" oh by SE Wenner yd LH mae DM i. a 7 Lin LJ Hphy Ma Mx Fic. 4.—Head and mouth parts of a female mosquito. A-F, H, I, Aedes aegypti (L.) ; G, Anopheles maculipennis Meigen. A, head and proboscis, anterior. B, same, posterior. C, base of proboscis, clypeus, and associated structures, left side. D, head and proboscis. E, same, stylets separated from labium. F, distal end of labium, anterior. G, cross section of proboscis (from Vogel, 1921). H, distal parts of stylets. I, basal parts of maxilla. J, musculature of a maxilla, diagrammatic. Ap, maxillary apodeme; at, anterior tentorial pit; Clp, clypeus; cs, coronal sulcus; E, compound eye; fc, food canal; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hst, hypostoma; Lb, labium; Lbl, labellum; LG, labial gutter; Lig, ligula; Lm, labrum; mel, labellar muscles; Md, mandible; Mds, mandibles; Mx, maxilla; Mrae, maxillae; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Nv, nerve; Pdc, pedicel of antenna; P/p, palpus; Prb, proboscis; pt, posterior tentorial pit; sc, salivary canal of hypopharynx; Scp, scape of antenna; Tut, tentorium; Thc, theca; 7ra, trachea; Vx, vertex. NO. I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS uae derivation. The maxilla is provided with protractor and retractor muscles (J), the protractors being inserted on the end of the apodeme, the retractors on the base of the galea and palpus. The maxillary blades, therefore, are the only stylets that are freely protractile and retractile by independent movements. The hypopharynx is a slender, flattened stylet (fig. 4H, Hphy), traversed throughout its length by the salivary canal (sc), which opens on the pointed tip. The hypopharynx has no muscles and hence no independent movement; it probably serves principally for the hypodermic injection of the saliva into the wound made by the other stylets. The elongate labium of the mosquito corresponds with the distal appendicular part of the labium in the cockroach, known as the pre- mentum (fig. 1 B, Prmt), the basal plates (mentum and submentum) being absent in the mosquito. The labium of all Diptera terminates with a pair of variously shaped lobes called the Jabella, which probably represent the labial palpi of other insects. In the mosquito the labella are somewhat oval and each labellum is two-segmented (fig. 4 F, Lbl). Between the labella is a tapering median lobe, the ligula (Lig), which in Diptera is not subdivided. The sclerotized outer wall of the dipterous labium, proximal to the labella, is termed the theca (Thc) ; the anterior wall, invaginated to form the groove containing the stylets, is the labial gutter (LG), which terminates on the ligula. The labella are movable by muscles arising within the theca, each lobe being provided with an abductor and an adductor muscle. The only muscles attached on the base of the labium are a pair arising on the maxillary apodemes (J), which, since the labium can have little movement on the head, are probably protractors of the maxillae. The position of the stylets within the labial gutter is shown in cross section of the proboscis at G of figure 4. The almost tubular labrum (Lm) lies on top well enclosed by the labial margins. Below the labrum is the hypopharynx (Hphy), but the mandibles (Md) intervene between the labrum and the hypopharynx, except at the base of the proboscis, just as they do in the cockroach, though if they are slender they may assume a lateral position. Finally, beneath the hypopharynx against the floor of the labial gutter are the maxillary blades (Mx). The food canal of the proboscis, through which the imbibed liquid ascends to the mouth, is the channel of the labrum (fc). The saliva is conducted in the opposite direction to the tip of the proboscis through the salivary canal (sc) of the hypopharynx. The internal cavity of the labium contains blood, the labellar muscles (mcl), nerve trunks (Nv), and tracheae (Tra). I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 The general conformation of the head and proboscis of the mosquito (figs. 3 A, 4D) would suggest that the insect attacks its victim first by a vicious jab. And yet the labium, which looks so formidable, is not a piercing organ nor does it enter the wound (fig. 3 C). The only stylet that appears strong enough to effect a puncture by a thrust of the head is the labrum. The hypopharynx is an injection needle; the mandibles in most species are too weak for effective piercing. The maxillae alone have a musculature capable of giving them an inde- pendent back-and-forth movement on the head. The biting procedure of the mosquito, as deduced by Robinson (1939) from direct observa- tion and a study of the mechanism of the feeding apparatus, is essen- tially as follows: A puncture of the skin is first effected by a thrust of the head transmitted to the bundle of stylets held in the labial groove. The maxillary blades are then alternately by their own muscles protracted deeper into the wound, each holding by means of its recurved teeth against the action of the retractors, which draw the head down and stretch the protractors of the opposite side. By repeated action of the maxillae, each blade successively overreaching the other, the whole bundle of stylets is drawn into the wound. As the stylets sink into the skin, the labium, holding the fascicle between the labella, bends backward beneath the head (fig. 3 C). The above explanation of the biting procedure of the mosquito is in entire harmony with the puncturing methods of other insects, whether with the mouth parts, the ovipositor, or a sting. Robinson found that mosquitoes are able to feed, though with difficulty, after the amputa- tion of one maxillary blade, but that they could not be induced to feed when both blades were removed. The fact that the stylets do not separate from one another with the bending back of the labium he explains as due to the adhesive influence of a viscous liquid that bathes them in the labial gutter. The bending of the labium appears to be a passive result of the lowering of the head, but Robinson is of the opinion that it results from the tension of the muscles attached on the base of the labium. When at last the stylets of the piercing mosquito penetrate a vein, the activity of the stylets ceases, and there begins the sucking phase of the feeding act, which proceeds quietly until repletion. Withdrawal of the stylets is effected in a manner reverse to that of penetration and is assisted by tension on the head exerted by the legs. The sucking apparatus of the mosquito consists of two powerful pumps (aniliae) contained within the head. One lies in the clypeal region (fig. 5A, CbP) and is a derivative of the preoral cibarial NOW E BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 13 pocket of such insects as the cockroach (fig. 2A, Cb); the other (fig. 5 A, PhP-p) lies in the back part of the head and is a modifica- tion of the pharynx. The first pump, however, has generally been called the “pharynx,” or ‘“‘pharyngeal pump,” and the second the “oesophageal pump,” though some writers, following Nuttall and Shipley (1901-3), term the first pump the “buccal cavity” and recog- nize the second as the pharynx. The cibarial pump (antlia cibarialis) is an elongate capsule with the upper or anterior wall ordinarily collapsed against the posterior wall, so that the lumen of the organ in cross section is narrowly crescent-shaped. The posterior wall (fig. 5 A, E, CoP) is strongly sclerotized and has the form of a basinlike trough; it is directly con- tinuous distally with the anterior wall of the hypopharynx (Hphy), and its inner end is produced into a pair of short lateral cornua (¥), on which are attached two muscles (A, 13, 14) clearly corresponding with the muscles inserted on the oral arms of the hypopharynx in the cockroach (fig. 2 A, B, 13, 14). There can be little doubt, therefore, that the floor of the first pump in the mosquito is the concave proxi- mal part of the anterior wall of the hypopharynx in the cockroach (fig. 2B, Cb). The dorsal wall of this pump in the mosquito is con- tinuous with the inner, or epipharyngeal, wall of the labrum (fig. 5 A, E, Lm); it is flexible and elastic and on its midline are inserted paired sets of powerful dilator muscles (5) having their origins on the strongly arched clypeus (Clp). These muscles thus correspond with the dilators of the preoral cibarial pocket of the cockroach (fig. 2A, 5a, 5b). The transformation from the generalized cockroach type of structure in the mouth region to the specialized dipterous structure illustrated in the mosquito may be conceived to have been brought about by carrying the primitive mouth angles out from the base of the clypeus to the base of the labrum, or, in other words, by a lateral union of the inner surface of the clypeus with the edges of the cibarial surface of the hypopharynx. In some such way, at least, the functional mouth-opening has been reestablished at the base of the labrum, and what was primarily a preoral food space between the clypeus and the hypopharynx has been converted into a closed chamber. This chamber is potentially a sucking organ by reason of the clypeal muscles attached on its roof, which by contraction function as dilators of the lumen. The cibarial pump is present in all Diptera, and in similar form is the only sucking organ of such insects as Thysanoptera and Hemip- tera; in Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera it is combined with the pharynx, T4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Fic. 5—The sucking apparatus of a mosquito. A, diagrammatic vertical section of head of a female mosquito, to left of median plane. B, cross section of pharyngeal pump of Culex (from Thompson, 1905). C, Aedes aegypti (L.), pharyngeal pump exposed by removal of facial wall of head. D, same, muscles of labrum. E, same, cibarial and pharyngeal pumps and their musculature, left side. at, anterior tentorial pit; Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; Cl/p, clypeus; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; FrG, frontal ganglion; h, hinge of labrum or cibarial pump; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hst, hypostoma; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; luvr, clypeal lever; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; mth, mouth of cibarial pump; Oe, oesophagus; PhP-p, pharyngeal pump, posterior in the mosquito and other Nematocera; Phy, pharynx; sc, salivary canal; S/Dct, salivary duct; SIP, sali- vary pump; SoeG; suboesophageal ganglion; Tnt, tentorium; y, cornu of cibarial pump, oral arm of hypopharynx in cockroach (fig. 2). Museles.—5, dilators of cibarial pump; 6, 7, precerebral dilators of pharyngeal pump; 8, postcerebral dorsal dilator of pharyngeal pump; 7, lateral dilator of pharyngeal pump; 13, retractor of cibarial pump; 14, protractor of cibarial eee 18, dilator of salivary pump. (Compare with muscles of cockroach, oi! NOS I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 15 The pharyngeal pump (antlia pharyngealis) of the mosquito is an elongate, gourd-shaped organ (fig. 5 E, Phy; A, C, PhP-p) with a slender neck curving upward and backward from the cibarial pump and expanding behind the nerve ganglia of the head into a large bulb, from which the oesophagus (Oe) proceeds through the neck into the thorax. This pump is a part of the stomodaeal section of the ali- mentary canal, but it lacks the usual stomodaeal sheath of circular muscle fibers, except at the anterior and posterior ends. The walls of the bulb are hardened to form three plates, one dorsal, the other two lateroventral, which are flexibly hinged to each other along their margins. Four huge muscles activate the pharyngeal pump, a dorsal pair (fig. 5 A, B, E, 8) arising on the vertex behind the brain, cor- responding thus with the postcerebral dorsal dilators of the pharynx in the cockroach (fig. 2 A, 8), and a lateral muscle on each side (fig. 5 A, B, E, rr), corresponding with the posterior lateral dilator of the pharynx in the cockroach (fig. 2 A, rz). When the pharyngeal pump is collapsed (fig. 5B) its three plates are curved inward by their own elasticity, almost obliterating the lumen between them; contrac- tion of the opposing muscles then causes a wide expansion of the lumen by springing the plates outward. Two other pairs of muscles, (A, E, 6, 7) are attached on the neck of the pharyngeal pump, which represent the two precerebral dilators of the pharynx in the cock- roach arising on the frons (fig. 2A, B, 6, 7). The frontal ganglion (FrG) and its brain connectives in each insect separate these frontal pharyngeal muscles from the clypeal muscles of the cibarium. A pharyngeal pump like that of the mosquito is present at least in all bloodsucking flies of the group Nematocera. The Brachycera also have a pharyngeal pump, but it is formed from the anterior part of the pharynx (figs. 11 J, 13 C, PhP-a) and is activated by the precerebral dilator muscles. It is necessary, therefore, to distinguish between the posterior pharyngeal pump of Nematocera and the anterior pharyn- geal pump of Brachycera. The Cyclorrhapha have only the cibarial pump. No information is at present available as to the functional rela- tions of the two pumps, but it may be supposed that their respective expansions and contractions have opposite rhythms, one contracting as the other expands, so as to give a continuous flow to the stream of liquid food. Valvular structures within the pumps have not been noted, but sphincter muscles at the junction of the cibarial and pharyn- geal pumps and behind the second pump are present in most cases, presumably so in the mosquito, which constitute regulatory apparatus. 2 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Beneath the cibarial pump is still another pumping mechanism pres- ent in all Diptera, which is the salivary pump (antlia salivarialis). The salivary pump of the mosquito (fig. 5 A, SIP) is a small capsule with a strong, cup-shaped lower wall and a thin, elastic upper wall ordinarily collapsed into the cavity of the lower wall. The common salivary duct of the head (S/Dct) opens into the rear end of the pump, and the distal end of the latter is continued into the slender, tubular salivary canal (sc) that traverses the hypopharynx to its tip (fig. 4H, Hphy). The salivary pump is operated by a pair of dilator muscles (fig. 5 A, 78) arising on the posterior wall of the cibarial pump, evidently corresponding with one pair of the hypopharyngeal muscles of the salivarium in the cockroach (fig. 2 A, 18). The expul- sive power of the pump results from the elasticity of the elevated anterior wall, which forcibly springs back into the concavity of the posterior wall when the muscles relax. The salivary pump is clearly a derivative of the salivarium of generalized insects, but the Diptera differ from most other insects in that the saliva is discharged through a canal of the hypopharynx. Diseases of which mosquitoes are known to be vectors, or have been shown to be possible vectors, include malaria of man, bird malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, human and equine encephalomye- litis, fowl pox, and filariasis. Malaria, caused by a blood-inhabiting protozoon, Plasmodium, of which mosquitoes are necessary inter- mediate hosts, is transmitted to man by species of Anopheles mos- quitoes ; the bird form of the disease is carried by species of Culex and Aedes. Yellow fever, now regarded as a virus disease, is trans- mitted normally by Aedes aegypti (L.), but other species have been shown experimentally to be capable of its transmission. Dengue fever, a virus disease of the Tropics, but sometimes epidemic in Temperate regions, is carried by species of Aedes, including aegypti. The virus of equine encephalomyelitis, which in the United States occurs in an eastern and in a western type, and the virus of human encephalitis have been shown to cause sleeping sickness in both horses and man. Many other mammals and also birds are susceptible to the disease. Mosquitoes have long been suspected of being vectors, and various species of Aedes have been shown experimentally capable of transmitting one form or the other of equine encephalomyelitis, while Culex tarsalis Coq. has been found in nature infected with the western form of equine encephalomyelitis, and with that of human encephalitis. (See Hammon et al., 1941; Giltner and Shahan, 1942.) Species of Aedes have been demonstrated to be potential vectors of NO. I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS Ly the virus of fowl pox; and finally, both Aedes and Culex are known transmitters of nematode worms producing filariasis of man. III. SAND FLIES. FAMILY PSYCHODIDAE Most members of the psychodid family are small, harmless, nectar- feeding flies that look like tiny moths on account of their dense hairy covering and the way the wings are spread out flat or slopingly over the body when at rest. Species of the genus Flebotomus Rondani, known as sand flies, however, are bloodsuckers and painful biters. The species are relatively few, but they are widely distributed, par- ticularly in warm regions ; only one species has been recorded from the United States. — Fic. 6.—A sand fly, Flebotomus verrucarum Towns., female. Psychodidae. A very hairy fly, but hairs removed to show structure. (Length of body 2 mm.) Flebotomus is a small, long-legged, very hairy fly a few millimeters in length (fig. 6, hairs not shown). When not in flight the wings are held upward and outward at an angle of about 45 degrees from the body with their inner margins sloping downward toward each other. The wing venation shows that the insect belongs to the Psychodidae, though otherwise it has little resemblance to other members of its family. The long head with its strong proboscis projects downward from beneath the thorax at right angles to the axis of the body, which is elevated on the slender legs, so that the whole configuration of the insect is one suggestive of readiness for giving a vigorous stab with the beak. The head of Flebotomus (fig. 7 A, B, C) is elongate dorsoventrally, and is suspended from the neck (B, Cvx) by its upper part. The front of the head (A) has the same structure as in the mosquito. The frons 18 ' SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 . (Fr) consists of a median bar expanded above the antennae, and forked below into a pair of arms extending laterally to the lower ends of the eyes. The large clypeus (Clp) is separated from the frontal arms by an epistomal groove containing laterally the anterior tentorial pits (at). The back of the head (C), unlike that of the mosquito, is mostly nonsclerotized, there being an extensive membranous area from the neck foramen to the base of the proboscis. The feeding apparatus of Flebotomus argentipes Ann. and Brun. has been well described and illustrated by Christophers, Shortt, and Barraud (1926), and that of F. papatasit Scopoli by Adler and Theo- dor (1926). The species here figured, F. verrucarum Towns. of South America, does not differ essentially from the others. The proboscis is relatively short as compared with that of the mosquito, but it is thick and strong (fig. 7 A, B, C) ; the long maxillary palpi are doubled up at its sides. The broad labrum (A, Lm) tapers to a spiny point (F) ; the mandibles (present only in the female) are bladelike (D), finely toothed near the ends (H), and each is provided with an abduc- tor and an adductor muscle (D, 27, 28) inserted on opposite sides of an articular point (@) ; the broad hypopharynx is traversed to its tip by the salivary canal (G). The maxillae differ from those of the mosquito in that they are suspended by a pair of slender rods lying in the membranous posterior wall of the head (C, St) and attached to the cranial margins below the neck foramen. These rods clearly rep- resent the stipes, or stipes and cardo, of a generalized maxilla. The maxillary blade, or galea (E, Ga), is slender, finely serrate on its inner margin, and provided with a row of small subapical teeth on the outer margin (1). The theca of the broad, strong labium (C, Thc) bears a pair of soft labellar lobes at its end; proximal to its base is a small triangular plate (Pmt), probably a postmental sclerite. The musculature of the mouth parts of Flebotomus is fully de- scribed by Christophers, Shortt, and Barraud (1926). As in the mosquito, the maxillae alone are capable of an independent back-and- forth movement on the head. The musculature of the mandibles can give the latter only movements in a transverse plane. While ordinarily the mandibles lie between the labrum and the hypopharynx, accord- ing to Adler and Theodor (1926) they are moved apart during feed- ing, perhaps to enlarge the wound, and allow the hypopharynx to come into apposition with the labrum. The channel of the latter is thus closed by the hypopharynx, and the slender spines on the ends of the two apposing blades (fig. 7 F, G) interlock to form a strainer guarding the entrance of the food canal. With the penetration of the NO: I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—SNODGRASS ~ ge) Fic. 7—Head and mouth parts of Flebotomus verrucarwm Towns., female. A, head and proboscis, anterior, left antenna removed. B, same, lateral. C, same, posterior. D, left mandible and its muscles, anterior. E, left maxilla, anterior. FF, distal end of labrum. G, distal end of hypopharynx. H, distal end of mandible. I, distal end of maxillary galea. a, articular point of mandible; at, anterior tentorial pit; C/p, clypeus; Cv-, neck; E, compound eye; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Lb, labium; Lbl, labellum; Lm, labrum; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Plp, palpus; Pmt, post- mentum; sc, salivary canal; St, stipes; Thc, theca. Muscles.—27, abductor of mandible; 28, adductor of mandible. 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 stylets into the wound, the labium is probably pushed up into the membranous posterior wall of the head. The labellar lobes are said by Adler and Theodor to spread apart and expose the broad ligula which supports the stylets. The sucking apparatus of Flebotomus consists of the same two pumps as in Culicidae, the first cibarial, the second pharyngeal. Sand flies, because of their biting propensities and prevalence where certain diseases abound, have been suspected of being carriers of a number of diseases, and have been subjected to several thorough investigations. Only in the case of pappataci fever, however, a filter- able virus disease of southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Medi- . terranean region generally, has a positive conviction been obtained, the species involved here being Flebotomus papatasii Scopoli. Circum- stantial evidence points strongly against F. verrucarum Towns. as being the natural vector of South American verruga, a disease caused by a rodlike coccoid organism named Bartonella bacilliformis, endemic in certain high valleys on the western slopes of the Andes in Peru, and reported from Colombia and Ecuador. It has been shown by Hertig (1942) that verruga can be transmitted experimentally to monkeys by the bite of an infected Flebotomus, and yet only in a very small percentage of flies collected in the verruga zone has the causative organism been found. Less convincing is the evidence against F. argentipes Ann. and Brun. as the vector of kala-azar, or black sickness, a leishmanian disease of India and China. Nor has the bite of Flebotomus been shown definitely to be responsible for the spread of Oriental sore, or the forms of South American leishmaniasis, but Southwell and Kirshner (1938) suggest that possibly inoculation may result from the crushing of infected flies on the skin. IV. BITING MIDGES. FAMILY HELEIDAE The family of the biting midges, which are called also punkies and no-see-ums, has more commonly been known as Ceratopogonidae, or included in the Chironomidae. The members of the family are small or minute gnatlike flies, notable principally as biting pests, though some are vectors of parasitic nematodes. The species best known anatomically belong to the genus Culicoides Latr. The structure of the head and mouth parts of C. pulicaris (L.) is the subject of a de- tailed account by Jobling (1928) ; C. furens (Poey) is here given (fig. 8) as a representative of the genus. Culicoides (fig. 8 J) is short-legged by comparison with Fleboto- mus, the head is small, the proboscis short, but the head hangs NO. I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 21 downward from the receding anterior wall of the thorax, against which it can be braced for giving a punch with the proboscis. An anterior view of the head (A) shows that the clypeus is not projected as in the mosquitoes and sand flies, and is united with the frons above it. At each side of the clypeus is a wide membranous area, which is crossed ventrally by a slender bar (mda) that supports the mandible. The back of the head (B) resembles that of Flebotomus, its median part below the neck foramen being membranous ; the membrane con- tains a pair of stipital rods (St) of the maxillae, and a small post- mental plate (Pmt) of the labium. The mouth parts of Culicoides include the usual stylets, enclosed in the labial gutter, which is covered in front by the broad labrum (fig. 8A, Lm). The shape and relative size of the labrum, the mandibles, the hypopharynx, and the maxillae are shown at C, D, E, and F of the figure; apical details of the labrum, the maxillary galea, and the hypopharynx are more enlarged at G, H, and I. The salivary canal of Culicoides, as shown by Jobling (1928), traverses the proxi- mal third of the hypopharynx and then, emerging on the anterior sur- face of the latter, continues its course to the apex as an open channel Wika sc’):. The mandibles deserve particular attention. According to Jobling they are present in both sexes of Culicoides pulicaris but are rela- tively weak in the male. Each mandible of the female (fig. 8D) is a thin flat blade, narrowed proximally but having an obliquely truncate, finely toothed distal margin receding mesally. At about the middle of the upper surface is an elongate depression, which is shown by Jobling to be reflected on the under surface as a corresponding ele- vation. The mandibles overlap, the left always on top of the right, and in this position the elevation on the under surface of the left mandible fits into the upper depression of the right (K). When thus inter- locked the two mandibles resemble a pair of scissors. On the base of each mandible are inserted three muscles (D), two of which (27, 28) are the usual cranial abductor and adductor, the third (30) is an accessory adductor arising on the tentorium. The mandibles of Culicoides, therefore, have transverse movements as in other insects, and in spite of their scissorlike appearance it is improbable that they can work in the manner of a pair of scissors; furthermore, the eleva- tion on the lower side of the right mandible (K, rMd) fits into the open salivary channel of the hypopharynx (sc). Between the left mandible and the concave under surface of the labrum is the food canal of the proboscis (K, fc). 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Fic. 8.—A biting midge, Culicoides, female, head and mouth parts. Heleidae. A-J, Culicoides furens (Poey); K, Culicoides vexans (Staeger). A, head and proboscis, anterior, antennae removed. B, same, posterior. C, labrum. D, right mandible, anterior. E, hypopharynx. F, maxilla. G, end of labrum more enlarged, showing food canal on under surface. H, end of galea. I, end of hypopharynx. J, Culicoides furens (Poey), female (length 1.75 mm.). K, cross section through middle of proboscis of Culicoides vexrans (from Jobling, 1928). AntC, cavity where antenna removed; C/p, clypeus; E, compound eye; fc, food canal; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lb, labium; LOb/, labellum; Lm, labrum; /Md, left mandible; mda, mandibular arm of head; Mx, maxilla; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Plp, palpus; Pmt, post- mentum; rMd, right mandible; sc, salivary canal; St, stipes; Thc, theca. Muscles.—27, cranial abductor of mandible; 28, cranial adductor of mandible; 3o tentorial adductor of mandible. NOSE BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 23 The sucking apparatus of Culicoides is the same as that of Culicidae and Flebotomus ; the cibarial and pharyngeal pumps of C. pulicaris are fully described by Jobling (1928), though the first is termed the “pharynx,” and the second the “oesophageal pump.” The action of the mouth parts of Culicoides during feeding has been observed by Jobling, who says that the labrum, the hypopharynx, and the mandibles together compose a piercing organ, which performs forward and backward movements, the mandibles remaining locked together between the other two parts. Though the maxillary blades cannot be seen, their muscular equipment would indicate that their movements are also those of protraction and retraction. It may be noted that the membranization of large parts of the lower facial area and the back of the head in Culicoides allows the whole group of stylets and also the labium to be mobile. As the stylets penetrate the wound, the long labella of the labium bend backward and the short theca is retracted. The most annoying species of biting midges in the United States belong to the genera Culicoides Latr., Helea Meigen (Ceratopogon Meigen), and Leptoconops Skuse. The bite of these flies is painful and the irritation may last for several days. The midges are ob- noxious principally as pests at summer resorts and to agricultural workers. Certain tropical or subtropical species, however, such as Culicoides austeni Carter, Ingram, and Macfie of Africa, and C. furens (Poey) of the Antilles and the Gulf of Mexico are intermediate hosts and vectors of parasitic filarial worms of man. V. BLACK FLIES. FAMILY SIMULIIDAE The members of this family, known as black flies because of their dull and blackish color, or also as buffalo gnats because of the humped appearance of the thorax (fig. 9), are small flies characterized by the strongly declivous front of the thorax and the pendent head, which hangs on the neck below the level of the body. Many of the species are . notorious biting pests, not only of man but of domestic animals and birds, and some are vectors of disease agents. Gibbins (1938) says, “among the insects which torment man there is perhaps none which inflicts so cruel a bite as Simulium damnosum,” of Africa. Only the females are known to be bloodsuckers ; the males are said to have the same mouth parts as the females, but the stylets are much weaker. The familiar species belong to the genera Simulium, Prosimulium, and Eusimulium, but formerly all were included under the first name. The structure of the head and mouth parts is well known; the more 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 recent papers on the subject are by Smart (1935) on Simulium orna- tum Meigen, by Gibbins (1938) on Simulium damnosum Theobald, and by Krafchick (1942) on Eusimulium lascivum Twinn. Simulium venustum Say is here described and figured. | The head of Simulium is almost circular as seen from in front (fig. 10 A), or behind (B). On the face, the clypeus (A, Clp) sits like a broad shield below the antennae, while the frons (Fr) is almost obliterated between the antennal bases. On the back of the head (B) Fic. 9.—A black fly, Simulium venustum Say, female. Simuliidae. (Length 3.5 mm.) the cranial walls come together below the neck foramen (For) and separate the latter from a wide ventral plate (Pmt), which is probably the postmentum of the labium. The proboscis is short and thick (fig. 10 A, B) and is far over- reached by the long maxillary palpi. The broad labrum is hinged to the lower edge of the clypeus (A, C, Lm), and is armed distally (E) with a pair of strong, recurved tricuspid teeth ; its under surface (D) is deeply channeled. The mandibles (C, Md, G) much resemble those of Culicoides ; they overlap each other, the left over the right, and are held in this position by an interlocking mechanism as in Culicoides, so that they strikingly resemble a pair of scissors (J). Though Gibbins Fic. 10.—Head and mouth parts of Siwmulium, female. A-I, Simulium venustum Say; J, Simulium damnosum Theobald; K, Prosimuliwn magnum D. and § A, head and proboscis, anterior. B, same, posterior. C, labrum and left mandible. D, labrum, posterior. E, tip’ of labrum more enlarged, anterior. F, maxilla and detail of galea. G, mandible. H, labium, posterior. I, hypo- pharynx and floor of cibarial pump, posterior. J, mandibles in crossed and locked position, anterior (from Gibbins, 1938). K, base of left mandible and its muscles, mesal (from Krafchick, 1942). at, anterior tentorial pit; CbP, cibarial pump; Cl/p, clypeus; For, neck fora- men; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lbl, labellum; Lm, labrum; Md, mandible; mda, mandibular arm of head; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Pge, postgena; P/p, palpus; Pmt, postmentum; pt, posterior tentorial pit; sc, salivary canal; S/P, salivary pump; St, stipes; Thc, theca; Tnt, tentorium. Muscles.—27, cranial abductor of mandible; 28, cranial adductor of mandible; 30, tentorial adductor of mandible. 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 (1938) says of the mandibles of Simulium damnosum that they lie “right over left,” his figure shows them in the reverse position. Each mandible is articulated at its base on a short arm of the cranium (C, mda), and is provided with strong abductor and adductor muscles (K). The hypopharynx (I, Hphy) is a broad, somewhat spatulate blade, the anterior wall of which is directly continuous with the floor of the cibarial pump (CbP). At its base is the salivary pump (SIP), and the wide salivary canal from the pump opens, as in Culicoides, on the proximal half of the anterior hypopharyngeal wall, whence it is continued distally as an open channel. The maxillae have each (F) a short but strong basal stipes (St) by which the appendage is attached to the head at the side of the postmental plate of the labium (B, St). The galea (F, Ga) is thick, tapering, and strongly armed with re- curved marginal teeth. The five-segmented palpus (P/p) is relatively long. The short, wide labium (H) is soft and compressible; on its posterior surface is a pair of thecal plates (Thc), but they are shorter than the large, mostly membranous labella (Lb/). The labial gutter encloses the mandibles, the hypopharynx, and the maxillary galeae, which are ordinarily concealed beneath the labrum (A, Lm). The method of feeding by Simulium is discussed by Gibbins (1938), who says the “biting appears to be performed in two stages. First, the initial incision is made by the mandibles, which function in the manner of a pair of scissors; the maxillae are then inserted and the puncture is enlarged sufficiently to allow the food channel to reach the blood level.” That the mandibles can “‘snip the skin” between their serrated distal ends as Gibbins suggests does not seem plausible considering that their musculature (fig. 10 K) is of the usual abductor- adductor type, and does not appear to be in any way adapted to giving the mandibles a scissor movement on their interlocking mechanism. Jobling (1928), as already noted, says that the mandibles of Culi- coides remain locked together during the act of puncturing the skin. Simulium has a strong cibarial pump, but the pharyngeal pump is much less developed than in the other bloodsucking Nematocera. Krafchick (1942) describes the sucking apparatus of Eusimulium lascivum Twinn, a nonbiting species, and shows that the usual muscu- lature is present. The protractor and retractor muscles inserted on the posterior cornua of the cibarial pump, he says, effect also a move- ment of the hypopharynx, and produce an elevation and depression of the labrum. The biting simuliids in the northeastern parts of the United States and eastern Canada are perhaps the worst of the pests that detract NOS ak BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 27 from the pleasures of outdoor life; in the southern States they are a scourge to livestock and other animals. Prosimulium hirtipes (Fries) and Simulium venustum Say are well known to campers and fisher- men in the Adirondacks as daytime pests, for, unlike the mosquitoes, the black flies swarm in bright sunshine and in the heat of the day. In the South the torment of animals by the bites of black flies is extreme. Of the southern buffalo gnat, Eusimulium pecuarum (Riley), Bishopp (1942) says: “In severe outbreaks of the southern buffalo gnat in the lower Mississippi Valley many mules die, cattle and horses are reduced in flesh, milk flow is cut, and the coats of the animals become rough and unsightly.” In 1923 great numbers of domestic and wild animals were killed in Rumania by invading swarms of Simulium columbaczense (Schonberg) (Patton and Evans, 1929; Herms, 1939). Another pest of domestic animals in the south- ern part of the United States is Simulium meridionale Riley, known as the turkey gnat because it is particularly injurious to setting turkeys. In addition to the annoyance and damage caused by their bites, the simuliids are further indicted on the charge of spreading disease. Various species are involved in the transmission of filarial worms of man in Mexico, Central America, and Africa, and of cattle in Australia. The parasites taken into the stomach of the fly undergo a metamorphosis, escape into the blood cavity, and soon find their way into the head and proboscis. The exit of the microfilariae from the proboscis, as Gibbins (1938) suggests, is probably made by pene- trating the delicate, membranous inner walls of the labial labella, whence the parasites enter the wound made by the piercing stylets of the fly. Among wild and domesticated ducks in various parts of the United States a high mortality, especially in the young, is some- times caused by the blood-inhabiting protozoon Leucocytozoon anatis Wickware, said to be transmitted by Simulium venustum Say. VI. HORSE FLIES. FAMILY TABANIDAE The Tabanidae, called horse flies, deer flies, and gad flies, are well- known insects because some of them viciously and persistently attack us when their haunts are invaded, especially along country roadsides and in dry wooded areas; they are probably the most severe biting pests against which horses, cattle, and deer have to contend. Further- more, certain species are accused, on experimental evidence at least, of being vectors of such diseases as anthrax and surra, carriers of the filarial parasite Loa loa, and possible transmitters of tularemia. Hph CbP SIP ms Fic. 11.—Horse fly, Tabanus, head, mouth parts, and sucking apparatus. Tabanidae. A-H, Tabanus atratus Fabr.; I-K, Tabanus sulcifrons Macq. A, the black horse fly, Tabanus atratus Fabr., female (natural size). B, anteroventral view of head and labrum. CC, mouth parts and their attach- ments on the head, posterior. D, head and mouth parts, anterior. E, labrum and sucking apparatus, left side. F, mandible. G, left maxilla. H, hypopharynx, labium, and salivary pump, left side. I, transverse section through clypeus and cibarial pump, diagrammatic. J, sucking apparatus and associated parts, left side. K, pharyngeal pump expanded. L, cross section of proboscis (from Vogel, 1921). Ant, antenna; at, anterior tentorial pit; CbP, cibarial pump; cd, cardo; cg, clypeal groove; C/p, clypeus; clp, median plate of clypeus; cr, clypeal ridge; E, compound eye; es, epistomal suture; fc, food canal; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hst, hypostoma; Lb, labium: Lbl, labella; Lm, labrum; Irmcl, labral muscle; Md, Mds, mandible, mandibles; mth, mouth of cibrarial pump; Mr, maxilla; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Oe, oesophagus; Plp, palpus; PhP-a, pharyngeal pump, anterior in Brachycera; Pmt, postmentum; ft, posterior tentorial pit; sc, salivary canal; S/D, salivary duct; S/O, salivary orifice; SIP, salivary pump; St, stipes; Thc, theca; Tut, tentorium; y, cornu of cibarial pump. Muscles—5, dilators of cibarial pump; 6, 7, precerebral dilators of pharyngeal pump; 78, dilators of salivary pump; 27, abductor of mandible; 28, cranial adductor of mandible; 30, tentorial adductor of mandible. (28) INOS E BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 29 The. species are mostly large for flies, and the black horse fly (fig. 11 A) is one of the largest of the Diptera. The horse flies introduce us to the second major group of the Diptera, known as the Brachycera because the antennae (fig. 11 B, Ant) are shorter than in most Nematocera and have fewer segments. Though the mouth parts of the tabanids do not differ essentially from those of Nematocera, there are features in the head and the suck- ing apparatus that are characteristic of Brachycera. An examination of the anteroventral aspect of the head of Tabanus (fig. 11 B) shows that the clypeal area (C/p) is defined, though not completely set off from the rest of the cranium, by an epistomal sulcus (es) strongly arched upward almost to the bases of the antennae. In the lateral parts of the sulcus are the elongate anterior tentorial pits (at, at). The median part of the clypeus is marked by two verti- cal grooves, one on each side (cg), which cut out a small median area (clp) to which the labrum (Lm) is attached. On the inner surface of the head the clypeal grooves form two ridges (I, cr) running just laterad of the attachments of the dilator muscles (5) of the cibarial pump (CbP). These features are perhaps of little significance in a study of the horse fly, but they should be kept in mind because of their bearing on the interpretation of less easily understood modifica- tions in the clypeal region of the Cyclorrhapha. The stylets of the horse fly are all large and are easy to study since they are not so completely concealed in the trough of the labium (fig. 11 D) as are those of the biting Nematocera. The labrum (B, EF, Lm) is broad and tapering, but its soft edges and blunt point sug- gest that it is not an effective piercing organ; its under surface is deeply excavated to form the food canal (L, fc). The mandibles of the female are large, sharp-pointed blades (F) overlapping each other in the labial gutter (L, Mds) beneath the labrum, and thus closing the food canal except at the base of the proboscis, where the mandi- bles diverge laterally to their attachments on the head. Each man- dible is firmly affixed to the cranial wall, so that it evidently can have no movements of protraction and retraction, but it is provided with the usual equipment of abductor and adductor muscles (F) and is readily moved in a transverse plane. The maxillae have strong stipito- cardinal bases (G, St, Cd) implanted in the membranous posterior wall of the head (C), from which are suspended the slender galeal stylets (G, Ga) that converge into the labial gutter, and the thick two-segmented palpi (P/p) that project as free appendages at the sides of the proboscis (D). In the labial gutter (L) the galeae lie 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 beneath the mandibles and the hypopharynx. The slender, relatively weak hypopharynx (H, Hphy) is a trifle shorter than the labrum, and is traversed to its rounded tip by the salivary canal (sc) from the salivary pump (S/P). The labium (fig. 11 H, Lb) has a long basal stalk, the external sclerotization of which is the theca (C, H, Thc), and.a pair of large terminal lobes (LbI), which are the labella. Within the theca is the labial gutter. In their size, shape, and structure the labella of the Tabanidae differ from these organs in the other bloodsucking Dip- tera, and much resemble the labella of the nonpiercing Cyclorrhapha that feed on exposed liquids. Ordinarily the labellar lobes of Tabanus are folded together (C), but they can be spread out (H) to form a large, flat, oval disk. Their soft under surfaces are traversed cross- wise by numerous fine, closely set channels (“pseudotracheae”) that lead into a pair of median lengthwise channels. In the spread position of the labella the labellar disk is deeply cleft anteriorly between the lobes as far as the end of the labial gutter. There is no projecting ligular lobe; the labial gutter terminates with a narrow, slightly con- cave margin. The method of biting and feeding by the horse flies has not been carefully observed, but the structure of the mouth parts suggests that the puncture is formed by the mandibles and the maxillary galeae, and that the labial labella are used in the manner of nonpiercing flies for collecting the exuding blood. When the labrum is pressed down between the labella it overreaches the end of the labial gutter, and if the tips of the mandibles are now separated from beneath the labrum the entrance to the food canal of the latter is directly exposed in the labellar cleft. The male of Tabanus has a complete set of feeding organs, includ- ing the mandibles, but the parts are less strongly developed than in the female. Male horse flies are not known to suck blood, and are said to feed on plant juices. The sucking apparatus of the horse flies includes a strongly de- veloped cibarial pump and a pharyngeal pump. The cibarial pump is of the usual type of structure (fig. 11 J, CbP); its dilator muscles arise on the median plate of the clypeus (I, J, clp) between the clypeal ridges (cr). The pharyngeal pump (J, PhP-a), on the other hand, differs entirely from that of the bloodsucking Nematocera; it is formed from the pharyngeal region immediately following the cibarial pump, and is activated by the precerebral dilators of the pharynx (6, 7). The pharyngeal pump of Tabanus is a conical suction cup held NO. I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 31 between the posterior cornua (J, y) of the cibarial pump. Its broad inner end, ordinarily collapsed into the cup, is an elastic disk on which is attached the second pair of dilator muscles (7). These muscles by contraction pull out the disk (K), which, on relaxation of the muscles, snaps back by its own elasticity. The action is easily demonstrated on a dead specimen. The blood evidently is sucked out of the cibarial pump and driven on into the oesophagus. VII. SNIPE FLIES. FAMILY RHAGIONIDAE The family of the snipe flies has been more commonly known as Leptidae. At least two genera include biting and bloodsucking species ; one is Symphoromyia Frauenfeld with several species in the western parts of the United States, the other is Spaniopsis White of Australia. Symphoromyia atripes Bigot, here illustrated (fig. 12 A), is some- what smaller than a house fly. The head is set on the front of the thorax as in the horse flies, instead of hanging below it as in most of the biting Nematocera. On the face (B) the large clypeus (Clp) is distinctly defined, and in its lower part a small median lobe (clp) supporting the labrum is set off by a pair of lateral grooves. The frons is represented by wide lateral areas between the eyes and the clypeus, but it is almost obliterated between the antennae by the up- ward encroachment of the clypeus. The piercing and sucking organs, as shown in the figure (C, D, E, F), resemble those of the Tabanidae. The female snipe flies are said to be vicious biters, but they are not known to be involved in the spread of disease. VIII. ROBBER FLIES. FAMILY ASILIDAE The robber flies do not attack man or any vertebrate animals ; their victims are other insects or spiders, which is fortunate for us since as biting insects they probably have no equal. They kill their prey outright, and suck out not only its blood but all the softer tissue of the body as well. The asilids (fig. 13, B) are insects of medium or large size; their favorite haunt is any dry, open, sunny place where flight'is not obstructed, visibility is good, and prospective victims have little protection. They capture other insects of all kinds and sizes, including members of their own family, but they show a preference for flies and Hymenoptera, and do not hesitate to attack stinging species such as bees and wasps. The piercing organ of the robber flies is the hypopharynx (fig. 13 A, Hphy), a strong, sharp-pointed shaft that can be protruded beyond the other mouth parts. In a study of the feeding habits of the 3 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Asilidae, Whitfield (1925) has shown that the victim is stabbed usually in the head or the thorax, and that in such cases death is gen- erally instantaneous. The head puncture in most cases is inflicted just above the neck. Death evidently results from the injection of a lethal Fic. 12——A snipe fly, Symphoromyia atripes Bigot, female, head and mouth parts. Rhagionidae. A, female fly (length 5.5 mm.). B, head and proboscis, anterior. CC, mandible. D, labrum, anterior. E, maxilla. F, hypopharynx, floor of cibarial pump, and salivary pump with its muscles (78), posterior. at, anterior tentorial pit; CbP, cibarial pump; C/p, clypeus; c/p, median lobe of clypeus; Fr, frons; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; sc, sali- vary canal; S/P, salivary pump; y, cornu of cibarial pump. secretion, since insects are not readily killed by mere wounds. The same, or another, secretion introduced into the body of the captive soon reduces to a liquid condition the entire body content, which is then sucked out so completely that the victim when discarded is little more than an empty skin. According to Whitfield the killing secre- INO: £ BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 33 tion must be that of the thoracic glands corresponding with the usual salivary glands of other insects, which, being discharged through the hypopharynx, is injected at the time of the fatal stroke. The secretion that subsequently digests the visceral organs Whitfield believes is pro- Fic. 13—Robber fly, head, mouth parts and sucking apparatus. Asilidae. A, Proctacanthus sp., head and proboscis. B, example of an asilid. C, Diognites discolor Loew, male, sucking apparatus and associated parts, left side. D, Machimus atricapillus Fln., cross section of proboscis through labella (simplified from Whitfield, 1925). E, same, section of proboscis near base (from Whitfield). CbP, cibarial pump; Clp, clypeus; fc, food canal; Hphy, hypopharynx; LbI, labellum; Lig, ligula; Lm, labrum; Mx, maxilla; Oe oesophagus; PhP-a, pharyngeal pump (anterior); sc, salivary canal; S/P, salivary pump; Thc, theca; y, cornu of cibarial pump. Muscles.—5, dilators of cibarial pump; 7, precerebral dilators of pharyngeal pump; 13, retractor of cibarial pump; 14, protractor of cibarial pump. duced by a pair of glands in the labium that open into the distal part of the labial gutter. The formidable proboscis of the asilids projects forward menac- ingly from the lower part of the head (fig. 13 A). It is composed of the labrum, a pair of maxillae, the hypopharynx, and the labium; mandibles are absent in each sex. The labrum (Lm) is short and triangular. The maxillae have slender galeal blades (x), concave on their inner surfaces, which normally are applied against the sides 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 of the hypopharynx; the bristly palpi are unsegmented. The labium is hard and rigid; its base contains a large thecal sclerite (Thc) and supports the pair of long, horny labella (Lb/), which ensheath the distal parts of the maxillae and hypopharynx (D). The labial gutter is produced into a strong ligular tongue between the labella (D, Lig), on which slides the hypopharynx (Hphy). Just proximal to its sharp apical point the hypopharynx is deeply grooved on its upper sur- face (D) and fringed above with stiff hairs slanted backward (A). The hypopharyngeal groove is the first part of the food canal (D, fc) ; farther back, as shown by Whitfield, the function of conduction is taken over by the canal of the labrum, which toward the mouth becomes a closed channel (FE, fc). Beneath the labrum the hypo- pharynx flattens out and contains only the salivary canal (sc). The sucking apparatus of the Asilidae is of the same type of struc- ture as that of the Tabanidae in that it consists of a cibarial pump (fig. 13 C, CbP) and an anterior pharyngeal pump (PhP-a). The pharyngeal pump, however, has an external sheath of circular muscle fibers, and lacks the first pair of cranial muscles of the tabanids (fig. 11 J, 6). On each cornu of the cibarial pump are inserted a slender retractor muscle (fig. 13 C, 73) and a stronger protractor (I7). These muscles, directly effecting movements of the cibarial pump, Whitfield says, “are the means of extruding and retracting the hypo- pharynx.” The cibarial pump has no connection with the head wall, and is movable by reason of the flexibility of the clypeus at the base of the labrum. IX, THE, CYCLORRBAPHA: Because of certain distinctive features in the feeding apparatus of the Cyclorrhapha, a study of the biting species included in this group may be expedited by a preliminary discussion of the typical cyclor- rhaphous structure. The familiar nonbiting cyclorrhaphous flies are the fruit flies, the pomace flies, the house flies, the blow flies, and the flesh flies; biting species include the horn flies, the stable flies, the tsetse flies, and the louse flies. The Cyclorrhapha lack mandibies, and most of them have no maxil- lary blades though the maxillary palpi are retained. The proboscis, therefore, consists generally of only the unpaired members of the mouth parts, namely, the labrum, the hypopharynx, and the labium (fig. 14 F). These parts are suspended from a conical, membranous projection of the lower part of the head, known as the rostrum, or basiproboscis (A, Rst). The true proboscis, corresponding with the NO. I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—SNODGRASS 35 proboscis of Nematocera and Brachycera, is termed the haustellum (Hstl). The anterior wall of the rostrum contains one or two clypeal plates (clp), and supports the maxillary palpi (/xPlp) ; within the rostrum are a pair of labral apodemes, the cibarial pump, and the salivary pump. The labrum and the hypopharynx have the same structure in the Cyclorrhapha as in other flies; the labrum is excavated by the food canal (fig. 14 F, fc), which is closed by the hypopharynx below it, and the latter is traversed by the salivary canal (sc). The labrum, however, is provided with a pair of long internal apodemal rods (1, J, Ap) for the attachment of muscles. These rods are often regarded as being parts of the maxillae, but they are articulated to the basal angles of the labrum, and their muscles move the proboscis. The labium consists of a proximal stalk, the prementum, and of a pair of labellar lobes (A, Lb). The prementum is covered posteriorly by a thecal sclerite (F, Thc), and is excavated anteriorly by the labial gutter (LG), in which are lodged the labrum and the hypopharynx. In most of the nonbiting Cyclorrhapha the entire proboscis can be folded up against the lower side of the head, or even completely retracted within the peristomal margin of the cranium; in biting forms it is usually rigid and projecting, though it may be retractile into a pouch of the head wall. The labial labella in most nonbiting species are large, soft, oval lobes that can be flexed upward against the sides of the haustellum or spread out flat to form a broad disk, the so-called “oral sucker,” by which liquid food may be collected and conveyed to the food canal of the haustellum. When the labella are thus spread out (fig. 14 B), the cleft between their anterior parts is ordinarily closed by the apposi- tion of the lobes except for an oval aperture at its inner end, which is termed the prestomum because it lies at the entrance to the food canal of the labrum and thus constitutes a provisional mouth of the proboscis. The under surfaces of the labella, as in the horse flies, are grooved transversely by canaliculi (“‘pseudotracheae”) that serve as food conductors. The canals are kept open, and their flexibility preserved, by minute riblike thickenings of their walls, forked at one end and simply expanded at the other, that leave an open line along the exposed surfaces of the grooves, and entrance holes at their own forked extremities. In the blow fly (B) the first 6 or 8 and the last II or 12 transverse canaliculi of each labellum open respectively into anterior and posterior longitudinal collecting channels that lead toward the prestomum ; the intermediate canaliculi, 12 in number on each side, 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 discharge directly into the latter. At the mesal ends of the inter- mediate canaliculi is an armature of intercanicular spines, or tooth- like processes (¢), three rows of them on each labellum, and, in addi- tion, flanking the open ends of the canals themselves are pairs of canalicular teeth. These labellar spines collectively are known as the prestomal teeth; their number, size, shape, and arrangement vary in different species. The spines or teeth of the labella give many of the nonbiting flies a means of rasping, scraping, or even of puncturing the feeding sur- face. The various methods of feeding employed by the blow fly are graphically illustrated by Graham-Smith (1930). Certain other species have carried the development of the labellar teeth so far that the proboscis becomes an effective scarifying organ, as in Philaematomyia crassirostris (Stein) a bloodsucking fly of Africa, in which the soft, protrusible, strongly armed, terminal lobe of the labium (fig. 14 C) is evidently a cutting instrument. This fly, Austen (1909) says, “in all probability feeds by cutting through the epidermis with the teeth at the end of the tubular extension (of the labium), and then suck- ing up the blood in the ordinary way.” In most of the biting flies of the cyclorrhaphous group, however, in which the prestomal teeth are cutting organs, the labella have become reduced to small, horny plates, and the labium itself has been converted into a strong piercing shaft. A case of direct development of the labella into a pair of biting jaws occurs in Melanderia mandibulata Aldrich, a brachycerous fly of the family Dolichopodidae, which feeds on soft-bodied inverte- brates along the seashore. The sucking apparatus of the cyclorrhaphous Diptera consists of the cibarial pump alone, the head stomodaeum being a narrow oesopha- geal tube with no pharyngeal dilatation. The pump has the same structure and mechanism as in other Diptera (fig. 14 D), but its side margins are united with lateral plates (/p/) deeply inflected from the edges of the clypeus (clp). The associated parts thus form a stirrup- shaped structure, known as the fulcrum because the entire proboscis, including the pump, swings on the clypeal hinge with the frons. To understand the nature of the fulcrum in the Cyclorrhapha we must refer back to the horse fly, in which it was noted that the median part of the clypeus, giving attachment to the dilators of the cibarial pump (fig. 11 B, clp), is partially cut out by a pair of grooves (cg) that form ridges on the inner surface (I, cr). In the Cyclorrhapha and some of the Brachycera, the median, muscle-bearing plate of the NO. I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 37 Hphy Hy SIP SlDct CbP K Fic. 14—Special features of the feeding apparatus in cyclorrhaphous flies. A, head of a female house fly, Musca domestica L., with proboscis extended. B, under surface of the labellar disk of a female blow fly, Calliphora. C, proboscis of Philaematomyia crassirostris (Stein) (insignis Austen), with strongly developed prestomal teeth (from Austen, 1909). D, fulcrum and asso- ciated parts of Calliphora, left side. E, cross section of the hyoid of Calliphora. F, cross section of the haustellum of a female house fly. G, diagrammatic cross section through clypeus and cibarial pump of a horse fly (see fig. 11 I). H, corresponding section of the fulcrum of a cyclorrhaphous fly. I, labrum, hypo- pharynx, hyoid, and cibarial pump of a stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), posterior surface. J, showing relation of hyoid to bases of labrum and hypo- pharynx in the stable fly, left side. K, clypeus and cibarial pump of Mydas clavatus Drury, a brachycerous fly. Ant, antenna; CbP, cibarial pump; c/p, clypeus; cnl, canaliculi of labellum; cr, clypeal ridge; fc, food canal; Fr, frons; h, hinge plate of clypeus; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hstl, haustellum; Hy, hyoid; Lb/, labellum; LG, labial gutter; Lm, labrum; /pl, lateral plate of fulcrum; /rAp, labral apodeme; M-xPip, maxillary palpus; Oe, oesophagus; Prstm, prestomum; Rst, rostrum; sc, sali- vary canal; S/Dct, salivary duct; SIP, salivary pump; ft, prestomal teeth; Thc, theca; y, cornu of cibarial pump. 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 clypeus becomes isolated by a membranization of the surrounding clypeal area, and is thus flexible on its hinge with the frons. The clypeal plate in such cases takes on various shapes, but in the Cyclor- rhapha it has typically the form of an inverted V (fig. 14 A, clp), sometimes with an accessory hinge plate (D, 4) uniting it with the frons. To brace the now unsupported clypeus against the pull of the dilator muscles of the pump, the clypeal ridges (G, cr) have been extended inward as a pair of plates (H, /pl) that unite with the edges of the pump (CbP). The whole structure, or so-called fulcrum, is thus movably suspended in the peripheral clypeal membrane of the rostrum, but is hinged to the frons by the upper edge of the clypeal plate, or by an intervening hinge plate, and hence swings forward or backward with the protraction or retraction of the proboscis. The clypeal plate of the Cyclorrhapha, recognized as such by Patton and Cragg (1913), is termed by Graham-Smith (1930) the “anterior - arch of the fulcrum,” which literally it is in a structural sense, but almost all other recent writers on Diptera have followed Peterson (1916) in calling this plate the “torma,”’ on the mistaken idea that it is derived from lateral basal processes of the labrum, properly named tormae. The muscle relations between the plate in question and the pump show that this latter interpretation is impossible, as is clearly seen by referring back to the horse fly (fig. 11 B, I) and the cock- roach (fig. 2A). In some of the Brachycera a bracing of the pump on the clypeus is effected by a strong union of the lower parts of the clypeal ridges with the edges of the pump (fig. 14 K). Between the food canal of the proboscis and the mouth of the sucking pump in such flies as the house fly and the blow fly there is interposed a short cylindrical passage. The wall of this tubular en- trance to the pump contains a sclerite (fig. 14 D, Hy), which, being U-shaped in cross section (FE), has been appropriately named the hyoid. Later writers, however, have applied the term “hyoid” to the passageway itself, which is unfortunate because the latter in some flies, as in Stomoxys (1, J, Hy), is drawn out into a long flexible tube, reaching its greatest length in connection with the retractile proboscis of the Hippoboscidae (fig. 17 1, Hy). The name is retained in this paper to avoid confusion. The salivary pump of the Cyclorrhapha (fig. 14 D, SIP) has the same structure and musculature as in other flies. (See Cornwall, 1923.) INO. 2 BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—SNODGRASS 39 X. EYE GNATS. FAMILY CHLOROPIDAE The flies of this family, known also as Oscinidae, are very small insects somewhat resembling the pomace flies (Drosophilidae), and often occur in swarms. They have a propensity for feeding on animal exudations, and are most annoying because of their persistent efforts to get into the eyes. Certain species, therefore, are accused, and on good circumstantial evidence, of spreading eye infections and the germs of suppurative sores; their habits alone are sufficient to put them under suspicion. Siphunculina funicola (de Meijere) of India, Ceylon, and Java, and Hippelates pusio Loew of the southern and western parts of the United States are probably each involved in the dissemination of conjunctivitis, while the first, in Ceylon, and Hip- pelates pallipes Loew, in Jamaica, have been strongly suspected of being vectors, respectively, of parangi and of yaws. Mastitis of cattle, or inflammation of the udder, has been shown to be spread by eye gnats. The Chloropidae do not have piercing mouth parts of any of the usual types of structure, but they are able to make small punctures in delicate surfaces by means’of minute spines or points along the edges of the channels on the under surfaces of the labella. The feed- ing organs of Siphunculina funicola have been described by Senior- White (1923), those of Hippelates pusio by Graham-Smith (1930a). The labella in these flies have each only six of the so-called pseudo- tracheal channels, and the latter run in a longitudinal direction. The rings that keep the channels open are not closed outwardly, but end in projecting points that become spinous proximally along the chan- nel margins. “When the flies are feeding on abrasions or the con- junctival epithelium,” Graham-Smith says, “these spines apparently act as cutting instruments capable of producing minute multiple incisions, likely to assist pathogenic organisms carried by the insects in gaining a foothold.” x HORN FLIES, STABLE FEIES, AND TSEISE FLIES: FAMILIES MUSCIDAE AND GLOSSINIDAE The Muscidae are the family of the house fly, Musca domestica L., which though a common pest in many ways, is not guilty of the offense of biting, since it has no effective piercing mechanism; yet, within its family are some notorious biters, the horn flies (Szphona) and the stable flies (Stomoxys). Closely related to these flies also are the tsetse flies (Glossina), which some dipterists place in a sepa- 4 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 rate family, the Glossinidae. In all these genera it is the labium that forms the piercing organ; the theca and the labial gutter are drawn out into a long, rigid shaft, and the labella, instead of being soft, spreading lobes as in most of the muscids, are reduced to a pair of small hard plates at the tip of the theca, armed internally with eversi- ble teeth. The labrum and the hypopharynx are contained within the gutter of the labium. The beaklike haustellum of the proboscis, when not in use, projects forward from the lower part of the head (fig. 15 B, Prb). The structure of the head and the feeding mechanism of Glossina palpalis (R.-D.) have been fully described by Jobling (1933). The head of Glossina (fig. 15 B) has the usual muscoid structure, but the proboscis (Prb) is long and slender with a bulblike swelling at the base, and normally is ensheathed between the long maxillary palpi (M-xPlp). The proboscis, or, more strictly speaking, the haustellum of the proboscis (E, Hstl), arises from a relatively small, mem- branous rostrum (Rst), which is usually swung back, allowing the bulbous base of the haustellum to be firmly braced against the lower part of the head. The haustellum is composed of the labium, the labrum (Lm), and the hypopharynx (Hphy). It is the base of the labium that forms the bulb (0b) ; the theca (Thc) is a thick plate on the outer posterior wall of the labium (G) ; the labial gutter (G, LG) embraces the labrum (Lm) and encloses the hypopharynx (Hphy). The food canal (fc) is the channel of the labrum closed below by the labial gutter; the salivary canal (sc) traverses the slender hypo- pharynx. The theca and the wall of the gutter are united by mem- branes along their edges, allowing the two parts of the labium a limited movement on each other. The labrum is held in the labial gutter by several interlocking ridges on each side. The horny platelike labella (E, Lbl) when pressed together form a small apical lobe of the haustellum. Their inner walls have a complicated armature of teeth and sensory papillae (H), a detailed description of which is given by Jobling (1933). Since the theca and the labial gutter are movable lengthwise on each other because of the amplitude of the lateral membranes uniting them along the sides of the labium, the theca and the labella are retractile and protractile on the relatively fixed gutter. The retrac- tion of the labellar plates (fig. 15 H, Lb/) on the end of the gutter (LG), therefore, everts the inner armature of the labella and gives the teeth a reversed position on the end of the haustellum. The move- ments of the theca are said by Jobling (1933) to be produced by the NOS 7x BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—SNODGRASS AI oppositely inclined sets of oblique muscles in the labial bulb (fig. 15 F), which are attached at one end on the gutter and at the other Fic. 15.—Tsetse fly, Glossina, horn fly, Siphona, and stable fly, Stomorys, head and feeding apparatus. Glossinidae and Muscidae. A, Glossina palpalis R.-D., male (length 11 mm.). B, same, head and pro- boscis. C, Siphona irritans (L.), proboscis. D, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) proboscis. E, Glossina palpalis, proboscis and sucking pump, stylets separated from labium. F, same, vertical section of head and base of proboscis (simpli- fied from Jobling, 1933). G, Glossina fusca (Walker), cross section of pro- boscis (from Vogel, 1921). H, Glossina palpalis, horizontal section of distal end of labium (simplified from Jobling, 10933). Ant, antenna; b, bulb of labium; Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; c/p, clypeus ; fe, food canal; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hsztl, haustellum; Lb/ labellum; Lm, labrum; LG, labial gutter; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Oe, oesophagus; Prb, proboscis; Ptl, invaginated ptilinum; Rst, rostrum; sc, salivary canal; SIP, sali- vary pump; Thc, theca. on the theca. The corresponding muscles in the proboscis of Stomoxys were believed by Stephens and Newstead (1907) to effect a rotation of the theca, thus enabling the labellar teeth to exert a cutting action 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 on the skin. Another pair of larger muscles in the bulb of the theca (F) have long tendons that traverse the labium to be attached on the labella, and these muscles effect directly a retraction of the labellar plates. Protraction of the theca reverses the movement and intro- verts the labellar teeth. While it would appear that the appressed labella in the protracted position are themselves sufficiently rigid to serve as a penetrating point for the proboscis, it is generally said that the everted teeth are the effective cutting agents that puncture the skin, the proboscis being then sunken into the flesh. Movements of the proboscis in the wound probably cause a laceration that in- creases the blood flow. The sucking apparatus of Glossina has the typical muscoid struc- ture. The cibarial pump (termed the “pharynx” by Jobling, 1933) lies within the rostrum of the proboscis (fig. 15 E, CbP), but when the haustellum is retracted the pump is pushed up into the head (F). The dilator muscles (5) take their origins on the small clypeal plate (clp) in the anterior rostral wall, and the clypeal plate is attached to the pump by a pair of internal lateral plates, the whole complex forming a typical fulcrum. The stomodaeum turns back from the upper end of the pump as a narrow oesophageal tube (F, Oe) without a pharyngeal differentiation. The salivary pump (S/P) is of the usual structure and has long dilator muscles arising on the floor of the cibarial pump. There are about 20 known species of the genus Glossina Wied., confined almost entirely to tropical and southern Africa. The eggs of the tsetse flies are hatched and the larvae matured within the body of the female, so that the larvae at birth transform very shortly into pupae. Glossina palpalis (R.-D.) (fig. 15 A) is the principal vector of the Gambian form of African sleeping sickness of man, but it is said to live mainly on reptiles (Herms, 1939). The Rhodesian form of the disease is transmitted by Glossina morsitans Westwood and G. swynnertoni Austen. The last named and other species are also vectors of the trypanosomes of nagana, a disease of horses, cattle, camels, dogs, and other mammals. The horn flies and the stable flies resemble the tsetse flies in the structure of the proboscis and their manner of biting. Their common names are merely distinctive titles, since the horn fly only incidentally settles on the horns of cattle, and the stable fly is not confined to stables ; both species abound in pastures where horses and cattle are grazing, and are a source of great annoyance and distress to the ani- mals because of their persistent and painful biting. The sharp bite NOE 5 BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—SNODGRASS 43 of the stable fly is not unfamiliar to us, but it is usually attributed to a “biting house fly.” The horn flies have been known entomologically under the generic names of Haematobia R.-D. and Lyperosia Rondani, but are now included in one genus, Siphona Meigen. They comprise about 34 species indigenous to the Old World, of which the most common species in Europe are stimulans Meigen, irritans L., and exigua de Meij., but all three species have become more widely distributed, and the second, Siphona irritans, since 1887 has become an abundant pest in the United States and Canada. The stable flies belong to the genus Stomoxys Geoffroy, the species of which are most abundant in Africa, but S. calcitrans (L.) is now of general distribution, and is the only species occurring in the New World. The proboscis both in the horn flies (fig. 15 C) and the stable flies (D) is thicker and relatively shorter than in the tsetse flies (B), but it is similar in structure and mechanism in the three forms. The max- illary palpi of the horn flies are long and ensheath the proboscis as in Glossina; the palpi of the stable flies are short and project straight out from the rostrum. The haustellum, when not in use, is extended horizontally from the head, but when the fly bites, the organ is said to be turned vertically and driven for a third or more of its length into the flesh of the victim. The structure of the proboscis of Stomoxys, including the labellar armature, has been fully described and amply illustrated by Stephens and Newstead (1907). Horses and cattle suffer severely from the attacks of these flies. Horn flies settle by thousands on the bodies of cattle, and the irrita- tion of their incessant biting, together with loss of blood, results in a lowered vitality and reduced milk production. The stable fly is perhaps a more painful biter even than the horn fly, on account of its longer proboscis; when present in great numbers it has been known to kill horses and cattle through induced nervousness and the loss of blood. It is serious also as a pest of humans, particularly where abundant in the neighborhood of summer resorts. Both the horn fly and the stable fly are potential carriers of such livestock dis- eases as anthrax and surra. The horn fly has been claimed, from experiments on monkeys, to be a vector of human poliomyelitis, but more recent tests (Herms, 1939) appear to give negative results. In any case, these flies well illustrate how an ordinarily harmless organ such as the insect labium, by a few anatomical alterations can be converted into an instrument of torture. 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 XII. LOUSE FLIES. FAMILY HIPPOBOSCIDAE The Hippoboscidae are a family of winged or wingless bloodsucking flies parasitic on mammals and birds. They cause their hosts much physical annoyance, but because they do not ordinarily leave an ani- mal until the latter dies, they have little relation to the spread of Fic. 16.—Louse flies, Lynchia and Melophagus. Hippoboscidae. A, Lynchia americana (Leach), a parasite of hawks and owls (length of head and body about 8 mm.). B, Melophagus ovinus L., the sheep “tick” (largest about 8 mm. long). C, same, vestigial wing and associated bristles. D, Lynchia americana, right hind tarsus and claws. E, same, single foot claw. F, Melophagus ovinus, right fore tarsus and claws. disease, though certain species have been shown to be vectors of pigeon and quail malaria. Most of the species are permanently winged (fig. 16 A), some shed the wings after having established themselves on a host, and a few are practically wingless (B), the wings in such species being reduced to minute lobes (C.). In all species the claws of the feet are conspicuously large and recurved (D, F). Those of NO. I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—SNODGRASS 45 the winged species shown in the figure are two-branched, each claw having a large basal lobe (E) separated from the outer branch by a deep, narrow cleft, by which evidently the insect is enabled to grasp the hairs or barbs of feathers amongst which it lives. In the wingless sheep “‘tick,” Melophagus ovinus L. (B), the claws have a double appearance (F) but the apparent inner branch is a part of the base of the claw itself. The head of a winged hippoboscid, though flattened and held horizontally so that the mouth parts project forward (fig. 16 A), resembles the head of any ordinary fly and is set on the thorax by a narrow neck. The eyes are large (fig. 17 A), the antennae (Ant) ex- posed, but the rostrum is concealed by the retraction of the haustellum. In Melophagus ovinus, however, the eyes are small (B), the antennae sunken into pits on the dorsal] head surface, and the ventral part of the head is extended far back into the thorax. The proboscis is ordi- narily inconspicuous; when not in use it is so deeply retracted into a pouch of the head that only its slender distal part is to be seen (A, B, Prb) between the long maxillary palpi (Mx*Plp). When protracted, however, it is fully everted (C) and now extends far beyond the ensheathing palpi. The lower lip of the pouch projects as a small lobe (/p) beneath the base of the proboscis. The best published account of the structure and mechanism of the feeding apparatus of the Hippoboscidae is that of Jobling (1926), in which are described particularly Pseudolynchia canariensis ( Macq.) (maura Bigot) and Melophagus ovinus L. The feeding organs in this family do not differ essentially from those of the biting muscoid flies described in the preceding section, the piercing instrument being the labium with an armature of eversible teeth on the labella. Both the labrum and the hypopharynx are contained within the labial gutter. The distinctive feature of the Hippoboscidae is the retraction of the haustellum into a deep pouch in the ventral part of the head (fig. 17 G), from which the organ is protractile for feeding. The haustel- lum is bulbous at the base, slender, and more or less decurved. The wall of the labium, as is well shown in Jobling’s cross section of the haustellum (fig. 17 F), is distinctly divided lengthwise into a strong posterior thecal section (Thc) and a deep anterior labial gutter (LG), the two parts being united by wide membranes deeply inflected on each side. The labrum (Lm) is embraced by the elevated sides of the gutter, and is held in place by interlocking ridges on the apposed surfaces of the two parts. The almost tubular channel of the labrum is the food canal (fc). Between the labrum and the floor of the Fic. 17.—Head and feeding apparatus of Lynchia and Melophagus. A, Lynchia americana (Leach), head and exposed part of retracted proboscis, anterior. B, Melophagus ovinus L., head and first two segments of thorax, ventral, proboscis retracted. C, same, head, proboscis protracted. D, Pseudo- lynchia canariensis (Macq.) (Lynchia maura Bigot), end view of labium, prestomal teeth introverted (from Jobling, 1926). E, same, distal part of labium, lateral, prestomal teeth everted (from Jobling, 1926). F, same, cross section through middle of proboscis (simplified from Jobling, 1926). G, Lynchia americana, proboscis retracted into pouch of head. H, Melophagus ovinus, distal part of proboscis, dorsal, prestomal teeth everted (from Jobling, 1976). I, Pseudolynchia canariensis, vertical section of head, proboscis protracted (from Jobling, 1926). Ant, antenna; Ap, labral apodeme; Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; clp, clypeus; fc, food canal; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hy, hyoid; Li, first leg; LG, labial gutter; Lm, labrum; /p, projecting lip of proboscis pouch; /l, lateral plate of fulcrum; MzPlp, maxillary palpus; Oe, oesophagus; Pch, proboscis pouch; Prb, proboscis; sc, salivary canal; SIP, salivary pump; Thc, theca. Muscles—5, dilators of cibarial pump; 18, dilators of salivary pump. (46) NO? Lf BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—SNODGRASS 47 labial gutter lies the hypopharynx (Hphy), which is traversed by the salivary canal (sc). The long slender theca of the labium bears distally a pair of lateral labellar lobes (fig. 17 E, Lb/), the outer surfaces of which are hard, smooth plates, while the inner surfaces are membranous and support an armature of strong teeth and associated sensory papillae (D). The teeth are everted and exposed externally (E, H) by the same mechanism as in the biting muscoids, namely, by the retraction of the theca and labella on the labial gutter. The sucking apparatus of the Hippoboscidae consists, as in other Cyclorrhapha, of the cibarial pump (fig. 17 I, CbP), the cephalic stomodaeum being a slender oesophageal tube (Oe). The pump is supported on the clypeus (clp) by long, narrow lateral plates (/pl), which enclose the dilator muscles (5). To allow for the retraction of the proboscis, the so-called hyoid (Hy) connecting the pump with the food canal of the haustellum is drawn out into a long flexible tube. The salivary pump (S/P) has the usual relation to the cibarial pump, but is far separated from the base of the hypopharynx, necessitating a lengthening of the salivary canal (sc) proximal to the hypopharynx. The Hippoboscidae undoubtedly are related to the muscoid flies, but they are placed in a separate superfamily, termed the Pupipara, because they give birth to full-grown larvae ready for pupation, as do the tsetse flies. Generally included also in the Pupipara are the two following families of bat parasites, the Streblidae and Nycteribiidae, but the relation of these flies to the hippoboscids is questionable. XIII. BAT “TICKS.” FAMILIES STREBLIDAE AND NYCTERIBIIDAE The members of these two families, parasitic on bats, are of inter- est to us chiefly because of their queer shapes (fig. 18) and their structural adaptations to their habitat, but undoubtedly they are ob- noxious pests to the animals on which they live. The Streblidae include some species with fully developed wings (B), others that have reduced wings (A), and still others that are wingless. The Nycteribii- dae (C) are all wingless. In the Streblidae the head projects forward from the body in the usual manner (A); in the Nycteribiidae the small, basally narrowed head (D) arises from the dorsal surface of the thorax (C, H), on which it stands upright or bends backward. Just how these latter insects manage to insert the short proboscis into the skin of the host is not explained. The foot claws in both families are conspicuously large and recurved as in the Hippoboscidae, and have thick bases (FE) like those of Melophagus ovinus. 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 For a detailed account of the structure of the head, the mouth parts, and the sucking pump of the bat “ticks,” the reader is again referred to papers by Jobling, one (1928a) on the Nycteribiidae, another (1929) on the Streblidae. In general, the feeding apparatus re- sembles that of the Hippoboscidae and the biting Muscidae. The labium, armed with eversible labellar teeth, is the piercing organ. In some of the Streblidae the proboscis is short, and the thecal part of Fic. 18—Bat “ticks.” Streblidae and Nycteribiidae. A, Aspidoptera phyllostomatis (Perty), a streblid with reduced wings (length 1.5 mm.) (from Speiser, 1900). B, Raymondia lobulata Speiser, wing of a fully winged streblid (from Jobling, 1930). C, Cyclopodia sykesi (Westw.), Nycteribiidae (length of body 5.5 mm.). D, same, head. E, same, end of hind tarsus, and claws. H, head, projecting upward from thorax. the labium is bulbous and bears a pair of small labella. In other species the proboscis is elongate, but the elongation results from a lengthening of the labella and not of the theca. The proboscis of the Nycteribiidae is relatively long and slender ; the theca, however, forms only the basal bulb of the labium, the rest being the greatly elongate labella. While it is the labium that has been modified to form the piercing organ in the bloodsucking Muscidae, the Hippoboscidae, the Streblidae, and the Nycteribiidae, Jobling (1929) points out that “t is not the same part of the labium which has undergone this modification in all these families.” Furthermore, Jobling gives rea- NO. T BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 49 sons for believing that the resemblance of the bat “ticks” to the Hip- poboscidae is the result of adaptation to the same mode of life and feed- ing ; he would assign the Streblidae and the Nycteribiidae to the aca- lypterate section of the Cyclorrhapha. Finally, it may be noted that the bee “louse,” a minute wingless fly named Braula coeca Nitzsch, formerly classed with the hippoboscids and the bat “ticks,” has been shown definitely by Imms (1942), from the structure of its larva, to be unrelated to these insects and to have its closest affinities in the Acalypterae. Moreover, Braula coeca is not a piercing insect. It is parasitic in the sense that it lives on the bodies of bees, and is regarded as a pest by beekeepers, but it is said to feed on saliva discharged from the mouth of the bee. ’ REFERENCES, AND TEXTBOOKS ON MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY ADLER, S., and THEopor, O. 1926. The mouth-parts, alimentary tract, and salivary apparatus of the female in Phlebotomus papatasii. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., vol. 20, pp. 109-142, pls. 8-14, 3 text figs. AusTEN, E. E. 1909. Illustrations of African blood-sucking flies other than mosquitoes and tsetse flies. 221 pp., 13 pls. British Mus. Nat. Hist., London. BisHopp, F. C. 1942. Some insect pests of horses and mules. Yearbook for 1942, U. S. Dep. Agr., pp. 492-500. CHRISTOPHERS, S. R., SHortT, H. E., and BArraup, P. J. 1926. The anatomy of the sandfly Phlebotomus argentipes, Ann. and Brun. (Diptera). I. The head and mouth parts of the imago. Indian Med. Res. Mem. No. 4, pp. 177-204, pls. 16-25. CorNWALL, J. W. 1923. On the structure of the salivary pump in certain blood-sucking and other insects. Indian Journ. Med. Res., vol. 10, pp. 996-1007, pls. 75-80, 15 text figs. Gissins, E. G. 1938. The mouth parts of the female in Simulium damnosum Theobald, with special reference to the transmission of Onchocerca volvulus Leuckart. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., vol. 32, pp. 9-20, 8 figs. GILTNER, L. T., and SHAHAN, M. S. 1942. Equine encephalomyelitis. Yearbook for 1942, U. S. Dep. Agr., PP. 375-391. GRAHAM-SMITH, G. S. 1930. Further observations on the anatomy and function of the proboscis of the blow-fly, Calliphora erythrocephala L. Parasitology, vol. 22, Pp. 47-115, pls. 19-22, 36 text figs. 1930a. The Oscinidae (Diptera) as vectors of conjunctivitis, and the anat- omy of their mouth parts. Parasitology, vol. 22, pp. 457-467, pl. 4o. 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Hammon, W. M., Reeves, W. C., Brookman, B., Izumi, E. M., and GyuLtin, CM: 1941. Isolation of the viruses of western equine and St. Louis encephalitis from Culex tarsalis mosquitoes. Science, vol. 94, pp. 328-330. Hers, W. B. 1939. Medical entomology. 3d ed., 582 pp. 196 figs. New York. Hertic, M. 1942. Phlebotomus and Carrion’s disease. Amer. Journ. Trop. Med., vol. 22, No. 5, suppl., 80 pp., 9 pls. Imns, A. D. 1942. On Braula coeca Nitzsch and its affinities. Parasitology, vol. 34, pp. 88-100, 8 figs. Josiine, B. 1926. A comparative study of the structure of the head and mouth parts in the Hippoboscidae (Diptera Pupipara). Parasitology, vol. 18, Pp. 319-3490, pls. 11-15, 4 text figs. 1928. The structure of the head and mouth parts in Culicoides pulicaris L. (Diptera Nematocera). Bull. Ent. Res., vol. 18, pp. 211-236, pls. 9-12, Io text figs. 1928a. The structure of the head and mouth parts in the Nycteribiidae (Diptera Pupipara). Parasitology, vol. 20, pp. 254-272, pls. 14-16, 4 text figs. 1929. A comparative study of the structure of the head and mouth parts in the Streblidae (Diptera Pupipara). Parasitology, vol. 21, pp. 417-445, pls. 18-20, 6 text figs. 1930. A revision of the genus Ramondia Frauenfeld (Diptera Pupipara, Streblidae). Parasitology, vol. 22, pp. 283-301, 10 figs. 1933. A revision of the structure of the head, mouth-parts and salivary glands of Glossina palpalis Rob.-Desv. Parasitology, vol. 24, pp. 449-490, pls. 18-22, 11 text figs. KRAFCHICK, B. 1942. The mouthparts of blackflies with special reference to Eusimulium lascivum Twinn. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., vol. 35, pp. 426-434, 2 pls. MacArruur, W. P. 1942. Medical diseases in tropical and sub-tropical areas. 282 pp., 108 figs. 6th British ed., London; 1st American ed., Brooklyn. MATHESON, R. 1932. Medical entomology. 489 pp., 211 figs. Springfield and Baltimore. NutTta.t, G. H. F., and Suiprey, A. E. 1901-3. Studies in relation to malaria. II. The structure and biology of Anopheles. Journ. Hyg., vol. 1, pp. 45-74, 269-276, 451-483, pls. 1-2, 8-10; vol. 2, pp. 58-84; vol. 3, pp. 166-201, pls. 6-9. Patton, W. S., and Crace, F. W. 1913. A text book of medical entomology. 764 pp., 89 pls. London, Madras, and Calcutta. Patton, W. S., and Evans, A. M. 1929. Insects, ticks, mites and venomous animals of medical and veterinary importance, 786 pp., 60 pls., 374 text figs. Croydon, England. NO. I BITING AND DISEASE-CARRYING FLIES—-SNODGRASS 5I PETERSON, A. 1916. The head-capsule and the mouth parts of Diptera. Illinois Biol. Monogr., vol. 3, No. 2, 112 pp., 25 pls. Pierce, W. D. 1921. Sanitary entomology. 518 pp., 88 figs. Boston. Ritey, W. A., and JoHANNSEN, O. A. 1938. Medical entomology. 2d ed., 483 pp., 184 figs. New York and London. Rosinson, G. G. 1939. The mouth parts and their function in the female mosquito, Anopheles maculipennis. Parasitology, vol. 31, pp. 212-242, 9 figs. SENIOR-WHITE, R. 1923. A note on pseudo-tracheal teeth in the ‘eye-fly’ (Siphunculina funicola, de Meijére). Indian Journ. Med. Res., vol. 10, pp. 825-826, pl. 61. ‘ Smart, J. 1935. The internal anatomy of the black-fly Simulium ornatum. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., vol. 29, pp. 160-170, 12 figs. SouTHWELL, T., and KirsHner, A. s 1938. On the transmission of leishmaniasis. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., vol. 32, pp. 95-102. SPEISER, P. 1900. Ueber die Strebliden, Fledermausparasiten aus der Gruppe der pupiparen Dipteren. Archiv Naturg., Jahrg. 66, Bd. 1, pp. 31-70, pls. 3, 4. STEPHENS, J. W. W., and NEwsTEAp, R. 1907. The anatomy of the proboscis of biting flies. Pt. 2. Stomoxys. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., vol. 1, pp. 171-108, pls. 12-10. TuHompson, M. T. 1905. Alimentary canal of the mosquito. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 32, pp. 145-202, pls. 13-17. VocEL, R. 1921. Kritische und erganzende Mitteilungen zur Anatomie des Stech- apparats der Culiciden und Tabaniden. Zool. Jahrb., Anat., vol. 42, Pp. 259-282, pl. 15, 10 text figs. WEzER, H. 1933. Lehrbuch der Entomologie. 726 pp., 555 figs. Jena. WHITFIELD, F. G. S. 1925. The relation between the feeding-habits and the ‘structure of the mouth-parts in the Asilidae (Diptera). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. for 1925, pp. 599-638, 2 pls., 15 text figs. vy ai. "SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 2 _ CROSS SECTIONS OF NEW WORLD _ PREHISTORY he BRIEF REPORT ON THE WORK OF THE _ INSTITUTE OF ANDEAN RESEARCH, 1941-1942 (With 33 PLatEs) BY Ay Oe WM. DUNCAN STRONG - Professor of Anthropology, Columbia University a i ors 3739) GITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION DEGEMBER 21, 1943 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 2 meOS5 SECTIONS OF NEW WORLD Pees LORY A BRIEF REPORT ON THE WORK OF THE INSTITUTE OF ANDEAN RESEARCH, 1941-1942 (WITH 33 PLATES) BY WM. DUNCAN STRONG Professor of Anthropology, Columbia University (PUBLICATION 3739) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION DECEMBER 21, 1943 73 1 asad "7 an a Id L , ue , A hs apr : > wi mater f ih i! é uN : wig * j it The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. ‘ ie . P ; { i\ rey ‘ ; ‘ 8 y i 4 te CONTENTS Page racine and *Historic PaCk@rOunds +c. 42/646 ab fccise whe ssa ele aie se ees abe as I The nature and organization of the Institute of Andean Research........ 2 The organization and personnel of the 1941-1942 program............... 4 The field work, archeological survey and excavation.................... 8 ACen meee Se AREY, oS eae Rare MW EN ST Rey 8 JE SSUUSr ay iIlSS 1G Oe dee ad aaa Pye eas dal ie eS ie Ra 10 POPS iE UMMEcmnGOn etrt ayy cut mre. tn ere eth MeN ated Mee rhs. II EUS ALV AGO tare e thet erat teen Arey tae en Sayers att ut eRe hemetn fak o 13 MEME aed ycttitl, Ee: NWSE) DATES 6:0 aic Ss arelaccteioveun ce tleve sae wn ’ard aux dod w hues 14 | PLSLTP LSE aL ge ae Se A A tne De A nn Oa 2A a 16 LE SUELO TEU ke oe 6 oS ace Sea it, oe aE PR ern Boe TS Ree Se 18 LPEIEC apie Se Richer on AoRiG UALS 2th, GLAD See st APE SEE ERAGE DT SEE A ey pe 19 iyi aieaoce pale) dviej el hele Lis pa ns ae Ae (Oe age PR ACS Ni Saco aL ee cE 20 ioc aha ener a Chale tye i pene Bt COs Gate ee NALA ae cee ee a 22 (CRLALNGEN IN LOIGY be rcrenenenene a rca Rea AAC ac aan SENS Ar ae PU TLRS, open a 24 INV ORE 2° As COR EUS Aa) tol G) OVI SP A Re Sa ea aaa atl ben 17 ae hae am a a 28 Ree AOE CSIELES retaliate a arctan 1S oy ey Gia aha cc trallaue Coco & he aT Thal ove tere eheins « 30 Pera hom VA StA SMe per eR ae Paci n ora Perera Re nV a iste ceeorate oie tees Daaneesenen ects hid wie stows ae 39 mearcran reative chronological’ chart; . «.. 16 Upper: Burial urns from a deep shaft grave near Cali, Colombia. These pertain to the Rio Bolo culture. Lower: A carved and painted subterranean tomb wall at Tierradentro. These tombs were recently discovered by Colombian archeologists. PLATE 17 Upper: Members of I¢cuadorian expedition with Indian guides exploring the 13,000-feet-high paramo in southern Chimborazo. Lower: Type of country explored by the Ecuadorian expedition in the Province of Loja, southern Ecuador. NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 1, of elaborate carvings, channels, and baths cut out of the bedrock of a shallow stream (pl. 15, lower). A short visit to Inza in the Tierra- dentro region allowed examination of the deep subterranean tombs discovered by Dr. Hernandez de Alba. Circular stairways lead down to these subterranean chambers, and the interior walls (pl. 16, lower) are decorated with carved relief and with black, white, and red painted geometric designs. Later survey work included visits to many other regions. Over 4,000 photographs of important specimens in local collections were taken. These are now on deposit at the National Museum in Bogota. Materials examined represented eight major archeological areas of Colombia, namely, Santa Marta, Chibcha, Sint, Quimbaya-Quindio, Cali region, Narino, Tierradentro, and San Agustin. Formal excavations centered in the Cauca valley in the vicinity of Cali. At this point the Cauca River has a wide, flat flood plain, ideal for cattle grazing and sugarcane plantations. In spite of the importance of these flats today, the survey indicated that the area was of negligible importance in the past. Apparently the swampy, grass-covered flats were of little use to peoples without domestic animals for grazing and with corn as the basic crop. Instead, the best archeological material was found on the mountain slopes and in the narrow valleys on each side of the Cauca plain. Even here surface ruins were not encountered, and there was no evidence of large, con- centrated village sites. In many parts of the mountains, areas had been flattened artificially for house sites. A number of such house platforms might be arranged down the crest of a ridge like giant steps, but without a village pattern. Excavations on these platforms revealed shallow deposits of pottery fragments of the ancient dwellers. A broken grindstone or a crude stone pick might be found to one side. In spite of careful searching no evidence of post holes of the old houses was discovered on these platforms. Many graves were discovered. Some of these were located near the edges of the house platforms, but others were found in more isolated spots, apparently designated as cemeteries. The commonest type of grave was entered via a square shaft which extended to a depth of from 6 to 20 feet. The hollow chamber of the tomb was to one side of the shaft and was entered by a windowlike door, carefully closed with a large flat stone sealed in position with gray clay. The chamber was shaped like the quarter section of an orange. The floor plan was hemispherical and the walls curved up to the doorway above. One or more extended skeletons were found in a rectangular pit in the 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 floor. Pottery vessels were piled up around the sides. In one grave over 200 vessels were found, and most of them had apparently been made especially for burial purpose. The numerous sites excavated were ultimately analyzed as pertain- ing to two major periods. The latest, designated as the Quebrada Seca period, was characterized by shaft tombs of about 6 feet in depth. Pointed-base ollas, pedestal bowls, and simple effigy vessels were typical. Although no final evidence was available for chronological position, the period is probably just pre-Spanish. The earlier period, named Rio Bolo, was characterized by deep tombs, up to 20 feet, and by pottery much simpler in form and decoration. Some of the tombs had crude burial urns (pl. 16, upper). It was not possible to deter- mine the precise age of this period. In total over 1,000 complete specimens were recovered, consisting mainly of pottery vessels, spindle whorls, and simple stone artifacts. These specimens were divided into two equal lots. One has been de- posited as part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of Archeology in Bogota, and the other is packed and stored until shipping conditions will permit its being brought to this country. ECUADOR The Ecuador project(gB) was under the direction of Dr. Fay- Cooper Cole, who did not go south. The execution of the work de- volved on the assistant director, Dr. Donald Collier, of the Field Mu- seum, and the supervisor, John V. Murra. In Ecuador they enlisted the aid of Sr. Anibal Buitron Chavez, a young school teacher, as local assistant. Despite difficulties resulting from the Peruvian war, the expedition carried out an archeological reconnaissance in the little-known high- land provinces of southern Ecuador. The survey extended from Riobamba, in central Ecuador, southward to Loja, a distance of approximately 180 miles, and covered territory ranging in altitude from 2,500 to 14,000 feet (pl. 17). The party traveled by plane, auto- mobile, muleback, and afoot. On the basis of the information gained by the survey, the Cafar valley, in the Province of Cafiar, was chosen as the most fruitful place to excavate. Intensive digging was carried out at Cerro Narrio, a large hill containing burials, remnants of houses, and large refuse deposits left by the prehistoric Indian inhabitants. Other smaller sites in the valley were also investigated (pl. 18). The work at Cafiar established a stratigraphic cultural sequence for the valley, which makes it possible to reconstruct the local history. NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 19 Between A.D. 1000 and 1200 the Cafiari Indians settled in the valley. They were an agricultural people who made very fine pottery and lived in houses constructed of upright poles and mud and roofed with grass thatch. It is not known as yet where these people came from, but there is evidence that they had cultural connections with the Ecuadorian coast and possibly also with the Amazon Basin. During the early years of their occupation of the valley, they apparently made little use of metal, but later they made copper axes and elaborate gold ornaments. About A.D. 1400 the Cafaris were strongly influenced by the Puruha Indians, who lived in the mountains to the north, and about 50 years later the Cafiaris were conquered by the Incas, who succeeded in adding most of Ecuador to their empire. For many years there has been held a theory that Maya colonists reached Ecuador and founded settlements there. The Cafar valley was supposed to be one of the principal centers of this transplanted Maya culture. The evidence gathered by the expedition fails to sub- stantiate this theory. The Cafiari culture seems to have had. Andean -roots, and such generalized Central American resemblances as are present do not point to a direct Maya migration from the north. Ecuador should be better known archeologically. Sr. Jacinto Jijon y Caamafio has labored titanically to overcome the neglect of this important field. The work of the Andean Institute, and of Edwin N. Ferdon, Jr., for the School of American Research, has helped to fix high standards for research. Interest in Ecuadorian archeology is strong, but funds are low. Yet the Republic is a key point for long- term studies of Indian population under aboriginal, colonial, and present-day conditions. PERU Peru has been the seat of many ancient and powerful Indian civiliza- tions. The interest of resident and foreign scholars in ancient Peru has had the same long history that archeology has had in Mexico. Peru might well be called the Mesopotamia or Egypt of the Americas, and for that reason no less than four projects were organized to attack various phases of the problems of the Peruvian past. Despite years of exploration, research and, sad to say, unbelievable looting, we are still only on the threshold of adequate knowledge concerning the prehistory of this fascinating country. Less rich than Mexico or the United States, the Government of Peru has been in no position adequately to exploit the wonders of her past. Nevertheless, two big government projects have successfully explored the great sites of Cuzco and Pachacamac. The limited stratigraphic excava- 5 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 tions sponsored by the Institute of Andean Research were carried on in close cooperation with the larger government projects and were geared to implement these, particularly in regard to relative chronology. Since the highland region of Peru as a whole is less known than the coast, work was carried on there in both the extreme north and south. NorTHERN HIGHLANDS OF PERU Project 9A, under the supervision of Dr. Theodore D. McCown, was carried out in the general region of modern Huamachuco and Caja- bamba. It consisted of a survey and some excavation centering at the great ruins of Marca Huamachuco and Viracochapampa, although a considerable number of other sites were sampled. Maps were made of these two large ruins and of several others. This remote region is little known by either Peruvian or foreign archeologists, and the present work greatly supplements the incomplete surveys of Max Uhle made around the turn of the century. Several styles of architecture were encountered in the region, and these could be correlated with distinctive ceramic types. At Marca Huamachuco proper, two periods are clearly distinguishable. An earlier period, termed Middle Huamachuco, is characterized by nar- row structures with massive stone walls of “‘pirca” construction rising to three stories (maximum 9 meters) in height (pl. 21, upper). The distinctive stone sculptures (pl. 20) from Marca Huamachuco are of this period. Associated with the above is an abundant red-slipped pottery ware. This pottery is usually plain but is occasionally orna- mented with negative-painted designs in black. More distinctive, however, is a ware having a fine white paste decorated with red and black designs in the “‘cursive-painted”’ style. Pertaining to the Middle Huamachuco period, apparently as rural contemporaries to the main > site, are a number of semifortified hill-top settlements on the borders of Lake Sausagocha. The second period of Marca Huamachuco is represented by walls of the same general type of construction, but the stones are smaller, the walls are thinner, and, owing to faulty construction, they are more ruinous. These clearly overlie and postdate the more massive con- struction of the earlier period. The ceramics of this second period, termed Late Huamachuco, include an abundant plain ware decorated with appliqué, punched and incised designs, as well as a crudely painted ware with red and black designs on a white slip. There is some suggestion of Inca influence in both ceramic form and style, but this horizon is believed to antedate the true Inca period. From the present PLATE 18 Upper: Cerro Narrio, Province of Canar, most important archeological site excavated by the Institute of Andean Research expedition in Ecuador. The discovery of a few gold objects here many years ago started a sterile “gold rush” which lasted until recent years. Despite all the destruction, the present expedition was able to uncover clearly stratified culture deposits. Lower: Canar valley seen from Cerro Narrio. PLATE Ig Upper right and lower, polished red cup and bow] with engraved designs, Late period, Cerro Narrio, Ecuador; upper left, two polished red bowls typical of the Early period, Cerro Narrio. PLATE 20 Stone carvings from the ruins of Marca Huamachuco in the northern highlands of Peru. Courtesy of the Museum of Anthropology, University of California. ‘SOLU ROUT UTYIIM pardnss0 se ops a]qeyAPLUaT SIU, “ISOM JO YOU ATWLYSITS Suryoo] ‘nsiaq JO spuryysiy utoyysou ‘eduedeysooenA Jo eule1oueq + 1OMO'T "y Asaypes) Suo7] pavmoy vze[q JwasH dy} Sore ysea SUPAOOT ‘OTHSeD oy} JO [TBM Jsvo oy} WoIF NIG ‘oonyoruenfzy Boieyy jo eulesouerq : todd) IZ ALVIg NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 21 evidence McCown believes that the Inca city of Huamachuco, men- tioned in the chronicles of Cieza de Leon, was not Marca Huamachuco but the site now called Viracochapampa. Viracochapampa, then, apparently represents the third and latest period in this region, here designated as Incaic Viracochapampa. The rectangular plan and regular care with which this site is laid out (pl. 21, lower) is unparalleled in any other site visited by the expe- dition. The general arrangement suggests Inca planning, and the site bears considerable resemblance in over-all plan to the ruins of Pikil- lacta (pl. 27, upper) near Cuzco. However, the emphasis on long, narrow galleries, of at least two floors, shows a persistence of the local architectural style as represented at Marca Huamachuco. These galleries are only one-third the size of the great ones in the Middle Huamachuco period but have structural details recalling that style of building. The pottery recovered at Viracochapampa was somewhat disappointing, inasmuch as no Inca polychrome or local imitations of that ceramic style were discovered in the 12 excavations sunk there. The pottery is very crude and is distinctive from Middle Huamachuco, but relationships to Late Huamachuco, while not obvious, do exist. It seems strange that no distinctive Inca ceramics were encountered, but McCown is convinced that this great ruin pertains to the Incaic period. Thus, he states that the period represented by Viracocha- pampa can be called Incaic Huamachuco (here termed Incaic Vira- cochapampa ; see relative chronological chart, p. 42) and represents a local population with its chief, set up in an Inca-engineered town that only faintly recalled the long-dead glories of Marca Huamachuco in the Middle period. The outside connections suggested by the art styles of the Marca Huamachuco-Viracochapampa region are interesting. The stone sculpture in some general features, such as the tenoned heads (pl. 20), recalls the ruins of Chavin de Huantar but the sculptural style is highly distinctive. The white paste ceramic ware of Middle Huama- chuco apparently belongs in general to what Tello has designated as the Marajfion type. The “cursive-painting” style occurs in the Mara- fion, in Wilkawain in the Callejon de Huaylas, in Cajamarca, and in the Middle Chimu period at Moche on the north coast. Some Middle and Late Chimu influences from the north Peruvian coast are also noted in pottery of the Middle and Late Huamachuco periods respec- tively. The negative-painted pottery in Middle Huamachuco may be related to certain negative-painted styles in Ecuador and to the two- color negative of Huaraz in the Callejon de Huaylas, but these com- parisons must await the publication of the materials. Strange to say, 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 no Tiahuanaco- or Epigonal-style sherds were encountered, though they have been reported from sites farther to the north and the styles are well known at sites in the Callejon de Huaylas. The absence of true Inca styles is puzzling, but this, like the present lack of materials from horizons older than Middle Huamachuco, may be explained when more excavation has been accomplished. McCown’s work brings considerable order out of disorder. On the relative chronological chart (p. 42) his results have been tentatively correlated with the sequence of the central Peruvian highland as out- lined by Bennett. As to dating, McCown does not believe that Vira- cochapampa can antedate the Inca conquest under Tupac, which probably occurred after 1430. Late Huamachuco might then be esti- mated as lasting two centuries, and the termination of Middle Hua- machuco could have occurred in about 1200. He believes three cen- turies could easily account for all the construction at Middle Hua- machuco sites but states that the initial date for this culture is as yet a matter of pure speculation. SouUTHERN HIGHLANDS oF PERU Project 7 was directed by Dr. Alfred Kidder, II, with John How- land Rowe as supervisor and Marion Hutchinson Tschopik as assis- tant supervisor, and was carried on in the highlands of southern Peru from early in June 1941, to June 1942. The project was materially aided by Dr. Luis E. Valcarcel, Director of the Museo Nacional, Lima, whose long-standing interest and con- tributions in regard to the historical problems of southern Peru are well known to Andean scholars, and by Sr. José M. Franco Inojosa, representing the Patronato Nacional de Arqueologia. In Cuzco, Sr. Gabriel Escobar M., Mr. Rowe’s assistant, contributed greatly to the success of the major part of the project’s work. The director, who spent 3 months in the field in the northern Lake Titicaca basin, devoted himself, with the help of both supervisors, to a reconnaissance aimed at the determination of the nature and distri- bution of early culture on the Peruvian side of Lake Titicaca. A con- siderable excavation made in 1939 at Pucara, northwest of the lake, had revealed an important center comparable in size and elaboration to Tiahuanaco in Bolivia, and tentatively contemporaneous, on the basis of comparative studies, with the Classic period of that site. On the 1941 reconnaissance 10 new sites of this pre-Inca period were discovered in the Titicaca basin between Juli on the western shore and Conima on the Bolivian border on the northeastern shore. Although no excavations were made, surface pottery, characteristic NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 23 sculpture, and, in some cases, architectural remains served to relate the sites to Pucara and the known Tiahuanaco sites in Bolivia. On the whole, the evidence of ceramics and sculptural style points to a closer relationship of the new sites to Pucara than to Classic Tiahuanaco (pls. 22, 23). It can now be said with some assurance that Tiahuanaco culture, as manifested in the Classic period at the Bolivian sites, did not occupy the entire Titicaca basin. The northern sector of the area seems rather to have been the home of a Pucara culture, closely related to that of Tiahuanaco but in no sense an extension of it. The culture of both Tiahuanaco and Pucara are better classified as phases, or aspects, of an early Titicaca culture. The lack of a wide emanation of specific traits and actual trade objects from Tiahuanaco itself, even in the Titicaca area, is evidence that the spread of the “Tiahuanaco”’ style over great parts of Peru and Bolivia cannot have been due to a political expansion comparable to that of the Inca. In order to further the outlines of a complete historical perspective in the Titicaca basin, Mrs. Tschopik has undertaken the investigation of the periods following the Tiahuanaco-Pucara horizon and con- tinuing through the Inca domination. Her work has included the surface investigation and mapping of numerous late sites and excava- tions on a small scale to determine local pottery sequences and asso- ciations. As a result of her work, the old idea of a “Chullpa” (burial tower) period, antedating the Inca conquest of the area, loses much of its validity (pls. 24, 25). Most of the “Chullpa”’ sites are of Inca date, and the historical evidence points to a rather short Inca occupa- tion of this area. It may become necessary to revise our estimates of the absolute age of the earlier periods rather drastically toward the present. Mrs. Tschopik’s work provides a picture of local cultures rather strongly influenced by the Inca in many material ways, but retaining local styles of pottery technically and artistically inferior to those of earlier date. Mr. Rowe, after working with the director, spent from October to March in Cuzco, the center of the Inca Empire. In spite of its obvious importance in Andean prehistory, no thorough archeological studies have hitherto been made in Cuzco, and no evidence of a pre-Inca culture in the Cuzco basin had come to light. Mr. Rowe’s stratigraphic work at Chanapata, in the outskirts of the city, revealed what he has called the Chanapata culture, displaying ceramic and architectural traits which relate it to the pre-Inca phases of Chavin, Pucara, Tiahuanaco, and Chiripa (pl. 26). Three addi- tional sites of the Chanapata period were found in the Cuzco area. 6 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The origins of the classic Inca styles of pottery proved elusive in such a short field season, but some material came to light which may prove to date from this stage. Classification of the Cuzco Inca cera- mics was an important part of the project’s work. Without a knowl- edge of the types existent at their presumptive source, their use in the determination of the extent of Inca influence and dating the Inca conquest is difficult. A number of important Inca sites in the Cuzco region were dis- covered and some of the recorded or vaguely known sites were re- studied. An accurate, large-scale plan of the Temple of the Sun, one of the outstandingly important Inca structures, will supplant the highly inadequate previously published plans. Mr. Rowe’s detailed study of this temple and of other Inca architectural elements supple- ments those of ceramics. His final report, embodying the archeological field studies, with an evaluation of historical sources, presents the first comprehensive, clear basis for further Incaic studies. In combination with recent Peruvian work, the three subprojects of Project 7 have begun, at last, to supply reliable evidence in place of the combination of fact, traditions, and dogma upon which southern Peruvian pre- history has been largely based. CENTRAL COAST OF PERU The Peruvian coast is,one of the most astonishing archeological areas in the world. Here an almost unique combination of fertile and irrigable small river valleys, with intervening dust-dry deserts, has not only encouraged the rise of successive civilizations but has also preserved to the present day the most fragile products of even the most ancient of these. Great adobe pyramids and structures, with innumerable vast graveyards of all periods mark the sandy rim of each coastal valley or rocky outcrop in the valley floor. Only the valley of the Nile is comparable to coastal Peru in this regard, for there, too, the dry desert, traversed by a fertile river valley, furnished a very similar environment. While the abundant evidences of prehistory on the central coast are better known than those of the highlands owing to easier access from the sea as well as proximity to Lima and other modern cities, there are still great gaps in the scientific record. Museums bulge with rich ceramic, textile, and other art products from this general region, but the development of these arts and the succession of the civilizations that produced them is in considerable part still a subject for mere speculation. This is due in part to the fact that much of the detailed work of Peruvian and other excavators has never been published and Nidq JO spuelysiy ussyynos ROBIE L OPT JO SOM “UNITS W WOT Bla}S poAred ‘YySIA fooRIW WO.IF sainydynos ou0}s 99.14} Jo] ~ -* a tied ded coc ALV Tq PLATE 23 Upper: Surface of the old temple at Incatunuhuiri, near Puno, southern highlands of Peru. Lower: Intricately carved stela preserved in modern church at Aropa, southern highlands of Peru. PLATE 24 Upper: An Aymara Indian village in the Lake Titicaca basin, Peru. Lower: Type of “Chullpa’—a burial tower used by the Indians in late pre-Spanish times, southern highlands of Peru. “Add ‘poldod BOUT oy} 0} UOTIG ASoy} JO AULT Jsedqny),, Jo soda 7 :JYstt = pue jyjoy] Sz aLVIg PLATE Upper: View « central highlands « uzco valley from Chanapata, the first pre-Inca site found in Cuzco, south- eru. nC mE Lower: Excavating at Chanapata. PLATE 27 Upper: The great enclosure wall at Pikillacta, near Cuzco, Peru. This high-walled ruin has the appearance of an Inca garrison town. Lower: Part of the system of Inca agricultural terraces at Maras, near Cuzco. Tn nie eT Ria he ek eee DR a a ee eg gO RE OORT ae eget . cc PLATE 28 Upper: View from the Sun Temple at Pachacamac, Peru, looking toward the “House of the Cacique.” This great coastal city was conquered by the Inca and later sacked by the Conquistador Hernandez Pizzaro. Lower: Burial of the ancient White-on-red period encased in huge broken vessels at a depth of 5 meters, Cerro de Trinidad, Chancay valley, Peru. PLATE 29 Upper: The great Sun Temple at Pachacamac, which was constructed by the Inca after they conquered the central coast of Peru. Compare this late temple with its earlier prototype shown in plate 30, lower. (Institute of Andean Research excavation, left center.) Lower: The deep stratigraphic cut at the base of the Sun Temple, Pachacamac. Note size of figures in the excavation. NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 25 is therefore not available to the scientific world at large. Another factor is the paucity of detailed stratigraphic excavations in the vast and deep rubbish heaps in or adjacent to the many ruined cities. Such rubbish heaps in their successive layers contain clear-cut evidence of the sequence of cultures or civilizations that formerly flourished in each valley. Finally, and this is dependent on the stratigraphic studies just men- tioned, there is great need for careful studies in physical anthropology which will determine with exactitude the sequence of human physical types that were the bearers of each of these civilizations. This can only be done by detailed comparison of the pottery and other objects in each carefully opened grave with those from known stratigraphic horizons in the refuse deposits just mentioned. Every thoughtful visitor to Peru is struck by the many vast and ancient graveyards that abound on the coast. Owing sometimes to erosion, but more often to 400 years of intensive looting in hopes of treasure, many of these cemeteries stand open, with the bones and crania of the dead exposed and intermingled. Since one such site may contain the dead of numerous periods, or cultures, studies of mixed surface collections, such as have too often been made in the past, can have little or no historical or developmental value. Of late years this has been clearly realized by most scientists, but the problem is so vast and trained workers and funds are so limited, that such correlated scientific re- search is still in its infancy. The Institute of Andean Research program on the central coast of Peru was inaugurated with these specific needs in mind. One project (Project 8) under the co-directorship of Dr. Samuel K. Lothrop and Dr. Julio C. Tello, with Dr. Marshall T. Newman as supervisor, was of a twofold nature. The cultural side of this project included the prep- aration and publication of some of the vast accumulated data resulting from the excavations of Dr. Julio Tello at the rich and important Paracas site. This site, on a wind-swept sandy peninsula just south of Pisco, is famous as a center for the very early and artistically advanced Necropolis and Cavernas cultures. The former culture, represented by crowded burials in old subsurface structures, is char- acterized by rich textiles with complex designs somewhat similar to those on the beautiful polychrome pottery from the Nazca region (pl. 31, left). The Necropolis pottery, however, is relatively simple and lacks polychrome decoration (pl. 31, lower right). The Cavernas culture, from closely adjacent deep tombs at Paracas, lacks these elaborate textiles but has a highly distinctive incised and painted pottery style (pl. 31, upper right). This Cavernas-style pottery is 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 often marked by representations of the feline deity and is closely re- lated to the art style of Chavin de Huantar in the central highlands. Since these distinctive styles found at Paracas have far-flung cultural as well as artistic implications the publication project involves the reproduction in color of the magnificent art of Paracas, supplemented by a text by Dr. Tello, who made the discoveries. In that Peruvian fabrics take a high, if not the highest, stand among the great textile arts of the world, this volume, which is to appear under the auspices of San Marcos University, should stimulate not only scholarly interest but also the appreciation of artists and designers the world over. The printing of the plates is a slow process, but the work should appear in due time. We will discuss the other section of Project 8 shortly. The second main coastal project in Peru (Project 3) included Dr. Wm. Duncan Strong as director, Dr. Gordon Willey, of Columbia University, as supervisor, and John M. Corbett as field assistant. Dr. Strong was in the field from June to October, 1941, and the work was continued under Dr. Willey assisted by Mr. Corbett. Both Mrs. Willey and Mrs. Corbett assisted greatly in both the laboratory and the field. Thanks to the unstinted advice, assistance, and cooperation of Dr. Tello, Dr. Valcarcel, and other Peruvian archeologists, this project achieved considerable success in intensive stratigraphic exca- vations in rubbish heaps. The primary purpose of this work was the objective definition of ceramic styles and sequences to assist in satis- fying one of the regional scientific needs previously stressed. Thanks to the generous invitation of Dr. Tello, who for several years has been carrying on revealing and extensive excavations at Pachacamac, the great ruined city 30 kilometers south of Lima, it was possible for Dr. Strong and Dr. Willey to make a deep stratigraphic cut at this famous site (pl. 29). This cut, made in a large refuse heap outside one entrance of the Temple of the Sun, revealed at the top 2 meters of abundant Inca refuse, including associated late local styles, while below this were 8 meters of deposit containing a ceramic style designated as Pachacamac Interlocking. This last style was associated with a hitherto unreported style here designated as Pachacamac Nega- tive. In addition, in the lowest stratigraphic blocks occurred traces of a third and earlier style best known as Chancay White-on-red. This very early sequence of styles had not previously been demon- strated at Pachacamac. In 1903 Dr. Max Uhle, famous for his pioneering excavations in Peru, demonstrated a case of burial stratigraphy at Pachacamac. Working at the base of the adjacent Temple of Pachacamac, Uhle discovered Inca and other late graves overlying those containing NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 27 Coastal Tiahuanaco- and Epigonal-style pottery. These two latter styles were not encountered in the above-mentioned cut below the Temple of the Sun, but there is considerable stylistic and other evi- dence indicating that they fall temporally between the Inca and the Pachacamac Interlocking periods. Thus, to the Inca, Epigonal, and Coastal Tiahuanaco sequence encountered at this site by Dr. Uhle, there is now added a long occupation by a local people who made the earlier Pachacamac Interlocking-style pottery as well as large struc- tures of hand-molded adobes. Following the work at Pachacamac, Dr. Willey and Mr. Corbett moved to the Chancay valley north of Lima where a series of similar stratigraphic cuts were made. Here, at Cerro de Trinidad and else- where Dr. Willey encountered deposits where several meters of con- solidated refuse containing pure Chancay White-on-red pottery lay undisturbed beneath refuse containing Interlocking-style pottery. This was also confirmed by finding a large White-on-red tomb under undisturbed floors of the Interlocking period. Pachacamac Negative sherds were also found in the White-on-red deposits. These discov- eries not only add earlier coastal types of ceramics to the Pachacamac- Chancay sequence but also, on the basis of clear superimposition, reverse Uhle’s earlier conclusion that White-on-red ceramics were intrusive in Interlocking tombs and were therefore later. The depth of the Pachacamac and Chancay refuse deposits, over 30 feet at the former site, and the great abundance of potsherds from all levels, convincingly demonstrated the great possibilities awaiting the refuse- heap potsherd stratigraphic method which, until the present, has rarely or never been successfully employed in Peru: Space is lacking to do more than mention other excavations carried on by Dr. Willey and Mr. Corbett in the ancient shell heaps of the valleys of Supe and Ancon. Here, incised pottery of the Early Ancon- Supe (or Coastal Chavin) type was found in refuse deposits extending to depths of 9 meters. Owing to the war, analysis of the materials from these careful stratigraphic excavations has not yet been possible. However, there remains little doubt as to the great antiquity of this Early Ancon-Supe style or concerning its basic relationship to the Chavin style in the central highlands, the Cupisnique style of the north coast and the Cavernas style on the south coast. In addition, graves of this period were encountered, as well as structures contain- ing simple altars that apparently represent the earliest temples yet known in coastal Peru (pl. 30). Finally, it should be added, other cultural deposits were encountered at Pachacamac and elsewhere that appeared to be lacking in pottery, strongly suggesting a pre-ceramic early coastal period that awaits clear scientific definition. 7 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Returning now to the second aspect of Project 8, under Dr. Lothrop, Dr. Marshall T. Newman attacked the third regional arche- ological need mentioned earlier. Beginning with a study of the crania and other skeletal parts from the Paracas site in the Museo de Anthropologia in Magdalena, Dr. Newman continued studying a number of other skeletal collections for which data were available. To facilitate this work, and to integrate it with period determinations based on actual stratigraphy, he was invited to take charge of the removal and later study of all skeletal material encountered in the stratigraphic excavations being carried on under Project 3. As pre- viously indicated, these ranged from Inca to the earliest known Early Ancon times, including a large series from a tomb of the Interlocking period encountered below the Temple of Pachacamac. This freshly excavated series of some 324 skulls and other skeletal parts was thus drawn from various definite periods across the entire span of known coastal Peruvian prehistory. Preliminary reports suggest that, with the exception of a few long-headed varieties in the latest period, the population involved one basic physical type. Cranial deformation began in the earliest period (Early Ancon-Supe or Coastal Chavin), but the custom was abandoned in the latest era. F‘urther comments must await full presentation of the evidence but it is worthy of note that a study like this producing a long historical perspective on Indian physical types from stratigraphic levels is almost unique in the annals of South American archeology. Obviously, the present work is a mere sample of what should and must be accomplished in this regard, but it does demonstrate the practicability of the combined attack. NORTHERN COAST OF CHILE The northern coast of Chile is an area of much promise arche- ologically, deriving its major scientific interest from the fact that early human occupation contemporary with an extinct fauna has been recorded to the south of this region (Bird, 1938), and high agricul- tural civilizations were located to the north and to the east. Despite the limited pioneering work of Latcham and Uhle, both of whom made claims of finding ancient or paleolithic horizons, the area has never been intensively worked. Hence the age and nature of the coastal deposits were not clear nor was the exact manner in which the bordering horticultural civilizations affected the coastal popula- tions known. For this reason Project 4, with the nominal direction of Dr. Wm. Duncan Strong, but under the direct field supervision of Junius Bird, of the American Museum of Natural History, spent over a year in intensive excavation in coastal sites between Arica PLATE 30 Upper: Ancient shell-mound site at Aspero, near Puerto de Supe, Peru, looking across the occupational refuse. Pottery was very rare at this ancient site. Lower: Rock and mud wall structure of the Early Ancon-Supe culture, including a clay “altar,” Aspero, Puerto de Supe. Probably the oldest religious structure yet known on the Peruvian coast. ‘AAOISIFT [RLANJVN JO WihosnyY Uv oy} JO AsoJINOD “adA} O1tUBI1II S1OdO.199 Nh JY} JO Jossad ‘AaMoOT {dA} JIUIBIOD SBUAIARD ay} JO Jassad autjoy payuted pue posrour ‘soddn ‘Qysry “pjjOM oy} UT sj1e d]IFX9} 4S9}LI1S IY} JO uo syuasesdost sIYT, ‘danzNd stodO1I9N IY} JO JATYS Patoplosqius 10 OYUOd [N}FANvoq “Joy a) ‘OOSI Jeou dJIS SBPORIP OU} UOT Suoutto0dc | ; c 3 } Ss eqyun d ‘Udppll ol} JO WINJONAYS PUB “UOIBARINS “UOLZBOO] GUIMOYS ‘IY ‘VNSeSI ‘OPRY IT SHYNLINYLS-ans dt talalot de eee NOILWdN390 JO SNINNID38 3YNLIND AWOOHHSI4d WSHS “GO0ldad AYALLOd-3Ydd LSYls —— GOldyad AYSLLOd-3Nd GNODIS AYLSIYSVE ANV ONIAVSM A¥31i1Od L9SYI4 - GOIY3d IWHUNLINIIYSOV a Cun N3Q0QIN 3O NOILV301 ce ALVId "SIOYIVU DABIS UIPOOM PUP SOARIS UIAVS JO s}ied 9}0N “pOltod oules oY} JO Joysed oo1e] Sus0julat ‘Ph SapiyD ‘enSesig ‘oyeystg eyNg ‘[eLIng poltod-yeinyjnotise Jsty & SuIIIAOIUN Jo Ssoseys “E-1 é i woe Hsvavive €€ aALVIg NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 29 and Coquimbo. This party included Mrs. Bird, Srta. Grete Mostny, and Sr. Hugo Yavar. Excavations were made at Arica, Punta Pichalo, Taltal, La Serena, and Coquimbo. Because of the factors governing primitive life in this area, the first three locations yielded an unusually complete record of the entire period of human occupation. The evidence shows that the coast of the desert area was first settled by a simple fishing population whose artifacts are surprisingly uniform through a considerable period of time at widely scattered localities. This culture utilized two types of fishhooks, one cut from shell, the other a composite hook; bowls cut from lava; barbed harpoons with pressure-flaked stone points; and coarse percussion-flaked stone tools. Additional data indicate that this early culture flourished from Arica to south of Valparaiso with its influence possibly reaching Puerto Montt. A sharp break in the cultural pattern implies the arrival of a second nonagricultural fishing population utilizing distinctly different equip- ment. As remains of this group are more concentrated in the north, a movement southward from Peru is indicated. The introduction of agriculture, marked by the simultaneous ap- pearance of corn, cotton, gourds, and perhaps beans, is accompanied by the first use of pottery, textiles, and coiled basketry, though there is the suggestion at one of the Arica sites that agricultural products may have very slightly preceded the other associated items. Again the evidence indicates influence from coastal Peru, rather than from the highlands, though lack of knowledge of the archeology of southern Peru prevents accurate comparisons. Subsequent to the introduction of agriculture, certain changes in pottery styles are apparent and are accompanied by other distinctions in the material culture. Previous collecting in northern Chile has shown the influence or the presence of migrants from the Tiahuanaco culture of the Bolivian highlands, but this is manifested on the coast only by rare artifacts and is without effect on the general pattern. In view of the widespread occurrence of the Tiahuanaco influence, it is significant for general chronology to note that its occurrence in Chile is at levels which are relatively very late in relation to the total period of occupation. ; In the Coquimbo-Serena area the excavations indicate that the well-known Diaguita culture arrived there in a fully developed state presumably from Argentina. The same section yields evidence of another distinct culture on the basis of ceramics and associated items which either slightly preceded the Diaguita or was contemporaneous with its first manifestations. 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The long discussed problem of a paleolithic-like culture in Chile was shown to lack the support of stratigraphic evidence and to be a misinterpretation of material. ; Altogether the results of the field work were highly gratifying and, in addition to the specific data obtained, give a good basis for planning future work. PREVIEW OF RESULTS The scope of the scientific results attained in the present program will become more apparent with each successive monograph that appears. The full significance of such works, however, will be realized more gradually as the conclusions therein contained find their way into more general treatises dealing with the universal or unique factors implicit in the rise and fall of New World civilization and as these in turn are evaluated against the total background of culture history. This is the ultimate aim of all archeology that is more than a pseudo-scientific cloak for antiquarianism. Here, however, we can only anticipate what some of the more limited results may be. Today, all good archeologists interpret their results in the same way they dig, that is from top to bottom—from historic layers to pre- historic layers. That is the method actually employed in all the “digs” we have just discussed in such brief form. In the present section, however, the writer assumes a certain license in order more rapidly to canvass the general Middle and South American archeological situation as it stands today. For this purpose we will turn our avowedly tentative scheme (see relative chronological chart, p. 42) over and examine it as to the way in which various cultures, as yet so unevenly known, appear to have developed. We realize full well as we do so that only a blind optimist would believe that this was even the frame of the complete record. From the standpoint of both appraisal and criticism such treatment, candidly applied, should, how- ever, show both recent gains and present lacunae in the cultural record of the New World as it stands today. History may or may not “repeat” itself, but culture process throughout the world seems to many of us to proceed according to as yet dimly perceived patterns which only hard-won knowledge can clarify. When we can finally muster adequate culture-historical facts to permit comparison of pat- terns of culture change over long periods of human development in widely separated parts of the world we will have advanced a long step forward on our way toward an understanding of historical process. The use of hypotheses, constantly adjusted as objective knowledge increases, seems the most logical avenue of approach to this desirable NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 31 end. Without apology, therefore, for what might otherwise seem premature theorizing we proceed. Theoretically, all anthropologists have assumed that a pre-horticul- tural mode of life underlies all the agricultural civilizations of the New World as is demonstrably the case in the Old World. Present incomplete evidence bears out this hypothesis at least for the northern and southern peripheries of higher culture in the New World. Recent excavations in both the southeastern and southwestern United States have clearly demonstrated this major sequence in the north although our present time estimates in this regard do not yet synchronize in a thoroughly satisfactory manner for these two areas (see relative chronological chart, p. 42). The present program also adds clear evidence of the same major sequence for the southern periphery of higher American culture. In northern Chile, the present work of Junius Bird has revealed pre-pottery, pre-horticultural horizons that clearly underly more complex horticultural remains on the south- eastern coast of the Pacific. In both northern Chile and in the southern United States there is evidence that these pre-horticultural manifesta- tions overlap in time horticultural horizons respectively to the north and to the south. Archeology supported by the facts of history and ethnology there- fore indicates that in pre-Columbian times both Chile and the United States were areas of peripheral lag. The oldest horticultural centers lay farther to the north and to the south, that is, in the middle regions of the Americas. Excluding casual finds such as the associated foot- prints of humans and locally extinct animals in solidified volcanic ash in Nicaragua, the Punin calvarium and the debatable mastodon and pottery association reported by Uhle in Ecuador, knowledge of pre- horticultural occupation in Middle and South America is as yet sadly inadequate. Bird has previously (1938) presented clear evidence of early lithic horizons associated with extinct fauna in Patagonia, and the present brochure hints at pre-ceramic horizons on the Peruvian coast, but for the vast expanse extending from Peru to northern Mexico we at present know many complex cultural horizons, but little or nothing of their presumably simple antecedents. Certain rea- sons for this seemingly strange state of affairs will be mentioned in the final section. One broad cultural manifestation in the rise of New World civiliza- tion, however, has at last begun to rear an objective head. This is an apparently very early but developed horticultural horizon now imperfectly but at least stratigraphically known on the Peruvian coast, in Spanish Honduras, Guatemala, the Peten, Yucatan, southern Vera- 8 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 cruz, the Huasteca country, and the southern United States. The present Institute of Andean Research program, aimed primarily at determining culture sequence, penetrated to this horizon in northern Veracruz (Project 1) and Peru (Project 3 and, possibly, Project 7). In northern Chile (Project 4) it went much deeper but, as previously implied, the high cultural overlay is not nearly so deep on the periph- eries. In many ways this earliest known ceramic horizon resembles Spinden’s concept of the Archaic save that that complex as postu- lated lacked objective evidence for either homogeneity or demon- strable antiquity. It is too soon to claim that all the lowest horizons shown on the relative chronological chart (p. 42) between central Peru and the southeastern United States are related in time and culture. How- ever, there are striking resemblances between several of them, and it is significant that the various archeologists who have recently worked these horizons out by methods of “dirt” stratigraphy all agree as to their relative ages. This is not the place to argue the case for direct cultural relationship between all these far-flung, emergent horticul- tural horizons in the New World. Specific data on several of them are as yet unavailable. However, the present writer has been long impressed with the specific, as well as the general resemblances between the two of these horizons with which he has had most intimate contact. These are the Early Ancon-Supe (Coastal Chavin) horizon in Peru and the Playa de los Muertos horizon in Honduras. Both these spatially widely separated, but apparently generally synchronous, horizons have pot- tery decorated with broad-line incised bird and other designs. In addi- tion to the predominant use of incising, both used rocker-stamp decora- tion and both wares are well polished. The same holds true in regard to incised lines occasionally filled with paint. Both horizons likewise contain a few pieces with surfaces partially decorated with crude paint applied in what appears to be an experimental fashion. Closely asso- ciated in time with these two old horizons is the trait of negative painting, though in both coastal Peru and Honduras pottery of this type seems to be slightly later than the unpainted incised ware. Re- semblances in regard to hand-modeled figurines and other traits link the two culture complexes. Finally, the Early Ancon-Supe ceramics show a clear relationship to those of the Chavin, Cupisnique, and Cavernas, and probably the Pucara, cultures in Peru. Many of these same characteristics, open bowls, varied lip shapes, predominance of incising with occasional use of paint-filled lines, as well as the exten- sive use of the feline design in stone carving, appear in the ancient NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 33 San Agustin horizon in southern Colombia. Similarly, the Playa de los Muertos horizon in Honduras is apparently related to the Mamom horizon underlying the culture of the Maya, the Lower Tres Zapotes horizon in Veracruz, and probably other early horizons farther to the north (see relative chronological chart, p. 42). It is interesting, whether significant or not, that Marksville (Burial Mound IT) sherds from that relatively early horizon in the southeastern United States, when intermingled with those of the Early Ancon period in Peru in the majority of cases cannot be distinguished by experts. The fact that Ekholm finds generic resemblances between a pottery complex of his Huasteca II and the earlier ceramic wares of the Mississippi Valley is perhaps significant in this regard. Enough has been said to indicate that here is a problem similar to that originally raised by Spinden, but, it should be noted, one that is based on stratigraphy, not selection. If we can demonstrate cultural relationship between all, or a majority, of these emergent New World ceramic horizons we must still explain how such a condition arose. Did the cultural impetus spread from north to south or, vice versa, do we have to call in the concept of convergence under similar ecological and cultural conditions? This we need not, and cannot, answer here, but the problem is becoming very real. We have mentioned evidences of religious cults as indicated by the comparatively complex art manifestations of the emergent horticul- tural civilizations in both South and Middle America. It would be fascinating to attempt to trace the spread of certain of these motifs such as the often overlapping-fanged feline, i.e., jaguar or puma, “god,” represented in slightly variant forms from Chavin, Nazca, Tiahuanaco, and Cavernas through San Agustin, Honduras, and the Maya and “Olmeca” country on to the north, but our data on time and so many other factors are still too incomplete. Complexity plus differential survival makes this field a theorist’s paradise where more conservative culture historians fear to tread, at least until a trail of stratigraphic time sequence has been blazed for their guidance. Hence we will merely mention the problem here and proceed with the general discussion, deviating from a strict criterion of time to one of space. From this point on, the northern excavations carried on by the Insti- tute of Andean Research will be considered first, proceeding toward those in the south. One of the numerous problems North American and Mexican archeologists have not solved is that concerning the exact relationship between the prehistoric cultures of Mexico and those of the Pueblo and lower Mississippi areas in the United States. The present Insti- 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 tute of Andean Research excavations in both eastern and western Mexico are significant in this regard. Ekholm’s excavations near Tampico give promise for the first time of linking early levels on the east coast of Mexico with those of the lower Mississippi Valley (rela- tive chronological chart, p. 42, Huasteca II and Burial Mound IT). Until detailed ceramic comparisons are available it is impossible to say how convincing and specific these linkages may prove to be. The suggested time lag of more than 500 years between the south and the north, while not unexpected, like the position of the Burial Mound I cultures in this picture, remains to be explained. Phillips (1940) and others have shown that late prehistoric horizons in the southeastern United States, particularly in the Middle Mississippi culture, contain many Mexican elements. Ekholm’s preliminary announcement sug- gests that similar southern connections may be demonstrated as basic and early as well as relatively superficial and late. Obviously, the record will remain incomplete until competent stratigraphic work is accomplished between Tampico and the Mississippi Delta but recent work at both ends of this important coastal strip already indicates that the generally accepted hypothesis of high cultural origins in Middle America can be demonstrated objectively once careful digging is substituted for speculation. Kelly points out that, while the archeological picture in western Mexico is beginning to assume shape and depth, the known connec- tions with the prehistoric southwestern United States are still tenuous. The earliest horizons yet known in western Mexico correlate with Teotihuacan III (ca. A.D. 800) in the Valley of Mexico; hence, according to present time estimates, these seem too late to have played any fundamental, formative role in the development of the prehistoric Southwest. Either older horizons remain to be found in -western Mexico or other contact corridors existed. More specific work, not only in western Mexico but in Zacatecas, Durango, Chihuahua, Coa- huila, and Tamaulipas as well, will be needed to solve this problem. The present and past excavations of Osgood, Rouse, and Howard throw considerable new light on another important two-way avenue of New World migration that has hitherto been more often the subject of scientific or other speculation than the scene of careful stratigraphic excavation. This is the Antillean island corridor between northeastern South , America and southeastern North America. Howard and Osgood in the Orinoco region of Venezuela have not only delineated some six major ceramic areas in that country but have also established a ceramic sequence at Ronquin on the middle Orinoco River. At Ronquin, pottery from the earlier horizon shows NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 35 close relationship to the earliest known cultural horizons in Trinidad and Puerto Rico. The earlier of three periods at Lake Valencia in central Venezuela, earlier defined by W. C. Bennett, A. Kidder, II, and Osgood, also shows relationship to the Orinoco-Trinidad series. This series of excavations establishes a demonstrable archeological connection between the Antilles and the southern continent which, in turn, can be correlated with other linguistic and archeological evidence demonstrating the occurrence of two Arawak occupations in Cuba, preceded by a pre-ceramic pre-horticultural horizon termed the Ciboney. This Ciboney culture, on the basis of similarities in shell artifacts, may have been derived from Florida. Thus, there is now objective evidence suggesting the possibility of an early north-to-south movement, and still other evidence clearly indicating at least two later south-to-north movements over the Antillean island bridge. These are important additions to our knowledge of pre-Columbian migrations and cultural movements between the two Americas. It is equally interesting that the present evidence indicates no extensive contacts between the Antilles and the closely adjacent area of Central America proper to the west and south. The present program of the Institute of Andean Research was not directly concerned with what might be called the “heart” region of Middle America. This extremely important area extending from the Valley of Mexico to Spanish Honduras was purposely omitted in the present scientific campaign because of the gréater amount of research already completed or in progress here (see relative chronological chart, p. 42) than in the areas selected. Obviously this is a strictly relative judgment for even in Mexico itself there are only a very few areas which might be classified as thoroughly worked from the archeo- logical standpoint. On the borders of the “heart” area and practically unworked from the standpoint of stratigraphic excavation and analysis is the Republic of El Salvador. As a border province of the Maya and a center for the Pipile culture this region is highly important. The work of the Institute of Andean Research expedition under Longyear at Los Llanitos and particularly Tazumal has yielded a demonstrable se- quence which can be correlated with that of the Maya at the famous city of Copan and elsewhere. How closely these cultural horizons can be correlated with similar sequences earlier established in western Honduras must await the presentation of the data. However, an excellent beginning has been made for further work of this sort ex- tending into as yet unknown eastern E1 Salvador, southern Honduras, and Nicaragua. Until this has been accomplished Central America, 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 from El Salvador to Panama, will remain an archeological “terra incognita” despite the host of undocumented specimens from the area that fill many museums. It is obvious that as far as pre-Columbian connections across the isthmus are concerned we are still in the in- ferential stage and will remain there until much more detailed exca- vations have been accomplished in many parts of Central America. Unfortunately this same state of affairs is also true in regard to northern South America. Thus, while there are both general and specific resemblances in ceramic wares, metal work, and many other features between Colombia, Panama, and Costa Rica, the exact nature and depth of these connections cannot yet be formulated. The Santa Marta culture, like the rich Coclé culture in Panama, is apparently just pre-Conquest. The same late dating applies to much of the rich though scattered Chibcha material on record, but excavations showing superimposed culture sequence have not yet been reported. With the exception of the Chibcha proper and possibly Santa Marta, concen- trated village sites are unknown in Colombia. That this is not entirely due to the paucity of scientific excavation is indicated by the results of Project 6. Here two North American archeologists, Bennett and Ford, both masters of stratigraphic techniques, aided by the best Colombian archeologists, spent a year in the Cauca valley near Cali and elsewhere seeking sites with superimposed culture layers. None were found although very important material was turned up and, as previously mentioned, an inferential culture sequence established. This record of scattered village sites is undoubtedly significant though exactly what its significance may be remains to be determined. It is hard to believe that long-occupied stratified sites do not occur in this highland area but, in the Cauca valley at least, they seem to be very rare. Stone statues and ceramic types at San Agustin, however, do seem to link this and related Colombian cultures with some of the oldest horizons in Peru. In Ecuador, to judge from the results of the Institute of Andean Research expedition Project 9B, which was in the field a shorter time than any of the other parties, there is no lack of stratified sites with abundant ceramic and other materials. The Cafar valley excava- tions of Collier and Murra reveal a sequence covering approximately 500 years and involving the cultures of the Cafiari, the Puruha and, finally, the Inca. They also tend to disprove Uhle’s theory of any direct Maya influence or migration in this area and to condense greatly the chronological sequence proposed by Jijon y Caamajfio. It is of interest but again of uncertain significance that a type of negative-painted ceramics, occurring in late pre-Conquest horizons NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 57, in Ecuador, bears some resemblance to similar wares in the earlier Middle Huamachuco and still earlier Interlocking periods in Peru. Similarly the Cerro Narrio fine-line incised wares (pl. 19) bear at least superficial resemblances to the broad-line incised Chavin cera- mics. If these ceramic and stylistic resemblances should prove to be significant (see relative chronological chart, p. 42) they would suggest either that there was much greater age and cultural depth in pre- historic Peru than was the case in Ecuador or Colombia, or that the present time estimates for Peru are greatly exaggerated. To draw any such conclusions on the basis of the present incomplete evidence would be absurd, but it is not absurd to point out that even these few excavations open up real problems which more excavations of a similar nature can undoubtedly solve. McCown’s work, in conjunction with that earlier accomplished by Uhle, in the northern highlands of Peru establishes three periods marked by distinctive ceramic and architectural styles. The earlier of these, Middle Huamachuco, ties in through ceramic linkages with the Middle period both on the north coast and in the central highlands of Peru (see relative chronological chart, p. 42). The characteristic white paste ware of this earlier period at Huamachuco is of Marafion type. Despite the known distribution of this type of pottery we are still in the dark in regard to the extent of its eastern distribution and possible origin. The same is true in regard to the incised and negative- painted wares which may prove to be highly significant in working out various relationships existing between Middle America, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. To the south and west there is general cultural linkage indicated between Middle Huamachuco, the Callejon de Huaylas, and the Peruvian north coast areas in the common occur- rence in all of the “cursive-painted” style. The northern highland, as known at present, is distinctive in lacking true Inca and Tiahuanacoid, as well as certain other ceramic styles which are earlier than Middle Huamachuco. Huamachuco stone sculpture, as recorded to date, seems relatively late and very distinctive but undoubtedly can be tied in with a sequential highland Andean pattern when more work has been accomplished in this regard. The outstanding result of the work of those connected with Project 7 in the southern highlands of Peru would seem to be the discovery by Rowe of the*Chanapata culture differing from and underlying the widespread Inca pattern in the Cuzco region. Similarly the mutual exclusiveness of the Pucara and Classic or Early Tiahuanaco cultures in the Titicaca basin is an interesting point. As Kidder, II, points out, both appear as basically related but independent phases of an 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 early Titicaca culture. The fact that specific traits and trade objects from Tiahuanaco are lacking in major areas of the adjacent Titicaca basin does argue against regarding this famous ruin as the center of an early political empire similar to that of the Incas. The wide spread of Tiahuanacoid styles on ceramics and textiles found over great parts of Bolivia, Peru, and adjacent areas will probably have to be explained in some other manner than political conquest. Other centers for diffusion such as the Nazca-Pacheco region must be considered. Mrs. Tschopik’s determination that the majority of the famous “Chullpa” sites are of Inca date also argues strongly against previous assump- tions that there was a definite pre-Inca “Chullpa’’ period of which these picturesque burial towers were characteristic. The origins of Inca culture itself are still obscure. In general, the results of Project 7, in conjunction with those attained in earlier work of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University in this area, tend to shorten the hitherto accepted time span for the northern highlands. Kidder, II, would at present be inclined to put the terminal date of Pucara and Chanapata close to A.D. goo. Here it is placed several centuries earlier (see relative chronological chart, p. 42) to fit in with Bennett’s general scheme for Tiahuanaco and Bolivia. The present writer agrees with Tello in regarding Pucara as on the same level as Chavin. All of us would agree, however, that any and all, other than relative, pre-Inca dates in Peru are as yet pure guesswork. In regard to the Pacific coast of central Peru and northern Chile (Projects 3 and 4) perhaps the most outstanding discovery was the vast number and the great depths of the ancient refuse heaps in these regions. Middens were encountered containing evidence of human occupation ranging from before the advent of horticulture and pottery making up to the time of the late Inca occupation. In northern Chile, Bird worked out at least two distinct pre-agricultural horizons, and a number of pre-ceramic sites were noted on the Peruvian coast although time was lacking to investigate them with any thoroughness. Both expeditions found promising leads indicating that linkages be- tween the various horizons in central Peru and northern Chile could undoubtedly be established once detailed stratigraphic work has been done in southern Peru. The length of the time sequence in coastal Peru, to judge by the great depths of the various ceramic cultural strata, appears to be impressive. The same is true of the pre-ceramic deposits in northern Chile. In coastal Peru these extend from the Early Ancon-Supe horizon to Inca times. The former horizon alone has deposits 9 meters in depth, and the broken sequence from Inca through Interlocking at Pachacamac has a depth of 10 metets. At NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 39 Ancon, subsequent to our exploration there, we estimated that at the location giving the most promise of an unbroken sherd sequence it might be necessary to dig pits down to 20 meters in depth. Obviously there is a vast amount of stratigraphic work still to be accomplished on the Peruvian coast, and this makes it all the more surprising that the present objectively determined culture sequence there and in northern Chile is not more badly broken than appears to be the case (see relative chronological chart, p. 42, Peru, Central Coast, and Chile, North Coast). Considering this human record from earliest to later times, a num- ber of important gaps or breaks in our knowledge appear, the first of which is the absence in the present record of lithic cultural remains associated with an extinct fauna such as occurs in Patagonia. Also lacking on the Peruvian coast is complete evidence for pre-ceramic horizons such as Bird has clearly shown to be present in northern Chile. Likewise, the early stages of the Early Ancon-Supe or Coastal Chavin culture of the Peruvian littoral are not clear although super- ficial comparison of the remains from Supe with those from Ancon and Paracas suggests such stages are present but have not yet been defined. Even more striking is the present break between the Early Ancon-Supe culture and that of the White-on-red horizon which follows it. From White-on-red times to the Inca period the culture sequence of the central coast, though thin in places, is relatively clear. It is interesting to note that work accomplished by Projects 3, 4, and 7 all tend to place the various Tiahuanacoid horizons later in time than was formerly considered to be the case. Considering Kidder’s belief that all the highland cultures with which his party were concerned were relatively late, it may be that this is an indication of a greater age for coastal than for highland cultural origins. Such a hypothesis is in direct contrast with the beliefs of Tello and clashes with certain generalizations put out by students of agricultural origins, but'in the present state of our actual knowledge it is an interpretation that can- not be ignored. Such, in very tentative and impressionistic form, are some of the more outstanding results attained by the field program of the Institute of Andean Research in 1941-1942. FUTURE VISTAS The great vistas in time and space revealed by the present program make it abundantly clear that the field of Middle and South American archeology is rapidly ripening, with promise of a rich scientific harvest. It has always been a field of superlative prehistoric interest, but only 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 recently has scientific work been envisaged on sufficiently broad and clean-cut lines to give definite promise of more sweeping and valid cul- ture-historical results. There seems little doubt that when the blight of the present war is removed this type of research work will surge forward in all the American republics. In any such program it is certain that the scientists of the United States will cooperate even more fully in the future than they have in the past with their colleagues of the other republics. The groundwork for such cooperation has been well laid, and the widely ramifying results of such correlated scientific work will be of both practical and intellectual benefit to all concerned. Further, excavations in carefully chosen sites should finally solve once and for all the problem of whether the higher civilizations of the New World were truly autoch- thonous or may in part have been derived from Old World sources. Most North American anthropologists tacitly assume the former hypothesis to be true, but the evidence in this regard is still too infer- ential to be completely satisfying. If we desire to compare the New World cultural configurations now emerging as the result of pains- taking field work in human geography, ethnology, and archeology with the past cultures of the Old World, we must know exactly their time relationship,and degree of dependence one upon the other. Such knowledge and such intercontinental culture-growth comparisons are one of the major aims of archeology as a science. Interlocked with this problem is another concerning the nature and places of origin of the earliest stages in the rise of New World agri- culture. Only the most careful combined work of archeologists and plant geneticists can ascertain such facts. American food plants feed a large part of the modern world, and their history is more than coincident with the rise of both ancient and modern civilizations. Basic problems of plant genetics are involved in this record. Abun- dant plant remains from sequential archeological horizons were obtained in several of the projects herein discussed. The comparative study of these materials awaits the time when American scientists can once more concentrate upon the arts of peace. Equally significant may have been the role played by irrigation in both the Old and New Worlds. Further explorations along stratigraphic lines promise rich rewards not only in regard to agriculture but in knowledge concern- ing many other correlated arts and industries as well. Once sufficient and careful stratigraphic work at key points has established our New World time scale, the great task of excavating major ruins can really begin. So far we have attempted this in only NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 41 a very few of the more obvious ruins, and even here we have only scratched the surface. As such work proceeds we will at last begin to understand the nature of the highly individualized local cultures of South, Middle, and North America in contrast with the equally wide- spread artistic and religious cults whose remains appear to link such widely separated areas. These stylistic interrelationships involve com- plex and significant factors of both local development and culture diffusion through space and time. Equally important, but only to be scientifically evaluated when the cultural facts are placed in proper time perspective, are the differential effects of environment and culture throughout the long and richly variant American cultural scene. As the status of New World prehistory changes from a condition where ordered facts are few and speculation is abundant, to one where order and knowledge reign, scientific induction can at last replace undue speculation. We need not shed tears over the time when specu- lation with all its fascination shall have entirely vanished from the archeological stage, for that time will probably never come. Never- theless the time is coming, and in the not too distant future, when scientific induction will largely replace its dreamier armchair confrere save in those border confines where the inevitable gaps in the record of human culture may allow the latter to linger. Today, however, it is a strange thing that most social scientists and even some archeolo- gists, who certainly should know better, often dolefully lament the fragmentary nature of the human prehistoric record at a time when they have not yet even begun to exploit systematically its available riches. Certainly in Middle and South America the day of scientific archeology is at its very dawn, and one has reason to suspect that this is probably true of most of the world. The time is coming when the rich ethnological and archeological record of the New World can be com- pared in full detail and time perspective with similar records from Europe, Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, and Siberia. When such comparative data are in hand the generalizations that will emerge may well revolutionize our concepts of culture history and culture process over the millennia. We must first win a workable peace in order to obtain such world-wide data, but it is also possible that the attain- ment of an understanding of these long-range, cross-cultural processes may aid in the maintenance of such a desirable state of human affairs. It is quite as necessary for both scientist and statesman to understand the interrelationships of man and culture through time as it is to appreciate culture patterning in terms of space. Relativity applies to human affairs quite as much as it does to the realm of the physical sciences. 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 NOTE ON RELATIVE CHRONOLOGICAL CHART This tentative and diagrammatic chart is presented primarily to indicate the general place of the 1941-1942 work of the Institute of Andean Research in relation to previous work accomplished in adja- cent or intervening areas. In general, the relative placing of cultural or ceramic periods established or investigated under the present pro- gram is in accord with the opinions of the various project directors and supervisors. However, in some cases the writer has perforce or otherwise relied on his own judgment. For this reason he assumes responsibility for the chart as a whole. Outside of the southwestern United States, where tree-ring dating is possible, the present chart suffers from those defects common to all such schemes in areas where exact dating techniques have not yet been developed. Conclusions involving absolute time should therefore not be taken too seriously. Concerning the matter of relative time, however, much study and consultation as well as physical effort in field and laboratory has been expended, hence this aspect of the chart merits more careful con- sideration. As stated earlier, such a scheme represents merely a momentary hypothesis subject to change with the acquisition of new facts or better-documented interpretations. No bibliography is attempted since its length would far exceed the bounds of the present brochure. However, for each column of the chart, proceeding from north to south (i.e., from left to right), there are cited one or more sources. Some of these are still in preparation. The final results of the present program can only be fully weighed when all these ‘are available for careful study and comparison. Here we have merely attempted to outline the program as a whole, to suggest what some of its major results appear to be, and to indicate how vast and alluring are the problems that lie ahead. 1. The Southwestern United States: Roberts, 1935. Western Mexico: Kelly (see “Publications resulting from present pro- gram,” p. 45). 3. Southeastern United States: Ford and Willey, 1941. 4. East Central Mexico: Ekholm (see “Publications resulting from present program,” p. 45). 5. Valley of Mexico: Vaillant, 1938. 6. Southwestern Mexico: Caso, 1932, 1935, 1038. 7. Southeastern Mexico: Drucker (in press). 8. Peten and Yucatan: Thompson, 1943. 9 oO I to . Guatemala: Thompson, 1943. . Spanish Honduras: Strong, 1935; Strong, Kidder, and Paul, 1938. . El Salvador: Longyear (see “Publications resulting from present program,” p. 46). 12. Cuba: Rouse (see “Publications resulting from present program,” p. 45). eS i nana 1500 1000 500 ED. 100 anc PERU teuan (North Coast) Late Chimu L and Inca Renf / Pi | Regi Late Chimu L i nc Clas} ted | Black, white, red | B ————— — Tiahuanacoid y | Devi Pu n \co Gallinazo E M | a Early Chimu I —_—— net red | Salinar V | Bask i (pr h Cupisnique ( t E ); RELATIVE CHRONOLOGICAL CHART OF MIDDLE AND SOUTH AMERICA (Horizons investigated in present program are in italic) (Project 2) (Project 1) (Project 10) (Project 5) (Project S) (Project 6) (Proyect 9B) (Project 9A) (PRoyeer 3) (Project 8) (Proywer 7) (Proynet 4) Ecuvapor Peru ‘ SOUTHWESTERN Western Mexico SouTHEASTERN | East CENTRAL Mexico) VALLEY OF Mexico SOUTHWESTERN Mexico | SOUTHEASTERN Mexico | PTEN and YUCATAN GUATEMALA Spanish Honpuras | Et SALvapor Cupa VENEZUELA COLOMBIA Southern (North and Central Peru Peau Prev Peru and Boutvia Cie Unitep States | (Southwestern Jalisco) UNrTED STATES (Huasteca) (Oaxaca) (Veracruz) (Lowland Maya) (Highland Maya) lighlands) Highland) (North Coast) (Central Coast) (South Coast) (Southern Highland) (North Coast) Temple Mound IL v Monte Alban V evade Chibcha Inca Incaic Inca Late Chimu Late Coastal Late lea and Inca | Inca 1500 Jicaque, etc. Viracochapampa and Inca and Inca Le rea Cerro de las Mesas Mexican Absorption | Mexican (Naco-Mexican) eblo Iv Upper I Absorption Taino | Andean Santa Marta Tolimén complex Huasteca VI Artec Cerro de las Mesas Quebrada Seca| Late Cerro Upper I Narrio Temple Mound I ut Monte Alban IV Arawak Coastal lua Bagenire Bay Island I and II Rio Bolo Late Chimu Late Chancay aa ‘ueblo Early Cerro Late i Monte Alban I1IC Northwest Narrio Huamachuco Huasteca V Artec I-Mazapan uM eta Sere iad 4 pee middie Late Ica Local cultures Arica I iT er ino rinoco Classic Pueblo | Coralilio complex aa apo os Tazumal - Burial Mound If Upper Ulua-Yojoa Valencia { Black, white, red | Black, white, red | Black, white,red | Middle Ica Cerro de las Mesas Tula Lower II Vv Monte Alban IIIB Los Cayo Lower Epigonal Tiahuanacoid Tiahuanacoid Tiahuanacoid Decadent 1000 Llanitos Redondo| Orinoco Tiohuanaco D ental Huasteca IV Pamplona Pueblo . Cibo- Valencia I Narino Arica I Burial Mound 1 IV Tepeu Early Tazumal) ney Derived Tiahuanaco Guayabo Middle Wilkawain Monte Alban IITA Amatle Lower Ulua-Yojoa Blanco Quimbaya Huame- — Tiahwanaco Nazca Y Pichalo IT Tuxcacuesco complex Teotihuacan ¢ III (Polychrome) chuco Classic Gallinazo Early Lima Tiahuanaco Tierradenti Huasteca HI u mae y Nazca B Chanapata Pichato 1 Recuas Chiripa Modified Cerro de las Mesas Basket Moker I Monte Alban IT Lower I Tzakol Esperanza Early Chimu Interlocking Nazca A Pucara ct. 500 Eastern Archaic Cuicuilco San Agustin White-on-red | Salinar White-on-red Early Late S00 Middle Tres Zapotes Tiahuanaco Huasteca I | Ticoman Basket Maker (pre-pottery Middle Early Ulua horizons) | Cultures Monte Alban I Chicanel Miraflores (Bichrome) Necropolis (pre-pottery Pre-pottery horizon) Paracas horizons Copilco Early Yojoa Cavernas | (Monochrome) 7 Cupisnique | eta Highland (Coastal Chavin) Huasteca I Lower Tres Zapotes Mamom Playa de los Muertos Chavia Early Ancon-Supe A.D. 100) Early Lithic Early | A.D. 100 Cultures x 5 ; id SS ‘ \ a oe 7,4 NO. 2 NEW WORLD PREHISTORY—STRONG 43 13. Venezuela: Osgood (see “Publications resulting from present program,” p. 45). 14. Colombia: Bennett and Ford (see ‘Publications resulting from present program,” p. 46). 15. Ecuador: Collier and Murra (see “Publications resulting from present program,” p. 46). 16. Peru, North and Central Highland: Bennett (mss.) ; McCown (see ‘‘Publi- cations resulting from present program,” p. 46). 17. Peru, North Coast: Bennett, 1939; Larco Hoyle, 1941. 18. Peru, Central Coast: Strong, Willey, and Corbett (see “Publications result- ing from present program,” p. 45). 19. Peru, South Coast: Kroeber, 1926, 1927; Tello, 1920, 10943. 20. Peru and Bolivia: Bennett, 1934; Kidder, II, et al. (see “Publications result- ing from present program,” p. 46). 21. Chile, North Coast: Bird (see “Publications resulting from present pro- gram,” p. 45). LITERATURE CITED BENNETT, WENDELL C. 1934. Excavations at Tiahuanaco. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 345 pty 3: 1939. Archaeology of the north coast of Peru. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. INatliste vole37. pte de Birp, JUNIUS. 1938. Antiquity and migrations of the early inhabitants of Patagonia. Geogr. Rev., vol. 28, pp. 250-275. New York. Caso, A. 1932. Las exploraciones en Monte Alban, temporada 1931-1932. Inst. Panamer. Geogr. et Hist., publ. 7. Mexico. 1935. Las exploraciones en Monte Alban, temporada 1934-1935. Inst. Panamer. Geogr. et Hist., publ. 19. Mexico. 1938. Exploraciones en Oaxaca. Quinta y sexta temporadas 1036-1937. Inst. Panamer. Geogr. et Hist., publ. 34. Tacubaya. Drucker, PHILIP. (In press.) Ceramic stratigraphy at Cerro de las Mesas, Veracruz, Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 141. ExKHOoLM, Gorpon F. 1942. Excavations at Guasave, Sinaloa, Mexico. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 38, pt. 2. Forp, JAMES A., AND WILLEY, GorpDon R. 1941. An interpretation of the prehistory of the eastern United States.. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 43, No. 3, pt. 1, pp. 325-362. Ketty, ISABEL T. 1938. Excavations at Chametla, Sinaloa. Univ. Calif. Ibero-Americana, No. 14. KRoEBER, A. L. 1926. Culture stratifications in Peru. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 28, pp. 33I- ani. 1927. Coast and highland in prehistoric Peru. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 20, pp. 625-653. 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Larco Hoye, RAFAEL. 1941. Los Cupisniques. Lima. PHILLIPS, PHILIP. 1940. Middle American influences on the archaeology of the southeastern United States. Jn The Maya and their neighbors. New York. Rosperts, FRANK H. H., Jr. 1935. A survey of southwestern archeology. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 37, No. I, pp. 1-35. Reprinted with revisions in Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1935, pp. 507-533. Stronc, WM. DuNCAN. 1935. Archeological investigations in the Bay Islands, Spanish Honduras. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 93, No. 10. Stronc, WM. DuncAN, Kipper, ALFRED, AND PAUL, A. J. D. 1938. Preliminary report on the Smithsonian Institution-Harvard University archeological expedition to northwestern Honduras, 1936. Smith- sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 97, No. 1. TELLo, Juto C. 1929. Antiguo Pert. Lima. 1943. Discovery of the Chavin culture in Peru. Amer. Antiquity, vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 135-160. Tuomeson, J. Eric S. 1943. A trial survey of the southern Maya area. Amer. Antiquity, vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 106-134. VAILLANT, GEORGE C. 1938. A correlation of archaeological and historical sequences in the Valley of Mexico. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 40, pp. 535-573. PUBLICATIONS RESULTING FROM THE 10941-1942 PROGRAM OF THE INSTITUTE OF ANDEAN RESEARCH PROJECTS IN LATIN AMERICA UNDER THE SPONSORSHIP OF THE COORDINATOR OF INTER-AMERICAN AFFAIRS Project 1. NorTHEASTERN MEXICO. ta. Ekholm, Gordon F. Excavations at Tampico and Panuco in the Huas- teca. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 39, pt. 1. (In press.) Project 2. NorTHWESTERN MExIco. 2a. Kelly, T. Isabel. Introduction to the archeology of the Autlan-Tuxca- cuesco area of Jalisco. University of California Ibero-Americana, No. 26. (In press.) 2b. Kelly, T. Isabel. Excavations at Apatzingan, Michoacan. University of California Ibero-Americana. (In preparation.) Project 3. CENTRAL CoAsT OF PERU. 3a. Strong, Wm. Duncan, and Willey, Gordon R. Archeological notes on the central coast, i7 Archeological Studies in Peru, 1941-1942. Co- lumbia Studies in Archeology and Ethnology, vol. 1, No. 1, 1943. 3b. Strong, Wm. Duncan, and Corbett, John M. A ceramic sequence at Pachacamac, in Archeological Studies in Peru, 1941-1942. Columbia Studies in Archeology and Ethnology, vol. 1, No. 2, 1943. 3c. Willey, Gordon R. Excavations in the Chancay valley, in Archeo- logical Studies in Peru, 1941-1942. Columbia Studies in Archeology and Ethnology, vol. 1, No. 3, 1943. 3d. Willey, Gordon R. A supplement to the pottery sequence at Ancon, in Archeological Studies in Peru, 1941-1942. Columbia Studies in Archeology and Ethnology, vol. 1, No. 4, 1043. PROJECT 4. CHILE. 4a. Bird, Junius. Excavations in northern Chile. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 38, pt. 4, 1043. PROJECT 5. VENEZUELA AND THE WEsT INDIES. 5a. Howard, George D. Excavations at Ronquin, Venezuela. Yale Uni- versity Publications in Anthropology, No. 28. (In press.) 5b. Osgood, Cornelius. Excavations at Tocoron, Venezuela. Yale Uni- versity Publications in Anthropology, No. 29. (In press.) 5c. Osgood, Cornelius. The Ciboney culture of Cayo Redondo, Cuba. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, No. 25, 1942. 5d. Osgood, Cornelius, and Howard, George D. An archeological survey of Venezuela. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, No. 27. (In press.) 5e. Rouse, Irving. Archeology of the Maniabon hills, Cuba. Yale Uni- versity Publications in Anthropology, No. 26, 1942. 45 . 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 PROJECT 6. COLOMBIA. 6a. Bennett, Wendell C. Archeological regions of Colombia: a ceramic survey. Yale University Publications in Anthropology. No. 30. (In press.) 6b. Ford, James A. Excavations in the vicinity of Cali, Colombia. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, No. 31. (In press.) Project 7. SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS OF PERU. 7a. Kidder, Alfred, I]. Some early sites in the northern Lake Titicaca basin. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 27, No. 1, 1043. 7b. Rowe, John Howland. An introduction to the archaeology of Cuzco. Papers of the Peabody. Museum of American Archaeology and Eth- nology, Harvard University, vol. 27, No. 2. (In press.) 7c. Tschopik, Marion Hutchinson. Some notes on the archaeology of the Department of Puno, Peru. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 27, No. 3. (In press.) Project 8. SoUTHERN COAST OF PERU. 8a. Newman, Marshall T. Some Indian skeletal material from the central coast of Peru. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archae- ology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 28, No. 1. (In press.) 8b. Tello, Julio C. Paracas. University of San Marcos, Lima. (In press.) Project 9. NorTHERN PERU AND ECUADOR. ga. Collier, Donald, and Murra, John V. Survey and excavations in southern Ecuador. Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series, vol. 35, 1943. ob. McCown, Theodore D. Pre-Incaic Huamachuco: survey and excava- tions in the northern sierra of Peru. University of California Publi- cations in American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 39, No. 4. (In press. ) Project 10. CENTRAL AMERICA. 10a. Longyear, John M., III. Archaeological investigations in El Salvador. With appendix by Stanley H. Boggs. Memoirs of the Peabody Mu- seum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 9, No. 2. (In press.) MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS RESULTING FROM THE 1941-1942 PROGRAM. Newman, Marshall T. A metric study of undeformed Indian crania from Peru. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, n.s., vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 21-45, 1943. Osgood, Cornelius. Prehistoric contact between South America and the West Indies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, vol. 28, No. I, pp. I-4, 1942. Rowe, John Howland. Sitios histéricos en la region de Pucara, Puno. Revista del Instituto Arqueolégico, Afio 6, Nos. 10-11, pp. 66-75, Cuzco, 1943. Strong, Wm. Duncan. Recent archeological research in Latin America. Science, vol. 95, No. 2460, pp. 179-183, February 20, 1942. Strong, Wm. Duncan. Present paper, 1943. Tello, Julio C. Discovery of the Chavin culture in Peru. American Antiquity, vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 135-160, 1943. Roebling Fund ayy F, re $n ¥ See Agta ‘ABBOT Ca "Secretary, Smithsonian Institution ar Mee : “ory OF WASHINGTON - PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ; _ FEBRUARY 5, 1944 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 3 Roebling FFund A 27-DAY PERIOD IN WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION BY G. G. ABBOT Secretary, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3765) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FEBRUARY 5, 1944 b af iT fly k a i j i i Vial iF i \ | 7 ‘ — a = i os { The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. Roebling Fund A 27-DAY PERIOD IN WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION By C. G: ABBOT Secretary, Smithsonian Institution On March 17, 1943, I wrote (in part) to the Chief of the United States Weather Bureau: You will perhaps recall that I showed you a plot indicating a 27-day period in Washington precipitation since 1924. I have thought it interesting to take from it the dates in 1943 when (prevailingly) precipitation is to be anticipated. Of course that does not mean that all rain will fall on these dates. These are given in the enclosed table. In what follows I shall show that this prediction was gratifyingly verified by the event. In volume 6 of the Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, we indicated that the solar constant of radiation dis- plays small variations in correlation with the period of 27 days, which is the effective resultant of the rotation periods of the sun. It is well known that the period of solar rotation increases from the sun’s equator toward its poles, but for the major part of its surfaces a period of 27 days is the approximate mean. In the year 1942 I made a statistical study to determine whether this period of 27 days also exists in the precipitation at Washington, and whether, if so, it is relatively permanent. For this purpose I tabulated the daily precipitation at Washington with reference to a 27-day period from 1924 through 1941, in 2-year intervals, keeping the phase of the 27-day period unchanged through- out, as of January 1-27, 1924. Each 2-year tabulation included 27 complete periods, with 1 or 2 days over, depending on leap years, I took mean values for each 2-year table of 27 lines. I was at once struck by the fact that on the 11th or 12th day of the 27-day cycle Washington precipitation was high as indicated by the mean in every one of the g tables, each of which, as stated, contained 27 lines of 27 days per line. It proved also that the highest precipitation oc- curred on the 11th day in the earlier years, and on the 12th day in the later years. Thus the true period exceeds 27 days slightly, and appears to be 27 lithe okie or 27.0074 days approximately. , 10 X 365 PP SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 3 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 In the accompanying illustration, curves I, 2, 3, 4 give, respec- tively: (1) The mean form of the 27.0074-day cycle for the total period of 243 repetitions; (2) the mean form for 54 dry-year cycles ; (3) the mean form for 108 cycles which occurred in years of medium precipitation; and (4) the mean form for 81 cycles which occurred in wet years. It will be seen that the 12th day of these four mean cycle forms shows always from two to three times as much precipitation as the 6th and 7th days. I now come to the test of my prophecy, which I made for Dr. Reichelderfer almost a year in advance, as stated above. In the year 1943 the initial days of the 27-day cycles (neglecting the small correction determined above) occurred on the following dates, to correspond in phase with the cycle beginning January 1, 1924. No. of cycles I 2 3 4 Water tee tists. tse 1942, Dec. 31 1943, Jan. 27 Feb. 23 Mar. 22 No. of cycles 5 6 Uf 8 9 Dates greeted: ax Apr. 18 May 15 June II July 8 Aug. 4 No. of cycles 10 II 12 13 14 Dateheactetercta sere Aug. 31 Sept. 27 Oct. 24 Nov. 20 Dec. 17 The 273-month master period! which we discovered in solar radiation and terrestrial weather enabled me to anticipate that the year 1943 would be one of intermediate total precipitation at Wash- ington.” I therefore referred to curve 3 and expected that days 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25, 20, 27 of the cycles would anor a decidedly larger average precipitation than the others. I tabulated the selected dates for all cycles of 1943, from Decem- ber 31, 1942, to December 31, 1943, 366 days. The observed pre- cipitations at Washington were obtained from United States Weather Bureau publications form 1030, using the column of total precipita- tion, midnight to midnight. The results found are as follows: Measur- Trace Total Per- Total Ppt Total ably of No. cent precip., per day, numbers rainy rain wet wet inches inches Preferred dayce aera 175 67 21 88 50.3 20.12 0.115 Other days .. 19! 49 34 83 43.4 13.99 0.073 * Total precipitation divided by total number. From these figures we see that in the year 1943 the observed precipitation at Washington agreed well on the whole with the average i See Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 101, No. I, p. 27, 1941. 2Tt turned out to be a low intermediate, or high low-precipitation year. ABBOT WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION NO. *savok JOM ‘sopoAD 1Q JO UPA ‘h OAIND SsIeod wuinipaut ‘soaMd gor jo uvow ‘“€ dAInd ‘savak Aap ‘sapaAo FS Jo uvaut ‘zt dando :1POI-FzZO1 ‘sayaho Erez JO UvaUt ‘TE dAIND ‘sazeuIpsO AreIQIqse SuoyRydioesd uoysuIYyseA, Ut aps Aep-Ze sy [—T “OI x4 SY Mt 6 S & StS |] Oo EEE Bet iee rH ae ce 0 Coes a 2 a EEECH eee CH 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 march of 27-day cycles which had occurred in 108 cycles in other years of intermediate precipitation from 1924 to 1941. The average observed precipitation per day in the expectedly wetter days of the cycles was actually 1.58 times as great as in the expectedly dryer days of the cycles. In curve 3 itself the corresponding ratio is 1.66. It seems to be probable that the 27-day cycle which has been fol- lowed so consistently at Washington without change of phase for at least 20 years is so firmly fixed that it will be followed also for many vears hereafter. Nevertheless it is surprising that in a purely gaseous body like the sun there should be fixed longitudinal distributions of the con- ditions which affect terrestrial precipitation. The unchanging phase of the effects is, to say the least, unexpected. One would be prepared from our previous studies for a 27-day periodicity in radiation which persisted in a given phase for two or three solar rotations, and then shifted to a new phase as new solar outbreaks occurred and the older ones died away. But this would not explain these new results. For the moment it seems most reasonable to suggest that the unchanged phase of the 27-day period in precipitation for 20 years is due to the immense diameter and mass of the sun. With such an immense body it may well be that 20 years is comparable to an hour or a day in the life of a man, and that no appreciable change of the solar conditions suitable to promote terrestrial precipi- tation ought to be expected in so brief a time. It may be that the correlation of solar rotation with Washington precipitation is associated with sunspot influences through ionization bombardments. In this case it would be independent of the solar constant, for sunspots and the solar constant are not directly cor- related, as shown in the Annals, volume 6, page 196. The constancy of phase for 20 years might then be related to the fundamental cause of sunspots, either planetary as many have supposed, or hydro- dynamical, as suggested by Bjerknes, Astrophysical Journal, vol- ume 64, page 93, 1926. | SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS oy Bee Cre oneal ‘VOLUME 104, NUMBER 4 — el INFLUENCE OF LIGHT AND OF CARBON "DIOXIDE ON THE RESPIRATION OF - ETIOLATED BARLEY SEEDLINGS Wire Two Phares) ee i eB eke - ROBERT L. WEINTRAUB AND. > BARL Si JOHNSTON Division of Radiation and Organisms | ! ‘Smithsonian Tastitution ey NCIS Rap Ve pHs Ones... SAINGTOR SS (PUBLICATION 3769) ‘ . ‘cry OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION — JUNE 28, 1944 © sree et > SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 4 THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT AND OF CARBON DIOXIDE ON THE RESPIRATION OF ETIOLATED BARLEY SEEDLINGS (WiTH Two PLaTEs) BY ROBERT L. WEINTRAUB AND EARL S. JOHNSTON Division of Radiation and Organisms Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3769) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JUNE 28, 1944 Mt ary ay rad 1 : a sat At = i { pe ' , f § Rae aa e 4 bi ee \ . \ \ i | ; | The Lord Waftimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT AND OF CARBON DIOXIDE ON THE RESPIRATION OF BTIOLATED BARLEY SEEDLINGS By ROBERT L. WEINTRAUB anp EARL S. JOHNSTON Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (WitH Two Ptates) During the course of a study of the carbon dioxide production by etiolated barley seedlings, there was obtained evidence that this proc- ess is appreciably influenced by a number of factors of the plant’s environment, both during and prior to the actual measurements of respiration. The work has been interrupted indefinitely, but we be- lieve sufficient data have been accumulated to justify a preliminary report. The results may also serve to emphasize the importance, in studies of gaseous exchange, of close control of various conditions which frequently have been disregarded. In the present paper the term “respiration” will be used as synony- mous with “excretion of carbon dioxide.” No measurements of oxy- gen absorption were made. EXPERIMENTATION Determination of carbon dioxide.—The spectrographic method for measurement of carbon dioxide developed in this laboratory (Mc- Alister, 1936, 1937 a, b) has been used, with some modifications of the apparatus and technique originally described. The optical system is indicated in figure 1, and the apparatus is illustrated in plates 1 and 2. By means of a photographic method, an automatic record of the carbon dioxide content of the air surrounding the plants is obtained at regular intervals—s5 minutes in the present study (see figs. 2 and 3). At a carbon dioxide concentration comparable with that of the atmosphere (about 0.03 percent) the sensitivity of the present appara- tus is approximately I part in 2 million by volume. The uncertainty of a determination, arising chiefly from the error in measuring the galvanometer deflection and from slight fluctuations of the filament current, is I to 2 parts per thousand; with the present apparatus this SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 4 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 corresponds to about 8 cmm. CO, at a concentration equal to normal air and to about 2 cmm. CO, at zero CO, concentration. Control and measurement of air temperature.—Unless otherwise specified, the air temperature was maintained at approximately 26.5° C. The temperature of the air in the plant chamber was measured to 0.01° C. by means of a thermocouple with one junction (shielded by a housing of bright metal foil) situated adjacent to the leaves and the other junction in a bath of ice and water. Readings were taken at 10-minute intervals during the respiration runs. GALVANOMETER LAMP Cc) SCALE GALVANOMETER GALVANOMETER “SPOT f CONCAVE MIRROR, “~ ROCK SALT PRISM ioe Mii R RRO! ADJUSTED SO THAT WAVE LENGTH 4.2-4.3 PASSES THROUGH EXIT SLI SPECTROGRAPH CASE Fic. 1.—Optical system employed in spectrographic method for determination of carbon dioxide. Control of relative humidity—The relative humidity of the circu- lating air was controlled by saturating it with water vapor at one temperature and then warming it to another. These temperatures could-be adjusted to give any desired relative humidity and air tem- perature. It should be mentioned, however, that no means of actually measuring the relative humidity of the air was provided, so that there may exist some uncertainty as to whether the calculated humidity was actually obtained. Experiments designed to study the influence of humidity on respiration indicated that, under the conditions pre- vailing, this factor was of minor significance. NO. 4 LIGHT AND RESPIRATION—WEINTRAUB AND JOHNSTON 3 JISSER ARS SSeS ARES RE RARER Reese Eee Se eee EBESE SR ER ESSER DE SEER ES SRSA SSS eR See Ree Ae BERPAS ERRERRES AE BER BRE R RE SREB EAE ERSRREAREREEe EUS 2eos3 20 SESE eee BESS | SRAREALEAREES EREROEES ri FERRO GS 2S Re SSSR oe eee ee eee es eee EEESSEGREEEE Teepe te ot Le Oe cee ICE eres EP Getler erie ebtaate Ete | | EERE ECC EEE Re ea CI SEap So Eee SSE Re BS Se ese eee eee see Se eee eee rr tel BRESSEe een eel ee LLL eC EEL EEE GEE EE Sie eb Taeiee ee eee EC CCEE ET EEE Pe EEE CP PEErrr erry AR SRS Sse = SS SE PR Re ee eee Sees Eee sae Jee ee EREREERERSESOEZ hehe S2 een Teepe EEEECELE ECC eS FERS errrr Lr ea ee ere EEO SEES EEDSRERR Sao bee Sess Eerste EEL LLL a Penis ae se ce See (ES USS SE SOR BERS Se 8 Dee eee oe Se ee ees Pesos Se s=seScRn aR Best 2355098 Fes Se eee ESeSsen sae eReeesa eRe Aaa Sse EUBSEOSoaon BEESSSE2 SES 5 2082S SS ERP Sete teLEELLELLELLL RRS E Se SESE = SEsSee joes eee EEE TEEPE TT rer eo ee: | Plight EERE 25 22 SERS eee ee Sez e= SS ; EEi2 2255 2EESe==e HES BSe5 EESSESS2 ==: ES 552552552225 PEC ECE Eee [EBS pense ss=se BRBESRE ROS ZeOSSR= = S25 AES 6 sS2se5 aa SEZES=ES Bagh dee sSe 2 _ DN OO SoS SSRs seeS qf 2=sseee= a ERED 2aSR ES RAe SR SSBSSar= Poy alge eS eat SS a BOER EEE SERRE SSabeSniHas Hes re gS | ES SSC9 Unie ean SSS eees 222522 SrSORases2sa Besueene Tse ee Seng DES Siesso0 BEgS Tae ee eS SEO TS MRO eS seesaaes Tes Eee = = 2 SBE BbSRES GS S== S55 S500 5 cas! ez SH a8 SE E@Ee SRS SSR esses eeSEES Bae SEC ESS 92 SESE ER ean Ses seas = See aa eee = SSE CB SEE SEE SG BEES S826 5525555, Sa885 Ss Sas, 5 SSHRSE EHS SESS s SSS 52 Srp sae seas ee Se Sela Ea aaa SSeS Se SsaSaeee== BSeSsUuUns ‘= c= al SS8SES5S08E PEE e SERENE Cseas (se ee SSame SS ral E BoE = Sects Ss ei eaese 7) ageeaeeeee77@coaeeessece7( 7seuuei es (3 G2 Gag seagesees2ncee os egeag coe == 2555532 JEESSGSe205 =3e5 : Seo BSine So eo See eSss 20S SES Be SSS S55 Sen bea So SasS5 bi =Fepel| Pee Sere | Pet ae ee SEE | Ses S65SE a5 Se 2S So Se 0SEseS Sn e esa. BSae Seo e588 SSeS ee eSae leases REISS Be Sasso eseg | Ee aa8 EER EEL bs Sessa easseess Gees 27 tes BS E525 s=S=eeS55 BE sEGSGESE82E52598255 SSe ne = 2S eae eee es Sa SS SSeS ese SeSeee PES Se ES SaSesS SSG5E 52 SSSRSE5EU4a528 == EBRP SS: a SBS o> > ce b ERS See SS ee SSeS seco See iEeSS SSS Se SHS SoS == == Sen 500 SgESSa5S=e Pea ie Ears Bae he Se oe eee de ead Selec sletaleles | Saee 2S S05 S=S=2 520605 Se ee re Pa Spae SES CeRGRgER ee SSeS ee) SS =e) Fat] al SVE ES SESS SS SESS fee Se Sess Sens Seeesessee Sage : pee ee ee eee Sete = Si See ee ee eSsUE eG Eeeea Ses 22 sReeeee Sean Sescasss Peskeste De J2oSs BS. = 2 bS: 2 See Ses 22522 22Sr seees0=25 Fes ee Pees pobat Sls pepe ebsites ted olde | | tier | Sd a ietsk EI SESeg: 202 SSeS eSRehudeee Hee Sa PEP ee eel Per EIS? AEE | eee tes z BES Se sose Sse Sek eeEenssea =SE Ba Paka pae SS Sse e on seee Sasa Ae =a. BSS =SSs2=3e25 sees E0sS50 Sess (EE GEE EEE EE EE ESE Al fete | Zee Pfee |_| EI Se Ee ES ESeSe = 22 556g eiS==SS52Sn0S05Sea BESS z= r= = SS 28520 S| a= F : feeb: = Fi aa aaee +a 2ae aS aeeeea BEE 35 s500e See PEER _Fic. 2——Photographic record of galvanometer deflections. Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations are represented by smaller deflections. The record shows four successive 30-minute measurements of respiration separated by “zero” periods of carbon dioxide-free air. Curves plotted from this record are shown in figure 3. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Tilumination and measurement of light intensity.—For the experi- ments on the influence of light, visible radiation having roughly the spectral distribution of sunlight was employed (see fig. 4). This was obtained by passing the radiation from a tungsten-filament projection lamp through a filter composed of Noviol shade O, medium shade heat-resisting, and pyrex glasses, plus 15 mm. of distilled water. A semicylindrical reflecting surface, made of strips of silvered glass mirrors, was placed behind the plant chamber to better equalize the illumination of all surfaces of the leaves. The intensity of the light incident on the leaves was measured by a photocell which had been recently calibrated by the manufacturer. CMM. CO, PRODUCED 30 3 0 30 «0 30 MINUTES Fic. 3.—Carbon dioxide production by a single set of etiolated barley seedlings at different temperatures. Plotted from the record shown in figure 2. Culture of plants—A pure line of barley (variety Hannchen, C.I. No. 531), generously supplied by Dr. Merritt N. Pope, of the United States Department of Agriculture, has been used exclusively. After removal of the glumes, the seeds were soaked in tap water in dark- ness for a few hours, after which they were repeatedly rinsed? with sterile water and planted individually upon slants of one percent agar in tap water. The plant holders and method of support in the respira- tion chamber are illustrated in figure 5. The seeds were germinated at 26.5° C. in a light-tight thermostatted germinator in which the humidity of the air was maintained at satura- 1 The incidence of bacterial and fungal infections was quite low after this treatment. The application of microbicidal dusts such as ethyl mercuric phos- phate (New Improved Semesan, Jr.) appeared to affect the subsequent respira- tion of the seedlings. NO. 4 LIGHT AND RESPIRATION—-WEINTRAUB AND JOHNSTON 5 tion. After 3 or 4 days the seedlings were examined briefly in light of very low intensity (a masked flashlight was used) in order to select a uniform set and to discard any contaminated specimens. At this time the plant holders were inserted in the stopper (S in fig. 5), so that all subsequent manipulations could be performed in total dark- ness, and were returned to the germinator for at least 40 hours be- fore the respiration measurements were begun. No indication that the preliminary illumination had an appreciable influence on the respiration 2 days later was obtained in special experiments under- taken to test this point. On the fifth or sixth day, when the shoots ENERGY RELATIVE RELATIVE SOLAR ENERGY 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 WAVELENGTH (A) Fic. 4—Spectral distribution of radiation. artificial source (ordinates at leit) ; ----- sun (smoothed curve for average day at Washington, D. C., and ainimass = b). were I2 to 16 cm. long, the plants were introduced into the double- walled respiration chamber, which accommodated 19 seedlings. Measurement of respiration—tThe carbon dioxide content of the circumambient atmosphere was measured at 5-minute intervals over a 30- to 90-minute period. Preceding and following this the apparatus “zero” was determined for CQO,-free air, usually during half-hour periods. This establishes a base datum which permits correction for any constant drift in the filament emission which may be caused by change in the battery current. During the intervals between the respiration measurements the plants were exposed to CO,-free air. From the series of measurements for each respiration period, the rate of carbon dioxide production was calculated by the method of least squares. Unless otherwise stated all the rates have been corrected to a uniform temperature of 26.5° C. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 CONSTANCY OF RESPIRATION RATE IN DARK In order to assess the significance of changes in respiration rates accompanying altered conditions, it was essential first to establish the degree of constancy of the rate under fixed conditions. Fic. 5.—Diagrammatic view of respiration chamber in longitudinal section. S, perforated rubber stopper; C, glass tube containing agar substrate; P, plant; N, nutrient solution; T, turntable; OS, oil seal; A, outlet for circulating air which enters at top of chamber; W, inlet for water circulating between double walls of chamber (4 natural size). The constancy of the dark respiration rate for an individual set of plants was determined by measuring the respiration in successive 30- or 60-minute periods, separated by half-hour periods during which the plants were maintained in CO,-free air. Table 1 gives the results of six experiments, each with a different lot of seedlings. The differences in absolute rates among the various experiments are due chiefly to differences in size of the plants of the individual sets. NO. 4 LIGHT AND RESPIRATION—-WEINTRAUB AND JOHNSTON 7. TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESPIRATION Inasmuch as small variations in the temperature of the air were unavoidable, especially when the plants were exposed to light of high intensity, the temperature coefficient of respiration in darkness was determined so that correction could be made. The photographic record obtained in such an experiment is reproduced in figure 2. Figure 3 presents the data, after conversion to volumes of carbon dioxide. TABLE 1.—Carbon dioxide production by etiolated barley seedlings in darkness hated Maximum ; ; Respiration rate Mean trate for deviation from Experiment Period (cmm. CO2/min./plant) each experiment mean, percent 8/12/40 I 1.396 2 1.395 1.385 1.6 3 1.363 I 1.434 2 1.408 1.479 3.0 3 1.505 8/19/40 I 1.314 2 1.284 1.2905 itl 3 1.286 8/14/40 9/30/40 I 1.401 2 1.458 1.429 2.0 3 1.420 I 1.506 2 1.434 3 1.492 1.469 2.4 4 1.444 10/30/41 I 1.110 2 1.099 3 1.098 1.104 0.5 4 1.109 11/4/41 Average = 1.8 Over the temperature interval covered in this experiment, the rate of respiration varies linearly with the temperature. The temperature coefficient (Q;.) is equal to 1.6. It is recognized that temperature coefficients for biological proc- esses may be affected by a number of factors, including radiation (see Bélehradek, 1935). However, in view of the relatively small variations of temperature (of the order of a few tenths of a degree) actually encountered in the experiments herein reported, it is con- sidered justifiable to disregard this possibility for the present. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 INFLUENCE OF CARBON DIOXIDE ON RESPIRATION In the majority of experiments in which the respiration was mea- sured for periods as long as an hour, it was observed that the rate of carbon dioxide evolution did not remain constant during this time but usually decreased somewhat. Table 2 presents representative data TABLE 2.—Variation of carbon dioxide production with time Rates relative to Portion Respiration rate first 30-min. Experiment of run (cmm. COs/min./plant) interval of run I Ist 30 min. 1.403 100 ad * 1.400 99.8 2 Ist 2 1.419 100 2d i 1.387 97.7 3 Ist z 1.380 100 ad o 1.362 098.0 4 Ist i 1.419 100 2d me 1.453 102.4 5 Ist = 1.495 100 2d - 1.494 99.9 6 Ist : ssi : 100 2d ~ 1.503 96.9 Uf Ist ‘i 1.344 100 2d ce 1.288 95.8 8 Ist - 1.302 100 2d rs 1.283 98.5 9 Ist z 1.202 100 2d + 1.259 97.4 10 Ist - 1.380 100 ad ee 1.413 101.7 II Ist -s 1.466 100 2d a 1.432 97-7 12 Ist ‘ 1.465 100 2d iy ey 2 93-6 to exemplify the general finding. In each case the rates for the first and last 30-minute portions of an hour’s run have been calculated separately. For the 12 runs the average rate during the second 30-minute interval is 98.3 percent of that during the first 30-minute period. This difference is very nearly the same as that found, on the average, between successive runs, but it is significant that the difference is predominantly a decrease in rate with time. NO. 4 LIGHT AND RESPIRATION—-WEINTRAUB AND JOHNSTON 9 Such a result is what would be expected if the rate of carbon dioxide evolution is the resultant of the rate of production of this gas by the respiring tissue and of the rate of its diffusion into the atmosphere. The method of measuring the carbon dioxide evolution in a closed system has the disadvantage that the external concentration of the (CMM./MIN./PLANT ) CO, PRODUCTION Te RC) io tt Oui 728) Sn ai 8. fy HOURS Fic. 6—Carbon dioxide production by 5-day-old etiolated barley seedlings in darkness following exposure to various concentrations of carbon dioxide. A, in 5 percent CO. for 174 hours; B, in normal air for 174 hours; C, in normal air for 5 days; D, in CO:2-free air for 18 hours; E, in COs-free air for 18 hours. gas is continuously augmented. In the present experiments the con- centration increased from zero to 0.03-0.04 percent (approximately equal to the concentration in normal air) during a 30-minute run and to twice this value in 60 minutes. The situation appears to be somewhat more complex than this, however, inasmuch as evidence has been obtained that the rate of carbon dioxide excretion at any given moment may be influenced not only by the CO, concentration in the environment at that particular Io SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 time, but also by the conditions to which the plant has been subjected previously. It was found that seedlings exposed to a high concentra- tion of carbon dioxide exhibited subsequently a protracted falling rate of carbon dioxide excretion. The result of an experiment which illustrates this effect is shown in figure 6 A. Although the absolute rates of carbon dioxide excretion by different lots of plants are not strictly comparable (see table 1), it will be noted that conditioning the seedlings in air containing 5 percent CO, has resulted in an initial rate much greater than the normal range of variation. Similar, al- though less pronounced, results have been found also after condition- ing in air of much lower carbon dioxide content (as low as 0.35 percent). In our earlier experiments, performed before this factor was appreciated, relatively large numbers of seedlings were grown in the closed germinator ; it is calculated that, under the conditions em- ployed, the carbon dioxide concentration could have risen to values of the order of 0.5 percent, which is sufficiently high to cause a marked after-effect. Figure 6 C portrays the respiration of seedlings which had been grown in a box continuously aerated with normal air, and figure 6 B that of seedlings grown for 4 days in a closed box and then aerated for 17.5 hours. Figure 6 A illustrates also the relatively long period of time re- quired for the attainment of a constant rate of respiration following exposure to high concentrations of carbon dioxide. These findings are very similar to those reported by Spoehr and McGee (1924) and by Willaman and Beaumont (1928). Although the mechanism of this carbon dioxide effect is not established, a num- ber of possibilities suggest themselves. Unilluminated leaves of many species, including barley, are known to absorb carbon dioxide revers- ibly, by physicochemical processes unrelated to the vital activities (see Smith, 1940). The absorption is believed to be due to the water, dissolved buffer substances, and insoluble alkaline earth carbonates in the leaf which act as a sort of reservoir for carbon dioxide. In living leaves, Smith found absorption of the carbon dioxide and its evolution in vacuo to be rather rapid, only a few minutes being required for the attainment of equilibrium. Although this appears to be in sharp contrast with the results described above, it should be borne in mind that different conditions obtained, in that the evolution of carbon dioxide in our experiments occurred at atmospheric pressure. A more delayed attainment of equilibrium was observed by Hamon (1936) in the case of potato tubers, and by Gerhardt and Ezell (1934) with fruits of pear and apple. NO. 4 LIGHT AND RESPIRATION—WEINTRAUB AND JOHNSTON Il In addition to its possible participation in such a physicochemical process, it is well established that carbon dioxide influences the respiratory process itself (see, e.g., Kidd, 1916; Thornton, 1933 a, b, 1935, 1937; Hamon, 1936). It is doubtful, however, that an effect of this kind plays a role in our results. On the other hand, it is con- ceivable that carbon dioxide might influence the gaseous exchange indirectly as, for example, by affecting the behavior of the stomata or the cellular permeability. If there exists in the barley seedlings a CO, reservoir, it might be anticipated that maintenance of the plants in the absence of carbon dioxide would deplete the reservoir to such an extent that there would occur a deficit to be satisfied when CO, was again made available. Experiments in which plants were conditioned in CO,-free air for several hours following a 4-day sojourn in the non-aerated growth chamber did not yield consistent results. Slowly increasing rates of carbon dioxide evolution were indeed found in a considerable per- centage of such experiments, whereas in others the respiration ap- peared to be very constant. In a few cases, furthermore, decreasing rates were observed. Examples are illustrated in figures 6 D and 6 E. It should be noted that the various lots of plants were doubtless subjected to different conditions with respect to the CO, concentration during the first 3 or 4 days, depending upon the number and size of the plants present in the germinator and the number of times it was opened during this period. In view of the protracted influence shown to be exerted by a high concentration of carbon dioxide during the early part of the culture period, it is conceivable that a carry-over of the earlv treatment might manifest itself in a falling rate, even after several hours in CO,-free air. On the other hand, if the early exposure to CO, had been somewhat less, the period in CO,-free air might be just sufficient to deplete the reservoir to the extent that a relatively constant rate of CO, excretion could ensue. The 30- or 60-minute intervals of exposure to CO,-free air, which were customarily alternated with the respiration runs, appear to have been too short to have produced measurable effects on the subsequent respiration. This conclusion is supported by a number of experiments in which these intervals were extended, shortened, or replaced by periods of exposure to normal air. In any event, while a clear understanding of the situation must await further experimentation, it is obvious that, in experiments in which plant respiration is measured by carbon dioxide excretion, the previous history of the plants with respect to this gas cannot safely be ignored. {2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON RESPIRATION In the experiments on the effect of illumination on the respiration of etiolated barley seedlings, the general procedure has been to measure the rate of carbon dioxide production first in darkness for a number of hourly or half-hourly periods, in order to ascertain whether the rate remains constant under these conditions. The plants S HRS. 60 FC RESPIRATION RATE RELATIVE {¢) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 245 *250 26) 127. 128 HOURS Fic. 7.—Influence of duration of illumination on carbon dioxide production by etiolated barley seedlings. ———— measured in dark;..... measured in light. were then illuminated, either with or without simultaneous measure- ments of the respiration, and following this the plants were again darkened and further measurements made. In some instances addi- tional light exposures were given later. A considerable amount of the accumulated data has been discarded because in the earlier experiments the marked influence of the pre- treatment of the plants was not fully appreciated, and the initial dark NO. 4 LIGHT AND RESPIRATION—WEINTRAUB AND JOHNSTON 12) runs were not continued sufficiently to establish the absence of possible small drifts in respiratory rate. However, a few such experiments, of which the results are entirely in accord with those of unequivocal experiments, have been retained. For this reason, while the general trend of the results to be presented is unquestionable, the quantitative data are not regarded as having a high degree of precision. RESPIRATION RATE RELATIVE 1800 FC. 30 MIN. 10) | 2 3 4 5 6 Te 8 9 HOURS Fic. 8.—Influence of intensity of illumination on carbon dioxide production by etiolated barley seedlings. measured in dark; ...... measured in light. The illumination of etiolated barley seedlings with white light results in an increased rate of carbon dioxide production. We have performed 30 experiments, all of which have confirmed this finding. Some information concerning the effect of light intensity and exposure time on the magnitude and time course of the respiration response has been obtained. Representative results are iilustrated in figures 7 and 8. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I104 On exposure to light of fairly low intensity (180 foot-candles or less) no significant alteration of the rate of carbon dioxide excretion was usually apparent during the first 30-minute period. Following this, the plants, whether continued in light or darkened, exhibited a rate of respiration that increased to a maximum only after some hours and then gradually decreased (figs. 7B and 8B). The precise course of the declining rate has not been worked out ; however, by 24 hours after a half-hour period of illumination the dark respiration was usually substantially the same as that found before exposure. At this time a second exposure to light again resulted in an increased rate of carbon dioxide production similar to that previously observed (fig. 7p De The magnitude of the respiratory stimulation is dependent upon the intensity and duration of the irradiation. At an intensity of 60 foot-candles, exposures of 5 or 10 minutes elicited only insignificant effects (fig. 7 A), whereas illumination for 20 minutes or longer resulted in marked increases of the rate of carbon dioxide evolution (figs. 7 B and 7 C). On prolonged exposure the course of events is complicated by the formation of chlorophyll and the concomitant onset of photosynthesis; several hours of illumi- nation, at the intensities employed, are required, however, for the latter process to attain a measurable value. With an exposure time of 30 minutes, the magnitude of the in- crease in respiration rate appears to be relatively independent of the intensity, in the range of 50 to 500 foot-candles, and is of the order of 20 percent (figs. 7B, 8B, and 8C). Smaller stimulations appear to be evoked by either higher or lower intensities (figs. 8A, 8D). Neither the upper nor the lower limit of effective intensity has been determined. There is some indication also that the higher intensities occasion a more prompt manifestation of the respiratory increase than do the lower intensities ; thus in figures 8 C and 8 D, the stimulation is apparent during the illumination period itself. There is considerable evidence that the respiration of a great variety of plant tissues is influenced by radiation, although very little is known of the mechanism of these effects (for literature see Weintraub, 1944). A number of characteristics of the effect here described indicate that the increased rate of carbon dioxide excretion is the result of a com- plex of responses and not merely of a simple photochemical reaction ; these are the initial latent period, the prolonged character of the response, the peculiar relationship of the stimulation to the duration and intensity of the inciting radiation, and the lack of obedience of the reciprocity law. In certain respects these are very suggestive of NO. 4 LIGHT AND RESPIRATION—WEINTRAUB AND JOHNSTON I5 the characteristics of the so-called photodynamic processes (see Blum, 1941). Among the possible indirect mechanisms which might be involved is the stomatal behavior. If the rate of gaseous exchange were limited by the size of the stomatal apertures and if the illumination resulted in an opening of the stomata, the increased respiration could conceivably be explained on this basis. However, we have been unable to demonstrate, by direct microscopic observation, such an effect of the light. SUMMARY The illumination of etiolated barley seedlings with white light occasions an increase in the subsequent rate of carbon dioxide evolu- tion, whether measured in light or in darkness. As a result of the irradiation, the respiratory rate rises relatively slowly to a maximum and remains substantially at the new level for several hours. The magnitude of the stimulation and its time course appear to depend upon the duration and intensity of the exposure. In the absence of light, the rate of carbon dioxide excretion is influenced also by alterations of the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere in which the seedlings have been confined. LITERATURE CITED BELEHRADEK, J. 1935. Temperature and living matter. (Protoplasma Monograph No. 8.) Berlin. Biuom, H. F. 1941. Photodynamic action and diseases caused by light. Reinhold Pub- lishing Corp., New York. GERHARDT, F., and Ezett, B. D. 1934. Retention of carbon dioxide gas in the intercellular atmosphere of pears and apples. Science, vol. 80, pp. 253-254. Hanon, F. 1936. Influence de l’acide carbonique sur la respiration des tissus végétaux et de la levure. Ann. Physiol. Physicochim. Biol., vol. 12, pp. 940-982. Kopp, F. 1916. The controlling influence of carbon dioxide. III. The retarding effect of carbon dioxide on respiration. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, ser. B., vol. 89, pp. 136-156. McAttster, E. D. 1936. A spectrographic method of measuring carbon dioxide concentra- tion. Phys. Rev., vol. 40, p. 704. 1937a. Spectrographic method for determining the carbon dioxide exchange between an organism and its surroundings. Plant Physiol., vol. 12, Pp. 213-215. 1937b. Time course of photosynthesis for a higher plant. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 95, No. 24. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Snerren ae Ge 1940. The absorption of carbon dioxide by unilluminated leaves. Plant Physiol., vol. 15, pp. 183-224. © Sporur, H. A., and McGee, J. M. 1924. The effect of fluctuations in the CO, content of the atmosphere on the rate of respiration of leaves. Amer. Journ. Bot., vol. 11, pp. 493-502. THorntTon, N. C. 1933a. Carbon dioxide storage. III. The influence of carbon dioxide on the oxygen uptake by fruits and vegetables. Contr. Boyce Thomp- son Inst., vol. 5, pp. 371-402. 1933b. Carbon dioxide storage. V. Breaking the dormancy of potato tubers. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst., vol. 5, pp. 471-481. 1935. Carbon dioxide storage. VIII. Chemical changes in potato tubers resulting from exposure to carbon dioxide. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst., vol. 7, pp. 113-118. 1937. Carbon dioxide storage. X. The effect of carbon dioxide on the ascorbic acid content, respiration, and pH of asparagus tissue. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst., vol. 9, pp. 137-148. WEINTRAUB, R. L. 1944. Radiation and plant respiration. Bot. Rev. (in press). WILLAMAN, J. J., and BEAuMmonrgt, J. H. 1928. The effect of accumulated carbon dioxide on plant respiration. Plant Physiol., vol. 3, pp. 45-61. l Celle 104, NO. VOL. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VIEW OF APPARATUS USED FOR MEASUREMENT OF RESPIRATION SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS OL. 104, NO. 4, PL. 2 VIEW OF RESPIRATION CHAMBER WITH SEEDLINGS IN PLACE i tA a i ne Sian Ge SMITHSONIAN ‘MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS . : VOLUME 104, NUMBERS Roebling Fund. P “WEATHER PREDETERMINED BY ee SOLAR VARIATION ; Fi G. ABBOT x ay Secretary, Smithsonian Institution : ie _. (PUBLICATION 3771) ere oat rr ory OF WASHINGTON 0 eae 7 2 Ei PUBLISHED. BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION a Ageoe Rae’ en. JULY 3, 1944 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 5 Roebling Fund WEATHER PREDETERMINED BY SOLAR VARIATION BY CG. G. ABBOT Secretary, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3771) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JULY 3, 1944 i Fs q by N j or! ne ' Lan Fin pane ’ ’ ane ; {i Ate oe . 7 j LS @ ‘ oF , " * t on Dore \ a - f i i 5 ‘ | \ \ i : { é Te Lord Waltimore ress BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A. Roebling Fund WEATHER PREDETERMINED BY SOLAR VARIATION By C1 G: ABBOT Secretary, Smithsonian Institution 1. SHORT SEQUENCES OF SOLAR VARIATION Referring to my papers “The Dependence of Terrestrial Tempera- tures on the Variations of the Sun’s Radiation” and “Further Evidence on the Dependence of Terrestrial Temperatures on the Variations of Solar Radiation,’ + I now present new and more extensive proofs of the same thesis. In table 24, volume 6, Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, were tabulated revised day-to-day solar- constant values, 1924 to 1939. Every value printed under the caption “Preferred Solar Constant” ? in table 24, just cited, was meticulously scrutinized jointly by my colleagues, Messrs. Aldrich and Hoover and Mrs. Bond. Many errors of preliminary lists used in my papers of 1936 were eliminated. Several additional years of observing are now included. On all these accounts a revision and amplification of the 1936 investigation was desirable. I shall give in table 1 the dates when sequences of rise and sequences of fall in the solar constant are believed to have begun. This table 1 is parallel to table 1 of my former paper “The Dependence of Ter- restrial Temperatures on the Variations of the Sun’s Radiation.” * If the two are compared it will be found that many dates used in 1936 are still retained, that some dates of 1936 are now shifted by 1, or rarely by 2 days, and that certain dates used in 1936 are now rejected in view of more accurate solar-constant data. Only Mount Monte- zuma and Mount St. Katherine observations have been considered in making up table 1. The average range of the solar variation in the 440 cases tabulated below is only about 0.7 percent. The average 1 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 95, No. 12, 1936, and vol. 95, No. 15, 1936. 2 For the present study all these values, and those termed “Improved Pre- ferred,” were plotted to show sequences of change. In most cases the values “Preferred Solar Constant” are more consistent with meteorological changes, so that my confidence in “Improved Preferred” values has been shaken. 8 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 95, No. 12, 1936. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 5 Zz SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 number of days making a “sequence” of rise or of fall is 4. Hence the average day-to-day change recognized as real in table 1 is of the order of 4 percent. This is quite at the extreme limit of the accuracy of solar-constant measurements at our best stations. Table Mountain results are not accurate enough to be used in such exacting day-to-day work. If the reader compares with table 24, volume 6 of the Annals, she will perceive that many of the dates listed in table 1 are extrapolated or interpolated by graphical methods from fragmentary data for lack of continuous day-to-day lists of excellent solar-constant values. How- ever, if all such extrapolated or interpolated dates were thrown out, it would not greatly alter the results which appear below. Doubtless some spurious “sequences” of solar-constant change are included in table 1, and some veridical ones omitted, but I believe that not many of these sequences are spurious, or more than 1 day in error in their dates. For, as will be shown below, the weather at far-separated stations responds very harmoniously to the dates given in table 1. These dates are used in all the meteorological computations on which the curves to be given below are based. On the other hand there is little question that if excellent solar- constant values had been available every day for the years 1924 to 1939, many more such sequences of solar change, probably making at least 800 in all, would have been found. Hence, as a probable average, 24 rising and 24 falling sequences of solar change per month occur, of sufficient amplitudes to produce important weather effects. Such effects last at least as long as 17 days in each case, as will be shown. In table 1, the months head the table. The last two figures of the designation of the year and the day of the month when the sequence begins follow for each individual case. Thus: January, rising, 1924, 12th day. In my former papers, cited above, I investigated in each case the march of departures from normal temperature at Washington and several other stations for 17 days, beginning on the day the supposed sequence of solar change began, and extending to 16 days thereafter. My recent studies have convinced me that solar changes which have meteorological significance begin to exercise influences on weather several days before the changes in the solar constant indicate their existence. Accordingly, in the following investigation I have usually tabulated meteorological data for 20 days, beginning 5 days before the dates of solar-constant sequences given in table 1. A few tabula- tions and curves have covered 25 days, i.e., 20 days from the begin- ning of the sequences. ABBOT WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION NO. 5 Sz 8 gt Z gt 61 Ze Va Leeve lz gz gt x SE €1r gf fx 61 LE zz ve fz LE S of or gf of €€ 61 Iz 6e SE fez z gf Si SE ZINES COD Tees Ze SI gz €€ Si 6e 41 SE S Ef “I oz Bore, eee 9 If tI gz gi € ge Z of £ Soelemce: zI 6z 61 br ere: zz ge b lz 6 6e 61 bz Ze gz tele S 62 g f tzSe & 61 tia ce £ oz b Lz I bz g be 61 be ge tz sur sur Bur Sur TWEE SFY Nea 2-8 —_—_ Jaquisoaq IaquUIsAo Ny b 6& zz gi 6 I gt OL BU 6/43 6 gf £1 Su YAS he £r of S$ g& o1 Q gt zz & 6 9 gz 6 age ONZE br SSa te, or b& gI gz Z LE gz zI gf Zr oz g& €1 1 p& mr vE €1 SE bv EF zz Sef, re zz O88 fo ces Pr Ir 1f z If ge 9 PF o1 of er gI 61 lz i OF Fo Tee Omce wer Iz oz of 6 F 62 Rca SistGeee fumeT Cente, Iz gz S$ 62 1 ge or Zz g1 6z gz gz VLee Te 61 oz bz br ZI oI or Sie Lee zes I gz 2 ge S oz £ oz lz 6z 61 &z oe ste. ba those he sul sur sur Bur UPL SIM eA SY — — 1340199 Jaquieydag 8 6F gI gt zz g) Ze. £1 gf VamOtiaee 61 oz gf €1 g ZE ge 68 oz ZE € HEF bz Iz gz gf O61 AIOE Om (Of) GaSe son Sh Or SE ig) SE 9 FE Sz ze zz II C1ee, Zr RQ) heen cae yout) OL mee Oe: VE Oz ZI 4 aD Lbe sQTeOl Te oer S) 19a ge of zz zt gz bz 1z oz 1€ O61 €1 lz @) Ge, Pz Of ge Ar S$ gz S1 6z oz le S ge OI gz zz gz zi gz & 1f £z of ZI V. ste sfrobea eevee 2 ve sur sur Sur But TIME T SENSE SME NAT HTH OH ysnsny Ain[ Sz £1 6& 4 of or 6€ b LE ZI ez SP gh Orese zz bz QO) Ze. vr gI 9€ g Fe er SE or €& Vi vew f2ece gi z€ zz if DP ee su ge gl 6z gI or Ze b Lz SI gz Sz oz 9 92 © te zi be sul Sur Tea SI SS) sunt upboq uoypipos fo worssuma suns ay} fo of pup asia fo Iz 6£ gz gI bz b gt OMSe senice or 46 § of Dee €1 g& Sx of VAS Nh aay ford Ceare ser gr ££ 6 Iz 6e © ge oz bz 9 ge o1 Zz oI ZI Bove Oi Per sul 3ur LEE SShe SSS ACTIN Saguanbas Uayor $3j0q—1 ATAV IL, Sz Z 6& gI £ gt g Le ZI ty Loh’ GER Sz zI gf 1 lz Zeese 61 LV ee ee ZI oz 6 ¥& o1 && £1 6 ze b €& I2 of lz 6 6z Sr 61 gz Mae We g (Og, ee: gI 4 ke 9 ge vz gt Zz o1 gz 6z ge St gz Sr ez Z Sz gI FI 6 tz z be sur 3ul “le. -ST Wea Pal [dy Or aaa I oz Go ie v €z S€ zz 1 v ge Se Zz 02 92 S ‘oz zz Sz gi Sz 61 fz g ve LI bz sur = Sur aL ELST ———.—__’ yore gz gi 9 gf 1 FI g 4 6z 61 vr gf 12 of be 6€ z LE ge oI he (Star i Or a OuNce bas oe &z 61 SE gi gf oz FE Gin Le Oz Powe. fr re ZI z1v€ gr if ge Ve OF Siete) 0b) 6 gz Iz gi of $1 9 gust z 6 S ge xr & Ie vow Zr “1 Emoz ge o€ g ge 6 I &z Gm iGe eR iZeo ste Ozel Oc, Ir ge lz oz gr ft Ze b be Si te zr te sul = sur sur Sul “12, “SI “112. “SI Tet Blea evel ues Areniqa yy Arenur[{ 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 With the assistance of Mrs. Bond, Miss Simpson, and Miss Carter, computations have been carried through for temperatures, and in certain cases barometric pressures, at Washington and several other stations, similar to those described in my papers of 1936. In figure 1 I give a photographic reproduction of a complete com- putation and graphical illustration of the work for the month of March at Helena, Mont. This enables the reader to see exactly what is done with the data of a single station for one month of the year, and he is assured that the same procedure was followed with all stations in all cases. In figures 2, 3, and: 4 I give graphical summaries of the effects of changes of solar activity on the temperatures of Helena, Mont., Albany, N. Y., and Washington, D. C. As I have found difficulty in explaining these illustrations to visitors at the Smithsonian Institution, I shall go into great detail on points which seem to be often mis- understood and try to make these three groups of curves perfectly clear. Then subsequent illustrations of the same kind will, I am sure, be readily understood. In the first place, there are no solar-constant values whatever plotted in figures 2 to 4. All the curves are plotted solely with differences from normal temperature as ordinates, and with successive days as the time scale of abscissae. The purpose is to show what is the average march of temperature changes during an interval of 20 days which is associated with average sequences of rise or of fall of the solar constant of radiation lasting for average intervals of 4 days for each such sequence, beginning on the zeroth day, and having the average range of 0.7 percent. As the temperature effects are found to display themselves 2 or 3 days before the solar-constant sequences of rise or of fall begin, and continue at least 2 weeks after the solar- constant sequences have begun, the temperature departures are tabu- lated from 5 days before until 14 days after the zeroth day of the solar-constant sequences.* Expectation indicates, and experience confirms, that the effects of changes of solar activity on temperatures at a given station will differ at different seasons of the year, because many terrestrial con- ditions, such as cloudiness, wind direction, wind strength, snow covering, etc., alter through the year. Hence a separate investigation is made for each month of the year. 4It may be that if the tabulation had been continued to cover 20 or 25 days instead of 14 after the event, significant temperature effects would have been discovered at some stations over even longer intervals. In subsequent illustrations I give some curves extending for 20 days after the zeroth day. NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 5 pais Becerra is -6 7 ata z= 7 -3 -§|-3 zZ|-¥ ZEN LES) U9 | ace 1925 14-2H-6 |) = Vlé ag Ml se | 7s a7 192644 - |/3 |/2 1° \|10 194704 JF | ut 4#2|2 19a -7'-/|-5\-/2| - or2 ALIS | /F) ZN AZ 2) |= 193009| 0 |-Fi sls 7 \72 / af sl) Ae 19304 gil rzlsz| 0 10|-7 23-/} oO - -4 14 (732g SI) 415 | -38|-2 - vi3 1935 O' 4 / t N“ is » Ss ws as i] re ot Pt ° . aA Re Gi CIRC ACARACD ALDINE aE DENA PERE ALAS IEARACARA ER DADE is AEA BEE AUR AREA AARAEAIG/BR? ake BG SA fa eS Ao al a (ea On c | | | | FALLING | | | pus eye: Mee Ws ais 2 Us| ae “91-6i-4)-21-9/ 3 | ¢|-3|-6|-¥)-2) 313 Piel Aas *) 81 328-9 ne | 9-9) St 19254 —/ FIZ. UNI 7 513, 10) 5 1/2 | 4b) 8 ees 135 ee 6 °F s|7/7! S| 0 ae 10|/F7\70 11a Rue wy 10 2 e7 -F\-1/ 192% Ba ANE Nt 20. ID EAL Ra BEE BELA AIaE! BAPA GALA GPA AADC IGE VALARAY "© cede dE ANSE“ GS SEAR GABA EARALZ. ieee FAN WE? AACA EARS SMEAR ORAS LAD nat tee Da AVAPARA DIR IWABAVAES GALTIEARARE Fone Ee) EAD EAP Ta BDAC BABA BA By BOE IAA SP TAS ols yIGP I A "ME Bu ol le a a ee ae Fic. 1.—Temperature departures, Fahr., at Helena, Mont., in March, accom- panying sequences of rise and of fall of the solar constant of radiation beginning zeroth day. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 /0_/2 /4| 6 a nMie Sae a PaaS | tail i ll il i i al e's ete ras mm Warm ae a Bmw L o MPAA Aa SPCCeth Fig. 2.—Average marches of temperature departures, Fahr., at Helena, Mont., accompanying sequences of variation of the solar constant, January to December. NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT Tf Fic. 3—Average marches of temperature departures, Fahr., at Albany, N. Y., accompanying sequences of variation of the solar constant, January to December. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 6d Tae DOM e Le 6 Om OanIe al “I 6 + x et ee ay ar ae er a SNe.) 7a ane a eerste” aN lke easton SF At | eA So ny ie! il al lala ie ic a aes a Ed im) Fic. 4.—Average marches of temperature departures, Fahr., at Washington, D. C., accompanying sequences of variation of the solar constant, January to December. NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 9 Inasmuch as experience shows that solar-constant changes are associated with large temperature changes, and appear to influence temperatures for many days, it is clear that average effects can be well determined only if large numbers of separate cases are tabulated. Hence we collect all the dates when well-marked sequences of rise of solar constant occur in a given month, as March, for example, for all the years when fairly satisfactory solar-constant observations at our excellent stations Montezuma or St. Katherine are available, that is from 1924 to 1939. The procedure will be clear if the reader will compare figure 1 with the month of March in table 1. The reader will then see that for every date in the March “rising” column of table 1, a line of values of departures from normal temperature is tabulated in figure 1. The line at the bottom of the “rising” table in figure I is the mean of all lines given above it, and these mean values give the ordinates of the upper curve for March in figure 2. A precisely similar tabulation for all “falling” March cases given in table 1 yields the mean lower curve for March in figure 2. Owing to the unavoidable inclusion of some spurious dates of solar- constant sequences; to the fact that the sequences used have various amplitudes ranging from 0.4 to 1.5 percent, and yet neglect those too small to observe satisfactorily but still large enough to affect tem- perature; to the fact that other sequences of solar-constant change than the particular one being singled out are apt to occur before or after a zeroth day at times near enough to produce considerable disturbing effects; to the fact that the total number of sequences tabulated in table 1 is divided into the two classes “rising” and “falling,” and each of these classes is subdivided into 12 groups to correspond to the 12 months of the year so that comparatively few cases per group are used; and finally to the fact that though solar changes are evidently a major cause of temperature changes, variable terrestrial influences not taken into account are also important—on all of these accounts it results that accidental fluctua- tions are by no means fully eliminated in the mean values plotted in figures 2 to 4 and other curves of the kind. Hence the reader must use some leniency in making comparisons of “rising” with “falling” curves of temperature march, and not be too harsh if he finds these curves not exactly mirror images of one another. But that they do tend strongly to be so the correlation coefficient —61.2+1.7 percent to be given in the next paragraph testifies. To prove more convincingly the thesis that solar changes of opposite signs tend to produce opposite changes in terrestrial temperatures, | have computed the coefficient of correlation between temperature ie) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 changes associated with rising and falling solar sequences for all months of the year from 3 days before to 14 days after the zeroth day of solar-constant change, using the three stations, Washington, Albany, and Helena. For these three American stations, in other words, I have correlated the mean values of daily temperature de- partures attending rising and falling solar sequences, respectively, for 3x12xX18=648 pairs. The result of the computation of the correlation coefficient 1s as follows : f= OW 2-e 7 percent: It appears to be undoubtedly significant. I reserve further discussion of the curves of temperature and barometric pressure in relation to solar-constant change until I have considered another well-known solar phenomenon. There has hitherto been general reluctance on the part of astrono- mers and meteorologists to accept as veridical either the day-to-day changes of the solar constant recorded by Smithsonian publications, or their important effects on weather. This is due partly to the small percentage magnitudes of the reported changes, averaging for well- marked cases, as stated above, about 0.7 percent, and partly because there is no theory hitherto published in the literature which mathe- matically demonstrates how such small percentage changes in the solar emission could produce such major weather effects. My own explanation is that changes of the solar constant, which produce, as Clayton has shown, large geographical displacements of the atmos- pheric centers of action, thereby change the lines of march of cyclones and anticyclones. This alters the direction of the winds at all stations, and with that alteration the temperatures alter, as is well known. I cannot but feel that an unbiased view of the results thus far given in this paper may convince many readers that the statistical evidence for such weather effects is strong, however feeble may be as yet the theoretical foundation. But it is still possible to add inde- pendent support to the statistical evidence, which may overcome the doubts of others who hitherto have remained unconvinced. 2. INDEPENDENT EVIDENCE OF SOLAR VARIATION From the year 1910 through the year 1937 the Smithsonian Insti- tution has received the publication “Observatorio del Ebro Boletin Mensual.” This valuable publication contains daily records of many kinds of phenomena, including not only meteorological data, but measurements of the areas of calcium flocculi at definite distances from the center of the solar disk as photographed with the Hale spectroheliograph. It occurred to me to compute from the Ebro obser- NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 1m vations for each day of record a character figure suitably compounded from these measured areas and distances. After much trial and in- vestigation of correlation between solar-constant values and areas of flocculi, with which I will not burden this paper, I fixed on the following formula. The character figure is the weighted sum of the areas given in the column “S.M.” of the Ebro Boletin, each area being weighted with regard to its distance from the center of the visible solar disk, accord- ing to the scheme below. Percent radial distance, p......... 0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 WEIN ENON ATCA. oho ssa cecnem eee 10 7 5 3 I Mrs. Bond and Miss Simpson have tabulated the character figures for me of all days of Ebro solar-flocculi observations, 1910 to 1937, according to the formula just described. It was at once apparent that these character figures showed se- quences of rise and of fall. I went over the entire table, and scored in red every well-marked rising sequence, and in blue every well- marked falling sequence. In illustration I give the original data from the Boletin Mensual, the character figures corresponding, and the rising and falling sequences of calcium flocculi for the month of October 1926. For lack of red and blue printing I will use single lines opposite rising sequences of calcium flocculi, and double lines opposite falling ones. I have chosen a month when the solar constant was observed every day and observed in common on 18 days at both of our best stations, Montezuma and St. Katherine. The observations at Ebro, unfortu- nately, were not so continuous. However, as the reader will see, a fall of the solar constant indicated from September 29 to October 7 was apparently accompanied by a fall of character figures for Ebro. The rise of solar constant, October 7 to October 12, seems to have been accompanied by a rise of character figures. Again the fall of solar constant October 12 to October 15 was accompanied by falling character figures, which, however, continued to fall perhaps even to October 24. Yet the absence of several days’ observations at Ebro may possibly have covered up a rise of character figures to accom- pany the rise of solar constant which culminated on October 22. A fall of character figures from October 22 to October 24 is indicated, corresponding to the fall of the solar constant. The moderate rise of solar constant October 25 to October 28 appears to have been accom- panied by a moderate rise of character figures. The low solar con- stant of October 30 is of unsatisfactory grade, and has no significance. VOL. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 12 soouenb 3S sees blr b6r1 CW'S) M& oe ee oe bg gI 99 os s se FI 96 +6 oe ee oe oe oe L6 oie 06 Pe ee sie zg gI 49 ze Iv 2s %6 OI zg gz ge oe £6 gI gb zi se a 19 98 ze 882 of 991 gs 89 zz ge oS 0g be gif zs zz of +9 es orf zQ or zt ob 1Z zz ZZ of Sb . . ee ee ee or ae oe ee ee ee $9 oe o. ee ee ee 74 ‘W'S g¢ ‘W'S ¢ "W'S gd Bay Boy Bay QZ6I 4290}IQ) 40f DIDP 1NIIO}{f-AD]OS PUD DIDP JUDJSUOI-4DJIOS—'e AAV JT, ‘W'S Bay es 0 z9 ‘W'S BoIy Iv d W's eBoy d orl 99 eZ ‘W'S Roly opern gr tr jyueysu0o eos periayerg VRERIAS NmMerMonDd a Cal seq NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 13 While I might continue to complete a direct comparison of the changes of the solar constant with the sequences of Ebro character figures, covering the interval from the year 1924 to the year 1937, such a direct comparison would be laborious and prove rather un- convincing. For the loss of many days of observation, both of the solar constant and of the areas of flocculi; the unavoidable errors occurring at the very limit of accuracy of solar-constant determina- tions ; the extreme taxing of the judgment of one who seeks to fix the exact limits of areas of the ill-defined clouds of calcium on the solar disk; the errors due to the inequalities of photographic sen- sitiveness and exposure, and of astronomical seeing from day to day; the arbitrary empirical nature of the character figures themselves, which pretend to take into account the relative effectiveness of changes in different regions of the solar disk—all of these, and still other sources of error, make it impossible that a close correlation should be found between solar-constant changes and changes of the character figures. But there remains a way of testing such a correlation, whereby the errors of individual sequences both of the solar constant and of character figures may be minimized in an assembly of great numbers of them. Taking the most well-marked sequences of character figures from I9I0 to 1937, inclusive, I have computed curves of associated temperature change for Washington, comparable to those determined from solar-constant sequences, as illustrated for the month of Oc- tober in figure 5. The reader is urged to bear in mind that in this new computation from sequences of character figures no attention whatever is given to the dates printed in table 1. A new and much larger series of dates is drawn from sequences of character figures alone, covering all the years 1910 to 1937, inclusive. Curves like those shown in figure 5 resulted. In order to make a comparison readily between curves thus de- termined by calcium-flocculi character figures and those determined by solar constants given in figure 4, I show superposed in figure 6 the two sets of curves relating to Washington temperatures for all months of the year. One set is determined altogether from solar- constant work of the Smithsonian Institution, 1924 to 1937, and has already been given in figure 4. The other set is determined altogether from observations and measurements of the Observatorio del Ebro, 1910 to 1937. The reader may easily identify them, because all the Ebro curves are displaced 2 days to the right in the figure. Except that the amplitude of the Ebro character figure and tem- perature curves is slightly less than that of the Smithsonian solar- VOL. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 14 Ar v3. Chee 10,1,5:31 Woights aed. Waek™ Taste clreastorea Ve Risers eine SC x (all er dh bo /¥\-18| F131 166 |4#| 72 U5|-13 |-4 ~7 v4 -o wre “16 |-/4 1/6 | 86 133 |-/4|- 46|-31 |-33+5/ - 62) 46 27| 69 | 52 197 \-17 | 2/ 43 \-// 57 7A \\e) -27- 45|-/2| -/2] // | 37| 72| 0177 10 | FISTLPENA. OF <7} 1.96|-.F2.| =F 2| 4P| 1-61) 3.13| 2/7 | 338 241 92139/- ¥|-40|-2 1.17 | 296@|226| 539) 4¢0}). 723 gures of solar Fic. 5.—Temperature departures, Fahr., at Washington, D. C., in October, accompanying sequences of rise and of fall of the character fi calcium flocculi, beginning zeroth day. NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT I5 (a ZL Ww] mar vit 14 Rm ON A RB / 6 4 > 2 i" [i SotRN, 12 F agers -— \e “] 2 } My 6 og 4 0 /0 ’ 6 4 Almay . 4 2 4 6 2 x on t oy I* 0 : : ral 2- / Ne, Ra Poule. ley OF a r2 | I pee Fic. 6.—Average marches of temperature departures, Fahr., at Washington, D. C., accompanying sequences of solar change (a) of the solar constant in years 1924 to 1936; (b) of character figures for solar calcium flocculi in years 1910 to 1937, for months January to December. Ordinates are temperature departures; abscissae are days from beginning of solar-constant sequence. Flocculi band curves are displaced 2 days to right. 2 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 constant and temperature curves, doubtless because some spurious Ebro sequences were included, owing to the difficulties of measuring areas of flocculi enumerated above; and except that there is a phase difference of 2 days between the 2 sets of curves, depending on unknown peculiarities inherent individually in these two altogether dissimilar types of solar phenomena—apart, I say, from these two not surprising differences, the two sets of curves are significantly in correlation. This holds for all months of the year. The correlation coefficient, indeed, is 59.7+1.9 percent. =.=) /O.- 2 3) 4°15 16) F208 69% Vom meas ee Days from Start of Sequences LOG 00! xx: SPE ctroheliog raphy pois coe waaay Vere es Mga Ted TERRE ae SAN Wh ‘pb £50] 500 is} » “” A aig + Sethi eteeene eC eeere Ace Gn amaenes March of Washin gton Temperature Departures Accompany ing Seguemcee ofSur'’s Variation. October Curves. Mean, 1923101939. Fic. 7—Upper left, sequences of character figures of flocculi compared with sequences of solar-constant variation, September 1934; lower left, character figures used. Right, preliminary curves of temperature departures. 3. SUMMARY OF TEMPERATURE EFFECTS OF SHORT SEQUENCES OF SOLAR VARIATION Up to this point these investigations of the correlation between variations in solar activity and temperature departures at widely separated stations indicate the following conclusions: 1. At every station, and in nearly every month, the temperatures depart in opposite directions, attending, respectively, rising and falling solar activity. Thus comes about an axial symmetry of the pairs of curves, such for instance as subsists with one’s right hand and one’s left. NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 17 2. The march of the curves differs from month to month, and differs for the same month from station to station, yet the right and left symmetry nearly always prevails. 3. The effects are large. Differences of temperature of the order of 10° Fahrenheit, or more, depend on whether a rising or a falling sequence of solar activity preceded them many days before. 4. The effects of solar changes on temperature persist for many days. They may surely be traced from 3 days before to 14 days after the zeroth day of the solar sequence. 5. The coefficient of correlation of these curves for the three stations and the 12 months of the year, and from 3 days before to 14 days after the solar change, is found to be r= —61.2+1.7 percent. 6. Since far-separated cities respond similarly in these respects to the common system of dates given in table 1, this system of dates must have a cosmic significance. The system of dates, in other words, betrays an extraterrestrial selection, harmonious to the claim that on these dates changes in radiation occurred in the sun. SB EOSsSIBILITY OF WEATHER FORECASTS BASED ON SHORT SEQUENCES OF SOLAR VARIATION As it is thus indicated that solar changes dominate weather for many days in advance, the question immediately arises if forecasts can be made from solar-constant observations. I have made a pre- liminary test of this possibility. Using the basic curves reproduced in figure 4, and the dates of sequences of solar change indicated by Ebro observations, with allowance for phase difference as noted above, I have synthesized the solar influences on the temperature of Washington for the months March and April of 1911 and 1915, and the months of September and October of 1917 and 1935, and have compared these purely solar predictions which ignored entirely ter- restrial influences, and covered altogether 201 days, with the known events. In making these computations I took into account, in esti- mating the relative amplitudes of sequences, the smallness of char- acter figures at times of sunspot minimum; and, recalling from Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 95, No. 12, the demon- stration that sequences of solar change of large amplitudes produce relatively large temperature effects, I made allowances for this also. The method of synthesizing is of course simple. One writes down for 20 successive days the effect on Washington temperature according to figure 4 corresponding to each sequence of solar change revealed by Ebro character figures. Corrections for sequence intensity were made as just indicated. Summing up the several 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 effects of the successive sequences, there results the expected march of temperature departures. It must be remembered that these computed effects correspond to solar changes alone. No allowance at all is made for unknown and unpredictable terrestrial influences on at- mospheric circulation. Therefore, such purely solar predictions can- not be expected to tell the whole story accurately. Moreover no employment can be made of the weather influences of minor solar 1 2|3/415]6|7]8 19 |ro|sr|s2|/3|14 13lye7\a|releol [za eee aes 0 1 \2\|3|4 siciz tela te tv [12 [az fie fast b7 lielia SEP temb ober DU AUGNGUEARATAAGAGTONAEOIATAN = + MARAAEEE igt---—Pre dicted from Sun's Variation HEH BUARe : lo Observed. it Hitt an Hoa KD @ Sale (oe a mE! == Ee eeesloed al Sail = =a =e ia eae at raha ae SS ae oe aera =e al —— Esa ae a = a a es do Su ee Departures Washington ny _9, Base aeee ' j a AEM ATT TET eT TT nN an SUPRAAGMUVE EMEP SLE ay if aM HNERELOU i IE -[qqObserved - - 20--30 -I6 oe - [2- -38 ~184 Obs - Tred. +4°9 th a Aan PECEEETE EEC VORRARRR ESET) He alu | LLL Fic. 8.—Forecast and verification of aes temperature departures. changes, too small to be certainly recognized, but yet probably not negligible. The result of this preliminary test of purely solar prediction, which may be regarded as a prediction 10 days in advance, is given in figure 8 and table 3. If the reader should be persuaded that this preliminary test offers possibilities of real usefulness for weather prediction, and inquires why we do not already practice such solar forecasting, I have to reply that at present there are no means of knowing when all sequences of solar change are beginning. Our three solar-constant observing stations cannot furnish a continuous day-to-day record, nor are their combined results of sufficient accuracy to indicate NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 19 surely the incidence of all significant solar changes uncontaminated by spurious additions. To make regular predictions, about 10 sta- tions, occupying the best mountain localities available in the world for solar-constant work, would be required. It may be suggested that the spectroheliographic observatories could furnish the necessary dates of approaching solar changes. If so, table 1 of this present paper, in combination with daily weather TABLE 3.—General summary of a purely solar prediction of the departures from normal temperature at Washington, covering the months March and April of 1911 and 1915, and September and October of 1917 and 1935 Bt UEGAY GR PLECICLEC em streets ck re ee ets ot aie elena lass Bead atelote. 6 201 O@pcervedyand: predictedior Sameysignse. sacs as eel okie cule 139 a £ SH OPPOSICEASIOMIS repre erasisteee Ae owe anatee 62 MMSE LUGE DATEL ES PLUS 5 (5 i ie'a: adie aivslnvia k oiaia gisik= bd etree ie aleye woe 65 Predicted vs Me Taehaci aot h ARTA arty iede cs ie tiethe Standage cars 64 MSEC CRUNCH ATLMGES MIMIMIS ... ..d)sc.s crate ool ves 10 Cao mele oe ve cme 136 Predicted - SEMANA, ae amvaaitat Peake le dipee tate wiactbia atk ata eters 137 Percentages Miarepenees, ODS:-Pred.. |. aici seve de oa ane ced octets Ovrtows22" 160 32.7 % re Te doar tts CRE RSET eae eat d re a Bh toda As 21.3 . se SMAias o isatc cer dele a alee devs Ge tOlGne (32 15.8 i Tat) peed ieee cea oti er ee Fie tOuTOu 33 16.3 * H Ly Vd seen pote Tlie tOnt5 cy ZO 10.0 a sf ner ep reater= thanleESo-. a vos hte hue see nen 8 4.0 es *s =) less ‘than OPEN cid Can aera see 69.8 $ “more than OME chee Senate es 30.3 Oe 5 be eC EIIoKal minleanle wractens aretomueneliee) oraeys tases Beh Correlation coefficient 56.9 + 3.2 percent. records, could supply the required basic curves for prediction at all localities. I have to reply that my colleague Mr. Aldrich and I have spent about 6 weeks on the measurement of Mount Wilson spectro- heliographic photographs, kindly loaned by Director Adams for our study. We have regretfully concluded that many difficulties, some of which are enumerated above, prevent the determination of the solar-flocculi character figures with sufficient certainty to base pre- dictions upon. Possibly others more experienced in such difficult estimates could do better. To us it seems, however, that solar weather forecasting must apparently await a large expansion of the solar- constant observing facilities, unless, indeed, airplane or sounding- balloon observing, or some hitherto untried method may supply means of discovering regularly all the dates when significant solar changes occur. 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 5. ADDITIONAL DATA ON WEATHER EFFECTS OF SHORT SEQUENCES OF SOLAR VARIATION To indicate more fully the influences of sequences of solar change on weather I give additional figures 9 to 16, some relating to temperature, others to barometric pressure. In addition to these I would refer also to the graph relating to temperature departures at Potsdam, Germany, figure 2 of my paper cited above, “Further Evidence on the Dependence of Terrestrial Temperatures on the Variations of Solar Radiation” (Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 95, No. 15, 1936). Prevailingly the opposition, or right- and left-handed symmetry al- ready noted, is found in these illustrations. Yet there are many exceptions. Thus in the Potsdam temperature chart the months May and June exhibit parallelism rather than opposition. The same is very strongly marked for the temperature charts of Ebro for June. Other months at Ebro show mixed effects, though prevailingly oppo- sition. In temperature tabulations at other stations parallelism occurs for certain months, and most frequently for the months of June, August, and November. As for the charts relating to barometric pressure, they indicate on the whole a lesser degree of control over barometric pressure by sequences of solar variation than is generally to be noted with tem- perature departures. This is not surprising. The changes of baro- metric pressure are not, like temperatures, direct functions of solar irradiation. The absorption of the sun’s rays within the atmosphere and on the earth’s surface is a direct first-hand action. But to produce barometric effects changes of insolation first affect atmospheric temperatures, then modify thereby atmospheric circulation and baro- metric pressures. True, the sun has a direct effect on the barometer by tidal action too, but this is a regular periodic phenomenon, and is not of the type to produce the effects we now consider. Nevertheless, the curves dealing with pressure changes do show, on the whole, a tendency toward that opposing symmetry of effects which is so marked with temperature departures. As notable illustra- tions see the barometric pressure charts for December at St. Louis and Denver. But exceptions, substituting parallelism for opposition, are numerous. Irregular curves, apparently quite uncorrelated with solar sequences are also found. In some instances the surprising phenomenon is noted that while the temperature departures show the normal right and left symmetry of opposition, the barometric pressures show conspicuous parallelism. Cases also occur when barometric pressure curves show normal NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 21 opposition, while temperature departure curves show parallelism. In illustration I cite Ebro, November and June, respectively. Several stations are available where both elements have been studied, and I tabulate in the following table 4 the relationships observed between them. Certain symbols are used. Opposed, + ; parallel, = ; excellent, e; good, g; poor, p; mixed, partly + and partly =, is indicated by x. Lengths given refer to days before and after the zeroth day that sequences seem to exert some control over the march of curves. It will be noted from figures 9 to 16 that the influence of sequences of solar change on weather at all stations is prevailingly much greater in winter than in summer. In fact, in many cases the amplitudes of the features of the curves relating to months from May to August are too small to fix certainly the nature of the average march of these curves, owing to the small number of cases as yet available to compute the mean values. Additional data on solar variation would have to be obtained to eliminate the confusion resulting from solar changes of contrary sign following on each other’s heels, and from accidental influences of terrestrial complications. 6. DURATION OF INFLUENCES OF SHORT SEQUENCES OF SOLAR VARIATION ON WEATHER As regards the duration of the effects of solar changes on weather, it has already been remarked that these weather effects begin at least 3 days before the solar-constant sequences begin, and at least 5 days before the calcium-flocculi areas begin to alter. It appears, therefore, that some parent change occurs in the sun, of which as yet we have no inkling. The sequences of change in the solar constant, in the areas of calcium flocculi, and in weather, are all, it would seem, caused by this hitherto unrecognized solar agency. The significant fact that weather is affected before the two solar phenomena just named, should lead us to an earnest search to discover the hidden agency involved. As to the duration of weather effects after the zeroth day of solar- constant sequences, I show several curves in figures 9 to 16 in which tabulations up to the twentieth day are illustrated. An attempt is made in table 4 to evaluate the duration of weather effects as indicated by these longer curves. On the whole it appears that the average duration is from —4 to +17 days, or 22 days in all. This gives promise of eventual use in long-range weather forecasting. See, in illustration, the temperature curves for January, June, and October for St. Louis and Salt Lake City. 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Influences of terrestrial disturbing causes, and of solar changes happening before and after the incidence of the solar change which is treated in each case, take away very much from the definiteness of the curves. Yet I cannot but feel that the thesis of major control of weather by short-interval solar changes is demonstrated in what has been presented. 7. LONGER-RANGE MARCHES AND PERIODICITIES OF SOLAR VARIATION Figure 17 represents the fluctuation of monthly mean values of the constant of radiation, as derived from all observations at various Smithsonian solar-radiation stations from 1920 to 1939. For details regarding its derivation the reader should consult the concluding chapter of volume 6 of the Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. As indicated on page 182 of that work, these curves are for the most part plotted from “improved preferred’ monthly mean solar-constant values as collected in the preceding table 27 of volume 6. Figure 14 of volume 6 gives not only the curves here shown, extending from 1920 to 1939, but also a continuation of the synthetic curve B as a prophecy through the year 1945. The data on which curve B depends are given in full in table 32 of the Annals, volume 6. They consist of tabulations of 14 regularly recurring periodicities found and evaluated from table 27 of volume 6. Their preferred lengths in months are given in table 31 of volume 6, and are as follows: 273, 91, 68, 54, 454, 393, 34, 303, 253, 21, 11.87, 11.29, 9.79, 85. Inasmuch as the interval during which solar-constant measurements had been continuously pursued was then less than 20 years, it cannot be claimed that these periods, especially the longer ones, are very accu- rate. But from our best knowledge of them they seem approximately, though not exactly, to be all submultiples of 273 months, as indicated in table 31 of volume 6, just cited. This master period of nearly 23 years, derived from Smithsonian researches on the solar constant of radiation, is approximately equal to two sunspot cycles of 114 years. The areas included under successive sunspot-cycle curves since the year 1811 are alternately smaller and larger, as appears from figure 10 of my paper “Solar Radiation and Weather Studies,” * so that the double cycle is a periodicity in sunspots also. Furthermore, Hale discovered it in the variation of magnetic polarities in sunspots. It 5 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 94, No. 10, 1935. See also figure 26 B. Fic. 16 -constant variation for 12 months, January 15 perature departure Fic. Fics. 15 and 16.—Tem to December, at St. I falling sequences Full curves, rising sequences; dotted curves, 16). Utah (fig. Ss associated with sequences of solar. 5) and Salt Lake City, -ouis, Mo. (fig. 1 A ieee ia oe wis - ar an LL) See - ve pas ay , 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 has also been noted by many observers in weather, in tree rings, and in other terrestrial phenomena. The-double and quadruple of the 273-month period, that is 453 and gI years, are strongly marked, much HHT aes Bae RRRAAR eA ie Ber} ALLE bal i Mew. ig i) 2 ee = = || ee el ae “| eli adel, ale : ene sie ou cle L—— — | ro) a | EEE a 9 ies Lt ony ANN AT inf ANI | | \ eel | es eae Yt A Ny AVESIES WHEE, MM aie ial EI i 1 ro ai = i ell all rae s3_an== eh fale —— SEE Selaeag ree Baal | | ees rT 1 = oO re) ° Le) fo) fe) wt © = 3 ri ® o AY ro) NIW asd pes esd “742 more so than the 273-month period itself, in records of the levels of the Great Lakes.® 8. LONG-RANGE SOLAR VARIATION PREDICTED AND VERIFIED We now have preliminary monthly mean solar-constant values derived from observations at Montezuma, Chile, our best station, 6 Loc. cit. synthesis of 14 regular periodicities, all approximately aliquot parts of 273 Fic. 17——March of monthly mean values of solar constant of radiation, 1920 to 1939. A, observed; B, months. NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 25 covering the interval from 1939 up to August 1943. In figure 18 I show a comparison between these new results and the forecast pub- lished in volume 6 of the Annals, figure 14. Unfortunately the ap- paratus at Montezuma was not kept up to highest efficiency in the years 1939 and 1940. Rather large discrepancies in these years were caused in part at least by the internally evident inaccuracy of many of the daily values on which monthly means were based. Notwith- standing this regrettable defect, the general agreement between the prophecy and the event is very satisfactory. It supports our con- fidence in the approximate validity of the 14 periodicities. Minor details are correlated in some instances. The verification will appear more striking if the reader will recall that the whole amplitude of variation little exceeds 0.5 percent. As appears from figure 14, volume 6 of the Annals, a relatively large drop in the solar constant of radiation lasting through 1945, is predicted to begin October 1944. It amounts to 2.4 percent from the maximum values of 1940-41. It repeats with modifications (due to the noncommensurability of the periods) the slightly larger drop which began December 1921 and lasted through 1922. This leads us to inquire what meteorological consequences may be anticipated from so unusual a change in the solar constant, should it occur as expected. I venture to refer the reader to my paper “The Solar Prelude to an Unusual Winter,” ? from which I quote certain passages: We are not to look for anything so simple as a general drop of temperatures all over the world. Oceans,.deserts, mountains, clouds and winds make up too complex a system for such simple reactions. Pronounced departures of some sort from normal conditions, however, we might expect. It will be recalled that the prevailing characteristic of the weather of the United States for the last couple of years or more is a condition generally warmer than normal..... We start, then, with an excess of heat. Quoting, now, from Climatological Data: “The record of December, 1922, shows unusual contrasts as to the temperature and precipitation in different parts of the country..... “Like the preceding December, January, 1923, was notable for the disturbed atmospheric conditions. .... “The outstanding feature of the weather .... was the almost continuously high temperature . . . . over much of the country. At the same time, however, severe winter weather was the rule over New England and much of New York. “Precipitation occurred with unusual frequency .... in northern districts west of the Continental Divide and from the Upper Lakes eastward. .... “The disturbed atmospheric conditions, so persistent during the first two months of the present winter, continued into February..... The pressure distribution for the month as a whole showed marked variations from the conditions usually expected in February. ... . 7 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 9, No. 6, June 1923. VOL. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 26 ‘paarosqgo ‘g ‘ poypeid ‘y “uoT}eIpeI Jo JuL}sUOD IPOS BY T— gl “SITY Buse ie eee ars oa Pa i IE aa Ovée/ Osé7/ NIWJW2 SIAOTVD “LNVLSNOD 4Y70S 2 NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 27 “The unseasonable warmth which had continued during most of the two preceding months of the winter save over the Northeastern States, terminated with the first few days of February, and the remainder of the month was distinctly cold..... While it is far too early in the study of the relations of solar radiation and weather to state that the extraordinary solar change caused the unusual winter weather, it does no harm to draw attention to both, in the hope of attracting investigation. With this precedent we shall follow with interest further data for comparison with the solar-constant prophecy. If it is verified, we may expect notably unusual, though as yet unpredicted, meteorological conditions to occur in the years 1945 and 1946. 9. PERIODIC SOLAR VARIATIONS AND WEATHER. (A) SEASONAL PHASE CHANGES IN WEATHER EFFECTS Aided by Mrs. Bond, Miss Simpson, Miss McCandlish and Miss Carter in making the computations, I have made many tabulations to evaluate the influences of solar periodicities individually on weather, and to synthesize these effects into forecasts, and compare with the events. Nothing has appeared in tabulations of solar-constant values to indicate that there have been phase changes in the 14 periodicities in solar emission. Nevertheless, immediately when we began to tabulate the weather effects of the shorter solar periodicities, changes of phase became so obvious that at first I despaired of making progress in the research. It soon occurred to me that such phase changes were natural consequences of seasonal influences. The lag with which a solar-radiation impulse will be responded to in the weather at any given station depends on local conditions, and on the march of atmospheric circulation. Thus stations in a desert region, especially one at high elevation, respond quickly, but a station on an island in a great ocean exhibits a long lag in response. At- mospheric waves of weather change travel great distances, and from different centers of primary action, to reach particular stations. Fur- thermore it is a matter of common experience that in the Northern Hemisphere southerly winds are accompanied by warmer, and north- erly winds by cooler temperatures. Wind directions are governed by the great cyclones and anticyclones of the atmospheric circulation. Hence whatever alters the paths of these through the atmosphere, as they move from westerly to easterly, must alter the directions of prevailing winds, and the associated temperatures. It is not to be supposed that atmospheric circulation will be identical in winter and summer. Snow coverings have much influence on the earth’s radiative and temperature equilibrium. Changes of the direc- 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 tions of prevailing winds will therefore occur. Hence if there be, for instance, a solar period of 8 months which gives rise to a certain tem- perature response at a given station this winter, such response will be in different phases at the two coming recurrences of the 8-monthly periodic solar impulse next autumn and the following summer. It will not be until 2 years have elapsed that we can reasonably expect temperature response of the 8-month solar period to be in the same phase as now. To test this hypothesis of the cause of phase changes in weather responses to solar periodicities, I made graphs of departures from normal temperatures and precipitations for a number of stations in various parts of the world. I read therefrom the positions of maxima corresponding to several of the shorter solar periods, as their lengths were then approximately known. To carry such a study forward not more than 20 years it matters little whether the true solar period in question is exactly known. In a later investigation over an interval of 140 years it does matter decidedly, as will appear. Figure 19 shows in illustration the march of the period of 11.29 months in temperature departures at Bismarck, N. Dak., from Feb- ruary 1879 to March 1907. From each of the 30 curves, except the few which showed nothing definite, I read off the position of maxi- mum as well as possible. It is not to be expected that these data will plot into a perfectly regular form, because of the influences of other simultaneously active solar periods, and of accidental terrestrial dis- turbances, which tend to modify the curves. However, in the mean it seems clear, as shown at the right in the illustration, that the position of maximum of the 11.29-month periodicity in Bismarck temperature departures shifts through the year. Figure 20 shows other studies of the same kind on several of the shorter periods. They were made for various stations, and during a quite other range of years than figure 19. It will be noted that the result for the 11.29-month period in Bismarck temperature departures is nearly the same in the two figures, though representing intervals of time nearly a half century apart. Another and better method of determining seasonal phase changes is used for test predictions to be referred to and will be ex- plained below. 9 (B). PERIODIC WEATHER RESPONSES CORRECT LENGTHS OF SOLAR PERIODICITIES With the aid of Miss McCandlish, I have investigated terrestrial responses to the solar periods rather extensively. A sample of these investigations is given in my paper “An Important Weather Element WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT NO. 5 ye soinjiedep oinjzeso dwia} Ut ‘ go61 eq 0} 6Zg1 sie aA ‘ ‘N Syoreustg syjuoUu 6z II JO Ajiorporiad Jo suoieje1 sseyg— 61 Oy VOL. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 30 “reak ay} JO suOseas UO SuIpuadap ‘suoELIeA IejOS 0} SasuOdsar [eII]S9I1I19} UT Sat}OIpPoliod jo suo;eler aseyq— Oe “IY YYIA IO SHINOW Dale Ts Om Ae P F S LL ee Fic. 23.—Computation of seasonal phase shifts, and form of curve representing the effect of 84-month periodicity in solar radiation on precipitation at East- port, Me. Phase shifts, indicated by italics in table at lower right, are governed by the line A. NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 37 changes appropriate to the several months are carefully made by consulting curve A of figure 23. In figure 24 I give such a synthesis and the event for the 15 years, 1930-1944, of the precipitation at Peoria, Ill. For the first 74 years, 1930-1937, both as to phase and amplitude the fit is rather good. From then until January 1939 there is wide divergence, though something of the true march is indicated. During 1939 and 1940 the fit is rather good again. The prediction comes to lag so far behind the event in the later years that though the general rise of precipitation, 1940-1942, is indicated, the phases are several months in error. So the great drop of 1943 is predicted nearly 6 months before it actually arrived. This 15-year prediction was made before the lengths of the periods were revised and corrected as given in table 31 of volume 6 of the Annals. It may be that with further study and improved periods better results will be found. Imperfect as it is, if all purely solar long-range predictions were as successful as this one for Peoria, it would seem to be worth while to make them for use of agriculture and other interests. As yet the success of the Peoria prediction is exceptional, so that it seems dangerous to submit such predictions to the public, unless they can be improved to be generally successful. Possibly meteorologists may see their way to combine solar data with terrestrial factors in a way to lead to substantial improvement. It is necessary, however, as I see it, in view of the results I have presented, to take the revolutionary step of introducing the influence of solar variation as an important meteorological element. 11. A 27.0074-DAY PERIOD IN WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION With further reference to the influence of periodic solar changes on weather, I call attention to my paper “A 27-day Period in Wash- ington Precipitation.” 1* I show there that in the mean of 243 con- secutive repetitions of a cycle of 27.0074 days, seemingly associated with the sun’s effective period of rotation, the 12th day has approxi- mately 25/8 the average precipitation of the 7th day at Washington. In the paper cited ] also gave mean curves of partial groupings representing dry, medium, and wet years. I have lately given further attention to this cycle, and have reached the conclusion that any use of it for prediction should be based on the whole series of 243 cycles, not on the subordinate partial group- ings. They have insufficient statistical backing. It is indispensable 11 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 3, 1944. VOL. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS O6ZOI 0} OSQI IO} Sp1OIII WIOIJ PSUIUIIOJap sat}oIporssd SI Jo sisayjUkS *(9AINd [[N}) peArosqo pue (aAInd payop) pejolpeid “]][] ‘er109g je sasejusosed uoneydieig—vbe “oy or 5 , os 39NTIO OFLNFOFIFYINN & N Hat i j hw ti 09 iy ie Nt ' fi 3 a\il 4 A i it ; il log Hh H iy d A i\f al i | i HA i ass RV i iA fallen Ie h i i log ‘ 1 mu 1 | aaa H A WN lt TAY aR a rd Had | Ho HEH eset (PRY CE es ALA ited H tilt HNL HAR it 1 log H i ' ; 1 ; ayy ij nin i H He han a PONDAIL vi fi yy Sy TEA} He eee fis s o Hae 4 My 4 H * ‘ u i ‘ I valor '_looy ' ry ' we uM nk IMG) © Ada VY fe Nels See See ! ' H ! ae 1A H y : L vt Cd i : Palast iw ti a ' \ H iJ : H VA H eH WH H vi H i Ney ' i i 1 eh 3 eet (aa oe ‘i ies ; ce eae EE | ry } 4 ft ie MY t ook Ha ‘ Ni Ha] . oe t] Het) ne ‘ : ! we H ' Het ne Hi ry ' uw! H we a HN 1 “ 1 O ' ovr iH i Hy WAM] ea : == ; ui Mi : : ost } wot ' | H af 1 oo i o9/ et eet — =| aa at OLt 1 ' ' be aes = | +t ost us PEERS ea : Sa) Ea eset [Sales bre/ €re/ 2ee/ /e6/ Ore/ 6E6/ gees Le6e/ 9&6/ SE6/ pees ee6/ cee/ /€6/ Of6/ NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 39 to allow for the small correction of 0.0074 day, otherwise the validity of the cycle vanishes. I give as follows the total values of precipitation over the stretch of 243 days for days 1 to 27 as computed from 243 cycles beginning January I, 1924, and using the period 27.0074 days. The results are expressed in inches of precipitation. Ey Clew days neak asec eee I 2 3 4 5 6 7 Motals 101 243) daySens cc. 29.30 26.68 28.03 29.21 34.99 18.04 17.05 Gy clew Cait. s is, csetertcae vie sale 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 Motais: tor 243) days. 2 ./..0+ +. 22EOby M2Ae7aue2IG 72205.) A5SOl 32-06). 22016 (Gyclevday. messes sas 15 16 17 18 19 20 2I Motals’ for 243) dayse. ..3.".'. B2NOM 25470) ested 7272401 caree. 2AndS TS8e25 Demeter cia tle BFR tN woke 22 23 24 25 26 27 MOtalsmrOnn2As) Gays: asics > Pp POG. iS Asie) Teh ceyla Bylo he My friend Dr. J. A. Greenwood, of Duke University, has been so kind as to compute for me the probability that a range from 45.91 to 17.05 should occur in the daily totals of 243 cycles. In order to do this he required to know the “variance” of Washington precipitation for groups of 243 days distributed quite at random through all months during the interval since January 1924. I met this requirement as follows. In 20 years there are 240 months. I made a first group of precipitations of the 240 first days of all months from January 1924 to December 1943. A second group employed their second days. Thus I proceeded to the third, fourth, and so on to the twenty-seventh, to set up a table of 240 columns and 27 lines. I then determined the mean precipitation per group of 240 random days in this interval to be 23.75 inches. From thence I computed the deviations of all 27 groups from this mean. Their average is + 3.00 inches. From the squares of these deviations Dr. Greenwood computed the variance, and multiplying it i obtained 14.48 as the random 99 66499 t variance for a group of 243 days. From this, using “Student method, the value of “t” for the discrepancy between 12th and 7th days becomes : 45-91 — 17.05 V 28.96 with 26 degrees of freedom. From tables of “t” this implies a “chance’ = o-o/, , probability about that so large a discrepancy would occur in 100,000 the totals of my 27.0074-day cycle values if it were found between two pre-selected days of the cycle. But as there are 351 ways in which such a difference might occur (as Mr. Norton of the Weather Bureau pointed out to me), the probability reduces to about ai 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Examining the list of totals for 243 cycles given above, and making a concession to continuity in the case of the slightly lower day num- bered 2, the following days of the cycle are selected as likely to have more than average precipitation at Washington: Days numbered: 1; 2)°3,°4; 5,12; 13! 15, 7, 16,22, 20, 27 Ratio of average of “Totals for 243 days” above for these to remaining days of the cycle = 1.42. In arranging the computations for the cycle I had to make a shift of phase of 1 day each 10 years. This shift was made in January 1934 for the first time, and all totals for years preceding 1934 were shifted forward 1 day in computing the means. This brings the first day of the cycle on January 1, 1941. But with January 1944 it is necessary to make another shift of 1 day. No further shifts would occur till January 1954, unless longer evidence should tend to alter the decimal .0074. Hence the first days of cycles in 1944 occur on the following dates: Jan. 14, Feb. 10, Mar. 8, Apr. 4, May 1, 28, June 24, July 21, Aug. 17, Sept. 13, Oct. 10, Nov. 6, Dec. 3, 30. From these data, and from the Weather Bureau Forms No. 1030, I prepare the following table. It gives for every month of the year 1944 the dates when, in the mean, higher values of precipitation should occur at Washington than in the mean of all other dates of 1944. The actual observations are given for the months January to April, with the ratios of mean precipitation for preferred to that for all other dates. I have also assembled the results for the 10 years 1934 to 1943. In all these years the ratios, as just defined, exceeded 1.00 except in 1934, as follows: Weatiarinomer 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 941 1942 1943 Mean Expected Ratio s..: Of00) piLOg 25100 te 70 do oho ae zieeTOON gat. 2O umm .00 1.55 1.42 Of the 120 months included in the assembly, the ratio exceeded 1.00 in 82 cases. Grouping as to months, the ratio, called plus when above, and minus when below 1.00, was found as follows for the 10-year summary. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Totals Percent Plus ......- 8 4 8 7 4 9 9 6 8 9 5 5 82 68.3 ERE SAebac 2 6 2° 63 6 I I 4 2 I 5 5 38 B17, 120 It will be noted that in the list of yearly ratios low values occur at both ends of the 10-year series. This is to be expected. 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ZI a FI Oo gr BUDHOOHODUBOO = le If ‘v Wy Ee fe) Il (a) £1 oO Zi settee eee eeeee gz of ‘€ (a) 9 te) ol A, rat Iz gi se eeeeeeeeeeee & Sz 62 ‘z eT ¢ 0 6 tr Il gb cr se eeeeeeeereee o bz ge ‘I ZI b ts) 8 ra) OI ry FI sec eeeeeeeeeee 7 ydd be ‘ydd gz ‘I ydd v “ydd 8 ydd oI “ydd FI 3]949 JO "sqO eunf ‘sqO ACW ‘sqO “adv ‘sqO ‘Tew ’sqO fea ‘$40 wee gar < (‘yout up fo Sy;paspuny mM Sanjpa pIdsasqg¢ ) bor “uozbuysn yy “Uuoywprdizasd abpsaaw UpYy} AabAv] aavy 0} pajragxa Sajvq—S AMV, 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 day. The accumulation of the residual, 0.0074 day, is gradual, cumu- lating in one day change of phase each 10 years. For the years near that when the jump of one day is made, the cycle becomes less and less representative. If the precipitation values were employed from noon to noon instead of from midnight to midnight in these less favorable years, higher values of the ratios might perhaps be found. 12. SUMMARY In the preceding paper the following principal results have been brought forward. 1. From the revised daily solar-constant values of table 24, Annals Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, volume 6, Mount Montezuma and Mount St. Katherine values have been studied to select dates of the years 1924 to 1939 when brief sequences of rise and of fall of the sun’s emission of radiation occurred. 2. A table of 440 sequences is given. This table is divided into cases of rising and of falling sequences. Each class is subdivided into 12 groups for the 12 months of the year. The average length per sequence is 4 days. The average amplitude of change per sequence is 0.7 percent of the solar constant of radiation. 3. Corresponding to each individual case of rising and falling sequences, the departures from normal temperatures and from normal barometric pressures have been tabulated for a number of stations widely separated. These tabulations run from 5 days before to 14 days (and sometimes 20 days) after the zeroth day of the sequence. 4. Mean values for successive days have been computed for every station and every month. Photographic illustrations show the method of computation. Graphs are given of the average marches of the weather elements attending rise and fall of the solar constant. 5. The principal conclusions from the study are summarized in six paragraphs to which the reader is invited to refer. Main results: Solar changes affect weather for about 20 days; produce major effects on temperature which are generally opposite for rising and falling solar activity ; and may alter temperatures by 10° to 15° F’. as much as 10 days after the zeroth day, depending on whether the solar radiation has increased or décreased. 6. These results are confirmed and buttressed by a similar treat- ment, of the observation of calcium flocculi over the sun’s disk made at the Observatory of Ebro, in Spain, for the years 1910 to 1937. The solar-constant curves and the solar-flocculi curves for temperature departures at Washington for all 12 months from the day —3 to the day +14, give a correlation coefficient of 59.7 1.9 percent. NO. 5 WEATHER AND SOLAR VARIATION—ABBOT 43 7. It is shown that the weather influence begins, on the average, 4 days before the solar-constant change begins, and 6 days before the areas of solar flocculi are affected. This leads to the hope that some other solar phenomenon may be found that changes simultaneously with the weather effects, and is available as a basis for a long-range detailed weather forecast of upward of 2 weeks. Curves are given in figures 1 to 16 to illustrate and clarify these and other results. 8. From combined results of the Smithsonian solar-constant work and the Ebro flocculi photography, solar forecasts were prepared for 201 days of the years I9QII, I915, 1917, and 1935, and compared with the events. These results are summarized in a table and illustra- tion. They give fair promise that useful forecasts could be made if daily determinations were available to record all solar changes. g. Reference is made to tables 27, 31, and 32, and to the chart, figure 14, volume 6, Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Obser- vatory. These show the variation of the monthly means of the solar constant of radiation, its analysis into 14 regular periodicities, and a prediction of solar variation from 1939 to 1945. 10. In the present figure 18 the prediction is compared with pre- liminary monthly mean solar-constant values from Montezuma, 1939 to 1943. Good verification is shown. : 11. This leads to the expectation of interesting features of weather in 1944, 1945, 1946. Prediction indicates low solar-constant values similar to those of 1922-23 when unusual weather was experienced. 12. Since the period of 273 months is the approximate least com- mon multiple of the 14 periodicities in solar variation, and also of the 114-year sunspot cycle, weather features should tend to repeat in cycles slightly less than 23 years long. 13. Examples are shown confirming the 23-year cycle in weather features. It has been reduced to a rough rule-of-thumb practice, viz: The mean of the departure from normal temperatures and precipita- tions of April 46 years before, and of February 23 years before, indi- cates the departure for January of the year to be predicted. Similarly for the succeeding months. 14. Using this rule-of-thumb method, useful results for 96 months are quoted for Eastport, Me., and for 12 stations scattered over New England. For Eastport 84 months out of 96, and for New England 803 months out of 1144, yielded reasonably useful predictions by this method. 15. The individual effects of the 14 periodicities on weather are traced. For shorter periods, 8 to 21 months, changes of phase in 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 weather effects of solar variation occur for different seasons of the year. 16. Eliminating seasonal phase changes in weather responses, it is shown that the period of 84 months has been strongly marked at Copenhagen, Vienna, and New Haven since the year 1800. Simila? results are in manuscript for other solar periods. Hence it is inferred that in the sun’s emission of radiation the 14 periodicities have per- sisted with unchanged phase for at least 140 years. 17. The individual effects of the 14 periodicities, and in addition of the sunspot cycle, are computed from records of precipitation at Peoria, Ill. (smoothed by 5-month running means) from 1856 to 1929. These are synthesized from 1930 to 1943, and compared to the event. Both in phase and amplitude the verification is good for two- thirds of the years. Improvements seem possible by adjusted periods and attention to terrestrial influences. 18. Attention is drawn to a period of 27.0074 days in Washington precipitation. Results of comparisons of its indications with the event for the Io years 1934 to 1943 are given. A forecast of days of high precipitation for 1944 is tabulated, and verified for the first 4 months of that year, excepting April. ¢ ; 4 ; ny : as vi ai », ‘ ' | ei vee : 4 7, ms i i tn 2h eld Me A oe ee ee ; vil it “ y, 4 oe ’ > 1 t ’ A Ki A Die cuey sh ! i a f a ‘i ¢ bape ry ara; 4 Ail - Va | i mai a Mie AR Sipiin, bore ohh 8 9 1! vy ) Atl? Pee) ry A Seas yy | pal T ' f ; \ ‘sl iii , ; ' 7 i L «= ; X 7 i eo « 7 > | eo — 2 an — - Se ba be “a vind 7 ius a: xe * d ; ° : A «- s 4 i "SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 6 Roebling Fund- | -SniTisON AN PYRHELIOMETRY AND THE ANDEAN VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS | OOF APRIL 1932. BY. L. B. ALDRICH eh aeadacte Director, Division of Astrophysical Research Smithsonian Institution - _ (Pustication 3772) ~ GITY OF WASHINGTON _-. PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JULY 3, 1944 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 6 Roebling JFund SMITHSONIAN PYRHELIOMETRY AND THE ANDEAN VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OG APRIL. 1932 BY L. B. ALDRICH Assistant Director, Division of Astrophysical Research Smithsonian Institution Le) (PUBLICATION 377 ) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JULY 3, 1944 i i 4 oh 4 i ( q ‘ Ibeh aa ee 5 i i { vr ] Fs hee / av.T ? Ae ie fit. ; ie ; , -£4 0 AY by A 7 i ' , - \, Mel w i - cha ae { F i j | The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. & As Koebling Fund SMITHSONIAN PYRHELIOMETRY AND THE ANDEAN VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OF APRIL 1952 By LU; B. ALDRICH Assistant Director, Division of Astrophysical Research Smithsonian Institution In early June 1912 the volcano Mount Katmai in Alaska ejected great quantities of fine dust into the atmosphere sufficient to reduce materially the transparency of the atmosphere in the Northern Hemi- sphere. Two months after the eruption, the total direct radiation from the sun was about 20 percent below normal at the Smithsonian stations at Bassour, Algeria, and at Mount Wilson, California.t The effect of this dust persisted in the observations of I913 and was slightly noticeable in 1914.° In 1916 Dr. Abbot pointed out in a paper® discussing pyrheliometry observed at Arequipa, Peru, that no effect of the dust from Mount Katmai had ever been disclosed in the Arequipan observations. A letter to Dr. Abbot received recently from George G. Gallagher of Glendale, California, says: | Your article “Arequipa Pyrheliometry,” on the lack of influence of Katmai dust on Peruvian atmospheric transparency is thought provoking. I had no idea that the air mass circulation of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres was so separate and distinct. And yet, in contrast to Katmai, the dust from Krakatau (August 1883) was apparent on a world-wide scale. However Kra- katau lies close to the Equator (lat. 6° S.) and that might explain the difference. Now, does dust from an eruption in the Southern Hemisphere influence the atmospheric transparency of the Northern Hemisphere? The only large eruption in the south during recent years was the activity of the Chilean Andes in April 1932. There was some smaller activity in the Alaskan Penin- sula at this time but it was not of the same order of magnitude and probably would not cause a large error. The Chilean eruptions might cause a 2 to 3 percent variation in atmospheric transparency. Does such a change show in your records? 1 Abbot, C. G., and Fowle, F. E., Volcanoes and climate, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 60, No. 29, 1913. 2 Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, vol. 4, p. 195, 1922. 8 Abbot, C. G., Arequipa pyrheliometry, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 65, No. 9, 1916. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 6 Z SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 During the period following the April 1932 eruptions mentioned in this letter, the Smithsonian Institution was operating solar- radiation stations at Montezuma in the Southern. Hemisphere (lat. 22°40’ S., long. 68°56’ W.) and at Table Mountain, California, in the Northern Hemisphere (lat. 34°22’ N., long. 117°41' W.). It was not difficult, therefore, to investigate the question Mr. Gallagher raised, and Dr. Abbot asked the writer to do so. The Andean eruptions of 1932 started on April Io, involving some seven volcanoes extending 200 miles along the Chile-Argentine border from Tupungato (altitude 21,000 feet, lat. 33°5S.) south- ward to Quizapu (altitude about 10,000 feet). Loud explosions were heard 100 miles on either side of the volcanoes. The explosions continued for 3 days. Surrounding towns were in semidarkness owing to the steady fall of dust and ashes. In Montevideo, 850 miles away, the steady fall of dust continued for many hours. Dr. Davison* estimated the total fall of dust over the area to be more than 5 cubic miles. Capt. R. Wooten, United States Air Attache at Santiago, who flew across Quizapu at an altitude of 14,000 feet, estimated that at the time of greatest activity the smoke column rose to a height of 30,000 feet. Evidences of unusual dust in the atmosphere were noted at Wellington,> New Zealand, on May 7, reaching a maximum about the 26th. Unusual skies were also reported during May from various places in South Africa.® At the Smithsonian solar stations, on all days when the sky around the sun was clear, observations have been made with the silver-disk pyrheliometer, measuring the total solar radiation re- ceived upon a surface normal to the radiation. Simultaneously, readings were taken with a pyranometer, measuring the brightness of the sky in a circular zone about 10 degrees wide, concentric with the sun. These pyranometer readings are an index of the quantity of dust in the atmosphere. Values of pyrheliometry and pyranometry at air mass 2.0 (solar altitude 30°) were selected from the observa- tions and used uncorrected to mean solar distance. These were grouped by months and so chosen that the average amount of water vapor in the air above the station was the same in each year for a given month. The amount of water vapor in the air is repre- sented by the spectrobolometrically determined precipitable water value described in the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, 4 Nature, vol. 129, No. 3260, p. 604, 1932. 5 Quart. Journ. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., vol. 59, No. 250, p. 268, 1033. 6 Nature, vol. 129, No. 3269, p. 932, 1932, and vol. 130, No. 3273, p. 139, 1932. ALDRICH ANDEAN VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS NO. oro't Pro'r Cr6'1 gro’! 1b6'I LV6'1 LV6'1 gro'r gror1 (9}ynuIUW Jod "m9 tad sat1oje)) (urour petstayoid “durr) JURISUOD Ie[OS IQf"I SSto° If zOv'l IQ10" ze I9f"I 0610" vl AAS 6zzo° o£ LECT 1$zo° I¢ Zor’! 6Z10° ze £oe'1 10Z0" bZ OZE°1 ZEzo° 6£ QOLe'I Szfo° If aynuru 139d oynurur 13d “Wu I* z uo 19d g uo od ul Sollojeo Sol10[eo Ad}JemM ul ul ‘91g *‘PYysAAT ‘uelsg SSS” uleyunNoW 2qeZ ‘90URISIP I[OS ULSUE OF padnpat jou ae San[eA JoJaWOI[ayIdd pue 1o}oWIOUeIAG—aALON Z a QI £1 02 co sonjea jo ‘ON Obh'1 6010" EZb'1 £9z0° IPP -FEzo° ver! gZzo" 66E°1 Lvfo: vos"! £g10° 921 Sz10° ely’ O£10° 1SP'I ce10° aynuiw tod aynurur tad ¢ utd Iad zg wo tod Sor10[eo Fe) 80) i) ul ul ‘pyssg ‘uRIsg er euUInzo}UOy, stop pajaajas fo suvam Kjyzuou fo CADUUINS—I FAV, cy 8 ZI II oz oz cI cI cz cI son[ea jo ‘ON ARW fOr “AON Ajn( oun Ae z£61 “AON Aqn oun Ae IN of6r quo 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Smithsonian Institution, vol. 3, page 171, 1913. Taking the year 1930 as a standard of comparison, monthly means of pyrheliometry, pyranometry, and precipitable water at air mass 2.0 are given in table 1 for May, June, July, and November of the years 1930 and 1932, and for May 1933. For the same months, the improved pre- ferred mean solar constants are also given in table 1, as taken from table 27 of the Annals, vol. 6, 1942. The percentage variations of pyrheliometry, solar constants, and pyranometry are given in tables 2Zrand3: Tas_eE 2.—Percent deviations of pyrheliometry and solar constants from corresponding month of the year 1930 Pyrheliometry Montezuma Table Mt. Solar constant Month Percent Percent Percent Miay.a1032 otaricism ine sete: —3.7 +08 —0.4 June he ea hidacie ae alec —3.4 —0.5 —0.1 itive csc tang, tats aterecaste aie tare —2.6 —0.1 —O0.I INIOVEAl Se ae PARE Scene —2.1 0.0 —0.2 Mary =4 OB siete me suerte ears ets —o.I —0.4 —0.4 TABLE 3.—Percent change of sky brightness around the sun from corresponding month of the year 1930 Montezuma Table Mt. Month Percent Percent Mic. S1O326 Ratnam cmecres eae +157. —23 AUT S sss birajtetetkers seeacr ees +114. — 3 uly OSU ocriasion ae sine + 87. —5 INOWaee dni cinerea + 44. +1 May. O39' Sanden etioas — 10. + 8 No effect of the Andean eruptions is discovered in the Table Mountain, California, observations. A definite effect occurs in the Montezuma pyrheliometer values, with a maximum of 3.7 percent depletion in May 1932, and an average of 3.0 percent for the months May, June, July, November. This agrees with Mr. Gallagher’s estimate. From the Montezuma records, we find the following unusual sky conditions reported in April 1932 by C. P. Butler, director of the station. Montezuma, it should be noted, is over 800 miles north of the erupting volcanoes. April 13: Horizon to south very hazy with yellowish-looking dust. No. 6 ANDEAN VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS—ALDRICH 5 Nothing further is noted until April 22—Good sky. Very hazy over mountains to east. April 23—Very heavy layer of yellowish haze over mountains to east, extend- ing up about 10°. April 24—Very poor sky. Streaks from horizon to zenith, with whitish glare about sun. April 25 and 26, same notes as April 24. April 27 through 30—Dust in atmosphere almost totally obscures sun. On April 30 the pyranometer value at air mass 2.0 was .131 calorie —10 times the normal value. : { ‘ | i j > 4 wit } v iy , re a a \ Wire 5 y i f a hh ae ‘lh if ; ie : ‘i Ae si i of 7 Fi i ee eth) He , i] an Be. Ai *, yak wi mR aay “the th ae ‘oO «lai baw hf ea CE 9 i i ota * , v4 qi | i Y Ne 1a) ie 7 ete Sie yr ore t SRM rag iy) Xe Aiady ii = ‘ ¥ a) f Orin , , 7. ta Fis Wee Pay (oa é i i | | i " i a or 4 M | . ‘ - ; thy i i f > - » hui, een F \ Loerie +a + rah ey We eT aayt i we i dh hi oak event Aisle Wee i bse ia ates Cf "SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 7 THE FEEDING APPARATUS OF BITING “AND SUCKING INSECTS AFFECTING © BPO 5. MAN. AND KOE RLS 2h Sat) Spaceman “. R. E. SNODGRASS. . Bureau wre Entomology ‘and Plant Quarantine Agricultural Research Administration Wh Ss Department of Agriculture (Pustication 3773) _ CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED ok THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION . - OCTOBER, 24, 1944 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 7 THE FEEDING APPARATUS OF BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS BY R. E. SNODGRASS Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine Agricultural Research Administration U. S. Department of Agriculture (PUBLICATION 3773) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION OCTOBER 24, 1944 <¢ The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A. THE FEEDING APPARATUS OF BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS By R. E. SNODGRASS Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Agricultural Research Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture CONTENTS PaGE MitiEROGUCEIONmitrta Na eetere sata eee c= Aaa e ech enna ek a told evaeraia eteie 2 eaebhesrcockroachs ) Order, 4 Orthoptenaeiidect nese eaicmatdiow eae elee ib ele erate 3 Mhievhead vand) thevorgans Ob ingestionh a. .ce 52 ee sis oeieerowleciecie » sie e 4 General structure of the head and mouth parts................ 4 SUM wales Date Itan a eseaetra marae cacti cnateeReme dese Mac ay WOM rms chat’ Bima ota 7 Bie ree PTRtCLENCAMIN OS ¢ cc ata crave ass fone tortie euctr atic. crieira be Made tie etal caste dna teveke iste a 8 phe mnerxall any ntetreh ee cae ee site eer eee is GS tae elefealtk aM havehane 10 Bible lal titan,” eas teychestaters cl ates ce teiets ore 31 Welinceiicss s Ordena Diptenaas .crciiois pocies feiloe secs cise layed Oa ales e etepele 36 Miosauitoesas lam tlivan Ctilicidae cme scrtacerserdieiers seis crete taicle evaicicie. ere ay Satiaeaes m Laimiby we SYCNOUIGACH /.. sa) Sere arzs So wie ele-endieva. ache 5c oN 50 pny mudgves.” Manitly Waelewdde.,'./ ..\, cous sess ce ohankouae or oe 54 ide. fies:) Kamuly Simuludags o..).. va. ae Apel. aks. OA 56 Net-winged midges. Family Blepharoceratidae................... 61 onsen uiestestanmaily, dalvati daca tose c.ottcpsie Aovcy sure cleareieieraeraerexcye 61 Siipepiestsbamilya Whaciomi dace. ican acl seo cianee srelse aieks cieceiele 64 Roppetsihes: mo hammly oN Silidaels bestia wit coe ul aie 018 eel Sevlle were eee 66 Special teatires orsthe Cyclorshaphay. acdsee ue cee Cease omte ne 68 Bye suats. sbamily Chioropidae. this4 idee. Sea eked omen 72 Horn flies, stable flies, and tsetse flies. Families Muscidae and (GLOSStiat cla ere le pararate toaore eas eratsrsteretenecy oct cree date oPo eaie to Slate trai 73 Laos, whesy” Weiribie lal prelonetkYs oon voocbscaudbascdenneneeane 77 Bat “ticks.” Families Streblidae and Nycteribiidae................ 81 Wileelinesteass Order Siphonaptera scissor cence nce oaos octets waters 83 Witertae turips, Order ‘Thysanoptera....c. 56. ae8. cece es eee botaeens QI Write Che sucking bugs: Order Hemiptera.s. os. (ei.iels eens shes 04 General structure of the hemipterous feeding apparatus.......... 04 Bemsusss amily, Gimicidae. 2 . de> ci taln eaae ab) sik S se eeee ete Se 100 ASSASSIN DURS.< ab atiiily. RECUVITUAE sins are sats esvsidnie Ge deleiud « siscjorete-s 104 References, and textbooks on medical entomology................5 107 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 7 to SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 INTRODUCTION The insects that entomologists understand by the term “biting insects” are those that obtain their food with a pair of jaws working against.each other. These insects, mostly plant feeders, seldom molest us or attack animals, other than small invertebrates, for their flesh or blood. On the other hand, the insects that most people regard as “‘biters’” are such as the mosquitoes, the bed bugs, the lice, and the fleas. These insects, however, attack their victims with a single point, or a group of stylets working side by side driven into the skin, and hence by professional entomologists are termed “piercing in- sects.”’ The verbal distinction between the two groups thus depends on our definition of “biting,” but after all there is no great difference whether a wound is made by two opposing points, a single point, or a pair of sliding points; if it is made with feeding organs (not a sting) it is essentially a bite, and undoubtedly the bitten public will continue to speak of “mosquito bites” and “flea bites,” though some of the others may not be mentioned so freely. The essential differ- ence between the insects of the two groups is not a question whether they “bite” or “pierce,” but is in the nature of their food and the way they get it into the mouth. Most insects with jaws feed on solid food, which they bite off, chew, and swallow; the piercing in- sects feed on liquids, either the juices of plants or the blood of animals, and are provided with puncturing instruments and a pump- ing apparatus. All sucking insects, however, are not piercing insects, for there are the butterflies, the moths, and most of the two-winged flies, which live on liquids but do not “bite” in any sense of the word. Furthermore, most biting-and-chewing insects are also sucking in- sects; the wasps and the bees, for example, have jaws for biting and a pump for sucking, and even the cockroach, a typical biting-and- chewing insect, is found to be also a sucking insect, and to suck with the same mechanism as do the piercing-and-sucking insects. The fact that it is difficult to establish definitions in biology is one of the proofs that living things are interrelated, and, though it brings much grief to the classifiers, it adds much to the interest of anatomical investigation, since we can follow the evolution of organs by observing the stages of their development in different forms, and by noting the various lines of divergence along which they have evolved in adap- tation to different kinds of uses. We must always be cautious, how- ever, in drawing conclusions as to the relationships of the animals themselves based on a study of any one organ or functional group of organs. There can be no doubt that the possession of jaws for biting and chewing the food is a character of primitive insects, and NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 3 that the other types of feeding organs are specialized adaptations evolved from the feeding organs of biting-and-chewing ancestors. Hence, though we are here particularly concerned with piercing, bloodsucking species, which are potential disease vectors, it will greatly facilitate an understanding of such forms if we begin with the study of a biting-chewing-and-sucking insect, such as any one of our com- mon household cockroaches. For purposes of description things described must have names. Most well-known insect species have so-called common names, and all that are known have scientific names. Common names are not standardized ; current scientific names are always subject to change by priority of some older name. The generic and specific names and their authors of all species described in this paper are those at present regarded as authentic by the specialists in taxonomy of the Division of Insect Identification, United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. The anatomical parts of insects also have names, and here again students find some confusion on comparing the work of different writers, but discrepancies in anatomical terminology are more likely to be the result of differences of interpretation or of identification of the parts described. The reader of the present paper will find that the text ignores the probability of his having any previous knowledge of insect anatomy or anatomical nomenclature. Furthermore, considering the paper shortage, the opinions of others that do not appear to conform with the facts now known are given short notice or none at all, and no apology is offered for the many inconsistencies with former state- ments by the writer himself. Inconsistency is the natural result of wider information and better vision. I. THE COCKROACH. ORDER ORTHOPTERA The cockroach, because of its structure and physiology, is not limited to any particular way of living or of feeding; it is capable of existing in almost any kind of surroundings, and it makes little choice of food. In its anatomy the cockroach gives evidence in many ways of conforming more closely than do most other winged insects to the structure of primitive insects, and, in fact, it is one of the oldest of insect forms, its ancestors being among the earliest insects recorded in the fossil records of insect life of the past. All the other insects included in this paper will be seen to be specialized either in their mode of life or in their manner of taking food. Hence, a knowledge of the basic anatomy of the insect head and feeding organs as retained in the cockroach will elucidate the structure of other forms and lighten the work of description. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 THE HEAD AND THE ORGANS OF INGESTION The head of an insect bears the principal sensory organs, eyes and antennae, and the organs of ingestion. The intake of food is a rela- tively complex process with the insects, involving the cooperation of a whole group of structures associated externally with the mouth, no one of which has anything like the motility of the vertebrate jaw, or the versatility of the human tongue. Feeding, as done by the insects, is a mechanical process, performed by parts that indi- vidually have limited movements, but which, working together, ac- complish results most efficiently. Fic. 1—The common house cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), often called “waterbug” or “crotonbug,’ female (length 15 mm.). Order Orthoptera, family Blattidae. Note the position of the head when the insect is active, and the open space between the wing and the abdomen for the admission of air to the spiracles on the back beneath the wings. General structure of the head and mouth parts—Though the cock- roach of illustrations usually has its head bent downward beneath the front of the thorax (fig. 2A), this attitude is merely one of repose, and is naturally assumed by museum specimens. When the insect is active the neck is stretched out and the face turned vertically (fig. 1); during feeding, the head may be directed even forward almost in line with the axis of the body in order to bring the mouth parts into contact with the food. For descriptive purposes, therefore, it is best to orient the head in the vertical plane, and to call anterior and posterior the opposite directions of a line through the head perpendicular to the face. | A facial view of the head of a cockroach is shown at B of figure 2. The top of the cranium is called the vertex (Vx), between the antennae is the frontal region (Fr), and from the latter there is extended downward a broad lobe, which is the clypeus (Clip). The clypeus bears a free flap, the labrum (Lm), which serves the insect as a front lip hanging before the jaws. In some insects the frontal region, or frons (Fr), is defined by a pair of lateral grooves con- verging upward between the antennae to a median point below the NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 5 vertex, and in most insects it is separated from the clypeus by a transverse groove, the epistomal sulcus. The last is to be identified in most cases by a pair of depressions or pits in its lateral parts; though the groove is absent in the cockroach, the depressions are present (at, at), and serve as important landmarks. Behind the clypeus and the labrum are the external feeding organs, which, to- gether with the labrum, are known collectively as the mouth parts. On the back of the head (fig. 2 D) is seen the large neck foramen (For), called also foramen magnum and occipital foramen, by which the cavity of the head is continuous with that of the neck. Below the foramen are suspended the two maxillae (Mx) and the median labium (Lb). In the lateral margins of the foramen are a pair of slitlike pits (pt, pt), which are the posterior roots of an internal framework of the head called the tentorium. The tentorium of the cockroach (C) is a thin plate with a large median perforation, lying transversely within the head where it is supported on four stalks which are invaginations of the cranial walls at the anterior pits above the mandibles (B, at, at) and the posterior pits (D, pt, pt) just noted. In other insects the tentorium takes on various shapes, but in general it serves to strengthen the lower part of the head and to give attach- ment to muscles. The cockroach has a relatively long and flexible neck (fig. 1), which gives the head much freedom of movement and allows it to be retracted beneath the front of the thorax (fig. 2A). The movements of the head are made by muscles, but they are con- trolled by a pair of fulcral sclerites (cvs) in the sides of the neck, and it is by movements of these sclerites that the neck is “stretched” and the head extended. The group of feeding organs known as the mouth parts includes the labrum (fig. 2B, Lm), a pair of jawlike mandibles (Md), a pair of maxillae (D, Mx), a single posterior labium (Lb), and, enclosed by these parts, a median tonguelike organ called the hypopharynx (FE, Hphy). The flattened, strongly toothed mandibles, shown detached at E of figure 2 (Md, Md), lie in a transverse plane immediately behind the clypeus and labrum. Behind the mandibles are the maxillae (D, E, Mx). Each maxilla has a large basal part that bears a five- segmented lateral palpus (E, Pip), and two terminal lobes, the galea (Ga) and the lacinia (Lc) ; the base is subdivided into a proxi- mal cardo (D, E, Cd), and a main stalk, or stipes (St). The labium is best seen on the back of the head (D, Lb); its two basal plates, the submentum (Smt) and mentum (Mt), collectively the post- mentum, lie in the rear wall of the head, but the inflected margins of the submentum partly overlap the cardines and stipites of the 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Fic. 2—Head and mouth parts of a cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.). A, lateral view of the head suspended by the neck on the body in position of repose. B, facial view of head. C, tentorium, dorsal surface. D, posterior view of head. E, the mouth parts separated from head and spread out in approximately relative positions, showing anterior surfaces. Ant, antenna; at, anterior tentorial pit; Cd, cardo; Clp, clypeus; cvs, neck (cervical) sclerite; E, compound eye; For, neck foramen (foramen magnum, or occipital foramen) ; Fr, frontal region (frons) ; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx ; Lb, labium; LbPIp, labial palpus; Le, lacinia; Lig, ligula; Lm, labrum; Md, mandible; Mt, mentum; Mth, mouth; M+, maxilla; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Pip, palpus; Prmt, prementum; Prstm, prestomum; ft, posterior tentorial pit; SIO, orifice of salivary duct; Smt, submentum; St, stipes; Th, thorax; Vx, vertex; y, oral arm from base of hypopharynx. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 7 maxillae. The distal part of the labium is a free posterior lip, the body of which is the prementum (D, E, Prmt); the appendicular parts are the lateral palpi (E, Plp), and four terminal lobes, the glossae in the middle and the paraglossae at the sides, which together constitute the ligula (Lig). The hypopharynx is a thick, elongate, tonguelike organ (E, Hphy) arising at the base of the labial premen- tum, and extending anteriorly up to the mouth (Mth). The mouth parts of the insect are appendages of the head surround- ing the mouth, which latter lies in the ventral head wall between the inner surface of the clypeus and the base of the hypopharynx (fig. 7A, Mth). The food is masticated or otherwise prepared for ingestion in the space enclosed by the mouth parts, but since this space lies entirely outside the true mouth it should not be called the “mouth cavity” or “buccal cavity”; more appropriately it may be termed the preoral food cavity. Furthermore since the aperture between the tips of the mouth parts is not anatomically the mouth of the insect, though it serves for the intake of food, it is better called the prestomum (figs. 2 B, D, 7 A, Prstm). We may now attempt to understand how the cockroach feeds by the mechanism of its mouth parts. The mechanisms of an insect, however, cannot always be fully understood merely from a study of the joints between the movable parts and a determination of the muscle attachments; the elasticity of the skeleton itself is often an important factor, and may modify in a subtle manner the direct action of the muscles. The various thickenings and thinnings of the body- wall cuticle are generally found on close inspection to have some significance in relation to movements. The skeletal component of any movement, however, is elusive, and is likely to be inoperative in a dissected specimen. Hence we can get at best, by pulling on opposing muscles, only an approximate idea of how a mechanism works in the intact living insect, whose anatomy often seems inadequate for its performance. Again, however, in some cases it may be observed quite clearly that the antagonistic force of muscle contraction is skele- tal elasticity, since various mechanical organs, especially sucking and pumping apparatus, are provided with only one muscle or a single group of muscles. The actions of an insect are almost purely me- chanical because the parts of its skeleton are like the parts of a machine; whatever an insect does it must do always in the same way. The labrum.—The labrum is a flat, hollow lobe of the head (fig. 2 B, Lm) flexibly suspended from the lower edge of the clypeus. Its outer surface is covered by a hard cuticle, its inner wall (fig. 5 A) is soft and mostly membranous except for two small sclerites at the 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 basal angles, known as the tormae (tor). The labral movements are small, though the labrum is provided with four strong muscles arising on the frontal area of the face. Two of these muscles (3) lie close together and are attached anteriorly on the base of the labrum; the other two (4) are attached laterally on arms of the tormae. The labrum is partly retractile beneath the flexible edge of the clypeus in order to expose the points of the mandibles, it can be lifted from the mandibles or closed against them, and it has slight lateral movements. All these labral movements are produced by the four frontal muscles according as the latter act together or as antagonists. The principal use of the labrum in feeding is to cover the mandibles so as to prevent the escape of food, and to form a closed passage over the hypopharynx for the intake of liquids. The mandibles.—A typical, jawlike insect mandible (fig. 3 A) is somewhat conical in shape, triangular at the base, and usually more or less flattened distally. The lower, incisor end (inc) generally has several coarse teeth on its mesal edge, and on the same side near the base is a broad, variously developed molar area (mol) facing that of the opposite jaw. The mandible is attached to the head by a flexible articular membrane (mb) all around its base, but it is specifically hinged to the edge of the cranium by anterior and posterior points of articulation (c, a) near the outer side of its base. These hinges are external to the articular membrane, and are of the ball- and-socket type, but the parts are reversed in the two, the condyle being on the cranium in the anterior articulation and on the mandible in the posterior. An insect jaw of this kind swings in a transverse plane on its anteroposterior axis (c-a). Its principal muscles are a relatively slender abductor (ab) attached laterally close to the mandible (d), and a large adductor (ad) attached mesally (e). The power of the adductor muscle is increased by the length of its lever- age (b-e) mesad of the mandibular axis. The mandibles of the cockroach (fig. 3 B-H) are of the type of structure described above. The dentition is asymmetrical on the two jaws (B, C), and the molar areas are relatively small (B, H, mol). Arising anteriorly from the mesal angle of the base of each mandible is a-small membranous flap (f). In the cockroach and most other orthopteroid insects (except grasshoppers) each mandible has four muscles. The huge cranial adductor of the cockroach arises in several bundles of fibers on the dorsal wall of the head (fig. 3 D, 28) and is attached by a large flat tendon (¢) on the mesal angle of the man- dible. The much smaller abductor (27) arises on the side of the head and its slender tendon is attached in the articular membrane NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 9 Fic. 3—The mandibles of a cockroach. A, diagram of the structure and mechanism of an insect mandible that serves as a biting and chewing jaw, movable in a transverse plane on the axis (a-c) by an abductor (ab) and an adductor muscle (ad). B, right mandible of Blattella germanica (L.), anterior. C, mandibles of same in closed position, anterior. D, diagrammatic cross section, anterior view, of head of a cockroach, showing mandibles, their musculature, and relation to hypopharynx. E-H, left mandible of Blatta orientalis L., anterior, lateral, posterior, and mesal views, respectively. a, posterior articular condyle of mandible; ab, abductor muscle; a-c, axis of mandibular movement; ad, adductor muscle; AZ, anterior tentorial arm; c, anterior articular socket of mandible; C/p, clypeus; d, attachment of tendon of abductor muscle; e, attachment of tendon of adductor muscle; E, compound eye; f, membranous flap on base of mandible; Hphy, hypopharynx; inc, incisor lobe of mandible; mb, articular membrane; Md, mandible; mol, molar lobe of mandible; Sit, sitophore (food receptacle on base of hypopharynx); ¢, muscle tendon; +, mandibular arm of hypopharyngeal suspensorium; y, oral arm of same. Muscles—13, frontal productor of hypopharynx; 14, frontal reductor of hypopharynx; 27, cranial abductor of mandible; 28, cranial adductor of man- dible ; 29, hypopharyngeal muscle of mandible; 30, tentorial muscle of mandible. se) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 laterad of the mandibular base (FE, F, d). (It should be noted that insect tendons are ingrowths of the body wall, not parts of the muscle tissue.) The third muscle of the cockroach mandible is a fan-shaped group of fibers arising inside the mandible on the lateral wall (D, E, G, 29), and converging mesally out of the base of the jaw to a small arm (.) from the side of the hypopharynx. The action of the hypopharyngeal muscles of the mandibles in the cockroach, whether they adduct the mandibles or widen the base of the hypopharynx, is not clear, but the muscles themselves are per- sisting remnants of powerful ventral adductors of the jaws present in most other arthropods. In some of the piercing and sucking insects these muscles are converted into protractors of the mandibles. The fourth muscle of the cockroach mandible (D, E, G, 30) is a short bundle of fibers arising on the anterior arm of the tentorium (D, AT) and attached inside the mandible on the posterior wall. Since the mandibular articulations are merely loose points of contact between the skeletal parts, and hence allow a slight anteroposterior movement of the jaw, the tentorial muscles of the mandibles probably have some- thing to do with the grinding action of the opposed molar surfaces. The mandibles lie in a transverse plane within the preoral food cavity between the labrum and the hypopharynx, with their points well back from the distal margin of the labrum except when the latter is retracted. When the two jaws are closed so that the molar surfaces are in contact (fig. 3 C), the teeth of the left mandible over- lap anteriorly those of the right, and the two basal flaps (f) project mesally over the food trough (sitophore, Sit) on the base of the hypopharynx. The maxillae—The maxillae lie against the back of the head (fig. 2D, M+), but their relation to the other mouth parts is best seen in side view (A), showing the inclusion of the terminal lobes between the labrum and the labium. The cardo and stipes of each maxilla lie in a membranous fold of the head wall (fig. 4 A, mb), which is concealed posteriorly (fig. 2D) by the projecting edge of the labial submentum. Each appendage, however, is attached to the cranium by a single point of articulation on the base of the cardo (fig. 4 A, a), and the cardo and stipes are hinged to each other in an elbowlike angle projecting laterally. By reason of the amplitude of the mem- brane uniting the maxilla to the head, the maxilla as a whole is freely movable on the head at the cardinal articulation, and the cardo and stipes are movable on each other at the elbow hinge between them. The palpus (P/p) arises laterally from the distal part of the stipes, and mesad to it are the galea (Ga) and lacinia (Lc). The galea NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS II Fic. 4—The maxillae of a cockroach. A, right maxilla of Periplaneta americana (L.), posterior surface. B, same, anterior view, showing muscles, except those of the palpus. C, diagram of protractor-adductor mechanism of the maxillae: contraction of the cardinal muscles (33) turns the cardines (Cd) downward on their cranial articulations (a) and thereby protracts the galeae and laciniae (Ga, Lc) beyond the hypo- pharynx; a contraction of the adductor muscles (34) brings these lobes to- gether. D, position of maxillary lobes in retraction against sides of hypopharynx. a, articulation of cardo on head; Cd, cardo; Ga, galea; h, hinge of lacinia on stipes; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lc, lacinia; mb, articular membrane; Plp, palpus; r, median ventral ridge of tentorium; Sit, sitophore; St, stipes; y, oral arm of hypopharyngeal suspensorium. Muscles —31, rotator of cardo; 32, retractor of maxilla; 33, adductors of cardo, protractors of maxilla; 34, adductors of stipes; 47, productor of lacinia; 42, reductor of galea. I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 is a relatively soft, thick lobe with a hoodlike apical pad hollowed on its mesal surface. The lacinia is a rigid flattened lobe tapering distally and ending with two sharp, incurved teeth, proximal to which is a weak subapical projection. Though the galea is lateral and the lacinia mesal, the galea overlies anteriorly most of the lacinia and conceals the teeth of the latter in the hoodlike concavity of its apical pad. The opposite. pairs of maxillary lobes lie close against the sides of the hypopharynx (D), between the labrum in front and the labium behind (fig. 2 A). When the maxillae are in action they make rapid back-and-forth movements along the sides of the hypopharynx, accompanied by an adduction of the terminal lobes during protraction. The movements of the two appendages are simultayeous, in the same direction, and are never perceptibly varied; they are produced by retractor, pro- tractor, and adductor muscles. Each maxilla has a single, long re- tractor muscle (fig. 4B, 32) arising on the top of the head and inserted on the maxilla at the base of the lacinia. The protractors are three parallel bundles of fibers (33) going from the under surface of the tentorium to the lateral part of the cardo. The adductors (34a, 34b, 34c) arise also on the tentorium but are inserted on the mesal border of the stipes. When the maxillae are not active they are held in the retracted position with the galeae and laciniae close against the sides of the hypopharynx (D). Protraction results from the contraction of the cardinal muscles (C, 33), which turns the cardines downward on their cranial articulations (a), flattens the cardino-stipital angles, pushes the stipites ventrally, and protracts the galeae and laciniae well beyond the hypopharynx. The action of the stipital adductors (34) at the same time brings the free ends of the lobes together, or against any object grasped between them. The movements of the maxillae are exactly comparable to the ex- tension and retraction of the human arms by bending the elbows and bringing the hands together with each outward thrust; if the palms are cupped to represent the galeal pads the imitation is com- plete, except for the absence of the lacinial points. The lacinia and the galea have each a single muscle arising in the stipes (fig. 4 B, 41, 42), but these muscles serve merely to keep the two lobes in close apposition, neither lobe having any adductor move- ment. The lacinia has a firm hinge line on the stipes (A, ) that allows it to close against the galea, but prevents the toothed lacinial point from being turned mesally. Each pair of lobes thus forms a functional unit opposed to the pair of the other side, and their movements are always the same regardless of the inciting stimulus. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS ve Yet the maxillary lobes are put to various uses; in addition to their function in feeding they are used for cleaning the antennae, the palps, and the front legs. An antenna is grasped near its base between the tips of the galeae and slowly drawn upward while the galeal pads, without losing their hold, work rapidly back and forth against it. The point of a needle or anything else placed between the lobes elicits the same response. In feeding, the action is no different, but now the hollowed galeal pads, armed with the lacinial teeth, serve B Fic. 5.—The labrum and the labium of a cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L.). A, labrum and its frontal muscles, posterior surface. B, labium, anterior view, showing muscles. Gl, glossa; Mt, mentum; Pgl, paraglossa; Plp, palpus; Prmt, prementum; Smt, submentum ; tor, torma. Muscles.—3, anterior frontal muscle of labrum; 4, posterior frontal muscle of labrum; 43, tentorial productor of labium; 44, tentorial reductor of labium; 45, retractor of prementum. as scrapers for collecting particles of food and for drawing them back into the prestomum, where the food mass is taken over by the mandibles. The mandibles also may independently bite off pieces of food, but the main supply appears to be that brought in by the activity of the maxillary lobes. During the intake of water there is little move- ment of any of the mouth parts. The labium.—tThe two basal plates of the labium, the mentum and submentum, as already noted, are immovably affixed to the back of the head below the neck foramen (fig. 2D, Mt, Smt). Only the distal part of the labium, or prementum (Prmt), suspended from the mentum is a free and movable appendage. The labial muscles, there- fore, are attached on the prementum (fig. 5 B), and the prementum 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 alone contains the muscles of the palpi and the distal lobes. The motors of the prementum are two pairs of long muscles (43, 44) arising on the posterior part of the tentorium, one pair (43) inserted anteriorly at the bases of the paraglossae (Pgl), the other (44) posteriorly on the basal angles of the prementum. These muscles, therefore, are respectively productors and reductors of the prementum, though they may give it also slight lateral movements on the mentum. A third pair of premental muscles (45) arises on the submentum and inserts on the base of the prementum. These muscles serve to re- tract the prementum against the mentum, the distal part of the latter being membranous and flexible. The palpi, the glossae, and the para- glossae are all provided with muscles taking their origins in the prementum, as shown in the figure (5 B). The prementum serves passively to close the preoral food cavity behind the maxillae and hypopharynx. Though it shows no con- spicuous activity during feeding, the strength of its musculature sug- gests that whatever movements are made, either by the prementum as a whole or by the terminal lobes, are of importance. The palpi on the other hand are extremely active; like a pair of fingers they feel around in all directions, tap the food and make motions toward the lips, but they do not appear to be prehensile; probably their function is mainly sensory. The hypopharynx—The organ commonly known as the hypo- pharynx is functionally the tongue of the insect and more appropriately might be named lingua since its only relation to the pharynx is that (in common with the other members of the mouth parts) it is below the pharynx. The hypopharynx of the cockroach (fig. 7 A, Hphy) has a long oblique base in the ventral wall of the head, sloping downward and backward from the mouth (Mth) to the base of the prementum (Prmt). Only the distal part of the organ thus forms a free, tongue- like lobe. In the lateral and posterior walls of this lobe are two pairs of elongate lingual sclerites (fig. 6 A, B, Js), which in Blatta (D) are united proximally. The lateral sclerites, or the common bases of the two on each side, turn backward at their proximal ends and join from opposite sides in an arc (B, C, D, f) that rests on the base of the prementum and forms a fulcrum for the movement of the hypopharynx (C). Within the fulcral arc is the aperture of the salivary duct (D, SIO). That part of the anterior hypopharyngeal wall that lies between the free lingual lobe and the mouth (fig. 6 A) is margined by a pair of linear sclerites (HS) that at their lower ends bend mesally in the NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 15 Fic. 6.—The hypopharynx of a cockroach. A, hypopharynx of Periplaneta americana (L.), anterior surface, showing attachments of frontal and mandibular muscles. B, diagrammatic lengthwise section of lower part of head, showing position of hypopharynx in preoral cavity, with associated structures and muscles. C, diagram of productor movement of hypopharynx. D, posterior surface of free lingual lobe of the hypopharynx of Blatta orientalis L., with salivary orifice at its base. Cb, cibarium; Clp, clypeus; f, fulcrum of hypopharynx; Fr, frons; Hphy, hypopharynx; HS, suspensorial sclerite of hypopharynx; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; 7s, lingual sclerite; Mth, mouth; Phy, pharynx; Prstm, prestomum; sc, salivary canal; Sit, sitophore; S/Dct, salivary duct; S/O, salivary orifice; Slv, salivarium; SO, sense organs; +, loral,.arm of hypopharyngeal suspen- sorium; y, oral arm of same. Muscles —5a, 5b, clypeal dilators of cibarium; 173, frontal productor of hypopharynx; 174, frontal reductor of hypopharynx; 16, tentorial productor of hypopharynx; 17, 18, hypopharyngeal muscles of salivarium; 19, reductor of hypopharynx; 20, labial muscle of hypopharyngeal fulcrum; 29, hypo- pharyngeal muscle of mandible. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 root of the lingua to form a U-shaped band, while their upper parts are continued as a pair of slender oral arms (y) that enter, and con- tinue through, the mouth angles (B, C) to give attachment each to two muscles (13, r4) arising on the frontal area of the head wall. The hypopharynx thus appears to hang from the cranium by a long U-shaped suspensorium. Small lateral branches of the suspensorial sclerites (fig. 6A, B, x) give attachment to the hypopharyngeal muscles (A, 29) of the mandibles (fig. 3 D, E, G). These branches may be termed the-loral arms of the suspensory apparatus because they clearly represent the so-called lora in the head of Homoptera. Between the suspensory sclerites the surface of the hypopharynx is depressed in the form of a widening, troughlike channel (fig. 6 A, Sit) through which the food is conveyed to the mouth, and which, therefore, may be named the sitophore. Associated with the hypopharynx of the cockroach are six pairs of muscles besides the hypopharyngeal muscles of the mandibles. Two pairs already mentioned are attached on the upper ends of the oral arms of the suspensory apparatus (fig. 6A, B, 13, 14), one pair (13) arising medially on the frons in a direct line with the oral arms, the other pair arising laterally on the lower part of the frons. At- tached on the proximal end of each lateral lingual sclerite is a long posterior muscle (B, 76) arising on the tentorium. This muscle is opposed by a shorter muscle (79) arising in the prementum. Two short muscles on each side (17, 18) take their origins on the loral arm (+) of the suspensory sclerite; one (17) goes to the posterior wall of the hypopharynx, the other (7S) to the margin of the salivary orifice. Finally, a pair of very small muscles arising in the prementum (20) is inserted on the fulcral arc of the hypopharynx (D). Though the musculature of the hypopharynx is somewhat complex, the movements of the organ are relatively simple. Since the median frontal muscles (fig. 6 B, C, 13) attached on the oral arms (y) of the suspensorium, and the tentorial muscles (176) attached on the lateral lingual sclerites both pull on the same (anterior) side of the hypopharyngeal fulcrum (f), it is evident that the two pairs are productors inasmuch as their contraction swings the hypopharyngeal lobe forward (C). The labial muscles (19) of the lingual sclerites, and the lateral frontal muscles (74) of the oral arms are the re- ductors. The small labial muscles of the lingual arc (20) probably serve to hold the fulcrum in place. Muscles 17 and 78 are intra- hypopharyngeal; the first evidently expands the salivarium, the second dilates the salivary orifice. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 17, The preoral food cavity—The space enclosed by the peripheral mouth parts and containing the hypopharynx, as already noted, is not a true mouth cavity because it is not a part of the alimentary canal, and yet it is an important part of the feeding apparatus. Its Fic. 7—The preoral and the pharyngeal regions of the food tract of a cock- roach. A, vertical section of head somewhat to left of median plane, diagrammatic. B, hypopharynx and first part of pharynx, antero-dorsal view, showing attach- ment of muscles arising on anterior wall of head. Br. brain; Cb, cibarium; Clp, clypeus; fm, food meatus; Fr, frons; FrG, frontal ganglion; Hphy, hypopharynx; HS, suspensorial sclerite of hypopharynx ; Lig, ligula; Lm, labrum; Mt, mentum; Mth, mouth; Oe, oesophagus; Phy, pharynx; Prmt, prementum; Prstm, prestomum; RNuv, recurrent nerve; Sit, sitophore; S/Dct, salivary duct; S/O, salivary orifice; Slv, salivarium; Smt, submentum; SoeG, suboesophageal ganglion; V+, vertex; x, loral arm of hypopharyngeal suspensorium; y, oral arm of same. Muscles—z2, compressor of labrum; 5a, 5), clypeal dilators of cibarium; 6, 7, precerebral dilators of pharynx; 8, postcerebral dorsal dilator of pharynx; 17, posterior lateral dilator of pharynx; 13, 74, muscles of oral arm (y) of hypo- pharyngeal suspensorium. entrance, the prestomum (fig. 7 A, Prstm), leads first into a passage, the food meatus (fm), between the labrum and the lingual lobe of the hypopharynx. Within this passage the mandibles close upon each other during feeding. Proximal to the meatus, between the inner wall of the clypeus and the basal part of the hypopharynx, is a definite food pocket (figs. 6B, 7A, Cb) that receives the masticated food 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 material before delivery into the mouth (Mth). This pocket is the cibarium. The floor of the cibarium is the troughlike sitophore of the hypopharynx (figs. 6 A, 7 B, Sit) ; the roof is the inner wall of the clypeus. Thick bundles of intraclypeal muscle fibers (figs. 6 B, 7 A, 5a, 5b), which anatomically are compressors of the clypeus, at the same time serve to dilate the cibarium. The generalized cibarium of the cockroach contains the structural elements of the specialized suck- ing apparatus in the sucking insects. Similarly, between the base of the lingual lobe of the hypopharynx and the prementum of the labium is a posterior pocket, the salivarium (figs. 6B, 7A, Slv), into which discharges the salivary duct (S/Dct). The salivarium, with muscles attached on it, is developed in many of the higher insects into a salivary ejection pump. The mechanism of ingestion—A lengthwise section through the middle of the head (fig. 7A) will show the course that the food traverses in its passage from the prestomum (Prstm) to the true mouth (Mth) at the upper end of the hypopharynx. We have already seen how the food is taken into the prestomum by the action of the maxillary lobes and the mandibles. To reach the mouth it must go through the food meatus (fm) between the labrum and the free lobe of the hypopharynx, which is guarded laterally by the maxillary lobes (fig. 4 D), and is occupied by the mandibles. Here, if necessary, the food is cut, crushed, and masticated by the jaws, but in any case it appears to be the action of the mandibles that moves the food along and delivers it into the sitophore on the base of the hypopharynx. Probably the membranous flaps on the mandibular bases (fig. 3 C, f) help to push the comminuted food up toward the mouth. At this point, however, the sitophore acquires a sheet of transverse muscle fibers attached laterally on the suspensory arms, and the opposing clypeal surface is likewise covered with a layer of transverse fibers (fig. 7B), which together would serve to constrict the cibarium. On the other hand, the cibarium is dilatable by the intraclypeal muscles (A, 5a, 50) attached on its anterior wall, and by the lower fibers of a fan-shaped muscle from the tentorium attached on the sitophore. It is evident, therefore, that the food delivered from the mandibles into the cibarium is passed on into the mouth by muscular action of the cibarial walls, probably assisted by an adoral movement of the hypopharynx itself (fig. 6 C). Sometimes the cockroach ingests bubbles of air. With the small Blattella germanica the bubbles can be seen through the semitrans- parent head wall passing rapidly and in close succession through the cibarium. No visible activity of any anatomical parts accompanies NON 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS ide) the movement of the bubbles, but it is evident that some sucking mechanism carries them toward the fhouth. If the base of the hypo- pharynx is pressed against the inner wall of the clypeus the concavity of the sitophore becomes a closed chamber, and the cibarium could now function as a sucking pump by the alternate action of the dilator and compressor muscles of its dorsal and ventral walls. Suction from the mouth would seem to be out of the question because there is no postoral pumping mechanism. With the same apparatus the roach imbibes water, but since the flow is continuous there is no visible evidence of the action of the cibarial pump. To find that the cibarium of a generalized biting-and-chewing insect such as the cockroach may Mth Prvnt Vent AlInt Rect Fic. 8—The alimentary canal of a cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), left side. Alnt, anterior intestine; An, anus; Cr, crop; GC, gastric caeca; Mal, Malpighian tubules; Mth, mouth; Oe, oesophagus; Phy, pharynx; Prvnt, proventriculus; Rect, rectum; rp, rectal pads; Vent, ventriculus (stomach). function as a sucking organ is most interesting in that it shows there is no new function involved in the evolution of the sucking pump of the higher insects. THE ALIMENTARY CANAL The alimentary canal begins at the mouth between the upper ends of the suspensory arms of the hypopharynx (fig. 7A, Mth). As it goes upward in the head between the two nerve ganglia it widens to form the pharynx (Phy), and then narrows as the oesophagus (Oe), which turns backward over the tentorium and goes through the neck foramen to enter the thorax. Here the canal enlarges into a baglike crop, or ingluvies (fig. 8, Cr), that extends into the abdomen and ends with an abrupt constriction separating it from a short pro- ventriculus (Prvnt). The crop is a mere storage sack for the ingested food ; its shape and size vary with the contents. The proventriculus, on the other hand, is a definite organ; it probably functions as a gizzard, since it has hard plates and teeth on its inner walls, but it also regulates the passage of the food to the next section of the 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 canal, which is the stomach, or ventriculus (Vent). The stomach is the principal seat of digestion and absorption; in the natural position in the cockroach it is looped more transversely than shown in the figure. Its anterior end bears on each side four fingerlike gastric caeca (GC). Following the stomach is the intestine, which extends to the anus (Az), but is divided by a constriction into a looped anterior part, or anterior intestine (AlInt), and a straight posterior part, the rectum (Rect). From the anterior end of the intestine are given off numerous long slender Malpighian tubules (Mal), many more than shown in the figure, that envelop this region of the alimentary canal in a dense mass of tangled threads. These tubules are excretory in function. The anterior part of the rectum shows externally six elongate opaque bands (rp) due to padlike thickenings of the inner wall (formerly known as “rectal glands’). The primary part of the alimentary canal as formed in the embryo is the ventriculus, termed midgut, or mesenteron; its cellular layer represents the endoderm of the insect. The anterior part including the proventriculus, and the intestine are secondary ingrowths of the ectodermal body wall, termed respectively the foregut, or stomodaeum, and the hindgut, or proctodaeum; each of these ectodermal sections has a chitinous intima. The part of the stomodaeum in the head of the cockroach must be given special attention in order to understand its modification in other insects. The pharyngeal region of the stomodaeum is closely invested in a sheath of circular constrictor muscle fibers, and is provided with dilator muscles arising on the head wall and the tentorium. In the cockroach the dilator muscles fall into dorsal, lateral, and ventral sets (fig. 7). Of the dorsal dilators two pairs (A, B, 6, 7,) are precerebral in position, and one pair (A, &) is postcerebral. The lateral dilators include three consecutive muscles on each side, of which the last (A, 17) arises at the margin of the neck foramen. The ventral dilators are a group of fibers spreading downward from the tentorium as far as the floor of the upper part of the cibarium. It is important to note that the first dorsal dilators of the stomodaeum (B, 6) are separated from the dilators of the cibarium (5b) by the frontal ganglion (frG) and its recurving brain connectives. This relation is fundamental; the position of the frontal ganglion thus often serves as a key to the anatomical relations of parts that may appear confused in the cibario-pharyngeal region of the food tract. The structure of the head and the feeding organs exemplified in the cockroach recurs in similar form in all the biting-and-chewing insects, and from it have been derived the various types of specialized NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—-SNODGRASS 2i head structures and feeding organs found in the piercing and sucking insects, and also in those that are purely suctorial. II. THE BITING LICE AND BOOKLICE. ORDERS MALLOPHAGA AND CORRODENTIA Of the numerous insects having mouth parts of the biting-and- chewing type, there is only one order, the Mallophaga, in which all the members habitually feed on vertebrate animals. Many others attack and devour their fellow insects, or other small invertebrates; such as these are said to be predaceous. The Mallophaga are called biting lice because they are louselike parasites of birds and mammals. The term “parasite” implies literally the taking of food (sitos) at the side of (pard) another. Parasites, in the original sense and usage of the word, were persons who fed regularly and gratuitously at the table of some rich patron. In zoology an animal that subsists on the food of another is called a commensal (from mensa, a table); a parasite is one that lives on the body of another living animal, called the host, and, instead of eating the host’s food, attacks some part of the host himself. Some parasites are external, in that they live on the outside of the host, others are internal and feed on the blood or viscera of their victims. External parasites may be carriers, or vectors, of internal parasites, such as worms and microscopic disease- producing organisms. Besides the Mallophaga, there are a few other insects with the biting type of mouth parts that live on mammals. These include species related to the earwigs, Order Dermaptera, found on a bat and on African rats (fig. 9g E, F), and a small beetle (D) that inhabits the fur of the beaver. The “biting” ascribed to the Mallophaga by the name “biting lice” refers to the ordinary manner of feeding by these insects and not to any wound they may inflict on the host, since with most species the food consists of feathers and hairs, though some are found to have an admixture of blood in their diet. Whatever their feeding habits may be, however, the Mallophaga are most annoying pests because of the irritation produced by their constant crawling and nibbling. Nearly all birds are infested by these lice, and domestic poultry and pigeons suffer particularly from them owing to the crowded condi- tions under which they live. Badly infested hens become nervous, their feeding is affected, and egg-laying reduced; death may result, particularly among young birds. On mammals Mallophaga are less widely distributed, but they occur on all domestic species, including cats and dogs. Man, apes, and bats, however, have no indigenous mallophagan parasites. Ze SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The Mallophaga are small, flattened, short-legged, wingless insects (fig. 9 A, B, C), the largest probably not over 10 mm. long, the smallest about a millimeter in length. They are classified in two Ana i f il Fic. 9-—Examples of insects having the biting-and-chewing type of mouth parts that live on other animals, either as parasites or as scavengers. A, a chicken body louse, Menacanthus stramineus (Nitz.), female, ventral (length a little more than 3 mm.), Mallophaga-Amblycera. B, the large chicken louse, Gontocotes gigas Tasch., female, dorsal (length 234 mm.), Mallophaga- Ischnocera. C, the dog louse, Trichodectes canis Deg., female, ventral (length 134 mm.), Mallophaga-Ischnocera. D, a beetle, Platypsyllus castoris Rits., that lives on beavers (length a little over 2 mm.). E, an insect related to earwigs, Arixenia esau Jordan, found on a bat (length 18 mm.) (from Jordan, 1909). FF, another relative of the earwigs, Hemimerus deceptus Rehn, variety ovatus Deoras, that lives on African rats (length 12 mm.) (from Deoras, 1941). suborders, the Amblycera and the Ischnocera. In the first group the short antennae are ordinarily concealed in grooves on the under surface of the head (figs. 9g A, 11 A), in the second the antennae project freely from the sides of the head (fig. 9 B, C). Other dif- ferences pertaining to the mouth parts will be noted later. While most of the species inhabit birds, each suborder contains a family of NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 23 mammal-infesting species, the Gyropidae in the Amblycera, the Trichodectidae in the Ischnocera. The flattened head of the Mallophaga (fig. 11 A), which is rela- tively large for the body, is horizontal in position with the labrum (Lm) forward. The terms “dorsal” and “ventral,” therefore, as applied to the mallophagan head, are equivalent respectively to “anterior” and “posterior” in the cockroach. The most conspicuous members of the mouth parts are the mandibles (Md) ; the maxillae and the labium are small and more or less imperfect, but the hypo- pharynx has some unusual features and is undoubtedly an important adjunct to the jaws. The feeding apparatus of the Mallophaga is difficult to study, and the structure of the mouth parts has been variously interpreted, even up to the present time. In the closely related order, the Corrodentia, known as booklice, however, the organs are more easily seen and their structure is better known. The mouth parts of the Mallophaga, therefore, will be better understood by an examination of the corresponding parts in a corrodentian. The Corrodentia are called booklice because they are small soft insects seen most frequently perhaps in old books, but they live in many other places besides libraries. Sometimes they become pests by entering houses in great numbers, but they are not parasitic. The head of a corrodentian (fig. 10 A) sits vertically on the neck as in the cockroach. A prominent feature of the face is the large clypeus (C/p), below which is the labrum. The mouth parts have the same relative position as in the cockroach. The mandibles (D) are strong, toothed jaws. The maxillae present an unusual structure; each appendage (G) has a basal stalk, or stipes (St), bearing the palpus (P/p) and a soft galeal lobe (Ga), but the lacinia (Lc) is a long, slender rod toothed or forked at its apex and entirely free from the stipes except for protractor muscles (47) arising on the latter. An opposing re- tractor muscle of the rod (32) comes from the head wall. The laciniae are thus independently protractile and retractile. The labium has a broad base on the back of the head (A, Lb), which bears distally a pair of small palpi (E, Plp) and two median lobes (Pgl). From within the latter a membranous flap (mm) curves back over the end of the hypopharynx. The most characteristic features of the corrodentian mouth parts, which recur also in most of the Mallophaga, pertain to the hypo- pharynx. By spreading apart the outer mouth parts of a booklouse, the broad, thick hypopharynx is readily exposed, and on its posterior surface (fig. 10 F) are to be seen a pair of large, smooth, convex, ovoid sclerites (/s). An apodemal process (ap) on the base of each 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 sclerite gives attachment to a muscle arising on the laterodorsal wall of the head. These conspicuous ovoid sclerites of the Corrodentia very evidently correspond, therefore, with the lingual sclerites of the cockroach (fig. 6 B, D, Js). Yet for many years they have been called “lingual glands,” and recently “salivary reservoirs,’ regardless of the fact that both Badonnel (1934) and Weber (1938) have shown conclusively that the plates in question are mere surface sclerotizations without a lumen, and that there is no glandular structure in the epi- thelium beneath them. The salivary glands of the Corrodentia open, as in the cockroach, into the pocket between the base of the hypo- pharynx and the base of the labium, somewhat on the hypopharyngeal surface of the pocket, but in no close relation to the lingual sclerites. A second characteristic feature of the corrodentian hypopharynx, again present also in many Mallophaga, is a conspicuous cup-shaped sclerite on the anterior hypopharyngeal surface just before the mouth (fig. 10 B, Sit). Typically this sclerite has a pair of basal cornua (y) and a pair of distal arms (a), the size and shape of which are variable in different species. On the basal processes (y) are attached a pair of muscles arising on the frons, and on the sides of the sclerite a pair of muscles from the mandibles. The position and musculature of this preoral hypopharyngeal sclerite of Corrodentia and Mallophaga thus leave no doubt that the sclerite is a modification of the suspensory sclerites and sitophore of the cockroach hypopharynx (fig. 6 A, Sit). It may, therefore, be termed the sitophore sclerite. According to Weber (1936) it forms in Corrodentia the bowl of a “mortar-and- pestle” apparatus (C), the “pestle”? being a small, hard, blunt process (Pes) of the clypeal wall of the preoral cavity operated by elasticity and a large group of muscle fibers (5)) arising on the outer wall ~ of the clypeus. Weber suggests that the apparatus is used for crushing fungus filaments and spores on which the insects feed. The mortar and pestle of the Corrodentia is thus a special adaptation of the cibarium of the cockroach. Finally it should be observed that the sitophore in both the Cor- rodentia and the Mallophaga is connected with the lingual sclerites by a branched filament (fig. 10 B, cf), the arms of which traverse the anterior surface of the hypopharynx, curve around the distal end, and attach on the lingual sclerites behind. It is the ductlike appearance of this filament that has given rise to the idea that the lingual sclerites are glands. The filament appears to be imbedded in the hypopharyn- geal wall, but Armenante (1911), Badonnel (1934), and Weber (1938) all agree that it is merely a cuticular fiber and has no con- tinuous lumen. If the filament were tubular it might be regarded NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 25 as a salivary conduit for the conveyance of saliva from the salivary pocket beneath the hypopharynx to the sitophore cup. Weber (1936) suggests that the purpose of the filament is to roll the hypopharynx Fic. 10—Head and feeding organs of booklice. Order Corrodentia. A, head of Speleketor flocki Gurney, side view. B, hypopharyngeal sclerites of Ectopsocus californicus (Banks), ventral (hypopharynx itself not shown). C, median vertical section of head of Ectopsocus briggst (McLachl.) (simpli- fied from Weber, 1936, 1938). D, mandibles of Troctes divinatorius (Mill.), anterior. E, end view of labium of Speleketor flocki Gurney. F, posterior wall of hypopharynx of same, showing lingual sclerites and muscles, latero- posterior view. G, left maxilla of same, anterior. a, distal arm of sitophore; ap, apodeme of lingual sclerite; cf, connecting filament; Clp, clypeus; FrG, frontal ganglion; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx ; Lb, labium, Lc, lacinia; Lm, labrum; /s, lingual sclerite; m, ligular fold of labium; Md, mandible; Oe, oesophagus; Pes, pestle; Pgl, paraglossa; Phy, pharynx; P/p, palpus; Sit, sitophore (mortar) ; S/O, salivary orifice; St, stipes; y, oral arm of sitophore. Muscles—sa, 5b, clypeal muscles of cibarium (5b, retractor of pestle) ; 6, precerebral muscle of pharynx; 76, muscle of lingual sclerite; 32, retractor of lacinia; 41, protractor of lacinia. toward the mouth when the sitophore sclerite, or “mortar,” is re- tracted by its frontal muscles. The food of most species of Corrodentia is said by Pearman (1928) to consist principally of the epiphytic green algae, Pleurococci, though some feed on microfungi, plant tissues, and even the dead bodies 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 and eggs of other insects. The food is gathered, according to Pear- man’s observations, with the mandibles; the lacinial forks are pro- truded against the feeding surface, and appear “to act as supporting props or levers during the vigorous grabbing bites with the man- dibles,” and they were not seen to be used in any other manner. Returning now to the Mallophaga we find a striking resemblance in their mouth parts to those of the Corrodentia. The mallophagan mandibles have the typical biting type of structure (fig. 11 B) ; they are strongly toothed, and are hinged to the head by the usual ball- and-socket articulations. Their position relative to the head, how- ever, differs characteristically in the two suborders. In the Amblycera the jaws lie in a plane parallel with the under surface of the head with their articulations dorsal and ventral; in the Ischnocera they hang vertically from anterior and posterior articulations. The maxillae of the Ischnocera are simple lobes, usually serrate on their mesal margins, palpi being entirely absent. In the Amblycera the maxillae are better developed (fig. 11 C), each having a short, segmented palpus. Because of the close connections of the maxillae with the labium (D) some writers have regarded the palpi as labial organs, but a comparison with the Corrodentia leaves little question that the mallophagan palpi are maxillary. In a few species in both the Amblycera and the Ischnocera there is associated with each maxilla a slender rod (G), usually forked at its extremity, which freely projects mesad of the maxillary lobe (D). This rod exactly corresponds with the free, rodlike lacinia of the Corrodentia (fig. 10 G, Lc); it has the same retractor muscle (32) arising on the head wall, and protractor fibers (47) arising in the stipes. Among the Mallophaga, therefore, the lacinia has been lost in the majority of species, and the persisting maxillary lobe is the galea. The use of the “lacinial forks” is not known, but their position and musculature suggest that they serve as picks. The labium of the Mallophaga is always a simple structure, con- sisting of a broad plate in the under wall of the head (fig. 11 A, D, Lb) bearing two or four small terminal lobes. The simplicity of the labium is in line with the simplification of the organ in the Corrodentia. The mallophagan labium can play only a passive role in feeding. The hypopharynx has the same essential structure in the Mal- lophaga as in the Corrodentia. In most species a variously developed but typically cup-shaped sitophore sclerite lies in the dorsal surface just before the mouth; more distally on the ventral surface is a pair of ovoid sclerites (fig. 11 F, H); and, connecting the two, a forked filament (cf) runs forward from the sitophore, and its branches NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 27 Fic. 11.—Head and mouth parts of biting lice. Order Mallophaga. A, head of Laemobothrion sp., ventral. B, mandibles of same, ventral. C, maxilla of Laemobothrion gypsis Kellogg. D, labium and maxillae of Ancis- trona vagelli (F.), ventral. E, sitophore sclerite on base of hypopharynx of Docophoroides brevis (Dufour), dorsal. F, hypopharyngeal sclerites of Laemo- bothrion gypsis Kellogg, ventral (hypopharynx itself not shown). G, maxillary fork (lacinia) of Ancistrona vagelli (F.). H, hypopharyngeal sclerites of Doco- phoroides brevis (Dufour), ventral. I, sitophore sclerite of hypopharynx of Ancistrona vagelli (F.). J, apical armature of hypopharynx of Gliricola por- celli (L.) (from Ewing, 1924). a, distal arm of sitophore sclerite; Ant, antenna; ap, apodeme of lingual sclerite ; cf, connecting filament; Ga, galea; Lb, labium; Lc, lacinia; Lm, labrum; Is, lingual sclerite; Md, mandible; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Plp, palpus; Sit, sitophore; Sf, stipes; y, oral arm of sitophore. Muscles.—32, retractor of lacinia; 47, protractor of lacinia. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 curve over the end of the hypopharynx to unite with the lingual sclerites. The sitophore, when present, is usually to be seen in whole- mounted specimens as a dark object in the center of the head (fig. 9 B, C). In shape it varies from a simple thick-walled cup (fig. 11 E) with short anterior and posterior arms, to a more elaborate structure with long anterior arms (F). In the genus Ancistrona (1) the anterior arms are united basally in a long median stalk, from which the distal parts branch into the margin of the hypopharynx. Among the mammal-infesting Gyropidae, certain species of Gliricola have the distal end of the hypopharynx produced into a pair of flat lobes (fig. 11 J), serrate in some species, unarmed in others, which appear to be terminal branches of the sitophore sclerite. The ovoid lingual sclerites are more constant in shape than is the sitophore sclerite, but they appear to be always present in connection with the latter. Ob- servations on the occurrence of the organs in different genera are given by Cummings (1913) and by Qadri (1936). No convincing explanation of the function of the sitophore sclerite in the Mallophaga has yet been offered, and an opposing “pestle” such as that of the Corrodentia has not been observed in this order. Because of its shape the sclerite is termed the “lyriform organ” by Armenante (1911), but functionally he says it is an “isopogometer,” meaning an instrument by which the mandibles are enabled to cut off equal lengths from the barb of a feather pushed back against the inner wall of the sitophore cup by the maxillae. Armenante’s ob- servations were made on Menopon gallinae L. (pallidum Nitz.) and an examination of the crop in a specimen of this species shows in fact that the barbs have been cut off at remarkably similar lengths; measurements give an average of about 308 microns, with but small variations either way. The distance from the base of the “meter” cup to the tips of the closed mandibles, however, is only 136 microns, and the incongruity can be seen in one of Armenante’s own figures. The barbs in the crop are fully as long as the entire head, and must extend through the pharynx and well back into the oesophagus before they are cut by the jaws. The food of the Mallophaga is principally feathers and hair, pieces of which, cut off by the mandibles, are stored in the crop, but no studies have been made on the process of digestion in the stomach. Certain species, however, have been observed to feed on blood or other exudations from abrasions of the skin. According to Ewing (1924) there is no evidence that Gyropus ovalis Nitz. or Gliricola porcelli (L.), parasitic on guinea pigs, feed on hairs. He says the second species may be seen to crawl down a hair until it comes to the NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 29 follicle, into which it appears to thrust the hypopharyngeal horns and to use them for abrading the skin, apparently to obtain oil from the follicle, and perhaps serum exuding from the wound. Finally, conclusive evidence has been given by Crutchfield and Hixson (1943) that two species of chicken body lice, Menacanthus stramineus Nitz. and Menacanthus sp., feed habitually on blood in addition to barbs and barbules of feathers. Nucleated red blood corpuscles were found in the crops of a majority of specimens examined, and made often a considerable part of the crop contents. The two species are said to “obtain blood by gnawing through the epidermis of the skin and rupturing the quill of pin feathers.” The other species of chicken lice appear to feed entirely on feathers. The alimentary canal of the Mallophaga presents two types of structure, according as the crop is a symmetrical enlargement of the oesophageal region (fig. 14 A, Cr), or a lateral diverticulum of the latter (B). The first condition is characteristic of the Amblycera, the second of the Ischnocera. In the ischnoceran Trichodectidae the crop has a narrow neck (C). The pieces of feathers or hairs swallowed by the insects are stored lengthwise in compact bundles in the crop, but no information is available on how they get from the crop into the stomach for digestion. The entire alimentary canal, except for the ischnoceran crop, is a simple tube. The Malpighian vessels (Mal) are always four in number, and there are six padlike bodies (A, rp) in the walls of the anterior end of the rectum. The Mallophaga are not known to be vectors of diseases or internal parasites of birds, though Rickettsia bodies have been found in several mallophagan species, as well as in insects of most of the other orders. The dog louse, Trichodectes canis (Deg.) (fig. 9C), however, is known to be a larval host of the common dog tapeworm, Dipylidium caninum (L.). The eggs of the worm, discharged with the feces of the dog and eaten by the louse, develop into larvae within the latter, and if an infested louse is then swallowed by the dog or another animal the larvae mature in the intestine of the host. The dog tape- worm sometimes occurs in man, especially in children, as a result of too intimate association with dogs. The few other mammal-infesting insects that have the biting type of mouth parts may be given brief mention here because of their entomological interest, though they have no relation to the Mallophaga, nor are they of any economic importance. Of the two that belong to the earwig order Dermaptera, one, Arixenia esau Jordan (fig. 9 E), is known only from a few specimens taken from the breast pouch of an East Indian bat, the other is represented by a number of species 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 of the genus Hemimerus (fig. 9 F) found only on African rats of the genus Cricetomys. The feeding habits of Arixenia are not known. Hemimerus probably makes a diet of any eatable material it can obtain on the body of the rat; its mandibles are of the typical biting structure with sharp apical teeth. The minute beaver beetle, Platy- psyllus castoris Rits. (fig. 9D), occurs abundantly on beavers, but it cannot be regarded as a true parasite in the defined sense of the term, because its mandibles are so reduced in size and so far apart that they can have no function as biting jaws, and the small maxillae bear only a pair of thin lobes fringed with long hairs. It has been suggested that the beetles feed on mites that infest the beaver, but they are themselves scarcely larger than mites, and it is not clear how they could attack even a small mite with their weak mouth arma- ture. Another and more plausible suggestion is that they feed on the oily secretion of the skin glands of the beaver. The larvae, on the other hand, said also to live on the beaver, have well-developed, sharp-pointed, overlapping mandibles. There are also beetles of the staphylinid genus Amblyopinus that live on marsupials and rodents in South and Central America, which are said to be “parasitic,” but the nature of their food has not been determined. iil. THE ELEPHANT LOUSE A remarkable louse found on elephants, Haematomyzus clephantis Piaget, has at present no abiding place in any of the recognized insect orders, nor has it been assigned an order of its own. It possesses many peculiar features that preclude its inclusion with the typical biting lice of the order Mallophaga, or with the typical sucking lice of the order Anoplura; it is a nonconformist louse that both bites and sucks, and bites in a most unusual manner. The head of Haematomyzus (fig. 12 A) is extended anteriorly in a long, narrow beak, at the end of which are a pair of small mandibles and certain other structures that may be vestiges of the maxillae and labium. A detailed description of the external anatomy of the insect is given by Ferris (1931). The mandibular teeth are turned laterally (By and the stronger movement of the jaws is outward. Ferris suggests that the beak is used to penetrate into the folds of the elephant’s skin, where the mandibles cause lacerations that permit an exudation of blood, which is then sucked up through the beak. While Haematomyzus is thus in its own way a “biting’’ louse, its jaws have no resemblance to the mandibles of Mallophaga. That the insect is also a sucking louse is attested by the presence of a well- NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS Syl developed pumping apparatus in its head, shown in a lengthwise section by Weber (1938a), whose figure is reproduced here (fig. 12C) in simplified form. From the tip of the beak a long, slender, tubular food meatus (B, fm) leads back into the wide part of the head, where it enlarges into a bulbous chamber (C, CbP) provided with a huge bundle of dilator muscle fibers (5) arising on the clypeal 1egion of the head wall. This chamber, therefore, clearly represents a conversion of the preoral cibarial pocket of the cockroach (fig. 7 A, Cb) into a sucking pump. Following it is a second pump (fig. 12 C, Fic. 12.—The elephant louse, Haematomyzus elephantis Piaget, its mandibles, and sucking apparatus. A, whole insect, female (length 3 mm.), dorsal (redrawn from Ferris, 1931). B, end of proboscis, dorsal wall removed, showing mandibles and their tendons, with food meatus opening between them (from Ferris, 1931). C, median vertical section of head, showing sucking apparatus (simplified from Weber, 1938a). Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; fm, food meatus; [*rG, frontal ganglion; Md, mandible; Phy, pharynx; S/Dct, salivary duct. Muscles.—5, dilator of cibarial pump; 6, 7, precerebral dilators of pharynx. Phy), which is the true pharynx, since its dilator muscles (6, 7) are separated from the cibarial dilators (5) by the frontal ganglion (FrG). Haematomyzus, therefore, is a mandibulate sucking louse. Its sucking apparatus is essentially identical with that of the piercing and sucking lice (fig. 13 D). IV. THE SUCKING LICE. ORDER ANOPLURA The lice of the order Anoplura are parasites of mammals only, including apes and man. Those that infest man are the human louse, Pediculus humanus L. (fig. 13 A), and the crab louse, Phthirus pubis (L.). The feeding apparatus of the Anoplura differs from that of the Mallophaga in three respects: first, the absence of functional mandibles ; second, the presence of a group of piercing stylets; and third, the development of a highly efficient sucking mechanism, The 3 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Anoplura are piercing-and-sucking lice, and feed entirely on blood. In their general appearance (fig. 13 A) they are readily distinguish- able from the Mallophaga (fig. 9), but in details of structure, aside from the mouth parts, there are likenesses between the two orders. The louse has a harmless appearance since no armature for in- flicting a wound is ordinarily visible. The head is horizontal as in the Mallophaga (fig. 13 A); its bluntly conical anterior end is pro- duced into a very small, snoutlike proboscis, probably formed of the labrum (D, Lm), in which is a terminal opening, the prestomum (Prstm), continued into a short slit on the ventral side. Through the under wall of the head, however, may be seen a bundle of minute rods almost as long as the head itself. These rods are the piercing stylets of the louse (D, Stl); they are protractile through the prestomum for at least half their length. The labrum is armed internally with small recurved teeth, and is eversible. When turned out (fig. 14 D), the teeth probably first secure a hold on the skin of the host, after which the stylets are inserted. The prestomum opens into a spacious preoral cavity within the head (fig. 13 D), the upper part of which is directly continued into the chamber of the cibarial pump (COP), while from the lower part there is extended a long sack (Sac) reaching almost to the rear end of the head, which contains the stylets (Stl). The stylets are usually said to be three in number, one dorsal in position (F, dStl), one ventral (vStl), and one intermediate (Stl), but there is a question as to whether the intermediate stylet may not be a part of the dorsal stylet. The stylets arise from the inner end of the ensheathing sack, and in the retracted position their tips lie just within the prestomum (D). The backward extension of the stylet sack beneath the mouth of the cibarial pump produces a tranverse suboral fold (D, sof), the upper wall of which is the floor of the pump (COP). The stylets are extremely slender rods grouped in a fascicle that lies freely in the enclosing sack. They are forked at their bases (fig. 13 F), and the divergent arms are attached on the walls of conical ingrowths of the posterior end of the sheath. The dorsal stylet appears to be made of two united halves with the edges curved upward, and distally rolled over each other to form a tube (E, dStl). The tube thus formed is the food canal (fc). The ventral stylet is the effective piercing organ, and its apex is armed with small teeth (F, wS#l) ; in cross section (E) it is seen to be channeled above and to embrace the other stylets. The intermediate stylet is extremely slender and contains the exit canal of the salivary duct (E, sc), which enters a bulbous enlargement of its base (F, S/Dct). The form of the stylets NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 33 Fic. 13.—A sucking louse and its feeding organs. Order Anoplura. A, the human louse, Pediculus humanus L., variety corporis Deg., adult male (length 2% mm.) (from Keilin and Nuttall, 1930). B, median vertical section of head of a late-stage embryo of Haematopinus eurysternus (Nitz.) (from Scholzel, 1937). C, cross section through sucking pump and stylets of embryo of same ready to emerge from egg (from Schdlzel, 1937). D, diagrammatic median vertical section of louse head (combination from figures by Sikora, 1916, and others). E, cross section through labral proboscis and stylets of Pediculus humanus (from Vogel, 1921). F, diagram of stylets in relative position. G, diagram of probable relation of food meatus trough to dorsal stylet during feeding. b, sclerites in inner wall of proboscis; Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; Clp, clypeus; dStl, dorsal stylet; fc, food canal of dorsal stylet; fm, food meatus; FrG, frontal ganglion; H, head; hf, hypostomal fold; Hphy, hypopharynx; iStl, intermediate stylet; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; mth, mouth of sucking pump; Mth, true mouth, opening into pharynx; Oe, oesophagus; Phy, pharynx; Prstm, prestomum; Sac, sack containing the stylets; sc, salivary canal; S/Dct, salivary duct; SoeG, suboesophageal ganglion; sof, suboral fold of hypopharynx; Sil, fascicle of stylets; Th, thorax; VNC, ventral nerve cord; wStl, ventral stylet. Muscles.—5, dilators of cibarial pump. 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 probably differs in different species of lice, since descriptions by different writers are not entirely consistent. Protraction and retraction of the stylets is effected by muscles attached on their bases and on the walls of the enclosing sack. The homology of the anopluran stylets with the mouth parts of biting insects has been a subject of dispute for many years. The mandibles of the sucking lice are generally conceded to be reduced to a pair of small plates buried in the walls of the preoral cavity. The dorsal stylet has been commonly regarded as the united maxillae, the intermediate stylet as the hypopharynx, the ventral stylet as the labium, and the embryological work of Fernando (1933) seemed to confirm this interpretation. More recently, however, Scholzel (1937) has reinvestigated the development of the mouth parts. He substantiates the claim that the ventral stylet is the labium, but he says that the maxillae as well as the mandibles are reduced, drawn aside, and merged into the lateral walls of the preoral cavity, and that the dorsal and intermediate stylets are both derived from the embryonic hypopharynx (fig. 13 B, C, Hphy). In an earlier paper, Peacock (1918) stated that the intermediate stylet in the adult of Pediculus humanus appears to be united with the dorsal stylet. Vogel (1921) says that the dorsal and intermediate stylets are united at their bases, but regards their distal parts as separate rods, though he observes that they are entirely “chitinous’” without any cellular elements. : The interpretation of the anopluran stylets given by Scholzel seems most reasonable if we put any faith in the idea that the Ano- plura are related to the Mallophaga. In the latter the maxillae are already much reduced and simplified, and it is not likely that they would form the important sucking tube of the Anoplura. On the other hand, since in any generalized insect the food passes over the hypo- pharynx on its way to the mouth, it would be only conformable with its function that the hypopharynx should form the food canal in a sucking louse. The salivary canal always pertains to the hypo- pharynx. Furthermore, however, it is clear that the suboral fold of the anopluran head (fig. 13 D, sof) must also be a part of the hypopharynx, since its dorsal wall is the floor of the cibarial pump (CbP), and therefore is specifically the sitophore of the cockroach. The sucking apparatus of the louse consists of two pumps. The first is a cibarial pump (fig. 13 D, CbP), since it is formed by the cibarial pocket of the preoral cavity and its clypeal dilator muscles ; the second is the pharynx (Phy). The identity of the two parts is attested by the position of the frontal ganglion (/7rG) between the NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 35 respective sets of dorsal dilator muscles. The true mouth of the louse (Mth), corresponding with that of the cockroach (fig. 7 A, Mth), is the entrance to the pharynx; the mouth of the cibarial pump (fig. 13 D, mth) lies above the edge of the suboral fold (sof), the intake orifice to the preoral cavity is the prestomum (Prstm), and finally, the primary food aperture is at the apex of the dorsal stylet. The suction of the cibarial pump, therefore, must be exerted on the blood in the tubular part of the dorsal stylet, and to insure this action there is a closed passage, or food meatus (D, fm), from the pre- stomum to the mouth of the pump. The meatus is variously termed “haustellum,” “buccal tube,” and “pumping pharyngeal tube” by different writers. It is formed by two opposite folds with strongly sclerotized, overlapping mesal margins that extend along the lateral walls of the preoral cavity from the sides of the suboral fold to the prestomum. Together these folds make a trough closed over by the inner clypeal wall. Presumably during feeding the trough fits into the proximal end of the food canal of the dorsal stylet (G) just within the labral proboscis. In this way the blood is conveyed through a series of closed passages from the wound to the pharynx. The salivary system of the Anoplura consists of two pairs of glands and their ducts lying in the thorax. The several ducts unite in the common duct of the head that enters the base of the intermediate stylet, through which the saliva may be conveyed into the puncture made by the ventral stylet. There appears to be in the Anoplura no mechanism for the forcible ejection of the saliva, such as is present in most other piercing insects. Three other glands are said to lie in the head and to open into the stylet sack; their secretion perhaps lubricates the stylets and probably serves also to hold them together in a fascicle during feeding. The alimentary canal of the sucking lice (fig. 14 E) is simpler than that of the Mallophaga in that there is no crop, the oesophagus (Oe) being a slender tube from the pharynx to the stomach. On the other hand, as in Mallophaga, there are two gastric caeca, four Malpighian tubules, and six rectal pads. The sucking lice, besides being highly undesirable parasites whose very presence may cause an unhealthy or diseased condition of the skin, are responsible for the spread of several human diseases. They have been shown to be capable of carrying the organisms of impetigo adhering to their legs or body hairs and to be infective when trans- ferred from a diseased person to another. The human louse, Pedi- culus humanus L., may harbor within its body the agents of relapsing fever (Spirochaeta recurrentis Lebert), typhus fever (Rickettsia 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 prowazeki de Rocha-Lima), and trench fever (a virus or a Ricket- tsia?). Only the second is known to be transmitted from one person to another by the bite of the louse, but any one of the three diseases may be inoculated from lice crushed on the skin or under the finger- nails. Fic. 14——Alimentary tract of Mallophaga and Anoplura. A, alimentary canal of Tetrophthalmus titan (Piaget), Mallophaga, Ambly- cera. B, alimentary canal of Docophoroides brevis (Dufour), Mallophaga, Ischnocera. C, crop and stomach of Geomydoecus geomydis (Osborn), Mal- lophaga, Ischnocera, Trichodectidae. D, everted proboscis of Pediculus humanus L., Anoplura (from Peacock, 1918). E, outline of Pediculus humanus L. and alimentary canal (from Sikora, 1916). Alnt, anterior intestine; Cr, crop; GC, gastric caecum; Mal, Malpighian tubules; Oe, oesophagus; Phy, pharynx; Rect, rectum; rp, rectal pads; Vent, ventriculus (stomach). V. CHE PLIES. (ORDER: DIPTERA The members of this order are named Diptera, meaning “two wings,” because they never have more than two wings; but there are wingless species. They are regarded by entomologists as the insects properly termed flies, though some are known as mosquitoes, gnats, and midges. They do not include the Mayflies, the stoneflies, the dragonflies, the butterflies, and others with fly names but four wings. In writing, the true flies may be distinguished from these other so-called flies by separating the two words of their names, as sand fly, black fly, horse fly, house fly, etc. The Diptera are all sucking insects; none of them bites in the ordinary sense of the word, since in none are the mandibles jawlike. The mouth parts of some species, however, are constituted for pierc- NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 37 ing, and such species that habitually feed on blood are those commonly known as “biting’’ flies. Though the species of flies are numerous, most of them are entirely harmless to us, and yet the order includes some of the most dangerous of the disease and parasite vectors that attack man, other mammals, and birds. The larvae of many species, moreover, live parasitically within the bodies of animals; those that thus destroy other insects are, from our standpoint, beneficial species, those that infest domestic animals or man are abhorred pests. The dipterologists are not agreed as to how the flies should be classified within the order, but for practical purposes it is most convenient to recognize the three groups commonly known as the Nematocera, the Brachycera, and the Cyclorrhapha. Differences in the feeding apparatus of biting species appear to be consistent with this classification. The Nematocera may be distinguished super- ficially by their antennae, which are generally long and slender and contain usually many small segments. The Brachycera have short antennae, and the number of segments is generally small but is vari- able. In the Cyclorrhapha also the antennae are short, never having more than three segments, but each antenna bears a prominent plumed bristle ; the flies of the cyclorrhaphous group are named and distin- guished by the fact that the adult emerges from a pupa case by pushing off a circular cap from the anterior end of the latter. Of the flies described in this section, the mosquitoes, the sand flies, the biting midges, the black flies, and the net-winged midges belong to the Nematocera ; the horse flies, the snipe flies, and the robber flies are members of the Brachycera; the eye gnats, the tsetse flies, the horn flies and stable flv, the louse flies, and the bat “ticks” are included in the Cyclorrhapha. MOSQUITOES. FAMILY CULICIDAE The head and proboscis of a mosquito (fig. 16D) at first sight would appear to have little in common structurally with the head and mouth parts of the cockroach, but a closer study shows that there is an entire conformity, except for simplification of the mouth parts in the mosquito and other superficial modifications adaptive to a different manner of feeding. On the front of the mosquito’s head (fig. 16 A) the large bases of the antennae lie close together and are set into such wide mem- branous areas that the frons (Fr) is reduced to a narrow median bar, somewhat expanded above the antennal bases, and forked below into a pair of arms diverging laterally to the lower ends of the huge 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 compound eyes. The vertical bar of the frons is marked by a median groove continuous from the coronal sulcus (cs) that divides the vertex (Vx). Below the frons is the strongly protruding, triangular clypeus (A, C, Clp). In the groove between the frons and the clypeus are the anterior tentorial pits (at) having the same relative position as in the cockroach (fig. 2 B, at). Many writers have made the mis- take of regarding the frons of the Diptera as a part of the vertex, and have therefore called the clypeus the “frontoclypeus.” On the back of the head in the mosquito the small neck foramen (fig. 16 B, For) lies above the level of the eyes, and the cranium is closed below by a hypostomal sclerotization (Hst) that gives a rigid support to Fic. 15.——Examples of mosquitoes in natural positions. Order Diptera, family Culicidae. A, female of Aedes aegypti (L.); Culex mosquitoes also often take this attitude. B, male of Anopheles punctipennis (Say); some Anopheles stand with the body more steeply tilted and the hind legs elevated. the base of the proboscis. The narrow neck is mostly membranous (D), but on each side is a small cervical sclerite uniting the head with the thorax. The mouth parts of the mosquito are all much elongated and simplified as compared with those of the cockroach, and in the natural condition (fig. 16D) only the beaklike labium is seen, since the other parts are enclosed in a deep groove of the labium, except for the maxillary palpi, which project freely at the base of the proboscis. The full complement of parts, present at least in the female, may be exposed by manipulation (E), and it is then seen that the proboscis is made up of six slender stylets representing the labrum, the man- dibles, the hypopharynx, and the maxillae, in addition to the ensheath- ing labium. The labrum (fig. 16 FE, Lm) is the thickest and strongest of the stylets; it is sharp-pointed terminally and deeply channeled on its under surface (H, Lim). On its base is attached a large muscle arising on the median part of the clypeus (fig. 17D), and on each side a NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 39 smaller muscle from a lateral leverlike apodeme of the clypeus. The muscles serve evidently to lift the labrum or close it against the labium, but the labrum is firmly hinged to the clypeus and cannot be independently protracted or retracted. Most students of Diptera term the labrum the “labrum-epipharynx,” as if it were composed of two primarily separate parts. Robinson (1939), however, properly rejects this dual concept and nomenclature. The insect labrum in its origin is a simple, preoral outgrowth of the head, and, though its posterior wall is called the “epipharyngeal” surface, the labrum itself is a single appendicular lobe. The mandibles vary in shape in different species of mosquitoes, but they are generally the slenderest of the mouth parts; in the species here illustrated they are needlelike bristles (fig. 16 H, Md) somewhat expanded near the ends. The mandibles of the mosquito are said to have each only one muscle, termed a retractor by Robinson (1939), which arises on the tentorium. In most mosquitoes mandibles have been observed to be present only in the females, but Vogel (1921) says that very short, weak mandibles occur in the males of Culex and Anopheles. The maxillae are less simple than the other members of the mosquito’s mouth parts, since each includes a long flattened blade (fig. 161, Ga) and a four-segmented palpus (P/p), and is provided with an internal apodemal rod (Ap) for the attachment of muscles. The maxillary blade, which is sharp-pointed and armed with recurved teeth near the end (H, Mx), is commonly interpreted as the galea, the absent lobe being presumably the lacinia. The palpus is short in the female except in the Anophelini, but in the male it is usually as long as the proboscis. The internal muscle-bearing rod is often regarded as the maxillary stipes, since there are no external parts in the mosquito representing the basal plates of the maxillae. The rod is of an apodemal nature, however, and no evidence has been given of its supposed stipital derivation. The maxilla is provided with protractor and retractor muscles (J), the protractors being inserted on the end of the apodeme, the retractors on the base of the galea and palpus. The maxillary blades, therefore, are the only stylets that are freely protractile and retractile by independent move- ments. The hypopharynx is a slender, flattened stylet (fig. 16 H, Hphy), traversed throughout its length by the salivary canal (sc), which opens on the pointed tip. The hypopharynx has no muscles and hence no independent movement; it probably serves principally for the hypodermic injection of the saliva into the wound made by the other stylets. 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Lin TL] Hphy a Mx Fic. 16.—Head and mouth parts of a female mosquito. A-F, H, I, Aedes aegypti (L.), G, Anopheles maculipennis Meigen. A, head and proboscis, anterior. B, same, posterior. C, base of proboscis, clypeus, and associated structures, left side. D, head and proboscis. E, same, stylets separated from labium. F, distal end of labium, anterior. G, cross section of proboscis (from Vogel, 1921a). H, distal parts of stylets. I, basal parts of maxilla. J, musculature of a maxilla, diagrammatic. Ap, maxillary apodeme; at, anterior tentorial pit; Clp, clypeus; cs, coronal sulcus; E, compound eye; fc, food canal; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hst, hypostoma; Lb, labium; Lbl, labellum; LG, labial gutter; Lig, ligula; Lm, labrum; mel, labellar muscles; Md, mandible; Mds, mandibles; Mx, maxilla; M-xae, maxillae; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Nv, nerve; Pdc, pedicel of antenna; Plp, palpus; Prb, proboscis; pt, posterior tentorial pit; sc, salivary canal of hypopharynx; Scp, scape of antenna; Tnt, tentorium; Thc, theca; Tra, trachea; Vx, vertex. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 4I The elongate labium of the mosquito corresponds with the distal appendicular part of the labium in the cockroach, known as the prementum (fig. 2D, Prmt), the basal plates (mentum and _ sub- mentum) being absent in the mosquito. The labium of all Diptera terminates with a pair of variously shaped lobes called the labella, which probably represent the labial palpi of other insects. In the mosquito the labella are somewhat oval and each labellum is two- segmented (fig. 16 F, Lbl). Between the labella is a tapering median lobe, the ligula (Lig), which in Diptera is not subdivided. The sclerotized outer wall of the dipterous labium, proximal to the labella, is termed the theca (Thc) ; the anterior wall, invaginated to form the groove containing the stylets, is the labial gutter (LG), which terminates on the ligula. The labella are movable by muscles arising within the theca, each lobe being provided with an abductor and an adductor muscle. The only muscles attached on the base of the labium are a pair arising on the maxillary apodemes (J), which, since the labium can have little movement on the head, are probably protractors of the maxillae. The position of the stylets within the labial gutter is shown in cross section of the proboscis at G of figure 16. The almost tubular labrum (Lm) lies on top well enclosed by the labial margins. Below the labrum is the hypopharynx (Hphy), but the mandibles (Md) intervene between the labrum and the hypopharynx, except at the base of the proboscis, just as they do in the cockroach, though if they are slender they may assume a lateral position. Finally, beneath the hypopharynx against the floor of the labial gutter are the maxillary blades (Mx). The food canal of the proboscis, through which the imbibed liquid ascends to the mouth, is the channel of the labrum (fc). The saliva is conducted in the opposite direction to the tip of the proboscis through the salivary canal (sc) of the hypopharynx. The internal cavity of the labium contains blood, the labellar muscles (mcl), nerve trunks (Nv), and tracheae (Tra). The sucking apparatus of the mosquito consists of two powerful pumps (antliae) contained within the head. One lies in the clypeal region (fig. 17 A, CbP) and is a derivative of the preoral cibarial pocket of such insects as the cockroach (fig. 7 A, Cb); the other (fig. 17 A, PhP-p) lies in the back part of the head and is a modi- fication of the pharynx. The first pump, however, has generally been called the “pharynx,” or “pharyngeal pump,” and the second the “oesophageal pump,” though some writers, following Nuttall and Shipley (1901-3), term the first pump the “buccal cavity” and recog- nize the second as the pharynx. 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The cibarial pump (antha cibarialis) is an elongate capsule with the upper or anterior wall ordinarily collapsed against the posterior wall, so that the lumen of the organ in cross section is narrowly crescent-shaped. The posterior wall (fig. 17 A, E, CbP) is strongly sclerotized and has the form of a basinlike trough; it is directly continuous distally with the anterior wall of the hypopharynx (Hphy), and its inner end is produced into a pair of short lateral cornua (4), on which are attached two muscles (A, 13, 74) clearly corresponding with the muscles inserted on the oral arms of the hypopharynx in the cockroach (fig. 6 A, B, 13, 14). There can be little doubt, there- fore, that the floor of the first pump in the mosquito is the concave sitophore of the anterior wall of the hypopharynx in the cockroach (fig. 7B, Sit). The dorsal wall of this pump in the mosquito is continuous with the inner wall of the labrum (fig. 17 A, E, Lm) ; it is flexible and elastic and on its midline are inserted paired sets of powerful dilator muscles (5) having their origins on the strongly arched clypeus (C/p). These muscles thus correspond with the dilators of the preoral cibarial pocket of the cockroach (fig. 7 A, 5a, 5b). The transformation from the generalized cockroach type of structure in the mouth region to the specialized dipterous structure illustrated in the mosquito may be conceived to have been brought about by carrying the primitive mouth angles out from the base of the clypeus to the base of the labrum, or, in other words, by a lateral union of the inner surface of the clypeus with the edges of the cibarial surface of the hypopharynx. In some such way, at least, the functional mouth-opening has been reestablished at the base of the labrum, and what was primarily a preoral food space between the clypeus and the hypopharynx has been converted into a closed chamber. This chamber is potentially a sucking organ by reason of the clypeal muscles at- tached on its roof, which by contraction function as dilators of the lumen. The cibarial pump is present in all Diptera, and in similar form is the only sucking organ of such insects as Thysanoptera and Hemiptera. The pharyngeal pump (antlia pharyngealis) of the mosquito is an elongate, gourd-shaped organ (fig. 17 E, Phy; A, C, PhP-p) with a slender neck curving upward and backward from the cibarial pump and expanding behind the nerve ganglia of the head into a large bulb, from which the oesophagus (Oe) proceeds through the neck into the thorax. This pump is a part of the stomodaeal section of the alimentary canal, but it lacks the usual stomodaeal sheath of circular muscle fibers, except at the anterior and posterior ends. The walls of the bulb are hardened to form three plates, one dorsal, the NO 7, BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 43 Fic. 17.—The sucking apparatus of a mosquito. A, diagrammatic vertical section of head of a female mosquito, to left of median plane. B, cross section of pharyngeal pump of Culex (from Thompson, 1905). C, Aedes aegypti (L.), pharyngeal pump exposed by removal of facial wall of head. D, same, muscles of labrum. E, same, cibarial and pharyngeal pumps and their musculature, left side. at, anterior tentorial pit; Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; Clp, clypeus; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; FrG, frontal ganglion; h, hinge of labrum on cibarial pump; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hst, hypostoma; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; lvr, clypeal lever; MaPlp, maxillary palpus; mth, mouth of cibarial pump; Qe, oesophagus; PhP-p, pharyngeal pump, posterior in the mosquito and other Nematocera; Phy, pharynx; sc, salivary canal; S/Dct, salivary duct; SIP, salivary pump; SoeG, suboesophageal ganglion; Tmt, tentorium; y, cornu of cibarial pump (oral arm of hypopharynx in cockroach, fig. 6A). Muscles.—5, dilators of cibarial pump; 6, 7, precerebral dilators of pharyn- geal pump; 8, postcerebral dorsal dilator of pharyngeal pump; 17, lateral dilator of pharyngeal pump; 13, retractor of cibarial pump; 74, protractor of cibarial pump ; 18, dilator of salivary pump. (Compare with muscles of cockroach, fig. 7.) 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 other two lateroventral, which are flexibly hinged to each other along their margins. Four huge muscles activate the pharyngeal pump, a dorsal pair (fig. 17 A, B, E, 8) arising on the vertex behind the brain, corresponding thus with the postcerebral dorsal dilators of the pharynx in the cockroach (fig. 7A, 8), and a lateral muscle on each side (fig. 17 A, B, E, rz), corresponding with the posterior lateral dilator of the pharynx in the cockroach (fig. 7A, 71). When the pharyngeal pump is collapsed (fig. 17 B) its three plates are curved inward by their own elasticity, almost obliterating the lumen between them; contraction of the opposing muscles then causes a wide expansion of the lumen by springing the plates outward. Two other pairs of muscles (A, E, 6, 7) are attached on the neck of the pharyngeal pump, which represent the two precerebral dilators of the pharynx in the cockroach arising on the frons (fig. 7 A, B, 6, 7). The frontal ganglion (FrG) and its brain connectives in each insect separate these frontal pharyngeal muscles from the clypeal muscles of the cibarium. A pharyngeal pump like that of the mosquito is present at least in all bloodsucking flies of the group Nematocera. The Brachycera also have a pharyngeal pump, but it is formed from the anterior part of the pharynx (figs. 25 J, 27C, PhP-a) and is activated by the precerebral dilator muscles. It is necessary, therefore, to distinguish between the posterior pharyngeal pump of Nematocera and the anterior pharyngeal pump of Brachycera. The Cyclorrhapha have only the cibarial pump. No information is at present available as to the functional relations of the two pumps of the mosquito, but it may be supposed that their respective expansions and contractions have opposite rhythms, one contracting as the other expands, so as to give a continuous flow to the stream of liquid food. Valvular structures within the pumps have not been noted, but sphincter muscles at the junction of the cibarial and pharyngeal pumps and behind the second pump are present in most cases, presumably so in the mosquito, which constitute regulatory apparatus. Beneath the cibarial pump is still another pumping mechanism present in all Diptera, which is the salivary pump (antlia salivarialis). The salivary pump of the mosquito (fig. 17 A, SIP) is a small capsule with a strong cup-shaped lower wall and a thin, elastic upper wall ordinarily collapsed into the cavity of the lower wall. The com- mon salivary duct of the head (S/Dct) opens into the rear end of the pump, and the distal end of the latter is continued into the slender, tubular salivary canal (sc) that traverses the hypopharynx ‘to its NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 45 tip (fig. 16H, Hphy). The salivary pump is operated by a pair of dilator muscles (fig. 17 A, 18) arising on the posterior wall of the cibarial pump, evidently corresponding with one pair of the hypo- pharyngeal muscles of the salivarium in the cockroach (fig. 6 B, 18). The expulsive power of the pump results from the elasticity of the elevated anterior wall, which forcibly springs back into the concavity of the posterior wall when the muscles relax. The salivary pump is clearly a derivative of the salivarium of generalized insects, but the Diptera differ from most other insects in that the saliva is dis- charged through a canal of the hypopharynx. The salivary glands of the mosquito lie in the thorax (fig. 19 A, SIGId) ; their ducts converge forward into the head and unite to form the common duct (S/Dct) that goes to the salivery pump. Each gland is three lobed (B), and each lobe contains a slender axial duct that branches from the end of the main duct. The gland cells are so large that the surfaces of the lobes have a coarsely reticulate appearance. In Aedes aegypti (fig. 19 A), the salivary glands embrace the anterior end of the ventriculus, but in the figure the left gland is shown displaced laterally. It is these glands that are penetrated in Anopheles mosquitoes by malarial plasmodia that have entered the body cavity from the alimentary canal, and it is through the common salivary duct that the parasites are conveyed into the blood of a vertebrate host for their further development. The salivary duct of Anopheles, therefore, as dramatically stated by Nuttall and Shipley (1901), has played a large part in human history, for along it has passed the cause of disease and death that has ruined cities and devastated countries, and that, it might be added, has conquered armies and brought about the downfall of nations. The general conformation of the head and proboscis of the mosquito (fig. 16D) would suggest that the insect attacks its victim first by a vicious jab. And yet the labium, which looks so formidable, is not a piercing organ nor does it enter the wound (fig. 18). The only stylet that appears strong enough to effect a puncture by a thrust of the head is the labrum. The hypopharynx is an injection needle; the mandibles in most species are too weak for effective piercing. The maxillae alone have a musculature capable of giving them an independent back-and-forth movement on the head. The biting pro- cedure of the mosquito, as deduced by Robinson (1939) from direct observation and a study of the mechanism of the feeding apparatus, is essentially as follows: A puncture of the skin is first effected by a thrust of the head transmitted to the bundle of stylets held in the labial groove, The maxillary blades are then alternately by their 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 own muscles driven deeper into the wound, each blade holding by means of its recurved teeth against the reverse pull of the retractors, which draw the head down and thus stretch the protractors of the opposite stylet. By repeated alternating action of the maxillae, each blade successively overreaching the other, the whole bundle of stylets is drawn into the wound. As the stylets sink into the skin, the labium, holding the fascicle between the labella, bends backward beneath Fic. 18.—Aedes aegypti (L.) feeding in the web of a frog’s foot. (Redrawn from Gordon and Lumsden, 1939, with addition of neck sclerite.) At left, actively flexible end of stylet fascicle curved as it probes the tissue of the web. At right, the fascicle penetrated into a capillary. the head (fig. 18). The bending of the labium, which appears to be a passive result of the lowering of the head, is believed by Rob- inson, and also by Gordon and Lumsden (1939) to be effected by muscles attached on its base. The adhesion of the stylets when the fascicle is freed from the labium is attributed by Robinson to the presence of a viscous liquid that bathes the stylets in the labial gutter. The action of the stylets within the tissue of the victim has been studied by Gordon and Lumsden (1939) by allowing mosquitoes to bite the thin web of a frog’s foot, the latter being so arranged that the course of the stylets in the transparent web could be observed under a microscope. The stylet fascicle, these writers report, is worked into the tissue by an oscillatory movement and a series of NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 47 minute forward thrusts. Within the web the fascicle usually makes a sharp curve in a horizontal plane (fig. 18), and the tip bends actively in various directions as if feeling its way. Apparently, however, the fascicle movements are entirely fortuitous, there being no evidence of sensory influence, the fascicle often going close to a capillary without entering it, or sometimes penetrating clear through a blood vessel. Probing may continue in some cases for some minutes, in others a blood source is found at once. Blood may be obtained either directly from within a capillary, or from a pool of blood that has escaped into the tissue from a punctured vessel. When a capillary is tapped by insertion of the fascicle there is no hemorrhage, the blood being all taken up by the mosquito. The entrance of the fascicle is said to cause an “enormously accelerated” flow of blood. The same writers observed the discharge of saliva from the probing fascicle into the tissue, and also its injection directly into a capillary. The ability of the stylet fascicle to make the movements described above may seem remarkable, but independent motions of the fascicle when separated from the labium were earlier recorded by MacGregor (1931), who says the unsheathed fascicle “is capable of making vertical, horizontal and rotary movements, which enable the insect to replace the biting armament within the labium without much difficulty.” The movements are perhaps to be explained by assuming some differential action of the muscles inserted on the bases of the stylets. The alimentary canal of the mosquito (fig. 19 A) begins with the entrance to the pharyngeal pump (PAP), the cibarial pump, as al- ready explained, being a development of the preoral food cavity. From the pharyngeal pump the slender oesophagus (Oe) goes through the neck into the front of the thorax, where it joins the ventriculus (Vent). Near its posterior end the oesophagus gives off three pouches, known as the oesophageal diverticula, two of which are dorsal. (ddv), and one ventral (vdv). The diverticula vary in shape and size according to their contents, but in unfed specimens of Aedes aegypti the dorsal diverticula have the form of small, flat, elongate lobes with slender stalks (C) ; they diverge upward and outward from the oesophagus and lie against the anterior wall of the mesothorax. The single ventral diverticulum is a large sack (A, vdv) extending from a narrow neck far back into the ventral part of the abdomen. This diverticulum corresponds with the crop of other Diptera. The ventriculus, or stomach (A, Vent), for most of its length is a narrow tube. From the slightly enlarged anterior end, embraced by the salivary glands, it extends upward and posteriorly in the thorax, 4 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 turns backward into the abdomen, and beyond the third segment of the latter expands into a large sack, the rounded posterior end of which joins the enlarged anterior end of the intestine. The anterior intestine is a short, slender tube (4/nt) thrown into a small loop before it unites with the rectum (Rect). The sacklike anterior part of Fic. 19—The alimentary canal and salivary glands of a mosquito, Aedes aegypti (L.) a A, outline of body and proboscis of a female, showing alimentary tract and salivary glands, the left gland displaced laterally. B, the salivary glands. C, the oesophageal diverticula shown in relation to the oesophagus and ventriculus, ventral view. D, outline of the rectal sac, showing rectal papillae projecting from inner wall. AlInt, anterior intestine; CbP, cibarial pump; ddv, dorsal diverticulum of oesophagus; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; Mal, Malpighian tubules; Oe, oesophagus; PhP, pharyngeal pump; MFect, rectum; rp, rectal papillae; S7Dct, salivary duct; S/Gld, salivary gland; SIP, salivary pump; vdv, ventral diverticulum of oesophagus (crop) ; Vent, ventriculus, or stomach. the rectum contains six small, soft, conical papillae projecting from its inner wall (D, rp). These rectal papillae, characteristic of Diptera and certain other insects, replace the padlike rectal organs of such insects as the cockroach (fig. 8, rp). From the anterior end of the intestine, close to the stomach, are given off five Malpighian tubules (fig. 19 A, Mal). These excretory tubules are relatively short and thick in the mosquito; they are looped and convoluted about the intestine and the posterior end of the stomach. The nature of the sucking act and the destination of imbibed NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 49 liquids in the alimentary canal of the mosquito have been investigated by Kadletz and Kusmina (1929), MacGregor and Lee (1929), MacGregor (1929, 1931), and Filleborn (1908, 1932). It is found that a mosquito having the stylets unsheathed from the labium, with the labium removed, or the tip of the proboscis cut off will feed much more readily and on a greater number of substances, even poisonous solutions, than will a mosquito with a normal proboscis. This method of experimentation is called “forcible feeding.” Fulleborn claims that by its use the sucking act of the mosquito is demonstrated to be a pure reflex, that mosquitoes having the labium removed will always drink any liquid into which the stylets are inserted, and will continue to suck even to the bursting of the abdomen, or when the body is removed from the head. The other writers, on the contrary, contend that the action of the pump is a conditioned reflex, since they find that mosquitoes without a labium will not always feed, and may show a choice when different solutions are offered at the same time, and furthermore, they say that a rupture of the abdomen from “forcible feeding’ was never observed in their experiments. Blood taken by natural continuous feeding is said by MacGregor and Lee (1929) and MacGregor (1929, 1931) to go directly into the stomach (ventriculus), though Kadletz and Kusmina (1929) observe that it is found in both the crop and the stomach. In dis- continuous feeding, however, MacGregor says the blood accumulates first in the oesophageal diverticula. On the other hand, nonprotein liquids, particularly sugar solutions, or blood with an admixture of honey, also glycerin and poisonous liquids are stored first in the diverticula, from which they are gradually delivered to the stomach. The oesophageal diverticula, according to MacGregor, serve also as “air separators” for the removal of air bubbles from the imbibed liquid. Diseases, of which mosquitoes are known to be vectors, or have been shown to be possible vectors, include malaria of man, bird malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, human and equine encephalomye- litis, fowl pox, and filariasis. Malaria, caused by a blood-inhabiting protozoon, Plasmodium, of which mosquitoes are necessary inter- mediate hosts, is transmitted to man by species of Anopheles mos- quitoes ; the bird form of the disease is carried by species of Culex and Aedes. Yellow fever, now regarded as a virus disease, is trans- mitted normally by Aedes aegypti (L.), but other species have been shown experimentally to be capable of its transmission. Dengue fever, a virus disease of the Tropics, but sometimes epidemic in Temperate regions, is carried by species of Aedes, including aegyfti. 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The virus of equine encephalomyelitis, which in the United States occurs in an eastern and in a western type, and the virus of human encephalitis have been shown to cause sleeping sickness in both horses and man. Many other mammals and also birds are susceptible to the disease. Mosquitoes have long been suspected of being vectors, and various species of Aedes have been shown experimentally capable of transmitting one form or the other of equine encephalomyelitis, while Culex tarsalis Cog. has been found in nature infected with the western form of equine encephalomyelitis, and with that of human encephalitis. (See Hammon et al., 1941; Giltner and Shahan, 1942.) Species of Aedes have been demonstrated to be potential vectors of : the virus of fowl pox; and finally, both Aedes and Culex are known transmitters of nematode worms producing filariasis of man and of dogs. SAND FLIES. FAMILY PSYCHODIDAE Most members of the psychodid family are small, harmless, nectar- feeding flies that look like tiny moths on account of their dense hairy covering and the way the wings are spread out flat or slopingly over the body when at rest. Species of the genus Flebotomus Rondani, known as sand flies, however, are bloodsuckers and painful biters. The species are relatively few, but they are widely distributed, particularly in warm regions; only one species has been recorded from the United States. Flebotomus is a small, long-legged, very hairy fly a few millimeters in length (fig. 20, hairs not shown). When not in flight the wings are held upward and outward at an angle of about 45 degrees from the body with their inner margins sloping downward toward each other. The wing venation shows that the insect belongs to the Psychodidae, though otherwise the fly has little resemblance to other members of its family. The long head with its strong proboscis projects downward from beneath the thorax at right angles to the axis of the body, which is elevated on the slender legs, so that the whole configuration of the insect is one suggestive of readiness for giving a vigorous stab with the beak. The head of Flebotomus (fig. 21 A, B, C) is elongate dorsoven- trally, and is suspended from the neck (B, Cvs) by its upper part. The front of the head (A) has the same structure as in the mosquito. The frons (Fr) consists of a median bar expanded above the antennae, and forked below into a pair of arms extending laterally to the lower ends of the eyes. The large clypeus (C/p) is separated from the frontal arms by an epistomal groove containing laterally NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 51 the anterior tentorial pits (at). The back of the head (C), unlike that of the mosquito, is mostly nonsclerotized, there being an extensive membranous area from the neck foramen to the base of the proboscis. The feeding apparatus of Flebotomus argentipes Ann. and Brun. has been well described and illustrated by Christophers, Shortt, and Barraud (1926), and that of F. papatasii (Scopoli) by Adler and Theodor (1926). The species here figured, F. verrucarum Towns. of South America, does not differ essentially from the others. The proboscis is relatively short as compared with that of the mosquito, Fic. 20.—A sand fly, Flebotomus verrucarum Towns., female. Order Diptera, family Psychodidae. A very hairy fly, but hairs removed to show structure. (Length of body 2 mm.) but it is thick and strong (fig. 21 A, B, C) ; the long maxillary palpi are doubled up at its sides. The broad labrum (A, Lm) tapers to a spiny point (F) ; the mandibles (present only in the female) are bladelike (D), finely toothed near the ends (H), and each is provided with an abductor and an adductor muscle (D, 27, 28) inserted on opposite sides of an articular point (a); the broad hypopharynx is traversed to its tip by the salivary canal (G). The maxillae differ from those of the mosquito in that they are suspended by a pair of slender rods lying in the membranous posterior wall of the head (C, St) and attached to the cranial margins below the neck foramen. These rods clearly represent the stipes, or stipes and cardo, of a generalized maxilla. The maxillary blade, or galea (E, Ga), is slender, finely serrate on its inner margin, and provided with a row of small subapical teeth on the outer margin (I). The theca of the broad, strong labium (C, Thc) bears a pair of soft labellar lobes at its end; 52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 I Fic. 21—Head and mouth parts of Flebotomus verrucarum Towns., female. A, head and proboscis, anterior, left antenna removed. 3B, same, lateral. C, same, posterior. D, left mandible and its muscles, anterior. E, left maxilla, anterior. F, distal end of labrum. G, distal end of hypopharynx. H, distal end.of mandible. I, distal end of maxillary galea. a, articular point of mandible; at, anterior tentorial pit; Clp, clypeus; Cvx, neck; E, compound eye; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Lb, labium; Lbl, labellum; Lm, labrum, MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Plp, palpus; Pmt, post- mentum; sc, salivary canal; St, stipes; Thc, theca. Muscles—27, abductor of mandible; 28, adductor of mandible. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 53 proximal to its base is a small triangular plate (Pmt), probably a postmental sclerite. The musculature of the mouth parts of Flebotomus is fully de- scribed by Christophers, Shortt, and Barraud (1926). As in the mosquito, the maxillae alone are capable of an independent back-and- forth movement on the head. The musculature of the mandibles can give the latter only movements in a transverse plane. While ordinarily the mandibles lie between the labrum and the hypopharynx, according to Adler and Theodor (1926) they are moved apart during feeding, perhaps to enlarge the wound, and allow the hypopharynx to come into apposition with the labrum. The channel of the latter is thus closed by the hypopharynx, and the slender spines on the ends of the two apposing blades (fig. 21 F, G) interlock to form a strainer guarding the entrance of the food canal. With the penetration of the stylets into the wound, the labium is probably pushed up into the membranous posterior wall of the head. The labellar lobes are said by Adler and Theodor to spread apart and expose the broad ligula which supports the stylets. The sucking apparatus of Flebotomus consists of the same two pumps as in Culicidae, the first cibarial, the second pharyngeal. Sand flies, because of their biting propensities and prevalence where certain diseases abound, have been suspected of being carriers of a number of diseases, and have been subjected to several thorough investigations. Only in the case of pappataci fever, however, a filterable virus disease of southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Mediter- ranean region generally, has a positive conviction been obtained, the species involved here being Flebotomus papatasw (Scopoli). Cir- cumstantial evidence points strongly against FP. verrucarum Towns. as being the natural vector of South American verruga, a disease caused by a rodlike coccoid organism named Bartonella bacilliformis, endemic in certain high valleys on the western slopes of the Andes in Peru, and reported from Colombia and Ecuador. It has been shown by Hertig (1942) that verruga can be transmitted experi- mentally to monkeys by the bite of an infected Flebotomus, and yet only in a very small percentage of flies collected in the verruga zone has the causative organism been found. Less convincing is the evi- dence against F’. argentipes Ann. and Brun. as the vector of kala- azar, or black sickness, a leishmanian disease of India and China. Nor has Flebotomus been shown to be responsible for the spread of Oriental sore, or the forms of South American leishmaniasis, but Southwell and Kirshner (1938) suggest that possibly inoculation may result from the crushing of infected flies on the skin. 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 BITING MIDGES. FAMILY HELEIDAE The family of the biting midges, which are called also punkies and no-see-ums, has more commonly been known as Ceratopogonidae, or included in the Chironomidae. The members of the family are small or minute gnatlike flies, notable principally as biting pests, though some are vectors of parasitic nematodes. The species best known anatomically belong to the genus Culicoides Latr. The structure of the head and mouth parts of C. pulicaris (L.) is the subject of a detailed account by Jobling (1928) ; C. furens (Poey) is here given (fig. 22) as a representative of the genus. Culicoides (fig. 22 J) is short-legged by comparison with Flebot- omus, the head is small, the proboscis short, but the head hangs downward from the receding anterior wall of the thorax, against which it can be braced for giving a punch with the proboscis. An anterior view of the head (A) shows that the clypeus does not pro- ject.as in the mosquitoes and sand flies, and is united with the frons above it. At each side of the clypeus is a wide membranous area, which is crossed ventrally by a slender bar (mda) that supports the mandible. The back of the head (B) resembles that of Flebotomus, its median part below the neck foramen being membranous ; the mem- brane contains a pair of stipital rods (St) of the maxillae, and a small postmental plate (Pmt) of the labium. The mouth parts of Culicoides include the usual stylets, enclosed in the labial gutter, which is covered in front by the broad labrum (fig. 22 A, Lm). The shape and relative size of the labrum, the mandibles, the hypopharynx, and the maxillae are shown at C, D, E, and F of the figure ; apical details of the labrum, the maxillary galea, and the hypopharynx are more enlarged at G, H, and I. The salivary canal of Culicoides, as shown by Jobling (1928), traverses the proxi- mal third of the hypopharynx and then, emerging on the anterior surface of the latter, continues its course to the apex as an open channel (K, sc). The mandibles deserve particular attention. According to Jobling they are present in both sexes of Culicoides pulicaris but are rela- tively weak in the male. Each mandible of the female (fig. 22 D) is a thin, flat blade, narrowed proximally but having an obliquely truncate, finely toothed distal margin receding mesally. At about the middle of the upper surface is an elongate depression, which is shown by Jobling to be reflected on the under surface as a corres- ponding elevation. The mandibles overlap, the left always on top of the right, and in this position the elevation on the under surface of NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—-SNODGRASS 55 Fic. 22—A biting midge, Culicoides, female, head and mouth parts. Order Diptera, family Heleidae. A-J, Culicoides furens (Poey); K, Culicoides vexans (Staeger). A, head and proboscis, anterior, antennae removed. B, same posterior. C, labrum. D, right mandible, anterior. E, hypopharynx. F, maxilla. G, end of labrum more enlarged, showing food canal on under surface. H, end of galea. I, end of hypopharynx. J, Culicoides furens (Poey), female (length 1.75 mm.). K, cross section through middle of proboscis of Culicoides vexans (from Jobling, 1928). AntC, cavity where antenna removed; Clp, clypeus; E, compound eye; fc, food canal; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lb, labium; LOI, labellum; Lm, labrum; /Md, left mandible; mda, mandibular arm of head; Mx, maxilla; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Plp, palpus; Pmt, post- mentum ; rid, right mandible; sc, salivary canal; St, stipes; Thc, theca. Muscles——27, cranial abductor of mandible; 28, cranial adductor of mandible; 30, tentorial adductor of mandible. 56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 the left mandible fits into the upper depression of the right (K). When thus interlocked the two mandibles resemble a pair of scissors. On the base of each mandible are inserted three muscles (D), two of which (27, 28) are the usual cranial abductor and adductor, the third (30) is an accessory adductor arising on the tentorium. The mandibles of Culicoides, therefore, have transverse movements as in other insects, and in spite of their scissorlike appearance it is im- probable that they can work in the manner of a pair of scissors; fur- thermore, the elevation on the lower side of the right mandible (K, rMd) fits into the open salivary channel of the hypopharynx (sc). Between the left mandible and the concave under surface of the labrum is the food canal of the proboscis (K, fc). The sucking apparatus of Culicoides is the same as that of Culi- cidae and Flebotomus; the cibarial and pharyngeal pumps of C. pulicaris are fully descibed by Jobling (1928), though the first is termed the “pharynx,” and the second the “oesophageal pump.” The action of the mouth parts of Culicoides during feeding has been observed by Jobling, who says that the labrum, the hypopharynx, and the mandibles together compose a piercing organ, which performs forward and backward movements, the mandibles remaining locked together between the other two parts. Though the maxillary blades cannot be seen, their muscular equipment would indicate that their movements are also those of protraction and retraction. It may be noted that the membranization of large parts of the lower facial area and the back of the head in Culicoides allows the whole group of stylets and also the labium to be mobile. As the stylets penetrate the wound, the long labella of the labium bend backward and the short theca is retracted. The most annoying species of biting midges in the United States belong to the genera Culicoides Latr., Helea Meigen (Ceratopogon Meigen), and Leptoconops Skuse. The bite of these flies is painful and the irritation may last for several days. The midges are obnoxious principally as pests at summer resorts and to agricultural workers. Certain tropical or subtropical species, however, such as Culicoides austeni Carter, Ingram, and Macfie of Africa, and C. furens (Poey) of the Antilles and the Gulf of Mexico are intermediate hosts and vectors of parasitic filarial worms of man. BLACK FLIES. FAMILY SIMULIIDAE The members of this family, known as black flies because of their dull and blackish color, or also as buffalo gnats because of the humped appearance of the thorax (fig. 23), are small flies characterized by NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—-SNODGRASS 57 the strongly declivous front of the thorax and the pendent head, which hangs on the neck below the level of the body. Many of the species are notorious biting pests, not only of man but of domestic animals and birds, and some are vectors of disease agents. Gibbins (1938) says, “among the insects which torment man there is perhaps none which inflicts so cruel a bite as Simulium damnosum,” of Africa. Only the females are known to be bloodsuckers ; the males are Fic. 23—A black fly, Simulium venustum Say, female. Order Diptera, family Simuliidae. (Length 3.5 mm.) said to have the same mouth parts as the females, but the stylets are much weaker. The familiar species belong to the genera Simulium, Prosimulium, and Eusimulium, but formerly all were included under the first name. The structure of the head and mouth parts is well known ; the more recent papers on the subject are by Smart (1935) on Simulium ornatum Meigen, by Gibbins (1938) on Simulium damnosum Theobald, and by Krafchick (1942) on Eusimulium lascivum Twinn. Simulium venustum Say is here described and figured. - The head of Simulium is almost circular as seen from in front (fig. 24 A), or behind (B). On the face, the clypeus (A, Clp) sits like a broad shield below the antennae, while the frons (Fr) is almost 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 obliterated between the antennal bases. On the back of the head (B) the cranial walls come together below the neck foramen (For) and separate the latter from a wide ventral plate (Pmt), which is probably the postmentum of the labium. The proboscis is short and thick (fig. 24 A, B) and is far over- reached by the long maxillary palpi. The broad labrum is hinged to the lower edge of the clypeus (A, C, Lm), and is armed distally (E) with a pair of strong, recurved tricuspid teeth; its under sur- face (D) is deeply channeled. The mandibles (C, Md, G) much resemble those of Culiceides; they overlap each other, the left over the right, and are held in this position by an interlocking mechanism as in Culicoides, so that they strikingly resemble a pair of scissors (J). Though Gibbins (1938) says of the mandibles of Simulium damnosum that they lie “right over left,’ his figure shows them in the reverse position. Each mandible is articulated at its base on a short arm of the cranium (C, mda), and is provided with strong abductor and adductor muscles (K). The hypopharynx (I, Hphy) is a broad, somewhat spatulate blade, the anterior wall of which is directly continuous with the floor of the cibarial pump (CbP). At its base is the salivary pump (S/P), and the wide salivary canal from the pump opens, as in Culicoides, on the proximal half of the anterior hypopharyngeal wall, whence it is continued distally as an open channel. The maxillae have each (F) a short but strong basal stipes (St) by which the appendage is attached to the head at the side of the postmental plate of the labium (B, St). The galea (F, Ga) is thick, tapering, and strongly armed with recurved mar- ginal teeth. The five-segmented palpus (Plp) is relatively long. The short, wide labium (H) is soft and compressible; on its posterior surface is a pair of thecal plates (Thc), but they are shorter than the large, mostly membranous labella (LO/). The labial gutter en- closes the mandibles, the hypopharynx, and the maxillary galeae, which are ordinarily concealed beneath the labrum (A, Lim). The method of feeding by Simulium is discussed by Gibbins (1938), who says the “biting appears to be performed in two stages. First, the initial incision is made by the mandibles, which function in the manner of a pair of scissors; the maxillae are then inserted and the puncture is enlarged sufficiently to allow the food channel to reach the blood level.” That the mandibles can “snip the skin” between their serrated distal ends as Gibbins suggests does not seem plausible considering that their musculature (fig. 24 K) is of the usual abductor type, and does not appear to be in any way adapted to giving the mandibles a scissor movement on their interlocking mechanism. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 59 Fic. 24.—Head and mouth parts of Simulium, female. A-I. Simuliwm venus- te oo)? J, Simulium damnosum Theobald; K, Prosimulium magnum D. an é A, head and proboscis, anterior. B, same, posterior. C, labrum and left mandible. D, labrum, posterior. E, tip of labrum more enlarged, anterior. F, maxilla and detail of galea. G, mandible. H, labium, posterior. I, hypo- pharynx and floor of cibarial pump, posterior. J, mandibles in crossed and locked position, anterior (from Gibbins, 1938). K, base of left mandible and its muscles, mesal (from Krafchick, 1942). at, anterior tentorial pit; CbP, cibarial pump; Cl/p, clypeus; For, neck fora- men; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lbl, labellum; Lm, labrum; Md, mandible; mda, mandibular arm of head; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Pge, postgena; Plp, palpus; Pmt, postmentum; ft, posterior tentorial pit; sc, salivary canal; SIP, salivary pump; St, stipes; Thc, theca; Tnt, tentorium. Muscles —27, cranial abductor of mandible; 28, cranial adductor of mandible; 30, tentorial adductor of mandible. 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Jobling (1928), as already noted, says that the mandibles of Culicoides remain locked together during the act of puncturing the skin. Simulium has a strong cibarial pump, but the pharyngeal pump is much less developed than in the other bloodsucking Nematocera. Krafchick (1942) describes the sucking apparatus of Eusimulium lascivum Twinn, a nonbiting species, and shows that the usual musculature is present. The protractor and retractor muscles in- serted on the posterior cornua of the cibarial pump, he says, effect also a movement of the hypopharynx, and produce an elevation and depression of the labrum. The biting simuliids in the northeastern parts of the United States and eastern Canada are perhaps the worst of the pests that detract from the pleasures of outdoor life; in the southern States they are a scourge to livestock and other animals. Prosimulium hirtipes (Fries) and Simulium venustum Say are well known to campers and fisher- men in the Adirondacks as daytime pests, for, unlike the mosquitoes, the black flies swarm in bright sunshine and in the heat of the day. In the South the torment of animals by the bites of black flies is extreme. Of the southern buffalo gnat, Eusimulium pecuarum (Riley), Bishopp (1942) says: “In severe outbreaks of the southern buffalo gnat in the lower Mississippi Valley many mules die, cattle and horses are reduced in flesh, milk flow is cut, and the coats of the animals become rough and unsightly.”’ In 1923 great numbers of domestic and wild animals were killed in Romania by invading swarms of Simulium columbaczense (Schonberg) (Patton and Evans, 1929; Herms, 1939). Another pest of domestic animals in the southern part of the United States is Simuliuwm meridionale Riley, known as the turkey gnat because it is particularly injurious to set- ting turkeys. In addition to the annoyance and damage caused by their bites, the simuliids are further indicted on the charge of spreading disease. Various species are involved in the transmission of filarial worms of man in Mexico, Central America, and Africa, and of cattle in Australia. The parasites taken into the stomach of the fly undergo a metamorphosis, escape into the blood cavity, and soon find their way into the head and proboscis. The exit of the microfilariae from the proboscis, as Gibbins (1938) suggests, is probably made by penetrating the delicate, membranous inner walls of the labial labella, whence the parasites enter the wound made by the piercing stylets of the fly. Among wild and domesticated ducks in various parts of the United States a high mortality, especially in the young, is some- NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 61 times caused by the blood-inhabiting protozoon Leucocytozoon anatis Wickware, said to be transmitted by Simulium venustum Say. NET-WINGED MIDGES. FAMILY BLEPHAROCERATIDAE The members of this family are small, mosquitolike, nematocerous flies characterized by a network of fine lines in the wings extending irregularly between and across the true veins. The flies are found along water courses in hilly or mountainous country, since the larvae are aquatic and live only in fast-flowing streams. The females of the adult fly are predaceous, mostly on other insects, but some of them are bloodsuckers, and are therefore occasional “biters.”” The mouth parts resemble those of the Simuliidae, except that the man- dibles are not interlocked. The mandibles of the female are long, strong, sharp-pointed blades, each armed along its inner edge with a fringe of long slender teeth slanted upward, and on the outer margin with a few smaller teeth directed downward. The net-winged midges occur in North and South America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, but as biting pests they are not important. HORSE FLIES. FAMILY TABANIDAE The Tabanidae, called horse flies, deer flies, and gad flies, are well- known insects because some of them viciously and persistently attack us when their habitats are invaded, especially along country road- sides and in dry wooded areas; they are probably the most severe biting pests against which horses, cattle, and deer have to contend. Furthermore, certain species are accused, on experimental evidence at least, of being vectors of such diseases as anthrax and surra, carriers of the filarial parasite Loa loa, and possible transmitters of tularemia. The species are mostly large for flies, and the black horse fly (fig. 25 A) is one of the largest of the Diptera. The horse flies introduce us to the second major group of the Diptera, known as the Brachycera because the antennae (fig. 25 B, Ant) are shorter than in most Nematocera and have fewer segments. Though the mouth parts of the tabanids do not differ essentially from those of Nematocera, there are features in the head and the sucking apparatus that are characteristic of Brachycera. An examination of the anteroventral aspect of the head of Tabanus (fig. 25 B) shows that the clypeal area (C/p) is defined, though not completely set off from the rest of the cranium, by an epistomal sulcus (es) strongly arched upward almost to the bases of the antennae. In the lateral parts of the sulcus are the elongate anterior 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 tentorial pits (at, at). The median part of the clypeus is marked by two vertical grooves, one on each side (cg), which cut out a small median area (clp) to which the labrum (Lm) is attached. On the inner surface of the head the clypeal grooves form two ridges (I, cr) running just laterad of the attachments of the dilator muscles (5) of the cibarial pump (CbP). These features are perhaps of little significance in a study of the horse fly, but they should be kept in mind because of their bearing on the interpretation of less easily understood modifications in the clypeal region of the Cyclor- rhapha. y The stylets of the horse fly are all large and are easy to study since they are not so completely concealed in the trough of the labium (fig. 25 D) as are those of the biting Nematocera. The labrum (B, E, Lm) is broad and tapering, but its soft edges and blunt point suggest that it is not an effective piercing organ; its under surface is deeply excavated to form the food canal (L, fc). The mandibles of the female are large, sharp-pointed blades (F) overlapping each other in the labial gutter (L, Mds) beneath the labrum, and thus closing the food canal except at the base of the proboscis, where the mandibles diverge laterally to their attachments on the head. Each mandible is firmly affixed to the cranial wall, so that it evidently can have no movements of protraction and retraction, but it is provided with the usual equipment of abductor and adduetor muscles (F) and is readily moved in a transverse plane. The maxillae have strong stipito-cardinal bases (G, St, Cd) implanted in the membranous posterior wall of the head (C), from which are suspended the slender galeal stylets (G, Ga) that converge into the labial gutter, and the thick two-segmented palpi (Plp) that project as free ap- pendages at the sides of the proboscis (D). In the labial gutter (L) the galeae lie beneath the mandibles and the hypopharynx. The slender, relatively weak hypopharynx (H, Hphy) is a trifle shorter than the labrum, and is traversed to its rounded tip by the salivary canal (sc) from the salivary pump (SIP). The labium (fig. 25 H, Lb) has a long basal stalk, the external sclerotization of which is the theca (C, H, Thc), and a pair of large terminal lobes (Lb/), which are the labella. Within the theca is the labial gutter. In their size, shape, and structure the labella of the Tabanidae differ’ from these organs in the other bloodsucking Diptera, and much resemble the labella of the nonpiercing Cyclor- rhapha that feed on exposed liquids. Ordinarily the labellar lobes of Tabanus are folded together (C), but they can be spread out (H) to form a large, flat, oval disk. Their soft under surfaces are ———— is ! FF ae Hohy CbP SIP Fic. 25.—Horse fly, Tabanus, head, mouth parts, and sucking apparatus. Order Diptera, family Tabanidae. A-H, Tabanus atratus F.; I-K, Tabanus sulcifrons Macq. A, the black horse fly, Tabanus atratus F., female (natural size). B, antero- ventral view of head and labrum. C, mouth parts and their attachments on the head, posterior. D, head and mouth parts, anterior. E, labrum and sucking apparatus, left side. F, mandible. G, left maxilla. H, hypopharynx, labium, and salivary pump, left side. I, transverse section through clypeus and cibarial pump, diagrammatic. J, sucking apparatus and associated parts, left side. K, pharyngeal pump expanded. L, cross section of proboscis (from Vogel, 1921). Ant, antenna; at, anterior tentorial pit; CbP, cibarial pump; Cd, cardo; cg, clypeal groove; Clp, clypeus; clp, median plate of clypeus; cr, clypeal ridge; E, compound eye; es, epistomal suture; fc, food canal; For, neck foramen; Fr, frons; Ga, galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hst, hypostoma; Lb, labium; LbDl, labella; Lm, labrum; Irmcl, labral muscle; Md, Mds, mandible, mandibles; mth, mouth of cibarial pump; Mz, maxilla; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Oe, oesophagus; P/lp, palpus; PhP-a, pharyngeal pump, anterior in Brachycera, Pmt, postmentum; pt, posterior tentorial pit; sc, salivary canal; SID, salivary duct; SIO, salivary orifice; SIP, salivary pump; St, stipes; Thc theca; Tnt, tentorium; y, cornu of cibarial pump. Muscles —5, dilators of cibarial pump; 6, 7, precerebral dilators of pharyn- geal pump; 78, dilators of salivary pump; 27, abductor of mandible; 28, adductor of mandible; 30, tentorial muscle of mandible. 5 (63) 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 traversed crosswise by numerous fine, closely set channels (“‘pseudo- tracheae’”’) that lead into a pair of median lengthwise channels. In the spread position of the labella the labellar disk is deeply cleft anteriorly between its lobes as far as the end of the labial gutter. There is no projecting ligular lobe; the labial gutter terminates with a narrow, slightly concave margin. The method of biting and feeding by the horse flies has not been carefully observed, but the structure of the mouth parts suggests that the puncture is formed by the mandibles and the maxillary galeae, and that the labial labella are used in the manner of nonpiercing flies for collecting the exuding blood. When the labrum is pressed down between the labella it overreaches the end of the labial gutter, and if the tips of the mandibles are now separated from beneath the labrum the entrance of the food canal of the latter is directly exposed in the labellar cleft. The male of Tabanus has a complete set of feeding organs, including the mandibles, but the parts are less strongly developed than in the female. Male horse flies are not known to suck blood, and are said to feed on plant juices. The sucking apparatus of the horse flies includes a strongly de- veloped cibarial pump and a pharyngeal pump. The cibarial pump is of the usual type of structure (fig. 25 J, CbP) ; its dilator muscles arise on the median plate of the clypeus (1, J, clp) between the clypeal ridges (cr). The pharyngeal pump (J, PhP-a), on the other hand, differs entirely from that of the bloodsucking Nematocera ; it is formed from the pharyngeal region immediately following the cibarial pump, and is activated by the precerebral dilators of. the pharynx (6, 7). The pharyngeal pump of Tabanus is a suction cup held between the posterior cornua (J, y) of the cibarial pump. Its broad inner end, ordinarily collapsed into the cup, is an elastic disk on which is attached the second pair of dilator muscles (7). These muscles by contraction pull out the disk, which, on relaxation of the muscles, snaps back by its own elasticity. The action is easily demon- strated on a dead specimen. The blood evidently is sucked out of the cibarial pump and driven on into the oesophagus. SNIPE FLIES. FAMILY RHAGIONIDAE The family of the snipe flies has been more commonly known as Leptidae. At least two genera include biting and bloodsucking species ; one is Symphoromyia Frauenfeld with several species in the western parts of the United States, the other is Spaniopsis White of Australia. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 65 Symphoromyia atripes Bigot, here illustrated (fig. 26 A), is some- what smaller than a house fly. The head is set on the front of the thorax as in the horse flies, instead of hanging below it as in most of the biting Nematocera. On the face (B) the large clypeus (CIP) Fic. 26.—A snipe fly, Symphoromyia atripes Bigot, female, head and mouth parts. Order Diptera, family Rhagionidae. A, female fly (length 5.5 mm.). B, head and proboscis, anterior. C, man- dible. D, labrum, anterior. E, maxilla. F, hypopharynx, floor of cibarial pump, and salivary pump with its muscles (78), posterior. at, anterior tentorial pit; CbP, cibarial pump; Clp, clypeus; clp, median lobe of clypeus; Fr, frons; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; sc, salivary canal; SIP, salivary pump; y, cornu of cibarial pump. is distinctly defined, and in its lower part a small median lobe (C/p) supporting the labrum is set off by a pair of lateral grooves. The frons is represented by wide lateral areas between the eyes and the clypeus, but it is almost obliterated between the antennae by the upward encroachment of the clypeus. The piercing and sucking organs, as shown in the figure (C, D, E, F), resemble those of the 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Tabanidae. The female snipe flies are said to be vicious biters, but they are not known to be involved in the spread of disease. ROBBER FLIES. FAMILY ASILIDAE The robber flies do not attack man or any vertebrate animals ; their victims are other insects or spiders, which is fortunate for us since as biting insects they probably have no equal. They kill their prey outright, and suck out not only its blood but all the softer tissue of the body as well. The asilids (fig. 27 B) are insects of medium or large size; their favorite habitat is any dry, open, sunny place where flight is not obstructed, visibility is good, and prospective victims have little protection. They capture other insects of all kinds and sizes, including members of their own family, but they show a prefer- ence for flies and Hymenoptera, and do not hesitate to attack stinging species stich as bees and wasps. The piercing organ of the robber flies is the hypopharynx (fig. 27 A, Hphy), a strong, sharp-pointed shaft that can be protruded beyond the other mouth parts. In a study of the feeding habits of the Asilidae, Whitfield (1925) has shown that the victim is stabbed usually in the head or the thorax, and that in such cases death is generally instantaneous. The head puncture in most cases is inflicted just above the neck. Death evidently results from the injection of a lethal secretion, since insects are not readily killed by mere wounds. The same, or another, secretion introduced into the body of the captive soon reduces to a liquid condition the entire body content, which is then sucked out so completely that the victim when discarded is little more than an empty skin. According to Whitfield the killing secretion must be that of the thoracic glands corresponding with the usual salivary glands of other insects, which, being discharged through the hypopharynx, is injected at the time of the fatal stroke. The secretion that subsequently digests the visceral organs Whit- field believes is produced by a pair of glands in the labium that open into the distal part of the labial gutter. The formidable proboscis of the asilids projects forward menac- ingly from the lower part of the head (fig. 27 A). It is composed of the labrum, a pair of maxillae, the hypopharynx, and the labium; mandibles are absent in each sex. The labrum (Lm) is short and triangular. The maxillae have slender galeal blades (4), concave on their inner surfaces, which normally are applied against the sides of the hypopharynx; the bristly palpi are unsegmented. The labium is hard and rigid; its base contains a large thecal sclerite (Thc) and NO: 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 67 supports the pair of long, horny labella (Lbl), which ensheath the distal parts of the maxillae and hypopharynx (D). The labial gutter is produced into a strong ligular tongue between the labella (D, Lig), on which slides the hypopharynx (Hphy). Just proximal to its Fic. 27.—Robber fly, head, mouth parts, and sucking apparatus. Order Diptera, family Asilidae. A, Proctacanthus sp., head and proboscis. B, example of an asilid. C, Diog- nites discolor Loew, male, sucking apparatus and associated parts, left side. D, Machimus atricapillus Fln., cross section of proboscis through labella (sim- plified from Whitfield, 1925). E, same, section of proboscis near base (from Whitfield). CbP, cibarial pump; Clp, clypeus; fc, food canal; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lbl, labellum; Lig, ligula; Lm, labrum; Mx, maxilla; Oe, oesophagus; PhP-a, pharyngeal pump (anterior) ; sc, salivary canal; S/P, salivary pump; Thc, theca; y, cornu of cibarial pump. Muscles.—5, dilators of cibarial pump; 7, precerebral dilators of pharyngeal pump; 173, retractor of cibarial pump; 74, protractor of cibarial pump. sharp apical point the hypopharynx is deeply grooved on its upper surface (D) and fringed above with stiff hairs slanted backward (A). The hypopharyngeal groove is the first part of the food canal (D, fc) ; farther back, as shown by Whitfield, the function of conduction is taken over by the canal of the labrum, which toward the mouth becomes a closed channel (EF, fc). Beneath the labrum the hypopharynx flattens out and contains only the salivary canal (sc). The sucking apparatus of the Asilidae is of the same type of 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 structure as that of the Tabanidae in that it consists of a cibarial pump (fig. 27 C, CbP) and an anterior pharyngeal pump (PhP-a). The pharyngeal pump, however, has an external sheath of circular muscle fibers, and lacks the first pair of cranial muscles of the tabanids (fig. 25 J, 6). On each cornua of the cibarial pump are inserted a slender retractor muscle (fig. 27 C, r3) and a stronger protractor (74). These muscles, directly effecting movements of the cibarial pump, Whitfield says, “are the means of extruding and retracting the hypopharynx.” The cibarial pump has no connection with the head wall, and is movable by reason of the flexibility of the clypeus at the base of the labrum. SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE CYCLORRHAPHA Because of certain distinctive features in the feeding apparatus of the Cyclorrhapha, a study of the biting species included in this group may be expedited by a preliminary discussion of the typical cyclorrhaphous structure. The familiar nonbiting cyclorrhaphous flies are the fruit flies, the pomace flies, the house flies, the blow flies, and the flesh flies; biting species include the horn flies, the stable flies, the tsetse flies, and the louse flies. The Cyclorrhapha lack mandibles, and most of them have no maxillary blades, though the maxillary palpi are retained. The proboscis, therefore, consists generally of only the unpaired members of the mouth parts, namely, the labrum, the hypopharynx, and the labium (fig. 28F). These parts are suspended from a conical membranous projection of the lower part of the head, known as the rostrum, or basiproboscis (A, Rst). The true proboscis, cor- responding with the proboscis of Nematocera and Brachycera, is termed the haustellum (Hstl). The anterior wall of the rostrum contains one or two clypeal plates (clp), and supports the maxillary palpi (M-«Pip) ; within the rostrum are a pair of labral apodemes, the cibarial pump and the salivary pump. The labrum and the hypopharynx have the same structure in the Cyclorrhapha as in other flies; the labrum is excavated by the food canal (fig. 28 F, fc), which is closed by the hypopharynx below it, and the latter is traversed by the salivary canal (sc). The labrum, however, is provided with a pair of long internal apodemal rods (1, J, YAp) for the attachment of muscles. These rods are often regarded as being parts of the maxillae, but they are articulated to the basal angles of the labrum, and their muscles move the proboscis. The labium consists of a proximal stalk, the prementum, and of a NO: 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 69 pair of labellar lobes (A, Lb/). The prementum is covered posteriorly by a thecal sclerite (F, Thc), and is excavated anteriorly by the labial gutter (LG), in which are lodged the labrum and the hypopharynx. In most of the nonbiting Cyclorrhapha the entire proboscis can be folded up against the lower side of the head, or even completely retracted within the peristomal margin of the cranium; in biting forms it is usually rigid and projecting, though it may be retractile into a pouch of the head wall. The labial labella in most nonbiting species are large, soft, oval lobes that can be flexed upward against the sides of the haustellum or spread out flat to form a broad disk, the so-called “oral sucker,” by which liquid food may be collected and conveyed to the food canal of the haustellum. When the labella are thus spread out (fig. 28 B), the cleft between their anterior parts is ordinarily closed by the apposition of the lobes except for an oval aperture at its inner end, which is termed the prestomum. because it lies at the entrance to the food canal of the labrum and thus constitutes a provisional mouth of the proboscis. The under surfaces of the labella, as in the horse flies, are grooved transversely by canaliculi (““pseudotracheae”’ ) that serve as food conductors. The canals are kept open, and their flexibility preserved, by minute riblike thickenings of their walls, forked at one end and simply expanded at the other, that leave an open line along the exposed surfaces of the grooves, and entrance holes at their own forked extremities. In the blow fly (B) the first 6 or 8 and the last 11 or I2 transverse canaliculi of each labellum open respectively into anterior and posterior longitudinal collecting channels that lead toward the prestomum; the intermediate canaliculi, 12 in number on each side, discharge directly into the latter. At the mesal ends of the intermediate canaliculi is an armature of inter- canicular spines, or toothlike processes (t), three rows of them on each labellum, and, in addition, flanking the open ends of the canals themselves are pairs of canalicular teeth. These labellar spines collectively are known as the prestomal teeth; their number, size, shape, and arrangement vary in different species. The spines or teeth of the labella give many of the nonbiting flies a means of rasping, scraping, or even of puncturing the feeding surface. The various methods of feeding employed by the blow fly are graphically illustrated by Graham-Smith (1930). Certain other species have carried the development of the labellar teeth so far that the proboscis becomes an effective scarifying organ, as in Philaematomyia crassirostris (Stein), a bloodsucking fly of Africa, in which the soft, protrusible, strongly armed, terminal lobe of the 7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 labium (fig. 28 C) is evidently a cutting instrument. This fly, Austen (1909) says, “in all probability feeds by cutting through the epidermis with the teeth at the end of the tubular extension (of the labium), and then sucking up the blood in the ordinary way.” In most of the biting flies of the cyclorrhaphous group, however, in which the prestomal teeth are cutting organs, the labella have become reduced to small, horny plates, and the labium itself has been converted into a strong piercing shaft. A case of direct development of the labella into a pair of biting jaws occurs in Melanderia mandibulata Aldrich, a brachycerous fly of the family Dolichopodidae, which feeds on soft-bodied inverte- brates along the seashore. The sucking apparatus of the cyclorrhaphous Diptera consists of the cibarial pump alone, the head stomodaeum being a narrow oesophageal tube with no pharyngeal dilatation. The pump has the same structure and mechanism as in other Diptera (fig. 28D), but its side margins are united with lateral plates (/pl) deeply inflected from the edges of the clypeus (cl/p). The associated parts thus form a stirrup-shaped structure, known as the fulcrum because the entire proboscis, including the pump, swings on the clypeal hinge with the frons. To understand the nature of the fulcrum in the Cyclorrhapha we must refer back to the horse fly, in which it was noted that the median part of the clypeus, giving attachment to the dilators of the cibarial pump (fig. 25 B, clp), is partially cut out by a pair of grooves (cg) that form ridges on the inner surface (I, cr). In the Cyclorrhapha and some of the Brachycera, the median, muscle-bearing plate of the clypeus becomes isolated by a membranization of the surrounding clypeal area, and is thus flexible on its hinge with the frons. The clypeal plate in such cases takes on various shapes, but in the Cyclor- rhapha it has typically the form of an inverted V (fig. 28 A, clp), sometimes with an accessory hinge plate (D, /) uniting it with the frons. To brace the now unsupported clypeus against the pull of the dilator muscles of the pump, the clypeal ridges (G, cr) have been extended inward as a pair of plates (H, /pl) that unite with the edges of the pump (CbP). The whole structure, or so-called fulcrum, is thus movably suspended in the peripheral clypeal membrane of the rostrum, but is hinged to the frons by the upper edge of the clypeal plate, or by an intervening hinge plate, and hence swings forward or backward with the protraction or retraction of the probos- cis. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 71 Fic. 28—Special features of the feeding apparatus in cyclorrhaphous flies. A, head of a female house fly, Musca domestica L., with proboscis extended. B, under surface of the labellar disk of a female blow fly, Calliphora. C, pro- boscis of Philaematomyia crassirostris (Stein) (insignis Austen), with strongly developed prestomal teeth (from Austen, 1909). D, fulcrum and associated parts of Calliphora, left side. E, cross section of the hyoid of Calliphora. F, cross section of the haustellum of a female house fly. G, diagrammatic cross section through clypeus and cibarial pump of a horse fly (see fig. 25 I). H, corresponding section of the fulcrum of a cyclorrhaphous fly. I, labrum, hypopharynx, siphon, and cibarial pump of a stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), posterior surface. J, showing relation of the siphon to bases of labrum and hypopharynx in the stable fly, left side. K, clypeus and cibarial pump of Mydas clavatus Drury, a brachycerous fly. Ant, antenna; CbP, cibarial pump; c/p, clypeus; cul, canaliculi of labellum; cr, clypeal ridge; fc, food canal; Fr, frons; h, hinge plate of clypeus; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hsitl, haustellum; Hy, hyoid sclerite; Lbl, labellum; LG, labial gutter; Lm, labrum; /pl, lateral plate of fulcrum; /rAp, labral apodeme; M-xPip, maxillary palpus; Oe, oesophagus; Prstm, prestomum: Fst, rostrum; sc, salivary canal; Si, siphon; S/Dct, salivary duct; S/p, salivary pump; t, prestomal teeth; Thc, theca; y, cornu of cibarial pump. 72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The clypeal plate of the Cyclorrhapha, recognized as such by Patton and Cragg (1913), is termed by Graham-Smith (1930) the “anterior arch of the fulcrum,” which literally it is in a structural sense, but almost all other recent writers on Diptera, except Crampton (1942), have followed Peterson (1916) in calling this plate the “torma,” on the mistaken idea that it is derived from lateral basal processes of the labrum, properly named tormae. The muscle relations between the plate in question and the pump show that this latter interpretation is impossible, as is clearly seen by referring back to the horse fly (fig. 25 B, I) and the cockroach (fig. 7A). In some of the Brachy- cera a bracing of the pump on the clypeus is effected by a strong union of the lower parts of the clypeal ridges with the edges of the pump (fig. 28 K). Between the food canal of the proboscis and the mouth of the sucking pump in such flies as the house fly and the blow fly there is interposed a short cylindrical passage. The wall of this tubular entrance to the pump contains a sclerite (fig. 28 D, Hy), which, being U-shaped in cross section (E), has been appropriately named the hyoid. Later writers, however, have applied the term “hyoid” to the passageway itself, which is unfortunate because the latter in some flies, as in Stomoxys (1, J, Si), is drawn out into a long flexible tube, reaching its greatest length in connection with the retractile proboscis of the Hippoboscidae (fig. 311, Si). The tube may be termed more appropriately the siphon. The salivary pump of the Cyclorrhapha (fig. 28D, SIP) has the same structure and musculature as in other flies. (See Cornwall, 1923.) EYE GNATS. FAMILY CHLOROPIDAE The flies of this family, known also as Oscinidae, are very small insects somewhat resembling the pomace flies (Drosophilidae), and often occur in swarms. They have a propensity for feeding on animal exudations, and are most annoying because of their persistent efforts to get into the eyes. Certain species, therefore, are accused, and on good circumstantial evidence, of spreading eye infections and the germs of suppurative sores; their habits alone are sufficient to put them under suspicion. Siphunculina funicola (de Meijére) of India, Ceylon, and Java, and Hippelates pusio Loew of the southern and western parts of the United States are probably each involved in the dissemination of conjunctivitis, while the first, in Ceylon, and Hippelates pallipes Loew, in Jamaica, have been strongly suspected of being vectors, respectively, of parangi and of yaws. Mastitis of NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 73 cattle, or inflammation of the udder, has been shown to be spread by eye gnats. The Chloropidae do not have piercing mouth parts of any of the usual types of structure, but they are able to make small punctures in delicate surfaces by means of minute spines or points along the edges of the channels on the under surfaces of the labella. The feeding organs of Siphunculina funicola have been described by Senior-White (1923), those of Hippelates pusio by Graham-Smith (1930a). The labella in these flies have each only six of the so-called pseudotracheal channels, and the latter run in a longitudinal direction. The rings that keep the channels open are not closed outwardly, but end in projecting points that become spinous proximally along the channel margins. “When the flies are feeding on abrasions or the conjunctival epithelium,’ Graham-Smith says, “these spines appar- ently act as cutting instruments capable of producing minute multiple incisions, likely to assist pathogenic organisms carried by the insects in gaining a foothold.” HORN FLIES, STABLE FLIES, AND TSETSE FLIES. FAMILIES MUSCIDAE AND GLOSSINIDAE The Muscidae are the family of the house fly, Musca domestica L., which, though a common pest in many ways, is not guilty of the offense of biting, since it has no effective piercing mechanism; yet, within its family are some notorious biters, the horn flies (Siphona) and the stable flies (Stomoxys). Closely related to these flies also are the tsetse flies (Glossina), which some dipterists place in a separate family, the Glossinidae. In all these genera it is the labium that forms the piercing organ ; the theca and the labial gutter are drawn out into a long, rigid shaft; the labella, instead of being soft, spreading lobes as in most of the muscids, are reduced to a pair of small hard plates at the tip of the theca, armed internally with eversible teeth. The labrum and the hypopharynx are contained within the gutter of the labium. The beaklike haustellum of the proboscis, when not in use, projects forward from the lower part of the head (fig. 29 B, Prb). The structure of the head and the feeding mechanism of Glossina palpalis (R.-D.) have been fully described by Jobling (1933). The head of Glossina (fig. 29 B) has the usual muscoid structure, but the proboscis (Prb) is long and slender with a bulblike swelling at the base, and normally is ensheathed between the long maxillary palpi (M-xPlp). The proboscis, or, more strictly speaking, the haustellum of the proboscis (E, Hstl), arises from a relatively small, membranous rostrum (st), which is usually swung back, allowing 74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 the bulbous base of the haustellum to be firmly braced against the lower part of the head. The haustellum is composed of the labium, » the labrum (Lm), and the hypopharynx (Hphy). It is the base of the labium that forms the bulb (0); the theca (Thc) is a thick plate on the outer posterior wall of the labium (G) ; the labial gutter (G, LG) embraces the labrum (Lm) and encloses the hypopharynx (Hphy). The food canal (fc) is the channel of the labrum closed below by the labial gutter; the salivary canal (sc) traverses the slender hypopharynx. The theca and the wall of the gutter are united by membranes along their edges, allowing the two parts of the labium a limited movement on each other. The labrum is held in the labial gutter by several interlocking ridges on each side. The horny platelike labella (E, Lbl) when pressed together form a small apical lobe of the haustellum. Their inner walls have a complicated armature of teeth and sensory papillae (H), a detailed description of which is given by Jobling (1933). Since the theca and the labial gutter are movable lengthwise on each other because of the amplitude of the lateral membranes uniting them along the sides of the labium, the theca and the labella are retractile and protractile on the relatively fixed gutter. The retraction of the labellar plates (fig. 29 H, Lb/) on the end of the gutter (LG), therefore, everts the inner armature of the labella and gives the teeth a reversed position on the end of the haustellum. The move- ments of the theca are said by Jobling (1933) to be produced. by the oppositely inclined sets of oblique muscles in the labial bulb (fig. 29 F), which are attached at one end on the gutter and at the other on the theca. The corresponding muscles in the proboscis of Stomoxys were believed by Stephens and Newstead (1907) to effect a rotation of the theca, thus enabling the labellar teeth to exert a cutting action on the skin. Another pair of larger muscles in the bulb of the theca (F) have long tendons that traverse the labium to be attached on the labella, and these muscles effect directly a retraction of the labellar plates. Protraction of the theca reverses the movement and introverts the labellar teeth. While it would appear that the appressed labella in the protracted position are them- selves’sufficiently rigid to serve as a penetrating point for the probos- cis, it is generally said that the everted teeth are the effective cutting agents that puncture the skin, the proboscis being then sunken into the flesh. Movements of the proboscis in the wound probably cause a laceration that increases the blood flow. The sucking apparatus of Glossina has the typical muscoid struc- ture. The cibarial pump (termed the “pharynx” by Jobling, 1933) NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 75 A Fic. 29.—Tsetse fly, Glossina, horn fly, Siphona, and stable fly, Stomoxys, head and feeding apparatus. Order Diptera, families Glossinidae and Muscidae. A, Glossina palpalis R.-D., male (length 11 mm.). B, same, head and pro- boscis. C, Siphona irritans (L.), proboscis. D, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), proboscis. E, Glossina palpalis, proboscis and sucking pump, stylets separated from labium. F, same, vertical section of head and base of proboscis (simpli- fied from Jobling, 1933). G, Glossina fusca (Walker), cross section of pro- boscis (from Vogel, 1921). H, Glossina palpalis, horizontal section of distal end of labium (simplified from Jobling, 1933). Ant, antenna; b, bulb of labium; Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; clp, clypeus; fe, food canal; Hphy, hypopharynx; Hsél, haustellum; Lb/, labellum; Lm, labrum; LG, labial gutter; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; Oe, oesophagus; Prb, proboscis; Pil, invaginated ptilinum; Rst, rostrum; sc, salivary canal; SIP, salivary pump; Thc, theca. 76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 lies within the rostrum of the proboscis (fig. 29 E, CbP), but when the haustellum is retracted the pump is pushed up into the head (F). The dilator muscles (5) take their origins on the small clypeal plate (clp) in the anterior rostral wall, and the clypeal plate is attached to the pump by a pair of internal lateral plates, the whole complex forming a typical “fulcrum.” The stomodaeum turns back from the upper end of the pump as a narrow oesophageal tube (F, Oe) without a pharyngeal differentiation. The salivary pump (SIP) is of the usual structure and has long dilator muscles arising on the floor of the cibarial pump. There are about 20 known species of the genus Glossina Wied., confined almost entirely to tropical and southern Africa. The eggs of the tsetse flies are hatched and the larvae matured within the body of the female, so that the larvae at birth transform very shortly into pupae. Glossina palpalis (R.-D.) (fig. 29 A) is the principal vector of the Gambian form of African sleeping sickness of man, but it is said to live mainly on reptiles (Herms, 1939). The Rhode- sian form of the disease is transmitted by Glossina morsitans West- wood and G. swynnertoni Austen. The last named and other species are also vectors of the trypanosomes of nagana, a disease of horses, cattle, camels, dogs, and other mammals. The horn flies and the stable flies resemble the tsetse flies in the structure of the proboscis and their manner of biting. Their common names are merely distinctive titles, since the horn fly only incidentally settles on the horns of cattle, and the stable fly is not confined to stables; both species abound in pastures where horses and cattle are grazing, and are a source of great annoyance and distress to the animals because of their persistent and painful biting. The sharp bite of the stable fly is not unfamiliar to us, but it is usually attributed to a “biting house fly.” The horn flies have been known entomologically under the generic names of Haematobia R.-D. and Lyperosia Rondani, but are now included in one genus, Siphona Meigen. They comprise about 34 species indigenous to the Old World, of which the most common species in Europe are stimulans Meigen, irritans L., and exigua de Meij., but all three species have become more widely distributed, and the second, Siphona irritans, since 1887 has become an abundant pest in the United States and Canada. The stable flies belong to the genus Stomoxys Geoffroy, the species of which are most abundant in Africa, but S. calcitrans (L.) is now of general distribution, and is the only species occurring in the New World. The proboscis both in the horn flies (fig. 29 C) and the stable NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS TH. flies (D) is thicker and relatively shorter than in the tsetse flies (B), but it is similar in structure and mechanism in the three forms. The maxillary palpi of the horn flies are long and ensheath the proboscis as in Glossina; the palpi of the stable flies are short and project straight out from the rostrum. The haustellum, when not in use, is extended horizontally from the head, but when the fly bites, the organ is said to be turned vertically and driven for a third or more of its length into the flesh of the victim. The structure of the proboscis of Stomoxys, including the labellar armature, has been fully described and amply illustrated by Stephens and Newstead (1907). Horses «and cattle suffer severely from the attacks of these flies. Horn flies settle by thousands on the bodies of cattle, and the irrita- tion of their incessant biting, together with loss of blood, results in a lowered vitality and reduced milk production. The stable fly is perhaps a more painful biter even than the horn fly, on account of its longer proboscis; when present in great numbers it has been known to kill horses and cattle through induced nervousness and the loss of blood. Both the horn fly and the stable fly are to be regarded as potential carriers of such livestock diseases as anthrax and surra. The stable fly, because of its biting propensities, is also a most annoying pest of man, particularly where abundant in the neighbor- hood of summer resorts, but it has not as yet been convicted of being a natural transmitter of any human disease, though Berberian (1939) reports that transmissions of oriental sore from one human subject to another have been effected experimentally by the bite of the stable fly. The horn fly, from experiments on monkeys, has been accused of being a vector of human poliomyelitis, but more recent tests (see Herms, 1939) appear to give negative results. LOUSE FLIES. FAMILY HIPPOBOSCIDAE The Hippoboscidae are a family of winged or wingless bloodsucking flies parasitic on mammals and birds. They cause their hosts much physical annoyance, but since they do not ordinarily leave an animal until the latter dies, they probably have little relation to the spread of disease, though certain species have been shown to be vectors of pigeon and quail malaria. Various observers have reported the finding of Mallophaga attached to hippoboscid flies (see Warburton, 1928), and it is possible, therefore, that the flies play some role in the distribution of these parasites, since if they do leave a host they are most likely to go to another of the same species. 78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Most of the hippoboscids are permanently winged (fig. 30 A), some species shed their wings after having established themselves on a host, and a few are practically wingless (B), the wings in such species being reduced to minute lobes (C). In all species the claws Fic. 30—Louse flies, Lynchia and Melophagus. Order Diptera, family Hippoboscidae. A, Lynchia americana (Leach), a parasite of hawks and owls (length of head and body about 8 mm.). B, Melophagus ovinus L., the sheep “tick” (largest about 8 mm. long). C, same, vestigial wing and associated bristles. D, Lynchia americana, right hind tarsus and claws. E, same, single claw of foot. F, Melophagus ovinus, right fore tarsus and claws. of the feet are conspicuously large and recurved (D, F). Those of the winged species shown in the figure are two-branched, each claw having a large basal lobe (E) separated from the outer branch by a deep, narrow cleft, by which evidently the insect is enabled to grasp the hairs or barbs of feathers amongst which it lives. In the wingless sheep “tick,” Melophagus ovinus L. (B), the claws have a double appearance (F) but the apparent inner branch is a part of the base of the claw itself. NOE 7; BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 79 The head of a winged hippoboscid, though flattened and held horizontally so that the mouth parts project forward (fig. 30 A), resembles the head of any ordinary fly (fig. 31 A) and is set on the thorax by a narrow neck. The eyes are large, the antennae (Ant) exposed, but the rostrum is concealed by the retraction of the haus- tellum. In Melophagus ovinus (fig. 30 B), however, the eyes are small (fig. 31 B), the antennae sunken into pits on the dorsal head surface, and the ventral part of the head is extended far back into the thorax. The proboscis is ordinarily inconspicuous; when not in use it is so deeply retracted into a pouch of the head that only its slender distal part is to be seen (A, B, Prb) between the long maxil- lary palpi (M/xPlp). When protracted, however, it is fully everted (C) and now extends far beyond the ensheathing palpi. The lower lip of the pouch projects as a small lobe (Jp) beneath the base of the proboscis. The best published account of the structure and mechanism of the feeding apparatus of the Hippoboscidae is that of Jobling (1926), in which are described particularly Pseudolynchia canariensis (Macq.) (maura Bigot), and Melophagus ovinus L. The feeding organs in this family do not differ essentially from those of the biting muscoid flies described in the preceding section, the piercing instrument being the labium with an armature of eversible teeth on the labella. Both the labrum and the hypopharynx are contained within the labial gutter. The distinctive feature of the Hippoboscidae is the retraction of the haustellum into a deep pouch in the ventral part of the head (fig. 31 G), from which the organ is protractile for feeding. The haus- tellum is bulbous at the base, slender, and more or less decurved. The wall of the labium, as is well shown in Jobling’s cross section of the haustellum (fig. 31 F), is distinctly divided lengthwise into a strong posterior thecal section (7c) and a deep anterior labial gutter (LG), the two parts being united by wide membranes deeply inflected on each side. The labrum (Lm) is embraced by the elevated sides of the gutter, and is held in place by interlocking ridges on the apposed surfaces of the two parts. The almost tubular channel of the labrum is the food canal (fc). Between the labrum and the floor of the labial gutter lies the hypopharynx (Hphy), which is traversed by the salivary canal (sc). The long slender theca of the labium bears distally a pair of lateral labellar lobes (fig. 31 E, Lbl), the outer surfaces of which are hard, smooth plates, while the inner surfaces are membranous and support an armature of strong teeth and associated sensory papillae (D). The teeth are everted and exposed externally (E, H) by the same 6 Fic. 31—Head and feeding apparatus of Lynchia and Melophagus. A, Lynchia americana (Leach), head and exposed part of retracted proboscis, anterior. B, Melophagus ovinus L., head and first two segments of thorax, ventral, proboscis retracted. CC, same, head, proboscis protracted. D, Pseudo- lynchia canariensis (Macq.) (Lynchia maura Bigot), end view of labium, prestomal teeth introverted (from Jobling, 1926). E, same, distal part of labium, lateral, prestomal teeth everted (from Jobling, 1926). F, same, cross section through middle of proboscis (simplified from Jobling, 1926). ; Lynchia americana, proboscis retracted into pouch of head. H, Melophagus ovinus, distal part of proboscis, dorsal, prestomal teeth everted (from Jobling, 1920). I. Pseudolynchia canariensis, vertical section of head, proboscis protracted (from Jobling, 1926). Ant, antenna ; Ap, labral apodeme; Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; clp, clypeus ; fc, food canal; Hphy, hypopharynx; Li, first leg; LG, labial gutter; Lm, labrum; lp, projecting lip of proboscis pouch; /pl, lateral plate of fulcrum; M-xPip, maxillary palpus; Oe, oesophagus; Pch, proboscis pouch; Prb, proboscis; sc, salivary canal; Si, siphon; S7P, salivary pump; Thc, theca. Muscles —5, dilators of cibarial pump; 18, dilator of salivary pump. (80) NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 81 mechanism as in the biting muscoids, namely, by the retraction of the theca and labella on the labial gutter. The sucking apparatus of the Hippoboscidae consists, as in other Cyclorrhapha, of the cibarial pump (fig. 311, CbP), the cephalic stomodaeum being a slender oesophageal tube (Oe). The pump is supported on the clypeus (clp) by long, narrow lateral plates (Jpl), which enclose the dilator muscles (5). To allow for the retraction of the proboscis, the siphon ($7) connecting the pump with the food canal of the haustellum is drawn out into a long flexible tube. The salivary pump (S/P) has the usual relation to the cibarial pump, but is far separated from the base of the hypopharynx, necessitating a lengthening of the salivary canal (sc) proximal to the hypopharynx. A detailed account of the process of feeding by Hippobosca equina L. is given by Hase (1927). The Hippoboscidae undoubtedly are related to the muscoid flies, but they are placed in a separate superfamily, termed the Pupipara, because they give birth to full-grown larvae ready for pupation, as do the tsetse flies. Generally included also in the Pupipara are the two following families of bat parasites, the Streblidae and Nycteribiidae, but the relation of these flies to the hippoboscids is questionable. BAT “TICKS.” FAMILIES STREBLIDAE AND NYCTERIBIIDAE The members of these two families, parasitic on bats, are of interest to us chiefly because of their queer shapes (fig. 32) and their struc- tural adaptations to their habitat, but undoubtedly they are obnoxious pests to the animals on which they live. The Streblidae include some species with fully developed wings (B), others that have reduced wings (A), and still others that are wingless. The Nycteribiidae (C) are all wingless. In the Streblidae the head projects forward from the body in the usual manner (A); in the Nycteribiidae the small, basally narrowed head (D) arises from the dorsal surface of the thorax (C, H), on which it stands upright or bends backward. Just how these latter insects manage to insert the short proboscis into the skin of the host is not explained. The foot claws in both families are conspicuously large and recurved as in the Hippoboscidae, and have thick bases (E) like those of Melophagus ovinus. For a detailed account of the structure of the head, the mouth parts, and the sucking pump of the bat “ticks,” the reader is again referred to papers by Jobling, one (1928a) on the Nycteribiidae, another (1929) on the Streblidae. In general, the feeding apparatus resembles that of the Hippoboscidae and the biting Muscidae. The 82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Loz! labium, armed with eversible labellar teeth, is the piercing organ. In some of the Streblidae the proboscis is short, and the thecal part of the labium is bulbous and bears a pair of small labella. In other species the proboscis is elongate, but the elongation results from a lengthening of the labella and not of the theca. The proboscis of the Nycteribiidae is relatively long and slender; the theca, however, 2 wae s TM cpa \ Fic. 32.—Bat “ticks.” Order Diptera, families Streblidae and Nycteribiidae. A, Aspidoptera phyllostomatis (Perty), a streblid with reduced wings (length 1.5 mm.) (from Speiser, 1900). B, Raymondia lobulata Speiser, wing of a fully winged streblid (from Jobling, 1930). C, Cyclopodia sykesi (Westw.), Nycteribiidae (length of body 5.5 mm.). D, same, head. E, same, end of hind tarsus, and claws. H, head, projecting upward from thorax. forms only the basal bulb of the labium, the rest being the greatly elongate labella. While it is the labium that has been modified to form the piercing organ in the bloodsucking Muscidae, Hippoboscidae, Streblidae, and Nycteribiidae, Jobling (1929) points out that “it is not the same part of the labium which has undergone this modification in all these families.” Furthermore, Jobling gives reasons for be- lieving that the reserhnblance of the bat “ticks” to the Hippoboscidae is the result of adaptation to the same mode of life and feeding; he would assign the Streblidae and the Nycteribiidae to the acalyp- terate section of the Cyclorrhapha. Finally, it may be noted that the bee “louse,” a minute wingless NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 83 fly named Braula coeca Nitzsch, formerly classed with the hippo- boscids and the bat “ticks,” has been shown definitely by Imms (1942), from the structure of its larva, to be unrelated to these insects and to have its closest affinites in the Acalypterae. More- over, Braula coeca is not a piercing insect. It is parasitic in the sense that it lives on the bodies of bees, and is regarded as a pest by beekeepers, but it is said to feed on saliva discharged from the mouth of the bee. VE THE FLEAS. ORDER «SIPHONAPTERA The common name of the flea order, Siphonaptera, refers to the fact that the fleas are wingless sucking insects; another name for them is Aphaniptera, which tells us that wings are invisible. Most parasitic insects, whether winged or wingless, are flattened in a plane parallel with the body surface of the host ; the fleas are flattened in the opposite direction, giving them a shape conducive to rapid movement through closely massed hairs. The fleas also are notable jumpers; their leaping powers are of much importance to them because most species do not live continuously on the same animal, but go from one to another, and they can leave in a hurry when necessary. A flea at rest (fig. 33 C, D) sits with its six legs evenly spread out in the manner of any other insect, except that the knees are sharply bent upward; when it jumps it simply disappears without taking any preparatory attitude, though the leap is usually preceded by a sidewise shaking of the body. The large hind legs must be the prin- cipal jumping organs, but the flea appears to spring by extending all the legs at once, and the legs are all strongly musculated in the coxae and femora. The stiff hairs projecting from the body (fig. 33 C) evidently are conducive to forward movement through narrow spaces. Though most fleas are extremely restless and active, a species called the sticktight flea remains nearly all its life attached to the host if not artificially dislodged, and the female chigoe flea buries herself in the skin of the host, where she remains until she lays her eggs and dies. Some fleas are not strictly parasitic but live principally in the nests of the animals on which they feed. The eggs of the fleas are generally deposited on the bodies of the hosts, but they readily fall off to the ground, into nests or bedding, or onto the floors of buildings. The young flea is a legless, wormlike larva, which lives wherever the eggs drop, and goes through a pupal stage before becoming an adult flea and adopting the parasitic, blood- sucking habit. The fleas, therefore, are the only bloodsucking insects 84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS ‘COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 other than the flies that have what is called a “complete metamor- phosis.” The fleas as parasites mostly attack mammals, but some of them live on birds and are particularly a pest of domestic poultry. Several hundred species of them have been named and described. Ewing and Fox (1943) record more than 200 from North America and the West Indies. The species that commonly annoy man and domestic animals are known as the human flea (fig. 33 A, B), the dog flea Fic. 33—Examples of fleas. Order Siphonaptera. A, the human flea, Pulex irritans L., female (length a little over 2 mm.). B, same, male (length 134 mm.). C, the dog flea, Ctenocephalides canis (Curtis), in natural position of repose, dorsal view. D, same, lateral view, more enlarged, female (length about 2 mm.). E, head, pronotum (Ni), and base of first leg (Li) of female dog flea; note combs (ctenidia) of strong spines on lower edge of head and on margin of pronotum. (C, D, E), the cat flea, and the rat flea, but the names have little significance since these fleas are promiscuous with regard to hosts. Entomologists have much discussed the theoretical question of the relation of fleas to other insects, without arriving at any consensus ; the fleas remain an independent order of obscure origin. Their feeding apparatus has features found in diverse groups of insects, but the combination of characters is peculiar to the fleas. The head of a typical flea (fig. 34 A) is flattened from side to side, rounded above, and strongly declivous or angulated anteriorly. On each side is a deep depression containing a short, segmented antenna NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 85 (Ant), and in some species, just before the antennal cavity, is a small round eye (OQ). So closely is the head joined to the thorax that the flea practically has no neck, and the way the pleura of the prothoracic segment are turned forward beneath the head makes it appear that the head is supported on the bases of the front legs (fig. 33). From the anterior part of the head depend the mouth parts, which are relatively large and fully exposed (fig. 34 A). They include a pair of broad maxillary lobes (/+L) bearing long palpi (MxPlp), two paired stylets (Lc) commonly regarded as the man- dibles, a slender labium with parallel palpi (LbP/p), and a median unpaired stylet (//phy), the nature of which will be discussed later. The mouth parts are attached on an oval membranous area at the anterior end of the head within the completely sclerotized peristomal margin of the cranium. The ventral arc of the peristome is the edge of the hypostome, which forms the lower wall of the head. The following descriptions of the feeding apparatus refer to Pulex irritans L. The maxillary lobes are the largest members of the flea mouth parts. They are most unusual in their position, since they lie laterad of the other organs in the group, attached on the peristomal margin of the cranium in the usual position of the mandibles (fig. 34 A, M-+xL), and furthermore, so closely approximated dorsally (B) that the mesal angles of their bases all but meet at the median line in front of the other mouth parts. Each appendage (F) has the form of a three-sided pyramid, except that the wide anterior face has a broadly rounded distal margin (B) and thins down to a delicate, transparent apical lamella. The four-segmented palpus (F, Pip) arises within the median basal angle of the maxillary lobe and ordinarily projects downward. Only the presence of the palpus attests that the maxillary lobe is not a mandible. The paired stylets (fig. 34 A, B, Lc) lie between the maxillae, and in the natural position are mostly concealed by the labium. They have the form of a pair of long parallel blades, concave on their opposed surfaces, armed with rows of minute teeth on their outer surfaces (G). The base of each appendage is turned backward at right angles to the blade, and is thickened to form a strong lever arm (G, lvr) implanted in the supporting membrane mesad of the cor- responding maxillary lobe. The two basal arms (C) of these stylets lie at the sides of a small, median, peglike sclerite (C, b) projecting upward from the hypostomal margin of the peristome (a), which supports the labium but apparently has no functional relation to the associated stylets. The lever arms of the stylets articulate on the 86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 posterior basal angles of the maxillary lobes (D), and have retractor and protractor muscles, which by their action on the arms impart a back-and-forth movement to the blades. Nearly all writers have called the paired stylets of the flea the “mandibles,” regardless of the fact that their basal arms have neither of the two usual mandibular articulations with the head, and, because of their position between the maxillae, have no connection whatever with the cranial margin. Moreover, each arm is closely associated with the base of the corresponding maxillary lobe (fig. 34 D), and by its free end articulates with the latter. The retractor muscle (32) of the lever arm arises on the lateral wall of the cranium, the protractor (41) arises within the maxillary lobe. The paired stylets of the flea, therefore, are the mavillary laciniae, detached and operating independently, as in Corrodentia, Mallophaga, Thysanoptera, and Hemiptera. This fact was noted 40 years ago by Borner (1904), but has not been accepted by subsequent writers because Heymons (1899) claimed that the mouth parts of the flea pupa are formed within the corresponding parts of the larva, and that the mandibular rudiments of the pupa go over directly into the paired stylets of the adult. Sharif (1937) appears to have verified Heymons’ statements concerning the relation of the pupal organs to those of the larva, though he does not follow the development into the imago. The anatomy of the adult flea is in accord with Borner’s interpretation ; the facts of development must be reinvestigated. Borner’s idea that the basal arm, or lever, of the lacinial blade is the “cardo” of the maxilla, however, is not tenable because in other insects the lacinia has no connection with the cardo, and the cardo has no muscles arising in any other part of the maxilla (see figure 4B). The maxillary lobe of the flea must be largely the stipes, since it bears the palpus and contains the palpus muscles in addition to the lacinial muscle. The galea is either absent or indistinguishably united with the stipes. The labium of the flea (fig. 34 J) is a relatively simple appendage supported at its base on the small peglike sclerite (b) above mentioned projecting upward from the hypostomal margin between the lacinial levers (C). The labium consists of an elongate basal lobe, and of two slender distal palpi held close together. In Pulex irritans the labial palpi are three-segmented, in other species they may have from two to five segments. The basal part of the labium is deeply grooved on its anterior surface for the reception of the median and paired stylets ; the tips of the palpi extend slightly beyond the latter. The unpaired stylet of the flea’s mouth parts is a slender, slightly sinuous rod (fig. 341), armed along its anterior edge with a row Baath oe Fic. 34.—The head and feeding organs of a flea, Pulex irritans L. Order Siphonaptera. A, head and mouth parts, left side. B, same, anterior view, more enlarged. C, membranous area of the peristome, and bases of mouth parts implanted in it, as seen from inside the head. D, right maxilla, mesal view, showing relation of lacinia to maxillary lobe. E, median sectional view of anterior part of head showing sucking and salivary-ejection apparatus. F, maxillary lobe and palpus. G, maxillary lacinia. H, inner view of labrum and floor of sucking pump (Sit), with base of hypopharynx turned to one side. I, exposed part of hypopharynx, lateral. J, labium, anterior. a, margin of peristome; Ant, antenna; b, sclerite supporting labium on hypo- stomal margin of peristome; c, infolded distal margin of clypeus; CbP, cibarial pump; d, hypopharyngeal plate giving attachment to muscles of salivary pump; e, tapering process behind base of hypopharynx, apparently containing exit of salivary pump; fm, food meatus; g, groove of hypopharynx; Hphy, hypo- pharynx; Hst, hypostoma; LbP/p, labial palpus; Lc, lacinia; Lm, labrum; lvr, lacinial lever; mb, peristomal membrane; MxL, maxillary lobe (stipes) ; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; O, ocellus; PhP, pharyngeal pump ; Prmt, prementum ; Sit, sitophore; S/P, salivary pump. Muscles —s5, dilators of cibarial pump; 78, dilator of salivary pump; 32, retractor of lacinia; 47, protractor of lacinia. (87) 88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 of small, widely spaced nodules. In nearly all entomological texts and in papers on fleas this stylet is called the “labrum,” “labrum- epipharynx,” or “epipharynx.” Ewing (1929) labels it “hypophar- ynx,’ as do also Riley and Johannsen (1938) in their figure of a flea’s head taken from Ewing. Heymons (1899) asserted that the unpaired stylet is developed within the labrum of the larval flea, and is therefore the “labrum.” Repeated dissections of the head of Pulex irritans show that the median stylet has no connection with the front wall of the head, and is therefore not the labrum. At its base it turns backward within the head and expands into a shallow oval basin (fig. 34 H, Sit), which is the floor of the cibarial pump (FE, CbP); the latter is directly continued into the floor of a much larger pharyngeal pump (PAP). The unpaired stylet of the flea is thus seen to be the hypopharynx. The basinlike expansion (sitophore) of its base narrows anteriorly to a groove (FE, H, g) running out on the anterior surface of the stylet. (Published figures of other species always show the groove on the posterior surface of the stylet.) Normally the hypopharynx is Closely embraced by the lacinial blades, and the three stylets are held in the channel of the labium. The true labrum of the flea is difficult to demonstrate. The facial wall of the cranium ends with a thin, slightly bilobed margin above the bases of the maxillae (fig. 34 B), but from this margin there is inflected a triangular inner lamella (E, H, c) that culminates in a small, recurved, triangular cusp (Lm) turned downward against the base of the hypopharynx. Evidently this reflected lamella, or at least its apical cusp (Lm), represents the labrum. The posterior wall of the cusp is continuous with the dorsal wall of the cibarial pump (E). | The method by which the flea bites is not sufficiently known from observation on the insects during feeding. Since the lacinial blades are the only members of the mouth parts that are independently movable in a lengthwise direction, it is generally thought that they are the principal piercing organs. The exuding blood is probably drawn up through the channel of the hypopharynx. The sucking apparatus of the fleas is highly developed and resembles that of the biting nematocerous Diptera insofar as it consists of a cibarial pump (fig. 34 E, CbP) and a pharyngeal pump (PhP), but the same double structure occurs also in the Anoplura and in some other sucking insects. The cibarial pump is flat and bellowslike, its floor being the shallow sitophore expansion of the base of the hypopharynx (H, Sit) ; on the thin dorsal wall are attached the dilator muscles (E, 5) arising NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 89 on the clypeal region of the head. The pharyngeal pump (EF, Php) is much larger than the cibarial pump; it has high but relatively weak lateral walls, and a deeply inflected dorsal wall on which are attached a long row of frontal dilator muscles. The fleas have a small salivary ejection pump resembling that of Diptera, Thysanoptera, and Hemiptera, lying beneath the cibarial pump (fig. 34 E, SIP). Its dilator muscles (z8) arise from a hori- zontal plate (d) above it that appears to spring from the base of the hypopharynx. The exit canal is shown in sections by Weber (1933) and others to enter a minute tapering process (e) beneath the hypo- pharynx (regarded by most writers as the “hypopharynx’’) and to discharge into the canal between the laciniae (“mandibles”). The salivary canal of the fleas thus apparently does not traverse the hypopharynx as in Diptera, but opens in the more usual position between the hypopharynx and the labium. Fleas in themselves are not agreeable associates either for animals or for man, and their promiscuous habit of going from one host to another makes them particularly obnoxious, since the human members of a family are always liable to infestations of fleas from their dogs or cats, or even from rats living in the house or adjacent structures. Aside from their physical annoyance, however, fleas are undesirable visitors also because they are transmitters of at least two diseases affecting man, endemic typhus and plague, and are probably more important vectors of the dog tapeworm than is the biting dog louse. In the case of the fleas the eggs of the tapeworm are ingested by the larval flea, which is not parasitic, and the larval worms go over through the pupa into the adult stage of the flea. Human subjects become infested by accidentally swallowing an infested flea. Typhus fever is one of the Rickettsia diseases ordinarily transmitted from man to man by the sucking lice, but the endemic form is supposed to be resident in rats, from which it is transmitted to human beings by fleas. Plague is primarily a disease of rodents, caused by a bacterium, Pasteurella pestis (L. and N.), but it is one to which man also is highly susceptible and nonresistant. In human subjects the disease assumes three forms distinguished as bubonic, pneumonic, and sep- ticemic, and may be transmitted by hypodermic inoculation, by inhalation, or by ingestion. The first form is that which ordinarily results from the bite of an infected flea. Fleas become infected with the plague organism by ingestion of blood from a diseased host. In the alimentary canal of the insect the bacteria multiply in great numbers, and some of them are ejected go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 in a virulent condition with the feces, but they do not invade the body cavity of the flea or get into the salivary glands. It was formerly supposed, therefore, that transmission is not by the bite of the flea, but results from the rubbing or scratching of infected fecal material into the puncture or some other abrasion of the skin. Experiments have shown that inoculation can be brought about in this way; but it is now well established that the bite alone of an infected flea produces infection of the victim and is undoubtedly the usual way by which the disease is transmitted to human beings, either from a rodent (generally a rat) or from another person. There is no evi- dence that fleas carry the plague bacteria on their mouth parts, and a normal flea does not ordinarily discharge blood from the mouth. The discovery was made by Bacot and Martin (1914), however, that regurgitation does take place with plague-infected fleas in which the entrance to the stomach has been blocked by a mass of bacteria, and that it is by such fleas that the disease is spread. More recent investigations, as those by Eskey (1938) in California, have fully substantiated the observations of Bacot and Martin made in India. The alimentary canal of the flea (fig. 35 A) has no crop, but there is a small, oval proventriculus (Prvnt) interpolated, as in the cockroach, just before the stomach. The inner wall of this organ is armed with consecutive rings of long, slender spines curving inward and backward (B), the ends of which project into the stomach mouth when the proventriculus is contracted. The function of these spines is not known. It has been suggested that they act normally as a barrier to regurgitation from the stomach, but the long, tubular stomodaeal valve (SVJv) projecting into the stomach should serve this purpose. In plague-infected fleas, however, the proventricular spines become clogged with the multiplying bacteria (C) and may soon accumulate such a mass of them that the entrance to the stomach is partially or completely blocked (D, E). Fleas in the latter condition are unable to utilize the food drawn into the oesophagus, and, be- cause of resulting hunger, they repeatedly attempt to feed, with the result that the oesophagus is filled to repletion with still more blood. The tension thus created produces a regurgitation with each new attempt at feeding, and the contaminated blood of the oesophagus 1s thus injected into the puncture. All rodent fleas are not susceptible in the same degree to blockage of the stomach, and hence different species are not equally dangerous as spreaders of plague. The highest incidence of transmitted infection obtained experimentally is always with the Old World rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis (Roths.). This species is now widely distributed, NO: 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS gti particularly in warmer regions; it occurs in most of the coastal ports of the United States, and has been found in a number of inland States where formerly the climate was supposed to be too severe for it (see Ewing and Fox, 1943). Plague is probably endemic in many localities among wild rodents, but human infection from such sources is rare. In a study of plague Fic. 35.—The alimentary canal of a flea, and its stoppage with plague bacteria. (A-C, from Faasch, 1935; D, E, from Bacot and Martin, 1914.) A, outline of a flea and the alimentary canal, left side. B, section of pro- ventriculus and anterior end of ventriculus, showing proventricular spines and stomodaeal valve. C, spines of proventriculus, with plague bacteria, Pasteurella pestis, lodged among them. D, lengthwise section of oesophagus, proventriculus and anterior end of ventriculus from a rat flea, Nosopsyllus fasciatus (Bosc.), with stomach entrance blocked by a plug of plague bacteria. FE, a flea having the proventriculus and stomach entirely filled with mass of plague bacteria. Alnt, anterior intestine; An, anus; b, blood in oesophagus; Mal, Malpighian tubules ; Oe, oesophagus ; Pp, mass of Pasteurella pestis in proventriculus ; Prvnt, proventriculus; Rect, rectum; rp, rectal papillae; s, proventricular spines; SV lv, stomodaeal valve; Vent, ventriculus (stomach). among California ground squirrels Eskey (1938) points out that the native fleas of these rodents are relatively inefficient vectors of the disease as compared with the fleas of domestic rats, and do not readily transmit plague when feeding, even though they themselves may be infected. Eskey suggests that the biting and swallowing of fleas is probably an important means of spreading the disease among animals. VII. THE THRIPS. ORDER’ THYSANOPTERA The thrips are small or minute piercing-and-sucking insects, which derive their ordinal name from the fact that their slender wings are g2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 fringed with long hairs. Some species, however, have no wings, and members of the same species may be either winged or wingless. The thrips feed for the most part on the sap of plants, including fungi, but some attack other soft-bodied insects. Occasionally, also, they become an annoyance to man, particularly at places in the country or at bathing resorts where there happens to be a large infestation on neighboring host plants, from which swarms of the tiny insects may settle on exposed parts of the body, giving an unpleasant tickling feeling or a pricking sensation. Certain species, moreover, have been found not only to “bite” human subjects, but even to suck blood. The evidence against the thrips on this score is reviewed by Bailey (1936). The Thysanoptera are here introduced not because of their occasional role as human pests, but because the structure of their feeding organs will serve as an introduction to that in the next order, the Hemiptera, which, studied alone, is difficult to understand. The head of an ordinary thrips (“‘thrips” is singular and used also in the plural) is elongate with the face strongly receding and ending below in a small conical beak directed downward (fig. 36 A). The beak is composed of the labrum in front (Lm), the maxillae on the sides, and the labium behind (Lb). Enclosed by these parts are a median hypopharynx (Hphy), and three stylets not shown in the figure. The space between the hypopharynx and the inner wall of the labrum is the food meatus (fm), which leads up into a strong sucking pump (CbP) with its dilator muscles (5) arising on the extensive clypeal area of the head (Cl/p). Between the base of the hypopharynx and the labium the salivary duct opens into a narrow salivary pocket (Slv). The relations of the labrum, the hypopharynx, the cibarium (sucking pump), the salivary orifice, and the labium in the thrips are thus seen to be the same as in the cockroach (fig. 7A). The special features of the thrips are in the structure of the mandibles and maxillae, though all parts of the feeding organs are subject to irregularities of form and an asymmetry that make their study somewhat confusing. The mandibles of the thrips are not exposed externally; they are retracted into the head between the labrum and the maxilla and are contained in pouches of the head wall. Only the left mandible is functionally developed, the right being either greatly reduced in size, or absent. The persisting left mandible has the form of a stylet with an enlarged base (fig. 36 B), and is the piercing organ of the thrips. According to Reyne (1927) the mandible has retractor but no pro- tractor muscles; in some forms, however, it is protractile by reason of a leverlike connection with the movable labrum. The mandible is NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 93 said to be used as a pick or punch operated by tapping movements of the head. The maxillae consist each of an external lobe and a mesal stylet (fig. 36C). The outer lobe (/xL), as above noted, lies in the side of the conical beak; it presents a broad basal region (St), evidently the stipes, bearing a small segmented palpus (2/p) and a tapering terminal part (Ga), which may be taken for the galea. The slender Fic. 36.—Feeding apparatus of a thrips. Order Thysanoptera. (A, B, C, from Peterson, 1915; D from Reyne, 1927.) A, vertical section of head and beak of Hercinothrips femoralis (Reuter), showing sucking pump and its dilator muscles. B, mandible of same. C, maxilla of Frankliniella tritici (Fitch). D, maxilla with muscles of the stylet of Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouché). Br, brain; CbP, cibarial pump; C/p, clypeus; fm, food meatus; Ga, perhaps the galea; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lb, labium; Lc, lacinia; Lm, labrum; lvr, lacinial lever; MdB, base of mandible; MdS, mandibular stylet; mth, mouth of cibarial pump; ML, maxillary lobe; MxS, maxillary stylet (lacinia) ; Oe, oesophagus; P/p, palpus; S/Dct, salivary duct; Slv, salivarium; sm, salivary meatus; SoeG, suboesophageal ganglion; St, stipes. ee ait dilators of cibarial pump; 32, retractor of lacinia; 41, protractor of lacinia. stylet (MS) is in some forms connected with the base of the stipes by a lever arm (Jur), and is protractile and retractile within the proboscis. The retractor muscles (D, 32) arise on the head wall and are inserted on the stylet and the lever; the protractors arise in the stipes and have their insertions on the lever. The structure and mechanism of the thrips maxilla, therefore, is practically the same as that of the flea (fig. 34 D), the principal differences being in the position of the palpus and in the presence of a joint between the stylet and the lever in the thrips. It has been shown by Reyne (1927) that the maxillary stylet of the Thysanoptera is developed from a secondarily detached part of the maxilla; the musculature leaves little doubt that it represents the lacinia, and a reference to the cockroach (fig. 4B) shows how readily the lacinia (Lc) with its muscles (32, 41) might become an independent part by separation 94 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 from the body of the maxilla. The lever evidently belongs to the lacinia ; in the fleas it is merely the angulated basal part of the lacinia (fig. 34 G), in the Corrodentia a lever is not differentiated (fig. 10 G). The connection of the stylet with the lever and the insertion of the stipital muscles on it in the fleas and thrips shows that the lever is not the cardo as some writers have supposed it to be. The same maxillary structure will be encountered again in the Hemiptera, but in this order the stipital lobe has become united with the lateral wall of the head, and the maxillary palpus is suppressed. VIII. THE SUCKING BUGS. ORDER HEMIPTERA This order consists of the insects that entomologists regard as true bugs ; its most unpopular member is the bed bug. The Hemiptera are predominantly beaked insects, the proboscis of other sucking insects being seldom such a rigid structure as that of the bugs, or, if it is beaklike, it is never in other groups a characteristic feature of the entire order. According to the structure of the wings, though wings are not present in all species, the Hemiptera are divided into two sub- orders, one called the Homoptera because the fore and hind wings are of similar structure, the other the Heteroptera because the wings are usually different. The name Hemiptera is used by some entomolo- gists for the Heteroptera alone, but by priority it includes both suborders. Only a few of the bugs are bloodsucking insects, but the blood- feeders include the widely known bed bug, and some others termed conenoses, or assassin bugs, all of which belong to the Heteroptera. Most of the species feed either on other insects or on the juices of plants, and among the latter are many destructive pests of cultivated vegetables, flowers, and fruit trees, such as the leafhoppers, the aphids, the scale insects, the mealy bugs, the whiteflies, the red bugs, and the squash bugs. In their feeding apparatus the Hemiptera are the most specialized of all the insects, but since they have an “incomplete” metamorphosis they do not rank with the flies, the fleas, the beetles, the butterflies, or the wasps and the bees. Though our present interest in the order centers in the bloodsucking species, the feeding apparatus is of essentially the same structure in all. For a preliminary study, therefore, we may select one of the larger and better-known plant-feeding forms such as the cicada, a member of the Homoptera. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE HEMIPTEROUS FEEDING APPARATUS The head of a cicada (fig. 37 A) is conical with the apex down- ward. The prominent compound eyes (FE) cap the lateral angles, NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 95 the long, strong beak projects ventrally and posteriorly from the lower end. On the face below the antennae is a large, bulging striated plate (Clp), which is the upper part of the clypeal region and hence named the postclypeus ; below it is a smaller anteclypeus (Aclp). On each side of the head beneath the eye the head wall is produced downward in a prominent lobe (M*L) ending against the base of the beak. From developmental studies made on other Homoptera this lobe is known to be derived from the maxilla, and, from evidence that will presently appear, it is specifically the stipes. This lobe, in fact, corresponds with the maxillary lobe of the flea (fig. 34 A, M-xL) and with the body of the maxilla in the thrips (fig. 36C) ; in the Hemiptera it has been incorporated into the head wall, and the maxillary palpus has been suppressed. Between the maxillary lobe and the clypeus in the cicada is a narrow lateral sclerite known as the lorum (fig. 37 A, Lor). The structure of the head and the beak can be studied best in a freshly emerged cicada, because at this stage the skin is soft and the various parts can be readily separated. With such a specimen (fig. 37 B) it is to be seen that a narrow tapering labrum (Lm) extends downward from the lower end of the anteclypeus, and normally (A) fits close against the base of the beak. Also now fully exposed on each side is a small, soft appendage (B, Ga) hanging from the lower edge of the maxillary lobe, and therefore suggestive of a much-reduced galea ; in the natural condition (A) this appendage closes laterally the cleft between the labrum and the base of the labium. The beak itself dissociates into a cylindrical labium (B, Lb) and four very slender, bristlelike stylets. The labium is three-seg- mented and has no palpi; its anterior surface is deeply excavated by a groove in which normally are lodged the stylets, one pair of which is lateral, the other median. The lateral stylets (MdS) are extensions of the mandibles, the median pair (MaS) belong to the maxillae, their basal parts being concealed in pouches of the ventral head wall. Exposed before the stylets is a small, median, conical hypopharyngeal lobe (HL), and it is now to be seen that the loral plate (Lor) on each side of the head is an upward extension from the hypopharynx interpolated between the postclypeus and the maxillary lobe. Anterior to the hypopharynx is an opening, the food meatus (fm), leading into a large cavity, which is the lumen of the sucking pump. Some writers have contended that the loral plates of the Hemiptera are parts of the clypeus, but the contention is entirely disproved by the fact that the clypeus and the lora are separated by deep inflections 96 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 of their adjacent margins that extend clear through the head; in other words, the respective lamellae of the internal folds are con- tinuous from one side to the other. Laterally the lamellae are united, but medially they separate to form the lumen of the sucking pump, the clypeal lamella becoming here the anterior wall, or roof, of the pump, the loral lamella the floor of the pump (fig. 37 D). The clypeal lamella, therefore, is the “epipharyngeal” wall of the preoral food cavity, the loral lamella belongs to the hypopharynx, as do also the loral plates from which it is inflected. A dissection of the head will reveal the basal structures of the mandibular and maxillary stylets, the internal elaboration of the hypopharynx, the composition of the sucking pump, and the salivary ejection pump. The stylets arise from the membranous walls of the containing pouches in the lower part of the head behind the lobe of the hypopharynx and mesad of the maxillary lobes. The hypopharynx has not been fully understood by most students of Hemiptera because it is complicated in an unusual manner. To understand the nature of the hemipterous mandible, we must imagine that the appendage has been sunken into the head behind the loral plate of the hypopharynx, and that its apex has grown out into a long bristlelike stylet. The base of the stylet thus concealed is enlarged and gives off two arms (fig. 37D). One arm (ra) goes upward in the wall of the containing pouch and gives attachment to a group of retractor muscle fibers (28) arising on the dorsal wall of the head; the other arm (pa) slants laterally with its outer edge exposed in the membranous fold of the head wall between the lorum and the maxillary lobe, and gives attachment to the protractor muscles (29) arising on the inner surface of the lorum. A third muscle (27) arising in the side of the head is inserted between the two mandibular arms, and is also a retractor. The two retractor muscles of the cicada mandible would appear to represent the cranial abductor and adductor of the jaw in a generalized insect (fig. 3 E, G, 27, 28). The loral muscle can be no other than the hypopharyngeal muscle of the mandible (29), since the loral plate is a lateral extension of the hypopharynx; this muscle in the cicada has become reversed in position by the dorsal retraction of the mandible and thus func- tionally converted into a protractor. The maxillary stylet also is enlarged at its base (fig. 37 E), and it is connected with the maxillary lobe (1/xL) on the side of the head by a lever sclerite (vr). Retractor muscles (32) arising on the dorsal wall of the cranium are inserted directly on the base of the stylet, and protractor muscles (41) arising in the maxillary G a Vf a Ie J | Fic. 37.—Structure and mechanism of the feeding organs of Hemiptera as exemplified in the Homoptera. A, head of a seventeen-year cicada, Magicicada septendecim (L.), side view. B, same of newly emerged specimen with lower parts of head separated. C, median vertical section of cicada’s head showing sucking pump and salivary ejection pump. D, hypopharynx and bases of mandibles of cicada, anterior view, diagrammatic. E, right maxilla of cicada, posterior view. F, hypopharynx of cicada, posterior view, showing wing plates, floor of sucking pump, and salivary pump with its muscles. G, diagram of salivary pump in vertical section. H, diagrammatic cross section of stylet fascicle. I, cross section of beak of cicada, showing stylet fascicle in groove of labium. J, diagrams illustrating penetration of the stylets according to Weber (1928, 1930). Aclp, anteclypeus; Bk, beak; CbP, cibarial pump; Clp, clypeus; fc, food canal of beak; fm, food meatus; Ga, galea; HL, free lobe of hypopharynx; HW, posterior wing plates of hypopharynx; Lb, labium; Lc, lacinia (maxillary stylet); Lm, labrum; Lor, lorum; MdS, mandibular stylet; MxrL, maxillary lobe (united with side of head); MxS, maxillary stylet (lacinia); pa, pro- tractor arm of mandible; Phy, pharynx; ra, retractor arm of mandible; sc, salivary canal; Sit, sitophore; S7P, salivary pump. Muscles—5, dilators of cibarial pump; 18, dilator of salivary pump; 27, 28, retractors of mandible; 29, protractor of mandible; 32, retractors of maxillary stylet (lacinia) ; 41a, 4rb, protractors of maxillary stylet. (97) 98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 lobe are inserted on both the stylet base and the lever. Here, there- fore, we find again the same maxillary structure and mechanism as was seen in the fleas (fig. 34 D) and the thrips (fig. 36D). The detached lacinia becomes an independently movable stylet of the plercing apparatus, supported on the maxillary lobe by a basal lever. The origin of the protractor muscles of the lacinia on the maxillary lobe of the head shows that the latter is the stipes, which, since the entire active function of the maxilla is now taken over by the lacinia alone, has become united with the cranial wall, giving a firmer support to the lacinia and better resistance to the pull of the protractor muscles of the latter. The hypopharynx of the cicada comprises not only the small conical lobe projecting from the lower wall of the head in the usual hypopharyngeal position between the other mouth parts (fig. 37 B, HL), but includes also the floor of the sucking pump (D, Sit), the loral plates (Lor), and a pair of large, posterior winglike plates (F, HW) lying in the walls of the stylet pouches. The anterior sur- face of the free lobe (D, HL) contains a narrow food channel, and is continued up into the head where the channel widens into the deeply concave floor of the sucking pump (Sit). The lateral walls of the lobe, as already observed, are extended upward into the loral plates (Lor) exposed on the sides of the head (A, B), on which the protractor muscles of the mandibles (D, 29) take ‘their origin. The loral plates of the Homoptera, therefore, evidently represent, greatly expanded, the small loral arms of the suspensory apparatus of the cockroach hypopharynx (fig. 6 B, +) on which the hypopharyngeal muscles of the mandibles (A, 29) are attached. In the Heteroptera the loral plates are usually small, and may be completely concealed beneath the edges of the maxillary lobes. The hemipterous hypo- pharynx is further complicated by an extension from its posterior surface of the pair of large winglike plates (fig. 37 F, HW) that form the posterior walls of the stylet pouches, and give attachment on their internal surfaces to the muscles of the salivary pump (78). The sucking pump of the cicada is a large, capsulelike structure standing almost vertical in the lower part of the head (fig. 37C, CbP.). Its strongly sclerotized posterior wall is a deep oval basin corresponding with the sitophore depression on the base of the hypo- pharynx in the cockroach (fig. 6 A, Sit). The flexible anterior wall is invaginated into the concavity of the posterior wall, and on its midline are inserted huge bundles of dilator muscle fibers arising on the bulging postclypeus (fig. 37C, 5). The compression stroke ' of the pump results from the elasticity of the anterior wall, which NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 99 springs back automatically when the dilator muscles relax, its anterior end coming down first drives the food liquid on toward the rear exit. The lateral margins of the pump are supported on the pair of plates formed, as above noted, by the united lamellae of the folds inflected between the edges of the clypeus and the lora. In figure 37 D the clypeal, or “epipharyngeal,’”’ lamella, including the roof of the pump, is supposed to have been removed, leaving only the loral (hypopharyngeal) lamella with the sitophore. Following the cibarial pump in the cicada is a small pharyngeal sack (fig. 37 C, D, F, Phy), but since it has no particular development of its dilator muscles, it is probably not so important a pumping organ as in the lice, the nematocerous flies, and the fleas. A salivary ejection pump is well developed in all Hemiptera. It is usually a short cup-shaped chamber turned backward from the end of the salivary duct (fig. 37 C, G, SIP), lying within the hypo- pharyngeal lobe and discharging through an exit duct opening at the apex of the latter (G, S/O). The plunger of the pump is a pistonlike invagination of the blind end of the chamber with an axial stalk on which are attached a pair of large convergent muscles (F, 18) arising on the internal surfaces of the wing plates of the hypopharynx. The muscles retract the plunger, and saliva is drawn into the pump chamber from the salivary duct; expulsion of the liquid results from the elastic spring-back of the plunger when the muscles relax. Valves have been noted in some forms guarding the entrance and exit apertures of the pump. When the parts of the hemipterous beak are all together in the natural functional position, the mandibular and maxillary stylets issuing from their pouches are entirely concealed within the groove of the labium (fig. 371). The maxillary stylets lie between the mandibular stylets with their inner surfaces in contact. The opposing walls are doubly grooved (H) and the grooves fit over each other so as to form two lengthwise, tubular channels. The anterior channel is the food canal of the beak (fc), the posterior channel the salivary canal (sc). Where the stylets diverge at their bases against the tip of the hypopharynx, the food canal opens into the groove on the anterior surface of the hypopharyngeal lobe (D) that leads back into the cibarial pump; the halves of the salivary canal embrace the tip of the hypopharynx so that the channel between them is in position to receive the ejected saliva. By this arrangement the saliva may be conveyed to the tip of the beak while the food liquid is ascending in the opposite direction through the food canal. The piercing mechanism of the Hemiptera is fairly simple. The di I0O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 only movements the stylets are capable of making are those of pro- traction and retraction, and the movement in each direction is very short because it can be no greater than the contraction length of the operating muscle. At each outward thrust, therefore, a stylet pene- trates the food tissue by only a small fraction of its length; many repeated thrusts are necessary to gain an effective depth. The stylets, therefore, must retain their hold in the tissue with each successive penetration, otherwise the retractor muscles would simply undo the work of the protractors. In some species the stylets are anchored ‘in the wound by barbs on their extremities, in others they are held in place by a muscular clamp in the base of the labium; in either case the force of the contracting retractor muscles, instead of drawing the stylets back, pulls the head down toward the feeding surface. Thus, when the stylets are first inserted, the head is held high, while feeding is in progress the head is low and the body tilted up behind. The labium does not in any case enter the feeding puncture. As the stylets sink deeper and deeper, the labium either is pushed back at its base into the membrane of the neck, or it bends back angularly at its joints. In order to assure coherence of the four stylets in the fascicle during the penetration of a food tissue, the stylets in some forms are held together by dovetailed grooves and ridges on their opposed surfaces (fig. 37 H). The stylets can thus slide freely on one another, but are prevented from coming apart. Studies made by Weber (1928) on certain species of. Homoptera show the procedure of the stylets in operation. The mandibles appear to be the effective piercing organs, and they work alternately; first one mandibular stylet (fig. 37 J) is thrust out and held in position, then the tip of the other comes down and meets it. The two maxillary stylets, enclosing the food and salivary conduits, are now pushed out together between the mandibles, after which the whole operation is repeated. The successive move- ments are very rapid, and gradually the stylet fascicle penetrates the food plant until a sap vein is tapped, when the stylets cease their action and the sucking pump begins its work. More detailed descriptions of the hemipterous feeding apparatus, and .comparative studies of its structure and mechanism in the Homoptera and Heteroptera are given by Weber (1928, 1930, 1933), Snodgrass (1935), and Butt (1943). BED BUGS. FAMILY CIMICIDAE The family of the bed bug belongs to the suborder Heteroptera, and includes a small number of species pertaining to several genera. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS IOI The common bed bug, pestiferous to man everywhere in temperate regions, and which will attack also household animals and poultry, is Cime. lectularius L. (fig. 38 A). Other species of Cimex that feed on human blood are limited to tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America. The rest of the family consists of species that live parasitically on bats and birds, or in birds’ nests, one of these being a serious pest of poultry in the southwestern part of the United States and in Mexico. Insects of a possibly related family, the Polyctenidae, are exclusively bat parasites. Bed bugs are not known to be involved in the spread of disease, though it has been shown that they may themselves become infected with the agents of certain human diseases. The bed bug appears to be specially adapted by its flat form for getting into the crevices of beds, but of course it existed long before beds were invented, and it might as well be said that beds were made to accommodate the bugs. The bed bug is not entirely a wingless insect; it has a pair of flaps on the mesothorax (fig. 38 A, WV.) that evidently are remnants of wings possessed by its remote progenitors. The broad abdomen has only eight exposed segments, but since the true first segment is suppressed, those that are visible are segments Ito IX. The head of the bed bug is broad as seen from above or below (fig. 38 B, C), and is set deeply into the prothorax between the large flanges projecting from the sides of the latter; in side view (H) the head appears to be conical, with the beak ordinarily turned downward and backward from the anterior end. On the dorsal surface (B, H) is a broad, spatulate anteclypeus (Aclp) projecting over the base of the beak; the postclypeal area is not defined by a suture, but it must include the extensive part of the dorsal head wall (L, Clp) on which the dilator muscles of the sucking pump (5a, 5b) are attached. A pale line on the head of an immature bug (B) does not appear to be a true frontoclypeal sulcus. Turning downward from the edge of the anteclypeus is a broad triangular labrum (C, H, Lm) covering the base of the beak anteriorly. At the sides of the beak and uniting below it are two flat projections of the head wall (C, H, MxL) that give attachment to the protractor muscles of the maxillary stylets (H, 41), and hence represent the maxillary lobes of the cicada (fig. 37 A, MxL). Loral plates are not distinct in the bed bug, but the area of the head wall on each side in the angle between the anteclypeus and the maxillary lobe (H, Lor) represents the lorum of Homoptera because it runs down beneath the maxillary lobe directly into the Fic. 38—The common bed bug of Temperate regions, Cimex lectularius L., and its feeding organs. Order Hemiptera, family Cimicidae. (G, I, J, L, M, from Kemper, 1932.) A, female bed bug (length 6 mm.). B, head, dorsal. C, same, ventral, show- ing beak. D, mandibular and maxillary stylets of one side. E, labium, anterior (ventral in flexed position). FF, distal part of a mandibular stylet. G, position of head and beak with stylets deeply inserted during feeding. H, head and prothorax, left side, showing position and muscles of maxillary stylet. I, cross section of stylet fascicle. J, distal part of interlocked maxillary stylets. K, upper wall of hypopharyngeal lobe and floor of sucking pump, ventral, with dilator muscles attached on dorsal wall. L, lengthwise section of head showing sucking apparatus and salivary pump. M, cross section of beak through distal part of third labial segment. a, subapical aperture of labial groove; Aclp, anteclypeus (tylus) ; Ant, base of antenna (removed) ; Bk, beak; CbP, cibarial pump; Fasc, fascicle of stylets in labial groove; fc, food canal; g, labial groove; H, head; HL, free lobe of hypopharynx; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; Lor, lorum; MdS, mandibular stylet; MxL, maxillary lobe; MaS, maxillary stylet; Oe, oesophagus; sc, salivary canal; Sit, sitophore (floor of sucking pump) ; S/D, salivary duct; SIP, salivary pump; 7/1, prothorax; W2, reduced wing. Muscles —sa, 5b, dilators of cibarial pump; 32, retractor of maxillary stylet; 41, protractor of maxillary stylet. (102) NO: 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 103 side of the hypopharynx, and gives attachment to the protractor muscles of the mandibular stylet. The beak of the bed bug is considerably longer than the head and when not in use is turned backward at its base with its distal part between the front legs (fig. 38 C, H). The outer part of the organ is the labium, which has four segments (E), but the short first segment is mostly concealed by the labrum and the maxillary lobes. On its anterior (or under) surface is a deep groove (g), which contains the fascicle of the stylets (M, Fasc). Near the tip of the last segment the lips of the groove diverge to leave a small aperture (EF, a). The narrowed distal part of the labium ends with two small swellings bearing minute papillae, which are probably sensory organs. The mandibular and maxillary stylets are held together in a fascicle within the groove of the labium (fig. 38 M). The mandibular stylets are much slenderer than the maxillary stylets and lie against the posterior surfaces of the former (1). Between the maxillary stylets is the relatively large food canal (fc) and a minute salivary canal (sc). At the base of the beak the stylets turn backward into the head pouches and on their enlarged bases are inserted the protractor and retractor muscles, there being no lever arm connected with either the mandibular or the maxillary stylet in the bed bug. The retractor muscles arise posteriorly on the head wall; the protractors of the mandibles arise on the loral extensions of the hypopharynx those of the maxillae (H, 47) on the maxillary lobes of the head. The hypopharynx is a small, flat, triangular lobe (fig. 38 K, HL). Its dorsal surface is continued back into a large, oval deeply concave, basinlike sitophore (Sit) with strong lateral margins, which is the floor of the sucking pump (L, CbP). The thin dorsal wall of the pump when not in action is completely collapsed into the cavity of the ventral wall. The dilator muscles (L, 5a, 5b) consist of two huge lateral bundles of fibers (K), arising on nearly the whole upper wall of the head. There is no differentiated pharynx, the cibarial pump discharges directly into the tubular oesophagus. Within the hypo- pharynx is a small salivary ejection pump of the usual type of structure (L, SIP). The relation of the stylets to the hypopharynx and to the food meatus is the same as that described in the cicada. When the bed bug feeds and the stylets are being driven into the flesh of the victim, the labium, as shown by Kemper (1932), accom- modates the lowering of the head in part by a telescoping of the basal segments, but principally by a backward bending of the third and fourth segments in a sharp elbow (fig. 38 G). The stylet fascicle, however, maintains a direct course from the end of the second ’ 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 segment to the subterminal aperture of the fourth (FE, a), and is held at the puncture between the sensory apical lobes. The mandibular stylets would appear to be the effective cutting and piercing organs, since their distal parts are finely toothed (IF) ; the closely adhering maxillary stylets are cut off obliquely at their tips (J), giving an opening into the food canal like that of a hypodermic needle. The irritation often produced by the bed bug’s bite is supposedly due to the saliva injected into the puncture at the time of feeding. The bed bug feeds only on vertebrate blood, but it can survive a long time without food. A fully engorged bug becomes much altered in appearance, the ordinarily flat abdomen taking on a plump, oval form. ASSASSIN BUGS. FAMILY REDUVIIDAE Most of the common species of Reduviidae, known as assassin bugs or conenoses, are fairly large insects (fig. 39 A, B, C). They are predaceous in their feeding habits, and have a strong, three-seg- mented beak. While most of them attack other insects, some have developed a liking for the blood of mammals, and do not hesitate to attack man, particularly if he can be taken while asleep. Various species, however, including those illustrated at A and C of figure 39, will “bite” in self-defense if carelessly handled, and the resulting pain from such species is perhaps the most severe inflicted by any insect. On the other hand, certain species that attack sleeping human subjects are said to pierce the face or even the lips of their victims so gently that the latter may not even be awakened. The head of an assassin bug is relatively small compared with the size of the body (fig. 39 C), but it is strongly constructed and has an elongate form (E). From its anterior end the thick beak curves down- ward and backward when not in use, with its tip lodged in a groove of the prosternum. The mandibular and maxillary stylets arise far back in the head behind the compound eyes (FE, only the maxillary stylet shown) ; their protractor muscles (41), therefore, are unusually long. In the flexed position of the beak the stylets follow the anterior curvature of the labium as they issue from the head, and their tips lie in the labial groove at the apex of the terminal segment. The labium has little flexibility at its joints and is not capable of making an elbow bend as in the bed bug and many other Heteroptera, but it is freely hinged to the head by its thick base, and is provided with strong muscles by which it can be turned vertically or directed anteriorly (E). When the beak swings forward the anterior side of the labial base folds into the head; the distance from the head to the NOD 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—-SNODGRASS 105 CbP Clp 5b rail 18 SIDet Fic. 39.—Assassin bugs, family Reduviidae, and a bloodsucker of the family Lygaeidae. Order Hemiptera. (A, B, C, D, one-third larger than natural size.) A, Reduvius personatus (L.), a common, painfully biting assassin bug of Europe and North America. B, Triatoma infestans (Klug), a South American vector of Chagas’ disease. C, the wheel bug, Arilus cristatus (L.). D, Clerada apicicormis Sign., a South American blood-feeding member of the Lygaeidae. E, head of Reduvius personatus, showing beak in positions of flexion and exten- sion, and automatic protraction of stylets. F, section of head of same, showing sucking pump and salivary ejection pump (simplified from Weber, 1930). Aclp, anteclypeus; CbP, cibarial pump; C/p, clypeus; E, compound eye; Lm, labrum; MxL, maxillary lobe; MxS, maxillary stylet; O, ocellus; Oe, oesoph- agus; S/Dct, salivary duct; S/O, salivary orifice; S7P, salivary pump; Stl, fascicle of stylets. Muscles.—5a, 5b, 5c, dilators of cibarial pump; 18, dilator of salivary pump; 32, retractor of maxillary stylet; 47, protractor of maxillary stylet. 106 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 tip of the beak is thereby shortened, and the stylets automatically protrude from the apex of the beak. With the beak fully extended the stylets are thus protracted a distance equal to the length of the terminal segment of the labium (as shown in the extended beak of figure 39 E). The stylets can now be still farther pushed out by the contraction: of the long protractor muscles. Considering the size of the bloodsucking species, these bugs are thus able to penetrate the skin of their victims ; smaller species feed on soft-bodied insects. The sucking pump of the Reduviidae is long and slender (fig. 39 F, CbP) ; it lies horizontally in the head and is amply provided with dilator muscles (5). Because of the length of the pump, the clypeal area of the head wall, which accommodates the pump muscles, is extended far back on the upper surface of the head (E, F, Clp). The salivary pump is unusually large in the species figured (F, SIP), which is a painful biter, and evidently is equipped for injecting a large dose of its toxic saliva into the wound made by the stylets. Assassin bugs that habitually feed on human blood are vectors of at least one serious human malady, that known as Chagas’ disease, or Brazilian trypanosomiasis, occurring in South America and Panama, but particularly prevalent in Brazil. The causative agent of the disease is a protozoan blood parasite of mammals, Trypanosoma cruzi Chagas, which evidently is more widely spread among wild animals than cases of the disease in human subjects would indicate, since the organism has been found in native wood rats of southern California. The insect vectors become infected from the blood of an infected person or that of any of the various wild animals that form a perpetual source, or “reservoir,” of the disease in nature. The typanosomes undergo a metamorphosis and development in the alimentary canal of the bug, and it is by means of the feces of the latter, ejected at the time of feeding, that the disease is spread. The bugs attack exposed parts of sleeping persons, usually the face or the lips, and inoculation results from scratching the infected feces into an abrasion of the skin, or from penetration of the trypanosomes into the mucous membrane of the mouth. Fully 20 species of reduviid bugs are known to be vectors of the disease agent, of which one is shown at B of figure 39. Various other species of predaceous Heteroptera are likely to “bite” when handled or to attack man under unusual conditions (see Myers, 1929; Lent 1939). In the family Lygaeidae, however, mem- bers of the genus Clerada, widely distributed in the Tropics, said by Myers to be known as the “squirrel bug” in India, are true blood- suckers that will feed on man, though they usually inhabit the nests NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS 107 of animals. Ferreira and Deane (1938) give a report of investigations on the American species Clerada apicicornis Sign. (fig. 39 D) in Brazil, where the insect was found to be abundant in human habita- tions. The bloodsucking and domiciliary habits of this species, there- fore, make it another possible transmitter of Brazilian trypanosomiasis (see Lent, 1939). 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A text book of medical entomology. 764 pp., 89 pls. London, Madras, and Calcutta. Patton, W. S., and Evans, A. M. 1929. Insects, ticks, mites and venomous animals of medical and veterinary importance. 786 pp., 60 pls., 374 text figs. Croydon, England. Peacock, A. D. 1918. The structure of the mouth parts and mechanism of feeding in Pediculus humanus. Parasitology, vol. 11, pp. 98-117. PEARMAN, J. V. 1928. Biological observations on British Psocoptera. Ent. Month. Mag., vol. 64, pp. 263-268. PETERSON, A. 1915. Morphological studies on the head and mouth-parts of the Thysanop- tera. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., vol. 8, pp. 20-59, 7 pls. 1916. The head-capsule and the mouth parts of Diptera. Illinois Biol. Monogr., vol. 3, No. 2, 112 pp., 25 pls. Pierce, W. D. 1921. Sanitary entomology. 518 pp., 88 figs. Boston. Qaonrt, M. A. H. 1936. Studies on the mouth-parts of Mallophaga infesting North-Indian birds. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 411-423, 9 figs. REYNE, A. 1927. Untersuchungen tiber die Mundteile der Thysanopteren. Zool. Jahrb., Anat., vol. 49, pp. 391-500, pls. 3-7. Ritey, W. A., and JoHANNSEN, O. A. 1938. Medical entomology. 2d ed., 483 pp., 184 figs. New York and London. Rosinson, G. G. 1939. The mouth parts and their function in the female mosquito, Anopheles maculipennis. Parasitology, vol. 31, pp. 212-242, 9 figs. SCHOLZEL, G. 1937. Die Embryologie der Anopluren und Mallophagen. Zeitschr. Parasi- tenkunde, vol. 9, pp. 730-770, I9 figs. SEIFFERT, G. 1944. Virus diseases in man animal and plant. (Transl. by M. L. Taylor.) 332 pp. New York. T1I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 SENIOR-WHITE, R. 1923. A note on pseudo-tracheal teeth in the ‘eye-fly’ (Siphunculina funi- cola, de Meijére). Indian Journ. Med. Res., vol. 10, pp. 825-826, pl. 61. SHArtF, M. 1937. On the internal anatomy of the larva of the rat-flea, Nosopsyllus fasciatus (Bosc). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, ser. B, vol. 227, pp. 465-538, 82 figs. Sikora, H. 1916. Beitrage zur Anatomie, Physiologie und Biologie der Kleiderlaus. Archiv Schiffs- u. Tropen-hyg., vol. 20, Beiheft 1, pp. 2-76. SMART, J. 1935. The internal anatomy of the black-fly Simulium ornatum. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., vol. 29, pp. 160-170, 12 figs. Smanrt, J., JorDAN, K., and Wuittick, R. J. 1943. Insects of medical importance. 269 pp., 13 pls., 117 text figs. British Museum, London. Snoperass, R. E. 1935. Principles of insect morphology. 667 pp., 319 figs. New York and London. 1943. The feeding apparatus of biting and disease-carrying flies. Smith- sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 1, 51 pp., 18 figs. (Included in the present paper.) SOUTHWELL, T., and Kirsuner, A. 1938. On the transmission of leishmaniasis. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., vol. 32, pp. 95-102. SPEISER, P. 1900. Ueber die Strebliden, Fledermausparasiten aus der Gruppe der pupi- paren Dipteren. Archiv. Naturg., Jahrg. 66, Bd. 1, pp. 31-70, pls. 3, 4. STEPHENS, J. W. W., and Newsteap, R. 1907. The anatomy of the proboscis of biting flies. Pt. 2. Stomoxys. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., vol 1, pp. 171-198, pls. 12-10. TuHompeson, M. T. 1905. Alimentary canal of the mosquito. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 32, pp. 145-202, pls. 13-17. VocEL, R. 1921. Zur Kenntnis des Baues und der Funktion des Stachels und des Vorderdarmes der Kleiderlaus. Zool. Jahrb., Anat., vol. 42, pp. 229-258, pls. 12-14, 4 text figs. 192I1a. Kritische und erganzende Mitteilungen zur Anatomie des Stech- apparats der Culiciden und Tabaniden. Zool. Jahrb., Anat., vol. 42, pp. 259-282, pl. 15, ro text figs. WARBURTON, C. 1928. Ornithomyia avicularia (Diptera Hippoboscidae) as the carrier of Mallophaga,' with some remarks on phoresy in insects. Parasit- ology, vol. 20, pp. 175-178, 1 fig. Weber, H. 1928. Zur vergleichenden Physiologie der Saugorgane der Hemipteren. Zeitschr. vergl. Physiologie, vol. 8, pp. 145-186, 14 figs. 1930. Biologie der Hemipteren. 543 pp., 329 figs. Berlin. NO. 7 BITING AND SUCKING INSECTS—SNODGRASS Tes) 1933. Lehrbuch der Entomologie. 726 pp., 555 figs. Jena. 1936. Copeognatha. Biologie der Tiere Deutschlands. Lief. 39, Teil 27, pp. I-50, 27 figs. 1938. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Uberordnung Psocoidea. 1. Die Labial- driisen der Copeognathen. Zool. Jahrb., Anat., vol. 64, pp. 243-286, 16 figs. y 1938a. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Uberordnung Psocoidea. 4. Ein neues Organ im Kopf der Elefantenlaus, Haematomyzus elephantis Piaget. Zool. Anz., vol. 124, pp. 97-103, 5 figs. WHITFIELD, F. G. S. 1925. The relation between the feeding-habits and the structure of the mouth-parts in the Asilidae (Diptera). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. for 1925, pp. 599-638, 2 pls., 15 text figs. WHITMAN, L. 1937. The multiplication of the virus of yellow fever in Aedes aegypti. Journ. Exp. Med., vol. 66, pp. 133-143. WIGGLESworTH, V. B. 1943. The fate of haemoglobin in Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera) and other blood-sucking anthropods. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, ser. B, vol. 131, pp. 313-339, 6 figs. 7 vy wi s vA ' ie : o , 7 oN Pay Gee te alle Vales ai CS REI ae merely ah e wir , aay { : 1 t ‘an Shaheed tp 5, ay tye anal weal ance a tie hc i wt wi rae j ‘ iP ri" P * ‘’ Met y : iv r i ap iad Pua Pa ae ste } wd ae > bn pS) Lae a SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 8 || A NEW SHIPWORM FROM THE PANAMA i CANAL (WitH ONE PLATE) BY PAUL BARTSCH Curator of Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates U. S. National Museum E-INCR Ry (PUBLICATION 3774) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SEPTEMBER 7, 1944 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 8 A NEW SHIPWORM FROM THE PANAMA CANAL (WITH ONE PLATE) BY PAUL BARTSCH Curator of Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates U. S. National Museum (PUBLICATION 3774) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SEPTEMBER 7, 1944 The Lord Waltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. * A NEW SHIPWORM FROM THE PANAMA CANAL By PAUL BARTSCH Curator of Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates United States National Museum (WitH ONE PLATE) The United States National Museum has received a shipment of shipworms from James Zetek, entomologist of the Panama Canal Zone. These specimens are accompanied by data as follows: 25384. Balboa, Canal Zone. 4 months’ exposure in laminated board assembly, May 10944. 25385. Balboa, Canal Zone. 2 months’ exposure in laminated board assembly, March 1944. 25386. Cristobal, Canal Zone, Atlantic side. In test timbers, May 1944. I also sent under the same number some taken from test timbers placed Sept. 1943 and examined April 1944; hence only shells and pallets. 25387. Balboa, Canal Zone. From our teredo tests, Oct. 1943. This sending contains three species, one of which proves to be undescribed and is here christened. All three belong to the genus Bankia, but to three subgenera of that genus. The two previously described species are Bankia (Neobankia) zeteki Bartsch! and Bankia (Nausitoria) jamesi Bartsch.2 They came from the Canal Zone and were both discovered by Mr. Zetek. In the present sending are specimens of zeteki from stations 25384, 25385, 25386, and 25387, and of jamesi from station 25387. The new species, described herein as the canal shipworm, belongs to the subgenus Bankia, which heretofore was known only from the northern and southern part of the east Pacific coast. BANKIA (BANKIA) CANALIS, new species Plate 1 Shell small, globular. The extreme anterior area, the posterior portion of the median area, and the posterior area are white; the rest olive green, becoming paler ventrally. The anterior part has a strong 1U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 122, pp. 9-10, pls. 6, 7, 30, fig. I, 1922. 2 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 99, No. 21, pl. 1, 1041. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 8 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 sinus at the extreme anterior margin which is covered with a thick callus reflected over the exterior and forming a slight crest at its posterior margin. The rest of the anterior part is marked by slender, riblike dental ridges, which are more closely approximated at the anterior callus than at their junction with the median part where the spaces that separate them are a little wider than the ridges. Fifty- five of these ridges are present in the type, the early ones being worn away at the umbone. The dental ridges from the umbone to the ventral margins are remarkably uniform in size and spacing. In cross .section the dental ridges are roughly triangular and bear numerous minute, closely spaced denticles on their outer dorsal mar- gin which lend them a serrated aspect. The anterior median part joins the anterior part at its ventral margin in almost a right angle. The junction of the anterior part and median part appears as a slightly impressed line extending from the umbone to the ventral margin. The anterior and posterior median portions are convex, while the middle median portion is slightly concave. The anterior median portion is broad and marked by closely crowded dental ridges, which are less strong than those on the anterior part. These ridges bear strong, closely crowded tubercles whose long axis is transverse to that of the ridges. The ridges are separated by deeply impressed lines. Under high magnification this part of the shell appears as an efficient file. The middle and posterior median parts are marked by rather irregular incremental lines. The posterior part forms a small auricle marked by weak incremental lines only. The interior is bluish white. The umbones form a strong knob from the inner underside of which the slender sickle-shaped blade curves across two-thirds of the inside of the shell toward the strongly rounded ventral knob of the median part. The junction of the anterior and median part forms a threadlike ridge. The posterior portion extends rather widely over the median on the inside, having its anterior margin very oblique and projecting as a thin shelf. The pallets are long and slender, with the rounded stalk as long as, or longer than, the blade. The blade consists of rather distantly spaced, cone-in-cone- shaped elements of which seven are present in the type. The hard portion of these elements is rounded on its distal portion on the outside and deeply V-shapedly incised on its inner face. The cone- in-cone-shaped elements are covered with a thin, horn-colored, trans- parent periostracum, which develops into awnlike spines on the lateral margin, while the intermediate space between these awns is finely fimbriated on the outside. The type, U.S.N.M. No. 568817, comes from station 25385, and was taken from a laminated board assembly that had been exposed SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104, NO. 8 THE CANAL SHIPWORM no. 8 SHIPWORM FROM PANAMA CANAL—BARTSCH 3 for 2 months at Balboa, Canal Zone. The shell of the type measures: Height, 6.3 mm.; length, 6.2 mm.; diameter, 6.2 mm. The pallet measures: Entire length, 18.4 mm. ; length of stalk, 10 mm. ; diameter of blade, 2.0 mm. A large number of additional specimens from the same station are in the United States National Museum collection, as well as lots from stations 25386 and 25387. Bankia (Bankia) setacea Tryon, which ranges from Unalaska to San Francisco Bay, is easily distinguished from the present species by its huge size, while Bankia (Bankia) chiloensis Bartsch, from Chiloé Island, Chile, is small like the present species but has the auricle greatly reduced and the cone-in-cone elements much more condensed. hat wt qian 4h \ Ee |: i ay i (nesta atl rad) ali ha Shaile att siti fens . wey golhint oT) keen ees ces ine Say ie if vey yee nreealy » aT Hate W Atal pet ‘44 aed ihc . rie Re: bole: see SD ge Osi ey: OL ‘canny bt iB fy var eal dealt ots Hisar dipoive 4! we yy Bs : « RByat Lie vl Si, ais bn a gfentan 1 dail Sights, tot ht) wees) Cd : Ha AYER st Dae th RP w \, nitty ee eh Loh Js Oy Tye” se rae wily eee Yikes ana ey | Hii? Srl, Ve, ae oes nig A 7 bnew tend - eel Ane ame ne Taint eee ee, 4 A, Y a b., e 4 A rt i ir, sy ? ioe eae ‘SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS ‘anor! Lora ew, —— tet ee os i Naren a a ote gs. >a ay. 4 Fal SS ane Sate Part fe RN s a WE eae es 4 ate “SR eG a Poe POO eee Ve ge ee ee Oe ee Se eee ¥. it, * 5. = 5S Saceeg ees i *< Sit Se SR oe ae Kg Soo See Saye eo te i aed os he aE ee o oF ¥ LESS AY = ie ‘ h)/-— af a hs : bers g t ~ re 4- aes x i 5 Me Soe fal etieaee ak ; Fi Ss cee Pe TS Ce ws = 5 ae aad suF tage a aT ay 1 : ts =" * i y' 3 te 4 tial fore cee SP ge ee tas” z Pr take SOF mis. ae = >) wa ohare ewe tee | = . A 7) r) x 7 = ict PALA o<- 7 < : ase . ; a 2 VOLUME 104, NUMBER 9 : — sie ‘ ON THE. 7 0074- DAY CYCLE IN WASHINGTON | PRECIPITATION pea AY. GC. G. ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution o E INC > ae (PUBLICATION 3800) — | GITY OF WASHINGTON . | “PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FEBRUARY 8, 1945 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 9 Roebling Fund ON THE 27.0074-DAY CYCLE IN WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION BY CG. G. ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3800) GITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FEBRUARY 8, 1945 mi i s f NE! | LPL Pi! fn) Arar | for ay Ree Ee ee “ae 4 ; Cr Ai bee! Pits Aut P - { Tone A . | | | i me aly yh | } ec f ye Y ; ty ih ; | Wi, | ; | ; j jt | i + — i | \. \ The Lord Baltimore Press 7 BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As ee Preferred ...... 0.164 0.129 0.256 0.079 0.000 0.036 0.085 0.491 0.249 0.081 0.190 0.018 0.027 0.050 0.103 0.126 0.073 0.143 0.074 0.016 0.136 0.123 0.048 0.216 Se Renee 6.07 2.50) 2:49) 0/63) 0:00. 0:25 Tals s0c7 1.83 0.66 3.96 0.08 Roebling Fund ON THE 27.0074-DAY CYCLE IN WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION By C..G ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution In my paper “Weather Predetermined by Solar Variation,” 1 table 5 gives the dates in 1944 which were expected to have larger than average daily precipitation in Washington. It was stated (p. 40) that, of the 10 years 1934 to 1943, the dates expected to have larger than average precipitation did in fact have larger average precipitation than the remaining dates in the ratio 1.55, and that only 1 of the Io years, namely, 1934, failed in this respect. The value of the ratio for 1934 was 0.99. The year 1944 having now ended, I have computed the average precipitation per day of the “preferred” days, and of the others for each month, and for the entire year. The results are as follows: Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. The months April, May, and June, which were regarded in 1944 as “drought” months in Washington, and brought disappointment to “Victory gardeners,” and the months October and December, failed to present ratios larger than unity. A heavy thundershower occurred about 9 p. m. on October 20, in which 1.08 inches of rain fell. Had it occurred 3 hours later, falling on October 21, it would have made the October ratio 2.63 instead of 0.66. For the year, 177 preferred days yielded 24.58 inches of precipitation, while 189 other days yielded 17.72 inches. Thus for the year the preferred days gave 1.48 times as much average precipitation per day as the others. The expected ratio, as stated at page 40 of my cited publication, is 1.42. The average observed ratio during the I1 years 1934 to 1944 was 1.55. The following table gives for the year 1945 the “preferred” dates when greater average precipitation is expected to occur than on the remaining dates. Of course it is understood that precipitation is not expected to occur on every one of the “preferred” dates. On the 1 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 5, July 3, 1944. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 9 Year 0.139 0.094 1.48 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 other hand, precipitation is likely to occur on many of the “remaining” dates. But at the end of 1945, as for the preceding 11 years, it is expected that the average daily precipitation at Washington on the “preferred” dates will be found to have exceeded the average daily precipitation on the “remaining”’ dates. TABLE 1.—Dates expected to have larger than average precipitation, Washington, 1045 Preferred days of cycle Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June WOES tat sane 26 22 21 17 14 10 a, Mage ey 27 23 22 18 “15 II Bie ve eran I 28 24 23 19 16 12 Ae RR SUR 212 25 24 20 17 13 (oh UREA Ne ROE Bes ie) 26 25 21 18 14 12 ee Se ee 10 6 5 1 28 25 21 TiS heehee II 7 6 AB 26 22 Ig adore oie us 13 9 8 4 1 28 2 11 PE RISA 15 II 10 6 3 30 26 LO een 16 12 II v 4 31 27 2 aeee re ie CD se 20 16 15 II 8 4 Ali h cote wits 24 20 19 15 12 8 DT stead a Rs be 25 Pi 20 16 13 9 Preferred days of cycle July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. USB for git oa 7 3 30 26 23 19 16 PME tig 8 4 31 27 24 20 17 ERS hair BI 9 5 1 28 25 21 18 AN eer ae 10 6 2 29 26 2 19 reece Pint oe eta mt 7 3 30 27 2 20 TON Bel ae. 5 18 14 10 7. 3 30 27 TTR ab code 19 15 II 8 4 I 28 TAG Ae eeu Zi 17 13 10 6 3 30 Te, siete ey eke 23 19 15 12 8 5 TOM Fearon 2 20 16 13 9 6 BON Ay Eran I 28 24 20 WG 13 10 ACY a Red ste ARATE 5 I 28 24 ea 17 14 Pa ee ik See 6 2 29 25 22 18 15 ar se +

0.02 M and of Ca**>0.06 M cause precipitation of carbonate when mixed with equal volumes of the ferricyanide reagent at room temperature. Calcium is sometimes deliberately introduced into sugar solutions, e.g., in the procedure of Kerstan (1934) in which HCl used for hydrolysis of maltose is neutralized by a mixture of NaOH and Ca(OH). in order to prevent the inhibitory effect of NaCl upon yeast fermentation. Ammonium chloride, ammonium sulfate (fig. 3).—Ammonium salts produce an appreciable effect in rather low concentration. Cupric- ammonia coordination compounds are formed and no cuprous oxide precipitates from solutions which are more than 0.04 M in NH,}*. Eynon and Lane (1923) also reported interference by low concentra- tions of NH,Cl in determinations with Fehling’s solution, and Folin and Svedberg (1926) described a copper reagent containing a high concentration of (NH4)2SO,4 which did not react with reducing sugar. The results with the ferricyanide reagent resemble those produced by CaCl. Sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sulfuric acid (figs. 4, 5).— The influence of alkalinity upon reagent #£50 was studied by Shaffer and Somogyi (1933), who found that the higher the alkalinity the faster the sugar oxidation but the lower the final amount of copper reduced ; the latter finding is confirmed by our results with NaOH. Added Na,COs, up to a concentration of 0.175 M in the sugar solu- tion, has no influence owing to the buffer capacity of the carbonate + bicarbonate content of the reagent; with higher concentrations im- permanent end points were obtained in the thiosulfate titration. The low results obtained on addition of sulfuric acid are presumably due to retardation of the reaction. Pickett (1940) found that the pH of reagent #50 (about 9.2) NO. IO SUGAR DETERMINATION—WEINTRAUB AND PRICE a was appreciably altered on mixing with equal volumes of various unclarified plant juices. The influence of alkalinity on sugar oxidation by ferricyanide has been reported to be similar to that found in oxidation by copper (Van Slyke and Hawkins, 1928; Wood, 1935). Our results with ferri- cyanide differ considerably from those with copper, however. With -20 os o) PERCENT ERROR BS (e) -80 (NH,),9 0, 10 02 04 O06 MOLAR CONCENTRATION Fic. 3.—Effects of ammonium chloride and ammonium sulfate on estimation of glucose by copper ( ) and ferricyanide (-——) reagents. increasing concentrations of NaOH the amount of reduction in 15 minutes first decreases, then passes through a minimum and finally increases. Conversely, with increasing concentrations of sulfuric acid the amount of reduction decreases initially, attains a maximum, and then diminishes rapidly. Sodium carbonate produces only an increase in the amount of ferri- cyanide reduced. Similar findings have been reported by Englis and 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Becker (1939). In using NazCO; for deleading extracts clarified with lead acetate an excess should be avoided if reducing sugars are to be determined by ferricyanide. The acid results appear to conform to the pattern of the family of curves published by Van Slyke and Hawkins, but the results with alkali do not seem explicable on the basis of the previous findings. A family of time curves for various degrees of alkalinity would be required to clarify the situation. Citric Acid \ Banzoic Acid () \ Citrie Acid (a) \ a SO¢ (o) -40 . PERCENT ERROR 05 10 15 .20 NORMAL CONCENTRATION Fic. 4.—Effects of sulfuric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, and sodium hydroxide on estimation of glucose by copper ( ) and ferricyanide (-——) reagents. Monosodium phosphate, dipotassium phosphate, tripotassium. phos- phate (fig. 5).—The effects of NaH.,PO, on both reagents resemble those produced by H:SO, and doubtless are due, in part at least, to the increased hydrogen-ion concentration. A precipitate is formed in the copper reagent on mixing with an equal volume of 0.2 M NalisP@;. Dipotassium phosphate (or disodium phosphate), which tends to depress the pH of the reagents, also gives results which might be expected from such an effect. Stable end points cannot be obtained by the iodometric method under the conditions employed, NO. IO SUGAR DETERMINATION—WEINTRAUB AND PRICE 9 if the concentration of K,HPO, equals 0.2 M in the copper reaction mixture or 0.1 M in the ferricyanide reaction mixture. The inhibiting effect of disodium phosphate on the oxidation of glucose has been observed previously (Fischl, 1933; Strepkov, 1936; Englis and Becker, 1939) and has been utilized in the construction of reagents selective for fructose, inasmuch as the oxidation of this sugar is affected to a much smaller degree. Decreased oxidation of glucose by a copper reagent in the presence of KH.,PO, was noted by Visscher (1926). Tripotassium phosphate might be expected to exert an influence by virtue of its alkalinizing action, and indeed the results obtained —_-— —_—_—— SS —_— —— — ——— ee PERCENT ERROR eae 25 30 15 20 MOLAR CONCENTRATION Fic. 5.—Effects of monosodium phosphate, dipotassium phosphate, tripotassium phosphate, and sodium carbonate on estimation of glucose by copper ( and ferricyanide (———) reagents. with both sugar reagents resemble those produced by NaOH. It is apparent from the curves, however, that some other effect must be operative also. Impermanent end points are obtained in titration of copper and ferricyanide reaction mixtures which are at least 0.10 and 0.125 M in K;PO,, respectively. Potassium acetate (fig. 6).—Acetates of lead are very widely employed in clarification of plant extracts prior to analysis. The added acetate remains in the solution after removal of the lead. With the copper reagent no error is introduced by potassium acetate in con- centrations less than 0.3 M; in the presence of higher concentrations the determination becomes unsatisfactory owing to impermanence of the end point. Although the ferricyanide reagent gives somewhat high results at all concentrations of acetate, the error introduced by the maximal 1@) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 amounts of lead acetate customarily used would be less than 0.5 percent. Potassium oxalate (fig. 6).—Oxalate is commonly employed as an anticoagulant for blood. The amount customarily added is such as to furnish a maximal concentration of about 0.01 M which causes an error of only 0.5 percent with the copper reagent and less than this with the ferricyanide reagent. Occasional directions, however, call for the use of 2 to 5 times this amount of oxalate which is sufficient to produce an appreciable error with either reagent. Oxalate is frequently used also for deleading plant extracts clarified by lead acetate. Care should be taken that only a small excess of oxalate is added. 10 Ky Ova late A K Acetate K, Oxalate ERROR ) PERCENT 30 -40 Na, Citrate 05 AO AS 20 25 30 MOLAR CONCENTRATION Fic. 6—Effects of potassium acetate, sodium benzoate, sodium citrate, and potassium oxalate on estimation of glucose by copper ( ) and ferricyanide (——-—) reagents. The action of oxalate on copper reagents has been described by Shaffer and Hartmann (1921). Sodium citrate, citric acid (figs. 4, 6).—The copper reagent is more sensitive toward citrate than to any of the other substances tested. The free acid apparently combines the specific effect of the citrate ion and the general hydrogen-ion effect. The ferricyanide reaction is very much less sensitive to the citrate ion. This is shown clearly also by the curve for citric acid which coincides with that of sulfuric acid. Sodium citrate in concentrations greater than o.1 M causes impermanent end points; a similar ob- servation was made by Hulme and Narain (1931), who attributed it to interference with the precipitation of ferrocyanide as potassium NO. 10 SUGAR DETERMINATION—WEINTRAUB AND PRICE 10M zinc ferrocyanide. The interference could be avoided by adding a sufficiently large amount of ZnSQ,. In determinations with the copper reagent serious error may attend the use of citrate as an anticoagulant for blood, or the use of citric acid for hydrolysis of disaccharides. Conceivably, some of the findings in the literature of higher reducing sugar content of blood by ferri- cyanide determination than by copper reagents may be at least partially attributable to the use of citrate. Sodium benzoate, benzoic acid—These substances were tested because, owing to their antiseptic action in low concentrations, they are sometimes employed as preservatives for sugar solutions and extracts. With the copper reagent no significant error was found in the oxidation of glucose solutions containing 0.016 M_ benzoic 12 P P4S04 e8 c a » P38 Acetate = 54 oO ec W a ° 10 15 x10 5 MOLAR CONCENTRATION Fic. 7—Effects of lead sulfate and normal lead acetate on estimation of uiitase by ferricyanide reagent. (Solubility of PbSO; taken as 13 &X 10°M ateZOu.)- acid (nearly a saturated solution) or 0.1 M sodium benzoate (from which a considerable precipitate of benzoic acid is produced by acidification ). The ferricyanide reaction, however, is much more sensitive toward both substances (figs. 4, 6). Lead sulfate, lead oxalate, lead carbonate, lead sulfide, lead phos- phate——These salts were prepared by mixing solutions of normal lead acetate with excess of the alkali salts of the appropriate anions. The precipitates were filtered and washed until the wash water gave no test for the anions. Saturated solutions were prepared by shaking in water at room temperature on a mechanical shaker for several hours over a period of some days, and filtering the suspensions. I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 With glucose solutions containing these salts in concentrations equal to eight-tenths of saturation, the following percentage errors were found by means of the copper reagent: PbSO., 0.0; PbC,Ox, ~02: PbCO;, —0.2; PbS; —o123) Pbs( PO) 2, 0.4." Eleneemas significant errors are introduced by the lead remaining in solution after the usual methods of clarifying extracts with lead acetate. Determinations with the ferricyanide reagent on solutions containing the lead salts at nine-tenths of saturation gave the following percentage errors: PbCOs:, +0.8° PbS; +0.4; Pb;(PO.)2, 6.0; PbhC,O)) --@e: However, an appreciable effect was found (fig. 7) in the case of PbSO, which has a much higher solubility than the other lead salts +30 PERCENT ERROR °o 100 200 300 400 MG. ©,HOH PER ML. Fic. 8—Effect of ethyl alcohol on estimation of glucose by copper ( and ferricyanide (-——) reagents. investigated. For comparison the influence of normal lead acetate in the same concentration range was measured. | These results demonstrate that deleading by means of sulfate is objectionable if reducing sugars are to be estimated with the ferri- cyanide reagent. Ethyl alcohol (fig. 8).—The influence of alcohol was studied in view of the possibility that it may be introduced during certain pro- cedures for the removal of various fermentable sugars by means of micro-organisms. The results show that no significant error is caused by amounts of alcohol which might be formed from reasonably dilute sugar solutions such as would ordinarily be analyzed. The effect of alcohol on estimation of other sugars was not investigated, although it is realized, of course, that glucose would never be left after fer- mentation by any of the micro-organisms hitherto employed. Table 1 has been prepared from the curves of figures I to 7 in order to compare the approximate minimal concentrations of various NO. IO SUGAR DETERMINATION—WEINTRAUB AND PRICE 13 substances which produce an error of 2 percent in the determination of 2 mg. of glucose. Without further extension of the list of substances tested, sufficient data have been presented to demonstrate the high degree of sensitivity of these copper and ferricyanide reagents as customarily employed in analysis. It is apparent that caution should be exercised in the interpretation of results obtained from solutions containing, in addi- TABLE 1.—Approximate minimal concentrations of various substances causing error of 2 percent in determination of 2 mg. glucose Ferricyanide Substance Copper reagent reagent eadbsuliateye se noc eon aan Hats 0.00001 M Weeadeacetate Maaracs octet etre vey .OOOOI5 ANomenomitorenl GULEOS saoubonooboeooaosT 0.003 M sé Ammonium: chloride sastecsessssene oe .006 .005 Sodiumecitnatewe merece ate. .004 Bu Masnesinme: chlorides. seyce cis ocniee a: .OI .003 Maciresiumm«suliatel ace. on oeectiec oe OI .003 ‘ixipotassiumm—epuiosphates esses see ceas .OI O15 Galetumychlondetavses octet ace ee O15 O10 Monosodium phosphate .............. 025 .005 Potassium “oxalate es..\¢ eee eee 05 05 Dipotassium) phosphate’ .... +... 02+: .06 035 BGGMADENZOALE cases, 010,018 ue iaree nxe ane 5. Dag ai Sodiunmearhonateracc acetieacnce ce ces SLs .09 SROLASSIUIM) ACETATE! sacels mice oie os lati eves 3 .16 Soutum *chloride’ 2845 Hu Wess Le... .32 25 IRotassitamlsch! onid Giventeycrsievieve eee oe 35 Sod Stiltates cig sctacsss vreraeeaererras + 40 22 IRotassiimestltater as semis seienr eect 40 Reve Sodium vOridew-n. ceils cee ieeerciacrac 55 26 SOmutinp nitrate scjam setters cie-erackeieta cio 75 Bi Gita Ce ACU ee we Arner ye ciclak oot me aicia te .005 N .006 N IBENZOl Cla Clare tenn eianee seyaee rac: > .o16 .006 Sulbunicvacidivagss4 urs cssie oe Mae ere 04 .006 Sodiumuehydroxid em aasscmiraseme csc .02 .O16 tion to sugars, other components such as buffers, added reagents, or impurities of biological origin. It should be emphasized that the results presented in figures 1 to 8 and in table I apply only to the specific experimental conditions (volume of reaction mixture, time of heating, nature and amount of sugar). The behavior of sugars other than glucose may differ very greatly, as illustrated in tables 2 and 3. Furthermore, the magnitude of the effect of a given substance may vary with the amount of sugar present. | 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 These results suggest possibilities for developing reagents selec- tive for individual sugars. Mention has already been made of the partially selective reagents for fructose devised by Fischl (1933), Strepkov (1936), and Englis and Becker (1939). A study of such reagents is in progress and will be reported separately. TABLE 2.—Influence of several substances on estimation of various sugars by Shaffer-Somogyi copper reagent Percent error caused by presence in sugar solution of— 0.05 M 0.18 N 0.25 M 0.3 M Sugar 1 Sodium citrate Citric acid (NH4)2SO4 NaHoPO, Glucose, 0.5mg...... — 47.4 lt Sonia 44 — 37.0 ate Bee Aas Danii See pe — 32.6 — 998 — 97.8 — 97.8 ie STR reo aoc — 27.8 tats o TINR S56 aol ee — 82.0 ae sae Fructose, 2 mg...... — 23.8 — 82.4 — 71.2 — 68.3 Maltose) 4) mp;..4.-. ine — 100.0 — 97.8 — 96.9 ie onl Dey eaeeae — 7 Wactose; 5) meses — 4.5 ‘: Arabinose, 3 mg...... — 29.8 1In pure solution, approximately equal amounts of reduction are produced by: 1 mg. glucose, 1 mg. fructose, 3 mg. maltose hydrate, 3 mg. lactose hydrate, 1.5 mg. arabinose. TABLE 3.—Influence of several substances on estimation of various sugars by potassium ferricyanide reagent Percent error caused by presence in sugar solution of— o.1 M 1.0 M 0.2 M Sugar 1 NH,Cl (NH) 2SO4 NaHoPO, Glucose lemece ene — 70.5 san tah PINON Ros cee OE — 73.4 — 96.8 — 98.0 Ay Meee ae Cy nore ses Fructose, 2 ag% 2.201. — 28.2 — 75.6 — 76.3 Maltose a simee sate: — 79.6 Arabinose, 2)mg..4.2..: — 82.0 1In pure solution, approximately equal amounts of reduction are produced by: 1 mg. glucose, 1 mg. fructose, 1.5 mg. maltose hydrate, 1.2 mg. arabinose. Introduction of a foreign substance into the reaction mixture may affect the apparent sugar oxidation in one or more of several ways: (1) it may merely interfere with the measurement of the amount of reduction; (2) it: may of itself exert a reducing action on the reagent; (3) it may influence the rate of reaction between sugar and reagent; (4) it may alter the final amount of reduction. An example of interference with the measuring technique is fur- nished by oxalate in the titration of ferrocyanide by ceric ion. Ow- NO. IO SUGAR DETERMINATION—WEINTRAUB AND PRICE 15 ing to the oxidation of the oxalate this method cannot be utilized in its presence. The interference of citrate in iodometric titration of ferricyanide and its prevention by the use of additional ZnSO, also has been mentioned. The impermanent end points observed in cer- tain iodometric titrations in connection with the copper reagent also are probably to be ascribed to interference of this class. None of the results described appears to be due to direct reduction of the reagent by the test substance. That a given substance of itself exerts no reducing action on a sugar reagent does not necessarily constitute evidence that the oxidation of sugar will be uninfluenced 5 2 mg. Glucose p04 , olM Nee 4 : 2 4 Glucos® : $ AmOZ mg. Glucose + 0.05 M Nay Citrate —_ 3 2 N (eo) [o} ie =| = 10 40 50 20 30 HEATING TIME (MIN) Fic. 9.—Influence of monosodium phosphate and of sodium citrate on rate of oxidation of glucose by copper reagent. by its presence. It has been ascertained, for example, that neither of the reagents studied is appreciably reduced by substances such as citric acid, sodium citrate, sodium dihydrogen phosphate, and ammonium salts even in concentrations capable of nearly complete inhibition of the sugar oxidation under the conditions employed. Lack of appreciation of this circumstance is to be found in numerous reports in the literature of tests alleged to demonstrate noninterference by various substances. Alterations of the rate and amount of oxidation have been dis- cussed above in connection with the effects of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Further examples are illustrated in figure 9. It is apparent that the error caused by NaH,PO, (or by any substance that has a similar effect) can be minimized by selecting an appropriate reaction time; this is not the case, however, for substances, such as sodium citrate, which diminish the reduction equivalent. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 SUMMARY The influence of 30 compounds, chiefly organic and inorganic acids and salts, upon the estimation of reducing sugars by copper and ferri- cyanide reagents has been studied. Errors are caused by the presence of most of these substances, even though of themselves nonreducing, and in some cases by concentrations which may occur naturally in solutions or extracts of biological origin or which may be introduced by certain procedures employed in carbohydrate analyses. Differences in the effects of certain of the substances upon oxidation of various sugars are so great as to suggest the possibility of devising selective reagents through their use. LITERATURE CITED Coox, H. A., AnD McALLEp, W. R. 1928. Glucose determinations. Hawaiian Planters’ Record, vol. 32, pp. 142-156. Encuts, D. T., ano Becker, H. C. 1939. Selective oxidation of levulose with potassium ferricyanide. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., vol. 11, pp. 145-140. Eynon, L., anp Lane, J. H. 1923. The influence of alkaline-earths on the determination of reducing sugars by Fehling’s solution. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., vol. 42, pp. 143-146T. Fiscuu, F. : 1933. Eine mikroanalytische Methode zur qualitativen und quantitativen Bestimmung von Fructose neben Glucose und anderen Aldosen sowie neben Saccharose. Chem.-Zeit., vol. 57, pp. 393-394. Fotin, O., AND SVEDBERG, A. 1926. The sugar in urine and in blood. Journ. Biol. Chem., vol. 70, pp. 405-420. Haceporn, H. C., Anp NorMAN JENSEN, B. 1923. Zur Mikrobestimmung des Blutzuckers mittels Ferricyanid. Biochem. Zeitschr., vol. 135, pp. 46-58. Hangs, C. S. 1929. An application of the method of Hagedorn and Jensen to the de- termination of larger quantities of reducing sugars. Biochem. Journ., vol. 23, pp. 99-106. Hassip, W. Z. 1937. Determination of sugars in plants by oxidation with ferricyanide and ceric sulfate titration. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., vol. 9, p. 228. Heinze, P. H., AnD MurRNEEK, A. E. 1940. Comparative accuracy and efficiency in determination of carbohydrates in plant material. Missouri Agr. Exp. Stat. Res. Bull. No. 314, 23 pp. NO. IO SUGAR DETERMINATION—WEINTRAUB AND PRICE 17 Hume, A. C., anp Narain, R. 1931. The ferricyanide method for the determination of reducing sugars. A modification of the Hagedorn-Jensen-Hanes technique. Biochem. Journ., vol. 25, pp. 1051-1061. KErRSTAN, G. 1934. Eine Methode zur Bestimmung des Glukosidzuckers und der iibrigen Kohlehydrate in Pflanzen, besonders in Aesculus und Salix. Planta, vol. 21, pp. 657-676. rekEmrn. Ac 1940. The Shaffer-Somogyi reagent for the determination of sugars in plant materials. Journ. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., vol. 23, pp. 431-437. Suarrer, P. A., AND HARTMANN, A. F. 1921. The iodometric determination of copper and its use in sugar analysis. II. Methods for the determination of reducing sugars in blood, urine, milk, and other solutions. Journ. Biol. Chem., vol. 45, pp. 365-300. Suarrer, P. A., AND SomoecyI, M. 1933. Copper-iodometric reagents for sugar determination. Journ. Biol. Chem., vol. 100, pp. 695-713. Somocyr, M. 1937. A reagent for the copper-iodometric determination of very small amounts of sugar. Journ. Biol. Chem., vol. 117, pp. 771-776. StrepKoy, S. M. 1936. Eine Mikrobestimmung der Fructose in Gegenwart von Glucose. Biochem. Zeitschr., vol. 287, pp. 33-34. VAN Siyke, D. D., anp HAwkKINs, J. A. 1928. A gasometric method for determination of reducing sugars, and its application to analysis of blood and urine. Journ. Biol. Chem., vol. 79, pp. 739-767. VisscHerR, M. B. 1926. On the estimation of glucose in the presence of phosphate buffers. Journ. Biol. Chem., vol. 60, pp. 1-2. Woop, W. B., Jr. 1935. A preliminary physicochemical study of the reducing action of glucose. Journ. Biol. Chem., vol. 110, pp. 219-232. éN\y Nidy AAA iif 4 Py , ¢ j Let ater bag hohe bas an a ' : \ } eke i f a4 Thread PF yh. Anne : ‘ F \ i t a J : ie a t f ; ek en ; ey pris “ bly ' & fy iyo ee rr) oka ED 5 i) = | i i ca ia i Pay j vA b eth. ; 7 in { - ‘ MY i _- it a) y ah we % / mS = i ea ce een Fah | SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS i raue / - VOLUME 104, NUMBER 11 eet Pa en eee ~e Re eae SSA 5b es S ee ee ~~ THE WEST ATLANTIC BORING MOLLUSKS _ OF THE GENUS MARTESIA Ss (With THREE PLATES) pra Sais; RB a PAUL BARTSGH ~* - Curator , AND é ; - HARALD A. REHDER — Associate Curator ' Division of Mollusks U.S. National Museum Se Sc i eo Se a Oo ee ee a Se —‘ re 25 > £2 ey “DK AS Te, ae as 7 . S ete 2" 28S P TEES Foe eRe oe — : a ‘ PIO AD Sata B J ; 7 F poke ae (PUBLICATION 3804) abn es _ GITY OF WASHINGTON | PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JULY 2, 1945 a IS PRE A SEY SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 11 THE WEST ATLANTIC BORING MOLLUSKS OF THE GENUS MARTESIA (WiTH THREE PLATES) BY PAUL BARTSCH Curator AND HARALD A. REHDER Associate Curator Division of Mollusks U. S. National Museum MEEING S33 LS OEEVS OREN Ve SEncEANo’'o * UY LS les \) Q eS 1A) (PUBLICATION 3804) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION UL e2) 1945 ah The Bord Waltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As a = ee << THE WEST ATLANTIC BORING MOLLUSKS OF THE GENUS MARTESIA By PAUL BARTSCH, Curator AND HARALD A. REHDER, Associate Curator Division of Mollusks, U. S. National Museum (WitH THREE PLATES) INTRODUCTION Martesias are boring mollusks that excavate a cavity little longer than the shell for protective purposes. Compared with those of ship- worms, their cavities are shallow and confined to the outer fringe of the sheltering material. The members of two of the subgenera, Martesia and Particoma, appear to confine their attack to wood and are exceedingly destructive to piles and docks as well as to the boards and planks of skiffs, scows, and unsheathed wooden vessels. Creosot- ing or other impregnation does not appear to stop their drilling, nor do felt layers between boards offer an impediment to their boring. All of this would indicate that unlike shipworms these organisms do not use the rasped-off wood material for food but that the wood serves merely for housing. This conclusion seems also to find con- firmation in the habits of the members of the subgenus Diplothyra which seek protection in burrows that they make in the shells of mollusks and in rocks. The fourth subgenus here discussed seems rather heterodox in its habits, drilling wood, floating nuts, and even the lead-covered sub- marine cables of power lines. This genus and its included species have probably endured a greater mix-up and misunderstanding than any other small group. Leach, it would appear, recognized that some “Pholads” had the anterior gap closed and believed that a sufficient character for a new genus. He probably broadcasted this information in letters to his conchological friends, for no published record by Leach has been discovered. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 11 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Sowerby + used the name Martesia as of Leach and mentions with it on page 2 Pholas clavata Lamarck, which makes this the genotype. On page 4, however, he states that Pholas clavata Lamarck = Pholas striata Linné. In his description of Pholas clavata, Lamarck? recognizes: (a) P.c. major, (b) P. c. media, and (c) P. c. minima, and states that (a) Pholas clavata major = Pholas striata Linné. Unfortunately Linné’s description * is so brief, “Ph. testa ovata mul- tifariam striata,” that little help is gained from it for the identification of the species. His reference to Gualtieri’s description and figure is of some help, but his reference to habitat “among rocks on the shores of southern Europe” adds more confusion than aid. Gualtieri’s description of his figure “F’’ which reads, “Pholas with thin shell, variously marked by small striations, cancellated and banded, white,” helps very little. His four figures “F” probably illustrate two species but fail to show the protoplax. It is therefore impossible to refer them to even the proper subgenus. Lamy‘ in his revision of the Pholadidae, under Martesia, calls attention to the fact that in the National Museum of Paris are two specimens which he considers to represent Lamarck’s Pholas clavata. One of these he says bears Lamarck’s label Pholas clavata (b). The other one, which he considers synonymous, comes from Brazil and he believes this is probably Pholas clavata (a) major, which Lamarck stated equaled Pholas striata Linné. It would seem from Lamy’s paper that Lamarck’s Pholas clavata major represents the large Martesia of the Caribbean and Gulf, and we feel, since Lamarck considered this synonymous with Linné’s Pholas striata, that we should so construe it here, which is in accord with Lamy’s conclusion. We shall therefore consider Martesia striata Linné the type of Martesia, and bestow that name upon the large West Indian species with large rectangular protoplax. Genus MARTESIA (Leach) Sowerby 1824. Martesia (Leach) Sowersy, Gen. Rec. and Foss. Shells, pt. 23, Pholas, pp. 2, 4. Small bivalve mollusks of ovate or elongate-ovate outline, broadly gaping at the anterior ventral end in the young stages, the gap usually closing in adult life. The valves are divided by an oblique line 1 Gen. Rec. and Foss. Shells, pt. 23, pp. 2, 4, 1824. 2 Hist. Nat. Anim. s. Vert., vol. 5, p. 446, 1818. 3 Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 669, 1758. 4 Journ. Conchyl., vol. 69, No. 4, p. 198, 1926. NO. Lit BORING MOLLUSKS—BARTSCH AND REHDER 3 into an anterior and posterior portion. The anterior part of the valves is marked by oblique, more or less sigmoid, denticulated ridges which are absent on the part covering the gap in the adult shell. The posterior portion is marked by curved, low ridges which are not denticulated. The umbonal portion is outward reflected. The shell is also provided with three accessory pieces = (a) a protoplax which is a rather large shield covering the umbones, which differs in shape and sculpture in the different groups; (b) a metaplax, a single, nar- row, elongated piece posterior to the protoplax; and (c) a hypoplax which is a narrow, elongated piece stretching over the ventral margin of the two valves posterior to the smooth filled-in portion that covers the anterior gap. In some species the posterior end of the valves is prolonged almost to form a tube. The interior of the shell shows a thickening at the junction of the anterior and posterior portions, also a sickle-shaped hypophysis which extends ventrally from the inside of the umbone. Type—Martesia striata (Linné). KEY TO THE SUBGENERA OF MARTESIA BASED ON THE PROTOPLAX Shelf forming the posterior part of the inside of the protoplax very INRORVGL: 615 abo GLEE nO © DOR CO DOO Eee CO ar C OCR et om orem as ce Martesia Shelf forming the posterior part of the inside of the protoplax narrow. Protoplax consisting of one piece. Sculpture of the outside of the protoplax with an impressed longi- tudinal median line from which oblique threads extend to the latenallmstriar a irta estar. terres «ata ecelerevel Soe ctare elel Blcro ney Seales eeaoeens Particoma Sculpture of the outside of the protoplax without an impressed longi- tudinal median’ line or oblique threads. ..:........-..----- Diplothyra EGLO ax COUSIStING OL CWO PIECES. .5.0cc0 cae once conte oem os oe ee es Diploplax Subgenus MARTESIA (Leach) Sowerby 1824. Martesia (Leach) Sowersy, Gen. Rec. and Foss. Shells, pt. 23, Pholas, PP. 2, 4. ? The members of this subgenus have a large, more or less rec- tangular protoplax the outside of which is coarsely variously wrinkled. The inside is concave, the anterior end bearing a small incurved hook, while the cavity of the posterior half is covered by a shelf which bears two median hooks which are anteriorly directed. The posterior of these hooks bears a deep median groove which almost splits the points into two fanglike projections. The anterior hook is 5 The two pieces touch each other for part of the median line and are here sometimes slightly fused. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 much larger than the posterior and is laterally compressed. The out- side surface of the shelf is marked by closely spaced, concentric threadlike lines of growth. Metaplax and hypoplax narrow. Type.—Martesia striata (L.) = Pholas striatus L. MARTESIA (MARTESIA) STRIATA (Linné) Plate 1, figs. 1, 2; plate 3, figs. I9, 20 1758. Pholas striata LINNE, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 669. 1758. Pholas pusillus LINNE, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 670. 1818. Pholas clavata LAMARcK, Hist. Nat. Anim. s. Vert., vol. 5, p. 446. 1826. Pholas tenuistriata BLAINVILLE, Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. 39, pp. 531-532. 1827. Pholas decussata VALENCIENNES, Tab. Ency. Meth., livr. 98, p. 145. 1827. Pholas atomus VALENCIENNES, Tab. Ency. Meth., livr. 98, p. 145. 1828. Pholas conoides FLEMING, Hist. Brit. Anim., p. 457. 1847. Pholas corticaria SowErBy, Thes. Conch., vol. 3, pp. 494-495. 1898. Pholas (Martesiella) fragilis VERRILL and Bus, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 20, p. 777, pl. 70, fig. 10. Shell large for the genus, wedge-shaped, yellowish white. The posterior portion is covered with a much wrinkled, thin periostracum which is yellowish in color. The anterior portion of the shell is hemispherical with the umbones covered by a reflection of the inner margin of the hinge which forms a moderately broad callus over the umbonal region and also a slightly shelflike projection. The anterior portion of the shell is developed into a filelike surface which consists of numerous sigmoid ridges that slant from the umbonal region obliquely backward and downward. These ridges are cut into numer- ous sharp denticles whose dorsal margin slopes abruptly, while an- teriorly they become gradually diminished. The ridges are separated by well-impressed grooves. In the specimen figured 40 are apparent below the protoplax. The ventral one of these carries more than 85 denticles. Young shells have the anterior ventral margin gaping. This gap is filled in the adult stage (probably when the organism ceases burrowing) by a rather thick shelly deposit which bears wrinkles only. The posterior portion of the shell is about three times as long as the anterior and, at the junction of the two parts, shows a moderately strong lamellated structure, the lamellae corresponding to the den- ticulated ridges on the anterior part. There are here, however, no denticulations. The protoplax is broad and more or less rectangular. Sometimes its outline is almost circular. These variations may occur in the same pieces of timber, so they have no specific significance. The margin of the protoplax, too, may be entire or slightly sinuous, or even notched. The interior of the protoplax has been described NO. II BORING MOLLUSKS—BARTSCH AND REHDER 5 under the subgenus. The metaplax is narrow and long and marked on the outside by a wrinkled periostracum. The hypoplax is narrow and long and marked by transverse growth lines only. It likewise is covered by a thin periostracum. Sometimes the shell is variously twisted, evidently depending upon its association with fellow borers. Sometimes the posterior portion is much more prolonged than in the specimen shown in our illustration, which is an unusually perfect specimen—one of a series, U.S.N.M. No. 573520, collected by the senior author in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. This specimen measures: | Length, 30.8 mm.; height, 14.5 mm.; diameter, 14 mm. This species is a wood borer and as a rule is collected from ships’ timbers and pilings. Our collection contains a large series of speci- mens from localities ranging from Florida through the West Indies. We have 1 lot from Bermuda, 14 from Florida, 1 from Louisiana, 5 from Texas, 3 from Cuba, 6 from Jamaica, 10 from Haiti, 1 from Puerto Rico, 1 from St. Thomas, 1 from Trinidad, and 1 from Nicaragua. These lots vary materially in the number of specimens ; some lots are very large, while others have only one or a very few individuals. : U.S.N.M. No. 52543 contains a lot of specimens which were taken at U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Station 2566 off Martha’s Vineyard in a piece of driftwood. These specimens represent the material upon which Verrill and Bush’s Martesia (Martesiella) fragilis was based. The distribution of Martesia striata agrees beautifully with the currents in the Caribbean and the Gulf as well as with those passing through the Florida Straits which undoubtedly carried the New York and Bermuda specimens in the current of the Gulf stream. Martesia (Martesiella) fragilis Verrill and Bush proves to be a thin stenomorph of this species, that is, it was prevented by its limited habitat from assuming the typical form. Its thin shell was probably likewise due to the unfavorable habitat as well as to the environment to which the little mollusks were subjected in their northward journey from the tropical regions. PARTICOMA, new subgenus Shell as in Martesia sensu stricto. Protoplax roughly diamond- shaped, the anterior sides forming a somewhat broader angle than the posterior. The outside of the protoplax is marked by an im- pressed median line from which oblique lateral lines slope backward to the lateral margin. On the inside the anterior point is slightly beaked, while the posterior fourth is covered by an arched shelf whose 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 anterior median portion terminates in a sharp spine. Metaplax and hypoplax narrow. Type.—Martesia (Particoma) cuneiformis (Say) = Pholas cunet- formis Say. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PARTICOMA Proteplax shield-shaped” < .2ee ok 452 ache pies aie, hel eee ee cuneiformis Protoplax lafice-shaped’ 2.20. 0c scene se achaee ve npie > act 6 eae 4a 5 ee Dental ridges and denticles closely crowded... ..2<.2--<+--s-: -cememen caribaea Dental ridges and denticles not closely crowded.................. cuneiformis MARTESIA (PARTICOMA) CUNEIFORMIS (Say) Plate 1, figs. 3, 4; plate 3, figs. 11, 12 1822. Pholas cuneiformis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 2, p. 322. 1851. Martesia cuneiformis Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 2, vol. 8, p. 384. Shell moderately large, wedge-shaped, yellowish white, the pos- terior part covered by a yellowish periostracum. The young during its boring stage with a broad anterior ventral gap which becomes closed in the adult stage by a strong, somewhat wrinkled shelly deposit. The anterior end is hemispherically rounded and bears the strong, rather distantly spaced, sigmoid, dental ridges which are strongly denticulated. Twenty of these ridges are present in the specimen figured. The denticulated ridges terminate at the oblique groove that marks the junction of the anterior and posterior parts. The posterior part is attenuated and marked by broad folds which in reality are the continuations of the dental ridges of the anterior part. The edge of the shell is reflected in the umbonal region to form a heavy callus. The inside of the shell shows the junction of the anterior and posterior parts as a broad low thread. Hypophysis slender, extending about one-third of the distance from under the umbones toward the basal margin. Protoplax shield-shaped, the anterior portion forming almost a right triangle, while the posterior part forms a more acute angle. It bears a median impressed line on the outside from which fairly regularly spaced, oblique, lateral lines radiate. The inside of the protoplax shows a weak median beak anteriorly and a narrow arched shelf posteriorly that decks over about one-fourth of the posterior end. It is beaked on both its anterior and posterior median line. Metaplax and hypoplax long and slender. The specimen figured is one of three, U.S.N.M. No. 27407, col- lected in Georgia by Postell. It measures: Length, 17.5 mm. ; height, 9.7 mm. ; diameter, 9.2 mm. NO. II BORING MOLLUSKS—BARTSCH AND REHDER a We have chosen this for our description and figure because we believe it to represent the type locality as near as it is possible to fix this. Say in 1818 made a cruise along the Sea Islands of Georgia ; the locality cited by Say was “Southern Coasts.” This species may readily be distinguished from M. (P.) caribaea by its heavier denticulated ridges and the lesser number thereof, also by the difference in the shape of the protoplax. The U. S. National Museum collection has 62 lots, of which 3 come from North Carolina, 12 from South Carolina, 2 from Georgia, 5 from the east coast of Florida, 24 from the west coast of Florida, 3 from Alabama, 3 from Mississippi, 3 from Louisiana, 2 from Texas, 1 from Jamaica, 1 from Haiti, and 3 from Puerto Rico. It will be noted that the West Indian lots overlap in their distribu- tion the next species, M. (P.) caribaea. MARTESIA (PARTICOMA) CARIBAEA (Orbigny) Plate 2, figs. 5, 6; plate 3, figs. 5, 6 1847. Phoias caribaea Orpicny, Moll. Sagra Hist. Cuba, vol. 2, p. 216, pl. 25, figs. 20-22. : 1864. Pholas krebsti [C. B. Adams ms.] Kreps, West Indian Marine Shells, p. 113. Nomen nudum. 1872. Pholas falcata SowERBy, Reeve’s Conch. Iconica, vol. 18, Pholas, pl. 12, sp. 51, not Pholas falcata Wood 1815, Gen. Conch., p. 84. 1905. Martesia caribaea JoHNSON, Nautilus, vol. 18, pp. 102-103. Shell moderately small, wedge-shaped, white with the cutting sur- face stained a little darker. The posterior portion is covered with a thin, horn-colored periostracum. The anterior end is hemispherical and marked by numerous slender, sigmoid, closely crowded, den- ticulated ridges of which about 60 occur between the umbone and the ventral margin. The spaces separating these ridges are narrower than the ridges. These ridges become somewhat broader and less pro- nouncedly denticulated at their posterior termination. In the adult shell the anterior ventral gap is closed by a heavy wrinkled shelly deposit. The anterior portion of the shell is separated from the posterior by a strongly impressed oblique groove. The posterior portion, which is about one and one-half times as long as the anterior, is marked by the low, flattened ridges which in reality are the con- tinuation of the denticulated ridges of the anterior part, but here no trace of denticulation is present. The umbonal region is covered by a heavy callus which is the reflection of the edge of shell at this part. The interior of the shell is bluish white. The junction of the anterior and posterior ends is marked by a rather broad, moderately elevated, 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 oblique cord. The hypophysis is slender and extends from under the umbones to about one-third of the distance across the cavity. The protoplax is lance-shaped with the anterior part forming a little more than a right triangle. Posteriorly it tapers into a curved point. The outside of the protoplax bears a median impressed line from which lateral, obliquely posteriorly slanting lines radiate. The interior of the protoplax shows a weak anterior beak, while the posterior two- thirds is strongly decked over, forming a curved hook. The anterior portion of the deck also bears a median beak. Metaplax and hypoplax long and narrow. The specimen figured is one of several, U.S.N.M. No. 569148, and comes from Puerto Rico. It measures: Length, 12 mm.; height, 7.8 mm.; diameter, 7 mm. The much more closely crowded, denticulated ridges of the anterior part and the difference in the shape of the protoplax will readily differentiate this species from M. (P.) cuneiformis. We have also seen the following additional lots: 1 from Cuba, 5 from Jamaica, 2 from Panama, and 1 from Mexico. Subgenus DIPLOTHYRA Tryon 1862. Diplothyra Tryon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 14, p. 449. Shell small, ovate, with the shell structure of typical Martesia but with the protoplax hastate with the anterior half narrower than the posterior and pointed at the end, and with the sides somewhat con- tracted, while the posterior end is broad and almost truncated. The sculpture on the outside is roughly wrinkled except the posterior half which has the aspect of an impressed fingernail and is marked by concentric, closely spaced hair lines. The inside of the protoplax shows a thin, slightly inward-reflected edge which posteriorly develops into the narrow shelf, the median portion of which bears a pronounced, forward-pointing spine. A slender point is also present at the anterior extremity. The shells also can be readily distinguished from those of the other subgenera by the very heavy lunate umbonal callus bordering the proteplax. This here reaches its maximum development. Type—Martesia (Diplothyra) smithi (Tryon) = Diplothyra smithu Tryon. The members of this subgenus are shell borers, particularly favor- ing oyster shells but not restricted to them. One lot of our specimens, U.S.N.M. No. 47223, from Lake Worth, Fla., contains many speci- mens that have drilled into very dense, coarsely granular limestone. NO. II BORING MOLLUSKS—BARTSCH AND REHDER 9 MARTESIA (DIPLOTHYRA) SMITHII (Tryon) Plate 2, figs. 7, 8; plate 3, figs. 9, 10 1862. Diplothyra smithti Tryon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 14, p. 450, text figure. Shell small, ovate, yellowish white. The posterior end covered with a thin periostracum. The anterior end is strongly rounded with the callus at the umbone lunate and very strongly developed. In adult shells the large gap at the anterior ventral margin is closed by a rather thin shelly arch which is wrinkled on the outside. The anterior end of the shell occupies about two-fifths of the entire length of the shell and is marked by numerous, closely spaced, slender, curved ridges which are feebly denticulated. These denticles are elongate, their long axis corresponding with the axis of the threads. They are arranged in radiating series which gives to this part of the shell a wavy aspect. The junction of the anterior and posterior end is marked by a rather broad, well-impressed groove. The posterior part is marked by the continuation of the ridges of the anterior part, but here they have lost their wavelike denticulation and have become much enfeebled, brd&der, and low. The protoplax is described under the subgeneric definition. The metaplax is long and bears a median groove on the outside. It terminates anteriorly in a slender hook. The hypoplax is also slender, elongate, and thin, being composed chiefly of chitinoid material. The interior of the shell shows the junction of the anterior and median part as a moderately well-raised thread. A slender, somewhat flattened hypophysis is present which extends one-third of the way across the inside of the shell. The specimen figured is one of a series, U.S.N.M. No. 465274, from Keller Bay, Calhoun County, Tex., collected by J. D. Mitchell. It measures: Length, 13.9 mm.; height, 9.5 mm.; diameter, 10 mm. The species ranges along the coast from New York to Texas. We have seen the following specimens: 3 lots from New York (2 of them topotypes from the original collector), 1 lot from Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, probably from the oyster market), 2 lots from Mary- land, 5 lots from North Carolina, 4 lots from South Carolina, 2 lots from the east coast of Florida, 6 lots from the west coast of Florida, 4 lots from Louisiana, 4 lots from Texas. One lot from South Carolina presents a marked modification in having the denticles of the anterior part arranged in very pronounced radiating rows, much heavier than in all the other specimens ex- amined ; however, this seems to be merely an extreme variation of the species and does not require a name. We call attention to it here IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 to prevent anyone having such a specimen from yielding to the temptation of bestowing upon it a specific or subspecific designation. DIPLOPLAX, new subgenus Shell similar to Martesia but shorter; it would also appear that the anterior basal gap is not closed in the adult. The chief distinguish- ing characters of this subgenus, however, center in the protoplax which here consists of two pieces medially longitudinally approximated for part of their length. When the two are approximated a deep, wide, V-shaped sinus is present at the anterior end. The rest of the anterior margin is well rounded. The posterior end shows a slight emargination in the median area. The anterior half is convex, while the posterior half is concave, the deepest portion of the concavity trending toward the anterior termination of the approximated portion. The outside of the protoplax is slightly rough and wrinkled. The in- side of the protoplax is a negative of the outer conformation. It is marked by a series of wavelike, concentric, low ridges. The right half has a slight projection, while the equivalent left portion has a depression, the two forming in effect a ball-and-socket joint. Meta- plax and hypoplax very small and poorly developed. Type.—Martesia (Diploplax) americana, new species. This subgenus ranges through the West Indies and the American border of the Gulf. Most of the species are wood borers; one, how- ever, chose the electric conduit cable in Lake Worth, at West Palm Beach, Fla., for its habitat, drilling through the outer protected lead coat and the subjacent insulation and producing a blow-out which seriously interrupted electric service. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF DIPLOPLAX Denticles arranged in both longitudinal and radial series. Denticulated ridges (very nes ...n.2 oc) sleaeecls a anaes neian ieee exquisita iDenticulatedidees mot veny dines esse ee ee ciel cee eit bahamensis Denticles not arranged in both longitudinal and radial series. Adult shell more than 10 mm. Dental ridges) fimesi.d. icp oc Ae poe sons hans ele oc eien aiens aa eee hornbecku Dental rideesscoanses.g2 arse eine e tae satnortiok Geen eee eee americana Adult shell less: than (5itmitisa: wits’ stem shes saeatcineiei tele cocke sen eee funisicola MARTESIA (DIPLOPLAX) EXQUISITA, new species Plate 3; figs. 17, 18 Shell small, heart-shaped, with the anterior ventral margin de- cidedly gaping, thin, yellowish white. The anterior part consists of NO] Lf BORING MOLLUSKS—BARTSCH AND REHDER 16 At two-fifths of the length of the shell and is marked by decidedly sig- moid slender denticulated ridges. The denticles on these ridges are also arranged in radial alignment which gives to the surface of this part of the shell a very distinctive pattern, differing materially from that of the other members of the group. Of the dental ridges, 53 are present in the type. The last one of these ridges bears 53 denticles. The posterior part is marked by very poorly developed threads which are most strongly expressed on the early part of the shell, and which fade out toward the posterior extremity. The dorsal margin of the shell at the umbone is reflected outward as a rather strong callus. The inside of the shell shows a strong, somewhat vertebrated cord at the junction of the anterior and posterior parts. The hypophysis is slender and slightly spatulate at the free extremity. The protoplax is slightly emarginated at the middle of the posterior end, the rest being rounded. The anterior part forms a wide, open V-shaped angle. There is a pit or concavity near the limit of the anterior approxima- tion of the two parts which on the inside of the shell forms a slight tooth in the right half and an equivalent socket in the left half. The inside of the protoplax is marked by weak concentric growth lines. The type, U.S.N.M. No. 573548, was collected by C. R. Orcutt at Stony Cove, St. Mary’s Parish, Jamaica. It measures: Length, 5.3 mm. ; height, 4.4 mm.; diameter, 4 mm. U.S.N.M. No. 440739 contains an additional lot of specimens as well as pieces of the wood from which they were extracted. U.S.N.M. No. 537881 contains a lot from Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. U.S.N.M. No. 537876 contains another lot from Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. This species is readily distinguished from all the other members of the subgenus by the peculiar, equally strong disposition of the den- ticles into radiating as well as longitudinal series. MARTESIA (DIPLOPLAX) BAHAMENSIS, new species Plate 3, figs. 15, 16 Shell small, subglobular, thin, yellowish white with the anterior ventral margin decidedly gaping. The anterior part almost equals the posterior in length and is marked by sigmoid, longitudinal den- ticulated ridges. Of these 38 are present in the type. The last of these ridges bears 52 denticles. The posterior part is marked by low, broad, wavelike, feebly developed ridges. The inside shows a slender vertebrated cord joining the anterior and posterior parts. The I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 hypophysis is slender and flattened. The protoplax is emarginated in the posterior median line, the sides being well rounded. The anterior portion of the protoplax forms a deep V-shaped angle. The posterior portion is concave and the anterior is well rounded. The anterior limit of the median line in the right part forms a beak which fits into a depression in the left part on the inside. The inside of the protoplax is marked by feeble concentric ridges. The type, U.S.N.M. No. 573549, was collected by Bartsch on the beach near the lighthouse on the eastern end of South Bight, Andros Island, Bahamas, buried in a floating nut, probably a nutmeg. It measures: Length, 4 mm.; height, 3.6 mm. ; diameter, 3.4 mm. U.S.N.M. No. 471534 contains a lot of specimens taken from the same nut, as well as the nut itself, in which more specimens are buried. This species most nearly resembles M. (D.) exquisita, but the dental ridges and denticles are much coarser. MARTESIA (DIPLOPLAX) HORNBECKII (Orbigny) Plate 2, figs. 3, 4; plate 3, figs. 7, 8 1847. Pholas hornbecku Orsicny, Moll. Sagra Hist. Cuba, vol. 2, p. 217, pl. 25, figs. 23-25. Shell rather large, heart-shaped, partly gaping at the anterior ventral margin, white. The anterior part is about two-fifths of the length of the shell and is marked by sigmoid, denticulated dental ridges, the denticles being arranged in radiating series, that is, passing from the umbones to the ventral margin. Of these dental ridges 34 are present in the specimen figured. The last of these dental ridges bears 50 denticles. The posterior part of the shell tapers gently and is marked by a low, weak, rounded continuation of the denticulated ridges, but here they are without denticles. The anterior .dorsal edge of the shell is reflected over the umbone as a shield, which bears a median longitudinal ridge upon which the protoplax rests. The in- terior of the shell is white and shows a strong vertebrated cord con- necting the anterior and posterior parts. The hypophysis extends across half of the shell with the dorsal margin spatulate. The proto- plax -has the posterior margin slightly incised in the middle. The rest of the posterior and lateral edge is well rounded. The anterior half of the protoplax bears a big V-shaped sinus whose outer edge is outward reflected. The middle of the anterior half has a deep pit and therefore is concave, while the anterior half is convex. The inside of the protoplax is the negative equivalent as far as form is concerned, but the pit of the posterior part here develops into a slight beak which NO. II BORING MOLLUSKS—BARTSCH AND REHDER 13 bends forward partly over the V-shaped anterior sinus. The inside of the protoplax is marked by poorly developed wavy concentric lines. The specimen figured, U.S.N.M. No. 537877, was collected in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. It measures: Length, 11.1 mm.; height, 9 mm.; diameter, 8.5 mm. The U. S. National Museum contains 8 additional lots from Guantanamo Bay, 1 from San Juan, Puerto Rico, and a young speci- men which we are referring to this species from Caracas Harbor, Venezuela. This species most nearly resembles M. (D.) americana, but can readily be distinguished from this by the much finer sculpture of the anterior portion. MARTESIA (DIPLOPLAX) AMERICANA, new species Plate 2, figs. 1, 2; plate 3, figs. 3, 4 ' Shell heart-shaped with the anterior ventral margin widely gaping, yellowish white. The anterior portion bears very strongly developed, sigmoid, denticulated ridges, of which 22 are present in the type. The last one of these bordering the gaping edge bears 46 denticles. The posterior part is about one and one-half times as long as the anterior and is marked by low, broad ridges which correspond to the dental ridges of the anterior part, but are much wider and gradually fade out posteriorly. The dorsal edge of the anterior part is reflected to form a broad earlike lobe over which the protoplax is placed. The protoplax of this species is described under the generic definition. The metaplax is small and narrow and so is the hypoplax. The in- terior of the shell shows the junction of the anterior and basal parts arched over by a heavy cord which bears weak nodules that cor- respond in number and position to the ribs on the outside. The hypophysis is almost spatulate at its termination. It extends almost half across the cavity. The type, U.S.N.M. No. 573550, comes from Fort Dade, Fla. It measures: Length, 10.5 mm.; height, 8.1 mm.; diameter, 8 mm. The shell of this species differs from M/. (D.) hornbeckii which it most nearly resembles, by its much more strongly developed ribs and denticulation. The collection of the U. S. National Museum contains, in addition to the type, 7 lots from the west coast of Florida, 1 lot from Pasca- goula, Miss., and 2 lots from Aransas Pass, Tex. This species is a wood borer. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 MARTESIA (DIPLOPLAX) FUNISICOLA, new species Plate 3; figs. 1, 2, £3, 14 Shell small, globular, white. The anterior part is as long as the posterior. The anterior part on its anterior ventral margin is deeply gaping. It bears moderately strong, sigmoid, dental ridges of which 21 are present in the type. The last of these dental ridges bears 30 denticles. The posterior part of the shell bears low, rounded, flattened cords which are the continuation of the dental ridges but here they are not denticulated. The inner margin of the dorsal portion of the anterior part is reflected over the umbone as a shield. The interior of the shell bears a strong, rounded cord which is somewhat ver- tebrated and connects the anterior with the posterior portion. The hypophysis is slender and extends almost half across the width of the cavity. The protoplax is thin and chitinous. The posterior margin is slightly incised in the middle, the rest being well rounded, while the anterior margin is deeply incised. The two parts of the protoplax are deeply concave in the middle and become rounded anteriorly. The inside of the protoplax is a negative of the outside as far as the shape is concerned. The portion concave on the outside here forms a beak ; its surface is marked by concentric threads. The type, U.S.N.M. No. 573551, was taken from a section of the electric power cable that crosses Lake Worth, Fla., at West Palm Beach. These mollusks, by drilling holes through the lead casing and other insulation, occasioned an interruption of current due to blow- outs produced by sea water reaching the copper wire. The type measures: Length, 4 mm.; height, 3.5 mm.; diameter, 3.5 mm. U.S.N.M. No. 573552 contains a lot of paratypes from the same source. SEDIS INCERTAE The following three species described from the West Atlantic we have been unable to identify. MARTESIA (subgenus?) BEAUIANA Recluz 1853. Pholas beauiana RecLuz, Journ. de Conch., vol. 4, pp. 49-50, pl. 2, figs. 1-3. We have seen nothing that satisfies the following description which has been translated from the French. Shell ovate-cuneate, strongly gaping anteriorly, posteriorly somewhat at- tenuate; valves anteriorly ventricose and obliquely and finely cancellate, pos- NOS Ed BORING MOLLUSKS—BARTSCH AND REHDER 15 teriorly sulcate; valves with a free linear callus on the hinge, another lower callus consolidated with the valve, dorsal plate transversely elongate, irregular. Shell oval, nearly cuneiform, strongly gaping anteriorly, closed posteriorly, and nearly attenuated in an obtuse beak. Valves anteriorly ventricose and sculptured with oblique, sinuous striae, which are trellised by other finer longi- tudinal striae, posteriorly depressed and ornamented with concentric furrows. The dentiform cardinal callus on each valve resembles a small linear bone; it is arched on the inner side. Each anterior part of the valves shows within and in the lower middle also another callosity equally linear, in relief, but becoming thicker toward the base. No accessory piece closing the anterior opening. Dorsal plate shield-shaped, extended transversely, with irregular edges and sinuate. Length, 22-24 mm.; height, 14-15 mm. This pholad, which we have nowhere found described, has some resemblance in form to Ph. crispata, from which it differs essentially, however, by its dorsal shield, by the nature and disposition of its fine and irregular striae, as well as by its thinness. It was found at Guadeloupe, in wood coming from old wharves. We dedicate this species to M. le commandant Beau, who first discovered it at Guadeloupe, and who has sent several specimens to M. Petit de la Saussaye. MARTESIA (subgenus?) TEREDINAEFORMIS (Sowerby) 1849. Pholas teredinaeformis SowrrBy, Thes. Conch., vol. 2, p. 490, pl. 108, figs. 97-08. 1862. Martesia teredinacformis Tryon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 14, p. 220. We have seen nothing in our extensive collections that satisfies Sowerby’s description and figure. We produce both. His terse Latin diagnosis may be translated as follows: Pholas with globose gaping shell divided in the middle; anterior ventral margin subangulate, ornamented with concentric fluted ribs; the posterior end is short and smooth. Protoplax single, subquadrate, placed on the reflected upper margin of the shell. To this Sowerby adds: A small, globose species, in some degree resembling the young of Ph. clavata, etc., but differently sculptured; and although it has the appearance of a mature shell, it is quite possible that it may belong to that group, and its being in so soft a substance as wax may be the reason for the enclosing laminae not being formed. This and the next species (Ph. aperta) were at first thought to belong to the genus Xylophaga; but, on examination, were found to possess the curved processes in the hinge, which are characteristic of the genus Pholas, and are not found in Xylophaga. Found in cakes of floating wax on the coast of Cuba. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 MARTESIA (subgenus?) FALCATA Wood 1815. Pholas falcata Woop, Gen. Conch., p. 84, pl. 10, figs. 5-7. 1905. Martesia falcata JOHNSON, Nautilus, vol. 18, p. 100. Johnson (loc. cit.) refers this species to Martesia striata Linné. Wood’s figure and description depict a hypophysis of a very peculiar shape, i.e., bent back upon itself for almost half its length to form a hook. If this should prove to be a constant character, not merely an individual freak expression, then the species will require subgeneric separation from all the other groups known to us. Wood cites no locality for his species. We have nothing like it in our collection. EXPLANATION OF PLATES PLATE I Figs. 1, 2. Martesia (Martesia) striata (Linné). Figs. 3, 4. Martesia (Particoma) cuneiformis (Say). PLATE 2 Figs. 1, 2. Martesia (Diploplax) americana Bartsch and Rehder, type. Figs. 3, 4. Martesia (Diploplax) hornbeckti (Orbigny). Figs. 5, 6. Martesia (Particoma) caribaea (Orbigny). Figs. 7, 8. Martesia (Diplothyra) smith (Tryon). PLATE 3 Figs. 1, 2. Martesia (Diploplax) funisicola Bartsch and Rehder, protoplax. 2 4. Martesia (Diploplax) americana Bartsch and Rehder, prcropis Fics. 5, 6. Martesia (Particoma) caribaea (Orbigny), protoplax. 8. Martesia (Diploplax) hornbeckii (Orbigny), protoplax. Figs. 9, 10. Martesia (Diplothyra) smithii (Tryon), protoplax. Figs. 11, 12. Martesia (Particoma) cuneiformis (Say), protoplax. Figs. 13, 14. Martesia (Diploplax) funisicola Bartsch and Rehder, type. Figs. 15, 16. Martesia (Diploplax) bahamensis Bartsch and Rehder, type. Figs. 17, 18. Martesia (Diploplax) exquisita Bartsch and Rehder, type. Figs. 19, 20. Martesia (Martesia) striata (Linné), protoplax. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS MARTESIA (For explanation, see p. 16.) VOL. 104, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES 1047 NO tee MARTESIA (For explanation, see p. 16.) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104, NO. 11, PL. 3 MARTESIA (For explanation, see p. 16.) Ae tori carte Va A} ie _ uM y at ‘ | ,, iy a Wied ays Leh ene cise 7 ; ; SE eA Wb I ’ | ; ; r os At et Ps ee Ce UT al Ney 0) Nits OA 7 Fane WA Aw Neat as Ti thal VAN Wir a! eed ' fh} Rs { i yy ‘ 4 i} : fl 7 i , has Aaa ie AA Li tT a | y Pie, Hit i . 2 Se a Oe is" ; ‘ oe . i ‘i ‘a , -& ] : ¥ So \ | \ \ | ue ’ = . . i f 1 j 7 , j a” = ae "SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS __ VOLUME 104, NUMBER 12 “Roebling Fund SNS FESS oa ee eA ee yy ey SN geE tre m, e ¢ Sas Te THE SOLAR CONSTANT AND SUNSPOT | _ NUMBERS Ne ee eee ~ = BY L. B. ALDRICH Director, Astrophysical Observatory | Smithsonian Institution _ (PUBLICATION 3806) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ~ JULY 274945 | SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 12 Roebling Fund THE SOLAR CONSTANT AND SUNSPOT NUMBERS BY L. B. ALDRICH Director, Astrophysical Observatory Smithsonian Institution mn. Prete ‘so E-INC ®e. . BIE VIIA SnsEAl00.: . .% >, soe at (PUBLICATION 3806) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JULY 2; 1945 ) git aT oe 4 th be vg ‘ , ‘ = a4 7h oN i i’ ' ) “ib | - 7p. Se = ‘ \ i 1 l | The Lord Waftimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. 4 ‘. Yi me t " Roebling Fund THE SOLAR CONSTANT AND SUNSPOT NUMBERS By L..B: ALDRICH Director, Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution It has been the chief work of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution to carry out at various high-altitude stations a long series of determinations of the solar constant, the intensity of the sun’s radiation outside our atmosphere at mean solar distance. In 1942 the Observatory published in volume 6 of its Annals an exten- sive summary (table 24) of all solar-constant values for the period 1923 through September 1939. At that time a considerable number of good determinations scattered through the period included in table 24 were examined? for correlation with Wolfer sunspot num- bers. It was concluded that the data showed little evidence of correla- tion. This was disappointing, since both solar constants and sunspot numbers are indications of solar activity, and it is therefore reasonable to expect some relationship. During the past 6 months, my colleagues, Mrs. Gladys T. Bond and William H. Hoover, and I gave a large part of our time to an extension of table 24 to cover the period 1939 through 1944. The extended table thus includes final preferred solar-constant values for each day of observation from 1923 to 1945. This embraces a com- plete double sunspot period, beginning with the minimum in 1923, through that of 1933, and including the recent minimum in 1944. The time therefore seems opportune to examine these data carefully for a possible relationship with the sunspot cycle. In order to include all the data available in the extended table 24, monthly means of the solar-constant values were used. These means were compiled from all the daily values, omitting only those graded “poor.” In general there are 20 or more days included in each mean. Monthly means of the daily Wolfer sunspot numbers were taken, using in each month only the actual days upon which solar constants were obtained. A total of 251 monthly means of solar constants and corresponding sunspot numbers were included in the double sunspot period extending from July 1923 to May 1944, inclusive. These were 1 Ann. Astrophys. Obs., vol. 6, p. 196, 1942. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 12 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 divided into 10 groups of increasing sunspot numbers as summarized in table 1. TABLE I (1923 to 1944) Sunspot No. of monthly Mean Mean numbers means in sunspot solar included group number constant Ontoles 22 2.1 1.9449 5 to II 20 8.3 450 Ht RYO it 7/ 24 13.5 463 T7atOnweZO 26 20.9 472 26 to 38 23 31.0 472 38 to 55 21 44.6 454 55 to 63 29 57-9 454 63 to 74 24 68.4 455 74 to 90 27 | 81.5 445 go to I17 22 101.3 439 The means of sunspot numbers and corresponding solar-constant means of table 1 are plotted as curve A (the circled points) in figure 1. The curve indicates an increase of solar constants with in- ad inayee T T | at I T ee EN ye Cc = -/944) iN pa \ ; i pe ails V4 aN y / Wei > vA . Ree 47 46 95 a B (1923-/933) on------ aA 43 SOLAR CONSTANTS (MONTHLY MEANS) 10 20 » 30 40 Ev 60 70 60 90 700 SUNSPOT NUMBERS (MONTHLY MEANS OF ACTUAL DAYS OBSERVED) reset crease of sunspot numbers from 0 to 20, followed by a gradual de- crease as sunspot numbers continue to increase. The magnitude of this change, about 0.15 percent in the solar-constant means, is dis- NO. I2 SOLAR CONSTANT AND SUNSPOT NUMBERS—ALDRICH 3 appointingly small, since the total range in solar-constant monthly means is I percent. Hale’s discovery of the reversal of polarity in the magnetic fields of sunspots with the advent of a new cycle at sunspot minimum ‘indi- cated an actual sunspot period of 23 years instead of 114 years. Abbot’s studies of periodicities in solar-constant values also point to the importance of a 23-year period. To test whether any asymmetry TABLE 2 (1923 to 1933) Sunspot No. of monthly Mean Mean numbers means in sunspot solar included group number constant OFtO5 12 2.1 1.9422 Stow in 10 8.7 428 II to 17 15 13.6 464 17 to 26 15 21.4 482 26 to 36 12 317 470 36 to 55 12 44.6 436 55 to 63 14 58.4 436 63 to 73 12 68.1 428 73 to 85 12 78.5 421 85 + 9 94.5 441 TABLE 3 (1933 to 1944) Sunspot No. of monthly Mean Mean numbers means in sunspot solar included group number constant oto 5 10 Zar 1.9482 5 to II 10 7.9 473 Te tO 7 9 13.4 461 17 to 26 II 20.1 459 26 to 38 II 30.2 474 38 to 52 9 44.6 479 52Eton 03 15 57.5 471 63 to 74 12 68.7 483 74 to 100 15 84.0 465 100 to 117 13 106.0 438 E74 13 132.4 470 existed in the solar constant-sunspot relationship in the two halves of a 23-year period, our 251 monthly means were divided thus: (1) The 123 months from the minimum in July 1923 to the mini- mum in September 1933 were grouped as shown in table 2, and plotted as the dotted curve (curve B) in figure 1. (2) The 128 months from the minimum in September 1933 to the minimum of May 1944 were grouped as shown in table 3, and plotted as the dot-dash curve (curve C) in figure I. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The contrast between the two curves—B, the first half cf the double sunspot period, and C, the second half—is very marked. Curve B starts with low solar-constant values, for zero sunspot numbers. The solar constant increases with increase in sunspot numbers to 20, gradually decreases up to about 80 sunspot numbers, and then again increases. Curve C, on the other hand, starts at zero sunspots with high solar-constant values, decreases with increasing sunspot num- bers up to 20, increases gradually to 70 sunspot numbers, and finally decreases rapidly. The range from maximum to minimum solar-con- stant mean in each of these curves is about 0.3 percent, twice as great as in curve A. The question naturally arises as to whether these curves would repeat themselves in other sunspot cycles. From a review of the Mount Wilson solar-constant work in the years 1905 to 1920, we can draw no conclusion because the values are so few and so comparatively inaccurate. For the cycle succeeding the 1944 minimum we have 7 months available. The individual monthly means are added as crosses in figure 1. All seven points tend to cluster more nearly around curve B than curve C, and the mean of the seven (the starred point) lies fairly near curve B. Thus the present cycle may be repeat- ing the 1923 to 1933 curve. These results probably modify somewhat the prediction as to solar variation shown in figure 14 of the Annals, volume 6. The extension of curve B of figure 14 from 1939 to 1945 was based on table 32, wherein the aggregate effect of 14 periodicities in solar variation is computed. These periodicities did not include any consideration of sunspot effects. Now if curve B of figure I continues to be followed in 1944 and 1945, there should be superposed on the extension of curve B of figure 14, Annals, volume 6, a rapid rise of .006 calorie as the sunspots increase from the minimum value in May 1944. This would considerably modify the form shown in the predicted curve. In fact, the predicted curve was followed fairly closely until No- vember 1944, but November and December have carried the curve up instead of down. If it is suggested that the sunspot effect should have similarly affected the solar-constant minimum of 1922-1923, it may be pointed out that the minimum of sunspots occurred in July 1923, 2 years later, with respect to the solar-constant drop of 1922, than the minimum of May 1944 with respect to the expected solar- constant drop in 1944. Hence its effect in 1923 would not be similar to that of 1944. No adequate explanation is offered for the surprisingly opposite trend of the curves B and C of figure 1, nor for the inversion points NO. I2 SOLAR CONSTANT AND SUNSPOT NUMBERS—ALDRICH 5 at 20 sunspot numbers and again at about 75 sunspot numbers. Pos- sibly the average transmissivities of the external envelopes of the solar atmosphere change in a complex and undiscovered way with the development of the sunspot cycle, resulting in the curious rela- tionships shown in the two curves. The following words which form the concluding paragraph of Dr. 9 Evershed’s recent article “The Magnetic Effect in Sunspot Spectra’ ? are apropos : It seems that sunspots, with all their very widespread subsidiary phenomena, which at times are highly spectacular, must indicate something fundamental in the constitution of the Sun. So much has been discovered about these strange markings, and yet so little success has been achieved in co-ordinating all the facts, and forming a consistent picture of what is actually taking place, or is causing these remarkable phenomena. Perhaps we may never know why there should be these periodical outbursts of solar magnets. Terrestrial physics may fail us. One would have thought that by this time, that is to say after two or three thousand million years, a great mass of gas like the Sun would have settled down to a state of calm uniformity without spots or prominences or other strange happenings. 2 The Observatory, vol. 65, p. 193, June 1944. 4 Bn ae er Vt on CM2RA ON Desalatvhe Wath te tea hdd: SOK eu yDE ay Veg ei tate slindy call ieiperen bynnbel Be ; ghia) betaine a i Oa it Frtenpith ort Aaya ih | i BE TIN A Aad des Le tee | Ss hSeh Ay it zhihink are ie eet MA 4 Ate a ele ea a SUA LOO OSE a otha oy Ok OCR Ce tae ne at eae goaden il UPL nlite BY Beh T) te ahs cree Doce ALOE ‘ ' very) : ! al iw 9 Wy vit Wy A y verde reat “ a $e fy { es ° ve) tn Oh eek | rywEe* : i x / b \ jeria’ i i WAR \ eds J iNT Kee fi dye BA i ge } bal ytd bys ede ah vita a hee } ae Ns ar . j . ad as Bil? mse vet aa Ad ; ; fi b{ "yy an ‘et wah it tie i ' i/€) LAIR a ae Sa } yada Soe, Bra) Caan 7 pry eer | \ i th eis Chae O Ui ine ; i ; ” } iy? ‘ ; if A Liner ae lel iy aR AL xe ; y ae SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS ray ~ VOLUME 104, NUMBER 13 ~ Roebling Fund | CORRELATIONS OF SOLAR VARIATION || WITH WASHINGTON WEATHER ah BY . CG. G, ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3807) - CITY OF WASHINGTON ‘PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JULY 28, 1945 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 13 Roebling Jrund CORRELATIONS OF SOLAR VARIATION WITH WASHINGTON WEATHER BY C. G. ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3807) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JULY 28, 1945 Ve ry “hy / a — oe | | i \ The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As Roebling Fund CORRELATIONS OF SOLAR VARIATION WITH WASHINGTON WEATHER}? By €. Gl ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution SEMPERATURE AND) SOLAR ACTIVITY Nine years ago I showed that ups and downs in the values of the solar constant of radiation were attended by changes of large magni- tude and long duration in the temperature of Washington and other stations. These effects were always symmetrically opposed like the right and left hands. Meteorologists have been reluctant to accept this finding, partly because the solar changes found seemed to them too small to be certainly observed, and partly because no mathematical theory had been worked out to show how such small percentage changes in the solar constant could so largely alter terrestrial temperatures. Nevertheless further work convinced me of the reality of the effect, and recently I have obtained new evidence that seems to clinch it. Everyone recognizes the validity of the measurements now being made at many stations of what is called “critical frequency” in ioniza- tion layers of our atmosphere. Among them is the quantity called “F..”’ This quantity was observed at all daylight hours and some night hours during the years from 1938 to 1944 by the Carnegie Institution stations at Huancayo, Peru, and Watheroo, Australia. Dr. Fleming has generously provided me with copies of these data, which, however, are in the war category “restricted,” and therefore unpub- lished. For my purposes I computed for each day from 1938 to 1944 the mean value of F. for 11 daylight hours. It is, of course, very clear that for the most part this quantity is a measure of some kind of solar radiation which travels with the speed of light, for the night values are very low, and there is an immediate rise at sunrise and fall at sunset. I am told, too, that I, values go nearly to zero during total solar eclipses. These Carnegie Institution measurements seemed well 1 Paper delivered May 31, 1945, before the Meteorological Section, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 13 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 suited to check my earlier results on the correlation of solar variation with temperature departures. I made monthly graphs of my daily mean daylight values of F, for Huancayo and Watheroo. The two stations do not fully agree, but they both show nearly simultaneously many rises and falls of the daily values. These changes observed at both stations frequently reach IO percent or more, whereas the percentage changes found in the solar constant seldom exceed 1 percent. I found from the 7 years available, 1938 to 1944, from 15 to 25 cases of rise, and 15 to 25 cases of fall of mean daily F, values, for each of the 12 months, January to December. For each case I wrote ! 5) LF Y . May 1943 Fic. 1—Comparison of daily ionization results of Huancayo, Peru, and Watheroo, Australia. Mean critical frequencies for layer Fe. Each point the mean of 11 daylight hours. Sequences of increase and decrease of solar activity indicated. a line of the departures from normal temperature at Washington from 5 days before to 19 days after the zeroth day, when the solar change seemed to begin. Thus, for each of the 12 months of the year I had a table of 15 to 25 lines, and 25 columns. The mean values of the columns, when plotted, showed the average sequences of temperatures at Washington which are caused by the rise and fall of the solar activity during each month of the year. These curves were almost exactly the same in phases and ampli- tudes as the curves obtained similarly from the dates when the solar constant rose and fell in the years 1924 to 1939.° The curves are indeed so nearly identical that there is no reason to separate the two . sets of data, one derived from Smithsonian solar-constant work, and the other derived from Carnegie ionization measures. I have now 2 See figure 4, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 5, 1944. NO. 13 SOLAR VARIATION AND WASHINGTON WEATHER—ABBOT 3 mean curves of Washington temperature change for each month of the year, derived from the combined data of the years 1924 to 1944, and representing mean effects of rise and of fall in solar activity. Of these curves, each a mean of from 30 to 50 individual cases of solar change, | remark: 1. Temperatures at other stations show the same sort of correlation with solar activity as does Washington for the same days of solar E Hucuches Y Whines (996-1444 [Vs hegre Pes Dad. F (laiag 4) ', —S =e) SOT oY IIE Miers l eed CUM ere a A|e 9 | lols | 12] 13 | sy sag 1g bey Fg (aie: 173 Bs |-/ ate 64912] © |2zl 7s] IO |/fONB-3 - 3 Soni at ls oe . ae La & | 22) 1] 10 8 re jay |-3 I-y [13 OZ ACS ee |e i es ey Zane a ee i = ee Ss / “Ss |-3 2/1010 | lo fla |i UWlqgie Ged |=-21 6 16.8 -3 -7 ° Se Ue Sif Sl] ule ney [-5) O | ds | BAI 30] vAb-2|-3] Z\- re fio | 7 10 oo = 2 3 Oy Mea ge (8 [et |S Le ALA) e| AWE Pee Lalas 2 8% -2 3 o |-¥|-2| 32J-2 |-7/|-6 7a BAN VW ligol en ah eg cally ee eee Sie TAs AE IRABArCE Ara PUEAES\ OE ears Ceres aria ee ZA | Ail ete : i 3 SA ee be CS ee a Se Lye = x % |e a ee et! ae J M22 10 V7 Bo lee outlay. i g Z MIE I~) 5 ype |e 1ey 2 js 2 “sts | aN 7 le le EF |- Be 26a ae & BEA LON SL 7 Lit LENIN 7 Il afl-7 1-7 +2 i Ie meal iced, Re imine wns @ (TWENEY d e Ar ae re Z te “TN 0 eS aN |e BN 4 : GN > Jef Lg E) x “Al “6 be |loliebo MoA5 aK S slg fs YP eh ‘4 A ope ‘ |26|17 |zo| 3 |-3 |WA > Gakie “16 - /fa9 4 “1, <] » is 5 ee 2 -2 Z “Ss le 0 is | Vv Z e- sal ie EN aVe 16 - he Jp v7] és ~. — re - — = Tee — Pass Ste uw SH ISIN ES a4 | e7 | 69 lisolor| sé) e [sa tae ma fa 4 ry So -INE 4 sda ey WS TA Ie hc El ll v We CF 27 20-3; -MW -2 ne (92173 Pali 23)-F7¥\- 73|9¥.0\ 260 |607' 3a0} 175 |-1¥7 73 |-27 Azo 2 Hd¥ 193 133 ~307 “347 ~/0d po (ie a a ec ae 9 Ket - pes pote: : \ pee Seta if pas + Hato 938) My fig vj Wade Teadep 7 hyp cfetnny =e a fF s ff] eo] 7] ea] al s ENT se LOANS fi ELH a eye Oe i Pa a a CCT a ai | Siecoete 73 )22) 3 j-2 B PV Aiee -13 } WiIKNS -4 i, ® wap | xl ale |oo [=o eee ' one = ' W7 \-3 p = 3 . (Ben a ‘ ; d - —_ /77{ f\- rate oe pYeran phe ket tay Sper Boe bohantetsbabas SSE wa anata ee ofan staetieced aheo ger raahdad oS RRS A SIM onfen saat heron hears is rea nee datas an ges S TiseyePany pars Brn HNP 3 Sy Gainers. Stas g TET ANT 20 THN re Se ethvos nf x cS R4 A TdTG ry perso sey tal SanTetognads BF o Sy A bo Mary we N Paw = LA Pee RSS poe san ~ fy 5 7a IS. 28S. THR ahRHMVSeAwabm oh Va cG y N zs : : Oop eben GOTTEN eA maoer Dd sRe Se xi sh 2 Belg ~seO= Rod Samaea AMP by wesin es Fp Prd RY ooS dpa dill Seep ce oa WarEdogd shag mh Prcna gpa hen PORN Peon era Nes TF RPh aR res ee ya Wh Se wea pemaTohTSTs Niro yr Goes esky sg FoF KET MoT hse BoomPhoOhaQsoEs ~28 Fidos h! on FEMI T Soon ds Qe Ger aS Sona See cree eh ees ata AS SP ee Silesia ee beadaa nes A ar BroW¥Pe GEmy ~ee Wide Os 4 wer ernghi2rg = 2 : ty ~Pwm WTS LIT Io dom Tas ey ST ~T TEI IG IA MEQmaNT WRIT AL sere re ehzoshess bog ntasqeey yey eke pay Se ne Seb TOS TET OPE Age ny ga eta remem’ (ree ea eee : MEEKER LR F Ff FS 'F Fic. 3—Mean march for 25 days of departures from normal temperature at 5 day Washington in February, vears 1924 to 1938, as associated with ups and downs of the solar constant of radiation, years 1938 to 1944, as associated with ups and downs of critical frequencies of ionization for the layer Fe. zero day. Solar change on 4. The effects are large. Differences of temperature of the order of 10° Fahrenheit, or more, depend on whether a ing fall rising or a sequence of solar activity preceded them many days before. 5. The effects of solar changes on temperature persist for many NO. 13. SOLAR VARIATION AND WASHINGTON WEATHER—ABBOT 5 days. They may surely be traced from 3 days before to 14 days after the zeroth day of the solar sequence. 6. The coefficient of correlation between curves corresponding to rising and falling solar activity from —3 to +15 days for Washington temperature data of the month February (a.fair sample) is —80+5.5 percent. 7. Since far-separated cities respond similarly in these respects to the common system of dates given in the tables, this system of dates must have a cosmic significance. The system of dates, in other words, betrays an extraterrestrial selection, harmonious with the claim that on these dates changes in radiation occurred in the sun. PRECIPITATION AND SOLAR ACTIVITY Without much expectation of strong correlations, because of the sporadic character of precipitation, I nevertheless worked out tables _ of Washington precipitation accompanying the dates of change in solar activity from 1924 to 1944. To my surprise the curves repre- senting the mean results of the tables showed strongly marked fea- tures, with symmetrical opposition in precipitation corresponding to rising and falling solar activity. PREDICTION OF TEMPERATURES From what has gone before it is clear that the sun’s variations are a major factor in weather. The effects produced are large. In Wash- ington temperatures it makes nearly 20° F. of difference in some months whether the solar constant rose or fell by 34 of 1 percent a week or more previously. The effects are long continuing. They appear to begin 3 days before measurable changes in radiation occur, and to last at least until 14 days after, making an important sequence of at least 17 days in weather, attending each change of solar radiation. The question arises whether solar observations may be utilized for weather prediction. Obviously it would be necessary to have all the dates when solar changes occur, for the effects are so large that to use some and omit others would lead to great error. Furthermore the exact dates are necessary. For the effects change rapidly from day to day. In order to test the prospects with the present available data, I have attempted a solar weather forecast for the temperature at Wash- ington covering the interval January 1 to May 28, 1943, and have compared it with the event. For illustration I present the solar expec- tation for the interval February 1 to March 14 in the accompanying VOL. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS PR fees —— RASS, my ots roy dm? : S SOLD ‘ 3} | = oe eS SAYERS SEL ee ee & dks no r3ohc 043 a8 rs n ~ Onn> b os S 28OVQ ORT %ObG oK~9 gob Sa Sho BLHILOSe ye yy IN SSNs iS P 1 Ii ' 3 r) a ae BR voarg ranpon dg hmdod hon go Rhee Saget § BR or odooda grb doboor} BN aes ; Sn hs SF - sa By So %gqdonoh ~OK IBS LTRKG ovate? oo 8 JoLEIaST x obo PgkhKaghbe sP < ° rh nate — ae bg ShHoge QOTOHM OS YOO Ss PoOOLd ERS gio f 2s do | ~ 3 ; ng + =o SSEdoon Po ta 8 9o~gS8Y ot Aso OS LF TRS - SS —_ 1 > yA z =Q ~~ Sas sbodkoo fs 9 STOR OS VoghPoPvhhogngrgey bd *hIoadu | as - ara t ‘ ieee na nN . ) &. wn =) GES Ssho te to j POLIS ho 09} KNoghBo race SVS ESI his vgr~ SiN Ss Sata: =o] IK a5 SS a . LC heed dv rl N ee ooh BSagkke chp BekooS snc ete TOROS OSG SALE S a So sonnes ahotheag Bo ook Ehhab a oR Se | : Tao 1 ra I a Ko oboookoskpo ooh 899 FOL 8 LPeokbon pe oe x & Drgh29LR°F Oh SDF OPO OK gr Anke PSF uty \ & | ' a YO : * ~} iS adv Ra ee bm Tomy SHON C8 8dho gop oeMbb ees GA OQ ERAS r Thyy_ds gkroo 080H90S°Sm) LF a ed : * —~ = SS + Landkmed&Ng Ese Sy So atiae tele oOOh by FAO S RES *» ch 09 dq 09 a $4 So oko aR ookBip aS bas [ == N Fa aL: is KR Ryod S§$8oFX BQ SL GMA op 92ZS99) Soho OPTS ERIE KR TEEN TI9k. OSS soSkook hroo Gogh ogoo Thy =e fez WaoSGsa Sy ee = SS 8 KReodebvrbkeofo > eapkodebeess a , et eee ee. Bis KE ghd FO ObIAL ah ‘a fl NRGIMn~, a G3 Sr =I vb) 290 ue eSB ROLO~ on gh pag ve dseen ss? 2 9 Myo Pos Gokko! kee Eee gs Saeilh i N = + th domo veo She 08a} Fookes oh BOQ OLROYZ SIGS } Yr BBE_VOOPhYS : Lk oe goo Ohh ghdts Pay =i = ee or) ” SESSMoSatthe} = auSuernnnoaes ME AS Oe 4 DONG THD BOS oh. 4 HOS 9, Ske i} Nah oer WPS MOSR oo SEOLEST cod odoO°O! aokSvoovkess a 4 ALI, SOW Fotooghhol&S eh ae ert) ~ Qohke o& ets SSS x ae ‘ TSESESATER etdecasass TI SSS ee 38 \ ee aogk ge San okB THAW ok TVET 9 ObBOGLY ISS S gs Ss (Sem . va 1 8 87 TRIO Sages goTohsSSoou PS eToo gd CYER IS = iy se cs eri aefS ! 1 sghhogh? sho opahezebhermeesp shoo ok TNE mS . = = sa P ovod >Moknsoopleokh + gh~Qrey SS oloh OOHE SSRIS Gat = Ta = == cr = Si PES Ke COONHBKS YYoo o> Lok 2 S900} FORFE GSS eh es cee a ae check bh KaGhoah3 c8onPThgso~cLooh~ Ph MwwoGey Ree yf $f {os * be fo> > > Ss x ~ y a sects ge neenasy Scere: zecengaracne Ye gee MOS SURGE ERs So es SR EE = FS LS yg @ & Sse ESkke F BER Fk fF Fs = BN s Fic. 4——Mean march for 25 days of rainfall at Washington in February, , years 19038 to 1944, as associated with ups and downs of critical i for the layer Fe. Solar change on zero day. years 1924 to 1938, as associated with ups and downs of the solar constant of S [@) Ps isef aN Sg So Ua (o) n D) ¥ e 2 25 ~_ oo CS wy He 7 ABBOT WEATHER SOLAR VARIATION AND WASHINGTON 13 NO. p2pipe query — 4d- -== ' \ \ | a ' No oo, “. it 0/ v- gle tf) 6&6 LS €0/ 13!) 3 ‘tl c€ | O€! AG NB tZe- 9 ¢e- ot! BG o£7 ror boll # ELE ¢3/ ce | € TEE er Ole 9l-| Z H/-| $ -| SIt 0) | ‘qed evo! sasnduy mor 24raadag ynthesized from indi- served departures from normal temperature at o March 14, 1943. Prediction s vidual effects of all observed ups and downs of solar activity affecting that S) ro) Soe w , Ua ~ Gur wo : Good 4 fy & Aa, “oO | Soo. in to OP ee ies yoo = S -“™ 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 illustration. The method of computing it is simple. From the records of F, ionization data, one takes all the dates when ups and downs of solar radiation occur. Opposite each one of these dates he writes in a column of 20 days the departures from normal temperature appro- priate to the observed solar change. He then adds the columns algebraically to give in sequence the combined temperature effect of all the solar changes. This procedure is clearly shown in figure 5. In the illustration I show in dotted lines the departures from normal temperature due to integrated solar effects, and in full lines the actual event. It will be seen that the two curves show the same number of principal peaks and troughs. These fall nearly in the same phases. Their phase differences in days are as follows: Miaiimaperi teh ecrars ei H I J K IU, M Phase differences ..... +2 +1 +2 —I (0) (0) IMMGAUSTTENN 6 db Pons colons 6 A B € D E F G Phase differences ..... +2 +1 —I oO +1 (6) —I Average phase change: Regarding sign, +0.47 day; disregarding sign, £0.91 day. The magnitudes of the actual swings from peaks to troughs exceed those of the solar integration in the ratio 5/4. While the general similarity of the curves is obvious, the differences in phase and in magnitude of swings lead to such wide divergences that the day-to-day correlation coefficient is small, only 9 percent. I have sought to find a mathematical comparison between the two curves which would take groups of several days as its basis. For this purpose I join points A B C D E F Gat the troughs of the dotted curve. At the midpoints of the lines AB, BC, etc., I observe the departures. I then sum up the departures of the several days within each triangle as they would be if measured from horizontal base lines through these midpoints. I also treat the full curve in the same way, except that their base lines are determined, not by the trough points of the full curve, but by the points of the identical dates used with the dotted curve. This procedure yields the following comparison : Trianele ewan AHB BIC CJD DKE ELF FMG Algebraic Sums: total GumDottied@ircrr- +333 +73.8 +117.7. +37.6 +36.2 +60.5 +359.1 (Ca) Miiallee ohare —7.0 +46.0 +1090.0 +43.0 +40. +48.5 +360.5 This comparison shows that in all but one of the six cycles of temperature change from low to high and return which occurred during the intervals from February 1 to March 14, 1943, the solar NO. I3) SOLAR VARIATION AND WASHINGTON WEATHER—ABBOT 9 integration and the actual event were in approximate accord regard- ing the phases, signs, and magnitudes of the changes. The one case of disagreement was caused by the solar integration having preceded the event by 2 days. To determine how far solar predictions, if they were made, could be expected to anticipate the event, I have recourse to the columns used to give the aggregate. (See fig. 5 and fig. 3.) On February 10 the result was almost entirely fixed by the solar rise of February 4 and the solar fall of February 9. Unless the latter could have been anticipated there would have been little range of prediction. On February 15 the result depended chiefly on the solar fall of February 9 and the solar rise of February 13. Unless the latter could have been anticipated there would have been little range of prediction. On February 20 the result depended mainly on the solar rise of February 13. Five other solar changes involved nearly canceled themselves out. On February 25 the result depended mainly on the solar rise of February 18. Four other solar changes involved nearly canceled themselves out. On March 3 the result depended mainly on the solar rise of February 18. On March 8 the result depended mainly on the solar rise of March 4 and the solar fall of February 20. It appears from these comparisons that approximate predictions a week in advance could be made of dates of peaks and troughs of Washington temperature if (1) daily reports of F. were obtained from a sufficient number of ionization stations, and (2) if means could be found to anticipate by a few days closely the date of the next approaching solar change. Its sign would always be known to be opposite to that last observed. From present records we should expect solar changes of the same sign to follow each other at intervals of about 9 days, with changes of opposite sign intervening. The several effects of solar ups and downs of I to 3 weeks previous being known, we have only to estimate the effect a week hence of the change which is just about now occurring. We may hope that means may be found to anticipate by a few days more exactly the date of the next approaching solar change. Its sign will always be known, and also the effect that it will produce upon the temperature when it does occur. There is, I think, a fair hope that such important dates as 10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 1 heavy frosts may become predictable a week in advance from \ solar observations by this method. ‘ The method would appear to be applicable to any station in the world for which daily temperature records for the past 20 years are available. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS _VOLUME 104, NUMBER 14 Roebling Fund | A SENSITIVE RADIOMETER ve BY Ge ABBOT, W. H. HOOVER, AND L. B. CLARK Smithsonian Institution eeeP@lena, (PUBLICATION 3808) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ; AUGUST 23, 1945 aa RBs i SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 14 Roebling Fund Pe oe NSITIVE RADIOMETER BY C. G. ABBOT, W. H. HOOVER, AND L. B. CLARK Smithsonian Institution Cece ese® (PUBLICATION 3808) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AUGUST 23, 1945 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 6 A. ' Roebling Fund A SENSITIVE RADIOMETER By C. G. ABBOT, W. H. HOOVER, anp L. B. CLARK Smithsonian Institution In 1928 Abbot? constructed a radiometer with vanes 0.4 mm. wide and 1.0 mm. tall. He used fragments of houseflies’ wings. The front surfaces were blackened by painting with a suspension of lampblack in alcohol, having a slight addition of shellac to fix the coating. Be- hind these absorbing vanes he fastened with beeswax two tiers of vanes of unpainted fly wings, to make what might be called a triple- decker system. Thus two gas spaces were left between the vanes, so as to prevent the rear surfaces from being easily warmed by radia- tion. The vanes were 1.2 mm. apart between centers. The total weight of his system, including its mirror, was 0.94 mg., and its moment of inertia about 253 x10° g-cm.? With a candle at 2.4 m., one silver-on-glass reflection, two fused-quartz plates, and a thin crown-glass lens interposed, the system, at 1.5 seconds single swing, gave 80 mm. deflection on scale at 40 cm., when the candle image was shifted from one vane to the other, with a lens aperture of 37 mm.” He had intended to use this radiometer at about 12 seconds time of single swing. But having cleaned fingermarks from the sealed, optically figured, fused-quartz tube in which it lay, in an atmosphere of 0.23 mm. pressure of hydrogen, he noted that electrical charges formed which could not be removed and which produced a field so strong that the time of swing was reduced as stated. Nevertheless he used the instrument in a prismatic spectroscope, having the large flint- glass prism described on page 26, volume 2 of the Annals of the Astro- physical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, and five silver- on-glass reflections. He observed the heat in the spectra of 20 stars whose rays were concentrated at the Coudé focus of the 1oo-inch reflector on Mount Wilson. The telescope at that time had three 1 See Mount Wilson Contributions No. 380, Astrophys. Journ., vol. 69, pp. 293- 311, 1920. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 14 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 silver-on-glass mirrors, making eight mirrors altogether in the optical system. Owing to great prismatic dispersion and large losses of light from imperfect reflections it was impossible in 1928 to observe stellar radiation of wave lengths less than 0.423 micron. Fairly good results were obtained for yellow and red stars, but not for blue or white ones. Hoping to undertake energy-spectrum work with white and blue stars, where the measurements to be of value must be carried far beyond the visible violet, we first undertook to construct a more sensitive radiometer, impervious to disturbance by electric charges. After many experiments with the quartz tube, some of which are described in Science of March 9, 1945, we became convinced that light radiometer suspensions cannot be used in sealed quartz tubes with any certainty of success. One unexpected result of these pre- liminary experiments was of much value afterward. Suspensions built of thin mica, and of some other substances not regarded as magnetic, can be deflected by magnets from without. The electrical disturbances having proved so unmanageable in sealed quartz tubes, we had recourse to a closed hollow cylinder of brass into which the radiation could be reflected vertically through a quartz plate at the top. The construction is shown in figure 1. In adopting this expedient we depended, of course, on the theorem that the electric force within a closed conductor is zero. In figure 1, a is a hollow cylinder 6 in. tall, 4 in. in outside diameter, bored out within to a depth of 5 in., leaving a recess of 210 cm.* A brass plate b, shown from above in figure 2, admits a cone of rays at c to shine upon the radiometer vanes when reflected by the aluminum-on-glass mirror d. The adjustment is observed by the telescope e and prism f through the hole g and mirror h. A mirror 1 is adapted to reflect the recording light beam upon the tiny mirror of the system, and thence back through the slot j to the scale k. At 1 is a support with screw adjustment to fix the suspended radiometer system at the correct height with respect to the mirrors d and 1. The support / is rotatable by gears m, n, operable from the sylphon o. At p is the outlet tube for evacuation and filling. Two cocks (not here shown) are provided, connected by a tube between, having such capacity that when this tube is filled to 14 atmospheric pressure with hydrogen, the opening of one of the cocks into the previously highly evacuated radiometer chamber sets up a hydrogen pressure of 0.23 mm. of mercury. To guard against porosity of the metal the brass cylinder a is tinned with solder both inside and outside. Its top NO. 14 A SENSITIVE RADIOMETER—ABBOT, HOOVER, CLARK IG, WHISTSELITLELETLS. *, GILLI Fics. 1 and 2.—Diagram of radiometer. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 is ground flat, and covered with a vaporproof rubber gasket r. The fused-quartz plate s is held in place by a brass ring t, screwed down to force the quartz plate into close contact with the rubber gasket r. Having found in 1928 that fly-wing vanes are apt to curl, we in- tended to use thin mica vanes in our new system. It proved impossible to reduce the thickness of mica below 0.005 mm., and we had hoped for a lighter system than this would yield. Clark suggested trial of the metal foil used in photographer’s flash bulbs. A sample of the foil, when painted black, was found to weigh but 0.01 mgr. per mm.” One single-decker system was made with the blackened foil. This system proved insensitive, probably because the rear surface, being uninsulated, heated too much. An inconvenience also appeared. When this thin foil is painted, the paint oozes through pores, and tends to stick the foil to any backing on which it may lie. This objection led us to the expedient of first doubling the foil before painting. Then one obtains a black front surface, and a very light bright back surface stuck to it. Such blackened double sheets were found to weigh 0.018 mg. per mm.’ Assuming that a double sheet of foil would contain a gas space, a radiometer was made with single-decker vanes of this sort. It proved less sensitive than we hoped to obtain, and we decided that double- decker vanes were necessary. We then returned to the use of fly-wing vanes, and made a radiometer suspension with blackened fly-wing vanes doubled-decked with unblackened fly-wing vanes stuck on the rear with beeswax. This system weighed, complete with mirror, only 0.33 mg. However we were unable to use it, because a very minute electrical field within the case prevented its proper orientation. Strong magnets outside the case had no appreciable directing influence on this fly-wing vanes system. It then occurred to Abbot that a combination of the good proper- ties of the metallic foil, i.e., magnetic control, no curling, and ex- cellent blacking, and the fly’s wings for double-decking could be made. For this purpose a double-decked system was made up with black-painted double foil in front, and fly-wing vanes behind. After the experience gained in construction of earlier systems, a very beautifully symmetrical job was made of this combination. In action it proved about 20 times as sensitive as the radiometer of 1928 as actually used. Furthermore, by magnetic control from outside the time of swing and the zero on the scale could be easily regulated as desired. NO. I4 A SENSITIVE RADIOMETER—ABBOT, HOOVER, CLARK 5 The following are the details of this radiometer system: VANES Double-decked. Metal foil blackened front. Fly-wing back. Sats are Fe ee AEE ad tac os he a Nene Rast ae mame eee woken S 1.5 min. ph UMNO arc wt we chee re ee eae etd Mtl canes es Fatal los ame aaa fore e ry, UStANCE Olt CEMUCES:.ak dente, yale Cae tice CeO ee ee Sele Se tes 1 ae Prete neat latina ames: ole el liactdets omtdnc tartan tin lone 0.021 mgr. Monrentotginentiavonebothina. aac cn ae aera 66 X 10° g-cm.’ Fastening: Beeswax. Mirror Thin, optically-figured, microscope cover glass. Both sides platinized. LEUVEN PROSE CHEN A oe ie RIE eT OI em Lt AU RE ar eH a I.I mm. “TAS TYOUE ERD Sg Se fae SM ALS oe RE Me ea Onn RETRIAL rr See NSCOR ce Soy Unga! ne Hele: (ek aa eet 0.135 mg. IMOmentRoteinentian nets tse eee lrtaer ns one eee eee 40 X 10° g-cm.? FRAME Fused quartz. WDiainietetamernt te year Aceh terer sista cave cece tele ATs ousea al cisltimestuclt 0.004 mm. IL SrRYER TM." eves eaten abate tc ee ORE re MRR E RS oes CLR ee em ar RR et 42. r Moment of inertia: Negligible. Crossbar fixed with burnt shellac. LASER T OY etary ene aC cieeha eet mars Ais, 100 Ri aate one ee ean ge 1.6 mm. MP GineUa Ol nIeE tipi: Cont on el. So nitad tg oe Rca ie Glens 12 X 10° g-cm.? System: Total weight, 0.40 mg.; moment of inertia, 118 X I0°° g-cm.” complete. To determine the sensitiveness of the radiometer we employed a Hefner lamp of 1 candlepower at 4 m. Its rays were reflected down- ward by a gold-on-glass mirror through a fused-quartz plate 8 mm. thick upon a 45° mirror of aluminum on glass, which cast them upon the radiometer vanes. The vanes were shaded alternately by a brass strip lying on the quartz plate. Deflections were observed on a scale 2) al Oe i 6 The radiometer case was evacuated with a mechanical air pump for several hours. Then hydrogen was introduced to 0.23 mm. mer- cury pressure. In a later experiment the hydrogen pressure was doubled. The time of single swing of system, as overdamped, ranged from Io seconds in vacuum to about 15 seconds in hydrogen. Under these conditions deflections were observed, counting the combined effect from one vane to the other. One of the vanes appeared about 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 twice as sensitive as the other, probably owing to differences in the gas spaces of the double-deck vanes. In: Vacuum Hydrogen, 0.23 mm. Hydrogen, 0.46 mm. Deflection: gcm. 23 cm. 27 cm. It is believed that a pressure between 0.23 mm. and 0.46 mm. would be best, and would correspond to a deflection of about 30 cm. Assuming this figure, we make the following comparison with the instrument used by Abbot in 1928, first increasing his reported deflection from 80 to 100 mm. because, as he says, the candle image was not fully intercepted by his vanes. : ae OV ; Relative sensitiveness, 1945 to 1928........ Sue Ze x (4 ) K = =108 100 130 Assuming that the scale could be removed to 10 m. (for the spot is very bright, and the steadiness excellent) and that deflections of 0.1 mm. could be verified as the mean of several repetitions, and read with the special scale employed in 1928, then a candle flame shining on these tiny vanes could be observed (except for absorption in the atmosphere) at a distance of 1,900 feet. For the purpose of observing the energy spectra of white and blue stars, other very great advantages are proposed to be utilized over those of 1928. At that time there were 8 silver-on-glass reflections, and a very large flint-glass prism, thus combining, by imperfect reflection, considerable absorption, and unnecessary dispersion’ to weaken greatly the energy of short wave lengths. It is now proposed to use a very bright special grating, and 7 aluminum-on-glass reflec- tions including the grating. By reference to pages 51, 52, and 105 of volume 2 of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, we find that, as between wave lengths 3900 and 8000 A., the proposed optical train will be about 60 times more efficient than that of 1928. This advantage, together with twentyfold increase of sensitiveness, should combine to insure large deflections and good results on stellar-energy spectra of short wave length. "SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS _ VOLUME 104, NUMBER 15 SE RE ee is SS as ae oe BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SHORT "BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ~ WILLIAM HEALEY DALL — (WirH. ONE PLATE) — is a kak PAUL BARTSCH HARALD ALFRED REHDER AND BEULAH E. SHIELDS’ U.S, National Museum as > oa hs « \- ‘ey “4 lf - ' % Bt) i te q i "” Pah Ms ie “a * ar ite aA ‘ We 4 ae Pye A = — ie oh Ry. ey, BA PN ae i ‘ 4 ume’) i P h ay st} th oy, a ey i! tg eae | a * vee i i i) be Bia (45 ue — 25 ees Bas ee a ie eee es a 2 > ( PUBLICATION 381 0) GITY OF WASHINGTON “PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JANUARY 30, 1946 ( SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 15 A BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SHORT BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF WILLIAM HEALEY DALL (WITH ONE PLATE) BY PAUL BARTSCH HARALD ALFRED REHDER AND BEULAH E. SHIELDS U. S. National Museum (PUBLICATION 3810) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JANUARY 30, 1946 i 2 3 a \ vs Piigits @velrew ? vad The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. & As one = WILLIAM HEALEY DALL, 1845-1927 A BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SHORT BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF WILLIAM HEALEY DALL’ By PAUL BARTSCH, HARALD ALFRED REHDER, AND BEULAH E. SHIELDS United States National Museum (WitH OnE PLATE) BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF WILLIAM HEALEY DALL August 21, 1845—March 27, 1927 By Paut BartscH The only lesson which may be said to be absolutely clear is, that naturalists are born, and not made; that the sacred fire cannot be extinguished by poverty nor lighted from a college taper. That the men whose work is now classical, and whose devotion it is our privilege to honor, owed less to education in any sense than they did to self-denial, steadfastness, energy, a passion for seeking out the truth, and an innate love of nature. These are the qualities which enabled them to gather fruit of the tree of knowledge. (Dall, “Some American Conchologists,” Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 4, pp. 95-134, 1888.) William Healey Dall, one of America’s foremost malacologists, traces his American ancestry to a William Dall, who sometime be- tween 1740 and 1745 came to America from Scotland and established a “colonial store,’ much like our modern department stores, in Baltimore, Md. This venture was evidently a success, for a branch in charge of a son or sons was shortly after established in Boston, Mass. The direct line of the American ancestry of Dr. Dall is best repre- sented in the following tabulation: William Dall William Dall, 1716-1803, and Eliza Bradford William Dall, 1753-1819, and Mary Parker James Dall, 1781-1863, and Henrietta Austin Rey. Charles Henry Appleton Dall, 1816-1886, and Caroline Wells Healey William Healey Dall, 1845-1927 * Published in large part from fund contributed by The American Malaco- logical Union. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 15 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Perusing the achievements of the direct and collateral lines of the Dalls, I am agreed with the Doctor’s son Whitney that “as young men the Dalls all had a spirit of adventure if not recklessness and had rather more than ordinary vision in their enterprises. Sometimes they did not work out well as in the case of the reclaimed land on Boston neck, but by and large they were a sturdy lot.” Dr. Dall’s father was a saintly character who naturally was drawn to the ministry. He was educated in Boston, graduated from Harvard College in 1837 and the Harvard Divinity School in 1840, and was ordained evangelist in 1841. Immediately thereafter he was minister at large in St. Louis, where he conducted a school for poor boys and girls. From there he was transferred to Baltimore, where he carried on a similar service under Unitarian auspices. On September 24, 1844, he married Caroline Wells Healey, a teacher in Miss English’s Female Seminary in Georgetown, D. C., a fine and well-known school attended by the daughters of prominent Washingtonians. Madam Dall, as she later became known, was a scholarly woman, strictly puritanical and frankly outspoken, whose critical and incisive remarks, verbal as well as written, were rather dreaded by the less stable members of Washington society. In 1845 the Dalls returned to Boston, and in that city William H. Dall was born on August 21. Shifting positions carried the family to Portsmouth, N. H., Needham, Mass., Toronto, Canada, and finally on February 22, 1855, the Reverend Mr. Dall was appointed by the American Unitarian Association as its missionary to India. There he started the first missionary school for the young in Calcutta, where, with the exception of a few short visits home, he labored very success- fully, until his death in 1886. It was not practical for his young family to accompany him, and the family was therefore established in a cot- tage in West Newton. The financial resources of the family were limited and required the strictest economy, and welcome were the increments earned by Mrs. Dall by writing and teaching. At West Newton young Dall attended, as day scholar, the local school of the Allen Brothers which had a deservedly high reputation. Later the family returned to Boston, and Dall’s educational endeavors were continued at the Brimmer School and later at the English High School, where he obtained some knowledge of Latin, French, and trigonometry, the last of which he said was very useful to him later in his Coast and Geodetic Survey work. In 1862 his father, while on a visit, took him to Cambridge to meet some of the professors, an event which, says Dall, was “a privilege NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL——BARTSCH ET AL. 3 for a boy to remember.” Here he later became a pupil of Louis Agassiz at the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, having Putnam, Verrill, Scudder, J. A. Allen, C. F. Hartt, and H. Hagen as teachers and associates. His father, on this visit, urged him to come to India and enter the tea business, which he eventually definitely declined. While this subject was under discussion, Louis Agassiz and his asso- ciates, realizing the value of an enthusiastic young man in a field from which little of scientific value had come to the United States, gave young Dall an intensive course in collecting not only in Mollusca but in other branches of natural history, which widened his interest and enabled him to add to the sum of knowledge in subjects other than his chosen specialty. It was at the end of his high school days in 1863 that Dall enlisted as a volunteer for a short time for the protection of the arsenal at Boston. “At this time,” says Dall in his journal, “‘a book fell in my hands which determined my line of study permanently. I had for some time collected natural history objects, insects, etc., and sent them to Prof. Agassiz and even to the Smithsonian, but without a special interest in any particular group.” The book referred to was Dr. A. A. Gould’s Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts, almost entirely devoted to the Mollusca and beautifully illustrated by the distinguished author. He continues: I became interested in collecting the land and fresh water shells of the vicinity and when I became puzzled about some of them I called on the good Doctor for information. He was kindness itself and gave me encouragement to pursue my investigations as well as some of his published papers. I soon found myself studying the subject, borrowing conchological books from the library, and extending my collecting field to the seashore between Boston and Cape Ann, as my spare time allowed. Since then the population of the coast waters has exterminated most of the more sensitive species which at that time were not rare. Doctor Gould without my knowledge, presented my name to the council of the Boston Society of Natural History and I was admitted as a student member excused from fees. I made the acquaintance of others interested in natural history, and so was launched into the serious study of the Mollusca, which has been the major part of my life work. On graduation from the high school he engaged for a time as office boy with Deshon and Yarrington, African traders, on India wharf. Leaving them, he spent some time working over shells at the Boston Society of Natural History and collecting in the woods about Boston and West Lynn as well as in the marshes of Nahant. It was at this point of unattachment that a visitor from Chicago, the Rev. Robert Collyer, suggested the possibility of finding suitable employment in 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 that city. We therefore shortly after find Dall occupying a clerkship in the Land Office of the Illinois Central Railway at a salary of $27.50 a month. While there, he spent his spare time at the Academy of Science Museum, working on their collections and making the ac- quaintance of Kennicott, Nason, Bannister, and other members of the small scientific circle then existing in Chicago. He was next attached to an exploring party searching for iron de- posits in northern Michigan at about double his former pay. On his return to Chicago he found the projected expedition under Kennicott to Russian America under discussion at the Academy, and he was asked to join this enterprise at a salary of $50.00 a month. A tempt- ing offer of $2,000 a year was made to him at this time to manage a lead mine in Missouri which he declined, preferring the scientific work offered. To prepare himself for the Alaskan enterprise of the Russian- American Telegraph Co., he left Chicago on March 5, 1865, for Washington, to gain additional training at the Smithsonian Institution, where he fell under the genial guiding influence of Spencer Fullerton Baird whose historic biography * he was later destined to prepare. Here he made his first contact with that group of young scientists chosen to carry out the Smithsonian ideal, “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The party sailed from New York on the Golden Rule March 21, 1865. Dall’s journal states that the scientific staff of the expedition consisted of R. Kennicott, director; J. T. Rothrock, botanist; H. M. Bannister, fossils; W. H. Dall, invertebrates and fish; H. W. Elliott, small animals and birds ; George W. Maynard and Ferdinand Bischoff, insects. They arrived without mishap (this was during the Civil War) at Greytown (San Juan del Norte), Nicaragua, on March 30, and landed April 1. The crossing of the isthmus through Lake Nica- ragua, with all the delights of a first visit to the Tropics, is beautifully reflected in the pages of his journal. Mollusks, of course, received most attention, but nothing seemed to escape his sharp, enthusiastic eye. The creatures of the sea, as well as birds, toads, lizards, fish, and everything seen by the young naturalist received notice in the journal. The party left San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, April 12, on the. steamer American for San Francisco, arriving April 24. The assem- bling of ships and crews and personnel for the construction of the 2A biography of Spencer Fullerton Baird, including selections from his cor- respondence with Audubon, Agassiz, Dana, and others. Pp. 1-462, 19 ills. Philadelphia and London, ro15. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 5 telegraph line, as well as scientific equipment, appears to have been an arduous task. The delay gave Dall an opportunity to meet the west coast naturalists, and we find him an ardent member of the California Academy of Sciences. Likewise did it give him a chance to make collections in the region. His journal states that he collected and sent 5,305 specimens to the Smithsonian Institution before leaving San Francisco. The members of the scientific staff were sent to different regions, and Dall we find quartered with Captain Scammon on the schooner Nightingale as “Quartermaster” in charge of scientific equipment, sailing from San Francisco on May 23. On July 12 he was made Acting Surgeon, his attendance at lectures by Wyman at Harvard and others at San Francisco having given him some knowledge of anatomy and medicine. A stop was made on August 10 at Sitka, Alaska, where he collected until they again put to sea on August 22. August 30 and 31 were spent in sounding, dredging, and collecting on Unimak Island, his first work in the Aleutian chain. From here the Nightingale sailed for St. Michaels, where she stayed from Sep- tember 13 to 17, giving Dall a chance to pick up a lot of specimens. They next passed St. Lawrence Island and stopped at Plover Bay, Siberia, allowing 5 days for collecting. Petropavlovsk was reached October 15, and here he collected until November 3, when the Nightingale set sail for San Francisco, arriving on November 30. Thus ended Dall’s exploration in northern waters for 1865. Dall says in his personal diary that the trip yielded 5,160 individual speci- mens belonging to 451 species. On July 11, 1866, we again find him leaving San Francisco on the schooner Nightingale, arriving at Plover Bay August 14; from there he sailed for St. Michaels on September 20, arriving September 24. Here he learned of the unfortunate death of his idolized friend, Kenni- cott, the director of all scientific work of the expedition, who collapsed on the Yukon from heart failure brought on by the worry, fret, and strain not unnatural to such an office and expedition. Here Dall was chosen to assume the leadership of the Yukon exploration and take up Kennicott’s burden as director. He left St. Michaels October 8 by skin canoe (bidarka) for Unalaklit and from there overland with dog sled to Nulato, where he spent the winter collecting natural history specimens and gathering notes on Eskimo and Indian vocabularies, etc. On May 26, 1867, he set out by bidarka for Fort Yukon on the 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Yukon River, arriving June 23. There he remained until July 8 when the return journey was undertaken, and Nulato was reached on July 12. Here he was met with instructions “to transmit without delay. all movable property belonging to the Telegraph Company to the Redoubt, St. Michaels.” Rumors of the sale of all Russian America (Alaska) to an American company were also afloat. The purchase of Russian America by the United States for $7,200,000 was proclaimed by President Andrew Johnson June 20, 1867. It should be remembered that the Russian-American Telegraph enterprise was initiated because the Atlantic cable, after successfully functioning for 20 days, had parted on September 1, 1858, and it was believed that a cable across the narrow, shallow Bering Strait would be more practical. The laying of the second Atlantic cable and its successful operation made the long, round-about transmission unnecessary, and the Alaska enterprise was abandoned. Dall was so thoroughly imbued with the ideals and dreams of his beloved friend Kennicott that after turning in all equipment and after shipping all the collections he determined to stay in the field and complete the scientific work. He therefore wrote Professor Baird, the Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, that he would invest the funds due him from the Company in necessary supplies and continue the scientific explorations of the Yukon for a year or even longer if the Smithsonian Institution would furnish the additional funds needed to carry on. He estimated that the meager sum of $400 a year would cover the hire of help and necessary food, ete. Dall’s journals of the whole expedition deserve publication; they are not only historic but an epic in scientific exploration. I shall quote an extract of a letter from this 21-year-old naturalist that was read October 20, 1867, at a meeting of the California Academy of Natural Sciences and published. St. Michael’s, Russian America, August 14, 1867. I have traveled on snow shoes, with the thermometer from 8° to 40° below zero, about four hundred miles. I have paddled in open canoes up stream six hundred and fifty miles, and down, 1,300 miles. I have obtained 4,550 specimens, including a set of the rocks from Fort Youkon to the sea, sufficient to determine the geological formations for 1,300 miles. The only fossiliferous beds are on the Youkon, and they extend about sixty miles. They are brown sand-stones, containing bivalve mollusca and vegetable remains. There is a small seam of coal thirty miles below the bend, and thin shale above and below. The coal is of good quality; but there is so little of it that it is worthless. These are the only fossiliferous strata I have thus far found. The rocks above and below are all azoic and nonstratified, excepting a little hard blue or black slate. Granite, NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 7 and especially mica, are very rare. I found a pebble containing the well known fossils of the Niagara limestone on the beach near Fort Youkon. Fossil wood and bones and teeth of Elephas and Ovibos moschatus are common over the country. There is a broad patch of volcanic eruptive rock on the river near the lower bend, and it extends to the sea. The islands of St. Michael and Stuart are formed of it, and it is roughly columnar on the former near the Fort. I have looked carefully for glacial traces, and so far have found absolutely none. I shall pass over details of the year’s work but cannot refrain from quoting two passages from his journal to show a little of the darker side of the enterprise: Oct. 24, 1867. Wind lessened but water very bad. Can’t leave. I sometimes think it is lucky that the Healeys are a hard-headed race and that I have some of the Dall philosophy, too, or I should go insane or kill myself. “Hope deferred maketh a heart very sick.” Doubtless God has some good reason for putting me through so hard a mill. March 26, 1868. Feel a good deal better now. Beginning to get a little flesh on my bones which were nearly bare, for sickness and worry had worn me down to a skeleton. Dall embarked August 9, 1868, at St. Michaels, Alaska, for San Francisco, where he arrived on September 29. From here he took passage on a Pacific Mail Steamship Company boat for New York via Panama. We next find him located in a tower of the Smithsonian Institution, working on his collections and the preparation of his volume ‘Alaska and its Resources,’ which was published by Lee and Shepard of Boston in 1870. In this he recounts the events of the expedition and brings under one cover all available information on Alaska. This is still considered a standard work. Dall’s bibliography shows 34 papers to his credit at the time “Alaska and its Resources’ was published. After attending the Salem meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, he says in his notes, “I returned to Washington, unsatisfied at the results of our explorations in Alaska and determined to find a way to extend them to the Aleutian region. The Coast Survey has published my reconnaissance map of the Yukon, the first covering the whole course of the river.” It is there- fore not surprising that we next find him appointed Acting Assistant to the Coast Survey in 1871 and ordered to the Pacific coast “‘to command the schooner Humboldt and make surveys in the Alaskan Region.’”’ He continued his reconnaissance surveys during the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874, with an additional trip in 1880. William Healey Dall and Annette Whitney were married in New York City, March 3, 1880. Their wedding trip included Boston, a 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Chicago, San Francisco, and Sitka. From Sitka Mrs. Dall returned to San Francisco and Dall continued his Alaskan surveys. During these surveys Dall visited all the Alaskan coastal waters, including the entire chain of the Aleutian Islands, gathering the information needed by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. At the close of the 1874 season Dall was recalled to the Washington office to assemble all the known data of use to navigation in Alaskan waters. The information thus assembled was published in the “Pacific Coast Pilot of Alaska,” the foundation upon which all subsequent Alaskan studies by the Coast and Geodetic Survey were based. In 1884 Dall severed his connection with the Coast and Geodetic Survey and transferred to the newly formed United States Geological Survey as paleontologist. Here he found the niche he had been craving, for the study of recent and fossil mollusks had always been nearest and dearest to his heart. He was detailed to work at the United States National Museum, which had always been under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, and here he labored as Honorary Curator of the Division of Mollusks and Tertiary Fossils from 1868 until his death in 1927. During his period of office at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey his spare hours were devoted to the arranging of the immense collections that he had made in Alaskan waters as well as the material that had accumulated at the Smithsonian Institution. His journals reveal that no opportunity was missed to collect on land or with dredge in the sea during his work in the north. Our knowledge of the fauna of that region is still largely based on Dall’s collecting. How strenuously he employed his time is reflected by his bibliog- raphy, where we note that more than 400 papers came from his pen between the publication of ““Alaska and its Resources” in 1870 and his severance from the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1884. In 1878 Dall was delegated by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Smithsonian Institution to attend the 48th meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science on August 14, at Dublin, Ireland. In this connection he was to gather all the published infor- mation on Alaskan subjects of use to the Survey. He left New York on May 8 for a tour of European museums and libraries. On this trip he went to Norway, where he visited and worked with Friele and Sars; in Sweden he met Lovén and Nor- denskjold; while at Copenhagen, Denmark, he met Steenstrup and Bergh and saw the Moller collection of Greenland shells and the Fabricius collection at the University Museum. In Germany he saw NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 9 the Museum Godeffroy at Hamburg and the Zoological Museum at Berlin, where he met von Maltzan and von Martens as well as Fried- lander. In Frankfurt he-came in contact with Kobelt and Verkruzen while paying a visit to the Senckenbergisches Museum; at Stuttgart he examined the Naturhistorisches Cabinet, here visiting Krauss, and later Troschel at Bonn. Passing through Holland, he returned to England, where at the British Museum, in addition to seeing its wonderful collection, the finest in the world, he came in contact with Edgar Smith, Hanley, Woodward, Jeffreys, Davidson, and many other scientists. On August 13 he arrived at Dublin, Ireland, where he was promptly elected to the Biological and Geographical Committees. He delivered a paper on “Our Knowledge of Alaska at the Present Time,” which he says was well received. Here he met Sir Wyville Thomson, Huxley, and many other scientists. Back in England, he visited Oxford and Cambridge and then returned to London. Next he visited Paris, where he met Crosse; then returning to England, he looked up John Murray and Watson of Challenger fame at Edinburgh, and Marrat at Liverpool. Reading Dall’s daily entries in his journals shows that nothing of real moment escaped his eager eyes. Historic points, museums and their contained treasures, libraries, and laboratories of the world’s foremost institutions crowded their information upon his receptive mind. What to malacology, however, was most important was his meeting with the research men of that day, practically the founders of our science, and establishing personal contacts with them, even as he had previously done on our west coast, where he had worked with Gabb, Cooper, Stearns, Newcomb, Canfield, and Peale, with whom he kept in touch in succeeding years. During his European trip in 1878 he visited J. Gwyn Jeffreys and looked over some of his immense private collection of mollusks. In the files of the United States National Museum is a letter from Jeffreys dated January 7, 1882, containing the following: Now a few words as to my collection of shells. I simply regard them as a workman’s tools; and after my work is finished I would dispose of the collec- tions for a fair price. They have cost me a considerable sum altogether, viz., upwards of £2000. I value them at £1050, one thousand guineas; and I should be glad to have them available for scientific purposes. Again in May 29, 1882, he wrote in response to an inquiry for a general statement of the contents of the collection: 1. A perfect and unique collection of British Mollusca, containing about 700 species, being all the species which have been described or recorded. It com- 1G) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 | prises every species given in Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys’ work on “British Conchology” and in his subsequent papers on the subject, as well as the original collections of Dr. Turton (the author of the “Conchological Dictionary” and other publica- tions), of the late Mr. Clark (the author of “A History of the British Marine Testaceous Mollusca”) and some types of Col. Montagu (author of the “Testacea Britannica”) and of other well-known conchologists. The rare species are amply represented ; and altogether the specimens number considerably more than 10,000, perhaps 100,000. 2. A collection (supposed to be complete) of Mediterranean shells, including those of Herr Weinkauff (the author of “Conchylien des Mittelmeeres”) and many rare species received from other writers on Mediterranean shells. 3. A collection (believed to be complete) of Scandinavian marine shells, including types of Professors M. & G. O. Sars and Prof. Lovén. 4. A collection of Arctic shells, including typ of Mr. Reeve, Prof. Torell, Mr. Albany Hancock, and others. 5. A collection of shells from various other parts of the European seas, including several of the new species procured by the French Expedition of 1880 in the Bay of Biscay and several undescribed species. 6. Types of species (chiefly Rissoa) described and figured by the Rev. R. B. Watson from Madeira. 7. A small collection of North American shells including types of Prof. Stimpson. 8. Collections of land and fresh-water shells from the Continent, United States, Madeira and St. Helena, including types of authors. 9. Collections of marine shells procured during the Expeditions of H. M. St. Lightning, Porcupine, Shearwater, Valorous, and Knight Errant. 10. Some marine shells of scientific interest dredged in North Japan and from other parts of the world, as well as a few duplicates from the Josephine, Pourtales, and Challenger Expeditions. 11. A collection of British Cirripeds, many of them named by the late Mr. Darwin and referred to in his Monograph. 12. An extensive collection of Tertiary and post-Tertiary shells from the English Crag, Italy, France, Great Britain, and Scandinavia. As a result of these negotiations Dall purchased the collection and later turned it over to the United States National Museum at the purchase price. What the presence of this unrivaled collection with its many types has meant to American malacologists and paleontolo- gists can only be completely understood by the many students who have consulted it for comparing West Atlantic with East Atlantic species, or those who have sought comparison of the European Arctic fauna with that of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean north of it. On August 25, 1888, Dall sailed from Jersey City to attend the Bath meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the Geological Congress. On this occasion he renewed many old friendships and made many new ones. He left England September 3. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. Tek While on the United States Geological Survey, Dall made trips in 1890, 1892, 1895, 1897, 1901, and 1910 to the northwest coast to study its geology and fossils as well as recent mollusks. The most enjoyable of his northwest experiences, however, was reserved for his visit in 1899, when, as a guest and member of the famous, sumptuously appointed Harriman Alaska Expedition in the company of a con- genial host and fellow scientists, he was able to revisit many of the scenes traversed in his youthful days, without the trials and tribula- tions of his earlier endeavors. Dall contributed a chapter, ‘‘The Description and Exploration of Alaska,’’ as well as a volume on mollusks to the reports on that expedition. In 1891 he made explorations in Tertiary formations in Florida, and in 1893 in Georgia, reference to the reports of which will be found in the bibliography. In 1899 Dall was asked by the trustees of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum of Honolulu, Hawaii, to visit the Museum and examine critically the collection of shells made by Andrew Garrett in the Pacific Islands. He spent 2 months at the Museum examining and arranging this collection, and later prepared a critical catalog of it. At the conclusion of this visit Dall was made Honorary Curator of Mollusks of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. On April 21, 1915, a banquet was tendered Dr. Dall at the Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C., commemorating the completion of 50 years of service to science. This was attended by over 100 of his associates and friends. The function was presided over by Dr. Robert S. Woodward, and the following toasts were presented : Wealene ia Sika) TOME lrrctesschecceys: sacsccatsccsseesecps-cposersséstcestuaspasasee Dr. Alfred H. Brooks BPA CIE “ATL TOPOLO RUSE secvscocosscncdacsesvisccs stancsesscectessebeccteseanessasees Prof. Wm. H. Holmes IDEN deveh (COS eal Erdle] ok a Ae ee ie oe a UN a Mr. Isaac Winston Mate URE Nl ALA COLORS Exec cicscsneneccosttanvocesseveseeessecsctcenswoes soteteouteueee Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry WallethemealeontolooiStsscccs.c.ccscretessteteeeseee treed saz screree Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan WallkthepZoolo cist sect te Meineke. essen dene nek eae Dr. C. Hart Merriam Walle themNiomenclatOristect.cc.s.ccscveecevssescoeseys=cotses ens sonsseseSovadeceves Dr. Ch. Wardell Stiles OL INOS SUES) 2 ARE EAP EES ete ei Justice Wendell P. Stafford Togs BEG) 8 ENG ae ADE Gre i a Ge me General A. W. Greely On October 27, 1943, the William H. Dall, a Liberty vessel built by the Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation, was launched at Portland, Oreg. In 1926 Dall wrote. When Stimpson by the Chicago fire lost practically most of the manuscripts and specimens which represented years of collecting and research, and never recovered from the loss, I made up my mind not to undertake a magnum opus I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 of that kind, but to publish promptly researches which seemed to include some- thing new. In this way what was worth while would be on record and available at once for the use of other students. This will account for my large number of short papers. In spite of the above statement, we note a number of items in his bibliography any one of which many a man would be pleased to call his magnum opus—for example: 1870. Alaska and its resources. 1884. On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the bearing of their geographical distribution. 1885. List of marine Mollusca comprising the Quaternary and recent forms from American localities between Cape Hatteras and Cape Roque, including the Bermudas. 1886-89. Reports of the results of dredging, under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico (1877-78) and in the Caribbean Sea (1879-80), by the U. S. Coast Survey steamer Blake. 1889. A preliminary catalogue of the shell-bearing marine mollusks and brachi- opods of the southeastern coast of the United States. 1890-1903. Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna of Florida, pts. r-6. 1892. (With Gilbert D. Harris). Correlation papers. Neocene. 1901. (With Charles T. Simpson). The Mollusca of Porto Rico. 1905. Harriman Alaska Expedition. Vol. 13, Land and fresh-water mollusks. 1908. Reports on the scientific results of the expedition to the eastern tropical Pacific, in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross . . . The Mollusca and Brachiopoda. 1909. The Miocene of Astoria and Coos Bays, Oregon. (Contributions to the Tertiary paleontology of the Pacific Coast, pt. 1.) 1909. Report on a collection of shells from Peru, with a summary of the littoral marine Mollusca of the Peruvian zoological province. 1915. A monograph of the molluscan fauna of the Orthaulax pugnax zone of the Oligocene of Tampa, Florida. 1915. Spencer Fullerton Baird. A biography. 1921. Summary of the marine shellbearing mollusks of the northwest coast of INIMeTI Catan | Dall received the A. M. degree from Wesleyan in 1888, D. Sc. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1904, and LL.D. from The George Washington University in 1915. His association with scientific so- cieties was as follows: 1863. Elected a member of the Boston Society of Natural History. 1864. Elected active member of the Chicago Academy of Sciences. 1865. Elected resident member of the California Academy of Sciences. 1866. Elected a corresponding member of the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL-—BARTSCH ET AL. Ms: 1868. 1870. 1870. 1870. 1871. 1871. 1874. 1870. 1870. 1870. 1881. 1882. 1885. 1885. 1887. 1888. 1888. 1888. 1888. 1889. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. Joined the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Salem, Mass., meeting. Became a Fellow in 1874. Named secretary of Section B, Biology, at the Nashville, Tenn., meeting in 1877, and at the Saratoga, N. Y., meeting in 1879; vice president and chairman of Section F, Biology, at the Montreal meeting in 1882; and of Sec- tion H, Anthropology, at the Ann Arbor meeting in 1885. Elected life member emeritus at the New York meeting Dec. 27, 1916. Elected a foreign member of the K. K. Zoologische Botanische Gesell- schaft in Wien, Austria. Elected corresponding member of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Elected corresponding member of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, more recently known as the New York Academy of Sciences. One of the founders of the Philosophical Society of Washington. Elected an honorary member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, Harvard College Chapter. Made life member of the California Academy of Seerers. Nominated correspondent of the Bergen Museum, Bergen, Norway. Elected corresponding member of the Geographische Gesellschaft of Bremen, Germany. Elected corresponding member of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, Davenport, Iowa. Charter member of the Biological Society of Washington and president of the Society, 1888 and 188o. Made a corresponding member of the Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde, Berlin, Germany. Elected corresponding member of the Svenska Sallskapet for Antropologie och Geografi, Stockholm, Sweden. Elected a corresponding member of the Elliott Society of Natural His- tory, Charleston, S. C. Elected active member of the Anthropological Society of Washington. Elected a corresponding member of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Received the degree of A. M., honoris causa, from Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. Elected a corresponding member of the Society of Alaskan Natural His- tory and Ethnology, Sitka, Alaska. Member of the International Congress of Geologists, London meeting. Elected corresponding member of the Société Zoologique de France, Paris. Nominated honorary member of the Congrés Internationale de Zoologie, held at Paris, France. Made honorary member of the Alaskan Historical Society, Sitka, Alaska. Active member of the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. Appointed to the advisory board of the World’s Columbian Exposition Auxiliary for the Congress of Geology and Zoology. 1892-3. Vice president of the Philosophical Society of Washington, D. CG. 1893. Appointed Honorary Professor of Tertiary Invertebrate Sah ope aay in the Wagner Free Institute of Science, Philadelphia. 14 1893. 1894. 1896. 1897. 1897. 1897. 1808. 1808. 1808. 1899. 1899. 1900. 1904. 1904. 1906, 1900. 1907. 1907. 1912. 1914. IQI5. 1916. 1916. IQI7. 1923. 1926. 1926. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Nominated as one of the judges in the Department of Fisheries of the Columbian Exposition, Chicago. Elected president of the Philosophical Society of Washington. Elected one of the Board of Managers of the National Geographic Society of Washington, for 3 years. Elected member of the National Academy of Sciences. Elected member of the Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Elected a member of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Elected an honorary member of the Section of Ornithology, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. Elected foreign correspondent of the Geological Society of London. Elected honorary member of the Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Received the gold medal for paleontological work awarded by the Wagner Free Institute of Science, Philadelphia. Appointed honorary curator, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. Elected honorary member of the Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Leipzig, Germany. Elected a member of the Literary Society of Washington. Received the degree of Doctor of Science, honoris causa, from the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania. Elected a corresponding member of the Boston Society of Natural History. Appointed delegate to the Franklin Bicentenary on behalf of the Concho- logical Society of Great Britain. Appointed delegate to the International Zoological Congress in Boston, representing the Smithsonian Institution, the U. S. Geological Survey, and the Philosophical Society of Washington. Elected president of the Literary Society of Washington, D. C. Elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Mass. . Appointed a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the National Geographic Society of Washington, D. C. ; Received the degree of Doctor of Laws, honoris causa, from The George Washington University, D. C. Made honorary life member of the Philosophical Society of Washington, of which he was a founder. Elected life member emeritus of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Elected honorary life member of the National Geographic Society. Elected vice president of the Malacological Society of London. Elected corresponding member of the Peking Society of Natural History, Peking, China. Elected honorary life member of the Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C. Dall’s enormous molluscan library was donated by him to the divi- sion of mollusks of the United States National Museum. His immense NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 15 library of Alaskana, excelled only by the Wickersham collection, was purchased by Mrs. E. H. Harriman for the division of mollusks. In conclusion, I would say that the bibliography following this short sketch will call attention to his scientific efforts. There remains only the reference to Dall as a person. Dall was endowed with indéfatigable energy and unusual powers of organization. He was a balanced inheritant of the able, strict, scrupulously honest, Puritanic, deter- mined, and positive factors contributed by the mother, softened by those of the dreamy, idealistic, poetic, gentle father. The fact that all of Dall’s immense literary output, correspondence, and official reports were longhand products might lead one to believe that he was more or less of a recluse. This was by no means the case, for Dall enjoyed good company and sociability. The Dall home from 1880 to his death was at 1119 Twelfth Street, N.W., Washing- ton, D. C. Here most of America’s outstanding naturalists, as well as foreign members of the cult, found genial hospitality and fell under the charm of lovable Mrs. Dall. Up to his later years he was a very active member of Washington scientific societies as well as its literary society. He appreciated beauty, partook only extremely meagerly of the “cup that cheers,’ and found comfort in a soothing pipe. I am closing this short biographic sketch of Dall with one of his many poems which enables the reader to gain a glimpse of the “Dall philosophy,” which was profound and free from bigotry : THE SEA IS THINE, AND THOU MADEST IT Lord of the vast inconstant sea, Lord of its creatures, great and small, Thy steadfast arm unceasingly With loving-kindness keepeth all. Thine are the isles embowered in palm, Ring-girt with snow-white coral sand, Scenting with aromatic balm The trade-wind traversing the land. Where mirrored in the still lagoon The coco and pandanus rise, And, driven by the strong monsoon, The leaping breaker smites, and dies. The ceaseless challenge of the seas Thy reefs, impregnable, defy ; Safely defended, thus at ease Sunlit, thy peaceful atolls lie. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Thine are the islands of the north, Mantled with sombre spruce and pine, Whose rocky buttresses jut forth Into the chill and seething brine, Where dripping rockweed lifts and falls In cadence, as the surges beat, Resounding, where the sea-gull calls, And beetling cliff and shingle meet. The flowing tide across the straits With rippled front makes good its way, And, while the eager salmon waits, Unlocks the shallows of the bay. Or, where the blue and splintered wall Of glacier-foot defends the shore, The ice-front topples to its fall, The black cliffs echoing its roar. Forth on the bosom of the tide, Out to the eddies of the sea, Majestical, the icebergs ride Toward transformations yet to be. Out by the reefs where otters slept By rocks where herded walrus groan, Where the Great Auk aforetime kept, Last of the race, her watch alone; Into the immemorial deep They pass, and vanish, dropping slow Their harvest, garnered on the steep, Into the silent depths below. And still thy steady tides flow on, Responsive to the whirling spheres Celestial ; and their courses run Through the innumerable years. Food for thy creatures small and great In every clime they surely bear ; However paltry its estate, To each one its appointed share. Duly thy boundaries are set For all thy broad unfathomed seas, Nor may the towering surge forget The smallest of thy mysteries. Lord of the breaker and the reef, Lord of the wide abysmal main, We read thee in each rustling leaf, Each atom from the dusty plain; Thy wondrous artifice we know In all thy handiwork to be; Yet, above all, thy glories show Supreme in thine eternal sea. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM HEALEY DALL We have arranged the titles in the chronological order in which they were published, numbering them consecutively. The * before the number calls attention to the publications dealing with mollusks and brachiopods. *S: 9, ¥T0. 12. 3. 14. 1865 The seasons. [A short poem.] Chicago Evening Journal, January. A Yankee boy abroad. No. 1. (Place of publication uncertain— prob- ably a Boston, Mass., weekly journal.) A Yankee boy abroad. No. 2. (June.) (Place of publication uncertain— probably a Boston, Mass., weekly journal.) A Yankee boy abroad. No. 3. (Place of publication uncertain—prob- ably a Boston, Mass., weekly journal.) 1866 Memorial sketch of Thomas Bridges, Esq., F.L.S., F.Z.S., and member of the California Academy of Sciences. Proc. California Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 236-237. (February. ) [Letter of November 14, 1865, on the work of the Russo-American Tele- graph Expedition.]} Proc. Chicago Acad. Sci. vol. 1, pp. 31-32. (March. ) Note on Octopus punctatus, Gabb. Proc. California Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, p. 243. (May.) (Also published separately as “Conchological Notes. Number one.’’) [Remarks on California land and fresh-water shells and on Trochiscus Norristi.| Proc. California Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, p. 258. (August.) On a new subfamily of fluviatile Mollusca. Proc. California Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 264-266, fig. 28. (August.) (Also published sepa- rately as “Conchological Notes. Number two.’’) [On shells of Monterey.] Proc. California Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, p. 271. (August.) . On a species of Helix from California, supposed to be new. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 328-320, pl. 21, fig. 4, Oct. 6. (Also published separately as “Conchological Notes. Number three.’’) 1867 [Letter to J. T. Scammon on the operations of the scientific corps, Western Union Telegraph expedition.] Chicago Evening Journal, January. 1868 Explorations in Russian America. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 2, vol. 45, (vol. 95), No. 133, pp. 96-99, January. [Extracts from letter dated “St. Michael’s, Russian America, Aug. 14, 1867,” on his travels in the Yukon.] Proc. California Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 367-368. (May.) 18 I5. 16. 17. *78. 10. 20. 21. Path, 23. 24. *25, 26. A277. 28. 20. 30. ate 32. 33: 734. 35. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS .COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Resources and position of Alaska. Min. and Sci. Press, vol. 17, No. 12, p. 183, Sept. 19. Exploration of the interior of Russian America. Min. and Sci. Press, vol. 17, No. 14, p. 209, Oct. 3; No. 15, p. 228, Oct. 10. Exploration of the interior of Russian America. Proc. California Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 1, pp. 30-32. (November.) (Same as No. 16.) Remarks upon the natural history of Alaska. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 12, pp. 143-145. (November-December. ) Letter from Alaska. New York Tribune. 1869 [Last year of Robert Kennicott, in his biography.] Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 216-224. [Co-author with H. M. Bannister of] List of the birds of Alaska with biographical notes. Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 267- 310. Report on the agricultural resources of Alaska. Rep. Commissioner of Agriculture for 1868, pp. 172-180, pls. 4-6. Observations on the geology of Alaska. U. S. Coast Surv., Coast Pilot of Alaska, pt. 1, app. No. 1, pp. 193-202. Exploration of the interior of Russian America. (Continuation of No: 17:) Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt: 2) pp.33-37 (January. ) Materials for a monograph of the family Lepetidae. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 5, pt. 3, pp. 140-150, pl. 15, Feb. 3. An afternoon in Nicaragua. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 35-39, March. Notes on the Argonaut. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 236-239, July. Note on the “blowing” of whales. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 3, No. 6, PP. 333-334, August. Die Telegraphen-Expedition auf dem Jukon in Alaska. Petermann’s Mitth. Justus Perthes’ Geogr. Anst., vol. 15, pt. 10, pp. 361-365, pl. 19 (map), October. General Thomas’s Alaska report. [Letter.] Boston Daily Advertiser, Oct: 18, :p. 2: Coral snakes. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 3, No. 9, pp. 497-498, November. [On the bones of the musk ox and buffalo found in the Yukon.] Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, pp. 136-137. (November.) [The alluvial deposits of the Yukon River, in Alaska.] Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,.vol. 13, p. 138. (November.) [The distribution of marine animals.] Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, p. 164. (December. ) [Insects seen in Alaska in winter.] Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, p. 171. (December.) NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 19 *36, 37. *43. 53. 54. *55. *56. 1870 On the trend of the Rocky Mountain range north of lat. 60° and its influence on faunal distribution. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 18, p. 247. Plan and estimates for a hydrographic reconnaissance of the northern district of Alaska Territory. Congr. Rec., 41st Congr., 2d Sess., H.R. Ex. Doc. No. 255, pp. 2-7. On the distribution of the native tribes of Alaska, and the adjacent territory. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 18, pp. 263-273. . First day on the Yukon. Old and New, vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 44-47, January. [Letter on Alaska.] Washington (D. C.) Morning News, Feb. 26. . Map of Alaska. U. S. Coast Survey, March. . Alaska and its resources. xii + 628 pp., 15 pls., 1 map. Lee and Shepard, Boston. Revision of the classification of the Mollusca of Massachusetts. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, pp. 240-257. (April.) On the genus Pompholyx and its allies, with a revision of the Limnaeidae of authors. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist., vol. 9, pp. 333-361, pl. 2, figs. 1-3. (April-June. ) . A winter’s day in the Yukon Territory. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 218-225, June. . Materials toward a monograph of the Gadiniidae. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 6, pt. 1, pp. 8-22, pls. 2, 4, July 7. . Remarks on the anatomy of the genus Siphonaria, with a description of a new species. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 6, pt. 1, pp. 30-41, pls. 4-5, July 7. Dall’s Alaska. [Reply to a review.] The Nation, vol. 11, No. 264, p. 42, July 21. . Mr. Dall’s “Alaska” once more. The Nation, vol. 11, No. 265, p. 55, July 28. . The ruby crowned kinglet. [With notes on Yukon waterfowl.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 4, No. 6, pp. 376-377, August. . A revision of the Terebratulidae and Lingulidae, with remarks on and description of some recent forms. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 6, pt. 2, pp. 88-168, pls. 6-8, figs. 1-38, Oct. 6. . Review of Notes on lingual dentition of Mollusca, by W. G. Binney and T. Bland, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist., vol. 9, pp. 281-294. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 6, pt. 2, pp. 169-171, Oct. 6. Springtime on the Yukon. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 4, No. 10, pp. 504- 601, December. [Translation of song from the French of La Guillot.] Washington (D. C.) Evening Star, Dec. 4. 1871 Note on the existence of transversely striated muscular fibres in Acmaea. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 691-692, January. Deep sea explorations. [Review of Preliminary report of the scientific exploration of the deep sea in H.M. surveying vessel Porcupine in 1869.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 4, No. 12, pp. 744-746, February. 20 #57. *58. *50. *60. *61, *62, 763° *64. *65. 66. 67. *68. *60. 7K), 7 Te “7, 73- 77a SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Note on transversely striated muscular fiber among the Gasteropoda. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 3, vol. 1 (vol. 101), pp. 123-125, February. A new genus of Brachiopoda. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 5, No. 1, p. 55, March. Sketch of a natural arrangement of the order Docoglossa. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. 7, pp. 286-290, April. Note on transversely striated muscular fiber among the Gasteropoda. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. 7, pp. 312-313, April. (Same as No. 57.) [A note on the publication of the description of the animal of Limnaea involuta.] Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 6, pt. 3, pp. 181-182, Apr. 4. . On the limpets; with special reference to the species of the west coast of America, and to a more natural classification of the group. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 6, pt. 3, pp. 227-282, pls. 14-17, Apr. 4. Report on the Brachiopoda obtained by the United States Coast Survey expedition, in charge of L. F. De Pourtalés, with a revision of the Craniidae and Discinidae. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-45, pls. 1-2, May. Preliminary sketch of a natural arrangement of the order Docoglossa. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 14, pp. 49-54. (June.) (Same as No. 59.) Note on transversely striated muscular fiber among the Gasteropoda. Nature, vol. 4, p. 114, June 8. (Same as No. 57.) The food fishes of Alaska. Rep. Commissioner of Agriculture for 1870, PP. 375-392, June 30. On some peculiarities of the Eskimo dialect. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 19, pp. 332-349, July. On the relations of the class Brachiopoda. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 14, pp. 123-126. (August.) Supplement to the Revision of the Terebratulidae, with additions, cor- rections and revision of the Craniidae and Discinidae. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 7, pt. 2, pp. 39-85, pls. 10-11, Nov. 2. Note on the genus Anisothyris Conrad, with a description of a new species. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 7, pt. 2, pp. 89-92, pl. 16, figs. 14-15, Nov. 2. Descriptions of sixty new forms of mollusks from the west coast of America and the North Pacific Ocean, with notes on others already described. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 7, pt. 2, pp. 93-160, pls. 13-16, Nov. 2. 1872 Notes on California Mollusca. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 2, pp. 182-183, pl. 1, fig. 7. (January.) Is Alaska a paying investment? Harper’s New Month. Mag., vol. 44, No. 260, pp. 252-257, January. Note on Gadinia. Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. 7, pt. 3, pp. 192-193, Mar. Io. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 21 #75: 76. 77: 78. *70. 80. 81. 82. 83. *84, 85. 86. 87. 88. *80. 90. Ql. 02. Preliminary descriptions of new species of mollusks from the northwest coast of America. Published separately Oct. 8, from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 84). Prehistoric remains. Interesting explorations in the Aleutian Islands. [A synopsis.] San Francisco Bulletin, Nov. 6, p. 1. Descriptions of three new species of Crustacea, parasitic on the Cetacea of the northwest coast of America. Published separately Nov. 9 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 85). Quick as thought. Old and New, vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 674-680, December. Descriptions of new species of Mollusca from the northwest coast of America. Published separately Dec. 17 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 89). . On the parasites of the cetaceans of the northwest coast of America, with descriptions of new forms. Published separately Dec. 18 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 88). 1873 Catalogue of the Cetacea of the North Pacific Ocean, with osteological notes, and descriptions of some new forms. Jn Charles M. Scammon, Marine mammals of the northwestern coast of North America, appen- dix, pp. 278-307. [On exploration in Russian America.] Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 8, pp. 297-208. [Remarks on driftwood, currents, etc., in the Aleutian Islands.] Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 5, p. 268. (January.) Preliminary descriptions of new species of mollusks from the northwest coast of America. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 5, pp. 270- 271, pl. 1. (January.) (Same as No. 75.) Descriptions of three new species of Crustacea, parasitic on the Cetacea of the northwest coast of America. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 5, pp. 281-283. (January.) (Same as No. 77.) Notes on pre-historic remains in the Aleutian Islands. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 5, pp. 283-287, pl. 2. (January.) [Remarks on tusks of Elephas from Kotzebue Sound.] Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 5, p. 203. (January.) On the parasites of the cetaceans of the northwest coast of America, with descriptions of new forms. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 5, pp. 299-302. (January.) (Same as No. 80.) Descriptions of new species of Mollusca from the northwest coast of America. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 5, pp. 302-303, pl. 1, fig. 6. (January.) (Same as No. 79.) Descriptions of three new species of Cetacea, from the coast of Cali- fornia. Published separately Jan. 29 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 93). Notes on the avi-fauna of the Aleutian Islands, from Unalaska eastward. Published separately Feb. 8 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 94). Remarks on the death of Prof. John Torrey. Published separately, in April, from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 98). 22 03. 04. IIo. Tans SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Descriptions of three new species of Cetacea, from the coast of Cali- fornia, Proc: California Acad: Sci:, vol. 5, pp: 12-15. . (Apmld (Same as No. go.) Notes on the avi-fauna of the Aleutian Islands, from Unalaska eastward. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 25-35. (April.) (Same as No. 91.) . Catalogue of the recent species of the class Brachiopoda. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1873, pp. 177-204. (Apr. 8 and 29.) . Descriptions of new species of Mollusca from the coast of Alaska, with notes on some rare forms. Published separately Apr. 9 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 97). . Descriptions of new species of Mollusca from the coast of Alaska, with notes on some rare forms. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 57- 62, pl. 2. (May.) (Same as No. 96.) Remarks on the death of Prof. John Torrey. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 64-65. (May.) (Same as No. 92.) . Aleutian cephalopods. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 7, No. 8, pp. 484-485, August. . The “willow wands” from Burrard’s Inlet. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 7, No. 8, pp. 488-489, August. . Addition to the avi-fauna of America. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 7, No. 10, pp. 634-635, October. . Die Aufnahme der Aleuten und die Untersuchung der Behring See, Hydrogr. Mitth., vol. 1, No. 26, pp. 316-317, December. 1874 . Explorations in the Aleutian Islands and their vicinity. Journ. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 5, pp. 243-245. . Is Alaska a paying investment? [Synopsis of lecture.] Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 1, pp. 25-26. [Letter about explorations in the Aleutian chain.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 63-64, January. . On further examinations of the Amaknak Cave, Captain’s Bay, Una- lashka. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 196-200, figs. 1-3. (January. ) . Resolutions of the Academy on the death of Prof. Louis Agassiz. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 242-243. (January and April.) . Louis Agassiz. [A poem.] Overland Monthly, vol. 12, No. 2, p. 190, February. Catalogue of shells from Bering Strait and the adjacent portions of the - Arctic Ocean, with descriptions of three new species. Published sepa- rately Feb. 26 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 113). On new parasitic Crustacea from the northwest coast of America. Published separately Mar. 3 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 114). Notes on the avifauna of the Aleutian Islands, especially those west of Unalashka. Published separately Mar. 14 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 115). e NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 23 *112. Notes on some Tertiary fossils from the California coast, with a list of ee 114. TIS. 116. 117. 118. ETTOS 120. I2I. +122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127: 128. 120. 130. 131. 132. the species obtained from a well at San Diego, Calif., with descrip- tions of two new species. Published separately Mar. 26 from Proc. California Acad. Sci. (see No. 122). Catalogue of shells from Bering Strait and the adjacent portions of the Arctic Ocean, with descriptions of three new species. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 246-253. (April.) (Same as No. 109.) On new parasitic Crustacea from the northwest coast of America. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 254-255. (April.) (Same as No. 110.) Notes on the avifauna of the Aleutian Islands, especially those west of Unalashka. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 270-281. (April.) (Same as No. III.) W. H. Dall’s Forschungen in den Aleutischen Inseln, 1873. [Letter.] Petermann’s Mitth., vol. 20, pt. 4, pp. 151-152, April. The lords of the isles. Overland Monthly, vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 522-526, June. Deserted hearths. Overland Monthly, vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 25-30, July. Notes on an examination of four species of chitons, with reference to posterior orifices. Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 6, No. 8, pp. 124-125, October. Aleut mummies. Min. and Sci. Press, vol. 29, No. 17, p. 268, Oct. 24. Extracts from a letter from W. H. Dall, of the U. S. Coast Survey, to Rev. C. H. A. Dall, M.A., Calcutta. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1874, No. 10, pp. 245-249, December. Notes on some Tertiary fossils from the California coast, with a list of the species obtained from a well at San Diego, Calif., with descrip- tions of two new species. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 296- 299. (December.) (Same as No. 112.) Notes on some Aleut mummies. Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 399-400. (December.) [Brief synopsis of the results of his recent expedition to Alaska.] Proc. California Acad. Sci., vol. 5, p. 401. (December.) 1875 Arbeiten der Kiistenaufnahme von Alaska im Jahre 1874. Petermann’s Mitth. Justus Perthes’ Geogr. Anst., vol. 21, pt. 4, pp. 155-156, April. Harbors of Alaska, and the tides and currents in their vicinity. Rep. U. S. Coast Surv., 1872, App. 10, pp. 107-212, May. Arctic marine vegetation. Nature, vol. 12, p. 166, July 1. Elliott’s report on Alaska. The Evening Post, New York, July 9, p. 2. Our northern possessions. Personal experience in Alaska—an answer to representations of the Government agent. Boston Daily Advertiser, Hiilyers one: Alaskan mummies. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 9, No. 8, pp. 433-440, August. A note from Mr. Dall [in answer to a letter of Mr. Elliott]. Boston Daily Advertiser, Aug. 20, p. 2. Review of Report upon the condition of affairs in the Territory of Alaska, by Henry W. Elliott. The Nation, vol. 21, No. 531, pp. 154- 155, Sept. 2. 24 133. 134. 135. 136. 1375 sete). 139. 140. I4I. *TA2. *TA3. 144. *TA5. *T 46. *147. *148.- *T AO. *150. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Report of explorations on the coast of Alaska. Rep. U. S. Coast Surv., 1873, App. II, pp. 111-112, November. Report on Mount St. Elias, Fairweather and some of the adjacent mountains. Published separately in November from Rep. U. S. Coast Surv., 1875 (see No. 167). 1876 Products of the sea and shore. Collections to illustrate the fishery resources of the United States. International Exhibition, 1876. [Pre- liminary circular in preparation for final catalogue and exhibit, pp. 1-7.] U. S. Nat. Mus. [Brief history of travels of discovery in the Queen Charlotte Islands.] Mesozoic Fossils, vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 1-4. Geol. Surv. Canada. On the remains of later pre-historic man, obtained from caves in the Catherina archipelago, Alaska Territory. . . . Smithsonian Contr. to Knowl., vol. 22, art. 6, (Publ. No. 318), pp. 1-40, pls. 1-10, January. Contributions to the natural history of Kerguelen Island. Mollusks. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 3, pp. 42-49, February. Review of Tales and traditions of the Eskimo, by Dr. Henry Rink. The Nation, vol. 22, No. 550, pp. 182-183, Mar. 16. Review of Die Eingebornen Sibiriens, by Middendorf. The Nation, vol. 22, No. 562, pp. 230-231, Apr. 6. Review of Artes Africanae, by Schweinfurth. The Nation, vol. 22, Nos 562) p. 231, Apr 6: Introductory note on the marine faunal regions of the North Pacific. Sci. Results Expl. Alaska, vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1-4, December. On the extrusion of the seminal products in limpets, with remarks on the phyllogeny [sic] of the Docoglossa. Sci. Results Expl. Alaska, vol. 1, No. I, art. 2, pp. 35-43, December. 1877 Educated fleas. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 7-11. On the marine faunal regions of the North Pacific, an introductory note to the report on Alaskan hydroids, by Mr. Clark. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1876, pp. 205-208. (Jan. 2.) (Same as No. 142.) On the extrusion of the seminal products in limpets, with remarks on the phyllogeny [sic] of the Docoglossa. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1876, pp. 239-247. (Jan. 9.) (Same as’No. 143.) [Obituary of F. B. Meek.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 122- 123, February. On a provisional hypothesis of saltatory evolution. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 135-137, March. On the California species of Fusus. Published as a separate from Proc. California Acad. Sci., pp. 1-5, Mar. 19. (Vol. 7 of Proceedings never published. ) Preliminary descriptions of new species of mollusks from the northwest coast of America. Published as a separate from Proc. California Acad. Sci., pp. 1-6, Mar. 19. (Vol. 7 of Proceedings never published. ) NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 25 *ISI. *152. 153. *154. 155. *156. 157. 158. *150. *160. *T61. *162. 163. 164. 165. *166. 167. *168. Note on: “Die Gasteropoden Fauna Baikalsees.” [A review of paper by W. Dybowski.] Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 19, pp. 43-47. (April. ) Hyalina subrupicola, ns. In A. S. Packard, On a new cave Fauna in Utah. Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 163-164, Apr. 5. [On the tides of the Polar Sea.] Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 2, p. 89, May. Report on the Brachiopoda of Alaska and the adjacent shores of north- west America. Sci. Results Expl. Alaska, vol. 1, art. 3, pp. 45-62, June. On the distribution and nomenclature of the native tribes of Alaska and the adjacent territory. Jn Tribes of the extreme Northwest. Contr. to North Amer. Ethnol., vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 7-40, map, July. On succession in the shell-heaps of the Aleutian Islands. Jn Tribes of the extreme Northwest. Contr. to North Amer. Ethnol., vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 41-91, July. On the origin of the Innuit. Jn Tribes of the extreme Northwest. Contr. to North Amer. Ethnol., vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 93-106, July. Terms of relationship used by the Innuit. Jn Tribes of the Northwest. Contr. to North Amer. Ethnol., vol. 1, pt. 1, Appendix, pp. 117-119, July. Index to the names which have been applied to the subdivisions of the class of Brachiopoda excluding the rudistes previous to the year 1877. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 8, pp. 7-88, July. Report on the Brachiopoda of Alaska and the adjacent shores of north- west America. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1877, pp. 155-168 (June 26) ; pp. 169-170 (July 10). (Same as No. 154.) [Obituary of Dr. Philip Pearsall Carpenter.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 11, No. 8, pp. 504-505, August. [Obituary of Col. Ezekiel Jewett.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 11, No. 8, p. 505, August. Review of Scientific results of the U. S. Arctic expedition, steamer Polaris, C. F. Hall commanding. Vol. 1. Physical observations, by Emil Bessels. The Nation, vol. 25, No. 636, pp. 156-157, Sept. 6. The late Mr. Sumner and the purchase of Alaska. The Nation, vol. 25, No. 646, p. 298, Nov. 15. Mr. Sumner and Alaska. The Nation, vol. 25, No. 649, p. 349, Dec. 6. Nomenclature in zoology and botany. (A report to the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science at Nashville meeting, Aug. 31, 1877.) Pp. 7-56, Dec. 18. Salem, Mass. (Separate of No. 168.) 1878 Report on Mount St. Elias, Fairweather and some of the adjacent moun- tains. Rep. U. S. Coast Surv., 1875, App. 10, pp. 157-188, pls. 22-23. (Same as No. 134.) Report of the committee on zoological nomenclature to Section B of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Nash- ville meeting, Aug. 31, 1877. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 26, pp. 7-56. 26 160. 170. +170. 72 Pi/sy *174. 175. *~170: *186. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Neuere Forschungen auf den Aléuten. Deutsche Geogr. Blatt., vol. 2, No. I, pp. 34-43, map; No. 2, pp. 84-101. Social life among our aborigines. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 12, No. 1, pp. I-10, January. Note sur la machoire et la plaque linguale du Liriola peltoides, Carpenter, var. vernalis. Journ. de Conch., vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 68-73, Mar. 12. Descriptions of new forms of mollusks from Alaska contained in the collections of the National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 1-37 (Mar-27>) Postpliocene fossils in the Coast Range of California. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, p. 3. (Mar. 27.) Fossil Mollusca from the later Tertiaries of California. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 10-16. (Mar. 27.) Review of The Dutch in the Arctic Seas, by S. R. von Campen. The Nation, vol. 26, No. 665, pp. 216-217, Mar. 28. The results of recent investigations into the natural history of the Chitonidae. Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 2, pp. 193-195, Apr. 27. . Preliminary note on mollusks of the “Blake” expedition. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 55-64, July. [Remarks in E. D. Cope, The report of the committee of the American Association of 1876 on biological nomenclature.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 12, No. 8, pp. 518-524, August. . Note on shells from Costa Rica kitchenmidden, collected by Drs. Flint and Bransford. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 23-24. (Sept. 12.) . Distribution of California Tertiary fossils. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 26-30. (Sept. 12.) . Descriptions of new species of shells from California in the collections of the National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 46-47. (Sept. 12.) 1879 . Catalogue of illustrations of the economical invertebrates of the Ameri- can coasts. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 14, pp. 249-271. . Meteorology. Pacific Coast Pilot. Coast and Islands of Alaska. 2d ser., App. I, pp. 5-162, pls. 1-12, charts 1-28. [Co-author with Marcus Baker of] Partial list of charts, maps, and publications relating to Alaska and the adjacent region, from Puget Sound and Hakodadi to the Arctic Ocean, between the Rocky and the Stanovoi Mountains. Pacific Coast Pilot of Alaska, App. I, pp. 165-223. [Co-author with Marcus Baker of] Partial list of books, pamphlets, papers in serial journals, and other publications on Alaska and adja- cent regions. Pacific Coast Pilot of Alaska, App. I, pp. 226-375. Mollusks. List of shells obtained by Mr. Ludwig Kumlien, naturalist to the Howgate expedition, 1877-78, at points in Cumberland Sound, Arctic regions, west from Baffin’s Bay. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 15, Pp. 145-146. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 27 *187. *108. * 190. 200, Sars’ Molluscan fauna of Arctic Norway. [Review of “Bidrag til kunds- kaben om Norges arktiske Fauna, I, Mollusca Regionis Arcticae Norvegiae,” by G. O. Sars.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 30- 32, January. Report on the limpets and chitons of the Alaskan and Arctic regions, with descriptions of genera and species believed to be new. Sci. Results Expl. Alaska, art. 4, pp. 63-126, February. . Report on the limpets and chitons of the Alaskan and Arctic regions, with descriptions of genera and species believed to be new. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 281-344, pls. 1-5. (Feb. 15-19.) (Same as No. 188.) . Testimony against Chinese. Christian Register, Boston, March 1. . On the use of the generic name Gouldia in zoology. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1879, pt. I, pp. 131-132, June I. . Review of Northward Ho! by Capt. A. H. Markham; and Die ameri- kanische Nordpol-expedition, von Emil Bessels. The Nation, vol. 20, No. 748, pp. 296-297, Oct. 30. . Note sur l’Ancylus Gussoni Costa. Journ. de Conch., vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 285-289, pl. 13, figs. 1-2, Dec. 20. . Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskidld. [Biography.] The Nation, vol. 20, No. 756, pp. 441-442, Dec. 25. 1880 . The results of recent investigations into the natural history of the Chitonidae. Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 2, pp. 193-195. . Some recent observations on molluscs. Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 3, pp. 75-76. [Reports on the results of dredging, under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico, 1877-78, by the United States Coast Survey steamer “Blake,” Lieut.-Commander C. D. Sigsbee, U.S.N., commanding.] V. General conclusions from a preliminary examina- tion of the Mollusca. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 85-93, February. [Obituary of James W. Milner.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 227-228, March. American work in the department of recent Mollusca during the year 1879. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 426-436, June. 1881 [Remarks made before the Jeannette Relief Board, with regard to an expedition to the Arctic regions.] Exec. Doc. I, pt. 3, 47th Congr., Ist Sess., Report of the Secretary of the Navy, pp. 791-800. . United States Survey operations in neighbourhood of Behring Strait. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., London, n.s., vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 47-49, January. . Alaska Forschungen im Sommer 1880. Petermann’s Mitth. Justus Perthes’ Geogr. Anst., vol. 27, pt. 2, pp. 46-47, February. . Notes on Alaska and the vicinity of Bering Strait. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 3, vol. 21, No. 122, pp. 104-111, map (pl. 5), February. 28 204. 205. 200. 207. *208. *200. 210. 2II. 212. 213: 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 210. 220. 221. *222, 223. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104. From a letter dated: “At Sea on board the United States Ship Yukon, November 4, 1880.” Daily News, Calcutta, Feb. 2. The Kuro Siwo at Behring Strait. The New York Herald, Feb. 18, p. 8. Review of Report of the cruise of the United States Revenue steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, by Capt. C. L. Hooper. The Nation, vol. 32, No. 826, pp. 304-305, Apr. 28. [Review of memorial volume issued by the Boston Society of Natural History to commemorate its semicentennial.] The Nation, vol. 32, No. 828, p. 334, May 12. [Reports on the results of dredging, under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico, and in the Caribbean Sea, 1877-70, by the United States Coast Survey Steamer “Blake,” ...] Prelimi- nary report on the Mollusca. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 9, No. 2, Pp. 33-144, July-December. American work in the department of recent Mollusca during the year 1880. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 15, No. 9, pp. 704-718, September. The Chukches and their neighbors in the north-eastern extremity of Siberia. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. London, n.s., vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 568- 570, September. Hydrologie des Bering-Meeres und der benachbarten Gewasser. Peter- mann’s Mitth. Justus Perthes’ Geogr. Anst., vol. 27, pt. 10, pp. 36I- 380, pl. 17 (map), October; pt. 12, pp. 443-448, December. [Review of the final reports of the Norwegian North Atlantic expedi- tion.] The Evening Post, New York, Oct. 6, p. 1. [Review of the final reports of the Norwegian North Atlantic expedi- tion.] The Nation, vol. 33, No. 849, p. 276, Oct. 6. (Same as No. 212.) Review of Sir John Franklin, by A. H. Beesly. The Evening Post, New York, Oct. 10, p. I. Review of Sir John Franklin, by A. H. Beesly. ‘New Plutarch Series.” The Nation, vol. 33, No. 850, p. 300, Oct. 13. (Same as No. 214.) Bering Strait currents. [Mr. Dall objects to premature criticism—his position misunderstood.] Daily Alta California, San Francisco, Oct rsp: On the so-called Chukchi and Namollo people of eastern Siberia. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 15, No. 11, pp. 857-868, November. Review of The giant of the North; or, pokings round the Pole, by R. M. Ballantyne. The Evening Post, New York, Nov. 17, p. 1. Review of The giant of the North; or, pokings round the Pole, by R. M. Ballantyne. The Nation, vol. 33, No. 855, p. 400, Nov. 17. (Same as No. 218.) Schwatka’s search. [Review of Schwatka’s search, etc, by W. H. Gilder.] The Evening Post, New York, Nov. 19, p. I. Review of Schwatka’s search, by W. H. Gilder. The Nation, vol. 33, No. 856, p. 420, Nov. 24. (Same as No. 220.) Intelligence in a snail. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 976-978, December. [Review of latest report of Norwegian North Atlantic expedition on Gephyrea by Koren and Danielssen.] The Nation, vol. 33, No. 857, p. 435, Dec. 1. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 29 224. 225. 226. *227, 228. 220. *230. 231. 232. 233. 234. 235. 230. 247. 238. 230. *240. *2AT. 242. 243. *244, Review of Pictures of Arctic travel, by Dr. Hayes. (Reprint.) The Evening Post, New York, Dec. 5, p. I. Review of Pictures of Arctic travel, by Dr. Hayes, The Nation, vol. 33, No. 858, p. 453, Dec. 8. (Same as No. 224.) Comments on the voyage [of the Jeannette]. The New York Herald, Dec. 22, p. 3. 1882 Biographical sketch [of Charles Darwin]. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. I, pp. 56-59. Uber das Klima von Alaska. Zeitschr. Oesterr. Ges. Meteor., vol. 17, PP. 443-444. Discussion of Capt. Eduard Dallmann’s claim to be the first to land on Wrangell Island. The Nation, vol. 34, No. 865, pp. 78-79, Jan. 26. On the genera of chitons. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 4, pp. 279-201. (Pp. 279-288 published Feb. 1; pp. 289-291 published Mar. 13.) New light in Siberia. [Review of Through Siberia, by Henry Lansdell.] The Evening Post, New York, Mar. 16, p. 1. New light in Siberia. [Review of Through Siberia, by Henry Lansdell.] The Nation, vol. 34, No. 872, pp. 230-231, Mar. 16. (Same as No. 231.) The currents and temperatures of Bering Sea and the adjacent waters. Rep. U. S. Coast and Geod. Surv. 1880, App. No. 16, 46 pp., maps and section, Mar. 23. The voyage of the Vega. [Review of The Voyage of the Vega, by A. E. Nordenskidld.] The Evening Post, New York, Mar. 23, p. 1. Review of The voyage of the Vega, by A. E. Nordenskidld. The Nation, vol. 34, No. 873, pp. 254-255. Mar. 23. (Same as No. 234.) Deep-sea exploration. [A lecture delivered in the National Museum, Apr. 22, 1882.] 22 pp. Judd & Detweiler, Washington, D. C. On certain limpets and chitons from the deep waters off the eastern coast of the United States. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 4, pp. 400- 414. (P. 400 published Apr. 25; pp. 401-414 published May 5.) Review of Arctic sunbeams; or, from Broadway to the Bosphorus by way of the North Cape, by S. S. Cox. The Evening Post, New York, May 4, p. I. Review of Arctic sunbeams; or, from Broadway to the Bosphorus by way of the North Cape, by S. S. Cox. The Nation, vol. 34, No. 879, p. 388, May 4. (Same as No. 238.) On certain limpets and chitons from the deep waters off the eastern coast of the United States. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 10, No. 55, pp. 11-26, July. (Same as No. 237.) Note on Alaska Tertiary deposits. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 3, vol. 24 (vol. 124), No. 130, pp. 67-68, July. The voyage of the Vega. [Review of The voyage of the Vega, by A. E. Nordenskiéld.] The Nation, vol. 35, No. 892, pp. 95-96, Aug. 3. Address by William H. Dall, vice president, Section F, before the section of biology, American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting, Aug. 23, 1882. 16 pp. Salem Press. Note on Gadinia excentrica Tiberi. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 16, No. 9, p. 737, September. 30 *245. 246. *247, 248. 249. 250. 251. m252 253. 254. 255. 256. mn 7e *258, 259. 260. *261. *262, *263. 264. 265. *266. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Species in Buccinum. (from a letter to the editor.) Nachrichtsbl. Deutsch. Malakozool. Ges., vol. 14, Nos. 8 and 9, pp. 118-121, September. Zum Kapitel der “Natural-Selection.” [Translated extract from address in Montreal, 1882.] Nachrichtsbl. Deutsch. Malakozool. Ges., vol. 14, No. 10, pp. 145-149, October. New data on the Gulf Stream. The Nation, vol. 35, No. 901, pp. 282- 283 Octans: Review of The narrative of the Jeannette, by Lieut. J. W. Danenhower. (Rev. ed.). The Nation, vol. 35, No. 903, pp. 333-334, Oct. 109. Review of Zodlogical sketches, by Felix L. Oswald. The Nation, vol. 35, No. 905, p. 387, Nov. 2. Review of Our lost explorers: the narrative of the Jeannette Arctic expedition, etc. The Nation, vol. 35, No. 906, p. 402, Nov. 9. Review of Reports of the Norwegian North Atlantic expedition, 1876-78, Nos. 4 and 5. The Nation, vol. 35, No. 906, pp. 402-403, Nov. 9. American work on recent Mollusca in 1881. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 874-887, November; No. 12, pp. 953-968, December. Review of Winners in life’s race, by Arabella Buckley. The Nation, vol. 35, No. 911, pp. 513-514, Dec. 14. Review of Facts and phases of animal life, by Vernon S. Morwood. The Nation, vol. 35, No. 911, p. 513, Dec. 14. 1883 Alaska. Amer. Cyclop., vol. 1, pp. 239-243. Appleton. [Compiler of] Pacific Coast Pilot. Alaska, Part 1. Pp. ix + 333, 16 charts, 13 pls. U.S. Coast and Geod. Surv. Der Golfstrom nach den neuesten amerikanischen Forschungen. Peter- manns Mitth., vol. 29, pt. 1, pp. 19-21, January. Biology of American mollusks. Address by Dr. Dall (vice president, Section F, Biology, American Association for the Advancement of Science). Naturalists’ Leisure Hour and Month. Bull., vol. 6, Nos. 72 and 73, pp. 2-5, February. (Same as No. 243.) Explorations in Alaska. [Review of the efforts of the Drs. Arthur and Aurel Krause, Deutsche Geogr. Blatt., vol. 4, 1882.] Science, vol. 1, No. I, p. 19, Feb. 9. Arctic whalefishery in 1882. Science, vol. 1, No. 1, p. 19, Feb. 9. History and distribution of the fresh-water mussels. [Review of paper by R. E. C. Stearns.] Science, vol. 1, No. 1, p. 22, Feb. 9. Studies of the Italian cretaceous fossils. [Review of memoir by G. Seguenza.] Science, vol. 1, No. 1, p. 22, Feb. 9. ~Tryon’s Conchology. [Review of Structural and systematic conchology : an introduction to the study of the Mollusca, by George W. Tryon, Jr. Vol. 1.] Science, vol. 1, No. 2, p. 40, Feb. 16. Sea-otter hunting. Science, vol. 1, No. 2, p. 47, Feb. 16. British co-operation in arctic meteorological and magnetic research. Science, vol. 1, No. 2, p. 48, Feb. 16. A remarkable molluscan type. Science, vol. 1, No. 2, p. 51, Feb. 16. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 31 267. 268. *281. * 282. 283. *284. *285. *286. 287. *288, 280. First use of wire in deep-sea sounding. Science, vol. 1, No. 3, p. 65, Feb. 23. Nelson’s explorations in the Yukon delta. Science, vol. 1, No. 3, p. 78, Feb. 23. . Trade in Californian invertebrates. Science, vol. 1, No. 3, p. 81, Feb. 23. [Review of No. 8 of the Zoology of the Norwegian North Atlantic expedition, containing Friele’s report on the Buccinidae.] The Nation, vol. 36, No. 922, p. 192, Mar. 1. . Mollusks of the family Cocculinidae. Science, vol. 1, No. 5, p. 130, Mar. 9. . The present condition of exploration [in part—Arctic regions and Alaska]. Science, vol. 1, No. 5, pp. 131-132, Mar. 9. [With regard to the continuation of Troschel’s Das Gebiss der Schnecken.] Science, vol. 1, No. 5, p. 156, Mar. 9. . Review of Ice-pack and tundra, by W. H. Gilder. The Nation, vol. 36, No. 924, pp. 240-241, Mar. 15. . Review of The story of a shell, by Rev. J. R. Macduff. The Nation, vol. 36, No. 924, p. 241, Mar. 15. [With regard to the coming expedition to the Arctic region by Professor Nordenskiold.] Science, vol. 1, No. 6, p. 159, Mar. 16. . American Paleozoic fossils. [Review of The American paleozoic fos- sils: a catalogue of the genera and species (etc.), by S. A. Miller.] Science, vol. 1, No. 6, p. 173, Mar. 16. . Use of wire in sounding. Science, vol. 1, No. 7, p. 191, Mar. 23. . Operculate corals. [Review of G. Lindstrém’s memoir in Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl., vol. 7, No. 4, 1882.] Science, vol. 1, No. 7, p. 202, Mar. 23. . European land-shells. [Review of first supplement to the 2d ed. of Kobelt’s catalogue of the European land and fresh-water mollusk- fauna, and of an article by H. Tschapeck on the varieties of Clausilia dubia found in Steiermark, published in Nachrichtsbl. Deutsch. Malakozool. Ges., 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 7, p. 202, Mar. 23. Shells from the Colorado region. Science, vol. 1, No. 7, p. 202, Mar. 23. Variations of Pompholyx. Science, vol. 1, No. 7, p. 202, Mar. 23. [A note with regard to parties being recalled from Point Barrow and Lady Franklin Bay for lack of appropriations.] Science, vol. 1, No. 7, p. 208, Mar. 23. Report of the Connecticut Shell-fish Commission, 1883. [Review of Second report of the shell-fish commissioners of the State of Connecti- cut to the General Assembly, January session, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 8, pp. 223-224, Mar. 30. Soft parts of ammonites. [Discussion of a paper on Ammonites and Aptychus read by F. P. Marrat at the November meeting of the Liver- pool Geological Association.] Science, vol. 1, No. 8, p. 230, Mar. 30. Circe versus Gouldia. Journ. Conch. vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 60-63, April. Notes from the North. Science, vol. 1, No. 9, p. 258, Apr. 6. Report on the mollusks of the North Atlantic. [Review of report by H. Friele.] Science, vol. 1, No. 9, p. 259, Apr. 6. A growl about various matters [garbage removal, lack of police, etc.]. The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., Apr. 14, p. 5. 310. Shot SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 . Disease in oysters. [Review of article in Hopson’s Sea World, Mar. 15, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 11, p. 316, Apr. 20. . Venus mercenaria in Britain. Science, vol. 1, No. 11, p. 316, Apr. 20. . Norwegian Arctic fishery in 1882. [Statistics from Deutsche Geogr. Blatt., vol. 6, No. 1, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 12, p. 343, Apr. 27. . Commerce of the White Sea. [Statistics from Deutsche Geogr. Blatt., vol. 6, No. 1, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 12, p. 343, Apr. 27. . Year book of the German Malacological Society. [Review of Jahrbuch der Deutschen Malakozoologischen Gesellschaft, 1882, edited by Dr. W. Kobelt.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 521-523, May. . Northern notes. Science, vol. 1, No. 13, p. 368, May 4. . Siberian notes. Science, vol. 1, No. 13, p. 368, May 4. . Large American pearls. [Extracted from Mex. Financero, January 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 13, p. 371, May 4. . Ottowa Unionidae. [Review of Notes on Ottawa Unionidae, by F. R. Latchford, in Trans. Ottawa Field Nat. Club, No. 3.]. Science, vol. 1, No. 13, p. 371, May 4. . Fossils of the Rizzolo clays. [Review of paper by G. Seguenza.] Science, vol. 1, No. 13, p. 371, May 4. . Aboriginal population of northern America. Science, vol. 1, No. 14, p. 404, May 11. . White’s fossil mollusks of North America. [Review of book entitled “A review of the non-marine fossil Mollusca of North America,” by C. A. White, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 15, p. 425, May 18. . Geographical notes from the North. Science, vol. 1, No. 15, pp. 430- 431, May 18. . The position of Rhodope. [Note on an article by R. Bergh, in Zool. Anz., No. 123.] Science, vol. 1, No. 15, p. 433, May 18. . Fischer’s Manuel de Conchyliologie. [A review of the fifth part.] Science, vol. 1, No. 15, p. 433, May 18. . Anatomy of Parmacella. [A review of paper by H. Simroth, in Jahrb. Deutsch. Malakozool. Ges., vol. 1, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 15, p. 433, May 18. . Curious slug from Madagascar. [Review of paper by Heynemann, in Jahrb. Deutsch. Malakozool. Ges., vol. 1, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 15, p. 433, May 18. . Italian Limaces. [Review of a monograph by Lessona and Pollonera in Mem. Acad. Sci. Torino, vol. 2, No. 35.] Science, vol. 1, No. 16, pp. 466-467, May 25. . Molluscan fauna of Sardinia. [Review of a paper by Paulucci in Bull. Soc. Mal. Ital., 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 16, p. 467, May 25. .. East Indian Pulmonata. [Review of papers on eastern Asiatic Pulmonata by Godwin-Austen and MoOllendorff in Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, March 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 16, p. 467, May 25. Note on cluster flies. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 5, pp. 635-637. (May 20. ) Pearls and pearl fisheries. [A lecture delivered at the National Museum, Mar. 3, 1883.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 579-587, June; No. 7, pp. 731-745, July. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 33 312. 313. *314. *375, *316. B07: 318. * 210. * 320. #391. 322. 323.- 324. 325. 320. 327. 328. 320. * 330. 331. *332. 333.- 334. Norwegian North Atlantic expedition. [A review.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 628-629, June. Too much red tape. Science, vol. 1, No. 17, p. 473, June 1. Snails used for food in Spain. [Extract from a paper by Kohbelt.] Science, vol. 1, No. 17, p. 492, June I. Extraordinary Eulima. Science, vol. 1, No. 17, p. 492, June 1. Arctic mollusks. [Review of a paper by Miss Bergithe Esmark in the year book of Troms6 Museum.] Science, vol. 1, No. 17, p. 492, June 1. North German Miocene. [Review of paper by Koenen in Neues Jahrb. Min., vol. 2, p. 223.] Science, vol. 1, No. 17, p. 492, June 1. [Note about a relief party being sent to Lady Franklin Bay for the observers under Lieut. Greely.] Science, vol. 1, No. 17, p. 497, June 1. Variations in Unionidae. [Review of a paper by W. C. Hey in Quart. Journ. Conch., 1882.] Science, vol. 1, No. 18, p. 523, June 8. Action of the heart during hibernation. [Review of a paper by C. Ash- ford in Quart. Journ. Conch., 1882.] Science, vol. 1, No. 18, p. 524, June 8. Malacological notes. Science, vol. 1, No. 18, p. 524, June 8. Chuckchis and Chuckchi-land. [Review of a paper in Deutsche Geogr. Blatt., vol. 6, No. 2.] Science, vol. 1, No. 18, p. 526, June 8. [Announces the issuance of several reports by the Signal Service, under Gen. Hazen, of various northern expeditions.] Science, vol. 1, No. 18, pp. 527-528, June 8. More about the “stickfish.” Forest and Stream, vol. 20, No. 20, p. 384, June 14. Arctic notes. Science, vol. 1, No. 19, pp. 551-552, June 15. Bove on the Fuegians. [Review of account by Bove.] Science, vol. 1, No. 19, p. 555, June I5. [Announcement of the explorations of the Chilkat, Lewis, and Yukon Rivers by Lieut. Schwatka and others.] Science, vol. 1, No. 19, p. 557, June 15. Causes of the fertility of land in the Canadian north-west territories. [Review of an address by Robert Bell before the Royal Society Canada meeting, May 23, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 20, p. 581, June 22. Arctic notes. Science, vol. 1, No. 20, p. 582, June 22. Land-snails from Bering Strait and Alaska. [Review of a paper by Aurel Krause and Reinhardt in Nachrichtsbl. Deutsch. Malakozool. Ges., April 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 20, pp. 583-584, June 22. A man-eating mollusk. [Review of a note by Maftens in Nachrichtsbl. Deutsch. Malakozool. Ges., April 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 20, p. 584, June 22. Monograph of Onchidium. [Review of a monograph by Semper in Semper’s Reisen., heft 4.] Science, vol. 1, No. 20, p .584, June 22. [Instructions of the Greely-relief party.] Science, vol. 1, No. 20, p. 587, June 22. Northern voyages in the fourteenth century. [Review of Baron Nor- denskidld’s Studier och forskningar.] Science, vol. 1, No. 21, p. 610, June 29. 34 335. 3306. “337: 338. 339- 340. ¥34T, 342. 343. 344. *345. 346. 347. 348. *340. *350. Sane 352. 353. 354. 355. 356, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Nordenskiold’s programme. [Review of article in Nature, May 10, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 21, p. 611, June 20. The coloring matters of the bile of invertebrates. [Review of C. A. MacMunn’s paper in Nature, May 10, 1883.] Science, vol. 1, No. 21, p. 612, June 20. The snail nuisance. The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., June 30, p. 2. First use of wire in sounding. Science, vol. 2, No. 22, pp. 12-13, July 6. Northern notes, Atlantic region. Science, vol. 2, No. 22, pp. 20-21, July 6. Northern notes, Pacific region. Science, vol. 2, No. 22, p. 21, July 6. Abyssal mollusks. [Review of papers by Jeffreys and Boog-Watson.] Science, vol. 2, No. 22, p. 22, July 6. The Dickson expedition to Greenland in charge of Professor Nor- denskidld. Science, vol. 2, No. 22, p. 28, July 6. Excursion to northern Norway and Spitzbergen by students at the Paris Ecole des Mines. Science, vol. 2, No. 22, p. 29, July 6. [ Prof. Fries’ proposal to colonize Greenland by Lapps.] Science, vol. 2, No. 22, p. 20, July 6. [Zoology. Mollusks.] Notes. [Notes on recent publications, and a notice of the death of J. B. Gassiés.] Science, vol. 2, No. 23, p. 54, July 13. [Review of the report of the Signal-office for 1881.] Science, vol. 2, No. 23, pp. 61-62, July 13. [Geography. (Asia.)] Notes. [Notes on expeditions, etc.] Science, vol. 2, No. 24, pp. 86-87, July 20. Currents of the Pacific Ocean. [Review of a paper by Antisell in Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 2, 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 25, pp. 111-112, July 27. Mediterranean Mollusca. [Review of papers by J. Gwyn Jeffreys and David Robertson in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., May.] Science, vol. 2, No. 25, p. 113, July 27. Structure of the shell in brachiopods and chitons. [Review of a paper by Van Bemmelen in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., May.] Science, vol. 2, No: 25, D: 113, Julyw27: Economic mollusks at the Fisheries exhibition. [Note on the publication of the catalogue of economic mollusks exhibited by the U. S. Fish Commission at London, prepared by Lieut. Winslow.] Science, vol. 2, No. 25, p. 113, July 27. [An announcement of the meetings of the sixth, seventh, and eighth congresses of the French geographical societies.] Science, vol. 2, No. 25, p. 117, July 27. [Announcement of the exhibition of matters relating to geography, by -the Société Académique of Brest, June 3-17.] Science, vol. 2, No. 25, p. 117, July 27. [The awarding of medals for researches in various fields by the Imperial Geographical Society of St. Petersburg.] Science, vol. 2, No. 25, p. 118, July 27. Danish expedition in Greenland in 1883. [Note of program of Dr. Rink, from Naturen, May, 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 26, p. 142, Aug. 3. The death of Crevaux. Science, vol. 2, No. 26, p. 142, Aug. 3. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 35 357- 358. 359. 360. 361. 362. 363. *364. *365. 360. *367. 368. 360. 370. S71: 372. +373. *374. *375. 376. Crevaux’s voyages in Guiana. [Abstract of Henri Froidevaux’s sum- mary of previous investigations of the rivers of Guiana, from Rev. Geogr., May 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 26, p. 142, Aug. 3. [Geography. (South America.)] Notes. [Notes on explorations from Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, vol. 26, No. 5.] Science, vol. 2, No. 26, De 142) Aug: 3: [Note on proposed zoological investigation of the Gulf of Finland, by Dr. M. Braun.] Science, vol. 2, No. 26, p. 147, Aug. 3. [Announcement of the death of E. Mohler and of Hermann Alexander von Berlepsch.] Science, vol. 2, No. 26, p. 148, Aug. 3. Explorations in Cambodia. [Abstract of Dr. Néis’ paper in Compt. Rend. Soc. Géogr., No. 11.] Science, vol. 2, No. 27, p. 177, Aug. 10. News from Bering Sea. Science, vol. 2, No. 28, p. 206, Aug. 17. Revoil’s journey to Somali-land. [Abstract of article from Compt. Rend. Soc. Géogr., No. 11.] Science, vol. 2, No. 28, p. 206, Aug. 17. Existence of a shell in Notarchus. [Review of an article by Vayssiére in Journ. de Conch., vol. 22, No. 4.] Science, vol. 2, No. 28, p. 206, Aug. 17. New abyssal mollusks. [Review of a paper by Fischer in Journ. de Conch., vol. 22, No. 4.] Science, vol. 2, No. 28, pp. 206-207, Aug. 17. [A note from the Tuscarora Mining News about half-breed lambs.] Science, vol. 2, No. 28, p. 210, Aug. 17. [Notice of the appearance of Kobelt’s Iconographie der schalentragenden europaischen Meeres Conchylien.] Science, vol. 2, No. 30, p. 208, Aug. 31. [Notice that the Washington of the Italian Navy is engaged in its annual cruise for the study of the western Mediterranean.] Science, vol. 2, No. 30, p. 298, Aug. 31. [Notice of the death of one of the Akkas (African pygmies) in Italy.] Science, vol. 2, No. 30, p. 298, Aug. 31. [Letters and journals of La Pérouse, edited by George Mantoux, form a volume in Bibliotheque d’aventures et de voyages.] Science, vol. 2, No. 31, p. 341, Sept, 7. [Notice of the finding of the bodies of Prof. Palmer, Capt. Gill, and Lieut. Carrington, assassinated by the Bedouin.] Science, vol. 2, No. 31, p. 341, Sept. 7. French missionary-work in eastern Africa. [From Compt. Rend. Soc. Géogr., No. 11.] Science, vol. 2, No. 32, p. 381, Sept. 14. Pleurotomidae of Senegambia. [Review of a paper by Maltzan in Jahrb. Malakozool. Ges., vol. 7, No. 2.] Science, vol. 2, No. 32, p. 381, Sept. 14. Mollusca of the Caucasus. [Review of Bottger’s paper in Jahrb. Malakozool. Ges., vol. 7, No. 2.] Science, vol. 2, No. 32, pp. 381-382, Sept. 14. Monograph of Ringicula. [Review of L. Morlet’s paper in Journ. de Conch., vol. 22, No. 3.] Science, vol. 2, No. 32, p. 382, Sept. 14. [News from the French meteorological station at Orange Harbor, Pata- gonia.] Science, vol. 2, No. 32, p. 384, Sept. 14. 36 377- 378. 379. 380. 381. 382. 293: *384. *385. 386. 387. 388. 380. 390. 3901. 302. 393- 304. 395. 390. 397. 398. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 [The Rev. Father Emile Fortuné Stanislas Joseph Petitot, recipient of a medal from the Royal Geographic Society.] Science, vol. 2, No. 32, p. 385, Sept. 14. [Reduction in time of a journey from Paris to Algiers.] Science, vol. 2, No. 32, p. 386, Sept. 14. North-west America. Science, vol. 2, No. 33, p. 409, Sept. 21. Bove’s new expedition. [Review of an article by Bove on a proposed expedition to Patagonia in Rev. Géogr., June 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 33, p. 400, Sept. 21. [News of the Greely relief expedition.] Science, vol. 2, No. 33, pp. 412- 413, Sept. 21. Review of De Paris au Japon a travers la Sibérie, by Edmond Cotteau. Science, vol. 2, No. 33, p. 414, Sept. 21. The Chesapeake oyster-beds. [Review of Report on the oyster-beds of the James River, Virginia (etc.), by Francis Winslow, U.S.N., 1882.] Science, vol. 2, No. 34, pp. 440-443, figs. 1-3, Sept. 28. Astarte triquetra Conrad. Science, vol. 2, No. 34, p. 447, Sept. 28. Anatomy of Urocyclus. [Review of a paper by Paul Fischer in Journ. de Conch., vol. 22, No. 4.] Science, vol. 2, No. 34, p. 447, Sept. 28. [A brief review of Mémoires de dépot de la guerre, vol. 38, printed by the Russian general staff under the editorship of Rylke.] Science, vol. 2, No. 34, p. 453, Sept. 28. [Information about the French deep-sea explorations on the Talisman contained in a letter from M. Alph. Milne-Edwards, at Teneriffe.] Science, vol. 2, No. 35, pp. 484-485, Oct. 5. [The search for Crevaux by Thouar.] Science, vol. 2, No. 35, p. 485, Oct. 5. [The drought in Namaqua-land, South Africa.] Science, vol. 2, No. 35, p. 486, Oct. 5. [The length of navigable rivers in European Russia as given by Tillo.] Science, vol. 2, No. 35, p. 486, Oct. 5. The De Long records. [Review of The voyage of the Jeannette. The ship and ice journals of George W. De Long, Lieut.-Commander U.S.N., and commander of the polar expedition of 1879-91. Edited by his wife, Emma (Jane Wotton) De Long.] Science, vol. 2, No. 37, pp. 540-544 (illustrated), Oct. 10. Railways in the Caspian region. [Abstract of a paper in Compt. Rend. Soc. Géogr., June.] Science, vol. 2, No. 37, p. 547, Oct. 19. Prjevalski’s travels. [Review of Prjevalski’s travels, from Compt. Rend. Soc. Géogr., June.] Science, vol. 2, No. 37, p. 547, Oct. 19. {Geography. (Africa.)] Notes. Science, vol. 2, No. 37, pp. 547-548, Oct. 19. Polar stations. Science, vol. 2, No. 38, pp. 576-577, Oct. 26. The whaling-season. Science, vol. 2, No. 38, p. 577, Oct. 26. Arctic notes. Science, vol. 2, No. 38, p. 577, Oct. 26. [The death of the director of the Imperial Japanese Government labora- tory at Yokohoma, Dr. A. J. C. Geerts.] Science, vol. 2, No. 38, p. 582, Oct. 26. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 37 399. Review of The voyage of the Jeannette. The ship and ice journals of Geo. W. De Long, etc., edited by Emma De Long; and Loss of the Steamer Jeannette. Record of the proceedings of a Court of Inquiry, etc. The Nation, vol. 37, No. 957, pp. 378-379, Nov. 1. 400. [Brief notice of a voyage across the North Pacific, in the ship Un- daunted, from Yedo to Victoria, V.I., contributed by T. W. Blakiston to the Japan Gazette, Sept. 8.] Science, vol. 2, No. 39, p. 607, Nov. 2. 401. [Review of a paper read before the Geographical Society of the Pacific in regard to the Mahlemuts of Norton Sound, Alaska.] Science, vol. 2, No. 30, p. 607, Nov. 2. 402. [A brief account of J. G. Swan’s investigation of Queen Charlotte Islands.] Science, vol. 2, No. 39, p. 607, Nov. 2. *403. [Announcement of the third edition of Paetel’s useful catalogue of mollusks.] Science, vol. 2, No. 39, p. 607, Nov. 2. 404. Bureau of commercial science. [Abstract from an article on the new bureau instituted by the Ministry of Commerce of France, in Soc. Géogr. Paris, June.] Science, vol. 2, No. 40, p. 630, Nov. 9. 405. Notes on population. [From Bull. Soc. Géogr. Marseille, June.] Science, vol. 2, No. 40, p. 630, Nov. 9. 406. Fisheries of British Columbia. Science, vol. 2, No. 40, p. 630, Nov. 9. 407. Salmon-fisheries in the north-west. Science, vol. 2, No. 40, p. 630, Nov. 9. 408. [Geography. (South America.)] Notes. Science, vol. 2, No. 40, p. 630, Nov. 9. 409. Review of The scientific results of the voyage of the Corwin to the Arctic seas in 1881, by Mr. E. W. Nelson and others. The Nation, vol. 37, No. 959, p. 416, Nov. 15. *41o. Tryon’s Conchology. [Review of Structural and systematic conchology (etc.), by George W. Tryon, Jr., vol. 2, 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 41, pp. 658-650, Nov. 16. 411. Arctic notes. Science, vol. 2, No. 41, pp. 662-663, Nov. 16. 412. Population of Japan. [Review of note in Bull. Soc. Géogr. Marseille, June.] Science, vol. 2, No. 41, p. 663, Nov. 16. 413. Petroleum in the Caucasus. [Review of a paper in British Cons. Rep., 1882.] Science, vol. 2, No. 41, p. 663, Nov. 16. *414. Landshells of Gibraltar. [Review of Kobelt’s paper in Journ. Conch., vol. 4, No. 1.] Science, vol. 2, No. 41, p. 663, Nov. 16. *415. Absorption of the shell in Auriculidae. [Review of article by Crosse and Fischer in Journ. de Conch., vol. 22, No. 3.] Science, vol. 2, No. 41, pp. 663-664, Nov. 16. *416. [Suggestions made by the Maryland Oyster Commission to increase the yield of oysters.] Science, vol. 2, No. 41, pp. 665-666, Nov. 16. 417. Investigations in Thibet. [Abstract of a note on the proposed explora- tion in Thibet, in Bull. Soc. Géogr. Marseille, June.] Science, vol. 2, No. 42, p. 690, Nov. 23. 418. Sociology of the Kabyles. [Review of an article by M. Sabatier in Rev. Géogr., June 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 42, p. 691, Nov. 23. *419. Organization of chitons. [Review of a paper by Dr. Béla Haller in Mitth. Zool. Inst. Wien, vol. 5, heft 1.] Science, vol. 2, No. 42, pp. 692-693, Nov. 23. 38 *420. 421. 422. 423. 424. 425. 426. *427, 430. *431. 434. 435. *430. *437. *438. 439. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 [A note about a Japanese boy dying as the result of having his right arm seized by an octopus.] Science, vol. 2, No. 42, p. 698, Nov. 23. [Note on Aleutian mummies obtained for the Berlin museum.] Science, vol. 2, No. 42, p. 608, Nov. 23. Population of the Chukchi peninsula. [Abstract of an article by Aurel Krause in Deutsche Geogr. Blatt., vol. 6, No. 3.] Science, vol. 2, No. 43, p. 719, Nov. 30. Hydrography of the Siberian Sea. Science, vol. 2, No. 43, pp. 719-720, Nov. 30. New charts of north-east Siberia. Science, vol. 2, No. 43, p. 720, Nov. 30. Graah’s investigations of 1829-30 in Greenland. [Review of paper in Deutsche Geogr. Blatt.] Science, vol. 2, No. 43, p. 720, Nov. 30. The Portuguese in Africa. [Review of an article by Wauters in Bull. Soc. Belg. Géogr., vol. 2, 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 43, p. 720, Nov. 30. Pulmonata of Central Asia. [Review of a paper by E. von Martens in Mém. Acad. St. Pétersbourg, (7), vol. 30, No. 11.] Science, vol. 2, No. 43, p. 721, Nov. 30. . Mediterranean oysters. [Review of papers by Gregorio.] Science, vol. 2, No. 43, p. 721, Nov. 30. . Mollusks at the Fisheries exhibition. [Review of notes by J. Gwyn Jeffreys in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., August 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 43, p. 721, Nov. 30. [Information about the hydrographical and topographical changes in the Sunda Straits due to the Java earthquake.] Science, vol. 2, No. 43, p. 725, Nov. 30. Notes on the Pacific coast trade in shells, shrimp, cod, and salmon (during the year 1882). Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., vol. 3, No. 27, art. 82, p. 425, Dec. 7. . Abyssal mollusks. [Review of paper by J. Gwyn Jeffreys in Proc. Zool. Soc. London, March 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 44, p. 748, Dec. 7. . Further research on nudibranchs. [Review of Bergh’s paper in Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, March 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 44, p. 748, Deey7: [Information about the plant which the Annamites call “Hoangnan,” belonging to the strychnine family.] Science, vol. 2, No. 44, p. 754, Dec. 7. Review of Cruise of the Snowbird, by Gordon Stables. The Nation, vol. 37, No. 903, p. 493, Dec. 13. Extramarine Mollusca of New Guinea. [Review of work by Tapparone- Canefri.] Science, vol. 2, No. 45, p. 773, Dec. 14. _Structure of the oyster-shell. [Review of Osborne’s paper in Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., vol. 2, No. 4.] Science, vol. 2, No. 45, DATS eG TA: Slime-spinning by ‘Arion hortensis. [Review of paper by Roebuck in Journ. Conch., July 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 45, p. 773, Dec. 14. [Review of a paper on the African nut known as Kola, or Guru, by Heckel in Bull. Soc. Géogr. Marseille, June 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 45, p. 780, Dec. 14. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—-BARTSCH ET AL. © 39 *440. * AAT. *442. ‘443. 444. 448. 440. 450. 451. *452. 453. 454. 455. 456. 457. 458. 459. 460. Fossils of Pachino. [Review of a paper by Gregorio.] Science, vol. 2, No. 46, p. 803, Dec. 21. Spicula amoris of British helices. [Review of Charles Ashford’s article in Journ. Conch., July 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 46, p. 803, Dec. 21. Shell-structure of Chonetes. [Review of a note by Thomas Davidson in Geol. Mag., August 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 46, p. 803, Dec. 21. Arctic land. [Review of a paper by F. Schmidt in Isvestia Imp. Géogr. Soc., May.] Science, vol. 2, No. 47, p. 830, Dec. 28. Settlements on the Siberian coast. [Review of a paper by Karzin in Is¥estia Imp. Géogr. Soc., May.] Science, vol. 2, No. 47, p. 830, Dec. 28. . Sierra Leone. [Review of a paper in Bull. Soc. Belg. Géogr., vol. 2, 1883.] Science, vol. 2, No. 47, p. 831, Dec. 28. . Portuguese Guinea. [Review of a memoir by Barros in Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lisboa, No. 12, 1882.] Science, vol. 2, No. 47, p. 831, Dec. 28. [The last expedition of Lessar toward the Oxus.] Science, vol. 2, No. 47 p. 840, Dec. 28. 1884 On masks, labrets and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the bearing of their geographical distribution. Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., pp. 67-200, pls. 5-29. Glaciation in Alaska. Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 6, pp. 33-36. [Editor] Prehistoric America, by the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated by N. D’Anvers. x-+ 566 pp., 219 ills. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London. (Reprinted 1890.) [The city of Villa Rica, in Araucania.] Science, vol. 3, No. 48, p. 2, Jan. 4. On a collection of shells sent from Florida by Mr. Henry Hemphill. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 6, pp. 318-342, pl. 10. (Jan. 4-9.) [A note with regard to two geological expeditions in Russia.] Science, vol. 3, No. 40, p. 55, Jan. 11. [The astronomical data for the position of Ka-uchit Kala, the capital of the Merv oasis.] Science, vol. 3, No. 49, p. 55, Jan. 11. A new volcano island in Alaska. Science, vol. 3, No. 51, pp. 89-93, figs. 1-8, Jan. 25. [Note about a steamer being specially built by the Finnish Government for scientific researches to be undertaken in the Baltic.] Science, WO Sh ING, Gils Sa M en Ae [A note with regard to Schuver’s explorations in the Galla country.] Science, vol. 3, No. 51, p. 111, Jan. 25. [The domestication of the ostrich in South Africa.] Science, vol. 3, No. 51, p. 112, Jan. 25. [Suggestions as to the type of naval officers to be chosen to take part in the Greely relief expedition of 1884.] Science, vol. 3, No. 52, p. 113, Feb. 1. [Note on a discussion of the Suez Canal by M. de Lesseps at the meeting of the Société de Géographie.] Science, vol. 3, No. 52, p. 140, Feb. 1. 40 461. 462. * 463. 464. *465. 466. 467. * 468. 460. * 482, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 [The scientific work of the expedition on the Talisman as written by Prof. Milne-Edwards to the Société de Géographie.] Science, vol. 3, No. 53, p. 168, Feb. 8. The false prophet of the Sudan. Science, vol. 3, No. 54, pp. 199-200, Feb. 15. [Announcement of the appearance of the sixth fascicle of Dr. Fisher’s Manuel de Conchyliologie.] Science, vol. 3, No. 54, p. 212, Feb. 15. [Plans for the Greely relief expedition as approved by the Navy Depart- ment.] Science, vol. 3, No. 55, pp. 213-214, Feb. 22. [ Protection of oyster beds, taken up by the legislatures of Virginia and Maryland.] Science, vol. 3, No. 55, p. 215, Feb. 22. A woman’s journey to the Karakorum Valley. [Review of Madame Ujfalvy’s account of her trip with her husband.] Science, vol. 3, No. 55, pp. 228-220, Feb. 22. [Review of Prof. G. Seguenza’s volume on the Ostracoda of the Quater- nary formation of Rizzolo.] Science, vol. 3, No. 56, p. 268, Feb. 20. [Note on a catalogue of Mollusca and Echinodermata from Labrador, by Katherine J. Bush, in Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.] Science, vol. No. 56, p. 268, Feb. 9. [ Note on navigation on the Angara River between Yeniseisk and Irkutsk by R. J. Runeberg.] Science, vol. 3, No. 56, p. 268, Feb. 20. [A note on a lecture by Fr. Schmidt on the Vega voyage.] Science, vol. 3, No. 56, p. 268, Feb. 20. [Note about the cutting of the Perekop Isthmus which unites the Krimea to the mainland.] Science, vol. 3, No. 56, p. 270, Feb. 29. [Note on the treaty settling the Russo-Persian frontier question. ] Science, vol. 3, No. 56, p. 270, Feb. 20. . Review of Scientific results of the ’ega Expedition, by various authors. The Nation, vol. 38, No. 975, pp. 217-218, Mar. 6. . The Danish Expedition to East Greenland. [Review of Lieut. Holm’s report published in the Dagblad of Copenhagen.] Science, vol. 3, No. 57, pp. 286-287, Mar. 7. [Description of “El Gueliaa” in the interior of Algeria.] Science, vol. 3, No. 57, p. 206, Mar. 7. [A note about the Russian exploration of the ancient bed of the Oxus.] Science, vol. 3, No. 57, p. 296, Mar. 7. [Signor F. P. Moreno’s journey into the interior of Bolivia.] Science, vol. 3, No. 57, p. 206, Mar. 7. [Review of reports of the Krause brothers’ trip to Alaska, 1881-82.] Science, vol. 3, No. 57, p. 207, Mar. 7. . Recent work on brachiopods. [A review.] Science, vol. 3, No. 58, p. 325, Mar. 14. . [Review of Alfred Grandidier’s account of the district of Madagascar occupied by the so-called Hovas.] Science, vol. 3, No. 58, p. 341, Mar. 14. [A notice of a large stone lance-head of Eskimo fashion being found embedded in the tissues of a whale.] Science, vol. 3, No. 58, p. 342, Mar. 14. [Note on Charles Ashford’s investigations of the Spicula amoris in British Helicidae.] Science, vol. 3, No. 58, p. 342, Mar. 14. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 4I 483. 484. 485. *486. 487. * 488. *480. *400. 49l. *492. *403. 404. 495. *406. *497. 408. 499. *500. 501. *502. 503. The Greely search. Science, vol. 3, No. 60, pp. 377-380, Mar. 28. The Crevaux expedition. Science, vol. 3, No. 60, pp. 387-388, Mar. 28. The state of exploration in Africa. Science, vol. 3, No. 61, pp. 413-415, Apr. 4. [A note on the mollusks to be found in a small pond near the Black Hills, Leeds, England.] Science, vol. 3, No. 61, p. 425, Apr. 4. [A note on Lessar’s journey from Bala Ichemi to Kavakli, Turkestan. ] Science, vol. 3, No. 62, p. 468, Apr. II. Notes on fishing products exported from San Francisco, Cal., during the year 1883. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., vol. 4, No. 8, art. 50, pp. 125- 128, Apr. 23. [Review of Bulletin 2 of the Illinois State Museum of Natural History in which Crustacea, Mollusca, and Crinoidea from the carboniferous formation are described by A. H. Worthen.] Science, vol. 3, No. 64, Des250 Apr 25 [A notice of the publication of new species of primordial fossils by R. P. Whitfield.] Science, vol. 3, No. 64, p. 525, Apr. 25. On some Hydrocorallinae from Alaska and California. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 2, pp. 111-115. (Apr. 28.) Tryon’s Conchology. [Review of Structural and systematic conchology (etc.), by George W. Tryon, Jr., vol. 3, 1884.] Science, vol. 3, No. 67, p. 601, May 16. [Review of Second catalogue of Mollusca recently added to the fauna of the New-England coast, etc., by A. E. Verrill.] Science, vol. 3, No. 67, p. 610, May 16. [Notice of the publication of Dr. Nathorst’s report on the geology of Waigatt Strait, near Disco Island, and on the attempt of the Softa to reach Cape York in 1883.] Science, vol. 3, No. 67, p. 611, May 16. [Review of the fourth volume of the Meddelser om Gronland, by various authors.] Science, vol. 3, No. 67, p. 611, May 16. [Review of Mesozoic fossils, by J. F. Whiteaves, in the paleontological series of the Dominion Geol. Surv., vol. 1, art. 3.] Science, vol. 3, No. 67, pp. 611-612, May 16. [Review of paleontological notices in the Naturalista Siciliano, by Marquis de Gregorio.] Science, vol. 3, No. 67, p. 612, May 16. Journey of Lessar to Seraks. Science, vol. 3, No. 68, pp. 628-629, May 23. [Notice of publication of various works on the physical geography of Russia.] Science, vol. 3, No. 68, p. 640, May 23. [Review of A complete list of the scientific papers of Thomas Bland, prepared by Arthur F. Gray.] Science, vol. 3, No. 68, p. 641, May 23. [Notice of some important observations by Capt. Sdrensen communicated to the Société de Géographie of Paris.] Science, vol. 3, No. 68, p. 642, May 23. Invertebrates of the Talisman expedition. [Review of a report by Paul Fischer to the French Academy.] Science, vol. 3, No. 69, pp. 657-658, fig., May 30. Thouar and Crevaux. [Review of report of Thouar.] Science, vol. 3, No. 69, pp. 660-661, May 30. 42 504. 505. *500. 507. 508. 509. 510. SII. * 512, 513. 514. 515. SOTO: Ship *518. 519. 520. icon 522. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 [Notice of the general convention or council of authorities directing geodetic, hydrographic, and other surveys in Russia, held for the pur- pose of agreeing upon a uniform system of conducting such work.] Science, vol. 3, No. 70, p. 698, June 6. [Review of the Mittheilungen of the Verein fiir Erdkunde at Halle, for 1883.] Science, vol. 3, No. 70, p. 608, June 6. A new classification of the Mollusca. [Review of the article Mollusca, by E. Ray Lankester, in the Encycl. Brit., oth ed., vol. 16.] Science, vol. 3, No. 71, pp. 730-732, June 13. [Results of snow-shoe races arranged by Oscar Dickson to substantiate the claims of the distance traveled by the Lapps of Baron Norden- skidld’s party in their excursion into central Greenland.] Science, vol. 3, No. 71, p. 740, June 13. [ Work of the Lena international meteorological station.] Science, vol. 3, No. 71, p. 742, June 13. [The proposal of the Colonial Society of the Netherlands to establish a periodical in French and Dutch under the name of “Revue Coloniale et Internationale.”’] Science, vol. 3, No. 71, p. 743, June 13. [Record of the opening and closing of navigation at York Factory, Hudson’s Bay.] Science, vol. 3, No. 72, p. 747, June 20. Nourse’s American exploration in the ice-zones. [Review of American exploration in the ice-zones (etc.), prepared chiefly from official sources, by J. E. Nourse, U.S.N., 1884.] Science, vol. 3, No. 72, p. 766, June 20. [Review of Jahrbuch der Deutschen Malakozoologischen Gesellschaft for 1884, No. 1.] Science, vol. 3, No. 72, p. 770, June 20. [Announcement of the meeting of the seventh general congress of the French geographical societies.] Science, vol. 3, No. 72, p. 771, June 20. Head waters of the Atna or Copper River. Science, vol. 3, No. 73, Pp. 779, June 27. [A correction in the data about the eruption of the volcano on Augustine Island, Cook’s Inlet.] Science, vol. 3, No. 73, p. 798, June 27. A remarkable new type of mollusks. Science, vol. 4, No. 76, pp. 50-51, July 18. [Comments on the rescue of Greely and the remnant of his party.] Science, vol. 4, No. 77, p. 77, July 25. On the constitution of some appendages of the Mollusca. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 18, No. 8, pp. 776-778, August. [Announcement of sum bequeathed by M. J. B. Morot to the Société de Géographie for an annual prize for the French navigator who shall approach nearest to the North Pole during the year, etc.] Science, vol. 4, No. 79, p. 124, Aug. 8. The new Bogosloff volcano. Science, vol. 4, No. 80, pp. 138-139, Aug. 15. Classification of the Mollusca. [A reply to Prof. Lankester’s criticism of Dr. Dall’s review of Prof. Lankester’s “A New Classification of the Mollusca,” in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.] Science, vol. 4, No. 81, pp. 143-144, Aug. 22. [Remarks about a hypsometric chart of European Russia prepared by General Tillo.] Science, vol. 4, No. 81, p. 156, Aug. 22. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 43 523. 524. 525. Government organizations. U.S. Geological Survey. (Work proposed for the ensuing fiscal year.) Science, vol. 4, No. 82, pp. 184-185, Aug. 29. [Review of vol. 39 of Memoires of the topographic section of the Rus- sian general staff.] Science, vol. 4, No. 82, p. 188, Aug. 20. [The results of Dr. Chervin’s studies of the medical geography of the Department of the Seine Inférieure with reference to disabilities devel- oped by the annual conscription.] Science, vol. 4, No. 83, p. 220, Sept. 5. [The travels of Victor Giraud in Africa.] Science, vol. 4, No. 84, pp. 264-265, Sept. 12. [The preparation of a grand monograph on the physical geography of European Russia, and a good general map of the same region.] Science, vol. 4, No. 84, p. 268, Sept. 12. [The work on the canal between the Gulfs of Corinth and Aegina.] Science, vol. 4, No. 84, p. 268, Sept. 12. . Review of A Trip to Alaska, etc., by George Wardman. The Nation, vol. 39, No. 1003, pp. 249-250, Sept. 18. [June 20 the date of departure of Sibiriakoff’s steamers, the Obi and Nordenskiold, for the Petshora and Yenisei, respectively.] Science, vol. 4, No. 86, p. 332, Sept. 26. [Contributions to the history of the Commander Islands.] No. 3.— Report on the Mollusca of the Commander Islands, Bering Sea, col- lected by Leonhard Stejneger in 1882 and 1883. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 7, pp. 340-349, pl. 2, figs. 1-7, (Oct. 3.) . Classification of Mollusca. [A reply to Prof. Gill’s comment.] Science, vol. 4, No. 88, p. 351, Oct. Io. . The international polar stations. Science, vol. 4, No. 89, pp. 370-372, 1 map; Oct-17: . Review of Voyage of the Vivian to the North Pole and beyond, by Thomas W. Knox. The Nation, vol. 39, No. 1008, p. 357, Oct. 23. . Kafiristan. [Review of Macnair’s travels in this place.] Science, vol. 4, No. 90, pp. 404-405, Oct. 24. [Caspar Johann Bismarck; speculation as to his ancestry.] Science, vol. 4, No. 91, p. 425, Oct. 31. . A Mussulman propaganda. [Review of H. Duveyrier’s account of the Senousi.] Science, vol. 4, No. 93, pp. 457-459, Nov. 14. . New volume of the tenth census. [A review.] Science, vol. 4, No. 93, pp. 461-463, Nov. 14. . Late news from the north-west. Science, vol. 4, No. 94, pp. 474-475, Nov. 21. [A note on finding Zonites cellaria Miller in Portland, Oreg., somewhat abundantly.] Science, vol. 4, No. 97, p. 538, Dec. 12. . Review of Wild adventures round the Pole, by Gordon Stables. The Nation, vol. 39, No. 1016, p. 529, Dec. 18. Exploration of the Kowak River. Science, vol. 4, No. 98, pp. 539, 55I- 554, 2 figs., Dec. 19. [Review of volume by G. Lindstrém on the molluscan fauna of the Silurian period in Gotland.] Science, vol. 4, No. 98, p. 562, Dec. 19. 44 544. 545. 540. 7547. 548. 549. 550. 551. 552. 553: *554. 555. *5 56. 557: 558. 559. 560. 561. 562. *563. *564. *565. 566. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 1885 What is a glacier? Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 7, p. 38. Review of Census Reports, vol. 8, Alaska, by Ivan Petroff. The Nation, vol. 40, No. 1018, pp. 18-19, Jan. 1. Ag Further notes on Bogosloff Island. Science, vol. 5, No. 101, pp. 32-33, Jan. 9. Review of Contributions to the Tertiary geology and palaeontology of the United States, by Angelo Heilprin. The Nation, vol. 40, No. 1020, p. 56, Jan. 15. Review of In the Lena Delta, etc., by George W. Melville. The Nation, vol. 40, No. 1020, p. 60, Jan. 15. The earthquake of January 2. Science, vol. 5, No. 104, p. 85, Jan. 30. The Kowak River. Science, vol. 5, No. 104, p. 93, map (p. 92), Jan. 30. Recent African exploration. Science, vol. 5, No. 105, pp. 114-115, Feb. 6. [Note about pumice supposed to be derived from Krakatoa during the recent eruption.] Science, vol. 5, No. 105, p. 120, Feb. 6. Recent travels in Arabia. [Notes from the account of Charles Huber’s mission in Arabia.] Science, vol. 5, No. 106, pp. 134-135, Feb. 13. John Gwyn Jeffreys. [Biographical note.] Science, vol. 5, No. 107, pp. 145-146, Feb. 20. Proposed explorations in Alaska. Science, vol. 5, No. 107, p. 154, Feb. 20. New or especially interesting shells of the Point Barrow expedition. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 7, pp. 523-526, pl. 2, fig. 8. (Feb. 25.) [Review of article by Lieut. Greely on his Arctic expedition.] Science, vol. 5, No. 108, p. 163, Feb. 27. Our American letter. [Political news from Washington.] The States- man, Calcutta, India, Mar. 1. The Sierra Nevada of Spain: The scene of the recent earthquakes. Science, vol. 5, No. 109, pp. 195-196, Mar. 6. [A note from Rev. Mr. Doane from Ponape, Caroline Islands, in which he speaks of large quantities of pumice-drift from Krakatoa arriving at the islands.] Science, vol. 5, No. 100, p. 204, Mar. 6. Nadaillac’s “Prehistoric America.” [An answer to criticism in a review of Nadaillac’s Prehistoric America.] Science, vol. 5, No. 110, p. 208, Mar. 13. Geographical news. Science, vol. 5, No. 110, pp. 216-217, Mar. 13. [A note from a bulletin of the Geological Society of France, by Oehlert, giving the result of a study of certain types of Devonian brachiopods. ] Science, vol. 5, No. 110, p. 224, Mar. 13. The oyster fishery in Connecticut. [Review of the fourth annual report of the shell-fish commissioners of Connecticut.] Science, vol. 5, No. III, p. 234, Mar. 20. Iron in the mounds. [Letter on iron in the mounds around Circleville (Ohio) and archaeological conchology.] The Nation, vol. 40, No. 1030, p. 258, Mar. 26. [A note about the island of Formosa, from S. Wells Williams’ work on China.] Science, vol. 5, No. 112, p. 261-262, Mar. 27. NO. 567. 568. *560. 570. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 45 [Abstract of notes furnished by Capt. L. U. Herendeen on prehistoric structures on Ponapé Island.] Science, vol. 5, No. 113, p. 284, Apr. 3. Review of The rescue of Greely, by Comm. W. S. Schley and Prof. J. S. Soley. The Nation, vol. 40, No. 1032, pp. 308-309, Apr. 9. The United States at the Fisheries Exhibition. [Review of report on the United States exhibit of fisheries and fish-culture at the London Fisheries Exhibition, 1883.] Science, vol. 5, No. 118, p. 386, May 8. [A note about the revolt in Morocco against the Turkish power.] Science, vol. 5, No. 118, p. 390, May 8. [A note relating to the coming expedition into Africa by Serpa-Pinto.] Science, vol. 5, No. 118, p. 390, May 8. [A proposed expedition by J. de Brettes and P. Lacabanne-Courrége from Corrientes to Candelaria crossing the Grand Chaco at its greatest breadth.] Science, vol. 5, No. 118, p. 392, May 8. . A monograph of British fossil Brachiopoda. [Review of monograph by Thomas Davidson.] Science, vol. 5, No. 119, pp. 409-410, May 15. [Establishment of a geographical society at Rio de Janeiro.] Science, vol. 5, No. 119, p. 410, May 15. [Proposed scientific aay mee of Greenland.] Science, vol. 5, No. 119, p. 410, May 15. [A note on the travels a Rabot in Russian Lapland.] Science, vol. 5, No. 119, p. 410-411, May 15. (Bplorations in New Guinea by Van Braam Morris.] Science, vol. 5, No. 119, p. 411, May 15. . Geographical notes. Science, vol. 5, No. 120, pp. 422-423, May 22. . Nordenskidld’s Arctic investigations. Science, vol. 5, No. 120, pp. 430- 432, May 22. . Review of Jellyfish, starfish, and sea-urchins, by G. J. Romanes. The Nation, vol. 40, No. 1039, p. 449, May 28. [The French Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres offers the Bordin prize in 1887 for the best treatment of the subject, “A critical examination of the geography of Strabo.”] Science, vol. 5, No. 121, p. 450, May 20. . Review of Under the rays of the Aurora Borealis, in the land of the Lapps and Kyaens, by Sophus Tromholt. The Nation, vol. 40, No. 1041, p. 488, June 11. [Discusses a new map of China by Matusoffski and Nikitine.] Science, vol. 5, No. 124, p. 509, June 109. [Review of Annuaire de Turkestan for 1885.] Science, vol. 5, No. 124, p. 509, June 10. [Note on geographic publications by Hermann Roskoschny.] Science, vol. 5, No. 124, pp. 509-510, June 19. [Abstract of a letter received from the Bishop of central Oceanica giving the details of the honors rendered by the civil and religious authorities to the relics of the companions of La Perouse.] Science, vol. 5, No. 124, p. 510, June 109. . Review of Alaska: its southern coast and the Sitkan Archipelago, by E. Ruhamah Scidmore. The Nation, vol. 40, No. 1043, p. 528, June 25. [A note with regard to the designing of an elevated railway for Paris by Jules Garnier.] Science, vol. 5, No. 125, p. 532, June 26. . 605. 606. 607. 608. 6009. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 [Abstract of a memoir of the Siberian section of the Russian Geo- graphical Society containing a description of Lake Balkhash, by Fischer.] Science, vol. 5, No. 125, p. 532, June 26. . Memorandum on the mounds of Satsuma and Enterprise, Florida. Amer. Journ. Archaeol., vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 184-189, July. . Works of the Challenger expedition.—I. General and physical. [Review of Report on the scientific results of the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger (etc.). Vol. 1, Narrative. 1885.] Science, vol. 6, No. 126, pp. 15-16, July 3. . Review of Standard Natural History, edited by J. S. Kingsley. The Nation, vol. 41, No. 1045, p. 33, July 9. [Review of a bulletin issued by the Florentine section of the Italian African Society.] Science, vol. 6, No. 128, p. 50, July 17. [A note on the presentation to the Russian representative, of the gold Vega medal recently awarded by the Geographical Society of Stock- holm to Prjevalski.] Science, vol. 6, No. 128, p. 50, July 17. . Work of the Challenger expedition—II. From a zoological stand-point. [Review of Report on the scientific results of the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger (etc.)] Science, vol. 6, No. 128, pp. 54-56, July 17. . Geographical notes. Science, vol. 6, No. 129, p. 71, July 24. . Notes on some Floridian land and fresh-water shells with a revision of the Auriculacea of the eastern United States. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 8, pp. 255-280, pls. 17-18. (Pp. 255-288 published July 24; p. 280 published Aug. 27; pls. 17-18 published Sept. 25.) . Miocene deposits in Florida. Science, vol. 6, No. 130, p. 82, July 31. . Late news from Alaska. Science, vol. 6, No. 130, pp. 95-96, July 31. [A note about the vessel Alert in Hudson Bay.] Science, vol. 6, No. 130, p. 98, July 31. . Review of A naturalist’s wanderings in the eastern archipelago: A narrative of travel and exploration from 1878 to 1883, by Henry O. Forbes. The Nation, vol. 41, No. 1049, pp. 120-121, Aug. 6. . Reform in geographical orthography. Science, vol. 6, No. 131, p. I10, Aug. 7. . List of marine Mollusca comprising the Quaternary fossils and recent forms from American localities between Cape Hatteras and Cape Roque, including the Bermudas. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. No. 24, pp. 1-336, Aug. 20. [Notes on the publication of the proceedings at the Kongo conference. ] Science, vol. 6, No. 133, p. 157, Aug. 21. [Review of Mittheilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Halle an der Saale for 1884.] Science, vol. 6, No. 133, p. 157, Aug. 21. [Abstract of reports on the Argentine expeditions into Patagonia by General Villejas and Colonel Roa.] Science, vol. 6, No. 133, p. 157, Aug. 21. [A note on the expedition of Dr. Bunge to Yakutsk.] Science, vol. 6, No. 133, p. 157, Aug. 21. [A note on the journeys of Sibiriakoff in Siberia.] Science, vol. 6, No. 133, p. 157, Aug. 21. [A note on J. Chaffaujon’s travels in Venezuela.] Science, vol. 6, No. 133, p. 157, Aug. 21. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 47 610. 61I. *612. 613. 614. 615. 616. 617. 618. 610. 620. 621. 622. *623. 624. 625. 626. 627. 628. 620. [A note on the article by l’Abbé Pierre Bouche on the slave coast and Dahomey.] Science, vol. 6, No. 133, p. 157, Aug. 21. The native tribes of Alaska. [Abstract of an address delivered before the section of anthropology of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Ann Arbor, Sept. 1.] Science, vol. 6, No. 136, pp. 228-230, Sept. II. On Turbinella pyrum Lamarck, and its dentition. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 8, pp. 345-348, pl. 19. (Pp. 345-348 published Sept. 17; pl. 19 published Nov. 25.) [News of the whaling fleet in the Bering Sea.] Science, vol. 6, No. 137, pp. 259-260, Sept. 18. Review of Nimrod in the North; or, hunting and fishing adventures in the Arctic regions, by Frederick Schwatka. The Nation, vol. 41, No. 1056, p. 265, Sept. 24. [Data obtained by Dr. Willis Everette on the Yukon district of Alaska.] Science, vol. 6, No. 138, pp. 278-279, Sept. 25. [Announcement of the wreck, July 31, of the bark Montana in the Nushagak River, Bristol Bay.] Science, vol. 6, No. 138, p. 279, Sept. 25. [Abstract of Lieut. Purcell’s account of Stoney’s expedition to the Kowak, or Kuak, River of the Kotzebue Sound region.] Science, vol. 6, No. 138, p. 279, Sept. 25. [A note on the signification of the names of some Indian mountains of great height:] Science, vol. 6, No. 138, p. 280, Sept. 25. Review of The Hazen court-martial: The responsibility for the disaster to the Lady Franklin Bay polar expedition definitely established, with proposed reforms in the law and practice of courts-martial, by T. J. Mackey. The Nation, vol. 41, No. 1058, p. 308, Oct. 8. Review of Two years in the jungle, by W. T. Hornaday. The Nation, vol. 41, No. 1058, p. 308, Oct. 8. West African islands. [Review of West African islands, by Maj. A. B. Ellis.] Science, vol. 6, No. 140, pp. 306-307, Oct. 9. Geographical notes. Science, vol. 6, No. 140, pp. 311-312, Oct. 9. Comments, in Notes on the mollusks of the vicinity of San Diego, Cal., and Todos Santos Bay, Lower California, by Charles R. Orcutt. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 8, pp. 534-552, pl. 24. (Pp. 534-544 published Oct. 10; pl. 24 published Oct. 21; pp. 545-552 published Oct. 26.) Review of The world’s lumber-room: A gossip about some of its con- tents, by Selina Gaye. The Nation, vol. 41, No. 1060, p. 348, Oct. 22. [Discussion on the subject of Arctic exploration at the meeting of the Naval Institute at Annapolis Oct. 9.] Science, vol. 6, No. 142, p. 349, Oct. 23: [Review of an article by M. Bardoux on the need of more and better geographical teaching, appearing in the Revue de Géographie.] Science, vol. 6, No. 142, pp. 349-350, Oct. 23. The Alert expedition. Science, vol. 6, No. 142, pp. 350-351, Oct. 23. [A note about Chaffaujon’s journey to the upper Orinoco and Cauca Rivers.] Science, vol. 6, No. 142, p. 356, Oct. 23. [Cruise of the U. S. revenue cutter Corwin in Alaskan waters.] Science, vol. 6, No. 142, p. 357, Oct. 23. 48 630. 631. 632. 633. 634. 635. *636. 637. 638. 630. 640. 641. 642. *643. *644. 645. 646. 647. 648. 640. 650. 651. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 [Review of Thoroddson’s account of his explorations in Iceland in 1884, appearing in Globus.] Science, vol. 6, No. 142, p. 357, Oct. 23. [Notes from Alaska.] Science, vol. 6, No. 142, pp. 357-358, Oct. 23. Geographical notes. [Explorations in Alaska.] Science, vol. 6, No. 143, pp. 380-381, Oct. 30. [Review of the history of the house of Justus Perthes, at its centennial.] Science, vol. 6, No. 144, p. 398, Nov. 6. Admiral Baron Ferdinand von Wrangell. [Review of Ferdinand von Wrangel und seine Reise langs der Nordkiiste von Sibirien und auf dem Eismeere, by Lisa von Engelhardt.] Science, vol. 6, No. 144, pp. 417-418, Nov. 6. A search for the gigantic bird of Madagascar. [A review of Grandidier’s report to the Academy of Sciences of France.] Science, vol. 6, No. 144, p. 418, Nov. 6. [A note on the finding of Helix cantiana Montagu at Quebec.] Science, vol. 6, No. 144, p. 418, Nov. 6. Children’s books. [Reviews.] The Nation, vol. 41, No. 1063, p. 407, Nov. 12. Cruise of the Corwin. [Review of Report of the cruise of the U. S. revenue steamer Thomas Corwin, in the Arctic Ocean, 1881, by Capt. C. L. Hooper, U.S.R.M. 1884.] Science, vol. 6, No. 145, pp. 425-426, Nov. 13. [Note of the wrecking of a Hudson Bay Company vessel in Hudson Bay.] Science, vol. 6, No. 145, p. 426, Nov. 13. [The whaling and fishing fleets in Alaskan waters.] Science, vol. 6, No. 145, p. 426, Nov. 13. [Discussion of the boundary between the territory of the Argentine Confederation and Brazil.] Science, vol. 6, No. 145, pp. 426-427, Nov. 13. [Abstract of Governor Swineford’s report on Alaska.] Science, vol. 6, No. 145, p. 427, Nov. 13. The arms of the octopus, or devil fish. Science, vol. 6, No. 145, p. 432, Nov. 13. Thomas Bland. [A biographical sketch.] Science, vol. 6, No. 145, p. 440, Nov. 13. Report of the Point Barrow Station. [Review of Report of the Inter- national Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska, 1885.] Science, vol. 6, No. 146, pp. 446-447, Nov. 20. [Review of the hydrographic observations made on the expedition of 1883 to Greenland seas.] Science, vol. 6, No. 146, p. 448, Nov. 20. [Notes on two expeditions to Greenland.] Science, vol. 6, No. 146, p. 448, Nov. 20. [Note on Island, Land und Leute, Geschichte, Litteratur und Sprache, by Dr. Ph. Schweitzer.] Science, vol. 6, No. 146, p. 448, Nov. 20. [Note on the publication of an atlas of Russia prepared by J. Poddubnyi.] Science, vol. 6, No. 146, p. 448, Nov. 20. [Miscellaneous notes relating to Alaska.] Science, vol. 6, No. 146, p. 448, Nov. 20. [Review of Polar regions, by Clements R. Markham, in the Encyclo- paedia Britannica.] Science, vol. 6, No. 147, pp. 463-464, Nov. 27. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 49 652. 653. 654. 655. 656. 657. *674. The native tribes of Alaska. Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 28, No. 2, p. 286, December. Review of Farthest north; or, the life and explorations of Lieutenant James Booth Lockwood, of the Greely Arctic expedition, by Charles Lanaman. The Nation, vol. 41, No. 1066, p. 472, Dec. 3. [Studies of the voyage of Hanno, the Carthaginian.] Science, vol. 6, No. 148, pp. 488-480, Dec. 4. [A note on the central African journey of Messrs. Capello and Ivens.] Science, vol. 6, No. 148, p. 489, Dec. 4. [Review of Paulitschke’s studies of the tribes of the Gallas, near the Gulf of Aden, appearing in the Proceedings of the Geographical Society of Vienna for September.] Science, vol. 6, No. 148, p. 480, Dec. 4. [Review of an article in the Bulletin of the Italian Geographical Society for September containing extracts from the unpublished journals of Pellegrino Matteucci, the African traveler.] Science, vol. 6, No. 148, p. 489, Dec. 4. [Review of third part of the Isvestia of the Russian Geographical Society.] Science, vol. 6, No. 148, p. 489, Dec. 4. . Heights of mountains in Lapland. Science, vol. 6, No. 149, p. 515, Dec. 11. Northern Norway and Finland. [Observations made by Charles Rabot.] Science, vol. 6, No. 149, p. 515, Dec. I1. . Connecting the Volga and the Don. Science, vol. 6, No. 149, pp. 515- 516, Dec. 11. . A ruined city found in Asia Minor. Science, vol. 6, No. 140, p. 516, Dec. 11. . Monuments of Babylonian times. Science, vol. 6, No. 140, p. 516, Dec. 11. . Siberian interest in geographical exploration. Science, vol. 6, No. 140, p. 516, Dec. 11. . The trans-Siberian railway. Science, vol. 6, No. 149, p. 516, Dec. 11. . The old bed of the Oxus. Science, vol. 6, No. 149, p. 516, Dec. 11. . Explorations in central Asia. Science, vol. 6, No. 151, pp. 554-555, Dec. 25. . Return of Lieutenant Allen. Science, vol. 6, No. 151, p. 555, Dec. 25. . Cameroons district, West Africa. Science, vol. 6, No. 151, p. 555, Dec. 25. . Trade-routes between Bolivia and the Argentine Republic. Science, vol. 6, No. 151, p. 555, Dec. 25. . Colonization in the Argentine Republic. Science, vol. 6, No. 151, p. 555, Dec. 25. . An island lost, and another found. Science, vol. 6, No. 151, p. 556, Dech25: . The National Government and science. The Evening Post, New York, Dae Dec si. 1886 The teeth of invertebrates. Amer. Syst. Dentistry, vol. 1, pp. 337-350, figs. 159-186. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 . Report on the department of mollusks in the U. S. National Museum, 1885. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1885, pp. 103-III. . The native tribes of Alaska. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 34, PP. 363-379. [The U.S.S. Rush sails for the Aleutian Islands in the hope of rescuing the crew of the Amethyst.] Science, vol. 7, No. 154, p. 46, Jan. 15. . Late news from Alaska. Science, vol. 7, No. 154, p. 48, Jan. 15. . The Sakeis of Malay Peninsula. Science, vol. 7, No. 154, p. 48, Jan. 15. . The Malpais in Michoacan, Mexico. Science, vol. 7, No. 154, p. 49, Jan. 15. . Return of Aubry [from his travels in Shoa, Galla- and Somali-land]. Science, vol. 7, No. 154, p. 49, Jan. 15. Shell-fish in Connecticut. [Review of Fifth report of the shell-fish com- missioners of the State of Connecticut, 1885.] Science, vol. 7, No. 154, pp. 59-60, Jan. 15. . Color-sense of the Fijians. Science, vol. 7, No. 155, p. 72, Jan. 22. . Some local dialects. [Review of an article by Pinart on the Aino dialect on the Kurile Islands; also a note on the dialect used by the Tepehuas in the Sierra Tutotepec, Mexico.] Science, vol. 7, No. 155, is Gx, leet, ZA . Slavery in Madagascar. Science, vol. 7, No. 155, pp. 72-73, Jan. 22. . Explorations in Alaska by the brothers Krause. [A review.] Science, vol. 7, No. 156, pp. 95-96, Jan. 20. . A mythical Danish island. Science, vol. 7, No. 156, p. 96, Jan. 29. . A study of the Danube. Science, vol. 7, No. 156, p. 96, Jan. 20. . The condition of Borneo. Science, vol. 7, No. 156, p. 96, Jan. 20. . South American investigations. Science, vol. 7, No. 156, p. 96, Jan. 29. . Travels in Laos. Science, vol. 7, No. 156, pp. 96-97, Jan. 20. . Explorations in Perak. Science, vol. 7, No. 156, pp. 97-98, Jan. 20: . Review of First year of scientific knowledge, by Paul Bert. The Nation, vol. 42, No. 1075, p. 113, Feb. 4. . Review of The works of Hubert Howe Bancroft. History of Alaska, 1730-1885, vol. 33. The Nation, vol. 42, No. 1076, pp. 134-135, Feb. 11. . Missionary maps. Science, vol. 7, No. 159, p. 160, Feb. 19. . A newly discovered affluent of the Kongo. Science, vol. 7, No. 159, p. 160, Feb. ro. . Explorations in central South America. Science, vol. 7, No. 159, p. 160, Feb. 19. . Restoration of Lake Moeris. Science, vol. 7, No. 159, pp. 160-161, Feb. 19. . Ancient Arabic inscription in the Sahara. Science, vol. 7, No. 159, p. 161, Feb. ro. ~ East Greenland Eskimo. Science, vol. 7, No. 159, pp. 172-173, Feb. 19. . Russian Lapland. Science, vol. 7, No. 162, pp. 233-234, Mar. 12. . The precursors of Columbus. [A review.] Science, vol. 7, No. 162, p. 234, Mar. 12. Poliakoff’s “Journey in Sakhalin.” [A review.] Science, vol. 7, No. 162, p. 234, Mar. 12. Pilcamayo expedition to Bolivia. Science, vol. 7, No. 162, p. 234, Mar. 12. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—-BARTSCH ET AL. 51 *705. 700. 707. 708. 700. 710. 711. 712. 713. 714. 715. 716. 7i7. 718. 710. 720. 72%. #722, W23% 724. 725. 720. 727. 728. [Review of recent Challenger reports. Vol. 13, Lamellibranchiata, by Edgar A. Smith.] Science, vol. 7, No. 161, p. 250, Mar. 12. The railway to central Asia. Science, vol. 7, No. 164, pp. 277-278, Mar. 26. [Note about a geological map of Russian Turkestan published by Messrs. Romanoffski and Mushketoff.] Science, vol. 7, No. 164, p. 284, Mar. 26. Bancroft’s History of Alaska. [Review of History of Alaska, 1730-1885, by Hubert Howe Bancroft.] Science, vol. 7, No. 164, p. 292, Mar. 26. A trade-route between Bolivia and the Argentine Republic. Science, vol. 7, No. 165, pp. 299-300, Apr. 2. Uape Indians of the Amazon. Science, vol. 7, No. 165, pp. 301-302, Apr. 2. The newly discovered affluent of the Kongo. Science, vol. 7, No. 165, p. 302, Apr. 2. Schwatka’s Along Alaska’s great river. [A criticism of the reviewer of Schwatka’s work on the Yukon.] Science, vol. 7, No. 165, p. 308, Apr. 2. Dutch statistics of population. [Review of Kuyper’s discussion of the population-statistics of the Netherlands.] Science, vol. 7, No. 168, p. 367, Apr. 23. Search for mammoths in the Lena Delta. [A note on Dr. Bunge’s search.] Science, vol. 7, No. 168, p. 367, Apr. 23. Medals of Paris Geographical Society. Science, vol. 7, No. 168, pp. 367- 368, Apr. 23. A new oil. [A notice of a new oil derived from a species of bamboo.] Science, vol. 7, No. 168, p. 368, Apr. 23. Ethnographic map of Asia [to be issued by Von Haardt]. Science, vol. 7, No. 168, p. 368, Apr. 23. Siberian trade-routes. Science, vol. 7, No. 170, pp. 408-409, May 7. Partition of Patagonia. Science, vol. 7, No. 170, p. 409, May 7. Miscellaneous. [Items on Africa, South America, and Danish Green- land.] Science, vol. 7, No. 170, p. 409, May 7. [A note on the off-shore seal-fishery of Newfoundland.] Science, vol. 7, No. 170, p. 413, May 7. Neaera. Nature, vol. 34, No. 6, p. 122, June 10. Distribution of colors in the animal kingdom. Science, vol. 7, No. 177, p. 572, June 25. The Kongo. Science, vol. 8, No. 179, pp. 26-27, July o. Trade-route to Bolivia. Science, vol. 8, No. 179, p. 27, July 9. Lake Moeris. Science, vol. 8, No. 179, p. 27, July 9. The spring in Alaska. Science, vol. 8, No. 179, p. 27, July 9. A country little known. One who has been there tells of Alaska and its treasures, its climate, and its people. Senator Jones’s profitable gold mine. [An interview given a representative of The Express.] The Buffalo Express, Aug. 20, p. 5. mn to 737- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 [Reports on the results of dredging, under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico (1877-78) and in the Caribbean Sea (1879-80), by the U. S. Coast Survey steamer “Blake,” Lieut.- Commander C. D. Sigsbee, U.S.N. and Commander J. R. Bartlett, U.S.N., commanding.] XXIX. Report on the Mollusca.—Part 1. Brachiopoda and Pelecypoda. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 171-318, pls. 1-19, September. . Jones River. How it was laid down on Dall’s map of the Alaskan coast—what Russian maps show—the right of Schwatka to name it. The Weekly Bulletin, San Francisco, Oct. 20. . Report on the mollusks collected by L. M. Turner at Ungava Bay, North Labrador, and from the adjacent Arctic Seas. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 9, pp. 202-208, pl. 3, figs. 1-3. (Oct. 22.) . Reports on Bering Island Mollusca collected by Mr. Nicholas Greb- nitzki. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 9, pp. 209-219, (Oct. 22.) . Review of Our new Alaska; or the Seward purchase vindicated, by Charles Hallock. The Nation, vol. 43, No. 1113, p. 360, Oct. 28. . Challenger reports. [Review of Report of the scientific results of the voyage of the Challenger during 1873-76. Vol. 14, Zoology. 1886.] Science, vol. 8, No. 195, pp. 399-400, Oct. 209. . Alleged early Chinese voyages to America. Science, vol. 8, No. 1096, pp. 402-403, Nov. 5. . Recent paleontological publications. [Reviews of Revision of the Palaeo- crinoidea, pt. 3, by C. Wachsmuth and F. Springer; Geological survey of Alabama, pts. 1 and 2, by T. H. Aldrich and O.. Meyer; and Brachiopoda and Lamellibranchiata of the Raritan clays and green- sand marls of New Jersey, by R. P. Whitfield.] Science, vol. 8, No. 196, pp. 421-422, Nov. 5. Review of The ivory king, a popular history of the elephant and its allies, by Charles Frederick Holder. The Nation, vol. 43, No. 1115, pp. 399-400, Nov. II. . The religion of the Uapé. [Review of account by Henri Coudreau.] Science, vol. 8, No. 197, pp. 437-438, Nov. 12. . The people on the Kongo. [Review of an article by Walcke.] Science, vol. 8, No. 197, pp. 441-442, Nov. 12. . Apropos of horseshoe crabs. The Nation, vol. 43, No. 1117, p. 435, Nov. 25. . Review of The children of the cold, by Frederick Schwatka. (Collection of articles contributed by Mr. Schwatka to St. Nicholas.) The Nation, vol. 43, No. 1117, p. 441, Nov. 25. . Elliott’s Alaska and the Seal Islands. [Review of Our Arctic province Alaska and the Seal Islands, by Henry W. Elliott.] Science, vol. 8, No. 200, p. 523, Dec. 3. . Challenger reports. [Review of Report of the scientific results of the voyage of the Challenger during 1873-76. Vol. 15, Zoology. 1886.] Science, vol. 8, No. 200, p. 524, Dec. 3. Review of Our Arctic province Alaska and the Seal Islands, by Henry W. Elliott. The Nation, vol. 43, No. 1120, p..507, Dec. 16. . Isaac Lea, LL.D. [Biographical sketch, with portrait.] Science, vol. 8, No. 202, pp. 556-558, Dec. 17. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 53 *746. 747- 748. *740. *750. e751. *752. 753: 754- 755- 756. 757- 758. 759. 760. *761. 762. 763. *764. Challenger reports. [Review of Report of the scientific results of the exploring voyage of the Challenger. Vol. 16, Zoology. 1886.] Science, vol. 8, No. 202, pp. 572-574, Dec. 17. Review of Our Arctic province Alaska and the Seal Islands, by Henry W. Elliott. The Evening Post, New York, Dec. 22, p. 3. (Same as No. 744.) Review of General summary and conclusions [of a voyage in south Florida under the auspices of the Wagner Free Institute of Science, made by Prof. Heilprin and Mr. Joseph Willcox], by Angelo Heilprin. The Evening Post, New York, Dec. 23, p. 2. 1887 The Nestor of American naturalists. (Dr. Isaac Lea.) Swiss Cross, vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 43-44, February. Supplementary notes on some species of mollusks of the Bering Sea and vicinity. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 9, pp. 297-300, pls. 3-4. (Feb. 10.) Note [on Helix caelata Studer, appended to Mazyck’s A new land shell from California, with note on Selenites duranti, Newcomb, edited by Dr. Dall.] Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 9, p. 461. (Feb. 14.) The Teredo. San Francisco Chronicle, Feb. 16, p. 5. Challenger report. [Review of Report of the scientific results of the exploring voyage of the Challenger. Vol. 17, Zoology.] Science, vol. 9, No. 218, pp. 349-350, Apr. 8. Review of Microscopy for beginners; or, common objects from the ponds and ditches, by Alfred C. Stokes. The Nation, vol. 44, No. 1138, p. 550, Apr. 21. Review of Waste-land wanderings, by Charles C. Abbott. The Nation, vol. 44, No. 1144, pp. 475-476, June 2. Museums of ethnology and their classification. Science, vol. 9, No. 228, p. 587, June 17. Challenger report. [Review of Report of the scientific results of the exploring voyage of the Challenger. Vol. 18, Radiolaria.] Science, vol. 9, No. 228, pp. 596-597, June 17. On the position of Mount St. Elias and the Schwatka expedition to Alaska. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 444-445, July. Review of The story of Metlakahtla, by Henry S. Wellcome. The Nation, vol. 45, No. 1149, pp. 11-12, July 7. Review of Report of the scientific results of the exploring voyage of the Challenger. Vol. 19, Zoology. Science, vol. 10, No. 233, pp. 44-45, July 22. [A letter containing notes on Antillean mollusks.] Conchologists’ Exch., vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 9-10, Aug. Io. Review of Shores and alps of Alaska, by H. W. Seton Karr. The Nation, vol. 45, No. 1155, p. 141, Aug. 18. Review of Shores and alps of Alaska, by H. W. Seton Karr. The Evening Post, New York, Aug. 18, p. 3. (Same as No. 762.) Notes on the geology of Florida. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 3, vol. 34 (vol. 134), No. 201, pp. 161-170, September. 54 765. *766. 767. 768. 700. 770. 71. 4772. 773: 774- *775: 776. ibe 778. 779. 780. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Review of Animal life in the sea and on the land, by Sarah Cooper. The Nation, vol. 45, No. 1165, p. 339, Oct. 27. [Description of Pleurotoma (Mangilia?) simpsoni] in Charles T. Simp- son, Contributions to the Mollusca of Florida. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 54-55, Nov. 4. Review of Living lights. A popular account of phosphorescent animals and vegetables, by C. F. Holder. The Nation, vol. 45, No. 1167, p. 381, Nov. 10. Spencer Fullerton Baird. The Nation, vol. 45, No. 1170, pp. 433-434, Dec. I. Review of Look-about club, by Mary E. Bamford. The Nation, vol. 45, No. 1170, p. 443, Dec. 1. Review of My garden pets, by Mrs. Mary Treat. The Nation, vol. 45, No. 1172, p. 484, Dec. 15. 1888 Professor Baird in science. [Proceedings at a meeting commemorative of the life and scientific work of Spencer Fullerton Baird held Jan. 11, 1888, under the joint auspices of the Anthropological, Biological, and Philosophical Societies of Washington.] Bull. Philos. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. 10, pp. 61-70. Also published separately (pp. 21-30). Review of The geological evidences of evolution, by Angelo Heilprin. The Nation, vol. 46, No. 1183, p. 177, Mar. 1. Review of Science sketches, by David Starr Jordan. The Nation, vol. 46, No. 1188, p. 267, Mar. 29. Review of The story of creation: a plain account of evolution, by Edward Clodd. The Nation, vol. 46, No. 1189, pp. 307-308, Apr. 12. Some American conchologists. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 4, Pp. 95-134. (May.) Review of Three kingdoms: A handbook of the Agassiz Association, by Harlan H. Ballard. The Nation, vol. 46, No. 1194, p. 413, May 17. Three cruises of the Blake. [Review of A contribution to American thalassography: Three cruises of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer Blake in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic Coast of the United States, by Alexander Agassiz.] The Nation, vol. 46, No. 1197, pp. 473-474, June 7. Le Conte’s Evolution and religious thought. [Review of Evolution and its relations to religious thought, by Joseph Le Conte.] The Nation, vol. 47, No. 1202, pp.'34-35, July 12. “Review of My wonder story, by Anne Kendrick Benedict. The Nation, vol. 47, No. 1204, p. 80, July 26. Le Conte’s Evolution and theology. [An answer to a criticism by “W.M.S.” of Le Conte’s Evolution and its relations to religious thought.] The Nation, vol. 47, No. 1205, p. 92, Aug. 2. . Review of Little people, and their homes in meadows, woods, and waters, by Stella Louise Hook. The Nation, vol. 47, No. 1223, p. 461, Dec. 6. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 55 782. 783. *78 4. *785. *786, *787, 788. *780. 790. *701. *792. *703. 794. 795- 1889 [Letters and memoranda relating to the Alaskan boundary question.] Senate Exec. Doc. No. 146, 50th Congr., 2d Sess., pp. 2-4, 10-28. Ocean currents. The ocean. Popular Cyclopaedia. Methodist Book Concern, New York. Report of Mr. W. H. Dall, cenozoic division of invertebrate paleon- tology. Eighth Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1886-’87, pt. 1, pp. 181-184. A preliminary catalogue of the shell-bearing marine mollusks and brachiopods of the southeastern coast of the United States, with illus- trations of many of the species. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pp. 1-221, pls. 1-74. [Reports on the results of dredging, under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico (1877-78) and in the Caribbean Sea (1879-80), by the U. S. Coast Survey steamer “Blake,” (etc.).] XXIV. Report on the Mollusca—Part II. Gastropoda and Scapho- poda. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 18, pp. 1-492, pls. 1-40, January- June. [Description of Tralia (Alexia?) minuscula Dall] in Charles T. Simp- son, Contributions to the Mollusca of Florida. Proc. Davenport. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 5, p. 69, Feb. 19. Review of Truth about Russia, by W. T. Stead. The Critic, n.s., vol. 11, No. 271, p. 113, Mar. 9. Description of a new species of Hyalina. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 11, p. 214, figs. 1-3. (Mar. 12.) Review of The cruise of the Marchesa to Kamchatka and New Guinea, by F. H. H. Guillemard, M.D. The Nation, vol. 48, No. 1242, p. 332, Apr. 18. Notes on the soft parts of Trochus infundibulum Watson with an ac- count of a remarkable sexual modification of the epipodium, hitherto undescribed in Mollusca. Nautilus, vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 2-4, May 5. Paludina scalaris Jay. Nautilus, vol. 3, No. 1, p. 8, May 5. Notes on Lophocardium Fischer. Nautilus, vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 13-14, June. Review of Picturesque Alaska; a journal of a tour among the mountains, seas, and islands of the Northwest, from San Francisco to Sitka, by Abby Johnson Woodman. The Nation, vol. 48, No. 1249, pp. 473-474, June 6. Review of The play-time naturalist, by Dr. J. E. Taylor, F.L.S. The Nation, vol. 48, No. 1249, p. 474, June 6. . Review of Up and down the brooks, by Mary E. Bamford. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1253, pp. 19-20, July 4. . Review of Incidents of a collector’s rambles, by Sherman F. Denton. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1253, p. 20, July 4. . The Behring Sea controversy. The Evening Post, New York, July 10, Pp. 9. . Note on two helices new to the fauna of the United States. Nautilus, vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 25-26, July 14. . On the genus Corolla Dall. Nautilus, vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 30-32, July 14. 808. 80. 812. 813. 814. 815. S16. +8172 818. 810. 820. *821. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 . Review of Days out of doors, by Charles C. Abbott. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1259, p. 137, Aug. 15. . Notes on the anatomy of Pholas (Barnea) costata Linné, and Zirphaea crispata Linné. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1889, pp. 274-276. (Oct 22)) . Review of Famous men of science, by Mrs. Sarah K. Bolton. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1270, p. 357, Oct. 31. . Review of The walks abroad of two young naturalists, by C. Beaugrand. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1270, p. 357, Oct. 31. . Review of The new Eldorado: A summer journey to Alaska, by Maturin M. Ballou. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1270, p. 358, Oct. 31. . Review of Feathers, furs and fins. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1272, pp. 395-396, Nov. 14. . Review of The Red Mountain of Alaska, by Willis Boyd Allen. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1272, p. 396, Nov. 14. Review of Hints to travellers, edited by D. W. Freshfield and Capt. W. J. L. Wharton. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1273, pp. 417-418, Nov. 21. . On the hinge of pelecypods and its development, with an attempt toward a better subdivision of the group. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 3, vol. 38 (vol. 138), No. 228, pp. 445-462, December. Bering. [Review of Vitus Bering, the discoverer of Bering Strait, by Peter Lauridsen.] The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1275, pp. 454-455, Dec. 5. . Review of Lotus Bay, a summer on Cape Cod, by Laura D. Nichols. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1276, p. 484, Dec. 12. Review of The second year of the Lookabout Club, by Mary E. Bam- ford. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1277, p. 500, Dec. 19. Review of Natural history object lessons: A manual for teachers, by George Ricks. The Nation, vol. 49, No. 1278, p. 526, Dec. 26. 1890 Professor Baird in science. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1888, pp. 731-738. [Reprint of No. 771.] The term “Agnostic.” Unitarian Rev., vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 46-48, January. Review of The home of a naturalist, by the Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1280, p. 40, Jan. 9. Note on Crepidula glauca Say. Nautilus, vol. 3, No. 9, pp. 98-99, Feb. 11. Review of A life of John Davis the navigator, 1550-1605, discoverer of Davis Straits, by Clements R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1286, p. 162, Feb. 20. Review of Falling in love; with other essays on more exact branches of Science, by Grant Allen. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1287, p. 187, Feb. 27. Review of The skipper in Arctic seas, by Walter J. Clutterbuck. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1288, p. 202, Mar. 6. [Scientific results of explorations by the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross.] No. V1I.—Preliminary report on the collection of Mol- lusca and Brachiopoda obtained in 1887-’88. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 12, No. 773, pp. 219-362, pls. 5-14. (Mar. 7.) NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 57 822. 823. *824. 825. 826. 827: *828, 820. *830. *83I. 832. 833. *834. *835. 836. 837. 838. 830. 840. 84. Review of Five thousand miles in a sledge: A midwinter journey across Siberia, by Lionel F. Gowing. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1290, p. 248, Mar. 20. Review of Arctic Alaska and Siberia; or, eight months with the Arctic whalemen, by Herbert L. Aldrich. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1291, pp. 261-262, Mar. 27. On a new species of Tylodina. Nautilus, vol. 3, No. 11, pp. 121-122, April. Review of Captain Cook, by Walter Besant. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1295, pp. 440-441, Apr. 24. A critical review of Bering’s first expedition 1725-1730, together with a translation of his original report upon it, with map. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 2, No. 2, 1890, pp. 111-167, 1 map, May. Deep sea mollusks and the conditions under which they exist. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 5, pp. 1-22. (May 2.) On dynamic influences in evolution. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 6, pp. I-10. (May 8.) Review of An international idiom. A manual of the Oregon trade language or Chinook jargon, by Horatio Hale. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1298, pp. 400-401, May 15. Review of The economic Mollusca of Acadia, by W. F. Ganong. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1300, p. 440, May 29. Types fossiles de l’Eocéne du bassin de Paris, récemment découverts en Amerique. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, vol. 15, Nos. 4 and 5, pp. 97-98, June. Review of Among the Selkirk glaciers, being the account of a rough survey in the Rocky Mountain region of British Columbia, by W. S. Green. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1303, p. 497, June 10. Review of Two summers in Greenland: An artist’s adventures among ice and islands, in fjords and mountains, by A. Riis Carstensen. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1304, p. 517, June 26. Description of a new species of land shell from Cuba—Vertigo cubana. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 13, No. 790, pp. 1-2, figs. 1-2. (July 1.) Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, with especial reference to the Miocene silex-beds of Tampa and the Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie River. Tertiary mollusks of Florida. Part I. Pul- monate, opisthobranchiate and orthodont gastropods. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 3, (pt. 1), pp. 1-200, pls. 1-12, August. Alaska’s boundary. The vexed question soon to be settled. San Fran- cisco Chronicle, Oct. 14, p. 7. Mount St. Elias. Science, vol. 16, No. 406, pp. 275-276, Nov. 14. Mount St. Elias. Science, vol. 16, No. 408, p. 303, Nov. 28. Review of Wild beasts and their ways, by Sir Samuel W. Baker. The Nation, vol. 51, No. 1327, p. 447, Dec. 4. Review of From Yellowstone Park to Alaska, by Francis C. Sessions; From the Land of the Midnight Sun to the Volga, by Francis C. Sessions; and The wonders of Alaska, by Alexander Badlam. The Nation, vol. 51, No. 1327, p. 448, Dec. 4. Review of Among the moths and butterflies, by Julia P. Ballard. The Nation, vol. 51, No. 1328, p. 469, Dec. 11. 58 842. *843. 844. *845. *846. 847. 848. 840. 850. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Review of Strolls by starlight and sunshine, by W. Hamilton Gibson. The Nation, vol. 51, No. 1329, p. 487, Dec. 18. Conchological notes from Oregon. Nautilus, vol. 4, No. 8, pp. 87-80, Dec. 22. Review of A woman’s trip to Alaska, by Septima M. Collins. The Nation, vol. 51, No. 1330, p. 511, Dec. 25. 1891 Report on the department of mollusks in the U. S. National Museum, 1889. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1889, pp. 371-375. Report on the department of mollusks in the U. S. National Museum, 1890. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1890, pp. 211-217. Review of The first crossing of Greenland, by Fridtjof Nansen. The Nation, vol. 52, No. 1335, pp. 98-99, Jan. 209. Magellan. [Review of Ferdinand Magellan, by F. H. H. Guillemard.] The Nation, vol. 52, No. 1337, pp. 140-141, Feb. 12. Magellan. [Review of Ferdinand Magellan, by F. H. H. Guillemard.] The Evening Post, New York, Feb. 19, p. 8. (Same as No. 848.) Notes on an original manuscript chart of Bering’s expedition of 1725- 1730, and on an original manuscript chart of his second expedition; together with a summary of a journal of the first expedition, kept by Peter Chaplin, and now first rendered into English from Bergh’s Russian version. Ann. Rep. U. S. Coast and Geod. Sury. for 1890, App. No. 19, pp. 759-774, 2 maps, (March). . Review of Sir Francis Drake, by Julian Corbett. The Nation, vol. 52, No. 1347, p. 349, Apr. 23. [Review of zoological articles contributed to the Encyclopaedia Britan- nica, by E. Ray Lankester, W. J. Sollas, A. A. W. Hubrecht, L. von Graff, A. G. Bourne, and W. A. Herdman.] Science, vol. 17, No. 420, ps 236; Apr 24: [Co-author with H. A. Pilsbry of] On some recent Japanese Brachio- poda, with a description of a species believed to be new. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1891, pp. 165-171, pl. 4. (Apr. 28.) . Notes on some recent Brachiopods. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1891, pp. 172-175, pl. 4. (Apr. 28.) . Zoological articles. [Review of zoological articles contributed to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, by E. Ray Lankester and others.] Public Opinion, vol. 11, No. 4, p. 89, May 2. . Prof. Hilgard. The Evening Post, New York, May 8, p. 7. . Prof. Hilgard. The Nation, vol. 52, No. 1350, pp. 398-399, May 14. (Same as No. 856.) .. Review of Primitive folk: Studies in comparative ethnology, by Elie Reclus. The Nation, vol. 52, No. 1350, pp. 410-411, May 14. . Description of a new species of Hyalina. Nautilus, vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 10- 11, fig., May 19.° (Reprint of No. 789.) . Review of Charles Darwin, his life and work, by Charles Frederick Holder. The Nation, vol. 52, No. 1351, p. 429, May 21. . Elevation of America in the Tertiary periods. Geol. Mag., n.s., decade 3, vol. 8, No. 6, pp. 287-288, June. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 59 *862. *863. #864. *865. *866. *867. 868. 869. 870. 871. *872. *873. *874. 7875; *876. 7877: *878. 870. *880. 881. [Co-author with H. A. Pilsbry of] Terebratulina (unguicula Cpr. var.?) kiiensis, Dall and Pilsbry. Nautilus, vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 18-10, pl. 1, June 17. On a new subgenus of Meretrix, with descriptions of two new species from Brazil. Nautilus, vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 26-20, 2 figs., July ro. Review of The oyster: A popular summary of a scientific study, by W. K. Brooks. The Nation, vol. 53, No. 1359, p. 57, July 16. On some new or interesting West American shells obtained from the dredgings of the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross in 1888, and from other sources. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 14, No. 849, pp. 173-191, pls. 5-7, July 24. Apropos des Pleurotomaria des Musées Americains. Bull. Sci. France et Belgique, vol. 23, pt. 2, pp. 488-489, Aug. 18. On some marine mollusks from the southern coast of Brazil. Nautilus, vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 42-44, Aug. 10. Review of Sir John Franklin and the Northwest Passage, by Capt. Albert Hastings Markham, R.N., A.D.C. The Nation, vol. 53, No. 1367, p. 202, Sept. 10. The gift to the Smithsonian. Thomas G. Hodgkin’s present accepted— a hint of more to follow. The Evening Post, New York, Oct. 26, p. 5. Fate of the fur seal. Forest and Stream, vol. 37, No. 16, p. 307, Nov. 5; No. 19, p. 368, Nov. 26. 1892 Emil Bessels. [Obituary notice.] Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. II, pp. 465-466. Report on the department of mollusks (including Cenozoic fossils) in the U. S. National Museum, 1891. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1891, pp. 225-220. [Co-author with Gilbert D. Harris of] Correlation papers. Neocene. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. No. 84, pp. 5-349, pls. 1-4, figs. 1-43. Instructions for collecting mollusks, and other useful hints for the conchologist. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 30, pt. G, pp. 1-56. On some types new to the fauna of the Galapagos Islands. Nautilus, vol. 5, No. 9, pp. 97-99, Jan. 14. On the species of Donax of eastern North America. Nautilus, vol. 5, No. 11, pp. 125-127, Mar. 25. Contribution a la faune malacologique terrestre des Iles Galapagos. Journ. de Conch., vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 314-316, Mar. 26. On an undescribed Cytherea from the Gulf of Mexico. Nautilus, vol. 5, No. 12, pp. 134-135, April. Review of From palm to glacier, by Alice Wellington Rollins. The Nation, vol. 55, No. 1411, p. 35, July 14. [A description of two new species, in An annotated list of the shells of San Pedro Bay and vicinity, by Mrs. M. Burton Williamson.] Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 15, No. 898, pp. 202, 213-214, pl. 20, fig. 4, and pl. 21, figs. 2 and 3, Aug. 2. Review of Lessons in elementary biology, by T. Jeffrey Parker. Science, vol. 20, No. 496, p. 81, Aug. 5. 60 882. 883. 884. *885. *886. *887. 888. *88o. *800. 8o1. 802. *803. *8Q4. *895. *806. 897. 898. *890. *Q00. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Review of The Apodidae. A morphological study, by H. M. Bernard. Science, vol. 20, No. 496, p. 81, Aug. 5. The rules are impracticable. [A criticism of the new police regulations as to the collection of garbage.] The Evening Star, Washington, DiC pAucsompio: Review of Essays upon heredity and kindred biological problems, by August Weismann. Authorized translation by Messrs. Poulton, Schonland, and Shipley. Science, vol. 20, No. 498, p. 109, Aug. 19. Note on Cytherea convexa Say. Nautilus, vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 52-53, September. Grand-Gulf formation. Science, vol. 20, No. 502, pp. 164-165, Sept. 16. Gould’s “North Pacific Exploring Expedition” types. Nautilus, vol. 6, No. 7, p. 84, November. Review of Along the Florida reef, by Charles F. Holder. The Nation, vol. 55, No. 1428, p. 356, Nov. Io. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, with especial reference to the Miocene silex-beds of Tampa and the Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie River. Tertiary mollusks of Florida. Part II. Streptodont and other gastropods, concluded. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 3, pt. 2, pp. 201-473, map, pls. 13-22, December. Grand-Gulf formation. Science, vol. 20, No. 513, p. 319, Dec. 2. Review of Recent rambles; or, in touch with nature, by C. C. Abbott, M.D. The Nation, vol. 55, No. 1432, p. 439, Dec. 8. Review of In Arctic seas: the voyage of the Kite with the Peary expedi- tion, by Robert N. Keely. The Nation, vol. 55, No. 1435, p. 502, Dec. 20. 1893 Deep-sea explorations. Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia, vol. 2, pp. 701- 702. [Introduction to] Re-publication of Conrad’s Fossils of the Medial Tertiary of the United States. Pp. i-xviii + 1-136, pls. 1-49. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. Philadelphia. Determination of the dates of publication of Conrad’s “Fossils of the tertiary formation,” and “Medial Tertiary.” Bull. Philos. Soc. Wash- ington, vol. 12, pp. 215-239, Jan. II. Additional shells from the coast of southern Brazil. Nautilus, vol. 6, No. 10, pp. 109-112, Feb. 10. | Review of The Arctic problem and narrative of the Peary Relief Expedi- tion of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, by Angelo Heilprin. The Nation, vol. 56, No. 1459, p. 444, June 15. Review of Appleton’s guide-book to Alaska and the northwest coast, by Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore. The Nation, vol. 56, No. 1461, p. 477, June 29. Bulimulus proteus Broderip and its distribution. Nautilus, vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 26-27, July. On a new species of Yoldia from California. Nautilus, vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 29-30, July. = NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 61 gol. *902. *903. 904. *OII. g12. O13. *QI4. *OI5. *OI16. O17. 018. [An article on ghostly manifestations at Fort Yukon.] The Nation, vol. 57, No. 1468, p. 121, Aug. 17. Preliminary notice of new species of land-shells from the Galapagos Islands, collected by Dr. G. Baur. Nautilus, vol. 7, No. 5, pp. 52-56, Sept. 3. The phylogeny of the Docoglossa. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1893, pp. 285-287. (Sept. 12.) The Columbian Exposition—VII. Science. The Nation, vol. 57, No. 1472, pp. 186-187, Sept. 14. . The Columbian Exposition—VII!. Botany-Mineralogy-Geology. The Nation, vol. 57, No. 1473, pp. 208-200, Sept. 21. . The Columbian Exposition—IX. Anthropology. The Nation, vol. 57, No. 1474, pp. 224-226, Sept. 28. . A subtropical Miocene fauna in Arctic Siberia. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 16, No. 946, pp. 471-478, pl. 56, Sept. 30. . The walrus at the fair. [A reply to a letter.] The Nation, vol. 57, No. 1475, p. 247, Oct. 5. . Anthropology at the Columbian Exposition. The Academy (a weekly review of literature, science, and art), vol. 44, No. 1120, pp. 346-347, Oct.‘21. . Land shells of the genus Bulimulus in Lower California, with descrip- tions of several new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 16, No. 958, pp. 639-647, pls. 71-72, Nov. 23. Haeckel’s planktonic studies. Nautilus, vol. 7, No. 8, pp. 86-87, Dec. 13. Review of My Arctic journal; a year among ice-fields and Eskimos, by Josephine Diebitsch Peary. With an account of the great white journey across Greenland, by Robert E. Peary. The Nation, vol. 57, No. 1487, pp. 491-492, Dec. 28. 1894 Review of The industries of animals, by Frédéric Houssay; Romance of the insect world, by L. N. Badenoch; Letters to Marco, by George D. Leslie; The outdoor world, or young collector’s handbook, by W. Fur- neaux; and Our household insects; an account of the insect pests found in dwelling-houses, by Edward A. Butler. The Nation, vol. 58, No. 1490, p. 56, Jan. 18. [Co-author with Joseph Stanley-Brown of] Cenozoic geology along the Apalachicola River. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 5, pp. 147-170, pl. 3. (Feb. 5.) On the species of Mactra from California. Nautilus, vol. 7, No. 12, pp. 136-138, pl. 5, Apr. 2. On some species of Mulinia from the Pacific Coast. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. I, pp. 5-6, pl. 1, May 2. Review of Alaskan grammar and vocabulary, by Augustus Schultze. The Nation, vol. 58, No. 1512, pp. 474-476, June 21. Review of The voyages of Capt. Luke Foxe of Hull and Capt. Thomas James of Bristol in search of a northwest passage, in 1631-2, edited by Miller Christy. The Nation, vol. 59, No. 1514, pp. 16-17, July 5. 62 *919. *Q20. *Q2T. 7022: *923. *924. 925. *926. *927. *928. *920. *Q30. 931. *932. 933. 934. 935. 936. 937. *938. *930. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Synopsis of the Mactridae of North America. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 25-28, July 8. Reversal of cleavage in Physa. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 3, p. 35, July 8. Bulimus oblongus. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 3, p. 35, July 8. Pupa syngenes Pils. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 3, p. 35, July 8. Monograph of the genus Gnathodon, Gray. (Rangia, Desmoulins). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 17, No. 988, pp. 89-106, pl. 7, July 23. II. Synopsis of the Mactridae of northwest America, south to Panama. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 39-43, Aug. 3. Review of Cock Lane and common sense, by Andrew Lang. The Nation, vol. 59, No. 1522, p. 161, Aug. 30. Cruise of the steam yacht “Wild Duck” in the Bahamas, January to April, 1893, in charge of Alexander Agassiz. II. Notes on the shells collected. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 25, No. 9, pp. 113-124, 1 pl., October. Notes on the Miocene and Pliocene of Gay Head, Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., and on the “land phosphate” of the Ashley River district, South Carolina. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 3, vol. 48 (vol. 148), No. 286, pp. 296-301, October. The mechanical cause of folds in the aperture of the shell of Gasteropoda. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 28, No. 335, pp. 909-914, figs. 1-3, November. How I came to be a paleontologist. Outdoor World, vol. 5, No. 11, Pp. 335-336, November. Description of a new species of Doridium from Puget Sound. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 73-74, Nov. I. Review of Wild beasts: A study of the characters and habits of the elephant, lion, leopard, panther, jaguar, tiger, puma, wolf, and grizzly bear, by J. Hampden Porter. The Nation, vol. 59, No. 1535, p. 414, Nov. 29. A new chiton from California. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 8, pp. 90-91, Dec. 3. Review of Riverby, by John Burroughs. The Nation, vol. 59, No. 1537, p. 450, Dec. 13. Review of A Florida sketchbook, by Bradford Torrey. The Nation, vol. 59, No. 1530, pp. 480-481, Dec. 27. Review of Wild animals in captivity, or Orpheus at the Zoo, and other papers, by C. J. Cornish. The Nation, vol. 50, No. 1539, p. 486, Dec. 27. 1895 A chapter of Alaska. [A letter.] The Nation, vol. 60, No. 1541, p. 20, Jan. Io. Review of Polar gleams: An account of a voyage on the yacht Blen- cathra, by Helen Peel. The Nation, vol. 60, No. 1542, pp. 59-60, Janor7- Review of The life and writings of Rafinesque, by Richard Ellsworth Call. The Nation, vol. 60, No. 1544, p. 92, Jan. 31. On a new species of Holospira from Texas. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 10, p. 112, Feb. 3. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL——BARTSCH ET AL. 63 940. Review of From Edinburgh to the Antarctic, by W. G. Burn Murdoch. 941. *942. *043. *044. *945. *946. *Q47. *948. 949. *950. *Q5I. 952. *953. *054. 955. 956. With a chapter by W. S. Bruce. The Nation, vol. 60, No. 1545, pp. 113-114, Feb. 7. [Review of W. K. Brooks’ monograph of the genus Salpa.] The Nation, vol. 60, No. 1547, p. 148, Feb. 21. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, with especial reference to the Miocene silex-beds of Tampa and the Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie River. Tertiary mollusks of Florida. Part III. A new classification of the Pelecypoda. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 485-570, March. Synopsis of a review of the genera of recent and Tertiary Mactridae and Mesodesmatidae. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 1, No. 5, pp. 203- 213, March. New species of shells from the Galapagos Islands. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. I1, pp. 126-127, Mar. 4. New species of land shells from Puget Sound. Nautilus, vol. 8, No. 11, pp. 129-130, Mar. 4. On marine mollusks from the Pampean formation by H. von Ihering. [Translated and arranged by Dr. Dall.] Science, n.s., vol. 1, No. 16, pp. 421-423, Apr. 19. Review of The Cambridge Natural History, III. Mollusca, by Rev. A. H. Cooke; Brachiopods (recent), by A. E. Shipley; Brachiopods (fossil), by F. R. C. Reed. 1895. The Nation, vol. 60, No. 1556, p. 332, Apr. 25. An undescribed Meretrix from Florida. Nautilus, vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 10- 11, May 2. [Co-author with C. W. Stiles of] Review of A textbook of invertebrate morphology, by J. Playfair McMurrich. The Nation, vol. 60, No. 1561, pp. 427-428, May 30. Review of The Cambridge Natural History, III. Mollusca, by Rev. « A. H. Cooke; Brachiopods (recent), by A. E. Shipley; Brachiopods (fossil), by F. R. C. Reed. 1895. Science, n.s., vol. 1, No. 22, pp. 610- 611, May 31. Scientific results of explorations by the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross. No. XXXIV.—Report on Mollusca and Brachiopoda dredged in deep water, chiefly near the Hawaiian Islands, with illus- trations of hitherto unfigured species from northwest America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 17, No. 1032, pp. 675-733, pls. 23-32, July 2. Alaska revisited—I.. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1566, pp. 6-7, July 4. Description of a new Vitrea from Puget Sound. Nautilus, vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 27-28, July 8. Three new species of Macoma from the Gulf of Mexico. Nautilus, vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 32-34, July 8. Alaska revisited—II. Metlakatla. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1567, p. 24, July 11. Alaska revisited. Success of Mr. Duncan’s mission at Port Chester— a threatened inroad of miners. The Evening Post, New York, July 13, p. 14. (Same as No. 955.) 957. The St. Elias bear. Science, n.s., vol. 2, No. 30, p. 87, July 26. 5 968. 060. 970. 971. *972. *973. *074. 975. *976. 977. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 . Alaska revisited—III. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1572, pp. 113-114, Aug. I5. . Alaska revisited. Scenery of cafion and glacier—flora and fauna. The Evening Post, New York, Aug. 17, p. 14. (Same as No. 958.) . Alaska revisited—IV. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1573, pp. 131-132, Aug. 22. . Synopsis of the subdivisions of Holospira and some related genera. Nautilus, vol. 9, No. 5, pp. 50-51, Sept. 3. . Alaska revisited—V. Cook’s Inlet. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1576, p. 183, Sept. 12. . Alaska revisited. Cook’s Inlet and its remarkable natural characteristics. The Evening Post, New York, Sept. 21, p. 14. (Same as No. 962.) . Alaska revisited—VI. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1578, pp. 220-221, Sept. 26. . Alaska revisited. Some of the changes that have occurred in the last thirty years. The Evening Post, New York, Sept. 28, p. 18. (Same as No. 964.) . Note on the genus Joannisia. Nautilus, vol. 9, No. 7, p. 78, Nov. 4. [On the discovery of fat and muscular fiber belonging to remains of a mammoth on the peninsula of Alaska. Paper presented before meeting of Biological Society of Washington.] Science, n.s., vol. 2, No. 45, pp. 635-636, Nov. 8. Review of Our western archipelago, by Henry M. Field; Alaska, its history and resources, gold fields, routes, and scenery, by Miner W. Bruce. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1586, p. 371, Nov. 21. Review of Icebound on Kolguev, by Aubyn Trevor-Battye. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1587, pp. 394-395, Nov. 28. Alaska as it was and is, 1865-1895. Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 13, pp. 123-161, December. Review of Country pastimes for boys, by P. Anderson Graham. The Nation, vol. 61, No. 1590, p. 448, Dec. 109. Review of Catalogue of the marine mollusks of Japan, with descriptions of new species, and notes on others collected by Frederick Stearns, by Henry A. Pilsbry. 1895. Science, n.s., vol. 2, No. 51, pp. 855-856, Dec. 20. 1896 Catalogue of the marine mollusks of Japan, collected by Frederick Stearns, by H. A. Pilsbry. 1895. [A review.] Nautilus, vol. 9, No. 9, pp. 105-106, Jan. 2. Review of Die Gastropoden der Plankton-Expedition, by Dr. H. Sim- roth. 1895. Science, n.s., vol. 3, No. 54, pp. 69-70, Jan. Io. Alaska as it was and is, 1865-1895. Science, n.s., vol. 3, No. 54, pp. 37- 45, Jan. 10; No. 55, pp. 87-93, Jan. 17. (Same as No. 970.) On some new species of Scala. Nautilus, vol. 9, No. 10, pp. 111-112, Feb. 3. Review of The last cruise of the Miranda, by Henry Collins Walsh. The Nation, vol. 62, No. 1598, pp. 145-146, Feb. 13. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 65 *978. 979. 980. 081. 982. 083. 984. 985. 986. *987. *988. *98o. *907. *908. *900. New data of Spirula. [Review of Zodlogy of the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger: Part I, vol. 33. Report on Spirula, by T. H. Huxley and P. Pelseneer. 1895.] Science, n.s., vol. 3, No. 59, pp. 243-246, Feb. 14. Those Jeannette “relics” again. New York Daily Tribune, Feb. 22, p. 2. A letter from Dr. Dall. How he became convinced that the Jeannette relics were fraudulent. The Sun, New York, Feb. 22, p. 6. Coal in Alaska. The Sun, New York, Feb. 23, p. 5. The so-called Jennette relics. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 93-98, March. The Russo-American telegraph project of 1864-’67. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 110-111, March. Geographical notes in Alaska. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 1-20, March. Review of Geological biology; an introduction to the geological history of organisms, by Henry Shaler Williams. 1895. Science, n.s., vol. 3, No. 64, pp. 445-447, Mar. 20. Review of Greenland icefields and life in the North Atlantic; with a new discussion of the causes of the Ice Age, by G. Frederick Wright and Warren Upham; and Handbook of Arctic discoveries, by A. W. Greely. The Nation, vol. 62, No. 1605, pp. 275-276, Apr. 2. Diagnoses of new mollusks from the survey of the Mexican boundary. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 18, No. 1033, pp. 1-6, Apr. 23. Diagnoses of new species of mollusks from the west coast of America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 18, No. 1034, pp. 7-20, Apr. 23. Diagnoses of new Tertiary fossils from the southern United States. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 18, No. 1035, pp. 21-46, Apr. 23. . New species of Leda from the Pacific coast. Nautilus, vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 1-2, May 3. . Note on Neritina showalteri Lea. Nautilus, vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 13-15, June 2. . Review of Text-book of comparative anatomy, by Arnold Lang. Part II. 1806. Translated by H. M. and M. Bernard. Science, ms., vol. 3, No. 75, pp. 847-849, June 5. . On the American species of Ervilia. Nautilus, vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 25-27, July 2. . Review of Voyage to Viking Land, by Thomas Sedgwick Steele. The Nation, vol. 63, No. 1621, p. 66, July 23. . Cook’s Inlet and the region to the westward. Bull. U. S. Coast and Geod. Surv., No. 35, pp. 162-170, August. Review of The cruise of the Antarctic to the south polar regions, by H. J. Bull. The Nation, vol. 63, No. 1623, p. 112, Aug. 6. The mollusks and brachiopods of the Bahama expedition of the State University of Iowa. Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist., State Univ. Iowa, vol. 4, No. I, pp. 12-27, pl. 1, Aug. 20. Pelecypoda. Jn Textbook of Paleontology, by K. A. von Zittel, translated and edited by Charles R. Eastman, vol. 1, pp. 346-420, figs. 588-787. Issued separately Sept. 1806. On the American species of Cyrenoidea. Nautilus, vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 51- 52, Sept. 1. *1000. *TOOI. 1002. *1003. *T004. 1005. *1006. 1007. *T008. 1009. *IOIO. IOI. *1O12. 1013. *IO14. IOI5. ‘IO16. 1017. 1018. IOI. *1020. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Insular landshell faunas, especially as illustrated by the data obtained by Dr. G. Baur in the Galapagos Islands. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1896, pp. 395-460, pls. 15-17. (Sept. 15 and 22.) Note on Leda caelata Hinds. Nautilus, vol. 10, No. 6, p. 70, Oct. 9. Review of Science sketches, by President Jordan. Rev. ed. The Nation, vol. 63, No. 1635, p. 328, Oct. 20. Recent advances in malacology. Science, n.s., vol. 4, No. 100, pp. 770- 773, Nov. 27. [Co-author with R. J. Lechmere Guppy of] Descriptions of Tertiary fossils from the Antillean region. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 19, No. III0, pp. 303-331, pls. 27-30, Dec. 30. Review of Fridtjof Nansen, 1861-1893, by W. C. Brogger and Nordahl Rolfsen. The Nation, vol. 63, No. 1644, p. 501, Dec. 31. 1897 Notice of some new or interesting species of shells from British Colum- bia and the adjacent region. Nat. Hist. Soc. British Columbia, Bull. No. 2, art. 1, pp. 1-18, pls. 1-2, January. A national department of science. Science, n.s., vol. 5, No. 108, pp. 147- 149, Jan. 22. Report on the mollusks collected by the International Boundary Commis- sion of the United States and Mexico, 1892-94. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 19, No. 1111, pp. 333-379, pls. 31-33, Jan. 27. Report on coal and lignite of Alaska. 17th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv., 1895-96, pt. I, pp. 763-875, pls. 48-58, March. List of species of shells collected at Bahia, Brazil, by Dr. H. von Ihering. Nautilus, vol. 10, No. 11, pp. 121-123, Mar. 7. Review of Farthest north, by Fridtjof Nansen. With appendix by Otto Sverdrup, Captain of the Fram. The Nation, vol. 64, No. 1660, pp. 306-307, Apr. 22. On a new form of Polygyra from New Mexico. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 2-3, May 6. Distribution of marine mammals. Science, n.s., vol. 5, No. 126, p. 843, May 28. Synopsis of the Pinnidae of the United States and West Indies. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 25-26, June 29. Review of The first crossing of Spitsbergen, by Sir William Martin Conway, with contributions by J. W. Gregory, A. Trevor-Battye, and E. J. Garwood. The Nation, vol. 65, No. 1672, p. 54, July 15. Review of Kajakmanner: Erzahlungen Gronlandischer Seehundsfanger, by Signe Rink. The Nation, vol. 65, No. 1672, pp. 55-56, July 15. Review of Kajakmanner: Erzahlungen Gronlandischer Seehundsfanger, * by Signe Rink. The Evening Post, New York, July 20, p. 4. (Same as No. 1016.) Dr. Dall on the Klondike. The New York Sun, July 21, p. 2. Review of Matka and Kotik. A tale of the Mist Islands, by David Starr Jordan. The Nation, vol. 65, No. 1674, p. 97, July 20. Notes on landshells from the Malay Peninsula. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 37-38, Aug. 5. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 67 *TO21. 1022. 1023. 1024. *1025. *1026. *1027. *1028. *1020. *1030. *103I. 2 *1032. 1033. 1034. *1035. 1036. *1037. 1038. *1030. *1040. 1041. On a new Holospira from Texas. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 4, p. 38, Aug. 5. Alaska and the new gold field. Forum, vol. 24, pp. 16-26, Sept. 1. Glimpses of southern Oregon—I. The Nation, vol. 65, No. 1680, pp. 201- 202, Sept. 9. Glimpses of southern Oregon—II. The Nation, vol. 65, No. 1681, pp. 221-222, Sept. 16. Notes on the paleontological publications of Professor William Wagner. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 5, pp. 7-11, pls. 1-3, October. New land shells from Mexico and New Mexico. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 61-62, Oct. 4. [A letter on the mollusks observed at Coos Bay, Oregon.] Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 6, p. 66, Oct. 4. Dangers of formalin. Science, n.s., vol. 6, No. 147, pp. 633-634, Oct. 22. New species of Mexican land shells. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 7, pp. 73-74, Nov. I. New West American shells. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 8, pp. 85-86, Dec. 6. 1898 A table of the North American Tertiary horizons, correlated with one another and with those of western Europe, with annotations. 18th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1896-’97, pt. 2, pp. 323-348. On a new species of Vitrea from Maryland. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 9, pp. 100-101, Jan. 3. Dogs and the Klondike. The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., Jan. 10, Pp. 7- Prof. Dall’s reply to Mr. Lewis [in regard to the weight a dog can haul in the Klondike]. The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., Jan. 22, p. 12. Florida’s interesting fossils. Times Union, Jacksonville, Fla., Eastern, Western and Middle Florida Edition, February, p. 36. Coal and lignite. U.S. Geol. Surv. Map of Alaska, (descriptive text), pp. 39-44, March. List of a collection of shells from the Gulf of Aden obtained by the Museum’s East African Expedition. Field Columbian Mus., Publ. 26, Zool. Ser., vol. 1, No. 9, pp. 187-189, March. Danish Arctic expeditions, 1605-1620. [Review of The Danish expedi- tions to Greenland in 1605, 1606, and 1607; to which is added Capt. James Hall’s voyage to Greenland in 1612; and The expedition of Cap- tain Jens Munk to Hudson’s Bay, in search of a northwest passage, in 1619-’20, edited with notes by C. C. A. Gosch.] The Nation, vol. 66, No. 1706,pp. 189-190, Mar. 10. Recent progress in malacology. Science, n.s., vol. 7, No. 167, pp. 334- 337, Mar. II. How phosphate came. Times-Union, Jacksonville, Fla., Mar. 13, pt. 2, p. 9. The future of the Yukon gold fields. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 117-120, April. 68 1042. 1043. * *1045. *1046. 1047. *1048. *T040. 1050. *IO5I. *1052. 1053. 1054. *1055. *1056. 1057. 1058. *T050. 1060. 1044. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 A Yukon pioneer, Mike Lebarge. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 137-139, April. The Metlakatla Mission in danger. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 187-189, April. A new subgenus of Coralliophaga. Nautilus, vol. 11, No. 12, p. 135, Apr: 3: Synopsis of the recent and Tertiary Psammobiidae of North America. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1898, pp. 57-62. (Apr. 5.) Review of Traité de Zoologie, publié sous la direction de Raphaél Blanchard. XVI. Mollusques, par Paul Pelseneer; XI. Némertiens, par Louis Joubin. 1897. Science, n.s., vol. 7, No. 172, p. 537, Apr. 15. Review of Across the Everglades; a canoe journey of exploration, by Hugh L. Willoughby. The Nation, vol. 66, No. 1713, pp. 328-329, Apr. 28. On a new species of Fusus from California. Nautilus, vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 4-5, May 1. On the genus Halia of Risso. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1808, pp. 190-192. (May 3.) Review of Through the goldfields of Alaska to Bering Straits, by Harry De Windt. The Nation, vol. 66, No. 1714, p. 350, May 5s. A new species of Ceres from Mexico. Nautilus, vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 27- 28, June 30. Note on the anatomy of Resania, Gray, and Zenatia, Gray. Prog. Malacol. Soc., vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 85-86, July. Review of Northward over the great ice: A narrative of life and work along the shores and upon the interior ice cap of northern Greenland in the years 1886 and 1891-’97, by Robert E. Peary. The Nation, vol. 67, No. 1725, p. 56, July 21. Review of Familiar life in field and forest. The animals, birds, frogs, and salamanders, by F. Schuyler Mathews. The Nation, vol. 67, No. 1727, pp. 98-99, Aug. 4. On a new species of Myllita. Nautilus, vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 40-41, Aug. 4. A new species of Terebra from Texas. Nautilus, vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 44- 45, Aug. 4. Review of A journal of the first voyage of Vasco de Gama, 1497-’90. Translated and edited with notes, etc., by E. Ravenstein. The Nation, vol. 67, No. 1731, pp. 171-172, Sept. 8. Review of The great polar current: Polar papers. De Long, Nansen, Peary, by Henry Mellen Prentiss. The Nation, vol. 67, No. 1732, p. 191, Sept. 8. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, with especial reference _ to the silex beds of Tampa and the Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie River, including in many cases a complete revision of the generic groups treated of and their American Tertiary species. Part IV. I. Prionodesmacea: Nucula to Julia. 2. Teleodesmacea: Teredo to Ervilia. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 3, pt. 4, Pp. 571-947, pls. 23-35, October. Review of The rainbow’s end; Alaska, by Alice Palmer Henderson. The Nation, vol. 67, No. 1739, p. 319, Oct. 27. . NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 69 *I061. *1062. *1063. 1064. *1065. *1066. 1067. 1068. 1060. 1070. *I O71: *1072. 1073. *1074. 1075. 1076. 1077. 1078. 1079. *T080. 1081. *1082. *1083. Recent advances in malacology, Science, n.s., vol. 8, No. 201, pp. 612-615, Nov. 4. 7 A new Polygyra from New Mexico. Nautilus, vol. 12, No. 7, p. 75, Nov. 7. Description of a new Ampullaria from Florida. Nautilus, vol. 12, No. 7, pp. 75-76, Nov. 7. Review of Fourfooted Americans and their kin, by Mabel Osgood Wright. The Nation, vol. 67, No. 1742, p. 376, Nov. 17. Zoological bibliography. Science, n.s., vol. 8, No. 203, pp. 709-710, Nov. 18. Zoological bibliography. Science, n.s., vol. 8, No. 209, pp. 955-956, Dec. 30. 1899 Review of With ski and sledge over Arctic glaciers, by Sir Martin Conway. The Nation, vol. 68, No. 1750, p. 34, Jan. 12. The Calaveras skull. The Times, Philadelphia, Jan. 13, p. 9. Review of With Peary near the Pole, by Eivind Astrup. The Nation, vol. 68, No. 1751, p. 55, Jan. 10. On the proposed University of the United States and its possible rela- tions to the scientific bureaus of the Government. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 33, No. 386, pp. 97-107, February. Zoological nomenclature. Science, n.s., vol. 9, No. 215, p. 221, Feb. 10. On a new species of Drillia from California. Nautilus, vol. 12, No. 11, p:. 127, Mar. ‘5: How long a whale may carry a harpoon. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. Io, No. 4, pp. 136-137, April. A new Pteronotus from California. Nautilus, vol. 12, No. 12, pp. 138- 139, Apr. 3. Review of Ichthyologia Ohioensis, by C. S. Rafinesque. The Nation, vol. 68, No. 1763, p. 284, Apr. 13. The Calaveras skull. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1899, pp. 2-4, Apr. 17. ; Review of In the Australian bush, and on the coast of the Coral Sea, by Richard Semon. The Nation, vol. 68, No. 1764, pp. 300-301, Apr. 20. Review of In the Klondyke, including an account of a winter’s journey to Dawson, by Frederick Palmer. The Nation, vol. 68, No. 1766, p. 340, May 4. Review of Early chapters in science, by Mrs. W. Awdry, edited by Prof. W. F. Barrett. The Nation, vol. 68, No. 1768, pp. 383-384, May 18. Synopsis of the recent and Tertiary Leptonacea of North America and the West Indies. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 21, No. 1177, pp. 873- 897, pls. 87-88, June 26. Alaskan notes. The Nation, vol. 69, No. 1781, pp. 127-129, Aug. 17. Synopsis of the American species of the family Diplodontidae. Journ. Conch., vol. 9, No. 8, pp. 244-246, Oct. I. Synopsis of the Solenidae of North America and the Antilles. Proc U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 22, No. 1185, pp. 107-112, Oct. 9. 7O *1084. 1085. *1086. 1087. *1088. *T080. 1090. IOI. 1092. *1003. 1004. *1005. *T0006. 1007. 1008. *T 000. *1T 100. IIOl. *T 102. 1103. *TI04. *TI05. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The mollusk fauna of the Pribilof Islands. The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, pt. 3, pp. 539-546, November. Impressions of Honolulu. The Nation, vol. 69, No. 1792, pp. 331-333, Nov. 2. [Letter on his trip to Alaska and his work at the Bishop Museum, Honolulu.] Nautilus, vol. 13, No. 7, pp. 82-83, Nov. 3. [Review of the first number of the Bishop Museum Memoirs.] The Nation, vol. 69, No. 1795, p. 393, Nov. 23. Note on Sigaretus oldroydii. Nautilus, vol. 13, No. 8, p. 85, Dec. 7. Origin of the mutations of Ostrea. Nautilus, vol. 13, No. 8, pp. 91-93, Dec. 7. The sea is Thine, and Thou madest it. Christian Register, vol. 78, No. 50, p. 1443, Dec. 14. Review of Red Book of animal stories, edited by Andrew Lang. The Nation, vol. 69, No. 1798, p. 451, Dec. 14. Review of Alaska and the Klondike, by Angelo Heilprin. 1899. Science, n.s., vol. 10, No. 260, pp. 929-930, Dec. 22. 1900 [Report to Dr. William T. Brigham on Garrett collection of shells.] Occas. Pap. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Mus., vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 10-13. The sea is Thine, and Thou madest it. The New York Times, Jan. 1, p. 6. (Same as No. 1090.) A new species of Capulus from California. Nautilus, vol. 13, No. 9, p. 100, Jan. 2. Notes on the Tertiary geology of Oahu. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 11, pp. 57-60, Feb. 28. Review of A thousand days in the Arctic, by Frederick G. Fach OBh, The Nation, vol. 70, No. 1809, pp. 168-169, Mar. 1. Review of The Caroline Islands, by F. W. Christian. The Nation, vol. 70, No. 1800, p. 172, Mar. 1. Note on Petricola denticulata Shy. Nautilus, vol. 13, No. 11, pp. 121- 122s VeareeT Additions to the insular land-shell faunas of the Pacific coast, especially of the Galapagos and Cocos Islands. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia, 1900, pt. 2, pp. 88-106, pl. 8. (Apr. 13 and 16.) Review of The biography of a grizzly, and 75 drawings, by Ernest Seton-Thompson. The Nation, vol. 70, No. 1819, pp. 366-367, May to. Review of A preliminary report on the geology of Louisiana, by Gilbert D. Harris and A. C. Veatch. 1900. Science, n.s., vol. 11, No. 280, pp. 745-746, May 11. Review of Scientific results of the Norwegian North Polar expedition, edited by Nansen. Vol. 1. The Nation, vol. 70, No. 1820, p. 379, May 17. A new species of Lima. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 15-16, June 2 Note on a new abyssal limpet. Science, n.s., vol. 11, No. 284, p. 914, June 8. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL——BARTSCH ET AL. 71 *TIOO. 1107. 1108. *TIOO. “SUE Bl 8 Gl ip 1112. III3. TTA. LTT. III6. III7. *T118. *ITIO. 1120. 1121. me: * 11235 *1124. *1125. *1126. Review of Textbook of palaeontology, by IX. A. von Zittel. Translated and edited by Charles R. Eastman. The Nation, vol. 70, No. 1826, p. 504, June 28. Review of The conquest of arid America, by William E. Smythe. The Nation, vol. 71, No. 1828, pp. 37-38, July 12. Review of Nature’s calendar, by Ernest Ingersoll. The Nation, vol. 71, No. 1828, p. 39, July 12. A new Murex from California. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 37-38, Aug. I. Some names which must be discarded. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 44- 45, Aug. I. Note on a new abyssal limpet. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 4, p. 48, Aug. f. (Same as No. 1105.) Review of A monograph of Christmas Island. 1900. Science, n.s., vol. 12, No. 203, pp. 225-226, Aug. 10. Review of A treatise on zodlogy, edited by E. Ray Lankester. Part 3. The Echinoderma, by F. A. Bather, assisted by J. W. Gregory and E. S. Goodrich. The Nation, vol. 71, No. 1833, pp. 138-139, Aug. 16. A new species of Cerion. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 6, p. 65, Oct. 2. Review of The Norwegian North Polar expedition 1893-1896. Scientific results. Edited by Fridtjof Nansen. Science, n.s., vol. 12, No. 302, pp. 562-563, Oct. 12. Review of The Antarctic regions, by Karl Fricker. The Nation, vol. 71, No. 1842, pp. 315-316, Oct. 18. Christmas Island. [Review of a recent scientific report.] Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 58, No. 1, p. 98, November. [ Review of C. R. Eastman’s translation of Grundziige der Palaeontologie, by Karl A. von Zittel.] Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 58, No. 1, pp. 98-99, November. Synopsis of the family Tellinidae and of the North American species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 23, No. 1210, pp. 285-326, pls. 2-4, Nov. 14. Review of Through the first Antarctic night, 1898-1899; a narrative of the voyage of the Belgica, by Frederick A. Cook. The Nation, vol. 71, No. 1846, pp. 391-392, Nov. 15. Review of In Nature’s realm, by Charles Conrad Abbott. The Nation, vol. 71, No. 1847, p. 404, Nov. 22. The relation of the North American flora to that of South America. Science, n.s., vol. 12, No. 308, pp. 808-809, Nov. 23. Recent work on mollusks. Science, n.s., vol. 12, No. 309, pp. 822-825, Nov. 30. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, with especial reference to the silex beds of Tampa and the Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie River, including in many cases a complete revision of the generic groups treated of and their American Tertiary species. Part V. Teleodesmacea: Solen to Diplodonta. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 3, pt. 5, pp. 949-1218, pls. 36-47, December. On a genus (Phyllaplysia) new to the Pacific coast. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 8, pp. 91-92, Dec. 6. A new species of Pleurobranchus from California. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 8, pp. 92-93, Dec. 6. NI bo 1127. 1128. 1120. 1130. ulligh Lig?) E133. ipiey.b 1135. 71130: “137: 1138. TSO: II40. SATs 1142. 1143. 1144. 1145. *1146. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Review of America, picturesque and descriptive, by Joel Cook. The Nation, vol. 71, No. 1852, p. 510, Dec. 27. Review of Fauna Hawaiiensis, issued by the Bishop Museum of Hono- lulu and a special committee of the British Association. The Nation, vol. 71, No. 1852, p. 511, Dec. 27. IgoI The discovery and exploration of Alaska. Harriman Alaska Exped., vol. 2, pp. 185-204, 10 pls. The song of the Innuit. Harriman Alaska Exped., vol. 2, pp. 367-370. Synopsis of the family Cardiidae and of the North American species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 23, No. 1214, pp. 381-392, Jan. 2. Review of A treatise on Zodlogy, edited by E. Ray Lankester. Part 2. The Porifera and Coelentera, by E. A. Minchin, G. Herbert Fowler, and Gilbert C. Bourne. The Nation, vol. 72, No. 1854, p. 38, Jan. 10. A new Lyropecten. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 10, pp. 117-118, Feb. 1. The morphology of the hinge teeth of bivalves. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 35, No. 411, pp. 175-182, March. Goode’s activities in relation to American science. Ann. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1897, pt. 2, pp. 25-31, March. A new species of Subemarginula from California. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. II, pp. 125-126, Mar. 1. A new Pinna from California. Nautilus, vol. 14, No. 12, pp. 142-143, Apr. 6. Review of Mémorandum de la partie demanderesse a 1’Honorable Arbitre M. T. M. C. Asser, etc. etc. (Relating to the taking of trespassers in the Russian seal preserves.) The Nation, vol. 72, No. 1867, pp. 296-297, Apr. II. Results of the Branner-Agassiz REN oR to Brazil. V. Mollusks from the vicinity of Pernambuco. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 139-147, Apr. 15. [Review of Sir Martin Conway’s privately printed history of “Blubber- town.” (Smeerenburg, Spitsbergen.) ] The Nation, vol. 72, No. 1870, p. 375, May 2. [A letter in reply to a note alleging criticism of the work of West Coast workers.] Nautilus, vol. 15, No. 1, p. 12, May 3. Review of Through Siberia, by J. Stadling. Edited by F. H. H. Guillemard. The Nation, vol. 72, No. 1873, pp. 419-420, May 23. Review of The Norwegian North Polar expedition, 1893-96. Scientific results, vol. 2. Edited by Fridtjof Nansen. The Nation, vol. 72, No. 1874, p. 441. May 30. ‘The structure of Diamond Head, Oahu. Amer. Geol., vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 386-387, June. Review of Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der wirbellosen Thiere von Arnold Lang. 2te Aufl. tIste Lief. 1900. Science, n.s., vol. 13, No. 337, pp. 945-946, June 14. Review of The seabeach at ebbtide: A guide to the study of the sea- weeds and the lower animal life found between tidemarks, by Augusta Foote Arnold. The Nation, vol. 72, No. 1877, p. 498, June 20. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 73 TAT: *1148. *T 140. *T 150. ne5 1. 1152. SiGe 1154. 1155. 1156. = m7s 1158. 1150. *T160. 1161. 1162. *1163. *T164. 1165. *T 166. 1167. *1 168. A gigantic fossil Lucina. Nautilus, vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 40-42, July 30. Synopsis of the Lucinacea and of the American species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 23, No. 1237, pp. 779-833, pls. 39-42, Aug. 22. [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] A new Californian Bittium. Nautilus, vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 58-50, Sept. 3. Review of Studies in evolution, by C. E. Beecher. Yale Bicentennial Publication. The Nation, vol. 73, No. 1894, p. 301, Oct. 17. Review of Key to the birds of the Hawaiian group, by William Alanson Bryan. Bishop Mus. Mem., vol. 1, pt. 3. The Nation, vol. 73, No. _ 1894, p. 302, Oct. 17. The Harriman expedition. [Review of Alaska, vols. 1 and 2.] The Nation, vol. 73, No. 18094, pp. 303-304, Oct. 17. [Co-author with Charles Torrey Simpson of] The Mollusca of Porto Rico. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, pp. 351-524, pls. 53-58, November. Review of Zoology; an elementary text-book, by A. E. Shipley and E. W. MacBride. Cambridge Nat. Sci. Man., Biol. Ser. The Nation, vol. 73, No. 1897, pp. 359-360, Nov. 7. Review of Manual on Protozoa by Gary N. Calkins. Columbia Univ. Biol. Ser. The Nation, vol. 73, No. 1901, p. 436, Dec. 5. Review of Treatise on Zoology, edited by E. Ray Lankester. Pt. 4. Platyhelmia, Mesozoa, Nemertini, by W. B. Benham. The Nation, vol. 73, No. 1901, p. 436, Dec. 5. A new species of Liomesus. Nautilus, vol. 15, No. 8, pp. 89-90, Dec. 7. [Review of the new edition of the history and origin of the Smithsonian Institution, by W. J. Rhees. Vol. 1.] The Nation, vol. 73, No. 1902, p. 456, Dec. 12. 1902 Alaska. New vols. Encycl. Brit., roth ed., vol. 25, pp. 240-243. Lamarck, the founder of evolution. [Review of Lamarck the founder of evolution, his life and work, by Alpheus S. Packard. t1go1.] Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 263-264, January. Memories and hopes. [Poem on the death of a son.] Privately printed, January. ; Review of The great deserts and forests of North America, by Paul Fountain. The Nation, vol. 74, No. 1905, p. 20, Jan. 2. On the true nature of Tamiosoma. Science, n.s., vol. 15, No. 366, pp. 5-7, ans 3: A new species of Volutomitra. Nautilus, vol. 15, No. 9, pp. 102-103, Jan. 8. On the death of Agassiz. [Poem.] Christian Advocate, vol. 77, No. 3, p. 94, Jan. 16. Prof. Alpheus Hyatt. [Obituary.] The Washington (D. C.) Post, Jane 17; p: To: The Alaskan boundary. [Criticism of a letter by Arthur Johnston on the Alaskan boundary, appearing in The Nation, vol. 74, No. 1908, pp. 69-70, Jan. 23.] The Nation, vol. 74, No. 1909, pp. 91-92, Jan. 30. Alpheus Hyatt. [Obituary.] Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 60, No. 5, pp. 439- 441, March. 74 *T160. 1170. 1171. LIZZ. *TI73: 1174. 1175. 1170. 1177. *1178. 1170. *1 180. *LIGL. 1182. *T 183. *T184. *7T IOS. 1186. 1187. *7188. *T 180. 1190. 1191. *T1Q2. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Note on the names Elachista and Pleurotomaria. Nautilus, vol. 15, No. 11, p. 127, Mar. 6. Review of Touring Alaska and the Yellowstone, by Charles M. Taylor, Jr. The Nation, vol. 74, No. 1915, p. 218, Mar. 13. Review of Musings by campfire and wayside, by William Cunningham Gray. The Nation, vol. 74, No. 1916, p. 236, Mar. 20. Apaches brothers to Eskimo. The Sun, New York, Mar. 23, pt. 2, p. 10. Illustrations and descriptions of new, unfigured, or imperfectly known shells, chiefly American, in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 24, No. 1264, pp. 499-566, pls. 27-40, Mar. 31. Review of The Alasko-Canadian frontier, by Thomas Willing Balch. Reprinted from Journ. Franklin Inst. The Nation, vol. 74, No. 1918, p. 260, Apr. 3. Review of The land of Nome, by Lanier McKee. The Nation, vol. 74, No. 1919, p. 296, Apr. Io. Botanical nomenclature. Science, n.s., vol. 15, No. 384, p. 749, May 9. On the definition of some modern sciences. Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 61, No. 2, pp. 99-102, June. Notes on the giant limas. Nautilus, vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 15-17, June 2. Review of The white world: Life and adventures within the Arctic Circle, portrayed by famous living explorers, edited by Rudolph Kersting for the Arctic Club. The Nation, vol. 75, No. 1933, p. 59, July 17. Review of Reports of the Princeton University expedition to Patagonia, 1896-1899. IV. Palaeontology. Part IJ. Tertiary Invertebrates, by A. E. Ortmann. Science, n.s., vol. 16, No. 304, pp. 111-112, July 18. Zoological nomenclature. Science, n.s., vol. 16, No. 305, pp. 150-151, July 25. ; Review of Finland as it is, by Harry de Windt. The Nation, vol. 75, No. 1935, p. 100, July 31. New species of Pacific coast shells. Nautilus, vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 43-44, Aug. 2. Review of Observations on living Brachiopoda, by E. S. Morse. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem. The Nation, vol. 75, No. 1937, p. 130, Aug. 14. Dr. J. G. Cooper. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 16, No. 398, pp. 268- 269, Aug. I5. Review of Fauna Hawaiiensis, vol. 3, pt. 1, A monograph of the Hawaiian Diptera, by P. H. Grimshaw. The Nation, vol. 75, No. 1938, pp. 152-153, Aug. 21. The Alaska boundary. The Evening Post, New York, Sept. 27, p. 4. Questions de nomenclature. Réponses a la question. II. Rey. Crit. _ Paléozool., vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 223-224, October. On the genus Gemma, Deshayes. Journ. Conch., vol. 10, No. 8, pp. 238- 243) (Octy I. The Alaska boundary. The Nation, vol. 75, No. 1944, pp. 258-259, Oct. 2. (Same as No. 1187.) Memories and hopes. [Poem on the death of a son.] Christian Register, vol. 81, No. 44, p. 1272, Oct. 30. (Same as No. 1161.) Note on Neocorbicula Fischer. Nautilus, vol. 16, No. 7, pp. 82-83, Nov. 3. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 75 1103. *TIO4. 1195. *T100. 1197. *T 108. T1990. *7 200. *T 201. *1 202. *1203. 1204. *1205. 1200. *1207. 1208. *1200. *1210. 1211. *I212. Review of My dogs in the northland, by Rev. Edgerton R. Young. The Nation, vol. 75, No. 1949, p. 361, Nov. 6. [Notes on viviparity in Corbicula and Cardita.] Science, n.s., vol. 16, No. 410, pp. 743-744, Nov. 7. [Remarks at memorial meeting for Major John Wesley Powell.] Science, n.s., vol. 16, No. 411, pp. 783-784, Nov. 14. [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] A new Rissoa from California. Nautilus, vol. 16, No. 8, p. 94, Dec. 3. Jack London’s local color. [A criticism.] New York Times Saturday Review of Books and Art, vol. 7, No. 49, Dec. 6. The Grand Gulf formation. Science, n.s., vol. 16, No. 415, pp. 946-947, Dee.122 On the preservation of the marine animals of the northwest coast. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1901, pp. 683-688, Dec. 15. Synopsis of the family Veneridae and of the North American recent species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 26, No. 1312, pp. 335-412, pls. 12- 16, Dec. 29. 1903 A preliminary catalogue of the shell-bearing marine mollusks and brachiopods of the southeastern coast of the United States, with illustrations of many of the species. Reprint, to which are added 21 plates not in the edition of 1889. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, new ed., pp. 1-232, pls. 1-95. A new Crassatellites from Brazil. Nautilus, vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 101-102, Jan.’ 5: Hawaiian Physidae. Nautilus, vol. 16, No. 9, p. 106, Jan. 5. Jack London’s Indians. New York Times Saturday Review of Books and Art, vol. 8, No. 2, p. 26, Jan. 10. Synopsis of the Carditacea and of the American species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1903, vol. 54, pt. 4, pp. 696-716. (Jan. 20.) Review of Farther north than Nansen, by Howard Wilford Bell. The Nation, vol. 76, No. 1964, p. 151, Feb. 19. Review of the classification of the Cyrenacea. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 16, pp. 5-8. (Feb. 21.) Review of The Alaska frontier, by Thomas Willing Balch. The Nation, vol. 76, No. 1970, p. 271, April 2. [A note on the name Miodon.] Nautilus, vol. 16, No. 12, p. 143, Apr. II. [Additions to] Biographical memoir of Augustus Addison Gould, 1805- 1866, by Jeffries Wyman. Nat. Acad. Sci. Biogr. Mem., vol. 5, pp. 93- 113. (May.) Review of The autobiography of Joseph Le Conte, edited by William Dallam Armes. The Nation, vol. 76, No. 1982, pp. 522-523, June 25. Review of Index Animalium, sive index nominum quae ab. A.D. MDCCLVIII, generibus et speciebus animalium imposita sunt, by C. Davies Sherborn. Part 1, January 1758 to December 1800. Science, n.s., vol. 17, No. 443, pp. 1003-1005, June 26. 76 *T213: +1204 S125. *I216. 1207. 1218. *T 210; *1220. *1221. *1222) *1223. 1224. *T 225, 1226. F227 1228. *1220,. 1230. 1231. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] Pyramidellidae, in The paleontology and stratigraphy of the marine Pliocene and Pleistocene of San Pedro, California, by Ralph Arnold. Mem. California Acad. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 269-285, pls. 1-2, fig. 14 of pl. 4, June 27. Rectifications et questions de nomenclature. Rev. Crit. Paléozool., vol. 7, p. 180, July. Synopsis of the family Astartidae, with a review of the American species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 26, No. 1342, pp. 933-951, pls. 62- 63, July to. The Grand Gulf formation. Science, n.s., vol. 18, No. 446, pp. 83-85, July 17. Review of On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea, by H. R. H. Luigi Amadeo of Savoy, Duke of the Abruzzi. The Nation, vol. 77, No. 1986, p. 80, July 23. Review of Reports of the Princeton University expeditions to Patagonia, 1896-1899. I. Narrative and geography, by J. B. Hatcher. Science, n.s., vol. 18, No. 448, pp. 146-147, July 31. Two new mollusks from the west coast of America. Nautilus, vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 37-38, Aug. 12. A new species of Metzsgeria. Nautilus, vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 51-52, Sept. 4. Note on the family Septidae. Nautilus, vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 55-56, Sept. 4. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida with especial reference to the silex. beds of Tampa and the Pliocene beds of the Caloosa- hatchie River, including in many cases a complete revision of the generic groups treated of and their American Tertiary species. Part VI. Concluding the work. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. Phila- delphia, vol. 3, pt. 6, pp. 1219-1654, pls. 48-60, October. A new genus of Trochidae. Nautilus, vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 61-62, Oct. 7. Review of A treatise on zodlogy, edited by E. Ray Lankester. Part 1. Second fascicle. The Nation, vol. 77, No. 2001, p. 369, Nov. 5. Mrs. Henrietta H. T. Wolcott. [Obituary notice.] Nautilus, vol. 17, No. 7, pp. 83-84, Nov. 6. Review of In search of a Siberian Klondike, narrated by W. B. Vander- lip and edited by H. B. Hulbert. The Nation, vol. 77, No. 2008, p. 512, Dec. 24. Diagnoses of new species of mollusks from the Santa Barbara Channel, California. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 16, pp. 171-176. (Dec. 31.) 1904 Marcus Baker, September 23, 1849-December 12, 1903. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 15, No. 1, "pp. 40-43, fig., January. Gundlachia and Ancylus. Nautilus, vol. 17, No. 9, pp. 97-98, Jan. 8. [Remarks in tribute to Marcus Baker at meeting of the District of Columbia Library Association.] The Evening Star, Washington, Dy GC. Jangiappey: On the geology of the Hawaiian Islands. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 4, vol. 17 (vol. 167), No. 98, p. 177, February. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 77 Frage. *1233. *1234. *1235. *1236. #1237. *1238. 1239. 1240. *I241. 1242. *1243. *1244. *1245. 1246. 71247. *7248. 1249. 1250. [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] Synopsis of the genera, subgenera and sections of the family Pyramidellidae. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. 17, pp. 1-16. (Feb. 5.) Notes on the nomenclature of the Pupacea and associated forms. Nautilus, vol. 17, No. 10, pp. 114-116, Feb. 6. Neozoic invertebrate fossils, a report on collections made by the expedition. Harriman Alaska Exped., vol. 4, pp. 99-122, pls. 9-10, March. A new species of Periploma from California. Nautilus, vol. 17, No. 11, pp. 122-123, Mar. 5. Charles Emerson Beecher. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 19, No. 481, pp. 453-455, Mar. 18. Notes on the genus Ampullaria, Journ. Conch., vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 50-55, Apr od. Review of The Harriman Alaska Expedition. Vol. 3, Glaciers and glaciation, by Grove Karl Gilbert; vol. 4, Geology and paleontology, by B. K. Emerson, Charles Palache, William H. Dall, E. O. Ulrich, and F. H. Knowlton; vol. 5, Cryptogamic botany, by William Trelease and others. The Nation, vol. 78, No. 2024, p. 206, Apr. 14. Reports of the Belgian Antarctic expedition. [Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica, en 1897-8-9, sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Rapports scientifiques.] Science, n.s., vol. 19, No. 486, pp. 656-650, Apr. 22. Review of Forward, by Lina Boegli. The Nation, vol. 78, No. 2026, p. 332, Apr. 28. A singular Eocene Turbinella. Nautilus, vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 9-10, May 5. Review of A Norwegian ramble. The Nation, vol. 78, No. 2028, p. 371, May 12. Namatogaean or epigaean? Science, n.s., vol. 19, No. 494, p. 926, June 17. Dr. J. C. McConnell. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 20, No. 501, p. 188, Aug. 5. An historical and systematic review of the frog-shells and tritons. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 47, No. 1475, pp. 114-144, Aug. 6. An American tribute to Sir William Henry Flower. (From C. J. Cornish’s Life of Sir William Henry Flower.) Publishers’ Circular, London, vol. 81, No. 1993, p. 252, Sept. Io. Currents of the North Pacific. Science, n.s., vol. 20, No. 500, pp. 4306- 437, Sept. 30. The relations of the Miocene of Maryland to that of other regions and to the recent fauna. Maryland Geol. Surv., Miocene, pp. CXXXIX- CLY, October. Review of The Harriman Alaska Expedition. Vol. 10, Crustaceans, by Mary J. Rathbun, Harriet Richardson, S. J. Holmes, and Leon J. Cole. Science, n.s., vol. 20, No. 510, pp. 462-464, Oct. 7. Review of Natural history of some common animals, by O. H. Latter. Cambridge Biological Series. The Nation, vol. 79, No. 2050, p. 204, Oct. 13. 1251. *1260. *T 270, 70271. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Belgian Antarctic expedition. [Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897, 1808, 1899, Zodlogie. Nématodes libres.] Science, n.s., vol. 20, No. 512, p. 536, Oct. 21. [Letter on the use of Bolten’s names.] Nautilus, vol. 18, No. 7, p. 84, Nov. 7. . Review of The island of tranquil delights, by Charles Warren Stoddard. The Nation, vol. 79, No. 2056, p. 416, Nov. 24. . Review of Far and near, by John Burroughs. The Nation, vol. 79, No. 2057, pp. 445-446, Dec. 1. . Review of The life and work of E. J. Peck among the Eskimos, by the Rev. Arthur Lewis. The Nation, vol. 79, No. 2058, p. 467, Dec. 8. 1905 Volupia rugosa Defrance. Paleontol. Univ., ser. 2, fasc. 1, pp. 76-76a. [Co-author with Charles Schuchert, T. W. Stanton, and R. S. Bassler of] Catalogue of the type specimens of fossil invertebrates, in the Department of Geology, United States National Museum. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 53, pt. 1, sec. I, pp. I-704. . Land and fresh-water mollusks. Harriman Alaska Exped., vol. 13, pp. I-171, pls. 1-2, text figs. 1-118. . Note on the name Glycymeris. Journ. Conch., vol. 11, No. 5, pp. 145- 146, Jan. I. . On the relations of the land and fresh-water mollusk-fauna of Alaska and eastern Siberia. Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 66, No. 4, pp. 362-366, February. . Note on Lucina (Miltha) childreni Gray and on a new species from the Gulf of California. Nautilus, vol. 18, No. 10, pp. 110-112, Feb. 11. . Note on some preoccupied names of mollusks. Nautilus, vol. 18, No. 10, p. 113, Feb. 11. . Names in the Pupillidae. Nautilus, vol. 18, No. 10, pp. 114-116, Feb. 11. . Review of In the Yukon, by William Seymour Edwards. The Nation, vol. 80, No. 2068, p. 41, Feb. 16. . Some new species of mollusks from California. Nautilus, vol. 18, No. 11, pp. 123-125, Mar. 6. . Notes on the fossils of the Bahamas. Science, n.s., vol. 21, No. 532, pp. 390-301, Mar. to. . An arrangement of the American Cyclostomatidae, with a revision of the nomenclature. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 208- 210 Marantz . Review of The lure of the Labrador wild: The story of the exploring expedition conducted by Leonidas Hubbard, Jr., by Dillon Wallace. The Nation, vol. 80, No. 2074, p. 256, Mar. 30. Fossils of the Bahama Islands with a list of the non-marine mollusks. In The Bahama: Islands, pp. 23-47, pls. 11-13. April. Geogr. Soc. Baltimore. Note on the genus Aporema Dall. Nautilus, vol. 18, No. 12, p. 143, Apr. Io. Note on Trichodina Ancey. Nautilus, vol. 18, No. 12, p. 143, Apr. 10. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 79 *1272, 1273. *1274. “1275. 1276. 1277. *1278, 1270. *1 280. *1281. *1 282. 1283. 1284. 1285. 1286. 1287. *1288. *1 280. *1 290. 1291. “T2202. [Discussion on the time element in stratigraphy and correlation.] Science, n.s., vol. 21, No. 537, pp. 584-585, Apr. 14. Reports of the Belgian Antarctic expedition. [Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1877-8-9, sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Rapports scientifiques.] Science, n.s., vol. 21, No. 538, pp. 624-625, Apr. 21. Report on land and fresh water shells collected in the Bahamas in 1904, by Mr. Owen Bryant and others. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 47, No. 1566, pp. 433-452, pls. 58-59, Apr. 27. Two undescribed Californian shells. Nautilus, vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 14-15, June 5. Review of Half-hours with the lower animals, by C. F. Holder. The Nation, vol. 80, No. 2086, p. 501, June 22. Review of The young folks’ cyclopaedia of natural history, by John Denison Champlin with cooperation of Frederic A. Lucas. The Nation, vol. 80, No. 2086, p. 509, June 22. A new genus and several new species of landshells collected in central Mexico by Doctor Edward Palmer. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 48, No. 1590, pp. 187-194, pls. 43-44, figs. 22-25, July 1. Review of Alaska and the Klondike, by John Scudder McLain. The Nation, vol. 81, No. 2088, pp. 19-20, July 6. : Note on a variety of Crepidula nivea C. B. Adams, from San Pedro, California. Nautilus, vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 26-27, July 1o. Note on the earliest use of the generic name Purpura in binomial nomen- clature. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 18, p. 189. (July 12.) Note on the name Hendersonia. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 18, p. 189. (July 12.) Review of Antarctica; or, two years amongst the ice of the South Pole, by Nils Otto G. Nordenskjold. The Nation, vol. 81, No. 2080, pp. 39- 40, July 13. Marcus Baker, 1849-1903. [Obituary notice.] Bull. Philos. Soc. Wash- ington, vol. 14, pp. 277-285, August. John Wesley Powell, 1834-1902. [Obituary notice.] Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 14, pp. 300-308, August. July 4 in Japan. The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1, p. 10. Review of Early Dutch and English voyages to Spitsbergen in the seventeenth century, edited with notes by Sir Martin Conway. The Nation, vol. 81, No. 2094, pp. 151-152, Aug. 17. A new proserpinoid land shell from Brazil. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. 18, pp. 201-202. (Sept. 2.) A new chiton from the New England coast. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. 18, pp. 203-204. (Sept. 2.) Note on the name Hendersonia. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 48, p. 239, Sept. 8. (Same as No. 1282.) Review of The Faroes and Iceland: Studies in island life, by Nelson Annandale with an appendix on the Celtic pony, by F. H. A. Marshall. The Nation, vol. 81, No. 2098, pp. 225-226, Sept. 14. Thomas Martyn and the Universal Conchologist. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 29, No. 1425, pp. 415-432, Oct. 6. *1 200. 1207. *7 208. *1200. *1300. FIZOI. 1302. *1303. *T 304. 1305. *1306. 1307. *1308. *1300.. 1310. 1311, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 . Death of Capt. Herendeen. The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., Nov. 7, p. 2. . Review of Evolution, racial and habitudinal, by Rev. John T. Gulick. Science, n.s., vol. 22, No. 567, pp. 593-5904, Nov. Io. . A new chiton from the New England coast. Nautilus, vol. 19, No. 8, pp. 88-90, pl. 4, Dec. 8. 1906 Review of The Pelecypoda of the Miocene of Maryland, by Leonidas Chalmers Glenn. 1899. Vanderbilt Univ. Quart., vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 70- 71, January. The Belgian Antarctic expedition. [Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. “Belgica” en 1897-98-99, sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Rapports scientifiques. Zoologie: Organogénie des Pinnipédes.] Science, n.s., vol. 23, No. 575, p. 31, Jan. 5. Note on some forgotten mollusk-names. Nautilus, vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 104-105, Jan. 6. Note on Vitrina Pfeifferi Deshayes. Nautilus, vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 107- 108, Jan. 6. On a new Floridian Calliostoma. Nautilus, vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 131-132, * Mar. o. Early history of the generic name Fusus. Journ. Conch., vol. 11, No. 10, pp. 289-297, Apr. I. Review of Vikings of the Pacific, by A. C. Laut. The Nation, vol. 82, No. 2127, pp. 286-287, Apr. 5. Note on some names in the Volutidae. Nautilus, vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 143-144, Apr. 5. [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] Notes on Japanese, Indo-Pacific, and American Pyramidellidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 30, No. 1452, Pp. 321-369, pls. 17-26, May og. The Belgian Antarctic expedition. [Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. “Belgica” en 1897-1898-1899, sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Rapports scientifiques. Botanique: ~Les Phanérogames des Terres Magellaniques.] Science, n.s., vol. 23, No. 600, pp. 977-978, June 20. Biographical memoir of Charles Emerson Beecher. 1856-1904. Nat. Acad. Sci. Biogr. Mem., vol. 6, pp. 57-70, portrait. (August.) Reminiscences of Yukon exploration. Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 69, No. 2, pp. 128-137, August. Note on the genus Glabaris Gray or Patularia Swainson. Nautilus, vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 39-40, Aug. 18. A new Scala from California. Nautilus, vol. 20, No. 4, p. 44, Aug. 18. Volcanic action causes a new island to bob up. The Baltimore Sun, Sept. 9, p. 12. 1907 [Review of the new edition of the history and origin of the Smithsonian Institution, by W. J. Rhees. Vol. 2.] The Nation, vol. 74, No. 1907, p. 52, Jan. 16. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 81 71302. ¥1 313. *1314. *I315. *1316. *1317, *1318. *13I10. *1320. *132T. *1322, 1323. ¥1 324. *1325,. 1326. ¥r327, 1328. 1320. 1330. A review of the American Volutidae. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 48, No. 1663, pp. 341-373, Feb. 4. A new Cardium from Puget Sound. Nautilus, vol. 20, No. 10, pp. I1I- 112, Feb. 12. Three new species of Scala from California. Nautilus, vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 127-128, Mar. 4. Note on the genus Psilocochlis Dall. Nautilus, vol. 20, No. 11, p. 128, Mar. 4. . Notes on some Upper Cretaceous Volutidae, with descriptions of new species and a revision of the groups to which they belong. ‘Smith- sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 50, No. 1704, pp. 1-23, figs. 1-13, Mar. 7. [Letter on some fossil Volutidae.] Nautilus, vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 142- 143, Apr. 12. On climatic conditions at Nome, Alaska, during the Pliocene, and on a new species of Pecten from the Nome gold-bearing gravels. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 4, vol. 23 (vol. 173), No. 138, pp. 457-458, text fig., June. A new Cerithium from the Florida Keys. Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 2, p. 22, June 12. Descriptions of new species of shells, chiefly Buccinidae, from the dredgings of the U.S.S. “Albatross” during 1906, in the northwestern Pacific, Bering, Okhotsk, and Japanese Seas. Smithsonian Misc Coll., vol. 50, No. 1727, pp. 139-173, July 9. Dr. Montgomery’s proposed amendment to the rules of nomenclature. Science, n.s., vol. 26, No. 656, p. 117, July 26. Linnaeus as a zoologist. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 9, pp. 272- 274, July 31. The Antarctic expedition of the “Discovery,” under Capt. Scott, R.N., 1901-1904. [Review of The National Antarctic expedition, 1901-4. Natural history. Vol. 2, Zoology; vol. 3, Zoology and botany.] Science, n.s., vol. 26, No. 661, pp. 283-285, Aug. 30. On the synonymic history of the genera Clava Martyn, and Cerithium Bruguiére, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 50, pt. 2, pp. 363- 369. (Oct. 2.) Supplementary notes on Martyn’s Universal Conchologist. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 33, No. 1565, pp. 185-192, Oct. 23. What’s in a name among poets? The New York Times Saturday Review of Books and Art, vol. 12, No. 43, p. 687, Oct. 26. Memorandum of suggestions for the organization of a national concho- logical association or society. Bull. Brooklyn Conch. Club, vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 12-14, November. Ocean island gone. Of the Bogoslof group. The Evening Star, Wash- ington, D. C., Nov. II, p. II. Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897-9, sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Rapports scientifiques. Zoologie. Science, n.s., vol. 26, No. 672, pp. 660-661, Nov. 15. Review of National Antarctic expedition, 1901-1904, S.S. Discovery, commanded by Capt. Scott, R.N. Natural history. Vol. I, Geology. Science, n.s., vol. 26, No. 672, pp. 661-662, Nov. 15. 82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 *1331. On a Cymatium new to the Californian fauna. Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 85-86, Dec. 9. *1332. [Note on living Planorbis magnificus Pilsbry.] Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 8, p. 90, Dec. 9. *1333. [Note on J//lyanassa obsoleta Say on west coast.] Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 8, p. 91, Dec. 9. *1334. [A note on a sinistral Marginella apicina Menke.] Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 8, p. 91, Dec. 9. *1335. Memoranda of suggestions for the organization of an American concho- * logical association or society. Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 94-96, Dec. 9. *1336. [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] The pyramidellid mollusks of the Oregonian faunal area. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 33, No. 1574, PP. 491-534, pls. 44-48, Dec. 31. 1908 *1337. Henry Vendryes. [Obituary.] Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 9, p. 107, Jan. 3. *1338. Notes on Gonidea angulata Lea, a fresh-water bivalve, with description of a new variety. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 50, No. 1784, pp. 499- 500, Jan. 28. *1339. A new species of Cavolina, with notes on other pteropods. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 50, No. 1785, pp. 501-502, Jan. 28. *1340. Subdivisions of the Terebridae. Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 11, pp. 124-125, Mar. 7. *1341. Note on Turbonilla castanea and Odostomia montereyensis. Nautilus, VOL 2E MINOW Ie ps 13i, Mans 7. *1342. Some new California shells. Nautilus, vol. 21, No. 12, pp. 136-137, Apr. 4. *1343. A revision of the Solenomyacidae. Nautilus, vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 1-2, May o. *1344. Some notes on malacological nomenclature. Science, n.s., vol. 27, No. 699, pp. 827-828, May 22. *1345. Descriptions of new species of mollusks from the Pacific coast of the United States, with notes on other mollusks from the same region. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 34, No. 1610, pp. 245-257, June 16. *1346. Some new brachiopods. Nautilus, vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 28-30, July 16. *1347. A new West Indian Nitidella. Nautilus, vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 31-32, July 16. *1348. The Patagonian fauna. Results of the Hamburg Magellan expedition. [Review.] Amer. Naturalist, vol. 42, No. 500, pp. 562-565, August. *1349. [Reports on the dredging operations off the west coast of Central - America to the Galapagos, to the west coast of Mexico, and in the Gulf of California, in charge of Alexander Agassiz, carried on by the U. S. Fish Commission steamer “Albatross,” during 1891, Lieut.- Commander Z. L. Tanner, U.S.N., commanding. XXXVII. Reports on the scientific results of the expedition to the eastern tropical Pacific, in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U. S. Fish Commission steamer “Albatross,” from October, 1904, to March, 1905, Lieut.-Commander L. M. Garrett, U.S.N., commanding.] XIV. The Mollusca and NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 83 *1350. 235. sate Gee *1353. *1354. 1355. *1356. *1357. 1358. *1350. *1360. *1361. *1362. 71303: *1 364. 1365. *1 366. *1367. *1368. *1360. 41370. Brachiopoda. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 43, No. 6, pp. 205-487, pls. 1-22, October. Zur Terminologie der Mollusken-Skulptur. Nachrichtsbl. Malacozool. Ges., vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 158-159, Oct. 20. Note on Planorbis and its subdivisions. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 8, No. 3, p. 141, Nov. 5. Descriptions and figures of some land and fresh-water shells from Mexico, believed to be new. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 35, No. 1642, pp. 177-182, pls. 29-30, Nov. 10. A gigantic Solemya and a new Vesicomya. Nautilus, vol. 22, No. 7, pp. 61-63, Nov. 14. Another large Miocene Scala. Nautilus, vol. 22, No. 8, pp. 80-81, Dec. Tt. Review of National Antarctic expedition. Vol. 4, Zoology. Science, n.s., vol. 28, No. 730, pp. 923-924, Dec. 25. 1909 Biographical memoir of William More Gabb, 1839-1878. Nat. Acad. Sci. Biogr. Mem., vol. 6, pp. 347-361, portrait. (March.) A new species of Pholadomya. Nautilus, vol. 22, No. 11, pp. 115-117, Mar. It. Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 18097, 1808, 1890, sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Rapports scientifiques. Science, n.s., vol. 29, No. 741, p. 421, Mar. 12. Contributions to the Tertiary paleontology of the Pacific coast. I. The Miocene of Astoria and Coos Bay, Oregon. U. S, Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap. 59, pp. 1-278, pls. 1-23, figs. 1-14, Apr. 2. Some notes on Cypraca of the Pacific Coast. Nautilus, vol. 22, No. 12, pp. 125-126, Apr. 14. Note on Pholadomya pacifica Dall. Nautilus, vol. 22, No. 12, pp. 142- 143, Apr. 14. Paradione, n.n., vice Chionella. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 8, No. 4, p. 197, May 7. Further data on Poli’s generic names. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 251-252, May 7. Some new South American land shells. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 52, No. 1866, pp. 361-364, pl. 37, May 11. Fru Signe Rink. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 29, No. 751, p. 806, May 21. A nomenclatorial court? Science, n.s., vol. 30, No. 761, pp. 147-149, July 30. Robert Edwards Carter Stearns. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 30, No. 765, pp. 279-280, Aug. 27. Notes on the relations of the molluscan fauna of the Peruvian zoological province. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 43, No. 513, pp. 532-541, September. Conditions governing the evolution and distribution of Tertiary faunas. Journ. Geol., vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 493-502, September. Ludwig Rudolph Sophus Bergh. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 30, No. 766, p. 304, Sept. 3. 6 84 1371. Tg72. *1373. *1374. *1375. 1370. *1378. *1379. *1380. *T 381. 1380, *71 383. *1384. Ie Ss. *1 386. 1387. *1 388. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Reasons for crediting Cook’s discovery. The Transcript, Boston, Sept. 4, pe 2p. 2. Dr. R. E. C. Stearns. [Obituary.] Nautilus, vol. 23, No. 5, pp. 70-72, Oct} 2: Review of The opisthobranchiate Mollusca of the Branner-Agassiz expe- dition to Brazil, by Frank Mace Macfarland. Science, n.s., vol. 30, No. 774, pp. 602-603, Oct. 209. Report on a collection of shells from Peru, with a summary of the littoral marine Mollusca of the Peruvian zoological province. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 37, No. 1704, pp. 147-204, pls. 20-28, Nov. 24. [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] A monograph of West American pyramidellid mollusks. U. S. Nat. Bull. 68, pp. 1-258, pls. 1-30, Dec. 13. Review of Croisiére Océanographique accomplie a bord de la Belgica dans la Mer du Gronland, 1905. Duc d’Orleans. Science, n.s., vol. 30, No. 783, pp. 969-970, Dec. 31. IgIO [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] New species of shells collected by Mr. John Macoun at Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Canada Dep. Mines, Geol. Surv. Branch, Mem. No. 14-N, Ppp. 5-22, pls. 1-2. Notes on post-glacial evidences of climatic changes in North America as indicated by marine fossils. Die Veranderungen des Klimas seit dem Maximum der letzten Eiszeit, pp. 365-366. Stockholm. Description of two new pulmonate mollusks with a list of other species from the Solomon Islands collected by Doctor G, A. Dorsey. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. 139, Zool. Ser., vol. 7, No. 8, pp. 215-221, pl. 4, February. New species of West American shells. Nautilus, vol. 23, No. 11, pp. 133-136, Apr. 15. Note on the summary of the Mollusca of the Peruvian province. Nautilus, vol. 23, No. 11, p. 144, Apr. 15. A new Floridian Anmicola. Nautilus, vol. 24, No. 1, p. 2, May tro. Report on the Brachiopoda obtained from the Indian Ocean by the Sealark expedition, 1905. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, ser. 2, vol. 13, pt. 3, pp. 439-441, pl. 26, June. List of shells collected by Dr. John I. Northrop in the Bahamas, identi- fied by Prof. William Healey Dall, Smithsonian Institution. Jn A naturalist in the Bahamas, pp. 99-102, June. On some land shells collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham in Peru. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 38, No. 1736, pp. 177-182, text figs. 1-4, June 6. Summary of the shells of the genus Conus from the Pacific coast of America in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 38, No. 1741, pp. 217-228, June 6. Review of National Antarctic expedition, 1901-1904. Natural history. Vol. 5. Science, n.s., vol. 31, No. 808, pp. 989-990, June 24. New shells from the Gulf of California. Nautilus, vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 32- 34, July 6. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 85 *1380. 1390. *1301. *1302. *1303. *1304. *1305. *1300. *1397. *1308. *1300. *T 400. *T4OI. 1402. *1 403. *1 404. *T405. *1 400. 1407. 1408. *1 400. *T4I0. *IATI. Two new Mexican landshells. Nautilus, vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 34-36, July 6. Review of Tent life in Siberia. Adventures among the Koraks and other tribes in Kamchatka and northern Asia, by George Kennan. Science, n.s., vol. 32, No. 810, p. 60, July 8. New landshells from the Smithsonian African Expedition. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 56, No. 10 (Publ. 1945), pp. 1-3, text figs. 1-3, July 22. i Notes on Davisia and Malvinasia. Nautilus, vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 47-48, Aug. 2. Notes on California shells. Nautilus, vol. 24, No. 8, pp. 95-96, Dec. 12. Description of a new genus and species of bivalve from the Coronado Islands, Lower California. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 23, pp. 171-172. (Dec. 29.) IQgII Mollusca——Shells and shellfish. Boy Scouts of America. The official handbook for boys. Pp. 94-97. Notes on California shells (11). Nautilus, vol. 24, No. 10, pp. 109-112, Feb. 4. Notes on Gundlachia and Ancylus. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 45, No. 531, pp. 175-189, March. Notes on California shells. III. Nautilus, vol. 24, No. 11, pp. 124-127, Mar. 6. Biographical sketch of Robert Edwards Carter Stearns. /n Bibliography of scientific writings of R. E. C. Stearns, by Mary R. Stearns. Smith- sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 56, No. 18 (Publ. 2007), pp. 1-3, Apr. 11. [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] New species of shells from Bermuda. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 40, No. 1820, pp. 277-288, pl. 35, May 8. W. G. W. Harford. [Obituary.] Nautilus, vol. 25, No. 1, p. 8, May ro. Charles M. Scammon. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 33, No. 858, p. 887, June 9. A giant Admete from Bering Sea. Nautilus, vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 19-20, June 16. Nature of Tertiary and modern marine faunal barriers and currents. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 22, pp. 218-220, June 23. Biographical memoir of Charles Abiathar White, 1826-1910. Nat. Acad. Sci. Biogr. Mem., vol. 7, pp. 223-243, portrait. (July.) A new Leptothyra from California. Nautilus, vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 25-26, July 5. Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 18097, 1898, 1899, sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Science, n.s., vol. 34, No. 866, pp. 156-157, Aug. 4. Review of The subantarctic islands of New Zealand. 1909. Science, n.s., vol. 34, No. 866, pp. 157-158, Aug. 4. Review of A monograph of the Naiades of Pennsylvania, by A. E. Ortmann. Science, n.s., vol. 34, No. 868, pp. 214-215, Aug. 18. The nomenclature of the Veneridae. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 9, pt. 6, pp. 349-351, Sept. 9. Prof. Josiah Keep. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 34, No. 873, p. 371, Sept. 22. 1420. 1421. *1422, PiAzZ3. *1 424, *1 425. *1426. 1427. 1428. *1 420. *1 430. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 . “Washington Science.” Science, n.s., vol. 34, No. 874, pp. 405-407, Sept. 29. * [Footnote on the jaw of Sphyradium, in The American species of Sphyradium with an inquiry as to the generic relationships, by G. Dallas Hanna.] Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 41, No. 1865, p. 372, Oct. 14. Professor Josiah Keep. [Obituary.] Nautilus, vol. 25, No. 6, pp. 61-62, Oct. 19. (Same as No. 1411.) . Review of Ka hana kapa: The making of bark cloth in Hawaii, by W. T. Brigham. Science, n.s., vol. 34, No. 883, p. 768, Dec. 1. A new genus of bivalves from Bermuda. Nautilus, vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 85-86, Dec. 13. A new brachiopod from Bermuda. Nautilus, vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 86-87, Dec. 12: . A new California Eupleura. Nautilus, vol. 25, No. 8, p. 87, Dec. 13. Review of The British nudibranchiate Mollusca, by Alder and Hancock. Supplement by Sir Charles Eliot. Science, ns., vol. 34, No. 885, p. 849, Dec. 15. Review of Duc d’Orléans, Campagne arctique de 1907, by Charles Bulens. Science, n.s., vol. 34, No. 885, pp. 849-850, Dec. 15. IQI2 On the geological aspects of the possible human immigration between Asia and America. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 12-18, January (?). . New species of fossil shells from Panama and Costa Rica, collected by D. F. MacDonald. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 59, No. 2 (Publ. 2077), pp. 1-10, Mar. 2. Note on the genus Panope, Ménard. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 10, pt. I, pp. 34-35, Mar. 8. ; New Californian Mollusca. Nautilus, vol. 25, No. 11, pp. 127-120, Mar. 8. Report on landshells collected in Peru in 1911 by the Yale expedition under Professor Hiram Bingham, with descriptions of a new subgenus, a new species, and new varieties. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 59, No. 14 (Publ. 2092), pp. 1-12, text figs. 1-2, June 8. New species of landshells from the Panama Canal Zone. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 59, No. 18 (Publ. 2134), pp. 1-3, pls. 1-2, July 27. Recent Antarctic work. [Review of National Antarctic expedition, 1901-1904. Natural History. Vol. 6, Zoology and botany; and Expédition antarctique Francaise, 1903-1905, Commandée par le docteur Jean Charcot. Science, n.s., vol. 36, No. 919, p. 189-190, Aug. 9. A puzzling photograph. Science, n.s., vol. 36, No. 922, pp. 276-277; Aug. 30. Note on the genus Septa Perry (Triton Auct.). Nautilus, vol. 26, No. 5, pp. 58-59, Sept. 6. Mollusk fauna of northwest America. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia (2d ser.), vol. 15, pp. 243-248, Sept. 7. NO. I5 + WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 87 *1431. *1432. 1433. 1434. 1.435. *1 4306. *1437. *1438. *1 430. 1440. *I441. *T 442. 1443. *1 444. *1445. *1446. *IT 447, 1448. 1440. *T450. *I451. A remedy worse than the disease. Science, n.s., vol. 36, No. 924, pp. 344- 346, Sept. 13. Note on the generic name Pectunculus. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 10, pt. 3, pp. 255-256, Oct. 30. Review of Duc d’Orléans. Campagne arctique de 1907. Annélides Polychétes, by Pierre Fauvel; Crustacés Malacostracés, by Louis Stappers. Science, n.s., vol. 36, No. 935, p. 746, Nov. 29. Review of Scientific results of the voyage of S. Y. “Scotia” during the years 1902-1904. Vol. 3, Botany. Science, n.s., vol. 36, No. 936, Pp. 792-793, Dec. 6. IgI3 Feeding habits of Ariolimax. Nautilus, vol. 26, No. 9, p. 108, Jan. 4. Charles W. Gripp. [Obituary.] Nautilus, vol. 26, No. 11, p. 132, Mar. 4. Note on Cyprina islandica. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 10, pt. 4, p. 286, March 28. Shells collected at Manzanillo, west Mexico, Oct., 1910, by C. R. Orcutt, identified by William H. Dall. Nautilus, vol. 26, No. 12, p. 143, Apr. 2. Diagnoses of new shells from the Pacific Ocean. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 45, No. 2002, pp. 587-597, June IT. An Eskimo artist. The Nation, vol. 97, No. 2510, p. 121, Aug. 7. New species of the genus Mohnia from the North Pacific. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 65, pt. 2, pp. 501-504. (Aug. 109.) od [Co-author with Paul Bartsch of] New species of mollusks from the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Canada. Bull. No. 1, Victoria Mem. Mus., pp. 139-146, pl. 10, Oct. 23. The Belgian Antarctic expedition. [Review of Résultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897-8-9, sous le commandement de A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Rapports scientifiques.] Science, n.s., vol. 38, No. 988, pp. 819-820, Dec. 5. On a brackish water Pliocene fauna of the southern coastal plain. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 46, No. 2023, pp. 225-237, pls. 20-22, Dec. 6. A new genus of Trochidae. Nautilus, vol. 27, No. 8, pp. 86-87, Dec. 1o. 1914 Mollusca.—Shells and shellfish. Boy Scouts Manual, Every Boy’s Library, vol. 80, pp. 114-117, 6 text figs. (Same as No. 1395.) Note on Clementia obliqua Jukes-Brown. Nautilus, vol. 27, No. 9, pp. 103-104, Jan. 2. Reply to the argument of the single taxers. The Evening Star, Wash- ington, D. C., Feb. 19, p. 22. Single tax. [A reply to Wm. W. Childs’ rejoinder to Dr. Dall’s remarks.] The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., Mar. 1, p. 8. Notes on some West American pectens. Nautilus, vol. 27, No. 11, pp. 121-122, Mar. Io. Notes on West American oysters. Nautilus, vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 1-3, May 16. mol. 1462. *1 463. *1 464. *1 465. *1 460. *1467. 1468. *1 460. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 . Notes on some northwest coast acmaeas. Nautilus, vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 13-15, June 13. < . Review of The life of the Mollusca, by B. B. Woodward. Science, ms., vol. 39, No. 1016, pp. 910-911, June 109. . Henry Hemphill. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 40, No. 1025, pp. 265- 266, Aug. 21. . Henry Hemphill. [Obituary.] Nautilus, vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 58-59, Sept. 22. (Same as No. 1454.) . Review of The Middle Triassic marine invertebrate faunas of North America, by James Perrin Smith. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. No. 83. Science, n.s., vol. 40, No. 1032, pp. 522-523. Oct. 9. . Notes on West American Emarginulinae. Nautilus, vol. 28, No. 6, pp. 62-64, Oct. 15. . Dr. Bateson’s presidential address. Science, n.s:, vol. 40, No. 1033, Pp. 554-555, Oct. 16. . Mollusca from South Georgia. Brooklyn Inst. Sci., Sci. Bull., vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 69-70, Nov. 5. . Review of British Antarctic “Terra Nova” expedition, 1910. Zoology, vol. 1, No. 1, Fishes, by C. Tate Regan. Science, n.s., vol. 40, No. 1038, p. 753, Nov. 20. 1915 Address—at the funeral [of Henry Gannett], in Hubbard Memorial Hall, November 8, 1914. /n Henry Gannett, President of the National Geographic Society 1910-1914, by S. N. D. North, pp. 27-28. Publ. by Nat. Geogr. Soc. Review of The Norwegian Aurora Polaris expedition, 1902-03. Vol. 1: On the cause of magnetic storms and the origin of terrestrial magne- tism, by Kr. Birkeland. Science, n.s., vol. 41, No. 1044, p. 29, Jan. 1. On some generic names first mentioned in the “Conchological Illustra- tions.” Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 48, No. 2079, pp. 437-440, Jan. 19. A monograph of the molluscan fauna of the Orthaulax pugnax zone of the Oligocene of Tampa, Florida.. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. go, pp. 1-173, pls. 1-26, Jan. 21. Notes on the Semelidae of the west coast of America, including some new species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 67, pp. 25-28. (March‘2.) The earliest notice of a species of the genus Gundlachia. Nautilus, vol. 28, No. 11, pp. 128-129, Mar. Io. An index to the Museum Boltenianum. Smithsonian Inst. Spec. Publ. 2360, p. 64, Mar. 29. Review of Russian expansion on the Pacific, 1641-1850; an account of the earliest and later expeditions made by the Russiahs along the Pacific coast of Asia and North America; including some related expeditions to the Arctic regions, by F. A. Golder. Amer. Hist. Rev., vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 626-627, April. A new species of Modiolaria from Bering Sea. Nautilus, vol. 28, No. 12, p. 138, Apr. 16. NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 89 1470. 1471. *1 472. *1473. 1474. *1475. *1476. *1477. 1478. *1470. *1 480. *T 481. 1482. *1 483. *T 484. *1485. *1 486. *1 487. 1488. Spencer Fullerton Baird. A biography, including selections from his correspondence with Audubon, Agassiz, Dana, and others. 462 pp., 19 illus., May 3. Philadelphia and London. Effect of neutrality. [Quotation from letter to Charles Hedley.] Sydney [Australia] Morning Herald, May 7. Notes on the West American species of Fusinus. Nautilus, vol. 29, No. 5, pp. 54-57, Sept. 4. Notes on American species of Mactrella. Nautilus, vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 61-63, Oct. II. Review of Scottish National Antarctic expedition. Report on the scientific results of the voyage of the Scotia, during the years 1902-4. Vol. IV, Zoology. Parts 2-20, Vertebrates. Science, n.s., vol. 42, No. 10090, pp. 731-732, Nov. 10. A review of some bivalve shells of the group Anatinacea from the west coast of America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 49, No. 2116, pp. 441- 456, Nov. 27. Review of The international rules of zoological nomenclature, with appendix and summaries of Opinions No. 1 to No. 56, by T. O. Small- wood. Science, n.s., vol. 42, No. 1092, p. 805, Dec. 3. Notes on the species of the molluscan subgenus Nucella inhabiting the northwest coast of America and adjacent regions. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 49, No. 2124, pp. 557-572, pls. 74-75, Dec. 11. 1916 “Oh God! Oh Montreal!” [A note on the authorship of the phrase.] The Dial, vol. 60, No. 709, p. 16, Jan. 6. Prodrome of a revision of the chrysodomoid whelks of the boreal and Arctic regions. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 29, pp. 7-8. (Jan. 25.) Two new bivalve shells from Uruguay. Nautilus, vol. 29, No. 10, pp. 112-113, Feb. 1. Note on the Oligocene of Tampa, Florida, the Panama Canal Zone, and the Antillian region. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 12, pt. 1, pp. 38-39, Mar. 20. The value of science to the student. English High School Record [Boston], vol. 31, No. 7, pp. 13-14, May. Notes on the California species of Adula. Nautilus, vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 1-3, May to. A new species of Onchidiopsis from Bering Sea. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 68, pp. 376-378. (June 21.) On the distribution of Pacific invertebrates. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 2, No. 7, p. 424, July. Biographical memoir of Theodore Nicholas Gill, 1837-1914. Nat. Acad. Sci. Biogr. Mem., vol. 8, pp. 313-343, portrait. (July.) Notes on the West American Columbellidae. Nautilus, vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 25-20, July 14. . George Kennan. [Biographical sketch.] The Outlook, vol. 113, No. 12, pp. 675-677, July 10. go * 1480. *1 490. *T4OQI. 1402. *1403. *1404. *1405. 1406. *1497. *1 408. *1400. *T500. *I501. *1502. *1503. *1504. *TS05. 1500. *T'507. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Checklist of the recent bivalve mollusks (Pelecypoda) of the northwest coast of America from the Polar Sea to San Diego, California. Southwest Mus., Los Angeles, Calif., pp. 1-44, portrait, July 28. Shells of Mt. Monadnock, N. H. Nautilus, vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 57-58, Sept. 28. A new Subemarginula from California. Nautilus, vol. 30, No. 6, p. 61, Nov. 6. Paper-saving suggestions. The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., Nov. 17, p. 5. ‘ . On some anomalies in geographic distribution of Pacific coast Mollusca. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 2, No. 12, pp. 700-703, December. ‘A contribution to the invertebrate fauna of the Oligocene beds of Flint River, Georgia. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 51, No. 2162, pp. 487-524, pls. 83-88, Dec. 21. } Diagnoses of new species of marine bivalve mollusks from the north- west coast of America in the United States National Museum. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 52, No. 2183, pp. 393-417, Dec. 27. 1917 Our brave little girls. [War poem.] Privately printed. Summary of the mollusks of the family Alectrionidae of the west coast of America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 51, No. 2166, pp. 575-579, Jan. 15. New Bulimulus from the Galapagos Islands and Peru. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 30, pp. 9-11. (Jan. 22.) Review of Atlantic slope arcas, by Pearl G. Sheldon. 1916. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 4, vol. 43 (vol. 193), No. 255, p. 251, March. Theodore Nicholas Gill. [Obituary.] Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1916, pp. 579-586, I pl., July. A new species of Astarte from Alaska. Nautilus, vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 10- 12, July 14. Notes on boreal land and freshwater shells. Nautilus, vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 12-13, July 14. Mrs. Maria Baldridge. [Obituary.] Nautilus, vol. 31, No. 1, p. 34, Jialy 314, ;,,. 04 Notes on the shells of the genus Epitonium and its allies of the Pacific coast of. America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 53, No. 2217, pp. 471- 488, Aug. 10. [Expedition of the California Academy of Sciences to the Galapagos Islands, 1905-1906.] XI. Preliminary descriptions of new species of pulmonata of the Galapagos Islands. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 2, pt. 1, No. 11, pp. 375-382, Dec. 31. 1918 The origin and early days of the Philosophical Society of Washington. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 29-34, Jan. 10. Description of new species of shells chiefly from Magdalena Bay, Lower California. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 31, pp. 5-8. (Feb. 27.) NO. I5 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. gI 1508. *T500. *T510. I511. ES 12: *1513. *I514. FIS25: *1526. *1527. On rendering cats harmless (to birds). Nat. Humane Rev., vol. 6, No. 4, p. 75, April. Notes on Chrysodomus and other mollusks from the North Pacific Ocean. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 54, No. 2234, pp. 207-234, April 5. Notes on the nomenclature of the mollusks of the family Turritidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 54, No. 2238, pp. 313-333, Apr. 5. Reminiscences of Alaskan volcanoes. Sci. Month., vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 80- 90, July. Notes on the genus Trachydermon Carpenter. Nautilus, vol. 32, No. 1, pp. I-3, July 20. ; Pleistocene fossils of Magdalena Bay, Lower California, collected by Charles Russell Orcutt. Nautilus, vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 23-26, July 20. Changes in and additions to molluscan nomenclature. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 31, pp. 137-138. (Nov. 29.) 191g . On some Tertiary fossils from the Pribilof Islands. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 1-3, Jan. 4. . Stylobates, a warning. Nautilus, vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 79-80, pl. 6, Jan. 17. . Note on Thyasira bisecta Conrad. Nautilus, vol. 32, No. 3, p. 103, Jane 172 . Review of British Antarctic (Terra Nova) expedition, 1910. Natural history report. Zoology, vol. 2, No. 8, Brachiopoda, by J. Wilfrid Jackson. Science, n.s., vol. 49, No. 1263, pp. 265-266, Mar. 14. . Descriptions of new species of chitons from the Pacific coast of America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 55, No. 2283, pp. 499-516, June 7. . A new form of Ampullaria. Nautilus, vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 10-11, July 16. . Note on the name Duplicaria. Nautilus, vol. 33, No. 1, p. 32, July 16. . Descriptions of new species of mollusks of the family Turritidae from the west coast of America and adjacent regions. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 56, No. 2288, pp. 1-86, pls. 1-24, Aug. 8. . Descriptions of new species of Mollusca from the North Pacific Ocean in the collection of the United States National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 56, No. 2295, pp. 203-371, Aug. 30. . The Mollusca of the Arctic coast of America collected by the Canadian Arctic expedition west from Bathurst Inlet, with an appended report on a collection of Pleistocene fossil Mollusca. Rep. Canadian Arctic Exped. 1913-1918, vol. 8, pt. A, pp. 1a-25a, pls. 1-3, Sept. 24. The Pleistocene fossils collected on the Arctic coast of the Yukon and Northwest Territories by the Canadian Arctic expedition of 1913- 1918. Rep. Canadian Arctic Exped., 1913-1918, vol. 8, pt. A, pp. 26a- 29a, Sept. 24. [Introductory note to] Synonymic study on the mollusks of the Department des Alpes-Maritimes mentioned by Antoine Risso with notes on their classification, by E. Caziot. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 71, pt. 2, p. 156. (Oct. 15.) New shells from the northwest coast. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 32, pp. 249-252. (Dec. 31.) g2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 1920 . A new species of Mitra from California. Nautilus, vol. 33, No. 3, p. 103, Jan. 22. . Pliocene and Pleistocene fossils from the Arctic coast of Alaska and the auriferous beaches of Nome, Norton Sound, Alaska. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 125-C, pp. 23-37, pls. 5-6, Jan. 27. . On the relations of the sectional groups of Bulimulus of the subgenus Naesiotus Albers. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 117-122, Mar. 4. . Annotated list of the recent Brachiopoda in the collection of the United States National Museum, with descriptions of thirty-three new forms. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 57, No. 2314, pp. 261-377, June 24. . A new Alaskan chiton. Nautilus, vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 22-23, July 10. . Turritidae vs. Turridae. Nautilus, vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 27-28, July ro. . Eugene Aubourg de Boury. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 52, No. 1335, p. 106, July 30. Ig21 . Two new Pliocene pectens from Nome, Alaska. Nautilus, vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 76-77, Jan. 11. . Species named in the Portland Catalogue: I, American. Nautilus, vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 97-100, Jan. 11. . M. Eugene Aubourg de Boury. [Obituary.] Nautilus, vol. 34, No. 3, p. 107, Jan. 11. . Summary of the marine shellbearing mollusks of the northwest coast of America, from San Diego, California, to the Polar Sea, mostly contained in the collection of the United States National Museum, with illustrations of hitherto unfigured species. U.S. Nat. Mus..Bull. 112, pp. 1-217, pls. 1-22, Feb. 24. . New fossil invertebrates from San Quentin Bay, Lower California. West. Amer. Sci., vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 17-18, Apr. 27. . Molluscan species named in the Portland Catalogue, 1786. Part II, Foreign species. Nautilus, vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 124-132, May 5. . Two new South American shells. Nautilus, vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 132-133, May 5. . New shells from the Pliocene or early Pleistocene of San Quentin Bay, Lower California. West. Amer. Sci., vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 21-23, June 15. A new chiton from southern Brazil. Nautilus, vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 4-5, July 26. . Nomenclatorial notes. Nautilus, vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 49-50, Dec. 5. . Review of The life of the Pleistocene or Glacial period, by Frank Collins Baker. Science, n.s., vol. 54, No. 1407, p. 606, Dec. 16. 1922 . Note on Alaba and Diala. Nautilus, vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 84-85, Jan. 23. . Note on Acteocina. Nautilus, vol. 35, No. 3, p. 96, Jan. 23. . “Educated fleas” of fifty years ago. Guide to Nat., vol. 14, No. 11, pp. 149-151, April. [Reprint of No. 144.] NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 93 *1540. 1550. *I551. #1552. *1553. 1554. 1555. 1550. *1557. *1558. *1550. *1560. *1561. 1562. *1563. *1564. *1565. 1566. *1567. *1568. *1560. *1570, Note on the genera Neptunea and Syncera. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London, vol. 15, pt. 1, p. 36, April. Facing the flighty young woman. Outlook, vol. 131, No. 11, p. 483, July 12. % Note on Fenella A. Adams. Nautilus, vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 27-28, July 24. Fossils of the Olympic Peninsula. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 5, vol. 4 (vol. 204), No. 22, pp. 305-314, October. Two new bivalves from Argentina. Nautilus, vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 58-59, Oct. 7 John Elliott Pillsbury (1846-1919). Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 57, No. 18, pp. 506-507, November. 1923 Barbara Fritchie date held September 6. The Evening Star, Washing- ton; ;D.,.C., Feb. 03, .p.:6. Baird, the man. Science, n.s., vol. 57, No. 1468, pp. 194-196, Feb. 16. Some unrecorded names in the Muricidae. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 36, pp. 75-77. (Mar. 28.) Additions and emendations to United States National Museum Bulletin No. 112. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 63, No. 2478, pp. 1-4, Apr. 12. [Obituary of Frederick William Harmer.] Science, n.s., vol. 57, No. 1479, p. 526, May 4. A new deep water Lyonsiella. Nautilus, vol. 37, No. 1, p. 31, July 23. Note on Fenella, Obtortio, and Alabina. Nautilus, vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 33- 34, July 23. [History of Mount Monadnock.] Monadnock Breeze, Aug. 10, Sesqui- centennial issue, pp. 18, 23. F. C. Meuschen in the Zoophylacium Gronovianum. Nautilus, vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 44-52, Oct. 11. Notes on Drupa and Morula. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 75, pp. 303-306. (Nov. 12.) Water glass as a mounting medium. Science, n.s., vol. 58, No. 1507, p. 396, Nov. 16. 1924 Review of Bering’s voyages: An account of the efforts of the Russians to determine the relation of Asia and America, by F. A. Golder. (In 2 vols.) Vol. I. The log books and official reports of the Ist and 2d expeditions, 1725-1730 and 1733-1742. Amer. Hist. Rev., vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 340-341, January. Note on the discovery of Orygoceras in the Idaho Tertiaries. Nautilus, vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 97-98, Jan. 15. Notes on molluscan nomenclature. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 37, pp. 87-90. (Feb. 21.) On the value of nuclear characters in the classification of marine gastro- pods. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 14, No. 8, pp. 177-180, Apr. 19. ; A new Alaskan Puncturella. Nautilus, vol. 37, No. 4, p. 133, Apr. 24. 94 *DS7 1. rs 72) *1573. *1574. 1575. 1576. *1577. *1578. *1570. *1580. *ATSOL *1582. *1583. *1584, *1585. *1586. *1587. «7588. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I04 Report on Tertiary and Quaternary fossils from the Canadian Arctic coast. Rep. Canadian Arctic Exped., 1913-18, vol. 11, pp. 27A-33A, pl. 35, July 8 A remarkable caecid from Florida. Nautilus, vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 7-8, July 14. Note on fossiliferous strata on the Galapagos Islands explored by W. H. Ochsner of the expedition of the California Academy of Sciences in 1905-6. Geol. Mag. London, vol. 61, No. 9, pp. 428-429, September. Discovery of a Balkan fresh-water fauna in the Idaho formation of Snake. River valley, Idaho. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 132-G, pp. 109-115, pl. 26, Nov. 10. Drivers are assailed. The Evening Star, Washington, D. C., Nov. 13, p. 6. Thermometer scales. Science, n.s., vol. 60, No. 1550, pp. 454-455, Nov. 14. Supplement to the report of the Canadian Arctic expedition, 1913-18. Vol. 8, part A, Mollusks, recent and Pleistocene (1919). Rep. Canadian Arctic Exped., 1913-18, vol. 8, pt. A. (Suppl. Rep.), pp. 31a-32a, pl. 4, Nov. 27. ‘ List of mollusks from the eastern Arctic region, collected by the Neptune expeditions, etc. Rep. Canadian Arctic Exped., 1913-18, vol. 8, pt. A (Suppl. Rep.), pp. 33a-35a, Nov. 27. 1925 New shells from Japan. Nautilus, vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 95-97, Jan. 19. Review of Kritisches Verzeichnis der rezenten und fossilen Cypraeen, by F. A. Schilder. 1924. Nautilus, vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 106-107, Jan. 19. Notes on the nomenclature of our East American species of Pecten with descriptions of new species. Nautilus, vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 112-120, May 2. Note on the name of our common oyster. Nautilus, vol. 38, No. 4, p. 121, May 2. Notes on the Atlantic coast species of Plicatula. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 38, p. 90. (May 26.) Note on the species of Petricolaria of the eastern coast of the United States. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 38, p. 90. (May 26.) A new Acteocina from British Columbia. Nautilus, vol. 39, No. 1, pp. 25-26, July 8 The Pteropoda collected by the Canadian Arctic expedition 1913-1918, with description of a new species from the North Pacific. Rep. Canadian Arctic Exped., 1913-1018, vol. 8, pt. B, pp. 9b-12b, fig. 4, Aug. 6. Tertiary fossils dredged off the northeastern coast of North America. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, ser. 5, vol. 10 (vol. 210), No. 57, pp. 213- 218, September. Illustrations of unfigured types of shells in the collection of the United States National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 66, art. 17, No. 2554, pp. 1-41, pls. 1-36, Sept. 22. NO. 15 WILLIAM HEALEY DALL—BARTSCH ET AL. 95 1580. * 1590. *I5Q1. *1502. 1593. *1504. *1505. *1506. *1507. *1508. *1590. 1600. *T60I. *1602. *1603. *1604. *1605. 1926 Review of Bering’s voyages: An account of the efforts of the Russians to determine the relation of Asia to America, by F. A. Golder. Vol. IT. Steller’s journal of the sea voyage from Kamchatka to America and return on the second expedition, 1741-1742. Amer. Hist. Rev., vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 333-334, January. On Amicula and Cryptochiton. Nautilus, vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 75-76, Jan. It. Note on Ancylastrum.: Nautilus, vol. 39, No. 3, p. 105, Jan. 11. Edward Sylvester Morse. [Obituary.] Science, n.s., vol. 63, No. 1623, p. 157, Feb. 5. [Christian belief.] Christian Register, vol. 105, No. 12, p. 273, Mar. 25. Expedition to the Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico, in 1925. Land shells of the Revillagigedo and Trés Marias Islands, Mexico. Proc. Cali- fornia Acad. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 15, No. 15, pp. 467-491, pls. 35-36, July 22. A new Margarites from Greenland. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 39, p. 59. (July 30.) A new Pecten from Colombia. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 39, p. 61. (July 30.) New shells from Japan and the Loochoo Islands. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 39, pp. 63-66. (July 30.) Marine Mollusca collected by Frits Johansen in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland in 1922, 1923 and 1925. Canadian Field-Nat., vol. 40, No. 7, pp. 153-155, October. A new Pecten from the Loochoo Islands. Nautilus, vol. 40, No. 2, p. 67, Oct. 22. 1927 Baird, greatest of American naturalists. Nature Mag., vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 101-102, February. Diagnoses of undescribed new species of mollusks in the collection of the United States National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 70, art. 19, No. 2668, pp. 1-11, Feb. 9. Small shells from dredgings off the southeast coast of the United States by the United States Fisheries steamer “Albatross” in 1885 and 1886. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 70, art. 18, No. 2667, pp. 1-134, Apr. 20. — Note on the genera of Costa’s Microdoride. Nautilus, vol. 40, No. 4, p. 134, Apr. 20. 1928 [Co-author with Washington Henry Ochsner of] Tertiary and Pleisto- cene Mollusca from the Galapagos Islands. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 89-139, pls. 2-7, 5 text figs., June 22. [Co-author with Washington Henry Ochsner of] Landshells of the Galapagos Islands. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 141-185, pls. 8-9, June 22. 96 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 1929 *1606. Marine Mollusca collected by Frits Johansen in the Maritime Provinces of Canada in the autumn of 1926. Canadian Field-Nat., vol. 43, No. 7, pp. 159-160, October. 1938 *1607. [Co-author with Paul Bartsch and Harald Alfred Rehder of] A manual of the recent and fossil marine pelecypod mollusks of the Hawaiian Islands. Bernice P. Bishop Mus., Bull. 153, pp. 3-233, pls. 1-57, July 25. ‘pod? Wanietad MS woe Ree tip Weta pre ma Diese mae Cea ant Tauern. fine! Vee onlay iain ae wy b idiege,' {Civcastbekt eine Lind Bac aed Meese bret A RE pei aiid A ges) ais ata Pumopou poten lee ee 7 iniatidp:' Boia al y Edda ap Wadi flea iA pigy (i Tet ae ot ay ai , , = 0 a ‘ PG/ 2 as / Ta i. ) . is ' . >» ‘s h ; | is ; \ j ia . / he t 7 . en oe ts pee aT = rg < Pi ce eee 2 ay eee, Shee = — for. eyed of. j ee ie ; eS qe en ae Nee Seat o . SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 16 AN IMPORTANT NEW SPECIES OF OYSTER FROM NORTH BORNEO SUITABLE FOR INTRODUCTION poe INTHE PHILIPPINES.” (Wir Two Prates) : BY PAUL BARTSCH Curator of Mollusks and Cenozoic Invertebrates U.S. National Museum (PuBLicATION 3812) _ GITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION DEGEMBER 12, 1945 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 36 AN IMPORTANT NEW SPECIES OF OYSTER FROM NORTH BORNEO SUITABLE TORK [INTRODUCTION Polie POILIPPEINES (Witu Two Pras) BY PAUL BARTSOH Curator of Mollusks and Cenozore Invertebrates U.S. National Museum (PUBLICATION 3312) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN JNSTITUTION DEGEMBER 12). 1945 ya? ; ye he # i ; 4 Y 7 rr ss d hy i A i = . ‘ Hh) 4 ‘ i Au J ¥ Sea \ \ £ =| \ 1 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. & A. AN IMPORTANT NEW SPECIES OF OYSTER FROM NORTH BORNEO SUITABLE FOR INTRO- DUCTION IN THE PHILIPPINES By PAUL BARTSCH Curator of Mollusks and Cenosoic Invertebrates U. S. National Museiwin (WitH Two PLATEs) During the cruise of the United States Bureau of Fisheries steamer Albatross on its Philippine expedition, we made a stop at Sandakan, British North Borneo. Here on the shore of the bay I found, among other things, shell heaps of a magnificent oyster that forcibly reminded me of our splendid Ostrea virginica of the east American shores. This finding was quite a surprise since the many collections of oysters made in the field and markets of the Philippines had always been of the dark, mangrove-attaching forms only, which are usually small and of inferior quality as compared with the present form. Now that the world appears to have finished its destructive cycle and is again turning to peaceful pursuits, I feel that this species should be brought to the notice of the shellfish industries, for it merits the careful attention now accorded to the Virginia oyster. I believe that there are many places in the Philippines suitable for its introduction. OSTREA BENEFICA, new species (Plate 1) Shell large, oval, inequivalved ; exterior soiled white ; interior porce- laneous, white with the lateral margin pale buff. The left attached valve is moderately deeply cupped; its exterior shows concentric growth lines which are slightly lamellose on the left side, not so on the rest of the shell, which merely shows that the shelly substance was laid down in consecutive layers. The right or upper valve is thin and but slightly dished on the inside. Its outside shows the saine layered shell deposition mentioned for the left valve. The interior of the valves shows the large muscle scar a little to the left of the median line. The ieft valve has a long heavy hinge with a slightly depressed narrow sublateral groove, and a broad or median impressed resilial area. The hinge is marked by transverse incremental lines. In the left SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, NO. 16 to SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Tox valve there is a shallow concavity under the posterior edge of the hinge caused here by partial overarching of the hinge. The margin of the valve shows mere lines of growth, without indications of pits. In the right valve the hinge is much shorter. Doth valves show dark periostracums in the hinge area. The right margin of the right valve is convex and slopes broadly and is marked by growth lines. Its right margin is concave; the reverse is true in the opposing valve. The dype, USN: Ma Nox 254 187 mm.; diameter, rro-mm. ; ri ter, 100 mm. The left valves of the block of three specimens, U.S.N.M> Ne: 573010, figured in plate 2 measure, respectively: Length, 195 mm., 162 mm., 205 mm.; diameter, 90 mm., 108 mm., 100 mm, 517, measures: Left valve, length, right spa length, 167 mm.; diame- Dr. H. M. Smith, while Fisheries Adviser in Siam, sent us six specimens collected at Koh Prap, U. S. N. M. No. 361064, and two, U.S. N. M. No. 361067, from Bandon Bight, Siam, which appear to belong to this species. This species recalls Ostrea gigas Thunberg of Japan and northern China, but that is a much more elongate form and has a concentric lamellose exterior as well as dark coloration in the young stages. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104, NO. 16, PL. OSTREA BENEFICA, NEW SPECIES Type, U.S.N.M. No. 254517. Upper, right valves; lower, left valves. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104, NO. 16, PL. OSTREA BENEFICA, NEW SPECIES Paratypes, U.S.N.M. No. 573610. Two views of a clump of three specimens. j "SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 17 | NEW WESTVILLE, PREBLE COUNTY, ile OHIO, METEORITE (Wirk Four PLATEs ) BY. Be P. . HENDERSON (tieogiate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology Ai AND US. HH. oPERRY Associate in Mineralogy WSs National Museum eeeeteecen, S8eeceecoe® (PUBLICATION 3814) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JANUARY 30, 1946 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 17 Rew WESTVILLE, PREBLE COUNTY, OHIO", METEORITE (WiTH Four PLatTEs) BY E. P. HENDERSON Associate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology AND Sone ERR Associate in Mineralogy U.S. National Museum Thy) fPecceecee® (PUBLICATION 3814) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JANUARY 30, 1946 i ott DN ie a us i Dat Oey yeP=4) dak) - i a ae f 7 vee ae ee) i i : a, , e a U , , Ps r ! i wn a \ i ; { t The Lord Baltimore reas BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. NEW WESTVILLE, PREBLE COUNTY, OHIO, METEORITE By E. P. HENDERSON Associate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology AND S.. HB. . PERRY Associate in Mineralogy U. S. National Museum (WitTH Four PLatEs) A 4.8-kilogram iron meteorite was found during the summer of 1941 in a field near National Highway 40, about 2 miles east of the Ohio-Indiana State line in Preble County, Ohio, lat. 39°48’ N., long. 84°49’ W. The authors selected for this meteorite the name “New Westville” after the town nearest to the point of discovery. There is no record of ihe time of fall; the fact that when the speci- men was discovered the outer surface was covered with a thick brown limonitic crust indicates that it is probably an old fall. The meteorite was so weathered that all the external features, the flight markings or “thumbmarks,” had been obliterated. The surface was firm and dense, and the alteration appeared to have been confined to the sur- face, but when the end slice was cut off, it separated into small angular pieces because the products of weathering (brown iron oxide) had penetrated along the intercrystalline boundary zones and weakened the bond between the constituents. On some of these broken flat surfaces thin scales of taenite were noticed, and it was found possible to separate them mechanically and recover them. It seemed advisable, therefore, to cut a few additional slices and break them apart in order to obtain enough taenite for study. In plate 1, figure 1, is shown the structure of the New Westville iron, which is a medium-fine octahedrite. Kamacite bands average about 0.5 mm. thick and are often grouped together in a number of thin parallel bands, separated by lamellae of taenite. Few inclusions of any kind are present; only one troilite mass about one-eighth of an inch in diameter was found. Plessite appears gray and dense and has only partly transformed. The taenite enclosing the plessite often makes a thicker band than the taenite that separates some of the kamacite plates. SMITHSONIAN: MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 104, No. 17 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 The microstructure of New Westville is fairly typical of the irons of its group, a strongly marked octahedral pattern with abundant taenite and plessite. Much of the taenite is in clear lamellae, and when thicker taenite bodies contain a core darkened because of incomplete transformation there is usually a relatively thick border that is fully transformed and clear. Plessite is mostly of the light or “normal” type, occurring usually in the form of fields of clear kamacite filled with droplike bodies of taenite, showing complete transformation except around the periphery where there is often a narrow band of imperfectly transformed gamma- alpha aggregate, appearing dark to black with moderate etching. In some fields the minute taenite bodies are spheroidized, in others they are elongated or irregular in form. Occasional fields show more or less banded orientation. The kamacite rather generally is marked by an acicular gamma- alpha transformation structure, consisting of darkened needles. This structure, resembling the martensitic structure in some low-carbon steels, is found in numerous octahedrites, and exceptionally in hex- ahedrites (New Baltimore) and nickel-poor ataxites (Primitiva, San Francisco del Mezquital). Schreibersite appears sparingly, reflecting the low phosphorus con- tent of the iron. It occurs usually in irregular bodies along grain boundaries. Near the surface of the mass the kamacite has been wholly altered by oxidation into limonite. Farther inward the invasion of hydroxide is incomplete, proceeding along grain boundaries and in plessite fields. In such fields the fine dispersion of taenite particles in kamacite ap- parently favored the oxidation, which always tends to develop along the interfaces of inclusions of any kind. Many light plessite fields near the surface have been completely oxidized except for the more resis- tant layer of taenite surrounding them. As alluded to elsewhere in this paper, such bodies of plessite (appearing in section as fields) when broken out of the surrounding limonite appear as bright tetrahedrons of taenite. In some places light plessite fields show only incipient inter- granular invasion of hydroxide, kamacite areas being more or less oxidized while taenite particles are unaltered. No Neumann lines were observed. In a few places there are stria- tions somewhat resembling them, but actually part of the gamma- alpha transformation structure. Table 1 contains the analysis of New Westville as well as of several other meteorites of similar chemical compositions. In many respects all these meteorites have similar structures, yet there are certain details NO. 17 NEW WESTVILLE METEORITE—HENDERSON AND PERRY 3 which distinguish them from each other. These structural differences must reflect changes that owe their origin to various cooling rates or successive reheatings. It is not known what care was taken in select- ing the sample of each meteorite that was analyzed, but the portion TABLE I1.—Comparison of the composition of New Westville with eight similar meteorites I 2 3 4 New Grant Grand El Westville Rapids Capitan eR Rae cas 89.77. 88.63 89.80 90.51 INifeere.cieyens 9.41 9.35 9.38 9.40 Gomes): +2 61 63 SS .60 12) sh ea eae 10 57 14 24 SS eae ene .03 None Trace Cite ever : iene 05 Insol .07 .03 * Average of three analyses. Nios tT. 5 6 Mart Thurlow 89.68 9.20 33 as .03 New Westville. Description in this paper. 89.17 9.92 1.04 25 .05 7 8 9 Cleve- Du- Cooper- land * chesne town 89.63 809.26 89.59 8.79 9.20 9.12 .67 .4I 35 ¥3i Aan 04 .006 .OI .O1 .12 Trace 2. Grant. E. P. Henderson, Pop. Astron., vol. 42, No. 9, November 1934, and Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 230, pp. 407-411, 1941. 3. Grand Rapids. E. P. Henderson and S. H. Perry, Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1942, p. 235. (Sep. publ. No. 3714.) 2 PN AMS El Capitan. E. E. Howell, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 50, p. 253, 1805. Mart. Geo. P. Merrill, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 2, p. 51, 1900. Thurlow. E. Cohen, Meteoritenkunde, Heft 3, p. 377, 1905. Cleveland. F. A. Genth, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 366, 1886. Duchesne County. H. H. Nininger, Journ. Geol., vol. 37, p. 83, 1929. Coopertown. J. L. Smith, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 31, p. 266, 1861. TABLE 2——Comparison of structures of eight meteorites, the analyses of which appear m table 1 Name of meteorite . New Grant Grand est- Rapids ville Length of kamacite... 5-6 cm. 6 cm. 5 cm. Width of kamacite.... 0.5mm. o0.8-Imm. 0.5 mm. Plessite with secon- dary octahedral pat- PEEL n cvele oiichitte: averse) « None None None El Capitan 6 cm. I mm. Feebly developed Mart 3-5 cm. 0.5 mm. None Thurlow 4-5 cm, 0.4-0.6 mm, Well de- veloped Cleve- Cooper- land town 5 cm. 4 cm. Imm. 3mm, Slightly Slight de- developed velopment of New Westville selected for analytical work was polished on both sides and each was etched and found to be free from inclusions. The structure of the sample definitely represented the average for the meteorite. The analysis of New Westville was made on a sample weighing 12.5 grams. As all these meteorites are of similar composition, they can be repre- sented by the line OO’ drawn upon the nickel diagram of Owens and 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Sully (fig. 1.). The line OO’ lies wholly within the kamacite-taenite zone at all temperatures below 690°C., and at this temperature some kamacite will separate with a nickel content of 2 percent and be in equilibrium with taenite with a nickel content of 9.3 percent. As the temperature of the melt decreases, the kamacite separating in- creases slowly in nickel content, the taenite much more rapidly. 790 600 500 400 ICES Laas Fic, 1.—Equilibrium diagram of iron and nickel. (Copied from E. A. Owen and A. H. Sully.) The vertical line oo’ represents the composition of the me- teorites listed in table 1. b represents the composition of the taenite found in the New Westville meteorite. 300 200 The kamacite or taenite that first forms at high temperatures will contain much less nickel than that which forms at lower temperatures. If the drop in temperature is very slow, the first products to separate out should be absorbed and converted into the higher nickel-content phases consistent with the temperature levels prevailing. However, if the temperature falls rapidly at times, in all probability the taenite and kamacite deposited around the preexisting particles will have a NO. I7 NEW WESTVILLE METEORITE—HENDERSON AND PERRY 5 higher nickel content, and not all the particles formed earlier will be transformed into a uniform product. Since the kamacite line has a very gradual slope, there will be only a slight difference in its com- position as the temperature is lowered. Taenite increases rather rapidly in its nickel content as it separates at successively lower temperatures ; hence if the taenite forming at lower temperatures pre- cipitates around that which formed at higher temperatures and the two do not come to equilibrium, the thick plates of taenite very likely will not be homogeneous in composition. From a structural relationship it appears that plessite, which is a mixture of kamacite and taenite, is the last to differentiate from the melt, hence it may contain taenite richer in nickel than the taenite de- posited between kamacite plates. A structural study of plessite may give some information on the rates of cooling. The major differences between these meteorites seem to be con- fined to the plessite , as this is the last component to form, these varia- tions in plessite probably reflect different rates of cooling at relatively low temperatures. Reheating is recognized as the cause of changes in the structures of irons, such as the change from a normal hexahedrite structure to a nickel-poor ataxite, or the disruption of the normal octahedral pattern. Such features as diffusion of phosphide and the formation of phosphide eutectics are definite proof of reheating subsequent to the formation of the general pattern for that particular meteorite. Schreibersite, the iron-nickel phosphide, is frequently found in immediate contact with troilite or surrounding it. When such an association is reheated, both of these compounds apparently melt; but whether or not they make a homogeneous solution is unknown to the authors. On cooling, however, neither of these two compounds is soluble in the other, and the schreibersite is rejected at times in droplike particles.1 Reheating can modify dense plessite into a form showing partial spheroidization ” of the taenite. However, the features described above —the normal evidence of reheating—are lacking in all the photomicro- graphs of the New Westville iron. The type of reheating that caused them produces a change in structure subsequent to the establishment of the primary type for that particular meteorite. Had the material cooled to a point above the temperature where the kamacite and taenite differentiated and a second elevation of temperature then occurred, it is unlikely that any evidence of this type of reheating could be found in the structure of the metals. 1 Perry, S. H., The metallography of meteoric iron. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 184, pp. 168-169, pl. 49, fig. 3, 1944. 2 Idem, p. 194, pl. 74, figs. 3 and 4. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 Plessite, which is generally believed to be the last constituent to separate on cooling, may be found to consist of a dense, imperfectly transformed gamma-alpha aggregate. In these plessite areas at times there will be a slight development of a miniature octahedral structure which obviously had formed at a later time than the primary structure of the meteorite, and likely this miniature structure slowly formed at a much lower temperature which was sustained for a very long period of time. From the phase relationships of taenite and kamacite it is evident that these products have separated largely into their characteristic forms before the plessite solidified. Since, apparently, there are valid reasons for assuming that all kamacite contains about 5.5 percent nickel, and from some of the plessite areas the taenite contains 26-27 percent nickel, it would appear that plessite forms after kamacite has attained its maximum saturation of nickel, and from our present knowledge this indicates a temperature of between 400 and 500°C. The fact that the dense plessite has a miniature octahedral structure in some meteorites, and not in others of about the same general com- position, certainly indicates some differences in their history. Taenite in New Westville——Taenite is more resistant to alteration than kamacite, and the weathering agents that penetrated along the octahedral planes had weakened the bond between the taenite and the kamacite. Consequently it was mechanically possible to recover the taenite free from adhering kamacite. Several thin slices taken from one end of the New Westville iron were broken apart to expose the taenite. Excellent recovery of taenite was possible from the plessite areas where the kamacite and taenite made long, narrow bands. By prying apart the kamacite the taenite could be picked loose from the kamacite; sometimes when one end was loosened, with the aid of forceps the taenite could be rolled up like foil. The polished and etched surface of New Westville shows in the oxidized portions small triangular areas of dark-gray plessite sur- rounded by an enclosing envelope of taenite. When these slices were broken apart, a number of small, four-sided pyramids were obtained which are completely enclosed by taenite, but when they were broken open the interiors were found to be gray and crumbly. None of these was included in the taenite sample that was analyzed, although to the eye they appear as solid masses of very pure taenite. Taenite is very elastic and tough, silvery white, and strongly mag- netic. The scales are so thin that when placed in water they remain on the surface until they become thoroughly wetted. The specific gravity was determined by M. Fleischer on the Berman NO. 17 NEW WESTVILLE METEORITE—HENDERSON AND PERRY i balance in the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey, but accuracy is not claimed for the determination because of the frag- mentary nature of the material. It was somewhat of a surprise to find no phosphorus in the taenite. In spite of the fact that no phosphide inclusions were seen on the etched sections of this iron, and only 0.10 percent phosphorus was found in the analysis, it was expected that some phosphorus would be found dissolved in the taenite since it is a well-known fact that phosphorus is more soluble in gamma iron, which corresponds to taenite, than it is in kamacite. Most of the published analyses of taenite show considerable phosphorus. Vogel* proved, by etching specimens with sodium picrate, that taenite often contains phosphides. Perry * mentioned that the phosphide content is usually greater along TABLE 2.—Taenite from New Westville meteorite Partial analysis Specific gravity (E. P. Henderson) (M. Fleischer) Percent No. of fragments 1G 3 Ato HASSE aa oe eine 3 tee used ING, 5 DoS ORE Otto SEEe cerca 26.13 Dr pee Sh nea SE aia eiotehe 7.65 ROHMOE CPs io Habis dwsien seed 05 Oe ae A Or Cr ee Crs th 7.87 PMO vais, Sec \otokeiShs Sicieyey 8 Grete None Bearish eee Raney, sega sror\uskonane eure 7.85 Manso lpev cic seeyesic sie, > shee esele ar nveyce .46 van Mr teccisee, cientiahe te euaete axe eevee T=) s 7.46 the interface of a taenite body or of the taenite border of a plessite field and decreases inward. Farrington ® published a series of 22 analyses of taenite which vary in content from 13 to almost 48 percent of nickel. Attempts have been made to assign a chemical formula to taenite, but without success. If the line AC, figure 1, which was given by Owen and Sully, is fol- lowed from a, where the composition line OO’ for this meteorite intersects it, down to the point b, that of the New Westville taenite, it is evident that the composition of taenite is changing constantly. The majority of the analyses given by Farrington were made on taenite separated from the meteorite by virtue of the slow solubility of taenite in hydrochloric acid. Samples obtained by such a method would appear to be unreliable because there are excellent chances that particles of kamacite completely enclosed in taenite, such as have been mentioned previously in this paper, could be included in 8 Vogel, Rudolf, Uber die Struktur des Meteoreisens und ihre spezielle Beeinflussung durch Umwandlung und beigemengter Phosphor. Abh. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, Math.-Phys. K1., n.s., vol. 12, p. 2, 1927. 4 Perry, S. H., U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 184, 1944. 5 Farrington, O. C., Meteorites, their structure, composition, and terrestrial relations, p. 134, I9QI5. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104 a sample. Chemical analysis on this type of sample would give low nickel values for taenite. As stated above, one cannot be certain that all taenite in any given meteorite has the same composition. The greater portion recovered from New Westville came from the areas containing alternating plates of kamacite and taenite. Such areas are closely related to plessite. The taenite enclosed in this type of structure may have originally separated at different temperatures, and if so, the composition of the taenite plates would not be identical. Considering the taenite analyzed from New Westville as likely to be similar to that which forms in meteorites with the compositions given in table 1, the authors made an attempt to trace the temperature of formation using the diagram of Owen and Sully (fig. 1). The composition line OO’ represents this group of meteorites, and at temperatures above 690°C. only a single phase exists, but at 690° some taenite separates which will have a nickel content of slightly more than 9 percent. This taenite is in equilibrium with kamacite containing about 2 percent of nickel. Cooling along the composition line OO’ to slightly above 500°C., taenite with a nickel content of 26.1 percent will form, and this corresponds with that in the New Westville iron. At this temperature the kamacite which is in equi- librium with the taenite will contain about 5 percent nickel. Thus the kamacite has nearly reached its maximum content of nickel. However, we cannot stop here because the meteorite is still rather hot. Around 500°C. it must be possible for considerable diffusion of the elements to form new phases, and hence it should be possible for a taenite richer in nickel to form at lower temperatures. This holds only if the cooling rate is very slow; if the meteorite rapidly cools below this temperature, it is likely that equilibrium conditions are not at- tained and areas of dense untransformed plessite will result. If the dense plessite areas are the last to form, the taenite sur- rounding them would naturally be richer in nickel. The composition of the taenite from New Westville is indicated by the point } on the line AC, and we also noted that the temperature is just above 500°C. If the boundary lines for the two phases are as shown by Owen and Sully, the kamacite has not yet attained its maximum percentage of nickel. Yet the kamacite plates in the specimen measure .5 mm. in thickness. It is difficult to conceive that such sizable inclusions of kamacite as occur in New Westville could still be transforming or absorbing more nickel at this low temperature unless the mass were retained at such temperature for an almost infinite length of time. The kamacite masses in hexahedrites are the largest available for NO. I17 NEW WESTVILLE METEORITE—HENDERSON AND PERRY 9 study, and 23 separate analyses have been published.* In five the nickel content is noticeably lower than 5.5 percent—namely, 5.32, 5-30, 5-33, 5-21, and 5.35 percent. There also happen to be five in which the nickel content is noticeably higher than 5.5 percent— Mamely, 5.77, 5-73, 5:70, 5.70, and 5.79 percent. If the boundary of the alpha iron (kamacite) is as indicated by Owen and Sully, one would expect that it would not be unusual to find taenite or plessite in hexahedrites, since at temperatures below 400°C. the solubility of nickel is believed to decrease; a composition line drawn vertically representing a nickel content of 5 percent would again enter the two-phase (alpha and gamma) zone just below 400°C. At the temperature slightly above 500°C. corresponding to the com- position of the taenite in the New Westville, the kamacite will have a nickel content of nearly 5.0 percent. Perry * found plessite to be present in the Otumpa and Sierra Gorda hexahedrites. He assumed that the occurrence of plessite in Sierra Gorda was due to “rapid cooling from a relatively high range.” Sierra Gorda was found to contain 5.58 percent nickel and .25 percent cobalt, which is about the average value for kamacite. Perry’s explanation may be correct; but again if Owen and Sully are right, some plessite can separate below 400°C., since the curve of alpha iron decreases in nickel content as it cools below 400°. Dense plessite areas filling the space between the kamacite plates probably represent the last metal to transform—the residual portion remaining after the kamacite has separated and formed a skeletal mass of plates. The following table gives all the meteorites now known to have been discovered in Ohio. TABLE 4.—Ohio meteorites Name County Kind Pe eade Roneeude PANGELSON » . 5... ces ce Hamilton Pallasite 39°10’ 84° 18’ PICANCHANA oe eas Sc. ee a Ataxite 39°7' 84°29 STI OMe ree cia eis sveeiniens Clark Mesosiderite 30°54’ 83°57’ Hopewell Mounds .... Ross Med. octahedrite 39°15/ 83°0' *New Concord ........ Muskingum Stone 40°2' 81°46’ *New Westville ....... Preble Octahedrite 30°48’ 84°40’ TACCEOWEL ° 0) cssclo de ee Highland Chondrite 30°11’ 83°44’ PUVOGSIOL, hs. «(ads alee eins Wayne Octahedrite 40°50’ 81°58’ * Specimens in the U. S. National Museum’s collections. 6 Henderson, E. P., Chilean hexahedrites, Amer. Mineral., vol. 26, p. 546, 1941. ‘Perry, SH, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 184;p.. 54,. 1944. A . Nera a Sa . i " nae } bey by ; ¥ Mie re => _ * } nL Tae bo he | . + i ' Pataca € i 4 ‘ a i 4 moe Fe r phen Ache rs vv ign Ad --) ey a Oe ee lead EEA ATA ost ee RE Wi maby) Fy | A i. jot ie eae Seen ik ox oy r vo + i) i mo Mb ie tal gt etd rare WOM ee rN es Ree ae? at V2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOR OA IN Ok 177 Pea NEW WESTVILLE METEORITE 1. slice, light macro-etch, ordinary light. 2/5 natural size. 2. at left. two kamacite bands, showing gamma-alpha transformation figures, separated by a lamella of taenite. At right, a characteristic light plessite field, consisting of spheroidized taenite particles scat- tered without orientation in a ground of clear kamacite. Near the edges of the field, inside the clear taenite border, a band of varying width darkened because of incomplete transformation. Picral 30 seconds x 50. 3, a plessite field showing intergranular invasion of hydroxide. Kamacite areas are, in part, darkened; taenite is not affected. Picral 30 seconds x 50. 4. two light plessite fields showing (particularly the upper one) some intergranular invasion of hydroxide. Gamma-alpha transformation figures are faintly visible in the kamacite bands. Picral 30 seconds x 50. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104, NO. 17, PL. 2 NEw WESTVILLE METEORITE 1, characteristic general structure. Taenite strongly developed, clear and fully transformed in the lamellae and in the borders of the plessite fields. The plessite field in lower center shows orientation; that at the lower right has a dense core unresolved at this magnification. Picral 15 seconds x 50. 2, general structure similar to figure 1, more strongly etched. Invading hydroxide along interfaces and (at the left) in a plessite field. Picral 30 seconds x 50. (The round spot, right center, is due to a defect in the negative.) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES 104; INOS 27, PEs3 “ somaya "TALES 2 SESE, ~ NEW WESTVILLE METEORITE 1, characteristic general structure. ; } graph) in irregular bodies with cores darkened because of incomplete transformation. Taenite appears in clear lamellae and (left half of photo- At right, two characteristic light plessite fields filled with rounded particles of taenite in clear kamacite, with traces of orientation. Near center, segregations of schreibersite along grain boundaries. The kamacite shows traces of gamma-alpha transformation figures. Inside the clear taenite borders of the plessite fields there is a darkened band due to incomplete transformation. Picral 30 seconds x 50. > part of a band of incomplete transformation inside the border of a plessite field similar to those shown in figure 1. The dense gamma-alpha aggregate is largely unresolved, al- though in the lower (interior) part of the band fine white particles of taenite appear. larther inward (at bottom) fully transformed taenite has segregated in elongated particles. The kamacite (above) shows gamma-alpha transformation figures. Picral 15 seconds x 367 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 104, NO. 17, PL. 4 NEw WESTVILLE METEORITE transformation. Picral 1, wedge-shaped bodies of taenite with cores darkened because of incomplete At top, a short lamella of taenite (clear) and three small bodies of schreibersite (gray). 30 seconds x 50. an area near edge of slice showing invasion of hydroxide. Taenite is little affected. Picral 30 seconds x 50. 3, an area near edge of slice strongly invaded by hydroxide, proceeding from the left (sur- right (interior) of the mass. At the left two kamacite bands and two the taenite borders of two plessite Picral 30 seconds x 50. face) toward the plessite fields are almost wholly oxidized. At the right i fields remain unchanged, the interior of the fields completely oxidized. 1) ss SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Behcet's se VOLUME 104, NUMBER 18 . | THE SKELETAL ANATOMY OF FLEAS Pe) (SIPHONAPTERA)-6 ~ CWirn 21 PLArEs) bo BY erty: R. E. SNODGRASS : Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine Agricultural Research Administration - U.S. Department of Agriculture (PUBLICATION 3815) 3 CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION OE APRIL 1, 1946 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 104, NUMBER 18 THE SKELETAL ANATOMY OF FLEAS (SIPHONAPTERA) (Wir 21 Puatss) BY R. E. SNODGRASS Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine Agricultural Research Administration U. S. Department of Agriculture (PUBLICATION 3815) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION APRIL 1, 1946 a . oy The Lord Baltimore (Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8S. A. s . “ \ \ me Pod t ¥ ’ j i A es . . ‘ . j i ve 4 ih F ‘ ay Tl / Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Agricultural Research Le DIT. VI. VII. VIII. THE SKELETAL ANATOMY OF FLEAS (SIPHONAPTERA) By R. E. SNODGRASS Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture (WitH 21 PLATEs) CONTENTS litaytietayG ib (ers Toye lie Ge ue NR ee ee io Cae Cha city A AIS Oe Mich HIER RERGIn, cicGl Dio OIG CR MEIER ~ IN TEER YG DR DoE SES lege pe gee ts A ee eR ce Ren Re er oie ee MITER TECCIN Pc. MAD ANALG a 5A Seca, Sait eer a,b sin ciatenn'=/ebg cde Lvounley sich uouess «chan ‘Pheslabrameands thes Prestomime sco isis sire eieiete soe) ate The epipharynx and the sucking apparatus................. PPLE MRTG er esate ics stretch «cts cae ec neta e ss sae The hypopharynx and the salivary pump.................. 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