small species of carniverous animals, having more or less of the then common tapiroid characters. The hoofed (Ungulatd] animals are, however, the most interest- ing. Fifteen species of these are from this group. Six of them be- long to the famous Dawn Horse Family (Eohippus), and have been described mainly by Marsh. They wrere about the size of a fox, and had three toes on the hind foot and five on the front, four of which were serviceable, and one splint (metacarpei) that did not touch the ground, but probably carried a rudimentary thumb toe, " like a dew claw." Unlike the modern horse, " the bones of the leg and forearm were not yet distinct." — (Marsh.) The Vermillion beds from which these animals were procured have been called \h&Cary,phodonbeds^ from the presence of remains of animals that have received that designation. These peak-toothed animals (Caryphodons^ of which four species have been described, were peculiar in their highly generalized type of foot and tooth structure. They had five hoofed toes, and their general structure 214 GEOLOGY. » ' connected them with tapirs and such generalized carnivores as bears. Cdryphodon elephantopus was about the size of a small elephant, but some of the species were much smaller than the mod- ern tapir. Another group of animals described from these beds by Marsh, were named Tillodontla. Like the preceding, they were highly generalized in structure, and combined the hoofed toes of the Un- gulata with the head of the bears and the incisor teeth of the ro- dents. Thus far four clearly defined species have been described. Among reptiles several species of crocodiles and many turtles have been obtained. Green River Group. — This group is unconformable to the pre- ceding, indicating some changes of level preceding its deposition. It overlaps the Vermillion group towards the west at least 200 miles (King). The sediments that constitute this group are 2,000 feet thick, and are exceedingly fine, indicating their deposition in deep waters. In some localities, such as Barrel Springs, south and east of Cathedral Bluff--, the shales of this group are extremely carbonaceous, and are intercalated with fine, sandy members. Many leaf impressions are found in them, and numerous fresh wa- ter shells. Vegetable Remains of the Green River Group. — Lesquereux has described 82 species of plants from this group, but their general facies is remarkably distinct from that of the preceding deposits. Among these plants are six ferns, two species of Equisetae, eleven conifers and nine grains and grasses (Glumaceoe). The willows (Sallx) were represented by three species, the oaks (Quercus) by five, hollies (Ilex) by four, sumac (Rhus) by two, and walnuts (Juglans] by six species. Fig trees, the Cyprus, the giant cedars, and the ash were still present, but the palms were gone. It con- tains only a remnant of the Flora of the preceding group. Les- quereux, in studying this Flora, came to the conclusion that it rep- resented a vegetation characteristic of " high land, covered with lakes, swamps, and deep forests of conifers with a thick under- growth of ferns and shrubs." In the Tertiary it has its analogue with the Flora of Oeningen in Switzerland, or upper stage of Eu- ropean Miocene. As this vegetation is an upland flora, it is prob- able that it does not so fully represent the vegetable forms that ob- tained on the plains of Nebraska during this period as the preced- ing Vermillion Group epoch. % THE CENOZOIC AGE. 215 Animal Lije of the Green River Group. — As already stated, fresh water shells were exceedingly abundant. Fish seemed to be enor- mously abundant, at least in individuals, though the number of gen- era represented are comparatively few. One of the commonest of genera is Clupea, of which some half a dozen of species have been clearly distinguished. Our existing, shad and herring belong to this group. Several other genera, each represented by from one to seven species, have been described. Turtles were abundant in this old lake. But with the exception of a crocodile described by Leidy, about the size of the one living in the Nile, the higher rep- tiles of the period were not preserved. In mammallian life it does not compare with the preceding or the next group. Fort Bridger Group. — The areas of the Bridger beds are sur- rounded by strata of the Green River formation, which pass under them, exhibiting slight nonconformity. — (King.) They are 2,500 feet thick. " The materials are largely made up of almost uniform buff and gray marls, and clays, interrupted at several horizons by beds of peculiar green earth." " Fine sand and clay predominate, arranged in varying proportions, and occasionally changed by cal- careous admixtures. It is a sand and clay formation, while the preceding Green River group is highly calcareous." The Bridger beds are intricately eroded into all kinds of fantastical architectural forms. At and near Cherokee Ridge a line of bold escarpments extend northeast for fourteen miles. Here the Bridarer beds rise o 300 feet above the level valley, and present many abrupt, nearly ver- tical faces, worn into innumerable architectural forms. Often out- liers stand detached in bold, isolated blocks, which have been sculp- tured by the winds into many singular forms. Sometimes enor- mous masses project from the main wall, the stratification lines be- ing traced by the creamy, gray and green sands and marls, which resemble courses of gigantic masonry. Narrow galleries often pro- ject far into these labyrinths. The whole appearance is like a line of Egyptian structures. Among the most interesting forms are the isolated blocks, often over 100 feet in height, which are the last rel- icts of the b^Js which once covered this region. The plains skirt- ing these " Bad Lands" are quite level, there seldom being any talus at the bottoms or base of the cliffs. The excessive fineness of the materials is leveled by the water agencies that have for so long a period been producing erosion. — (King.) 216 GEOLOGY. The Briclger beds are most remarkable for the animal remains which they have preserved, and which has made them classic, ground for the geologist. From the above description it is seen that they are eminently adapted for the preservation of animal re- mains. At the foot of almost every cliff can be found some remains of turtles or mammals. Animal Life of the Fort Bridge r. — Moluscan life was abundant,, but I can only refer to the vertebrate, and espe'cially to the mam- malian life of the time. Fishes were represented by numerous forms, among which were species of Phineaster, closely related to the modern catfish, several species of gars and many kinds of mud fish, as Amia. Closely re- lated to the last are numerous species of Pappichthys, some of which are classed by Marsh with Amia. Marsh has also described many species of serpents, one genus of which (JBoanus) was allied to our water snakes. The saurians were represented by many spe- cies, which have been mainly described by Leidy and Marsh. The most abundant of these are the crocodiles, of which at least six spe- cies have been defined. Many others, closely related to the croco- diles, are found in the same localities, among which the Glyplo- saurus and Thinosaurus were also described by Marsh. The tur- tles (Chelonid) were also present in large numbers. Species of the genus Emys were most abundant, though there were also many of the soft shelled kind (Trionyx), and of several other genera. Some of them were small, but many of them were of gigantic size. Some of the land turtles of the genus Hadrianus, described by Cope, were from twenty-five to twenty-nine inches in length, and proportion- ately broad. They were probably the largest of all the extinct land tortoises. True, birds seem to have been abundant. One of the first de- scribed from this group was a form allied to an owl, and called by Marsh Bubo leptosteus. One genus of waders {Alletornis}, was represented by five species. The remains of a woodpecker {Uintot- nis Uucaris), have also been described by Marsh. The highly generalized Tillodontia, that appeared already in the Vermillron group, were here represented by several genera. Of these, species of Tellotherium were the most abundant. With these fossils are mingled many species of rodents. The hoofed odd-toed ( Ungulata] animals were present in great num- bers. One of these genera, of which several species have been de- THE CENOZOJC AGE. 217 scribed by Leidy, he has named Paleosyops paludosus. It had forty-four teeth, and formed nearly an unbroken arch. The canines were proportionately as large, and of the same form as in the bears. It was about the size of the existing tapir of South America. In tjie structure of the mouth and teeth it resembled the Paleotherium of the European Eocene. From the structure of its mouth, Leidy concludes that, like the bears, it was omniverous. Another species (P. majo?'}, was as large as the Indian Rhinoceros.. Several other species have been described. A still more curious species, described by Leidy, was the gnawing hog (Trogosus). The two species ot this genus combined the characters of the tapirs with those of the. gnawing animals. The incisor teeth did not .extend so far back as in the rodents, and in this respect approached the hog and pecary. Unlike the rodents, however, the worn slope of the incisors is directed both backwards and forwards. No canines existed ap- proaching in this respect the Hyrax, Mastodon, Elephant and Rhinoceros. Another tapir-like genus of animals was the Hyrachyus, of which. six species have been described by Leidy, Marsli and Cope. They differed from the South American tapir only generically, and aver- aged about the same in size. From the great numbers of their re- mains, they must have been exceedingly abundant during this period. Thus one of the animal forms most common in North America in Eocene times still persists in the tropical regions of this continent. Many other genera of tapiroid species have been de- . scribed from this basin to which I cannot even allude. The Mountain Horse (Orohippus], similar to the Eohippus of the Vermillion beds, but wanting the fifth toe, is also found in this group. Perhaps the most remarkable mammals yet discovered in rocks of any geological age, are the Dinocerata, which received that name from Marsh, who regards them as the type of a distinct and new order. He gave them this name because of the peculiarities of their heads, which were armed, some of them with three and some of them with two pairs of horns. They were " terribly horned." Cope, on the other hand, does not attach the same weight to these characters, and merely considers them to be a sub-family of the ele- phants {Proboscidians}. He claims that they had trunks similar to the elephants. Marsh denies this, on the ground that the naral opening and general structure of the head unfitted it for carrying a large trunk or proboscis, and because their short limbs and longer -I 218 GEOLOGY. necks enabled them to reach the ground for food without the help of such an appendage. The heads of most of the species were ex- tremely elongated, but the limbs bore a striking resemblance to those of the elephants. One pair of horns, of small size, was placed above the nasal bones, far forward; the second pair, some- what larger, above the canines on the maxillary bones; and a third pair, of large size, on the parietal bones, far back on the head. Large canines from the upper jaw extended in a slight curve down- ward, varying in length, on the different species, from five to ten inches. They had no incisor teeth. ' Cope recognizes four genera of these remarkable animals. Leidy first made them known in his description of Uintdtherium, of which three species at' least are now known. Subsequently Marsh and Cope described other genera and species, and no little confusion has been produced by the different names ascribed by different investi- gators to the same species. Cope's type genus, and species is Lox- olophodon cornutus ( Tinoceras grandis, Marsh). This species is perhaps most remarkable for the narrow form of the cranium, which at its middle is only one-fourth its length. The horn cores diverge, "having in their upper portion an outward curvature." * * " Its form and proportion of body was similar to that of an elephant," but its limbs were shorter, and its tail was quite small. The neck was longer than that of the elephants, but shorter than that of the rhinoceros. The hind pair of horns towered far above the others, "extending vertically, with a divergence when the head was at rest." Cope, contrary to Marsh, claims that the muzzle could not have reached the ground by several feet, and that there- fore a proboscis,as in elephants and tapirs, was a necessity. The horns were probably palmate. Eobasileus is another genus of the family established by Cope, but which may be included in the preceding. It was about the same height as Loxolophldon, but more slender. The muzzle, too, is shorter and more contracted, as also the horn sheaths. Still an- other genus of this remarkable family, described by Leidy, wras Megaceratops. It was about the size in bulk of body to a small elephant. re-SathnTodontidaB were a group of animals closely allied to the OX J preceding. Cope has described four species from deposits of this age. The neck was longer and the dentition more complete than in the preceding forms of this order. They stood in even closer re- lation to the odd-toed animals than even the Eobasileus. THE CENOZOIC AGE. 219 The Insectivera (animals with molars having short points) were, represented by many, genera and species, indicating a great fullness of insect life during the early Eocene times. The Carnivora were already abundant. They were like the preceding orders, of a remarkably comprehensive type. One of the most curious was the Mesonyx abtusidens, described by Cope. It was as large as our timber wolf, but with a more slender body behind. The cheek bones were more prominent than in the wolves and the tail more like that of the dogs. The phalanges of the first series were elongated and curved, as in the cats, but like the dogs it walked on its toes (digitigrade). The foot, moreover, was short, and the claws flat and more adapted to aquatic use than prehensile (grasping). The number of its molars exceeded that of any recent families of carnivora. The teeth, though sectorial, are not so to the same extent as in existing carnivora, the cutting edge being dull and uccupying but half the crown. While, therefore, dog-like, it had many characters relating it to other families. Still more curious was an animal called by Cope Synoplotherium lanius. Its claws approximated in character to the seals. The lower canines pro- jected forwards, and were of large size and came so close together that there was no room in front for the incisors. They, however, rested against the incisors of the upper jaw, and latterly against the upper canines. In other particulars, this animal resembled the bears and the hyagnodons that appeared in the next or Miocene epoch. The peculiar approach and projecting form of the lower canines, was doubtless, as Cope has suggested, a modification of structure for special habits, which was the destruction and devour- ing of turtles, which so wonderfully abounded on land, lake and sea, during early Eocene times. Sinopa rapax was an animal that was intermediate in position between the wolves and the dogs, and about the size of the red fox. Canis montanis is described by Marsh as a species of wolf, larger than the grey wolf. Patriofelis ulta (Father of the Cats?) described by Leidy, was related to the panther and the dog family, with some characters approaching the weasels and civets. It was considerably larger than the former. .The Quadrumana, the order to which the monkeys and man be- longs, were represented during this period by at least eight species, among which the following were characteristic forms. Timotheri- 220 GEOLOGY. um had a long thigh, free from the body, a forefoot capable of be- ing set down flat, and a form of lower iaw and teeth, similar to that of the lower modern monkeys. The form of the humerus and its relative length to the femur, resembles that of the lemurs. * * " The greatest difference is that of the increased number of teeth, which related them in this respect to the ancient carnivora and un- gulata," all of which had more teeth than their modern congeners. (Cope). The genus Anaptomorphus represents a' group more nearly related to the existing types of Madagascar and South Africa. None of these quadrumana of the Fort Bridger Group are typical forms, and all are much more generalized than existing families.* The above species represent only a very small number of the extinct species found in this group, but they will serve to give some idea of the remarkable life that flourished during those times — times " when the existing orders of the mammalia were yet in pro- cess of differentiation, and were scarcely distinctly defined." UINTA GROUP. South of the Uinta Mountains there is a small group of Ter- tiaries, about five hundred feet thick, which constitute the closing deposits of this period. They have been called the Uinta Group by King. The materials at the bottom are gritty, rough conglom- erates, shading upward into finer grained sandstone, and at certain points into beds of creamy, impure limestone. "The strata seem to form an unbroken line from the region of the Wasatch east- ward through the length of Uinta Valley, across Green River, into the valley of tha White River. The animal remains which are. found in this group, especially in White River Valley, belong to a more advanced Eocene period than the Bridger series. They contain sonTfc forms approximating to the lowest Miocene types." — (King.) It is not improbable that these beds represent the transition period between the Eocene and Miocene. Among the important vertebrates of this series are the following: Hyopsodus gracilis was a small animal, related in many of its characters to the hog family. It was of small size, and retained some tapiroid elements. Epihippus Uintensis and E. gracilis were small, horse-like animals of this period, closely related to the oro- hippus of the Bridger beds, but showing a structure approximat- ing to the Mesohippus of the next or lowest Miocene period: *For a full technical description of the extinct mammalian species of the Eocene of the Rocky Mountains, the reader is referred to the reports of Leidy, Marsh and Cope. THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 221 Agriochcerus was a genus of hog-like ruminants, that flourished during these times. It was related to the Oreodon of the Miocene. It differed from the latter and from all known ruminants in having the orbits open behind. — Leidy. This group closed the deposits of the Eocene period. This re- gion of lakes had been rising during the latter portion of Eocene times, and their final extinction closed this period. CHAPTER V. THE TERTIARY PERIOD, CONTINUED.— MIOCENE EPOCH. Inauguration of the Miocene Epoch. — Formation of a Lake on the Plains. — Boundaries. — Where the Miocene is Exposed in Nebraska. — Extent. — Miocene Lakes farther West. — Basin Region. — Oregon Region. — An Age of Lakes. — Name of the Eastern Lake. — Kinds of Rock. — Whence the Materials were obtained. — Why tjhe Miocene Beds are Thin on the Plains.— -Length of the Miocene Epoch. — Bad Lands. — Flora of the Miocene. — Animal Life. — Insectivora.— Rodentia.— Horse Family.— Titanotheriums— Symborodons.— Mastodons and Elephants.— Rhinoceros'.— River Horse.— Hog Family.— Camel Family. — Musk Deer. — Oreontidae. — Carnivora. — Hyaenodons. — Dre- panodons. — Quadrumanna in the Miocene. — Mammals in the Miocene, not Described nor Found. — Closing of the Miocene Epoch — Its Gradual Char- acters.— Lava Floods at the Close.— Formation of the Coast Range. — Farther Depression of the Plains. — Effect on life of these Changes. \ THE Miocene Epoch was gradually inaugurated. During the Eocene Epoch the plains were an extended land surface, made up of the eroded materials of the Cretaceous and the Per- mian and Carboniferous rocks. There was free drainage to the sea, but of the rivers and their tributaries of that time, we know nothing. The upward movement of the plateau regions that event- ually drained the old Eocene lakes was accompanied by a subsi- dence of portions of the adjoining plains. The old mountain lakes were shifted eastward, the depressions in the plains making room for them. While the- mountains went upward, the plains went downward, like the changing waves of the sea. As this movement was slowly in progress for ages before it was consum- 222 GEOLOGY. mated, the probabilities are that the great Miocene lake of the plains- commenjed to form before Uinta lake had terminated its history. There probably were no great convulsive throbs of the earth's crust, separating sharply the two epochs. The Eocene shaded into the Miocene epoch. This lake of the plains extended from near the north line of Kansas across Nebraska, a large part of Dakota Territory, west of the Black Hills, and northward to Manitoba. Its exact geographical extent has not been ascertained in Nebraska, owing to the superincumbent Pliocene, which overlaps it, and through which it only projects at intervals. The best exposures in Nebraska commence on the Niobrara River, about 300 miles west of the mouth of the Keya Paha or Turtle Hill River, and extend' to the west line of the State, taking in the White Earth River re- gion and the space between the latter and the north line of the State. It is finely represented on and north of the latter river in Dakota Territory, constituting there a portion of the famous Ma- koo-si-tcha or Mauvais Terre of the French, which has been ren- dered into English by the term Bad Lands, although in the Dakota tongue it means simply a country hard to travel over. On the west the Miocene abuts against the undulating surface of the Lar- amie Group, and therefore did not extend quite to the foot-hills of the Colorado Range. The extent of this great fresh water lake has been variously estimated at from 100,000 to 130,000 and up- wards of square miles. The local subsidence of the plains on the east, next to the moun- tains, was accompanied by a somewhat similar depression between the Wasatch and the Sierras, forming also a large Miocene lake in that region. Another great Miocene lake extended from Wash- ington Territory through Oregon to Nevada and Colorado. In eastern Oregon, the deposits of this epoch are enormously thick, the depth reaching 5,000 feet, overlaid, however, by the lava beds, which were poured from fissures at the close of the Miocene. It does not fall within the plan of this work to discuss any of these old Miocene lake beds except the one covering a portion of Ne- braska. From the above it is seen that the Miocene was pre-eminently an age of great fresh water lakes. It is questionable whether on this continent any other geological epoch was represented by such a number and such large basins of fresh water. THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 223 Clarence King has suggested for the Miocene lake that extended .through Nebraska the name of Sioux Lake. Hayden, who first studied these beds in this region, called them the White Earth River Group. Kinds of Rock. — The materials of these Miocene beds vary a great deal in character. This would naturally be expected in a lake bed which received the drainage, through countless ages, of the rivers that now have their outlet through the Missouri. Varying currents and other conditions would naturally frequently change the character of the sediments deposited on the bottom. The rocks- that supplied the materials that were carried into this Miocene lake evidently came from the Archaean nucleus of the Rocky Mountains- and the Black Hills, the Palaeozoic, the Juro-Trias and the different groups of the Cretaceous. The eroded materials going seaward were stopped in these old lake beds. Erosion, however, through the Miocene, was by no means as rapid as at present. The height of the plateau . region was much less than at present; the atmos- phere was moister, the rainfall much gentler and more constant, and a warm, temperate climate obtained. The extreme cold of winter, which is such a mighty agent in the disintegration of rock, and which now characterizes these regions, did not then exist. Hill, valley, plain, mountain and plateau, were also covered by dense growths, in places, of grasses, and in places of mighty forests, which protected the land from the denuding agencies which are now constantly at work. As already stated, the extreme thickness of the Miocene in the West reaches its maximum in Oregon, where beds 5,000 feet in vertical thickness are found. Owing to the causes alluded to above, on the plains the Miocene beds are comparatively thin. Meek estimates their thickness at from 530 to 600 feet. Where I measured them, on the Upper Niobrara, they rarely ex- ceeded 400 feet. If we calculate the length of Miocene times on the same principle as Eocene, this epoch was probably a quarter of a million years long. It should be remembered, however, that there is no certainty about the length of geological periods. k In Nebraska, on and north of the White Earth, and on the Upper Niobrara, the rocks of the Miocene have the following character: Indurated grit, of a reddish brown color, with occasional layers of concretions of silicate of lime, often shading into, first, a coarse and then a fine green sandstone. Above this occur, sometimes, an- 224 GEOLOGY. mense masses of conglomerate, with occasional layers of tabular limestone. Then come coarse-grained sandstone, often loose and friable, and sometimes compact and heavy bedded. A limestone layer, followed several miles, often changes into a silicate of lime, then sandstone, and then conglomerate, and the opposite. The sections published by Meek, Hayden and Leidy correspond, in the main, to the above.* BAD LANDS. A portion of this old Miocene lake bed, on and north of the White Earth River, as already stated, now constitutes the Bad Lands. This is one of the most wonderful regions on the globe. Here, at present, there is very little, and in some places formerly there was no vegetation. Water fit to drink is exceedingly rare. This region is worn into labyrinthine canyons that wind around in in every conceivable direction. Occasionally only isolated, some- times almost perpendicular, portions of the original beds remain, producing the appearance of abandoned human habitations, or old. desolated, forsaken oriental cities. Climbing some of the heights, far as the eye can reach, there seems to be an interminable array of towers, spires, cathedrils, obelisks, pyramids and monuments. "Not urifrequently the rising or setting sun will light up these grand old ruins with a wild, strange beauty, reminding one of a city illum- inated in the night, when seen from some high point." The harder layers project from the sides of the canyons, or mimicked architect- ural forms, with such regularity that they appear like seats, one abve the other, of some vast weird amphitheater. It is here among these strange, grotesque ruins, that the remains of the unique animals, described farther on, are found." — (Hayden). To the geologist, no region is so inspiring, though in summer time he will often find the heat almost insupportable, as the sun heats up these bare walls like an oven. I have been among these ruins when the thermome- ter ranged from 108° to 115°. So great, however, is the interest that is inspired by this page in the earth's history, that the natur- alist gladly braves the hardships of travel among these desola- tions. As can be inferred from the preceding, during the Miocene epoch the greater part of the eastern portion of Nebraska was a land sur- face. *See Leidy 'a Extinct Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska, page 16. THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 225 Life of the Miocene. — The fossil remains which are found in this old Miocene lake bed indicate the life of those times. I can only point out by a few examples some of its salient points. Not the least remarkable was the flora of the Miocene. In my excursions to northwestern Nebraska, I found traces and impres- sions of many land plants, but unfortunately they were too fragile to remove them from the containing matrix, and all attempts to ac- complish it resulted in their destruction. Among those identified were cotton woods (Populus), willows (Salix), magnolias, oaks (Quer- ais), sweet gum trees (Liquidamber), sassafras, our southern cypress (Sequoia)^ Glyphtostrobus, which is closely allied to the preceding, palms, fig trees (J?icus), lindens, birches, maples, pines, etc. Other observers in other regions have observed many more species, and have especially noted the vast abundance of the Sequoias and their congeners which abounded in Miocene times, not only in America, but over the whole of northern Europe and Asm, and even in Greenland, Iceland and Spitzenbergen.* The forms, however, that Heer describes from Greenland, Dawson supposes to be of the Eocene Age. However that may be, it is clear that in Nebraska there flourished in Miocene times trees of the same gigantic charac- ter and even of the same genus, and probably of the same species, as now grow in the sequestered vales of California. Some of the United States geologists have, indeed, expressed the conviction that in that age Nebraska was covered by a vast savanna. I take the opposite ground, because of the occurrence in the Nebraska Miocene beds of many species of trees. Besides these giant cedars that here loomed heavenward, there were species of palms and fig trees, as stated above, and these helped to give the vegetation that warm, temperate, or semi-tropical aspect which marked its fades as a whole. Animal Life. — Along with this warm, temperate flora, there ex- isted in Miocene times a still more wonderful animal life. Perhaps never have the conditions for mammalian life been so favorable as during this epoch. The few that can be noticed in this chapter can simply illustrate its general character and richness. The in- sectivora, which were represented by several genera and species, must be passed over. Among the rodents the rat family was al- ready represented by a species called by Leidy, Eumys elegans. A *See on this subject Gray's Address to the American Association, Gray's Forest Geogra- phy, Saparta's Anaenne Vegetation Polaire, Beer's Flora Arctica. ?5 226 GEOLOGY. beaver (Pal&caster Nebrascensis) , was also abundant at this time. The squirrels of that time were large, as is indicated by the remains of Ischyromys typus, whose' head was larger than that of a musk- rat. The rabbit of the Nebraska Miocene was smaller than the common species of the State at the present time The horse family (Solidunguld), which is now represented by one genus (Equus), whose characteristic species are the horse and the ass, was rich in genera and species during the Miocene. We have already seen that the family came into being in the early Eocene, the first known characteristic form being the Eohippus. In the early Miocene we already have the Mesohippus, represented by several species whose distinctive peculiarity was that the fourth toe had become a rudimentary useless splint. Next in the Miocene came the Anchitheriums, which were represented in Nebraska by one species, with three additional forms in Colorado. The peculiar feature of these horses was that they had three toes, all of which touched the ground, the two lateral, Jiowever, being comparative- ly small and weak. Closely allied to these were the Hyperions, several species of which lived during Nebraska Miocene times. They also had three toes, but only the middle one touched the ground, the two lateral swinging not much unlike the two side toes of the hog, being, however, comparatively much smaller. Another genus, Merychippus, was closely related to the preceding. These Miocene horses ranged in size from an animal much smaller than the ass to animals about the size of a small modern horse. It is seen, therefore, that at least four genera of horses existed in Mio- cene times, each genus, however, being represented by from one to several species. They must have been exceedingly numerous, and doubtless roamed over our plains in countless numbers. Another peculiar family of odd-toed animals that existed in Mio- cene times were the Titanotheriums. Leidy first described and named them. So abundant are their remains at one horizon in the lower Miocene that it has given it the name of Titanotherium bed. Marsh afterwards described a closely related animal by the name of Brontotherium. Subsequently Cope described another of the same family by the name ofSymborodon. Megaceratops Coloradoensis, of Leidy, belongs to the same group. These animals had the same bulk of body of the elephants, and united the characters of the rhi- noceros and elephants with more distant affinities to the Dinocer- ata of the Eocene. The head was extremely elongated, and be THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 227 cause of its depression in the middle, bore some resemblance to a pack-saddle. They probably had a small trunk about as long as that of the tapirs. They had two pairs of horns, one pair being above the nasals and another pair above the eyes, the hind pair be- ing powerful weapons of defense. They probably were the succes- sors of the Dinocerata of the Eocene. Of the Symborodons Cope has described five species. As two species of Brontotherium were also described by Marsh, it is clear that the number of species was great, and judging from the remains, there must have been a very* great number of individuals. Along with the Symborodons the elephants and mastodons were already represented by several species. The remains of the one that I found on the White Earth, in Nebraska, were too much de- cayed to identify specifically. It bore the closest resemblance to the Mastodon mirificus that appeared during the next or Pliocene epoch. • Among the most unexpected of all discoveries in the Nebraska Miocene was the remains of rhinoceros'. One, the Rhinoceros oc- cidentalis,was about three-fourths the size of the Indian rhinoceros. R. Coloradoensis was found in the Miocene of the mountains. The curious European genus of river horses {Hyopotamus) was represented during those times by at least one species. It had af- finities relating it to the hog family. Genera closely related to the hog family (Suida) were abundant during this epoch. One of these genera (EZoiherium), which was first described from the Miocene of France, was represented by several species during these times in Nebraska and Dakota. Its nearest allies among existing animals are first the hogs, and then the peccary and hippopotamus. One of these (E. Martont] was about the size of a large hog, while another (E. ingens] was at least one-third larger. The peccaries, which are now confined to South America and the southern United States were represented in Ne- braska during the Miocene by several species. Five other genera of the Suiclse occur in these deposits. During this period, there- fore, it is evident that suilline animals existed in great numbers all over the land. The most curious fact, perhaps, connected with the animal life of this epoch, was the presence of many species of the camel family. At present it is confined to Asia, Africa and South America. In the former it is represented by the camel proper, and in the latter 228 GEOLOGY. by the Auchenia or Llama. In Miocene times, however, they were represented in Nebraska by several genera and many species* One of the first, described by Leidy, was called Paebotherium Wil- soni. It was only about as large as the domestic sheep. Protom- erys Evansi was closely related to the preceding, and about the same size. A musk deer (Septomeryx] Evansi, also occupied this territory at this time. It had many characters, especially in the form of its maxillaries, relating it to the deer. It was about the. ;size of the musk ox of Thibet. No family of animals was represented in that epoch by more genera, species and individuals than the Oreontidae. Leidy, who- first described them, called them ruminating hogs. The skull ap- proached more nearly to that of the peccaries, though the upper part had some characters uniting them with the camels. The mo- lars were like those of ruminants, and resembled most nearly those of the deer, but unlike modern ruminants, they had incisors in both jaws. The canines resembled most nearly those of the hog. The teeth, as a whole, formed an almost unbroken arch, a condition found in few animals besides the quadrumanna. Like the hogs,, too, they had four toes on each foot, two being functional, and the two on the sides being too elevated to touch the ground. They were, therefore emphatically what Leidy called them, ruminating hogs. They were, judging from the abundance of their remains,, more numerous than any animals of those times. They were gre- garious, and must have roamed over eastern Nebraska in countless millions. In size they ranged from an animal not larger than a rac- coon to one as large as a small elk. The most abundant was Oreo- don Culbertsonii. It was slightly smaller than the domestic sheep. I have occasionally seen a stratum in the Bad Lands which in places was largely made up of their remains. The largest species- was probably O. superbus, whose skull was fourteen inches long* Besides the many species of Oreodon at least five additional genera of this family are known. The number of species clearly defined of all the genera was not less than twenty-five. These animals were, therefore, among the characteristic features of the Miocene epoch, and during those times could probably have been found ev- erywhere in America. The herbivora, however, did not hold undisputed possession of the land. The happiness of these countless herds was interrupted by most sanguinary enemies. The carnivorous mammalia were THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 229 present in numbers proportionate 'to the herbivorous animals. Among these the most blood-thirsty were the Hycenodkntidce. They were first described from the Miocene of France by Cuvier under another name. Subsequently four additional species were found and described by De Laizer and De Parieu under the above family name. The three distinct species found in the Bad Lands by Evans, Shumard, Meek and Hayden were described by Leidy. - brara. As some of these geyser tubes had their exit in the Fort Pierre Group, on the upper Republican, it is probable that they 240 GEOL.OGY. commenced their work in the Cretaceous period, and were in opera- tion all through the long centuries of the Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene epochs, and far into the Quaternary. A similar bed ex- ists on Oak Creek, which was deposited in interglacial times. Ne- braska, and at least northern Kansas, in fact, was a great geyser re- gion all through the Tertiary period. It far exceeded in the num- ber and magnitude of its geysers the upper Yellowstone region and Iceland at the present day. Few memorials of these old extinct geysers are visible at the present time, owing to their being covered up by the superincumbent Quaternary deposits, but enough remain to show that a prodigious number must have existed in at least Pliocene times. It is probable that this flour-like silico alkaline earth owes its origin to these old geysers. It is well known that hot alkaline waters dissolve silica. When, therefore, the geyser streams holding silica and alkalies in solution was poured into this old lake, it was precipitated, on cooling, to the bottom. Indeed,, many of the flakes of this earth, under the microscope, clearly re- semble the dried flocculent flakes of aluminic silicate, which the chemist obtains by pouring soluble sodic silicate into a solution of sodic aluminate. Another fact which tends to establish the proba- bility of this theory is that this Pliocene silico alkaline earth, on analyses, bears a striking resemblance to geyserite, which is ob- tained from the deposits of existing geysers. The following analysis are illustrations of this statement. No. I is an analysis of this earth from the deposit near Arapahoe; No. 2, from the Loup; No. 3, from Iceland, and No. 3, from the Yellowstone. No. I and 2 were made by myself; No. 3 was made by Forchhammar, and No. 4 by Dr. F. M. Endlich: 1 2 3 4 Loss on ignition 8 00 Silica 67 01 80 17 84 43 76 80 Water 8 03 7 43 7 88 5 00 Alumina 7 11 4 71 3 07 9 46 Iron 2 81 3 01 1 91 trace Lime 2 01 92 0 70 1 80 Soda and potassa Magnesia 7 87 4 05 2 27 80 92 1 06 trace trace 98 89 99 31 99 98 101 06 From these analyses it is evident that the principal difference between this Pliocene earth and geyserite is that the former contains a much larger per cent of alkalies; though the specimen from the Loup is strikingly like the geyserite from Iceland. By reference THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 241 to Dr. Endlich's report on the composition of the geyserites of the Yellowstone,* it will be seen that they differ very much in the per cent of their constituent elements. In the great number of analyses reported by him from as many different geysers, no two are alike. Often geysers only a few feet apart produce very different qualities of geyserite. The same is true of this peculiar earth under dis- cusion. It not only differs a great deal in different localities, but even in different layers of the same stratum. It differs most in the quantity of the alkalies which it contains. Some specimens contain twenty or more per cent, while others contain only a trace, the latter approximating closely in chemical, though not in physical constitution, to the true geyserite. I submit whether these facts do not indicate a similar origin. It is possible that the peculiar modifi- cation of geyserite into a flour-like alkaline silicate may have re- sulted from geysers that were active in the waters of this old Plio- cene lake. The deposits of a similar character in the Quaternary contain, where I have chemically examined them, a larger per cent of iron, and are coarser in texture. Length of the Pliocene Epoch. — The great amount of erosion to which the Pliocene rocks have been subjected, and the great thick- ness of the beds yet remaining, especially along the base of the mountains on the west, indicates that this epoch was of long dura- tion. It probably endured through as many centuries as the pre- ceding Miocene. Life of the Pliocene Epoch. — Vegetation. — In the lower beds of the Nebraska Pliocene are found, in many places, and especially on the Niobrara, many remains of coniferous trees. Among these are petrified wood, cones and leaves. It is possible that some of the petrified wood may have been derived from older formations. If not, then there flourished during these times at least one araucarian pine. A flake from an agatized specimen which I obtained from, the Niobrara, under the microscope gave distinctly the structure of the araucarians. There is no such doubt about the common pine family, as both cones and leaves of these are preserved. The giant trees (Sequoias] must have been abundant, judging from the number of their remains. One species of cedar, closely related to, if not identical with our common juniper, has also left its remains in the Pliocene of the Republican Valley. Along with the last, a cypress *Haydeii's Report for 1872, p. 157. 16 242 GEOLOGY. occurs. On the Niobrara, in the lower beds of the Pliocene, occur, at rare intervals, palm-like leaf lemains, which probably belonged to some species of sabal, though the remains were too indistinct to identify. At the same horizon remains of fig leaves occur. There occur, also, occasional remains of the Sweet Fern (Comptoma), Sweet Gum, Locust (Robinia), Honey Locust (Glcd,ifechia\ Cassia, Sumach (Rhus), Walnut (Juglans), Tulip tree (Liriodendrori), Staff tree {Gelastrus), Cottonwoods (Populus), and Oaks. A petrified oak log, from the Niobrara Pliocene, in the cabinet of the State University, is remarkable for its beauty and the distinctness with which its structure has been preserved. The cells and medullary rays are as perfect as in a live oak of to-day. In Harlan County, on the south side of the Republican River, occur masses of silicious limestone that are filled with the petrified or semi-petrified seeds of probably some species of Arrow-wood (Viburnatn), which is a mem- ber of our Honeysuckle family, which had its greatest develop- ment in Tertiary times. A flora similar to this characterized Europe during this epoch, but it disappeared at the end of the Tertiary. Here, however, our conspicuous vegetable forms are yet Tertiary in type, and almost in species. If Heer is correct, many of our existing American species abounded already in Greenland, Iceland and Spitzbergen in the middle Tertiary. So far, therefore, as our flora is concerned, America, as has long since been remarked, is the old world. • Animal Life. — The turtle family was probably represented by fewer species during the Pliocene than in the previous epoch. Those that I have observed myself in the Niobrara Pliocene were land tortoises, belonging to the genus Testudo. Their remains were mixed with those of mammals. During this epoch the higher forms of vegetable life, and espe- cially the mammalian type, h.ad a remarkable development. They must have been exceedingly abundant around the shores of the great lake of the plains, as is evident from the vast numbers of their remains. The birds were represented by an eagle (Aqutla Dananus), and a cormorant (^Grus Haydent), both found on the Loup, and described by Marsh. The existence of the eagle implies the presence of other species. And there can be no question that the happy physi- cal conditions of those times were favorable to a great development of bird life. THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 243 The rodents were represented by several species. Among these was a porcupine (Hystrix venustus), and a beaver (Castor tortus), about half the size of the one now living. The horse family (Efuufafjfc were represented by at least four genera and fifteen species. One of the most remarkable of these genera was the Hippari^n, which was already present in the pre- vious Miocene, and was described under that head. The species were comparatively small in size. Hj^^rion occidentalis, whose remains occur at several horizons, and at widely separated localities, was the largest species, but was only about the size of the ass. Three other species, found on the Niobrara, and described by Leidy, were still smaller. Merychippus, another genus, which occurs on the Niobrara, was so named because of its large, broad grinders. The name means ruminating horse, but it refers only to the resem- blance, as it did not partake of the character of ruminants. Mery- chippus mirabilis, the largest of the two species described by Leidy, was a little larger than the ass. Protohippus, which is also repre- sented in the Nebraska Pliocene by at least four species, had even a more complicated structure of the enamel of the teeth than the modern horse. Protohippus supremus, .which in size was about half way between the ass and horse, was the largest species. Pro- tohippus parvulus, which was obtained by Marsh at Antelope Sta- tion, Nebraska, was only about two and a half feet high when mature. Closely related to the preceding was Pliohippus, of which Marsh described two species. It had only one hoof to each foot, but large splint bones still remained. Its principal points of differ- ence from the true horse lay in the shape of the skull, hoof, and in the shorter molars. Another genus of animals from the Niobrara, supposed to belong to the horse family, but which reference is un- certain, owing to the paucity of the materials for determination, Leidy has called Hyohirjpus, and under that name has described two species. The most perfect, at the least the most modern of the Pliocene horses of Nebraska, was Equus excelsus. Dr. Hayden first found its remains on the Loup, then on the Niobrara, and then at other points. It was about the size of a medium-sized modern horse, and differed only in trifling details from the present one I have found its remains in the uppermost Pliocene beds in the Re- publican Valley, and in the Quaternary. It extended over from the Pliocene to interglacial times. This most modern of the Plio- cene horses, seems to have been the culminating form of the family 244 GEOLOGY. in this epoch. It will be remembered that the family was first represented in the Eocene of the mountains by the Dawn Horse, or Eohippus, with five toes on the fore feet. The horses abounded all through the Miocene and Pliocene, when in the higher forms in this latter epoch the toes had all, except the middle one, disap- peared, but leaving as a memorial of their former presence the splint bones. It is evident that they must have existed here in Pliocene times in prodigious numbers. In fact, these regions, above any other in any geological age, were dominated by horses^ One species of Rhinoceros wTas a contemporary of the Pliocene horses. It was about the size of the Indian Rhinoceros, and its teeth had the same formula. Leidy has named it R. crassus. The elephant family (Proboscidians), which first became sharply outlined in the preceding Miocene epoch, was represented in the Nebraska Pliocene by at least two genera and species. Mastodon mirificus (wonderful Mastodon), was first described by Leidy from the Pliocene beds on the Loup. Hayden also found its remains in abundance on the Niobrara. I have also observed them on the Driftwood, and in other localities. The finest molar of this animal that I have seen is in the possession of Captain Palmer, in Platts- mouth, who obtained it from the Republican Valley. It is finely agatized, and is remarkable for its beauty. It is fortunate for us that it fell into the hands of a gentleman who will retain it in the State. This species of Mastodon belongs to Falconer's subgenus Tetralophodon. Leidy was uncertain whether it had tusks. A badly decayed section of a skull which I found on the Driftwood, and which unfortunately fell to pieces in taking it out, had a section of one tusk left. It is my own conviction that it had tusks in both jaws. This species has not yet been found elsewhere outside of Nebraska. The remains of a gigantic elephant (Eltyhas imperator) was also found by Hayden on the Niobrara, and described by Leidy. It was either distinct from the elephant that appeared afterwards dur- ing the Quaternary, or else was of larger size. A portion of the femur of what I take to be this species, now in the cabinet of the University, is certainly more robust in form than that of the Quaternary elephants. The remains of other species have been found on the Niobrara and Loup, but have not yet been specifically described. It is evi lent, therefore, that in Pliocene times elephants and mastodons were abundant over the land surface of Ne- braska. THE TERTIARY PERIOD, 245 That old type of mammals, so common in Eocene times, but now confined to South America, the Tapirs were represented in the Pliocene of the plains by one species. Marsh, who describes it, calls it Tapirus rams. The hog family (Sutda) had fewer representatives than in the preceding epoch. One species of peccary alone seems to have been abundant. Ruminants were abundant during the Pliocene in Nebraska. An antelope, ( Cosoryx furcatus^) described by Leidy, and intermediate in character between the deers and antelopes, has left its remains on the Niobrara. In company with the last was a true deer (Cervus Warrent)', also described by Leidy. It was about the size of the Virginia deer. The Oreodons, described under the Miocene, had dwindled in the Pliocene to three species of the genus Merychyus. The rela- tive position, form of the teeth, and their number was the same as in Oreodon. The crowns of the teeth, however, were larger in proportion to their breadth than in Oreodon. Merychyus major was the largest species, and was near the size of the camel. M. medius was intermediate in size between the llama and camel. On the whole, while the number of species was less, the average size was greater in this family than during the Miocene. The camel family (Camelida) were even richer in genera, species, and the number of individuals than during the Miocene. The most characteristic genus was Procamelus, which was represented by at least four species, three of which were described by Leidy. Their remains are found on the Niobrara, Loup, and Republican. Procamelus had one more premolar to the upper, and two more to the lower series of teeth than in the modern camel. This indicated a less mature condition, or a condition before they have shed those teeth which reduce them to that observed in their adult form. The lower true molars are also smaller in proportion to the size of the jaw than is the existing camel. The molar series, though composed of smaller teeth than in the camel, occupy, because of their greater number, more space along the border of the jaw. Thus in the camel, while the four molar teeth occupy five and a half inches, in i.n Procamelifc robustus the six molars occupy six and a fourth inches. — (Leidy.) Some of the species approximate in some of the characters of the lower jaw to the llamas. Procamelus robustus, the largest species, was about the size of the existing camel. The 246 GEOLOGY. remains of P. occidentalis, which, was about two-thirds as large, are the most abundant. P. gracilis, a still smaller species, was about as large as a sheep. I have found the remains of another species most nearly related to P. robustus, and if it proves to be distinct,, will call it P. Nebraskensis. Another species, whose remains Hay- den found on the Niobrara, Leidy has called Homocamelus caninus^ It was remarkable, among other things, for the narrow snout-like prolongation of the fore part of the face. The palate was more deeply vaulted than in the camel. The caniniform incisor, the canine and first premolar were all separated from each other, and from the succeeding continuous row of premolars, and true molars by wide arching intervals. The largest of all the family, whose remains were found, Leidy has named Megalomeryx Niobrarensisr from the locality where its remains were obtained. The molar teeth had affinities to those of the llama and sheep. It was proba- bly about one-fourth larger than the modern camel. A still more curious, comprehensive, camel-like animal, described by Leidy, was- Merycodus necatus. Its molar teeth combined the characters found in the sheep, camel, and deer. It was about as large as the latter animal. Bisons already existed in the Pliocene epoch in Nebraska. The progenitors of our buffalo probably then existed in the forms which Marsh has described under the names of Bison ferox and Bison Alleni. A species which Leidy has described, under the name of Lep- tarctus primus, was a bear-like animal, closely allied to, and about the size of the existing Coati of South America. The cat family (Feiidte) had fewer representatives than in the preceding Miocene. ./Elu rod on- ferox was slightly larger than the largest American wolves. One of its sectorial molars, according to Leidy, was intermediate in character between that of the wolves and the cats. "It approached in size the similar molar of a small Bengal tiger. It had the proportion of the similar molar of the wolves, and in addition the anterior accessory lobe of the cats." — (Leidy.) The most characteristic, however, of these cats of the Pliocene, was Pseudselurus intrepidus. The first species was found and described from the Miocene of France by M. Gervais. It was somewhat remarkable that another species should be found in the Pliocene of Nebraska. The jaw of this species was intermediate in character between that of the panther and lynx. The jaws and THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 247 teeth were much as in the cat family generally, but in minute de- tails they resembled most nearly those of the lynx. The dog family (Canidce) was much more fully represented than the last, not less than four species having already been des- cribed by Leidy. Canis Haydeni was a wolf of much larger size and more robust form than any now in existence. Another species was also slightly larger than any now living. Leidy calls it Canis rarus, and considers it a near relative if not actual projenitor of our present wolf (Canis occidentalis}. Cotemporary with these large species, and inhabiting the same localities, were two of small size. One of these, called Canis temerarius, was intermediate in form between our prairie wolf and red fox. A still smaller species, more fox than wolf, was about the size of the swift (Cants velooc). From the preceding it is apparent that many forms of mammal- ian life culminated in the number of species and the size of individ- uals during the Pliocene epoch. The conditions during those times must have been exceedingly favorable to the development of mammalian -life. Not the- least remarkable is it that most of those animal forms which are now regarded as most useful to man were the most numerous and best represented during an epoch when, so far as we now certainly know, he had not become an actor on the stage of the world. At least no undoubted monuments of his pres- ence in the world during Pliocene times have been preserved in geological history or tradition. The alleged special servants of man, however, were present during the Pliocene epoch in extraor- dinary numbers. Even the mastodon might have been made as serviceable as the elephant was in historic times. There is no good reason to doubt that the great Niobrara elephant (E. imperator} might have been trained to toil as successfully as the species now living in Asia and Africa. Some of the great number of species of the camel family could certainly have been made as useful as the modern " ship of the desert " Even the horse family culminated during those times in the number of species. The fifteen species already described from the Pliocene, were probably only a small fraction of the kinds that then existed. If the three-toed H^/trion horses were not adapted to the service of man, some of the many species of Protohippus and Equus certainly could have been util- ized. We may, therefore, abandon the idea that the development of animal life was designed by the Supreme Intelligence solely for the gratification and use of man. This may have been one pur- 248 GEOLOGY. pose, but, in the nature of the case, it could only "have been one out of many conceivable purposes. Let us now, if we can, form some picture of the character and physical condition of the Tertiary ages. Take, for example, the middle Pliocene. Had we been in existence then, and started west- ward on a journey from some point near where the Missouri now flows, much of the peculiar life of the times would have been ob- served. The climate was congenial in an eminent degree. The great Pliocene lake caused a much moisture atmosphere than exists at present. Groves of Sequoias, like the present gigantic trees of California, the glyptostrobus of China and Japan, the cypress, the date and the palm, were interpersed with magnificent savannas. The songs of ten thousand birds, many of them of the most beau- tiful plumage, would have greeted our -ears. At some places, herds of thousands of Oreodons would have been encountered. Bisons, similar in form to our buffaloes, would have been seen cropping the grass. At other points might have been seen herds of elephants and mastodons quietly proceeding towards some streamlet, or lake- let, to indulge in a bath. Vast numbers of many species of camels would have been seen reposing at mid-day on a gentle hill-side under the shade of sequoias or cypress. More curious than all, thousands of H/i^rions, those wonderful three- toed horses, along with many kinds of one-toed horses, of all sizes, would sometimes have made the earth tremble under their tread. When, at last, in such a westward journey, the shores of the great Pliocene lake would be reached, its borders would have been a marvel for the life represented there. A rhinoceros might have been seen wal- lowing in the mud near the shore. Thousands of water-fowl would have been riding the gentle waves. Elephants, camels, ore- dons, and horses might have been seen there slaking their thirst in the streamlets flowing into the lake. Life would have been ob- served everywhere — the hum of insects and the song of birds in the air — life in the trees, in forest and glade, on land and lake Most of it, too, was happy life. It is true some unfortunate rumin- ants would fall victims to the gigantic wolves and cats of the time, but the carnivora were not the rulers of the land. Grass and leaf, and seed, and fruit-eating animals, were the rulers of the Pliocene world in central North America. It was a physical paradise, for violence, rapine, and murder, were the exception and not the rule -Violence, indeed, has existed in every geological age, but in Plio- THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 249 cene America, herbivorous life was so dominant that it could suc- cessfully defend itself against the carnivora, and the latter evidently obtained most of their prey by stealth and by picking off the aged and infirm. Animal life is generally happy when it is left alone, and this was specially the case during American Pliocene times. It is a grave reflection on humanity that, not the Creator, but man's injustice and inhumanity, produces most of the misery which we see in the world. This is, however, but a very faint picture of these happy Pliocene times which lasted for untold ages. But every one can, for himself, by "the aid of the scientific imagination," form such pictures of the wonders of that old-time world. Close of the Pliocene Epoch. — There is evidence that the Pliocene •epoch only gradually came to a close. The lake of the plains was probably partially drained, and a large part of its surface became dry land long before the last centuries of the Pliocene had ended. Clarence King describes a series " of coarse semi-stratified gravels and conglomerates " along the eastern base of the Colorado Range, which, " in the benches of the Sybille, distinctly overlie the Nio- brara Pliocene, which abut against the Archaean core of the range," from which these materials were derived. The same formations are found at the head of the Chugwater, the valley of the Big Thompson, and at other points. In places on these streams, these gravels are from 200 to 300 feet thick, and descend in rude terraces. As these formations, according to King, overlie the Niobrara Plio- cene, and antedate the Quarternary, they evidently constitute, the closing deposits of the Pliocene epoch. I have detected the equiv- alents of these deposits nowhere in Nebraska, even where it is least eroded. It is probable, therefore, that the great lake of the plains was drained before these deposits were laid clown. The eastern border of the great Pliocene rim commenced to descend and gradu- ally left out the water until much of this great lake of the plains became dry land. There is also evidence of increasing cold in the deposits of this lake through their upper sections. The southern shores of the lake were probably risin^ *.t the same time, which would help to intensify the growing cold. An ice cap had now formed in polar regions, and conditions of climate similar to the present intervened. A^e after age the increasing cold, accompanied by gradual elevation of land towards the north, continued, until finally the Arctic ice cap crept down to our present temperate lati- tudes. The flora and fauna of the Pliocene migrated southward, 250 GEOLOGY. and many species and genera were exterminated. The distinct fauna that made its appearance during the Quaternary originated some time during this transformation of the Pliocene into the gla- cial epoch. During the closing centuries of the Pliocene epoch, some convul- sive movements occurred further west. King remarks " that the whole country from about 114° 30' was depressed to the west, the western edge of the Pliocene lake settling 2,000 feet." * * * " The same is true from Thousand Spring Valley eastward to Cache Valley, and to the base of the Wasatch, which is a region of recur- rent faults." * * "I consider it proved that the displacement at the eastern base of the Sierras, and the western base of the WasatchT occurred at the close of the Pliocene, and thus broke the one broad lacustrine basin into two new lake basins — one at the foot of the Sierras, the other under the shadow of the Wasatch Range — which were to receive the waters of the quaternal age." Thus it appears that as the Miocene closed with the production of fractures and fissures that covered a vast area with lava, so the closing centuries of the Pliocene were characterized by great vertical displacements of mountain chains. General Remarks on the Tertiary. — Many of the strata of the Miocene deposits were specially favorable for the preservation of animal remains. Some of the strata of the Pliocene, in at least a few localities, were scarcely less adapted to such a purpose. The perfect petrifaction of many of these remains also indicates that this property was possessed by these waters in an eminent degree. The mammalian skeletons must have been carried into the old lakes during flood time from some of the low lands that were subjected to overflow, and once in the quiet, muddy bottom of the lake, were soon covered by sediments that preserved them to our times. The very original sharpness of the outline of these remains have been preserved. Seldom are any marks of erosion detected on any of the specimens. The curious feature about these remains is that few representatives of any sub-kingdom of animals, except the verte- brates, have been preserved, and of these no classes but mammals and birds, except a few species of turtles. No fishes have yet been found, and only a few mollusks, and these, except a land snail, of comparatively low type. Fish and mollusks could not have existed extensively in these lakes, or else their remains would have been preserved. The climate certainly was favorable to amphibious THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 251 mammals, but none, except the marsh-loving beaver and rhinoceros have yet been found. Leidy has suggested that the explanation might be found in the probability that these old lakes were occa- sionally flooded by the sea, producing an alternation of salt, brack- sh and fresh water conditions. If that had been the case, it appears to me that some indications of destroyed marine life would have been detected. I suggest that the explanation may be found in the probability that the waters of these lakes were too alkaline to be ^ favorable to life. The deposits from these lakes indicate an exces- sively alkaline condition of the water. They are rarely found free from the alkaline earths, and many of the strata are almost wholly composed of them. Thick beds of almost pure marl abound — not marl produced by beds of shells, but by precipitation from water supersaturated at certain times with alkaline matters. Such waters certainly were most unfavorable to animal life, and accounts for the paucity of fresh water remains. 252 GEOLOGY. CHAPTER VII. QUATERNARY AGE.— GLACIAL PERIOD TO THE LOESS.— SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS. Opening of the Glacial Period. — A period of great humidity and cold.^— Glaciation of the Plains. — Direction of the Glacial Mass and thickness. — Ma- terials.— Blue Clay, its extent and character. — Eesemblance to the Till and Erie Clays.— Analysis.— Whitish Clays.— Boulder Clay.— Drift Materials.— Description of a Section. — Old Forest Bed. — Extent, Character and Sections — Its Fossils — Second Appearance of Glacial Drift. — Karaes. — Calcareous and Silicious Materials. — Section of them and General Character. — Transition Beds — Analysis of the Calcareous Materials.— Origin of these Beds. — Course of events to the beginning of the Loess. WE have seen at the close of the last chapter how the Pliocene epoch closed its remarkable history. Its closing centuries were the opening ones of the Quaternary Age. The continent had sunken towards the south and was rising towards the north. Where once had been the floor of a lake of the plains had now su- pervened a very great change of level. The southern end of the once great Pliocene lake was now, at least, at the level of the sea, and the northern end was 7,000 feet higher. The plains were dessi- cated before the Pliocene had entirely passed away. King has given reasons to suppose that this was even the case with the great lake of the basin region — that between the Pliocene and Quater- nary this region was dried up. Following this condition of dryness was one of great humidity and a much lower temperature than the present. The snows of winter accumulated too rapidly finally to be removed by the summer warmth. Eventually the plains ot Nebraska became glaciated and were covered by a thick mantle of ice. This was the first, or glacial period of the Quaternary. In this respect Nebraska agrees with the Quaternary in eastern Amer- ica, where Dana divides the age into the Glacial period, the Cham- plain or low level period, and the Terrace or recent period. These divisions are not strictly applicable to Nebraska. Here we have a Glacial, a Boulder Clay, or true Drift, a Forest Bed, a second Drift, Loess and Terrace period. These divisions are more or less clearly outlined in our superficial geology. QUATERNARY AGE. 253 GLACIAL PERIOD. The monuments of this period are undoubted. Along the Mis- souri River, from Fort Calhoun to the Kansas line, wherever the superficial deposits are removed and hard limestones constitute the surface rocks, they are worn as smooth as mirrors, except diamond- like scratches which cross them in a direction averaging about 17 degrees east of south. Below Plattsmouth at one point they run 2f degrees east of south. On the Platte, as far west as the limestone extends, the direction east of south averages about 19 degrees. At Stout's former stone quarry, twelve miles southeast of Lincoln, the direction is 13^ degrees east of south. These markings at this quarry seem to cross fainter lines whose direction was a little more easterly. In other places these slightly divergent lines are found, as if the ice in glacial times had moved at first more easterly than it did later. Where the rocks are of a soft, yielding nature, as in the Cretaceous and Tertiary these lines have long since been effaced. That they once existed is more than probable. On the Niobrara at a few points where a hard, silicious layer of Cretaceous rocks but recently was exposed to the surface, faint glacial lines were visible. As such markings are now made by existing gla- ciers, all geologists refer these scratches to a similar origin. The materials lying on the country rock over the greater part of the State are additional evidences of the former presence of glaciers on our plains. The following section, taken on Oak Creek, Lan- caster County, shows the character of the materials laid down dur- ing this age. The section begins at the top. 1. Black surface soil ......................................... ... 4 feet. 2. Loess ........................................................ 21 " 3. Calcareous sand .............................................. 7 " 4. Gravel, sand and drift boulders ............................... 5 " 6. Black soil, with silicified wood ................................ 2 " 6. Gravel and boulders .......................................... 4 " 7. Modified drift-gravel and clay ................................. 9 " 8. Blue clay .................................................... .JLT " Farther up the valley of Oak Creek a bed of blue clay exhibited the following characters. It lies on the deposits of the Dakota Group. 1. Blue clay ................................................... 5 feet. 2. Sand ..................................................... 1 " 3. Blue clay .................................................... 13 " 4. Fine sand and gravel ........................................ % " 5. Blue clay .................................................. .11 " 30^ feet. 254 GEOLOGY. Often, though not always, this blue clay has intercalated be- tween its layers these thin strata of sand and pebbles. In Saline County where they occur the clay sometimes shades into sand and emerges from it the same way. This clay is a characteristic feature of the earliest deposits of the Quaternary over the greater part of south- ern Nebraska and over a considerable section of north Nebraska. In south Nebraska it occurs in at least three-fourths of the counties. It is brought to light more frequently in boring for water, but oc- casionally it also crops out in railroad cuts, ravines and small canyons. Its thickness ranges all the way from five to sixty feet. Where free from mechanical admixture of sand, it is exceedingly compact and hard. An augur penetrates it with great difficulty, and in such cases it almost bids defiance to a pick. Occasionally it is full of pebbles, many of which lie lengthwise the direction of the glacial path, and, like the underlying rock, are marked by parallel striaea. At other places, instead of pebbles and small boulders, it is inter- mixed with sand in greater or less quantity. In such places it readily permits of the passage of water, but where pure it is imper- vious. In most of these characters it bears a striking resemblance to the English till.* This till Geike shows was first formed be- neath glacial ice (Moraine Profjnde). A body of ice 3,000 feet thick moving forward a few inches or feet in a day would crush and pulverize everything beneath it. This thickness, at least of the glacial mass, can be inferred from the depth of the ice mass in the east, where valleys 5,000 feet deep were filled, as is known by the scorings that crossed them and were made at that height on the bounding mountains. Boulders are also known to have been car- ried across equally elevated mountains. It was nature's mighty millstone to reduce to powder the stony fragments and organic ma- terials beneath it. On the final retreat of the glaciers this-fine, im- palpable mud in part accumulated at the lower end, and in part was carried away by the rushing streams to be deposited in quiet waters. In some such way it became somewhat irregularly laid down over the land. The Erie clays described on the north side of Lake Erie by Sir W. Logan had, according to Newberry, who studied them so thoroughly in Ohio, a similar origin. All such clays, according to these eminent authorities, owe their character, physical and chemical, directly or indirectly to glacial action. In Ohio Newberry, however, regards the Erie clays as a result of the *See ' 'The Great Ice Age," by James Geike. QUATERNARY AGE. 255 flooding that followed immediately the first retreat of the glaciers. In Nebraska, however, they must have been formed at first be- neath a glacial mass and then modified only in part by the floods that followed immediately on their retreat. The reason of this opinion is that here I have frequently found the boulders imbedded n the blue clay lying lengthwise of the path of the glacier, and striated like the rock beneath as already stated. If this clay had been deposited from water this peculiar distribution and position of the boulders would have been impossible. The following analysis indicates the character of this blue clay. For purposes of comparison, I give also Wormly's analysis of the blue clay of Ohio :* Nebraska blue clay. Ohio blue clay. Water 3 70 4 00 Silicic Acid . 61 80 59 70 Alumina 13 90 14 80 Iron SesQuioxide ... 5 01 4 60 Lime Carbonate ... . . 9 11 8 90 1 70 5 14 Fixed Alkalies 4 01 3 40 Loss in analysis . 77 100 00 100 54 The character, ac, will be observed, of these clays, though so widely separated, closely resemble each other. It should, however, be remembered that other specimens are widely different — some having more silicic acid, alkalies, iron or alumina. Above the blue clay, in a few places, a whitish clay occurs. I have not ascertained what relation it sustains to the blue clay, or what its chemical composition is. Above these clays or till beds of boulder clay occur that occa- sionally exhibit true marks of stratification. Following this is or- dinary drift material, which lies directly on the country rocks, where the blue, white and boulder clays are absent, as often occurs, espe- cially in north Nebraska. This drift material is the most widely dif- fused geological deposit in the State, though in vertical thickness it is much less than others. Sometimes, in a few townships of some coun- ties, it constitutes the surface soil, but generally it is buried beneath later deposits. In rare instances it seems to have been removed from the uplands by denudation, before the Loess was formed. l. I. of Xewberry's Geological Survey of Ohio, page 177. 256 - GEOLOGY. Sometimes, where it is exposed at the surface, it is so mingled with the Loess, Alluvium, and organic matter as to escape the attention of any one save a practical geologist. It ranges in thickness from a few inches to seventy-five feet. It may be much thicker, but if so I have seen no exposures that indicate it. Nowhere does it come to the surface over wide areas. In the northern part of the State it occasionally constitutes the surface, in the southern part of Dixon County, in the northern part of Wayne, and in portions of Cedarr Knox, Pierce*, Antelope, and Holt counties. In townships 30 and and 31 north, range I and 2 east, in Cedar County, semicircular rows of Drift pebbles and boulders even yet extend across narrow valleys, that lie on the flanks of high bluffs in the form of terminal moraines of glaciers, the marks of which unnumbered centuries have not been able to efface. In this region some of the glacier- marked boulders are of great size, weighing many tons. One of the most remarkable lies near the quarter-section stone, between sections 25 and 36, in township 30 north, range I east. It lies on top of the highest bluff i.n this region, from which there is a mag- nificent view of the whole country around. It is a granitic quartz- ose rock, about four feet square. On the level top-surface there is a beautiful engraving of a child's foot, a half-moon, a grape-vine, and other hieroglyphics. The engraving of the child's foot is cut in its deepest part, three-fourths of an inch into the hardest rock, and for fidelity to nature it would do honor to the work of a Greek artist. Previous to my discovery of this relic of the past (1869), no one in that region had heard of its existence. It may have been the work of the mound-builders, as their peculiar pottery and mounds are found near by, but what implements enabled them to carve these symbols in this hard rock, as well as the purpose of such a monument, at such a place, will probably always remain a mystery. South of the Platte the Drift creeps to the surface on some of the hillsides of Lancaster, Saunders, Saline, Butler, Gage, Seward, Johnson, Pawnee, and Jefferson counties. In fact, there are few counties in the eastern part of the State where the Drift is not oc- casionally exposed by denudation. Four miles northwest of Ne- braska City, on the farm of Hon. J. F. Kinney, is a granitic boulder as large as a small house, on whose top smooth holes have been worn by the Indians in grinding or pounding corn. This boulder is imbedded in a Loess deposit, through which it extends from the QUATERNARY AGE. 257 Drift below. Here, as in most other regions, the Drift varies a great deal in character. As already intimated, it has here been so modified by subsequent lacustrine agencies as generally to be ca- pable of high cultivation. Recently I have made a special exam- ination of the modified Drift in Johnson County. Where the ground was covered with pebbles, the spade showed that the soil beneath was composed largely of Loess materials, mixed with Drift sand and clay, and organic matter. Here it is often in layers, showing that it is genuine modified Drift. This modified Drift soil, during the last season, where it was well cultivated, yielded sixty bushels of corn to the acre. It is only inferior, if inferior at all, to the Loess, which will be considered in the next section. Where this Drift is the purest, it is composed of boulders, some of which are of large size, pebbles, gravel, sand, and a small per cent of alumina. In places the Drift contains considerable lime, which was, no doubt, produced by the disintegration during glacial times of the Niobrara division of Cretaceous rocks. Sometimes frag- ments of these Cretaceous rocks are found in the Drift. Generally the pebbles and boulders are composed of the primary rocks, such as quartz, quartzose, granite, greenstone, syenite, gneiss, porphyry, actinolite, etc. Occasionally the year presence of the Drift is indi- cated by large boulders sticking up through soil composed of very different material. In such cases I have learned by experience to look for the modified Drift, which is so valuable in the agriculture of this State. In the few localities where all the finer matter has been removed by water agency, numbers of the different forms of variegated agates, carnelians, jaspars, sardonyx, onyx, opals and petrified wood, etc., are found. Agates and petrified wood are specially abundant. The latter is found almost in every exposure of the Drift. Some of the agates vie in beauty with those obtained from the most celebrated localities in the mountains. Judging from the remains of the matrix still attached to some of them, they were originally formed in the secondary rocks, from which they were separated by the disintegration to which they were subjected by the wear and tear of the elements in glacial times. A brief description of a remarkable section through the Drift on Oak Creek, Lancaster County, will not be out of place. A few miles from Lincoln the terrace on this creek, composed of Loess materials, approaches the creek very closely. In this well the Loess deposit was fifteen feet in thickness, then came two feet of 258 GEOLOGY. / Drift, then two feet of compact peat, then clay and black soil, and then Drift and blue clay again. The lower Drift here probably represents the period of the first glacial advance. The upper clay, black soil, and peat represent the middle period when the glaciers had retreated and a new forest-bed covered the State. The Drift, immediately on top of this, marks the second advance of the gla- ciers. The Loess on top represents the final retreat of the glaciers, and that era of depression of the surface of the State when the greater part of it constituted a great fresh-water lake into which the Missouri, the Platte and the Republican rivers poured their waters. Old Forest Bed. — This is not observed in sections through the Quaternary in all parts of the State. Sometimes it is apparently absent from whole counties, and probably its removal was caused by a second advance of the glaciers, to be considered presently. In some of the canyons of the Loup region I have found the bed of black soil, but without a vestige of silicified wood. In other sec- tions of the same region it was sparingly present. It is possible that this may have been occasioned by a condition slightly resem- bling the present — that is, a condition of alternating forests and prairies. Though it is evident that the proportion of forest to prai- rie must have been much greater than at present, as east of the 99th meridian in 30 sections that I have examined through the Old For- •est Bed, twenty-three contained silicified wood. West of the 99th meridian only three out of fifteen sections contained any. The fol- lowing is a section in a canyon running into the West Loup, where no wood was visible. I examined the exposure carefully for half a mile, and the most dilligent search failed to bring any to light : Surface soil 3 feet. Loess 21 « Calcareous sand and gravel 7 " Boulders, flint and gravel 4 " Carbonaceous, shaly clay 3 " Black soil 4 " Silicious clay 2 «' Gravel and boulders, exposed 3 " The black soil of the Old Forest Bed in color and constitution closely resembles the black surface soils of the State at the present time. This is particularly true of the lower half. The upper por- tion has probably been so modified by subsequent glacial and water agencies as no longer to exhibit its original character. As already observed in the eastern part of the State, specially large quantities QUATERNARY AGE. 259 of silicified wood are found in this Old Forest Bed. Of fifty speci- mens that I examined microscopically at different times, thirty-nine were conifers. A few oaks, a willow, a cottonwood and some other species that I could not determine also occurred among them. If these specimens are any indication of dominant type, then a con- iferous vegetation flourished here during those times. Here are also found the remains of the elephant, mastodon, the Bison lati- frons, a huge elk and deer, and the giant beaver {Castor Ohiaticus}. Curiously enough, I found the molar of a horse in this same bed, but too much injured to identify specifically. An abundant animal life, a life remarkable for its gigantic character, ruled in these old forests. It was probably colder than at present in the same lati- tudes, but with conditions of moisture and temperature eminently adapted to the production of vast and sombre forests, whose soli- tudes were enlivened principally by huge herbivorous and carnivor- ous mammals. That the Forest Bed period was a long one is clear from the thickness of the bed that was formed, from its vast forests and the remains of its abounding animal life. Black soils form with excessive slowness, and as the Forest Bed is known, even in Nebraska, to have a thickness in places of ten feet, the time involved in its production is simply incalculable. Second Appearance of Glacial Drift. — On top of the Old Forest bed materials, and where these have been removed, on top of the silicious clay floor of the Forest Bed, occur gravel, sands of various degrees of fineness, boulders and boulder clay. In places the boulders of various sizes constitute the principal portion of the over- lying materials. Sometimes these boulders are marked with par- allel striae, and beds and piles of them occur of enormous thickness. One such exists on the banks of Oak Creek, six miles from Lin- coln. Here I measured seventeen feet of vertical thickness of these boulders of all sizes, from a grain of corn to a hundred pounds in weight — some rounded and some angular, with sand also intermin- gled. In the upper portion of these beds there are signs, with greater or less distinctness, of stratification. Often it bears in its lower portions a striking resemblance to the drift materials below the Forest Beds. Above the indistinctly stratified materials are various beds in places where the stratification is undoubted. These beds are mostly made up of variously colored gravels and sands, the latter predominating. Kames. — On the Logan, Elkhorn, on tributaries of the Republi- can and Loup, and in other places occur long rows of sometimes 260 GEOLOGY. gravels and sometimes sands, very distinct from the Pliocene sands of the Niobrara. The Loess deposits to be described hereafter abut against them, but often their tops have been blown over the Loess to such an extent that even geologists have been deceived in- to the belief that they are of very recent origin. They, however, antedate the Loess, as is evident from the fact that they extend be- neath the latter. I am not sure whether any of them exhibit any true marks of stratification. They bear some resemblance to the Kames of Scotland and Asars of Scandinavia, and to them they are for the present referred, though doubtfully. Though their up- per portions are composed of sands, they often shade down into- fine and then coarse gravels. This is specially true in southwest Nebraska, where at long intervals canyons are found which par- tially cut through them. Calcareous and Silicious Materials. — Between the deposits which are doubtfully referred to the Kames, and lying on their flanks, oc- our, in many places, great beds of fine silicious matter, which in places is calcareous to a greater or less degree, and is especially rich in iron, mostly in the form of a sesquioxide. It is often mis- taken for Loess, whose character it often approaches. The best ex- amples of it are seen in the Republican Valley, from Harlan County westward, where the line of junction between it and the overlying Loess is sharply outlined, and is exposed for thirty miles. Its color is a darker reddish brown than Loess. Under the micro- scope, the silicious materials appear coarser than the Loess, with the addition, occasionally, of small water-worn pebbles. It also varies much more in character. The following analysis, only par- tially completed, indicates its chemical character : Insoluble (silicious) matter 78 . 10 Ferric oxide 5.9& Alumina 2 . 70 Lime carbonate 11 . 01 Lime phosphate, undetermined. Magnesia carbonate, " Potassa, " Soda, " At other points in Nebraska this reddish brown silicious matter shades insensibly into the overlying Loess. Such examples can be seen along the Missouri River from Plattsmouth to the south line of the State. Along this same route beds of almost pure sand oc- QUATERNARY AGE. 261 casionally take its place. There are a few such points between La Platte and Omaha. Not unfrequently this deposit is highly cal- careous in its lower and upper portion. When it gradually shades •down into gravel and boulder beds, the latter are often covered by incrustrations of calcareous and other alkaline matter. It is possi- ble that the alkaline matter that has been leached out of the over- lying beds was deposited on these underlying pebbles and boulders. I am, however, by no means sure that this explanation is the cor- rect one. The most remarkable, however, of the deposits at this horizon, are the strata of calcareous and other alkaline matters that are found in the upper portion of these silicious beds. The amount of alkaline matter ranges from ten to ninety per cent and the beds vary in thickness from a few inches to fifteen feet. Between Ne- braska City and Brownville, along the Missouri bluffs, are some fine exposures of these alkaline beds, though they are more min- gled with sand and gravel than farther west. The calcareous concretions found here are, however, exceedingly abundant and beautiful. Samples are common which measure from one to five inches in diameter. Inside they are sometimes partially hollow, and portions of the mass being separated and loose, they rattle, on being shaken after drying. In Saline County there is a thin, almost pure snow white layer of this calcareous matter. Further west, in Web- ster, Fillmore, Hamilton, York and some other counties north, as well as south of the Platte, this alkaline material occurs at this hori- zon at various localities. It differs greatly in thickness and extent of beds, and in the proportions of the alkalies present and silicious materials with which it is combined. It has sometimes been used for mortar and plastering, and from the people has received the name of natural morlar. It does not, however, avail for outside work, as the rain softens and gradually removes it. Not unfre- quently layers of this alkaline matter are separated by layers of sand, and even higher up in the series, where it occurs in the Loess, as it sometimes does, it is separated into thin strata by the same materials. The following section, taken about five miles northwest from Fairmount, illustrates the mode of its occurrence : 1. Black soil 4 feet. 2. Loess 17 " 3. Calcareous and other alkaline earths 1 " 4. Loess 2 " 5. Calcareous and other alkaline earths 7 " <>. Brownish calcareous sand, exposed 3 " 262 GEOLOGY. The following analysis of these alkaline deposits show how they vary in character. Both specimens were obtained from Fillmore County: INO.I. NO. 2. 55.11 .70 1.21 19.70 7.13 4.01 Insoluble (silicious) matter 21 00 1.17 1.80 33.14 11.33 3.80 Alumina Peroxide of iron Lime carbonate L/irne phosphate, undetermined . . ... Magnes'a carbonate, " Potassa, ' ' Soda, " Organic matter, " .... .... Moisture .' These two specimens indicate the presenqe of a large quantity of magnesia and lime. Along the Missouri the alkaline concretions at this horizon are largely composed, in places, of magnesia. They are white in color and vary in size from a pea to from one to three inches in diameter. It is probable that a portion of the calcareous- materials that are present in these deposits came from the chalk rocks of the Niobrara Group that still exists in northeast Nebraska and Dakota Territory. I have sometimes found in the Drift, and also mingled with other alkaline deposits, small chalk rock. At one place below Plattsmouth one of these chips of chalk contained a fish scale characteristic of the Niobrara Group. Among- the eroded calcareous materials that were carried down into this lake the chalk rocks must have constituted a large portion. Evidently the waters became supersaturated with alkaline matter either by excessive activity of the eroding agents — ice and torrents — orr which is more probable, by partial dessication of the lake. We have an exemplification of this kind of agency in the present and past history of the lakes in the Utah basin. The analysis of its waters give a remarkably small per cent of carbonate of lime. And yet the rivers bring a large amount of it annually into the lake. King, however, has shown in the 4oth parallel survey that lime in the form of tufa or thinolite has been precipitated in im- mense quantities during some portions of its history. When the waters of Salt Lake, (Lake Bonneville formerly, King), receded below the line of outflow, but were kept at a high level for long periods of time, great beds of tufa were deposited, especially along the shore, and to some extent towards its interior. Lake Lahontan (west of Lake Bonneville) is still a more remarkable instance where QUATERNARY AGE. 263 calcareous tufas were produced. In reference to this, King re- marks : " The occurrence of such a tremendous formation of alka- line carbonates, necessitates a very long period, during which the surface of Lake Lahontan was some distance below its level of outlet. To account for the existing presence of the weak solutions of the residual lakes, it is necessary, after the formation of gay-lus- site and its pseudomorphism into thinolite, to suppose a flood-period during which the lake had free drainage over its outlet, and which continued long enough, practically, to wash out the saline contents of the great lake." Now in a way somewhat similar, it is possible that in immediately pre-Loess times, the great Quaternary lake of Nebraska and western Iowa, may have become so reduced in vol- ume by climatic change as to lose more by evaporation than by overflow, anfl then through the interaction of other chemical agents, precipitated its alkalies to the bottom. That some such agency was here at work for a long time, is evident from the extent and great thickness of these alkaline deposits. When finally this condition of things was drawing to a close, the finer silicious de- posits commenced to form, which shaded into the Loess or next deposit above. As already observed, these transition beds can be seen in the Republican Valley, and with still greater distinctness in some of the small canyons in the region of the Loups, where often it is impossible to tell with exactness where the Loess or next de- posit above begins. Resume of Geological History between the Glacial and Loess Pe- riods.—-We have seen that the retreating ice sheet of the Glacial Period left in its path huge beds of blue clay and other Drift ma- terials, which in their upper portions were modified by water agency. The land was flooded, and over the great lake or interior sea thus formed icebergs floated and dropped their loads of sand, gravel and boulders on the bottoms, and where they were stranded left this debris in enormous heaps. This period of depression and floods was followed by one of slow elevation, when the waters were drained off and a new forest bed was formed to the shores of the retreating lakes, or to the foot of the glacier mass. As the period of glaciation was a time of great relative humidity, this must also have been the character of the climate all through the flood and Old Forest Bed period. The ice sheet again advanced and destroyed these magnificent forests before it. Newberry, who first directed attention to this Old Forest Bed, found no evidences 264 GEOLOGY. of this period of glaciation in Ohio. Here, however, it is clear. It has also been observed in northeastern Iowa by W. J. McGee.* I attribute the absence of this Forest Bed in many sections of Ne- braska to the second advance of the ice sheet in these regions. It probably failed to advance so far south in Ohio and other sections of the Mississippi Valley. When this ice sheet commenced its re- treat, another period of depression came on, whefi the land was again flooded, and a lake of fresh water again occupied the plains. This body of water for ages abutted against the ice sheet on the north, from which it received icebergs that floated over its waters. In these waters the materials left by the retreating glaciers were remodified in their upper portion, and new matter was brought down by torrents and icebergs. When the ice sheet retreated from the shores of this lake or interior sea, finer sediment* began to be laid down. Fine sand took the place of gravels and boulders, and as the waters contracted in volume the calcareous matter held in suspension began to be precipitated. There is no evidence that the lake was entirely dessicated previous to the beginning of the Loess period. It was only reduced to smaller dimensions. W^hen at last central and eastern Iowa became dry land, and the ice sheet had retreated to the upper Missouri and the Yellowstone, the Loess materials began to be laid down on the floor of the old lake bed. So important, however, are these Loess materials in historic and economic geology that they will be discussed in a separate chapter. *See American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. 15, page 339. QUATERNARY AGE. 265 CHAPTER VIII. THE QUATERNARY AGE, AND SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS, CONTINUED. LOESS PERIOD. Name. — Extent. — Thickness. — Homogeneous Character. — Chemical Char- acter.— Analyses.— Drainage. — Physical Character. — Example. — Cause of these Peculiarities of the Loess. — Fruit on the Loess deposits. — Scenery produced by the Loess. — Origin of the Loess. — Kichthofen's Theory. — Recent Advocates of this Theory. — Facts bearing out this Theory in the -Nebraska Loess. — Objections to this Theory. — Root Marks and their depth in the Ne- braska Loess. — How Explained on the Subaqueous Theory. — Facts learned from Sections in the Republican Valley and South of Plum Creek.— Changes of Level Proved, by Fossil Soils in the Loess. — Differences in the Present Level of Loess Districts, and its Causes. — Land and Fresh Water Shells in the Loess, and How Explained. — Stratification of Loess, and its Lessons. — True Origin of the Loess. — Resume of its History. — Missouri Mud, its Analysis and Identity with the Loess. — Length of the Loess Period. — Re- mains of Man. — Climate. — List of Shells in the Loess. ^ THE LOESS DEPOSITS. The Loess deposits first received the name from Lyell, who ob- served it closely along the Mississippi in various places. Hayden frequently calls it the bluff formation, because of the peculiar config- uration that it gives to the uplands which border the flood plains of the rivers. He also frequently calls them marl-beds. This deposit, although not particularly rich in organic remains, is in some re- spects one of the most remarkable in the world. Its value for agri- cultural purposes is not exceeded anywhere. It prevails over at least three-fourths of the surface of Nebraska. It ranges in thick- ness from five to one hundred and fifty feet. Some sections of it in Dakota County measure over two hundred feet. At North Platte, 300 miles west of Omaha, and on the south side of the river, some of the sections that I measured ranged in thickness from one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty feet. From Crete, on the Burlington & Missouri River Railroad, west to Kearney, on the Union Pacific Railroad, its thickness for ninety 266 GEOLOGY. miles ranges from forty to ninety feet. South of Kearney, and for a great distance west, along the Union Pacific Railroad as far as to the Republican, there is a great expanse of territory covered by a great thickness of this deposit. I measured many sections in wells over this region, and seldom found it less than forty, and often more than sixty feet in thickness. Along the Republican I traced the formation almost to the western line of the State, its thickness- ranging from thirty to seventy feet. One section north of Kearney, on Wood River, showed a thickness of fifty feet. The same varia- tion in thickness is found along the counties- bordering on the Mis- souri. One peculiarity of this deposit is that it is generally almost perfectly homogeneous throughout, and of almost uniform color, however thick the deposit, or far apart the specimens have been taken. I have compared many specimens taken 300 miles apart, and from the top and bottom of the deposits, and no difference could be detected by the eye or by chemical analysis. Over 80 per cent of this deposit is very finely comminuted silica. When washed in water, left standing, and the water poured off, and the coarser materials have settled, the residuum, after evaporation to dryness, is almost entirely composed of fine silicious powder. So fine, indeed, are the particles of silica, that its true character can alone Ire detected by analysis or under a microscope. About ten per cent is composed of the carbonates and phosphates of lime. These materials are so abundant in these deposits, that they spon- taneously crystalize, or form concretions, from the size of a shot to that of a walnut; and these are often hollow or contain some or- ganic matter, or a fossil, around which the crystallization took place. Almost anywhere, when the soil is turned over by the plow or in excavations, these concretions may be found. Often, after a rain has washed newly-thrown-up soil, the ground seems to be lit- erally covered with them. Old gopher hills and weather beaten hill-sides furnish these concretions in unlimited quantities for the geologist and the curiosity hunter. When first exposed, most of these concretions are soft enough to be rubbed fine between the fingers, but they gradually harden by exposure to the atmosphere. This deposit also contains small amounts of alkaline matter, iron, and alumina. For the purpose of showing the homogeneous character and the chemical properties of the Loess deposits, I have made five new analyses of this soil. No. i is from Douglas County, near Omaha; No. 2 from the bluffs near Kearney; No. 3 from the QUATERNARY AGE. 267 Lower Loup; No. 4 from Button, and No. 5 from the Republican Valley, near Orleans, in Harlan County : NO. 1. NO. 2. NO. 3. NO. 4. NO. 5. Insoluble ("siliciousYmatter 81 28 81 32 81.35 81.30 81.32 Ferric oxide 3 86 3.87 3.83 3.85 3.86 Alumina .75 » .75 .74 .73 .74 Lime carbonate 6 06 6 06 6 03 6 05 6 09 Lime phosphate 3 59 3 59 3 58 3.57 3 5D Magnesia, carbonate . 1.28 1 28 1 31 1.31 1.29 Potassa . .27 .29 .35 .34 .33 Soda 15 .16 14 16 1(> Organic matter . 1.0? 1.06 1 05 1.06 1 06 Moisture 1.09 1.08 1 09 1 08 1.09 Loss in analysis .59 .54 .53 .55 .4-7 100.00 TooooT 1UO.OO loo". 06" 100.00 After making the above analyses I received from Dr. Hayden his Final Report on the Geology of Nebraska. This report, on page 12, contains two analyses of the Loess deposit from Hannibal, Mo., made by Dr. Litton. According to these analyses, from one hundred parts there were — No. 1. No. 2. Silica 76.98 77.02 Alumina and peroxide of iron 11.54 12.10 Lime . 3.87 3.25 Maznesia 1.68 1.63 Carbonic acid Not determined 2.83 Water . 2.01 2.43 96.17 99.2ft According to these analyses the Loess contains more clay in Mis- souri than it does in Nebraska. The analyses that I made of two specimens of Loess from Richardson County also contained slight- ly more alumina than the above. For the purpose of comparison, I here reproduce, from Hayden's report, Bischoff's analyses of the Lacustrine or Loess of the Rhine: NO. OF ANALYSIS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Silicic acid 58.97 79.53 78.61 62.43 81.04 Alumina 9.97 1345? 7.51 9.75 Peroxide of iron .... 4.25 481 ) 15.26 5.14 6.6-7 Lime 0 02 002 Magnesia 0.04 006 0.09 0.21 0.27 Potash 0.11 1 05? Soda 0.84 1 14) 3.31 1.75 2.27 Carbonate of lime Carbonate of magnesia Loss by ignition . . . 20.16 4.21 1 37 1.89 11.63 3.02 2.31 268 GEOLOGY. It will be seen from the above analyses of BischofF that Nos. 3 and 5, in the quantity of silica and other elements that are present, come very near the Loess of Nebraska. The principal difference is the larger quantity of alumina present in the samples analyzed by BischofF, Chemically the deposits of the Rhine Valley, as Hayden remarks, are not essentially different from those of the Loess soils along the Missouri. As would be expected, from the elements which chemical analy- sis shows to be present in these deposits, it forms one of the best soils in the world. In fact, it can never be exhausted until every hill and valley of which it is composed is entirely worn away. Its drainage, which is the best possible, is owing to the remarkably finely comminuted silica of which the bulk of the deposit consists. Where the ground is cultivated the most copious rains percolate through the soil, which, in its lowest depths, retains it like a huge sponge. Even the unbroken prairie absorbs much of the heavy rains that fall. When droughts come the moisture comes up from below by capillary attraction. And when it is considered that the depth to the solid rock ranges generally from five to two hundred feet, it is seen how readily the needs of vegetation are supplied in the driest seasons. This is the main reason why over all the re- gion where these deposits prevail the natural vegetation and the well-cultivated crops are rarely dried out or drowned out. I have frequently observed a few showers to fall in April, and then little more rain until June, when, as will be considered farther on, there is generally a rainy season of from three to eight weeks' continuance. After these June rains little more would fall till autumn; and yet, if there was a deep and thorough cultivation, the crops of corn, ce- reals and grass would be most abundant. This condition represents the dry seasons. On the other hand, the extremely wet seasons only damage the crops over the low bottoms, subject to overflow. Owing to the silicious nature of the soils they never bake when plowed in a wet condition, and a day after heavy rains the plow can again be successfully and safely used. The physical properties of the Loess deposits are also remarka- ble. In the interior, away from the Missouri, hundreds of miles of these Loess deposits are almost level or gently rolling. Not un- frequently a region will be reached where, for a few miles, the country is bluffy or hilly, and then as much almost entirely level, with intermediate forms. The bluffs that border the flood-plains of QUATERNARY AGE. 269 the Missouri, the Lower Platte, and some other streams, are some- times exceedingly precipitous, and sometimes gently rounded off. They often assume fantastic forms, as if carved by some curious generations of the past. But now they retain their forms so un- changed from year to year, affected by neither rain nor frost, that they must have been molded into their present outlines under cir- cumstances of climate and level very different from that which now prevails. For all purposes of architecture this soil, even for the most mas- sive structures, is perfectly secure. I have never known a founda- tion of a large brick or stone building, if commenced below the winter frost line, to give way. Even when the first layers of brick and stone are laid on top of the ground there is seldom such unev- enness of settling as to produce fractures in the walls. On no other deposits, except the solid rock, are there such excellent roads. From twelve to twenty-four hours after the heaviest rains the roads are perfectly dry, and often appear, sifter being traveled a few days, like a vast floor formed from cement, and by the highest art of man. The drawback to this pic- ture is that sometimes during a drought the air along the highways on windy days is filled with dust. And yet the soil is very easily worked, yielding readily to the spade or plow. Excavation is re- markably easy, and no pick or mattock is thought of for such pur- poses. It might be expected that such a soil readily yielded to at- mospheric influences, but such is not the case. Wells in this de- posit are frequently walled up only to a point above the water line; and on the remainder the spade-marks will be visible for years. In- deed, the traveler over Nebraska will often be surprised to see spade-marks and carved-out names and dates years after they were first made, where ordinary soils would soon have fallen away into a gentle slope. This peculiarity of the soil has often been a God-send to poor emigrants. Such often cut out of the hillsides a shelter for themselves and their stock. Many a time when caught out on the roads in a storm, far away from the towns, have I found shelter in a " dug-out" with an emigrant's family, where, cozy and warm, there was perfect comfort, with little expenditure of fuel on the coldest days. In summer such shelters are much cooler than frame or brick houses. I shall never forget one occasion in 1866 when, bewildered by a blinding snow-storm, I came to a "dug-out," and although all 270 GEOLOGY. the chambers were carved out of the soil (Loess), they were per- fectly dry. The walls were hidden and ornamented with Harpers' Weekly, with the emanations of Nast's genius made to occupy the conspicuous corners. -My hostess, whose cultivated intellect and kindly nature made even this abode a charming resort, was a grad- uate of an eastern seminary. Her husband, after a failure in busi- ness in New York, came here to commence life anew on a home- stead, by stock raising. To get a start with young stock no money could be spared for a house. Eight years afterward I found the same family financially independent, and living in a beautiful brick mansion, but I doubt whether they had any more substantial hap- piness than when they were looking for better days in the old tem- porary "dug-out." Thousands who are still coming into this land of promise are still doing the same thing. So firmly does the ma- terial of this deposit stand, that after excavations are made in it, underground passages without number could be constructed with- out meeting any obstacles, and without requiring any protection from walls and timber. CAUSE OF THESE PECULIARITIES. These peculiarities of the Loess deposits are chiefly owing to the fact that the carbonate of lime has entered into slight chemical combination wTith the finely comminuted silica. There is always more or less carbonic acid in the atmosphere which is brought down by the rains, and this dissolves the carbonate of lime, which then read- ily unites with silica, but only to a slight extent, and not enough to destroy its porosity. Though much of the silica is microscopically minute, and is water-worn or rounded, it still enters into this slight union with the carbonate of lime. Had there been more lime and iron in this deposit, and had it been subjected to a greater and longer pressure from superincumbent waters, instead of a slightly chemically compacted soil, it would have resulted in a sandstone formation, incapable of cultivation. There is not enough of clayey matter present to prevent the water from percolating through it as perfectly as through sand, though a great deal more slowly. This same peculiarity causes ponds and stagnant water to be rare within the limits of this deposit. Where they do exist in slight depres- sions on the level plain, it is found that an exceptionally large quantity of clayey matter has been accumulated in the soil on the bottom. In Clay, Fillmore, York, and a few other counties, there QUATERNARY AGE. 271 are considerable numbers of ponds, covering from a few acres to half a section of land, grown up around the border with reeds and coarse grasses and sedges, and where the water is deeper, with ar- row-leaves, pond-lillies, and other water-plants. In every instance where I had opportunity to examine them, there was a thin bed of clayey matter mixed with organic materials, from a few inches to a foot or more in thickness, lying on the bottom, and on top of the Loess deposit. This clayey matter was probably deposited there before the waters finally retired from the old lake-bed in which this soil originated. In the stiller portions of the lake, or in eddies, about the time it commenced to be dry land, when portions were already cut off from the main lake except in flood-time, in these isolated pools all the clay in solution would be precipitated to the bottom, before the next annual rise of the waters. This I propose as a provisional explanation of this phenomenon. FRUIT ON THE LOESS DEPOSITS. In these Loess deposits are found the explanation of the ease with which nature produces the wild fruits in Nebraska. So dense are the thickets of wild grapes and plums along some of the bot- toms and bluffs of the larger streams that it is difficult to penetrate them. Over twenty varieties of wild plums have *been observed, all of them having originated . either from Prunus Americana, P. chickasa, or P. pumillu. Only two species of grapes are clearly outlined, namely, Vitis cesfivalis and V. cardifolia, but these have such interminable variations that the botanist becomes discouraged in attempting to draw the lines between them, and to define the ranee and limit of the varieties. The same remark could be O made of the strawberries. Raspberries and blackberries abound in many parts of the State. The buffalo-berry (Shepherdia Canadensis] is common on many of the Missouri and Republican River bot- toms. Many other wild fruits abound, and grow with wonderful luxuriance wherever timber protects them and prairie fires are re- pressed. As would be expected, these deposits are also a paradise for the cultivated fruits of the temperate zones. They luxuriate in a soil like this, which has perfect natural drainage, and is composed of such materials. No other.region, except the valleys of the Nile and of the Rhine, can, in these respects, compare with the Loess deposits of Nebraska. The Loess of the Rhine supplies Europe with some of its finest wines and grapes. The success that has al- 272 GEOLOGY. ready attended the cultivation of the grape in southeastern Ne- braska, at least, demonstrates that the State may likewise become remarkable in this respect. For the cultivation of the apple, its superiority is demonstrated. Nebraska, although so young in years, has taken the premium over all the other States in the pom- ological fairs at Richmond and Boston. Of course there are ob- stacles here in the way of the pomologist as well as in other fa- vored regions. But what is claimed is, that the soil, as analysis and experience prove, is eminently adapted to grape, and especially to apple tree culture. The chief obstacle is particularly met with in the interior of the State, and results from the climate. In mid- summer occasional hot, dry winds blow from the southwest. These winds, where the trunks of apple trees are exposed, blister and scald the bark on the south side, and frequently kill the trees* It is found, however, that when young trees are caused to throw out limbs near to the ground, they are completely protected, or if that has not been done, a shingle tacked on that side of the tree prevents all damage from that source. Many fruit-growers also claim that cottonwood and box-elder groves on the south side of orchards is all that is necessary to protect them from these storms. I mention this frere to put any new settler, who may read this and who has not learned the experience of fruit-growers in this State, on his guard. SCENERY OF THE LOESS DEPOSITS. It has been remarked that " no sharp lines of demarcation sepa- rate the kinds of scenery that produce the emotions of the grand and the beautiful." This is eminently true of some of the scenery produced by the Loess formations. Occasionally an elevation is encountered from whose summit there are such magnificent views of river, bottom, forest, and winding bluffs as to produce all the emotions of the sublime. One such elevation is Pilgrim Hill, in Dakota County, on the farm of Hon. J. Warner. From this hill the Missouri bottom, with its marvelous, weird-like river, can be seen for twenty miles. Dakota City and Sioux City, the latter dis- tant sixteen miles, are plainly visible. If it happens to be Indian summer, the tints of the woods vie with the hazy splendor of the sky to give to the far outstretched landscape more than an oriental splendor. I have looked with amazement at some of the wonder- ful canyons of the Rocky Mountains, but nothing there more com- pletely filled me and satisfied the craving for the grand in nature QUATERNARY AGE. 273 than did this view from Pilgrim Hill. Another view, equally ma- jestic is on the Missouri, back of lona, in Dixon County. My at- tention was directed to it by John HiH, Esq., who took me to a high point for observing the river, which can here be seen for a great distance. The alternations of lofty bluff and bottom, wood- land and prairie, give a picture worthy the pencil of the most gifted1 artist, and of all who love the grand and picturesque in nature. It is true that such scenes are rare, but then there are many landscapes' which, if not grand, are still of wonderful beauty. This is the case along most of the bluffs of the principal rivers. In Northern Ne~ braska these bluffs often reach two hundred or more feet in height,, and this perhaps gives this portion of the State the most varied scenery. At some points these bluffs are rounded off and melt beyond into a gently-rolling plain. But they constantly vary, and following them you come now into a beautiful cove, now to a curi- ous headland, then to terraces, and, however far you travel, you in vain look for a picture like the one just passed. Numerous rounded tips, with strangely precipitous sides, are seen in every hour's travel, and these, as they form bold curves, rampart like, stretch away into the distance and form images of the most impressive beauty. Indeed, the bluffs of the Loess deposits are unique, and Ruskin cannot exhaust the subject of the beautiful until he sees and studies the hills of Nebraska. Origin of the Loess Deposits. — Richthoferfs Theory. — In a paper on " The Superficial Deposits of Nebraska," which was published in the Hay den Reports for 1874, I attributed the formation of the Loess deposits to subaqueous agency. Since then renewed atten- tion has been given to the Loess, which has been stimulated by Baron Von Richthofen's great work on the Loess of northeastern China. He took the ground, as a few American geologists had previously suggested, that the Loess was a subaerial formation.* So cogent is his reasoning that some American geologists, who I am satisfied had never thoroughly studied the American Loess in place, have been converted to his views. An examination, there- fore, of this reference here, is not out of place, especially as this theory, if true, would have the most important application to the climatology of the plains. Richthofen's theory is that the Loess of China, and the Loess everywhere, was formed on dessicated regions covered by scanty grasses, by the action through countless centuries of strong winds. 18 274 GEOLOGY. The exigencies of his theory require that mountain chains should cut off the moisture from a contiguous, elevated, undrained region. The dessication of such a region exposed to dry, cold winds fur- nished the dust-like materials that filled up lower lands and became the Loess of this period. Prof. P^mp^lly, contrary to his former views, now advocates this theory.* Clarence King now also lends to this theory a qualified assent. These eminent men would account for the Loess of Nebraska in the same way. I admit that some facts concerning the Loess of Nebraska could be explained by this theory. One of these is the wind structure of some of the Loess hills on the Logan, Elkhorn, Loup and Repub- lican rivers.' This structure is often found there as distinct as among the shifting sands of our sea coast. In every case, however, where I examined this structure in the Loess I found it to be su- perficial. Out of nineteen such hills none of them possessed this structure over ten feet deep, and few of them over five feet, and many of them only from two to three feet deep. In the deep can- yons where the Loess is exposed vertically from fifteen to one hundred feet I have never found this wind structure over ten feet deep. It occurs, therefore, only in the Loess that has been recently modified by the winds, and long after it was first deposited. Another fact which the theory of a subaerial origin would ex- plain, is that the terraces in the valley of Oak Creek and Little Salt are formed of Loess, but the high plateau or divides between these streams are Drift. There are other similar cases in the State, where the Loess is comparatively thin. It ,is natural to suppose that if the Loess had been a subaqueous deposit, it would have been laid clown on the uplands as well as in the valleys — if formed suba3rially, the valleys would have been filled up first. In other sections, however, the Loess covers with equal thickness uplands •and the flanks of the valleys. West of Crete, as far as the Loess extends, it was probably laid down alike on hills and valleys, with only a few unimportant exceptions. In Dakota and Dixon coun- ties, in southern Cedar, and many counties west of these, the Loess frequently is as thick on the high hills as in the terraced valleys. The isolated uplands now devoid of Loess, on the theory of its subaqueous origin, must have been islands in this old Nebraska lake, or else it has been removed by erosion. There are some facts that point to the former theory — the island origin of these spots de- *See American Journal of Scijnce and Arts for January, 1879. QUATERNARY AGE. 275 void of Loess — as the correct explanation. One of these is that in such sections the Loess that horders on to an exposed Drift region is exceptionally full of the -remains of elephants and mastodons. As if these animals had come down to the water to drink and to wal- low, and had become mired and perished. This is proposed, how- ever, as only a provisional explanation. Another observation depended on by Richthofen to substantiate his theory is the depth at which root holes are found in the Loess. He supposes these to occur at such a depth that the grasses that oc- cur at the surface could not possibly have penetrated the Loess to such a depth, and that therefore they must have flourished when this deposit was thinner than at present. Subserial filling up would account for their presence, as they would be growing during the Avhole period of the accumulation of the Loess. To this it may be replied that roots descend from the surface through the Loess to an enormous depth. In 1868 I measured the depth of a root of the Buffalo berry (Shepherdia argophylla), at the edge of the St. John's j timber, in Dakota County, and found it to extend fifty-five feet be- j low the surface in undisturbed Loess. Near the same point, I traced another root from near the bottom of the Loess in a slide for thirty-nine feet to a stock of grass {Andropogon furcatus}. West of old Fort Calhoun the roots of the common blue-grass have pen- etrated the Loess to a depth of from five to fifteen feet. A sumach (Rhits glabrd] near by was found to send down roots to a depth of fifteen feet. South of Plum Creek, in the Loess canyons, roots of the lead plant {Amorpha canescens}, can be traced in the Loess for from ten to twenty feet. Prof. J. E. Todd has also observed in the Iowa Loess the roots of other grasses to descend to depths of from ' six to twenty-five feet.* Moreover, these root marks inosculate in every direction, and become fewer the deeper we descend, with some notable exceptions. There are horizons in the Republican Valley, far below the present surface, where the old root marks oc- cur in exceptional numbers. As these fossil root marks are now more or less completely filled with either lime carbonate or oxides of iron,, they are readily distinguished. To understand the probable reason for these phenomena, on the theory of the subaqueous origin of the Loess, the following sections are given. The first is taken from along the sides of a canyon leading into a tributary of the *Procee£" 5. Loess 5 " 6. Black soil : 1)£" 7. Stratified loess , 15 " Another section, taken two miles above the Republican Forks in Dundy County, from the sides of a small tributary, showed the following characters : 1. Black soil 1 foot, 2. Loess .' . 5 feet. 3. Black soil 1 foot. 4. Loess 15 feet. The following section was taken near the Arickeree, about six miles east of the west line of the State. This section can be dupli- cated in any of the numerous small canyons in this region : 1 . Black soil 1^ feet, 2. Loess 15 " 3. Black soil 2 " 4. Loess as far as exposed 15 " Now, in all these sections the Loess next to the Black soils from below is specially full of root marks — the Loess at the bottom of the sections as well as at the top. This indicates that during the progress of the Loess period there were many changes of level,, during some of which these regions became level surfaces, similar to the present, and covered with a rich black soil. These old land * surfaces became covered with grasses, whose roots penetrated far into the underlying Loess. Changes of level, and lake conditions came on again, and deposited more Loess, and these changes, con- tinuing through interminable centuries, have gone on till the present, To show that the Republican region was not exceptionable in this respect, the following section is given, from the canyon region south of Plum Creek, on the road to Arrapahoe. It is near the divide between the Platte and Republican: 1. Black soil 3 feet. 2. Loess 40 " 3. Black soil 2 " 4. Loess 15 " 5. Clay with calcareous concretions 4 " 6. Reddish sandy deposit, with a few calcareous concretions, only two feet exposed 2 " QUATERNARY AGE. 277 Here, as in the Republican Valley, the Loess at the bottom of the section (No. 4) has a great many more root marks than the lower part of the Loess above (or No. 2). The same explanation is applicable here as in the former case, namely, that these fossil black soils represent conditions of land surface like the present, when the vegetation of the time penetrated from them into the underlying Loess. Now it is probable that these black soils may have been removed in some districts by erosion at the beginning of the re- newed lake conditions, and left no sign of their former presence, except the fossil root marks below. However abundant, therefore, at some horizons these root marks may be in the Loess of this country or Asia, its origin can easily be explained on the theory of its sub iqueous origin. Again, it is questionable whether these black soils filled with organic matter are ever formed except in the presence of water. The most probable explanation is that the black soils on top of the Loess have been formed when this lake gradually ap- proached dessication or a drained condition. When it approxi- mated the condition of a peat bog the organic matter was retained •(as a large portion is always retained when it decays under water), and mingling with the Loess bottom became a black soil when the drainage was completed. This semi-boggy condition endured for ages — long enough at least to form a black soil from three inches to ten feet thick. In accordance with this view the highest knolls where the land is rolling have in general the thinnest covering of black soil. This process is still going on in the bogs of the Mis- souri and many of its tributaries in the Loess region. If the Loess was formed, as I maintain, by subaqueous agency, then it is appar- ent that this old lake became dry land gradually. It surrendered its bottom little by little, until modern conditions prevailed. Another fact depended on by Richthofen to substantiate his theory, is the difference in level between various points of con- nected Loess regions. This objection is based on the assumption that the Loess districts lie at the same level now as during the O •deposition of this peculiar sediment. No geologist, however, doubts that during Glacial times the continent towards the north laid relatively far above its present level. It is also conceded that during the Champlain Epoch the level of a large part of North America was below w'hat it is now. It is admitted that, partly owing to this depression, and partly to melting ice sheets, temperate latitudes were flooded. The re-elevation of the land drained it. 278 GEOLOGY. Probably the huge terminal morraines helped to confine the water and produce the great lakes of the time. Now it can easily be seen that a certain stage would be reached in the re-elevation of the land when the surface conditions would be precisely such as is claimed for the great lakes of the Loess period. Confirmatory of this induction is the fact that the Loess valleys running proxi- mately east and west through Nebraska have almost universally long gentle slopes on the north side and steeper bluffs on the south. As the continent rose towards the north slowly and gently, the streams retired gradually towards the south side of the valleys and produced this peculiar configuration. It is true that here the Loess- in southeast Nebraska is over 3,000 feet below the highest point on- the west line of the State. At other points the difference of level in the Loess of Nebraska is over 3,500 feet. But this is more than paralleled by the remnants of the old Pliocene lake of the plains, where the present difference of level between its eastern and western shore is over 7,000 feet. No geologist, however, doubts- that in Pliocene times it occupied about the same plane. The change in level, therefore, on the theory that the Loess was formed in a lake, since the close of that period, is only about half as great as that which occurred since the close of Pliocene times. The assumed fact that fresh water shells are absent and land shells abundant in the Loess, is also depended on by Richthofen to- prove his theory. However it may be in China, here fresh water shells are quite abundant at some horizons. The species of land and fresh water shells that I have thus far identified from the Loess of Nebraska are appended to the end of this chapter. It will be seen that large numbers of them are fresh water shells. They are not found merely near existing fresh water streams, as has been suggested — they are equally abundant on the divides wherever there are well shafts to bring them to light. It is an interesting analogous fact that in the eddies and in the sand bars and silted up hollows of the Missouri, at the present time, about the same rela- tive proportion of land and fresh water shells are found as in the Loess. For example, four miles below Dakota City, on a sand bar, I have on several occasions examined the exposed silt after flood time for shells. In 1871 I here obtained of existing kinds brought down by the river, thirty-five species of land and twenty of fresh water shells. Three years afterwards, at the same point, I obtained five less of the former and six of the latter. The Mis- QUATERNARY AGE. 279 souri, in its upper portion at least, is not rich in fresh water shells, neither its bottoms nor waters being highly adapted to them. This evidently also was the case with the Loess lake of this region, which was fed, as we shall presently see, by the Missouri and the Platte. I do not adopt the views suggested by Hilgard that the waters of this lake, probably from its alkaline character and the constitution of the Loess itself, destroyed the more fragile shells.* As in the Missouri at the present time, there were comparatively few shells in this old lake. Even a large part of the fresh water shells now found in the Loess were probably carried into this lake from its smaller tributaries. Richthofen also claims that the Loess exhibits no marks of strat- ification, and that therefore it could not have been formed by sub- aqueous agencies. In my earlier studies of the Loess it also ap- peared to me to be without stratification. Since my earlier pub- lished papers on this subject, I have found the most convincing evi- dence that the Loess, at least in some sections, is as distinctly strati- fied as the modified Drift beneath it. The following section is given from the new railroad cut at Plattsmouth, to show the hori- zon of stratification. The section is taken from the east end of the cut: 1. Black soil 2 feet. 2. Yellow Loess 10 " 3. Typical Loess, finely laminated 30 " 4. Reddish brown, impure Loess, mingled with silicious streaks 15 " 5. Small boulders, gravel and lime concretions. Small boulders, sometimes covered with lime. Some clay. Colors, various. Exposed 6 " In this section No. 3 is clearly stratified. A similar laminated appearance is seen in some of the Loess at the west or Plattsmouth end of this cut. In the Republican Valley the lower sections of the Loess are now found to be distinctly laminated and occasionally stratified. Here the strata of Loess are sometimes separated by strata of sand, and even, sometimes, on the upper Republican, by layers of sand and gravel. Similar sections can be seen in some of the canyons through the Loess southwest of Plum Creek. At Plattsmouth, and on the Lower Loup, beds of light are often sepa- rated by beds of darker colored Loess. Along the bluffs of the Republican Valley this condition can be observed for many miles in a stretch. Conspicuous examples can be seen going west from * American Journal of Science and Arts, for April, 1879. 280 GEOLOGY. Orleans. I find, also, that almost any section of our Loess, when saturated with moisture and then frozen and shaved smooth with a knife, will show fine lines of stratification when looked at through a large magnifying glass A fact often overlooked is the transition character of some beds of sand, as they shade into the Loess. As beds of Loess and strat- ified sands at the bottom of Loess sections often alternate, und even sometimes with strata of clay, it is not easily conceivable how subaqueous agency should have formed the one and Aeolian agency the other. The preceding discussion disposes of the most important objec- tions to the theory of the subaqueous origin of the Loess. The theory of Richthofen is not tenable, in my judgment, for the Ne- braska Loess. I have no doubt that future investigation will show it to be untenable for China. We are now ready to state connect- edly the history of the origin of the Loess. True Origin of the Loess Deposits. — Geological events have already been traced to the beginning of the Loess period. According to Newberry the whole of the Old Forest Bed area now less than i, 100 feet above the level of Lake Erie was flooded by the changes of level and thawing of retreating glaciers that followed its disap- pearance. In Nebraska during this time icebergs again floated over the waters. The farther retreat of the glaciers and the eleva- tion of eastern Iowa reduced the area of this great lake. What had been a great interior sea of turbulent waters had now become a system of placid lakes that extended from Nebraska and western Iowa at intervals to the Gulf. The Missouri drained through them all along its length. The Missouri, and sometimes the Platte, have been amongst the muddiest streams in the world. If we go up the Missouri to its source, and carefully examine the character of the deposits through which it passes, we cannot be surprised at its character. These deposits being of Tertiary and Cretaceous ages, are exceedingly friable and easy of disintegration. The Tertiary, and especially the Pliocene Tertiary, is largely silic- ious, and the Cretaceous is both silicious and calcareous. In fact, in many places the Missouri and its tributaries flow directly over and through the chalk-beds of the Cretaceous deposits. From these beds the Loess deposits no doubt received their per cent of the phosphates and carbonates of lime. Flowing through such de- posits for more than a thousand miles, the Missouri and its tribu- QUATERNARY AGE. 281 taries have been gathering for vast ages that peculiar mud which filled up their ancient lakes, and which distinguishes them even yet from most other streams. Being anciently, as now, very rapid streams, as soon as they emptied themselves into these great lakes, and their waters hecame quiet, the sediment held suspended was dropped to the bottom. While this process was going on in the earlier portion of this age, the last of the glaciers had probably not retreated farther than first a little beyond the "boundary of the Loess lake, and then gradually to the headwaters of the Platte, the Missouri and the Yellowstone. The tremendous force of these mighty rivers was, for a while at least, aided by the erosive action of ice, and therefore must have been vastly more rapid at times than anything of the kind with which we are now acquainted. The following analysis of Missouri River sediment taken at high sta^e will show, by comparison with the analyses of the Loess deposits, what a remarkable resemblance there is even yet between the two substances. In one hundred parts of Missouri River sediment, there are of — Insoluble (silicious) matter 82.01 Ferric oxide 3.10 Alumina 1 . 70 Limo, carbonate f> . 50 Lime, phosphate 3 . 00 Magnesia, carbonate 1.10 Potassa 50 Soda 22 Organic matter : 1.20 Loss in analysis 07 100.00 Two other analyse? which I mads, the one from sediment at high water and the other at low water, differ somewhat from this, but in essential pirticulars are the same. This identity of chemical combinations also points to the remarkable sameness of conditions that have existed for long periods in the Upper Missouri and Yel- lowstone regions. After these great lakes were filled with sediment (Missouri mud), they existed for a longer or shorter time, as already remarked, as marshes or bogs. Isolated portions would first become dry land, and as soon as they appeared above the water they were no doubt, covered with vegetation, which, decaying from year to year, and uniting under water or at the water's edge with the deposits at the 282 GEOLOGY. bottom, formed that black soil so characteristic of Nebraska prai- ries. For it is well known that when vegetable matter decays in water or a wet situation its carbon is retained. In dry situations it passes into the atmosphere as carbonic-acid gas. After the first low islands appeared in this old lake, they gradually increased from year to year in size and numbers. The ponds and sloughs, some of which could almost be called lakelets, still in existence, are probably the last remains of these great lakes. These ponds, where they do not dry up in midsum- mer,.swarm with a few species of fresh water shells, especially of the Limntzs, Physces, and Pianorbi, which to me is strong proof of this theory of their origin. The rising of the land continuing, the rivers began to cut new channels through the middle of the old lake beds. This drained the marshes and formed the bottom lands, as the river beds of that period covered the whole of the present flood-plains from bluff to bluff. It was then that the bluffs which now bound these flood-plains received those touches from the hand of nature that gave them their peculiar steep and rounded appear- ance. Newer and more plastic, because less compactly bound and cemented together, the rains and floods easily molded them into those peculiar outlines which they have since preserved. The Missouri, during the closing centuries of the Loess age, must have been from five to thirty miles in breadth, forming a stream which for size and majesty rivaled the Amazon. The Platte, the Niobrara, and the Republican covered their respective flood-plains in the same way. In the smaller streams of the State, those that originated within or near the Loess deposits, such as the Elkhorn, L-mp, Bow, Blue, and the Nemahas, we see the same general form of flood-plain as on the larger rivers, and no doubt their bottoms were also covered with water during this period. Hayden, in his first reports, his already expressed the same opinion as to the original size of these rivers. Only a few geologists will dissent from this view. The gradually melting glaciers, which had been accumulating for so many ages at the sources of these great rivers, the vast floods of water caused by the necessarily moist climate and heavy rains, the present forms and materials of the river bottoms, are some of the causes which, in my opinion, would operate to produce such vast volumes of water. The changes of level were not all upward during this period. The terraces along the Missouri, Platte and Republican indicate QUATERNARY AGE. 283 that there were long periods when this portion of the continent was stationary. Several times the movement was downward. Along the bluffs in the Republican Valley, at a depth varying from ten to- thirty feet from the top, there is a line or streak of the Loess min- gled with organic matter. It is, in fact, an old bed, where vegeta- tion must have flourished for a long period. It can be traced from Orleans upward in places f$r seventy-five miles. It indicates that after this bed had, as dry land, sustained a growth of vegetation,, an oscillation of level depressed it sufficiently to receive a great ac- cumulation of Loess materials on top of it. Other oscillations of this character occurred previously to and subsequent to this main halt. These have already been discussed. I have also found traces of this movement in many other portions of the State. LENGTH OF THE LOESS AGE. The bases for speculation concerning the length of the Loess age are of course uncertain, yet an approximate estimate may per- haps be made by comparison with the present deposits of the Mis- souri. The great lakes of the Loess age extended, with a few in- terruptions, almost to the Gulf, and some of them covered an area of at least 75,000 square miles. Now, were all the sediment which is at present brought down the Missouri spread over such a vast area, the thickness of the deposit would be less than one sixteenth of an inch. Probably the yearly accumulations of sediment dur- ing the Loess age amounted to that much, owing to the then greater volume of the Missouri and the aids to erosion from the greater prevalence of ice near its sources. In many places along the Missouri there are small lakes, formed from the old river-bed, where there has been a cut-off. Even where these little lakes re- ceive the overflow of the river each year, it often requires at least a century to fill them up, even when aided by the sands which the winds waft into them. I have attempted to measure the sediment left by the river in these lakes, which are seldom half a mile in breadth, and it rarely amounted to half an inch in a season. The winds are a much more efficient agent for filling up small, narrow lakes, but in Loess times, where there were such immense bodies of fresh water, their effects could only have been appreciable along the sandy shore-lines. The highest bluffs represent the original level of the Loess deposits before the tremendous denuding agen- cies which removed so much of their materials had done their work. 284 / GEOLOGY. Now, in places these sediments are even yet 200 or more feet in thickness, so that it would be safe to estimate the average thickness of the original deposits at 100 feet. A yearly increase of one- sixteenth of an inch in thickness, would at this rate have required 19,200 years to form these deposits. This I consider a low estimate for the length of the Loess age. LIFE OF THE LOESS AGE. At the close of this chapter will be found a list of the land and fresh-water shells that I have found and identified in the Loess de- posits. It will be seen that the list of land shells is quite large. These, no doubt, were brought into this old lake during flood- time. I have occasionally found large numbers of these shells where drift-wood had evidently lodged and decayed. The fresh- water and land shells are mainly such as are still to be found in the .same region, the exceptions being the prevalence of a large num- ber of southern forms at one horizon of these deposits. As will be seen, the species belong to quite a large number of genera. Occasionally I have found the teeth and a stray bone of fish, but have not been able to identify any species. The remains of rab- bits, gophers, otters, beavers, squirrels, deer, elk, and buffalo are frequently found. Through the entire extent of these deposits are many remains of mastodons and elephants, whose last vigorous life, as Newberry remarks, expired in high northern latitudes. Lan- caster County is specially rich in these proboscidian remains. They are frequently found in this deposit in digging wells. In Lincoln they have been found in at least twenty wells that have been dug in and around the city. This town is near what appears to have been the western shore-line of the Missouri lake of the period. Be- tween it and the Blue River at Crete, there is a high divide covered by Drift materials. These huge animals no doubt often here came down to the shore to drink, and playing in the water be- came mired in the mud. One tusk found in a well on P street, east of Twelfth, must have been at least eleven feet long when entire. It was so far decayed that it fell to pieces on exposure. For years I have been closely watching for human remains in the Loess deposits. Eight years ago, three miles east of Sioux City, Iowa, in a railroad cut I found a small arrow-head in these deposits. I was looking for mollusks, and was digging after them with a large knife when I struck something hard, and, laying it QUATERNARY AGE. 285 bare, to my great surprise and joy found it to be an arrow- bead. So far as I knew, this was the first mark that had yet been dis- covered of the presence of man during this age. From that time on- ward I have seized every opportunity of exploring these deposits for human remains. The same year I found some flint chips in the bluffs back of Jackson, in Dakota County, but it was not absolutely clear that these were of human origin. My next find was about two and a half miles southeast of Omaha, in a railroad cut, where I found a large coarse arrow or spear- head. This last was found in 1874. It was found twenty feet below the top of the Loess, and at least six inches from the edge of the cut, so that it could not have slid into that place. The first found was fifteen feet below the top of the deposit. It appears, then, that some old races lived around the shores of this old l;tke, and paddled their ca- noes over its waters, and accidentally dropped their arrows in its waters or let them fly at a passing water-fowl. It is possible also that these arrows came into this old lake by drift-wood. I once found an arrow sticking in a log that came down the Mis- souri, and if it had continued on to the Gulf it might have been un- earthed in the far- off future, when that portion of the continent at the mouth of the Mississippi had become dry land. Thirteen inches above the point where the last named arrow was found, and within three inches of being on a line with it, in undisturbed Loess, there was a lumbar vertebra of an elephant (E/ephas Americanus}. Unfortunately this vertebra partially fell to pieces on exposure. It appears clear from this conjunction of a human relic and proboscid- ian remains that man here as well as in Europe was the cotempor- ary of the elephant in at least a portion of the Missouri Valley. In 1876 and again in the spring of 1877 I found additional arrow- heads in the Loess of the Republican Valley. One in a section described on a previous page east of the Republican Forks in Dundy County. It was in the Loess below the second bed of black soil, or fourteen feet below the surface. Here, then, primeval man existed anterior to two old land surfaces, between which and after the last, this region again became the bed of a Loess lake. Hon. R. W. Furnas also found a hatchet in the Loess, five feet below the surface, in Brownville, Nebraska. The climate probably varied considerably during the progress of this age. What inclines me to that view is the fact that about the middle horizon an unusually large number of southern species of 286 GEOLOGY. mollusks are found. This indeed is not conclusive, as this region is at this time remarkable for the presence of southern forms of in- sects and fresh- water mollusks* -Yet it appears to me that an un- usual number of southern forms at this horizon of the Loess must indicate some modification of climate at that period. It may have been only on the eastern shore of this great lake, and caused by the -even temperature which so large a body of fresh water produces on the side toward which the prevailing winds from the lake blow. We have such a phenomenon at the ] resent day on the east shore of Lake Michigan. The Mississippi Valley is by its con- tour eminently favorable to the emigration northward of southern species. These Loess deposits, which have done so much to enrich Ne- braska, have received profound attention and study from some of the ablest geologists. But in many of the counties of the State they have not yet been investigated. Much to be discovered must yet remain in them. Though myself long engaged in their inves- tigation, I rarely examine a new section in a well, ravine or railroad cut without finding something new. Close of the Loess Period. — It was a continuation of the up- ward movement that had again begun during the second de- pression epoch of the Quaternary that brought the Loess period to a final close. As the land rose most towards the west and north, the area of this Loess lake was gradually lessened from these directions, and its remnants were last active on its southeast- ern border. This explains the fact already mentioned in other con- nections, that the long gentle slopes of the bluffs bordering the flood-plains running in an easterly and westerly direction are al- most universally on the north side of the valleys. The closing of the Loess period first clearly outlined the present rivers of Ne- braska, when they covered the whole of the bottoms, from bluff to bluff, and when the mud-flats of the former Loess lake them- selves constituted the flood-plain. So far as known, no convulsive movements to a certainty accompanied the close of this period. Many movements of this kind occurred in the regions of the mountains during the Quaternary, but they have not yet been synchronised with geological events on the plains. *Haydeu's Report for 1870, page 467. QUATERNARY AGE. 287 Moi.LUSKS IN THE LOESS DEPOSITS. The following list of land and fresh-water shells comprises all that I have thus far identified, in whole or in part, from the Loess deposits. Nearly all are extremely fragile. The Hyalinas, Pupas, and some of the Helices long eluded my efforts at identifying them. I finally marked the localities where found, until the ground was frozen, when they were cut out with a knife. They were then identified by making thin sections with a sharp knife. Many of these mollusks, after being placed for a while in my cabinet, fell to pieces. For this reason I have no specimens to show of many species here given, and, therefore, only present this as a provisional list. Some well-preserved specimens appear to me to be new to science, but as I have not access to the descriptions of the new species discovered by Hay den, a bare list of which is given in Bin- ney's and Eland's Land and Fresh Water Shells, I will not ven- ture to describe them, as that has probably already been done. The counties are indicated where the specimens were obtained, or where they were the most abundant. In addition to my own list of species, which were first published in the Hayden Reports for 1874, Prof. J. E. Todd has given eighteen from the Loess of Iowa. Prof. Swrallow also reports fifty species from the Loess of Missouri, twenty of which are fresh- water shells: Vitrina limpida, Gould, Lancaster and Dixon Counties. Hyalina nitida? Mueller, Dixon County. Hyalina arborea, Say, Douglas and Dakota Counties. Hyalina viridula, Monke, all Eastern Nebraska. Hyalina indentata, Say, Otoe and Douglas Counties Hyalina limatula, Ward, Douglas County. Hyalina minuscula, Binney, all Eastern Nebraska. Hyalina b'mneyana? Morse, Dixon and Cedar. Counties. Hyalina ferrea? Morse, Dixon County. Hyalina exigtia, Stimpson, Dixon and Cedar Counties. Hyalina intertexta? Binney, Douglas County. Hyalina ligera, Say, Otoe and Nemaha Counties. Hyalina demissa? Binney, Nemaha and RicHardson Counties. Hyalina fulva, Dreparnaud, Dixon and Cedar Counties. Hyalina lasmodon, Phillips, Nemaha and Otoe Counties. Hyalina interna, Say, Nemaha and Otoe Counties. 288 GEOLOGY. Hyalina significans, Bland, Nemaha and Otoe Counties. Hyalina lineata? Say, Douglas and Otoe Counties. Macrocyclis concava, Say, Douglas and Otoe Counties. Helix solitaria, Say, Otoe an 1 Burt Counties. Helix strigosa, Gould, Otoe and Burt Counties. Helix alternata, Say, all Eastern Nebraska. Helix cumberlandiana, Lea, Middle Loess in Nemaha and Otoe Counties. Helix cooperi, W. G. B., Douglas and Washington Counties. Helix striatella, Anthony, Dixon and Dakota Counties. Helix labyrinthica, Say, all Eastern Nebraska. Helix hubbardi, Brown, Middle Loess in Nemaha County. Helix auriformis, Bland, Middle Loess in Otoe County. Helix tholus? G. G. Binney, Middle Loess in Douglas County. Helix fastigans, L. W. Say, Middle Loess in Otoe County. Helix jacksonii? Bland, Middle Loess in Otoe County. Helix hazardi? Bland, Middle Loess in Douglas County. Helix dorfeuilliana, Lea, Middle Loess in Cass County. Helix pustula? Fer, Middle Loess of Cass County. Helix spinosa, Lea, Middle Loess of Harlan County. Helix edgariana? Lea, Middle Loess of Richardson County. Helix stenotrema, Fer, Otoe and Cass Counties. Helix hirsuta, Say, Dixon and Cass Counties. Helix monodon, Rackett, all Eastern Nebraska. Helix palliata, Say, all Eastern Nebraska. Helix abstricta? Say, all Eastern Nebraska. Helix appressa? Say, Otoe and Nemaha Counties. Helix inflecta, Say, all Eastern Nebraska. Helix tridentata? all Eastern Nebraska. Helix fallax, Say, all Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley, Helix albolabris, Say, Eastern Nebraska and RepublicanValley. Helix multilineata, Say, all Eastern Nebraska. Helix pennsylvanica, Green, Douglas County. Helix elevata, Say, Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley. Helix exoleta, Binney, Eastern Nebraska andRepublican Valley. Helix roemeri, Pfeifer, Middle Loess of Richardson County. Helix thyroides, Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley. Helix clausa, Say, Eastern Nebraska. Helix jejuna? Say, Richardson County. Helix profunda, Say, all Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley. QUATERNARY AGE. 289 Helix pulchella, Mull, all Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley. Helix , Republican Valley. Helix , Otoe and Nemaha Counties. Helix , Otoe and Nemaha Counties. Helix , Otoe and Nemaha Counties. Helix , Dakota and Dixon Counties. Helix , Dakota and Dixon Counties. Bulimulus dealbatus, Say, Middle Loess of Nemaha County. Cionella subcylindrica, Linn., Southeastern Nebraska. Pupa muscorum? Linn., Cedar County. Pupa blandi, Morse, Dixorf^ Dakota and Burt Counties. Pupa fallax, Say, Dixon, Dakota and Burt Counties. Pupa armifera, Say, all Eastern Nebraska. Pupa corticaria, Say, all Eastern Nebraska. Succinea haydeni? W. G B., Republican Valley. Succinea mooresiana, Lea, Republican Valley. Succinea avara, Lea, Republican Valley. Succinea obliqua, Say, Dixon and Dakota Counties. Succinea , Otoe and Nemaha Counties. Zonites fuliginosa, Griff, Republican Valley. Zonites lasvigata? Pfeifer, Republican Valley. Zonites inornata, Say, Cass and Otoe Counties. Zonites, gularis, Say, Southeastern Nebraska. Carychium? exiguum? Say, Nemaha County. Limnoea stagnalis? Linn., Washington County. Limncea reflexa, Say, Dakota and Dixon Counties. Limnoea palustris, Mull., along Missouri Bluffs. Physa gyrina, Say, Dakota County. Physa heterostropha, Say, Douglas County. Physa — — , Douglas County. Physa , Douglas County. Psulinus , Otoe County. Planorbis glabratus, Say, Otoe County. Planorbis campanulatus, Say, Dakota County. Planorbis corpulentus? Say, Dakota County. Planorbis deflectus, Say, Nemaha County. Planorbis albus? Mull., Dixon County. Ancylus — — , Dakota, Harlan County. Valvata tricar in at a, Say, Dixon County. 290 GEOLOGY. Valvata , Say, Otoe and Burt Counties. Vivipara intertexta? Say, Otoe County. Vivapara subpurpurea? Say, Otoe and Nemaha Counties. Vivapara contectoides, Binney, Nemaha County. Melantho ponderosa, Say, Washington County. Melantho decisa, Say, Burt County. Amnicola perata? Say, Washington County. Amnicola lemnosa? Say, Washington County. Pomatiopsis lapidaria, Say, Dakota County. Helicina orbiculata, Say, Nemaha County. Angitrema armigera, Say, Nemaha County. Lithasia, obovata, Say, Richardso^ County. Pleurocera undulatum? Harlan County. Pleurocera canaleculatum, Say, Nemaha County. Pleurocera elevatum, Say, Otoe County. Pleurocera labiatum? Lea, Richardson County. Pleurocera simplex? Lea, Otoe County. Goniobasis depygis, Say, Richardson and Otoe Counties. Goniobasis livescens? Menke, Richardson County. Goniobasis brevispira? Anthony, Otoe County. Goniobasis, semicaranata, Say, Otoe County. Anculosa costata, Anthony, Richardson County. Anculosa praerosa, Say, Richardson County. Anculosa? , Richardson County. Unio — — , Cedar, Dakota, and Burt Counties. Unio -, Nemaha County. Unio — — , Otoe and Cass Counties. Anadonta — , Washington County. Anadonta , Republican Valley. QUATERNARY AGE. 291 CHAPTER IX. QUATERNARY AGE AND SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS, CONTINUED.— TERRACE EPOCH.— ALLUVIUM.— SAND HILLS.— ALKALI LANDS.— TIMBER, AND CAUSE OF CHANGES OF CLIMATE. Relationship of the Terrace Epoch to Subsequent Times. — Level of the Land. — Gradual Formation of Terraces. — Highest Elevation Reached, and its Effects in the West.— Section Showing Glacial Action.— Effect of Ex- treme Elevation on River Channels. — Varying Heights of Terraces. — Allu- vium.— Its importance, and How Gradually Produced. — Character of the Bottom Lands, and their Great Extent. — Analysis of Alluvium. — Sand Hills, and their Extent and Geological Character. — Theories about their Origin. — Pliocene Origin of Many of Them. — Capabilities for Cultivation.— Alkali Lands. — Extent and Character. — Analysis of Alkali Soils. — How to Cultivate Them. — Hard-pan, or "Gumbo" Soils. — Their Character, Extent and Analysis. — Bad Lands.— Their Superficial Character and Appearance. — Organic Re- mains, and Agricultural Character — Fuel from the Surface Deposits. — Peat. — Its Extent and Character. — Timber in Modern Geological Times.— Causes of Changes of Climate. F TERRACE EPOCH. HROM the preceding, it ic evident that the Terrace Epoch in Nebraska is closely connected with that order of events and with tho for several rods in length and many feet in breadth, it tumbles into the river. This cutting of the river is greatest when it com- mences to fall. Where the bank is removed on one side it gener- ally is built up on the other. The old town of Omadi, in Dakota County, is an instance of this kind. So rapidly did the river cut into the bank, that many of the houses could not be removed, and fell victims to the flood. The river cut far enough to the west of the old site to leave it and its own bed, after being blowrn full of sand, to be grown up into a forest of cottonwood. When now we bring into our estimate all the river bottoms of Nebraska, and the tributaries of these rivers, and reflect that all these valleys were formed in the same way, within comparatively modern geological times, the forces which water-agencies brought into play almost appal the mind by their very immensity. So well are these bottom-lands distributed that the emigrants can, in most of the counties of the State, choose between them and the uplands for their future home. In some of the new counties, like Fillmore, where bottom-lands are far apart, there are many small, modern dried-up lake beds, whose soil is closely allied to that of the valleys Not unfrequently is the choice made of portions of each, on the supposition that the bottom-lands are best adapted for the growth of large crops of grasses. But all the years of experience in culti- vating uplands and bottoms in Nebraska leave the question of the superiority of the one over the other undecided. Both have their advocates. The seasons as well as the location have much to do with the question. Some bottom-lands are high and dry, while others are lower and contain so much alumina that in wet seasons they are difficult to work. On such lands, too, a wet spring inter- feres somewhat with early planting and sowring. All the uplands, too, which have a Loess origin, seem to produce cultivated grass as luxuriantly as the richest bottoms, especially where there is deep cultivation on old breaking. Again, most of the bottom-lands are so mingled with Loess materials, and their drainage is so good that the cereal grains and fruits are as productive on them as on the high lands. The bottom-lands are, however, the richest in organic 296 GEOLOGY. matter. The following analyses of these soils will give a better idea of their physical character. The samples were taken from what are believed to be average soils. The first is from the Elk- iiorn, the second from the Platte, the third from the Republican, and the fourth from the Blue River. The fifth is from an excep- tionally wet and sticky soil, about two miles southeast of Dakota City. No 1. No 2. No. 3 No. 4. No. 5. Insoluble (silicious) matter 63.07 2.85 8.41 7.08 .90 1.41 .50 .49 .79 14.00 .50 63.70 2.25 7.76 7.99 .85 1.45 .54 .52 .70 13.45 .79 63.01 2.40 8.36 8.01 .99 1.39 .61 .54 .71 13.01 .97 62.99 2.47 8.08 7.85 .94 1.40 .67 .58 .79 13.27 .96 61.03 2.82 10.52 7.09 .98 1.38 .60 .57 .69 13.40 .92 Ferric oxide . Alumina Lime carbonate Lime phosphate Majrnesia carbonate Potash Soda . . . Sulphuric acid Organic matter JLoss in analysis . .'.... Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 It is well known that many soils vary a great deal in chemical properties that are taken only a few feet apart, and therefore anal- yses often fail to give a correct idea of their true character. But from the above analyses, taken from widely distant localities, it is at least evident that chemically, alluvium differs from the Loess de- posits principally in having more organic matter than alumina, and less silica. The depth of the alluvium varies greatly. Occasionally sand and drift materials predominate in the river bottoms, especially in the subsoil; sometimes the alluvium is of unknown depth, and again in a few feet the drift pebbles and sand of the subsoil are struck. This is especially the case in some of the western valleys which were worn down to the drift, and were not again subse- qently filled up, though such cases are not often met with. There must have been a period of longer or shorter duration, when the bottoms were in the condition of swamps and bogs; and during this period the greater part of that organic matter, which is a distinguish- ing feature of these lands, accumulated in the surface-soil. It would be easy to select isolated spots, where the soil has forty per cent of organic matter; where, in fact, it is composed of semi-peat. When we reflect that this black soil is often twenty feet thick, it is appar- QUATERNARY AGE. 297 •ent that the period of its formation must have been very long. There -are still some few localities where that formative condition has been perpetuated to the present time — as, for example, the bogs that are yet met with at the head-waters of the Elkhorn and the Logan, along the Elk Creek, on the Dakota bottom, and on the Stinking River, one of the tributaries of the Republican. In fact, along these tributaries all the intermediate stages from perfectly dry bottom to a bog can yet be found. But, so much has the volume of water iDeen lessened in all the rivers of Nebraska through the influence of geological causes, that there are few places where now, even in flood-time, they overflow their banks. A curious phenomenon, il- lustrating through what changes of level and other conditions these river bottoms have passed, before reaching their present form, is the occurrence at various depths, of from ten to fifty feet, of great masses of timber in a semi-decayed condition. One such deposit on the Blue River bottom, near the mouth of Turkey Creek, success- fully interrupted the digging of a well. So many thicknesses of logs occurred that it was found best to abandon the work already done for a new place. I have frequently observed trees, with trunks twenty to sixty feet long, sticking out from under the banks of the Mis- souri, where the soil had been freshly removed. It is possible that this timber accumulated in these places during the period when the rivers yet covered their entire bottoms, and when numberless trees must have been carried down during flood-time, and either stranded on the ancient sand bars and mud-banks, or sunk to rise no more in the deeper pools and eddies which were rapidly filled up. The species, so far as I have yet been able to determine, from an exam- ination of the half-decayed wood, are the same as yet grow in this region. They are principally cottonwood, elm, cedar, maple and walnut. THE SAND-HILLS. The sand-hills are an often-mentioned portion of Nebraska. 'They are found in certain sections of the western portion of the State. South of the Platte Valley they run parallel with the river, and are from one-half to six miles in breadth. A few are also found on the tributaries of the Republican. Occasionally slightly sandy districts are found as far east as the Logan, but they rarely approach even a small hill in magnitude. A few sand ridges are also found on the Elkhorn. North of the Platte, from about the mouth of the Calamus on to the Niobrara, they cover much larger 298 GEOLOGY. areas. They are also found over a limited area north of the Nio- brara. Hayden (Report for 1870, p. 108) estimates the area of the sand-hills at about 20,000 square milas. From exploring the same region, I should not estimate them as so extensive, unless the fact be kept in mind that they are not continuous over the whole region. They are indeed found all the way for 100 miles west from the mouth of Rapid River, but in many places from eight to twenty miles south of the Niobrara there are spots where the soil seemed to be a mixture of Drift and Loess, and of high fertility, as was in- dicated by ths character and rankness of the vegetation. Some- times these hills are comparatively barren, and then again they are fertile enough to sustain a covering of nutritious grasses; so that this region is by no means the utterly barren waste that it is some- times represented to be. It has been a favorite range for buffalo, and still is for antelope and deer; and, judging from their condition,, the conclusion would be natural that this region could be used for stock-raising. In fact, already large herds of cattle are kept here. A great deal of the vegetation is peculiar to sandy districts. Some of the hills seem to have their loose sands held together by the Ucca angustifolia, which sends its roots down to a great depth. It probably marks a certain stage in their history. After this plant has compacted and given to the sands organic matter, the grasses come in and partially clothe the hills. The materials of these sand- hills are almost entirely sand, pebbles, and gravel, of varying de- grees of fineness. The sand always predominates. Occasionally it is more or less modified by the presence of other materials, such as lime, potash, soda, alumina, and organic matter. These hills are in some places stationary, and so covered by vegetation that their true character is not suspected until closely examined. In other places again, especially in portions of the Loup and Niobrara region y they are so loosely compacted that the wind is ever changing their form, and turning them into all kinds of fantastic shapes. The most common appearance is that of a plain, undulating or hilly re- gion, covered with conical hills of drifting sands. The smaller ele- vations frequently show a striking resemblance to craters. One such curious hill I found south of the Calamus, where the crater- like basin seemed to be compacted at once, and grown over with a species of wire grass. With the increase of rainfall and vegetation,, the remodifying effects of the winds disappear. QUATERNARY AGE. 299 Some eminent geologists have sought to account for these hills by the theory that the winds in the course of ages have blown the sand from the bars on the rivers until their accumulation caused these peculiar elevations. There are many difficulties in the way of this theory. East of Columbus no sand-hills are found, and it is hard to conceive how they should come to be limited to the west- ern portion of the State if they were formed in this way. In some places at least the hills are partly composed of large pebbles and stones that could not have been moved by the winds. This is espe- cially the case in some of these hills south and east of Kenesaw, in Adams County. I suggest, as a provisional explanation, the prob- ability that, south of the Platte, the lines of sand-hills show the track of a current in the old lake that produced the Loess deposits. It is well known that fine sediment is deposited in still water, but coarse materials, such as sand and pebbles, in the borders and in tracks of currents. As the whole country rises toward the west, the water here may have veen very rapid, and the land in process of drying up when it was yet deep at its lower levels. Both causes, the currents and the winds, may have co-operated to pro- duce these deposits. I am also satisfied that in some localities the sand-hills are nothing more than modified Loess deposits. They are Loess deposits, with all the alumina, organic matter ard finest sand washed out of them. This at least seems to be the origin of some of the sand-hills on »the Lower Loup, where they occupy a lower level than the Loess deposits. These two deposits so often shade into each other in the vicinity of the sand-hills, rendering it impossible to tell where the one begins and the other ends, that the theory of their common origin best explains the phenomena of these formations. After the western portion of the Loess deposits first became dry land, water-agencies were yet so powerful espec- ially in flood times that much of it must have been re modified, and the coarser materials left to form sand-hills. And as we have already seen in another chapter, some of,the sand and gravel hills partake largely of the Old \Vorld Kames, and may have been formed in the same way, especially as against these the Loess de- posits abut. The sand-hills on the Upper Loup and the Niobrara probably derived the bulk of their materials directly from the Plio- cene Tertiary deposits, which were mainly loosely compacted sands. This old Pliocene lake was probably perpetuated here down through Loess times to the borders of our own era. Even 300 GEOLOGY. yet lakelets are numerous over portions of this region, some of of which are alkaline and others fresh water. The latter can easily be distinguished from the former at sight by the thick vegetation growing around their margins, of which the former have very little, ;and sometimes not a trace. It is at least evident that these fresh- water lakes have had some common origin. Their fauna would prove it. The same species of fish and fresh-water mollusks are found in most of the large ones, even where there is no perceptible present •outlet. Although opposed to the views of eminent scientists, I have no •doubt that many of these hills are capable of cultivation, and some day will be cultivated. In fact already many of them, that ten years ago were barren of vegetation, are now covered by a vig- orous growth of grasses, and some that are favorably located are successfully included among the cultivated fields of adjoining farms. Notable examples of this can be seen south of Lowell. The trans- formation has been caused by the increasing rainfall of the State. Not all of them, indeed, will be utilized until the rich lands that border them are improved. But when better lands become scarce and costly, advances will gradually be made on the sand-hills. Already it has been proved that they produce corn, sweet pota- toes and other root crops equal at least to the New Jersey sands. The rich marl beds in their vicinity will supply an inexhaustible •source of fertilizing them. Much has been done by geologists in exploring these sand-hills, still much more remains to be accomplished before all the causes that produced them are thoroughly understood. ALKALI LANDS. Every one in Nebraska will sooner or later hear of the so-called alkali lands. They are not confined to any one geological forma- tion, but are found sometimes on the Drift, Alluvium, or the Loess. They increase in number from the eastern to the western portions of the State. Yet one half ef the counties of the State do not have any such lands, and often there are only a few in a township or •county. Where they have been closely examined they are found to vary a great deal in chemical constituents. Generally, however, the alkali is largely composed of soda compounds, with an occa- sional excess of lime and magnesia or potash. The following an- alyses of these soils show how variable they are. The first is taken QUATERNARY AGE. 301 from the Platte bottom, south of North Platte; the second from, near old Fort Kearney, and the third two miles west of Lincoln: | No 1. I No. 2. No. 3. Insoluble (silicious) matter . . .... 74.00 73 10 73 90- 3.80 3.73 3.69 Alumina 2.08 2 29 2 10- Lime carbonate. . 6.01 4 29 3.90> Lime phosphate 1.70 1.40 1.49- Magnesia carbonate . . 1.89 1 29 1 47 Potash . 1.68 1 80 3.69- Soda carbonate and bicarbonate 5.17 7.33 4.91 Sodium sulphate . • .70 89 891 Moisture .99 98 .98- Organic matter 1.20 2.10 2.10- Loss in analysis . ... .78 80 88- Total . . 100.00 100.00 100.00 The specimens for analysis were not taken from soils crusted over with alkaline matter, but from spots where the ground was covered with a sparse vegetation. Many of the alkali lands seem to have originated from an accu- mulation of water in low places, where there is an excess of alum- ina in the soil or subsoil. The escape of the water by evaporation left the saline matter behind, and, in the case of salt (sodium chlo- ride), which all waters are known to contain in at least minute quantities, the chlorine, by chemical reactions, separated from the sodium; which latter, uniting immediately with oxygen and car- bonic acid, formed the soda compounds. These alkali spots are often successfully cultivated. The first steps toward their renovation must be drainage and deep cultiva- tion. The next step is the consumption of the excess of alkali,, which can be effected by crops of the cereal grains in wet seasons. In such seasons these alkali lands, if deeply cultivated, often pro- duce splendid crops of grain. Wheat is especially a great con- sumer of the alkalies; and these being partly removed in this way, and the remaining excess mingled with the deeply cultivated soil, renders it, in many instances, in a few years capable of being used for the other ordinary crops of Nebraska. Treated in this way, these alkali lands often become the most valuable portions of the farm. There are comparatively few alkali lands in the State that cannot be reclaimed in this way. 302 GEOLOGY. Hird Pan. — Gumbo Soil. — One of the peculiar deposits of the State is known among the people as hard pan, and in some places as gumbo soil. It never occurs in this State over extensive areas. In some few counties and townships it occurs in spots — sometimes on bottoms and sometimes on level uplands. The areas covered by it range in extent from a few yards to several acres. Sometimes these spots lie slightly below the general level of the land, and in places shade insensibly into what are known as clay and wet lands. There are a few townships in the south part of Cedar, Knox, and the north part of Pierce counties where occasional sections occur that have a spotted appearance which is produced by these " gum- bo soils." They are easily recognized by the paucity of the pecu- liar blue and wire grasses that cover them. More rarely they are covered by from two to six inches of alluvium or ordinary upland soil, and only give indications of their presence when an attempt is made at their cultivation. They " bake " and become exceedingly hard when dried. The most compact of these soils are plowed and cultivated with great difficulty. The following analyses indicate their composition. The first is taken from a specimen on Salt Creek bottom, and the second from the lower Nemaha: No. 1. No. 2. Insoluble (silicious) matter 27 11 20 67 Ferric oxide 4 32 2 83 Alumina, clay 50 11 57 30 Lime carbonate 8 21 9 08 Lime phosphate 1 OJ) 88 Magnesia carbonate 1 45 1 70 Potassa 1.98 (57 Soda 83 1 80 Organic matter 1 30 2 01 Moisture . . ^ 2 90 2 09 Loss in analysis 70 87 Total 100 00 100 00 This analysis shows that these soils contain clay in excess. From many other analyses which I made, only to ascertain the amount of clay that was present, it was found to vary from fifteen to sixty percent. The quantity of all their constituents varies a great deal, but they all in common contain a large amount of clay. A few contained a perceptible quantity of manganese. From these analy- ses it is clear what is needed to redeem them or make them tillable QUATERNARY AGE. 303 — they should he mingled with silicious matter, and often the soil below them will answer for this purpose, as frequently they are only a few inches thick. The Bad Lands. — These have already been discussed and de- scribed under the Miocene Period. They deserve a reference here because they constitute all that there is of the surface beyond the White Earth River, in the northwest corner of the State. As al- ready stated, this section is made up of Miocene rocks. The sur- face materials here are mostly made up of white and yellowish in- durated clays, sands, marls, and occasional thin beds of lime and sandstone. When going through these Bad Lands I observed these lime and sandstones to appear and disappear in the most unexpected manner, indicating a great variety of conditions under which they were formed. Hayden first made known these wonderful regions. It is hard to realize the grandeur and uniqueness of this region without visiting it — this, at least, was the case with myself. Here in the deep canyons, at the foot of the stair-like projections, the earliest of those wonderful fossil treasures was found which have been described by Leidy, and which have done so much to revolutionize our notions of the progress of life and of Tertiary times. Agriculture in such a region as this, where comparatively little is now growing, is of course impracticable. The scanty grasses, however, can be, and are beginning to be — at least on the borders of this region — utilized for pasturing stock. Even here rainfall is increasing, as is indicated by a great increase in the quantity of grass that is spontaneously produced. Whether this region can ever be utilized for the purposes of agriculture, even when once the rainfall is sufficient, is a problem for the future.. Regions as rough have been cultivated by hand. Whenever in the distant future population crowds in this direction, and the rainfall has sufficiently increased, even these Bad Lands can be fertilized, if they need fer- tilization, by the immense quantities of natural fertilizers, such as marl, that here abound. In the mean time it will be utilized for pas- turing stock. Though this region is so unattractive to the utilitar- ian, I doubt whether any other equal area of Nebraska will be of more benefit to mankind, simply because here we have outlined so marvelously the old life of Miocene times, and it must ever be a stimulus to geological studies, and those grand results which scien- tific culture produces. No novel can be as interesting to a thought- 304 GEOLOGY. ful mind as Hayden's and Leidy's descriptions of these Bad Lands and their animal remains. FUEL FROM THE SURFACE-DEPOSITS. It is not yet absolutely settled, as already stated, how much de- pendence can be placed on the coal-supplies of the Carboniferous, Cretaceous, and Tertiary deposits, in each of which thin beds have been found and worked to a limited extent. Hayden and Meek in- cline to the opinion that no beds of coal thick enough and of suffi- ciently good quality to be profitably worked will be found in the State. (Hayden's Report for 1870, p. 134, etc.) This subject has already been discussed in the chapter on Carboniferous Age. There is, however, no question about the great quantity of peat in Nebraska, which subject is discussed in the next chapter. Wafer Resources of Nebraska. — This subject, which would natu- rally come in here, is omitted in this connection, as it has already- been fully discussed in the chapter on Physical Geography. Timber in Modern Geological Times. — It is natural to suppose from well-known natural causes that when the Loess age was- drawing to a close, and the lower portions of the area covered by these deposits were yet in a condition of a bog, the climate was much more favorable than the present for the growth of timber. Rain- fall and moisture in the atmosphere must then have been much more abundant. In July, 1868, while walking along the edge of one of the Logan peat-bogs in Cedar County, my Jacob staff struck some hard body in the peat. Examining it more closely I found a log buried in the peat at least sixty feet in length. Following up this discovery with a careful search, I found in this and other bogs a great many buried logs of various length and thickness. Most of them were found where there was no existing timber within twenty miles, and from which they could not have floated in flood- times, I regret that I had no means of extricating some of those logs, and ascertaining the species to which they belonged. That would no doubt have thrown much light on the changes that haye taken place since they were buried in the bog. But they evidently grew on the shores or banks, and after falling into the bog they were protected from decay by the well-known antiseptic properties of peaty waters. Another fact that shows the greater prevalence of timber within geologically recent times is the remnants of old pine forests yet buried in the ground. In the summer of 1868, when QUATERNARY AGE. 305 traveling along and near the Niobrara, roots of pine trees were often found sticking in the ground, more than fifty miles south and east of the present forests of this timber. Often did these old roots furnish me with the materials of a camp fire. At no very remote period pine forests must have flourished down to the mouth of the Niobrara. Many other facts, of a similar character, seem to leave no room to doubt that in geologically recent times far more exten- sive forests prevailed all over Nebraska than those which now oc- cupy the ground. What caused their disappearance can, perhaps, not be certainly determined. Some geologists hold that the in- creasing dryness of the climate caused the disappearance of any old forests that might have existed. But might not the converse of this also have been true here, as well as elsewhere, namely, that the de- struction of forests inaugurated the dry climate that prevailed when thU territory was first explored? It is at least conceivable that the primitive forest received its death-blow in a dry summer by fire, through the vandal acts of Indians in pursuit of game or for pur- poses of war. What suggested this theory as a possible explanation of the disappearance of forests on this territory, was the finding of pine roots before referred to, and often, when partially, buried, showing marks of fire from carbonized ends, and in localities so sandy, and where vegetation was so scant, that an ordinary prai- rie fire was out of the question. An old tradition that I once heard from the Omaha Indians points to the same conclusion. It is wonderful how nature here responds to the efforts of men for reclothing this territory with timber. Man thus becomes am efficient agent for the production of geological changes. As prai- rie fires are repressed and trees are planted by the million, the cli- mate must be still further ameliorated. When once there are- groves of timber on every section or quarter- section of land in the State, an approach will be made to some of the best physical con- ditions of Tertiary times. The people of this new State have a- wonderful inheritance of wealth, beauty and power in their fine climate and their rich lands, and as they become conscious of this they will more and more lend a helping hand to the processes of nature for the development and utilization of the material wealth of Nebraska. Causes of Changes of Climatic Conditions During the Quaternary Age. — Every geologist has noted the fact that there have been very- many changes of climate during the progress of the worlng period will be favorable, and the globe as a whole be? come more and more fitted for a theatre for the development of mind and morals. Even if this explanation of the causes of climatic changes is not the correct one, there can be little doubt that some cosmical influ- ences will in the end be found to furnish the key to unlock the mysteries of these changing phenomena. CHAPTER X, ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. Coal, Bituminous and Lignite. — Peat, its Quantity, Quality, and Where and How Formed.— Building Stone, Where and How Found; their Charac- ter at South Bend. — Building Stone in the Cretaceous and Tertiary. — Lime and Hydraulic Cement. — Its Manufacture at Beatrice. Brick Clay. — Fire Clay.— Potters' Clay; Sections and Character of at Louisville — Kaolin. — Oypsum, Where Found and How it Occurs. — Silica, its Great Extent and Character. — Iron Ores. — Zinc and Lead. — Gold. — Marl Beds. — Salt, Where and How it Occurs. — Artesian Well in Lincoln and its Medicinal Character. Artesian Wells over the State; their Future Value and Importance. Coal. — Bituminous coal has already been discussed in the chap- ter on the Carboniferous measures; and lignite coal in the chapter on the Cretaceous deposits. Peat. — There is no question about the great quantity of peat in Nebraska. Hayden mentions many localities where it is found. •(Report for 1867, 1868, and 1869.) It is also found on the tributar- ies and head-waters of the Logan, the Elkhorn, the Blue, and on Stinking River, and other tributaries of the Republican. Great quantities are also found in Boone County, on the Loups, and on their tributaries. In fact, there is hardly a township in some sec- tions of the State that does not contain some peat-bogs. When people once learn its value, and more attention is directed to it, it will be found where now it is not expected. One peat-bog on the 310 GEOLOGY. Logan (township 28 north, i and 2 east) is five or six miles in lengths and of variable breadth. I could find no bottom to this bog with a fifteen-foot pole. This peat I personally tested and found to be of excellent quality. In fact, nearly all the peat that I have tested in this State is fully up to the average in quality. A singularly good article is found at Pittsburgh, on the Blue River, where the deposit is also quite extensive. Among the animal remains submitted to- me for examination from this bed was the molar tooth of the gi- gantic beaver (Castor ohioensis), proving that this animal existed in Nebraska in times geologically recent. The most of the peat beds that I have examined seem to have been formed in lakelets that gradually became bogs by an accumulation of vegetable matter de- rived from coarse grasses, sedges, rushes, polygonums, duck- weeds,, pond-weeds, arrow- weed, etc., lilies, etc. Sphagnum which seems to form the mass of organic matter in peat-bogs of granitic and sili- cious districts, only occurs in Nebraska in a bog near Curlew, in Ce- dar County, and one or two other places in the same region. At least I found it nowhere else. Many of these peat-bogs are now so far- advanced as to be dry enough to be wagoned over in midsummer,, but through the middle of which a stream of water is still flowing.. Others have no visible outlet, but retain the water poured into them, when the spring and June rains fall, during the remainder of the year, and thus supply the conditions necessary for the peculiar vegetation of such formations. Sometimes, too, depressions in the surface where peat is forming are supplied with moisture from ever- flowing springs. The beginnings of many of these peat-beds date back at least to the close of the Loess age, so that sufficient time has elapsed for the accumulation of great quantities of this material.. Peat can be cheaply taken out of a bog with a spade, and laid up like cord-wood tinder cover to dry, when it is ready for use. The objections to using it thus prepared is its liability to crumble. Un- fortunately, to prepare it by molding and pressing requires some capital for apparatus, and this is one reason why these beds have not yet been worked. In some places, too, wood-fuel is yet cheap,, and in others coal from abroad is easily obtained, and these causes have also operated to delay the use of peat for fuel. But such treasures cannot remain unused forever. Eventually this peat must be utilized, and if it is cheaply furnished, as it can be, the State will be supplied for a long time from its own territory for manufactur- ing purposes and domestic use, with all the fuel needed. (For an* ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. 311 able discussion of peat in Nebraska, see Hayden's Final Report of Geological Survey of Nebraska, p. 69.) Building S'ones. — In portions of Nebraska building stones are abundant. In the central and western portions of the State they are difficult to obtain, owing to the great thickness of the superfi- cial deposits, which must be removed in order to reach the underly- ing rocks. This is easiest done along the edge of bluffs or ravines, where they are often partially exposed. The Carboniferous section of the State is, on the whole, the rich- est in building stones. Here limestones, silicious limestones, and many kinds of sandstones of all shades and colors abound. In Richardson County there are many fine quarries, and those at Sa- lem are among the best. Here two beds of limestone are exposed, which generally extend under the superficial deposits. These strata are exposed in many other places in this county. In Pawnee County the building stone is still more abundant. Beds from six inches to two feet in thickness crop out on hill-sides in many places. One of the best crops out about eight miles west of Pawnee City» It is cream colored, and soft, but of great tenacity. It is a fusulina limestone, can be worked into any form with ease, and is a great favorite with builders. Hay den regards it as of Permo-Carbonifer- ous age. In Gage County there are various beds of soft, yellow limestone, full of geode cavities, porous and spongy; and also of compact limestone, which are used for building purposes. Johnson County contains a silicious limestone of various thick- ness, which is almost wholly composed of fusulina. The court house in Tecumseh, is constructed of this material. It is exposed at many places along the hillsides, and is easily quarried and worked. In Nemaha and Otoe counties, along the Missouri River, there are various beds of stone that are quarried and used for building. One of these is a limestone, and at Peru it occurs near the top of the bluffs. .Further down at Brownville, there is a bed of limestone three feet thick, of very superior quality for build- ing purposes. Fine-grained, micaceous sandstone that readily cleaves into flags, also exists here. Towards the center of the county some fine quarries have been opened. The church at Feb- ing is an example of the quality of its stone and its fine architectural effect. Similar exposures of rock, suitable for building materials, occur along the Missouri through Otoe and Cass counties. One of the best is below Plattsmouth, on the banks of the Missouri. Here 312 GEOLOGY. are. some of the finest massive limestones in the State. The upper surface, where the superficial deposits aie removed, are worn as smooth as mirrors, and exhibit the parallel striae so characteristic of glacial action. Unfortunately, the great thickness of the superfic- ial deposits here makes these quarries expensive in working. At •La Platte, near the line of the Burlington & Missouri Railroad, there is another remarkable quarry of fine-grained, slightly silicious limestone. It contains innumerable impressions of fusulinas. The government architects selected the stones from this quarry with which to build the United States post-office and court house in Lin- coln. It successfully stood the severest mechanical and chemical tests. Farther up the Platte and on its north side, opposite South Bend, W. B. Stout, Esq., has opened a new quarry during the last year. Here occur several strata of unusually massive limestone, one, of which, eighteen inches thick, is partially oolitic and partly filled with fusulina. Near the middle there is a layer of intensely liard nodules of silicious matter. The limestones in this quarry are of exceptional purity. They take a very fine polish. On the whole, it is the best stone quarry that I have yet visited in the State. Some of the piers in the new railroad bridge at Plattsmouth were constructed of this stone. The contractor' is also using it in the construction of the new capitol wing at Lincoln. Other fine quarries are also opened on the south side of the Platte in strata of a similar character. East of Lincoln, on the Nebraska railroad, at Syracuse and at other points, there are quarries of impure, variously colored limestone of considerable thickness, from which immense quantities of building stones have been obtained. From these quarries and from similar ones on the Atchison & Nebraska Rail- road, a little southeast of Lincoln, the*stones were quarried for the State penitentiary. The Cretaceous rocks of Nebraska also furnish a large quantity of excellent building stone. Those of the Dakota Group are mostly silicious. They are of all shades of yellow and brown, sometimes approaching to a cream color and white. They furnish the hardest and the softest stone in the State. The softer varieties are unfit for building stone. Large quantities, however, are a medium between the two extremes, and are very valuable for smaller structures, owing to the ease with which they can be quarried and dressed. In Dakota County, in this. group, occurs the intensely hard quartz- ite which has been used in Sioux City, Iowa, for the foundation of ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. 313 some of their largest brick blocks. The best quarry of it that I have examined is that of Hon. J. Warner in Dakota County. This group also furnishes building stones in portions of Dixon, Burt, Dodge, Washington, Saunders, Lancaster and Gage Counties. The rocks of the Niobrara Group which occur above those last mentioned are mostly limestone more or less pure. One of its beds called from the abundance of its fossils the Inoceramus bed, often breaks up into flagging stone. It forms good building materials, is easily worked, and is capable of resisting great pressure. Along the Missouri it is first seen on the hill tops in Dakota County, and increases in thickness northward and westward. It extends in a southwestern direction across the State into Kansas. Over the In- oceramus beds in Cedar and Knox counties, there is an immense thickness of massive chalk rock. In a few places it is almost as pure as the chalk of commerce. It varies in color from light blue, and the various shades of yellow, to almost white. It can be easily sawed and planed into any shape. Though soft, it does not disin- tegrate on exposure, but appears when exposed to grow harder with age. Some houses built of it on the Santee Agency in Knox County, twenty years ago, show no sign of crumbling. Some equally old houses, built of this chalk rock, in Yankton, D. T., are still intact. The various rocks of the Niobrara Group furnish build- ing materials in Cedar, Knox, Wayne, Cuming, Colfax, Stanton, Butter, Saunders, Seward, Jefferson, Nuckolls, Webster, Franklin, and some other counties. West of the Cretaceous deposits the Tertiary beds occupy the State to its very borders. The superficial deposits here generally conceal the rocks, but as already observed where they are exposed, there are some silicious beds, and silicates of lime that answer for foundation stone. This is notably the case along the Republican River and its tributaries, and on some of the tributaries of the Loup and the Niobrara. But this section of the State has not yet been sufficiently explored to indicate sharply where building stones may be found. LIME AND HYDRAULIC CEMENT. As already stated, limestone is abundant in the Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous measures of the State. The Niobrara Group also furnishes an unlimited supply of it. A curious phenom- enon of the limestone of the Carboniferous and Permo-Carbonifer- ous, is that nearly all of it is more or less hydraulic. This is proba- 314 • GEOLOGY. bly owing to the presence of greater or less quantities of carbonate of magnesia, and a little alumina. In some sections the hydraulic limestone is of very good quality. At Beatrice its manufacture was for some time conducted, but owing to various causes it has been temporarily suspended. All the work done with this cement has stood the test of time. Owing to inadequate appliances it was not sufficiently pulverized, but that defect will be remedied when its manufacture will be resumed. This will probably be done during the coming season. Sooner or later it must become an important industry of the place and the State. Btick Clay of good quality exists in every part of the State. The Loess deposits which are so widely distributed over the State fur- nish it in abundance. The only precaution needed is to select it where there are no concretions of lime. Beneath the Loess and the adjoining drift in many places is a greater or less thickness of clay of glacial age that makes first-class brick. There are also oc- casional strata in the alluviums of the river bottoms that furnish brick clay in abundance. fire Clay is also abundant. It underlies and sometimes overlies the thin beds of coal in southeastern Nebraska, and is found at long intervals in other sections of the State. Potters1 Clay is occasionally found in the alluvium. Informer years a bed was worked on the Missouri bottom, east of Dakota City. The best now known or worked is located at Louisville, in. Cass County. The following is a section: 1. Loess ,.;.'. .-..> 3 feet. 2. Ked rock ; Dakota Group < 2 to 3 " 3. Potters' clay, of greyish white color, with streaks of pure white sand from one to eight inches thick 20 " The bottom of this clay has not yet been reached. Three miles east of this bed another occurs of which the following is a section: 1 . Black soil 2 feet, 2. Bluish potters' clay .with lime concretions towards the top 12 " One mile and a half northeast of the first another bed occurs. The following is a section : 1. Black soil 5 inches. 2. Reddish earth 18 " 3. Potters' clay, exposed 6 feet. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. 315 A fine article of stone pottery is now turned out at this place which, because of its excellence, has a large sale. The third sec- tion now furnishes the greater part of the clay that is used in the manufacture of pottery. It is not quite so light colored as that from the first, but fewer cracks occur in burning. Similar beds- that can be utilized in this way no doubt occur elsewhere in the huge beds of blue clay that abound in the State. Kaolin has been reported from various parts of the State. The best that I have seen is that from Webster County, and from Louisville, in Cass County, on the line of the Burlington & Mis souri Railroad. The latter is in conjunction with the potters' clay- already spoken of. From its chemical constitution it will no doubt stand the test of expeiience. Gypsum (sulphate of lime) exists in many places in the Cretace- ous measures of the State. In Northern Nebraska, and especially in Dakota, Dixon, Cedar and Knox Counties, along the Missouri bluffs, there are innumerable crystals in leaf-like forms. Often they assume the shape of a cross. No other localities in the Union furnish more beautiful forms. Generally they are transparent,, though occasionally coated with oxides of iron. In the Fort Pierre Group, exposed on the hill tops near the town of Niobrara, and on the Republican, these crystals glimmer in the distance, and have ^iven the name of Shining Hills to the country further up the Missouri. Mineral Paint — Ochre. — Along the Missouri from Plattsmouth to Brownville, and further down, there are immense deposits of mineral paint, or ochre. It is of different hues — dull red, various shades of brown, yellow, and other colors, according to the amount of iron that is present. Some of the beds are from three to five feet thick, and of as fine a quality as any in the market. There are also large beds of ochre in the Cretaceous deposits along the Re- publican and on the Missouri in northwestern Nebraska. As flax culture is one of the most successful industries in the State, because of the ease with which it is grown and its superior quality, the manufacture of mineral paint can be inaugurated on a large and profitable scale, especially as oil mills and white lead works are in- successful operation in Omaha. Silica. — Although silica is one of the most abundant of minerals, it is rarely found in so fine a state as in some sections of Nebraska- Some most remarkable deposits of it exist along the Republican* 316 GEOLOGY. These are often in combination with alkalies, and have already "been discussed in the chapter on the Pliocene. Fine beds also exist -on the Loup, Elkhorn, Logan, and Oak Creek. The great beds of sand on the Platte contain some organic matter, and the sand itself is contaminated more or less with iron, which is the character of many other deposits in the State. The beds on the Elkhorn above West Point are noteworthy for their purity. The drift in -many places abounds in beds of pure sand, and the principal diffi- culty in obtaining it comes from the thickness of the overlying Loess. In the Pliocene Tertiary region where cuts, ravines or bluffs exist, all grades from very fine to coarse can readily be ob- tained. Lithographic Stone, of Upper Carboniferous age, exists near Syra- cuse, in Otoe County. It is of medium quality. The extent of the deposit has not yet been ascertained, but the indications are that it may be sufficient to make it of mercantile importance. Iron Ores have not yet been found in beds thick enough to work. The limenite of the Dakota Group, which is the best ore in the State so far as known, occurs only in thin layers of a few inches in thickness. Zinc and Lead are frequently found in small quantities, but no- where yet has enough been obtained to justify extensive prospect- ing. The geological indications are not favorable for their presence in large quantities any where in the State. Gold in minute quantities is occasionally found in the sands of the Platte, Nebraska, and other^ streams. But as our geological formations are all more recent than those producing gold, we have no scientific reason to suspect its existence within our borders. The .minute quantities along our river beds no doubt came from the mountains by drift agencies. Marl Beds are exceedingly abundant in some sections of West- ern Nebraska. They are specially characteristic of the Tertiary deposits, and vary a great deal in character and in appearance. The dominant colors are greenish, yellowish, and whitish. They .are beautifully exposed on the driftwood south of Culbertson, close by the river bank. Here there are sections of marl exposed, from four to eight feet in thickness, and of green and yellow color. The green marls are specially rich in potash and iron, and their various -compounds. Similar beds are found in many other places along the Republican and its tributaries as far as to the western line of the ECONOMICAL, GEOLOGY. 317 State. They are also common on the Niobrara, on tributaries of the Loup, and in other sections. As the sands of New Jersey have been fertilized, and in many places transformed into gardens by marl beds, so can the occasionally excessively sandy tracts of West- ern Nebraska also be changed into rich lands when once the needs of population make it necessary. Salt in large quantities exists in a few sections of the State. In Lancaster County there are a number of salt marshes, the one near Lincoln covering about six hundred acres. There are a number of smaller ones near by. They are nearly level and in dry weather are covered with incrustations of salt. They are mostly destitute of vegetation. Fine sand and loam comprise the soil, underlaid, however, by the reddish sandstones of the Dakota Group. In the deposits of this marsh, and all the others that I have visited, are the bones of elk, deer, antelope and buffalo, which no doubt were mired in past times when they resorted here for salt. Over this marsh the water oozes up at innumerable places, and great quanti- ties of it flow off into Salt Creek. Wherever I have tested it the brine contained within a fraction of ten per cent of salt. Oftener more than less. Much of the brine over this marsh that has stood for days and partly evaporated, contains from twenty to thirty per cent of salt. A number of vats have been constructed here and the manufacture of salt is carried on on a small scale. The business is capable of immense development. Artesian wells that have been put down at and near this place have struck brine at different depths, the saltiness varying from five to twenty per cent. The well on the Government Square is one thousand and fifty feet deep. It passed through various strata which furnished brine and mineral waters of remarkable quality. The mingling together of all the streams that flowr constantly from this well, furnishes a mineral water which for efficacy in healing some kind of diseases, is be- lieved not to be surpassed by any medicinal waters of the land. At the Commercial Hotel, in Lincoln, this artesian water is employed in giving Turkish and other baths. Remarkable cures have already been performed through its agency. In northwestern Nebraska, beyond the head-waters of the Elk- horn, there is another region of salt springs and marshes far more extensive than the one in Lancaster County. Unfortunately it is beyond the railroad lines, and in a sparsely settled region. It has not yet been thoroughly explored. In various other places brine 318 GEOLOGY. has been found in boring for fresh water. There is no doubt, if the •saline resources of the State were developed, the home supply would be abundant for ages. Artesian Wells. — The artesian wells now flowing in Lincoln, and the one in successful operation in Omaha, are demonstrations of the ease with they can be obtained. The former is over 1,000 and the latter 750 feet deep. Water, however, flowing to the surface was first obtained in the former at a depth of 550 feet. The geological structure of the State is most favorable for obtaining water in almost every quarter of it, and eventually it will be found that artesian wells will supply an immense amount of the cheapest motive power. It can be run into huge reservoirs, and let fall from heights sufficient to propel large water wheels. Their value in the interior for watering stock and other purposes wTill be incalculable. OF THE UNIVERSITY APPENDIX. The following are the most important works hitherto published giving an account of or referring to the natural history of Nebraska: 1. Lewis and Clarke's Expedition to the Head Waters of the Missouri, 1 804-1 80G. 2. Explorations of Fremont, 1842 and subsequently. 3. Reports of the Union Pacific Railroad Surveying Expeditions from 1853 to 1856. 4. Geological Report of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, by David Dale Owen, 1852. Contains some descriptions of vertebrates from the Bad Lands and of Carboniferous fossils. 5. Swallow's Reports on Fossils of the Carboniferous Deposits. <>. Geinitz's (Dresden) Carboniferous and Dyas of Nebraska, 18G6. 7. Marcou's Report on Carboniferous of Nebraska, Bull., Geol., Soc. France; second series, volume 21. 8. Hayden's Report fo- 1867, 1868, and 1869. 9. Hayden's Report for 1870. 10. Hayden's Final Report, 1872. CRETACEOUS GEOLOGY. 11. Hayden's papers in American Journal of Science and Arts from 1863 to 1807. 12. O. Heer's (Switzerland) Phyllites du Nebraska, 1865. 13. Some Cretaceous Fossil Plants of Nebraska, by Lesquereux, 1868. 14. Newberry's Late Extinct Floras of North America, Lyceum of Natural History of New York, 1868. 15. Lesquereux's Cretaceous Flora, 1874. This work contains all the descriptions of Cretaceous leaves from Nebraska, Kansas, etc., previously published. 16. Cretaceous Vertebrata, E. D. Cope, volume 2, 1875. Though describ- ing mainly from Niobrara Group of Kansas, its descriptions are good for many forms from the same horizon in Nebraska. 17. E. B. Meek's Invertebrate Paleontology of the Cretaceous of the North- west; volume 9. TERTIARY GEOLOGY. 18. Leidy's Ancient Fauna of Nebraska. Smithsonian publication, 1852. 18. Leidy's Mammalian Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska; 1879, published by the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; volume 7, second series. 20. Tertiary Flora, by Lesquereux; 1878, volume 5. 21. Superficial Deposits of Nebraska, by S. A.; 1874. 320 APPENDIX. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY. 22. Birds of the Northwest, Coues; 1874. 23. Faunal List and Natural Food of tbe Birds of Nebraska, by S. A. ; 1877. 24. Report of U. S. Entomological Commission ; 1877. 25. Catalogue of the Flora of Nebraska, by S. A., published by the Univers- ity of Nebraska; 1875. 26. Catalogue of Land and Fresh Water Shells of Nebraska, by S. A ; Bul- letin of Geological Surveys of the Territories, 1876. Of the above publications the following numbers were published under the direction of the Hayden Surveys, by authority of the government, namely; Numbers 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 26. INDEX. PAGE PAGE" Agates 257 Birds, butcher bird .... . 123 Alga', fresh water, S3 k 4 fly catchers .... . 124 Alkali lands, 301 j '4 gallinaceous .... . 1 25 4 4 analysis of . . 301 4 4 grackles . 124 4 4 origin of .... 301 44 gulls ...... . 126. kk how best cultivated 301 44 hummingbirds . 1 "5 Alkaline character of Pliocene lake . 251 kt long- winged swimmers . matter beneath Loess . 261 " meadow larks '. 124 Alluvium ....... 262 44 mockingbirds 2!»3 ' k night hawks .... 1 23 . 125 Amphibians 128 44 orioles ..... . 124 Analysis of alkaline beds beneath Loess . 262 4k perchers .... . 123 44 alluvium .... 269 tk piccariaii .... . 125 flour-like polishing powder in 4 4 pigeons . 1:5 Pliocene .... 240 '<• hinging . 123 4 4 Loess 267 44 starlings .... . 124 44 Missouri River sediment 281 4 k sparrows .... . 124 4 4 water 74 kk swallows .... . 123 4 ' silicious matter beneath Loess 262 kk thrushes .... . 123 Anemones 78 '4 totipalmate .... . 126 Animal Hie during Tertiary ages 247 44 vireos . 123 Antelope, pronghorn, number of 118 4k wading . 125 Appalachian revolution . . . 171 1-171 44 warblers .... . 1 23 4 4 chain 209 ' 4 k woodpeckers .... . 125 44 region ..... 162 ' 4 wrens . 12* Appendix 319 Bishoff's analysis of Loess . 267 Archajan highlands K.l Bisons in tlie Pliocene . 'J4U Area of Nebraska 3 Bison latifrons . 259 Artesian borings in Laramie Group . 2o:) Blackberries, wild .... . 102 4 4 Lincoln 166 Black-haws . 104 k 4 4 ' Omaha 166 i Blue clay, analysis of ... 255 Artesian well in Beatrice and Omaha 55 4 * character of .' 254 44 k 4 Lincoln .... 54 4 k extent of . . . . . 254 44 4 4 k 4 chemical consti- 44 glacial origin of of water 150 4 4 section of ... . 253 4 4 wells .... Arickeree, Pliocene beds on 318 Blue Rivers, length and character of 238 Bogs, peat . H5. . 31 1> Asthmatic subjects cured in Nebraska 147 Bony fishes . 1 2!) Atmosphere, a motive power . 151 Bottom lands • 4 purity and clearness of 31 4 k analysis of soil . • . 2!!0: Authorities on Nebraska Geology and Bottom river of issouri Valley . 291 Natural History 319 44 of Platte Valley . . 2'.«4 Bad Lands ...... V> '4 how recent Iv formed . 2! '5' agricultural character 303 Bow Rivers (il 44 geological 44 303 Broadliead, opinion on coal . 165 of F..rt Bridget- . 215 Brick clay . S14 44 of Miocene age . . 222 -224 Buckwheat family • N2 Bathmodontidaee 218 Buffalo berry . . 105 Batrachians, tailed Beatrice, hydraulic limestone at 12!) Buffalo grass disappearance of 314 44 in Nebraska . 114 . 42 Beetle, cottomvood leaf .... 134 Buffaloes, number of in Nebraska . 117 Big Horn Mountains .... 2(i() Bulletins of Nebraska Weather Service Birds, fossil in Pliocene beds . 242 26-27-28 •. 4 reptilian in Niobrara Group . 195 Cactus family 79 4 modern ...... 122 Calcareous materials in Drift . 261 Anserine 126 Camel family in Miocene . 22 7 4 carnivorous ..... 125 Canon City, reptilian remains at . 176 ' chimney swallows .... 125 Canons »f Nebraska .... 14-15 crow family 124 Carboniferous age .... . 1 6-1 k diving birds 1-7 k' 44 animal life of . 168 4 belted kingfisher .... 1 25 4 4 close of . 17t 4 buntings . . . ... 124 ' 44 features of . . 167 1A 322 INDEX. PAGE . 165 163-164 . 164 . >J13 . 168 Carboniferous age, fossils of 44 4 4 rocks of 4 4 sections of rocks 4 4 rocks for building 44 age, vegetation of Carnivora in Nebraska 4 4 of Fort Bridger Eocene . 44 of Miocene Cat family in Miocene 4 4 in Pliocene Cats, father of Charts of rainfall .... Chalk bluffs 4 ' rocks from, for building Cherries, wild Childs, Dr., meteorological tables of 20-'21-22-23 Chinch bug, history of etc. Climate of Carboniferous age . 44 future effect in Nebraska 4 4 extreme effects in Nebraska Climatic conditions in Quaternary . 44 44 Lyell 's theory . 44 44 Croll's and Geike's theories Climatology of Nebraska .... Ckouds, sharp outlines of .... Coal, artesian borings for 44 fields of TriaJuro deposits . 44 in Carboniferous of Nebraska 44 in Cretaceous of Nebraska 44 in Lincoln artesian boring 41 in Upper Carboniferous . Colorado Group, how formed, by King . 44 Range, Pliocene beds of . Columbine Composite family Conglomerate of Pliocene beds Consumption discussed .... Convolvulus family » Convulsive movements in Pliocene '229 2-'» 246 '219 37 1K8 313 100 170 154 149 305 306 307 PAGE Dinosaurs 176 44 in Niobrara Group . . .195 4 ' in Laramie Group . . . '205 Dinocerata 217 Divide between Missouri and Mississippi . 235 . 230-247 . 70 255-256--2S7 m . '256 . ' . 257 119 I Dog family 219 Drainage, general character of Drift materials mingled with alluvi 4 4 sections of Eaton on coal in Lincoln . . . .166 Eccentricity, the earth's changes of . 307 Economic geology 39 Ehrenberg .... 4)-l«})-210 Elevation of towns and stations in Ne- braska 6 Elevation, average of east half of State . 9 4 4 of west half of State . 9 4 4 of going west . . 9 44 4 4 of whole State . . 9-70 Elkhorn River, where it rises, length, character and tributaries . Elevation of Pliocene beds p]lephants, earliest forms of 4 4 in Pliocene .... 17 Elk, numbers of, etc ..... 32 Emmons, Prof., analysis of Missouri wa- 167 | ter ....... 63 234 217 •244 118 Endlich, Prof., analysis of geyserite, by Enemies to injurious insects . . Eocene Epoch 44 groups of 73 241 135 21 D 211 life of . 212-21 3-21 4-21 5 " length of . . 216-21 8-etc Epoch, Niobrara ..... 187 " Miocene ..... 221 Erie clays ....... "254 Cope. Prof. lJ»0-192-19i--2l7-219-226-2oO Cottonwood leaf beetle . . . . 134 , Coyote 119 i Cretaceous deposits represented . . 178 j 44 divisions . . . 179 S ' ' groups in Colorado . • 180 " period 178 44 close of . . 207 Crinoids 169 Crocodile in Green River beds . . . 215 Crowfoo family 78 Croxton's artesian boring . . . 165 Crustacians of Carboniferous Age . . 170 Curlew spring at 150 Currants, wild 1(,3 Curves dominant form of surface . . 5 Cycads 176 Dakota Group, climate of epoch . . 186 " discussions in regard to . 182 extent of . . . .181 " flora accounted for . .186 flora disconnected . .185 " first published reports of 184 how recognized . 172-176 Lesquereux's report on . 185 4 ' opinions of Marco u and Capellini . . .182 origin of . . . .1*1 ' ' source of salt at Lincoln . 55 shallow sea deposit . . 182 Dams, how best built . . . .69 Dawn horse 213 Deer number of species in Nebraska . 118 Destructive climates 149 Devonian age 162 Des Moines River coal beds . . 162-163 Erickson on solar engines Erosion during the Miocene Estimates comparative of rainfall with other regions Europe, rainfall of Evaporation from rivers of Nebraska Experiments on absorptive power of soils Fauna of Nebraska Ferns Ferret, black-footed . Figwort family Fire clay, where found, etc. Fishes, bony 44 cartilagenous . Flora of Nebraska, general character of 44 4 4 origin of 44 Eocene 4 4 Miocene 152 '.''23 39 40 47 45 117 88 119 80 314 129 130 77 . 115 212-214 . 225 Pliocene 241 Floras, Gray's Manual, Wood's Class Book Flowerless plants Flowering plants of Lignitic Flood-plains of Nebraska rivers Fly, Hessian .... Forest trees of Nebraska 77 89 204 282 133 84 Forest bed. old 258 ' 4 " 4 4 vegetation of . . . 259 Forests formerly and now of Nebraska . 84 44 of Jurassic period . . .177 Food, kind of in rural districts . . 149 Fort Bentou Group where found . . 187 ' ' how originated . 187 " " length of epoch . 187 " life of . . .187 Fort Bridger Group 215 44 animal remains . 216 Fort Pierre Group 197 41 4 4 ' gypsum in • .198 sea . . . .198 INDEX. 323 PAGE Fort Pierre Group, life of ... 199 4 ' 4 4 how closed . . -200 Foxes 119 Fox Hills Group 200 4 4 not found in Nebraska . 200 ' ' vegetable remains of . 201 ' ' animal life of . . . 201 Fremont on Buffalo grass • . .42 Fruit destroyers 1 33 Fruits, wild, of Nebraska ... 97 Gentian family 81 Geometrical forms of surface ... 5 Geike James, on origin of till . . . 254 Gervais M. of France .... 246 Gigantic reptiles 177 Glacial Drift, second appearance of . 209 44 period . 253 44 " sections of . . . . 253 44 " scratches of on rock . . 253 Glaciers, local during Terrace Epoch . 2.42 Gold 316 Gooseberries 103 Gophers 120-121 Grapes, where finest flourish . . • . 25 wild 104 44 summer, etc 104 Grasses, wild 108 analysis of 109 4* Buffalo disappearance of . .114 Griffith Mountain 51 Group, Dakota 181 4 ' Fox Hills 200 44 Fort Benton . . . . - . 187 44 Fort Pierre 197 44 Laramie 201 4 ' Loup Fork 2*3 Green River Group, flora of . . 203-214 41 animal life . . 215 Grinnell Laud, former climate of . . 3t>6 Gumbo soil, analysis of .... 302 G-uyot's table of rainfall .... 40 Hares 122 Harlan County, character of Pliocene . _'o7 Hard pan . , 3n-> 41 analysis of 3u2 Hawn, Prof 182 Hawthorns . . . . . . ],«•_> Hazel nuts . . . . . .108 Hay den quoted, etc. . 178-181-188-208=224-244 Healthfulness of Nebraska . . 145 Heat, amount received from the sun . 308 Hessian fly, habits of. etc. . . . 133 Heer, Prof. O. ... 183-225-242 Honeysuckle family 80 Hoofed animals . . . . . 213 Horse family in Miocene .... 226 in Pliocene . . .243 Humboldt quoted 4J Humidity, annual and mean . . .86 Huronian rocks 161 Hydraulic limestone , 313 Hieroglyphic on boulder . . . .256 Ice sheet — retreating .... 263 Impurities of water, source of . . 72 Increasing rainfall 43 Indigo plant 79 Insectivora 122 Insect life, number of species, etc. . 131 j Insect, material conditions in relation to 135 Insects, enemies to .... 135 Infusorial earth in the Pliocene . . 238 Iris family . . . . .82 Iron ores 318 | Isotherm summer of 72 ° , 76 c . . 25 Isochimal, winter of 20° . . . 25 I June berry 102 June rains . 34 PAGE . 173 . 173 . 174 . 177 259-293 . 314 Jurassic deposits absent in Nebraska Juro-Trio period Jurassic beds, where found Jurassic period, close of . Kames Kaolin Keya Paha River .... King, Clarence . 1 74-198-2 15-249-etc. Labyrinths on the Niobrara ... 13 Lake Bonneville 262 Lake Lahontan . . . 263 Lake, Miocene . ... 222 Lakes, number and extent in Nebraska . 52 Laramie Group ...... 201 animal life of . . . 204 area of ... 202 coal beds of ... 203 sediments of . . . 201 44 vegetable life of . . 203 Lancaster County, section in . . . 257 Larkspur . 78 Laurentian rocks . ... 161 Lava Hood at close of Miocene . . . 231 Lead ... ... 318 Leidy, Dr. . 1 91-215-221-236-244-25 7-etc. Lesquereux, quoted . 184-203-214-etc. Level, changes of during Loess period . 282 Lewis and Clarke . . . . . 203 4 4 on buffalo grass . 42 44 44 on temperature of Mis- souri .... 48 Lily family 82 Limestone 313 Lithographic stone . ... 316 Lobelia family . 80 Locusts, egg laying . ... 138 departure of swarms . .139 destructiveness of . . 139 future depredations of . .143 how to combat them . . 140 hatching of . . .139 invasions of ... 143 invertebrate enemies of . . 142 nativity of . . 136 nature's method to destroy . 141 numbers that light down . . 187 spring history and migration . 187 vertebrate enemies of . . 143 Loess deposits, and period of . . . 265 4 4 analysis of ... 267 adaptability to fruit . 271 architectural properties . 2d9 causes of peculiarities . 270 • 4 close of period . . 286 human remains in . . 283 4 4 length of ... 283 44 life of .... 284 mollusks of ... 287 physical properties of . 267 river sediments of . . 281 Rhine Loess, analysis of 267 44 Richthof en's theory con- sidered . . .273 4 4 scenery of ... 272 4 4 true origin of . . . 280 Logan River, character of, etc. . . 64 Loup River, head waters of . . 15 4 • origin of, etc. ... 66 Lyell's theory on changes of climate . 306 Mallows . ..... 78 Mammals, wild of Nebraska . . . 117 44 of Eocene . . . 213 4 4 of Vermillion Group . . 213 Manual of Economic Entomology needed 136 Marl beds ... . 316 Marsh . . . 191-194-213-243-245-etc. Mastodon of Pliocene . . . 244, 324 INDEX. PAGE McGee, W. G 264 Meek, opinions of on Nebraska Geology 162-164-179 Mediteranean sea during Cretaceous 209 Mesozoic times in Nebraska . . 173-1!>7 Mexico, Gulf of source of moisture 47 Mice . . . 121-122 Microscopic infusorial earth . . . 239 Milkweed family . 82 Mint family 81 Miocene Epoch, bad lands of . . . 224 ' ' camel family in . . 227 4 ' carnivora of. . . 228 ' * close of . . . . 231 deposits of ... 223 elephants of . . .227 extent of lakes of . 222 flora of . . . . 225 horse family in . . 220 inauguration of . 221 ' ' length of ... 223 ' ' life, animal of . . 225 Missouri River, at close of Loess period . 282 character of . 58-56 " character during Loess period . . 282 sediments analyzed . 281 ' ' valley different from Mis- sissippi . . . .155 ' ' traffic on . . . .58 Moisture in atmosphere .... 34 " relative amount . 35 ' ' how much absorbed by the soil . 45 Mollusks, land and fresh water . . 144 ' ' in Lignitic deposits . . . 205 " of Carboniferous age . .169 Monkeys, earliest of .... 21!> ' ' of the Miocene . . . 290 Monchat's solar engine . . » . 152 Mosses 83 Mountain horse .... 21 7 ' k regions, supposed drying up of 49 Mudge, Prof 183-238 Mulberry, wild . . . 117 Muskrat 122 Nebraska affected by the precipitation in the mountains . . . .49 Nebraska a health resort, .... 150 ' ' future of the race in . . 153 ' ' partly a land surface in Miocene 224 " reserve and now wasted forces of 151 " sun power in . . . 151-153 " what to be expected from its people . . 155 " when second time a land surface 208 Nemaha, noted character, character of, etc 64 Neuralgia, cause of in Nebraska . . 148 Newberry 263 Night-shade family . ... 81 Niobrara Group, animal life of . .189 " birds of . . 195 fossil wood of . . 1 89 fishes of ... 200 reptiles in . . .191 vegetable life of . .189 ' ' vigorous life of . ] 96 Niobrara River, exposures of Miocene on 222 ' ' region, exceptional fea- tures of ... 13 region, exceptional mete- orological conditions of 38-39 source, elevation above the sea, length, canons of, tributaries, etc 61 Niobrara and Loup, character of Pliocene 236 North Park, Pliocene lake . . . 233 PAGE Nuts . 107 Oak Creek, section of blue clay on . . 253 Ochre . . . . .315 Orchis family 82 Oreodons . . ... 245-22$ Owen, Prof R D 194 Oysters in Lignitic Group . . . 205 « lysters in Niobrara Group . . 190 Ozone in atmosphere . . . 32-146 Paint, mineral .... 315 Palmer, Captain, owner of molar of mas- todon 244 Papaw 107 Parasite, insect 135 | Paris, rainfall of 40 Peak-toothed animals . . . .213 Peat 309 Peat, extent and character of . . 3C9-3IO Penstemons . 80 Perchers . . . 123 Permian Age, character of its rocks . 172 " how caused, effects . . 171 '.' last portion lost . .172 " where its deposit occurs . 171 Petrified wood in Pliocene . . . 241 " " in Drift .... 257 Pine forests formerly in Nebraska . . 3(4 Pink family 78 Planting of trees, supposed effect on rain- fall ....... 44 Plant lice, habits, increase, etc . .133 Platte drainage into Republican . . 59 " length, origin, character . 58-59 ' ' North Fork of, level of, etc. . . 59 ' ' temperature of waters at its mouth and at North Platte . . 49 Pliocene Epoch, analysis of geysers . 280 animal life of . .242 ' ' beds conformable to Mi- ocene .... 233 " birds of . . . . 2-12 " bisons in ... 246 " calcareous character of . 238 " camels in . . . 245 cat family . . . 246 ' ' close of . . . 249 dog family . . . 247 elephants in . . . 244 1 ' elevation of . . . 234 extinct geysers in . . 239 favorable conditions for animal life in . . 247 ' ' horse family in . . 243 how inaugurated . . 232 ' ' lake, eastward barren of 234 length of ... 241 materials of in Nebraska 235 ' ' Oreodons . . . 245 " origin of the above . 2o9 picture of, character of 247 * ' polishing powder, infuso- rial earth, geyser flo- cula .... 238 Rhionoseros in . . 244 ruminants in . . . '245 11 thickness of . . . 233 section of . . 23U-237 " vegetable life of . . 241 Pliocene lake, where perpetuated . . 299 Plum, ground . . . . 78 " wild of Nebraska . . . .97 Polemonium family . . . . .81 Polishing powder in Pliocene . . . 239 ' ' origin of ... 239 " section of bed . . 239 Pouillet's solar physics .... 151 Position of Nebraska . . . 3 INDEX. 325 PAGE Potters' clay, where found, and analysis of 314 Prairie, its natural compactness . . 44 44 clover 79 " dogs 120 Pulse family 78 Quaternary Age, changes of climate in . 306 periods of . 253-265-291 ' 4 inauguration of . . 253 Rabbits 122 Raccoons 119 Race, probable future of in Nebraska . 153 Rain, when most apt to fall . . 47 Rainfall, areas of equal . . . 36-37-38 4 • average amount of . . 35-36 ' ' cause of increasing ... 44 44 increasing . . 41-43 ' ' increase in west Nebraska . . 46 4 4 originating from rivers . . 48 west of 100th "Meridian . . 35 Rainy season 84 Rapid Creek 62 Raspberries 102 Rats 121 Reptiles in Niobrara Group . . .191 Republican River origin of, etc. . . 63 Resume of geological history . . . 262 Revolution, geological at close of Laramie Group . 207 Rheumatism in Nebraska .... 48 Rhinoceros in Pliocene . . . .244 Richthofen's theory on origin of Loess . 273 what it explains . 274 4 4 objections to 274-275-276-etc. 44 his assumed absence of shells . .278 his assumed absence of stratification . 279 Rivers of Nebraska ..... 56 Roads, nature of Nebraska ... 70 Rocky Mountains, when formed, etc. . 208 Rose 'family 79 Ruminating hogs — oreodons — in Miocene . 228 Sable American 119 Saline Springs, where located ... 53 Salt 316 Salt Creek, name, character of. etc. . 55 Sand Hill cherry . . . .99 Sand Hills, area of 298 4 4 character of . . . . 298 ' 4 cultivation of . . . . 300 4 4 location and description of . 15 origin of .... 299 4 4 where located . . . .297 Saurians 127 Scott's Bluffs, Pliocene origin of . . 236 Sections, geological 164-236-237-239-253- 25 8-260-2 61-262-2 67-2 76-2 79-281-292-317 Section showing potters' clay . . 314 Sediment of Missouri River water 73-74 Sensitive River 79 Sharks of Niobrara Group . . . 191 Shell bark hickory 107 Showers in spring ..... 34 4 4 on Niobrara . 39 Shrubs, list of in Nebraska . . 91 i Silica 315 ! Silting up of river beds . . . . 292 j Sioux Lake 228 j Skunks . 120 i Snakes in Nebraska 128 , Soap plant 83 Springs, appearance of new ... 41 Springs on Niobrara . ... 13 4 ' where found .... 63 Spurge family 82 2A PAGE Stanton, Captain W. S., TJ. S. A. . 39-65 Strawberries, wild 201 Stone, building . . . .311 Stout, W. B , stone quarry of . . . 312 Streams, increasing size of in Nebraska . 42 Subsidence of Basin region . .' . 233 4 4 of Pliocene lake . . . 235 Superficial deposits . . . 253-265-291 Surface deposits, fuel in . . . . 304 Swift, the 119 Swallows 182-161-162 Squirrels 120 Tables of annual and mean humidity . 35 44 of temperature 18-19-20-21-22-23-24 Temperature above 100° in ten years . 23 below /ero .... 22 different estimates of . 17 extremes of ... 29 mean of years . . .21 ' 4 for the seasons . 25-28 4 4 for the whole year . 29 of the Missouri ... 74 of the Platte ... 75 of the Missouri and its effect on evaporation . . 48 44 tables .... 18-19 Terrace Epoch 291 44 in Europe .... 292 Terraces, number and height of . . 293 Tertiary ages, their character and condi- tion 248 44 epoch . . 209-221-223-etc. 4 4 general remarks on . . 252 Thompson, S. R., head of Nebraska weather service 26 Timber in modern geological times . . 304 Titanotheriums 226 Tortoises in Nebraska . . . .127 4 4 in Niobrara Group . . . 194 4 4 in Pliocene beds . . . 242 Transition bed between Eocene and Mio- cene 220 Transition period between Cretaceous and Tertiary 207 Trees covered by alluvium . . .297 4 4 increase of young in Colorado . 51 4 4 supposed dying out of in the moun- tains 50 Triassic deposits absent from Nebraska . 173 Trio-Juro Periods 173 44 animal life of . .176 deposits of . . .174 length of . . .174 4 4 vegetable life of . .175 Trilobites of Carboniferous . . .170 Uintah Group 220 44 animal life of . . . 220 Uintah Range, Avhen formed . . . 207 Valleys, how to gain a conception of the number 12 Vegetation, changing character of . . 42 Verbenas 81 Vertebrate fauna of Nebraska . . . 117 Vermillion Group— Eocene . . . 212 44 life of . . . .212- Violets 78 Von Meyer 194 Walnut, black 107 44 white .... 84-88 Warner, Hon. J. T 189 44 4 4 stone quarry of . 312 Warren, Lieutenant, discovery by . . 235 Water, character of in Nebraska . . 71 4 4 river, character of the Bow . 7S 4 4 Niobrara . 75 44 44 4l Republican 75 44 4 4 4 4 Missouri . 74 326 INDEX. PAGE Water, river, character of the Platte 75 Waters of Nebraska .... 52 Wayne Count}', how affected by the Lo- gan River 64 Weasels 119 Wells, artesian and common . . 54 Western Nebraska, future increase of rainfall 48 WildCat 119 Wind, direction and force of, table . 24 PAGE White, Dr. . . . 162-163-165-178 White River, character of, etc. . 62-63 Winds of Nebraska . 30 Winter, storms of . 30 Wood chucks . . . 120 Wolverines ... . . 120 Wolves, number of, etc. . . 119 Worm, army ... .133 Zinc 316 RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW MAY 4 1993 LD 21-100m-7,'40( 6936s) 101283