Ht a : 4 al a o 4 it : i - a eee SSE x —<- ee Oe ren we ee eleendteitindtaaath ietiteitaetnadetnien errr ———— —=— = = _— amperes ~~ SS a er Io ee eer ooo ee er eee Sa anaes SR neaietdien ee ——ars " > Oo ee ee Ni, i na i} Hl Hi ih a . i iit Hh hit Ht i ah vs 1 i i} i y i a | : | i Ay a i By a Hi "i a | a Hh Mit eS Hi nih Ht Ha nN Mh i i | } ia i a i Pa sa c | Ha i} | 0 a Hh ci | i 7) TANIA IA a ve ii Ht i i | | i a cl i Ve i it \ aH il i a i } i i il, i il i ey Ht i | i | ll i Ni ae a bib i i th Hi ui H i i a Hi i Wi Hy i (| - Hi i a Ha i Hi Hi i i i an 4 Hi ee HH Hn 7 i BY i a i u / | i a Hi . if Hi a , > ' : i i Ve a i i Hie iM a i HAI Se i 3.'!' |, ‘ ; ‘2 oy } i " h i ae: us LY wt hi a Tt iy | i Nay Ma ar i Hh hile | i i i i rn} a | s) zt Ah iv 3 aie » ¥ 7. ci a i a un i ty ve oe Ay) - ) Dene Cv b nk Ob i emery neh p ‘ sk te ana hae 7 ae oe . BS vt * een e108 Bh SMITHSONTAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110 oe is fy “ EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN "'—-§ MITHSON (PuRticaTIon 3984) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1949 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8S. A. ADVERTISEMENT The Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections series contains, since the suspension in 1916 of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, all the publications of the Institution except the Annual Report, the annual volume describing the Institution’s field work, and occasional publications of a special nature. As the name of the series implies, its scope is not limited, and the volumes thus far issued relate to nearly every branch of science. Papers in the fields of biology, geology, anthropology, and astrophysics have predominated. A. WETMORE, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. (iii) rae ata | oo” oer es fe a tnd Ricaaty mihi Ae VO eae | | | Oat Somme belie) an . Pudge fan eal AA Disayard | Moiealvavea Doe Niele Beh « Ce td ae ec ee mice pia “Ue - ee ee Ont iyga Weed 1h atrial: - + ATION onl Lue heyy eu eeg yh, a i" | ’ 7 or . a - ma: ‘ f ay wil ee f j yay ie ik ORB 6 a) an ae 1 lin 4 se ui Ag ait id arn oa 4 . “ive Es my . — 7 . , a a ’ Dove PV oe esp | ms y ‘ 7 : wu, J ui & Vite ; ; | ie i ¥ wi % : : 4 ’ +) ‘ eo : ‘oie li Wai htegt i foray | Nos y y by) } ‘i { are) a 4) : } " ae i tay iy a] - to tn N CONTENTS Aspot, C. G. Solar variation attending West Indian hurricanes. 7 pp., I fig. Apr. 20, 1948. (Publ. 3916.) . WEINTRAUB, Rosert L., and Price, Leonarp. Influence of illumination on reducing sugar content of etiolated barley and oat seedlings. 3 pp. Mar. 10, 1948. (Publ. 3917.) . SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. The Amphipoda of the Smithsonian- Roebling expedition to Cuba in 1937. 15 pp., 3 figs. Apr. 30, 1948. (Publ. 3918.) . Axspot, C. G. 1947-1948 report on the 27.0074-day cycle in Washington precipitation. 2 pp. Mar. 10, 1948. (Publ. 3919.) . Avtpricu, L. B., and Assot, C. G. Smithsonian pyrheliometry and the standard scale of solar radiation. 4 pp. Apr. 15, 1948. (Publ. 3920.) . Aspot, C. G. Magnetic storms, solar radiation, and Washington temperature departures. 12 pp., 2 pls., 4 figs. June 25, 1948. (Publ. 3940.) . Ewers, JoHN C. Gustavus Sohon’s portraits of Flathead and Pend d’Oreille Indians, 1854. 68 pp., 21 pls. and frontispiece. Nov. 26, 1948. (Publ. 3941.) . Duett, B., and Duet, G. The behavior of barometric pressure during and after solar particle invasions and solar ultraviolet invasions. 34 pp., 21 figs. Aug. 5, 1948. (Publ. 3942.) . HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F. A new genus and five new species of American fishes. 15 pp., 6 figs. July 28, 1948. (Publ. 3943.) . Snopcrass, R. E. The feeding organs of Arachnida, including mites and ticks. 93 pp., 29 figs. Aug. 18, 1948. (Publ. 3944.) . Assot, C. G. The Smithsonian standard pyrheliometry. 4 pp. Aug. 5, 1948. (Publ. 3945.) . Henperson, E. P., and Perry, S. H. The Drum Mountains, Utah, meteorite. 7 pp., 5 pls. Sept. 3, 1948. (Publ. 3946.) . Frevrp, Henry. Contributions to the anthropology of the Soviet Union. 244 pp., 5 pls. Dec. 22, 1948. (Publ. 3947.) (v) CN | oy te ( cee) Dirbei hla, reer? Sian Oia re ne ot eeeiaten ASL Bik ha SS ee + Wades yy! SERN ale ieee tal panne Bra | Vita sie Mine. eis Lyla ela’ 1 Le. Sere Peas cai ienth | is i. A Nd Mi oe Meee ay a bh) f as Oma NA ae ye i By Les ee piven ey etn a7 uy, ‘Re, tod cht were ge EBA! peas get petaticneh say 1a 1724, ene Were a rn ey yay nie HE th emg i Ae ; ie POR Tea Nod cael We hae oa ah fet a te a eee | ge wen biel eke uli at inet he antag ia | ~ hd BF PP ENG TRE veka ate, baka ot iN ae fog ‘au ae ser i have tai lee aga haall ony) ’ ig eM Shi fy Poa om a EXD) : ; ‘ 4 . ary Maariv: - | mPa : - ED iteay ‘eid 4 LY eh) en)! : | ‘ aes Lis ate yg Gate Areal ote ys, : * “i ee f ppl ‘he Aah tu ae : PUMPER GMT! i Mirel Were ah, Mad athe UP te es a nl } HOME VMPC) "ffE fetal iad LEER SOUS oy late Wem Pxtas ae 1 Bebe aan dah aby laine a vit oa Se Bet Yi: 0 Ne i Pa Pee a SR that ‘ane opie a nh ¢ toi ney 4 ey hy wh”: aete gid departs ina ateoningih G i Ra MUR Mi RMING eA ged None pit AL bat ei | iy bebe Pte ‘ Soahn ith BT: Fie rei ee fay Be winialt hae tie a ba a pNP Pe ceanatis ailign nf tx eta) es allie wir a rer . ie : a eek a ad a ee ee VTi ia OR A AN a MR iy Chg a eli eee ae ate sulky At Cietsodlt, ah 3h iy hie aA “Matas ae ; Qaeda: Mash ‘Vie ‘CNS ieee) Aa ae cue | ie 4 yh j : ; i ie i J wii Ve sed 1 ‘s vl ‘| wT i pe I Bch i) oli pa’ ' t a : \ i eo * i we SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 1 Roebling Fund SOLAR VARIATION ATTENDING WEST INDIAN HURRICANES BY C. G. ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution (Pusiication 3916) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION APRIL 20, 1948 The Lord Galtimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As Roebling Fund SOLAR VARIATION ATTENDING WEST INDIAN HURRICANES By C. G. ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution West Indian hurricanes rarely occur except in the months June to November. Table 1 shows the monthly distribution of 69 major hurri- canes from 1923 to 1946. It seems probable that in these months, especially in August, September, and October, there is such an un- stable meteorological condition in those regions that only a slight im- pulse suffices to precipitate the cataclysm. TasLe 1.—Distribution of West Indian hurricanes, 1923-1946 OPEIEIEEN Oecd wai oats June July August September October November OO 3 5 19 25 14 3 Many years ago the late Herbert Janvrin Browne came to me with a dozen dates of first reports of West Indian hurricanes. He pointed out that on these dates Smithsonian solar-constant values had been depressed. I was so sensible of the accidental errors of individual solar-constant results that I was inclined to regard his observation as merely a coincidence. However, I prepared a table of sequences of solar-constant values from Io days before to 10 days after his dates. The mean value of the 21 columns did indeed show a slight depression at the date of first report, but so slight that I was disinclined to at- tribute any significance to it. Since then the solar-constant values from 1923 to 1946 have all been carefully gone over and revised to final form. They are now, of course, several times as numerous as they were then. It has occurred to me to re-examine this question with the advantage of better and more extensive data. With the kind advice of the United States Weather Bureau, I col- lected 69 dates, partly from the December numbers of Monthly Weather Review, partly from Tannehill’s “Hurricanes,” when major West Indian hurricanes occurred in the years 1923 to 1946. Six of these dates were omitted because of almost complete lack of solar- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 1 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. constant data, or because of very closely overlapping sequences. Cor- responding to each of the remaining 63 dates I wrote out the values of the solar-constant as observed at Montezuma, Chile, from 10 days before to 12 days after the dates when the hurricanes were first re- ported. On 17 of these remaining dates the 21-day sequences of solar- constant values, especially in the neighborhood of the hurricane dates, were so fragmentary that I disregarded them. This left 46 dates to be considered with more or less complete solar-constant sequences closely adjacent to the hurricane dates. I should remark that I used the solar-constant values as observed, not those marked “preferred” in table 24, volume 6, Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution. I also dis- regarded all marks of “grade.”’ I have become convinced by several re- searches that the procedure used to obtain “preferred values” is un- desirable, and that the “grades” of volume 6 were sometiines assigned with prejudice against wild values which after all may have been good. The daily solar-constant values from 1939 to 1946 are as yet unpub- lished but were made available to me. Mr. Aldrich informs me that when assigning “grades” to them he and his colleagues were very careful not to be influenced by the wildness of a value. Hence I felt justified in rejecting a very few discordant values of low grades in this later work. I may add that I rejected the solar-constant values of September 9, 10, and 12, 1930, which fall far out of line, because they preceded a spell of bad weather from September 11 to 24 when only 2 days of observation at Montezuma occurred in that whole interval, and these also gave values abnormally low. I also rejected the solar- constant value of September 25, 1923, because it is very abnormally high. Table 2 gives the dates of hurricanes, including the entire 69, of which the 17 rejected for fragmentary sequences of solar-constant values are starred, and the 6 omitted as stated above have daggers. Table 3 gives the values of solar constants for the 46 remaining hurricanes from Io days before to 12 days after the date of first report. The number of solar-constant values included in each of the means is given just above the means themselves. The mean values are plotted in figure 1. As given in table 3 they should be understood as prefixed by 1.9 calories. There appears a gradual descent of the solar constant prior to the date of reports, amounting to 0.0016 calorie. Then comes a sudden drop of 0.0031 calorie to a sharp minimum on the actual day of first reports. After that the solar constant recovers on the third day, but not quite to its former level. NO. I SOLAR VARIATION AND HURRICANES—ABBOT 3 Although the depressive effect is very clear in the mean values, not all the sequences of solar-constant values show a depression on the day of first report of a hurricane. In fact, of the 46 cases used to form the means, there are 14 in which on the day of first report of the hurri- cane the solar constant was observed as high, and in a few cases even slightly higher than on the days preceding and following. I doubt if this discrepancy should be attributed to accidental error. Hence we TABLE 2.—Dates of first report of major West Indian hurricanes, 1923 to 1946 1923: Sept. 24. 1924: Aug. 16, 27; Sept. 14. 1925: Nov. 29*. 1926: July 22; Aug. 217; Sept. 6; Oct. 14. 1928: Sept. 67. 1929: Sept. 22. 1930: Aug. 31. 1931: Sept. 6*, 97. 1932: Aug. II, 30*; Sept. 26*; Oct. 31 *. 1933: June 27; July 25 *; Aug. 17*, 287, 317; Sept. 10, 16; Oct. 1, 26. 1934: June 4; Sept. 5; Oct. 1; Nov. 21. 1935: Aug. 31 *; Sept. 237; Oct. 19, 30 *. 1936: July 27; Aug. 28*; Sept. 8, 24. 1937: Sept. 14, 20. 1938: Aug. 14, 23; Sept. 16. 1939: Oct. 12, 20. 1940: Aug. 5, 30; Sept. II. 1941: Sept. 18, 23 *; Oct. 3. 1942: Aug. 21; Nov. 5. 1943: July 26; Aug. 30; Sept. 11; Oct. 11 *. 1944: July 30; Aug. 16; Sept. 8 *, 19 *; Oct. 13 *. 1945: June 20; Aug. 24; Sept. 11 *; Oct. 2*. 1946: Sept. 12; Oct. 6*. * Rejected because of fragmentary sequences of solar-constant values. t+ Omitted because of almost complete lack of solar-constant data. are not to infer that a depression of the solar constant is always nec- essary to bring on a hurricane. Nevertheless frequently it appears to be the impulse which starts the cataclysm. Lest some critic should suspect that the 17 dates rejected for frag- mentary solar-constant sequences might have been unfairly rejected, and, if included, would lead to a different conclusion, I have thought well to take the mean values for all of the 17 rejected sequences, frag- mentary though they are. The means are given in table 4 with the numbers of values entering into each mean. 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(x8 oof = EP. tP +. of It +. +. +. 1s i$ Ly Lv oF a we (3h. 08 v8 «8 a a Oe Le Le =, Sse ee os Sy, 19F, (08 oF) oF a LP. ey EP 35 $9019) jo suvoyy San[ea uray Butjiod “31 Joquiny sXkup jo "ON wode: yt mos} skecqq soaim3 jO Suvayy suvayy Si9quin sans t1‘6 ‘ob6r tz ‘g us Org ‘Shér 918 ” of ‘L ‘hh6r 11 ‘6 os og gz ‘lL ‘fh6r DRE ais 1z‘g ‘zb6r 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10 the solar constant. If in any column it happens that fragments of sequences remain representing periods of prevailingly high solar constant, and in another column the fragments which remain repre- sent prevailingly low periods of the solar constant, the two means are not comparable. Unfortunately the mean at the hurricane day is among the weakest in table 4, having fewest observations, only 8 out Ce MLS | VAIN BERNEREE -10 a 008 002 Fic. 1.—Mean solar-constant values preceding and following first reports of West Indian hurricanes. Abscissae, days before and after report dates; ordinates, solar-constant values, to be prefixed by 1.94. of 17 cases reporting. Despite the paucity and raggedness of these data, they tend, on the whole, in the same sense as table 3. That is, the solar constant tends to decrease before the hurricanes, and does not quite recover to its former average value within 12 days after- ward. Although we may wish that stations better even than Montezuma might have been available, so that solar-constant values could have been more accurate and more complete, the results of this investiga- NO. I SOLAR VARIATION AND HURRICANES—ABBOT 7 tion, and of those that I have described in several earlier papers,’ show that these solar-constant values are useful, that they disclose solar variations which are correlated with solar and terrestrial events, and that the variations of solar radiation are of major importance for meteorology. Although the present research shows, I think definitely, the im- portance of solar variation in starting West Indian hurricanes, it can- not serve as a basis for predicting them for several reasons. First, the depression of solar radiation is not clearly marked until the be- ginning of a hurricane is already observed. Second, it appears that a considerable proportion (though still a small minority) of the hurri- canes start without the impulse of a fall in solar radiation. Third, no doubt depressions of solar radiation occur, even in the hurricane sea- son, when conditions are not ripe for a cataclysm. Finally, even if the probable formation of a hurricane could at some future time be antici- pated for a few days by aid of greatly improved solar observations, there would still be no way to predict where it would start, or whither it would travel. What has been accomplished here is, first, to show that changes of solar radiation are of importance in starting hurricanes; second, to confirm earlier impressions that Smithsonian solar-constant values, imperfect and incomplete as they are, still are helpful in the discussion of meteorological phenomena. 1 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 94, No. 10, 1935; vol. 95, No. 12, 1936; vol. 95, No. 15, 1936; vol. ro1, No. 1, 1941; vol. 104, No. 5, 1944; vol. 104, No. 12, 1945; vol. 104, No. 13, 1945; vol. 107, No. 4, 1947; vol. 107, No. 9, 1947; vol. 107, No. 10, 1947. See also Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1935, pp. 93-115, and for 1944, pp. 119-154. Also, of course, vol. 6, Annals, Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution. sii ae VAY MaMS ONT) al ate ay an tak) Irae pe arse eh me eens eT Bag i tia me | rh a ae Hey uf feniais Sait i atl a hae a wy ay ae Cae e : Hi be are My jean j Da iar a an) re e SH teat 1 Aa RY PRE ae ob tlt = OT een aie J “ 12>, (hh tO i UE ea OGL, ch ‘a | | : ey i arias AE Eile Sh rg tas| a A " Ao a he a oie SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 2 INFLUENCE OF ILLUMINATION ON REDUCING SUGAR CONTENT OF ETIOLATED BARLEY AND OAT SEEDLINGS BY ROBERT L. WEINTRAUB AND LEONARD PRICE Division of Radiation and Organisms Smithsonian Institution (PusticaTion 3917) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION MARCH 10, 1948 The Lord Waltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. INFLUENCE OF ILLUMINATION ON REDUC- ING SUGAR CONTENT OF ETIOLATED BARLEY AND OAT SEEDLINGS By ROBERT L. WEINTRAUB? anv LEONARD PRICE Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution Increased rate of carbon dioxide production following illumination of etiolated barley seedlings was observed by Weintraub and Johnston (1944). A possible mechanism for this effect is suggested by the finding of Parija and Saran (1934) of increased reducing sugar con- tent caused by brief illumination of starved Aralia leaves, in conjunc- tion with the numerous reports in the literature of an intimate relation between respiratory rate and reducing sugar content of plants. In order to test this possibility experiments have been conducted to ascer- tain whether changes in the reducing sugar content of etiolated cereal seedlings are produced by illumination of relatively short duration. “Seeds” * of barley (varieties Hannchen and Sunrise) and of oats (variety Markton) were planted on filter-paper-covered porous stone wicks and allowed to germinate at room temperature in total dark- ness. At suitable ages, seedlings were exposed to the unfiltered radi- ation from a frosted tungsten filament lamp for periods of 60 to 200 minutes, at the end of which they were harvested. For the sugar analyses, the shoots were severed just above the seeds, cut rapidly into small pieces with scissors, and placed in light-tight aluminum cans for weighing. Unilluminated plants were similarly sampled at the same time, the operations being performed in absence of light. The fresh weights were determined as rapidly as possible and the tissues transferred quickly to boiling 95-percent ethyl alcohol. Tests showed that reducing substances were removed completely after three additional extractions with boiling 8o-percent alcohol ; this procedure was followed throughout. The alcohol was removed from the combined extracts on a water bath and replaced by water. Reducing power was estimated with the copper-iodometric reagent #50 of Shaffer and Somogyi (1933). In some experiments total 1 Now with the Department of the Army, Camp Detrick, Frederick, Md. 2 Kindly supplied by Merritt N. Pope and T. Ray Stanton of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 2 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO reducing substance was measured after clearing the aqueous solutions by treatment with neutral lead acetate and potassium oxalate. In others, only the fermentable reducing substance was determined, from the difference between analyses before and after treatment of the un- cleared solutions with various yeasts.* In either case sugar was re- sponsible for all, or very nearly all, the reducing power found and, as shown by the fermentation tests, consisted practically entirely of glucose or fructose, or both. TasLe 1.—Influence of illumination on reducing sugar content of etiolated seedlings Mgm. glucose equivalents Illumination per gm. fresh weight Age ‘Intensity Duration Before After Exp. Species (days) (Gi (ey) (min.) illumination illumination 1...Hordeum vulgare var. Hannchen 6 20 60 18.0 18.1 2.0* aria 2...Hordeum vulgare var. Sunrise Z 25 200 19.6 18.7 150 200 19.6 19.0 3...Hordeum vulgare var. Sunrise oy 25 165 18.5 16.8 4...Hordeum vulgare var. Sunrise 8 25 195 12.6 12.6 5...Avena sativa var. Markton 6 25 180 Zie2 21.0 6...Avena sativa var. Markton 6 20 60 22.4” 2230 7...Avena sativa var. Markton 7 20 60 23.8 23.8 a Mem. sucrose per gm. tissue. b Leaf blades only. In a few experiments sucrose also was estimated from the increase in reducing power after hydrolysis by invertase. Table 1 summarizes the results obtained with seedlings such as had been found previously to exhibit increased carbon dioxide production after illumination. Each figure represents the average of two or three lots of plants. The values are expressed in terms of fresh weight of tissue. Substantially the same relative results were found if calcu- lated on the basis of dry weight of the extracted tissue. The data show that, under the experimental conditions employed, the content of reducing sugar is not increased by illumination. Hence 3 We are indebted to Dr. Lynferd J. Wickerham, of the Northern Regional Research Laboratory, U.S.D.A., for cultures of yeasts with specific fermentative ability. NO. 2 SUGAR CONTENT OF SEEDLINGS—WEINTRAUB AND PRICE 3 the observed stimulation of carbon dioxide evolution by light does not appear to be attributable to increased sugar content. These results are not necessarily contradictory to those of Parija and Saran as the nature and condition of the plant material were quite different in the two investigations. The sugar content of the detached Aralia leaves was only about one-hundredth as great as in the week-old grass seedlings, and it is not unlikely that metabolism follows a dif- erent path under such a condition of starvation. Oat seedlings grown in darkness for a longer time (2 to 3 weeks) were found to exhibit a rapid decline in reducing sugar and in some experiments showed ap- preciable increases following illumination. This was the case also with old detached tomato shoots which had been kept in the dark for a few days. However, as such plants generally have an unhealthy ap- pearance and show a considerable degree of variability, the signifi- cance of this finding is not clear and the experiments have not been pursued. Summary.—Sugar analyses indicate that the increased rate of car- bon dioxide production which follows illumination of etiolated barley seedlings is not due to an increased content of reducing sugar or sucrose. LITERATURE CITED Pariya, P., and Saran, A. B. 1934. The effect of light on the respiration of starved leaves. Ann. Bot., vol. 48, pp. 347-354. Suarrer, P. A., and Somocyr, M. 1933. Copper-iodometric reagents for sugar determination. Journ. Biol. -Chem., vol. 100, pp. 695-713. WEINTRAUB, R. L., and Jonnston, E. S. 1944. The influence of light and of carbon dioxide on the respiration of etiolated barley seedlings. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 4. me A ua itil ' "ay al lea eA AEN a rae na AI in NG fie aR EBA eine hati Pie RY) ar BL eile? Mosel nme fe Ee Ee i Ra epee VISE i eR nae fk ah pitt Oy Pad, Dia Pures . TOR pry hee yori Ariny nha ae Ape vt i As habe \ ; a ivy Fle VAs a0 7 & ie ee ch BEA her Hi ai) INS aaa), pipe i Pere ett: ey 1a) OE ey ae meee SG, shee 7 ay ‘WiabA ‘ ty Po 4 Ar aie SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 3 THE AMPHIPODA OF THE SMITHSONIAN-ROEBLING EXPEDITION TO CUBA IN 1937 BY CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER Associate in Zoology, Smithsonian Institution FEE INCRE (PusiicaTion 3918) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION APRIL 30, 1948 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A. THE AMPHIPODA OF THE SMITHSONIAN- ROEBLING EXPEDITION TO CUBA IN 1937 By CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER Associate in Zoology, Smithsonian Institution The amphipods of the Smithsonian-Roebling Expedition were taken in Corrientes Bay and in the vicinity of the Isle of Pines on the southwest coast of Cuba, in comparatively shallow waters. Many of the specimens were collected by means of the submarine electric light, which was used at a number of stations with considerable suc- cess. The Gammaridea are represented by 9 families, 10 genera, and I1 species. The Hyperiidea are represented by 3 families, 6 genera, and 8 species. Two species, Pontogeneia bartschi and Ceradocus sheardi, are new to science. STATIONS AT WHICH AMPHIPODS WERE TAKEN STATION 30. Bahia Corrientes, Meyers anchorage, April 6, 1937. Stations 48, 49, and 52. Bahia Corrientes, Corrientes anchorage, submarine light, April 8, 1937. Stations 78, 88, and 89. Bahia Corrientes, Corrientes anchorage, submarine light, April 9, 1937. STATION 100. Cayos San Felipe, submarine light, April 10, 1937. STATION 112. Shore collecting, Siguanea Bay, opposite Siguanea Island, Isle of Pines, April 11, 1937. STATION 124. Siguanea Bay, dredge, 12 to 26 feet, April 11, 1937. STATION 169. Lat. 21°57’15” N., Long. 82°32'45” W., April 15, 1937. Order GAMMARIDEA Family LYSIANASSIDAE SHOEMAKERELLA NASUTA (Dana) Lysianassa nasuta DANA, 1853 and 1855, United States Exploring Expedition, Crustacea, vol. 13, II, p. 915, pl. 62, fig. 2a-m. Lysianax cubensis Steppinc, 1897, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, ser. 2, vol. 7, p. 209, pl. 7B. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 3 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL LEO Lysianopsis alba PEARSE, 1912, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 43, p. 360, fig. 1. Lysianopsis alba SHOEMAKER, 1921, Univ. Iowa Stud. Nat. Hist., vol. 9, No. 5, p. 99. Lysianassa cubensis SHOEMAKER, 1935, New York Acad. Sci. Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 15, pt. 2, p. 232, fig. I. Shoemakerella nasuta PirRLot, 1936, 1 Max Weber, Siboga Expeditie, vol. 33¢, p. 265. Shoemakerella nasuta Prrtot, 1939, Mem. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, ad ser., fasc. 15, p. 47. Station 169, 2 specimens 9. This species was described by Dana from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and it has since been recorded from Barbados, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Tortugas and the coast of Florida, and Albatross station 2369-74 (northeastern part of the Gulf of Mexico). The animal measures about Io mm. in length. Family PHOXOCEPHALIDAE PONTHARPINIA FLORIDANA Shoemaker Pontharpinia floridana SHOEMAKER, 1933, Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 598, p. 5, figs. 3, 4. Station 48, 2 specimens; station 49, 2 specimens; station I12, 2 specimens. This species was described from off Key Largo, Fla. There are in the collection of the United States National Museum specimens from Skull Creek, S. C., and from off Sable Island lighthouse, Ga. The species measures 6 to 8 mm. Family LEUCOTHOIDAE LEUCOTHOE SPINICARPA (Abildgaard) Gammarus spinicarpa ABILDGAARD, 1789, in O. F. Miiller, Zoologia Danica seu Animalium Daniae et Norvegiae rariorum ac minus notorum Descriptiones et Historia, ed. 3, vol. 3, p. 66, pl. 1109, fig. 1. Leucothoe spinicarpa Sars, 1892, Crust. Norway, vol. 1, p. 283, pl. 100. Leucothoe spinicarpa STEBBING, 1906, Das Tierreich, Amphipoda I, Gammaridea, p. 165 (literature). Station 124, 2 specimens; station 169, I specimen. This is a cosmopolitan species and has been frequently taken on the east coast of the United States. It has also been taken in the Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies. This species measures from 14 to 18 mm. in length. NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 3 Family SYNOPIIDAE SYNOPIA ULTRAMARINA Dana Synopia ultramarina Dana, 1853 and 1855, United States Exploring Expedi- tion, Crustacea, vol. 13, II, p. 995, pl. 68, fig. 6a-h. Synopia ultramarina STEBBING, 1906, Das Tierreich, Amphipoda I, Gammaridea, ‘a71. is schéeleana Bovatitus, 1886, Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsala, ser. 3, vol. 13, No. 9, p. 16, pl. 2, figs. 22-29. Synopia ultramarina SHOEMAKER, 1945, Amphipoda of the Bermuda Ocean- ographic Expedition 1929-1931, p. 195, fig. 8. Station 30, about 50 specimens; station 48, 3 specimens ; station 49, I specimen; station 52, 4 specimens; station 78, I specimen; station 89, 15 specimens ; station 112, 18 specimens. Widely distributed in all tropical and subtropical seas. The species usually measures from 2 to 5 mm., but specimens may reach 7 mm. in length. Family BATEIDAE CARINOBATEA CUSPIDATA Shoemaker Carinobatea cuspidata SHOEMAKER, 1926, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 68, p. 21, figs. 14, 15. Carinobatea cuspidata SHOEMAKER, 1933, Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 508, p. 11. Carinobatea cuspidata SHOEMAKER, 1935, New York Acad. Sci. Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 15, pt. 2, p. 235. Station 78, I specimen; station 89, 6 specimens; station 124, 8 specimens. This species was described from St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. It has since been taken at Puerto Rico and the west coast of Florida. The animal measures about 5 mm. in length. CARINOBATEA CARINATA Shoemaker Carinobatea carinata SHOEMAKER, 1926, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 68, p. 24, fig. 16. Station 169, I specimen. This species was described from the west coast of Florida. The present record from off the Isle of Pines is the second of its occur- rence. The animal measures about 5 mm. in length. Family PONTOGENEIIDAE The difficulties of the family Pontogeneiidae and the confusion existing among its genera have been discussed by Schellenberg *, 1 Schellenberg, A., Revision der Amphipoden-Familie Pontogeneiidae. Zool. Anz., Bd. 85, Heft 11/12, pp. 273-282, 1929. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Stephensen ?, Nicholls *, and others. Schellenberg has produced a key which, as Nicholls remarks, “has made the task of separating members of the various genera a comparatively simple one.’ The species which I am here describing, while obviously a member of the Pontogeneiidae, does not possess a combination of characters agreeing with any of the genera as keyed by Schellenberg. In the present species the fourth joint of the second antenna is longer than the fifth; the carpus of the gnathopods is not elongate; the fourth coxal plate is very shallowly excavate ; the telson is cleft to base; and the branchiae are not simple but rather complex. PONTOGENEIA BARTSCHI new species FIGURE I Station 30, about 50 specimens; station 48, about 50 specimens ; station 49, about 50 specimens; station 52, about 25 specimens; sta- tion 78, about 50 specimens ; station 88, 5 specimens ; station 89, about 100 specimens; station 100, many thousands of specimens. Male.—Head with very short rostrum; lateral lobes broadly round- ing; eye very large and black. Antenna 1 shorter than 2; first joint nearly twice as long as second, which is twice as long as third; first peduncular joint bearing only groups of very fine setae on under sur- face; second peduncular joint bearing calceoli on its under surface; third peduncular joint is without accessory flagellum, but is expanded distally on the inner side into a shallow lobe bearing a few calceoli; flagellum long and slender and composed of many joints, each of which bears a calceolus and two or three sensory filaments on its under distal edge. Antenna 2, fourth joint longer than fifth and both with calceoli on the upper surface; flagellum composed of many joints, each of which bears a calceolus and two sensory filaments on its upper distal edge. Mandible normal, cutting edge rather narrow and armed with short blunt teeth ; accessory plate small, simple, and armed with short teeth ; three spines in spine row; molar strong; palp strong, second joint longer than third and somewhat expanded. Maxilla 1, inner plate small and bearing 3 distal plumose setae; outer plate bearing 11 spine teeth; second joint of palp armed distally with 4 slender teeth and 2 Stephensen, K., Crustacea from the Auckland and Campbell Islands. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk Naturh. Foren., Bd. 83, pp. 315-342, 1927. 8 Nicholls, G. E., Australian Antarctic Expedition 1911-14, Scientific Reports, Ser. C., Zoology and Botany, vol. 2, pt. 4, Amphipod Gammaridea, pp. 100-122, 1938. NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 5 Fic. 1—Pontogeneia bartschi new species. Male, a, front end of animal; b, a few segments of antenna 1, greatly enlarged; c, mandible; d, maxilla 1; ¢, max- illa 2; f, maxilliped; g, lower lip; h, distal end of gnathopod 1; 1, peraeopod 2 showing side plate and the camplex branchia; j, hind end of animal; &, telson; 1, uropod 3. a 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO 4 setae. Maxilla 2, inner lobe narrower than outer and without oblique row of setae. Maxilliped, inner lobe not reaching to base of palp and armed distally with three strong teeth, one slender spine tooth, and several curved setae; outer lobe reaching just beyond the first joint of palp, armed with a row of submarginal spine teeth arranged in pairs, and bearing distally several curved spines; palp rather short and stout, third joint produced distally into a small lobe at the base of the dactyl. Upper lip with lower margin broadly rounding. Lower lip with inner lobes scarcely perceptible and mandib- ular processes short and rather blunt. Gnathopods rather slender and weak and much alike in size and shape. Gnathopod 1, fifth joint as long as wide with lower margin scarcely at all produced ; sixth joint about twice as long as wide, palm oblique, finely serrulate throughout and defined by a slight angle which is armed on the outer surface with one long and one short spine and on the inner surface with two long spines. Seventh joint fitting palm and bearing about six short setae on inner margin. Gnathopod 2 like 1 except that the fifth joint is produced below into a rather long, narrow lobe which lies against the base of the sixth joint. Peraeopods 1 and 2 alike in size and shape; fourth joint slightly expanded ; fourth, fifth, and sixth joints bearing a row of plumose setae on the hind margin; seventh joint long, curved, and bearing a minute setule at base of nail. Peraeopods 3 to 5 increasing consecutively in length, the second joint considerably expanded. The coxal plates are all shallow and are shaped as shown in figure 1A. Metasome segment I is rounding below ; segment 2 is quadrate at lower hind corner ; and lower hind corner of segment 3 is obtuse angled. Uropods 1 and 2 slender and bearing a few short spines. Uropod 3 extending farther back than 1, rami broad and converging to a sharp point, their margins armed with spines and plumose setae. Telson extending beyond peduncle of uropod 3, cleft to its base, the lobes obliquely rounding distally and unarmed, but upper surface bearing a few submarginal setules. The branchiae are quite com- plex and consist of a series of overlapping lobes attached to a broad lamellar base which is strengthened at one edge by a thickened process resembling a vertebral column. Length from rostrum to end of uropod 3 about 6 mm. Female.—The female closely resembles the male but is slightly smaller. It differs from the male as follows: the antennae are shorter, but bear calceoli as in the male; the gnathopods are smaller and weaker, though they are similar in structure to those of the male; the first and second peraeopods are without the plumose setae on the NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—-SHOEMAKER 7 fourth to sixth joints, but bear spines instead. Length of female from rostrum to end of uropod 3 about 5 mm. Type.—A male, U.S.N.M. No. 80622, taken by Dr. Paul Bartsch at station 100, south coast of the west end of the western island of the Cayos San Felipe, Corrientes Bay, western end of Cuba, April 10, 1937- Family GAMMARIDAE CERADOCUS SHEARDI new species FIGURE 2 Station 169, 12 specimens. These specimens do not agree with any of the known species of Ceradocus as set forth in Keith Sheard’s comprehensive paper “The Genus Ceradocus,” Records of the Australian Museum, vol. 6, No. 3, 1939. I am therefore describing the species as new and naming it Ceradocus sheardi in honor of Mr. Sheard. Male——Antenna I about two-thirds the length of the body; first joint a little shorter than the second, lower margin bearing a distal spine, one near the center, and two smaller proximal spines ; second joint without spines; flagellum longer than peduncle; accessory flagellum of about eight joints. Antenna 2, peduncle about equal in length to that of antenna 1; flagellum a little longer than the fifth peduncular joint and consisting of about 16 joints. Mandibular palp with third joint a little over one-third the length of the second. Maxilla 1, inner plate normal; outer plate with 9 spine teeth; palp with 18 slender terminal spines. Maxilla 2 normal. Maxillipeds, inner plate armed distally with three rather long teeth and several slender, curved spines, inner margin with a few plumose setae; outer plate armed on inner margin with about nine slender, curved teeth, and distally with slender, curved plumose spines and setae; palp with second joint reaching a little beyond outer plate. Lower lip with small inner lobes; mandibular processes or lateral lobes slender. Gnathopod 1, sixth joint a little shorter than fifth ; coxal plate with lower front corner produced. Gnathopod 2 with sixth joint very large and strong; palm convex distally and concave at the defining angle, which bears two stout spines. Peraeopods 1 and 2 very short. Peraeopods 3 to 5 increasing consecutively in length. Peraeopod 3, second joint with the lower posterior corner not produced downward into an angular lobe but narrowly rounding. The second joints of peraeopods 4 and 5 with the lower posterior corner rounding. Meta- some segments toothed as shown in figure 2A. The posterior teeth of the first and second urosome segments do not appear to adhere to 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO a definite pattern. They do not always have a large mediodorsal tooth nor are they evenly dentate. In the male that I have figured the first urosome segment possesses a large mediodorsal tooth, but the second SSS OO ty i i it t i x Fic. 2.—Ceradocus sheardi new species. Male, a, entire animal; b, mandible; c, maxilla 1; d, maxilla 2; ¢, maxilliped; f, lower lip; g, gnathopod 1; h, gnatho- pod 2; 7, dorsal view of first and second urosome segments; j, telson; k, uropod 3. segment does not (fig. 21). In most of the specimens the median tooth of the first urosome segment is larger than some of the adjacent teeth and in some of the specimens there is no median tooth on the NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 9 second urosome segment. Between the teeth of the metasome seg- ments and those of the first urosome segment there is a seta, but be- tween the teeth of the second urosome segment there are no setae. Uropod 3 with rami rather broad, outer ramus bearing groups of stout spines on outer margin and a few spines on distal half of inner margin ; inner ramus with spines on both margins. Telson not reach- ing to end of peduncle of uropod 3, deeply cleft, bearing three distal spines on each lobe, and two plumose setules or hairs on the lateral margins. Length of male from front of head to end of uropod 3, I4 mm. Female——The female does not differ materially from the male; even the gnathopods being like those of the male. The right and left gnathopods are alike in both sexes. The length is 14 mm. Type—A male, U.S.N.M. No. 81564, taken by Dr. Paul Bartsch at station 169 (21°57’15” N., 82°32’45” W.), April 15, 1937. In many characters this species agrees with rubromaculatus, but disagrees in others. The lower posterior corner of the third, fourth, and fifth peraeopods is not produced angularly downward, but is evenly rounding. The palm of the second gnathopod is quite different, as is seen by comparison with Sheard’s figure 2F. The first and second urosome segments are not evenly dentate. The telson bears on each lobe three distal spines, the outer one of which is the longest and the inner one the shortest. The male which I have figured was taken by the Albatross at station 2365, just north of Yucatan, in 24 fathoms. It has been taken also on the west coast of Florida, and at Albatross station 2369-74 in the northeastern part of the Gulf of Mexico, in 26 fathoms. CERADOCUS sp. Station 169, I specimen. This specimen, an ovigerous female measuring about Io mm., re- sembles Ceradocus chiltoni Sheard in several characters, but differs in others. The second gnathopods, the right and left of which are alike, very much resemble those of C. chiltoni, though the sixth joint is pro- portionally a little longer and narrower. The palm is toothed as shown by Sheard’s figure 7 A, but the prominent defining angle bears two stout spines instead of one as shown in his figure. The lower posterior corner of the second joint of peraeopods 3 to 5 is produced angularly downward. The teeth of the first and second urosome segments vary greatly in size, some of them being long and upward-curved. The 10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO telson bears two long and two short spines distally on each lobe. The third uropods are missing. I refrain from describing and figuring this species, as there is only the one specimen. ELASMOPUS POCILLIMANUS (Bate) Moera pocillimanus BATE, 1862, Cat. Amph. British Mus., p. 191, pl. 34, fig. 7. Moera levis SmituH, 1873, in A. W. Verrill, Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. [1874], vol. I, p. 550. Elasmopus laevis PAULMIER, 1905, Bull. 91, Zoology 12, New York State Mus., Albany, p. 162, fig. 32. Elasmopus laevis Hotmes, 1905, Bull. Bur. Fisheries for 1904, vol. 24, p. 507, fig. Elasmopus pocillimanus STEBBING, 1906, Das Tierreich, Amphipoda I, Gam- maridea, p. 443. Elasmopus pocillimanus KUNKEL, 1910, Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 16, Ds 50, es ZI. Elasmopus pocillimanus CHEVREUX, 1911, Mem. Soc. Zool., vol. 23, p. 225, pl. TOyefieSelanees Elasmopus levis FOWLER, 1912, Ann. Rep. New Jersey State Mus. [1911], p. 197, pl. 58. Elasmopus pocillimanus CHEVREUX and Faces, 1925, Faune de France, 9, Amph., p. 246; figs 257. Elasmopus pocillimanus SHOEMAKER, 1935, New York Acad. Sci. Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 15, pt. 2, p. 230. Elasmopus pocillimanus SCHELLENBERG, 1938, Kungl. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handlingar, 3d ser., vol. 16, No. 6, p. 56, fig. 28. Station 124, 12 specimens; station 169, 3 specimens. Elasmopus pocillimanus was described from Genoa, Italy, and it occurs on the east coast of the United States from southern New England to the Gulf of Mexico. It has also been recorded from Ber- muda, Puerto Rico, Cape Verde Islands, Annobon Island, West Africa, and the Gilbert Islands (Schellenberg). The animal measures about 10 mm. in length. Note—In 1916 K. H. Barnard (Ann. South African Mus., vol. 15, pt. 3, p. 200, pl. 27, fig. 15) described a species Elasmopus levis from South Africa, but S. I. Smith’s species Moera levis, described in 1873, was transferred to the genus Elasmopus by F. C. Paulmier in 1905. Barnard’s name thus becomes a homonym and will have to be dis- carded. I therefore propose the new name Elasmopus barnardi for Barnard’s species. NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—-SHOEMAKER Er Family TALITRIDAE PARHYALELLA WHELPLEYI (Shoemaker) Hyalella whelpleyi SHOEMAKER, 1933, Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 508, p. 23, figs. 12, 13. Station 78, I specimen. This species was described from Trinidad, British West Indies, and the present record from Cuba is the second of its occurrence. Parhyalella whelpleyi may prove to be a synonym of the genotype, Parhyalella batesoni, described by Kunkel from Bermuda in 1910. Kunkel’s figures are greatly lacking in detail, and his description does not mention the characters which I consider specific in P. whelpleyi. The identity of these two species will have to remain in abeyance until material can be obtained from Bermuda for comparison. This species measures about 6 mm. in length. Family COROPHIIDAE GRANDIDIERELLA BONNIERI Stebbing FIGURE 3 Grandidierella bonnieri Steppinc, 1908, Rec. Indian Mus., vol. 2, pt. 2, No. 13, p. 120, pl. 6. Grandidierella megnae CHILTON, 1921, Mem. Indian Mus., vol. 5, p. 548, fig. 10b, e-f (form 1). Unciolella lunata SCHELLENBERG, 1928, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 22, pt. 5, p. 669, fig. 207. Grandidierella megnae STEPHENSEN, 1933, Zool. Jahrb., Bd. 64, Heft 3/s, PP. 434, 446. Grandidierella bonnieri BARNARD, 1935, Rec. Indian Mus., vol. 37, pt. 3, p. 290, figs. 12d, 13b (literature). Grandidierella bonnieri SCHELLENBERG, 1938, Zool. Jahrb., Bd. 71, Heft 3, p. 215. Station 124, I specimen ¢. This species was described from brackish pools at Port Canning, Lower Bengal, India, in 1908. Dr. Chas. Chilton recorded it from Chilka Lake (G. megnae) in 1921. Dr. A. Schellenberg recorded it from the Suez Canal (Unciolella lunata) in 1928. In 1933 Dr. K. Stephensen recorded it from the Island of Bonaire (G. megnae) off the coast of Venezuela. K. H. Barnard recorded it again from the coast of India in 1935. In 1938 Dr. A. Schellenberg recorded it from the coast of Brazil. It is now recorded from Cuba, and, as shown by material in the collections of the United States National Museum, it is widely distributed in the West Indian and Caribbean regions. The length of the species from front of head to end of third uropod is 6 to 7 mm. I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Order HYPERIIDEA Family HYPERIIDAE HYPERIA BENGALENSIS (Giles) Lestrigonus bengalensis GILES, 1887, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, vol. 56, pt. 2, p. 224, pls. 6, 7. Hyperia atlantica VossELEr, 1901, Amph. Plankton Exped., I Theil, Hyperiidea I, p. 67, pl. 6, figs. 5-15. Hyperia bengalensis Pirtot, 1939, Résult. Camp. Sci. Prince de Monaco, fasc. 102, p. 35 (literature). Station 30, 14 specimens; station 48, 13 specimens; station 49, 14 Fic. 3—Grandidierella bonniert Stebbing. Male, a, front end of animal; b, gnathopod 2; c, peraeopod 3; d, peraeopod 5; e, uropod 3. Female, f, gnatho- pod 1; g, sixth and seventh joints of gnathopod 1, enlarged. specimens; station 52, 15 specimens; station 78, I specimen; station 89, 6 specimens. Pirlot (1939, p. 102) has given what he considers to be the syn- onymy of this species. He includes as synonyms Hyperia promon- tori, disschystus, schizogeneios, and gebui of Stebbing, gilesi, latis- NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 13 sima, thoracica, and Themistella steenstrupi of Bovallius, and H. macrophthalma and hydrocephala of Vosseler. Hyperia promontorii Stebbing, Themistella steenstrupi Bovallius, and Hyperia atlantica Vosseler appear to be the male of the same species, which I believe to be H. bengalensis (Giles). Dana’s figure of Hyperia fabreti (United States Exploring Expedition, vol. 14, Atlas, pl. 67, fig. 10, 1855) is probably also a male of H. bengalensis. Hyperia bengalensis, a small species, the males of which measure about 4 mm., is widely distributed in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The present records are the first for the West Indies. In the present material are several ovigerous females measuring 3.5 mm. Family LYCAEIDAE BRACHYSCELUS CRUSCULUM Bate Brachyscelus crusculum Bate, 1861, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. 8, p. 7, pl. 2, figs. 1, 2. Thamyris mediterranea CLaus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 60, pl. 16, figs. 11-18. Brachyscelus crusculum Pirtot, 1930, Siboga Expeditie, vol. 33a, pt. I, p. 25 (literature). Brachyscelus crusculum Prtriot, 1939, Résult. Camp. Sci. Prince de Monaco, fasc. 102, p. 46. Brachyscelus crusculum SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc., vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 242. Station 89, I specimen. This is a widely distributed species, having been recorded from the North and South Atlantic, North Pacific, East Indies, Indian Ocean, and Mediterranean. The present record is the first from the West Indies. The species measures from Io to 14 mm. in length. BRACHYSCELUS GLOBICEPS (Claus) Thamyris globiceps Ciaus, 1879, Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien, vol. 2, p. 182. Thamyris globiceps CLaus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 59, pl. 16, figs. 1-2, 4-10. Brachyscelus globiceps STEPHENSEN, 1925, Danish Oceanographic Expedition 1908-1910, vol, 2, D.5, Hyperiidea, pt. 3, p. 176, fig. 6s. Brachyscelus globiceps SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc., vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 242. Station 30, 5 specimens. This species has been recorded from the Mediterranean, North and South Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and Australia. It has not heretofore been recorded from the West Indies. The animal measures about 6 mm. in length. I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1O BRACHYSCELUS MACROCEPHALUS Stephensen Brachyscelus macrocephalus STEPHENSEN, 1925, Danish Ingolf Expedition, vol. 3, D- 177, fig. 66. Brachyscelus macrocephalus SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc., vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 243. Station 30, I specimen. This species has been recorded from the Mediterranean and from Bermuda. The present record is the third of its occurrence. The species measures 5 or 6 mm. in length. LYCAEA PULEX Marion Lycaea pulex Marton, 1874, Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 5, vol. 17, p. 13, pl. 2, fig. 2. Lycaea pulex SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc., vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 243 (literature). Station 48, 2 specimens. Lycaea pulex has been recorded from the North and South Atlantic, North and South Pacific, Indian Ocean, and Mediterranean. The present record is the first for the West Indies. The species measures from 4 to 6 mm. Family PLATYSCELIDAE AMPHITHYRUS SCULPTURATUS Claus Amphithyrus sculpturatus CLAus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 41, pl. 7, figs. 1-9. Amphithyrus orientalis STEBBING, 1888, Challenger Rep., p. 1485, pl. 210, fig. B. Amphithyrus orientalis SHOEMAKER, 1925, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 52, p. 58, figs. 25, 26. Amphithyrus sculpturatus STEPHENSEN, 1925, Danish Oceanographic Expedi- tion 1908-1910, vol. 2, D.5, Hyperiidea, pt. 3, p. 226. Amphithyrus sculpturatus SPANDL, 1927, Die Hyperiden der Deutschen Stidpolar- Expedition 1901-1903, Deutsch. Siidpolar-Exped., vol. 19, Zool. 11, p. 250. Amphithyrus sculpturatus Pirtot, 1929, Résultats Zoologiques Croisiére at- lantique de “l’Armauer Hansen,” 1922, fasc. I, p. 158. Amphithyrus sculpturatus BARNARD, 1937, The John Murray Expedition 1933- 34, Sci. Rep., vol. 4, No. 6, Amphipoda, p. 196. Station 30, 2 specimens. This species has been recorded from the Mediterranean, Atlantic Ocean, Arabian Sea, Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of California. The present record is the first for the West Indies. Several specimens of Amphithyrus similis Claus were taken by Dr. William Beebe at Ber- muda in*1931, and this species is regarded by Pirlot (1929, p. 158) as a synonym of A. sculpturatus. The species measures from 4 to 5 mim. in length. NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 15 PARATYPHIS MACULATUS Claus Paratyphis maculatus CLaus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 39, pl. 5, figs. 1-9. Paratyphis maculatus Pirtot, 1939, Résult. Camp. Sci. Prince de Monaco, fasc. 102, p. 56. Paratyphis maculatus SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc., vol. 30, pt. 4, P. 259. Station 30, 8 specimens; station 52, I specimen. This species has been recorded from the North and South Atlantic, East Indies, and Gulf of Aden, but it has not heretofore been recorded from the West Indies. It is a small species measuring from 2 to 4 mm. in length. TETRATHYRUS FORCIPATUS Claus Tetrathyrus forcipatus CLaus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 40, pl. 5, figs. 10-18, pl. 6, figs. 1-3. Tetrathyrus sancti-josephi SHOEMAKER, 1925, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 52, p. 54, figs. 22-24. Tetrathyrus forcipatus SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc., vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 256. Station 30, I specimen; station 48, 25 specimens; station 49, 7 speci- mens; station 52, I specimen. This species has been recorded from the North, tropical, and South Atlantic, Mediterranean, Red Sea, northern Arabian Sea, East Indies, New Zealand, and North Pacific. It is a small species measuring 3 to 4.5 mm. j ae re y mi, ent ear 7 ae i ene 4) i ae a ae rar Gi We, hoe hit cia Meee Ve mi ye , r Hig nile BAe hy fo hak we ; eed tees, ae al esi, ee niin Arie iy HH i an My ir a 1, ee hele on ain a ' " a ip bi MO. Wee ayo 47) rere) ote | ©} . i yi ry clio nt et i v98 wt D Ly is : ene a f “ae ad ee ; SYR a ee Fila , Berek Sei pase id Ag ea ag My + apn . a Ba ‘ | | er baa ee i . Mn ier eae wy lf, ' ed , eens ty fear eae Aen ie all yi ) . . Rs ; 7 : " Pin baa} i F bree Pree ht ANDY oping EAA 8 Do Me tens up “one te oe a ‘ i . verre ee i 10 ri} Adin rae 7 : Ory nee : ry ‘ ts ut YSN | , . oe i a + BAN ni iy ; ? 5 i i" ny uM : Put | roa ; H i dak | ‘ j 3 A Veo! Me iyi ‘ hal 7 ‘ & ‘ 4 > Ha Wor mL eS : ar : bse)! r ( ny he ‘ f 1 i a ie 7 i 5 ' : a © ‘ r A is ~ if ,; ; : 2 4 | } Oy - i : : n \ : tnt i / , 7 LJ a SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 4 Roebling Fund 1947-1948 REPORT ON THE 27.0074-DAY CYCLE IN WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION BY C. G. ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution (Pustiication 3919) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION MARCH 10, 1948 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. + i i ee ‘ J j é t ‘ 1 LRAT) 1 " ir . Roebling Fund 1947-1948 REPORT ON THE 27.0074-DAY CYCLE IN WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION By C. G. ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution In Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections * I have set forth an ap- parent cycle of precipitation at Washington, and the outcome from year to year of yearly predictions based thereon. In 1947, for the fourteenth consecutive year, the average precipitation for the predicted favorable days has exceeded the average precipitation on all other days of the year. The results for 1947 precipitation are given in table I. TABLE 1.—Statistics of Washington precipitation, 1947 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year referred” days .. 0.171 0.100 0.030 0.128 0.136 0.284 0.084 0.035 0.150 0.000 0.216 0.058 0.1166 MRS ....... 0.072 0.023 0.048 0.101 0.126 0.112 0.245 0.220 0.097 0.076 0.123 0.037 0.1058 SE os n> seein 2.38 4.29 0.62 1.22 1.08 2.54 0.34 0.16 1.55 0.00 1.75 1.57 1.10 eamcnes ...... 3-72 1.65 1.24 3-37 4.05 5.76 5.35 3.68 3.70 1.31 5.09 1.47 40.39 rmal inches ..... 3-55 3-27 3:75 3-27 3-70 4.13 4.71 4.01 3.24 2.84 2.37 3-32 42.16 recent normal .... 105 50 33 103 109 139 114 g2 114 46 215 44 96 Lines 1 and 2 give the average precipitation in inches per day for preferred other — Lines 4 and 5 give the total precipitation and normal precipitation in inches, and line 6 the percentage of observed to normal for the months and year. “Preferred” days had a higher average precipitation than all other days in the months January, February, April, May, June, September, November, and December, and also for the year 1947 as a whole. Other days had a higher average precipitation than “preferred” days in the months March, July, August, and October. Of these four ex- ceptional months, March and October had very low rainfall. The average ratio, “‘perferred’”/all other, of precipitation per day for 14 consecutive years has exceeded unity. The expectation is 1.42. The value for 1947 is 1.10, and for the 14 years it is 1.47. The following table 2 gives the dates for 1948 when the average daily precipitation is expected to exceed the average for all other days. In the first column are given in Roman numerals the day numbers “preferred” and all other days. Line 3 gives the ratio: 1See Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, Nos. 3 and 5, 1944; and vol. 107, No. 3, 1947. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 4 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO within the 27 days of the cycle when higher precipitation is expected. The remainder of the table gives the actual dates in the different months which correspond to these Roman numerals, in other words the “preferred” days for the year 1948. These “preferred” days should give, on the average, higher precipitation than all other days. TaBLE 2.—Predicted dates when average precipitation should exceed average precipitation for all other dates, Washington, 1048 “Preferred” cycle places Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June RPh ae 12 8 6 2, 29 26 22 Heese aero 13 9 7 3, 30 27 23 OTT es Attn sere 14 10 8 4 1, 28 24 Nav teetoss 15 II 9 5 2, 29 25 Vib aos 16 12 10 6 3, 30 26 XCM Sa mtoe tenes 23 19 17; 13 10 6 STG em sresrciete 24 20 18 14 II 7 ERE Vr ores nrvs ine 20 22 20 16 13 9 SNOW seT cede vere,Shetecs 1, 28 24 22 18 15 Il SOV ALT e Aa Jo cee 2, 29 25 23 19 16 12 EXT Oy ae Se 6 2, 29 27 23 20 16 DOXGV Perse 10 6 4, 31 27 24 20 XOXGV Tem 4 A arcterue It 7 5 1, 28 25 21 “Preferred” cycle places July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. eae er tes 19 15 II 8 4 1, 28 TT PMS fin oe 20 16 12 9 5 2, 29 DT 12 debates 21 17 13 10 6 3, 30 AUWesruperoaesh fact ct 22 18 14 II i 4, 31 AV aie eae 23 19 15 12 8 5 NST eee yes cerens 330 26 22 19 15 12 EXOT eee nastvociene Ami 27 23 20 16 13 SOV Steet ctates 6 2, 29 25 22 18 15 DRE ALilin Bese srersay- 8 4, 31 27 24 20 17 KO V AIT aah tees 9 5 I, 28 25 21 18 PROX TIEN cyoeenraeetr 13 9 5 2, 29 25 21 KOXP AUG aera 17 13 9 6 2, 29 26 PRONG Hn oer ter sre 18 14 10 Ui 3, 30 27 The tabulation on which the cycle of 27.0074 days is based began January 1, 1924. In the 24 years, 1924 to 1947, there were 8,766 days. To complete 325 cycles of 27.0074 days requires 8,777.4 days. Hence 11 days of January 1948 are required additional to the 24 years ending December 31, 1947. Thus I begin table 2 which follows with January 12, 1948, corresponding to Roman numeral I. It should be emphasized that this prediction relates only to Wash- ington, D. C2 2 This paper was finished on January 16, 1948. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 5 Roebling Fund SMITHSONIAN PYRHELIOMETRY AND THE STANDARD SCALE OF SOLAR RADIATION BY L. B. ALDRICH AND C. G. ABBOT Smithsonian Institution (Pustication 3920 CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION APRIL 15, 1948 The Lord Baftimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. & A. Roebling Fund SMITHSONIAN PYRHELIOMETRY AND THE STANDARD SCALE OF SOLAR RADIATION By L. B. ALDRICH anp C. G. ABBOT Smithsonian Institution Since its beginning in 1890, the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution has devoted much time to the development and improvement of pyrheliometers for the accurate measurement of total solar radiation. Numerous types have been investigated, and many thousands of individual measurements and intercomparisons of various pyrheliometers have been made. The two that have been most useful and satisfactory for our purposes are the water-flow pyrheliometer, a standard instrument, and the silver-disk pyrheli- ometer, a secondary instrument. During the past 40 years, Andrew Kramer, veteran instrument maker of the Astrophysical Observatory, has constructed in our shop nearly 100 silver-disk pyrheliometers. Most of these instru- ments as completed have been sold or loaned to interested institutions and are now in use on every continent. The silver-disk instrument was devised and designed by Dr. Abbot. It is mechanically simple and rugged and with reasonable care it continues indefinitely to give reliable readings of solar radiation. Our faith in the permanence of the constant furnished with each instrument has been supported by many intercomparisons extending over long periods of time.* Since it is not practicable to use the silver-disk pyrheliometer as a standard instrument, the constant of each one is determined by careful com- parisons against a standard pyrheliometer. One of our silver-disk instruments, A.P.O. No. 81, has been kept at the Observatory as a substandard since it was built 40 years ago, and a second one, S.I. No. 5nis has been similarly used in recent years. In the years 1910 to 1913, the Observatory conducted an intensive campaign to produce a standard pyrheliometer, and to establish the correct standard scale of solar radiation. The water-flow and water- stir standard pyrheliometers, both devised by Dr. Abbot, were selected 1 See detailed tabulations of these comparisons in volumes 3 to 6 of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 5 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO for this work and many comparisons were made against various silver- disk instruments.? This campaign established a standard scale of radiation which we called the “Smithsonian revised pyrheliometry of 1913.” The constants of all silver-disk pyrheliometers have been based on this scale. In the years 1915, 1916, and 1920 further com- parisons were made against standard water-flow No. 3 on Mount Wilson, Calif., these results confirming the adopted scale of 1913.° In 1932 a marked improvement was made in the standard water- flow pyrheliometer. This was suggested by V. M. Shulgin * and con- sisted in the substitution of two identical absorbing chambers instead of one. The advantages of this change and others of a minor nature are discussed in our paper “An Improved Water-flow Pyrheliometer and the Standard Scale of Solar Radiation” (Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, No. 15, 1932). The new pyrheliometer proved free from the worst difficulty we had experienced with the earlier instru- ment, namely, irregular drift of the galvanometer zero. The results now obtained were more concordant and more satisfactory than ever before. Thirty-seven comparisons between the new water-flow No. 5 and our silver-disk pyrheliometer S.I. No. 5yis showed the scale of our revised pyrheliometry of 1913 to be too high by 2.5 percent. In 1934 we repeated this work on Mount Wilson.> Forty-two compari- sons showed the 1913 scale to be 2.3 percent too high. Since 1934, 13 years have elapsed with no further comparisons against a water-flow standard. In August 1947 opportunity came to make further comparisons at Mount Wilson. In preparation for this, standard water-flow pyrheliometer No. 5 was altered as follows: New thermoelements of copper-constantan were substituted for the former nickel-platinum junctions. These and also the special glass housings for the thermoelements were made by L. B. Clark of this Institution in such form that the whole assembly could be waxed in place without the use of rubber tubing. On arrival at Mount Wilson, however, it was found that seams had opened up in the wax, owing probably to changes in temperature and jolting in transit from Wash- ington. After considerable difficulty the wax was remelted and the whole made watertight. All the precautions which we took in 1932 and 1934 to insure greater accuracy were again taken in the present comparisons. In addition, the following steps were taken: 2 Ann. Astrophys. Obs., vol. 3, pp. 52-72, 1913. 3 Ann. Astrophys. Obs., vol. 4, pp. 92-97, 1922. 4 Monthly Weather Rev., August 1927, p. 361. 5 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 92, No. 13, 1934. NO. 5 PYRHELIOMETRY—ALDRICH AND ABBOT 3 1. An eyepiece of improved design was used to read the silver- disk pyrheliometer. } 2. The rate of the seconds pendulum was carefully adjusted to indicate exact I-second intervals. 3. A high-sensitivity D’Arsonval galvanometer was used. The total deflection for uncompensated solar heating was 44 cm. as com- pared with 10 cm. in the previous work. 4. All current measurements were made with a direct-reading potentiometer, using a 3-ohm standard resistance and a certified standard cell. Currents with this arrangement were read to I part in 5,000. Comparisons were made on 2 days, August 26 and 27. Excellent skies prevailed on both days. In all the comparisons, C. G. Abbot read the silver-disk pyrheliometer and operated the shutter of the standard pyrheliometer. L. B. Aldrich made the galvanometer and current measurements. Two silver-disk instruments, S.I. No. 5yi; and S.I. No. 79 were used. They had been carried by hand, one by each of the authors, from Washington, D. C., to Mount Wilson. The adopted constant of S.I. No. 5yis (Smithsonian scale of 1913), as stated in our previ- ous papers, is .3715. That of S.I. No. 79, as determined from 32 comparisons against substandard A.P.O. No. 8; in November and December, 1946, is .3736. The results of our comparisons are summarized in table 1. With S.I. No. 5pis, the mean of 18 comparisons against standard No. 5 gives .3626 as the constant of S.I. No. 5nis. Thus the ratio of Smithsonian revised scale of 1913 to the scale of standard No. 5 is Aes 1.0245. The mean of 15 comparisons between S.I. No. 79 ad Standard No. 5 gives .3650 as the constant of S.I. No. 79, and the ratio of the scale of 1913 to that of Standard No. 5 is 3230 = 1 .0235. It is interesting to note that the average deviation ‘ndividual comparisons is only one-half of one percent, and the probable error of the means one-tenth of one percent. The mean ratio for all 33 comparisons is 1.0240. In 1932, 37 comparisons gave a mean ratio of 1.0248. In 1934, 42 values gave 1.0237. Thus the 1932, 1934, and 1947 means agree within I part in 1,000. We conclude that the scale of Smithsonian revised pyrheliometry of 1913 is very nearly 2.4 percent too high. Our silver-disk instruments have remained unchanged. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO TABLE 1.—Swmmary of 1947 comparisons Calories Corrected Constant reading of of Deviation Date water-flow silver-disk silver-disk from 1947 Time No. 5 S.I. No. 5bis S.I. No. 5bis mean Aug. 26 10" 56™ 1.510 4.154 3035 + 11 II 03 1.502 4.158 3612 — 14 14 1.512 4.178 -3019 — 7 22 1.509 4.170 3019 — 7 29 1.496 4.155 .3600 — 26 36 1.407 4.149 3608 — 18 Aug. 27 10 10 1.520 4.228 3595 — 31 17 1.519 4.135 -3674 + 48 24 1.531 4.249 3003 — 23 31 1.518 4.193 3620 — 6 42 1.528 4.204 3035 + 9 49 1.525 4.193 .3637 EE 56 1.523 4.186 3638 +12 II 04 1.527 4.212 3025 — 1 12 1.563 4.267 3663 + 37 19 1.556 4.276 -3039 + 13 26 1.538 4.268 3604 — 22 33 1.538 4.217 .3647 + 21 Mean, 18 values = .3626 Calories Corrected by reading Constant Deviation Date water-flow oO 0 rom 1947 Time No. 5 S.I. No. 79 S.I. No. 79 mean Aug. 26 am EO 1:373 3.730 3681 +- 31 57 1.379 3-754 .3673 + 23 8 04 1.393 3-794 .3672 + 22 9 37 1.472 4.051 3034 — 16 44 1.488 4.044 .36080 -+ 30 Aug. 27 7 40 1.380 3.812 -3620 — 30 47 1.394 3.867 -3605 Aad 55 1.415 3.852 .3673 + 23 8 06 1.428 3.925 3638 — 12 13 1.441 3.898 .3697 + 47 58 1.470 4.004 3671 + 21 9 05 1.438 3.9902 .3002 — 48 12 1.449 4.011 3012 — 38 25 1.451 3.998 3629 —2I 33 1.477 4.028 .3667 +17 Mean, 15 values = .3650 Average deviation, 33 values, .0022. Probable error, .0003, or .08 percent. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 6 Roebling Fund MAGNETIC STORMS, SOLAR RADIATION, AND WASHINGTON TEMPERATURE DEPARTURES (WitH Two P ates) BY C. G. ABEOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution (Pusiication 3940) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JUNE 25, 1948 The Lord Gaktimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. Roebling Fund MAGNETIC STORMS, SOLAR RADIATION, AND WASHINGTON TEMPERATURE DEPARTURES By C. G. ABBOT Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution (WitH Two P rates) Occasionally the earth’s magnetic condition is greatly disturbed. At such times large sunspot groups are usually visible near the center of the solar disk. From studies of the aurora, radio transmission, and other electrical phenomena of the atmosphere, it is concluded that the earth is being bombarded by showers of electric ions at times of magnetic storms. These ions appear to emanate most copiously from sunspots. For many years the Smithsonian Institution has made daily meas- urements, whenever possible, of the heat equivalent of the energy of solar radiation. It lies mainly in the wave-length region from 0.33 to 2.5 microns (thousandths of a millimeter). This embraces ultraviolet, visible, and infrared rays. The measurements are made in such a way that the losses caused by the earth’s atmosphere may be estimated. On each day of observation it is computed what the intensity of the sun’s heat would be if one could observe at mean solar distance outside the atmosphere. The values thus obtained are termed measures of “the solar constant of radiation.” The average value of the solar constant is about 1.94 calories per square centimeter per minute. Fluctuations in solar-constant values occur, but the range of them is small, seldom exceeding 1 percent of the total. The earth’s atmosphere on a cloudless day diminishes the intensity of solar heat of the direct sun beam reaching the earth’s surface in several ways: First, by the scattering exerted by the molecules of oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases of the atmosphere ; second, by the scattering and absorption produced by dust particles floating in the atmosphere, and seen as haze; third, by the absorption of rays of certain wave lengths by oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, ozone, and other gases and vapors which produce true absorption of radia- tion with conversion of radiant energy into heat. About 1880 Lord SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 6 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Rayleigh proved that the scattering by particles (such as molecules and very small dust particles) which are small compared to the wave length of light is proportional inversely to the fourth power of the wave length. Thus it happens that the sky is blue, because the blue rays, being of shorter wave length than the red or yellow rays, are much more scattered out of the direct sun beam by the molecules of the atmospheric gases. If now, as stated above, the earth is being showered at times of magnetic storms by multitudes of electric ions, which certainly are small compared to the wave length of light, the direct sun beam, shining 93 million miles through these showers, must be weakened by Rayleigh scattering. The only question is how much. This paper gives the results of an investigation of that question. Our first experience of such a phenomenon came to us in the year 1920. About March 20 to 23, 1920, there was an enormous sunspot group central on the sun’s disk, as shown in plate 1. There was also a severe magnetic storm on the earth, accompanied by fine auroral displays. The storm was most severe on March 22 and March 23. Smithsonian observations of solar radiation made at Calama, Chile, followed the course shown in the upper curve of figure 1. The phenomena of central passage of the great sunspot group included a diminution of the observed values of the solar constant of radiation of the order of 5 percent, reaching the minimum value on March 23. Possibly the very low value of March 23 may have been made un- duly low by experimental error, but the value of March 24, nearly as low, is of quite as high a grade as most of the Montezuma values of that year. Critics may suggest that these low values of the solar constant were caused, not by Rayleigh scattering from electric ions along the 93-million-mile path of sun rays through space, but rather by a hazing of the earth’s atmosphere, produced by the adherence of water-vapor molecules to the ions, after they entered the atmosphere; in other words, that the solar-constant values were erroneous. This sugges- tion, however, runs counter to the observations. For though the lower curve in figure I, which traces the march of values of atmos- pheric transmission coefficients for green light at wave length 0.511 micron, does show that the atmosphere became less transparent * during the passage of the sunspot through the central position on the sun’s disk, that change alone, if it were not countered by other factors in determining the solar constant—factors also affected by atmos- 1 This change will be accounted for when we consider figure 3 below. NO. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT 3 pheric conditions—would have tended to raise, not to depress, the solar-constant values. At that time the solar constant was being deter- mined at Calama, Chile, by the fundamental, or “long,” method of Langley. The less transparent the atmosphere the greater would have been our estimate of the losses it produced in the solar ray, and the larger the computed solar-constant value outside the atmosphere. But this tendency is counterbalanced exactly by lower observed pyrheliometer readings when the atmosphere is less clear. The solar- : POCO . mea dt | Vel e fT BA ee eee Gerbil lili Fic. 1.—Solar constant March-April 1920, upper curve; atmospheric trans- mission green light, lower curve. constant values would be too low only if the transparency of the atmosphere was erroneously observed too high. Other critics have suggested to me that the observed change of the solar constant of March 1920 might have been produced errone- ously by a change of the absorption of solar rays by ozone, assuming that the solar outburst of electrified ions produces large changes of the concentration of atmospheric ozone. I reply that all solar-constant values done by the long method, as in 1920, take account of such effects because the atmospheric transmission coefficients are neces- sarily appropriately modified owing to the method of obtaining them. All solar-constant values done by the short method since 1923 are 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1IO specifically corrected for absorption of atmospheric ozone, as ex- plained in volume 5 of Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, pages 124 to 131. Hence this suggestion of critics applies neither to the work of 1920, nor to the work subsequent to 1923. In conversation with Dr. Nicholson of Mount Wilson Observa- tory, in September 1947, I asked him if he knew of other occasions when great sunspot groups passed centrally through the sun’s disk. If so, I proposed to see if a similar depression of solar-constant values occurred. In reply he suggested that sunspots were “like shot- guns, rather than like rifles,’ when they pepper space with electric ions. Hence it might well be that whenever a severe magnetic storm occurs there will be generated a shower of ions embracing our line of sight and introducing Rayleigh scattering through the 93 million miles of space between the earth and the sun. MAGNETIC STORMS, 1923 TO 1946 I undertook to test this hypothesis. The phenomena of March 1920, are so exceptional that I omitted them in a general tabulation. From the journal “Terrestrial Magnetism” I found over 70 occasions in the years 1923 to 1946 when very severe magnetic storms were re- ported. Not being very familiar with the terms used by the observers at the magnetic stations, I am not sure that I found all the dates of severe magnetic storms during this interval. Moreover, the magnetic observers, if they see this paper, may not regard all the storms I selected as severe. There was, indeed, some discrepancy between the estimates of severity from different magnetic stations reporting in “Terrestrial Magnetism.” Whatever may be the incompleteness or inexactness of my selection, I feel sure that experts will agree that all the storms included in table 1, which follows, were strong, if not always deserving the description severe. The magnetic storms continued from 2 to to days. It was often uncertain which day to take as representing the height of the storm, that is, the day most likely to be the day when the shower of ions was densest. All the several tabulations of the data which I made showed clearly a depression of the solar constant at or near the height of the magnetic storm. Hence I thought it fair to select as zero day that day during the height of the storm when the solar constant was most depressed. SOLAR-CONSTANT OBSERVATIONS Unfortunately I could not use all the storm dates selected. Our observations of the solar constant made at Montezuma and at Mount No. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT 5 St. Katherine are so much more accurate than any others that the results from other stations must be ignored in a study of small changes of this kind. That restriction cuts off a great many dates, because the sequences of solar-constant values, at and near the storm dates, were often too incomplete to be used. With the utmost liberality of selec- tion, I could find but 53 storm dates from 1923 to 1946 when solar- constant sequences observed at Montezuma or St. Katherine were complete enough to be fairly used in the tabulation. Even among those sequences retained, many were so imperfect as hardly to deserve em- ployment. I therefore made two reductions, one employing the whole group of 53 dates, the other employing 22 of them, when the se- quences were at least two-thirds complete, and were not broken badly near the zero dates. However, the mean results of the complete tabu- lation of 53 and the tabulation of the 22 most satisfactory sequences are in almost perfect agreement. Hence it may be said that two inde- pendent tabulations, one of 22 cases, the other of 31 cases, yield prac- tically identical results as to the influence of severe magnetic storms on the solar constant. My solar-constant data, 1923 to 1939, are taken from table 24, volume 6, Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith- sonian Institution. From unpublished daily results, those of 1939 to 1946 were kindly put at my disposal by Director L. B. Aldrich of the Observatory. In quoting from the Annals I have used the direct mean values from Montezuma or St. Katherine, and not the “preferred” values. I have come to distrust the method used to obtain “preferred” values, and it has not been used in the reductions of 1939 to 1946. Furthermore I have ignored “grades.” They are more or less liable to personal bias, and especially to a tendency to discredit apparently wild values. It is very clear from the present research, and from another I have made on hurricanes, that some wild values are caused by cosmic conditions, not by errors of observation. EFFECT OF MAGNETIC STORMS ON THE SOLAR CONSTANT With these explanations given, I now ask attention to table 1. It enumerates the 53 dates retained.* Corresponding to each one is a sequence, more or less complete, of solar-constant values from Monte- zuma or Mount St. Katherine. It extends from 10 days before to 10 days after the date marked zero, when the magnetic storm appeared to be at its height. The table has 53 more or less complete lines of 21 2 The phenomenon of March 22, 1920, is of so much greater range of severity that I have treated it separately above, and do not include it in table r. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO columns. Two additional lines give the number of values per column and their mean values. To save printing, the first two places of the solar constant are omitted. The reader must therefore remember that where, for instance, “32” is printed, 1.932 is to be understood. Although, as stated above, about 20 storm dates had been omitted, because the corresponding sequences of solar-constant values were too Fic. 2.—Depression of solar constant attending severe magnetic storms. Abscissae, days before and after height of storm; ordinates, solar constant (to be prefixed by 1.9). defective, there still remain many very incomplete sequences in the table. I therefore thought it good, as I have said, to pick out a smaller number of occasions when the sequences, especially those near zero day, were nearly full. These selected dates, 22 in number, are indi- cated by asterisks in the table. Their mean values and the numbers of observations entering into these means, are given in the last lines of table I. NO. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT 7 It is satisfactory to see that the mean results from 53 cases and the mean results from the preferred 22 cases are nearly identical. Hence we may infer that the 31 incomplete sequences, printed without TABLE 1.—Effect of magnetic storms on solar-constant values 60 40 32 53 58 56 — 49 54 46 .. 45 59 +. Gage) tee fa th we Aon SO 50 460) a. Me OS ag ee) ee 45 ST «. +s 43 8eS2 47 33 35 35 39 33 34 481 465 450 467 463 455 435 Mean of first 9 = 458 Mean of 53 cases........ 19 17 19 17 19 14 15 ‘Mean of 22° cases...... Mean of first 9 = 453 47 41 38 37 55 49 i Z : : * 38 70 35 43 51 34 55 44 50 41 47 47 54 42 47 —10 —9 —8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —I 47 54 52 57 45 48 42 46 42 51 44 45 41 30 47 42 at 42 41 43 52 52 59 48 50 47 42 46 40 38 34 63 52 35 42 43 39 40 41 47 48 41 50 46 48 49 45 ° 47 29 45 20 49 53 23 52 42 38 37 44 44 34 21 38 34 44 40 44 42 41 43 42 43 39 37 44 59 29 43 37 48 45 41 at 39 42 38 S BEE 8 9 50 40 SI 52 iy ad eee ee ey OR et ome 4 10 5t 52 52 49 46 43 40 . 41.» 49 37 45 30 26 35 30 28 47 26 29 49 53 . 43 34 33 50 33 51 40 48 24 36 54 65 58 SI 48 43 45 56 45 43 45 55 53 4! 45 54 46 44 45 44 49 52 40 47 55 53 5I 61 46 55 47 59 55 40 53 47 50 ee 57 44 ee 49 5! 44 4 45 63 48 53 21 42 8 54 43 34 45 47 - SB: ae 52 44 41 32 49 39 42 48 43 49 48 “ 40 45 * 41 53 56 45 ths ue 42 43 47 38 39 38 a. 41 45 AF ou ese +» 50 44 33 4l 43 37 50 51 48 33 45 50 50 39 34 53 -- 39 51 Ae aca AO we > SEBS SR: 42 39 55 53 52 47 37 42 41 50 55 33 49 52 47 40 46 mun: Ano 51 BBE aa he 50 42 32 50 48 47 53 34 46 &: & 45 53 50 $: 43 37 43 49 38 43 te A at a: Oo: 48 51 47 48 51 42 39 +» 39 51 52 vs. ae. SE 47 41 50 38 56 ae Shar he 45 47 51 St 49 SI 46 31 -. 43 35 27 4! ae 56 51 36 50 50 ua 41 51 5 S 52 > & 41 63 44 47 46 39 35 30 3r 49 40 31 46 43 -- ot Ae aC 46 44 41 34 «41 36 36 35 32 454 454 453 391 483 459 445 48 448 446 458 444 439 420 20 454 458 443 451 466 469 439 443 454 457 390 476 444 436 469 455 445 420 436 481 430 18 20 21 Mean of last 9 = 448 20 18 22 17 19 20 17 2 12 38 Mean of last 9 = 447 asterisks in table 1, independently confirm closely the results obtained from the 22 preferred cases. It is seen that a very sudden drop of about 0.0062 calorie, or 4 percent, occurred on zeroth day. There is a slight, but perhaps not significant, depression of the solar constant 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO as between the means of the first 9 and the last 9 of the solar-constant values of the sequences. In order to illustrate the variation in effect of magnetic storms on solar radiation depending on the magnitude of sunspots and their loca- tion on the sun’s disk, I ask the reader to compare plate 2 with plate 1. Plate 2 includes direct photographs of the sun taken at Mount Wilson on November 28, 1936, and February 3, 1937. On these dates there was no central sunspot group, as on March 22, 1920. On November 28, 1936, two large sunspot groups were at about 20° solar latitude both north and south of the center of the sun’s disk and another near the sun’s limb. On February 3, 1937, there were many small spot groups upon the disk, and one very large one near the sun’s limb, but none near the center of the disk. Accordingly we see from the solar- constant records a very large depression in March 1920 (see fig. 1), a conspicuous depression in November 1936, and scarcely any de- pression in February 1937 (see table 1), at the times of severe mag- netic storms. MAGNETIC STORMS AND SKY CONDITIONS Thus the magnitude of the Rayleigh depression of solar radiation resulting from 93 million miles of ionic shower proves measurable. Since these ions invade the earth’s atmosphere, we may look for two meteorological effects. First, the captured ions are likely to act as centers of condensation of water molecules and dust, and thereby — increase the haziness and the brightness of the sky. Second, the sur- face temperatures of the earth might be affected. From table 24, Annals, volume 6, and unpublished later records, I collected for 30 magnetic-storm dates the pyranometer measures at air mass 2.5 of the brightness of the sky near the sun. The mean values for these dates and the Io days before and 1o days after, together with the numbers of observations entering into each mean, are given in table 2 and graphically in figure 3. It appears that the haziness of the sky increased suddenly on the storm day,* and sky brightness near the sun averaged 10 percent higher for the 10 last days of the sequences than for the first 10 days. As could be expected, the graph, figure 3, is rather irregular. It must be considered that the principal causes of sky haziness lie in the lower layers of the atmosphere, and are subject to great fluctuations as dust and humidity float about in the changing air currents. Hence the 3 This tends to explain the drop in atmospheric transparency shown in figure I. No. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT 9 relatively minor effects of the invasion of ions, at times of magnetic storms, are superposed on large variations of sky brightness due to other causes. aie FOCCCACIALT CS CCR FILAL OAS Ay ie 110 100 Fic. 3.—Increased sky brightness after severe magnetic storms. Abscissae, days before and after height of storm; ordinates, pyranometer observations of sky brightness. Taste 2.—Effect of magnetic storms on sky brightness. Pyranometer observations Days from zero day..... —10 —9 —8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 -—2-—I 0 It 2 3 4 § 6 7 8 9 10 No. of observations...... 19 19 19 21 24 2% 19 24 23 23 23 22 19 24 22 23 23 19 19 2% 19 Mean pyranometer ...... 102 104 124 IOI 112 115 106 105 110 108 118 127 119 114 112 127 120 118 107 121 124 Mean of first 10 = 109 Mean of last 10 = 119 MAGNETIC STORMS AND WASHINGTON TEMPERATURE It remains to trace the effects of ionic bombardment on temperature at the earth’s surface. The departures from normal temperatures at Washington from 9 days before zeroth day to 9 days after have been tabulated for 73 severe magnetic storms occurring from 1923 to 1946. In this tabulation no vacancies occurred in the sequences. Hence I give only the mean results in table 3 and figure 4. Washington temperature fell sharply, beginning 1 day before the magnetic storm, and reaching a level on storm day 3° below that of the mean of temperatures from 9 to 2 days before the storm. After the storm the temperature rose sharply, but averaged 0.8° lower from the second to the ninth day after the storm than the mean value before it. IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO =2 = “3 -3 =o il 3 3 7 9 Fic. 4.—Washington temperatures depressed by severe magnetic storms. Abscissae, days before and after height of storm; ordinates, degrees centigrade of departures from normal. TABLE 3.—Effect of magnetic storms on Washington temperature Days from zero day. —9 —8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —I O 3.92) 3 4) SCs Mean departure from normal temperature. 0°37 0°63 1°25 1°81 1°48 1°70 1°74 2°28 0°47 —1°38 0°93 0°70 0°04 0°29 1°12 1°60 0°07 O°61 « Mean of first 8= 1°41 Mean of last 8 = 0°64 OTHER CASES OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE CAUSED BY VARIATION OF SOLAR RADIATION Simpson, in his classical investigation of the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere, and its relation to radiation, computed the the- oretical effect of a rise of 1 percent in the solar constant. For eastern North America he found that such a rise in radiation would depress temperatures at the earth’s surface. Clayton, by statistical studies of actual changes in solar radiation to temperature, had also arrived at the same result. Indeed his isothermal lines, corresponding to a rise of I percent in the solar constant, very nearly map out the extension of Pleistocene glaciation in North America. See, for in- stance, figure 21, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, volume 77, No. 6, 1925. no. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT II As stated above, I find the opposite trend in temperature at Wash- ington to that found by Simpson and Clayton. For I find a depression of temperature following a sudden obscuration of the planet earth, caused by its bombardment by electric ions. The circumstances, how- ever, are not parallel. Those authors treated of a relatively permanent increase of solar radiation. The larger part of the range of the magnetic storm effect is very short-lived, less than 2 days. Moreover, there is no change of atmospheric transparency to be assumed in the investigations of Simpson and Clayton, except as increased earth temperature presently gives rise to increased atmospheric humidity and greater cloudiness. The magnetic storm, on the contrary, immedi- ately diminishes atmospheric transparency. Any change of cloudiness, which might eventually follow, would doubtless be delayed more than the 9 days after the storm covered by my tabulation. So it seems to me there is no unexplained contradiction between these results and those of Simpson and Clayton. NUMBER OF IONS IN A SHOWER One other point of some interest is an inquiry as to the average density of the shower of electric ions for the 53 cases of severe magnetic storms covered by table 1. The effect produced was to diminish the solar constant by 4 percent. Referring to Annals, volume 6, figure 11, page 166, the center of gravity of a solar-constant change associated with Rayleigh scattering may be set at about wave length 0.40 micron. On very clear days above Montezuma, with air mass 1.0, the solar radiation may be observed as high as 1.65 calories per : ; 0.2 square centimeter per minute, or ee =I5 percent lower than the solar constant. If readers think it worth while, they may compute from Rayleigh’s equations, and the above data, the numbers of par- ticles involved under the two sets of circumstances. But roughly estimating, one might say that the 93 million miles of space con- tained wwe = 0.023 as many particles as would be contained of mole- cules in the atmosphere above Montezuma, where the barometric pressure is about 590 mm. mercury. These figures relate, however, to cases when the great sunspot groups were not central on the sun’s disk. The great group of March 1920, produced about Io times as great an effect on the solar constant as the average of the 53 cases of 1923 to 1946. Using Humphrey’s estimate of atmospheric densities, Millikan’s I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO figure for the number of molecules per cubic centimeter at sea level, I compute that the number of molecules in a column of air of 1 square centimeter cross section above Montezuma is approximately 1.4 x 107°, If there are 0.023 times as many ions in the ionic showers accompany- ing average severe magnetic storms, it follows that the average in- crease of density in ions per cubic centimeter in space between the earth 1.4 X 10° X 0.023 15X10" times the number of the earth’s inhabitants, approximately. On March 23, 1920, the figure was approximately Io times larger still. and the sun on such occasions is =2X 10"? on ske SOLAR PHOTOGRAPH. MARCH 20, 19290 (MT. WILSON) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE. 110; ‘NO. 6, PE: 2 1, SOLAR PHOTOGRAPH. NOVEMBER 28, 1936 (MT. WILSON) 2, SOLAR PHOTOGRAPH, FEBRUARY 3, 1937 (MT. WILSON) Ss > _ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS ~ e VOLUME 110, NUMBER 7 GUSTAVUS SOHON'S PORTRAITS OF _ FLATHEAD AND PEND D’OREILLE en INDIANS, 1854 (WitTH 22 PLATEs) BY JOHN C. EWERS Associate Curator of Ethnology U. S. National Museum (PUBLICATION 3941) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOVEMBER 26, 1948 yy 2 , ©& SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, FRONTISPIECE - = Sek on 2 pocorn oat G. SOHON Portrait taken in 1863. Courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Sohon. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 7 GUSTAVUS SOHON'S PORTRAITS OF FLATHEAD AND PEND D‘OREILLE INDIANS, 1854 (WITH 22 PLATES) BY JOHN C. EWERS Associate Curator of Ethnology U. S. National Museum LiPo, AIncTOM* (PUBLICATION 3941) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOVEMBER 26, 1948 The Lord Waftimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. GUSTAVUS SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF FLAT- HEAD AND PEND D’OREILLE INDIANS, 1854 By JOHN C. EWERS Associate Curator of Ethnology U. S. National Museum (WitH 22 PratEs) GUSTAVUS SOHON, ARTIST, LINGUIST, AND EXPLORER The Flathead and Pend d’Oreille Indians, who lived in the moun- tain valleys of what is now the western part of the State of Montana and crossed the Continental Divide of the Rocky Mountains to hunt buffalo on the open plains, were not portrayed in the drawings and paintings of famous American and European artists who visited the Upper Missouri region in pre-reservation days. However, a private soldier in the United States Army, who was well acquainted with the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille tribes in the middle of the nineteenth century, has left a pictorial record worthy of these remarkable Indians in a series of realistic pencil portraits of his Indian friends. These portraits are signed “G. Sohon.” Gustavus Sohon was born in Tilsit, Germany, December 10, 1825. His daughter, Dr. Elizabeth Sohon, recalled that he used to speak of having attended “University,” and Hazard Stevens, who knew him in 1855, called him “well-educated.” When he came to America at the age of 17, to avoid compulsory service in the Prussian Army, which was distasteful to him, he spoke English, French, and German fluently. Whether Sohon ever had any formal instruction in art is not known. Little is known of his life in Brooklyn during the decade following his arrival in this country. His daughter understood that he had made some woodcarvings for sale, and a son, the late Henry W. Sohon, wrote that “he engaged in the photograph business.’”’ How- ever, upon his enlistment, he gave his occupation as “bookbinder.” Gustavus Sohon enlisted as a private in the United States Army in New York City, July 2, 1852, at the age of 26. Routine Army records describe him at that time as dark-complexioned, hazel-eyed, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 7 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLT LEG black-haired, 5 feet 7 inches tall. He was assigned to Company K, Fourth Infantry Regiment. A few days later his Company was or- dered to board the steamship Golden West for service on the Pacific Coast. After a brief stop at Benicia, Calif. Headquarters of the Military Department of the Pacific, Company K was ordered to the frontier military post of Fort Dalles on the Columbia River in Ore- gon Territory. The men arrived at Fort Dalles in September 1852. Sohon went west at a momentous period in the development of the Western United States. For several years there had been a Nation-wide demand for a railroad to connect the growing settlements of the Pacific slope with the eastern States. However, strong rivalry existed in the East regarding the location of the route, and the choice of its eastern terminus. In 1853 Congress authorized the War Depart- ment “to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean.” Three surveying expeditions were organized to explore a northern, a central, and a southern route. Governor Isaac I. Stevens of Washington Ter- ritory was placed in charge of the project to explore the northern route between the forty-seventh and forty-ninth parallels from the Mississippi River to Puget Sound. Governor Stevens left St. Paul in early June, 1853, at the head of an exploring and surveying party moving westward across the plains to meet a second party, surveying eastward from the Pacific under his assistant, Capt. George B. McClellan. Stevens also ordered Lt. Rufus Saxton, Jr., acting assistant quartermaster and commissary of the expedition, to proceed eastward from the Pacific side and es- tablish a depot of provisions at the Flathead Indian village of St. Mary’s west of the Rockies. Lieutenant Saxton, with an escort of 18 soldiers from the Fourth Infantry, left Fort Dalles with the supply train on July 18, 1853. Gustavus Sohon was one of the enlisted men assigned to duty with this party. They traveled eastward via the Columbia River, Lewis’ Fork, Clark’s Fork, Flathead Lake, and up the Bitterroot Valley to St. Mary’s village on the Bitterroot, then known as the St. Mary’s River. En route this caravan met a party of about 100 Pend d’Oreille Indians returning from a buffalo hunt on the plains east of the Rockies with a large supply of buffalo robes and dried meat, which they planned to trade to the Indians nearer the west coast. It was Sohon’s first glimpse of some of the mountain Indians whom he was later to know well. Saxton’s party also met the two Messrs. Owen, who had purchased the property of the Jesuit Mission of St. Mary’s in 1850 and estab- NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 3 lished Fort Owen, a trading post, on its site. Because of continued hostile raids by Blackfoot Indians from east of the mountains, they had decided the location was no longer safe, and were on their way to the Pacific Coast. Upon seeing Saxton’s armed force, they were encouraged to return to their abandoned post. Saxton’s party reached Fort Owen on August 28. They found it surrounded by a considerable village of log cabins. They were surprised to find cattle, chickens, and growing crops of wheat and potatoes tended by Iroquois Indians. The Flathead Indians were absent on a buffalo hunt across the mountains. By fall Governor Stevens was convinced that the critical problem confronting his survey was that of determining the most practical and economical route for the railway over the Rocky and Bitterroot ranges of mountains. Although the mountain region had been known to fur traders for several decades, the only mathematical data and “maps available were those compiled by the explorers Lewis and Clark in their hasty travels through the area a half century earlier. There was need for more detailed scientific information. Accordingly, Stevens decided to leave a small party in the Bitterroot Valley through the winter of 1853-54 to make precise meteorological observations and to explore and survey the country between the Rocky and Bitter- root Mountains from Fort Hall northward to Flathead Lake and beyond, with particular emphasis upon the examination of the en- trances to the mountain passes. On October 3, 1853, Stevens ordered Lt. John Mullan to take charge of these important investigations, and assigned 15 men to Mullan’s command. Gustavus Sohon was one of this little group. Mullan proceeded to erect a group of rude log huts 14 miles south of Fort Owen on the Bitterroot River. This little settlement, named Cantonment Stevens, served as a weather station, winter quarters, and headquarters for the party’s explorations of the intermountain region. Gustavus Sohon’s services to Lieutenant Mullan in his explorations of 1853-54 were invaluable. A gifted linguist, Sohon learned to speak the Salishan languages of the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille Indians with remarkable rapidity. He became Lieutenant Mullan’s interpreter and aided him in gathering important information from the Indians on the trails, mountain passes, and general geography of the region. It was probably during this period that Sohon began the compilation of the Flathead-English vocabulary which is now in the manuscript collections of the Bureau of American Ethnology. It includes some 1,500 useful words and phrases. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Sohon also accompanied Mullan on his extensive explorations of the intermountain region from Fort Hall on Snake River in the south to the Kootenay River on the north. They crossed the Continental Divide six times and measured the snowfall in the passes. Sohon made a series of excellent landscape sketches depicting the character of the country traversed, important landmarks, Cantonment Stevens, and views of the party on the march which were valuable as a record of the explorations. In spring and early summer Sohon drew the remarkable series of pencil portraits from life of the chiefs and headmen of the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille tribes which is the subject of this paper. The dated Pend d’Oreille portraits of April 21 to May 1 were drawn in the Flathead Lake-Kootenay River region during Lieutenant Mullan’s northern explorations in the spring of 1854. The portraits of Flathead and Iroquois living with that tribe, dated May 12 to June, 1854, probably were drawn in the vicinity of the Flathead village at Tort Owen in the Bitterroot Valley. Doubtless Sohon rendered valuable service also as map maker and barometrical observer. If Sohon had had little experience in this work before, it is certain that he learned quickly. After a year of field work in the mountain valleys, Lieutenant Mullan led his little party westward to make his report to Governor Stevens. They arrived at Fort Dalles on October 14, 1854. Governor Stevens was so favorably impressed with the work of Gustavus Sohon while under Lieutenant Mullan’s command that he made a special request to Major General Wool, Commander of the Military Department of the Pacific, to have Sohon transferred to his command. On March 31, 1855, by authority of Major General Wool, Private Sohon was ordered to detached duty with Governor Stevens’ expedition. In the spring of 1855, before setting out on an important expedition to obtain additional detailed information for the railway survey and to make the first treaties between the United States and the Indian tribes of the Upper Columbia River and Northwestern Plains regions, Governor Stevens paid tribute to Private Sohon: I also secured the services of a very intelligent, faithful, and appreciative man, Gustavus Sohon, a private of the Fourth Infantry, who was with Mr. Mullan the year previous in the Bitter Root valley, and had shown great taste as an artist, and ability to learn the Indian language, as well as facility in inter- course with the Indians. . . . Thus in the month of May, 1855, I found myselt in the Walla-Walla valley, and with the means, by proper care and manage- ment of time, and a little hard work, to make a good examination of the country. My secretary, James Doty, esq., assisted me in the topography, and G. Sohon, SS8l BNO “UONNOD WTIVM VTIVM S3HL AO SQHNODSY 3H ONINVdSaYd SNVION| 393d Z3N aS SSB iene 7 Se Ser paei™y oo) ny 7 Se NO29A yp Su reodhoad suo pur ata d Wa 1 “Id "£4 ‘ON ‘Ok “1OA SNOILO3T109 SNOINVTISZISIN NYINOSHLIWS NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—-EWERS 5 made the barometrical observations. [Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 12, pt. I, p. 196.] Governor Stevens’ son, who accompanied the expedition, wrote of Sohon as “the artist, barometer-carrier, and observer . . . an in- telligent German, a clever sketcher, and competent to take instrumental observations.”’ (Stevens, 1900, vol. 2, p. 68.) In one of the largest gatherings of Indians in historic times, Gov- ernor Stevens and General Palmer, as United States Commissioners, met the Walla Walla, Cayuse, Umatilla, Yakima, and Nez Percé tribes of the Upper Columbia in late May and early June, 1855. This “Walla Walla Council” was held on Mill Creek, a tributary of the Walla Walla River, about 6 miles above the site of the ill-fated Whit- man Indian Mission. The negotiations resulted in the cession to the United States of over 60,000 square miles of land, and the setting aside of three reservations for the Indians involved, one for the Walla Walla, Cayuse, and Umatilla, one for the “Yakima Nation,” and one for the Nez Percé. The three separate treaties were signed June 9. Although Sohon did not serve as an official interpreter at this Council, he apparently helped to interpret the proceedings to a group of Salishan-speaking Spokan Indians who attended the sessions. His “Records of the Walla Walla Council 30th May 1855, translated in the language of the Spokan Indians by G. Sohon,” a manuscript in the collections of the Bureau of American Ethnology, is a parallel English-Spokan text of the opening speech at the Council by General Palmer. Sohon’s pencil was active during the period of the Walla Walla Council. He sketched the impressive parade of some 2,500 Nez Percé Indians arriving at the Council ground on horseback May 24, the feast given the chiefs by the Commissioners on the following day, a general view of the Council in session, and the primitive scalp dance celebrated by the Nez Percé on the day after the treaties were signed. He also made pencil portraits of the principal chiefs of the tribes that took part in the treaties. (The previously published drawings of Gustavus Sohon at the Walla Walla Council are listed in the Ap- pendix, p. 68.) A remarkable aspect of this Council was the recording of the proceedings in the Nez Percé language by a group of young men who had been taught to read and write their own language by Presbyterian missionaries. Sohon’s previously unpublished drawing of these Indian scribes at work appears as plate I. From the Walla Walla Council ground Governor Stevens’ party of 22 persons, including 2 Indian guides, moved eastward. At a council 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10 ground on the east bank of the Missoula River, 74 miles northwest of the present city of Missoula, Mont., Governor Stevens met the leaders of the Flathead, Upper Pend d’Oreille, and Kutenai tribes. The Council opened July g and ended July 16 in the signing of a treaty between these tribes and the United States which provided for the cession of some 25,000 square miles of Indian land. Details of this complex treaty are discussed in later pages of this paper. Gustavus Sohon and Ben Kiser, a half-breed Shawnee who lived with the Flathead, served as the official interpreters at this Flathead Treaty Council. The Flathead Indians still refer to the treaty site as “where the trees have no lower limbs.” Sohon’s sketch of the Council in session (pl. 2), the only pictorial record of the event, shows this characteristic of the locality. From this council ground the Stevens party continued eastward to make a treaty with the Blackfoot Indians and their neighbors. En route Sohon assisted Governor Stevens in making an examination of the approaches to Cadotte’s Pass over the Rockies, drew panoramic sketches of the Rocky Mountain chain as seen from the plains on the east, and took numerous barometrical observations. On October 16 Governor Stevens and Alfred Cumming, as United States Commissioners, met the chiefs of the three Blackfoot tribes, and the Gros Ventres, Nez Percé, Flathead, and Upper Pend d’Oreille, at a council ground near the mouth of the Judith River in the present State of Montana. Next day a treaty was signed. The treaty provided for no Indian land cessions, but it did define the boundaries of the hunting grounds of the Blackfoot tribes and of the Indian tribes from west of the Rockies who hunted buffalo on the plains. Gustavus Sohon and Ben Kiser served as official Flathead inter- preters. Sohon also made a sketch of the Council in session and a series of fine pencil portraits of both the white officials and the leading chiefs of the Blackfoot tribes who signed this first treaty between the United States and the Blackfoot. (See Appendix, p. 68, for list of published drawings made by Sohon at the Blackfoot Council.) Governor Stevens intended to make treaties with the Spokan, Colville, and Coeur d’Alene tribes during his return journey to the west coast. However, on October 29, the day after his party left the council ground, he was met by a mounted courier from the west bearing the alarming report that some of the tribes with whom he had recently treated at Walla Walla had broken out in open war. The dispatches warned Stevens not to attempt to return through the country of the hostile Indians, but he obtained additional arms and sseit AINE “VIONNOD Ailvadt Qv3Hivid SHL a i =~) => “2 tr SON r. RON Ve Wh or Vn AY { . S i. ad wie Lt ' 4c? ; ‘ , _ m4 ; t. pal 7 aS Ae a Di, Kis We Saves 7s \\ oy it ve OME, Nie i iy wey t, WA i = rie | A EE ae ROLL Orde A een at or} Bg i pa ; Ses Chan 5 ao fe TI =. . < * MA ce : i " ; G aA I, 4 e YS - . f 5)¥ Wb 9" ; o - . . i ; VEN es PIE SUNY — -% ay. ~ A pb S > woke we Pina aDN Siaswas , Z “Id “LON “OLL “IOA SNOILD3TIOD SNOINVTIZISIW NYINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 3 ° ue sco NT remem We” cme 5" am th meen fs Bee eee ug pains 1 wg oat US ——m 7" nn A mmc BY wm thy ne “gt Sue ue ee ose . or EAST PORTION oF vale E gah _ WASHINGTON TERRITORY — _ AMON PORTION er pea ; Shey _ NEBRASKA TERRITORY ae Saks _ campdes G-Sahon Seale fae miles : = nw a oe we x - eo . z nae in 86 miles fo am inch d oie * eer ali Wictbast ah Whe oo a hoage Gh ty Naw. 7 Mandira Zi td Retr belong Te Wet Ws ton. ee a COUNTRY BETWEEN FORT BENTON ON THE MISSOURI AND FORT WALLA WALLA ON THE COLUMBIA Sketch map by Gustavus Sohon, 1857. NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 7 ammunition from Fort Benton and pressed on as quickly and as quietly as possible. The party crossed the Coeur d’Alene range of mountains in deep snow in late November, passed through the country of the hostiles, and reached Fort Dalles safely by the end of the year 1855. Private Sohon remained on detached duty under Governor Stevens’ command until April of 1856. During that period he may have worked over his sketches and assisted in the preparation of maps and meteor- ological data obtained in the previous years. When Governor Stevens’ reports of his explorations and surveys of the northern railway route were published in 1860, the greater part of the colored lithographs used as illustrations were reproduced from original drawings by John Mix Stanley, the official artist of the expedition, who returned east in 1854. However, this publication also contains Io illustrations after Gustavus Sohon’s sketches, and 2 others redrawn by Stanley from Sohon’s original work. The Sohon illustrations were a portion of those made during his service under Lieutenant Mullan in the valley in 1853-54, and with Governor Stevens’ treaty-making expe- dition of 1855. (They are listed in the Appendix, p. 67.) On April 19, 1856, Private Sohon was ordered to detached duty at Fort Steilacooms, Washington Territory. Six months later he was transferred to duty in the office of Captain Cram, of the Topo- graphical Engineers, at the Headquarters of the Department of the Pacific, Benicia, Calif., where he served as a draughtsman in the preparation of maps of the western portion of the United States for the remainder of his period of military service. Private Sohon was honorably discharged from the Army at the expiration of his 5-year enlistment, at Fort Walla Walla, July 2, 1857. The small-scale map, reproduced as plate 3, was drawn on tracing cloth by Gustavus Sohon in 1857. Although its original purpose is not known, it serves to indicate the knowledge of the country between Fort Benton on the Missouri River and Fort Walla Walla on the Columbia at that time. It also portrays the area in which Sohon traveled and made extensive detailed explorations and surveys during the decade 1853-62. In March 1854 Lieutenant Mullan had been successful in taking a wagon train over the Rockies by way of Mullan Pass from Fort Benton to the Bitterroot Valley. Thus he suggested the possibility of a wagon road over the Northern Rockies. In 1855 Congress appropriated $30,000 for the construction of a military wagon road 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO across the mountains from Fort Benton to Fort Walla Walla. Con- tinued Indian unrest in the Northwest prevented work on the project. In 1858 Isaac I. Stevens was influential in obtaining an additional Congressional appropriation for this work and in the assignment of Lt. John Mullan to the position of officer in charge of the project. Lieutenant Mullan organized a party to explore and survey the route at The Dalles, May 15, 1858. He employed Gustavus Sohon as civilian ‘‘Guide and Interpreter” to the party. They had moved east- ward but a few miles when Lieutenant Mullan received word of the defeat of Colonel Steptoe’s force by Spokan Indians on the Pelouse River, directly in the path of Mullan’s proposed route. Realizing the impossibility of continuing the road survey, Lieutenant Mullan re- turned to The Dalles and disbanded his party with the exception of topographer Kolecki, guide Sohon, and a few men to care for his stock. He then offered the services of the remainder of his party to General Clarke, who assigned Mullan to the staff of Colonel Wright as topographical officer. Lieutenant Mullan also commanded the group of 33 loyal Nez Percé Indian guides and scouts attached to Colonel Wright’s command. Wright marched against the hostile Indians at the head of a force of 680 soldiers. In the two battles of Four Lakes on September 1 and Spokan Plains on September 5 he decisively defeated the enemy force of Coeur d’Alene, Spokan, and Pelouse Indians. Sohon made a sketch of the Battle of Spokan Plains on September 5, 1858 (pl. 4). It portrays the essential character of the battle. The retreating Indians had set fire to the prairie grass and under cover of the smoke, surrounded the soldiers on three sides. Colonel Wright promptly ordered the pack train to close up and surrounded it with a line of fighting men. The soldiers possessed improved long- range rifles which they used with deadly effect to beat back the sporadic attacks of the Indians who were armed only with short- range Hudson’s Bay muskets, bows and arrows, and lances. Mullan’s men remained with Colonel Wright through the three peace councils with the hostiles in late September. Later Lieutenant Mullan returned to Washington to obtain further appropriations for the wagon road project. In May 1859 Lieutenant Mullan again organized his party at The Dalles. In June he ordered Sohon to move forward in search of a possible route across the Bitterroot Mountains south of the Coeur d’Alene River-St. Regis Borgia River crossing. In his published Niv1d Nv¥MOdS 3SH1 NO S11ivg ¥ Nv > ¥. ~ . v “p> . wiper rede sl be fre ¥ \ fore Bt ep ty Do eg prey mag Gere cee ih $12 — “eped oped He “*? DQ YywY 4 ¥ “Id ‘LON ‘O1L “IOA SNOILD3T1IOD SNOINVTIZOSIW NYINOSHLIWS ‘O98T ‘bp asnsny C punossy seq ur Aaarepy 10.J) IMNOSSIW YaddN 3HL NO NOLN3SG 1YHO4 MEU Td gr ha nioy TY ¥ = S “Id “£ ‘ON ‘Oll OA cat SNOILD371109 SNOANY1139SIW NVINOSHLIWS NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 9 report Mullan explained his choice of Sohon for this important mission : Mr. Sohon’s early connexion with my explorations in 1853 and 1854, his knowledge of the Indian language, his familiarity with the general scope of the country to be traversed, and the influence he had always so beneficially exerted over the Indians, all pointed him out as the proper person to explore the new and dangerous route. [Mullan, 1863, p. 11.] Sohon found the Coeur d’Alene unwilling to furnish guides for the exploration of the mountain area south of the Coeur d’Alene River, and strongly opposed to the location of a wagon road in that region. He returned to Mullan’s camp July 7, after an absence of more than a month alone in the country of Indians who, if not in open war, were still unfriendly to whites. Abandoning hope of crossing to the south, Mullan pushed the road survey forward vigorously via the Coeur d’Alene Mission, and Coeur d’Alene River-St. Regis Borgia River crossing of the moun- tains, and down the valley of the St. Regis Borgia. Sohon, in charge of the small advance party, marked out the route and determined the location of the mountain pass over the Coeur d’Alene to be followed by the wagon road. The party wintered in a group of log huts on the St. Regis Borgia River, which they called Cantonment Jordan. On July 1, 1860, while working in the area immediately west of the Rockies, Lieutenant Mullan received word that Major Blake with a command of 300 recruits en route to Fort Walla Walla had arrived at Fort Benton by steamboat and awaited Mullan’s arrival for guidance over the mountains by the new road. Gustavus Sohon was transferred to Major Blake as guide and interpreter for his command. But before leaving Fort Benton, Sohon made a quick pencil sketch of the locality as seen from the east. The wagons in the right foreground probably are those used by Major Blake in crossing the mountains (pl. 5). Gustavus Sohon guided the first wagon party to cross the moun- tains from Fort Benton to Fort Walla Walla, the first wagons to reach the Columbia River from east of the Continental Divide by a route north of the South Pass, in the present State of Wyoming. Major Blake’s party left Fort Benton August 7, 1860, and arrived at Fort Walla Walla without mishap on October 4, spending 48 days in traveling and 11 resting along the way. This successful journey, which was made possible by Sohon’s experienced guidance, convinced Lieutenant Mullan of the practicality of the wagon road. Lieutenant Mullan and Sohon were again in the field in 1861. Starting once more from Walla Walla, they made extensive improve- IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1IO ments in the road, laying out new sections over better terrain or shortening the distances to be traveled, decreasing the number of necessary river crossings. When a new section of road was to be laid out, Sohon moved ahead with a small party to mark out the road and make detailed observations on the features of the country. The party wintered at Cantonment Wright at the junction of the Hell Gate and Big Blackfoot Rivers. In June 1862 Sohon was in charge of the main party which followed Lieutenant Mullan’s advance party west. Lieutenant Mullan disbanded his expedition at Walla Walla in late August, 1862. After more than 4 years of work, the wagon road was completed. It was the first road to connect the head of navigation on the Missouri with the head of navigation on the Columbia. Some 624 miles long, and from 25 to 30 feet wide, it could be traveled by lumbering wagons in 57 days, by pack animals in 35 days. Although originally intended as a military road to transport men and supplies to the posts of the far northwest, it was used primarily as a highway for travelers and settlers, and for the transport of freight to and from the northwest. “The Mullan Road,” as it was commonly called, rendered important service to the settlement of the far northwest in the days before the railroads reached that section. Mr. Sohon journeyed to Washington with Captain Mullan after the field season of 1862. In Washington he probably assisted Mullan in the preparation of data, maps, and illustrations for his official report on the project. The “Report on the Construction of a Military Road from Fort Walla Walla to Fort Benton” was published in 1863. It is illustrated by 10 colored lithographic reproductions of original drawings by Gustavus Sohon, all of which are erroneously labeled “C, Sohon.” (A list of these illustrations appears in the Appendix, pp. 67-68.) Three of the large folding maps at the end of this report credit Gustavus Sohon as one of the civil engineers who contributed material to their compilation. On the two maps which show the location of the pass between the Coeur d’Alene and St. Regis Borgia Rivers, the name “Sohon Pass” is given to the location. Lieutenant Mullan named the pass in honor of Gustavus Sohon who made the first topographical map of it. Father De Smet crossed this pass in 1863, and referred to it as “Sohon Pass.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 3, p. 795.) However, when the railway was built over the Coeur d’Alene Mountains in 1889, it crossed the summit by another pass of nearly equal altitude, 14 miles northeast of Sohon Pass. The name Lookout Pass is now applied to the one followed by both the NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS Il railway and Highway No. 10 over the Coeur d’Alenes. During the 1890’s the name St. Regis Pass appears to have replaced Sohon Pass on maps of the region. Gustavus Sohon married Juliana Groh, April 29, 1863. Shortly thereafter he took his bride to San Francisco, Calif., where he estab- lished a “Photographic and Ambrotype Gallery,” at 683 Market Street. Among his sitters was the famous Jesuit priest, Father De Smet, founder of the St. Mary’s Mission to the Flathead Indians. An original Sohon negative of this subject is now in the collections of the Montana State Historical Society. In 1865 or 1866 Sohon gave up his photographic business and returned to Washington. He retained his residence in Washington for the rest of his life, operating a shoe business and devoting much of his time to his growing family. Mr. Sohon was the father of eight children, five of whom lived to adulthood. His three sons attained distinction in the professions of law, medicine, and chemical research. Henry W. Sohon was a President of the Bar Association of the District of Columbia. Dr. Frederick Sohon accompanied Robert Peary as physician on three Arctic expeditions. Dr. Michael Druck Sohon isolated the chemical phenalthalein while at Johns Hopkins University. The only surviving child of Gustavus Sohon, Dr. Elizabeth Sohon, is a prac- ticing physician in the city of Washington. Prof. Frederick W. Sohon, S.J., a grandson, is director of the world-famous Seismological Laboratory of Georgetown University. Mr. Sohon never revisited the Northwest and the scenes of his decade of exploration between 1853-62. Nevertheless, his personal correspondence and the considerable number of copies of Government documents pertaining to relations with the Indians of the Northwest among his personal papers show that he retained an active interest in the welfare of the tribes he had known so well. His daughter recalls that members of the Flathead Indian delegation to Washington under Chief Charlot in 1884 paid a visit to Mr. Sohon at his home. The only time she saw her father smoke was when the pipe was passed around at the beginning of that meeting of old friends. Gustavus Sohon died in Washington, D. C., September 3, 1903, at 78 years of age. He was buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery. Three years before Mr. Sohon’s death, Hazard Stevens’ life of his father, Isaac I. Stevens, was published. The majority of the illus- trations in this two-volume work are halftone reproductions of 22 original pencil portraits and 8 scenes drawn by Private Sohon during his service under Governor Stevens in the treaty-making operations 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO in the spring, summer, and fall of 1855. Hazard Stevens wrote of these illustrations: The portraits of Indian chiefs were made by Gustavus Sohon, a private soldier of the 4th infantry, an intelligent and well educated German, who had great skill in making expressive likenesses. He also made the views of the councils and expedition. These portraits with many others taken by the same artist, were intended by Governor Stevens to be used to illustrate a complete account of his treaty operations. [Stevens, 1900, vol. 2, p. xx.] Isaac I. Stevens was prevented from writing a history of his treaty operations by the pressure of public duties and later by his untimely death in battle in the Civil War. Mr. Sohon’s illustrations published in Hazard Stevens’ book are listed in the Appendix, p. 68. They include portraits of the prominent Indian chiefs at both the Walla Walla and Blackfoot Treaty Councils. None of the prominent leaders of the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille tribes who participated in the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties are portrayed. In 1883 a collection of portraits of Northwestern Indians was given to the United States National Museum by Willard Jewell. It included nine pencil portraits of prominent Flathead leaders, eight portraits of chiefs and headmen of the Upper Pend d’Oreille, and three portraits of prominent Iroquois living with these tribes in the middle of the nineteenth century. The portraits were drawn by Gustavus Sohon while serving under Lieutenant Mullan the year before the Flathead Treaty. These may have been some of the “many other” portraits by Sohon, referred to by Hazard Stevens, which Isaac I. Stevens had intended to use in his proposed book on his treaty operations. Each portrait is on a separate piece of thin drawing board measuring about 74X10 inches. Each portrait bears a caption in Sohon’s hand- writing giving significant information on the subject of the sketch. These portraits are reproduced for the first time in this publication. In 1947 Mr. Sohon’s daughter, Dr. Elizabeth Sohon, presented to the United States National Museum 25 original drawings by her father, which were among his personal effects in her possession. Most of these drawings are scenes in the Indian country of the Northwest drawn in the years 1854-60. Several appear to have been the original field sketches in pencil which were copied at a later date in more finished form for some of Mr. Sohon’s published illustrations. Others represent subjects that were never published. These drawings vary greatly in size; they probably were made on whatever paper was handy at the time of sketching. Some are on thin tracing paper in light pencil. The paper has deteriorated and the pencil lines now are . [ NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 13 barely visible. A selection of these drawings, comprising those that have been identified and are sufficiently clear to be reproduced, has been employed in the illustration of this paper. In their present condition these drawings have scientific value, but do not constitute a fair representation of Mr. Sohon’s artistic ability.’ THE FLATHEAD INDIANS They called themselves the Salish. However, the people of this tribe have been known to white men for more than a century as the Flat- head Indians. The origin of this name is uncertain. The neighboring Pend d’Oreille have a tradition that the Flathead practiced artificial head deformation when they arrived in the Bitterroot Valley from the west, at an undetermined time centuries ago. Yet the modern Flathead deny that their ancestors deformed their heads. (Turney- High, 1937, p. 12.) Some writers have used the term ‘‘Flatheads” loosely to designate the entire group of small Salishan tribes of the Upper Columbia River drainage. In 1851 Anson Dart, Superinten- dent of Indian Affairs for Oregon Territory, explained the application of the name to these tribes thus: “These Indians received the name Flat Heads from the fact that their heads were not sharpened by pressure on the forehead, as the Chinooks.” (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1851, p. 478.) This suggests that the “Flatheads” were so named to designate people whose heads remained in the natural condition, flat on top, to distinguish them from the tribes of the Lower Columbia, whose custom it was to deform the heads of infants by artificial pressure in cradling. 1 Although Gustavus Sohon’s drawings comprise the most extensive and authoritative pictorial series on the Indians of the Northwestern Plateau in pre- reservation days; although he possessed remarkable talent; and although some 52 of his drawings have been published, his name does not appear in any of the standard biographies of American artists. Louise Rasmussen's “Artists of the Explorations Overland, 1840-1860,” devotes three short sentences to Sohon. This biographical sketch has been prepared on the basis of the published Gov- ernment reports on the Pacific Railway Explorations and Surveys and the Mili- tary Wagon Road, on material in Hazard Steven's life of his father, on informa- tion in the files of War Department and State Department Archives in the Na- tional Archives, on a typed biographical sketch written by his son, the late Henry W. Sohon, in 1918, which is now in the William Andrews Clark Me- morial Library, Los Angeles, and information graciously supplied by his daughter, Dr. Elizabeth Sohon, of Washington, D. C. For valuable biographical information on the subjects of Sohon’s Indian portraits, the writer is indebted to Pierre Pichette, Martina Siwahsah, and Baptiste Finley, Indians of the Flathead Reservation, Montana, interviewed in September 1947. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO From the time of their traditional migration from the west until their final settlement on the Flathead Reservation in 1891, the true home of the Flathead tribe was the Bitterroot Valley, between the Rocky and Bitterroot Mountains in the southwestern part of the present State of Montana. This was beautiful wooded country, well stocked with deer, elk, bear, beaver, and wild fowl. Fish were plentiful in the streams. The fertile land yielded an abundance of edible wild roots and berries. The valley received its name from the bitterroot plant (Lewisia rediviva) which was especially plentiful there. By hunting, fishing, and collecting, the primitive Flathead gained ample subsistence in their valley home in pre-horse days. The Flathead are believed to have obtained their first horses from Shoshonean tribes to the south during the first quarter of the eight- eenth century. (Haines, 1938, p. 435.) After horses became numerous among them, the tribe made periodic journeys over the Rockies to hunt buffalo on the plains of the Upper Missouri. Regular seasonal migrations were customary in early historic times. In spring and summer the Flathead resided in the Bitterroot Valley, subsisting primarily on roots (of which the bitterroot and camas were most important), berries, small game, and fish. In June and July the men crossed the mountains on horseback for a brief summer hunt to obtain meat and buffalo hides for lodges. At the close of the berry season, in September or October, the whole tribe moved to the plains about the upper tributaries of the Missouri River to hunt buffalo. Usually they did not return to the valley until the next March or April, in time to dig the bitterroot. Fully half the year was spent on this long winter hunt. The neighbors of the Flathead on the plains in the middle of the eighteeenth century were the Pend d’Oreille and Kutenai on the north, and the Shoshoni on the north, east, and south. These friendly tribes recognized the right of the Flathead to hunt buffalo on a portion of the plains. It was as plains buffalo hunters that the Blackfoot Indians first met these people. Doubtless this accounts for the fact that the Flathead are regarded as a plains tribe in the traditions of the Black- foot. (Thompson, 1916, pp. 327-328; Wissler, 1910, p. 17.) In the latter half of the eighteenth century the powerful Blackfoot tribes, with the Piegan in the lead, pushed southwestward through present-day Alberta toward the Rockies and the northern tributaries of the Missouri River. Armed with deadly firearms, obtained from white traders on the Saskatchewan, and mounted on swift horses stolen from their southern and western enemies, these aggressive SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 6 1 | “A ‘ft l THE CAMAS, AN IMPORTANT FLATHEAD FOOD PLANT aa - 1 . nl» #49 Vakle ‘ay vine Raina ip nea ' it) SAUL ek a eoTp ji ey / Ligh aw ON) Ce ae MS Ti : ae ks AG i | aa gs (+ aan i hh i) oe 7 ye) 7 mie oo) 7 bee i if j een i> a ? - i. i. (aid ane ae arch Oy ay ; Hit ie nd ra ih eg a Shas Hit ; ivf jw 4 } oli s feo! wad , ii vy capa | ms j ree Ne end ; anit = as ae TOT ty, iy rs ‘ cf ; i Lig, ty aM oneal Die eae, ey ieee M : i Prinhio Ay vie | - i tbe A ay u hie , " ay | ‘ ne are cael x i went EA ae eae ie 151000 ae Ri hy ‘4 Ped ; wid Beat = y i pi Ca | ae vig = 4 r * e rd ye wenth ay i vial by} fi i Me Ty i ‘i i . i Arle ue ee ‘Lyi » il CPD Bg tt be 4 , <% i ‘aly, ron tet ‘ a | Aria) am i ‘eisai ees iM ear hi, vascradee amen wae GALE Lint ij ity 4) , han NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 15 intruders could not be repulsed by the bows and arrows, lances, and war clubs of the Flathead and their neighbors. The Blackfoot invasion gained momentum after a disastrous smallpox epidemic in 1781 greatly reduced the numbers of their enemies. The establishment of trading posts in their own country later in that decade also gave them a more plentiful supply of firearms and ammunition. By the close of the century the Blackfoot tribes dominated the western plains north of the Missouri. They forced the Kutenai, Pend d’Oreille, and Flathead to seek safety west of the Rockies, and pushed the Shoshoni southward and westward. The Blackfoot tried to deny the western tribes access to the buffalo plains by guarding the eastern exits from the most commonly used mountain passes. Occasionally they sent strong war parties over the Rockies to steal horses from the western tribes and to harass them in their own country. (Ferris, 1940, pp. 90-92; Thompson, 1916, pp. 304, 327-344; Teit, 1930, pp. 316-321.) The’ Flathead and their neighbors insisted on their prior right to hunt buffalo on the plains in the present Montana. These tribes were too small to risk individual combat with the powerful Blackfoot. So they joined forces and crossed the mountains cautiously farther south on shorter hunting excursions. The expeditions of the period included the Nez Percé as well as the Flathead and neighboring Salishan tribes. In spite of their precautions these parties sometimes suffered heavy losses from attacks by the better-armed Blackfoot. On these excursions the allied western tribes also met the Crow Indians, who had advanced westward across the plains of the Yellow- stone River valley and taken over much of the territory previously held by the Shoshoni. Prior to 1805 the western allies traded horses and horn bows to the Crows for materials which the latter had obtained from the Mandan and Hidatsa villages farther east. Through these Crow middlemen the westerners obtained some articles of European manufacture, including a few brass kettles, which they cut into small pieces to ornament their hair and clothing. As yet the Flathead received no firearms. (Larocque, 1910, pp. 71-72.) The first white men known to have met the Flathead were the members of the party of American explorers under Captains Lewis and Clark on their way overland to the Pacific. On September 4, 1805, this expedition encountered a Flathead village in what later became known as Ross’s Hole, near the present town of Sula, Ravalli County, Mont. The explorers found the Flathead dressed in animal skins, living in skin-covered lodges, and subsisting at the time on roots and berries. Although interchange of ideas was complicated by the 3 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Ito fact that all conversation had to pass through six different languages, the Flathead managed to impress the explorers with their friendliness and hospitality by exchanging presents, willingly sharing their food, and trading horses to the whites. The expedition spent 2 days with the Indians, at the conclusion of which the Flathead set out for the Three Forks of the Missouri to join their western allies on the winter buffalo hunt. Lewis and Clark estimated the size of the Indian village at 33 lodges (Sergeant Ordway reckoned 40), in which lived about 400 persons, of whom 80 were men. Capt. Clark said these Indians called themselves “Eoote-lash-Schute.” Later Indian accounts of the meeting leave no doubt that they were the Flathead. (Thwaites, 1904-5, vol. 3, pp. 52-55; Ordway, 1916, pp. 281-282; Wheeler, 1904, vol. 2, p. 65; Ronan, 1890, p. 41; Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, Vol. i, p: 325.) Lewis and Clark estimated that the people of this village possessed over 500 horses of fine quality, an average of more than 15 horses to the lodge. Later accounts substantiate the fact that the Flathead were richer in horses than were the Indians of the Plains. (Irving, 1851, p. 117; Bradley, 1923, p. 256.) Flathead horses were sturdy, long-winded animals. A Blackfoot brave told Governor Stevens in 1853 that he “stole the first Flathead horse he came across—it was sure to be a good one.” (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 1, p. 148.) The theft of horses furnished a primary motive for Blackfoot raids on Flathead camps throughout the greater part of the nineteenth century. When David Thompson of the Northwest Company crossed the Rockies and opened direct trade with the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille tribes in the fall of 1809, he found these Indians armed only with stone-pointed lances and arrows which broke harmlessly against the thick buffalo-hide shields of their Blackfoot enemies. These Indians clamored for firearms, ammunition, and iron arrowheads in exchange for beaver pelts. Little else interested them. (Thompson, 1916, p. 411.) During the following winter Thompson traded the Flathead more than 20 guns and several hundred iron arrowheads. Next summer the Indians were eager to try their new weapons against their old enemies. In July a party of about 150 Flathead and allied tribesmen crossed the Rockies by way of Marias Pass, determined to hunt boldly. The Piegan did attack them shortly after they reached the plains. The hardy Flathead successfully repulsed the attackers, with heavy losses to the Piegan. With the improved weapons the Flathead scored their first victory over the stronger Blackfoot. NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 17 Thompson credited the western Indians with being deadlier marks- men with their new weapons than were the Piegan. He believed this was due to the fact that they had learned to fire at smaller game from a distance, while the Blackfoot were accustomed to shoot buffalo at short range. (Ibid., p. 411.) Next year the Piegan, chastened by this defeat at the hands of their formerly impotent foes, sued for peace with the Flathead. It was a tempting offer to this small tribe that had suffered severe losses through decades of warfare with the Blackfoot. However, after long deliberation, the courageous Flathead leaders refused the peace offer. They knew that the Piegan could not speak for their Blood, North Blackfoot, and Gros Ventres allies, who remained hostile. (Ibid., pp. 547-551-) Within a few years the Flathead became well armed. The 168 Flathead men and boys who came to trade at the Hudson’s Bay Company post at Horse Prairie in the fall of 1824 possessed 180 guns. (Ross, 1913, p. 387.) The Flathead were grateful to the traders whose guns and ammunition they believed had saved their little tribe from possible extermination at the hands of the merciless Blackfoot. On the other hand, the traders were very much impressed with the character and integrity of the Flathead as compared with the Indian tribes they had known east of the Rockies and on the Pacific Coast. In the accounts of hard-boiled traders, the Flathead were extrava- gantly praised for their friendliness, frankness, honesty, truthfulness, industry, courage, obedience to their chiefs, cleanliness, and chastity of their women. (Cox, 1832, pp. 102, 122; Ferris, 1940, pp. 88, 325-326; Henry and Thompson, 1897, vol. 2, p. 710.) Yet the traders recognized that the Flathead had one serious failing, they were bold and inveterate gamblers. (Ferris, 1940, pp. 94-96; Thompson, 1916, Pp. 411, 551; Wyeth, 1899, p. 193.) Because of their admiration for the Flathead, many of the traders offered to aid them in their unequal struggle with the more numerous Blackfoot. Some traders, like Finan McDonald, accompanied the Flat- head to the buffalo plains and fought beside them against their Indian enemies. (Cox, 1832, pp. 167-168.) Others sought to effect a peace between the warring tribes. Ross Cox, in 1813, tried to induce the Flathead to abandon their dangerous expeditions to the plains. He argued that their lands west of the mountains were well supplied with smaller game which could support them. But “they replied that their fathers had always hunted on the buffalo grounds; that they were accustomed to do the same thing from their infancy; and they would not now abandon a practice which had existed for several 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO generations.” (Ibid., p. 121.) In the winter of 1832 Captain Bonne- ville tried to make peace between the western Indians and the Black- foot. The Flathead, Nez Percé, and other western allies called a council to discuss the matter. In the end these Indians rejected Bonneville’s proposal, on the logical grounds that a state of open warfare, during which everyone was constantly alerted, was preferable to the false security of peace with an enemy they could not trust. (Irving, 1851, pp. 121-122.) While the Blackfoot waged a relentless war against American traders on the plains, the Flathead were uniformly friendly to both British and American traders. Through the fur trade their material culture was enriched with both utilitarian objects and luxuries— weapons and ammunition, metal tools, and household utensils; glass beads and garments of cloth. Aside from encouraging the Flathead to hunt valuable fur-bearing animals for the trade, and attempting to bring peace to the tribe, the fur traders were content to let the Indians live their own lives. The appearance of Iroquois Indians among the Flathead was a by- product of the fur trade. Some time prior to 1825 a number of Iroquois men, who had been encouraged to leave their homes in the St. Lawrence Valley to hunt and trap for the fur companies in the far West, settled among the friendly Flathead. These Iroquois had received religious instruction from Catholic priests in the East, prob- ably at the Jesuit Mission of Caughnawaga. They introduced among the Flathead some of the elements of Catholic worship as they recalled them, which were combined with elements of primitive Flathead religious ceremonials. The fur traders Wyeth and Bonneville reported the curious blend of Christian and native religious practices which they observed among the Flathead in 1833 and 1834. At that time the Flathead offered daily prayers and observed the cardinal holidays of the Roman Catholic Church. They considered Sunday a day of rest on which hunting, fishing, trading, and moving camp were for- bidden, unless hunger or extreme danger from enemies prevailed. Each Sunday morning the people assembled to hear the moral teach- ings of their religious leader. The service was interspersed with singing and dancing in a great circle after the fashion of the older, native prophet dance. (Wyeth, 1899, pp. 193-194, 195, 196, 203; Irving, 1851, pp. 389-390; Spier, 1935, pp. 30-39.) However, these services consumed only a portion of their day of rest. The remainder of the day was celebrated as a secular holiday, in which the Indians indulged their love for gambling. Horse racing, the hand game, and AWYS ONIMEWYS S.NSW YvV1NdOd V ‘ONIN ONIAVId SNVIGN| GVSHIV14 a ae ’ : x ; cal £ , aw oa ae eo wes a =i MES 1g A Sing NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 19 other games involving wagers were played with fervor and keen de- light. (Irving, 1851, p. 392.) The Iroquois living with the Flathead encouraged them to sponsor a series of deputations to St. Louis during the 1830’s, in quest of the “black robes,” Catholic priests who could bring them the full benefits of Christianity. In response to these persistent requests, Jesuit officials selected Father Pierre Jean De Smet, a Belgian priest, with 2 years’ exper- ience in missionary work among Indians, to visit the Flathead and determine the feasibility of missionary work among this far western tribe. He journeyed from St. Louis to Green River (in present Wyoming), where a Flathead delegation met him on June 30, 1840. They guided him to the main Flathead-Pend d’Oreille camp at Pierre’s Hole. He found the Flathead hospitable and inclined to embrace the black robes’ religion. De Smet baptized nearly 600 of the Indians, including the aged chiefs of both the Flathead and Upper Pend d’Oreille tribes. He assured them that a resident missionary would be sent them the following spring, and returned to St. Louis, enthusiastic over the prospects of a permanent Flathead Indian Mission. Next spring Father De Smet headed the little party entrusted with the inauguration of the first Catholic Mission in the great Northwest. It included two other priests, Fathers Nicholas Point and Gregory Mengarini, and three lay brothers. In the fall of 1841, they established St. Mary’s Mission in the Bitterroot Valley. For 5 years St. Mary’s Mission appeared to prosper. Father De Smet was not content merely to convert the pagan Flathead to Christianity. He initiated a series of fundamental changes in Flathead culture which he believed was necessary to improve the economic and social condition of the tribe. The primitive Flathead had been accustomed to regard supernatural assistance as a powerful war medicine. Many warriors were attracted to Christianity as a source of stronger war medicine than they pre- viously had possessed. A series of decisive victories of Flathead warriors over much larger enemy forces, following their conversion, convinced even their enemies that “the medicine of the Blackrobes was stronger than theirs.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, p. 589.) De Smet admired the courage of the Flathead, but he could not reconcile their interpretation of spiritual power as war power with the Christian ideal of universal peace. Like the fur traders before him, Father De Smet viewed the traditional Flathead-Blackfoot war- 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO fare as the greatest threat to the security and progress of the Indians. Primarily to prevent conflict on the buffalo plains, and secondarily to inculcate a “love of labor,’ which he deemed essential, among the Flathead, he attempted to “create among them a greater taste for agriculture than for hunting.” He realized this would require “much time and patience.” (Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 329, 366.) To initiate this economic revolution, Father De Smet obtained seeds from Fort Colville and showed the Flathead hunters how to plant, cultivate, and harvest crops of wheat, oats, and potatoes. He also introduced cattle, hogs, and chickens from the western settle- ments. In 1845 the missionaries set up a flour mill to process their wheat, and a saw mill to provide lumber for permanent houses. A dozen small houses were built around the Mission as a further incen- tive to the Flathead to adopt a sedentary life. De Smet recognized that until such time as the Flathead became experienced farmers, it would be necessary for them to continue their seasonal buffalo hunts. For a period a priest was sent with the hunting camp, but it soon became evident that serious religious in- struction was impossible amid the savage excitement of the buffalo chase. Furthermore, the presence of a priest in the Flathead camp proved embarrassing on those occasions when battles with Blackfoot or Crow war parties on the hunting grounds could not be avoided. So the experiment of sending a priest with the hunting camp was abandoned. (Palladino, 1894, pp. 52-53.) The changes wrought by Father De Smet in Flathead social life were profound. He aimed to eliminate those primitive Flathead social practices which appeared to be out of harmony with Christian morality. Polygamy had been traditional with the Flathead. It was usual for a successful warrior and hunter to take more than one wife. A good hunter could provide more hides than a single woman could process. Several wives, therefore, were an economic asset to the ambitious Indian during the period of the fur trade. Furthermore, polygamy helped to provide for the excess of women in the tribe caused by heavy war casualties among vigorous, adult males. Father De Smet refused to recognize such multiple unions. He called upon each man to select one woman with whom he should appear before the priest for Christian marriage. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, Pp. 332.) Flathead addiction to gambling was interpreted by Father De Smet as contrary to God’s commandment, “Ye shall not covet anything NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 21 that is your neighbors.” All their traditional gambling games, in which the Flathead had spent much of their leisure time, were abol- ished. (Ibid., vol. 1, p. 227.) In premissionary times the Flathead punished individual law- breakers by flogging. The traditional symbol of authority of a Flathead chief was a stout whip possessing fire-hardened rawhide lashes, which he applied vigorously to the bare back of each offender. It was cus- tomary for the guilty party to take his punishment manfully, without resentment against the chief. This was a cruel but effective method of enforcing tribal law. Father De Smet, impressed by the brutality of the chiefly flogging, discouraged this practice. (Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 1225-1226.) Fathers De Smet and Point accompanied the Flathead to the plains in the late summer of 1846. In September of that year De Smet succeeded in arranging a peaceful meeting between the Flathead and the Blackfoot. At the Piegan camp he was able to establish, by common consent among the leaders of these tribes, what he believed would be a lasting peace between these traditional enemies. He left Father Point to spend the winter with the Piegan and to begin missionary work among them, while he himself traveled down the Missouri to St. Louis. When he left the Flathead in the fall of 1846, Father De Smet was confident that the Mission, which he had founded among them, was flourishing. Yet 4 years later the Indians and missionaries had become so estranged that it was necessary to discontinue the Mission. Many reasons have been given for the temporary abandonment of St. Mary’s Mission in the writings of the missionaries. Father De Smet was accused of having made promises to the Indians which the missionaries who remained at St. Mary’s could not fulfill. This De Smet vigorously denied. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1480; Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 377-378.) Fathers Ravalli and Mengarini, who remained at the Mission through the 4 years after De Smet’s departure, also stressed the point that the best Indians of the tribe had died since the Mission was founded, leaving a predominance of undisciplined individuals whose minds were pois- oned against the missionaries by both white men and Indians who were either immoral characters or prejudiced against the missionaries and their work. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 379-382; Palladino, 1894, p. 50.) Finally, the continued absence of the Flathead from the Bitterroot Valley for long periods on their buffalo hunts, left the Mission unprotected against Blackfoot attacks which endangered the 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1O lives and property of the missionaries and their faithful assistants. By the fall of 1850 Catholic officials reluctantly recognized that the possibility of effective work among the Flathead had become so remote that further maintenance of St. Mary’s Mission was not justified. On November 5, 1850, the Mission property was sold to John Owen, an American trader, who founded there a trading post, Fort Owen. Contemporary accounts of the missionaries indicate that the Flat- head change of heart became evident almost immediately after they left Father De Smet in the Blackfoot country in the fall of 1846. The Flathead are said to have given themselves up to obscenity and excesses of the flesh while still on the plains. When they returned to the Bitterroot Valley, the Indians greeted the missionaries coldly, pitched their lodges at some distance from the Mission, and were reluctant even to sell the missionaries dry meat of poor quality. (Ra- valli in Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 376-377.) Throughout much of the remaining period of the existence of the Mission, the Flathead avoided the Mission and were indifferent or hostile to the efforts of the missionaries on their behalf. They indulged their passion for gambling and “indecent”? dancing, and refused to sell provisions to the Mission. (Ravalli im Garraghan, vol. 2, p. 380; Accolti mm same, vol. 2, p. 383.) They no longer took their sick to the missionaries, but entrusted them to the treatment of native medicine men. Because the punishment of the whip had been abolished, some of their once influential chiefs, who deplored the actions of their people, were unable to exercise their traditional authority over their tribesmen. (Accolti in Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 382.) In sum, these actions of the Flathead majority constituted a blood- less revolt against the planned socio-economic program inaugurated by Father De Smet. After 5 years of trial, they were unable to assimilate the alien, and to them meaningless, traits of European culture introduced by the missionaries as substitutes for their time- honored primitive customs. The contemporary accounts of the mis- sionaries suggest that during the early period of their revolt against the austere moral code imposed by the Mission, the Flathead may have indulged in excesses that would not have been tolerated by their own leaders in premissionary days. However, for the most part, the Flathead reverted to their traditional pattern of existence. Gambling was again popular. Polygamy was no longer forbidden. Their agricultural efforts were virtually abandoned. Four years after the sale of Mission property, George Gibbs observed that the Flathead NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 23 “live altogether by the hunt, and do not manifest any disposition to agricultural pursuits or fixed residence. .... They have at the station a village of log houses, but notwithstanding generally prefer their own lodges.” (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 1, pp. 415- 416.) In 1855 Governor Stevens found many of the Flathead still un- friendly toward Indian Missions. After the conclusion of the Flat- head Treaty on July 16, 1855, he wrote to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs: “Much difficulty was experienced in bringing the Tribes onto the Reservation in consequence of the dislike of the Flatheads for Mission Establishments.” (Partoll, 1938a, p. 312.) Gradually Flathead opposition subsided. In 1866, at the Indians’ own request, the Catholic Mission of St. Mary’s was reestablished among the Flathead. Like most intertribal peace treaties of the pre-reservation period, Father De Smet’s Flathead-Blackfoot treaty of 1846 was short-lived. Within a few months the aggressive Blackfoot were harassing the Flat- head again, both on the plains and in the Bitterroot Valley. Flathead losses again mounted. When the members of the Pacific Railway Survey parties visited the Flathead in 1853, they found Blackfoot aggression was still the greatest threat to Flathead tribal welfare. Governor Stevens estimated Flathead population at 60 lodges and 350 people, but many of the lodges were said to have been inhabited by widows and their daughters. (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 1, p. 150.) Dr. Suckley reported that “but few pure Flatheads (are) left, the race having been almost exterminated by the Blackfeet. The mass of the nation now consists of Kalispelms, Spokanes, Nez Perces, and Iroquois who have come among them, together with their descendants.” (Ibid., p. 295.) As were the traders and missionaries before him, Governor Stevens was attracted by the fine qualities of the Flathead. Doubtless he was familiar with the writings of some of the earlier fur traders and of Father De Smet. Before he had met the Flathead, he wrote of them as “the best Indians of the mountains or the plains—honest, brave, docile—they need only encouragement to become good citi- zens.” (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1853, p. 463.) He employed the authority of his office and his personal persuasive powers in an effort to bring about Flathead-Blackfoot peace. In 1853 he exacted promises from a number of the Blackfoot chiefs to cease their attacks on the Flathead. The Flathead leaders agreed to fight only in self- defense. However, the Blackfoot chiefs were powerless to restrain 4 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO their ambitious young braves. When Stevens returned to the Flathead in the summer of 1855, he was told how Blackfoot warriors had continued to steal large numbers of horses from Flathead camps and to kill peaceful Flathead on hunting excursions. The Flathead com- plained bitterly that they had suffered serious losses since 1853, but had kept their promise not to retaliate. The Blackfoot Treaty of 1855, signed by both Blackfoot and Flathead leaders, designated a portion of the plains south of the Musselshell River as a proper buffalo-hunting ground for the Flat- head and their allies from west of the Rockies. The treaty also pledged all the signatory tribes to intertribal peace. This treaty failed also to end warfare in the area. The chiefs who signed it could not enforce it among their own warriors. John Owen stated in 1860, ‘Since the treaty of ’55 the Blackfeet have made frequent predatory Excur- sions to the different Camps from (on) this side and have run off many horses.” (Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 215.) Sporadic clashes between Blackfoot and Flathead continued until the end of buffalo days nearly three decades after the treaty. When Governor Stevens called the Flathead Treaty Council in the summer of 1855, the Indians hoped he would present a plan to halt Blackfoot depredations. Instead he told them of the Government’s desire to place the Flathead, Pend d’Oreille, and that portion of the Kutenai living in the United States upon a single reservation com- prising a small portion of the land claimed by those tribes west of the Rockies. The Indians were disappointed. Nevertheless, after Governor Stevens explained to them the many benefits offered by the Government in exchange for the cession of their lands outside the reservation boundaries, the majority of the chiefs appeared to accept the joint reservation proposal. Trouble arose when it came to the selection of a reservation site. The Flathead leaders refused to consider any location other than their ancestral home, their beloved Bitterroot Valley. The Upper Pend d’Oreille were unwilling to leave their homeland farther north about the newly established Catholic Mission of St. Ignatius. Negotiations appeared to have bogged down completely when Victor, the Flathead head chief, suggested a com- promise, which Stevens accepted, and embodied in the formal treaty, signed by leaders of these tribes, and Governor Stevens as United States Commissioner, July 16, 1855. Article XI of this treaty read: It is moreover, provided that the Bitter Root Valley, above the Loo-lo fork shall be carefully surveyed and examined, and if it shall prove, in the judgment of the President, to be better adapted to the wants of the Flathead tribe than the general reservation provided for in this treaty, then such shall be set apart NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 25 as a separate reservation for the said tribe. No portion of the Bitter Root Valley, above the Loo-lo fork, shall be opened to settlement until such examination is had and the decision of the President made known. Governor Stevens immediately instructed R. H. Lansdale, Indian Agent, to make an examination of both localities. There exists in the National Archives, Department of the Interior, Office of Indian Af- fairs, correspondence, a manuscript report from Lansdale to Stevens, dated October 2, 1855, in which he expressed the opinion that the northern (Jocko) site was preferable to the Bitterroot Valley one. In reaching this opinion he considered the natural fertility and re- sources of the two areas. However, he acknowledged that the ex- istence of the St. Ignatius Mission in the northern area weighed heavily in his choice of that location. This report was premature. It was made 34 years before the Flathead Treaty was ratified by the Senate, April 18, 1859, and therefore had no legal status as the official Government survey specified in the treaty. Meanwhile, as they waited for action to be taken on their treaty, the friendly Flathead were disillusioned and embittered by the fact that the Blackfoot Treaty, made 3 months later than theirs, was ratified in 6 months, and the Blackfoot tribes began to receive an- nuities and other benefits provided by that treaty. It appeared to the Flathead that the Government was following a policy of rewarding enemies and neglecting old friends. (Agent Lansdale, in Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1857, p. 378.) After the ratification of their treaty the Government made no effort to force the removal of the Flathead from the Bitterroot Valley. They were a small, friendly, well-behaved tribe, and they were still unwilling to move. In the wake of the Montana gold rush of the early ’60’s, white settlers moved into the Bitterroot Valley. Their settlements grew in area and numbers until the lands occupied by the Indians were virtually surrounded. Still the Flathead clung tena- ciously to their land. Some Indians raised food crops for market as well as for their own consumption. But, as late as 1876, three and one-half decades after Father De Smet first showed them how to till the soil, the Flathead Agent reported, “a majority still derive their sustenance from hunting, fishing, root-gathering.” (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1876, p. 88.) Until the extermination of the buffalo on the southern Montana plains in 1879-80, the Flathead continued their periodic buffalo-hunting excursions over the Rockies. On November 14, 1871, President Grant issued an Executive Order declaring that all Indians residing in the Bitterroot Valley 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO should remove as soon as practicable to the Jocko Reservation. The next summer James A. Garfield met the principal Flathead chiefs to expedite the movement. They insisted that Article XI of the 1855 treaty had never been carried into effect, that the Bitterroot Valley had never been “carefully surveyed and examined,” and that the white settlements that had been made in the valley since the treaty had been illegal. They considered that the Government’s failure to comply with Article XI, was an admission that the valley should remain the proper home of the Flathead. Nevertheless, Garfield convinced Arlee, second chief of the Flathead, that it was to the best interest of the tribe to remove to the Jocko Reservation. He prepared a formal agreement of removal which bore the names and marks of the three principal Flathead chiefs. Although Head Chief Charlot’s signature appeared on this document, Garfield acknowl- edged that Charlot did not sign it. (Ibid., 1872, pp. 110, 115.) In 1874 Arlee and a few of his followers removed to the Jocko Reservation. He became recognized by the Government as head chief of the tribe, and he and his followers received the Government’s benefits. (Ibid., 1888, p. 156.) From time to time small numbers of Flathead left the Bitterroot Valley and followed Arlee to the Reservation. The majority of the tribe remained with Charlot until several years after the extermination of the buffalo on the plains. _ Not until October 1891 did Charlot lead the remnant of his loyal, poverty-stricken followers, numbering less than 200 souls, from their beloved Bitterroot Valley onto the Jocko Reservation. (Palladino, 1894, p. 59.) Once on the Reservation, this disillusioned, conservative leader continued to oppose Government-sponsored innovations in Indian life. Charlot opposed the Indian court of offenses, the Indian police force paid by the Government, the adoption of civilized dress, and threatened to take the children of his band from school if their hair was cut. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1892, p. 292.) The history of Flathead culture in the pre-reservation period (i.e., prior to 1891), is significant as a case history in American Indian acculturation. Because the Flathead were consistently friendly toward the whites, because they placed high value on a number of traits of character which white men identified as Christian virtues, because they showed an early interest in the Christian religion, the fur traders, missionaries, and early Government officials believed this tribe aspired to a civilization after the European pattern. No other western tribe NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 27 appeared to offer such potentialities for rapid conversion to the white man’s way of life. Yet Flathead history is one of obstinate resistance to acculturation. Their well-meaning white friends apparently failed to understand that the Flathead cherished certain primitive practices as traditional rights. Stubbornly they clung to their insistence on their right to hunt buffalo on the plains, despite the deadly opposition of the more powerful Blackfoot, and the kindly advice of their white friends, until the buffalo were gone. Persistently they asserted their right to remain in their beloved Bitterroot Valley homeland until their own poverty forced them to leave it. With equal courage they resisted efforts to introduce among them alien economic and social practices which were antithetic to their own cultural experience. No trait was more markedly characteristic of the primitive Flathead than was their independence. As a people they passionately desired to live their own lives and to make their own decisions. Probably no one expressed more concisely the simple objectives of primitive Flathead life than did Father Mengarini, for many years their missionary, who wrote: “Generally the prayers of our Indians consisted in asking to live a long time, to kill plenty of animals and enemies, and to steal the greatest number of (the enemies’) horses possible.” (Mengarini, 1871-1872, p. 87.) GUSTAVUS SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF FLATHEAD INDIAN LEADERS The series of nine pencil portraits of Flathead leaders, drawn by Gustavus Sohon in the Bitterroot Valley in the spring of 1854, in- cludes the likenesses of the majority of the responsible leaders of that remarkable little tribe in the middle of the nineteenth century. Most of these men were born before their tribe met white men. All were well known to the Catholic missionaries who founded St. Mary’s Mission, and many of them were mentioned prominently in the writ- ings of Father De Smet and his colleagues. They comprised the ma- jority of the Flathead leaders who negotiated the tribe’s first and only treaty with the United States a year after Sohon drew these portraits. Many of them also signed the important Blackfoot Treaty of 1855. In the following biographical sketches of the subjects of Mr. Sohon’s portraits, the artist’s own brief but informative characteriza- tions, written in his own hand on the same sheets as the portraits, are printed in smaller type beneath the name of the subject. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Victor, THE PRINCIPAL FLATHEAD CHIEF (PLATE 8) Victor— Head Chief of the Flatheads— Victor has been confused by some writers with a contemporary of the same Christian name who was head chief of the Lower Pend d’Oreille. Father Palladino said that the Indians called the Flathead Victor “Mitt to” and the Pend d’Oreille one “Pitol” to distinguish them. (Palladino, 1894, p. 63.) Pierre Pichette translated Victor’s Indian name “Easy to Get a Herd of Horses.” (See also Teit, 1930, Pp. 377-) Victor said that he had been quite a good-sized boy when Lewis and Clark passed through the Flathead country in 1805 on their way to the Pacific. His father, Three Eagles, is said to have been a chief of the Flathead camp met by Lewis and Clark. (Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 42; Wheeler, 1904, vol. 2, p. 65.) Victor’s early years were molded by traditional Flathead religious beliefs. Pierre Pichette said that in his youth Victor obtained rabbit power by protecting a rabbit which was chased by a hawk. Some years later while stealing horses from the Crow, Victor was thrown from a stolen horse in the midst of the enemy encampment. He ran and hid in some brush near the camp. Although the Crow searched for him all through the next day they could not find him. The fol- lowing evening Victor escaped. His rabbit pas is credited with having saved him. Victor was a minor leader of the Flathead when Father De Smet and his colleagues founded St. Mary’s Mission. He was among the first Indians to accept Christianity and became the leader of the men’s society organized by the priests. Agnes, his wife, led the women’s society. Father De Smet credited Victor’s leadership in the Catholic society as an important factor in his choice by the tribe as head chief, after the death of the octogenarian, Big Face, in late 1841 or early 1842. De Smet said Victor obtained tribal leadership “for no other reason’ than ’’for the noble qualities, both of heart and head, which they all thought he possessed.” In the summer of 1846 Victor led the Flathead buffalo hunt to the plains, during which his people, augmented by 30 lodges of Nez Percé and a dozen friendly Blackfoot, scored a signal victory in a battle with the Crow. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, Pp. 576-577.) Later that fall Victor took a prominent part in Father De Smet’s negotiation of a peace between the Flathead and Blackfoot at the ABIHD GVSHLV14 TWdIONIdd ‘YOLDIA i SOF 0S / NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 29 Piegan camp. De Smet was impressed by Victor’s oratory at the meeting of the head men of the tribes in the priest’s lodge: Victor, head chief of the Flatheads, by the simplicity and smoothness of his conversation gains the good will of his hearers entirely. He begins by telling some of his warlike adventures; but as is easy to see, much less with the inten- tion of exalting himself than to show forth the protection that the true God always grants to those who devote themselves to his service. [Ibid., p. 592.] Among the many causes of the disaffection of the Flathead that led to the closure of St. Mary’s Mission in 1850, Father Accolti men- tioned the loss of influence of the chiefs following the abolishment of the punishment of the whip. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 382.) In the face of rising dissatisfaction with his leadership, Victor clung to his decision not to use the whip. Victor’s close identification with the missionaries and his known piety also served to make him a target for abuse by the dissatisfied element. He deplored his people’s change of heart, but seemed powerless to prevent it. Father Accolti wrote in the fall of 1852 that Victor had become only a nominal chief, especially since he had permitted a rival to strike him in the face without retaliating. (Ibid., p. 387.) Governor Stevens visited Victor at Fort Owen in early October, 1853. He briefly recorded his impressions of the Flathead chief: “He appears to be simple-minded, but rather wanting in energy, which might, however, be developed in an emergency.” (Report of Explora- tions, etc., 1860, vol. 12, pt. I, p. 123.) Apparently that emergency was at hand the next time these two met, at the Flathead Treaty Council in the summer of 1855. When he visited Stevens 2 days before the formal Council opened, Victor complained of the failure of the Blackfoot to keep the peace promised by their chiefs 2 years earlier. He informed Stevens that 12 Flathead hunters had been killed by the Blackfoot and many horses stolen since the Blackfoot chiefs agreed to a peace. He mentioned that the Blackfoot had stolen horses seven times that spring. ““Now I listen and hear what you wish me to do. Were it not for you I would have had my revenge ere this.” (Partoll, 1938a, p. 286.) It must have been a shock to Victor to find, after the Council opened, that Governor Stevens talked of land cessions and the place- ment of the Indians on a reservation, rather than of a solution to the pressing problem of Blackfoot depredations. Nevertheless, he re- tained his faith in Stevens’ good intentions. “I believe you wish to assist me to help my children here so that they may have plenty to eat, and so that they may save their souls.”” Although Victor claimed 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1O as his land the Flathead River country to the north occupied by the Upper Pend d’Oreille, as well as the Bitterroot Valley, he insisted that it was not a large tract. “There is a very little land here: I cannot offer you a large piece.” (Ibid., p. 289.) Victor was willing for all the tribes to go on one reservation but would not consider moving to the Flathead Valley. Alexander, the Upper Pend d’Oreille chief, preferred the northern location. In an effort to break the deadlock, Stevens expressed an opinion that the Bitterroot Valley was the better site because its climate was milder, it was nearer to camas and bitterroot, and more convenient for buffalo. But he could not convince Alexander. Hoping that time for private discussion might provide a solution to the problem, Governor Stevens declared the next day a holiday on which he feasted the Indians. When the Council reconvened, Stevens believed majority sentiment favored the northern location. Therefore, he again described the treaty provisions and proposed a reservation within an area bounded by the Jocko River, Flathead Lake, Flathead River, and the moun- tains. He called on Victor to sign the treaty. Victor refused. Then the Flathead chief, Ambrose, revealed that on the preceding day Alexander had approached Victor with an offer to move to the Bitterroot Valley, but Victor had refused to answer the Pend d’Oreille chief. After hearing this, Stevens lost patience with Victor and spoke sharply: “Does Victor want to treat? Why did he not say to Alexander yesterday, come to my place? or is not Victor a chief? Is he as one of his people has called him, an old woman? dumb as a dog? If Victor is a chief let him speak now.” Probably angry and somewhat confused, Victor replied that he had not understood Alexander’s offer, that he recalled Governor Stevens had himself chosen the Bitterroot Valley as the better loca- tion. Then the lesser Flathead chiefs sought to explain Victor’s silence of the previous day, stressing the variety of opinion among the Flathead, Victor’s habitual thoughtfulness and slowness of speech. Probably Red Wolf stated the matter precisely when he said, “I know that if Alexander should come to the valley, his people would not follow him.” Doubtless Victor had no more faith in the practicality of Alexander’s offer. While the others continued to talk, Victor quietly walked out of the Council. Governor Stevens decided to give Victor more time to consider. Next day, Saturday, Victor sent word that he had not made up his mind. The Council was postponed until Monday. (Ibid., pp. 301-308.) NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 31 Victor faced probably the most difficult problem of his life. He had agreed to the one reservation proposal. He knew, on the one hand, that Alexander’s people were loath to leave the Mission and might not follow their chief if he agreed to move to the Bitterroot Valley. On the other hand, Victor knew that his own people were divided in their opinion. Moise, the Flathead second chief, was op- posed to any land cession whatever. Bear Track, the powerful medi- cine man, refused to leave the Bitterroot Valley. Many of his people were still hostile to Missions and might refuse to follow him if he agreed to move to a reservation near St. Ignatius. His own position as chief was not strong. Should he make an unpopular decision, that position might be lost. Not only his own future but that of his tribe was at stake. Victor refused to be stampeded or shamed into a decision. When the Council reopened on July 16, Victor offered a masterful compromise. He proposed that Governor Stevens send “this word to the Great Father our Chief—come and look at our country ; perhaps you will choose that place if you look at it. When you look at Alex- ander’s place and say this land is good, and say, come Victor—then I would go. If you think this above is good land, then Victor will say come here Alexander: then our children will be content. That is the way we will make the treaty, my father.” (Ibid., p. 309.) Although the Pend d’Oreille would not accept this proposal, Governor Stevens accepted it as applicable to the Flathead only. The com- promise was embodied in the Flathead Treaty as Article XI. Victor emerged from the Council with greatly increased prestige. By the terms of the treaty he had been made head chief of the Flat- head Nation, comprising all the tribes party to the treaty. His com- promise, which permitted the Flathead to remain in their beloved homeland until and unless a careful survey showed that the northern locality was better land, was popular with his people. During the remainder of the period in which the Flathead were without a Mission, Victor made periodic visits to the Pend d’Oreille Mission to fulfill his religious obligations. A number of his tribesmen went with him. When St. Mary’s Mission was reestablished in the fall of 1866, it was in answer to the request of Victor, whose faith had never faltered. For the rest of his days Victor made his home in the Bitterroot Valley, and his people did not desert him for the reservation to the north. He opposed every effort of the Government to get him to go on the reservation, even after white settlers took up land in his valley. 5 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL:, 110 In 1872, after Victor’s death, James A. Garfield stated that Victor had permitted, even invited, the first white settlers to live in the valley. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1872, p. 110.) But by 1868 Victor complained to Major Owen of the white men who had located in the valley in defiance of the 1855 Treaty, which Victor said had set the area aside for the Flathead tribe. (Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 121.) The Flathead Agent’s report of 1869 describes the Flathead as: . .. the wealthiest, most industrious and frugal of these confederated tribes. Many of them rely wholly on the products of their farms for subsistence, but the majority live and subsist in the fall and winter in the buffalo country. [Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 18609, p. 297.] Victor himself was unable to adjust to the life of a sedentary farmer. In the years following the treaty he continued to lead his people to the plains for buffalo in the tradition of prewhite contact days. Scat- tered references in Major Owen’s Journal refer to Victor’s leader- ship of the summer hunt of 1856; the winter hunt of 1860-61, which occupied 7 months; the winter hunt of 1861-62, during which the tribe was absent from the valley for g months and many horses and some men were lost (presumably as a result of enemy action) ; and the summer hunts of 1865, 1867, and 1869. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, pp. 136, 234, 253, 330; vol. 2, pp. 67, 138.) In 1858 Victor was too ill to accompany the winter hunting party. He remained behind with three lodges of his people and was fed at Government expense. In mid-August, 1859, he was still an invalid, and Owen feared he would never recover his health. But he did. In the winter of 1867 Owen remarked at the amazing vitality of the old chief, whose hair was still black as coal and who could jump on a horse with as much agility as the youngest of his people. (Ibid., vol. I, pp. 184-185, 193; vol. 2, p. 42.) Victor died of sickness while on the summer hunt near the Three Buttes in 1870. He is said to be buried in the cemetery of St. Mary’s Mission at Stevensville, in the Bitterroot Valley. George E. Ford, the Flathead Agent, paid tribute to Victor in his report of September 1, 1870: Affairs are particularly critical just now, as the confederated nation is with- out a chief. The Indians had full confidence in Victor and would cheerfully act according to his advice, but I know of no one in the nation that is capable of filling his place with equal ability. [Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1870, p. 195.] Father De Smet’s tribute to Victor stressed his piety. Captain Mullan remembered Victor’s mildness and gentleness, bravery, gen- erosity, and his many kindnesses to the members of his exploring SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 9 Mit: Gad LEAK SG Ro Boles Pip Sa Nee hee Ter mee HS Btrele Canis ae iste / MOISE, SECOND CHIEF OF THE FLATHEAD NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 33 expeditions. Mullan suggested that the Indian Department should erect a monument to Victor’s memory “to commemorate his worth and acts, and at the same time to teach all Indians that their good deeds never die.” A portrait of Victor, as a “representative of the religious element,” was sought for a proposed new volume of Thomas L. McKenney’s “History of the Indian Tribes of North America.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, pp. 1337-1341.) The little town of Victor, on the Bitterroot River, 12 miles north of Hamilton, Mont., bears the name of this noted chief. Victor was head chief of the Flathead for nearly three decades during a particularly trying period in the history of that tribe. Al- though at times his leadership may have suffered from want of firm- ness in dealing with dissident elements, his sincere goodness, quiet courage, patience, and dogged determination won him wide respect in his later years. Victor’s compromise offered at the Flathead Treaty Council was a statesmanlike action. His insistence on the right of his tribe to remain in the Bitterroot Valley won him the approval of his own people and the respect of Government officials. For 21 years after his death, his son and successor, Charlot, held stubbornly to Victor’s policy of refusing to leave the Bitterroot Valley for the established reservation. Until the decade of the eighties this policy expressed the will of the majority of the members of the tribe. Morse, SEcoND CHIEF OF THE FLATHEAD (PLATE 9) Steit-tish-lutse-so or the Crawling Mountain Known among the Americans as Moise 2nd chief of the Flatheads, a talented and worthy Indian Moise (French for Moses) received his Christian name on baptism by Father De Smet at St. Mary’s Mission on Easter, 1846. De Smet said that he was surnamed “Bravest of the Brave.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, p. 305; vol. 2, p. 472.) Moise told Lieutenant Mullan that he had been present in the Flat- head camp in Ross’ Hole when Lewis and Clark visited it in the fall of 1805. He said the explorers took what the Indians knew as the South- ern Nez Percés’ trail, following the Bitterroot River to its fork, after they left the Flathead village. (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. I, p. 325.) Moise headed the Flathead delegation that went to meet Father De Smet at Fort Hall in 1841. He sent ahead his finest horse as a gift to the priest. After their meeting De Smet described Moise as “the handsomest Indian warrior of my acquaintance” who was “dis- 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO tinguished by his superior skill in horsemanship, and by a large red scarf, which he wore after the fashion of the Marshals of France.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. I, p. 305.) Moise remained a great favorite of Father De Smet, who called him his “adopted Indian brother” whose “exemplary conduct took pace with his renowned bravery and he was generally looked up to with esteem.”’ As an example of Moise’s moral refinement, De Smet recalled that on one occasion he and Moise had called upon a chief who had just flogged a visiting Nez Percé youth. Moise stripped off his buffalo robe, exposed his bare back, and called upon the chief to give him 25 lashes. When Father De Smet interposed, Moise ex- plained, “Father, the Nez Percé here present was whipped because he talked foolishly to a girl. My thoughts are sometimes bewildering and vexing and I have prayed to drive them from my mind and heart.” De Smet prevented the carrying out of this self-imposed punishment. (Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 1225-1226.) De Smet told of Moise’s calmness in encouraging his men before their successful battle with the Crow Indians east of the Rockies in the summer of 1846. “My friends,” said Moise, “if it be the will of God, we shall conquer—if it be not his will, let us humbly submit to whatever it shall please his goodness to send us. Some of us must expect to fall in this contest: if there be any who are unprepared to die, let him retire; in the meantime let us keep Him constantly in mind.” (Ibid., vol. 2, p. 576.) In 1857 Father Menetrey named Moise among the four Flathead leaders who had never failed to follow the teachings of the mis- sionaries after the closing of St. Mary’s Mission. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 388.) Moise was one of the Flathead chiefs who journeyed to St. Ignatius to fulfill his religious duties in that year. (Chit- tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1240.) After his visit to the Flathead in 1859 De Smet termed Moise one of the greatest chief- tains of the tribe, in whom real piety and true valor at war were united. (Ibid., vol. 2, p. 766.) At the Flathead Treaty Council, Moise remained silent until he was asked to sign the treaty. He refused to sign. Then he launched a bitter denunciation of the treaty. He claimed the Flathead leaders would not have come to the council at all if Lieutenant Mullan had not assured them there would be “no talk of land,” and that its pur- pose would be to offer help to the Flathead in their struggle against the Blackfoot. He refused to consider cession of any Flathead land. He had no faith in Governor Stevens’ promise to make peace with NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 35 the Blackfoot. Although Moise was the only Flathead leader to ex- press these ideas at the Council, and the only one to refuse to sign the treaty, it is possible he voiced the sentiments of a large segment of Flathead opinion. In the course of his remarks Moise also re- vealed his independence of Victor. When asked directly if Victor, who had already signed the treaty, was not his head chief, Moise replied bluntly, “Yes, but I never listen to him.” (Partoll, 1938a, p- 311.) Although Moise attended the Blackfoot Treaty Council that fall, and signed the treaty, he took no speaking part in the proceedings. Scattered references to Moise’s activities in the years following the treaties appear in Major Owen’s Journal. In early April, 1857, Moise sought Owen’s assistance to dissuade some of the young warriors from going to war against the Bannock and Shoshoni. During Vic- tor’s prolonged illness in 1858 Moise and Ambrose led the Flathead on their winter buffalo hunt. In March 1861 Moise brought up the rear of the Flathead camp on its return from hunting on the plains. In the winter hunt of 1862-63 he was a leader. On May 18, 1865, Moise started out with Victor and the Flathead party for the sum- mer hunt east of the mountains but changed his mind and returned the next day in order to care for his growing crops. This is the only indication that any Flathead chief of the period was sufficiently in- terested in farming to permit it to interfere with his going to hunt buffalo. Apparently, even in this case, Moise had some difficulty reaching a decision in favor of tending his crops. (Owen, 1927, vol. I, pp. 160, 190, 234, 277, 330.) Moise died in March 1868, following a tedious year of sickness. Modern Flathead believe that he was buried in the Bitterroot Valley. At the time of his death Moise must have been over 70 years of age. Ambrose became his successor as second chief of the tribe. (Ibid., vol. 2, p. 95.) Moise, the headquarters of the National Bison Range, near Dixon, Mont., was named after Antoine Moise, a son, who was also a prominent Flathead leader. Moise was a leader who combined the Christian virtues with the tough qualities necessary for survival on the northwestern Indian frontier in his time. He was honest, God-fearing, brave in war, and both independent and frankly outspoken in council. Later events proved that in his distrust of the possibility for a lasting peace with the Blackfoot, Moise possessed a keen and realistic insight into the military problems of the region. 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO AMBROSE, SUCCESSOR TO MoISE AS FLATHEAD SECOND CHIEF (PLATE 10) Ambrose (in baptism) Shil-che-lum-e-la, or Five Crows A chief of the Flatheads, mentioned many times in the “Oregon Missions,” for his bravery and generosity. Father De Smet wrote Ambrose’s Indian name “Sechelmeld.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, p. 320.) Father Palladino considered ‘““Amelo or Ambrose” one of the notable men of the Flat- head tribe. (Palladino, 1894, p. 63.) He is remembered by the mod- ern Flathead by the names ‘““Amelo” and “Five Crows.” In a battle with the Blackfoot in 1840 Ambrose counted coup by permitting an armed Blackfoot, who had mistaken him for one of his own tribe, to ride double with him, then wresting the enemy warrior’s gun from him and killing him. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, p. 320. The editors state that Ambrose’s own drawing of this action is among Father De Smet’s papers.) The Catholic missionaries considered Ambrose one of the Flathead leaders who remained loyal to their cause after the abandonment of the Mission. (Menetrey in Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 388; Chit- tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, p. 766.) Twice in 1857 he accompanied Victor to St. Ignatius to fulfill his religious obligations. Father Hoeken credited Ambrose with having played an influential part in a notable amelioration in the whole Flathead Nation in that year. Ambrose had “convened several assemblages, in order to ar- range and pay off old debts, to repair wrongs, etc.” (Chittenden and Richardson, vol. 4, p. 1240.) During the Flathead Treaty Council, Ambrose revealed that Victor had refused Alexander’s offer to move onto a reservation in the Bit- terroot Valley, which resulted in Governor Stevens’ relentless attack upon Victor. Ambrose quickly came to Victor’s defense and at- tempted to restore calm to the proceedings by remarking, “I say to the white chief, don’t get angry, maybe it will come out all right. Maybe all the people have a great many minds. Maybe they will come all right. See my chiefs are now holding down their heads thinking.” (Partoll, 1938a, p. 305.) Ambrose signed both the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties. A year after he signed the Blackfoot “treaty of peace,” his son, Louis, was killed by the Gros Ventres, a party to that treaty. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1248.) Through the late fifties and sixties Ambrose continued to go on buffalo hunts with his tribe. During Victor’s illness in 1858 he shared SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 10 ’ Ay, ; Rbatheawct) e- Sy Z ve | Wag” #5 ae '¥5 , ) ; Amtrete (ro bafliam ei Shit - che. Lum 2. Lo er * Fore Orescv’ . : “ff on : a ® QO Chie’, ff Kh F lacken dy, Mitnfeincst Gncrer; Ceperts ; f" is Ee fe : s e OO a . Arn Zh Qreg rn (PH: ttn, pr thed tra ~¢ ve CX ve wd 4 / é pene ee | ; AMBROSE, A FLATHEAD CHIEF SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 11 Wh. S30, 305 Ad etftie (o Cafihevan y ; Z es Le Ch seek. Mebiaai. Arete for Sasig : f £. Ler. OOS t42- 2L te a One , Ltr el Reet. Cbate . r2-#F- Fre ak. . } am i - ae “c he Slt enn Kage Meuncnww foetecty ao Cefn. Ore Ke pee + Poe Wf Ss eg - Bou, Ch tire C22try tivo Joc Keds pre eh . - ved Y ADOLPHE, A FLATHEAD CHIEF NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 37 with Moise the leadership of the Flathead hunting camp. Again in 1863 Ambrose and Moise led the Flathead hunting camp on the Mus- selshell River. After the death of Moise, in the spring of 1868, Am- brose succeeded to the office of second chief of the Flathead. (Owen, 1927, vol. I, pp. 190, 277; vol. 2, p. IOI.) The date of Ambrose’s death is not recorded. However, we may assume that he died sometime between the end of March 1869 (when he was last mentioned by Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 133), and August 1872, at which time Arlee was recognized as second chief of the Flathead. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1873, p. 251.) As a leader, Ambrose exhibited admirable qualities of faith, cour- age, honesty, patience, and common sense. He showed remarkable coolness in battle and at the Flathead Treaty Council. His words of caution, offered at a crucial point in the Council proceedings, when tempers were aroused, helped to prevent a complete breakdown in negotiations. ADOLPHE, A FLATHEAD CHIEF (PLATE IT) Adolphe (in baptism) A chief among the Flatheads, noted for his independence and good sense. Not much liked because he never fails to reprimand any of his tribe who may deserve it. Pierre Pichette said Adolphe’s Indian name was “Wears his Hair in Small Twists,” and that he was said to have used one of these twists to spank children who misbehaved. Adolphe’s peculiar hair- dress is well illustrated in Sohon’s portrait. Martina Siwahsah remembered Adolphe as a powerful medicine man. She said she was present on a winter hunt on the plains when the snow was so deep the horses were dying of starvation. One evening the people heard someone singing. It was Adolphe making his medicine to bring a chinook. In the morning the chinook struck, and before evening the snow was all gone. Peter Ronan said that Adolphe used to lead the Flathead against their enemies as their war chief. In a battle with the Gros Ventres about the year 1840 Adolphe and Arlee led the Flathead to a decisive victory. About half the Gros Ventres force, estimated at 100 warriors, were killed. (Ronan, 1890, pp. 76-78.) The missionaries considered Adolphe one of the Flathead leaders who retained their faith and loyalty after the closure of St. Mary’s Mission in 1850. (Menetrey im Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 338: Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, p. 766.) He journeyed to 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO St. Ignatius with Victor in 1857, to fulfill his religious obligations. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1240.) Governor Stevens mentioned Adolphe among the principal men of the tribe whom he met on his first visit to the Flathead at Fort Owen, October 1, 1853. (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 12, pt. I, p. 125.) Adolphe signed both the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties of 1855, but took no other part in the proceedings. “Adolphus Kwiikweschape, or Red Feather, chief of the Flatheads” was one of the group of chiefs of the mountain tribes who accompanied Father De Smet to Fort Vancouver in the spring of 1859 to renew the treaty of peace with the Commanding General and Superintendent of Indian Affairs. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, p. 766.) When James A. Garfield, Commissioner for the Removal of the Flathead tribe of Indians from the Bitterroot Valley to the Jocko Reservation, met the chiefs of the tribe near Fort Owen in 1872, Adolphe, as third chief of the Flathead, was one of the tribal repre- sentatives. On August 27, 1872, he signed the agreement drawn up by Garfield providing for the removal of the Flathead to the reserva- tion. Nevertheless, he joined with head chief Charlot in refusing to leave the Bitterroot Valley. Three years later Agent Medery removed Adolphe’s name from the Government payroll, because he had “failed in every particular” to comply with the provisions of the agreement. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1872, pp. 109, 114-115; 1875, p. 305.) Adolphe marshaled and led the young warriors at the council held at the Flathead Agency September 2, 1882, to negotiate a right-of- way for the Northern Pacific Railway. Apparently before that date he had removed from the Bitterroot Valley to the reservation. Adolphe died at the Agency in 1887, at an assumed age of 78 years. (Ronan, 1890, p. 76.) INSULA, A FLATHEAD CHIEF (PLATE 12) Insula—or Red Feather Michelle (in baptism) A Flathead chief; according to Father De Smet “a great and brave warrior.” He is noted for his piety, and officiates at the burial of the dead. He is quite an old man, nearly seventy. Michael Insula (sometimes rendered Ensyla or Insala), Red Feather, was also known as ‘“‘The Little Chief,” because of his small stature. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1231.) Pierre Pichette thought Insula was not a name of Flathead origin. Accord- ing to Duncan McDonald, he was half Nez Percé and half Flathead, and lived part time with the Flathead and the remainder of the time SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 12 s J \ / fez "ay, Yancy, oo 164 Ye cet 4s, Jodela - or “et feathes 139 305 Vir. 2 ‘cth pn tis ow ; y = peat : ah, Ct HM latkeanan G4 ca = Beets Be FCA! WE Aired xa Fteoan ; e & 406: eo . Me te A le ol Dive me ‘ s : . Ai A - - a fcc . ee J wt SRL Steve 6##KR Sltaed, Fe ls Ge « t 5 Pi feo f in Seem a ~_ ra INSULA, A FLATHEAD CHIEF : nv Sys gal “ia sis “a 1 , Opes y at Apia k Boal Te oe aoe ‘oomee av aay . ; ‘) te Ga eee ect sph. oft Ail f53 , / oy ; ry etl sen hice et Nama ae 4 Nig 7 » peg Avy Ap. igh eee ai a yepdat™ Tithe Che ele age oak Vipin i tgs psc => 1 ‘ E : j 7 / 4 e - . 7 . ; a4) , 7 2 a 7 - ; Vee of 7 : 1 { Aa | , ny - { ; 7 — a ; i ¢ ” , | >" jo fs ¥ cae pea Pac Ae pes Bur i¢ 4 ete aw i 2! «8 ‘7’ c 3 make % i wwe, at iaulingad i =| T Sinus lta ne Pea w Wik: va i] ta wets sf oae Q 7 i 7 - - oa nls 7 2 7 7” — a : a y i A / : Peder oi NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 39 with the Pend d’Oreille. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, p. 236, footnote.) De Smet stated (1841) that the Nez Percé had offered Insula the position of head chief of their tribe. He refused the honor saying, “By the will of the Great Master of Life I was born among the Flat- heads, and if such be his will, among the Flatheads I am determined to die.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, p. 323.) In the summer of 1835 Insula journeyed to the Green River ren- dezvous of the fur traders, where in company with a group of Nez Percé, he met the Protestant missionaries, Rev. Samuel Parker and Dr. Marcus Whitman. The Reverend Parker recorded his conversa- tion thus: Next rose Insala, the most influential chief among the Flathead nation, and said, “he had heard that a man near to God was coming to visit them, and he, with some of his people, together with some white men, went out three days’ journey to meet him, but failed of finding the caravan. A war party of Crow Indians came upon them in the night, and after a short battle, though no lives were lost, they took away some of their horses, and one from him which he greatly loved, but now he forgets all, his heart is made so glad to see a man close to God.” [Parker, 1844, pp. 81-82.] Many years later Father Palladino explained that Insula was not satisfied with the appearance or the message of Parker and Whitman. He observed that they wore neither black gowns nor crosses, that they married, and did not have the great prayer, and that therefore these were not the priests of whom the Iroquois had told him. Conse- quently, he did not encourage them to go to the Flathead country. (Palladino, 1894, pp. 16-17.) Insula was a great favorite of the Catholic missionaries. He was one of the party of 30 warriors who accompanied Father De Smet as far as Fort Alexander on the Yellowstone in the country of the enemy Crow Indians on De Smet’s return eastward in 1840. (Chit- tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, pp. 266-267.) In 1841 De Smet termed Insula “the most influential of the Flathead chiefs,” who “as a Christian or a warrior, might stand a comparison with the most renowned character of ancient chivalry.” (Ibid., p. 324.) Father Adrian Hoeken also had a marked personal regard for Insula. In the fall of 1855 he wrote De Smet of Insula’s great bra- very, tender piety, and gentle manners, and added that he had “pre- served all his first fervor of devotion.” Again in the spring of 1857 he wrote of Insula as “always equally good, equally happy, a fervent Christian, who is daily advancing in virtue and in perfection.” He added that Insula had taught his young son, Louis Michael, to call the priest papa. (Ibid., vol. 4, p. 1245.) 6 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Father Hoeken wrote that Insula “is well known and much beloved by the whites, who have occasion to deal with him, as a man of sound judgment, strict integrity, and one on whose fidelity they can im- plicitly rely.” The priest called Insula “a keen discerner of the char- acters of men” who “loved to speak of those white men who were distinguished for their fine qualities.” Insula adopted Col. Robert Campbell of St. Louis and Maj. Thomas Fitzpatrick as brothers. Colonel Campbell reciprocated by sending him a fine present in the spring of 1857. (Ibid., pp. 1232, 1245.) Of Insula’s numerous deeds of heroism, Father De Smet cited but two, both of which occurred before 1841. On one occasion Insula “sustained the assaults of a whole village” of the enemy. On another, a party of Bannock, estimated at 200, who had visited Insula’s camp and observed the small number of the Flathead, returned to attack the Flathead the next night. Advised of their intentions, Insula as- sembled his warriors to meet the attack. The small Flathead force killed nine of the enemy before Insula, in the heat of the pursuit, recalled that it was Sunday and ordered his warriors back to camp for prayer. (Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 322-324, 365-360.) According to Duncan McDonald, Insula was killed by Cree and Assiniboine on Milk River in October 1860. At that time the old man was living with the Kutenai and Pend d’Oreille. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, p. 236, footnote.) Little Insula appears to have possessed the most appealing per- sonality among the Flathead leaders of his time. Not only was he very popular with the Indians of his own and friendly tribes, but he also proved adept at winning and holding the friendship of influential white men. Apparently he found subtle flattery, such as teaching his son to call the priest papa and adopting important white men as brothers, helpful in cementing these friendships. An ardent Catholic and a courageous warrior, he epitomized the missionaries’ ideal of the Christian soldier. BEAR TRACK, FLATHEAD CHIEF AND MEDICINE MAN (PLATE 13) Soey-te-sum-’hi or Bear Track. A Chief, and one of the very few pure Flathead Indians in the tribe. He is said to be a very brave and daring man, and is certainly one of the best looking men in the tribe, decision is written in every line of his countenance. Bear Track spoke at the Flathead Treaty Council on July 13, 1855, after Victor’s refusal to accept Alexander’s offer to move to the Bitterroot Valley. He made no reference to Victor’s action. He ex- pressed his own willingness to make a treaty but emphasized the pov- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 13 te i} ae ice Latica oC all ‘ 4 (, (eA a \ An! \ F A if . te IE “oA Clery. te - Zeer, Z “OM 7 : te tr Ud sar Crcce+e z = ae = = A436, 205- Peg : ~ * : - we aco oe? , = mj a s om et a+ tiw & “ff, , sr 2 2 ce By CAL , - 7, Y- . ‘ Oona Ae 6c, SHA el Ae Li ~~ & CCL» Cra ey. eo eee ‘ , 5 ; ¥ ¢ Pidive Cong ¢@ Ctttaenl Crore thet. feat Lowe, 3 >. gap ee Ae ¢ eae r , ae Pee - Loe Ke - tte -. “LO 5 J z < b ; —— cre Cz i / (¢e<-r Ce Reiss 7 a BEAR TRACK, FLATHEAD CHIEF AND MEDICINE MAN NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 41 erty of his people and his opinion that the area around St. Ignatius Mission was not large enough for the proposed reservation. Bear Track signed both the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties. (Partoll, 1938a, p. 306.) Bear Track was famous as a medicine man. He was the maternal grandfather of Martina Siwahsah, who recalled some of Bear Track’s remarkable feats. One spring the Indians were camped north of Hamilton in the Bitterroot Valley. A man and his wife went out hunting in the mountains. While his wife remained in the hunting camp, the man went on alone after game. She waited 3 days, but he did not return. Then she went back to the tribe and told Bear Track of her husband’s disappearance. He sang, made his medicine, and said, “All I can see is the horse your husband was riding tied to a tree. I don’t see the rider.” He described the locality where he saw the horse. Men went to that place. They found the horse tied where Bear Track had indicated and the dead body of the hunter nearby. Apparently he had made a fire, gone to sleep, and a log rolled over and killed him. Another time the people were hunting buffalo and could find none, Bear Track told the people to erect a long tent. He made his medicine, then told the people, “My power I received from a white buffalo calf. The buffalo are coming, and that calf will be in the lead.” Next day a herd of buffalo appeared led by a white calf. Teit also has reported Bear Track’s power to find lost people and to bring the buffalo when they could not be found. He also stated that Bear Track had the power to foresee the approach of parties of enemy horse thieves and to warn his people in advance, as well as the power to foretell the results of battles. (Teit, 1930, pp. 384-385.) Turney-High found that no Flathead shamans were more highly re- spected than those who possessed such powers. (Turney-High, 1937, p. 29.) Probably Bear Track was the most successful and most famous medicine man of his day among the Flathead. That he is not men- tioned in the voluminous correspondence of the missionaries is under- standable. It is unlikely that this medicine man of the traditional school looked with much favor upon the “magic” of the whites. Nevertheless, Martina Siwahsah said Bear Track was baptized and given the Christian name of “Alexander.” She said that Bear Track was married four times. He fathered 10 children. He lived to be a very old man, became blind, and died of sickness during the 1880's. Teit dated Bear Track’s death about 1880, at over 9o years of age. (Teit, 1930, p. 384.) 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO PELCHIMO, A FLATHEAD CHIEF (PLATE 14) Koilt-koi-imp-ty (Indian name) Spoken of by Father De Smet as “Pelchimo”, (by which name he is generally known,) as a good and brave Indian. He is a great favorite of all the whites who know him, for his honesty and good sense. The modern Flathead remember him by both his Indian name and by the name “Palchina.” They could not translate his Indian name exactly, because it is an obsolete form, referring to a blanket with some black on it. Pelchimo was a brother of one of the Indians of the ill-fated third deputation (1837), the members of which were killed by the Sioux while en route to St. Louis to seek a priest. (Chittenden and Richard- son, 1905, vol. I, p. 292; Palladino, 1894, p. 30.) As “Palchinah” he signed the Blackfoot Treaty in the fall of 1855. His name does not appear among the signers of the Flathead Treaty. Pelchimo was one of the heroes in the battle with the Blackfoot in 1840, in which Ambrose also distinguished himself. In this battle the Flathead, though greatly outnumbered, withstood their opponents for 5 days and finally forced them to retreat, leaving many killed and wounded on the battlefield. The Flathead lost but a single man, who died of wounds received in the battle. Pelchimo won honors in this fight by saving the Flathead horses from capture by the enemy. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, pp. 319-320.) Pelchimo was a great friend of Major Owen. Owen frequently referred to him as “Palchina” in his Journals. In 1851 he accom- panied Owen to Fort Loring on Snake River. They traveled together to The Dalles in the spring of 1855, and to Fort Benton in the sum- mer of 1858. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, p. 28-35.) Owen considered Palchina the best veterinary in the region, and employed him to doctor his own favorite horses. He also had Palchina break his horses and permitted him to use the horses during the sum- mer buffalo hunt in return for “getting them gentle.” (Ibid., pp. 127-128.) On April 4, 1863, Owen received a report that 70 horses had been stolen from Palchina’s camp while en route home from the buffalo hunt on the plains. Two days later he was informed that Palchina had been killed by the party of Bannock horse thieves from whom Palchina sought to recover his stolen property. On hearing of Palchina’s death, Owen paid high tribute to the man’s character as one of the best Indians, brave when danger called, inoffensive but firm and exacting in his rights. (Ibid., pp. 278-279.) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 14 hp = A thla Ces heute: hire’ vonpr- be | (btn Craw / c 130305 Lhettern of é Math: 82 timak ai Polohen, 0, (4pyghae Z ; ; fidipswe 4e eG pee frre, ara Porn Sto Di "Sao, plete: Af, S . : 1% etn. Oe ¢ a & Priat fer opm 2 eats. an” wz eh of, C2, ; J ‘ ? MOF e tervvv Cx rr, fet Pals Aer Ces Crs ee i f . ne J "F> ; ¢ Sere whe he ah ee PELCHIMO, A FLATHEAD CHIEF Sayers yusqvaT GVaHLV1IA V ‘VHOVd 43IHD GVSHLV14 V ‘YSQNNHL - 3 2 = - ( wmitg7/ 7177 coun = P2848 7A Beal TY Ge YE 17 ag (LIN CY miavpety t g a ; Y Feo es yy ; es ee ST ey ~ see qeyg ey 277776 eR PAG A ph POP ie ne u J Soars a wy Slee Aare wi ey WA L 797) Lr i - FE). aay 999 MAIS, Cs yal yy = 1) =e “ e Leta : MA uw 6 LA S08 OE/ pocogy ; i Ag : A Ay yoy Z ale at : / t 4d B yy ee Ny aah | Gl “Id ‘4 ‘ON ‘O11 “10A SNOILD31109 SNOANY11S9SIW NVINOSHLIWS NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 43 The written record appears to emphasize Pelchimo’s prowess in the traditional men’s occupations of the Flathead. He was a courage- ous fighter, a clever hunter, and a skilled trainer of horses. His talents as a horse doctor must have given him considerable prestige as a medicine man among the conservative members of his tribe. He was not mentioned by the missionaries among the Flathead leaders who remained staunchly loyal to their cause after the closure of St. Mary’s Mission in 1850. Nevertheless, Sohon’s testimony as to his good character is confirmed by the writings of Father De Smet and Major Owen. THUNDER, A FLATHEAD LEADER (PLATE 15, LEFT) Til-til-la or Thunder Said to be one of the bravest of the Flathead Indians. Father Palladino considered “Phidel Teltella, or Thunder,” one of the notable men of the Flathead tribe. (Palladino, 1894, p. 63.) As “Thunder” he signed both the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties in 1855, but he took no speaking part in the proceedings. When disease in epidemic proportions raged in the Flathead camp in the summer of 1856, “Fidelis Teltilla” asked Father Menetrey to see his son who was dangerously ill. In the next year he accompanied Victor to St. Ignatius Mission to fulfill his religious duties. (Chit- tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, pp. 1239-1240.) Doubtless, the name “Fidelis” was given him by the missionaries in reference to his steadfastness in the Christian faith. The modern Flathead say that Thunder died in the Bitterroot Valley before 1891. PacHA, A FLATHEAD LEADER (PLATE 15, RIGHT) Pacha One of the chief men of the Flatheads—He is quite an old man. (Indian Name) Quill-Quill-che-koil-pent. Very little is known about this man. He was one of the principal men of the Flathead who met Governor Stevens at Fort Owen in the fall of 1853, on Stevens’ first visit to the tribe. (Report of Ex- plorations, etc., 1860, vol. 12, pt. 2, p. 125.) He may have been the Indian who signed the Flathead Treaty under the name of ‘“Pah-soh.” Doubtless he died within a few years after the treaty. He was not remembered by any of the elderly Flathead questioned by the writer in 1947. They translated his Indian name, “Red Plume.” 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO THE UPPER PEND D’OREILLE INDIANS The Pend d’Oreille or Kalispel Indians lived in the region north and northwest of the Flathead in pre-reservation days. The name Pend d’Oreille (“Hanging Ears”) was said to have been given them by early nineteenth-century fur traders because many of these Indians wore large shell ear ornaments at that time. Pend d’Oreille territory extended from the western base of ‘the Rockies about Flathead Lake westward beyond Pend d’Oreille Lake into the northeastern portion of the present State of Washington. In the middle of the nineteenth century two major divisions of the tribe were recognized, the Upper Pend d’Oreille of the Flathead Lake region, and the Lower Pend d’Oreille in the neighborhood of Pend d’Oreille Lake. At that time the distinction was political as well as geographical. Each division possessed its own head chief and subchiefs. However, both groups spoke the same dialect of the Salishan language. It may be assumed that they were formerly one tribe. Teit obtained traditions from the Upper Pend d’Oreille to the effect that the Flathead Lake region was the traditional tribal homeland, and that the Lower Division was an offshoot of the Upper Pend d’Oreille. However, Dr. Suckley and Governor Stevens of the Pacific Railway Survey a half century earlier (1855) assumed that the Upper Pend d’Oreille division “had been formed at a comparatively recent period.” (Teit, 1930, pp. 296, 303, 311; Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 1, pp. 149, 294.) The native name, Kalispel (meaning camas), was applied to the Pend d’Oreille in general by early fur traders. Some more recent writers have limited its application to the Lower Pend d’Oreille. The Pend d’Oreille were more numerous than their Flathead neigh- bors. Anson Dart estimated Lower Pend d’Oreille population at 520, and that of the Upper Pend d’Oreille at 480, in 1851. In Major Owen’s census of 1861 the Upper Pend d’Oreille totaled 184 families of 895 souls ; the Flathead go families of 548 souls. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1851, p. 478; Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 262.) The Pend d’Oreille were mentioned less frequently by early nine- teenth-century traders than were the Flathead. However, their his- tory prior to 1840 paralleled that of the Flathead in general outline. Presumably they lived by hunting, fishing, and collecting in the area immediately west of the Rockies in pre-horse times. After they ob- tained horses, they crossed the mountains on seasonal buffalo-hunting excursions. Usually they hunted north of the Flathead, between the Rockies and the Sweetgrass Hills on the present International Bound- ary. (Partoll, 1937, p. 7.) They were driven off the plains by the es NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 45 southwestward push of the Blackfoot prior to 1800. In 1811 an aged Kalispel told David Thompson that he had been a young warrior when his tribe first encountered an enemy war party with firearms. It was a Piegan force in possession of two guns. When they fired the new weapons, the Pend d’Oreille were so frightened they ran and hid in the mountains. But the Piegan sent strong war parties after them to kill men, women, and children, and to steal their horses. He ac- knowledged that his people had no adequate defense against the Black- foot until Thompson traded them guns, which enabled them to regain much of their territory and to hunt buffalo on the plains again. (Thompson, 1916, p. 463.) The fact that the Pend d’Oreille were relatively rich in good horses prompted numerous Blackfoot raids on their camps through the first eight decades of the nineteenth century. The Pend d’Oreille were hospitable to the Iroquois and their sim- plified Christian teachings. Some of the Iroquois married into the tribe. Many of the Upper Pend d’Oreille were baptized by Father De Smet and his colleagues at the Flathead Mission of St. Mary’s prior to 1846. However, the first Catholic Mission to the Pend d’Oreille was established among the Lower Division, on the right bank of the Columbia River about 40 miles below Lake Pend d’Oreille, in 1845. This Mission was named St. Ignatius. The location proved unsatisfactory because of the severe winters and short growing season in that area. In the fall of 1854 it was moved to a more suitable site south of Flathead Lake, on what became known as Mission Creek, in the territory of the Upper Pend d’Oreille. Father Adrian Hoeken, the first missionary to the Upper Pend d’Oreille, was very popular with the Indians. Loyalty to the Mission was an important factor in the refusal of the Upper Pend d’Oreille to accept a reservation in the Flathead country of the Bitterroot Valley some 75 miles south of their Mission. St. Ignatius Mission was situated within the area of the 1,300,000-acre Jocko Reservation established by the Treaty of 1855. The Indians gathered about that Mission were a mixed group. Liv- ing with the Upper Pend d’Oreille in 1857 were some Iroquois, Nez Percé, Spokan, Kutenai, Coeur d’Alene, Kettle Falls Indians, Flat- head, and Lower Pend d’Oreille, a few friendly Blackfoot, French half-breeds, and even several “creoles from the Creek Nation.” (Chit- tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, pp. 1246-1247.) Father Hoeken and his colleagues encouraged the Upper Pend d’Oreille and these other Indians living with them to raise crops in the fertile soil of the 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO reservation by furnishing seeds, instruction, and as many agricultural tools as their limited means permitted. The Indian Agent’s report for 1857 stated that they had made “very marked progress in cultivating the soil” in the 3 years since the Mission was established. Apparently some families found farming much to their liking. However, the Agents’ reports during the two succeeding decades emphasized the preference of the majority for traditional economic pursuits. The 1865 Report stated that the Pend d’Oreille had made less progress in agriculture than had the Flathead. In 1869 the Agent wrote: “The greater portion of the Pend d’Oreille tribe and Kootenays still depend upon the chase for subsistence. The buffalo hunt, their main depen- dence, becomes each year less reliable.” Yet in 1875 the Agent re- ported: “The greater number .... make regular annual excur- sions to the east side of the Rocky Mountains on their accustomed buf- falo hunts.” (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1857, p. 379; 1865, p. 247; 1869, p. 295; 1875, p. 304.) As long as buffalo could be found on the plains beyond the mountains the majority of the Pend d’Oreille preferred the blood-quickening excitement of running buffalo to the quiet, steady toil of tilling the soil. The Indians’ addiction to the seminomadic life also hampered the efforts of the missionaries to educate their children. A mission day school was established. But when Indian families moved camp to hunt, fish, gather roots or berries, they took their children with them. This continual interruption of their schooling for extended periods of time resulted in haphazard educational progress on the part of the children. (Ibid., 1865, p. 241.) In their devotion to the traditional hunting economy, the majority of the Upper Pend d’Oreille, like the Flathead, postponed the prob- lem of adjustment to an agricultural economy until after the buffalo were gone. In two other important respects, however, the cultural conflicts of the Upper Pend d’Oreille were more easily resolved than were those of the Flathead. The former never became estranged from their Mission, as had the Flathead in the late forties and fifties. St. Ignatius Mission has been in continuous existence since 1854. Also the Upper Pend d’Oreille were spared the frustration which the prolonged, unsuccessful struggle to retain their homeland brought to the Flathead. When Chief Charlot led his loyal little band of Flat- head from the Bitterroot Valley onto the Jocko Reservation in 1891, the Upper Pend d’Oreille possessed nearly two generations of experi- ence as reservation Indians. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 16 Breil 2 yu LE ee rs iP VWlyx cnber WE Tafye -he- Bre ee “ hee 7 Otere (20 Bo ah ait > ) ~ < : 4ite er et hts ft tee An int. AO, @ i 4 + “4 fy an Z s sy 4 Ww * ) “Ge adrttl then ghr YZ Arre Pug ¢ho oD Inert rahe Garr / , 2 ¢ Zz “4 / Jif . , tre Fhe Lote “wditirche teas bl. 3 tora Aeate Ze / . .- Jane Cn ee / — - " 2 ‘oh . . ae Ce. oti, | hMWAck t4 Be Le Pir an Care iF se ¢ Ae hin Pits MICHELLE, SUCCESSOR TO ALEXANDER AS UPPER PEND D'OREILLE HEAD CHIEF NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 51 chief after two others, André and Pierre, declined the office. (Teit, 1930, p. 377.) He was probably one of the Michelles who signed the Flathead Treaty and possibly the Michelle who signed the Blackfoot Treaty in 1855. He took no speaking part in either Council. As Pend d’Oreille head chief he represented the tribe in the Council to negotiate for the right-of-way of the Northern Pacific Railway on the reservation, September 2, 1882, and at the meeting with members of the subcommittee of the United States Senate appointed to visit the Indian tribes of northern Montana on September 7, 1882. (Ronan, 1890, pp. 54, 76.) In his Annual Report of September 1874 Peter Whaley, the Flat- head Agent, recommended that Michelle should be replaced by André, second chief of the tribe. The Agent pointed out that on their buffalo hunts east of the mountains the Pend d’Oreille were in the habit of stealing horses from friends and foes alike and refused to return the animals to their proper owners. Michelle, who at the time was physically unable to accompany his people on their hunts, was power- less to prevent the thefts or to compel restitution. André, on the other hand, had the confidence of his people and was the real leader of the tribe. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1874, pp. 262-263.) The new Flathead Agent in 1875 reported that André was “chief in all but drawing a salary from the government.” (Ibid., 1875, p. 304.) Agent Peter Ronan investigated the cause of the dissension in 1877. He found Michelle a “good-meaning” man who had to a large extent lost contact with his people. Michelle lived at the Agency while his people were located near St. Ignatius Mission some 20 miles away. When decisions needed to be made, André, who lived with the tribe, generally made them. If a case was later taken to Michelle, he generally reversed André’s decision, causing further dissatisfaction. Michelle seemed well aware of the fact that he had lost contact with his people and considered moving back to live among them in order to regain his lost influence. (Ibid., 1877, p. 136.) Michelle’s popularity was not increased by his severe punishments. He whipped female adulterers, common among his people, so severely as to cause the deaths of some women. Agent Medery found it neces- sary to prevail upon Michelle to resort to milder punishment. (Ibid., 1876, p. 89.) In spite of the dissatisfaction of many of his people, the opposition of André, and the recommendation of at least one Agent that he be deposed, Michelle continued in the position of head chief. He won the respect of Agent Ronan during the Nez Percé War of 1877. 52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Fearing that the Agency Indians might join their old allies, Ronan prepared to remove his wife and children from danger. Michelle went to the Agent and pledged that his warriors would protect Ronan’s family from harm. The Pend d’Oreille remained friendly. (Clark, 1885, Pp. 301.) A few years earlier, Michelle’s friendship for the whites had been put to a severe test. His son had been accused of the murder of a white miner. Although the son swore his innocence, Michelle told him he could not be saved, or his death avenged, except by war with the whites, and asked the young man to sacrifice his life for the good of his people. The youth was hung by enraged whites. (Ibid.) Michelle helped to set an example for his people in agriculture. In 1885 he had 160 acres under fence, producing 250 bushels of wheat and oats. In the spring of 1887 he purchased young fruit trees for his land 16 miles north of the Mission. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1885, p. 127; 1887, p. 138.) Michelle died at his home, near the present town of Ronan, about 1890. He is said to have been buried in the cemetery at St. Ignatius Mission. Although he possessed admirable personal qualities, as a leader of his people Michelle proved a rather ineffective successor to the active and aggressive Alexander. Bic CANOE, SECOND CHIEF OF THE UPPER PEND D’ORrEILLE (Pate 18, LEFr) In-er-cult-say Known as the “Big Canoe.” Full-blooded Pend d’Oreille, second chiei—Rather a dark Indian, about 55 or 60 years old. Big Canoe is said to have been born in 1799. (Handbook of Amer- ican Indians, etc., 1910, pt. I, p. 146.) At the Flathead Treaty Council, he made a point of the fact that his aunt told him he was “pure Pend d’ Oreille.” (Partoll, 1938a, p. 293.) Pierre Pichette translates his Indian name, “Rotted Under the Belt,” which probably refers to a rotten scalp carried under the belt as a trophy. Peter Ronan stated that Big Canoe “was considered by the Indians to be one of the greatest war chiefs the tribe of the Pend d’Orielle ever had,” and that “stories of battles led by him against Indian foes would fill a volume.” (Ronan, 1890, p. 73.) Unfortunately, none of those deeds have been recorded in the literature. At the Flathead Treaty Council in 1855 Big Canoe delivered a lengthy speech. He could not understand why discussion at the Council involved the problem of Indian land. To his mind no real SASIHS 3711340O,0 GN3d V ‘3LYvVdYNOG 371134¥0O,0 GN3d Y3addN 3SH1L AO ABIHD GNOOSES ‘SONVD SIG Tae rg ‘ad Dy # proah mind iy Z CPROMCO SE TK, naP al 4 Wer ae mss 4 “Alo - —~ + fasi MeryZIL Ore ary igen “% Mies \ /9 \ he" , j Piece He ; Y Clare Gy de - L0en-le rates 7 s . / = j Ls $f Ou CIg 4 = tc e a Llee 9 o i eee Ale, Auncl Merce Btls P tie 2 ‘ Z aCe’ : me ty £ so bce Jaca ‘ ot th 6leces fle ae ee oe : - 3 . = 5 ee -_ > VAtiv “; o ede wn s J - = PUL AEE, Cats Le lilal * : mae PAS , a a 2 eee ton he Ae, nl ee . 2 / zr . s a as ee a CFA An LOS Pie O@ts Cre ny Pence Ze ae Aan 2 Ficus oth e > ~ ee nelivk, KC eee GO +e orl CO. 6 Ce hr a o SD tn x IROQUOIS PETER NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 59 his own language, from which the Iroquois sang a number of sacred songs. Bishop Rosati recorded in his diary that these Iroquois had reached the Flathead country in 1816 (which tallies with De Smet’s statement above). (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 238, footnote; pp. 248-250. ) After receiving assurances that a priest would be sent to the Flat- head the following spring, Peter set out alone for home. He traveled through the winter and arrived in the Flathead camp the next spring, where he conveyed the welcome information that a black robe was coming. (Palladino, 1894, p. 24.) Peter the Iroquois has been credited with the baptism of a dying Flathead girl on the site later occupied by the St. Mary’s Mission. Before her death this girl called out, “Listen to the Black Robes when they come; they have the true prayer; do all they tell you. They will come and on this very spot where I die, will build the house of prayer.” In later years the Flathead regarded her statement as prophetic. (Palladino, 1894, pp. 35-36; Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. I, p. 293.) Father Mengarini named Peter, Big Ignace, and Little Ignace as the three Iroquois most influential in giving the Flathead their first knowledge of Christianity. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 238, footnote. ) However, little is known of Peter’s religious activities after the founding of St. Mary’s Mission to the Flathead. He was not men- tioned in the writings of the missionaries during the remainder of his lifetime. At the time of the Pacific Railway Survey, Peter was the most successful and conscientious farmer in the Flathead country. Lieu- tenant Mullan stated that when he left Cantonment Stevens to explore southward to Fort Hall, October 14, 1853, Pierre the Iroquois was the only Indian at St. Mary’s village. Apparently all the Flathead were hunting buffalo east of the Rockies. (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. I, p. 319.) Governor Stevens’ estimate of Flathead population in 1853, at 60 lodges and 350 people, was based directly on a statement by Peter. (Ibid., pp. 150, 295.) When the question of the relative fertility of the Bitterroot Valley and the region around St. Ignatius Mission was raised during the Flathead Treaty Council, Governor Stevens called upon Peter, as the most experienced farmer in the region, to render an opinion. Peter frankly replied that he did not know which area was better for farming. (Partoll, 1938a, p. 297.) 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10 In the latter part of May, 1856, Iroquois Peter was killed in a fall from his horse while he and his wife were hunting elk. Major Owen reported his death and stated that he was an old trapper who had been a long time in the country. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, pp. 127, 129.) Father Hoeken stated that the family of Iroquois Peter was settled at St. Ignatius Mission among the Upper Pend d’Oreille in the spring of 1857. He acknowledged that “the death of this venerable old man is a great loss to the mission.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1246.) Apparently this migrated Mohawk, descendant of a traditionally horticultural people, set an excellent example to the Flathead in agriculture and herding after seeds and livestock were brought to the Bitterroot Valley by Father De Smet in the early forties. His example was not heeded by the majority of the Flathead. Probably much of the agricultural progress attributed to the Flathead by visitors to the Bitterroot Valley in the middle of the nineteenth century was, in fact, the fruit of the individual effort of Iroquois Peter. Iroquois AENEAS (PLATE 20) Iroquois—“Aeneas’”— Came to this country with Pierre, but has not the industry or forethought of his “comrade” Pierre. He is poor but an honest and reliable man. The name “Aeneas” is readily recognized by present-day Indians on the Flathead Reservation as an American attempt to render the Flathead pronunciation of the French name “Ignace.” Baptiste Finley, a 76-year-old mixed-blood living on that reservation, said that the Iroquois, Ignace, was his maternal grandfather. Baptiste volunteered the information that this man, known as “Ignace Chapped Lips” to the Flathead, was the Iroquois who went to St. Louis with the party that was successful in obtaining a priest for the tribe, and that he returned with the first priest. Sohon’s “Aeneas,” therefore, was the “Young Ignace” or “Petit Ignace” who was one of Ignace Lamoose’s most influential helpers in giving the Flathead their first knowledge of Christianity ; who accompanied Pierre to St. Louis in 1839 to seek a priest; who spent the winter of 1839-40 in Wesport waiting for the priest ; and who accompanied Father De Smet on his first journey over the Rockies to the country of the Flathead. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 238, footnote; Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, PP. 29-30.) Young Ignace was one of the party who journeyed to Fort Hall to meet Father De Smet on his return to the West in the spring of ——— SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 20 : Sor ger ev . Je par ¥ An Ree fer a hess. WSs C Cf etn Math Fez <, FH A view Fis CQ 130, 305- yY a 55 Ie ins Lane oe fr lit? s, or PEREIRA Fee FP AT Ofte Ceres %>acd See ite « Bee. ao Growr, ee tor Aerie aw Shae J Re Loe ae el oa aee — IROQUOIS AENEAS (IGNACE) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 21 SE ES ea an co \ fr etth and inTén SB Lerch Signe ‘ash on Khe s eye Bheons fas ercephon arn ong 7 gaan ” M4 te r LPS, ah te, p Pup io) fe V G28) o) - rect ay f F ~ j Newt, ty bead and Ties . eee v Tt f Lo vf ~ ¥ Lae LeifL Leis Ce Pict { me ee CHARLES LAMOOSE, MIXED I[ROQUOIS-PEND a> D’OREILLE NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 61 1841. “Iroquois Ignatius” also accompanied the priest on his visit to the Crow Indians in the summer of 1842. (Chittenden and Richard- son, 1905, vol. I, p. 399.) Aeneas rendered valuable service to Lieutenant Mullan’s exploration of the intermountain region in the winter of 1853-54. Mullan reported: I learned, through an old Iroquis Indian, called Aeneas, now resident in the Bitter Root Valley, whose wanderings amid the mountains had often thrown him with parties travelling with wagons at the southward, thereby rendering him capable of judging of the requisites of a wagon road, that a line could be had through a gorge-like pass in the Coeur d’Alene mountains. Our later ex- plorations proved this to be Sohon’s Pass. [Mullan, 1863, p. 5.] In March 1854 Lieutenant Mullan sent one of his topographers, with Aeneas as a guide, to make a special examination of the locality Aeneas had recommended. Snow prevented their reaching the pass. Five years later Gustavus Sohon made the first scientific exploration of this pass that for many years bore his name. (Ibid.) Aeneas outlived his more ambitious comrade, Peter. Father Hoeken wrote from St. Ignatius Mission in the spring of 1857, “‘old Ignatius is settled here.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1246.) Baptiste Finley said that Aeneas had two children, both of whom are now dead, and that Aeneas himself died about 1880, and was buried in the old Indian cemetery near Arlee. The record indicates the Aeneas was of a more restless disposition than his friend and fellow tribesman, Peter. He was a wanderer whose knowledge of geography proved valuable to the Government explorers. CHARLES LAMOOSE, SON OF OLp IGNACE (PLATE 21) Lamuh (Indian name) Charles (in baptism) Charles Lamoose—+ Iroquois and 4 Pend-d’oreille speaks English and French and lives with the Flatheads. Charles Lamoose was the eldest son of Old Ignace Lamoose, the Iroquois whom Palladino termed “the Apostle to the Flatheads.” As a boy he accompanied his father and younger brother on the long and perilous journey to St. Louis to seek a priest for the Flathead. He was baptized Charles by Father Helias in St. Louis on De- cember 2, 1835. His brother received the name of Francis Xavier. Father Helias gave Charles’ age as 14, his brother’s as 10, He also stated that the boys were able to speak a little French, were handsome, very intelligent, and that their mother was a Flathead. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 246-247.) 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Charles and his brother were of the party of 10 lodges of Flathead who went to meet Father De Smet on his return to the West in July 1841. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. I, p. 30.) Unless this man was the “Charles” who accompanied Father De Smet on many of his travels in the northwest as interpreter, his name was not mentioned in the later literature. Baptiste Finley said Charles Lamoose died in the Bitterroot Valley prior to 1891. His brother Francis Lamoose, also known as Francis Saxa, lived to old age among the Flathead and was a well-known and respected in- formant on Flathead cultural history. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SOHON PORTRAITS The white man’s penetration of the northwestern interior of our country came late. It advanced rapidly. The period of transition from first exploration to extensive white settlement, which in some sections of the country required centuries, was a matter of decades in the Northwest. The explorer, the fur trader, the missionary, the Indian agent, the gold seeker, and the farmer-settler, met and left their impress on the lives and customs of the Indians of the Northwest in a little more than a half century. Indians born into a Stone Age aboriginal culture lived to witness the extermination of the buffalo, the filling up of their land with settlers, and their confinement on reservations. In the face of this rapid extension of white civilization, the relatively small native tribes of the Northwest struggled to retain their political, social, and economic independence. Two of those tribes were the Flathead and the Upper Pend d’Oreille. Major responsibility for working out an adjustment to the changed conditions of life and solving the many knotty problems posed by the extension of the white man’s culture to their country was assumed by the elected chiefs of these tribes. Although these leaders differed markedly in their opinions of what was best for their people, they acted with such courage, sincerity, and friendliness as to win the admiration and respect of the white men with whom they dealt. Probably no group of Indian leaders in American history have been so extravagantly praised by the whites as were the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille chiefs of the middle of the nineteenth century. Mr. Sohon’s portraits depict the majority of those chiefs as they appeared in the year of 1854. His portraits have given form and substance to some of the strongest Indian characters in western history. The appearance of the subjects of Sohon’s portraits illustrates the Indians’ selective adaptation of traits of the white man’s culture. NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 63 The long forelock, falling over the center of the forehead to the nose, was apparently an aboriginal style of hairdress among the Indians of many tribes. George Catlin and Karl Bodmer depicted it in many of their portraits and scenes among the tribes of the Northern Plains in the 1830’s. (Wissler, 1910, p. 152.) Sohon illustrated it in his portraits of Cayuse, Nez Percé, and Blackfoot leaders in 1855. The style became obsolete among the Flathead before 1891. The peculiar visored trade caps, worn by many of Sohon’s subjects, were a style of headgear which was in great favor among the Flathead in the mid-nineteenth century. These caps were shown in less detail in the scenes of Flathead life drawn by Father Nicholas Point a decade earlier. (De Smet, 1847, plates facing pp. 119 and 15:.) They were also worn by Cayuse and Spokan Indians sketched by Sohon in 1855. A similar cap was worn by a Red River half-breed drawn by Frank B. Mayer in 1851. (Mayer, 1932, p. 58.) The origin of these caps is not known. This distribution suggests that they may have been obtained from Hudson’s Bay Company traders. Victor’s tall hat and Iroquois Peter’s unusual cap of gray trade cloth are other examples of nonaboriginal headgear in use at the time. The shirts with attached, turned-over collars, and buttons at the neck certainly show white influence. Catholic influence appears in the crucifixes worn by some of these Indians The only articles of traditional cloth- ing illustrated in the portraits are the buffalo robes worn as outer garments by Moise and Alexander. Hazard Stevens, who was present at the Walla Walla and Blackfoot Treaty Councils of 1855, when Sohon drew a number of Indian portraits, observed that Gustavus Sohon “had great skill in making expressive likenesses.” Presumably the Flathead, Pend d’Oreille, and Iroquois portraits, sketched from life by Mr. Sohon a year earlier, possess that same quality. With the single exception of the unsigned portrait of Big Canoe, which appears so labored and crude as hardly to be the work of the same artist, Sohon’s pencil technique is charac- terized by clean, sure lines, and a very realistic three-dimensional quality. His portraits of Flathead leaders show the prevalence of “good-looking” men in that tribe which was noted in the observations of Dr. Suckley of the Pacific Railway Survey. (Report of Explora- tions, etc., 1860, vol. 1, p. 292.) His Iroquois portraits show the characteristic long-facedness of those people. At his best, in the por- traits of the Flathead leader, Pelchimo, and the three Iroquois, Sohon’s portraits deserve to rank with the finest works of white artists who visited the western Indian country in pre-reservation days. 9 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO BIBLIOGRAPHY ANNUAL REporTS, COMMISSIONER OF INDIAN AFFAIRS. 1850-1892. Washington, D. C. BrADLeEy, JAMES H. 1923. Characteristics, habits and customs of the Blackfeet Indians. Mon- tana Hist. Soc. Contr., No. 9. Helena. CENSUS OF THE INDIANS IN CANADA. 1945. Canada Department of Mines and Resources, Indian Affairs Branch. Ottawa. CHITTENDEN, H. M., and RicuHarpson, A. T. (editors). 1905. Life, letters and travels of Father Pierre Jean De Smet. 4 vols. New York. CLARK, Wi.eP: 1885. The Indian sign language. Philadelphia. Cox, Ross. 1832. Adventures on the Columbia River. New York. De SMET, PIERRE JEAN, S. J. 1847. Oregon Missions and travels over the Rocky Mountains in 1845-6. New York. Ferris, W. A. 1940. Life in the Rocky Mountains. Edited by Paul C. Phillips. Denver, Colo. GARRAGHAN, GILBERT J., S. J. 1938. The Jesuits of the Middle United States. 2 vols. New York. GIBBONS, JAMES. 1904. Iroquois in the North West Territories. Ann. Archeol. Rep. 1903, App. to Rep. Minister of Education, Ontario, pp. 125-126. Toronto. HAINES, FRANCIS. 1938. The northward spread of horses among the Plains Indians. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 40, pp. 429-437. HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INpIANS NortH oF MEXICO. 1907, 1910. Edited by F. W. Hodge. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bul. 30, two parts (pt. I, 1907; pt. 2, 1910). Washington, D. C. Henry, ALEXANDER, AND THOMPSON, DaAviD. 1897. New light on the early history of the greater Northwest. 3 vols. Edited by Elliott Coues. New York. IrvING, WASHINGTON. 1851. The adventures of Captain Bonneville, U.S.A. New York. LarocguE, FRANCOIS. 1910. Journal of Larocque from the Assiniboine to the Yellowstone, 1805. Publ. Canadian Archives, No. 3. Ottawa. MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER. 1903. Voyages from Montreal on the River St. Lawrence through the Con- tinent of North America. . . . 1789 and 1793. 2 vols. New York. Mayer, FRANK B. 1932. With pen and pencil on the frontier in 1851. St. Paul, Minn. MENGARINI, Grecory, S. J. 1871-1872. Indians of Oregon. Journ. Anthrop. Inst. New York, vol. 1, pp. 81-88. NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 65 MutLtan, Capt. JoHNn, U.S.A. 1863. Report on the construction of a military road from Fort Walla Walla to Fort Benton. Washington, D. C. Orpway, Sct. Joun. 1916. Sergeant Ordway’s journal. Edited by Milo Quaife. Wisconsin Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. 22. Madison. OweEN, JoHN. 1927. Journal and letters of Major John Owen, 1850-1871. 2 vols. Edited by Paul C. Phillips. Montana Hist. Soc. Helena. PATEADINO, L. B.,.S:,J. 1894. Indian and White in the Northwest. Baltimore. PARKER, SAMUEL. 1844. Journal of an exploring tour beyond the Rocky Mountains. Ithaca, NG ¥3 PartoLt, ALBERT J. (editor). 1937. The Blackfoot Indian Peace Council. Historical Reprints, Sources of Northwest History, No. 3, Montana State Univ. Missoula. 1938a. The Flathead Indian Peace Council of 1855. Pacific Northwest Quart., vol. 29, No. 3. 1938b. Mengarini’s narrative of the Rockies. Historical Reprints, Sources of Northwest History, No. 25, Montana State Univ. Missoula. RASMUSSEN, LOUISE. 1942. Artists of the explorations overland, 1840-1860. Oregon Hist. Soc. Quart., vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 56-62. March. Report OF EXPLORATIONS AND SURVEYS TO ASCERTAIN THE Most PRACTICABLE AND EcoNoMICAL ROUTE FOR A RAILROAD FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO THE PaciFIC OCEAN... . 1853-55. 1860. 12 vols. Washington, D. C. RONAN, PETER. 1890. Historical sketch of the Flathead Indian Nation from the year 1813 to 1890. Helena, Mont. Ross, ALEXANDER. 1913. Journal of Alexander Ross—Snake country expedition, 1824. Edited by T. C. Elliott. Oregon Hist. Soc. Quart., vol. 14, No. 4. December. SCHAEFFER, CLAUDE. 1937. The first Jesuit Mission to the Flathead, 1840-1850. Pacific North- west Quart., vol. 28, pp. 227-250. July. Spier, LEstie. 1935. The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and its derivatives. Gen. Ser. in Anthrop., No. 1. Menasha, Wis. STEVENS, HAZARD. 1900. The life of Isaac Ingalls Stevens. 2 vols. Boston. Teit, JAMES A. 1930. Salishan tribes of the western plateau. Edited by Franz Boas. 45th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Washington, D. C. Tompson, Davin. 1916. David Thompson's narrative of his explorations in western America, 1784-1812. Edited by J. B. Tyrrell. Champlain Soc. Publ., No. 12. Toronto. 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLT ITO Tuwaltes, REUBEN Gorn (editor). 1904-1905. Original journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. 8 vols. New York. TurRNEY-HicH, Harry H. 1937. The Flathead Indians of Montana. Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., vol. 48. Menasha, Wis. WHEELER, OLIN D. 1904. The trail of Lewis and Clark, 1804-1904. 2 vols. New York. WISSLER, CLARK. 1910. Material culture of the Blackfoot Indians. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, pt. 1. New York. Wyeth, N. J. 1899. The correspondence and journals of Captain Nathaniel J. Wyeth, 1831-6. Edited by F. G. Young. Sources of the History of Oregon, vol. 1. Eugene, Oreg. APPENDIX A LIST OF PREVIOUSLY PUBLISHED DRAWINGS BY GUSTAVUS SOHON Cotorep LITHOGRAPHS AFTER SOHON DRAWINGS PUBLISHED IN “REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS AND SuRVEYS TO ASCERTAIN THE Most PRACTICABLE AND EconomMIcaAL Route ror A RAILROAD FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO THE Pactric OcEAN, MADE UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR, IN 1853-5,” vol. 12, book 1. Washington, D. C., 1860. (Processed by “Sarony, Major & Knapp, Liths., 449 Broadway, N. Y.”) Fort Vancouver, W. T. (Following p. 154.) Hot Spring Mound, in the “Deer Lodge” Prairie of the Rocky Mountains. (Facing p. 172.) Crossing the Hellgate River May 5, 1854. (Facing p. 179.) Entrance to the Bitter Root Mountains, by the Lou Lou Fork. (Facing p. 180.) Cantonment Stevens, Looking Westward. (Facing p. 181.) Great Falls of the Missouri River. (Facing p. 183.) Main Chain of the Rocky Mountains, as Seen from the East— Extending from a Point North of the Marias Pass to near the Little Blackfoot Pass. (Panorama labled “Stanley, Del. after Sohon.”) (Following p. 184.) Kamas Prairie of the Pend d’Oreilles, in the Rocky Mountains, Looking Southward. (Following p. 184.) View of the Clark’s Fork and the Ridge of Mountains, South of the Flathead Lake, Looking Eastward. (Following p. 184.) Source of the Peluse. (Labeled “Stanley, Del. after Sohon.”) (Facing p. 200.) Big Blackfoot Valley. (Facing p. 214.) Crossing the Hellgate River, Jan. 6, 1854. (Following p. 244.) Cotorep LITHOGRAPHS AFTER SOHON DRAWINGS PUBLISHED IN “REPORT ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A MiLitAry RoAp From Fort WALLA WALLA TO Fort Benton,” sy Capt. Joun Muttan, U.S.A. Wasurincton, D. C. 1863. (Processed by “Bowen & Co. Lith. Philada.”) Military Post & City of Walla Walla, W. T. in 1862. (First frontispiece. ) Fort Benton—Head of Steam Navigation on the Missouri River. (Second frontispiece. ) Cantonment Stevens—Capt. Mullan’s Winter Quarters 1853-4. (Facing p. 2.) Coeur d’Alene Mission in the Rocky Mountains. (Facing p. 16.) 67 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Paloose Falls in Washington Territory. (Facing p. 28.) Cantonment Wright—Capt. Mullan’s Winter Quarters in 1861-2. (Facing p. 32.) Upper Falls of the Missouri River. (Facing p. 48.) Mode of Crossing Rivers by the Flathead and other Indians. (Facing . 50.) Pend d’Oreille Mission in the Rocky Mountains in 1862. (Facing Pp. 52.) Great Falls of the Missouri, 2500 miles from St. Louis. (Facing p. 54.) HALFTONE REPRODUCTIONS OF SOHON DRAWINGS PUBLISHED IN “THE LIFE oF IsAac INGALLS STEVENS,’ By His Son HAzarp STEVENS. Two vols. Houghton, Mifflin and Company, Boston and New York, 1900. Low Horn, Piegan Chief. (Facing p. 374, vol. 1.) The Arrival of the Nez Perces. (Facing p. 34, vol. 2.) Feasting the Chiefs. (Facing p. 36, vol. 2.) Kam-i-ah-kan, Head Chief of the Yakimas. (Facing p. 38, vol. 2.) Spotted Eagle, a chief of the Nez Perces. (Facing p. 40, vol. 2.) Walla Walla Council. (Facing p. 42, vol. 2.) Pu-pu-mox-mox: Yellow Serpent, Head Chief of the Walla Wallas. (Facing p. 46, vol. 2.) We-ah-te-na-tee-ma-ny: Young Chief, Head Chief of the Cuyuses. (Facing p. 50, vol. 2.) She-ca-yah: Five Crows, Cuyuse Chief. (Facing p. 52, vol. 2.) Looking Glass, War Chief of the Nez Perces. (Facing p. 54, vol. 2.) Hal-hal-tlos-sot: The Lawyer, Head Chief of the Nez Perces. (Facing p. 58, vol. 2.) The Scalp Dance. (Facing p. 60, vol. 2.) Ow-hi, a Chief of the Yakimas. (Facing p. 64, vol. 2.) The Flathead Council. (Facing p. 112, vol. 2.) Blackfoot Chiefs—Star Robe, The Rider, Heavy Shield, Lame Bull. (Four individual portraits.) (Facing p. 114, vol. 2.) Tat-tu-ye. The Fox, Chief of the Blood Indians. (Facing p. 116, vol. 25) Mek-ya-py, Red Dye, Piegan Warrior (Facing p. 116, vol. 2.) Commissioner Cumming and Interpreters. James Bird, Delaware Jim, Colonel Alfred Cumming, William Craig, Alexander Culberston. (Five individual portraits.) (Facing p. 118, vol. 2.) Crossing the Bitter Roots in Midwinter. (Facing p. 126, vol. 2.) Coeur d’Alene Mission. (Facing p. 128, vol. 2.) Spokane Garry, Head Chief of the Spokanes. (Facing p. 140, vol. 2.) Ume-how-lish, War Chief of the Cuyuses. (Facing p. 148, vol. 2.) \ i. oan i 1, y he y) , ‘ * . ~~ 7 ys : ie ‘ a he we a - ; ‘ ? » re ao Ve a oe ff, ei a? na 4A a ot et. oe at) PS fee ; = . bray Se . ' ~ a > _ \ ¢ ts. es, bs . d ? = 5 wae * "yf why Sate +» ty o a Roebling Fund BEHAVIOR OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE DURING AND AFTER SOLAR PARTICLE i . ENVISION AND SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET Pye INVASIONS BY B. DUELL anp G. DUELL eal sakes i ed etre co ihe a2 a ae 7 “ ie -3 , - ain hy "A eet - po re fs - Taare « 7 ? (Pustication 3942) CITY OF WASHINGTON ; PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION + | AUGUST 5, 1948 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 119. NUMBER 8 Roebling Fund THE BEHAVIOR OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE DURING AND AFTER SOLAR PARTICLE INVASIONS AND SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET INVASIONS BY B. DUELL ann G. DUELL (PusiicaTion 3942) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AUGUST 5, 1948 Tbe Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A. Roebling Fund THE BEHAVIOR OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE DURING AND AFTER SOLAR PARTICLE INVASIONS AND SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET INVASIONS* By B. DUELL anp G. DUELL GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS A convincing proof that there exists an influence on the large-scale weather course, exerted by certain radiation invasions that are con- nected with increased sun activity, would be of theoretical interest for the geophysicist and also of practical importance for the meteor- ologist who is in charge of the daily weather forecast. In a great number of statistical investigations an attempt has been made to furnish that proof. In these statistics monthly and annual mean values of single meteorological elements have been correlated with corresponding mean values of the relative sunspot numbers and sometimes of the solar constant. Less frequently daily values of the quoted elements have been correlated with each other, e.g., by C. G. Abbot (1), H. Arctowski, (2), H. H. Clayton (3), E. Hunting- ton (4), V. M. Rubashev (5), and others. Only rarely has an attempt been made to use other character numbers for the kind and intensity of the eruptive sun activity, although such data, e.g., the profile numbers for prominences, details about photospheric faculae, calcium flocculi, bright and dark hydrogen flocculi, bright chromospheric eruptions and characteristic brightenings of the solar corona, have been available for quite a number of years. Also the different kinds of geomagnetic character figures, systematic observations of the au- rora borealis, and certain direct ionospheric multifrequency-recording data, by which different disturbed states of the D-, E-, F,-, and F,- layers are characterized, have been largely disregarded, when the pos- sibility of solar influences on the troposphere was examined statisti- cally. 1 Paper read before a joint meeting of the American Physical Society and the American Meteorological Society on May 1, 1947, at Washington, D. C. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 8 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO METHODS The investigations, of which we shall describe on the following pages only a few results, are characterized by a strict distinction and completely separate statistical treatment of those different kinds of solar-radiation eruptions which are known to influence the ionosphere. All computations were made exclusively on the basis of daily values of the solar, ionospheric, and meteorological elements. The method used throughout the whole work was the so-called ‘“‘superposed-epoch” method. The application of this method takes place as follows: At first a certain number of well-defined key dates are selected from a series of observations, as long as possible, of that element (e.g., geomagnetic activity), which is regarded hypothetically as controlling another element. Then a mean value “n” is obtained by averaging arithmetically all those values of the element, assumed as controlled (e.g., sea-level air pressure), which belong to these key days. The same process is repeated for several days which precede the key days “n—1,” “n—2,” etc.) and for several days which follow the key days (“n+1,” “n+2,” etc). In such a way there is obtained the typical average behavior—free from the accidents of the individual case—of the chosen meteorological element, before, during, and after the time of the solar or ionospheric event which is assumed to control this element. From this description it can be seen that the “super- posed-epoch” method is a simplified correlation method which has the advantage that it is applicable to the most widely varying forms of correlations without modification. Random variations are elimi- nated automatically by this method, if the number of key days is sufficiently high. A criterion of reality consists in dividing the whole statistics in parts of equal size, e.g., even years and odd years, summer and winter, and comparing the resulting average curves of these parts with each other. The selection of the key days is often done by taking the five highest and the five lowest values of every month. I. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOLAR PARTICLE INVASIONS AND SEA-LEVEL PRESSURE A. ORIGIN oF ParTICLE INVASIONS AND OF I[ONOSPHERIC STORMS The particle invasions are generated by eruptive processes in the so-called M-regions of the sun (J. Bartels (6) ). They are not closely connected with sunspots, photospheric faculae, bright chromospheric flocculi or plages, or bright chromospheric eruptions or solar flares. The earth is affected by these invasions only if the place of the M- no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 3 regions is situated in the vicinity of that point where the line con- necting the center of the sun with the center of the earth crosses the sun’s surface. The radiation emitted from these regions, causes a characteristic brightening of certain coronal emission lines, especially 5303 and 5694 A. The intensity of these lines can be measured with the coronograph if the M-regions are situated at the east or west limb of the sun. With the assistance of such intensity measurements of the mentioned corona lines, it will not be impossible to forecast particle invasions and accordingly also ionospheric storms, for the life duration of these M-regions amounts to several weeks, and sometimes even months (J. Bartels (6), M. Waldmeier (7) ), the velocity of the solar particles can be determined with the aid of special methods, and the rotation velocity for the respective solar zones is known. An ionospheric storm is particularly characterized by a considerable decrease of the equivalent electron density in the so-called F-layer. Frequently the behavior of the F-layer during an ionospheric storm has been compared with an expansion, because at the same time there can be observed an essential increase in height of the layer, and tem- porarily there appear diffuse reflections from heights which exceed the normal height by several hundred percent. In fact, very often the “fixed-frequency” height records give the impression that the whole F-layer is blown asunder. Frequently the occurrence of iono- spheric storms is connected with the appearance of irregular geo- magnetic disturbances or “magnetic storms” at approximately the same time. B. STATISTICAL RESULTS As direct observations of the frequency and intensity of ionospheric storms were not available for the period 1906-1937, covered by this part of our investigation, we had to use instead of these missing data the rather reliable figures of the geomagnetic activity. Fitted for our purpose were the international character figures for terrestrial magnetic conditions which are averaged from the observations of about 50 observatories and regularly published by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity. The use of 5 particularly disturbed and 5 particularly quiet days in each month, selected by the Royal Meteorological Insti- tute of the Netherlands (in De Bilt), can be justified by the advantage that, after dividing the whole statistics arbitrarily into periods of equal length, each part contains an equal number of key days. Such a subdivision has been accomplished by considering separately: years with high sun activity, where the annual mean of the relative sun- 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO spot number is >40, and years with low sun activity, where the an- nual mean of the relative sunspot numbers is 40; the years with even and the years with odd numbers ; and, finally, the different seasons. In the pursuit of similar geophysical investigations, e.g., those performed by J. M. Stagg (8), we divided the year in three parts, as follows: winter (November, December, January, and February), spring+ autumn (March, April, September, and October), and summer (May, June, July, and August). The sea-level pressure data used in that part of the investigation were observed during an uninterrupted series of 11,688 single days. The beginning on January 1, 1906, and the end on December 31, 1937, of that series were established by the fact that for the time before January I, 1906, there were not available sufficiently reliable geo- magnetic character numbers, and for the time after December 31, 1937, there were not yet published daily mean values of sea-level pressure for the stations that we used. As a very detailed elaboration of the data from Potsdam (Ger- many) and Stykkisholm (Iceland) had revealed that a conspicuous relationship between ionospheric storms and sea-level pressure could be demonstrated only for the years with low sun activity, when r is 40, and even then only during the winter months, the studies were confined to the 16 years with low sun activity (1910-1914, 1920-1924, and 1930-1935) and to the winter months November, December, Jan- uary, and February. In addition to the above-mentioned, the data of eight further stations were investigated. These places (De Bilt, Karlsruhe, Vienna, Breslau, Konigsberg, Warsaw, Lemberg, and Kiev), as well as Potsdam, are all situated within the zone 45° to 55° N. latitude and 5° to 30° E. longitude. Computed by means of the superposed-epoch method, figure 1 shows for these stations the aver- age behavior of sea-level pressure as related to all those days (320) when the ionosphere was particularly disturbed, and to all those days (320) when the ionosphere was particularly undisturbed. Besides this, the curves demonstrate the average behavior of sea-level pressure on those 3 days which precede the key days, and on those 11 days which follow the key days. It can be seen from figure 1 that at all stations the sea-level pressure is lower than normal after the days when the ionosphere is particularly disturbed, with a minimum value 3 days after, and higher than normal after the days when the iono- sphere is particularly undisturbed, with maximum value 3 to 4 days after. The different behavior of sea-level pressure after ionospheric storms and after ionospheric calms is especially clearly demonstrated by means of difference curves, “disturbed minus undisturbed,” which no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 5 are shown in figure 2. The maximum difference on the third to fourth day after the key dates amounts to 2.6 to 3.2 mb., varying according to the geographical position of the station. Additional evidence for the reality of the relationship is found if these statistics are subdi- vided arbitrarily according to even and odd years or according to other points of view. Curves representing these completely indepen- dent arrangements of the different parts are extremely similar. This is true for all stations which were examined. For want of space, however, only one example is presented in figure 3. The Average Behaviour of Sea- Level pubis as related to oll mp ( 320) those Doys when the lonosphere was particularly Vienna ’ Disturbed: (—=)ond to al! (320 ) those Days when the was particularly Undisturbed ( OES Wintermonths of the 16 Yeors with low Sun- Activity (r440) of the Period 1906 - 1937 : ; - “Koenigsberg le ' . ' an ; ' ot” ” 1015 We! ‘ - ; “a 1014 ‘ ‘ i \ 1021 ' : ‘ ose e 1013 ' =, Lemberg , Kiev ‘ Pero 102! ' - ee , wo19 Fs : ee Warsaw ‘ wie 7 ' : wiry a Ou SSE Lig OQ Lr t1titiitit ui Ch lll 3 -1 “el «3 05 47 09 oil 3 -l “ol #3 «5 e7 09 oll -3 -j “ol 3 05S of bo aa Before Doys After Before Ooys After Before Doys r BiG. To find out more about the kind of relationship between the state of the ionosphere and the behavior of sea-level pressure, the number of stations to be included in this investigation was increased to 26. As far as the respective data were available for such a long series of years, the stations were selected in such a manner that the final results could be represented synoptically. The following stations could be used for that purpose: (from N. to S.) Vardoe, Haparanda, Stykkisholm, Trondhjem, Lerwick, Oslo, Leningrad, Stockholm, Mos- cow, Copenhagen, Kénigsberg, Potsdam, Valentia, De Bilt, Warsaw, Breslau, Kiev, Lemberg, Karlsruhe, Brest, Vienna, Bucharest, LaCoruna, Marseille, Sofia, and Rome. Figure 4 shows the average normal sea-level pressure distribution (mb.) over Europe during the 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO winter months November, December, January, February in the 16 years with low sun activity, when r is =40. The pressure is low with 997.7 mb. over Iceland-Jan Mayen, and high over Rumania with 1021.7 mb., as well as over Spain with 1019.8 mb. Pressure gra- dients run from SE. and S. to NW. Let us consider now all those 320 The Average Behaviour of Sea-Level Pressure as related to all (320) those Days when the lonosphere wos porticularly Disturbed and to all (320) those Days when the lonosphere was particularly Undisturbed , demonstrated +3, by Means of Difference - Curves ("Disturbed minus | \ ‘Undisturbed" ) Wintermonths of the 16 Years with low +! ‘Sun - Activity (r£40 ) of the Period 1906 — 1937 ° \ ‘ IN 45° - 55°N.L. De Bilt 5° WELL. Karlsruhe 8° 26'E.L. Potsdam 13°4' EL. Vienna 16°22'E.L. Breslau 17°5' EL. Koenigsberg 20°30'E.L. Warsaw mb aie2' EL. +, Lemberg 24°! EL. ° ah Kiev 30°30'E.L 3 -1Uel +3 +5 +7 +9 Gil Before Days After Eich) days when the ionosphere was particularly disturbed, during the win- ter months, in the years with low sun activity. In figure 5, a synoptical representation is given of the average departures of the sea-level pressure field from the long-period means, 1 day before these dis- turbed days. There are no considerable sea-level pressure differences on this map. The maximum pressure difference within this pressure field amounts only to 1.2 mb. Figure 6 shows the same conditions no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE-—-DUELL AND DUELL 7 for the disturbed days themselves. On this map, too, no significant pressure differences are discernible. The picture is dominated by -a zero isoline, which covers nearly the whole European continent. The greatest pressure difference within this pressure field is only 1.6 mb. Quite another picture is demonstrated by figure 7, which shows the same conditions as the preceding figures, but for the first day after the disturbed days. The Average Behaviour of Sea-Level Pressure as reloted to all (320) those Days when the lonosphere wos porticularly Disturbed and to all (320) those Days when the lonosphere was particularly Undisturbed,; demonstrated by Means of Difference - Curves (“Disturbed minus . " Undisturbed ) Wintermonths of the 16 Yeors with low Sun-Activity (r £40) of the Period mb 1906 - 1937 : -2 ‘ 7! ¢ ; it ° 4 ; Even Years ~ Nia ‘ mb -3 =: +! oe > -I All Years -3 ; -4 Odd Years i Kiev -3 as On ae tat 49 «ll Before Bays After Fic. 3. A considerable gradient with a maximum pressure difference of 3-7 mb. has been built up over the North Atlantic, in the direction NW. to SE. There is a plus-area over Iceland of +2.1 mb. and a minus-area over the Gulf of Bothnia of —1.6 mb. The direction of this additional gradient is such that the normal average gradient, as computed from long-period means (see fig. 4), is flattened by it. In figure 8 we see the average additional sea-level pressure field 2 days after ionospheric storms. The pressure gradient, directed from 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO NW. to SE., has become still more steep and has reached the rela- tively high value of 5.0 mb. The anomalous plus area of +2.5 mb. is situated over Iceland and the Strait of Denmark as before. The area with positive departures = 2.0 mb. is covered with little crosses. The minus area of —2.5 mb. has shifted a little toward the SE., and is now situated over the Baltic States. The area with negative departures = 2.0 mb. is cross-hatched with horizontal lines. The beginning of a flattening of this ionosphere-controlled sea-level pressure field can Se Vee Ac Average Absolute Sea-Level Pressure- Distribution (mb) during the Wintermonths of the 16 Years with low Sun—Activity (ré40 ) of the Period 1906 to 1937 ("Long-Period Means" ) Fic. 4. be recognized as early as 3 days after the ionospheric storms in figure g. The plus-area (with +2.0 mb.) has shifted somewhat toward E., and the minus-area, with extreme values diminished to —1.7 mb., has broken up into two parts, during displacement toward the S. The greatest pressure difference is only just 3.7 mb. Figure 10, representing the situation 4 days after the ionospheric storms, and figure 11, showing these conditions 5 days after, dem- onstrate how the flattening of the additional pressure field progresses slowly but steadily, with maximum gradients of 3.3 and 3.1 mb. From figure 12, 6 days after, it can be seen that the plus-area with no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 9 +1.8 mb. has shifted somewhat toward the S., and is now situated over the middle part of Scandinavia. Remaining parts of the minus- area (with—0.9 and—o.7 mb.) are only just slightly discernible. The maximum gradient has been reduced to 2.7 mb. Figure 13, 7 days after, begins to show an approach to the neutral initial state. Any noteworthy gradient can no longer be recognized there. The greatest difference between positive and negative departures of the pressure +10 105 12 mb PHL ENT | T\ ie Sah BL || (Fay see ia L | #| ' AS <\ Be er Average Departures of Sea-Level Pressure-Field from Long- Period Meons (in mb ) os related to all( 320) those Days when the lonosphere was particularly Disturbed. One Day Before Wintermonths of the 16 Yeors with low Sun—Activity (r440) of the Period 1906-19357 Fic. 5. from the normal distribution amounts to 1.8 mb. Finally, in figure 14, 8 days after, gradients no longer exist—only a completely irregular and insignificant distribution of very flat positive and negative pressure anomalies. The maximum difference between them is not greater than 1.4 mb. This is nearly the same value as on the days before the disturbed days, at the beginning of the whole development. In just the same manner as there, the picture is dominated by a zero isoline, which, in the form of an unbroken curve, covers a great part of Europe. Figure 15 represents the average behavior of the max- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Io 2 OT LEGI- 906! Poeg 94) 10 (O%$4) AuANDY—UNS mo; YIM SJ 4aj07 ADQ auO ‘paqunysiq Aioinsys0d som B1BYdSOU_] 84s YayM Skog eSOy (KZE) I1O 9} payojes so (quus) sudaw polsag-6Gu07 Woy pjaij- aINSSBJq |8AI7]-DAS fe RAW Spe y YEE MEE Uj § OO So OF SI qu 7¢ OBA 91 OY) JO SYjUOWIE;UIM pete Ay Pea) Wi Yp Vij LEEI— 9061 POHed eu) jo( Ob $4) AdAnoy—UNS mo; Ya Aoqg ewos ‘pequnisig Ayojnoipod SOM QJaYDSOUC] ey; UeYM Skog asoy; ( OZE ) IID OF pejojes SD (qui u!)suDaW posed - Huo} wo pjal4-aINSSBIq |9A8]-DIS jO sainuodag eboseay ‘9 “oly Pc Cece 7] Y Ses LT DB eer Lie > 4) I! BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—DUELL AND DUELL no. 8 6 ‘Oly 'g ‘OI 1861 — 906! Pred Ow 1° (OFF 4) GIMP Y—UME BO) WIR 81004 9) OUs 10 BYIVOWJEWUIM LECI— 9OCI POVOd OU) JO (Ow F4) AUA2W— UMS BO; Him 8100, Gi Oui JO BUIMOMOIULm 49407 skog aesuL 48j07 SA0Q OM, “pequnjsig Aysojndjpod som “paqunysig Aioinsy206 asaydsouo; eu) eum skog es0ys(OZE ) 110 0} PesOjes so Som QJaYdSOUO] Sus “ey Skog BS04) (OZE) IO OF PeloIe, (qu uj) suDeW pojseg-6u07 wos PjsIj-BuNSSAJq |8A87-DIES so (quiul) sudaw Poued-B6u07 Wosy Pjaij4-BINSSA1y jaAd]-DES yO seunjyiodeg eboieay jO Seunjsodeqg eboesy LER Ick Rae! Foe yer ee ao or v Den S X eee PCY o A LY MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO SMITHSONIAN At Oly LEEI—9OGI Poted S4s 19 (Ob $4) ANANoW—LNS mo} YYM 848A 9] OY) JO SYILOULOWULR 4aj07 skoq eal “‘paqunysig Aizoind}j40d som asaydsouo] euf veym skog es0us (QZE) IO O} pejdje4 so (qu ul) sudew poueg-6bu07 wos pjaij4-a4NSSeaiq |@Ad]-DES jo yodeg ebo.eay peesmes aS = 90 : RES C eee |) ) VE Rap Roy Epa Soegae ae ete | Tr CaCI NS abe es Ow LZEGI~9OG!I POed O84) 49 (Ob F2) AijY—UNS mo; YIM 8. 49407 sAoQg 4no4 ADGA QI OY) JO SYLOWWOULM “‘paqunjsig Aioinsiyod som alaydSOUo| ey UeyM Skog esoys ( OZ ) IID OF peiDjes so (qui uy) sudaw poeg-Bu07 wosy pjai4-auNSSaJg |8A9]-DIaS jO seanuodeg oeboieay Ren ; SI rs ont CY ee | ea. “ei te eR) eee ee TET Kipp Lops a = = : ESA Te ea 13 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—DUELL AND DUELL no. 8 ‘€1 “org ‘ZI “91g “oe LE6I—-9OGI POV O84) PH (OFFA) AAV —UMS MO] YM 8100, g) BY JO SyUOWIEIUIM LEGI~ DOG! POG 84) 19 (OTs) ANY EPG =O) Ge 8100, G) Oi OO tewOmremm 43j07 sk0g uaaas 43307 skog xIS ‘Ppaqinjsig Aojnoysod som ‘paqsnjsig Avoinsy0d som BIBYDSOUO] PU YeYH Skog 8504) (KZE) IO 0} Pejojes so asaydsouo) eu voum shog esoyi (QZE) IO O% Peo}es so (Qui uj) SUDeW Po}eg—6u07 WOY Pjaij-aiNSSaig |aAda7-DAaCS (quwur) suoeW poieg—6u07 wos; Pjal4-aiNSS8iq |8A97]-0aS jO s@snyiodeg ebousay jo Sagem abosoay X ne ie | a sd HPD NY SAAD DSC Ler ee VOL. IIO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 14 ST Oly: sony skoq a10jog Ole Gta GtZs2 (92.56%) (be ee ete lt Site qu aX ay seinbi4 ajnjosqy Oe t gz : o¢e ! s¢ ov : se 2¢61 - 9061 ‘ Poed Os 40 (Ob 54) AHANOY-UNS MO} YIM SIDO@A Qj OY) JO SYyyUOWEJUIM qui “‘paqunjsig Avojndy0d som guaydsouo] e44; ueym shog esour (OZEC ) Ilo O} pajdje2 sO( qw ul‘suDay) poluag-Bbu07 wo Sesnyoded ) pjaij-asNSSaid |8Ad]-DaS |DUOILIPpy eUut 40 JUSIPDID) WINWIXD] Put JO AnoDYyag eboseAY auL Veen - wow ' LEGIE—9OGI Ped O48 49 (Ob 54) AyANDZY—UNS MO; YIM S4DeA Qf OYs JO SyyUOWJEWUIM 4ay07 sfoqg 4ybI3 “‘paqunisig Aysojndijs0d ~=som asaydsouos es vaya sfkog esouy (QZ) iO OF pesoie4 so (qui ui) sudaw pouag -6u07 wo pjal4j-aunssald |9A97-D8S jO Soinjsodaq ebousay s0- Eos Sag AR Nak Le ase P ro Sarg \s Leas wok DOS eN Sate a no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 15 imum gradients of the additional sea-level pressure field after iono- spheric storms in a very condensed form. As can be seen from the upper curve, the greatest increase of the gradient, from 1.6 to 3.7 mb., takes place as early as the first day after the ionospheric storms. However, the absolute peak of 5.0 mb. is reached only on the second day after the disturbed days. Then occurs a decrease of 1.3 mb. to the “third day after,” and from that time a gradual decrease until, on the “eighth day after,” the low value of 1.4 mb. is reached. The lower curve of the same figure shows the interdiurnal variation of the gradient, and accordingly has its peak, with + 2.1 mb., on the first day after the ionospheric storms. As has been emphasized above, this relatively clear relationship between the invasions of solar particles and the behavior of sea-level pressure can be demonstrated only for the winter months and, even then, only for the years with low sun activity. This fact cannot yet be explained in a really satisfactory manner. However, we shall enter briefly into this question when we discuss the manner in which solar-activity influences are transmitted to the troposphere. Here attention can only be called to the fact that other authors, working with similar statistics and subdividing these, also obtained very dif- ferent results for the different seasons as well as for the years with high and with low sun activity. Some few examples will make this evident: A. Peppler (9) found, by using monthly mean values, that there has been a positive correlation since 1906 between the relative sunspot numbers and the course of sea-level pressure anomalies over the Atlantic in the zone between 60° and 70° N. latitude, and a negative correlation when the zone between 25°and 35° N. latitude was considered. When subdividing his statistics according to the different seasons, he found that relationship well developed during the winter, but could not discover it during the summer and autumn. J. M. Stagg (8) found that in Lerwick on days with geomagnetic disturbances, the forenoon maximum of the diurnal variation of sea- level pressure was lower, and the afternoon maximum was higher, than on days without geomagnetic disturbances. This relationship was likewise particularly evident in the years with low sun activity. O. Krogness (10) has found that a 27-day period, caused by the sun rotation in some meteorological elements in the northern part of Norway, could be observed regularly in the years with low sun activity. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO C. ATTEMPT AT A PHYSICAL EXPLANATION OF THE OBSERVED RELATIONSHIP In the following chapter will be described an attempt at a schematic description of the manner in which the influence of short- and long- duration eruptions of those solar particles which leave the sun is transmitted to the troposphere. We are convinced that this expla- nation is incomplete and will go through important modifications in the future. The places of formation of these eruptions of electrically charged and uncharged solar particles (negatrons, protons, neutrons, alpha particles, as well as Na-, Ca-, Mg-, and other atoms) which leave the sun, the so-called M-regions, are situated within the “king zones” (between 40° N. latitude and 4o° S. latitude). Some of the best- known solar phenomena that attend this kind of eruption are: (1) a considerable strenghtening of certain corona lines, especially 5303 and 5694 A., and (2) certain kinds of prominences. The effects of these particles are partly localized, both on the dark and sunlit earth hemispheres. The best known of the consecutive geophysical reac- tions to these particle invasions are “ionosphere storms,” auroras, geomagnetic storms, disturbances of the electric earth-current sys- tem, and a special kind of irregular, long-duration fading of short radio waves. Being absorbed, the particles deliver to the high Se wacetrs he mv? : evan atmosphere their kinetic energy —>—, which—because of their high Chee 3 : velocity: v~2xX LO; eae —is not inconsiderable. The main resulting consequences are: A pressure effect in the direction of the shocks; ionization ; excitation of the emission of visible light-, ultraviolet-, and X-ray-photons ; dissociation, especially of the molecular oxygen ; production of chemical compounds in form of condensation nuclei ; and heating of the absorbing layer. Moreover, an electrical polariza- tion of the high atmospheric layers may be expected, because of the segregation by the geomagnetic field of those portions of the particles with positive and negative electric charges, and because of the dif- ferent heights of the absorbent layers for the positive protons and alpha particles, and the negative electrons, according to their different mass and velocity. As to the magnitude of the shock-pressure effect that may be ex- pected, no details have hitherto been known. The dissociation of the oxygen molecules must be accompanied by a considerable increase in pressure, provided there is available a sufficiently great amount of molecular oxygen. This condition may be fulfilled much less in sum- no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE-—-DUELL AND DUELL 17 mer and in years with high sun activity, and also after many ultra- violet invasions, than in winter and in years with low sun activity. Perhaps that is one of the reasons for the fact that an influence of the particle invasions on sea-level pressure could be demonstrated only for winter and for years with low sun activity. The heating of those layers which absorb the particles is likewise not inconsiderable, as has been shown by theoretical considerations and by computations of H. Petersen (11). R. M. Deeley (12) regards this heating as a suffi- cient cause for the decreases of sea-level pressure which he observed in Arctic regions during the culmination of solar-activity centers. An electric polarization of the high atmospheric layers, the prob- ability of which has been stressed by several authors, could be im- portant for several reasons. In the first place electroconvective proc- esses, i.e., “ion winds,” could follow such polarization. It has been proved experimentally by V. F. Hess (13) that these ion winds are connected with relatively strong dynamic effects. In the second place, a penetration into the troposphere of the lines of equal force origi- nating in the ionospheric-electric field is possible under certain cir- cumstances (J. Scholz (14)). In that case the colloidal stability of clouds, and therefore the size of droplets and the precipitation tendency, may be influenced (A. Schmauss and A. Wigand (15)). Furthermore, there is a possibility that certain chemical compounds, and consequently condensation nuclei, are produced by electric discharges between the polarized layers. However, such chemical compounds may be produced also during the ordinary bombardment by solar particles of the oxygen-nitrogen mixture, especially in the presence of water vapor or hydrogen. Such particles, e.g., protons, are furnished by the solar particle invasions themselves. This possi- bility of formation of ammonium nitrate and ammonium nitrite-con- densation nuclei by solar particles, especially by electrons, has been emphasized particularly by P. Lenard (16). Industrial processes in the course of which ammonia is produced by the action of electrons upon a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen are known (Buch-Ander- sen (17)). The numerous observations of a coincidence between the appear- ance of intensive auroras and the sudden formation of cirrus clouds (H. Fritz (18), H. J. Klein (19), E. Thienemann (20), A. Paulsen (21) ) likewise seem to point to the origin of condensation nuclei during particle invasions. Further support for that hypothesis was given by G. Archenhold (22), who could demonstrate that there is a certain probability for the geomagnetic character figure being higher on days with sun halos than it would be on ordinary days. 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO To explain that relationship, Archenhold points to the possibility that solar neutrons, because of their special qualities, penetrate much deeper into the earth atmosphere than do the solar alpha particles, protons, and negatrons. Only in those layers which contain a sufficient amount of water vapor, e.g., in the cirrus level, would they undergo a con- siderable retardation, and even absorption. A necessary provision for the occurrence of condensation phenomena would in all such cases be the presence of an atmospheric layer saturated with water vapor and relatively free from other condensation nuclei. As has been shown on different occasions, these conditions occur not infrequently (A. Schmauss and A. Wigand (15)). Even then, if the neutron hypothesis could not stand the test, there would be a possibility of explaining the presence of solar-produced condensation nuclei in the upper troposphere. According to the investigations of H. Peter- sen (23), E. Palmén (24), and A. Refsdal (25), a drop of the tropopause produces a cyclonal circulation. This flow may continue up to the high stratosphere and may suck down air from there in the center of the cyclone. This is possible because the kinematic viscosity of air in the tropopause level is very small, according to Chapman and Milne, and only in heights of about 60 km. again reaches the sea-level value. In that scheme there is considered the important fact discovered by Palmén in 1932 that the upward movement of the air in the cyclone and the downward movement in the anticyclone are confined to the lower and middle troposphere, and that the vertical movements in the upper troposphere and in the stratosphere have the opposite direction. The assumption of a separate existence of the troposphere, inde- pendent of the stratosphere, had been definitely destroyed by these findings. A down-transportation of condensation nuclei might be possible in such a way, and the question now arises, to what extent could an additional supply of condensation nuclei act upon the tropo- spheric processes? As is known, the liberated condensation heat inheres into the water droplets themselves, and, as the expansion of fluids compared with that of gases is extremely small, the temper- ature increase becomes evident only when the energy has been trans- mitted to the surrounding air. This energy transfer is performed much faster if a certain amount of water vapor condenses into many small rather than into a few large droplets. In such a way, according to C. Braak (26), a greater number of nuclei can accelerate the transformation of condensation heat into intensified convection. A local turbidity of the stratosphere, produced by nuclei, can become important even without any condensation phenomena, because no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE-—-DUELL AND DUELL 19 it may give rise to regionally intensified heat emission of the strato- sphere, which, according to G. Stueve (27), may cause the develop- ment of independent islands of high air pressure. According to S. P. Chromow (28), transformations of the large-scale weather situation may be produced by such processes. Figure 16 gives a concentrated summary of the different hy- potheses which have been postulated to explain the effect of solar par- ticles invasions upon the stratospheric-tropospheric circulation and large-scale weather situation. An evaluation of such effects should never be undertaken without regarding the fact that the result of these influences will always, in a high measure, depend on the initial state of the troposphere and on the amount of potential energy which is available for release by ionospheric-stratospheric processes. It is quite possible that the effect of a particle invasion at one time will remain without any consequences, and on another occasion, when all involved factors stand in an optimal proportion to each other, will give rise to a complete change in the large-scale weather situation. Furthermore, it is probable that the occurrence frequency and the kind of succession of such particle invasions, and, in addition, the inter- fering appearance of ultraviolet invasions, will be of decisive importance for the efficiency of each single particle invasion. II. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET INVASIONS AND SEA-LEVEL PRESSURE A. OriGtIn oF SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET INVASIONS Solar ultraviolet invasions occur during bright chromospheric eruptions. These appear generally in connection with certain sunspot groups, at the outer margin of the penumbrae. The number and intensity of the eruptions depend closely on the type and phase of development of the sunspot groups. The international indices for the intensity (“1,” “2,” and “3”) correspond to an average life duration of 20, 40, and 60 minutes and to average areas of 1.2 10", 3.8x 10, and 10.2x 10% fractions (~1:3:9) of the apparent sun disk. The brightness generally increases with the size of the eruption. The wave radiation of these eruptions consists chiefly of the emission lines of hydrogen, helium, and calcium. It has been possible to con- clude from the results of prominence research and ionosphere research that the intensity of this ultraviolet radiation per unit of the eruption area is about 10° times as strong as that ultraviolet intensity which has been computed on the basis of Planck’s radiation formula for the same spectral range and for an undisturbed sun. By these proc- IIo VOL. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 20 On OL] *Pasoajas aq ud yoiym Absaua jOljuajod Jisaydsodosy PUuo-OjO14S yO yUNOWD ayy Of UOIZJOdOId UF ‘UOIONYIS “194j;0AM aj09S-abso] ayy UO PUD UOjO{NdIID Disaydsodosy-Itsaydsojos4s JYy UO adUaN|juI KsosOdWay “uOljOjididaid yo Ajisuajur puo Aduanbasj ayj uo pud sjajdoup jo azis BYyl UO BuUaN{sul “33;;0| ayy yO SSauIpoas jo aasbap ayy 04 Buipsoody ‘asaydsodos ayy oyu SPl9ly D14jD91a ayy yO sp1sbYyoInG, Asosodway “(0048 04 Buipsod20) junowo~Jajom Of adDjuNs =J3JOM $0 O10) PASOSIDU! Buy 40 4{INS|s BYyy SO UOIIaAUOD PsomMdN parsisuajul Puo 410 Bulpunosins ayy Of yOa@y—UOINDSUaPUOD ayy jo AJaAI|aP pajo2aj}a200 '(SazIs say) JO aSDaI9aP SNoauD;jnwIS YyIM) Syajdoup jO Jaqunu ayy Ul @SOaiDUI UD*UOILIPPO Uj} “SUOIjIPUOD ajqojsuN-piwNy sapun YO!OSuapuod 0 _UONOsajad5V *@4JaYdSOjOI4S ayi UI PUD asaydsouo:! Oyt Ul asnssaid-sio ayy yo sabuoyd (‘uassajag “uawjog"|Opsyay 0; Bu1psoo90) {UaWdojarap 4O ajOjs UI SaUOjdAD JaA0 19j9NU yo Bulyons-uM0g *sajoiysod 8yy Buiqsosqo aio yoiym ssaAd] asoyy yO uoisuodxa puo BuljoaH *BJBYdSOjOI4S ayy yO UOISSIWa-jOaY Paijisuajui Ajjouoibaa pup (ousog) asaydsowyo ybiy ayy yo Ajipiquny *"J2ajja-ainssaid PajIauIp PuOmUMOG “sainoajow —%O ay) JO UOlyOID0SSIQ (,SPUIm-uol,) U01,99AU090349a13 3Y3HdSONO! 3H1L Ni SO7314 91Y19373 ONOYLS 40 1N3Wd013A30 (00 uassapuy - yong ‘saqgaig ‘jobulsg “mOW¥JOQ *psouay 0} Buipsoooy) "242 SON*HN ‘70N HN 90 °N “SUN 70TH jo Ajlolzadsa “iajanu luoljosuapuod yo puo*O jo uoljonpolg *AjLDO|9A pud SsoW jUasassIP sreyy *suosjobau sabsoyo oiyjoa|a yO asnodaq suojjdaja aatjobau ayy AOsaua -ybiy @ayoBau pud aaiyisod yjim sajoijsod PuO suodjoJd aaijisod ayy 4s0j ssaho} yO uorsindxa ys 4O SuOIysod asous jo play yuaqsosqo ayy jo syybiay juasaysiQ Aygissog diyaubow-yjsoa ayy Aq uoljobasbas giesaudsoutD dys yo siakoj saddn aus oO} (W985 7/,WIS7O| Z2vA) Sajdis0d ay yo Absaua Jiyauiy jo Asaaijag “SAUSHdSINSH-H1I8V39 LITNNS GNY WHVG 3H1 NO “GQ3LVHYLN3ZONOD AINVOON AILYVd ‘S319ILYVd 3S3HL 40 SS3N3A11903443 "S8ADM-OIPOJ 410YS 40 Buipoy uoljounp-Buo; j [ nos 3HL JO ,S3NOZ-ONIX, BHL 40jnBassi yO puly jOI9ads O pud Wajsks-juaiNd-Yj0a NIHLIM ,,SNOISZY¥-W, G377V9-OS 3H1L : NOILVNHOS 40 $30v1d } D13499/9 ayy JO SadUDqINYSIP ayy *swsO;S DtyauBOW "UNS B44 BAD|| YO!YM (SWO4D 4ayjo PUD '-BW *-09'-ON SD jjam so S32uauIWOJd JO Spuly UIDjJaD puD ‘CY b69S puo FOES) saulj-Du0109 © u10ys99 yo Buiuayybiig Buoys :DuaWOUeYd JOJOS jUDPpUaY -Yjs0a ayy ‘sjybijsojod ayy *'$W404S - asaydsouol aus *$a|91js0d-yo'suodsjnau “Suojoid *suosjoHau) sajo1jsod sojos pabsoyoun TSUOIJIN9I BAIYNIaSUOD jODISAYdo|aB UMOUY |DJaAaS Pud pabsoyd Ajjooisy2a}a yo suolydnsa UoljosInp-Bbuo| puod -s0yS “UNS BY BADB} YOIYM Sajoiyiod 4DjOS asoy, 4O SuOIydn4sa UOlJOINp-BuUo; PUD ~WJOYS 4O JayyOaM ay} UO adUAaNisUI aUL a re ee eS ee ee ee ee ne eee "a4aYdSOdO1} ayy 0} PAJJIWSUDIy 84D SAdUAaN|JUI APIAI}OD 4DJOS YOIYM Ui JaUUDW Ay j4O UOIJdIDSap DiyDWaYDS OD 4D jdWa}jD |DUOISIAO’g no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—DUELL AND DUELL 21 esses alone the total ultraviolet radiation of the whole sun surface is raised by several hundred percent. The total radiation of the sun in the whole spectral range is raised only by several percent. How- ever, even these few additional percent are not included in the direct measurements involved in the “solar constant,” generally measured on high mountains, because this part of the ultraviolet has already been absorbed in the ionosphere and stratosphere. They are but im- perfectly allowed for by estimates of unmeasured ultraviolet wave- length response. Bright chromospheric eruptions are not observed in heliographic latitudes higher than 40°. B. STATISTICAL RESULTS All chromospheric eruption data used for our statistics have been collected by the sun-control service established by the International Astronomical Union with the help of spectrohelioscopes and spectro- heliographs, and have been published, after a detailed examination and compilation by L. d’Azambuja (Meudon), in the Bulletin for Character Figures of Solar Phenomena of the Eidgenoessische Stern- warte in Ziirich (Switzerland). As key dates, there have been selected all those days of the period January 1, 1936, to December 31, 1941, on which (between ogoo and 1500 G.M.T.) bright chromospheric eruptions of the intensity “2-3” and “3” had been observed, provided they were not preceded on the previous 5 days by equally strong eruptions. The limitation to 6 years was made necessary by the fact that there do not exist sufficiently complete eruption observations for the time before 1936, and that for the time after 1941, no such data had been published at the beginning of our investigation. Figure 17 shows the average behavior of sea-level pressure (1300 G.M.T.) at the stations Hamburg, Frankfurt a.M., and Vienna on all 51 days with strong ultraviolet invasions as defined above, and also on 1 preceding and 11 following days. The applied method, al- ready described in detail, is the same as for figures 1 to 15. At all these stations a very distinct maximum of sea-level pressure appears 4 to 6 days after the ultraviolet invasions. Surprising is the fact that this maximum, and even the other part of the curve course, has almost the same form in the summer months April to September as in the winter months October to March. The amplitudes of these curves are at all three stations greater in the winter (3.4 mb. in Hamburg, 4.0 mb. in Frankfurt a.M., and 3.0 mb. in Vienna) than in the summer (2.6 mb. in Hamburg, 2.6 mb. in Frankfurt, and 1.7 mb. in Vienna). 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO The great similarity between the summer curves and the winter curves represents a criterion of reality which should not be under- estimated, because the summer and winter months are completely independent of each other in these statistics where only daily values were used to investigate short-term impulselike solar influences. Fig- ure 18 shows the average behavior of the maximum, interdiurnal in- creases in sea-level pressure, occurring within the preceding 24 hours over the area 45° to 60° N. latitude and 10° W. longitude to 20° E. longitude on all days with very intense ultraviolet invasions, and moreover on I preceding and 8 following days. The respective mete- The Average Behaviour of Sea-Level Pressure (1300 cmt ) as related to all (5!) very Intense Ultraviolet Radiation - Invasions (eetween ©0900 AND 1500 GMT) which were not preceded on the previous 5 Days by equally strong Invasions. 1936 — 1941 Hamburg Frankfurt a.M. Vienna mb mb ( NOT RED. TO SEA-LEVEL ) mb 1018 t 100: ' 1017 iz ; lost — 1016 Summer RN on x (APRIL TO SEPTENBER ? 1016 |’ ¥ / \ 1004I- 1015 a \ ; ise Nar IONG ss IOOSen mans A WH 1095 1014 a 1017 . ee , , [is AN 1015 4 1004 if a : “4 gi = LAM Seasons 1015 - tw £ / 4014 1095 1003 : : i oat | 1002 10\8 | 1014 ol nN 1003} — 1017 \ ° Tiler Aas 3 Winter wolzb , | fj 1002 1016 : ( OKJOBER TO wARCH) is Net . : ton , * 1015 ' | | Rees ie eee ee ere Ceres ech coal oxal foot ef lees hee ee eee eee eet eee eae -I 0.) 3 45 «7 69 oll -l i +3 #5 +7 +9 el -I oO. +3 +45 47 +9 +I! Before Ooys After Bofore Doys After Before Days After Hiei. orological data were taken out of the daily isallobaric maps, published in the Taeglicher Wetterbericht by the Deutsche Seewarte in Ham- burg. For this representation a subdivision was undertaken, not only in summer and winter, but also in years with increasing sun activity (1936-1938), and in years with decreasing sun activity (1939-1941). Even here the great similarity of the curves with each other is strik- ing, and the more important because the groups of years and seasons are again completely independent of each other. The maximum inter- diurnal increase in sea-level pressure over the middle and western part of Europe takes place, on the average, 2 to 4 days after very intense ultraviolet invasions. One day after the invasion the maxi- mum pressure rise has a particularly low value; this, in similar no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 23 measure, is repeated only 7 days after the invasion. The amplitude of the sea-level pressure reaction is also here greater in winter (5.3 mb.) than in summer (2.8 mb.). With the aid of the data of the absolute topography of the 500-mb. surface, which are likewise published in the Taeglicher Wetterbericht of the Deutsche Seewarte for an area between 45° and 60° N. lat- itude and 5° W. longitude and 25° E. longitude, an attempt has been made to answer the question, ‘““Does the pressure at a height of approximately 5,000 m. react to strong ultraviolet invasions, and The Average Behaviour of Maximum Interdiurnal Increases in Sea-Level Pressure over the Area 45°NLto GO°NLand 10° WL.to 20°EL, as related to all (51) very Intense Ultraviolet Radiation- Invasions (setween 0900 Ano 1500 GMT ) which were not preceded on the previous 5 Days by equally strong Invasions. mb mb 8 | s s, u 4 1 Summer 10 1936-1938 mb (APRIL TO SEPTEMBER) mb 10. «=: 1936 - 1941 og " ° All Seasons ° a a '936- 1941 9 mb 1936-194] 7 6 7 Winter 1939-1941 (OCTOBER To MARCH } 1936 — 1941 SaaS -! 0 ol 43 45 47 49 Before Doys After if so, how?” This special investigation has been made by the same method and with the same key days of the years 1936 to 1941 as the other statistics, demonstrated in the figures 17 and 18. In figure 19 some of the results of this investigation are shown. The three maps on the left-hand side of the figure represent the average change of the absolute topography of the 500-mb. surface in dkm. which has taken place on all the days with very intense ultraviolet invasions since the immediately preceding day, above for the summer months April to September, in the middle for all seasons, and below for the winter months October to March. The distribution of the isallohypses, or lines of equal change of height, on these maps is rather irregular ; 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO The Average Behaviour of the Absolute Topography of the 500 mb- Surface as related to all (51) very Intense Ultraviolet Radiation - Invasions (between 0900 and 1500 GMT ) which were not preceded on C A / ©. o. 4 4, H ¢ ¢ 4 y re fl o., ] ; Onl Ws Het / At rye ek () : Ze \ i ‘a YEN Sct BNR Pe eat | | PIMA Average Change in dkm from the Average Change in dkm from the Preceding Day Preceding Day to the |nyasion - Day| ‘2 the Day which follows the Invasior Fic. 19. no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 25 the zero line is most dominating. The greatest differences between the maximum lifting and the maximum sinking are accordingly relatively small and amount to 2.7 dkm. in summer, 3.1 dkm. in winter, and to only 1.3 dkm. for all seasons together. One day after the ultraviolet invasions the picture has changed fundamentally, as can be seen from the right-hand side of figure 19. Here is shown the average change of the absolute topography of the 500-mb. surface in dkm. which has taken place 1 day after all very intense ultraviolet invasions since the day which preceded these invasions. The dis- tribution of the isallohypses is by no means more irregular. There has developed a strongly marked area of sinking over western Europe and a rather distinct area of lifting over northern Europe. The location of the lifting area is the same in the winter and summer, whereas the sinking area is situated somewhat more southward in winter and somewhat more northward in summer, compared with the average over all seasons. The differences between maximum lifting and maximum sinking are relatively great, and amount to 6.9 dkm. in summer, 8.2 dkm, in winter, and 6.9 dkm. for all seasons. That means that there occurs in the course of 24 hours, and in the average of 6 years, an increase of the differences by 4.2 dkm. in summer, 5.1 dkm. in winter, and 5.6 dkm. in the average for all seasons. However, more comparative study is necessary before any definite conclusions can be drawn from these results. Reliable data about bright chromospheric eruptions are available for only a few years. However, for future work, to be done on a very broad basis, it might be desirable to extend such investigations to years which lie farther in the past. For that reason we investigated the possibility of using, instead of bright chromospheric eruptions, other observational data from the sun, e.g., data which could likewise, even if in a more or less simplified manner, represent such increased sun activity as is connected with ultraviolet eruptions. On the basis of investigations which have been made by W. M. Goodall (29) in this connection, and by T. Duell and B. Duell (30), the calcium flocculi of the whole sun disk were finally taken on approval as a substitute for direct observations of eruptions. In these statistics we pro- ceeded not from the controlling element, i.e., sun activity, but from the hypothetically subordinated meteorological element. The reason for this was, that in the case of the calcium flocculi it is occasionally very difficult to select a certain number of distinct and well-defined extreme values, e.g., the five highest figures in every month, because of the occurrence of many character numbers of equal value. As key days all 101 days of the years 1936-1941 were selected on 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO which interdiurnal decreases in sea-level pressure = 5 mb. had been observed in Frankfurt a.M., and furthermore all 121 days, on which interdiurnal increases in sea-level pressure = 5 mb. had been observed at the same station. For these so selected key days, as well as for I1 preceding and 6 following days, average calcium flocculi character numbers have been computed by means of the superposed-epoch method. Moreover, a subdivision of these statistics has been made according to different seasons and to years with in- creasing and decreasing sun activity. The results are represented in “ The Average Behaviour of the Character- Figures of <7 Calcium - Flocculi ( wore sun-pisc) related to all (IOI) those Doys when the Interdiurnal Decrease of Sea-level Pressure (oaiy MEAN) in Frankfurta.M.was 2 5mb (==) and to all (121) those Days when the Interdiurnal i Increase of Sea-Level Pressure in Frankfurta.M. wos \ = Smb fmm) 1335 é All Seasons ™ 1936 - (938 320) J! oP wa Re L vas All Seasons oe Summer 1936-1941 , Winter 1936-1941 1 ‘\ vf April to September ) Nv ee 1941 October to! March ) ' « . ' All Seasons O qamerr ew ee eee e- Oar ae Sore ! eae - 1941 Wh <9 <7 -5 3 <2 ob 03 +5 o7/-l! -9 -7 <5 -3 <1 “ol 03 #5 +7/-il -9 -7' y 3 -! O,; 3 +5 07 Before Oays After Before Ooys After Before V Doys After Fic. 20. figure 20. The similarity between the winter and the summer curves is again striking; the same is on the whole true for the years with increasing and decreasing sun activity, although even here the tabu- lations are completely independent of each other. Besides, the op- posite course of those calcium curves which were computed for the pressure decreases, and of those calcium curves which were computed for the pressure increases, is rather remarkable. As to the sea-level pressure increases, it can be stated that 3 to 5 days before these increases the calcium flocculi character number likewise increases distinctly, after having been particularly low 6 days before the key dates. This finding is compatible with our previous statement that the sea-level pressure in Frankfurt a.M. shows a maximum 4 to 6 days after intense ultraviolet invasions. The assumption made hereby, no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 27 namely, that the number of calcium flocculi increases during and shortly after bright chromospheric eruptions, agrees with our present knowledge of solar physics. Analogous to the behavior of the calcium numbers before pressure increases, 3 to 5 days before sea-level pressure decreases the calcium flocculi character numbers likewise decrease, after having been on the average particularly high 6 days before the key dates. On the whole it can be seen from figure 20 that it is not quite hopeless to use certain other solar indices instead of direct observations of ultraviolet eruptions, if reliable observa- tional data about the bright chromospheric eruptions are not available. One fact results rather clearly from figures 17 to 20, namely, that in contrast to the solar particle invasions, the influence of the solar ultraviolet invasions upon sea-level pressure seems to exist not only in winter and in years with low sun activity, but also in summer and in years with high sun activity. C. ATTEMPT AT A PHYSICAL EXPLANATION OF THE OBSERVED RELATIONSHIP In the following chapter an attempt will be made to give a schematic description of the manner in which the influence of short- duration eruptions of extreme short-wave ultraviolet solar radiation is transmitted to the troposphere. As some of the physical possibil- ities which must be considered in that connection have already been mentioned, when the possible effects of particle invasions were dis- cussed, the discussion can be confined here to a few facts of special interest. Even on this occasion it cannot be stressed too strongly that our description is rather hypothetical and doubtless will undergo modifications if further light is thrown on these problems by other investigators. The origin of these ultraviolet eruptions is confined almost exclu- sively to a solar zone which lies between 40° N. latitude and 40° S. latitude. There they appear mostly in the near vicinity of sunspot groups which are found in a certain phase of development: Nr. IV and V of the Brunner classification (31). Attendant solar phenomena are the bright chromospheric eruptions which are observable by means of a spectrohelioscope or a spectroheliograph, because of the simul- taneous excitement of lines in the visible part of the spectrum, and furthermore certain kinds of prominences. Known geophysical con- secutive reactions are: the “Bay-disturbances” of the earth-magnetic elements and of the electric earth current; an abnormal D-layer, the appearance of which is connected with a short-duration “fade-out” 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO of short radio waves, known as “‘Moegel-Dellinger effect’; and, finally, an increase in the number and intensity of a certain kind of static in the range of very long radio waves (A~10,000 m.), and likewise a considerable reinforcement of the so-called “solar noise” in the range of ultrashort- and decimeter-waves. The influence of these ultraviolet invasions is possible only on the sunlit earth hemisphere. During the absorption of ultraviolet photons in the high atmos- pheric layers, their energy produces ionization, dissociation, especially of the molecular oxygen, heating and formation of certain chemical compounds, partly in the form of condensation nuclei. Furthermore there can be expected, according to L. Vegard (32), an electric polarization of the ionosphere during the ultraviolet irradiation be- cause of the photoelectric expulsion of high-energy negatrons which move upward and reach considerable heights. Possible effects of such a strong ionospheric-electric field on unstable tropospheric situations have been discussed already in part I of this paper. The heating of the absorbing gases and the dissociation of the molecular oxygen lead to a momentary pressure rise in the absorbing layer. Details about the amount of that pressure rise are not yet known. The formation of certain chemical compounds, especially of Os, H.O., NH:, N2Os, NHsNO,, and NH,NOs, by ultraviolet irra- diation of the high atmosphere, has been emphasized for many years by P. Lenard and C. Ramsauer (33). The importance of such chem- ical compounds for the condensation of water vapor has been dis- cussed before Lenard by E. Pringal (34), E. Barkow (35), F. Richarz (36), and later also by W. Bieber (37). The relationship between high sun activity and the radius of the circumsolar shine, which has been treated in detail by J. Maurer (38) and C. Dorno (39), points likewise to atmospheric-turbidity phenomena which are produced by an intensified ultraviolet irradiation. It may be assumed also that the statistical accumulation of sun halos 2 days after intense chromospheric eruptions, which has been stated by G. Archenhold (22), is due to the additional production of condensation nuclei dur- ing ultraviolet invasions. The possibility of a down-sucking of the solar-produced condensation nuclei over cyclones in state of develop- ment (Palmén, Refsdal) and certain thermodynamic consequences have already been discussed on the occasion of examining the effects of solar particles. The same is true for the regionally intensified no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—DUELL AND DUELL 29 infrared emission of the stratosphere which would follow a local turbidity, produced by nuclei. : A very essential difference between the dissociating and nuclei- producing effect of solar particle invasions on the one side, and the allegedly same effect of solar ultraviolet invasions on the other side, might be that the solar ultraviolet photons penetrate much deeper into the earth atmosphere than the solar particles. This fact is of great importance in the question of solar effects on the stratospheric ozone layer. As early as 1943 F. Moeller (40) pointed out that a reasonable explanation for the relationship between changes of solar ultraviolet radiation and variations of sea-level pressure would be possible by making the following assumptions: The effective infrared emission of the atmospheric carbon dioxide in the spectral range between 13 and 16y, which is of importance for the changes in the temperature of the stratosphere and consequently also for changes of sea-level pressure, is highly dependent on the amount of strato- spheric ozone which likewise has a strong absorption band between 13 and 16p, and therefore screens off more or less the emission of the lower CO,. The assumption that the amount of stratospheric ozone is influenced by variations of solar ultraviolet radiation is not unreasonable, and is strongly supported by theoretical con- siderations of B. Haurwitz (41), published in 1946. Haurwitz, too, stresses the important role which must be ascribed to the stra- tospheric ozone in the case of a relationship between solar ultraviolet radiation and sea-level pressure. After respective computations he comes to the conclusion that the likelihood of appreciable pressure variations at the ground produced by solar activity can be asserted and that such pressure variations must be accompanied by substan- tial motions of the air in the troposphere. Nevertheless he notes that the atmosphere will respond differently to the same solar impulse, depending on its initial state. Also O. R. Wulf (42) emphasizes in recent publications that the heating of the high atmosphere by solar ultraviolet radiation, which is absorbed by the oxygen and ozone, together with the emission processes of the stratospheric ozone, carbon dioxide, and perhaps even of the water vapor and the oxides of nitrogen, represent probably the most important causes for the development of meridional pressure gradients. A brief summary of the different hypotheses which could possibly explain the effect of solar ultraviolet invasions on the stratospheric and tropospheric circulation and large-scale weather situation, is presented in figure 21. IIo VOL. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 30 se, OL “pasdajas 2q vod ydiym ABbsau ~29YI09M 3/09S-9Hj0) ayy UO PUD UO!JOINIsID Dsaydsodosj-Iisaydsojosys ayy UO BdUaN|ju! AsOJOdWay @ jOIjUdJOD DisaydsOdos, PUD-OjOJjS JO JUNOWO |yy OF UOIJJOdOId UI ‘UOIjONY4IS Ul S03s2uU! 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Ajjuanbasuos ‘puo *O9 Iuaydsowjo @yy yO Uolssiwa—pasosjur aAtsoayja ayy ul abuoy? ajqosapisuod o sasnoo @U0ZO 4O JUNOWDO ay) JO VOIOIIOA ayy (,, SPuUIM—UO! ) YOIWD9AUOI0I4IA;3 asaydsouol ayy ul Pjaly I1sjQaj}@ Buoss oO jo juawdojaaag suosjo6au Absaua-ybiy yo uoisindxa d13j;9a;a0;0ug “UOILOIPOI-ANM @A0Mm =10Ys awassxa ayy jo UOoIjdsosgo | “sak0| -Q ayy ut uolorsossip~O ays 04 Buimo sakoy-Q ayy jo | §=6ays yO aoUaNbasuod ui asaydsouo) uoisuodxa juanbasuood puo BbuljoaH Sys JO 430d ySamoy Guy JO UOISUDdxXg “BY3HdSINGH ~HL8YVZ LIINNS 3HL ATINO NO NOILVIOWY SIHL SS3N3A1193333 BAOM [UBIAJJIP UO (SI1}OIS) SayIsOs0d JI4jDa)/a ~I1saydsowjo, pajjod-os 40 Spuly juasasyip ul $asDas2u! jOWsOUgD *( 19ajja -3a6uI120 -jabow) SO@AOM-OIPOS JOYS JO SINO-apOy UOI;OINP-ysoYysS 40|nBas t4ak0j-G jOWso0ugo Ud yO aduasoaddo Swassks-juassnd-yjsOa 215599; Jays 4O Puo “platy djauBowyjs0a ayy jo | SaduDdqunisip-Aog sS$UCIII0AI VAIINIaSUOD jOd!1SAydoab UMOUY |DIaAaS UIDjsad O Ur SyOdsuNsS jo Ay fseuoz-6uiy,, payjo2-os ayy uiysiMm sulbi0 yo sa20\d] “DU0JOD IDjOS ayy WOsy SADI-% 4O PUD (Uas JO Suamod JOsaras Aq wnsjdads s0j0S ayy 4O sod siyy yO Ajisuajut {OWJOU BYE Ul BSDAIIU!) UONOIPOS 4OjOS jajOIADI4IN PAOM-YsOYS Ajawasjxa jo suoIdnsa UOIOIND -js0YS -[suawdojanap jo asoyd SoS SS al A 203U ayy ut Ajjsow “saduauiwoiud yo spuly UIDJ59D PUd(WHsjrads ayy jo 40d ajqisiA ayy ut Saul} JO juawWasIoxa Snoaud\jNWISs ayy JO asnoIaq ydosbotjayoujsads 0 10 adodsolayosj2eds O 40 suoaw fq ajqoasasqo) suondnsa Iisaydsowosy> 146139, pajjod-05 sOuawouayd sojos yuopuaiiy NOILVIGVY YVIOS LITIOIAVYLIN JAVM-1LYOHS 3W3H1X3 JO SNOILdNYZ NOILVYUNG-LYOHS JO Y3HLV3M 3HL NO 3ON3NTSNI BHA “esaydsodosy ayy Of payyiwsuodsy a40 S9duaN)juI AytatjyoD s0}O0S YoIyM Ul JaUUDW ayy JO UOIJdIUDSep DByOWSYIS OD yO jdwajjD JOUOISIAOIg no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 31 CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, it must be emphasized that the results described in this paper are by no means so unequivocal that their immediate application to short- or middle-term weather forecasting would be possible. Before rules for the forecaster can be worked out, there is need of further investigations, performed on a very broad scale. Essential improvements of that working basis seem to be possible. For instance, to characterize the occurrence and intensity of iono- spheric storms, direct data, provided by means of the impulse-echo method, should be used, instead of the geomagnetic character numbers for such statistics. Also the occurrence frequency and intensity of ultraviolet invasions could possibly be better characterized by sys- tematically recorded data concerning the appearance of an abnormal D-layer on the sunlit earth hemisphere, than by direct observations of the bright chromospheric eruptions. The reason for this is that a really reliable international sun-control service, observing the chro- mosphere without any interruptions, does not yet exist. Furthermore, it will prove of particular importance to subdivide such statistics into several groups, which correspond to the different thermodynamic initial states of the troposphere over the considered area at the time of the solar-ionospheric impulses. Probably only by means of such a refined analysis will the different reactions of the troposphere to certain solar-ionospheric impulses of equal size be clarified to such a degree that the forecaster can derive advantages from this research. REFERENCES (1) Asport, C. G. 1940. The variation of the sun and the weather. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., vol. 21, No. 10, pp. 407-416. 1944. Weather predetermined by solar variation. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 5. 1945. Solar variation and weather. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1944, Pp. 119-154. (2) Arctowsk!, H. 1917. Sunspots, magnetic storms and rainfall. Month. Weather Rev., November, p. 538. 1940. Researches on temperature changes from day to day and solar constant variations. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 257-261. (3) Crayton, H. H. 1925. Solar radiation and weather. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 77, No. 6. (4) Huntincron, E. 1923. Earth and sun. A hypothesis of weather and sunspots. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven. 32 (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO RuBASHEV, V. M. 1940. Impulses of solar activity and temperature in the free atmos- phere. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., n.s., vol. 27, No. 8, pp. 791-794. Moscow. BaArtTELs, J. 1932. Terrestrial-magnetic activity and its relation to solar phenom- ena. Terr. Magn. and Atmosph. Electr., vol. 37, No. 1. WaALDMEIER, M. 1939. Untersuchungen an der gruenen Koronalinie 5303 A. Zeitschr. Astrophysik, vol. 19, Heft 1, pp. 21-44. STAcGy J, M: 1931. Atmospheric pressure and the state of the earth’s magnetism. Nature, vol. 127, p. 402. London. PEppLeER, A. 1931. Energieschwankungen der nordatlantischen Zirkulation und Sonnenflecken 1881-1923. Gerland’s Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 187-200. KroGness, O. 1928. Short report of various researches regarding aurora borealis and allied phenomena. Publ. Haldde-Obs. og Geofysiske Inst. Troms¢. PETERSEN, H. 1927. Ueber die Temperatur in den hoeheren Schichten der At- mosphaere. Phys. Zeitschr., vol. 28, pp. 510-513. Deretey, R. M. 1930. Sunspots and pressure distribution. Nature, vol. 126, p. 401. London. Hess, V. F. 1919. Ueber den Ionenwind. Wiener Ber. (Math.-Naturw. KI.), Abt. Ila, vol. 128, Heft 6, pp. 1029-1079. ScuHorz, J. 1935. Polarlichtuntersuchungen auf Franz-Josephs-Land. Gerland’s Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 44, Heft 2, pp. 145-156. ScuMauss, A., AND WIGAND, A. 1929. Die Atmosphaere als Kolloid. F. Vieweg u. S., Braunschweig, pp. 57-58. LENARD, P. 1911. Ueber die Strahlen der Nordlichter und deren Absorption in der Erdatmosphaere. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 28, Heft 11, pp. 481-487. BucH-ANDERSEN, E. (cited by K. Schititt). 1925. Die Umschau (Frankfurt a. M.), vol. 29, Heft 31, p. 612. Fritz, H. 1878. Die Beziehungen der Sonnenflecken zu den magnetischen und meteorologischen Erscheinungen der Erde. Haarlem. 1889. Die wichtigsten periodischen Erscheinungen der Meteorologie und Kosmologie. Zurich. Kern, H. J. (cited by E. Hoppe). 1885. Ueber die Theorien des Nordlichts. Das Wetter, vol. 1, pp. 121-124, 149-152. | no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—DUELL AND DUELL 33 1885. Ueber die Theorien des Nordlichts. Das Wetter, vol. 1, pp. 121-124, 149-152. (21) PAULSEN, A. 1895. Wolkenbildung durch das Nordlicht. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 12, pp. 161-169. (22) ARCHENHOLD, G. 1938. Untersuchungen ueber den Zusammenhang der Haloerschein- ungen mit der Sonnentaetigkeit. Gerland’s Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 53, PP. 395-475. (23) Petersen, H. 1931. Ueber die Ursache der engen Korrelation des atmosphaerischen Ozongehaltes zu den meteorologischen Verhaeltnissen. Ger- land’s Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 32, pp. 428-433. (24) Patmén, E. 1933. Aerologische Untersuchungen der atmosphaerischen Stoerungen mit besonderer Beruecksichtigung der stratosphaerischen Vor- gaenge. Mitt. Meteorol. Inst. Helsingfors, No. 25. 1934. Ueber die Temperatur-Verteilung in der Stratosphaere und ihren Einfluss auf die Dynamik des Wetters. Meteorol. ' Zeitschr., vol. 51, pp. 17-23. 1939. Ueber die dreidimensionale Luftstroemung in einer Zyklone und die Ozonverteilung. Vorg. Meteorol. Verein Internat. Union Geophysik und Geodaesie. Washington. (25) Rerspat, A | (20) THIENEMANN, E. (cited by E. Hoppe). ) 1930. Zur Theorie der Zyklonen. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 47, PP. 204-305. 1932. Zur Thermodynamik der Atmosphaere. Geofys. Publ., vol. 9, No. 12. (26) Braak, C. 1913. Ueber die Ursache langperiodischer Barometer- und Temperatur- schwankungen. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 30, Heft 2, pp. 49-58. (27) Stvueve, G. (cited by S. P. Chromow). 1940. Einfuehrung in die synoptische Wetteranalyse, p. 370. J. Springer, Wien. (28) Curomow, S. P. 1940. Einfuehrung in die synoptische Wetteranalyse, p. 370. J. Springer, Wien. (29) Goopatt, W. M. 1939. The solar cycle and the F:-region of the ionosphere. Proc. Inst Radio Eng., pp. 701-703. (30) Dvett, T., ann Dvuett, B. 1938. Zur Frage solaraktiver Einfluesse auf die Psyche. Zeitschr. Ges. Neurol. und Psych., vol. 162, Heft 3, pp. 495-504. (31) Watpmeter, M. 1938. Chromosphaerische Eruptionen I. Zeitschr. Astrophysik, vol. 16, Heft 4, p. 286. (32) Vecarp, L. 1939. The aurora polaris and the upper atmosphere. Jn J. A. Fleming, Physics of the earth. VIII: Terrestrial magnetism and at- mospheric electricity. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. NE eee 34 (33) (34) (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110 LENARD, P., AND RAMSAUER, C. 1912. Ueber die Wirkungen ultravioletten Lichtes auf Gase unter be- sonderer Beruecksichtigung der Vorgaenge in der Erdat- mosphaere. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 29, pp. 150-157. 1913. Zur Analyse der ultravioletten Sonnenstrahlung mit Bezug auf deren meteorologische Wirkungen. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 30, pp. 269-278. PRINGAL, E. 1908. Ueber den wesentlichen Einfluss von Spuren nitroser Gase auf die Kondensation von Wasserdampf. Dissertation, Marburg. Ann. Phys., vol. 26, pp. 727-750. 1909. Idem. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 26, pp. 133-135. Barkow, E. 1907. Versuche itber Entstehung von Nebel bei Wasserdampf und einigen anderen Dampfen. (Aus der Marburger Dissertation von F. Richarz, Marz 1906.) Ann. Phys., vol. 23, pp. 317-344; Naturwiss. Rundschau, vol. 22, p. 521. RIcHARZ, F. 1909. Ueber den wesentlichen Einfluss von Spuren nitroser Gase auf die Kondensation von Wasserdampf. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 26, p. 135. Bieser, W. 1914. Kondensationskerne der Erdatmosphaere. Die blaue Farbe des Himmels. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 31, pp. 357-359. Maurer, J. 1915. Ringerscheinungen und Sonnenfleckentaetigkeit. | Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 32, pp. 515-517; Astron. Nach., vol. 201, pp. 247-250. 1916. Idem. Astron. Nachr., vol. 203, pp. 99-100. 1917. Idem. Astron. Nachr., vol. 204, p. 45. 1923. Idem. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 40, pp. 349-350. Dorno, C. 1917. Ringerscheinungen um die Sonne Herbst 1912 bis Anfang 1917 und ihre Beziehung zur Sonnentaetigkeit. Veroeff. Koenigl. Preuss. Meteorol. Inst., No. 295, pp. 71-92; Meteorol. Zeit- schr., vol. 34, pp. 246-260. Mor ter, F. 1943. Zur Erklaerung der Stratosphaerentemperatur. Naturwiss., roy Sie Ble wifey HavurwitTz, B. 1946. Relations between solar activity and the lower atmosphere. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, vol. 27, No. 2. Wut, O. R. 1945. On the relation between geomagnetism and the circulatory mo- tions of the air in the atmosphere. Terr. Magn., vol. 50, No. 3, pp. 185-107. aps oe er ty" piyae aoe? “33 “Vv i ‘ b = ae ra a , oe SPLEAN s kg ~~ =, > 4 7 *« oa Lae WILE as . Py ie E SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 9 A NEW GENUS AND FIVE NEW SPECIES OF AMERICAN FISHES BY SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (PusticaTion 3943) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JULY 28, 1948 The Lord Galtimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. A NEW GENUS AND FIVE NEW SPECIES OF AMERICAN FISHES By SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service The’ new forms herein described were discovered more or less incidentally during the past several years while working with various groups of tropical and subtropical fishes. It seems advisable to pub- lish the descriptions now, as some of the names are desired for inclusion in a general work. The types of the new species are all in the National Museum, and their catalog numbers are given in the accounts of the species. The writer is indebted to Dr. Alexander Wetmore, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and to Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, head curator of zoology, and Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, in the National Museum, for laboratory space and for the use of the speci- mens needed in the studies that led to the discovery of the new genus and the new species described in these pages. Family TORPEDINIDAE NARCINE SCHMITTI, new species FIGURE I Disk somewhat narrower than long, its anterior outline moderately broadly rounded, with tip of snout projecting very slightly, its width 2.3 in total length; its length 2.0; length anterior to axil of pectoral 2.1; length anterior to vent 1.95; length posterior to vent 2.1; tail robust, not strongly depressed, its width at axil of ventrals 5.15 in length anterior to vent; its depth at same place 5.7; depth of its peduncle 4.65 in snout; tail with a rather feeble lateral dermal fold, beginning behind first dorsal; snout rather short, its length anterior to eye 3.85 in length anterior to vent, its preoral length 3.6; eye and spiracle about equal in size, the former 5.6 in snout anterior to eye; space between spiracles 1.8; mouth small, its width 1.85 in snout; teeth rounded, each tooth with a rather prominent, pointed posterior cusp; the two dorsal fins of about the same size and shape, the base of the second one 1.75 in snout, and its height 1.15; space between SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 9 E j = ” = *STLIJsOUu pu a our SULMOU [OFT + 10 yas yo yINo yo ‘puvysy sierng anyy oe o1z yysusy [e}0} “(rho 6 oe WwW N S: n) 3d} ay} WOLy ‘satads Mou ‘1472uUYIS au1I4DN—T “DIT IIo VOL. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—-HILDEBRAND 3 dorsal fins 3.7; upper part of caudal fin with a rather acute angle, lower part rounded, the rest of margin nearly straight; ventral with nearly straight distal margin, its outer margin 3.7 in length anterior to vent; clasper fully a third longer than adjacent part of ventral, 3.2 in length anterior to vent. Color brownish above, with many indistinct dark spots; plain pale underneath. The description offered herewith is based on the holotype, the only specimen known, a male 212 mm. long, taken by Waldo L. Schmitt, for whom this species is named, at White Friars Island, off the mouth of the Gulf of California, dredged in 5 to 10 fathoms, on March 3, 1934 (U.S.N.M. No. 94044). This species is related to N. entemedor Jordan and Starks and N. vermiculatus Breder. From the first it differs prominently in the much more robust tail, which is deeper and less strongly depressed, and from the second (of which I have seen no specimens) it seems to differ, according to the published accounts, in having smaller spiracles, which are about equal in size to the eyes, and not notably larger as in vermiculatus. It differs from both species in color, as the upper surface is marked with indistinct dark spots, whereas adults of entemedor are of a uniform gray, and vermiculatus has pale markings. This species, like vermiculatus, seems to become sexually mature at a smaller size than entemedor, as the claspers in the 212-mm., male are much longer than the adjacent parts of the ventrals, and apparently fully mature. In a male entemedor 215 mm. long they are equal in length to the adjacent parts of the ventrals, and are thin, flexible, and apparently immature. Family CLUPEIDAE ILISHA APAPAE, new species FIGURE 2 Head 4.0; depth 3.25; D. 15; A. 48; P. 14; scales mostly missing, about 60; ventral scutes 26. Body rather elongate, strongly compressed, its greatest thickness scarcely a third of its depth; dorsal outline in advance of dorsal fin nearly straight; ventral outline strongly convex ; chest and abdomen compressed, armed with 20 moderately strong keels in advance of ventral fins and 6 behind them; head fairly large; margin of opercle moderately concave in advance of pectoral, its posterior margin con- vex ; snout shorter than eye, without a definite median notch, 4.45 in ee hs ete SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO why i AL LYE TG Hey AF eo , taken in Amazon River somewhere Drawing by Mrs. Ann S. Green. 52550), total length 200 mm. ated only where present.) 2 oe ce | aS Ree, RS NS s so AN “: SSG ‘ Ss a \ ac SON ESN SEY ice | \ LSS NNO C6 | NUS Sy) 2 o 2s on aM as Hy mq nD cs Qa, aS 30 a5 5 Fic. 2—llisha apapae, between Par NO. Q AMERICAN FISHES—-HILDEBRAND 5 head; eye large 2.9; interorbital narrow 10; mouth rather oblique; mandible projecting strongly, almost entering dorsal profile, 1.75 in head ; maxillary narrowly rounded posteriorly, reaching below anterior margin of pupil, 1.85 in head; a soft ligament present between pre- maxillary and maxillary ; teeth all small to minute, several in a single series on anterior part of mandible, a series on premaxillary and on margin of maxillary, bands of granular teeth on palatines, pterygoids, and tongue; gill rakers at angle of frst arch scarcely half length of eye, 19 on lower limb of first arch; scales from middle of side below base of dorsal fin scarcely deeper than long, not very closely imbri- cated, with 4 or 5 vertical striae, only the posterior one complete, the margins nearly smooth; dorsal fin high anteriorly, the longest rays reaching far beyond the tip of the last one if deflexed, only a little shorter than head, origin of fin nearer margin of snout than base of caudal by a distance equal to length of snout and eye; caudal dam- aged, forked, the lower lobe evidently the larger ; anal fin long, scarcely elevated anteriorly, its margin nearly straight, origin of fin under last ray of dorsal and equidistant from posterior margin of eye and base of caudal, base of fin 2.4 in standard length; ventral fins long (for an Jlisha), inserted rather less than an eye’s diameter in advance of vertical from origin of dorsal, and notably nearer origin of anal than base of pectoral, 2.3 in head; pectoral fin large, reaching well beyond base of ventral, 4.3 in standard length, with a free axillary process only about a third the length of fin. Color of the type, an old preserved specimen, grayish above, yellow- ish to silvery on sides; upper surface of snout and tip of mandible dark brown; a brownish area behind eye; fins all with dusky punctu- lations, few and scattered on ventral fins, most numerous on dorsal and caudal and on upper rays of pectoral. This species is represented in the collection of the National Museum by a single specimen, the holotype (No. 52550), the only one known. It has a total length of about 200 mm. (length to base of caudal 160 mm.), and was taken in the Amazon River somewhere between Para and Manaos, Brazil. This species differs from other local forms in having a ligament between the maxillary and premaxillary, where the other tropical Atlantic species of the genus have a bone bearing fine teeth along its margin. The body in apapae is elongate, as in altamazonica, another local species, but it apparently has larger scales, which are mostly lost, fewer dorsal and more numerous anal rays. Furthermore, apapae has more gill rakers than altamazonica, but fewer than the other American species of this genus. It is nearest furthit from the Pacific 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO coast of tropical America, which also has a ligament between the maxillary and premaxillary, but furthi has more ventral scutes (34 to 37), and the ventral fins are inserted farther forward, being equi- distant from the base of the pectoral and origin of the anal in furthii, whereas they are inserted notably nearer the origin of the anal than the base of the pectoral in apapae. The name, apapae, is from apapa, used in Brazilian publications as a name for fresh-water herrings. NEOOPISTHOPTERUS, new genus Genotype.—Odontognathus tropicus Hildebrand, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 189, p. 94, fig. 19, 1946, Puerto Pizarro, Pert, and Balboa, Canal Zone. This genus belongs to that group of small herrings with a strongly compressed body, a long anal fin which begins in advance of the dorsal fin, and in which the ventral fins are missing. Consequently, the relationship of this genus is with Opisthopterus and Odontogna- thus. From these genera it differs importantly in the structure and relative position of the maxillary and premaxillary. In the two old genera mentioned these two elements are separated by a short tooth- less membranous section (hitherto undescribed). The margin of the upper jaw, nevertheless, is continuous (uninterrupted). In the new genus the margin is discontinuous (interrupted), as the maxillary definitely overlaps the premaxillary, that is, it extends over the distal end of the premaxillary (fig. 4). Opisthopterus and this new genus agree in having a relatively short maxillary, which does not seem to be produced into a long narrow process as in Odontognathus (at least there is no indication in the rather small specimens, up to 66 mm. in standard length, of Neoopisthopterus at hand, that this element will become produced with age and growth). Furthermore, in Opis- thopterus and the new genus the margins of the ventral scutes are entire (smooth), whereas the margins of the posterior ones in Odontognathus are sharply serrate. The teeth in Neoopisthopterus are all small to minute, and are present on the jaws, palatines, ptery- goids, and tongue, but missing on the vomer. Vertebrae about 46 or 47. The anal fin in the two known species of this genus is shorter than in the related genera, being composed of 39 to 48 rays, whereas the species of the genus Opisthopterus have about 56 to 65 rays, and those of Odontognathus about 58 to 78. The close relationship betwen this new genus and Opisthopterus suggested the name, Neoopisthopterus, that is, a new Opisthopterus. a NO. Q AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND 7 This genus to date is represented by two species, N. tropicus, the type species of this genus, known from Panama and northern Peru, and by the new species herein described from Cuba. NEOOPISTHOPTERUS CUBANUS, new species FIGURES 3 AND 4 Head 4.25 to 4.6 (4.25); depth 4.75 to 5.8 (5.1); D. 13 or 14 (13); A. 39 to 43 (41); P. 13; scales lost, about 43 pockets ; ventral scutes 23 to 28 (26) ; vertebrae 47 (counted in one specimen). Body moderately elongate, not excessively compressed, its greatest thickness between a third and fourth of its depth; dorsal outline of head straight to slightly convex; ventral outline anteriorly rather strongly convex ; chest and abdomen compressed, armed with 23 to 28 (26) scutes; head short, not much longer than deep, its depth at vertical from slight cross groove at occiput 5.2 to 5.8 (5.8) in standard length; margin of opercle rounded, without an indentation in front of pectoral; snout about as long as eye, 3.3 to 4.2 (4.2) in head; eye 3.4 to 4.1 (3.4) ; interorbital 7.3 to 9.0 (7.4) ; mouth moderately oblique; mandible projecting slightly, 1.6 to 1.8 (1.75) in head; maxillary rather narrowly rounded posteriorly, reaching to or some- what beyond vertical from posterior margin of pupil, 1.55 to 1.8 (1.6) in head; teeth all small to minute, apparently in a narrow band on anterior part of lower jaw, those on premaxillary and maxillary in a single series, the row interrupted at point of overlapping of maxillary and premaxillary, very small teeth on palatines, pterygoids, and median line of tongue; gill rakers slender, about as long as pupil at angle, 17 to 19 (18) on lower limb of first arch; scales nearly all missing, rather large, very thin, with smooth margins, and without evident striations ; dorsal fin small, somewhat elevated anteriorly, its margin convex, origin of fin rather more than an eye’s diameter behind origin of anal and about equidistant from margin of opercle and base of caudal ; caudal fin forked, the lower lobe slightly the longer, scarcely as long as head ; anal fin moderately long, its origin about equidistant from posterior margin of eye and base of caudal, its base 2.55 to 3.0 (2.55) in standard length; pectoral fins injured, apparently fairly large. Color of preserved specimens pale; side with a whitish band (no doubt silvery in life), about half as broad as eye; upper surface of head posteriorly brownish with rather large dusky dots; margin of snout medianly and anterior part of mandible with dusky dots ; median VOL. IIO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS ‘usdIN) “SG UUY ‘sip Aq SuIMeIG ‘eqns ‘eueALTT ie uoye} “UUW OF Y}Sua] [e}0} ‘(6QSEPI “ON “W'N'S'()) 24} Oy} WOT ‘satoads mau ‘snunqna sn4azqoyjsigooa N—E€ “917 SS SS ho SS SS Si FETS 5 SSS as ay See AN y Se <—— See SSS === Soe | NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND 9 line of back also with scattered dusky points; these also present on base of caudal, forming a cross line and extending on caudal lobes; base of anal with a row of dark dots, the fin also with dusky dots chiefly near margin. This species is represented in the collection of the National Museum by the type (No. 143569), a specimen 50 mm. long (41 mm. to base of caudal), and five paratypes 43 to 47 mm. long (35 to 38 mm. to base of caudal), all collected in the vicinity of Havana, Cuba, by Luis Howell Rivero, who sent them to the writer with a collection of Fic. 4.—Neoopisthopterus cubanus, new species. From the type (U.S.N.M. No. 143569. Note overlapping of maxillary and premaxillary. Drawing by Mrs. Ann S. Green. anchovies (Engraulidae). These small fish apparently are not fully mature. The proportions and enumerations enclosed in parentheses in each instance apply to the type. This species is very close to Odontognathus tropicus Hildebrand (U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 189, p. 94, fig. 19, 1946), which was described from specimens collected in the Gulf of Guayaquil, Puerto Pizarro, Peru, and at Balboa, Canal Zone. It was learned from a comparison of the type material of O. tropicus with the specimens herein described as N. cubanus that the two species are congeneric. Because tropicus is represented by larger and more mature specimens than cudanus, Io SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO the former was selected as the genotype. A comparison of the type material of the two species, in fact, has revealed only minor differ- ences, which are shown in the following parallel comparison : N. cubanus N. tropicus Anal fin rather short, with 39 to 43. Anal fin somewhat longer, with 43 to rays, its base 2.55 to 3.0 in standard 48 rays, its base 2.25 to 2.8 in stand- length, origin of fin usually equidis- ard length, origin of fin usually equi- tant from anterior margin of eye and distant from posterior margin of eye base of caudal. and base of caudal. Dorsal fin rather short, with 13 or Dorsal fin slightly longer, with 14 to 14 rays, its origin slightly more than 16 rays, its origin scarcely an eye’s an eye’s diameter behind origin of diameter behind origin of anal, and anal, and about equidistant from about equidistant from posterior margin of opercle and base of caudal. margin of eye and base of caudal. Gill rakers 17 to 19 on lower limb of | Gill rakers 18 to 21 on lower limb of first arch. first arch. This, then, is another instance of the rather common occurrence of “twin” species in the tropical Atlantic and Pacific. Such closely re- lated species generally have been found on the opposite coasts of Panama. However, as the West Indian (Cuban in this instance) and the Atlantic Panamanian faunas are largely identical, cubanus may be expected on the Atlantic coast of Panama and the neighboring countries. Family SYNODONTIDAE SYNODUS CINEREUS, new species FIGURE 5 Trachinocephalus myops BEAN (not of Schneider), Fishes in “The Bahama Islands,” Geogr. Soc. of Baltimore, 1905, p. 207, Bahama Islands. Head 4.0, 3.9; depth about 6.1, 7.2 (not accurate because of distor- tion) ; D..12, 11; Az 0, 973 BP. 12,13; seales 57, Go) beforesdoncar 20, 21. Body about as broad as deep at insertion of ventral fins, caudal peduncle deeper than broad, 4.1, 4.5 in head; head nearly as broad as deep, its upper surface posterior to interorbital with bony ridges; upper anterior rim of eye with coarse serrae ; snout broader than long, 5.0, 5.6 in head; eye 4.3, 5.6; interorbital concave, 15, 9.7 in head; mouth large, premaxillary extending far beyond eye, 1.75, 1.7 in head ; mandible rounded, without fleshy knob, included in upper jaw; lateral 1 The last double ray of the dorsal and of the anal was counted as one. te ee Le NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND MELE] besos Ko i a: Oe te Cae z EE <= No. 53079), total length 128 mm., from the g by Mrs. Nancy D. Patton. type (U.S.N.M. From the Bahamas. Drawin Fic. 5.—Synodus cinereus, new species. II I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO line slightly decurved, not forming a keel on caudal peduncle ; scales firm, 3 complete rows between lateral line and base of dorsal, those on lower part of cheek and opercle very elongate, in about 8 longitudinal rows; dorsal fin with a nearly straight margin, the anterior rays not reaching beyond tips of the posterior ones if deflexed, longest ray 1.65, 1.75 in head, origin of fin somewhat nearer adipose than tip of snout, its distance from tip of snout 2.35, 2.3 in length; adipose very small, over middle of anal; caudal short (somewhat frayed) ; anal small, its origin a little more than half as far from base of caudal as base of ventral, its base 8.7, 9.6 in length, 2.15, 2.5 in head; ventral inserted well in advance of dorsal, the inner ray more than twice as long as the outer one, the longest ray about as long as head, 4.3, 4.3 in length; pectoral inserted well below lateral line, scarcely reaching more than halfway to vertical from origin of dorsal, 2.4, 2.4 in head. | Color ash gray above, pale silvery below; back with about 16 brownish cross bars, some of them more or less double, more distinct in the smaller than in the larger specimen; top and side of head with irregular brownish markings; no shoulder spot; dorsal with indica- tions of pearly gray spots, other fins plain. This apparently new species is represented in the National Museum by two specimens, 72 and 128 mm. in total length, 61 and 108 mm. to base of caudal. These specimens are from the Bahama Islands, and are the ones listed as Trachinocephalus myops by Bean (see reference above). The larger one (No. 53079), which has been designated as the type, was taken in Clarence Harbor, and the smaller one at a little island near Nassau. The proportions and enumerations given last in each instance apply to the type. This apparently new form differs from S. intermedius (Agassiz) and S. poeyi Jordan, two other local species, in having 57 to 60 scales in a lateral series and 20 or 21 in advance of dorsal, instead of 43 to 52, and 14 to 16 as in the other species. It also differs in the shorter pectoral fin, which reaches only a little more than half way to verticai from origin of dorsal instead of reaching nearly or quite to that point as in intermedius and poey. It differs further from intermedius in having only 9 instead of 11 or I2 anal rays, and its base is less than half the length of the head instead of notably longer than half the head. From poeyi it differs further in the shorter mandible, which does not end ina fleshy knob, and is included in the upper jaw, instead of ending in a fleshy knob and projecting prominently beyond the upper jaw. It differs from S. synodus (Linnaeus) in having only 3 complete rows of scales between the lateral line and the base of the NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND 13 dorsal, instead of 4 complete rows, and it has 20 or 21 scales on the back in advance of the dorsal where synodus has only 15 or 16. S. cinereus differs prominently from S. saurus (Linnaeus) in hav- ing only 9 rays in the anal instead of I1 or 12, as well as in the absence of a tentacle behind anterior nostril, which is prominent in saurus. It is readily distinguishable from S. nicholsi Breder, also from the Bahamas, by the much smaller head, which is contained only 2.9 times in the standard length of nicholsi, and by the included lower jaw, which projects in nicholsi. The name cinereus was suggested by the ash-gray color of the upper parts of the specimens. Family SERRANIDAE DIPLECTRUM MEXICANUM, new species Ficure 6 Head 2.9; depth 3.2; D. X, 12; A. III, 7; P. 17; scales 6-53. Body rather deep (for a Diplectrum), fairly compressed, its greatest thickness only a little greater than half its depth ; dorsal profile anterior to occiput only slightly convex; caudal peduncle rather strongly compressed, 2.55 in head; snout pointed, 4.6; eye large, 3.6; inter- orbital 8.9; preorbital very narrow, narrower than pupil; mouth large, oblique; lower jaw projecting moderately, its tip well below general dorsal outline of head; maxillary extending below posterior margin of pupil, 2.2 in head; teeth in each jaw in a narrow band, some of the outer ones in each jaw enlarged, villiform teeth on vomer and palatines; angle of preopercle somewhat produced, with IO or II somewhat enlarged spines, the middle ones not especially large, nor notably more divergent, the vertical limb rather strongly serrate, the horizontal limb mostly smooth; gill rakers rather robust, those at angle about half length of eye, 12 on lower (including rudi- ments), and 8 on upper limb, of first arch; scales firm, strongly ctenoid, in 6 oblique rows on cheek, larger on opercle, 4 in an oblique series below base of opercular spine; dorsal spines slender, rather high, fourth and fifth spines of about equal length, not quite twice the length of the ninth spine, and a little longer than the highest soft rays, 2.0 in head ; caudal forked, the upper lobe longer than the lower ; anal spines small, graduated, the second scarcely stronger than the third, 5.3 in head; ventral inserted slightly in advance of base of pectoral, with a slender spine contained 2.4 in head; pectoral reaching well beyond tip of ventral, about to vertical from vent, with a rather symmetrically rounded margin, 1.3 in head, 3.75 in length. —Se VOL. IIO CELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS MIS SMITHSONIAN 14 ———— ‘uowWeg ‘q AsueN ‘sayy Aq Suimerq ‘elusOpeED jo Jnr) WOIZ “WU ZZI YIBuay 1e}0} ‘(ISO “ON “W'N'S'() 244} 94} Wor ‘satoods Mou “mnuDrIxam wn14I3)¢1q—9 “OIA co : a po st 2 = oe PLE { Se EOE OR =——— Seon LOGS E rts o— AY ere a oes . NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND 15 Color brown above lateral line, pale brownish to pale silvery below ; back posteriorly with slight indications of narrow cross stripes; a dark blotch on opercle, and another one at base of caudal; fins plain translucent, the anal and ventrals a little paler than the other fins. This apparently new species is represented in the collections of the National Museum by the holotype (No. 46518), 125 mm. (94 mm. to base of caudal) long, the only specimen known, which was taken in the Gulf of California, at 30°18’ N., 113°05’ W., by the Albatross, on April 24, 1889. The deep body, the almost straight gently elevated dorsal profile of the head, the large scales, rather small number of gill rakers, the long slender dorsal spines, and the short anal spines distinguish this species from the others of the genus of the Pacific Coast. This species was named mexicanum because the type was taken in Mexican water. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS OP Nase! VOLUME 110, NUMBER 10 THE FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA, _. INCLUDING MITES AND TICKS BY 2 _ R. E. SNODGRASS Collaborator, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine U. S. Department of Agriculture ee ~ s -;é ~ ete iat ch ON ae oe ae ee SMe, Pe. - -s . . Pay: . 5 ra “ a Sie Ce i ot ol of nr ~yt* (Pustication 3944) . . ’ i « , \ Btn a CITY OF WASHINGTON "PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ee AUGUST 18, 1948 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 10 THE FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA, INCLUDING MITES AND TICKS BY R. E. SNODGRASS Collaborator, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine . S. Department of Agriculture (PuBLIcATION 3944) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AUGUST 18, 1948 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. , THE FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA, INCLUDING MITES AND TICKS By R. E. SNODGRASS Collaborator, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine U. S. Department of Agriculture CONTENTS Pace Iie, Sm ahi cs sulin wane aS che nals cil eae ee eee I I. General discussion of arachnid structure............00eceeeceeeees 3 DeUrERIR ONES RANIe CHS EDISLOMTIC, dine na dae Sicscuanadeductscvadseusen 5 LCS A A caw sine de ease bebe euta Reh ee inremmeNwEe 6 Ee PERTN CIN CNS ICOSs iiy'se caedesv vac cond ¥quksucovewclaseup’ 8 Pees NTT GEE TE OCCOLSL CAVIEY sco uaccctveorcncebteasswonae 14 The sucking organ, or so-called pharynx.............e+eeeeeeees 15 Comparison of Arachnida and XNiphosurida.............0000000es 16 SRST MEY CSN AETPONTGOT «5 oc cage Cd vaveVacenvkvasbevakspview aie 18 St. the Palpicradi, or Microthelyphonida..............ccccscsessenes 19 TERN. efi sah Ver d kate vensedhecdaenGnbesekanesdbleen 22 INE ae dis nds eh ewin dee Utesch veKewe Weenetuasbaciyteauhe 26 5s os cach dei udonanhiaaha hikes sa seawhe tow ae wns 31 VI. The Chelonethida, or Pseudoscorpionida............0cceeceeeeeees 33 EMMONS iua's cul i bawdecvnct«¢s0usdeddaqnesribecevetsunme 30 ee Phalanvida, Or Opiliones. .......ccceccsvnsbencnsencesnecsesve 43 IIIS Sith Plo) oe sida ad al we eka eb sabaGaeaweee ead SI TE . cccid Launsédwvdebepewatuns sudvhsceubee cobs omens 61 MM codecs sWaws'en sn obaeo edad nsebanteeeesas awakes 65 ER ere cigs naheindcethews ewitenshteaee ene tems 67 CE eS chan ce napaasens «nadethnauibeeanakuaea 67 SE CRG dmekdertedcrvcveatartcaressetyaltvsnenhesaees 69 PRCAIRO BEML ATPARIAIS, occ vc cccccccecccacecccesdcnsscdceseeces 71 EORTC. oon du wpdvasdddeusiaevateseversetavctebsueseuss 8o Abbreviations used on the figures....... 0.0.0. 0cce eee ee ee eeeeeeaee 86 ee a acne ve ¢cheaduiien divnca tes wemenshsehe Geen 88 INTRODUCTION Inasmuch as feeding is the function of prime importance with all animals, it seems strange that no animals were originally endowed with organs of feeding other than an intake opening into the alimen- tary tract and a sucking device for the ingestion of nutrient material. Primitive animals, therefore, swallowed water or mud and depended for their subsistence on what organic matter might be therein con- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 10 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. LIO tained ; and many modern animals still feed in this manner. It was left to evolution to produce accessory mouth structures for grasping, tear- ing, crushing, or chewing that would enable their possessors to get food in more concentrated form from plants or from the bodies of other animals. Since such organs are entirely different in the different groups in which they occur, it is clear that they have been independ- ently developed. Thus we find in the polychaete worms a pair of eversible pharyngeal hooks serving as jaws, in the mollusks a rasping apparatus, in the sea urchins a complex apparatus with a set of movable prongs surrounding the mouth, in the mandibulate arthropods a pair of jaws fashioned from the bases of a pair of legs, and in the vertebrates jaws derived from gill arches. The arachnids come from an ancestral line that never acquired organs for mastication, and even today they have no true jaws. The ancient trilobites probably were mud eaters; though they had plenty of legs, the legs were not structurally differentiated for special pur- poses, as in modern arthropods. The leg bases, it is true, were pro- vided with strong, spiny mesal processes, but the latter did not meet along the midline of the body, and could have had little use as feeding organs other than perhaps that of stirring up the mud from which the animals obtained their food. Likewise, true jaws have not been developed in the Xiphosurida, though the first appendages of these animals have taken the form of a pair of pincers, the chelicerae, which serve for grasping and are said to be used for putting food into the mouth, and the coxae of the next five pairs of appendages are provided with large, spinous lobes, more highly developed than those of the trilobites, but still not adapted for efficient mastication of food. The mandibulate arthropods, however, have finally produced from the coxae of the second postoral appendages a pair of strong biting and chewing jaws. Chelicerae are characteristic appendages of the Xiphosurida and the Arachnida. It is probable, therefore, but not a necessary assump- tion, that the arachnids and the xiphosurids inherited their chelicerae from some common progenitor. However, in the possession of che- licerae and legs, the primitive arachnids were well equipped for predatism and for terrestrial life; but, being without masticatory organs, they were forced to subsist on the liquids they could obtain from their prey. A liquid diet requires an ingestion pump, and, with all arachnids, a highly developed sucking apparatus constitutes the essential part of the feeding mechanism. Further structural evolution related to the feeding function of the Arachnida, therefore, should logically be in the direction of furnishing an efficient means ; NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—-SNODGRASS 3 of conveying liquids to the mouth from the prey held and crushed in the chelicerae. A comparative study of the external arachnid feeding organs shows, in fact, that the mouth parts are elaborations of structures associated with the oral aperture to form a preoral food receptacle and conduit to the sucking pump. That such accessory feeding organs are not primitive becomes evident when we find that in each arachnid order a different kind of structure has been evolved. The several orders of the Arachnida, therefore, with respect to the feeding apparatus, have no serial relation to one another. The entomologist who takes up a study of Arachnida obviously must readjust much of his anatomical outlook. Because insects and spiders are closely associated in nature, the study of arachnids has been a sort of sideline for entomologists ; for which reason, probably, we find in the language of arachnology various terms that have been carried over from entomology, and, as might be expected, often applied to parts that have no homology with organs of insects. Par- ticularly is this true with respect to the feeding organs. It is a part of the object of the present paper to eliminate entomological terms that have no proper application to arachnid anatomy. The vertebrate zoologist, of course, might justly contend that entomologists have no right to the many vertebrate terms that are given to insect struc- tures. However, conceding that names may be legitimately borrowed, they should be applied consistently at least within any one phylum; otherwise definitions become conglomerations, and morphology is handicapped by a meaningless terminology. I. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF ARACHNID STRUCTURE The fundamental structure of an arachnid is best understood from embryonic development. The young arachnid embryo (fig. 1 A, B), as the embryos of other arthropods, consists of a segmented or partly segmented body and a large head lobe (HL), which may be deeply cleft into lateral halves. Behind the cephalic lobe are the true somites, beginning with the somite of the chelicerae (A, /), which is followed by that of the pedipalps (//), and the four leg- bearing somites (J/J-V J). The embryonic head lobe of the arthropods always bears the labrum, the eyes, and the antennae if the latter are present, but the arachnids in common with the xiphosurids lack an- tennae, though these appendages were well developed in the trilobites. With development of the arachnid embryo, the labrum remains as a preoral, or supraoral, lobe of the head, but the ocular region extends posteriorly on the dorsum (C, D, HL) and becomes the eye-bearing 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO region of the back in the adult united with the tergal plates of follow- ing segments in the dorsum of the prosoma. The chelicerae become secondarily preoral, and in most cases the pedipalps take positions at the sides of the mouth. 7 \ ! / 1 \ \ t pro 1s Pap 11 yeas Fic. 1.—The prosomatic segmentation and appendages of Arachnida. A, young embryo of Euscorpius italicus (Hbst.), extended in a plane, showing cephalic lobe (HL) and postoral somites with appendage rudiments (from Laurie, 1890). B, embryo of Agelena labyrinthica L. (from Balfour, 1880). C, young embryo of Pediculopsis graminum (Reuter) in the egg just before reversion, lateral (from Reuter, 1909). D, embryo of Huscorpius italicus (Hbst.), longitudinal section through germ band to one side of median plane, showing cephalic lobe (HL) extended posteriorly on dorsal surface (from Laurie, 1890). E, diagram of the approximate prosomatic segmentation of an adult arachnid ; the primitive cephalic lobe (HL, stippled) forms the eye-bearing part of the back, the epistome (pst), and the labrum (Lm), and is invaded on the sides by the primarily postoral chelicerae (Chl) ; the pedipalp coxae (Pdp) turned forward and united mesally with the epistome. Chl, chelicera; Epst, epistome; HL, cephalic lobe of embryo; J-l’J, postoral somites of prosoma; J/S, sternum of pedipalp somite; rL-4L, legs; Lm, labrum; Mth, mouth; Pdp, pedipalp; PrC, preoral food cavity. The prosomatic segmentation of an adult arachnid, visualized from the known facts of anatomy and embryogeny, must be approximately as shown diagrammatically at E of figure 1. The part of the prosoma derived from the cephalic lobe of the embryo (HL, stippled) certainly includes the labrum (Lm), an epistomal region (Epst) differentiated at the base of the labrum, and the eye-bearing region of the back; it NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——-SNODGRASS 5 therefore includes also the narrow median strip of the anterior body wall connecting the epistome with the carapace between the cheliceral bases. The somite of the chelicerae is postoral in the early embryo (A, B, /), but the chelicerae in their preoral transposition invade the anterior part of the primary cephalic region (E, Chl), while the sternal part of the cheliceral somite, except possibly in Palpigradi, becomes so reduced that it is not recognizable in the adult structure. The appendages of the second postoral somite, the so-called pedipalps (A, B, Pdp), retain the primitive position in the Palpigradi, but in the other arachnid orders they move forward to the sides of the mouth (E, Pdp), and generally their dorsal walls unite with the epistome (Epst). Either the sternal plate of the pedipalp somite (J/S) or some other structure forms a lower lip projecting in front of the mouth, and there is thus enclosed, between the pedipalp coxae on the sides and the labrum (Lim) above, a preoral cavity (PrC) for the reception of food. The simple basic structure of the anterior part of an arachnid is well shown in a medium sagittal section, such as is represented dia- grammatically at D of figure 2. The eye region of the dorsum, the intercheliceral space, the epistome (pst), and the labrum (Lm) represent the cephalic lobe of the embryo. From the anterior margin of the back or carapace (Cp), the membranous front wall of the body (a-e) is reflected downward or obliquely backward, and bears the chelicerae (Chil) in their secondarily acquired supraoral position. Below the chelicerae the epistome (pst) extends forward, and sup- ports the labrum (Lim). The labrum is a free lobe, but the epistome lies between the pedipalp coxae and is generally united with their dorsal surfaces (A). Beneath the base of the labrum is the mouth (D, Mth). Projecting below the mouth is a lower lip, which may be the deutosternum (//S), as shown in the diagram, or some other structure replacing the latter. Between the labrum and the lower lip, however the latter may be formed, is the preoral food cavity (PrC) enclosed laterally by the pedipalp coxae. The mouth leads directly into the sucking organ known as the pharynx (D, Phy), the dorsal dilator muscles of which (d/d) are seen in the section to take their origins on the epistome (£pst). Modifications of these features occur in each of the arachnid orders, and are carried farthest in the Acarina, but they are clearly all derived from a simple basic structure. The labrum and the epistome.—A labrum is a part of the standard equipment of all arthropods from trilobites to insects, and there is no apparent reason for calling the preoral lobe of an arachnid any- thing else than labrum. Yet we find the organ described under such 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10 various names as “epipharynx,” “camerostome,” “rostrum,” “lingula,” “tonguelike process,” and “styletlike process.’ The arachnid labrum is variable in size and shape in different groups, but it is always present as a lobe of some form projecting above and beyond the mouth at its base (fig. 2 A, Lm). Proximal to the labrum, and supporting the latter, there is in most arachnids a distinct median plate (fig. 2 A, Epst) below the chelicerae. This plate has been regarded as a basal part of the labrum, or rec- ognized as an individual structure under a variety of names, such as “clypeus,” “epipharynx,” “intermaxillary jugum,” “subcheliceral plate.” Since the plate in question is usually well separated from the labrum, and is postoral in position, it is evidently a part of the head wall; it corresponds with the epistome (clypeus) of mandibulate arthropods, and hence may be so named in the arachnids. The arachnid epistome is not always distinctly separated from the labrum, and it may be more or less invaginated into the anterior body wall beneath the chelicerae, but it is to be identified by one or both of two characteristic relations to other structures. First, the plate is usually united with the pedipalp coxae, forming a bridge between their dorsal surfaces (fig. 2A, Epst) ; and second, it always gives origin, either directly or by means of a basal apodeme, to the dorsal dilator muscles (D, did) of the pharynx (Phy). In the xiphosurid Limulus also an epistomal plate (fig. 2 C, Epst) may be distinguished from the labrum (Lm) ; it here supports the chelicerae (Chl), and, while it is not united with the pedipalp coxae (J/C x), it sends out a long arm on each side close to the coxal margin. The chelicerae——The chelicerae, being the first postoral appendages of the arachnid, must represent the corresponding appendages of the mandibulate arthropods, and these appendages are the second antennae of Crustacea, or their homologues, the vestigial premandibular ap- pendages transiently present in some insect embryos. The homology of the arachnid chelicerae with the crustacean second antennae is accepted by Stérmer (1944) as obvious from the facts of compara- tive anatomy, and is fully confirmed by the origin of the cheliceral nerves from the tritocerebral lobes of the brain, as shown by Holm- gren (1920) and by Hanstrém (1928). The similar position of the arachnid chelicerae and the crustacean second antennae on the head is at once evident on comparison of a facial view of an arachnid (fig. 2A) with that of an amphipod (E), and in the phalangid Leiobunum (fig. 16 A), as in the amphipod Talorchestia (fig. 2 E), a median bar (f) connects the epistome with the dorsal wall of the head. The chelicerae of the Chelicerata, therefore, are not the an- 99 66 NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACIINIDA—SNODGRASS 7 Prstm 7 . mor Ss’ PrC Mth __ Ills Is Fic. 2—Cephalic structures of Arachnida, Xiphosurida, and an amphipod crustacean. A, anterior view of an arachnid, diagrammatic, the under lip represented as the pedipalp sternum (//S) as in Araneida. B, the same with chelicerae removed and the mouth parts sectioned transversely behind the palps, exposing the pharynx and its muscles. C, Limulus polyphemus L., the mouth region, anterior, with eat chelicera and base of right pedipalp. D, diagrammatic longitudinal section oft A, showing the preoral cavity (PrC), pharynx (Phy), and dorsal pharyngeal muscles (did) arising on the epistome (Epst). E, Talorchestia longicornis Say, amphipod crustacean, anterior view of head showing second antennae (2Ant) in position of chelicerae of an arachnid (A, Chl). I, Trochosa embryo, longi- tudinal section of anterior end, showing position of frontal ganglion (FrG) (from Holmgren, 1920, somewhat simplified). 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO tennules of mandibulate arthropods (fig. 2 E, rAnt), as they were formerly thought to be, nor are they the mandibles, as some arach- nologists still persist in calling them. Functionally, the chelicerae might be said to be the “jaws” of the arachnid, but their action is remote from the mouth and consists of grasping, holding, tearing, crushing, or piercing. Some students of arachnid embryogeny, as Laurie (1890) and McClendon (1904), say the definitive preoral position of the che- licerae results from a posterior displacement of the mouth, while Reuter (1909) says that as the mouth moves caudad there is a simul- taneous forward movement of the chelicerae. Since the mouth and the labrum retain their primitive positions at the anterior pole of the animal, the result, however produced, is the same as if the chelicerae had migrated anteriorly and dorsally around the mouth. In most cases the chelicerae come to lie entirely above the level of the epistome (fig. 2A), and so close together that they reduce the area of the primary embryonic head lobe between them to a narrow vertical strip. The chelicerae have the same essential structure and musculature in both the Xiphosurida (fig. 3 A) and the Arachnida (C). They are composed of three segments in Limulus (A), Palpigradi, Scor- pionida (B), Phalangida (C), and many Acarina; they are two- segmented in Solpugida (F), Pedipalpida, Chelonethida, Araneida (G), and some Acarina. The uniformly simple structure of the che- licerae precludes the possibility of determining the homology of the cheliceral segments with the segments of a leg. The terminal segment is the “movable finger,” which, except in Araneida (G), is usually opposed by an immovable process. The movable finger may be dorsal on the supporting segment, or it may be ventral, and in some forms lateral. The cheliceral pincer resembles the chela of a chelate pedipalp, but the movable finger of the chelicera has always both an opening and a closing muscle (fig. 3 A, D, E, F, G), while the movable finger of a pedipalp chela has only a closing muscle (fig. 5 E). When the chelicera is three-segmented (fig. 3 A, C), the middle segment is strongly musculated from the basal segment. The extrinsic muscles of the chelicerae arise on the dorsum of the prosoma (fig. 3 C), there being no cheliceral muscles corresponding with the ventral muscles of the other appendages. The pedipalps and the legs——vThe pedipalps are the second postoral appendages of the Arachnida; they are thus the homologues of the © mandibles of mandibulate arthropods; but arachnologists commonly — call them the ‘‘maxillae,” or at least they give this term to the coxae, | NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA-——-SNODGRASS 9 which usually are closely associated with the mouth. Though Hansen and Sérensen (1904), therefore, are morphologically correct in des- ignating the pedipalp coxae “mandibles,” the term is not appropriate in a functional sense, inasmuch as the pedipalp coxae do not form true jaws in any arachnid. Arachnology has the term pedipalp for the second pair of segmental appendages, and, though the latter are Fic. 3.—Structure and musculature of the chelicerae. A, Limulus polyphemus L., Xiphosurida, left chelicera of a young specimen, lateral. B, Pandinus sp., Scorpionida, chelicera. C, Leiobunum sp., Phalangida, left chelicera and muscles, lateral. D, same, distal segments of chelicera, showing both muscles of movable finger. E, Centruroides sp., Scorpionida, movable finger of chelicera and its muscles. F, two-segmented chelicera of a solpugid. G, two-segmented chelicera of a spider, Eurypelma hentsi Chamb., lacking a fixed finger. not always palpiform, there would seem to be no good reason for calling them either maxillae or mandibles. The coxae of the pedipalps in most of the arachnids are directed horizontally forward at the sides of the mouth (fig. 2A, //Cr), and, as already noted, their dorsal surfaces are usually united with the epistome (Epst), which thus forms an intercoxal bridge. The lines of union are generally distinct grooves (B, ecs), which are IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO commonly inflected to form internal ridges or platelike epistomo- coxal apodemes (B, ecAp). The coxal bases themselves may be pro- duced into coxal apodemes (fig. 9 B, cAp) having lateral positions relative to the median epistomal apodeme (eAp) when the latter is present in the same species. Only in the Palpigradi do the pedipalps retain a postoral status and have no relation to the mouth (fig. 6 D, Pdp). It is of interest to note that in the mandibulate arthropods the mandibles have a relation to the epistome very similar to that of the pedipalp coxae to the epistome in the arachnids. In the pterygote insects with biting jaws, and the decapod crustaceans, for example, the mandibles have an anterior articulation on the epistome (clypeus), while the decapod jaw, in addition, has a long hinge line on the epistomal margin. The telopodite of the pedipalp appendages may differ little from that of the legs, or it may be modified in various ways. Its adaptation in the male spider to form a sperm-carrying organ, having nothing to do with feeding, need not be considered here; but in the Scorpionida, Chelonethida, and some of the Pedipalpida the pedipalp is chelate, and with these arachnids the chelae become important adjuncts to the feeding function, since they serve for catching, holding, and crushing the prey. To understand the nature of the pedipalp chela it will be necessary to study the structure and musculature of the distal segments of an ordinary walking leg. The simplest structure of the end segment of an arthropod limb is seen in the legs of malacostracan Crustacea in which the appendage terminates with a clawlike segment, called the dactylopodite, movable by levator and depressor muscles arising in the segment proximal to it, which is the propodite, or tarsus. The legs of Limulus have a similar structure (fig. 4 F) though here the dactylopodite, or pre- tarsus (Ptar), forms the movable finger of a chela. Among the Arachnida a simple, clawlike end segment of the leg occurs in some of the Phalangida, as in Leiobunum (B, Ptar) ; but more commonly the pretarsus of the walking legs bears a pair of lateral claws, or ungues (A, Un), while the median claw is reduced to a toothlike dactyl (Dac) on the short base of the segment. Whatever the struc- ture of the pretarsus may be, however, two tendons are always at- tached to its base (A, B, /vt, dpt), one giving insertion to a levator (extensor) muscle, the other to a depressor (flexor) muscle. Even though the claws be greatly reduced or entirely absent, and the pre- tarsus become indistinguishable from the end of the tarsus, the two pretarsal tendons and their muscles may be retained, as in the slender first legs of Thelyphonidae. The levator muscle of the pretarsus in NO. IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—-SNODGRASS Il if) > Ptar Fic. 4.—Segmentation and musculature of the arachnid leg, and pretarsus of Limulus. A, Mastigoproctus giganteus (H. Lucas), Pedipalpida, end of a leg, pretarsus with a median claw (Dac) and two lateral claws (Un). B, Letobunum sp., Phalangida, end of pedipalp tarsus, with simple clawlike pretarsus. C, Pandinus sp., Scorpionida, distal segments of leg showing distribution of pretarsal muscles. D, Centruroides sp., Scorpionida, base of tarsus, showing presence of only a single tarsal muscle, a depressor (dptar), arising in tibia. E, Atemnus politus (Simon), Chelonethida, fourth leg and muscles, only one muscle (dptaer) on base of tarsus (from Chamberlin, 1931). F, Limulus polyphemus L.., Xiphosurida, chela of a leg, both muscles of pretarsus arising in tarsus. Dac, dactyl (median claw); dpptar, depressor muscle of pretarsus; dpi, de- pressor tendon of pretarsus; dptar, depressor of tarsus; dpth, depressor of tibia; Fm, femur; /vptar, levator of pretarsus; /vt, levator tendon of pretarsus ; lutb, levator of tibia; Pat, patella; Ptar, pretarsus; Tar, tarsus, 17 ar, 2Tar, first CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ‘ SEPTEMBER 3, 1948 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 12 Arie | DRUM MOUNTAINS, UTAH, Me PeORTTE (WirH Five PLATEs) BY E. P. HENDERSON Associate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology AND Sn bh. BERRY Associate in Mineralogy U. S. National Museum (PusticaTion 3946) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SEPTEMBER 3, 1948 The Lord Waltimore Mress BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A, THE DRUM MOUNTAINS, UTAH, METEORITE By E. P. HENDERSON Associate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology AND ols eee Associate in Mineralogy U. S. National Museum (With Five Plates) On September 24, 1944, two Japanese men, Yoshio Nishimoto and Akio Ujihara, temporarily stationed at the Topaz Relocation Center, Utah, were prospecting for rocks suitable for their class in lapidary arts. The area under investigation was about 16 miles west of Topaz in the Drum Mountains (latitude 39°30’ N., longitude 112°54’ W.). This district had been prospected several times with varying degrees of success, but fortunately these men were unusually persistent. Their trail happened to pass near a large rock protruding above ground about 2 feet. They noticed that it had a different appearance from other rocks scattered about ; it was dark brown in color and had holes in it; it would “not chip with a hammer.” As a result the men sus- pected that they had found something out of the ordinary, and Mr. Nishimoto sent a specimen of the rock to the Smithsonian Institution, with a letter of explanation describing the find. The specimen was small and very much battered, but the descrip- tion and sketch of the mass that accompanied it indicated clearly that a new and large meteorite had very likely been found. Tests made on the sample furnished proved that it was an octahedral meteorite. A quick search of our records failed to show any known fall from near Topaz, Utah; hence the specimen at once became of particular interest to us. The U. S. Geological Survey was asked to furnish a trained geologist to make a field investigation. They kindly consented and detailed Arthur E. Granger, then stationed in their Salt Lake City office, to make the study. The following is his report: The meteorite and the area surrounding it were examined on October 8, 1944. The specimen was found in an area of low hills lying between the Drum Mountains and the Little Drum Mountains. No section corners were found, but from other observations the location of the specimen was determined to be SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 12 Za SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO in Township 15 South, Range 10 West and approximately Section 29, Millard County, Utah, and, according to authorities at the Topaz camp, on public domain. The country rock is entirely basic or basaltic lavas and there was no evidence of a crater near the meteorite. The meteorite was not a recent fall, although it had undoubtedly remained on the surface since its fall and the area around it had been somewhat modified by erosion. From the amount of surface oxida- tion and relation of the specimen to the surrounding area I should guess that it fell within the last hundred years. There was enough of this iron projecting above ground to make it conspicuous once attention was attracted to it, and the fact that when struck with a hammer it gave a clear-toned ring perhaps prompted the finders to make investigation as to its nature. Shortly after Mr. Nishimoto received a letter from the National Museum identifying the specimen as a meteorite, it was moved from its resting place in the field to the Relocation Center, where it was dis- played for several days prior to shipment to Washington. The moving of such a heavy object required the assistance of several companions at the camp as well as the use of equipment kindly lent by the camp authorities. DESCRIPTION OF THE METEORITE The Drum Mountains iron weighs 1,164 pounds (529 kg.) and has approximately the following dimensions: 2 feet long, 1.5 feet high, and from 1.5 to 2 feet wide. Its greatest perimeter is approxi- mately 7 feet and its shortest about 5 feet. It is an irregular, rounded mass with few projecting points. The surface of the mass that was exposed above ground has been etched by wind-blown sand and dust. A delicate parallel grating of minor ridges, due to the unequal resis- tance to the dust abrasion of the different component alloys making up the meteorite, is a noteworthy feature of this iron. The surface is well covered with broad, shallow depressions popularly known as “thumb marks.’ However, there are other depressions that are deeper and that appear to have a different origin than these shallow thumb marks, which are assumed to have originated during flight. There are a number of these deeper depressions scattered over the surface on all sides of the meteorite. They are so irregular that ac- curate measurements of their size are difficult to make, but the relative dimensions of a number of them are given in table 1. The interior of these deeper cavities is usually evenly rounded and rather smooth, with a surface texture slightly different from the rest of the meteorite. Perhaps this is entirely due to the lack of any abrasion by the wind-blown dust, or to the fact that on the protected NO. I2 DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE—-HENDERSON AND PERRY 3 surfaces within the depression a slightly thicker film of oxide has accumulated. The side walls of these depressions are in most cases spherical in form, and frequently the openings have less of a diameter than the width of the cavity when measured about halfway down toward the bottom. That portion of the Drum Mountains specimen that was buried in the ground has a very different appearance from the rest of the meteorite. The oxide coating is more scaly and appears about like the rust on a weathered artificial iron. The oxide coating over the TABLE 1.—Approximate dimensions of the cavities in Drum Mountains meteorite Diameter Depth Inches Inches Diameter/depth 1.25 1.5 0.83 1.0 1.25 0.8 1.0 0.5 2.00 1.25 0.75 1.66 1.25 1.00 1.25 1.0 1.5 0.66 2.5 2.0 1.25 1.25 0.75 1.66 1.0 1.5 0.66 rest of the meteorite is firm, rather smooth, and does not appear to have been so intensively weathered as that on the bottom of the speci- men, perhaps because there the wind-blown material has cut much of the oxide film away. The shallow depressions or “thumb marks” so characteristic of the upper surface of this specimen are less con- spicuous on the under side. One large cavity which has a sharp rim around its opening was found to contain many layers of concentric iron-oxide scales; in fact this depression was almost entirely filled with scales when the meteorite was received. This cavity was so located on the specimen, as it stood in the field, that it would not have accumulated water from surface rains. Any moisture that did enter would do so by condensa- tion or by capillary creep, against the metal. It appears that this depression was being deepened and enlarged by corrosion from moisture condensed within it. These concentric scales of iron oxide cut across the internal structure of the meteorite making a rosette of scales. (See pl. 1, fig. 2.) Unfortunately, the scales from this cavity were cleaned out and mixed into one sample. It would have been desirable to have made some tests upon the composition of the various layers to see how the 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO nickel content differed. The following quotation from J. S. March, “Alloys of Iron and Nickel,” p. 512, seems worthy of repeating: In 1916 Stead1 reported that the scales of nickel steels consist of several layers and that the nickel content of the layers differed widely. For example the outermost layer of scale on a 25% nickel steel consisted mainly of iron oxide, whereas the innermost layer included particles of metal containing 76% nickel. These findings were amply verified by Pfiel2 who found the scale on iron and steel to consist of three layers, on a 2.75% nickel steel the outermost layer of scales contained no nickel, the middle layer 0.16% and the innermost layer 7.07%. March further states (p. 511): Once a continuous film is formed further oxidation must proceed by dif- fusion of oxygen through the oxide layer. Cracking and peeling of films in service are often to be ascribed to bending or cycles of heating and cooling. But the absence of such stresses, cracking may result when the metal surface is converted to oxide, volume changes leave the film in a state of compression, and it can be shown that these stresses result in cracking when the thickness of the film exceeds a limiting value. This explanation seems to account for the structure shown by the scales in this cavity. The surface appearance of these scales resembles that of the bottom of the meteorite. Any water falling on the exposed surface would drain off easily, and that accumulating in the upturned depression would rather rapidly evaporate. Moisture evaporating from the ground would condense and be retained on the under surface of the specimen or in an inverted depression; hence these parts have been exposed to many more hours of hydrous alteration. Some of these deep holes did not show any excessive accumulation of iron oxide. There is one cavity in the large piece removed for sectioning which extended through three of the slices. The iron oxide that had formed around the surface of this hole was not of equal thickness all around the cavity. This oxide also cuts across the internal pattern of the meteorite. The 22-pound specimen removed for sectioning was found to con- tain few small troilite inclusions ; hence we do not attribute these deep holes to the burning out or weathering out of troilite. The depth of these depressions suggests that they may have been in existence prior to the time the meteorite entered our atmosphere. A sample of scaly material was analyzed. Several other pieces of scale were polished and found to contain small inclusions of metallic iron. J. E. Stead, Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 94, pp. 243-248, 1916. L. B. Pfiel, Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 119, pp. 501-560, 1929. 1 2 NO. I2 DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE—HENDERSON AND PERRY 5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE A slice about three-eighths of an inch thick was polished and etched to develop the structure of the iron and reveal any inclusions. The sample used in the analysis was selected by cutting out all inclusions or unusual structural features so as to obtain a characteristic sample of the meteorite. TABLE 2.—Composition of Drum Mountains meteorite E. P. Henderson, analyst Fresh Oxide meteorite scales EP te cd wh oe Wa 90.70 Not determined UMM Oats cist an’ 6 a 8.59 5.42 eee 0.58 0.51 Pensa rde See Reo cds tie trace Not determined ayer ek ees teed none Not determined EUISOL) oot a ee vviae'ald 0.01 Not determined ESC Seales cackve les ak 5.26 99.88 Sp.g., 7.857. Mol. ratio= eens =10.47. Ni+ Co The Drum Mountains iron is a medium octahedrite, with bands averaging about I mm. in width but with occasional wider or nar- rower bands. The octahedral structure is highly developed, though somewhat irregular. Taenite is abundant, with many thickened or wedge-shaped lamellae having darkened cores due to incomplete transformation. A number of Reichenbach lamellae up to 2 or 3 cm. in length are noticeable. A few nodular troilite inclusions were observed and also a number of small irregular inclusions. Schreibersite appears in irregular bodies of various shapes, some of considerable size, but no rhabdites or fine phosphide particles were observed. Although the analysis shows no sulfur and only traces of phosphorus, the sample chosen for analysis being carefully selected to avoid them, both troilite and schreibersite are fairly abundant in the meteorites. Plessite fields are numerous and show a great variety of structure. Some very light fields are composed of a reticulated pattern of kama- cite grains with droplets of taenite along grain boundaries. In some fields the scattered taenite particles are imperfectly spheroidized. In contrast with these “light” types are many “dense’’ fields composed 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO of an imperfectly transformed gamma-alpha mixture, appearing black and unresolved except at high magnifications, the dark interiors often being traversed or even filled with oriented lamellae of kamacite. At the edge of one slice a zone of heat alteration was observed, the normal structure being obliterated by secondary granulation. This meteorite must have struck the earth with considerable force, but neither the surrounding area nor the specimen itself showed any indication of where or how this energy was dissipated. The prob- lem of how much kinetic energy this mass would have had as it struck the earth, assuming the meteorite as falling from a height of 10 miles and starting with o velocity, was presented to L. B. Al- drich, Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. His reply is as follows: The magnitude of the air resistance in the fall of your meteorite from 10 miles up is very uncertain. If we assume no air resistance, the 10-mile fall would take 57 seconds and its velocity on reaching the earth would be 1,840 feet per second. Its kinetic energy would be 61 million foot-pounds, or 84 million joules. These are computed from the well-known formulae: V=V, + at S = Vit + tat? Kinetic Energy = 4 MV? where V = velocity, t=time, s—distance, M=—=mass, and a=acceleration due to gravity. Actually, of course, the kinetic energy on reaching the earth would be ap- preciably less because of air resistance. A. F. Zahm some years ago, using 4-inch spheres as projectiles, experimentally determined air resistances for velocities up to 1,000 feet per second. Applying his values to the meteorite I compute that it would take approximately 70 seconds to fall and its kinetic energy would be about 18 million foot-pounds. Two uncertain factors enter, however: (1) Air at 10 miles altitude is much less dense than lower down. Thus the computed value is too small. (2) The meteorite is not a sphere, but a rough, irregular mass. This would make the computed K.E. too much. My guess is that the meteorite’s K.E. would be per- haps in the order of 20 million foot-pounds. We know the meteorite started much higher than 10 miles up and that it had an initial velocity much greater than zero assumed for this problem. However, before the mass hit the earth it had attained its maximum velocity and in fact must have been slightly retarded. Yet when this 1,164-pound iron was found it was resting almost entirely on the surface of the ground. True, it may have come to rest after striking elsewhere, but no crater was found in that vicinity. There is only one place where the meteorite exhibits any distorted metal that may mark the place on the sample which came in contact with the ground at the moment of impact. One would certainly think NO. I2 DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE—HENDERSON AND PERRY 7 that a meteorite of this weight falling upon hard rock would be con- spicuously scarred, but it is not so in this case. There is always the possibility that it fell at a place where there was considerable accumu- lation of sand or soil and perhaps the ground at that point may also have been further protected by a rather deep snowdrift. The Drum Mountains iron is the eighth largest individual meteorite reported from within the United States. The following table lists the individuals preserved in collections which exceed the Drum Mountains in weight. List of individual meteorites from the United States which exceed Drum Mountains in weight Weight Name State of origin Kg. SEMEN Beso di aii g disses diiws anes 050 CS ¥ “dO et . : SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANE barely contin lessite consistit the grain bound: uous at the edge OUS COLLECTION of iries (hardly ot rayness even with strong es oa : 3 th ne etching = .| ‘ , co _ SMITHSONI AN’ MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 13 (Env oF VoLtuMeE) / * F J —* . ms te % CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE SOVIET UNION , ~s Tso (Wits Five Pvates) COMPILED BY, HENRY FIELD +. VPsOO Ne erat pes on Oe (Pusiication 3947) , CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION DECEMBER 22, 1948 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 110, NUMBER 13 (ENp oF VoLUME) CONTRIBUTIONS PO THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE SOVIET UNION (Wit Five PLates) CoMPILED BY HENRY FIELD Al THsOP Se HSONG NTVvt we ETS x ont (Pusiication 3947) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION DECEMBER 22, 1948 ‘The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A. CONTENTS SC tis bake wow Jy bch ksi Dow sa nat 40 baled bade» ebdeelaah anes v I. All-Union Conference on Archeology............secsecceees sevveucs I PIEOUTES A1Y SIETODGIONY « « ven vénc sc ceperacceavéesbetaceedacaene 7 Ai, Ancient peoples and their origin..........cecesceceucsccecses 7 Penner races and their history. os ...scnpsemescvebecseucves 12 C. Variations in the structure of human bodies.............00000 17 as aS cide a bs. vv ave Wy ont aia Wone Wx ew eke e ene Cena 2 a aa OU a irta'a ns oh o'4.5 X08 hae 0 Nid da gu ae eee 20 Primitive Mousterian and Clactonian sites............00ceeeeeee 21 Black Sea Littoral: Abkhazia and Crimea.................- 21 RS i Ca bh s Bila dtu viaie's CS arses gine Meee eee e 23 Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic sites..................005: 29 Rem MRINE AES COE EUE ERE Fea bw ux 0 Cdl ein's aerate ewe en ee 29 UREA aE ac clk ah ec ats 6 wns iow Gia te Meee 37 PREMIER ON ERE 15.59, lei y sic... ave Was whiten dneilam ak ae ee 46 a sete o's das 4s VU ves +a hale vx edo Pane Ue te ae Wick 46 EAVES TIN TOCHGANCASUS: «ks 3 555 oo ccae Ucliene Reaeoe eee eee 50 Peeeirenenmerine Cancass.' 15.0.5 svar eeitawadd veeniae 52 Pa Ce er IES eS... 5s + ond iv eaten ads toes wehbe 53 RN ANCE ing 55. i nailed 0.tih apininhido (0G Ab dineaabaplbie einen 64 SEIBCEMANCH ALCHCOLORICA 4.05000 0c vacesedsnpnen ren scionsonienbeces 66 MBER Ms ce 1 oY cha De state's ned Kelty aepebinanete ns Oe 66 MER aTS NMR re gy hal arg’ cas FEL Wie ain isiniaeetined aun Sle alee ee ae 67 OADTGEE oe 5 en nn se OE OREO ER oof POS mre ee. 67 aera Te asic 5 0k ai gine: begs Nass amas’ nh gle lly SE REE AGS ee 75 en ng ne oe ae cay wit ides inna enee 78 a tide ie Se cals ies ats ee teeta 7 POINTE Oe aac n tics» oc ee ae cis eee Taree Oko ica ares teense aie 85 See CE eyo fc. lt Doves cubes ti eu seacmnedbalevaerantt 85 PN Ee ir nit dp das 2a benvdankae sie qualbein seks 87 Novo-Akkermanovka cemetery .........ssssecscseesssssees 87 Pe ERIE AIOLOTY © . os cache vbineasswasaveotedepates vash &8 EE can ob an on dtrdnwes s denna deen Ghent tuscan dae a &S8 Previous research in the Upper Volga region...............- O4 Reet AIT Etch al, iiw divine wndln oat eclee tus auenend wa dawiiake ee 95 TORRID oo boat eink s since dabekesls ame Puede 95 ee So td de in wih cnebedaebalie unter enaee 106 Cs Ti BOOS ee eee ik dh danas vane tieaeanan 110 Siberia ..... PR Conc a wasunwenesbchsvessi3s unenbbudelcen heen 110 Khakass A. S. Mey do packiweckesincuncabGdwettbokeeeeuacee 110 SE MNCEUSTIOR AGHMTODOIOBICR ... cc ence ccndsdavetenssaccccsactscocests 113 CLS. Mec dpcivuchbadudesncsstecttWe 68denpee shale 113 Anthropology of the western Pamirs...........ccecceeeeeeeeeees 116 Iranian tribes of the western Pamirs ba'scees stu dukes Gedabe Sale 119 Mountain Tajiks ......... nadedmocd&hi\ qhbstiaks cibodduatahekete 125 iv CONTENTS Pace Peoples) iof ‘Uzbekistan. ana. cle certo eee enone ee 161 Reasons for supposing nomads dolichocephalic............... 168 Comparison with historical, ethnological, and philological data. 173 Linguistic and anthropological characteristics of Turkomans.. 174 Uzbeks: of Khwatazmirn: Gus ace een ee eee 183 Kazalkhs of thevAlltaissc2eracs eho eetere Sa eee 184 Pigmentation: 02 .t/.ysis2. 00a oes oa et ee eek ee ane eee 185 Beard «development 1.) ssa one oes eee oe eee eee 187 Head fOr: Seorcata cs eae Re a ED AE ee a 188 Browfidges: sos2acaceas ees eee ee eee 188 Racial form oo. tie one cae eee ee ee eee 189 INOSE) te 2are iba hee Wake Gisele aeiece Ueda ale Bat eee Deer 189 Lei ps rete sie a ettsiteblsl Cae iid oo ee ee ee eee 190 Fars) scolar techs ih ARO OES SING ee hace ee 190 Summary’ SoCs ee ea oe eee ee 190 Western ‘Kazakhs: sacnide) ck haere sadatlan teehee eee eee 195 Pigmentation: $2 Abe Serntls Sa oes nee aio ee pei oie Pee Ere 197 Startins sata eases Slat oire Pilea ats saantcs Alt ata Rie 199 Cephalic index. fao0 Jrob dlr Sao nd as eee ee 200 Flead ‘breadthy e's See ke oe he ea eee 200 Bactal ind sx cts faesc cates eee eae cle OEE 201 Nasal! indexes nc das ches too eth lge oe oe oon ee eee 201 Conclusions? scl can cree ce ere aes ae tee eee el ee eee 203 Turkomans of Khwarazm and the North Caucasus............... 204 A-study of the: Turkish peoples, 1924-1634. /22252. 2h ose eee 207 Paleoanthropology of the Lower Volga area.............c0..+00 213 Craniology of the Tatars of the Golden Horde.......1.......... 216 Conclusions: 2h 4g egac snail Sa eere al a a eee 220 Grantology tof the Kalmyks-os.-scenioeece ooo eee eeeEeEe 222 The Wich GNani)scranialstypesssaseceecoee en eee eee ete 226 Twortypesvor y akuticrania.icnes seek ee eee en eee eee 227 Craniology of the Orochis of the Maritime area............-ce0. 228 Craniology. of thes Alleuts j.cs5 sts ce oisin Sas st eisihte ee eee 230 Gonelusions) pecs aot te eee ee ee eee 234 | Origin of thei Mofigol: s24.1 coke dada cee ee a ee ee 235 a Origin of the Eskimos, ee Pea ee eee eae Te 236 | @bservations oni thetibiasens sas a acer eee eee ere 237 Head tonmiandsenrowthiineutenoaie cient nies 237 Avstudy/on blood sroups im the Gancasuse+ sete een ere reteeeree 238 Isoagelutination of the Turkomans.s s...05... cose s oe see The Tardenoisian skeleton from Fatma-Koba, Crimea............ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Puate t.. Akhshtyr cave,) Abkhazia\....:6.). Suncuc sch eutes othe eae eee PLATE 2: Mzymta ‘Gorge, Ablshazialwyos.inenice cicielearee pieces ee ieeeaere ent Priate 3. Dr. and Mrs. S. N. Zamiatnin and Dr. A. E. Jessen outside Akhshtyr cave,. Abkhazia). 5, 1525 /2.)h/ tals Ho. Sle meainne sleet PEATE 4. Gross) section of Akhshtyn cave, Abkhazialyso mines ceienecien Puiate 5. Dr. M. E. Masson and Dr. L. V. Oshanin examining skulls from )Khwarazm, Uzbekistan... .c)sie'e oie ois sre ieravain el steerer PREFACE This study, which includes a compilation of anthropological data based on Soviet published and unpublished materials, has been divided into two sections, one dealing with archeology, the other with physical anthropology. The majority of the archeological publications from which sum- maries have been translated were given to me while a guest of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. during June—July, 1945, in Moscow and Leningrad. The occasion was the Jubilee Session cele- brating the 220th anniversary of the founding of the Academy by Peter the Great. I was the bearer of official greetings from the Smithsonian Institu- tion, the Archaeological Institute of America, the American Anthro- pological Association, the Library of Congress, the National Archives, and the National Geographic Society. Ata full session of the Praesid- ium of the Academy of Sciences in Moscow I was invited to address the Academy and to present these greetings from the United States, which were officially accepted and warmly reciprocated by President Vladimir Komarov. For an account of this trip the reader is referred to “Anthropology in the Soviet Union, 1945” in the American Anthro- pologist, vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 375-396, 1946. Chapter III was translated by Mrs. John F. Normano, the Asia Institute, New York City. Chapters IV and V are based on sum- maries translated by Eugene V. Prostov prior to 1941. Some sections in chapter IV have been translated from French summaries during 1946 by Mrs. David Huxley, to whom a footnote reference is given. A special introduction to chapter IV, with a list of abbreviations (pp. 114-115), has been included. _ While every effort has been made to express clearly and concisely the results obtained by the Soviet archeologists and anthropologists whose work has been translated and summarized, this has proved to be an exceptionally difficult task. Among other special problems was the fact that work was begun on this publication 10 years ago and during the war years remained untouched. In addition, my collaborator, Eugene V. Prostov, has been on Government service abroad since 1946. However, he has checked the text, particularly the spellings of proper names, but with- out his customary library and reference works at hand. Hence, some discrepancies and inconsistencies, will appear. Dr. Sergei v v1 PREFACE Yakobson, Consultant in the Library of Congress, very kindly stand- ardized some of the spellings in order to follow the Library of Con- gress system of Russian transliteration. Some place names follow the spelling approved by the Board on Geographical Names. We noted, but could not correct or change, differences in terminology ; we have kept as close to the original as possible. In some cases we have made minor additions to elucidate the text either in footnotes with initials or in brackets. Since we have often taken considerable editorial license with the text in the selection and rearrangement of the materials, we decided to place the name of the author in the first footnote of each article. On the other hand, there should never be any question as to the authorship of any statement. This publication should be considered as complementary to our previous publications on the U.S.S.R. (see chapter IV, footnotes I, 2), to my “Contributions to the Anthropology of Iran,” and in particular to my forthcoming “Contributions to the Anthropology of the Caucasus,” wherein will appear my anthropometric data on the North Osetes and Yezidis as well as Soviet comparative data on Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia. No bibliography has been compiled because, for the sake of con- venience, references have been listed in the footnotes. In the preparation of this material for publication, I have had some editorial assistance from Miss Morelza Morrow. As already mentioned, Mrs. John F. Normano and Mrs. David Huxley trans- lated part of the material. The greater part of the text was typed by Miss Elizabeth Beverly in Thomasville, Ga. Miss Betsy King Ross, who very kindly assisted in the final stages of preparation, also typed part of the manuscript. We wish to acknowledge with gratitude all this assistance. We also wish to thank Dr. T. Dale Stewart, curator of physical anthropology of the United States National Museum, for making helpful suggestions regarding certain portions of the manu- script. My wife generously assisted in the compilation of the statis- tical tables and in proofreading the copy. Weare grateful to Soviet anthropologists, who have contributed so much to our knowledge of ancient and modern man from the Ukraine to Siberia and from the Far North to Central Asia. We received information in 1939 and in 1945 that anthropometric surveys were in progress in European Russia, in the Caucasus, Turkestan, Central Asia, and Siberia, and hope that at some not too distant date we may be able to make the new results available to the | PREFACE vii student of Asiatic racial problems, who is either unfamiliar with the Russian language or does not have access to this important Soviet literature. n Henry Frevp October 28, 1946. Cuernavaca, Mexico. Na Winey Wat Aaesee aaah re til) REG!) donk abies, Bh CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE SOVIET UNION CoMPILED By HENRY FIELD (Wir Five Prates) I. ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON ARCHEOLOGY? This Conference, called by the Academy of Sciences, was held in Moscow during 1945. Represented at the Conference by a total of 156 delegates were the Marr Institute, the Academies of Sciences of the various Union Republics, branches of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, Peoples Commissariats of Education of the Union and Autonomous Republics, universities, teachers’ colleges, central, terri- torial, regional, and municipal museums, the Commission on the Preservation of Ancient Monuments, and other scientific bodies. The Conference was opened by V. Volgin, Vice President of the Academy of Sciences and chairman of the committee on organiza- tion. In his opening speech Academician Volgin reminded the dele- gates that the Marr Institute—the leading center of Soviet arch- eology—had recently celebrated its twentieth anniversary. l*ounded as the Russian Academy of the History of Material Culture, it suc- ceeded the Committee on Archeology which had been in existence since 1859. “We no longer support the teachings of former archeologists that the ancient history of our country was represented by separate ‘archeological civilizations.’ We regard it rather as a harmonious and logically connected chain of consecutive stages in the development of humanity from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages.” The problem of the origin of the Slavs and their relations with neighboring tribes is now presented from a new angle. Archeolo- gists have traced the first stages in the formation of the Slavonic tribes to the beginning of our era. Scientists of today base their conclusions on material found in strata dating back to the Bronze Age and Neolithic civilizations. More and more light is being shed upon the unification of the Slavonic tribes in the first thousand years of our 1From VOKS Bulletin, 1946. This has been condensed and edited to conform to our style. (H. F.) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 13 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO era, a factor which exerted a tremendous influence upon the history of Eastern and Central Europe. Academician B. Grekov delivered a report on the achievements of archeological investigations in the U.S.S.R. He pointed out that interest in ancient cultural remains has long existed in Russia. As early as 1804 a scientific society called the Society of History and Russian Antiquities was founded in Moscow. As stated at the time, this Society was interested, among other things, in collecting an- tiquities, medals, coins, and other objects shedding light on various events in Russian history. Pre-Revolutionary archeologists excavated much material con- nected with the ancient history of the peoples of Russia. The remains of Hellenic civilization in the northern regions of the Black Sea coast, objects excavated from Scythian burial mounds, and other materials cleared up many previously unexplored periods of Russian history. It was mostly due to the efforts of archeologists that a new field of study was opened to historians—the study of the Scythians who in- habited the territory of the present U.S.S.R. before the Slavs. Parallel with these investigations, archeologists unearthed the monuments of ancient Slavs in the Caucasus and Siberia. In order to clarify previous observations and conclusions, the archeologists established firm ties with paleoanthropology, paleo- zoology, geology, soil science, philology, and history. At the present time archeology no longer stands apart from the general aims of history, but is itself a historical science solving the same problems and pursuing the same aims in its own specific field. In recent years the number of sites investigated by archeologists has greatly increased. At the present time there is not a single region or nationality in the U.S.S.R. which has not been the object of study. Significant achievements have been made in the study of the Stone Age. Hundreds of Paleolithic sites have been discovered and in- vestigated, including those at Kostenki-Borshevo, Gagarino, Timo- novka, and Malta and Buret in Siberia. Parallel with these studies, archeologists have charted the various periods in the Russian Paleo- lithic age, establishing the characteristics of its three main provinces— Asia, Europe Proper, and the regions of the Caspian Sea. These discoveries contributed much that was new to the existing conception of forms of Paleolithic tools and implements and of the art and mode of life of the people of that period. Thorough investigations of a number of regions (the central part of European Russia, the Karelian-Finnish S.S.R., the Urals, and the Baikal area) made it possible to distinguish between the various NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 3 Neolithic civilizations and determine their chronological sequence. The new discoveries made in the course of these investigations, par- ticularly the rock drawings in Karelia, the Gorbunovo turf pit, the Olen-Ostrov burial mound, and others, shed light on the religious conceptions of the Neolithic period, an aspect heretofore little studied. Extensive investigations of the early Bronze Age have also been made. Excavations along the Dniester and the southern part of the Bug Rivers and at Usatovo near Odessa demonstrated the existence of various stages in the development of Tripolje culture and proved its prevalence in the whole Dnieper and Danube basin during the period from 3000-1000 B.C, Distinctions were established between the Bronze Age cultures in the northern and southern Caucasus, the Shengavit and Angbek cultures attributed to the early Bronze Age, the Kuban burial mounds and Eilar and the excavations at Trialeti,? all of which contained remains of highly developed Bronze Age cultures. Excavations at Urartu brought to light considerable material on the history of ancient Armenia. Investigations carried out in the Black Sea regions and in the Ukraine established the chronology of three main cultures—those characterized by pit, catacomb, and hut dwellings. The origin of each of these three types was clearly defined, and investigations were made of settlements of this period for the first time. It was established that the final stage in the development of Bronze Age culture was that of the Cimmerians, who inhabited this region previous to the coming of the Scythians. In the Volga region investigations established the existence of two cultures—that of Poltava (the beginning of the Bronze Age) and of Khvalinsk (the end of the Bronze Age). Investigations in Siberia established three stages of the Bronze Age as represented in the Afanasiev, Andronovo, and Karasuk cultures. A new culture—the Abashev—was discovered in the Chuvash Republic and adjacent regions. The study of the Scytho-Sarmatian culture is of great significance for a knowledge of the population in the pre-Slavonic era and for determining the ethnogeny of Slavonic tribes. New excavations were carried out on the ancient sites of Kamensk, Sharapovsk, and Nemi- rov, as well as on the right bank of the Bug River and the western coast of the Black Sea. Excavations were also made of Scytho- Sarmatian burial mounds in the Kuban, the southern regions of the Dnieper, and in other localities. Soviet archeologists continued the excavations begun in the ancient 2See Kuftin, B. A., and Field, Henry, Prehistoric culture sequence in Trans- caucasia, Southwestern Journ. Anthrop., vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 340-360, 1946, and Microfilm No. 2310, pp. 1-126, in American Documentation Institute. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO cities of the Black Sea region—Olbia,* Chersonesus, Phanagoria, and Kharabs [Charax?]. Excavations were also begun at other sites. A more profound comprehension of the Scythian problem, as Academician Grekov pointed out, prepared the ground for a revision of views concerning the origin of the Slavs, particularly of the eastern branch. New investigations have confirmed the ethnogenetic chart outlined by Academician Nikolai Marr confirming the local origin of the eastern Slavs whose roots go back to the tribes of the Tripolje culture, to the Bronze Age civilization in the steppe regions, to the Scythians, and finally to the epoch of field burials. Agricultural tribes of Scythians along the middle course of the Dnieper as well as tribes from the upper reaches of the Dnieper, whose culture has been studied only in the past few years, are now accepted as component factors of the Slavonic ethnogeny. One of the most important subjects of archeological research has been that of the Antae and their culture. Investigations of this prob- lem can confirm the existence of definite connections between Antean culture and that of the preceding burial-field stage of culture and can also show the more original nature of Antean culture and its higher stage of development. Evidence pointing to this is found in their field agriculture, livestock breeding, skilled arts and crafts, and large settlements of an urban type. Beyond question the center of Antean culture lay in the middle reaches of the Dnieper, in the regions later inhabited by the Polians. Grekov considers it to be an established fact that the culture of Kiev Russ is a successor of Antean culture. In this connection Academician Grekov dwelt on the researches of Soviet archeologists concerning Russian culture and in particular ancient Russian cities. The first stage in these researches was devoted to revealing the prehistory of these cities, going far back into the pre- feudal period. The most important of these ancient cities were those which preceded modern Kiev, the settlements of the eighth and ninth centuries on the ancient site of Riurik near Novgorod, the cultural strata of the fifth and sixth centuries underlying the Pskov Kremlin, and the ancient strata of Staraia Ladoga dating back to the seventh and eighth centuries. Taken in conjunction with the collections obtained by pre-Revolu- tionary expeditions, the many handicraft objects found in recent excavations enable archeologists to have a detailed picture of the evolution of urban crafts, their connection with and influence upon rural crafts, the progress and differentiation of technical methods, 8 See Minns, Ellis H., Thirty years of work at Olbia, Journ. Hellenic Studies, vol. 45, pp. 109-112, 1945. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 5 and the labor skills involved in each particular craft. A study of the cast forms, for example, and of craftsmen’s marks, throws light on the social position of the latter, their organizations, and similar matters. Materials relating to various periods of the Bronze Age have been unearthed at Shengavit settlement, at Shresh-Blur, and in Eilar. Particular interest attaches to the findings made by the expedition of the Georgian Academy of Sciences in the Trialeti burial mounds. Excavations of a tomb near Mtskheta, just north of Tbilisi {formerly Tiflis], furnished valuable material relating to the ancient Georgian kingdom. New finds, which shed light on the later Urartu epoch, have been unearthed on the hill of Kamir-Blur by expeditions of the Armenian Academy of Sciences. Extensive research has been carried on in Azerbaidzhan concerning cyclopean edifices. Investigations of medieval cities in Armenia and Georgia have been launched on a large scale. All these and many other excavations have produced material on the ancient history of the peoples inhabiting the Caucasus and Transcaucasia and their relations with ancient eastern states. Excavations in Central Asia have unearthed Kelte-Minar and later Tazabagiab cultures which indicate historical connections between the population of ancient Khwarazm (Khoresm) and the north (the Afanasiev and Andronovo cultures), and the east (the Anau culture). Expeditions in Shakhrasiab, Urgench, and Khwarazm, and the ex- cavations of ancient Taraz, all of which unearthed material on a later period in the history of Central Asia, have proved the existence of cultural relations between the ancient population of Central Asia and the Near East. Prior to 25 years ago only 3 Paleolithic sites were known in Siberia, whereas more than 60 are known today. This has made it possible to establish the various periods in Siberian Paleolithic cultures, and of Neolithic settlements in the lower reaches of the Amur, on the shores of Lake Baikal, on the Angara, the Yenisei, and the Ilim Rivers. A study of the Bronze Age established the first appearance of livestock breeding, agriculture, and the smelting of metal. Three stages of Siberian Bronze Age culture have been established—the Afanasiev, the Andronovo, and the Karasuk. The dissemination of northern Chinese bronze as far west as the present cities of Molotov and Gorki raises the question of the role of cultural relations with the Far East as well as with the Near East, in forming a cultural unity among the peoples inhabiting the territory of the U.S.S.R. in ancient times. Remains corresponding to Scytho-Sarmatian culture in the southern regions of European Russia have been discovered in Siberia. In archeological research concerning the peoples of the Volga and 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Ural regions, particular attention has been paid to the so-called Ananino culture, which is a connecting link between the Bronze Age and the formation of now existing nationalities of these districts. During the Soviet period large-scale investigations have been begun to elucidate the early history of the Udmurts, the Komis, the Bashkirs, and the Mordovian tribes. Special attention has been given to a study of the Bulgar and Khazar cultures. It is now possible to reconstruct a picture of the life in the Bulgar cities of the Volga region (Bulgari, Suvara, and others) both in ancient times and in the period of the Golden Horde. A systematic study of the material relating to the Khazars has made it possible to elucidate a number of obscure aspects of Russian-Khazar relations in the history of the Slavonic-Russian colonization of the southeast. Without the efforts of archeologists the early pages of the history of the Bulgars, the Khazars, the eastern Slavs, and the even earlier Scythian and Greek colonies on the north coast of the Black Sea, and of ancient Armenia and Georgia would still remain unknown. Academician Meshchaninov delivered a report on the planning of archeological expeditions in the U.S.S.R. Many of the archeo- logical investigations, both theoretical and field researches outlined for the 1945-1949 period, are closely linked with key problems con- cerning the history of Soviet peoples which have been singled out for attention in the last few years. In most cases plans for large-scale excavations provide for the cooperation of several scientific institutes. The plan also provides for systematic researches covering several years and extensive regions. In liberated cities where reconstruction will be carried out on a large scale, appropriate archeological work is being planned as well as measures for preserving the most im- portant monuments of the past. One of the tasks confronting Soviet archeologists is that of restor- ing the collections of many of the museums plundered by the Nazis and the restoration of many treasures of Soviet art and architecture damaged during the German occupation. Academician Grabar made a report on new legislation concerning the preservation and study of archeological monuments. II. RECENT WORK IN ANTHROPOLOGY? A. ANCIENT PEOPLES AND THEIR ORIGIN The discovery of the fossil skeleton of a child in Teshik-Tash cave in the mountains of Central Asia represents one of the most important anthropological finds of recent years. Southern Bukhara lies in the Hissar Mountains. Teshik-Tash grotto is located in the Zautolos-Sai Canyon of the Beissen-Tad Mountains, belongmg to the Hissar Range. This grotto (7 x 20 x 7 m.) stands at an altitude of 1,600 m. above sea level. The central area of the grotto represents a fossil-bearing layer containing animal bones, worked stone, and carbonized materials superimposed on a porous layer of clay. Underneath the clay lies another fossiliferous stratum. Altogether there are five strata with a total thickness of about 1.5 m., of which 40 cm. contain fossils. In 1938 A. P. Okladnikov discovered the remains of a human skeleton ? at the base of the first layer at a depth of 25.0 cm. The skull lay in a depression in the non-fossil-bearing layer. The horns of mountain goats arranged in pairs were found in the immediate vicinity. Heaps of charcoal and the remains of fires were found in several places in the fossiliferous stratum. Okladnikov concludes that ritual burials took place here. The alternation of fossiliferous and sterile strata indicates beyond doubt that Teshik-Tash was not per- manently inhabited. However, it is evident from the thickness of the non-fossil-bearing strata that the intervals between the use of the grotto were very long. j The geological study of the canyon and grotto yields little for the determination of the epoch to which the fossil-bearing strata of Teshik- Tash belong, but in any case there is nothing to preclude the supposi- tion that they belong to the Pleistocene period. 1 This chapter, by V. V. Bunak, of the Research Institute for Anthropology, University of Moscow, has been edited to conform to our style. Some passages have been condensed; some footnotes have been added. This article appeared in VOKS Bulletin, Moscow, Nos. 9-10, pp. 22-20, 1945. See also Franz Weiden- reich, The Paleolithic child from the Teshik-Tash cave in southern Uzbekistan (Central Asia), Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 151-163, 1945, and Henry Field, Anthropology in the Soviet Union, 1945, Amer. Anthrop., vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 375-396, July-September, 1946. 2For illustrations of the Teshik-Tash skulls and reconstructions by M. M. Gerasimov, see Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 121-123, 1946. 7 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10 The fossil-bearing strata contain many fragments of bones. Accord- ing to V. I. Gromoy, the following types of mammals are represented : Siberian goat (Capra sibirica), horse (Equus caballus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), leopard (Felis pardus), marmot (Marmotta sp.). The remains of mountain goats are the most numerous. In general, the composition of the fauna is similar to that of the present day. According to Gromov’s supposition, orographic, climatic, and faunal conditions in this part of Central Asia have changed little since the end of the Pleistocene period. Stone implements were mainly of local siliceous limestone; some were of quartz or quartzite. One implement was made of limestone. The first fossil-bearing stratum contains many so-called “cores,” most notable of which are long, massive, oval implements with broad sides and thick round ends fashioned by chipping with a sharp instru- ment. Flatter scrapers of various forms and sharp-pointed tools of primitive type have also been discovered. Chips and flat pieces of stone for making implements are in abundance. There is a complete absence of objects made of bone and horn. According to Okladnikov Teshik-Tash stone technology corresponds to Mousterian culture in Europe. He also notes the similarity between the typology of Teshik-Tash and the Middle Paleolithic of Palestine and southern Kurdistan in Iraq. The remains of the human skeleton were brought to the Anthro- pological Museum of the Moscow State University. Part of the femur, the tibia, the humerus, and both clavicles were in a fair state of preservation. The skull was smashed into more than 150 frag- ments, but all of them were well preserved and it was possible to restore almost completely the cranium and face. This reconstruction * was made by the sculptor and anthropologist, M. M. Gerasimov. Research on the skeleton was conducted by G. F. Debets, M. Gremiatskii (the skull), N. A. Sinelnikov (bones of skeleton), V. V. Bunak (endo- cranial cast), and others. The results of this work are set forth in a comprehensive monograph now in press. The preliminary examination revealed that the Teshik-Tash skele- ton was that of an 8- or g-year-old child, probably a boy. The cranial capacity is large, but the vault of the skull is compara- tively low, with an angular occiput, prominent superciliary ridges, and massive bones. The chin is little developed. The teeth are large. The endocranial cast reveals, among others, the following character- istics: a sloping frontal region; a wide fissure between the lobes; 3] had an opportunity to examine the skull and the reconstruction on June 16, LOAG HEU CEI amr) NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——FIELD 9 impressions of convolutions as far as the frontal protuberances; and a central frontal furrow with a horizontal posterior protuberance. These characteristics do not identify the skeleton with any variation of modern man even at the lowest stage of his development, but relate the Teshik-Tash skull to the type of fossil man belonging to the end of the Pleistocene period, the Middle Paleolithic, or, broadly, “Neanderthaloid.” This conclusion is beyond doubt, but from the modern point of view it is insufficient. Middle Paleolithic includes many different human types, such as the typical European Neanderthal, fossil remains from Ngandong in Java and from various places in Africa and Pales- tine. The question arises as to which of these types the Teshik-Tash skeleton most resembles. The extreme youth of the Teshik-Tash cranium renders it difficult to draw a final conclusion, since there is insufficient comparative material for that age. Comparative research in new data, especially the Palestine discoveries, will probably render it possible to clear up this interesting question. Nevertheless, even now the Teshik-Tash discovery is of great interest. First of all, it greatly extends the area in which Middle Paleolithic man existed. All previously found human remains were discovered at comparatively short distances from the sea. The Teshik-Tash skeleton is the first reliable proof of the penetration of Middle Paleolithic man into the interior of the Asiatic continent. Proof that man lived in high mountainous regions is also of great importance. The Teshik-Tash skeleton provides valuable material for the investigation of the varia- tions of the ““Neanderthaloid” type and for the study of age peculiari- ties of ancient man. A valuable monograph by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii entitled ‘The Hand of Paleolithic Man” was published in 1941 just before World War II. It treats of another most important find of fossil man—the skeleton of a hand found in the Kiik-Koba grotto in the Crimea. Con- siderable literature has been written about this discovery, but a comparative anthropological study of the skeleton, the skull of which is unfortunately missing, required many years of persevering work. The published monograph treats only of the bones of the hand and is a work of exceptional value as the author is the first to have collected exhaustive material about the structural peculiarities of this important part of the skeleton of modern man, fossil man, and of various groups of Cercopithecus monkeys. As the result of measurements and reconstruction, Bonch-Osmo- lovskii notes the following peculiarities of the skeleton of the hand of the Kiik-Koba man: relative elongation of the fourth and fifth IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO fingers; very broad carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges, especially the extreme phalanges, which give the hand a peculiar, flattened form ; the flatness of certain joints which extend more horizontally giving rise to the conclusion that the Kiik-Koba man was little able to bend his fingers palmward but better able to move them sidewise. The position of the thumb is most peculiar as the joint of the first meta- carpal bone is very slightly developed. Bonch-Osmolovskii believes that the ability of this fossil man to move his thumb toward the palm was greatly restricted. The general impression gained is of a wide, flat, pawlike hand. The Kiik-Koba hand is the first to have been studied in such detail and so systematically, but Bonch-Osmolovskii concludes that many of the above-mentioned features are inherent to some degree in skeletons of the European Neanderthal man. At the same time, Bonch-Osmolovskii proves convincingly that the above-described structural type of hand is not similar to that of anthropoid apes but, on the contrary, has developed away from them in the opposite direction. In general, the Kiik-Koba man had a human hand and could make various stone implements. Regarding the pawlike hand as the original form in the evolution of man, partially repeated in the individual development of modern man, Bonch-Osmolovskii concludes primitive man’s locomotion was not like that of modern anthropoid apes. The latter are clearly a side branch. The distant ancestors of man were adapted to a different type of locomotion, were less specifically tree forms, and according to the structure of the hand were closer to the modern group of ground monkeys of the Pavian type. This conclusion is supported by interesting facts concerning the type of locomotion of the various Primates, the development of the grasping ability in a child, and other data. Naturally, Bonch-Osmolovskii’s conclusions cannot be regarded as proved beyond doubt, especially those giving general character- istics of the hand of fossil man. The necessary data for this are lack- ing. The problem of the relation between various forms of Middle Paleolithic man and the modern type remains unsolved. However, Bonch-Osmolovskii’s hypothesis that anthropoid apes and their specific type of grasping hand are the result of a new branch developing in a definite direction within the species is shared by many modern authorities. It is quite possible that the hand structure of Miocene Primates (to which both human and anthropoid branches trace their origin) not only lacked the distinctive features of anthropoid apes but was closer to the modern semiground types of Primates. In NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD Il developing this view, Bonch-Osmolovskii contributed new material of outstanding importance for studying the evolution of man. The wide dispersal of Neoanthropus at the end of the Pleistocene period and the disappearance of the ancient form (Paleoanthropus) is testified to by many discoveries in various parts of the world. What were the factors which ensured the predominance of Neoan- thropus? This problem has been discussed in a number of works, some published and some still in press. The views developed by P. P. Efimenko deserve first mention here. In one of the chapters of his book, “Primitive Society,” Efimenko observed during 1938 the significance of strict endogamy (intertribal marriage) which existed in the small hordes of the Mousterian epoch for the fixation of the specific features of the Neanderthal type. The appearance of the new type was conditioned by the formation of broader social groups, the beginnings of the gens organization. This view deserves atten- tion although Efimenko treated the Neanderthal features in a very narrow manner, perceiving in them only signs of degeneration. Actually, it is not degeneration one should perceive but rather specialization. S. P. Tolstov and A. Boriskovskii stress the great part played in the evolution of man by the development of hunting and technology in the Middle Paleolithic period. Indeed, collective hunting is a most important stimulus to the development of new forms of intercourse among humans, their uniting in large groups, the invention of call signals, the creation of new tools, the acquisition of new materials (horn and bone), and radical alterations in diet. An interesting view was expressed by G. G. Roginskii, who noted that the small Neanderthal groups themselves presented obstacles to their further development. Unless he was restrained by social motives or self-control, the club-bearing and stone-armed Neanderthal man represented a considerable threat to his fellows in various con- flicts for the female and for food. The development of these two means of restraint are most typical of Neoanthropus. They are closely connected with the development of the brain, especially the frontal region, the formation of which marks the last stage in the physical evolution of man. A study of the endocranial casts of Neanderthal man stresses the importance of other elements of cranial structure. One of the most striking features of Paleoanthropus is the very slanting frontal region, the high temporal ridge resulting in the feeble development of the lower parietal region (i.e., the region with which conscious speech is connected). Considering that the general brain cavity of Neanderthal 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO man was no smaller than that of modern man, then Bunak’s con- clusion that a certain reconstruction of the cranium and the develop- ment of speech are the most outstanding characteristics of the later stages in the development of man is readily understood. This view is in complete accord with the teaching of Academician Marr on the development of speech and leads one to believe that Neanderthal man possessed only slight powers of speech. B. MODERN RACES AND THEIR HISTORY The anthropological study of the numerous nationalities of the Soviet Union provides a key to the solution of many cardinal prob- lems of race formation and race systematization. In recent years anthropological knowledge of Siberia and the Far East has been increased by extensive research as, for example, the Okhotsk Sea coast by M. G. Levin; the Amur River region by D. A. Zolotarev ; among the Nentsi Samoyeds of northwestern Siberia by S. A. Shluger; the Keshms, a small group on the upper banks of the Yenisei River, by G. F. Debets; the Hants and the Mansi or Ostiaks and the Voguls of the lower Ob River by T. A. Trofimova and N. N. Cheboksarov ; and the Selkups of the lower Ob by G. F. Debets. The material thus obtained has greatly enriched and rendered more exact existing information about racial types in Asia. It is becoming evident that the most characteristic type for the Asiatic continent, the so-called Mongoloid type, is far from homogeneous. Within this category exist many variations which are either local types or relics of ancient racial formations. The dolichocephalic or mesocephalic Asiatic anthropological types are widely scattered throughout Siberia and the Far East. Variations are to be found at present among the Trans-Baikal Tungus, in places along the Amur River among the Golds, and on the Okhotsk Sea coast. It is necessary to investigate the relation of this undoubtedly more ancient anthropological type of Central and Eastern Siberia, the so-called Ural type. At present these two variations possess certain features in common, but at the same time there are essential differences in the form of the face and nose, as well as in other respects. The latest research shows that racial characteristics commonly attributed to Asiatic races—coarse hair, heavy upper eyelids with the Mongolian fold, flat faces, and others—do not prevail among the native popu- lation of Siberia. If, in respect to southern Siberians, especially Turki groups, one may assume the blending of European elements in the formation of NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 13 their type, such an assumption is out of the question regarding the more northern Siberian groups. Among the latter, in some districts there is a definite aquiline nose somewhat resembling that of the North American Indian. Is this type the result of actual genetical relations, however remote? Is this Siberian aquiline nose peculiar to an inde- pendent group? Is the aquiline nose merely a secondary trait which arose through the convergent development of separate, isolated groups? These problems may be solved within the next few years. Much new anthropological information has been obtained about the peoples of Central Asia, especially through the craniological study of medieval and older ethnic groups by V. V. Ginzburg, L. V. Oshanin, and others. More and more facts indicate that the dolicho- cephalic element of European appearance is widespread in Central Asia and that modern anthropological variations, among which the brachycephalic element is prevalent, are of later formation. In the Caucasus anthropological research has been conducted for several years, as a result of which a great deal of comparative material * has been obtained. Most of this extensive country has been investigated by districts, with the exception of certain regions in Daghestan and in the most mountainous regions of Georgia. The drawing of anthropological maps of the Caucasus is one of the few experiments made in anthropological analysis by districts based upon systematic observations made by groups of research workers. A summary of these data will be published in a special collection about the Caucasus, now being prepared for press by the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography (IAE) of the Academy of Sciences. New materials have corrected and complemented former views con- cerning anthropological types in the Caucasus. The existence of the mesocephalic, long-faced type with a straight nose, dark hair, often with blue or gray eyes, has been established in the northwestern Caucasus. This type is to be found among the Cherkess (Circassian) - Kabardinian peoples in the Kuban region and is clearly a variation of the so-called Pontic race. Morphological and historical data estab- lished the unity of the Kuban variation of the Pontic race with lower Danube types in Bulgaria, ancient types in present-day southern Russia, and others. In ancient times the above-described type was very widespread and predominated in what is now western Georgia. In southeastern Transcaucasia there is another, also mesocephalic type, but it differs from the first in several respects. This type is to be found among Azerbaidzhanis, among a small group called the Tats 4Cf. my forthcoming Contributions to the Anthropology of the Caucasus. (H. F.) I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO (remnants of the ancient Iranian inhabitants of this region), the Talyshes, the Kurds, and others. The Transcaucasian mesocephalic type, together with the mesocephalic variation prevalent among the Transcaspian Turkmenians, comprise a special group, the Caspian race, which is also a branch of the great Mediterranean race. Some groups in northern Iran® also belong to the Caspian type. A third racial type, Pontozagros or Armenoid, is found in the central Trans- caucasian highlands. This type is composed of several elements, some of more ancient origin than others. The region through which the Pontozagros type is distributed includes districts of southern Daghestan. The three above-described racial types are also widespread outside the Caucasus. A fourth type, called the Caucasian race proper, is specific for the Caucasus. This type is similar to the Armenoid, but is characterized by a narrower head and a slightly different form of face and nose. This type is found in Georgia and partially in the central Terek region in North Caucasus. The results of the anthro- pological analysis of the population of the Caucasus fully accord with the latest data of archeology, linguistics, and ethnography, and make it possible to trace the history of modern ethnic types. In recent years the racial analysis of the population in the European part of the Soviet Union has also advanced considerably. A series of Neolithic skulls found in the Olonets Lake on Oleni Island and described by E. Zhirov is of great importance in the study of the anthropology of the Far North. This series includes a slightly brachycephalic element which is similar to the Lopar type, but which differs from the latter by virtue of certain Mongoloid features. The great age of this variation in northern Europe is beyond doubt. The connection between this element and the northern forest Neolithic peoples is also evident. The Neolithic brachycephals of the north should occupy a place of their own. There are no data that justify identifying them with the western European Neolithic brachycephalic types of Borreby in Denmark, and Grenelle * in France. A volume of the works of the Institute of Anthropology of the Moscow State University published in 1941 contains a number of essays on the anthropology of various Finnish peoples (articles by G. F. Debets, R. I. Zenkevich, and M. Gremiatskii). As has been observed by previous investigators, anthropologically the Finnish 5 See also Henry Field, Contributions to the anthropology of Iran, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 1939. 6 This supposedly Neolithic skull, found near Paris in 1870, resembles the Azilian brachycephals of Ofnet in Bavaria. (H. F.) NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 15 peoples are not homogeneous. Baltic racial types are clearly dis- tinguished among the Ladoga Finns, for example, among the small groups of Veps, while the Volga Mari (Cheremis) are a variation of the Ural type, and the Udmurts (Votiaks) contain elements close to the Lopar type. In the opinion of the above-mentioned authors it is to be expected that certain Finnish groups contain the neutral proto- Asiatic anthropological element or even more definitely Mongoloid elements. Such an anthropological type is outlined in craniological material belonging to the Iron Age, for example, the skull from Lugov. In addition to ordinary anthropological investigation, certain other studies of elementary genetic features were conducted among the Finnish tribes—blood groups, reaction in a phenylthio-carbamide solution and especially to color sensitivity. The groups investigated proved very similar in these respects. Work on the craniology of ancient Slavic tribes is being system- atically conducted by T. A. Trofimova, who records differences among the southern Slav group of Severyans and the more northern Krivichi and Vyatichi. The former belong to the dolichocephalic variation, a Pontic form. Trofimova believes that among the latter, together with other elements, there are Asiatic or proto-Asiatic elements. Several volumes by G. F. Debets treating of the craniology of the population of Russia in the epoch preceding the present one have been prepared for press. Debets has entitled his book “The Paleo- anthropology of the U.S.S.R.,” but he includes in it osteological materials belonging not only to the Stone Age or to the prehistoric period in general, but to all later ages up to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Debets has collected a quantity of craniological material preserved in central and local museums, all of which has been carefully checked in respect to dates and classified according to epochs and territories. This comprehensive summary gives a good picture of the craniological types and their alterations beginning with the Neolithic period until modern times through wide sections of Eastern Europe, Siberia, and Central Asia. These data contain the solution of many anthropological problems in the U.S.S.R. Debets devotes much attention to the local trans- formation of craniological types, which occurred in many territories, and takes into consideration, at the same time, the change of types which took place as a result of the immigration of separate groups of the ancient population. In addition to materials about Eastern Europe, the above-mentioned volume of the works of the Institute of Anthropology contains articles by N. N. Cheboksarov on racial types in modern Germany. Based 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO upon the careful study of all the factual material in literature, this work is a most complete and systematic summary greatly superior to anything on this subject heretofore printed. Cheboksarov’s work corrects many widespread views concerning the racial composition of the population of Germany. While reaffirming the formerly ex- pressed view concerning the limited distribution of the North Euro- pean racial type proper and the preponderance of Baltic and Central European types in northern Germany, Debets points out that the Alpine type is also not the main element of which the present popu- lation of southern Germany is composed. This type spreads over a very small region. At the same time the existence of a peculiar com- plex of distinctive features, which Debets classifies with the Atlantic racial form described by Deniker, has been established in the upper Rhine zone. The great advance in the modern theory of race formation and race analysis as compared with previous views is evident from the above review. The human race is not something unchangeable. In the course of ages the various distinctive features of human groups alter; the size of the population within which marriages among members take place grows or diminishes. As a result, the concentration of various hereditary features varies and under certain conditions changes take place in the average size of the group. At the same time changes in external conditions influence one and the same tendency. The influence of intergroup marriage, as well as group isolation, should be added to these two general factors of racial differentiation. Considering these facts it would be incorrect to draw a line for racial types based on the absolute existence of one or another trait, or even of several traits. Observing the changes of features within a certain territory one can see that these changes are very gradual; for example, the region with the highest cephalic index is surrounded by a zone where this index is slightly lower, and so forth. The region where a certain feature is most clear is evidently that region where certain hereditary traits are most concentrated, or as it is usually called, the “center of distribution.” The entire zone within which the trait alters in one direction (plus or minus) comprises the region of the distribution of one type, despite differences in magnitude. The boundaries of the type are located where the alteration is in the opposite direction, i.e., where, instead of finding a reduction of the average index, it begins to increase. However, for races the combination of several features in a given territory is always characteristic, as for example, blue eyes, wide heads and tallness. The boundaries of the distribution of the racial NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 17 type are located where the given combination of features is replaced by another, for example, an increase in height when considered accord- ing to territory is accompanied by a darkening of eye color. The race, as a systematic category, is far from being the only taxonomic cate- gory. It is necessary to distinguish great races, simple races, sub- races, and local races. In such a consecutive subdivision the dynamic essence of the category “‘race’” is revealed. A most important cri- terion in determining the race or subrace is the alteration of features according to territory. Those races which by anthropological analysis have been reconstructed in the modern epoch reflect groups that arose in the distant past. Evidently the types of great races arose in the _ Neolithic period. Outlines of the most primitive forms of some races are found in the Metal Age. Such are the general views in the study of the race as a historical and dynamic category developed in the above-mentioned works as well as in a number of special investigations (concerning alterations in the length of the body, in the form of the skull, the general conditions of the alteration of the average index in population, the correlation of ethnic and somatic types, etc.). Among the latest works on general problems in the study of races it is necessary to mention a series of mathematical investigations con- ducted by M. V. Ignatev, concerning the significance of cross-breed- ing, isolation, the conditions of the distribution of newly arising traits. G. G. Roginskii investigated the distribution of blood groups from the same viewpoint. In the study of the geographical distribution of variations of ridge patterns of the fingers, N. V. Volotskoi used the “delta index” which expresses the total number of so-called deltas [triradii] per 1o fingers. Plotting the magnitudes of this index on world geographical maps revealed most important and more or less constant differences in racial groups. C. VARIATIONS IN THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BODIES The physical types of ancient and modern man is one of the main subjects of study in physical anthropology. However, no less im- portant for this science is wide research in the variation of structure and the laws determining these variations. Only on the basis of a knowledge of ontogenetic alteration, the laws of correspondence and growth of parts of the body, and comparative anatomy can correct racial analyses be made and the earlier stages of the evolution of man be explained. 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO With the increase in anthropological knowledge, the number of concrete morphological problems grows. Much attention is paid not only to research in the variations of the structure of the skull and individual bones of the skeleton but also to the brain convolutions, the skin and hair, the bones and cartilage, the nose, eyelids, lips, muscles, internal organs, and outer forms of the body, and in the proportion of its parts. In recent years a number of works in comparative anatomical research, the study of topographical and functional correlations, onto- genetic alterations and the laws of growth have been published. In the period from birth to approximately 20 years of age, the growth of individual organs and parts of the body differs in respect to speed and length of time. For the organism in general the growth of the total size of the body, its length, weight, and chest measurement, is most characteristic. These measurements determine the size of the body surface and its volume. Available data establish a definite rela- tion between the increase of the total size of the body and its separate parts. As is known, during the growth period there are 3 to 4 years during which the annual increase in the total size of the body is very great. Some experts regard this so-called puberty phase in boys as extending from the ages of 11 to 15 and others from 12 to 17. An analysis of charts seems to indicate that puberty comes between 13 and 17 years for boys and 13 and 16 for girls. In comparing such widely differing groups in respect to body size as the Japanese and Americans, it is seen that variations in the above-mentioned periods are no more than 4 to 6 months. At the same time another important circumstance becomes evident : a sharp increase in growth during puberty is characteristic for only one type. If growth is very intensive preceding puberty then the intensity of growth during the period of sexual maturing is hardly noticeable. On this basis it was possible to distinguish several types of growth and to find basic magnitudes according to which it is possible to establish the type of growth of the child in a comparatively short period of observation. There is little relationship between the type of growth and the final size of the body. Both short and tall persons may grow according to the accelerated as well as the gradual type. At the same time it becomes clear that between the final size and the magnitude of the body at one or another age there is a relation which varies within comparatively narrow limits. In addition to being of great interest for understanding the formative process of an organism, the establishment NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 19 of these laws is most important for the correct estimation of the physical development of the child by the school doctor. In this respect theoretical anthropological research is closely connected with applied anthropometry. Research in the physical development of various groups of children is most important and has become the subject of numerous theses written by medical workers. The anthropometric study of the sizes and proportions of bodies was necessary for the standardization of sizes for army clothing. A most important role was played by anthropometric work in controlling methods of physical therapy in treating wounds. itt PAE EOLMIHIG Sites INTRODUCTION 2 The material® based on data available during 1938 has been arranged chronologically from the Clactonian and Primitive Mousterian to the Epipaleolithic, and is divided geographically * into the Euro- 1 This excellent study was translated by Mrs. John F. Normano, The Asia Institute, 7 East 7oth St., New York City. The text was then edited and con- densed. Diacritical marks were omitted. Eugene V. Prostov checked the spell- ings and made some minor revisions in order to conform to our previously published articles. Under each site the bibliographical references have been omitted because the majority of these Russian publications are not available in United States libraries. However, the entire text in Russian has been placed on Microfilm No. 2414, pp. 1-38, in the American Documentation Institute, 1719 N St., NW., Washington 6, D. C., where a copy may be purchased. Since this list must be considered as separate and usually unrelated items, the names of the excavators have been retained. This volume was given to me by S. P. Tolstov, Director, Ethnological Institute, Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., Moscow, while I was a guest of the Jubilee Sessions of the Academy in Moscow and Leningrad during June-July, 1945. See Anthropology in the Soviet Union, 1945, Amer. Anthrop., vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 375-396, 1946; especially bibliography in footnote 57. There are many references to these Paleolithic sites in our published articles (see p. 66, footnotes 1, 2). 2 Throughout the text the use of the metric system has been retained and all heights are given as above sea level unless otherwise specified. The abbreviation IAE has been used for the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography, Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., Leningrad. Some technical descriptions have been included from A. J. H. Goodwin, Method in Prehistory, the South African Archaeological Society Handbook, No. 1, Cape Town, 1945, and from M. C. Burkitt, Prehistory, Cambridge University, 1925. (H. F.) 2From P. P. Efimenko and N. A. Beregovaia, Paleolithic Sités in the U.S.S.R., Materialy i Issledovaniia po Arkheologii SSSR, No. 2, pp. 254-290, Moscow and Leningrad, 1941. 4 According to Prostov, for the convenience of readers having access to other than Soviet maps, the names of various administrative subdivisions of the U.S.S.R. have been given in the nonadjectival form of the name of the city after which the subdivision was named. This is followed by the designation in Russian for the type subdivision. This latter, for which there is no exact English equivalent, is given in italics, as follows: Raion (Aimak in Central Asia and Buriat Mongolia), a rural subdivision cor- responding to a United States county. Okrug, a larger subdivision currently used for several special areas. Oblast, a major administrative subdivision (province) of a republic. Krai, a major administrative subdivision in a sparsely populated border area (territory) of the R.S.F.S.R. 20 NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 2I pean part of the R.S.F.S.R., the Ukraine, Bielorussian S.S.R., the Crimea and Caucasus, and the Asiatic part of the U.S.S.R. The monuments of the so-called Arctic Paleolithic represent a special group. In view of the numerous Epipaleolithic finds, only the better-known and more thoroughly investigated sites have been included. However, a few well-known sites of doubtful age have not been omitted. PRIMITIVE MOUSTERIAN AND CLACTONIAN SITES Brack SEA LitroraL: ABKHAZIA® AND CRIMEA ® 1. Anastasevka.—Flints of Mousterian type were found on the right bank of Kodor River near this village. A number of flints were collected on exposed areas associated with ferruginous manganese concretions. In addition, on the surface of the fourth terrace occurred older flints of [Ashtuklf type with a different patina. This material was obtained during 1932 by an IAE* expedition. 2. Apiancha.—Single flints of I[Ashtukh type were found on the upper platform of Apiancha Mountain between its two summits at 600 m. above sea level. The flints are distinguished by smooth facets, a deep patina and a brilliant surface. This material was obtained during 1935 by an IAE expedition. 3. Atap—A few characteristic flint implements, including a hand ax, of Acheulian or Primitive Mousterian type were found on the surface of the terrace near this village. On a lower terrace were flints of Upper Paleolithic type. This site was discovered during 1935 on an IAE expedition. 4. Byrts——Single flint flakes of IAshtukh type were collected on the platform of Byrts Mountain near Sukhumi about 450 m. above sea level. The first finds were made during 1934 by L. N. Solovev. 5. Gali—On this site the IAE expedition found an Acheulian hand ax reutilized as a nucleus in Mousterian times. 6. Gvard.—Flaked flints, similar to the most ancient group from TAshtukh, were found in a Karstian declivity on the outskirts of the village (450 m.) on the slopes of Gvard Mountain. The first series was obtained during 1934 by L. N. Solovev. 7. Kolkhida.—Flints of Clactonian and Primitive Mousterian type were found on the top and on the slopes of the hill, representing 5 Nos 1-14. ® No. 15. * Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography, Academy of Sciences of the U\S.S.R., Leningrad. 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10 the 180-m. terrace at this village near Novye Gagry. These surface flints originated in a lower horizon associated with iron manganese concretions. While the material assembled by the IAE expedition during 1935 is not large, its value lies in the uniformity of the series. Some of the flints bear traces of utilization. 8. Kiurdere-—On the surface of an ancient terrace flints of Primitive Mousterian (Acheulian) type were found by S. N. Zamiat- nin during 1934 at Kiurdere near Psyrtskhi on the left bank of the Shitskhuara River, near its exit from the gorge. A hand ax and tools made from crude flakes were found not only on the surface of this terrace, but also in the ancient alluvium along the slope of the neigh- boring limestone ridge. 9g. Okum.—See No. 48. 10. Sukhumt.—Flints of [Ashtukh (Primitive Mousterian or Acheu- lian) type can be found within the city limits, on the banks of the Sukhumka River, which cuts through the fourth terrace at [Ashtukh site, as well as in the nearby surrounding area on the top of Cher- niavskii Mountain and in the Ostroumov gorge. These discoveries were made during 1935 by an IAE expedition. 11. Tabachnaia.—During 1936 on the surface of the 100- to I10-m. terrace at the Zonal Tobacco Experimental Station near Sukhumi, L. N.-Solovev found flint flakes of Primitive Mousterian type and a hand ax as well as some flints of Upper Paleolithic appearance. 12. Tekh.—In the valley on the road from Tsebelda to Tekh, at 350-400 m. above sea level on the surface of the clayey loam, L. N. Solovev found during 1936 flints of Primitive Mousterian type. Some tools and laminae of Upper Paleolithic appearance were collected. 13. Chuburiskhindzhi—A few crude flakes and implements, in- cluding one hand ax, of dark pink and gray Turon flint were collected on the right bank of a stream along the road 12 kilometers southeast of Gali near Satandzhio Mountain. These specimens, contempo- raneous with the surviving vestiges of the old fifth terrace, showed signs of utilization and were deeply patined. Ridges between facets were worn smooth. This site was located during 1935 by an IAE expedition. 14. [Ashtukh—Flints of Acheulian or Primitive Mousterian type were found on the surface of the fourth terrace (100 m.) near Nizhnii TAshtukh, 3 kilometers north of Sukhumi, in the gorge between Byrts and JAshtukh Mountains. The flints, including discoidal nuclei, massive flakes and implements manufactured from them, as well as hand axes, lay on the large platform, often on the surface, sometimes among pebbles under the diluvial clay. Typologically later flints of NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 23 Mousterian and Upper Paleolithic appearance were also found, but are linked stratigraphically with the upper levels of the clayey loam. The first collection was made during 1934 by S. N. Zamiatnin. 15. Kitk-Koba.—Remains of Primitive Mousterian type were found in the lower stratum above bedrock in this cave, situated on the right bank of the Zuia River near Kipchak, which lies about 25 kilometers east of Simferopol. Here were excavated by G. A. Bonch-Osmo- lovskii during 1924-1926 numerous flint implements and flakes asso- ciated with remains of Cervus elaphus, Equus, Bos, Saiga, Sus scrofa, etc. MOUSTERIAN SITES 8 16. Kodak.—This site, located on the high right bank of the Dnieper 10 kilometers southeast of Dnepropetrovsk, was discovered during 1932 through the accidental finds of several flints associated with Pleistocene fauna. Further investigations were conducted during 1934-1935. These finds lay in the bottom of the deep ravine of Nizhniaia Sazhavka, which cuts the loess bank of the Dnieper, at a distance of 1 kilometer from the river. The stratigraphy consists of 20.0 m. of loess with several horizons of buried topsoil, ancient diluvium from ravines, red-brown clays, variegated clays, and granite bedrock. Nearer to the mouth of the ravine the alluvium of the gulleys is replaced by stratified sands containing fresh-water Mollusca typical of stagnant and slow-flowing waters. Mousterian remains were found in the base of the stratified gray-greenish sands (ravine alluvium) overlain by loess. Below, the sands were mixed with gravel. The cultural stratum was evidently partly washed away. The flints, together with crushed bones, lay in the lower part of the stratum among the pebbles and gravel. Above were also found animal bones. The fauna is represented by Elephas trogontherit, Rhinoceros tricho- rhinus, Bison priscus, Equus equus, Cervus megaceros, Rangifer tarandus, Felis spelaca, Ursus arctos, etc. The several dozen tools were mainly of dark-brown flint, but some were of quartz and compact sandstone. There were: biface points, a discoidal nucleus used as a carinate scraper, scraping tools, broad laminae, etc. Incisions could be seen on the phalanges of the large 8 The geographical distribution of these sites is as follows: The middle course of the Dnieper (No. 16), the basin of the Desna (Nos. 17-18), northern Donets (Nos. 19-21), the Crimea (Nos. 22-28), the coast of the Sea of Azov (No. 29), Kuban (No. 30), Kuma (No. 31), the northern part of the Caucasian coast (Nos. 32-36), Abkhazia (Nos. 37-54), Mingrelia (No. 55), and Uzbekistan (No. 56). 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. FEO deer ; they resembled those found on the “small anvils” of the Mous- terian period.® 17. Chulatovo III.—Rolled flints of Mousterian type were found during 1938 eroded from the bank of the Desna River near Chulatovo near Novgorod-Seversk. 18. Svetilovicht (Bielorussia).—Accidental finds on the second terrace above the flood plain of rolled and patined points of Mous- terian type were made during 1929 by P. N. Chaikovskii, a teacher who studied the region, on the right bank of the Baseda River in the ravine of Kamennaia Gora near Svetilovichi. These implements were described in 1937 by K. M. Polikarpovich. 19. Derkul—This Mousterian station, largely destroyed by the river, stands near Kolesnikovo farm on the right bank of the Derkul River, a left tributary of the northern Donets River, above its mouth. The Paleolithic remains lie in a stratum of finely rounded flint gravel. This stratum divides two layers of sandy alluvium, of which the lower one, covering the surface of the marl, represents the remnants of the ancient third above the flood-plain terrace of the Derkul River. The only bone found was that of a large mammal. The tools were mainly of quartzite. This site was discovered during 1924 by P. P. Efimenko and studied by him during 1924-1926 and 1930. 20. Kamenskaia—Bones of mammoth and other animals were reported but unconfirmed from the ancient gravel deposits near the Cossack village of Kamenskaia, in the Donets region, near the con- fluence of the Rychnitsa River with the Northern Donets. The dis- covery of a discoidal nucleus was reported. 21. Krasnyt IAr—Many large flint flakes and implements of Mousterian type, including points, scrapers, etc., were collected during 1925-1926 by S. A. Loktiushev close to the Northern Donets River, 15 kilometers southeast of Voroshilovgrad [formerly Lugansk]. This station is about 1 kilometer southeast of Krasnyi IAr farm, on the right bank of the river. 22. Adzhi-Koba.—This cave of the corridor type, located on the western slope of Korabi-[Aila in the mountainous region of the Crimea, was investigated by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii during 1932- 9Cf. at La Quina, Charente district of France, discovered by the late Dr. Henri-Martin and reported from Teshik-Tash near Tashkent. (H. F.) The use of a bone rest or anvil was common in Europe even before the Middle Paleolithic when many large splinters of bone are found to bear indentations and scratches caused by “rest percussion.” The bone was used in much the same way that we might use a bench, to steady and support the artifact while fine percussion or pressure was used. (A. J. H. G.) NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 25 1933. It contains two horizons: the upper of the Late Paleolithic type of Siuren I with northern deer; and the lower of Mousterian type with saiga antelope, northern deer, rhinoceros, wild donkey, Arctic fox, polecat, etc. 23. Volchii Grot—This Mousterian cave situated on the right bank of the Beshtirek River at Mazanka near Simferopol, was dis- covered and investigated by Merezhkovskii during 1880. He found, mixed with ashes and charcoal, a Mousterian point, a small hand ax, and remains of mammoth, wild horse, Bos, giant deer, and saiga antelope in the yellow Quaternary stratum. During 1938 O. N. Bader discovered here a rich Mousterian deposit. 24. Kiik-Koba.°—The upper cultural horizon of this cave (see also No. 15) lies in the stratum of yellow clay mixed with crushed rock and is divided from the lower horizon, containing the Lower Mousterian inventory, by a sterile band. The majority of the imple- ments were points (some biface) and scrapers. The fauna included the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, wild horse, wild donkey, primitive Bos, wild boar, cave bear, hyena, fox, rodents, and birds. Some of the bones bore traces of incisions, suggesting use as small anvils ¥ or for pressure flaking. This was the site of the destroyed burial containing Neanderthal remains.** 25. Kosh-Koba.—tTraces of an apparently Mousterian cave, 25 kilometers from Simferopol on the right bank of the Zuia River next to Kiik-Koba. During 1923 G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii found two large hearths, a few flints, and many animal bones, partly split, in- cluding mammoth, rhinoceros, cave hyena, giant deer, bison, saiga antelope, horse, wild donkey, fox, marmot, etc. 26. Chagorak-Koba.—This Middle Paleolithic cave near Kainaut in the Karasubazar region in the Crimea was discovered by O. N. Bader during. 1935 and studied by him during 1936-1937. The fauna, including the woolly rhinoceros, wild horse, saiga, and cave hyena, was found in the Quaternary stratum during 1936. In the following year in the same stratum several flint implements of Mous- terian type were unearthed. 27. Chokurcha—An Upper Mousterian cave in the valley of Malyi 10 On July 2, 1945, the Director of the Ethnological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., asked me to transmit to the Chicago Natural History Museum, formerly Field Museum of Natural History, a cast of the Kiik-Koba skeleton. Although since 1942 no longer curator of physical anthro- pology, I forwarded it to Chicago. (H. F.) 11 See footnote 9. 12 One wrist had been found. 3 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Salgir stream near Chokurcha, 2 kilometers northeast of Simferopol, was discovered and investigated by S. I. Zabnin during 1927 and excavated in 1928 and in the following yeats. The cultural remains of the Quaternary period occur in the yellow clayey loam containing crushed rock, which extends to the rocky bottom of the cave and continues all along the slope where it attains about 4.0 m. in thickness. More than nine thin cultural levels with traces of hearths were re- corded in this alluvial deposit. On the slope in front of the cave was found an accumulation of split mammoth bones, associated with a considerable thickness of the cultural stratum. The flint inventory consisted of a large quantity of unifaced and bifaced tools. A few bone awls were found. Included in the fauna were the mammoth, cave hyena, cave bear, rhinoceros, saiga antelope, Bos, Cervus, and fox. 28. Shaitan-Koba.—A Late Mousterian cave located on the right slope of Bodrak Valley, near a tributary of the Alma River, at Tau- Bodrak near Simferopol. This cave, discovered by S. N. Bibikov during 1928, was investigated by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii during 1929-1930. The cultural remains occur in the Quaternary gravels, in the limestone stratum of the rock shelter and also on the scree slopes. Large flint tools of local dark flint were found together with typical Mousterian implements; the inventory included prismatic laminae, scrapers, burins, etc. The fauna included mammoth, cave lion, cave hyena, wild horse, saiga, Arctic fox, rodents, etc. 29. Bessergenovka.—During 1933 V. I. Gromov and V. A. Khokhlovkina found Mousterian flakes beneath the Rissian loess near Taganrog on an ancient terrace on the coast of the Sea of Azov. 30. Ilskaia—This Upper Mousterian site lies near the Cossack village of Ilskaia on the left slope going to the valley of the Ilia River. The cultural deposit, 0.5 m. in thickness, extended over a wide area in the upper part of the second terrace, 15.0 m. above the Ilia River. The fauna included a considerable quantity of bones of the primitive Bos. The simplest implements were made of bone. Discovered by Baron Joseph de Baye during 1898, investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1925, 1926, and 1928, and by V. A. Gorodtsov in 1936 and 1937. 31. Podkumskaia—A calvarium and other fragmental human bones were found in 1918 at Piatigorsk during sewer construction. These remains were described by M. Gremiatskii. The possibility of assigning these remains to the Mousterian period or to any part of the Paleolithic is now seriously challenged. 32. Akhshtyr cave——Four kilometers from Golitsyno in the Adler — Raion on the right bank of the Mzymta River, Mousterian flints were NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 27 found during 1936 by S. N. Zamiatnin, who continued excavation during the following 2 years. (See pls. 1-4.) 33. Navalishino cave——Located in the Adler Raion near Navali- shino, on the Kudepsta River, the lower part of this cave belongs to the Mousterian period. The characteristic flint inventory and numerous cave bear remains were found by S. N. Zamiatnin during 1936. 34. Khosta (“The White Rocks”).—Mousterian flints were found during 1936 in gullies on the precipitous banks of a ravine about 5 kilometers from Khosta near the paved highway to Vorontsov. 35. Natsmen.—Further downstream of the Khosta River than the site of No. 34 and on the opposite bank, on the southern slope of Akhum Mountain in the territory of the Kolkhoz “Natsmen,” there was found during 1935 another site with implements and flakes of Mousterian type. 36. Pauk.—Crude flints of Mousterian type were found on the plowed surface of the ancient 100-m. terrace in the region of Tuapse, behind Kadoshinskii Cape on the territory of the rest camp near Pauk Mountain. 37. Anastasevka.—Here were found Mousterian flints. (See No. 1.) 38. Akhbiuk.—Traces of an Upper Mousterian site were identified on the surface of the 80-m. terrace near Akhbiuk Mountain, 6 kilo- meters north of Sukhumi. Discovered by L. N. Solovev during 1935, this open-air station was investigated by an IAE expedition. 39. Achigvari.—Typical Mousterian flakes were collected on the surface of the 30-m. terrace. 40. Bsyb.—Mousterian flints were found on the right bank of the Bzyb River near Kilometer 16 of the paved highway. 41. Bogoveshta—A few characteristic Mousterian flint implements were collected during 1936 on the surface of the third terrace and along the Pshap River higher on the slope near this village. 42. Gali—Typically Mousterian and Upper Paleolithic flints were found on the surface of the diluvial loam, which covers the ancient 80- to 100-m. terrace. The first discoveries were made by L. N. Solovev during 1935. (See No. 5.) 43. Ilori—Several Mousterian flakes were collected by L. N. Solovev during 1935 in the yellow loam of the 16-m. terrace. 44. Kelasuri—Upper Mousterian implements were found during 1935 by an IAE expedition on the surface of the third terrace and partly also in the slope of the fourth terrace, on the left bank of the Kelasuri River. This site lies on the estate of the All-Union Insti- tute of Sub-Tropical Cultures. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO 45. Lemsa.—On the slopes of the ravine about 300 m. above sea level Mousterian flints were found in a cave and on the edge of the plateau. 46. Lechkop—Mousterian flints were collected on the surface of this terrace near Sukhumi by the [AE expedition during 1935. The same type of implements were also found nearby by L. N. Solovev during 1936 on the 10- to 12-m. terrace. : 47. Mokva.—Some characteristic Mousterian flints, including dis- coidal nuclei, were found on the 10- to 12-m. terrace, 2 kilometers from the upper terrace. 48. Okum.—A large series of Mousterian flints were found on the tea plantations of the State farm ‘“Chai-Gruzia’’ near Achigvary on the surface of the 80-m. terrace above the left bank of the Okum River. Among the implements was one finely worked hand ax. The surface of these flint implements bore a characteristic luster and some had traces of iron manganese concretions, which confirms their original location in the ancient horizon. Higher on the same slope typologically older flints were collected. This material was collected by the 1935 IAE expedition. 49. Ochemchiri.—Characteristic Upper Mousterian flints were found at the edge of the third (35-m.) terrace, 1 kilometer from Ochemchiri on the paved highway along the Sukhumi River. Lying partly in situ in the loam with iron manganese concretions, the flints appeared dark red with a brilliant, dark-brown patina. The first finds were made by L. N. Solovev. During 1934-1935 this site was explored by an IAE expedition with the participation of two geologists, G. F. Mirchink and V. I. Gromov. 50. Tabachnaia.—Mousterian flints were found near here. (See No. 11.) 51. Tskhiri—Some Mousterian flints were found by the 1935 IAE expedition on the surface of the 30-m. terrace. 52. Esheri—A few Mousterian flints were collected on the sur- face of the eroded 80-m. terrace in a stratum of pebbles near this village by an [AE expedition during 1935. 53. [Agish—A few Mousterian flints were collected by the 1936 expedition from IAE on the elevated plateau 450-500 m. above sea level. 54. LAshtukh.—Mousterian flints were found here. (See No. 14.) 55. Rukhi I—On the low ground, which is flooded by the Rukhi River in the spring, about 6 kilometers from Zugdidi, A. N. Kalan- dadze discovered during 1936 typologically Mousterian flakes. 56. Teshik-Tash—tThis cave, situated on the northwestern slope NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——FIELD 29 of the Baisun-tau Mountains at 1,500 m., lies 18 kilometers from Baisun in the Turgan-Darya Valley of southern Uzbekistan. Here were discovered five Mousterian strata. The flint inventory consisted of discoidal nuclei, typical triangular flakes, crude chopping tools, scrapers, and small bone anvils.** The fauna included Capra sibirica and, less often, horse, boar, leopard, marmot, and a rodent (pish- chukha). The skeleton of a Neanderthaloid child ** was found here by A. P. Okladnikov during 1938. This represents the first Paleo- lithic site discovered in Central Asia. UPPER PALEOLITHIC AND EPIPALEOLITHIC SITES EvurorpEAN Part OF THE R.S.F.S.R.15 57. Anosovka.—An Upper Paleolithic site was located near Kos- tenki in the Gremiachenskii Raion of the Voronezh Oblast. Finds were made by the Kostenki expedition during 1936. The cultural stratum is stained deeply by red ocher. The animal bones include many fragments of antlers. 58. Borshevo I (Kuznetsov Log).—Located on the northern border of this village in the Gremiachenskii Raion of the Voronezh Oblast on the bank of the Don, the cultural remains and bones of animals, mostly mammoth, lay not very deep in the diluvial deposit along the slope of the gully. The flint inventory is characterized by flint points with lateral flakes removed, which date this site in either the Aurignacian or Solutrean period. Discovered by A. A. Spitsyn during 1905, it was investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1922 and by P. P. Efimenko in 1923 and 1925. 59. Borshevo II.—The lower and middle horizons of this site lie on the right bank of the Don near Borshevo, Gremiachenskii Raton of the Voronezh Oblast. These two horizons, containing mammoth bones (especially numerous in the lower horizon), belong to the 13 See footnote 9. 14On June 16, 1945, in the Anthropological Laboratory of the University of Moscow I had the privilege of examining the reconstructed Teshik-Tash skull, which will be published during 1948 by Bunak and Okladnikoy. For photo- graphs of this skull and reconstructions by M. M. Gerasimov, see Henry Field, Illustrations of the Teshik-Tash Skull, Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 121-123, 1946. 18In the European part of the R.S.F.S.R. will be described the following Stations: the Don (Nos. 57-70), the Oka (Nos. 71-79), the basin of the Desna (Nos. 80-85), the Seim (No. 86), the Upper Dnieper (No. 87), the Upper Volga (No. 88), the Middle Volga (Nos. 89-94), the basin of the Kama (No. 95), the southern Urals (Nos. 96-99), and the Sea of Azov coast (No. 100). 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Magdalenian period. This site was first located during 1922 by P. A. Nikitin. The excavations were made by P. P. Efimenko in 1923, 1925, and 1929, and by P. I. Boriskovskii in 1906, 60. Borshevo IJ —The upper horizon corresponding to the stratum of buried soil belongs to the end of the Magdalenian or to the Early Azilian period. No mammoth bones were found. This cultural stratum slopes gradually down to the side of the mouth of the Borshevo gully and finally goes under the level of the Don River. (See No. 59.) 61. Borshevo III.—At the mouth of Vishunov ravine, which cuts the high Cretaceous right bank of the Don between Kuznetsov gully and Borshevo ravine, at the time of first excavations made by P. P. Efimenko during 1923, on the terrace of the bank was discovered the accumulation of mammoth bones. Excavation by P. I. Boriskovskii in 1936 also yielded the bones of Bos and other animals, and isolated flints. 62. Gagarino.—This Aurignacian-Solutrean site, on the left bank of the Don, higher than the mouth of the Sosna River, near Gagarino in the Voronezh Oblast, is located on the northern slope of the ravine, which leads to the Don Valley. The cultural remains lie directly under the black earth (chernozem) in the upper part of the brown loess. Limestone blocks indicated the walls of the shallow dugouts. Among faunal remains mammoth bones were the most numerous, but there were also represented the woolly rhinoceros, northern deer, bison, Arctic fox, and rodents. The flint inventory is characterized by the presence of points with lateral flakes removed (cf. No. 58). In addition to bone tools, S. N. Zamiatnin found, during 1927 and 1929, female figurines made from the tusk of a mammoth. 63. Kostenki I—This Lower Solutrean site near Kostenki in the Gremiachenskii Raion of the Voronezh Oblast stands on the right bank of the Don about 30 kilometers south of Voronezh. Here were found the remains of a large encampment, forming an oval plateau covered with traces of habitation, with the line of hearths following its longitudinal axis. This area was occupied by numerous pits used as storerooms. Around this surface construction were found con- siderably larger pits or storerooms and three dugouts. In addition to a large series of flint implements and animals bones, there were also art objects including 42 female figurines (mainly in fragments), many sculptures of animals, complete figures, heads, etc. Represented in the fauna were a quantity of mammoth bones, as well as the horse, Arctic fox, cave lion, bear, wolf, and hare. Only single finds of musk ox and northern deer came to light. The cultural stratum lies under the fertile black earth (chernozem) in the upper part of the diluvial /NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——-FIELD 31 loess-argillaceous soil. At the base of this clay were discovered, during 1931, traces of an older settlement attributed to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. Here were found mammoth, horse, and saiga antelope. The excavations at Kostenki I were made by P. P. Efimenko during 1931-1936. The first account of these Paleolithic dwellings was mentioned by I. S. Poliakov in 1879 and by A. I. Kelsiev in 1881. Some excavations were made by S. A. Krukovskii in 1915, by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1922, and by P. P. Efimenko in 1923. Two nearby sites, similar to the above-described dwellings, were found later by Efimenko. 64. Kostenki I] —This Lower Magdalenian site on the right bank of the Don is located at the mouth of Anosov gully, where it merges with the Don Valley. The cultural remains consist of a rich accumu- lation of mammoth bones with traces of hearths. The fauna also included single examples of the horse, hare, Arctic fox, and bear. The implements, mainly made from flint boulders, consisted for the most part of crude burins. The crudest type of bone tools were also found. This site was discovered and investigated by P. P. Efimenko during 1923 and by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1927. 65. Kostenki III—A Lower Magdalenian station on the bank of the Don near the mouth of Chekalin gully; apparently this location was mentioned by Omelin in 1769. The cultural stratum of yellowish loam, about 2.0 m. deep, lies in a narrow depression in the escarpment. In addition to the mammoth, the fauna is represented by a few bones of the horse, Arctic fox, and hare. The flint tools, of Cretaceous and boulder flint, are small, with primitive chisels prevailing. Rare finds of crude bone implements were made. This site was investigated by P. P. Efimenko during 1925 and by S. N. Zamiatnin during 1927. 66. Kostenki IV.—This Lower Magdalenian site stands on the right bank of the Don at the mouth of Aleksandrovskii (Biriuchii) gully. Located at the merging point of the gully and the low terrace, which is partly covered with water in the spring, the cultural stratum lies in the clay at a depth of 1.5 m. In the fauna the mammoth pre- dominated, but there were also represented the horse, hare, and Arctic fox. The flint inventory was more diverse than at Kostenki II and Kostenki III]. A few simple bone implements were excavated. Kostenki IV was discovered and investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1927 and by A. N. Rogachev in 1927 and 1928. Rogachev dis- covered two large, elongated above-ground dwellings. The interior, slightly below the surface of the ground, was filled with refuse. Each building had more than 10 hearths in one line and consisted of four or five round houses 5-7 m. in diameter, closely adjacent and merging 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO with each other. Part were dugouts with the floor 0.6 m. deep. The general planning of this settlement is slightly similar to that of Kostenki I. 67. Kostenki V.—This station lies deeper in Pokrovskii gully than Kostenki I, which faces it on the right side of the gully. In the side fork of the guily (the first from the mouth) are two Upper Paleo- lithic sites, discovered by Efimenko during 1928. The first, located in the lower part of the side gully near the brook, yielded a great accumulation of mammoth bones and some flint implements. Since the cultural stratum lies beneath the loess and Cretaceous crushed pebbles, this monument should be attributed to the early phase of the Upper Paleolithic. The second Upper Paleolithic site lies higher, on the ascent of the elevation on Mirkina Mountain. 68. Streletskaia—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic site at the mouth of Aleksandrovskii gully near Kostenki in Voronezh Oblast were found on the right side of the gully opposite Kostenki 1V on the low terrace at the foot of the bank. Zamiatnin discovered here during 1927 typologically Upper Paleolithic flints and bones of mammoth. Excavations made by P. P. Efimenko corroborated the discovery of this site, which was presumably eroded, the result of being only slightly above the waters of the Don. 69. Telmanskaia Stoianka.—Situated in the fork of two gullies before they reach the Don Valley, this site is located on Kolkhoz “Telman.” Discovered by A. N. Rogachev in 1936 and investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1937, the main excavation revealed a circular dwelling of dugout type with the hearth near its entrance. The flint inventory combines the typical Lower Solutrean implements (laurel- leaf points) and Mousterian forms. In the fauna the mammoth pre- dominated. Many implements were manufactured from bones. 70. Shubnoe—An accumulation of Quaternary animal bones were excavated near this village in Voronezh Oblast about 15 kilometers west of Ostrorozhsk. In addition to many bones of the mammoth and horse, there were fewer of Bos primigenius and rhinoceros and a few of Cervus elaphus and Cervus megaceros. At the outlets to the ravine were solitary unretouched flints. This station was discovered by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1925 and investigated by him in 1933. 71. Gremiachee——This Epipaleolithic *® site stands on the right bank of the Oka River opposite the mouth of its tributary, the Zhizdra. Discovered and investigated by N. I. Bulychev at the end of the 1890’s, this station is situated on the sandy hill at the level of the flood plain. The finds lay in the upper stratum of the loamy 16 Attributed to the so-called “Sviderskian Phase” of the Epipaleolithic period. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 33 alluvium. The flint tools were made from knife-shaped laminae. Three arrowheads with handles were found, but no animal bones or bone implements. 72. Elin Bor.—This Epipaleolithic *° site stands on the left bank of the Oka River near Elina, 25 kilometers farther upstream from Murom. Discovered in 1878 by P. P. Kudriavtsev,’’ P. I. Boris- kovskii in 1934 investigated the remains of the site on the sandy hill I kilometer south of the village. The flint inventory *° consisted mainly of elongated laminae, nuclei, scrapers, chisels, arrowheads, and many flakes. No bone implement or animal bones were found. 73. Karacharovo.—A Lower Magdalenian station on the left bank of the Oka, about 3 kilometers upstream from Murom, was found near this village. Discovered by A. S. Uvarov during 1877, Kara- charovo was investigated by him together with I. S. Poliakov and V. B. Antonovich during 1877-1878. Situated on the left slope of the Karacharovo ravine near its mouth, the Paleolithic remains lay in the lower part of the loesslike loam at a depth of 1.0-1.5 m. The cultural stratum, with a disorderly accumulation of animal bones, covers the surface of about 1.5 sq. m. While mammoth remains predominated, bones of Rhinoceros, Bos, and Cervus were also exca- vated. The flint implements were made from boulders. 74. Meltinovo—Fragments of bones of fossil animals and some flint flakes were found in the valley of the Dolets, upstream from Belev, along the Oka River, near Meltinovo. The Paleolithic age of the flints has not been determined. 75. Okskaia—kK. Lisitsyn described an Upper Paleolithic station in the alluvial deposit of the spring-flooded terrace of the Oka River. The cultural stratum comprises broken and charred bones of Bos, Sus, etc., fish vertebrae, and fresh-water Mollusca. It may well be that this site should be attributed to a later era. 76. Stenino—Mammoth bones and flint implements were found in the vicinity of Kozelsk, along Trostianka brook, part of the basin of the Zhizdra River. According to N. I. Krishtafovich the fauna included mammoth, rhinoceros, elk, and deer. The flint and bone tools were not described. The first report was in 1900 from I. Chetyrkin. 77. Skhodnia—Part of a human calvarium was found during 1936 at a depth of 4.0 m. in the valley of the Skhodnia River, a left tributary of the Moskva River, 12 kilometers north of Moscow during the construction of the Volga-Moscow Canal. According to G. F. Mirchink, this find belongs to the end of the Wiirmian or to the beginning of the following era. 17 He collected surface specimens from local sand dunes during 1878-1894. 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO 78. [Asakovo—A quantity of Quaternary animal bones were found near Troitsa-Pelenitsa on the ancient terrace on the right bank of the Oka River at IAsakovo Station on the Moscow-Kazan Rail- road. Discovered by P. P. Efimenko in 1922, this station was in- vestigated in 1934 by P. I. Boriskovskii, who also found here in an untouched stratum several worked flints of Upper Paleolithic type. 79. [Asnikolskoe.—Bones of Cervus megaceros, horse, and some other animals were found near the efflux of the small riven Aksen, a tributary of the Mostia, on the watershed between the Oka and the Don. The bones were in the alluvial clay beneath a stratum of peat. The so-called flint and bone implements are of doubtful human manufacture. 80. Timonovka—On the right bank of the Desna River near Briansk this Magdalenian site is situated on the side of the ravine which slopes down to the Desna. The finds consist of many flint and bone implements. The fauna is represented by the mammoth, northern deer, Arctic fox, etc. This site was excavated by M. V. Voevodskii in 1926 and by V. A. Gorodtsov from 1928 to 1933. The latter found the remains of houses. 81. Suponevo.—This former Magdalenian station stands on the right bank of the Desna, 4 kilometers south of Briansk. Situated on the second terrace above flood plain one can find traces of some kind of constructions and an accumulation of mammoth bones. The fauna included mammoth, rhinoceros, northern deer, bison, horse, Arctic fox, etc. Suponevo was investigated during 1926-1928 by P. P. Efimenko, B. S. Zhukov, and others. 82. Eliseevichi—On the right bank of the Sudost River, a right tributary of the Desna near this village in the Pochep Raton, a Lower Magdalenian station was located. The cultural remains lay in the loess, covering the second terrace of the Sudost River. They consist of dwellings, an accumulation of mammoth skulls and tusks, tablets covered with carvings, and a female figurine of ivory. The fauna consisted almost exclusively of mammoth. The excavations were conducted by K. M. Polikarpovich in 1930, 1935, and 1936. 83. Kurovo.—On the right bank of the Sudost River stands this Upper Paleolithic station which was excavated by K. M. Polikarpo- vich in 1930. The fauna included mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, ete. 84. Novye Bobovichi—In 1927 traces of an Upper Paleolithic station with worked flints and an accumulation of mammoth bones was found on the right bank of the Iput River, left tributary of the Sozh in the vicinity of Novozybkov. 85. IUdinovo.—This Upper Paleolithic site stands on the right NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 35 bank of the Sudost River, 14 kilometers north of Pogar, on the terrace above the spring floods on Kolkhoz “Pervomaiski.” Preliminary excavations were made by K. M. Polikarpovich during 1934. Flint implements and mammoth bones were found in two places 200 m. away from both sides of the ravine. 86. Suchkino—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic station on the left bank of the Seim River near Suchkino, 8 kilometers east of Rylsk, were investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin during 1930. The fauna con- sisted of mammoth, and the flints were insignificant, mainly flakes. 87. Gamkovo.—A large quantity of mammoth bones and rhinoceros were found under the loess in fluvioglacial deposits covering the Riss moraine, 17 kilometers southwest of Smolensk on the watershed of the Ufinia River, the left tributary of the Dnieper. Only one worked flint came to light. This station has been investigated several times since 1910; small excavations were made in 1933 by K. M. Polikarpo- vich and G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii. 88. Skniatino—This Upper Paleolithic station is located on the dunes of the left bank of the Nerlia River near its confluence with the Volga. The large flint inventory is Azilian-Tardenoisian (Sviderskian Phase) in character. In 1937 P. N. Tretiakov, basing his study on pollen analysis, found it possible to attribute this site to the boreal phase. 89. Kuibyshev—Mammoth bones were discovered during October 1926, while laying a sewer pipe on the Voznesenskii Spusk on the bank of the Volga. Investigation of this site by M. G. Matkin and A. I. Terenozhkin showed that bones lay at a depth of 3.2 m. under the fertile soil and the reddish-brown clay in a stratum of yellow sand above another arenaceous layer mixed with limestone pebbles. Near the mammoth bones were several small flint flakes. 90. Mulinov Ostrov.—Fossil bones were found on this island on the left bank of the Volga opposite the gorodishche between Tetiushi and Ulianovsk. Together with the remains of mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, northern deer, elk, and bison there was found a human mandible. The Paleolithic character of the finds has not been established. gi. Postnikov Ovrag.—This Azilian (or even later) station stands at the mouth of the Postnikov ravine, on the northern outskirts of Kuibyshev, near the Postnikov site with the microlithic inventory. P. P. Efimenko and M. G. Matkin discovered on the slope of the bank a cultural stratum comprising microlithic flints and bone implements, including needles, together with faunal remains as yet not investigated. 92. Undory.—Fossil bones were found in a sand bar near the right 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO bank of the Volga on the island near Undory between Tetiushi and Ulianovsk. Together with the bones of mammoth and other animals there were also found two human calvaria, with the dark coloring characteristic of Pleistocene fauna. The age of these finds remains uncertain. 93. Khriashchevskaia Kosa.——Fossil bones were found on the left bank of the Volga near Sengilei, farther downstream than this village. Since the end of the 1870’s bones of mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, primitive Bos, European bison, northern deer, elk, horse, and camel have been found here. According to P. A. Ososkov this accumulation of bones is the result of human activity since the long bones are often split and bear traces of utilization. In addition, there was found the frontal part of a human skull, which is, however, less deeply colored than the animal bones. The Paleolithic character of the finds remains tentative. 94. [Ablonov Protok—Among bones found on the left bank of the Volga on the eroded sandy crest between the [Ablonov channel and the Sobachia Prorva channel near Tetiushi were those of mam- moth, Siberian rhinoceros, horse, elk, noble deer, bison (zubr), and camel. Here also was found a human humerus, covered with the same almost black and brilliant patina as the animal bones. No Paleolithic flints were found. 95. Ostrov.—tThe first find of the Upper Paleolithic period in the Kama basin was made during September 1938 by M. V. Talitskii on the Chusovaia River near Ostrov and Gladenovo. The cultural stratum, 10.0 cm. thick, lies at a depth of 11.0 m. between the deposits covered by spring floods. The fauna included mammoth and northern deer, and apparently also the Siberian rhinoceros. The material con- sisted of flakes of flint, slate, and rock crystal, as well as knife-shaped laminae and small scrapers. Apparently it is here that occurred the accidental find of a mammoth rib fragment with the engraving in Paleolithic style, which first indicated the existence of this site. 96. Buranovskaia Peshchera.——This cave is located 8 kilometers north of Ust-Katav on the bank of the Yuryuzan River in the Chelia- binsk Oblast. The cultural stratum, containing the crushed bones of animals, was discovered during 1938 at a depth of 2.0 m. in a yellow clay deposit by S. N. Bibikov. The fauna included Bos, horse, northern deer, Arctic fox, wolf, bear, rodents, birds, and fish. A few worked flints were found. This Upper Paleolithic station represents a temporary hunting camp. 97. Kliuchevaia Peshchera.—This cave, situated near No. 96, lies farther downstream on the Yuryuzan in the territory of the Bashkir NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 37 A.S.S.R. The cultural stratum can be clearly seen. The fauna con- sisted of Siberian rhinoceros, European bison, northern deer, Arctic fox, and other forms. The few worked flints and flakes were of dark Cretaceous flint unknown in this vicinity and only occurring about 120-150 kilometers distant. This Upper Paleolithic site, a type of hunting camp remote from permanent habitation, was excavated by S. N. Bibikov during 1938. 98. Ust-Katav.—During 1937 S. N. Bibikov found a considerable quantity of Pleistocene bones, including mammoth, in this cave near Ust-Katav railroad station in the southern Urals. 99. /delbaieva.—Traces of this Upper Paleolithic site were found on the Guberla River northeast of Orsk in the Orenburg Oblast. In addition to flint implements, a large quantity of bones of two species of extinct Bos, horse, wolf, elk, northern deer, and dog were found. 100. Lakedemonovka.—Upper Paleolithic flints were found by V. A. Khokhlovkina during 1935 in the loess on the northern coast of the Sea of Azov. UKRAINE 18 101. Amvrosievka.—Of special interest was this Upper Paleolithic site, apparently Magdalenian, near Amvrosievka, Donets region, in the upper part of the Kazennaia ravine, on the right bank of the Krinka River and 2 kilometers distant. Discovered during 1935, this site was investigated in 1936 by the Museum of the Study of the Region in Stalino. Many worked flints were found on the gully slopes over an area of 6 hectares. The finds resemble the flint in- ventory of Kostenki II and III, Eliseevichi, and the Magdalenian sites along the left bank of the Dniester. The predominant tools were burins. There were also a large quantity of nuclei, indicating that this was an atelier. The finds were not concentrated on some par- ticular level, but could be found from the surface to a depth of 1.25 m. into the loesslike loam. Probably to some later period belong the large campfire and the accumulation of cultural remains, mainly bones of the European bison (Bison priscus), no less than 300 animals being scattered over 40 square meters of the excavation. Flint in- ventories here differ from those mentioned above in the absence of 18 The following sites have been listed: Donbas (No. 101), northern Donets (Nos. 102-108), the middle Dnieper (Nos. 109-124), the basin of Desna (Nos. 125-138), the basin of Sula (Nos. 139-143), Seim (No. 144), the basin of Pripet (Nos. 145-147), the neighborhood of Odessa (No. 148), southern Bug (No. 149), Dniester (Nos. 150-164), and the neighborhood of Melitopol (No. 165). 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO burins. Bone points, spindle-shaped, similar to those from Veselogore were also found. 102. Afrikanova Melnitsa—Traces of an apparently Upper Paleo- lithic site were found near Rogalik-I[Akimovskaia at the confluence of the Evsug River and the northern Donets. This site is located on the slope of the high right bank of the Evsug near the mill. The worked flints do not lie deep. According to S. A. Loktiushev, the finds consist of objects similar to those found in Krinichnaia ravine, including burins, scrapers, and knife-shaped laminae. 103. Beregovaia.—In the vicinity of Rogalik farm (see No. 106) in the midstream of Evsug River near its confluence with the Donets north of Voroshilovgrad [formerly Lugansk], several flint imple- ments, including two small round scrapers, were found. This station apparently represents the same period [Azilian] as that of Rogalik- TAkimovskaia. (See No. 106.) 104. Veselogore-—On a sand bar on the right bank of the Donets, 15 kilometers from Voroshilovgrad, near this village was found accidentally a bone javelin-head of Magdalenian type associated with the bones of mammoth, rhinoceros, Bos, horse, etc. 105. Krinichnaia Balka.—This Upper Paleolithic station, investi- gated in 1936, stands on the slope of the high right bank of the river Evsug near its confluence with the northern Donets. At a point 360 m. southwest of the station of Rogalik-[Akimovskaia (No. 106) were found during 1936 burins, scrapers, knife-shaped laminae, nuclei, and other implements of Rogalil type. 106. Rogalik-IAkimovskaia.—This typologically Azilian site near Rogalik farm lies on the high right bank of the Evsug River at its confluence with the northern Donets, 35 kilometers northeast of Voroshilovgrad [formerly Lugansk]. This station, discovered in 1926 by S. A. Loktiushev, was investigated in 1927, 1928, 1933, and 1936. The cultural remains, located on the right slope of the IAki- movskaia ravine, lie mainly in sandy loam with a slight admixture of humus, at a depth of 1.86 m. The animal bones were mainly Equus, and there were some marine Mollusca. Among the flint tools, which resemble closely those found in the upper horizon of Borshevo II, were such true geometric forms as trapezoids. 107. Sheishinova Balka——During 1936 traces of this Upper Paleo- lithic site were found at the confluence of the Evsug with the northern Donets in Sheishinova ravine near Rogalik farm. The flint imple- ments, from a depth of 0.25-0.60 m., were similar to those from Rogalik-[Akimovskaia (No. 106). 108. Shchurovka—Mammoth bones and several worked flints, NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 39 including angle burins and flakes, were found along the northern Donets near the village of Shchurov Rog, north of Izium. Collected by A. S. Fedorovskii and N. V. Sibilev in 1923, the finds were de- posited partly in Kharkov and partly in Izium Museum. 109. Bairachnaia—During 1935 in Bairachnaia ravine near Yam- burg, Dnepropetrovsk Oblast, there were found typologically Paleo- lithic flints and an accumulation of Early Quaternary animal bones in a sandy clay deposit of the type of ancient ravine formations. 110. Burty—The remains of an Upper Paleolithic station with flints and bones of fossil animals were found in Burty ravine near Studenitsa in the neighborhood of Kanev, in a stratum of ancient ravine alluvium. 111. Dubovaia Balka.—This Upper Paleolithic site, which yielded eight cultural levels, the lower strata of which may be attributed to the Magdalenian period, stands on the left bank of the Dnieper, south of the mouth of the Ploskaia Osokorivka River, opposite Lake Du- bovoe in the Dnieper rapids, known as Nenasytets and Volnichskii. Discovered during 1931 by the Dnieprostroi Archeological Expedi- tion and investigated the following years, this station is situated on the left slope of Dubovaia ravine. The cultural remains lay partly in diluvial loesslike clay and partly in the stratified alluvial sands of the second terrace above the flood plain of the Dnieper. Some of the eight cultural levels contained only hearths and animal bones. The fifth stratum was the richest. The bones of Bos were in the large majority, although Equus and Lupus were represented. There were also many bones of Lepus. No mammoth bones were found. Among flint implements points predominated. There were also bone tools and shell ornaments. 112. Kaistrova Balka I—This Upper Paleolithic site on the left bank of the Dnieper, south of the mouth of the Ploskaia Osokorivka River, west of Dubovaia Balka (No. 111), in the vicinity of Dnie- proges [formerly Dnieprostroi], was discovered and investigated during 1931 by the Dnieprostroi Archeological Expedition. The cultural remains, in the loess of the second terrace above the flood level were partly destroyed by the small gully merging with the ravine. The fauna includes the European bison and horse. The flint inventory is represented mainly by burins and scrapers. The material remains unpublished. 113. Kaistrova Balka II—This is another Upper Paleolithic site in the same vicinity. The cultural remains lie in two adjoining spots in the loess on the right slope of Kaistrova Balka, higher than Kaistrova Balka I at the edge of the gully. The fauna includes the 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO European bison and horse. The flint inventory is represented mainly by burins and scrapers. Two bones awls were also found. The material has not been published. 114. Kaistrova Balka II].—Insignificant traces of a cultural stratum in the loesslike clay occur on the left slope of the Kaistrova Balka, slightly higher than Kaistrova Balka II. Traces of the European bison constituted the only faunal material found. 115. Kaistrova Balka IV.—A deposit with an accumulation of flints was found on the left slope of Kaistrova Balka. This stratum was stained red by infiltrations of iron oxides. 116. Kirillovskaia—A Lower Magdalenian site was discovered in 1893 by V. V. Khvoiko on Kirillovskaia Street in Kiev. The lower horizon of several strata yielded an accumulation of large campfires and of bones and tusks of mammoth. This horizon lies on the surface of the clays at the base of the ancient terrace beneath 22.0 m. of post- glacial deposits. In addition to mammoth, woolly rhinoceros was occasionally found. Among the few flint implements manufactured from flakes, burins of accidental forms predominated. Khvoiko found in the same horizon the fragment of a mammoth tusk covered with stylized designs. This site was studied from 1893 to 1900. 117. Kuirillovskaia (upper horizon).—Discovered by V. V. Khvoiko in 1897, this Upper Magdalenian station was investigated by him in 1897 and 1899. The cultural stratum, containing ashes and a few charred animal bones, lay at the base of grayish-green sands, at a depth of 11-16 m. The fauna included lion, wolverine, wolf, and doubtful finds of hyena and mammoth. The flint inventory consisted of many flakes and tools. 118. Kovalskaia Balka (Krivoi Rog).—A quantity of flint imple- ments and flakes, as well as mammoth bones, were found about 3 kilometers from Krivoi Rog near the confluence of the Saksagan with the Ingul in Kovalskaia ravine 1.0-1.50 m. into the reddish clay. Discovered by A. N. Pol, this site has not been investigated system- atically. The gully is filled with the refuse from the neighboring mine. 119. Maiorka—This Upper Paleolithic (Magdalenian) station stands on the right bank of the Dnieper, farther downstream than Yamburg and Voloskoe, near Maiorka ravine. Found and investi- gated by I. F. Levitskii during 1932, the cultural remains lay under the thick loess at two points: at the mouth of Maiorka ravine at a depth of 3.6 m.; and higher than its mouth, at a depth of 2.5 m. on the bank of the Dnieper, together with the bones of Bos. A few implements were unearthed. 120. Osokorivka.—This Upper Paleolithic site on the left bank NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 4!I of the Dnieper, near the Dnieper Dam, is situated at the mouth of Ploskaia Osokorivka ravine on the second loess terrace. Several cultural horizons were discovered in 1931 and investigated by I. F. Levitskii during 1932. The lower stratum lies at a depth of 5.6 m. at the base of the alluvio-diluvial deposits and apparently belongs to the Magdalenian period. The three upper horizons, at a depth of 3.5 m. in the alluvio-diluvial deposit and 2.0-2.5 m. in the loesslike clay, are probably Azilian. The fauna included bison, horse, mammoth, rhinoceros, beaver, etc. The flint inventory has not been published. Some indications of the dwellings were found. 121. Protasov IAr—Traces of the Upper Paleolithic site were found near the railroad station in Kiev. The finds were made at the beginning of the 1890's during construction work 16.0 m. under the loess. No further studies have been made. 122. Selishche——In 1900 Paleolithic flint implements and associated fauna were discovered by N. I. Krishtafovich near Kanev, on the right bank of the Dnieper. The flints and fauna lay under conditions similar to those at Kirillovskaia (No. 116), where they were found under the thick loess and sand deposits overlying moraine clays. 123. Skalka.—In 1922 bones of mammoth and one flint tablet were found near Skalka gorodishche in the Kremenchug district. 124. Yamburg—This Upper Paleolithic site stands on the right bank of the Dnieper at the mouth of the Sura River. Discovered and investigated by I. F. Levitskii in 1932, it is situated on the third terrace, common for both the Dnieper and Sura Rivers. The first horizon of the cultural remains lies in the loess clay at a depth of 1.5 m. Levitskii identified nine horizons, which are attributed to the Upper Magdalenian period. 125. Voronezh.—This Paleolithic site was found near Glukhov in the Chernigov region. The flints, collected some years ago by Abramov, are deposited in the Hermitage Museum, Leningrad. 126. Degtiarevo—An accumulation of split mammoth bones was discovered in this village in the Novgorod-Seversk district while fenc- ing the church. 127. Mesin.—This Paleolithic site, which stands on the right bank of the Desna River downstream from Novgorod-Seversk, belongs presumably to the end of the Solutrean period. It is situated on the left slope of the Mezin ravine not far from its merging with the Desna Valley. In spite of long years of excavation the character of the habitation remains unclear. As a result of excavations during 1909 a dwelling in the form of shallow dugouts may have existed. Flint and bone implements were richly represented. Included in the fauna 4 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO were mammoth, rhinoceros, northern deer, horse, Arctic fox, wolver- ine, and others. Of especial interest were the shells originating near the Black Sea. Mezin was discovered by F. K. Volkov in 1908, in- vestigated by P. P. Efimenko in 1909, by L. E. Chikalenko in 1912- 1914, by B. G. Krizhanovskii in 1916, and by M. IA. Rudinskii in 1930. 128. Novgorod-Seversk.—This Upper Paleolithic site lies on the bank of the Desna River. The cultural deposits, partly beneath crumbled limestone, were mainly destroyed by quarrying. Many remains of the Pleistocene fauna, including mammoth, northern deer, Arctic fox, and lemming were excavated, associated with flints and worked bones. Among important objects were three gigantoliths, pickax-shaped tools, 0.45 m. long and weighing about 8.0 kilograms, of dark, Cretaceous flint. Found and excavated by I. G. Pidoplichka during April 1936, this site was also investigated in collaboration with M. V. Voevodskii and P. I. Boriskovskii during 1937-1938. 129. Pushkari I—This site, attributed to an early phase of the Upper Paleolithic, stands on the right bank of the Desna River, 20 kilometers north of Novgorod-Seversk. Discovered by P. I. Boris- kovskii in 1932, it was partly investigated by him in 1933 and during 1937-1938. The cultural stratum, at a depth of 1.0 m., yielded many flints including points, scrapers, large retouched laminae, and other forms. The faunal remains, including mammoth, Arctic fox, and wolf, were badly preserved. 130-134. Pushkari II-VI.—Near this village I. G. Pidoplichka and M. V. Voevodskii discovered several more Upper Paleolithic sites. 135. Pushkari VII (Pokrovshchina).—This station, presumably belonging to the end of the Upper Paleolithic, was discovered and investigated during 1938 by M. V. Voevodskii. It is situated near Pushkari, 315 kilometers from the bank of Desna River. The cultural stratum, comprising the accumulation of flints as rounded boulders, flakes, and some finished tools, lay 1.6 m. above the bottom of the gully. 136. Chulatovo I—Discovered and investigated by I. G. Pidop- lichka during 1935, this Upper Paleolithic site stands on the right bank of the Desna, 8 kilometers south of Novgorod-Seversk. Quarry- ing for chalk in the Kreidianyi Maidan destroyed the greater part of the site. The cultural stratum stands 25.0 m. above river level. The fauna was represented by the mammoth, northern deer, horse, Arctic fox, wolverine, and lemming. Part of a human calvarium with traces of sawing 1° were found associated with many flint implements typical 19 Cf. similar marks on Le Placard calvarium. (H. F.) NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 43 for the Lower Magdalenian of eastern Europe; these included mainly chisels, some scrapers, and fragments of bone implements. 137. Chulatovo II (Rabochii Rog).—This Upper Magdalenian site, I kilometer from Chulatovo I, had been partly destroyed by erosion. The cultural stratum was 3.5 m. deep. Some localities showed the manufacturing process of bone tools. The majority of the stone implements were burins, although some nuclei were found. Among the fauna were the mammoth and northern deer. This site, discovered during 1936, was investigated by M. V. Voevodskii in 1937 and 1938. 138. Ukhnova.—In the Novgorod-Seversk district near this village were found bones of mammoth and some flint flakes. 139. Vazovka.—A chance find of the lower jaw of a mammoth and Paleolithic flint implements, eroded from the ancient clay deposits in the ravine, occurred near this village on the Sula River in the vicinity of Lubny in the Poltava region. 140. Gai—Bones of fossil animals together with crude flint flakes were discovered near Gai farm, Romny district. The finds were deposited in Romny Museum. 141. Gontsy—This Magdalenian site was located on the right bank of the Udai River near this village. Discovered and first excavated by F. I. Kaminskii in 1873, it was investigated by the staff of Poltava Museum during 1914-1915, and by I. F. Levitskii together with A. IA. Briusov and I. G. Pidoplichka in 1935. The Paleolithic remains lay under 3.0-3.5 m. of loess on the edge of the sandy clay alluvium, of which the terrace consists. Mammoth bones were probably asso- ciated with the dugouts. In addition, there were alsa northern deer, hare, etc. The flint implements were small, mainly burins and scrapers. A few bone implements, including a perforated needle, were unearthed. 142. Zhuravka.—Standing on the left bank of the Udai River, a right tributary of the Sula, not far from Priluki, was this Azilian station on the alluvio-diluvial deposits of the second loess horizon of the lower terrace. Characteristic were the many bones of rodents (Marmota bobak Miill., Citellus rufescens K., etc.) and of the flint inventory of Epipaleolithic type. More ancient horizons of the same terrace yielded bones of mammoth. Zhuravka was investigated by an expedition from the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences [A.N.U., later U.A.N.] during 1927-1929. 143. Sergeevka—During 1921 bones of mammoth and a flint lamina were collected in a ravine on the right bank of the Khorol, tributary of the Psel River. 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO 144. Shapovalovka——Bones of mammoth and some small flint laminae were found in the basin of the Seim River by N. D. Zubok- Mokievskii during 1879 on the shore of the lake in a steep escarpment, at the depth of 2.0 m. 145. Dovginichi—In 1929 I. F. Levitskii found traces of this Upper Paleolithic station on the left bank of the Uzh River, a right tributary of the Pripet, near Ovruch. 146. Iskorost—This Upper Paleolithic station stands near the rocky bank of the Uzh River at a depth of 0.5-9.8 m. During the excavations by V. V. Khvoiko in 1911, there were discovered beneath the burial mounds a series of campfires, many worked flints, and a few bones. Khvoiko accumulated here a large number of nuclei and their flakes. This material has not been published. 147. Kolodegnoe.—During 1924 I. F. Levitskii reported the acci- dental finding of bones of horse, mammoth, and other forms in a quarry along the Slucha River at the mouth of its tributary, the Tiukhterevka. The confirmatory excavations by S. Gamchenko in 1926 produced no positive results. The engraved bones published by Levitskii remain of doubtful character. 148. Nerubaiskoe—Quaternary bones, including mammoth, rhi- noceros, cave bear, deer, Bos, antelope, camel, and horse, were found near Odessa. N. I. Krishtafovich states that during his visit in 1904 he did not discover any worked flints. 149. Semenki.—This Upper Paleolithic site stands on the right bank of the southern Bug River near this village in Bratslav district. During 1931 K. M. Polikarpovich found flint implements and animal bones, among them the northern deer and the horse. The fauna has not yet been completely determined. 150. Bagovitsy—An Upper Paleolithic site was located near Kamenets-Podolsk on the bank of the Dniester. The surface finds have not yet been described. 151. Vrublevtsy—tThis station, situated not far from the Dniester along the Ternovaia River near Kamenets-Podolsk, was first identified in 1881 by V. B. Antonovich. Typologically Lower Magdalenian flints were excavated from the diluvial clay during 1927. 152. Kalius—During 1927 typologically Magdalenian flints were found near this village on the left bank of the Dniester on the plateau near the Kalius River. 153, 154. Kitai-Gorod I and II—Traces of the Upper Paleolithic sites were found on the right bank of the Ternovaia River, a left tributary of the Dniester, near Kamenets-Podolsk. The material has not been fully described. No. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 45 155, 156. Kolachkovtsy I and II.—Traces of these two Upper Paleolithic sites were found on the right bank of the Studenitsa, a left tributary of the Dniester. The material, which was obtained during 1928, has not been described. 157. Krivchik—A quantity of flint implements were collected at the entrance to the caves situated on the bank of the Dniester near Krivchik at the mouth of the Schusenka River. No further data are available. 158. Kusheleva.—Traces of a site were located on the Ushitsa River, a left tributary of the Dniester near Bolshaia Kuzheleva. No further data are available. 159. Nagoriany.—Large stone implements crudely fashioned by percussion flaking were found in this cave situated on the left bank of the Dniester near the Ledava River. The material has not been described. 160. Near the caves situated not far from the Dniester on the left bank of the Smotrich River between Nechin and Zaluch were found stone tools. The material has not been described. 161. Ozarintsy—Several flints and one fragment of mammoth bone with a representation of this animal on it were found during 1912 near this village in the neighborhood of Kamenets-Podolsk in the talweg of the Borshchevetski IAr ravine. The Paleolithic origin of the finds remains doubtful. 162. Sokol—Traces of this Paleolithic site were found on the left bank of the Dniester near this village in the neighborhood of Kamenets-Podolsk. The material has not been described. 163. Studenitsa—This Magdalenian site is situated on the Belaia Gora overlooking the Dniester near the juncture of the Studenitsa River. Paleolithic flints were collected here, on the slopes of this mountain and in its cave, as early as 1883 by V. B. Antonovich. A considerable number of worked flints were found here during 1927. 164. Ushitsa—During 1927 a few typologically Magdalenian flints were found on the surface at this site on the plateau between the Dniester and Ushitsa Rivers. 165. Kamennyi Kurgan.—This sandy hill stands on the right bank of the Molochnaia River near Terpene in the Melitopol district, Dnepropetrovsk region. Many engravings were found on the grotto walls formed of sandstone plates. According to O. N. Bader, some of them belong to the Epipaleolithic and even to the Upper Paleo- lithic periods. 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO TERRITORY OF THE B.S.S.R. 2° 166. Berdyzh—This Solutrean site stands in Kolodezhki ravine on the right bank of the Sozh River near this village in the Checherskii district. The cultural remains lie in the sands at a depth of 5.0-6.0 m. The large quantity of mammoth bones were mainly unearthed. In addition, the fauna was represented by the horse, Bos, cave bear, Arctic fox, etc. These excavations were conducted during 1926- 1929. The site was discovered by K. M. Polikarpovich and investi- gated by him, by S. N. Zamiatnin, and others. In 1929 there was discovered a pit, 3.0 m. long and 1.5 m. deep, filled with the remains of a dugout. Considerable excavations were made by Polikarpovich during 1938. 167. Kleievichi.—This site stands on the right bank of the Beseda River, a left tributary of the Sozh, near this village in the Kostiukovich district. The finds included a small quantity of mammoth and horse bones together with flints (possibly of natural origin) in the sands of the upper terrace, at about the spring high-level mark. Studies were made here by K. M. Polikarpovich in 1919, 1930, and 1934. 168. IUrovichi—This Upper Paleolithic site stands on the left bank of the Pripet on the second terrace above the spring high-level mark at the mouth of the ravine near this small town. A few worked flints associated with mammoth and horse bones were found in sands lying about 25.0 m. above the river level. CrIMEA 21 169. Adzhi-Koba.—The upper horizon of this cave contained flints of Upper Paleolithic type (see No. 22) similar to those from Siuren I. Above lay a stratum containing implements of microlithic type, excavated by A. S. Moiseev. 170. At-Bash.—This Tardenoisian site lies beneath the rock called At-Bash on the Ai-Petri [Aila about 200 m. above sea level on the IAila precipice facing the sea near Siemiz. Investigated during 1927 by B. S. Zhukov and O. N. Bader, the cultural stratum, mostly eroded, lay at a depth of 40-60 cm. below the surface. In the center stood a hearth, surrounded by stone plates 2.5 m. in diameter. The inventory included flints of Tardenoisian type and single bones of deer and boar. The excavators also found fragments of slightly fired pottery, which possibly has no real connection with the Tardenoisian stratum. 20 The following areas have been listed: Sozh Valley (Nos. 166, 167), and Pripet Valley (No. 168). 21 Nos. 169-188. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 47 171. Balin-Kosh.—This Tardenoisian site in located in the Ai-Petri IAila near Bedene-Khyr Mountain and the Balin-Kosh area. Micro- lithic flint implements were found here by E. I. Visniovskaia and others. T. F. Gelakh found pebbles with an engraved pattern, re- sembling the painted pebbles (galets coloriés) of Mas d’Azil in the Ariége District of France. 172. Buran-Kaia.—This cave containing Azilian flints, animal bones, and shells of edible mollusks, stands on the right bank of the Borulcha River near Kainaut, in the Karasubazar Raion. Discovered by O. N. Bader in 1935, Buran-Kaia was investigated by him during 1936. 173. Dzhelau-Bash.—This open-air Tardenoisian site, in the area known as Dzhelau-Bash or Damchi-Kaia on the Chatyr-Dagh, was discovered and investigated by O. N. Bader in 1930. There were two cultural horizons: in the lower were found geometric microliths ; in the upper, microliths with pottery. 174. Zamil-Koba I.—This cave, containing Azilian-Tardenoisian remains, was discovered during 1935 near Cherkez-Kermen by D. A. Krainov. The finds were in the lower cultural stratum. 175. Zamil-Koba II.—This cave with Tardenoisian remains stands next to Zamil-Koba I. It was discovered and investigated by D. A. Krainoy in 1937. The flints were excavated from the lower cultural stratum. 176. Kachinskii.—This rock shelter with Upper Paleolithic remains stands above the Kacha River near Pychkhi village close to Bakhchi- sarai. Discovered by K. S. Merezhkovskii in 1879, it was investigated by him during 1879-1880. He found stone tools and some child’s bones. According to G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii this is a Magdalenian site. 177. Kizil-Koba.—This Tardenoisian atelier site stands on the slope of the Dolgorukov IAila near Kizil-Koba village close to Sim- feropol. During 1879-1880 K. S. Merezhkovskii found a large quantity of flint tools, nuclei, and flakes in the dark brown clay directly beneath the humus, relatively near to the natural location of the flint. 178. Kukrek.—This Tardenoisian open-air station stands on the right bank of the Zuia River, 5 kilometers south of Kiik-Koba (see No. 24). Discovered by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii in 1926, Kukrek was investigated by him during 1926-1927. The lower stratum of the site, which lay at a depth of 1.5 m. beneath the diluvial strata of clay and gravel, yielded prismatic nuclei, round scrapers, burins, and a quantity of microliths. The upper stratum, at a depth of 0.5 m., was poor in finds but contained typical trapezoids and segments. There 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO were few remnants of bones and hearths. The fauna included wolf, wild boar, deer, and hare. The flora of the site was characterized by the presence of Quercus. 179. Murzak-Koba.—This Tardenoisian cave, situated on the left bank of the Chernaia River in Boklu-dere gorge near Balaclava, was discovered and investigated by S. N. Bibikov and E. V. Zhirov in 1936. The cultural deposits yielded the characteristic flint inventory and bone tools including awls, a needle, and a double-barbed harpoon. Among fauna were deer, roe deer, wild boar, bear, fox, domesticated dog, badger, hare, fish bones, and a large quantity of snails (/Telix vulgaris). In addition, here was also found the double burial ?? of the Tardenoisian period. Excavations by S. N. Bibikov during 1938 revealed Upper Paleolithic strata near bedrock. 180. Siuren I—A rock shelter, possibly Aurignacian, stands on the right bank of the Belbek River, higher than Biiuk-Siuren, 13 kilometers southwest of Bakhchisarai. Here there were three cultural horizons with flint implements, similar to those of Aurignacian sites. In addition, especially in the lower stratum, were found Mousterian tools including small axes, points, scrapers, and some bone imple- ments. The fauna included the mammoth, cave hyena, northern deer, Arctic fox, white hare, rodents, northern birds (white grouse), and remains of fish. A study of the charcoal shows the boreal character of the vegetation. This site, discovered by K. S. Merezhkovskii in 1879, was investigated by him during 1879-1880, and later by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii in 1926-1929. 181. Siuren II.—This Late Azilian (Sviderskian Phase) rock shelter stands next to Siuren I. Discovered by K. S. Merezhkovski1 in 1879, it was investigated by him during 1879-1880 and later G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii in 1924 and 1926. The cultural stratum lies at a depth of 0.75 m. between limestone fragments. Near the entrance this stratum becomes about 4.0 m. deeper. The typical flint inventory includes well-preserved arrowheads of leaf-shaped form. The fauna has a contemporary character but with some Pleistocene species in- cluding cave lion and large deer. Here were also the first finds of the domesticated dog. A study of the charcoal from the hearth stratum revealed only aspen. 182. Fatma-Koba.—This Azilian-Tardenoisian rock shelter stands on the right bank of the Kubalar-Su in the Baidar Valley of the Balaclava district near Urkust. Discovered by S. A. Trusov and 22 A cast of one of the skulls is in the Chicago Natural History Museum. This was received during 1945 as a gift from IAE, Leningrad, where the original is on exhibition. See footnote 10. (H. F.) NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 49 S. N. Bibikov in 1927, it was investigated by G. A. Bonch-Osmo- lovskii in 1927. The lower cultural stratum belongs to the Azilian, the upper strata to the Tardenoisian period. In the latter were dis- covered the burials. The fauna, which was similar in all horizons, included wild boar, deer, wild donkey, horse, saiga, wolf, fox, hare, badger, cave lion, lynx, domesticated dog, and rodents. In the Tarde- noisian levels maple and rowanberry were identified. 183. Chatyr-Dagh.—tTraces of Paleolithic occupation were found in the cave of the Chatyr-Dagh, discovered by K. S. Merezhkovskii in 1879 and investigated by him during 1879-1880. In Bin-bash-Koba cave in the stratum of red clay were found remnants of hearths, bone breccia, and flint and bone implements. In Suuk-Koba cave in the same kind of stratum at a depth of about 1.50 m. were discovered traces of a hearth, crushed bones, and stone tools of Siurenian type. The caves of Chatyr-Dagh were investigated in 1930 by O. N. Bader, who excavated about 3.0 m. of the cultural deposits. 184. Cherkez-Kermen.—Two Azilian caves were discovered near this village by K. S. Merezhkovskii in 1880. The finds included stone and bone implements, and the bone of a dolphin. It is probable that these caves are contemporaneous with Zamil-Koba I and II. 185. Shan-Koba.—This Azilian-Tardenoisian rock shelter, on the right slope of Kubaral-dere ravine near Urkust in the Baidar Valley, found by S. A. Trusov and S. N. Bibikov in 1927, was investigated by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii during 1927-1928 and by Bibikov in 1935-1936. There were found altogether six cultural horizons, five Epipaleolithic with traces of hearths, microlithic flints, bone com- pressors and needles, borers and points, implements with inserts, and a large quantity of shells of Helix vulgaris. The second and third cultural strata belong to the Tardenoisian or Azilian transition period. The fauna included deer, horse, boar, beaver, hare, wolf, fox, lynx, dog, etc. Represented in the flora were birch, mountain-ash, buck- thorn, and juniper in the lower strata, and maple and buckthorn in the upper levels. 186. Shpan-Koba—This Tardenoisian rock shelter near Tau- Kipchak was discovered and investigated in 1925 by G. A. Bonch- Osmolovskii and by O. N. Bader a decade later. 187. IUsuf-Koba I—During 1936 E. V. Zhirov discovered a Tardenoisian rock shelter on the eastern slope of Cape Lang near Biiuk-Muskomia in the Balaclava district. The cultural stratum yielded crushed animal bones and an accumulation of the shells of Helix vulgaris. 188. [Aila—Many Epipaleolithic stations were found on the slopes 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO of the IAila Plateau, beginning with Chatyr-Dagh and as far as Point Liaspi. One of these sites, Kizil-Koba on the Dolgorukov IAila, was discovered and investigated in 1879 by K. S. Merezhkovskii. In 1913 N. N. Klepnin and N. I. Dubrovskii discovered on the IAila three Tardenoisian sites. Later A. S. Moiseev discovered about 30 more sites. The systematic investigations of the Ai-Petri [Aila and Chatyr- Dagh, begun in 1927, were conducted by B. S. Zhukov, O. N. Bader, E. I. Visniovskaia, and others. S. I. Zabnin and Visniovskaia also discovered several sites. In the Feodosia region investigations were conducted by P. P. Zablotskii, N. S. Barsamov, and Bader. Also examined were the sites of Kizil-Koba by Merezhkovskii, At-Bash by Zhukov and Bader, Balin-Kosh by Zhukov, Bader, Gelakh, and others, and the sites of the Chatyr-Dagh, Dzhelau-Bash, Uzun-Koba, Kenavuz-Koba, and others by Bader. Microlithic flint implements were found at all these sites, but other finds, such as a stone lamp and pebbles with incisions, occurred at only a single site. CAVES IN THE CAUCASUS 23 189. Bartashvili Peshchera.—This Upper Paleolithic cave near Kutaisi, not far from Virchow cave, was discovered and investigated by the expedition led by P. P. Schmidt and L. Kozlovskii in 1914. The results remain unpublished. 190. Bnele-Klde—This Upper Paleolithic cave on the Kvirila River near Chiaturi was discovered by S. A. Krukovskii in 1918 and investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1934. 191. Virchow Peshchera.—This Upper Paleolithic cave near Motsa- meti close to Kutaisi was discovered and investigated by the expedition led by P. P. Schmidt and L. Kozlovskii in 1914 and by G. K. Nioradze in 1936. The flint inventory is characterized by the nuclei-shaped tools and by the large quantity of small laminae with blunt edges, resembling geometric microliths. Represented in the fauna were the strongly mineralized bones of the cave bear, 192. Gvardzhilas-Klde—This Azilian cave, which stands on the left bank of the Kvirila River near Rgani close to Chiaturi, was dis- covered and investigated by S. A. Krukovskii during 1916-1917. Among the many stone tools were a large quantity of geometric microliths, small crudely fashioned axes, and articles made of bone and horn including a harpoon of Azilian type. In the fauna were Ursus arctos, Ursus spelaeus, Bison bonasus, and Bos taurus. 193. Darkvetii—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic site were found 23 Imeretia (Nos. 189-199), Abkhazia (No. 200), and Adler Raion (No. 201). NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 51 by S. N. Zamiatnin during 1936 in this cave near Darkveti railroad station on the right bank of the Kvirila River. 194. Devis-Khvreli—This Upper Paleolithic cave, located on the right bank of the Chkherimela River in Khandebi quarry between the Dzeruly railroad station and Kharaguly, was discovered by G. K. Nioradze in 1926 and investigated by him during 1926-1928. Many flint flakes and implements were unearthed. Bone tools, mainly awls and compressors, were present but were not numerous. According to V. I. Gromov and M. V. Pavlova, the fauna consisted of wild boar, wild goat, and bear, all of which were presumably the main objects of the chase. A fragment of a human mandible and two molars were excavated. 195. Mgvimevi.—Flint implements and other traces of a cultural stratum of the Upper Paleolithic period were discovered by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1934 near Mgvimevi, 1 kilometer north of Chiaturi on the right bank of the Kvirila River. A row of linear geometric signs was recorded on the surface of the rock along the edge of Rock Shelter No. 5. 196. Taro-Klde—This Aurignacian cave site near Shukrut on the upper course of the Kvirila in the neighborhood of Chiaturi was dis- covered and investigated by S. A. Krukovskii in 1918. The cultural deposits consist of a flint inventory of Upper Paleolithic type mixed with Mousterian forms and also of a large quantity of bone points. 197. Uvarova Peshchera—This Upper Paleolithic cave, which stands on the left bank of the Krasnaia River (Tskhali-Tsiteli) near Kutaisi and not far from Virchow cave, was investigated in 1914 by an expedition led by P. P. Schmidt and L. Kozlovskii. 198. Khergulis-Klde—This Aurignacian cave is located at Vachevi near Chiaturi on the right bank of the Kvirila. The finds consisted of tools of Upper Paleolithic type and a quantity of surviving Mous- terian forms, which, however, were characterized by the perfection of their retouch. The fauna included bear, wild horse, and Bos. 199. Tsirkhvali—rTraces of an Upper Paleolithic site resembling Gvardzhilas-Klde (No. 192) were found in this cave near Tsirkhvali and the Kvirila River not far from Chiaturi. Tsirkhvali was dis- covered by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1934. 200. Planta—During 1936 L. N. Solovev found this cave near the confluence of the Amtkel and Kodor Rivers. On the scree slopes and above bedrock were flint implements and flakes of Tardenoisian type, including many geometric forms, associated with animal bones. 201. Navalishenskaia Peshchera—The upper part of this cave in the Adler Raion (see No. 33) yielded Upper Paleolithic remains. 52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Open-Air SITES IN THE CAUCASUS 24 202. Dafnari—Several Upper Paleolithic implements were found by A. N. Kalandadze in 1926 on the top of the uplands next to the outlet of the red Turonian flint, near this village 3 kilometers from Lapchkhuti. 203. Lua.—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic site were located dur- ing 1936 by A. N. Kalandadze on the ancient terrace of the Ingur River, 1.5 kilometers from the Zugdidi-Dzhvari highway. Near the cemetery, at a depth of 0.8-to1.2 m., were flint nuclei, scrapers, burins, and laminae. The site was destroyed during the construction of this highway. 204. Odishi—This Upper Paleolithic site, which lies in this village in the Zugdidi Raion, was discovered by A. N. Kalandadze during 1936. A large quantity of flint implements including scrapers, burins, nuclei, laminae, and geometric blades were found. In addition, some Neolithic implements such as arrowheads and grinding stones were unearthed in the unplowed part of the small plateau which goes down to the valley of the Dzhumi River. On the Zugdidi-Odishi highway in the vicinity of the Odishi Cooperative were found a few patinated flint tools. 205. Rukhi IJ.—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic site were dis- covered by A. N. Kalandadze in 1936 near the school of this village, 6 kilometers from Zugdidi. The nuclear burins, elaborate scrapers, laminae with incisions, knife-shaped tablets, and three points covered with milky patina were accumulated on the surface. 206. Supsa-Shroma.—tTraces of this Paleolithic site were dis- covered by A. N. Kalandadze on the Supsa-Shroma Highway in 1936. Here were found flakes and laminae; in front of the school near Dzharbenadze on the slope near the highway were two scrapers and laminae. At Motsviari on the right bank of the Sefa River flakes were collected. 207. Kheti—F lint tools were found on the slopes of Urta Moun- tain by A. N. Kalandadze in 1936. Animal bones, fragments of a human calvarium, and several flint flakes were found on the small elevation. A large, deeply patined flake was collected at the foot of this slope opposite the former Latariia Estate. More to the west, in the escarpment of the brook in situ were two laminae. Traces of the Upper Paleolithic site can also be found on the left bank of the Munchii River, where the slope of Urta Mountain merges with the Kolkhida Valley near the railroad. 24 Mingrelia (Nos. 202-208), Abkhazia (Nos. 209-214), and Sochi Raion (Nos. 215-216). , NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 53 208. Entseri—Traces of this Upper Paleolithic station were dis- _ covered by A. N. Kalandadze in 1936 on the left bank of the Ingur River in this village. The inventory included flint laminae, nuclei, scrapers, and multifacetted burins. 209. Atap.—Upper Paleolithic flints were collected near this village. (See No. 3.) 210. Gali.—Typologically Upper Paleolithic flints were found on the 80-m. terrace. (See No. 5.) 211. Zakharovka.—On the elevation over the ravine of the Amtkel River on the surface of the moraine were found Upper Paleolithic ‘flints. 212. Tabachnaia.—Flints of Upper Paleolithic type were obtained at the Zonal Tobacco Station on the surface of the 100-m. terrace near Sukhumi. (See No. 11.) 213. Tsebelda—Flints of Upper Paleolithic type were collected on the elevation near Tsebelda. (See No. 12.) 214. [Ashtukh—Upper Paleolithic flints were found near Suk- humi. (See No. 14.) 215. Abazinka—Upper Paleolithic flints were collected on the left bank along the Matsesta River, 6 kilometers upstream from Old Matsesta. 216. Semenovka.—Upper Paleolithic implements were found on the street and estates of this village which stands beside the Matsesta River. AsIATIC Part oF THE R.S.F.S.R.25 217. Nizhne-Yeniseiskaia—Among the collections made by Sergeev and Markov in 1933 on the right bank of the Biia River, about 12 kilometers from Biisk, were found on the dunes a quartzite piéce écaillée and a crude chip of Upper Paleolithic type. 218. Srostki—Traces of this Paleolithic site, as expressed in the finds of crudely fashioned stone tools, mainly quartzite, were dis- covered in several neighboring locations on the side of the 50-m. terrace on the right bank of the Katun River, 36 kilometers from Biisk. The cultural remains lay at a depth of 1.10 m. in the loesslike sandy loam. The finds consisted of nuclei and tools made of small 25 Western Siberia (Nos. 217-220), the basin of the Upper Yenisei (Nos. 221- 255), thé basin of the Angara (Nos. 256-277), the basin of the Lena (No. 278), Buriat-Mongolia (Nos. 279-290), Khabarovsk Krai (No. 291), and the Primorski [Maritime] Krai (No. 292). See also Henry Field and Eugene Prostov, Results of Soviet Investigations in Siberia, 1940-1941. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 388-406, 1942. 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO flakes resembling those from the Yenisei site (No. 217). The fauna, which was not rich, included horse and possibly deer. 219. Tomsk.—A temporary hunting site of the Upper Paleolithic period was discovered and investigated by N. F. Kashchenko in 1896 on the right bank of the Tom River in Tomsk. He found a skeleton of a young mammoth and traces of campfires and flint flakes 3.5 m. deep in the loesslike clay. 220. Fominskoe.—Traces of this site were found in 1911 by M. D. Kopytov on the right bank of the Ob River near this village in the vicinity of Biisk. Later finds were deposited in the Biisk Museum. The cultural remains, consisting of rather crudely fashioned points and massive flakes of quartzite similar to those found in Srostki, originated in the lowest terrace only 5.0 m. above river level. 221. Ateshka.—F lakes and a scraper of Paleolithic type as well as teeth and fragments of animal bones were found by G. Merhart in 1920 south of this village in the Novoselovo Raion on the slope of the first terrace above the Yenisei River. 222. Anash (Krasnoiarsk Krai).—Several crude stone tools, re- touched flakes, and fragmentary bones of mammoth and deer were collected on the surface of the reddish-brown clay in the sandy ravine. These finds were made by G. P. Sosnovskii and M. P. Griaznov in 1923 near this village in the Krasnoiarsk region on the right bank of the Yenisei, 170 kilometers farther downstream than Minusinsk. 223. Afontova Gora I—This Magdalenian site, at the foot of Afontova Mountain on the left bank of the Yenisei near Krasnoiarsk, stands on the slope behind the railroad station. During the prepara- tions for the construction of two brick barns, I. T. Savenkov in 1894 found in the loess clay crushed bones of fossil animals including northern deer, mammoth, Bos, horse, and dog, stone and bone tools, and tusks of mammoths. 224. Afontova II.—This Paleolithic site near Krasnoiarsk, below the former [Udin Estate, was discovered during 1912. Systematic excavations were conducted by N. K. Auerbakh, V. I. Gromov, and G. P. Sosnovskii during 1923-1925. The cultural strata lay in the deposits of the 15- to 16-m. terrace of the Yenisei. The upper level lay in the sandy loess at a depth of 1.0-3.5 m., the lower stratum in the loessy clay and sandy soil 12.0 m. beneath the surface. Remains of dugouts were found in the lower horizon. The fauna consisted mainly of northern deer, Arctic fox, hare, mammoth, and dog. There were neither mammoth nor Arctic fox remains in the upper level. Together with the numerous stone tools were found bone implements - NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 55 and also ornaments. In the lower level in trench No. 5 were dis- covered five human bones. 225. Afontova IJI].—This Paleolithic site, which stands near Krasnoiarsk in the neighborhood of the oil reservoirs, was discovered by I. T. Savenkov in 1914 and investigated by him with the assistance of N. K. Auerbakh in 1925 and 1930. The upper horizon lay at a depth of 0.9-1.5 m. beneath the present surface in the yellow loessy clay soil; the lower horizon, poorer in finds, lay at a depth of 2.0-3.2 m. The fauna of the lower horizon included mammoth, hare, horse, northern deer, and Arctic fox; the upper horizon yielded only the northern deer and Bos. Both horizons contained stone and bone implements. 226. Afontova IV (Ivanikhin Log).—Near Krasnoiarsk on the upper part of the slope of Afontova Mountain between Afontova II and Afontova III stands this site, discovered by I. T. Savenkov. The strata were similar to the upper horizon of Afontova II. Among fauna were Bos and the northern deer. 227. Achinsk.—In 1914, during railroad construction, split mam- moth bones and charcoal, as well as stone implements, were found in the loessy loam near this town. 228. Bateni I.—This Paleolithic site stands on the left bank of the Yenisei River, 150 kilometers downstream from Minusinsk, on the left bank of the Tashtyk River near its mouth. The cultural stratum, discovered in 1925, lay at a depth of 1.0 m. in the loessy loam of the spring-flooded terrace of the Yenisei. Stone and bone implements were found. In the fauna were the northern deer and Bos primigenius. 229. Bateni I].—The cultural stratum of this Paleolithic site near this village lay in the loessy clay above the spring-flooded terrace of the Yenisei. Stone and bone tools were unearthed. Included in the fauna were Bos primigenius, saiga, deer, elk, mammoth, wolf, hare, and Equus hemionus. 230. Bateni IIJ—This Paleolithic site, 1.5 kilometers north of this village at IArki, was discovered by I. T. Savenkov during the 1890's. Stone implements were also found here by G. Merhart, G. P. Sosnovskii, and others. 231. Batoi.—At this place, 35 kilometers north of Krasnoiarsk, were found the skull of Cervus elaphus, bearing traces of human workmanship, and one stone implement. 232. Biriusa—This group of Paleolithic sites on the bank of the Yenisei, at the mouth of the Biriusa River, 50 kilometers upstream from Krasnoiarsk, was discovered by A. P. Elenov in 1890 and was investigated by him in 1891 and by N. K. Auerbakh and V. I. Gromov 56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10 in 1926 and 1927. In 1928 these sites were examined by G. F. Mir- chink and V. I. Gromov in connection with the study of the terraces of the Yenisei. Biriusa I consisted of three Paleolithic strata lying on the spring-flooded terrace in 2.0 m. of yellow-grayish clay and sand. In the stratum representing the transition from the Paleolithic to the Early Neolithic were found stone implements including nuclei and flakes, and crushed bones of such animals as the large Bos, north- ern deer, horse, noble deer, mountain sheep, wolf, and hare. The upper horizon consisted of an accumulation of large stones and ashes. Here were found stone tools, as well as implements made of bone, such as needles and points. Included in the fauna were the northern deer, Bos, hare, mountain sheep, roe deer, and horse. 233. Bugach.—This site stands on the left bank of the Kacha River, a left tributary of the Yenisei near its confluence with the Bugach River, 1 kilometer northeast of Krasnoiarsk. Bugach was discovered by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1919 and investigated by him in 1923. The cultural stratum with hearths, flint implements, and flakes was fouund at a depth of 1.0 m. in the loessy clay on the first terrace, which is flooded during the spring high water. The fauna included the Arctic fox, northern deer, hare, and other forms. 234. Buzunova.—This group of Paleolithic sites is located on the terrace situated above spring high water on the right bank of the Yenisei, 55 kilometers downstream from Minusinsk. The cultural remains were discovered during 1920 at two points, one above the other below Buzunova. The stone tools and flakes and the fragments of a bone tip were found by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1923 in the hearth level at a depth of 5.5 m. in loessy clay on the right side of the con- fluence with the river gully. V. I. Gromov and N. K. Auerbakh accumulated new surface material in 1925 from the site above Buzunova. 235. Voennyt Gorodok.—This Paleolithic site on the left bank of the Yenisei, 4 kilometers downstream from Krasnoiarsk near the second Korovii Log, was discovered in 1911 by A. IA. Tugarinov and A. P. Ermolaev and investigated by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1919 and 1923 and by V. I. Gromov in 1928. The cultural stratum lies in the loessy clay sand deposits at depths of 2.0 and 4.0-6.0 m. Associated with the stone tools and flakes were implements made of horn and bone. Represented in the fauna were mammoth, northern deer, Arctic fox, wolf, and horse. 236. Dolgova.—Stone implements were found in 1885 by I. T. Savenkov at this new settlement near the Chernaia Sopka. Bones of Rr — Ee . NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 57 mammoth, rhinoceros, and other animals were found in the clay near the mill. 237. Zykovo.—A fragment of an antler of the northern deer, with incisions, was found by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 near Zykovo railroad station. He also found charcoal and animal bones in the loess of the ravine behind Puzyrevo. 238. Izykh.—I. T. Savenkov found a Paleolithic scraper on the dunes at the southeastern slope of Izykh Mountain on the right bank of the Abakan River. 239. Kacha—tThis Paleolithic site, near the factory in the valley of the Kacha River, a right tributary of the Yenisei, was discovered by V. I. Gromov and N. K. Auerbakh in 1928. 240. Kliuch Gremiachit.—tTraces of this site were located at the efflux of Gremiachii brook on the left bank of the Yenisei, 1.5 kilo- meters from the railroad bridge over the Yenisei. G. P. Sosnovskii found here in 1919 traces of charcoal, a stone scraper, a fragment of mammoth tusk, and bones of the northern deer and split tubular bones of animals in the loess at a depth of 1.25 m. 241. Kokorevo I (Zabochka).—This site on the left bank of the Yenisei stands approximately 500 paces farther upstream than Koko- revo in the northern part of the Minusinsk Valley. Discovered by G. P. Sosnovskii and investigated by him in 1925 and 1928, the cultural stratum lies from 2.6 to 4.15 m. deep in the loesslike sandy loam, which covers the lowest terrace. Here were found four hearths surrounded by stones with the accumulation of cultural remains con- sisting of stone tools and flakes, a few fragments of bone implements, and crushed bones of such animals as the horse, noble deer, Bos, mountain sheep, wolf, and others. The charcoal found in the hearths originated from larch, fir, willow, pine, and birch. 242. Kokorevo II (Telezhnyi Log).—This site, located on the left bank of the Yenisei near Kokorevo in the Telezhnyi ravine, was in- vestigated by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 and 1928. The cultural stratum was discovered at a depth of 6.2 m. beneath a deposit of buried soil and loessy clay sand covering the lowest terrace. The finds consisted of stone tools, fragments of a few bone implements, charcoal (larch, willow, birch), and of split bones of animals including the mammoth, Arctic fox, northern deer, horse, wolf, hare, and marmot. 243. Kokorevo III.—This site, north of Kokorevo in the Kamennyi Log at its merging point with the Telezhnyi Log, was investigated by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 and 1928. The cultural stratum lies at a depth of about 1.6 m. in the clay sands of the ancient ravine on the 5 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO slope of the 40- to 50-meter terrace. The Paleolithic remains formed small, separate accumulations around the hearth. Among the finds were quartzite tools; crushed bones of northern deer, horse, hare, and wolf; and small pieces of charcoal from larch and fir. 244. Kokorevo IV .—This site, situated 2 kilometers farther down- stream than Kokorevo in the Kipirnyi Log, was investigated by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 and 1928. The Paleolithic remains were in the loesslike sandy loam of the lowest terrace above flood level at a depth of 1.5-2.1 m. In addition to tools there were excavated the bones of animals, including the northern deer, noble deer, bison, and Equus hemionus. 245. Korkino.—A stone tool and a bone awl were found at the bottom of the ravine, the last one at Korkino on the left bank of the Yenisei River. 246. Krasnoiarsk—During the construction of a brewery, bones of fossil animals with traces of human workmanship and typologically Paleolithic stone tools came to light. Similar discoveries were also made in another part of the city. 247. Kubekovo.—Quaternary animals bones, Paleolithic stone tools, and a deer antler with traces of human workmanship were found by N. K. Auerbakh and V. I. Gromov in Lankov Log and in the other ravines near Kubekovo on the left bank of the Yenisei, 23 kilometers upstream from Krasnoiarsk. 248. Ladeikii—Traces of this Upper Paleolithic site were found near this village on the right bank of the Yenisei, 8 kilometers farther downstream from Krasnoiarsk, under the dunes and the pockets of loess among the pebbles. I. T. Savenkov found here in 1883 bones of a large Bos and tools of Paleolithic type at the edge of the lowest terrace. The excavations were continued by Baron Joseph de Baye in 1896, by G. Merhart in 1920, and by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1923. 249. Lepeshkina (Irdzha).—A group of Upper Paleolithic sites were located on the right bank of the Yenisei near this village, oppo- site Bateni pier. The first site, which was discovered by G. Merhart in 1920, comprised the material on the slope of Irdzha Mountain, the elevation surrounding the river valley. In 1923 G. P. Sosnovskii dis- covered in the deposits of eolian sands three hearths surrounded by bones of animals, including bison, stone tools and flakes. The second surface site, yielding stone tools, was found by Sosnovskii in 1923 on the bank of the Yenisei Canal upstream from the village. V. I. Gromov and G. F. Mirchink discovered a thick cultural stratum in 1927 near Lepeshkina. 250. Pereselenchesku Punkt.—This Paleolithic site stands on the ; NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 59 right bank of the Yenisei near the canal opposite Krasnoiarsk. The first finds here were made by Baron Joseph de Baye in 1896. The site was investigated by S. M. Sergeev in 1912 and G. P. Sosnovskii in 1923 and 1926. The cultural remains were discovered in the loess of the lowest terrace, where they had the character of patches. It is possible that these are the remains of dugouts. Included in the fauna were northern deer, horse, bison, cave lion, roe deer, rodents, and birds. Together with the stone tools and flakes were found bone tools, fragments of shells, and pieces of coloring matter. 251. Tes.—Crude stone implements were found by I. T. Savenkov in 1885 on the dunes near this village on the Tuba River. 252. Usunzhul—aAn antler of northern deer with traces of human workmanship, a scraper, and Quaternary animal bones including mammoth and rhinoceros were found in the auriferous gravel of the Uzunzhul River. ‘ 253. Ulazy.—Traces of this site farther upstream than Ulazy on the right bank of the Yenisei were investigated by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1923 and 1925. On the exposed clay sections he discovered bones of Bos, northern deer, and other animals, together with Paleolithic flakes and nuclei. 254. Chasgol—I. T. Savenko found in the auriferous gravel of the Chasgol River at a depth of 4.0 m. a knife-shaped flake of green- stone. 255. [Anova.—A typologically Paleolithic stone implement was found by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 on the slope of the ravine. This discovery was made at a depth of 1.0 m. in the loess on the left bank of the Yenisei, 1.5 kilometers from this village and 5 kilometers from Novoselovo. In another part of this same ravine were found the jaw of a mammoth and flint flakes. 256. Badai I.—The remains of a site of the end of the Upper Paleo- lithic period were found on the left bank of the Belaia, a tributary of the Angara, near this village on the plowed land along the 40-m. terrace. The site is located in Gluboki ravine near the factory. M. M. Gerasimov accumulated here a large quantity of typical implements, mainly scrapers, small laminae and nuclei. 257. Badai II.—This site, which was destroyed by plowing, lay on the right bank of the Belaia River opposite this village. 258. Buret (Sukhaia Pad).—This Paleolithic site on the right bank of the Angara near Nizhniaia Buret was discovered by A. P. Okladnikov in 1936. Buret is situated on the slope of the second (15- to 20-m.) terrace above spring high water at the mouth of Sukhaia ravine in the loesslike loam. Among the bones identified were 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10 mammoth, Equus hemionus, and northern deer. Together with flint tools were found some sculptures, including the figure of a woman carved from mammoth ivory. This site was excavated by Okladnikov during 1936-1937. The character of finds confirms that the site belongs to the group of more ancient Upper Paleolithic sites of the Angara, i.e., the Malta type. 259. Verkholenskaia Gora.—On this mountain near the Angara River and 3 kilometers from Irkutsk were found four Paleolithic stations: Zharnikova Pad, Goriunova Pad, Ubiennykh Pad, and Ush- kanka Pad. The first, known under the name of Verkholenskaia Gora, is situated on the southwestern slope of the elevation between the Zharnikova and the Ubiennykh Pad. The cultural stratum was found by M. P. Ovchinnikov as early as 1897. The stone and bone tools and other remains of habitation lay at a depth of 1.5 m. in the loesslike loam. The fauna consisted of northern and noble deer, elk, Equus hemionus, Bos, dog, and wolf. The large-horned deer, rhinoceros, and mammoth, found by Ovchinnikov, originated apparently in the lower horizon. This site was investigated at different times from 1919-1928. 260. Glazkovo.—In 1897 M. P. Ovchinnikov found stone (flinty schist) tools similar to those from Verkholenskaia Gora, and Quater- nary animal bones with traces of human workmanship in the loess on the left bank of the Angara in the suburb of Glazkovo opposite Irkutsk. 261. Zaitsevo (Kosoi Vzvoz).—This Upper Paleolithic site, which stands on the left bank of the Angara near Usole at the mouth of the Belaia River, was discovered by A. P. Okladnikov in 1934. The in- ventory consisted of large scraperlike tools of the same type as those found on Verkholenskaia Gora. 262. Zvezdochka.—According to A. P. Okladnikov, remains appar- ently belonging to the Paleolithic period were discovered on the left bank of the Angara, opposite Irkutsk, on the piece of land called “Zvezdochka” near the ferry. 263. Irkutsk.?°—Paleolithic remains are known from three sites within the city. The first is located on one of the hills along the Ushakovka River. Here in 1871, during construction of the Military Hospital, were found implements made from the tusk of a mammoth (including one with ornamentation), a perforated deer incisor, frag- ments and points of spherosiderite, and bones of mammoth, rhinoceros, northern deer, horse, Bos, and other animals. The second site, located 26 In this area the work of the late B. E. Petri is conspicuously absent. (H. F.) NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 61 by M. P. Ovchinnikov, lay not far distant on the bank of the Ushakovka River in the suburb Rabochaia Sloboda. The third, ac- cording to A. P. Okladnikov, is in Pshenichnaia ravine. 264. Kaiskaia Gora—M. M. Gerasimov discovered during 1924- 1925 Paleolithic traces in the lower part of the loesslike sandy loam on the side of Kaiskaia Mountain at the juncture of the Irkut and Angara Rivers. The finds consisted of roughly fashioned stone tools and flakes, traces of charcoal, and crushed bones of animals, including horse, mammoth, Bos, northern deer, elk, rhinoceros, and birds, espe- cially small birds of prey. 265. Kamenolomnya.—Here were found traces of an Upper Paleo- lithic workshop near the old quarry on the right bank of the Belaia opposite Malta. 266. Kamen.—Traces of a large Upper Paleolithic site (Badai type) were found on the plowed ground at the edge of the 40-m. terrace on the left bank of the Belaia near Malta. M. M. Gerasimov collected crude nuclei, laminae, and a large quantity of tools, mainly scrapers. 267. Kova.—tTraces of this Paleolithic station were discovered on the Kova River, a left tributary of the Angara, by this village. The investigation conducted by A. P. Okladnikov in 1937 discovered at a depth of 0.6 m. the remains of campfires and mammoth bones in the loesslike loam. 268. Malta (Lower Horizon).—This Paleolithic site stands on the left bank of the Belaia, a left tributary of the Angara, 85 kilo- meters west of Irkutsk. Led there by local inhabitants, M. M. Gerasimov investigated Malta in 1928 and 1930, 1932, 1934, and 1937. In 1932 S. N. Zamiatnin also worked there, and G. P. Sosnovskii in 1934. The lower horizon, 35.0-75.0 cm. thick, lay in the loesslike sandy loam on the 18-m. terrace. Here were found traces of the sur- face dwellings and hearths of stone plates. Below the cultural stratum a child’s burial was found. Together with numerous stone tools were about 600 bone implements, one-quarter of them ornamented. There were also 20 female figurines made from mammoth tusks, sculptures of birds, etc. The fauna were mainly northern deer; less frequently Arctic fox, rhinoceros, and mammoth; and accidental remains of horse, bison, birds of prey, and other forms. This site belongs to the most ancient monuments of the Upper Paleolithic in eastern Siberia. 269. Malta (Upper Horizon).—M. M. Gerasimov discovered this stratum during his excavations in 1932 in the upper part of the loess- like sandy loam 9.45 m. beneath the surface and 0.5 m. above the first cultural horizon (No. 268). Here were found limestone laminae, 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO fragments of bones of animals, flint flakes, and about 30 large tools of Badai type. 270. Maltinka—tTraces of an Upper Paleolithic station were located at the edge of the 40-m. terrace near this village, on the right bank of the Belaia, near the second pond between the Maltinka and Belaia. The finds occurred on a 300-m. stretch of plowed land. 271. Mondy.—Typologically Paleolithic stone tools were found by Chastokhin in 1887 on the left bank of the Oka River, a left tributary of the Angara River. 272. Mozgovaia.—Traces of this Paleolithic site were found during 1937 by A. P. Okladnikov on the 1o00-m. terrace on the left bank of the Mozgovaia River, a right tributary of the Angara, along its lower course. This find is of particular significance, because it is the first Paleolithic station reported in this area which lies about 1,800 kilo- meters from Irkutsk. 273. Podostrozhnoe.—This Upper Paleolithic station, discovered by A. P. Okladnikov in 1936, stands on the right bank of Angara on the second terrace above spring flood level. The finds in the loesslike loam consisted of tools made from antlers of the Siberian stag and some stone scrapers. 274. Ust-Belaia—tThis Paleolithic site lies at the edge of the second terrace at the delta of the Belaia. The cultural deposit lies more than 1.0 m. deep under the Neolithic strata. M. M. Gerasimov in 1936 and 1937 found six large campfires and faunal remains consisting of the deer, elk, beaver, and possibly wolf. The stone inventory is similar to that of Badai (No. 256), mainly large but also some small scrapers, small nuclei and laminae, and two flat bone harpoons. 275. Ushakovka.—Stone implements of Paleolithic type were col- lected by M. P. Ovchinnikov in 1893 on the right bank of the Usha- kovka River behind the suburb Rabochaia Sloboda in Irkutsk. 276. Ushkanka.—This Paleolithic site on the right bank of the Angara in Ushkanka ravine near Verkholenskaia Gora, was dis- covered in 1926. The inventory is similar to that found on Verkho- lenskaia Gora. The fauna included elk and Bos primigenius. 277. Cheremushnik.—Traces of an extensive Upper Paleolithic site of Badai type (No. 256) were discovered on the plowed land near Badai on the 60-m. terrace on the left bank of the Belaia. This site lies in the Cheremushnik area 2 kilometers downstream from Badai, near the Usolsk Salt Works. M. M. Gerasimov accumulated here a large quantity of flakes and also of finished tools, mainly large scrapers. 278. Ponomarevo.—In 1927 A. P. Okladnikov found typologically NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——FIELD 63 Upper Paleolithic implements on the plowed land along the Biriulka River, a right tributary of the Lena, on the edge of the 80-m. terrace near Zalog. 279. Ara-Tszokui—On the right bank of the Selenga, 12 kilo- meters northwest of Kalinishnaia in the Troitskosavski Okrug, in the sands near Nur settlement, the Buriat-Mongolian Archeological Ex- pedition in 1928 found ostrich eggshells and stone tools of Paleolithic type. 280. Bosoi.—Traces of this Paleolithic site lay 18 kilometers up- stream from Ust-Orda on the right bank of the Kuda River (Ekgirit- Bulagat Aimak) on the slope and at the edge of the lowest terrace. Quartzite and flint scrapers and nuclei lay in the black earth (cher- nosem) deposits and in the loesslike sandy loam. 281. Dureny.—The material from the sands on the left bank of the Chikoie River, 25 kilometers east of Troitskosavsk, included stone tools, ostrich eggshells, and bones of fossil animals. 282. Durungui—Stone implements of Paleolithic type from the Upper Yenisei and Angara were assembled by S. I. Rudenko in 1923 in the valley of the Onon River at this settlement. Earlier A. K. Kuznetsov also assembled the same kind of tools in the valleys of the rivers Onon and Ingoda. 283. Zarubino.—Material from sands in an isolated ravine near this village lying on the left bank of the Selenga downstream from Ust-Kiakhta was obtained by the Buriat-Mongolian Archeological Expedition in 1928 with the participation of G. P. Sosnovskii. They found stone tools, nuclei, flakes, bones of Equus hemionus, large deer, mountain sheep, and hare, and ostrich eggshells. 284. Ivashka—Typologically Paleolithic implements were found in Ivashka ravine opposite Ust-Kiakhta. 285. Mylnikovo.—Stone implements of Paleolithic type were col- lected along the Chikoie River near this village. 286. Nomokhonovo.—On the right bank of the Selenga, 25 kilo- meters upstream from Seleginsk in Shirokaia Pad (Mukhor- khundui), which was filled with dune sand, stone implements and flakes, and ostrich eggshells were assembled on the exposed places. 287. Nialgi—Stone implements of Paleolithic type were found in the sand above the mouth of the Dzhida River. 288. Ust-Kiakhta—In exposed sands on the left bank of the Sava River near this village, stone implements, including nuclei and flakes, and ostrich eggshells (one perforated) have been found. The first report was by Mostits in 1894, then by Laptev in 1924, and finally by Debets in 1928. 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO 289. Khara-Busun.—During 1928-1929 stone implements and ostrich eggshells were found on the right bank of the Chikoie River in the sands beside Kudarinskii road about 5 kilometers from Palk- anova. 290. Kharankhoi.—This site, discovered in 1927 by the Buriat- Mongolian Expedition in sands on the right bank of the Selenga in Kharankhoi ravine, about 11 kilometers upstream from Ust-Kiakhta. Among objects found were stone tools, ostrich eggshells, and bones of Rhinoceros, Bos, and Equidae. 291. Khabarovsk—M. M. Gerasimov found during 1926-1927 stone implements in the loesslike loam at a depth of 0.75-1.0 m. The period was not determined. 292. Shkotovo——A Hungarian prisoner-of-war, I. Parkas, dis- covered a stone tool similar to the Paleolithic implements found in the Ordos. ArcTIC PALEOLITHIC 27 293. Anikieva I—During 1937 traces of this site were located on the eastern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula, 1 kilometer west of the center of the Tsyp-Navolok settlement at the foot of the southern end of Anikieva Mountain. This site occupied a considerable part of the ancient pebble-covered beach about 37.0 m. above sea level. 294. Anikieva II—At 31.0 m. above sea level on the western slope of Anikieva Mountain traces of prehistoric occupation were scattered over about 20 square kilometers. The finds were made in 1937. 295. Korabelnaia—In 1935 B. F. Zemliakov and P. N. Tretiakov discovered traces of this site at 33.0-36.0 m. above sea level on the surface of the bank of the Korabelnyi brook on the western coast of Bolshaia Motka Bay. The material consisted of quartz flakes and crude implements. 296. Log-Navolok.—In 1937 this site was discovered on the north- ern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula on the crest of the pebbly coastal bank about 20.0 m. above sea level between Cape Log-Navolok and Laush-Guba. 297. Morozova.—B. F. Zemliakov and P. N. Tretiakov in 1935 dis- covered traces of this site on the eastern coast of the Bolshaia Motka Bay between the valley of the Morozova River and the first brook to the south. A large quantity of quartz flakes and implements were found on the shore of a lake 55.0-60.0 m. above sea level. 298. Ozerko.—In 1935 quartz scrapers and nuclei-shaped burins 27 Northern part of the Kola Peninsula (Nos. 293-304). NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 65 were found on the crest of the coastal bank at 42.0 m. above sea level on the western coast of the Bolshaia Motka Bay at this settlement. 299. Perevalnaia.—Traces of this site were found on the eastern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula, 1 kilometer south of the southern outskirt of Tsyp-Navolok settlement on the crest of the coastal bank 36.0-37.0 m. above sea level. A quantity of quartz tools and flakes (also of horn, flint, and quartzite) were assembled in 1937. 300. Sergeeva.—Traces of this site were located on the eastern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula between Cape Sergeeva and Tipunova River on the pebbly bank 27.0 m. above sea level. Large, crude im- plements of quartzite and better-finished implements of flint, horn, and quartz were found. 301. Tipunova.—During 1927 large, crude quartzite implements were found on the eastern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula on the southern slope of the elevation which divides the valley of the Anikieva River from the valley of the Tipunova River on the crest of the pebbly bank 40.0 m. above sea level. 302. Tsyp-Navolok I.—Traces of this site were found on the western coast of Rybachii Peninsula at the southern outskirts of Tsyp-Navolok settlement on the left bank of the Anikieva River. The site is situated on the edge of the 25-m. terrace. 303. Tsyp-Navolok II.—This site, on the southern outskirts of Tsyp-Navolok settlement, is situated on the end of the 25-m. terrace, which surrounds the ancient bay. 304. Eina-Guba.—Traces of this site stand on the southern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula in the vicinity of Eina-Guba settlement on the crest of the ancient 20-m. terrace. IV. MISCELLANEA ARCHEOLOGICA INTRODUCTION In this chapter some additional archeological data have been aas- sembled from the Ukraine, Crimea, Black Sea coast, North Caucasus, South Caucasus, Armenia, Don region, Urals, Volga region, Central Asia, and Siberia. These miscellaneous notes supplement previously published material + on this same subject. In addition, supplementary data have been placed on microfilm.? 14] am grateful to Soviet anthropologists and archeologists who sent through VOKS from 1934 to 1945 summaries of their results so that these could be made available in English. For convenience there is appended a list of bibliographical references on Soviet archeology. (H. F.) American Anthropologist, vol. 38, pp. 260-290, 1936; vol. 39, pp. 457-490, 1937; vol. 40, pp. 653-679, 1938; vol. 42, pp. 211-235, 1940; vol. 44, pp. 388-406, 1942; vol. 48, pp. 375-306, 1946. American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 41, pp. 618-620, 1937; vol. 42, pp. 146-147, 295-2098, 1938; vol. 43, pp. 331-332, 507, 1939; vol. 44, pp. 138, 535-536, 1940; vol. 45, pp. 113-115, 299-301, 441-444, 626- 628, 1941; vol. 46, pp. 144-147, 277-281, 423-427, 568-569, 1942; vol. 47, pp. 355, 486-488, 1943; vol. 48, pp. 201-210, 295, 395, 1944; vol. 49, pp. 102-104, 177-179, 377, 423-427, 1945; vol. 50, pp. I9I-192, 307-311, 1946; vol. 51, pp. 201-202, 322- 323, 1947. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 501- 502, 1946. American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 52, pp. 138-141, 1936; vol. 53, pp. 123-124, 1937; vol. 55, pp. 109-112, 333-336, 1938; vol. 56, pp. 322-324, 438-440, 1939; vol. 57, pp. 112, 194-196, 327-320, 1940; vol. 58, pp. 109-110, 1941. American Review of the Soviet Union, 1945, pp. 37-39; 1946, pp. 67-75. Antiquity, 1938, pp. 341-345; 1930, PP. 99-101; 1940, pp. 404-426; 1941, pp. 194-196; 1947, pp. 42-45. Ars Islamica, vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 233-271, 1938; vol. 6, pt. I, pp. 158-166, 1940; vol. 9, pp. 143-150, 1942; vol. 13, pp. 139-148, 1947. Asia, 1940, pp. 272-277, 327-330; 1941, pp. 243-244, 723-727; 1943, PP. 520- 531; 1946, pp. 120-121. Gazette des Beaux-Arts, vol. 23, pp. 129-134, 1943; vol. 20, pp. 65-74, 1946; vol. 31, pp. 123-126, 1947. Southwestern Journal of Anthro- pology, vol. 2, No. 2, p. 239, No. 3, pp. 340-360, 1946; vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 212-229, 1047. 2 The following articles have been recorded on Microfilm No. 1605 in the American Documentation Institute, c/o Library, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington 25, D. C.: Eneolithic Station at Ochemchiri, Abkhazia, pp. 4-29; Olvia (Olbia) Expedition, pp. 30-42; European Russia: Archaeological Reconstruction in European Russia, pp. 60-66; Archaeological Investigations in the Uzbek S.S.R., by B. Grekov and A. [Akubovskii, pp. 89-93; bibliography, pp. 94-99. There have also been placed on Microfilm No. 2308 Notes on Soviet Museums and Research Institutions, pp. 1-126, and pls. 1-130: Baku, pp. 3-6; Yerevan, pp. 6-7; Tbilisi, pp. 7-8; Ordzhonikidze, pp. 8-9; Moscow, pp. 9-18; Archaeological Reconstruction in European Russia, 1941, pp. 19-25; Excavations 66 NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 67 UKRAINE According to Boriskovskii* the earliest site in the Ukraine is the Lower Mousterian station at Kodak, on the right bank of the Dnieper, discovered in 1927 during construction of the dam at Dnepropetrovsk. Flint flakes were found in association with mammoth, Siberian rhi- noceros, great-horned deer, reindeer, bison, bear, and lion. Boriskovskii has given a popular but carefully written presenta- tion,* attractively illustrated,° of the Paleolithic cultures from the first large-scale excavations by Khvoiko in 1893 to the latest finds up to 1940 at the famous sites of Mezin, Gontsi, and Pushkari. Boriskovskii concludes with a description of the Neolithic finds at Mariupol, where in 1930 were found 124 burials with rich polished- stone and bone inventories. CRIMEA Chersonesus.—Excavations in Chersonesus,® begun in 1827 and interrupted in 1914, were renewed in 1926. During this era they were in Central Asia, pp. 26-35; Soviet Types, pp. 36-39; and List of Scientific Insti- tutions and Branches of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., pp. 40-126. The plates include: 1-48, exhibits in IAE; 49-05, Lake Onega rock engravings ; 96-101, Minusinsk bronzes ; 102-106, gold treasure from Abakan near Minusinsk ; 107-111, Central Asia; 112-116, reconstructions by M. Gerasimov; 117-118, leather coat restored in State Historical Museum, Moscow; 119, Zaraut-Sai rock-shelter paintings; 120-130, exhibits in Museum of Oriental Civilizations, Moscow; 131-134, anthropometric form used in Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography; 135, map of Moscow locating museums. Supplementary material has been placed on the following Microfilms in the American Documentation Institute: Nos. 2214, 2307, 2310, 2344, 2414, 2415. See also Lauriston Ward’s Reference List of the Archeology of the Soviet Union, Harvard University, January 1947. (Mimeographed.) 8 Boriskovskii, P. I., Liudina kamianogo viku na Ukraini [Stone Age man in the Ukraine]. Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S.S.R., p. 128, Kiev, 1940. [In Ukrainian.] 4 The book is divided into eight chapters: 1, Glacial period; 2, Earliest human traces; 3, Transition to the Upper Paleolithic; 4, Mizin; 5, Lower Paleolithic man near Kiev; 6, Gontsi; 7, End of Lower Paleolithic; 8, Neolithic. 5 This account has some of the charm of Breasted’s “Ancient Times.” The interest is particularly enhanced by numerous line drawings, some of them really inspired, of Paleolithic fauna and implements. Illustrations include re- constructions, on the basis of recent finds of such Quaternary fauna as the Siberian rhinoceros, cave bear, and cave lion. Of special interest are the original reconstructions of tools and dwellings. (E. P.) 6 Translated by Mrs. David Huxley from the French summary in Materialy i Issledovaniia po Arkheologii SSSR, No. 4, pp. 275-278, Moscow and Leningrad, 1941. Minor editorial revisions have been made to conform to our style. (H. F.) 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO undertaken in a haphazard manner, at several places and without a coordinated plan. During 1931 the question of excavation sites was examined, and it was decided that priority should be given to places which were in the process of destruction from natural causes. It was known that the most threatened area was the northern shore of the Chersonesus, where at the lowest points the archeological stratum was directly encroached upon by the sea. It was here that excava- tions were started in 1931, with the object of studying the coastal section of the city. An area of approximately 700 square meters was uncovered. The oldest remains were supporting walls, a pear-shaped cistern, and some wells. In the lowest stratum, close to virgin rock, were found amphora handles, which bore manufacturing marks of Cher- sonesus, Rhodes, and Cnidus, as well as fragments of black-glazed pottery, both local and imported. This first period of construction covered from the end of the fourth to the second century B. C. Dating from the second period were some massive masonry walls and cisterns, paved with bricks (12-20 cm. thick) bound together with cement or simply with mortar. The walls of the cisterns were coated in red parget of the same composition—a mixture of chalk, sand, and finely crushed pottery, which is very durable. Two cisterns are remarkable for their small size; they were placed together and were probably used for the storing of finer grades of fish; the larger tanks were used for salting anchovies (kamsa). The large number of tanks illustrated the extensive development of the fishing industry and the exporting of fish during Roman times. During the first centuries of our era, one cistern and some of the wells were covered by a layer of earth. In this layer, red-glazed pottery of fine workmanship, dating from the first-second centuries B. C., was found. At other places in this third stratum, silver and bronze coins of the first-fourth centuries A. D. were uncovered, as was a bronze statue of Asclepius, holding in his right hand a rod entwined by a serpent. These cisterns can be ascribed to the first-fourth cen- turies A. D. At the base of the second level, well-built walls rested on rock. This layer, filled with refuse, was characterized by a white-glazed clay pottery, decorated with a stamped or painted design, which can be dated from the ninth-tenth centuries; it appears to be of local manu- facture. In one section a large quantity of ninth-tenth century coins were found on the ground and also a gold plaque decorated with enamel cloisonné of fine workmanship, showing two peacocks with NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 69 a vase between them; this plaque was attributed to the ninth-tenth centuries. The constructions of this era disintegrated at the end of the tenth century and were engulfed by a layer of rubble 2 m. deep. During the following period, a series of buildings were constructed on this foundation, and belonged to several groups of dwelling houses. The walls were poorly built of stones held together with mud; the plan was irregular, the dimensions too small, the furnishings meager, the floors of earth, and the walls unplastered. During this later period (twelfth-fifteenth centuries) this district was rebuilt according to a new plan. Generally, there were inner courtyards; in one courtyard was a well which served four houses. The Roman cisterns, partly covered by the second layer, were then sometimes used as cellars. Within the houses were unearthed working equipment such as fish- ing tackle and net weights, boats, dragnets for shell fishing, stone-work- ing and weaving tools, red-glazed pottery decorated with an engraved design, etc. In one well a glazed bowl was found with an interior de- sign showing Theodore Stratilat astride a horse killing a dragon. The buildings of the late period were destroyed by fire, apparently at the time of the destruction of Chersonesus at the end of the fifteenth century. The floors were covered by thick debris, including fragments of coal, soot, charred wood, and burnt walls and objects. During 1932 excavations were made to the east of the area ex- plored in 1931; 700 square meters were uncovered. Architectural remains of the Greek epoch are rare, having been destroyed at the time of the construction of the basilica. In the clay near the rock, amphora handles were found which bore the mark of the Chersonesus astinomes, as were fragments of black-glazed pottery dating from the third-second century B. C. Near the western street was a large cistern with a flooring of brick and mortar and walls coated in red parget. The bottom of the tank was covered with a layer of salted anchovy, 0.25-1.0 m. thick. The fish formed a compact brown mass. The type of fish was identifiable through the spines. After the cistern was no longer used for salting fish, it had been used as a cesspool. Directly above the fish lay pottery of the later Roman period and coins from the time of Zenon and Justinian the First. During the sixth century, when the basilica was built, it was used as a limekiln; its fourth use was for the storage of provisions; the fifth, during the ninth-tenth centuries, was a final conversion into a cesspool. The finding of this cistern with its fish remains was of great importance, not only for the determination of construction date, but as an indication of the original purpose of the large number of similar tanks found throughout the city. It is certain 7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO that they date from the first-fourth centuries. A marble gravestone, with an epitaph in verse, belongs to the third century. The basilica, found in the eastern part of the district, dates from the sixth century. The dimensions were 26.0 m. long and 16.5 m. wide. It had three naves, with a narthex and pentagonal apse. In the northern colonnade, three marble bases, and next to them a fan- light, are still in place. The marble rood screen in the apse is partially in existence. The side naves had a mosaic floor, whose geometric design was carried out in white, red, yellow, and black in the north nave, and three colors (no black) in the south nave. Architectural details included marble capitals, fanlights, coignes with carved or polychrome ornamentation. The basilica was destroyed by approximately the end of the tenth century and was subsequently covered by a heavy layer of construction rubble. Some time later a chapel was built on the ruins of the basilica, the whole being within the apse of the original basilica. Within the chapel, 35 mausoleum tombs were erected, and in the western part, a guard hut with a stove in the eastern corner. The tombs were in some degree arranged according to a pattern. They contained 10, 15, 25, even 35 and 60 skulls, but very few long bones were found. This shows that when the remains of the dead were transferred from the cemetery to the mausoleum near the temple, it was considered sufficient to take only the skull. In tomb No. 6 the shroud was decorated with bone plates: in the corners are large lamellae with pictures of griffons, a lion, and a hind; lateral bands with circles and squares intersect in the center of the design, also circles made of small squares, lozenges, and triangles, framed with straight and curved lamellae. Such a design was found for the first time in Chersonesus and constitutes a remarkable example of the local medieval art of bone sculpture. The shroud appears to have belonged to a very wealthy person. Beads were found in tomb No. 20 together with one string of paste beads encrusted with colors and another of lignite and a silver pendant. Other tombs yielded hollow bronze buttons, decorated bone roundels, and ninth-tenth century coins. The tombs dated from the tenth, eleventh, and later centuries. In the waterfront section of the district, compounds were uncovered in the first layer which obviously belonged to two houses. Two rooms had been used as food-storage cellars with wooden floors. In one cellar were more than 50 assorted clay vases. Such an abundance of pottery permits the conclusion that at this later date also the art of NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 71 pottery making in the Chersonesus had reached an extensive degree of development. Tiles with varied brands also confirm this. In the same cellar, two small icons were discovered: one in slate with the image of St. George bearing a lance and shield; the other in bronze with the image of Jesus Christ. Both are covered with gilt, are dis- tinguished by their fine workmanship, and can be ascribed to the ninth-tenth century. Room VII contained wells with a water level of 3.60 m. In other rooms were mills, mortars for crushing grain, fishing tackle, and a quantity of pottery articles. One room had bronze chains with an imperial orb, belonging to an ecclesiastical lamp. * On the floors of rooms of this period, there were also traces of a fire, as in the district excavated in 1931. It is certain that both districts were burned at the same time that the entire city was destroyed by fire at the end of the fifteenth century. During 1933 excavations were continued along the north shore of the Chersonesus to the east of those undertaken in 1932. Only the top stratum was removed over an area of about 500 square meters; it consisted of an accumulation of debris formed from the destruction of buildings. Their floors were covered with soot, fragments of coal, burnt articles, and pieces of tile. The walls were of rough stone (ashlar) bound together with mud, with wooden beams inserted to connect the walls. The plan of the buildings was usually irregular, the dimensions small, the floors earthen, the walls unplastered or sometimes with a clay coating. The rooms belonged to two houses. In the first there was an oven, in another two ovens—a small one in the east corner and a large one in the north. These ovens were built of bricks and pieces of tile, bound with clay; they were fitted with an arched “front oven”; the hearth was decorated with squares of baked earth. The roof had an opening for the chimney ; tiles pierced with a round orifice and chimney pipes were found. The presence of two ovens in one single room and a third in another room of the same house indicates that this was a large bakery, making bread for sale. This type of stove is rare in houses of the period; normally rooms were heated by simple stone hearths. The second house was located in the eastern part of the district. In room VIII there was a mortar for grain crushing next to a post with a cavity for a pestle. Similar mortars were found in many rooms of the same period during the 1931-1932 excavations. Room IX was used for food storage: on the floor by the walls were a large number of amphorae containing the remains of fish. Here also were production tools: 2 iron swing-plows, more than 100 bronze fishhooks, 40 net 72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO weights, and a quantity of metal articles including padlocks, screw rings, bronze bowls, and others. Room X had a hearth, and on the floor near the west wall were part of a marble column and a cubed stone; this was possibly either a smithy or a workshop. Room XII was a courtyard ; in the east corner was the cesspool sump. The numerous and varied furnishings (work tools and usual articles) allow certain conclusions to be drawn as to the occupations and social organizations of the inhabitants of this dwelling. They engaged in farming, livestock raising, and fishing. Others were artisans such as smiths, locksmiths, builders, and weavers. It was a regime of small undertakings, sufficient in themselves ; trade had evidently ceased at this period since no imported articles were found, The houses date from the last centuries of the city’s existence, or approximately from the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries. These observations on the latter part of the medieval period, made during 3 years of excavation, can be extended to some degree over the entire city: 1. The economic level of the population during the latter stages of the city’s existence was very low. 2. By their occupations and their means of existence, the popula- tions lived mainly in a rural condition through the natural economy of small, independent, and self-sufficient undertakings. 3. In general, the Chersonesus lost its former importance as a large trading center and became a small town with but slender economic connections with its immediate vicinity. Tiritaka.—Although ancient writers referred to Tiritaka as a city, the excavations by the Bosphorean Expedition of IIMK in collabora- tion with the Kerch Archeological Museum under the direction of V. F. Gaidukevich 7 disclosed that in general planning and many other essential traits this settlement did not resemble the usual ancient cities. Tiritaka was a well-developed industrial settlement. An additional group of fish-salting cisterns uncovered during 1939 in the southern part of town evidently belonged to a very extensive establishment. There is no doubt that during the Roman period Tiritaka was one of the most important centers for the export of fish. The 1939 excava- tions in the western part of the site were a continuation of those of 1938 in the course of which a building of the sixth century B. C. 7V. F. Gaidukevich, in Kratkie Soobshcheniia, No. 4, pp. 54-58, summarized the 1932-1939 excavations. NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 73 containing archaic terra cottas and many other interesting finds had been discovered. This building was completely excavated, and many service structures surrounding the building were uncovered. These included a barn or storeroom, a paved courtyard, a basement with a flight of steps leading into it, and extensive grain-storage pits lined with stone. A late Roman dwelling complex discovered in 1939 was buried under a stratum of debris 3.5 m. thick. The walls were preserved to the height of 2.0 m. The main building, paved with stone flags, com- municated with a small courtyard also paved with flags. In the floor of the main building opposite the entrance a large sunken pythos with a capacity of several hundred liters was uncovered. This was probably used for grain storage, since many charred grains of wheat were found inside the building close to the pythos, as well as several hand mills. A pit 1.0 m. in diameter and 68 cm. deep filled with ashes, near the pythos, contained a pottery lamp, a bone needle for weaving fish nets, an iron hammer, whetstones, and a gray-ware pitcher of Sarmatian type decorated with a band of intersecting lines formed by polishing. The finds from the floor of the building included many pieces and fragments of molded pottery, several lamps, a round bronze mirror, clay spindle whorls, fragments of glass vessels, and red lacquer platters of late Roman type, one of which was stamped with the sign of a cross, and several bronze coins. Large pointed amphorae of late Roman type were also unearthed; many had been repaired by means of lead brackets. The building itself had been destroyed by fire; its floor was covered by coal and ashes from the burned wooden parts of the structure. Many of these amphorae had apparently been stored on the second floor of the building but had fallen down in the course of the fire. An outside stone stairway parallel with one of the walls of the building led to the upper story. The prevalence of burned buildings in Tiritaka, of which several had been previously discovered, suggests that this city was attacked and partially destroyed. The finds from the late Roman building in- cluded also the remains of a charred cable, probably a part of some sort of fishing gear, and of two dozen net weights manufactured of stones of varying sizes, each encircled by a shallow notch for attaching to the rope. A small fish-salting cistern, 1.75 x 1.37, and 1.90 m. deep, was found in an adjoining outbuilding. In the lower part of one of the walls of the main structure was found a clay-covered niche containing the bones of a young pig and a lamb, covered by sea sand containing long scales of sevriuga, and 6 74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO sherds of amphorae. The niche also contained a clay lamp. Apparently this niche was connected with some sort of ritual. A small stone terapan (bench for pressing grapes) was found on a dais in the courtyard. Many finds connected with viticulture from previous excavations seem to indicate its important role in the eco- nomic life of the Bosphorus during the late Hellenistic and Roman periods when the importation of wines from abroad became curtailed. A second large winery of the second century B. C., discovered in 1939, had been partially buried by a railroad embankment. Nonethe- less, the large pressing platform was uncovered, together with a gutter leading to a cistern. Both the platform and the cistern were faced with a white cement differing in composition from the Roman cement of that period. On the basis of this and the earlier discoveries, it is now possible to reconstruct the evolution of viticultural technique in Tiritaka from the second century B. C. to the third century A. D. The 1939 excavations indicated that Tiritaka was sacked during the fourth century A. D. This destruction occurred as a result of one of the mass tribal migrations in the northern Black Sea area, which led to the final dissolution of the Bosphorean State. But Tiritaka did not disappear altogether at that time, as the finds from the excavations include many objects of the Early Medieval period. Thus, in the western part of the site a quantity of pottery of that period had been found, including a pythos stamped with the name of the potter and the incised sign of a cross of the type attributed to the fifth or sixth century A. D. The fisheries continued during this period, © although most of the Roman cisterns had become disused. The main occupation of the local population seems to have been agriculture. Tiritaka was abandoned during the seventh or eighth century. Many sherds of archaic pottery were found, including a fragment of a painted pot. Particularly abundant were the finds from a late Roman house, and also a quantity of objects from the Bosphorean house of the third or fourth century A. D. A stoppered amphora, attributed to the fourth or fifth century A. D., found near one of the fish-salting complexes, contained nearly 3.5 kilograms of crude oil. The amphora was of the elongated cylindrical type with a conical bottom. The neck had been closed by a bunch of straw which, when permeated with the solidified crude oil, formed a completely hermetical seal. The liquid was analyzed by R. R. TAnovskii of the Leningrad Chemico-Technical Institute. The liquid which was characterized by IAnovskii as “crude oil or a product of crude oil’ contained several wisps of straw. According to the classical authors crude oil was used for lighting and also as medicine. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 75 Neapolis——During the latter part of 1945 an expedition under the leadership of P. Shults was sponsored by the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow and the Institute for the History of Material Culture (IIMK) of the Academy of Sciences of the U-.S.S.R. Shults began excavations at Neapolis, the Scythian capital, often mentioned by early writers. The numerous finds indicate that Neapolis existed from the fourth century B. C. to the fourth century A. D. This ancient city was encircled by a thick, protective wall of unique masonry. The excavations revealed the first specimen of monu- mental Scythian architecture consisting of a large house whose basement had been hewn out of rock. The first Scythian winery to be found contained marble goblets as well as Scythian and Greek pottery of different periods, some of them bearing Greek inscriptions. The first Scythian mural painting, showing no evidence of Greek influence, came to light. The designs resemble those with which the modern Ukrainians decorate their cottages and household utensils. The clay roof ornaments and animals found during the excavation of another site also resemble Russian roof ornaments and Slavic toys. Scythian handicrafts, in particular pottery, were as fine as other expressions of art. A complex kiln for pottery making was unearthed. Archeological surveys were conducted in many parts of the Crimea with a view to establishing the boundaries on this peninsula of the Scythian State, which evidently extended along the Black Sea coast as far as the Danube. A system of fortifications, consisting of three lines of defense, pro- tected the Scythians from outside enemies : 1. In the north stood the rampart and moat at Perekop. 2. Along the Salgir River. 3. Along the Alma River at the boundary between the foothills and the mountains. Along these lines stretched a chain of fortress towns. On the western coast there were also Scythian fortifications at intervals of 6 to 8 kilometers. Evidently they protected the Scythians from in- vasions by sea and at the same time served as ports." BLACK SEA COAST Cave excavations.°—During 1936-1937 S. N. Zamiatnin excavated two caves in the Sochi and Adler Raions of Krasnodar Krai. The 8 Quoted from Nina Militsyna in the Moscow News, February 2, 1046. ® Translated and summarized from S. N. Zamiatnin, Navalishinskaia i Akhshtyrskaia Peshchery na Chernomorskom Poberezhe Kavkaza, Bulletin de la ‘Commission pour l’Etude du Quaternaire, Nos. 6-7, pp. 100-101, Moscow, 1940. See also Field and Prostov in Amer. Anthrop. vol. 44, No. 2, p. 213, 1942. 76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO work was concentrated in two areas: in the Kudepsta River gorge near Navalishino and in the valley of the Mzymta River and the Akhshtyr Gorge. Navalishino Cave is situated on the right bank of the Kudepsta River, within 12 kilometers of the seacoast, at a considerable height above the river. The excavations embraced an area of 22 square meters at the en- trance to the cave. In addition, a small excavation was made deep inside the main corridor of the cave. The upper horizons yielded microlithic implements and the bones of hamster, badger, and slepysh|?]. The occasional remains of the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) found here belong to other strata, and are obviously located in a secondary deposit. Below that lies a stratum containing Upper Paleolithic finds, while the faunal remains are mainly those of cave bear. Here were found also the bones of elk, goat, hamster, fragments of tubular bones of birds, and also shells of Anodonta and Helix. The lowest stratum yielded a few typical Mousterian implements. Among the animals represented were cave bear, wolf, and goat. The character of the finds indicates that Navalishino Cave was not occupied by a permanent settlement, but was rather a seasonal, temporary site. Akhshtyr Cave (pls. 1-4) is situated on the right bank of the Mzymta River, opposite Akhshtyr, within 15 kilometers of Adler. The excavators uncovered an area of 60 square meters. The finds from the upper stratum included very late pottery and bones of do- mestic animals. Below this were found Upper Neolithic pottery and polished im- plements. In this stratum also belongs a flexed inhumation of a child. Among faunal remains were wolf, roe, moufflon, and wild pig. Still lower lies a sterile stratum, below which were found objects of the later stage of the Upper Paleolithic. The fauna included cave bear, fox, wildcat, marten, deer, elk, roe, moufflon, goat, and wild pig. Beneath the Upper Paleolithic level lay the Upper Mousterian stratum, which yielded a large collection of implements and fauna, the latter, with the exception of the elk, which was absent, being identical with that of the Upper Paleolithic. The Lower Mousterian was also rich in implements, which per- mitted comparison with those from IIskaia, and the finds from the upper horizons of Kiik-Koba in the Crimea. Since the faunal remains were in a very poor state of preservation, NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 77 only the following could be identified: large deer [?], cave bear, and wild pig. The underlying strata are devoid of archeological finds and consist largely of gravel deposited by the floods of the Mzymta River, which since that time has managed to deepen its valley by 120 m., as demon- strated by the marks at the bottom of the cave. Conference on material culture —The material culture of the Black Sea coast area in ancient times was the subject of a recent conference *° in Leningrad attended by specialists from archeology, history, and art research institutes as well as universities in Moscow, Kiev, Odessa, Kharkov, Voronezh, Krasnodar, Saratov, and Leningrad. The conference heard and discussed more than 30 reports treating various aspects of the life, socio-economic structure, religion, art, and ethnography of the Black Sea coast area at various periods and in many localities. Most of them were summaries of researches by Soviet scientists, in particular field investigations carried out just before the war and during the 1945 season. Professor Kovalev pointed out that the Black Sea coast area was a flourishing center of culture in antiquity, and exerted its influence on Slavonic tribes. V. Gaidukevich observed that recent researches have shown that the Greek cities on the Black Sea coast area in ancient times were not isolated seats of culture and that the local population played an active part in building up the ancient culture Soviet archeologists designate as Greco-Scytho-Sarmatian culture. Although the local tribes were subjected to the influence of Greece, in general they retained their own original culture. This thesis was corroborated by results of numerous excavations reported at the conference, for example, those brought back by the expedition led by P. Shults last summer to the site of the ancient Scythian capital, Neapolis. A prominent place on the agenda was given to reports on studies of the relations between the local population of the Black Sea coast steppe areas and the Greek colonies. To understand these relations properly it is necessary to know something about the period preceding Greek colonization. This was dealt with in a report by A. Jessen, who mustered facts indicating intensive development of trade and cultural ties as far back as the third millennium B. C. among the tribes living along the Black Sea coast. Archeological data show that articles from the Near East penetrated through the Caucasus into the Kuban 10 Summarized from the Moscow News, June 8, 1946. 78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO area from the western part of Asia Minor, the Aegean basin, and the Balkan Peninsula to the right bank of the Dnieper [present-day Ukraine] as far back as the end of the third and the beginning of the second millennium B. C. Speakers cited many interesting new data on the links between Black Sea coast and Greek cities—Attica, Corinth, and Aeolia—as well as Ionian trade centers. NORTH CAUCASUS Adighe A.S.S.R.—A tombstone believed to date back to the first century of our era was recently acquired by the regional museum in Krasnodar. This monument was unearthed in a quarry not far from the place where 2,500 years ago the Greeks founded the town of Sadi (Cepi) which is thought to have been a summer resort for the wealthy slave owners from Phanagoria, the second capital of the Bosphoran Kingdom. It is made of limestone and is in the form of a miniature chapel supported by columns with a niche in which stands a warrior wearing a conical helmet, a short coat, and a sword. SOUTH CAUCASUS Kuftin’s 14 report is divided into two parts: a description and analysis of the materials excavated near Igdir on the right bank of the Araxes River during 1913 by B. F. Petrov and now in the State Museum of Georgia in Tbilisi [formerly Tiflis] ; and the establishment in the South Caucasus during the Eneolithic period of a proper focus of cultural development contemporaneous with the oldest objects found by Petrov. The upper stratum of the Igdir monument yielded an unusual cemetery columbarium with the ashes of the dead in red polished earthenware pitchers with a round hole pierced in the side. In only one case was there an inhumation. These vessels were placed, together with the personal inventory, in the clefts of a tufa cone. This lava flow covered the ash layers of an ancient settlement, situated to the south of the cemetery beyond the road from Igdir to Markara. Since evidence of the custom of cremation had not yet been seen in the South Caucasus during the pre-Roman epoch, and because of 11 Kuftin, B. A., Urarsku “Kolumbaru” u podotsvli Ararata i Kuro-Arakssku Eneolit. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., Tbilisi, 1943. This study was received from Dr. Kuftin in Leningrad on July 2, 1945, while I was a guest at the Jubilee Sessions in Moscow and Leningrad celebrating the 220th anniversary of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. The summary in English has been edited and condensed. See footnote 14. (H. F.) NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 79 the presence of the red ware and iron weapons, and, finally, because of the finding in the neighborhood of the cemetery of a silver denarius of Antonius the Pious, the graveyard had been attributed to the Roman epoch. An analysis of the inventory by Kuftin and his assistants shows the fallibility of thus fixing the date. Fragments of a bronze vessel, found in one of the graves, belonged to the well-known type of bucket from the Colchian-Koban Bronze Age and also found in the Ukraine in pre-Scythian barrows. Kuftin succeeded in connecting the red polished pottery with a similar type from Toprak-Kala on Lake Van and also from Armavir- Blur,?? where during 1879 A. S. Uvarov found similar pottery as well as some bichrome ware ** taken erroneously for late Roman. Among the beads from the columbarium, which do not reveal any Hellenic or Roman influence, there are three stamp seals with zoomorphic figures: one toggle-shaped bead seal from the grave with the inhumation; and two columnar pendants, in which Kuftin estab- lishes, because of the similarity of the pictures to the earthenware stamps from Toprak-Kala and a series of other correspondences, a type of Urartian seal, little found up to the present, in which is pre- served in contrast with the stamp cylinder prevalent in other parts of the Near East, the archaic figure of the stamp seals of Asiatic stock. Thus, Kuftin came to the conclusion that the cemetery excavated by Petrov does not date from the Roman but from the Van epoch, belonging, as it does, not to the native population, of which the types of tomb and tomb inventory of that time are well known, but evidently to one which had come from Lake Van. Consequently, it must be presumed that there long existed in eastern Anatolia the custom of cremation, a practice not foreign to the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Syria and practiced later in the Kingdom of Mitani and in the burial of the Hittite kings. The proposed attribution of the columbarium to the Urartians ex- plains the different composition of the necklaces, foreign to the South Caucasus for this date. For example, instead of carnelian, which was the usual material for this period, ribbon agate and colorless glass predominated. In addition, the style of the bronze bracelets with lions’ heads was similar to that found at Zakim associated with a bronze belt, the ornamentation of which, in its time, was compared with that of a sword in the Melgunov treasure. 12 This is the town of Argishtichinli of the Urartian inscriptions. 13 This pottery is probably correlated with the types from Mukhanat-Tepe in Yerevan [formerly Erivan]. 80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO By drawing a parallel between this belt and the bronze plate from Shirak in Yerevan Museum and another belt, found in 1905, at Gushi on Lake Urmia [Rezaiyeh] together with the bronze bulls’ heads published by F. Sarre and A. U. Pope as Achemenid and Iranian, we try to prove the Urartian origin and age of all these monuments. In this category are also the remarkable bulls’ heads, similar to those from Toprak-Kala, on chariot poles in the British Museum, and especially to the Hermitage application to a large bucket or cauldron, found with a handle in the form of a siren of Urartian type. On the basis of the definite dating which Kuftin obtained for the cemetery with cremation, the previously mentioned discovery in one of the graves of a fragment of a bronze bucket acquires a new signifi- cance. This gives a more precise date for the flourishing stage of Koban bronze, which had perhaps been carried back too far, and in which was developed the most skillful molding of bronze weapons (in particular of typical axheads and flat celts with lateral projections), while the territory of Lake Van, poorer in copper ore, had already passed on completely to weapons of iron. The inventory of the village, which lies beneath the lava flow to the south of the columbarium, is of an entirely different character and is therefore not connected chronologically. The cultural strata consist of huge layers of ashes, used by the peasants for fertilizing the fields, and of large heaps of ruined mud brick. These layers yielded many bones of horned cattle, stone fragments, grain pounders, obsidian flakes, and sherds. There were no traces of metal or of glass, with the exception of a group of beaten-copper ingots perhaps originating here. The pottery, quite distinct from that of the columbarium, had noth- ing in common with that from South Caucasian graves of the Bronze Age. It is distinguished by the combination of archaic methods of modeling, without using the potter’s wheel, with artistic molding and a fine finish given to the vessels through the use of a slip and elaborate polishing. The characteristic features include: hemispherical handles, a broad cylindrical neck, a lid, the black shiny outer surface of the sherds with a pink inner surface, and the ornamentation of the neck with a ribbon- like, geometrically cut belt. Associated with the fragments of a vessel there were pottery frag- ments, horseshoe-shaped, with a handle behind; these bear some analogy to the “horned altars” from Alishar III and through them with the puzzling Aegean attributes of a goddess on a double ax. In the absence of any systematic excavation, and because of the haphazard nature of the collected material (in particular the fragment SS ae enn ee, - Ge, NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 81 of a bichrome vessel not clearly documented), it is only possible to assign to its approximate chronological place this new type of Igdir ash mound by drawing on a wider range of parallel examples on which more light has been thrown stratigraphically. The second part of the work, which is devoted to this phase, falls into three parts: 1. The establishing of the presence of parallel monuments among the old collections in the State Museum of Georgia. 2. A survey of corresponding materials obtained from Kuftin’s excavations. 3. An attempt to establish the existence, prior to the third mil- lennium B. C., of a singular, highly developed Eneolithic phase in the central part of the Kura-Araxes basin, as a local basis for the develop- ment of the flourishing cultural focus of the Bronze Age, revealed by the excavations in Trialeti.™ The accurately documented excavation of an ash grave carried out by E. G. Pchelina during 1923 in Kiketi near Tbilisi, assigned by Kuftin to this level, together with the pottery from the Igdir ash mound, proved to be a key to the understanding of the Eneolithic objects in the old collections in the Georgian State Museum. This ash grave, with a burnt earthenware coating, yielded several groups of earthenware vessels which now appear as one contemporaneous culture complex. The following vessels were unearthed: (a) a large, finely polished black vessel with a pink inner surface, ornamented with large double spiral figures (like eyeglasses) in relief; (b) and (c) pinkish-brown urns with a slip and miniature handles at the base of the neck, one with single birdlike (ostrich ?) figures in flat relief on the neck, the other with a cut angular design on the shoulders; (d) a tureen, thick-walled, roughly modeled with layers of carbon in the clay but a glossy-black surface; and (e) a gray vessel painted red. Thus, by a comparative analysis of the pottery Kuftin succeeded in establishing that in the Armavir mound A. S. Uvarov touched not only the Urartian stratum, unnoticed by him, but also the most ancient Eneolithic level, both in the settlements and in the graves, also not understood by him. In addition to the characteristic vessels, the find- ing of fragments of a horseshoe-shaped stand of the above-mentioned Igdir type is significant. This seems to be a leading type for the 144 Kuftin, B. A. Prehistoric culture sequence in Transcaucasia, Southwestern Journ. Anthrop., vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 340-360, 1046, and pp. 1-26 on Microfilm No. 2310 in American Documentation Institute. The summary in English has been edited and condensed by Henry Field. 82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO stratum in the South Caucasus with which we are concerned and has been found near Karakurt in Kars Province of Nakhichevan and in Shengavit near Yerevan. In making a stratigraphic study of the horizon with which we are concerned, some help is afforded by the short account by E. Lalaian of the excavations during 1904 in Nakhichevan, of the ash mound of Kul-Tepe with cultural level many meters in depth in which strata containing painted pottery overlie a deposit with black ware. To this latter, supposedly, must be assigned three remarkable vessels polished black, with hemispherical handles, narrow concave bases and specific ornamentation, bearing witness to the absolutely original artistic style inherent in this culture. A main characteristic is the dynamism of the linear movement inside the externally balanced, closed, curvilinear figures, executed concavely and convexly, and with spiral tailpieces, adorning only the front of the body of the vessel, while around the neck runs a cut-out belt of rhythmically recurring rectilinear geometric elements. Lalaian did not pay due attention to these vessels nor did he dis- tinguish a grave with a finely molded scoop and a goblet, of the shape in question, from the usual Late Bronze and Early Iron Age tombs discovered by him during 1905-1906 on the west bank of Lake Sevan. The first substantial material for judging the cultural layer char- acterized by this ceramic complex is given by Lalaian’s excavations during 1927 on Eilar mound, where he found a cyclopean fortress with an inscription of Argishti concerning the conquest of Darani. In addition, Lalaian excavated during 1913 Shresh-Blur tumulus at Echmiadzin. Lalaian assigned the lower cultural strata of these two mounds to the Neolithic period on the basis of a mistaken interpretation of the stone querns, flaked pebbles, flint and obsidian flakes, and bone bod- kins. This was in direct contrast to the rooted prejudice of reckoning cultural life in the South Caucasus as beginning only from the Late Bronze Age, immediately before the Urartian expansion. The pottery from the lower stratum of Eilar is relatively poorly decorated, i.e., with bosses and hollows forming a kind of facial pattern on one side of the body of the vessel, like that on the pitcher found during 1869 in Zaglik. The molding and the shape of the vessels are especially similar to the Igdir pottery, while at Shresh-Blur and Kul- Tepe the designs are distinguished by one-sided but complicated geometric compositions, symmetrically balanced, with the spiral tail- pieces replaced by isolated concentric circles. This is particularly clear when comparing them with the ornamentation, carried out in NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 83 relief, of the black polished urn, also Eneolithic, from Frangnots near Echmiadzin. The presence in this stratum with similar pottery of “round dwell- ings with one entrance” of the “tholos” type discovered by Lalaian at Eilar was confirmed later by excavations at Shengavit, where, because of the construction of the walls from river boulders and mud brick, these dwellings come particularly close to the circular buildings revealed recently in the lower levels at Tell Halaf and at Al Ubaid, as well as the settlements of Arpachiyah, Kidish Saghir, and Tepe- Gawra in Upper Mesopotamia. Lalaian also discovered at Eilar, at the centers of double concentric rings of stones, numerous holes faced with stone and filled with layers of ash containing the remains of human bones, and also a singular hollowed-out stone sarcophagus attributed by him to this same level. Special significance in establishing the Eneolithic phase in the South Caucasus belongs to the excavations of the Georgian Depart- ment for the Preservation of Monuments of Culture, and of the Georgian Academy of Sciences during 1936-1940 at Trialeti, and of the Armenian Department for the Preservation of Monuments of Culture, and of the Armenian Branch of the Academy of Sciences during 1936-1938 at Shengavit. The first gave stratigraphic material, already partly published,*® and established a series of ceramic modifications of the Eneolithic layer on the site of the cyclopean town of Akhillar near Beshtashen. This determined the relation of this layer and the usual South Cau- casian cemeteries with the blackish-gray ware to the flourishing Trialetian Bronze Age barrow culture with painted pottery and to the preceding culture of the oldest Trialetian barrows. The second excavations made it possible to determine that this settlement belonged to one homogeneous Eneolithic stratum. The unusual combination in one complex of many types of pottery occurs in the Kiketi tomb and at Trialeti. Here were found heaps of potter’s slag and a developed culture emphasized by the skill of the firing. Portable ceramic hearths of a special form, found in Shengavit in an unbroken state in the center of circular buildings, are character- istic of this deposit. The polished black ware from Shengavit is distinguished by in- herent details, strictly peculiar to it, both of shape (the barrel-shaped body and sharply conical narrow lower part of the vessel) and of 18 Kuftin, B. A., Archaeological excavations in Trialeti, vol. 1, pp. 106, 118, and 168, and About the question of the early stages of bronze culture in the Territory of Georgia, pp. 13-14, 20-24. 84. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO ornamentation (the characteristic development of the drawing in the upper rectilinear geometric frieze and the decorative fretting of the clear-cut outlines of the closed design in relief on the body), so that it may be connected with the comparatively late stage of the Shengavit Eneolithic. In any event in this connection the finding in Shengavit of a fragment of an oval cup with two bends is significant, being a type well known from the Kizilvank complex with painted pottery, but with the black polishing of the outer surface inherent in the Shengavit types. A cup of this light ware, recalling by its shape a section of a human skull,?° also came from the excavations by Lalaian on the west bank of Lake Sevan and was erroneously imputed to a Late Bronze Age tomb. There was also a fragment of a similar cup in the upper level of the Eneolithic stratum at Akhillar. The horseshoe-shaped stands from Shengavit have a special form with a female anthropomorphic figure in the center, in relation to which the bends of the horseshoe play the part of embracing arms. This confirms the connection between these stands and the cult of a female goddess (in the present case, of the hearth) and at the same time may be used as an argument for the hypothesis concerning the origin of the form of the Aegean “horned altars” through the symbolic simplification of the idol of the goddess with the hands held up in prayer. Of other figurative motifs in sculpture the attention is arrested by the sheeplike tailpieces on another kind of horseshoe-shaped stand from Shengavit, by the massive figure of a bull from Shresh-Blur, and also by a kind of hearth stand and separate rude sculptures of animals and man. The flint inventory from Akhillar and Shengavit included arrows, knives, sickle-teeth, and especially perforated stone implements. In addition, a fragment of a wedge-shaped ax and a marble cask-shaped hammer have particular significance in dating this level. Metal was very rare and consisted of small fragments of pins and of a copper awl, rhombic in outline, characteristic of the early stages of copper production. The survey of these data, unusual for the South Caucasus, makes it possible to establish the existence, at the dawn of the knowledge of metal or at least prior to the third millennium B. C., in the central part of the Kura-Araxes basin of a cultural layer absolutely homo- geneous from Karakurt to Nakhichevan and from Tbilisi to Ararat. This level is characterized by a ceramic production, finely developed 16 Cf, Human calvaria from Paleolithic deposits at Le Placard, France. It is suggested that these were used as ceremonial drinking vessels. (H. F.) = NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 85 artistically and yet archaic, with cattle-raising, agricultural settlements with protective cyclopean walls, circular houses, built with mud bricks, with high flues raised above the hearths, and traces of the cult of the domestic fire and of a female goddess. The development of artistic pottery took place locally, not in the direction of the application of colored painting (Tell Halaf, Samarra, Al Ubaid, Elam styles), but along the lines of the refined use of the still earlier traditions of black polishing and of a gutterlike design of the pottery. This had a pink inner surface of the type from Sak- chegozy and proto-Hittite Akhlatlibel near Ankara, with its suspected western connections on which depend the peculiarities of the South Caucasian Chalcolithic stage. For example, here developed the spiral motif, foreign to Mesopotamia; the unusual restriction of the design to only one side, the front of the vessels, springing perhaps from the facial urn of western Asia Minor; the presence of earthenware hearth stands of the Alishar and Aegean “horned altar” type; and finally, partly the construction of “tholoi,” which are completely absent, for example, in the corresponding lower layer of Persepolis. All this taken together changes radically the customary historical perspective and opens up new possibilities for the understanding of the early processes of the cultural and ethnic formation of the South Caucasus. This throws light on the conditions causing the appearance of the brilliant cultural rise in the Middle Bronze Age, revealed in Trialeti, and on the proposition made by Kuftin concerning the aboriginality of Georgian culture in the Caucasus. ARMENIA Georg Goyan reports ** from Yerevan that his recent researches on the history of ancient Armenian drama reveal that in 58 B. C. the theater was on a high professional level, performing in both Greek and Armenian, the latter being the official language during the reign of Tigranes. Plutarch, for example, recorded that Euripides’ “Bac- chante” was’ presented in Artashat in 58 B. C. in honor of the victory of the Armenians and Parthians over the Roman legions of Marcus Crassus. Excavations are now in progress. DON REGION Tsymliansk gorodishche.—The Sarkel expedition of IIMK, under the leadership of Liapushkin,’* resumed work in 1939 after a 3-year 17 From the Moscow News, February 9, 1046. 18 Liapushkin, I. I., in Kratkie Soobshcheniia, No. 4, pp. 58-62. 86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO interruption on the right bank of the Don River, 8 kilometers below Tsymlianskaia Cossack settlement. This gorodishche was located on a platform, 70.0 m. above the river level, formed by the delta of two ravines. This highly fortified gorodishche, commanding the important waterway connecting the steppes with the cities beside the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea and with the Caspian by way of the Volga, existed from the eighth-tenth centuries. Three cultural levels were uncovered. The lowest stratum was well preserved because of a sterile layer (clay floor of a building) ; the few finds included iron slag, bones of animals, and some hand- made pottery. Of particular interest were the remains of a dwelling of the semidugout type, probably a conical structure of yurt type. The lower part consisted of an oval pit (2.5 x 1.8 m.), plastered with clay on the walls and the floor, and with a round hearth pit at the north wall. Hand-made pottery, largely flat-based pots with slightly convex walls and sharply flaring lips decorated with notches of the type known from Maiatskaia settlement, was found both inside and outside the dwelling. The second period is represented by ruins of brick and mortar buildings, very similar to those of the left-bank site where stands the Sarkel gorodishche. To this period also belong the remains of strong fortress walls, 4.5 m. thick with round towers, built of dressed white limestone. The finds of the three upper levels are very closely related. The pottery, almost entirely wheel-made, was represented by the following types: (a) pots with incised linear and wavy ornament; (b) various shapes of polished ware of Saltovo type; (c) egg-shaped amphorae ; and (d) unornamented well-made pots of hard gray clay. This second period was also characterized by a profusion of iron objects including arrowheads and spearpoints, bits and stirrups, and various implements such as knives, fragments of buckets, sickles, axes, fishhooks, and others. Among personal ornaments were beads, frag- ments of metallic mirrors, an earring, and several belt buckles. All pottery and objects from this period have analogies in the finds from the Saltovo and Maiatskaia sites and burials. The existence of the second period was terminated by the destruction of the fortifications. In the third period the building materials from these fortifications were widely utilized in construction. This destruction could have occurred during the capture of the Khazar city of Belaia Vezha by Sviatoslav Igorevich, Prince of Kiev, in the year 965, as recorded in one of the old Russian chronicles. This identification of the right- bank site with the Belaia Vezha city had been anticipated by M. I. Artamanov. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 87 The third period is characterized by yurtlike semidugout dwellings closely related to those of the first period. Their remains consist of clay-paved circular or oval shallow pits, occasionally double, 2.5- 3.0 m. in diameter, with a hearth in the middle. Many of the dwellings contained human skeletons in various positions, showing no signs of orientation or proper grave inventories. On the other hand, the finds from many of the dwellings were numerous and variegated. Iron was widely represented by such objects as fishhooks, chisels, scythes, plowshares, spades, sickles, and others. Most of these were found in the dwelling pits which had been filled by bricks, fragments of mortar, stone, mineral, and fishbones, and potsherds. The abrupt cessation of the third period probably occurred during one of the invasions of the steppe tribes at the end of the tenth or at the beginning of the eleventh century, at which time, after the down- fall of the Khazar Kaganate, these nomads were undisputed masters of the South Russian steppes. Some traces of an attempt to repopulate and even to refortify the gorodishche at some later period were also found. These materials are of great importance for the understanding of the settling of the nomads in the southeastern steppes which had begun during the ninth century (cf. yurts with agricultural equip- ment) and also for uncovering the character of the colonizing move- ment of the Russian Slavic tribes to the southeast, which was begun with the breaking up of the Khazar Kaganate during the tenth century. VOLGA REGION Novo-AKKERMANOVKA CEMETERY The Archeological Expedition from Orsk, organized by G. Pod- gactskii 7° for the Marr Academy of the History of Material Culture and the Museum of Regional Studies at Orenburg, studied during 1936 a Bronze Age cemetery situated 27 kilometers west of Orsk near the village of Novo-Akkermanovka. The tombs were indicated on the surface by 19 stone boulders arranged in a circle and belonging to 13 burials found at a depth of 0.3-1.0 m. In two cases it was possible to determine the limit of the graves: No. 4 was 0.6 x 1.6 m., and No. 13 was 1.3 x 1.8 m. The skeletons were lying on the right or left sides with legs and arms flexed and the skull facing west. Nos. 4 and 8 were double burials. The unnatural position of skeleton B, which was that of a 19 Podgaetskii, G., in Materialy i Issledovaniia po Arkheologii SSSR, No. 1, p. 82, Moscow, 1940. Résumé in French. 88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO woman, placed beside male skeleton A in Burial No. 4 suggests the idea of immolation in situ. On the pillow of the deceased had been placed one or two clay vessels. The remainder of the grave furniture consisted of a small copper rod, a sculptured shell, phalanges of horses and sheep (No. 13), 16 sheep astragals and 1 shell from No. 4, recalling bone rings with two openings from Bronze Age burials north of the Black Sea. In addition, in No. 5 were several horse bones, the remains of food placed in the grave. The character of the grave furniture and the form of the vessels attributed this cemetery to those of Andronovo type whose area extended during the second half of the second millennium before our era across the steppes stretching from the Yenisei to the Urals. In the southern Urals cemeteries of this type present a series of peculiar traits indicating the impact of Western and Eastern cultures. KocHERGINO CEMETERY During 1929-1930 this burial site, situated near Kochergino (Dub- rovno) on the Nemda River in the Sovetskii District of the Kirov region, was excavated.?° Five burials were unearthed. Grave No. 3 contained the skeleton of a young man, 25 to 30 years of age, and No. 5 was that of a child 4 to 6 years old. In graves Nos. 1-2 there were traces of incineration; No. 4 contained no bones. The un1- formity of the material provided by the different burials permits no chronological subdivisions. These burials were made within a 50- year interval during the period from the ninth to the twelfth century— in order to be more precise, to the end of the tenth or the beginning of the eleventh century of our era. Upper VOLGA According to Tretiakov, from 1933-1937 extensive archeological work was carried out in the region of the Upper Volga. As a result, it became possible to trace a picture of the historical evolution of the region during the first millennium. The explorations encompassed both banks of the Volga for a stretch of more than 350 kilometers, from the mouth of the Dubna (Ivanikovo) to that of the Kotorosli (IAroslav) and the banks of its affluents, including those of Mologa and Seksna, whose valleys were explored for a distance of 100-120 kilometers upstream. 20 Talitskii, M., Le Cimetiére de Kocergino, in Materialy i Issledovaniia po Arkheologii SSSR, No. 1, p. 168, Moscow, 1940. Résumé in French. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 89 These explorations led to the discovery of more than 200 sites of varying degrees at antiquity. Remains of Epipaleolithic and Neolithic sites were found, as were gorodishches and selishches of the first millennium B. C. and the first millennium A. D., and dwelling places and cemeteries of the second millennium. Large-scale excavations were carried out on more than 25 of the sites. Several of them were entirely uncovered. Before the first millennium B. C.—Tretiakov outlines briefly the early history of the Upper Volga Valley, remarking on its recent, postglacial age. He mentions the Epipaleolithic sites of a higher Sviderskian character, found near Sobolevo and Skniatino. During the Neolithic period the population was concentrated in three low plains: (a) near Kalinin; (b) along the lower reaches of the Mologa and the Seksna; and (c) along the lower reach of the Kostroma. In all these three areas, numerous Neolithic stations are known, as are sites of the Bronze Age. Outside of these low plains, other stations occur on the shores of large lakes as, for example, Nero, Pleshcheeyo, Galic, and Cuchloma. At the end of the second and at the beginning of the first millennium B. C., the inhabitants of the Upper Volga region emigrated from the low plains to higher ground. This migration was in accordance with modifications which had occurred in the economic sphere, when there was a transition from the hunter-fisher economy to that of agri- culturist-livestock raiser. The character of the dwelling sites was also soon modified. Instead of open sites, the population began to construct small fortresses (gorodishches). All these changes in the culture of the early in- habitants of the Upper Volga region were connected closely with the changes that were occurring in the social order, exemplified by the transition from matriarchy to patriarchy. The first fortified sites appeared in the Uppér Volga region toward the middle of the first millennium B. C. The materials found in the earliest gorodishche were completely in accordance with those of the earliest Bronze Age sites, thus proving the existence of a genetic link between the former and the latter. The three earliest gorodishches were: (a) near the village of Gorodisce, in the suburbs of the city of Kaliazin ; (b) near the village of Gorodok, downstream from the town of Myskin; and (c) at the mouth of the Nerlia, upstream from Kaliazin. Gorodishches dating from the end of the first millennium B. C. have been found in many places. In this group are the Toporok gorodishche and one in the outskirts of Borok, etc. Their antiquity has been determined as a result of the repeated finding of bronze 7 go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO objects similar to those from cemeteries in the Kama region of the higher and lower Pianobor types. The gorodishches of the first millennium B. C. were of limited size. The dwellings were built on the ground. Among the inventory, apart from sherds and bone objects, were stone and metal imple- ments and some ornaments. Remains found in even the oldest goro- dishche establish the complete ascendance of animal raising over hunting. The horse and the pig were the principal domestic animals. Numerous hand mills confirmed the existence of agriculture. The Upper Volga gorodishche can be somewhat distinguished from those of the Kostroma section of the Volga by the form of the dwellings and the pottery. This suggests the existence of two separate tribal groups. Moreover, exploration in this region has shown that a considerable length of the Volga, from the mouth of the Mologa to that of the Kotorosli and the section which lies between the sites of the two tribal groups, was uninhabited at that time. At the beginning of the first millennium A, D—Some of the in- habited sites of the first centuries of our era have been excavated. An examination of all these sites, together with their chronological classification, permits the following conclusions to be drawn: (a) That sites dating from the first centuries A. D. are represented mainly by the remains of fortified sites (gorodishches). Many sites of this type are even older (first millennium B. C.). (b) From the second and third centuries, open sites (selishches) were found. (c) Both types were distributed on the banks of the Volga and its tributaries in compact groups of two to four, which indicates clan grouping and consequently denotes the existence of clan territories. Tretiakov brings ethnographic examples to the support of this theory. Each locality belonged to a definite patriarchal community whose primitive economy, while multiform, also had a collective character. The main branches of production were the raising of livestock and cultivation in clearings. Hunting and fishing were also carried out. In nearly every gorodishche and sclishche were found traces of iron founding and copper smelting. Commercial relations were barely developed at that period, either between localities or more distant, areas. Tretiakov again comments on the presence of certain distinctions, between the population of the Upper Volga and that of the Kostroma, sector of the Volga. A fourth-fifth century gorodische on the Sonochta River.—In 1903) A. A. Spitsyn discovered a gorodishche at the mouth of the Sonochta \ NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD gI River, which flows into the Volga 20 kilometers downstream from Rybinsk. This site was destroyed by fire, and it is for this reason that its archeological strata preserved a rich fund of material as well as the remains of burnt construction. This site, which covered an area of more than 2,000 square meters, has been completely excavated. This gorodishche was built on a small eminence of the Sonochta alluvial terrace. Its irregular triangular surface was surrounded by a wooden wall and earthen defense works. In the center there arose a wooden house (5 x 8 m.) which was apparently a public building. Around it six dwellings were distributed. These dwellings were small log cabins (3 x 5.4 x 6 m.) with hearths near the rear walls. The left side of each house was reserved for the men, and there the axes, arrows, fishing tackle, harness, and similar articles were kept. The right side was for the women, and during excavation, pottery and knives were uncovered. Near the central house, there was a small building without a hearth which was used as granary and mill. Hand mills were also found here. Next to it was a forge which consisted of a solid shed with an enormous hearth in the center. In addition, a quantity of iron frag- ments and several dozen iron ingots, which had been smelted with bellows, were found. Opposite the main house there was another shed with a small hearth in one corner. Both this shed and the one already described were probably surrounded by light wattle walls. This latter shed was reserved for use by the women, indicated by the finding of numerous slate distaffs, iron bodkins, a needle, and stones used as pressing irons. The last of the buildings was a mortuary which gives a very clear insight into the funeral practices of the inhabitants. When a member of the community died, he was cremated elsewhere. The calcified bones were then collected and deposited in the wooden mortuary (2.25 x 2.25 m.), which was located opposite the communal house. Excavations among the ruins brought to light a quantity of calcified bones of adults and'children, both male and female, and also five iron axes, knives, arrowheads, and iron and bronze rings and ornaments. The excellent state of preservation and the richness of the remains, since only bone objects disintegrated, revealed a graphic picture, which is probably typical of all the other Upper Volga sites of the first half of the first millennium. The material found gave a relatively complete picture of the life and activities of the inhabitants. The Sonochta gorodishche can be assigned definitely to the fourth-fifth centuries as a result of finding enameled objects of the same type as 92 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO those from the Riazan cemeteries, and a characteristic clasp in the form of a crossbow which probably originated in the south of the Baltic region. Middle and second half of the first millennium A. D.—Tretiakov describes several sites contemporary with that on the Sonochta and others of a later date. Toward the middle of the first millennium, the open site, without fortification, became the dominant type. Simul- taneously with the change in form the layout of the sites was modified, and they were no longer grouped as before. All this would indicate a social change in the Upper Volga region after the middle of the first millennium. This was probably connected with the disintegration of the ancient social order based on the patri- archal clan. It would appear that it was at this time that the clan territories began to disappear. The considerable increase, often threefold or even fourfold, in the area of the sites indicated that by the sixth-seventh centuries the localities were no longer inhabited by a single patriarchal community. Important excavations have been made at: (a) a fourth-fifth cen- tury site near the Krasnyi-Cholm Rest Home; (b) a fifth-sixth cen- tury site at the mouth of the Iti River, near Uste; and (c) a sixth- seventh century site on the outskirts of Kilino. These excavations have given a more factual picture of the his- torical progression during the middle and second half of the first millennium; certain characteristics having already been given above. At the beginning the inhabitants of every locality worked iron and copper to make themselves tools and ornaments. After the middle of the first millennium there were certain localities engaged in mass production, destined not only for internal use but for purposes of exchange. For example, the inhabitants of the Sonochta gorodishche worked iron on a large scale and in the Krasnyi-Cholm selishche numerous traces of copper working have been found. On the other hand, the inhabitants of other sites appear to have been consumers. A second important characteristic of this period was the appearance of agriculture on previously cultivated land, which replaced the former system of cultivating only virgin territory. This is indicated by the increase in the size of the localities and by changes that took place in the methods of livestock raising which show the use of horse traction in agriculture. Finally, there were changes even in shape and size of the implements and tools bearing on agriculture, particularly in the appearance of very large hand mills. This transition led to the rise of a type of allotment economy. The development of trade with neighboring and remoter regions also played a certain role in NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 93 the historical progression. This is shown by numerous imported articles, such as enameled articles from the middle section of the Dnieper and articles from the central stretch of the Oka. The evolution of the funeral rites gives an equal insight into the decline of the clan society. Instead of the clan burial grounds, of the type exemplified by the “burial house” of Berezniaki, after the sixth century A. D., we find funeral monuments in the Upper Volga in the form of elongated kurgans. These are also found along the Upper Dnieper and Upper Dvina and, as a result of recent study, are said to belong to the Slavic Krivichi [Crivici] tribe. This would indicate that the prehistoric inhabitants of the Upper Volga, as well as those of the Dnieper region, were the ancestors of the eastern Slavs. During the ninth-tenth centuries, instead of elongated kurgans containing several sepulchers of cremated remains, individual funeral monuments were found. These round kurgans contained the remains of a single person with identical cremation procedure. Inhabitants of the region around Lakes Nero and Pleshcheevo dur- ing the middle and second half of the first millennium.—The previously mentioned distinctions between the cultural character of the Upper Volga region and the neighboring regions of Lake Nero and Lake Pleshcheevo and the Kostroma sector of the Volga are very clearly defined in the sites dating from the middle and second half of the first millennium. The existence at this time of two different tribal groups is proved by the following: (a) In the first region, the houses are built on the ground, while those of the latter are half underground. (b) In the former region, the dead were cremated ; in the latter they were interred in the same manner as along the Oka, the central Volga, and the Kama Rivers. Beside Lake Nero, along the Kostroma sector of the Volga and along the upper stretches of the Kliazma, occur several cemeteries which contain flat tombs. The most important, which dates from the eighth-tenth centuries, lies near the Sarskoe gorodishche, in the out- skirts of Diabol. (c) Certain variations may be noted in the type of pottery, orna- ments, and other objects. The inhabitants of the first region belonged to the eastern branch of the Krivichi; the latter to Merian tribes, related to the eastern Finnish tribes of the Volga region. However, the fundamental characteristics of the historical progres- sion in all these regions were the same. From a detailed analysis of g4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO the objects in the Sarskoe gorodishche, this was the first town with artisans. Its existence was a result of the progressive development of the social division in labor and the increasing separation of the crafts from agriculture. PREVIOUS RESEARCH IN THE UPPER VOLGA REGION Gorodishche near Kaliazin——The gorodishche, located on a head- land on the left bank of the Upper Volga between two deep ravines, is protected by two vallums. It covers an area of approximately 1,500 square meters. The site is of interest because its archeological stratum, which is 3.0 m. deep at certain points, contains the cultural remains of different epochs dating from the middle of the first millennium B. C. to the third-fourth centuries A. D. The upper layers of the gorodishche were unfortunately destroyed by a cemetery that existed during the twelfth-thirteenth centuries. Small excavations were made during 1935. Gorodok gorodishche.—This covers an extensive headland junction of the Gorodetski stream with the right bank of the Upper Volga. Its elevation is separated from the plateau by two ditches. The sides have been heavily eroded by the river. The cultural stratum, which was 30-40 cm. in depth, was completely excavated during 1936. In the lower levels, there were objects dating from the middle of the first millennium B. C.; in the upper levels were articles belonging to the first centuries of our era. Viadimuirskie Khutora selishche—tThis site on the right bank of the Mologa River, about 50 kilometers from its mouth, was located on the edge of the first terrace, and is today heavily flooded by the spring waters. The cultural stratum, which lay at a depth of 20-30 cm., was excavated in 1936. Only a few objects were found, mainly pottery dating from the first centuries A. D. Krugletsy gorodishche.—During 1933 on theright bank of the Volga near Ochotin, about 2 kilometers downstream from Myskin, some traces of this gorodishche, which had been almost entirely destroyed by the Volga, were found. The 10 square meters remaining were excavated in 1936. This revealed that the site had been occupied during the first centuries A. D. Typical pottery and some iron articles were found. Grechov gorodishche.—This site was located on a promontory on the right bank of the Upper Volga, at the mouth of the Grechov, 7 kilometers upstream from Ueglie. Its platform has been almost entirely destroyed by the river. At the side of the platform, the NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 95 remains of two vallums and a ditch can be seen. All the remaining part of the platform was excavated in 1935. Traces of a charred wooden wall surrounding the gorodishche were found, as were holes from the pillars of buildings built above ground. The cultural stratum, which was 50-80 cm. deep, yielded articles which dated from the second-fourth centuries. In the upper level, a large bronze buckle encrusted with red enamel was found. Sonochta gorodishche—Excavations during 1934-1935 covered this entire site. The cultural stratum, which never exceeded 35.0 cm., contained remains of buildings in the form of charred beams, pits left by supports, broken stone hearths and the remains of a wooden wall which had surrounded the gorodishche. It was possible to recon- struct the character of the defense works as a result of the satisfactory degree of preservation of the wattling which supported them. Uste selishche—During 1934 this site, located on the right bank of the Volga at the junction of the Iti, near Uste, 12 kilometers up- stream from IAroslav, was examined. Built on a small promontory arising from the flood terrace of the Volga, it had been heavily eroded by the river, to a point where hardly any trace remained. Excavation of the remainder uncovered a stratum, 80 cm. in depth, which con- tained the remains of a wooden house destroyed by fire. The house had a hearth which had been dug out of the ground. From articles found, this selishche was attributed to the fifth-sixth centuries A. D. Kilino selishche-——During 1936 studies were made on the remains of a site located on the right bank of the Volga near Kilino, about 25 kilometers downstream from Myskin. Built on the bank of the river barely above the water line, it had been heavily eroded by flood waters. The cultural stratum, 50-80 cm. deep, yielded but a limited number of objects dating from the seventh-eighth centuries of our era. CENTRAL ASIA Uznex S.S.R., 1937-1039 21 Archeological investigations were carried out mainly by the Uzbek- istan Committee for the Preservation and Study of Ancient Monu- ments (UZKOMSTARIS) with the collaboration of the All-Union and local organizations. Termes Expedition —This expedition conducted excavations among the ruins of the Old City of Termez and the ancient site of Airtam, which is situated 17 kilometers east of Termez, on the right bank of 21 Received by Henry Field from VOKS on February 3, 1941. World War II delayed publication. Minor editorial revisions have been made. 96 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO the Amu-Darya River. Ancient written sources do not mention this place, but judging by the facts that the ruins cover an extensive area and that the artifacts unearthed here are of skilled workmanship, this must have been a settlement of considerable size. The site com- prises an elevated portion (250 x 100 m.), bounded on three sides by D-shaped, clay walls; the fourth side is contiguous with the steep bank of the Amu-Darya. The ruins of the settlement, also enclosed by walls, are directly adjacent to this elevated portion of the site. The excavations were concentrated on the southwestern part of the elevated portion of the site. Several buildings, belonging to a single edifice, constructed of large, unburnt bricks were unearthed here. Those chambers in which a sculptured cornice, fragments of reli- quaries, and of an alabaster statue of Buddha were found during the first excavations on the site undoubtedly served for cult purposes. The adjacent premises, with several hearths and large clay pots (khumt) for storing food and water, constituted in all probability the sanctuary kitchen. Two floors, dating from different periods, were unearthed in this sanctuary. Parts of the walls between the two floors were covered with a fine layer of alabaster plastering, differing greatly from the rough clay plaster still preserved above the upper floor. Thus, two different periods have been established for this building, the first of which was dated by a bronze coin of an unnamed ruler, referring to the first century of our era. Excavations carried on at a still greater depth beneath the lower floor brought to light cultural strata attributed to the latest centuries before our era, in which thin- walled pottery of dark-rose clay coated in red engobé, fired-clay tiles, one of which is stamped’ with a picture of a deer, were found. The excavations and the material raised to the surface at Airtam yielded a large number of fragments of clay vessels; thick-walled khumi, fired-clay kettles for boiling food, jugs, plates, bowls, saucers, conical vessels for lampions, and other forms. The prevailing type was engobé pottery of brown, cream, and red tones, for the most part without ornament, often superbly burnished and made of a thin mass of clay; there were also specimens of colored, varnished pottery. The ornaments found on the pottery fall into five categories: stamped, molded, burnished, painted, and incised. The majority of the vessels had been made on a potter’s wheel. In several parts of this site were unearthed fragments of pottery-firing ovens and a large mass of clay slag, testifying to the extensive development of local pottery manufacture. In addition to a rich collection of pottery fragments, the investiga- NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 97 tions here have furnished a large number of terra cotta figurines of animals and people, objects of a cult nature, statuettes of marly lime- stone, and architectural fragments of the same material. The different periods represented in the cultural strata found on this site, the lower of which should be referred to the last centuries before our era and the upper to the first centuries of our era, point to the fact that Airtam existed for a long period of time. Excavations were conducted at several points among the ruins of Old Termez. An ancient Buddhist monastery, consisting of a large number of artificial caves and of above-ground chambers was found on the Kara-Tepe elevation. The structures above ground were built of unburnt brick and partly faced in stone. The floor was also of the same brick, coated with clay; the walls had an undercoating of clay covered with alabaster, on which traces of varicolored fresco paintings were preserved. The walls of one of the excavated premises, for example, were bordered in red. A picture showing the lower part of a human figure was still preserved above the border; traces of the feet encased in red footgear and parts of varicolored garments could still be discerned. The painting resembles Bamian art in type. The caves, dug out at different levels in the sandstone layers of the mounds, were connected by staircases, while caves situated on one level communicated through corridors. The caves consisted of rec- tangular chambers (7-12 sq. m. in area) encircled on all sides by passageways about 3 m. wide and 13-16 m. long. The height of the corridors and the caves was I.5-2.0 m. Benches were hewn along the walls of the caves and shallow niches occurred in the walls of the caves and corridors. Arabic inscriptions were found here and there on the walls, which bespeak the fact that the Arabs visited and possibly used these caves for a considerable time after their conquest of Termez. The excavations brought to light several caves of large dimensions, probably intended for public purposes, and other smaller caves evidently for individual use. Coins, pottery, and other finds discovered in Kara-Tepe date from the last centuries B. C. to the first centuries A. D. The investigations of a suburban palace of the Termez rulers of the eleventh and twelfth centuries consisted in clearing the eastern facade, which made is possible to establish the plan of this building. These excavations also unearthed a water reservoir (70 sq. m. in area and 2.0 m. deep) constructed in the courtyard of this palace complex. The walls were faced with burnt bricks, which were also used for the base, where there were three steps in each corner. Earthenware pipes with a brick trough running parallel, came to light in the north- 98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO eastern corner. Water apparently flowed into the reservoir both through pipes and trough. In clearing the northern lateral pavilion of the palace, alabaster was found, together with pieces of colored glass, parts of an alabaster grating, and decorative, oval-shaped glass medallions (5-7 cm. in diameter and 2-5 mm. in thickness) molded from green or reddish glass. The pictures in relief on the obverse of these medallions refer to eight different subjects: 1. An eight-petaled rosette in a double circle, consisting of a center and a row of closely set pearls. 2. A medallion with a Kufic inscription, with floral ornament around the letters and at the edges, the faint inscription reading either “king” or “kingdom.” 3. The figure of an animal shown running to the left, encircled by an Arabic inscription which reads “for the most high Sultan Abdul Muzafar Bahram Shah”; this inscription may refer either to the ruler of Ghazni, Emin Addaula Bahram Shah or Masaud ibn Ibrahim (1118-1157), or to Bahram Shah, the son of Imad ad-Dinam, ruler of Termez in 1205. 4. A bird of prey clawing some small animal to pieces. 5. A bird of prey holding an animal in its claws. 6. A lion in a circle. 7. A woman standing beside a horse. 8. A rider mounted on a horse, holding the reins in his right hand, and with a hunting bird on his left hand; the rider wears a crown surrounded by a halo. Several of these depictions—the bird of prey clawing an animal, the bird holding its prey in its claws, and the rider with a hunting bird—are akin in subject to the pictures on ancient eastern metalware found in the vicinity of the Urals. One of the groups of the Termez Expedition was entrusted with the task of making preliminary investigations on that part of the site where piles of metal and ash promised interesting finds. The results led to the surmise that this was an artisans’ quarter, most probably that of the metal craftsmen of Old Termez. Situated 550 paces from the northeastern corner of the citadel, the metalcraftsmen’s quarter occupied an area of 8 hectares, on which there were traces of build- ings of unburnt brick, streets, squares, and water reservoirs. Two streets could be traced, one along the eastern and the other along the southern boundary of the quarter. The street to the east divided the quarter from the other section of the site, where the excavations NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 99 produced a large amount of clay slag, sherds, and pottery-making tools, all of which indicated that this was a potters’ quarter. Excavations in the metallists’ quarter were begun at several differ- ent levels. The cultural strata reached a thickness of 5.0 m. The upper layers, at a depth up to 1.5 m., were attributed to the eleventh- thirteenth centuries of our era, judging by the pottery and other finds, while the lower strata belonged to the period of the Kushans. Many more or less regularly formed, palm-shaped pieces of metal weighing from 500 grams to 5 kilograms have been found both on the surface and in the excavated portions. Investigations have shown that pieces of pig iron served as raw material for the metalcraftsmen of Old Termez. The discovery, in the upper strata, of fragments of crucibles (which do not relate to iron production), pieces of alloy, and poly- metallic ores, as well as fragments of copperware, all point to the existence of copper fashioning as well as forges. The presence of jewelers’ shops in this quarter has also been proved by the discovery of special furnaces used in this craft. Several build- ings were unearthed during the excavations, three of which were evidently used for trading, since they were open to the street on one side; their dimensions were 2.0-2.5 square meters. Behind these premises were located the manufactory buildings, where remains of furnaces, odds and ends of ironware, etc., were found. Other rooms connecting with the shops served for living quarters, not, apparently, for the shop owner and his family, a fact which would have been inconsistent with the seclusion of family life, but for the apprentices and workers. Fragments of an arch (tezar), con- structed of burnt bricks, came to light beneath these trading premises. Judging by the pottery and other finds, all these buildings belonged to the eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era. In the lower strata, about 1.5 m. beneath the surface, were found pottery, coins, and other articles attributed to the first centuries of our era, and in addi- tion to these, the very same type of iron moldings as were found in the upper layers, of similar palmlike shape and of varying weight. The material obtained here indicates that manufacturing existed on the site under investigation during a long period lasting from 1,000 to 1,200 years and that pottery making, the jeweler’s craft, glass and copper work flourished in Termez during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. A separate group of the Termez Expedition investigated the ancient irrigation system along the Surkhan-Darya River within the pre- cincts of the Termez district. Of the right bank of the river were found remains of ancient head structures and canals, one of which, I0O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO taking its start evidently from Salavat, irrigated the territory of Old Termez. On the left bank, in the middle reaches of the Surkhan- Darya, traces have been found of very large irrigation canals leading to the southeast, i.e., to the site of Airtam. These canals carried water to Airtam, where traces have also been found of an irrigation canal leading to the north-northwest to join, as it would seem, the canals which have their source in the Surkhan-Darya. It must be observed that the pottery collected on the left bank is very similar to that found in the oldest levels of Old Termez and to the objects from Airtam. These included thin-walled, engobé pottery, fragments of gobletlike vessels, painted khumi, etc. The results of the investiga- tions of this section and at Airtam give reason to affirm that the irrigation structures on the left bank of the Surkhan-Darya River, requiring large-scale organized labor for their preservation and upkeep, fell into a state of disrepair and neglect about the middle of the first millennium of our era, a fact which brought about a decline in the life of Airtam and other populated points on the left bank of the river. Surkhan-Darya Expedition—tThis expedition carried out archeo- logical investigations in the Baisun district. During 1938 excavations were made in the Teshik-Tash grotto at a distance of 18 kilometers northwest of the district center, near Machai. A Paleolithic settle- ment with artifacts of the classic Mousterian period was unearthed here. The grave of an 8- or 9-year-old Neanderthaloid child was also found here. The exceptional scientific interest of this discovery has already been presented in numerous articles and reports and we shall dwell on the 1939 work. The expedition made some preliminary surveys in the vicinity of Baisun, which resulted in the discovery of new artifacts, including some pertaining to the Stone Age. Two corridorlike caves were found near Baisun in Kaflan-Dara and Dulta- Khan, with large accumulations of bones of wild and domesticated animals. Fragments of ancient vessels were found in one of the caves. These caves evidently served large beasts of prey as places of refuge, and the bones are the remains of their quarry. In the Ob-Angor grotto remains of ancient metalwork shops have been unearthed including slag and a smelting furnace in the form of a vessel 2.0 m. in height with openings in the sides for forced draft. This site also produced fragments of tenth- and eleventh-century pottery. Two cultural levels were found buried under stones in a cave situated in the Kurgan-Darya gorge; these strata contained coal-ash accumulations, remains of animals, and worked flints of Paleolithic type. Excavations were conducted in an area of 40 sq. km. near Machai in the Amir-Temir grotto, resulting in the discovery of three NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD IOI cultural strata. The upper stratum belonged to the later Iron Age, the middle to the Neolithic, and the lowest to the Paleolithic period. Typical Mousterian remains have been found in the lower levels, closely resembling the Teshik-Tash implements—a hand cleaver, a discoidal nucleus, a scraper, and others. Investigations begun in the Teshik-Tash cave during 1938 have been finished and, like the pre- ceding investigations, these brought to the surface typical Mousterian remains. Of particular interest were the flint points, which resemble those from the Palestine caves. To the east of Baisun in the gorge which leads from the mountain river Temir-Ulde, traces have been found of a Stone Age settlement where evidences of stone implement making and the bones of wild animals have been established. Zarafshan Expedition—This expedition engaged in reconnoitering investigations and excavations to the northwest of Bukhara in the Kizil-Kum Desert. The plot of land under investigation, about 500 sq. km. in area, abounds in the ruins of ancient settlements, castles, the remains of ramparts and irrigation channels, and a large amount of buried material. The ruins of settlements and castles, built of unburnt brick (pakhs), at the present time give the appearance of mounds (tepe) of various forms, which have been rendered shapeless by the action of precipitation, wind, and the shifting sands that have covered a large part of this locality. Several of these mounds (Besh- Tepe, Aiak-Tepe, and others), irrigation channels, and the shapeless remains of clay structures are to be found at the extreme western point of the investigated area, situated in the desert about 40 km. from the boundary of the oasis. Here, as in the rest of the investigated territory, much material was discovered, distinguished, however, by features pointing to a greater antiquity than that procured from the sites located closer to the modern boundary of Bukhara Oasis. In the district of Besh-Tepe and Aiak-Tepe thin-walled pottery was encountered, finished on a potter’s wheel and made of finely powdered clay, hard-fired and frequently coated with red engobé, containing traces of complete or partial burnishing and sometimes with a stamped ornament. In addition to such pottery, the expedition found bronze triple-faceted arrowheads of Scythian type. The mounds situated closer to the oasis (Dingil-Tepe, Katta, Khudzha-Ishan, Varakhsha, and others) yielded material relating to the period from the eighth to the twelfth centuries of our era, and some mounds which are directly adjacent to the oasis were attributed to the sixteenth-eighteenth centuries. Excavations were begun on the site of Varakhsha, which was one of the residences of the country’s rulers, the Bukhar-Khudats, situated 102 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO in the desert 12 km. west of the modern oasis. Excavations were concentrated on the ruins of a large building located on the western side of the citadel which was attributed to the fourth and fifth cen- turies of our era. This building was constructed of large unburnt bricks. Six rooms were cleared. A number of fragments of stucco carving, marked by various ornamental motifs and diverse methods of execution, were found in the piles of building rubbish which filled one of the rooms. In general, these are carvings in low relief, con- sisting of geometric and stylized floral ornament, including meanders, rosettes, palmettes of rhombics and crosses, in a geometric pattern. There were also some high-relief carvings, which often merged into sculpture proper. This method was used for depicting different themes and for realistic treatment, such as birds, fish, fantastic beings, a winged horse, a bird with a female head and breast, a male torso, fragments of human figures, trunks of large trees with branches and carved leaves. A large room with wide clay benches was unearthed in the central part of the building. Traces of a unique distemper painting on clay plaster were found on one of the walls of this room. The wall was divided into two horizontal parts by a cornice. Above the cornice on a vivid red-ocherous background were figures of animals shown mov- ing toward the left: deer, tiger, panther, and horse. The upper part of the picture has not been preserved. Hunting scenes were depicted on the portion beneath the cornice: first come the drivers dressed in short breeches and cloaks, mounted on white elephants; following them are hunters armed with spears and bows. The elephants are sumptuously outfitted in colored saddlecloths and harness. One of the scenes depicts a hunter hurling his lance at a lion who has leapt at him with fangs bared. In another episode a hunter has loosed his arrow at a griffin. The lion is painted in orange-yellow and the griffin in white colors. The contours of the figures are outlined in black and brown; shadow planes and perspective are lacking but the firm paint- ing and the bold strokes reveal the touch of an experienced master. The colors have preserved their freshness, although many portions of the human figures were obliterated as far back as ancient times. This building, lavishly decorated in stucco work and paintings, is identified with the palace of the Bukhar-Khudats, described by Mu- hammad Narshakhi, a tenth-century historian, who wrote that this palace, built more than a thousand years before his time, had been repeatedly demolished and restored. Simultaneously with the excavations of the palace, the expedition carried out some trial trenches, the lower strata of which yielded NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 103 pottery and other finds dating approximately to the eve of our era, resembling the material of Besh-Tepe and Aiak-Tepe. These dis- coveries, including artificial irrigation structures, give reason to assert that the territory investigated was a very populous area even before the beginning of our era, and that on the extreme western portions of the site ancient culture began to die out near the beginning of our era, while the more eastern parts which lay higher in regard to the irrigation systems and closer to the water supply—the Zarafshan River—continued to exist up to the eighth-twelfth centuries. The reasons for this decline can be found in the upheavals brought about by the dissolution of the slave-owning society, the new feudal aspects of social relations and the resultant neglect of the important irrigation system, all of which was supplemented by the intensive advance of the sands of Kizil-Kum on the Bukhara Oasis. [Angi-IUI Expedition—This expedition continued investigations at Kaunchi-Tepe and also began excavations of the tumuli located nearby. This group of barrows, consisting of about 1,000 burials, spreads over a distance of several kilometers on the watershed between the Chirchik and Boz-Su Rivers. The barrows are of various sizes, from 0.4 to 5.0 m. in height and 8 to 30 m. in diameter. Twelve barrows were cleared, all of which, judging by the grave furniture, refer to three epochs. A typical flexed burial was found in one of the cleared barrows, about 0.5 m. in height and 8.0 m. in diameter. A child’s body was found at a depth of 0.8 m. in an oval-shaped pit, the head pointing east-southeast. The skeleton was lying on its right side, arms bent at the elbows, the wrists placed under the head; traces of violet-colored paint were found on the soles of the feet. At the head of the skeleton there was a flat-bottomed, wide-necked vessel, hand-made and very slightly fired, 12 cm. high, 13.5 cm. in diameter at the neck, and 9 cm. at the base. The burial ritual and the modeling and form of the vessel date the barrow in the late Bronze Age. Tumuli of this type are well known in the southern part of the R.S.F.S.R. and in the Ukraine, but this was the first example of Uzbekistan. Another type of burial was represented in one of the barrows, where a group interment was found. The skeletons were lying a tergo, arms extended along the body, and legs thrown widely apart. Pottery, differing both in form and decoration from that found in the first barrow, was found near the skeletons. Narrow-necked vessels with a single handle or none at all, flat plates and jugs almost pear-shaped in form, were discovered here. The jug handles were often fashioned in the form of cowslips. None of these vessels was made on the 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO potter’s wheel, but they were all hard-fired. Several of them, for example, the jugs, were coated on the outside with red engobé. This type of pottery was often met in large numbers on the Kaunchi-Tepe site, in those strata which G. V. Grigorev refers to the middle of the first millennium before our era. The remaining excavated barrows all refer to a single culture. The burials were placed in catacombs, the floor of which was from 2.5 to 3.5 m. below the surface. The average dimensions of the catacombs were: length, 2.5 m.; width, 1.5 m.; and height, 1.5 m. The catacombs were rectangular with vaulted ceilings. A dromos from 3.85 to 5.0 m. long, and 1.5 to I.9 m. wide in its upper part, led down from the surface to the catacombs. At a depth of approxi- mately 1.5 m., two or three stepped projections from 0.4 to 0.7 m. wide were found along the main and sometimes along the end walls of the dromos, which correspondingly diminished in size. An open- ing at the lower end of the dromos led to the catacombs. This open- ing was about 0.8 m. high, 1.0 m. wide and about 0.5 m. deep. Some- times the opening was closed with unburnt bricks. Most of the burials in the catacombs contained male and female figures. The skeletons lay stretched out on their backs with the heads pointing north. The grave furniture included the following weapons: (a) Straight, double-edged iron swords, with narrow shafts at the end for wooden hilts, the length of the blade being about 0.8 or 0.9 m., the shaft for the hilt from 0.1 to 0.13 m. long, and the width of the sword about 4 cm. (b) Double-edged iron daggers, very massive, from 15 to 20 cm. long and about 4 cm. wide, the remains of wooden scabbards to be found on the swords and daggers. (c) Triple-faceted iron arrows with shafts, and bone facings of bows. Lying alongside the female skeletons were found a bronze mirror with a handle sheath at the side, the bone top of a back-comb deco- rated with small carved heads, a bronze arbalest-shaped fibula ring, a bronze bell, bronze wire earrings, a round bead of blue glass, and other objects. Among the domestic articles the following may be noted: small iron knives with thick butts 8 to 10 cm. in size; earthenware pottery pitchers with a single handle or without handles; and saddle flasks, flat on one side. The pottery had been fashioned on a potter’s wheel, hard-fired, and traces of purplish-red paint could be seen on the flasks. These tumuli were attributed to the third and fourth centuries of our era. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 105 Ferghana Expedition—tThis expedition was undertaken in 1939 and had as its objective archeological supervision of the construction site of the Stalin Great Ferghana Canal. Ferghana, the wealth of which was well known to ancient Chinese writers who knew it under the name of Davin, had never been investigated. In view of the ex- tremely sparse archeological data on the Ferghana region, the organi- zation of work on a large scale promised to be of great interest. Archeological supervision was established over the entire 270-kilo- meter course of the canal, which intersects the Ferghana region from end to end, from Uch-Kurgan to Kani-badam. Numerous trips were made through the territory lying off the main course of the canal, and in this way a large part of the region was covered by a compact net- work of scouting parties. Excavation work during the building of the canal unearthed several ancient settlements and tribal sites, burials, and artifacts. Much material was gathered by the reconnaissance parties. These finds for the most part precede the Arab conquest. Among the coins, some hitherto unknown, was a copper coin of the Greek-Bactrian ruler Heliocles dating to the middle of the second century before our era. The scientific purport of these coins is especially great in that they directly coincide with archeological complexes and with definite geographical points. Among the mass of artifacts of various strata, the ancient complex is especially striking since it is found on the entire territory investigated and should be referred to the second half of the first millennium before our era. Grain grinders were found in this complex, crude hand-fashioned pottery, pitcherlike vessels, flat dishes, jugs with handles in the form of cowslips coated in red engobé, burnished pottery with incised ornament, stone pestles and mortars. The dense distribution of archeological remains throughout the investigated territory and the great extent of the cultural strata of the ancient settlements make them worthy of particular study. In addition to the sites found directly on the course of the canal, 92 adjacent sites were registered. An unbroken cultural stratum stretches for a distance of 8 kilometers from Lugumbek to the settlement of Tiuiachi. These facts confirm the evidence of ancient Chinese sources con- cerning the wealth and highly developed agriculture of Davin, which characterize it as a region with a large agricultural population, famous for its splendid horses, wine distilleries, rice and wheat crops, and numerous cities. Parties following special routes to the north of the canal into the sands of Kuduk-Kum, lying in the center of the Ferghana region, 106 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO found numerous remains of ancient settlements, the material from which can be dated to the end of the first millennium before our era and the first centuries of our era. SOGHDIANA Grigorev *? has summarized the results of excavations since 1936 of a series of Soghdian sites in the Zarafshan Valley. The explora- tion by Grigorev and J. A. Sukharev in the Samarkand area, which covered an area of 200 square kilometers between Samarkand and Zarafshan, disclosed the remains of several dozen ancient settlements. The sites of the most ancient period are in the form of a square sur- rounded by buildings, with a high central hill in the middle of the square. All these settlements were located in a now waterless steppe on the banks of dry streams. The most extensive excavations were carried on during 1936-1939 at Tali Barzu, now identified with ancient Riwdad. At this site six cultural strata, from the second quarter of the first millennium B. C. to the beginning of the eighth century A. D., have been identified. The earliest stratum, referred to as Tali Barzu I, contained pottery of the type known from various sites in Iran and Turkestan at the beginning of the third millennium B. C. This refers mainly to the stemmed red matte engobé vases from Tepe Hissar and Anau. Other finds included skewer rests ornamented with ram’s heads and archaic female figurines dressed in long robes, trousers, high boots, and with “Scythian” caps (probably bnahita). Tali Barzu II, attributed to the fifth-sixth centuries B. C., was connected with the large fortified building occupying the entire area of the site, or building complex, containing at least 500 rooms. The outer rooms of the apartment served as the city wall. The corners were fortified with multiple towers. A citadel with loopholes was in the center of the complex. Pottery with ribbon ornament and also with handles depicting animals appears for the first time. Of particular interest were the numerous figurines, some dressed in the typical “Scythian” costume, others in mantles with false sleeves flung over the shoulders (cf. kuseu in Afghanistan), and finally in the costume of the Medes (cf. figurines of a king or satrap in crenelated crown and long robe, reminiscent of the Achemenid kings depicted on the seals in the De Clercq collection). The later periods of Tali Barzu were not as rich in finds. Tali 22 Grigorev, G. V., in Kratkie Soobshcheniia, No. 6, pp. 24-34. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 107 Barzu III belongs to the period following Alexander’s conquest, and includes objects showing Greek influence and Greco-Bactrian coins, replacing those with Achemenid influence. Tali Barzu IV, attributed to the period from the first century B. C. to the second century A. D., is associated with the invasions of the nomads from western China and Yuechi in the northern part of Cen- tral Asia. The few finds are of significance because of the lack of any written sources regarding Soghdiana during this period. Totally different building techniques were used during recon- struction of the large Achemenid buildings. Of special interest were several Buddhist images, an inscribed sherd reported to be the earliest known sample of Soghdian writing, the effigy of an equestrian deity, and a hoard of 20 silver coins resembling those attributed to the reign of Antiochus by Allotte de la Fouye, but with a Soghdian legend on the obverse and probably struck in Soghdiana at the end of the first century B. C. The settlement was destroyed during the period of the Ephthalite domination, third-fifth centuries A. D., but came back to life during the Turkish conquest in the sixth century (Tali Barzu V). A thick city wall was constructed during this period, and a building of very large slabs of clay was erected upon the central mound. The finds, characterized by Sasanian types of ornamentation both in metal and clay, are much better illustrated from two other sites, Kafiz-Kala and Varakhsh. In the former many coins of Chinese type with square perforation but with Soghdian inscriptions have also been found. The latter, in Bukhara Oasis, contained the ruins of a palace decorated with a magnificent alabaster frieze depicting human beings, plants, animals, birds, and fishes. Subsequent excavations at Varakhsh have disclosed a fresco upon the wall of a palace or temple depicting a procession of animals and a hunting scene ** with an Indian [?] king hunting elephants and griffins. The type of painting, like that of the sculpture at Varakhsh, is more closely reminiscent of Indian than of Persian art. Tali Barzu VI (end of seventh—beginning of eighth century A. D.) is contemporaneous with the famous Mount site, discovered by Freimann. Glazed pottery appears for the first time during this period of Arabian conquest, and several coins of the Soghdian King Tarkhun (ante A. D. 710). Bernshtam ** summarizes the results of recent excavations by the 23Cf. frescoes in a villa near Ctesiphon (Iraq) described by Ammianus Marcellinus. 24From a report by A. N. Bernshtam in Kratkie Soobshcheniia, No. 6, pp. 34-42. 108 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL Lio IIMK jointly with the Scientific Committee of the Kirghiz Republic and the Kazakhstan Branch of the Academy of Sciences in this area to the west of Chinese Turkestan. This area of the ancient nomads, home of the animal style, was not mentioned in the documents col- lected by Sir Aurel Stein and translated by H. Qeichelt, yet it is known that the main caravan route from the west to Chinese Turk- estan crossed the Jetty-Su (Seven Rivers) area and that consequently some important results might be expected here. The earliest influences from the west described from this area were those from the Achemenid Empire (sixth-fourth centuries B. C.). Bronze altars and lamps in the Hermitage Museum found in 1937 near Issyk-Kul, but as yet unpublished, belong to this period. In the following period (fourth-second centuries B. C.) for a short time there appear in the art of the nomads of the northern Tien Shan foothills some elements of Greco-Bactrian art.25 However, these did not affect permanently the art of the nomads, in which the ancient “animal style” soon came back into its own. The Greeks did not penetrate this area, notwithstanding W. Tarn’s claims to the contrary, and Greek influence was felt only by the way of commercial relations. During the beginning of the present era new influences from closer at hand replace those of the more distant areas. A polished wheel-made ware, totally different from the pottery of the nomads, appears (cf. Kenkol and Berkkarin burial grounds), but it is still impossible to decide whether or not it came from Sogh- diana or from the oases of eastern Turkestan. More significant, how- ever, are the finds from the various gorodishches of this area. Soghdian inventories are found in the lowest strata of Taraz (Dzhambul) and Krasnaia Rechka. The finds include, associated with pottery and terra cottas, a barbarian imitation of an eastern Roman solidus of the fourth-fifth centuries. While it is still impossible to date the finds from these strata, they definitely belong to the period between the third and fifth centuries. Together with the typical traits of the Soghdian culture, still retaining a strong influence of Greco- Bactrian tradition, these objects also reveal the influences of the style of eastern Turkestan. In Soghdian tradition were a figurine of Anakhit (forming the handle of a pot) from Taraz, and an oinochoe of Central Asian type. A modeling mold for a masculine head had a Grecian profile and a general resemblance to Gandharan art; the only known analogy to it are the heads of rulers on Greco-Bactrian coins. 25 Cf. Wusun burials described by M. Voevodskii and M. P. Griaznov, Vestnik Drevnei Istorii, No. 2, p. 3, 1938. ; NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 109 The first agrarian settlements in this area (Krasnaia Rechka site) are isolated fortified houses of unbaked brick, two or three stories high, of long parallel apartments (1.5 x 2.0 x 8.0m.) with flat roofs. These are attributed to the period before the seventh century. At Krasnaia Rechka these buildings were ruined and upon them were Zoroastrian burials, of the seventh-eighth centuries. Bernshtam, who disagrees with the first-century B. C. dating for comparable Soghdian finds from eastern Turkestan by Sir Aurel Stein, attributes them to the fifth or sixth century. According to Bernshtam the colonization activities of Soghdiana were not begun until the period of the third- fifth centuries (‘“‘the first period of Soghdian colonization in the Jetty-Su’’). During this period Soghdian colonies were still isolated culturally and economically in the midst of the Jetty-Su nomads. From the end of the seventh century the cultural influence of Soghdiana increased both in volume and significance, in crafts as well as in fine arts. A Soghdian version of the favorite Sasanian decorative motif, a dotted circle filled with either a pictorial or orna- mental subject, is encountered in a series of sites, in Mongolia (Tola), Kirghizia (Ak Peshin), and Altai (Katanda). One of the examples combined the Sasanian dotted circle with a Chinese ornamental lotus in the center. Quite possibly the imitations of Sasanian platters, obtained by the Saian-Altai Expedition near Yenisei should be attributed to the Soghdian craftsmen living among the nomads. Soghdian influences on the pottery of this period from Kazakhstan and Kirghizia have been described by Bernshtam (Vestnik Drevnei Istorii, No. 4, 1939). A contributing factor here may have been a second mass migration of the Soghdians, particularly from Bukhara, during the seventh century. To this period belongs the founding of the typical Mawer- annahran towns with citadel, shahristan and rabat, in the valleys of the Chu and Talas Rivers in the northern foothills of the Tien Shan. This movement continued during the Arabian conquest of the Jetty-Su during the first half of the eighth century. To this period belongs the spread of Soghdian writing in this area, and its use for the local Turkish dialect. The oldest examples of Uigurian writing, in Soghdian characters, are the so-called Turgesh coins of the eighth century. During the ninth century Soghdian culture begins to disappear, and in the Jetty-Su area it become a component part of the culture of Turkish nomads, after the assimilation of Soghdians by the Turkish population. According to Muhammad of Kashgar, the Soghdians adopted the clothes and manners of the Turks, from Balasagun to {10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Ispindzhab the inhabitants spoke both Soghdian and Turkish, and there were left no people who spoke only Soghdian. Summary.—Period I (third-sixth centuries) did not result in the assimilation of the Soghdians by the local Turkish populations. The Soghdians engaged in commercial relations with the Turks, but there was no organic intertwining of the Soghdian culture with that of the local nomads. Period II (from the end of the sixth century) is connected with the emigrations from Bukhara. At the same time this was a period of assimilation of the Soghdians with the Turkish nomads, resulting in complete dissolution of Soghdian culture in the culture of the nomads. This process was completed by the end of the ninth century. Most recent archeological investigations reveal that the second wave of colonization was less “pure” than the first. Together with the Soghdians in this colonization participated Christian Syrians.¢ Kircuiz S.S.R.27 In Frunze [formerly Pishpek] the Kirghiz Museum of National Culture is under construction. Designed by V. Variuzhskii in the shape of a large yurt, the building will be decorated with white marble, majolica work, wood and marble carvings, and colorful national ornaments. The exhibits will trace the history of Kirghizia and will include cultural memorials and works of art. About 3,000 persons will be able to visit the Museum at the same time. A windowless effect is attained by covering the exterior with a protruding diagonal latticework into whose diamond-shaped open- ings panes of glass are set. Thus, with the circular glass cupola sufficient light filters through into the building. SIBERIA Kauaxass A.S.S.R. During 1940 while a highway was under construction a slice was cut off a small hill near the Power Collective Farm, 8 kilometers from Abakan, revealing the ruins of a house. On closer study the find proved to be the remains of an ancient Chinese house dating back to the period of the Han Dynasty, approximately the first century B. C. 26 Borisov, A. IA., Syrian inscriptions from Taraz. Izvestia of Kazakhstan Branch of the Academy of Sciences. [In press.] 27 This summary is based on an article by Nina Riazantseva in the Moscow News, June 1, 1046. NO. [3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——FIELD Ill Excavations started in 1941 by an expedition sponsored jointly by the State Museum of History, the Institute of the History of Material Culture (IIMK), and the Khakass Language and Literature Re- search Institute, were interrupted by the war. Resumed during 1945 under the supervision of Lydia Evtiukhova, with Sergei Kiselev, Barbara Levasheva, archeologist of the Minusinsk Museum, and other scientists participating, the excavations have yielded some interesting results. Parts of the adobe walls of the building up to 2.0 m. high are still intact. Under the floor run the flues of a central hot-air heating system in the form of channels lined and covered with stone slabs. Although the central heating system serviced the entire building, it was evidently not always adequate in the rigorous Siberian winter conditions, for traces of braziers are still visible on the adobe floors of several of the rooms. The building was roofed with thick rectangular tiles alternating with narrow curved strips covering the gaps between, giving an un- dulating effect. The strips jutted out beyond the eaves, terminating in circular ends bearing inscriptions in Chinese. Translated by Academician Alekseev from stamped impressions made on moist clay, these in- scriptions read: “To the son of heaven (i.e., the Emperor) 10,000 years of peace, and to her (i.e., the Empress) whom we wish 1,000 autumns of unclouded happiness.” On the outside the-walls of the buildings were faced with square bricks decorated with a fir-tree design. After 2 years of excavations it has at last been possible to recon- struct the plan of this interesting building. In the center was a large hall with a floor space of 140 sq. m. from which smaller rooms, 28 to 30 sq. m. in size, opened. On the northern and southern sides the rooms were laid out in two rows, and on the eastern and western sides, in one row. Before the building is completely excavated it is hard to say exactly how many of these rooms there were, but in all prob- ability there were about 20 of them. The plan of the house and the character of the ancient Chinese architecture make it possible to establish that the building was covered by a triple roof with an extra tier over the tallest part of the building, above the central hall. Hollows are still visible within the walls in each room where columns stood that supported the heavy tile roof. In the course of excavation, frames from the doors between the Trooms were discovered. Beside three doors inside the central hall were found massive bronze handles in the shape of fantastic horned I1I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO genii—the guardians of the entrance—with human faces but animal ears and bovine horns, side whiskers and curled whiskers, and mus- taches. Through the nostrils of the hooked noses passed the ring which served as the door handle. The facial features of the gargoyles are of European cast suggesting local workmanship. Other finds included iron axes, spears, clamps, jade pendants and a jade saucer, a gold earring, bronze buckles, clasps, fragments of a pot, and diverse other objects and ornaments. The plan of the building itself and the finds brought to light among its ruins indicate that Chinese craftsmen built the structure and that Chinese undoubtedly lived in it. All that remains to be established about this building that differs so markedly from all the other dwel- lings of the time situated on the territory of the Minusinsk basin is to whom it belonged. It is possible that these are the remains of a trading post of Chinese merchants who in the Han epoch penetrated deep into the land of the “northern barbarians.” There is, however, one detail in the history of ancient Khakassia mentioned by Chinese chroniclers that evokes special interest in con- nection with these ruins. In the year 99 B. C. during the fierce battles that marked the period of energetic expansion of the Han empire at the end of the second and beginning of the first century. B. C., Li Hwan-li, a renowned Chinese general, suffered a defeat in battle against the nomadic tribes in the north. Surrounded by superior enemy forces he lost some 7,000 in killed and was forced to flee. His grandson Li-Ling, famed for his skill in archery, came to his assistance with 5,000 infantrymen, but he also had to retreat after a bloody engagement. Seeing that further resistance was useless, Li-Ling ordered his men to save themselves, while he himself surrendered. His captors treated Li-Ling with the respect due to his rank and gave him land in the “khyagas” estate inhabited by the ancestors of the present Khakass. He settled in these parts and eventually married the daughter of the nomad chieftain. Up to the ninth century A. D., according to Chinese chronicles, the Khakass deferred to the descendants of Li-Ling. Since it is unlikely that the Chinese general would have made his abode in a local yurt or modest wooden dwelling and since there were sufficient Chinese laborers to be found among the refugees and war prisoners, it is quite probable that he built himself a palatial dwelling in Chinese style. During 1946 Soviet archeologists continued excavation of the ruins of the Chinese palace. | V. MISCELLANEA ANTHROPOLOGICA INTRODUCTION This report, which has been delayed by World War II, is based on results obtained by Soviet physical anthropologists together with observations recorded in the Soviet Union during September and October, 1934, by Henry Field, while leader of the Field Museum Anthropological Expedition to the Near East, financed by Marshall Field. At the conclusion of the compilation of anthropometric data in Iraq and Iran the members of this expedition, then reduced to the leader and Richard A. Martin, later Curator of Near Eastern Archaeology at Field Museum of Natural History,’ crossed the Caspian Sea to enter the Union of Soviet Socialists Republics at Baku on September 13, 1934. Their journey took them by train to Tbilisi [formerly Tiflis] ; by automobile over the Georgian Military Highway to Daudzikau {formerly Vladikavkaz and Ordzhonikidze]; by train to Rostov, Kharkov, and Dnieproges; by automobile to Dnepropetrovsk; and by train to Kiev, Moscow, and Leningrad. In order to add a link to the series of anthropometric data from Southwestern Asia, in Tbilisi 50 male Yezidis and in Ordzhonikidze 107 males and 50 females from North Osetia were measured, observed, and photographed. In addition, 20 skulls from a tomb in the Dar- gavskaia Valley near Koban were measured and photographed. In the Osetian Museum at Ordzhonikidze 19 deformed skulls from a site near Nalchik were also examined. These data, together with photographs by Mr. Martin, will appear under the title “Contributions to the Anthropology of the Caucasus,” by Henry Field. Before the expedition left Chicago, Wallace Murray, Chief of the Near East Division of the Department of State, had been advised of the proposed itinerary. As a result Ambassador William H. Bullitt in Moscow had requested a special entry permit at Baku. The Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. and the All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (VOKS) were also asked to assist them in any manner within their power. During their visit to branches of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, 1In 1943 changed to Chicago Natural History Museum. 113 II4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO museums, and scientific institutions they were accorded every hos- pitality and facility for the examination and study of collections as well as an opportunity to discuss anthropological and archeological problems with the members of each scientific staff. After returning to Chicago, Henry Field kept in touch with many of these Soviet scientists, who have forwarded to him, in Russian or in English, summaries of their own research work or that of their colleagues. In collaboration with Eugene Prostov as translator, more than 50 archeological summaries have been published ? since 1935. The compilation of summaries of anthropometric data obtained recently by Soviet physical anthropologists has proved a far harder task, but perhaps one that is no less valuable to those who study the ancient and modern racial problems of Asia and their impacts on America, Europe, and Africa. Soviet literature in the libraries of Field Museum of Natural His- tory and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago was examined by Eugene Prostov, who selected passages for inclusion and supervised the transliterations and the spelling of place names. Dr. Alexander Sushko, formerly of the University of Chicago, generously assisted with the translation of part of Ginzburg’s anthro- pometric data. The general arrangement of the articles, each of which must be treated as a separate entity, will be found in the contents. Throughout the Soviet Union standardized abbreviations for scientific institutions have been introduced and for this reason a list must be appended. The following abbreviations have been used in this report: TAZA. ies cit ate thas ative A Min os Antropologicheskii Zhurnal [Anthropological Jour- nal. Quarterly, edited by M. S. Plisetskii]. GOSSTADISTIRA “sieves. Gosudarstvennoe Statisticheskoe upravlenie, cur- rently Tsentralnoe Statisticheskoe upravlenie [De- partment of Statistics]. ACTER eet Nazar Menino mie ces Institut Antropologii i Etnografii [Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography of the State Academy of Sciences], Leningrad. PTE oeterewsterateke ais oyeieietexccose sors Institut Istorii Materialnoi Kultury, Akademiia Nauk [Historical Institute of Material Culture of the U.S.S.R., Academy of Sciences, since summer of 1937; formerly GAIMK], Leningrad. 2In the American Anthropologist, American Journal of Archaeology, Ameri- can Journal of Physical Anthropology, American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Review of the Soviet Union, Antiquity, Ars Islamica, Asia, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, and Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. For references see p. 66, footnotes 1 and 2. NO. 13 ; SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 115 OS Cee Cee Moskovskii Gosudarstvennyi Universitet [State University], Moscow. WS OR eee Ukrainska Akademiia Nauk [Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, formerly VUAN, later ANU], Kiev. tcl Ses de eines Upravlenie Nauchnykh i Khudozhertvennykh Upravlenii [Russian S.F.S.R. Bureau of Scientific and Artistic Institutions of the Commissariat of Education]. Sees LARIS'\........ Uzbekistankii Komitet po Okhrane Pamiatnikoy Stariny i Iskusstva [Uzbekistan Committee for the Preservation of Monuments of Antiquity and Art], currently known as Uzbekistanskii Komitet po Okhrane i Izucheniiu Pamiatnikov Materialnoi Kul- tury [Uzbekistan Committee for the Preservation and Study of Monuments of Material Culture], Tashkent. SREDAZKOMSTARIS ..Sredne Aziatskii Komitet po Okhrane Pamiatnikoy Stariny i Iskusstva [Central Asiatic Committee for the Preservation of Monuments of Antiquity and Art], Tashkent. Se Vsesoiuznoe Obshchestvo Kulturnykh Snoshenii [All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries], Moscow. While all scientific research is under the supervision of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., the greater part of all archeological work is done by IAE, IIMK, UAN, and local governmental bodies for the Study and Preservation of Ancient Monuments, such as UZKOM- STARIS and SREDAZKOMSTARIS. Physical anthropologists are attached to these museums and insti- tutions. There is assembled under M. Plisetskii, Director of MGU, an excellent staff including G. F. Debets, V. V. Bunak, and, until his death in Turkestan during 1937, A. I. IArkho. In the museum of MGU there are some of the best anthropological exhibits, study collections, and research facilities. Throughout this report * the names of physical anthropologists are given in parentheses to indicate the group with whom they worked, e.g., Uzbeks (Vishnevskii). All words in brackets have been inserted by the editors in order to elucidate the text. 8 Henry Field attended as a guest the Jubilee Session of the 220th Anniversary of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. from June 15-July 6, 1045, in Moscow and Leningrad. He accompanied 15 United States scientists on this mission. During 4 weeks he obtained recent information on Soviet anthropology 116 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE WESTERN PAMIRS Ginzburg * undertook to edit unpublished anthropological data col- lected by N. V. Bogoiavlenskii (d. 1930) during his Central Asian Expedition, 1898-1901, and now in the Moscow University Institute of Anthropology. This report includes some measurements on 554 adult males from the regions of Matcha, Karategin, Darvaz, and the western Pamirs (Rushan, Shugnan, Goran, Ishkashim, and Vakhan). The latter area was formerly part of the Khanate of Bukhara, now a portion of the Mountainous Badakhshan Autonomous Region. The population of the western Pamirs belongs to the eastern branch of the Iranian peoples, and is subdivided into a number of isolated ethnic groups living in narrow mountain valleys and gorges. In addition to their native tongues, these people use the Tajik [Tadzhik] languages. Their material culture is very close to that of the Mountain Tajiks. The anthropology of this area was first studied by Maslovskii ® during 1895-1899. A decade later came Shults,® whose measurements were discounted by Ginzburg. Then followed Zarubin,’ who pub- lished only a small part of his data, and Joyce,® who published Sir Aurel Stein’s figures. Joyce considers that the Vakhan Tajiks are the “average” type for this region, and that they are “pure representatives of the Alpine type.” Ginzburg disagrees with this classification, and points out that Joyce’s figures do not correspond with other descriptions of the Alpine type, such as that of Collignon.® L. V. Oshanin, leader of the expedition from the Uzbek Institute and archeology which will form the basis for summaries to be published later. However, when he left in October 1947 to join the University of California African Expedition, these publications were turned over to Dr. Hallam Movius, Peabody Museum, Harvard. 4 Ginzburg, V. V., Antropologicheskii sostav naseleniia zapadnogo Pamira [The anthropological composition of the population of the western Pamirs ac- cording to N. V. Bogoiavlenskii’s data]. AZH, No. 1, 91-114, 1937. 5 Maslovskii, S., Galcha [Galchas]. AZH, No. 2, pp. 17-32, r9or. 6 Shults, P., Zur Kentniss der arischen Bevolkerung des Pamirs. Orien- talisches Archiv, Leipzig, vol. 11, 1912, and Landeskundliche Forschungen im Pamir, Hamburg, 10916. 7 Zarubin, I. I., Materialy i Zametki po etnographii gornykh Tadzhikov, Dolina Bartanga [Materials and notes on the ethnography of the Mountain Tajiks, Bartang Valley]. Sbornik, Mus. Anthrop. and Ethnogr. U.S.S.R. Acad. Sci., Leningrad, I917. 8 Joyce, T. A., Note on the physical anthropology of the Pamirs and Amu Darya Basin. Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., vol. 56, London, 1926. ® Collignon, R., Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1899. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 117 of Experimental Medicine in 1935, published his report subsequent to Ginzburg’s article. In his preliminary report Bogoiavlenskii *° distinguishes four an- thropological types, usually present as a more or less heterogeneous mixture: 1. The principal type into which the others resolve appears to be closely akin to the Persian. This type is described as being brachy- cephalic, of medium to tall stature, with straight or convex nose, well-developed beard, and intensive pigmentation. 2. The “Semitic” type is relatively short, with a narrow face, thin lips, a convex nose, and dark pigmentation. 3. This type, which is rarer, is brachycephalic, of medium stature, with a light reddish beard, a straight nose, and light or mixed eyes. 4. This type is characterized by a still darker pigmentation, thick lips, and a very broad nose. Bogoiavlenskii did not find any Armenoids. He accounts for these various types not through isolation but as a result of the migration and mixture of various groups, following the _ theory according to which the Iranian populations were pushed into the mountains by Turkish and Arab tribes. According to Bogoiavlenskii the basic anthropological type came from Iran; the light type from Badakhshan; and dolichocephalic ele- ments of the southwestern Pamirs are the remains of the Siyakhpush, who once inhabited this region. The population of central Darvaz came from the IAkh-Su River, i.e., from western Darvaz. Bogoiav- lenskii bases his conclusions chiefly on the local traditions. His failure to find any “Aryan” elements among the inhabitants of the Pamirs is important. The following regional variations of physical measurements were recorded by Bogoiavlenskii : Stature—Ranges from medium to medium tall with the tallest in Shugnan (168.7) and the shortest in Darvaz (164.52). The distri- bution in the Darvaz area agrees with the figures given by Joyce: lowest in the Vakhio Valley and in the middle section of Piandzh, increasing southward toward Rushan. Head length—Medium ; equal in Karategin, Darvaz, and Rushan, decreasing in Shugnan, becoming less in the southwestern Pamirs. These figures also agree with those obtained by Joyce. Head breadth—Medium; lowest in Darvaz. Regional variations agree with Stein’s measurements, but his figures are slightly lower. 10 Bogoiavlenskii, N. V., Verkhoviak reki Amu Dari [At the headwaters of the Amu Darya]. Zemlevedenie, 1901. 118 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO Head height.—Great. No comparison possible, as various methods were used in 1901 and 1808. Cephalic index —Ranges from brachycephalic to hyperbrachyce- phalic; decreasing from Karategin to Darvaz; approaching mesoce- phalic in the Piandzh Valley; and increasing southward, from Vanch to the southwestern Pamirs, where it becomes hyperbrachycephalic. This also agrees with figures obtained by Joyce. Three cephalic index groups were distinguished by Ginzburg; KKarategin and the southwestern Pamirs having the largest percentage of hyperbrachycephals; in Darvaz, mesocephaly predominates, the brachycephals being second; in Shugnan and Rushan brachycephals predominate, and are followed by hyperbrachycephals. Dolichocephals are numerically strongest in Darvaz and Rushan (Io percent). Face height-—Greatest in Karategin; decreases in Darvaz. Face breadth—Medium to narrow; least in Karategin. Facial index.—Varies within the range of leptoprosopy; broadest in Darvaz. Ginzburg distinguishes four typical regional groups: 1. Darvaz.—Short in stature; lowest cephalic index, bordering on mesocephaly (because of sharp decrease of head breadth) ; low and relatively broad face; shorter and wider nose. 2. Shugnan.—Tall in stature; high cephalic index; high, fairly broad face ; long, narrow nose. 3. Southwestern Panurs (Goran, Ishkashim, Vakhan).—Stature much less than in Shugnan; highest cephalic index; face and nose long and narrow; pigmentation as in Shugnan. 4. Karategin (and, partly, Matcha).—Stature slightly higher than Darvaz; cephalic index as great as in Shugnan because of increase of breadth; high, medium broad face of narrow form; darkest pig- mentation of eyes and hair. These groups correspond with Ginzburg’s other data and those described by Joyce. Ginzburg does not agree with Joyce’s definition of the Rushan type as “the pure original type” and considers it to be a transitional stage between the Mountain Tajiks and the tribes of the western Pamirs. Bogoiavlenskii also measured some Tajiks and Arabs in the [Akh- Su Valley. The Tajiks are tall (168.0), with a higher cephalic index than in central Darvaz, a narrow face and a narrow, long nose, and intensive head and beard pigmentation. The Arabs from [Akh-Su Valley have practically become assimilated with the Tajiks both in language and in culture. Physically, they are shorter (165.6), with a longer and NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——-FIELD 119 narrower face, a broader nose, and more intensive dark pigmentation of the eyes. Bogoiavlenskii also measured seven Afghans, from the left bank of Piandzh in the Afghan portion of Darvaz. This group is very close to the Tajiks from the right bank of the Piandzh, having an average stature of 160.5 and a cephalic index of 80.0. Summary.—The population of the western Pamirs is relatively homogeneous, belonging to the short-headed Europeoid type referred to by Bogoiavlenskii as the Pamiro-Europeoid type, to which the Tajiks of Darvaz and Karategin belong. This anthropological type is characterized by medium stature; brachycephaly with relatively small absolute skull dimensions ; a rather long face with a narrow, strongly protruding nose, dark pigmentation of hair and eyes, and a well-developed beard. Bogoiavlenskii has found local variations of this type among which the peoples of Darvaz, who are characterized by a lower cephalic index bordering on brachy-mesocephaly, are to be found at one ex- treme, while the Shugnani, who are taller and possess a higher ce- phalic index bordering on hyperbrachycephaly, occupy the other. Local variations depend on concentration of genes, the latter being due to considerable isolation in this district, where but slight contact exists between adjacent regions. Anthropological data serve to refute the existence of Nordic race elements among the population of the Pamirs. IRANIAN TRIBES OF THE WESTERN PAMIRS During the summer of 1935 Oshanin ™* of the Medical Institute in Tashkent obtained anthropometric data on some very small Iranian tribes inhabiting the sources of the Amu-Darya, i.e., the Piandzh and its tributaries the IAzgulem, Bartang, Gunt, and Shakhdara. These Iranian dialects differ so much that the inhabitants of two adjacent valleys cannot understand each other. Among the tribes of the western Pamirs, often separated from each other by inaccessible mountain ridges, Oshanin measured and ex- amined 231 Shugni of the Shakhdara, Gunt, and Piandzh Valleys, 42 Rushani of the Piandzh Valley, 52 Wakhi from various villages of Wakhan, 13 Bartangi of the Bartang Valley, and a few Ishkashmi and Gorani. Analysis of the anthropometric data reveals that these Iranian 11 Oshanin, L. V., Iranskie plemena zapadnogo Pamira [Iranian tribes of the western Pamirs], text pp. 1-190, 25 plates, many maps, graphs and tables. Inst. Exp. Med., Tashkent, 1937. I20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, IIO tribes belong to the same racial group which is characterized by brachycephalic brunets of medium stature. This composite type, however, has probably been formed out of different racial elements. The people of the Pamirs have not lived in isolation. In order to solve the question of the racial structure of these tribes it is therefore necessary to compare them with the surrounding peoples. During 1923-1934 Oshanin measured and observed 3,317 males in Central Asia. Among some groups the measurements were ob- tained by assistants under his supervision. Anthropometric data on the following peoples and tribes are therefore directly comparable: 100 Kazakhs of Talas, too Kirghiz of the Issyk-Kul region, and 100 Kirghiz of Talas; 1,704 Uzbeks and Tajiks of the Duab; 505 Turko- man tribesmen of the Transcaspian steppes; 433 Karategin Tajiks; 202 Jews, immigrants from Asia anterior in the tenth century ; and 53 Iranis (Persians), 56 Azerbaijanis, and 83 Baluchis, all immigrants from adjacent regions of Iran. Part of the material has been published,’* the remainder being now in press or in preparation. Oshanin has identified five racial types in Central Asia: 1. Predominant among the Uzbeks and Tajiks, inhabiting the plains and foothills between the Amu-Darya and the Syr-Darya 12 Oshanin, L. V., Tysiacheletniaia davnost dolikhotsefalii u turkmen (opyt obosnovaniia teorii Skifo-Sarmatskogo proiskhozhdeniia turkmenskogo naroda) [A thousand years of dolichocephaly among the Turkomans; an attempt to establish the foundations of a theory of a Scytho-Sarmatian origin of the Turko- man people], SREDAZKOMSTARIS, Izvestia No. 1, Tashkent, 1926; Kirgizy iuzhnogo poberezhiia Issyk-Kulia [The Kirghiz of the southern shore of the Issyk-Kul], V. V. Bartoldu [to V. V. Barthold], Festschrift published by the Society for the Study of Tajikistan and of the Iranian peoples outside its boundaries, Tashkent, 1927; Uzbeki Khorezma [The Uzbeks of Khwarazm], pts. I-II, Biu. Sredne Aziatskogo Universiteta [Bull. Centr. Asiatic Univ.], No. 17 (1927) and No. 18 (1928); Nekotorye dopolneniia k gipoteze Skifo-Sarmatskogo proiskhozhdeniia turkmen [Some supplementary data to- ward the hypothesis regarding the Scytho-Sarmatian origin of Turkomans], SREDAZKOMSTARIS, Izvestia No. 4, Tashkent, 1928; k sravnitelnoi antro- pologii etnicheskikh grupp prishlykh iz Perednei Azii—Evreev i Arabov, i etnicheskikh grupp Uzbekistana—Uzbekov i Tadzhikov [Contributions to the comparative anthropology of the ethnic groups which have come out of Vorderasien—Jews and Arabs, and of the ethnic groups of Uzbekistan—the Uzbeks and the Tajiks], in Oshanin, L. V., and IAsevich, Materialy po antro- pologii Uzbekistana [Materials for the anthropology of Uzbekistan], No. 1, Tashkent-Samarkand, 1929; Pamirskaia antropologo—fiziologicheskaia eks- peditsiia UZIEM [Physiological and Anthropological Expedition to the Pamirs], Bull. UZIEM, No. 4, (5), Tashkent, 1936. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——-FIELD I2I basins, this type must certainly be regarded as belonging to the great European ** race (Homo sapiens indo-europaeus). This group is characterized by brachycephaly, medium stature, dark color of the eyes and hair (typical brunets), moderate development of body hair, and a rather small nose with a straight or sinuous bridge. In accord- ance with the center of distribution area of this type Oshanin has called this group “the Central Asiatic Duab” or “Homo sapiens indo- europaeus, var. oxtano-jaxartensis.” IArkho,** on the basis of data obtained by him in Central Asia during 1928-1932, described the same racial type but gives it the name “Pamiro-Ferghanic” (Homo sapiens indo-europaeus, var. pamiro-ferghanica). Such an isolation of one and the same type by two independent investigators confirms the reality of this type. 2. The second European type prevails largely among various Tur- koman tribes inhabiting the Transcaspian steppes from the Caspian Sea to Afghanistan and from the Amu-Darya to Khurasan. This type, characterized by tall stature, dolichocephaly, and dark color of the eyes and hair, has been called by Oshanin, after the center of the area it occupies, “the Transcaspian race” (Homo sapiens indo-euro- paeus, var. transcaspica). IArkho, while isolating the same racial type on the basis of his own data, defined its position among the dolichocephalic European races more accurately, considering it as a variety of the Mediterranean race and classing it within Fischer’s Oriental race (Homo sapiens indo- europaeus, var. orientalis Fisch.). 3. The third European type is prevalent in the ethnic groups that have immigrated into Central Asia from Khurasan and Persian Azerbaijan, i.e., among the Persians, Iranian by their language, and the Azerbaijanis, using Turki language. The characteristics of this type are a medium stature, dolichocephaly, and dark eyes and hair. From the tall dolichocephals of the Transcaspian steppes it differs by much more abundant hair and “Assyroid” [of Western Asia] nasal form. By the morphology of the nose and profusion of the hair growth this type might be included among the Armenoids of Western Asia, but it sharply differs from the latter by its well-pronounced dolichocephaly. IArkho therefore separates it into a distinct type, terming it “the Khurasan race” or “Homo sapiens indo-europaeus, var. khurasanica.” 18 Throughout this section Oshanin has used the word “Europeoid” which we have generally changed to “European.” (H. F.) 44 TArkho, A. I., Antropologicheskii sostay turetskikh narodnostei Azii. AZH, No. 3, 1933. 9 I22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO 4. The fourth European type was brought into Central Asia by immigrants from Asia Anterior. This is the Armenoid type (Homo sapiens indo-europaeus, var. armenica). In its purest form this type occurs among Central Asiatic Jews. The brachycephalic Europeans of Asia Anterior (Armenoids) are distinguished from those of the Central Asiatic Duab region by more abundant hair and the typically “Assyroid” form of the nose. 5. The fifth racial type is represented by typical Mongoloids (Homo sapiens asiaticus). The Mongoloid type is markedly prevalent among the Kirghiz and Kazakhs, who live mainly on the steppes and in the Tien Shan to the north of the Syr-Darya. IArkho, basing his con- clusions on his own extensive data obtained among Turki tribes of the Saian-Altai mountain system, distinguishes the following two varieties among the Mongoloids: the Central Asiatic (Homo sapiens asiaticus, var. centralis) and the South Siberian (Homo sapiens asi- aticus var. sibirica meridionalis). According to IArkho the latter is predominant in Central Asia. According to Oshanin a comparison between the Iranian tribes of the western Pamirs and the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, and Asia Anterior reveals that the former must be reckoned among the typical Europeans of Central Asia. No Mongoloid features could be traced among these Iranian tribes. The European types inhabiting the Pamirs undoubtedly belong to the brachycephalic Europeans of Central Asia, taking an intermediate position between the Tajiks and Uzbeks and the Jews, immigrants from Western Asia. In certain characters, such as abundant hair and a high, prominent nose, the European types in the Pamirs are more related to the Armenoids than to the inhabitants of the Duab region. As to the racial types distinguished by Risley in the population of India, the comparison indicates that only the Indo-Afghan race can- not be excluded from the population of the Pamirs, where it does constitute a very insignificant admixture. On the other hand the dis- tribution of the cephalic index in the regions south of the Hindu Kush suggests that the migration of the brachycephalic Europeans of the Pamirs to the south was more intensive than the migration of the Indo-Afghans to the north, across the barrier of the Hindu Kush. The cephalic index, indeed, among the Chitrali and Mastui reaches 80.26-80.56, while the admixture of dolichocephals to the Iranian tribes is the most insignificant. Within the limits of Tibet, there is, according to Risley and Turner, — only one admixture of Europeans among its Mongoloid population, © NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 123 namely that of dolichocephals, particularly in the province of Khams. The population of Tibet did not, therefore, take any part in the forma- tion of the racial structure of the Iranian tribes in the western Pamirs. In eastern Turkestan, as a result of Sir Aurel Stein’s investiga- tions, in addition to a Mongoloid type, there has been recognized a brachycephalic European type closely related to the peoples dwelling in the region of the Duab. This same race also inhabits the Ferghana Valley, which is separated from the western Pamirs by the Altai and Trans-Altai mountain ridges and by the plateau of the eastern Pamirs, which are inhabited by the Kirghiz, typical Mongoloids. Thus, the comparison between the Iranian tribes of the western Pamirs and the peoples of the surrounding countries proves that this region was populated from the west, from Iran. The connecting link was Afghanistan. On the basis of the scanty historical information, Oshanin states that the western Pamirs appear to have been populated 1,500 to 2,000 years ago by the Iranians, who from the anthropological point of view take an intermediate position between the brachycephalic ** Europeans of Central Asia and those of Western Asia. Oshanin then dwells on certain general anthropological problems of Central Asia and adjacent countries: 1. The distribution of the Armenoids of Western Asia and their differentiation into local types. As stated above, the brachycephalic Europeans of the Pamirs, in certain characters, the most important being hair growth and nose morphology, take an intermediate position between the Armenoids and the peoples of the Central Asiatic Duab. They might possibly be considered as a result of a crossing between the two types named, but on the other hand this intermediate position does not necessarily prove the fact of crossing. It is possible, for example, that the Pamir Europeoids may be but a local variety of the Armenoid of Western Asia. Nor is another possibility excluded of their being a certain transitional stage in the racial evolution, and as our knowledge increases, the number of such intermediary stages linking the brachycephals of Central Asia with those of Western Asia may grow. Studies reveal that among the peoples of Central Asia there occur certain types undoubtedly maintaining the general Armenoid habitus, 18Qn the basis of my measurements in Iran and those compiled from numerous sources the basic element on the Iranian plateau is dolichocephalic. Brachycephaly, however, predominates in the northwestern and northeastern areas of Iran. Cf. Contributions to the anthropology of Iran, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 1939. (H. F.) I24. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO but deviating from the classical Armenoid type. Such are the immi- grants from Western Asia, the Central Asiatic Jews, who differ by their general Armenoid traits not only from the brachycephalic Euro- peoids of Central Asia, the Uzbeks and Tajiks, but also from the classical Armenoid type in their rounded occiput, rather low and slightly bulging forehead, and less fleshy nose with its considerably narrower base. Among other peoples the specific Western Asiatic characters, such as abundant body hair and Armenoid features in the structure of the soft parts of the face, combine with an absolutely non-Armenoid, dolichocephalic skull. Such are the markedly dolichocephalic Iranis (Persians) and Azerbaijanis with their abundant hair growth and typically Armenoid form of nose. It is only when an anthropometric survey of Western Asia,'® and more particularly of Iran, has been completed, as well as the excava- tion of accurately dated crania, that we shall be able to attack the problem of the origin and differentiation into local types of the whole racial complex of Western Asia. 2. The second great problem arising in connection with the study of the Iranian tribes of the Pamirs is the distribution of brachycephalic and dolichocephalic European types throughout Asia. If the data ° obtained by Oshanin and his colleagues are compared with those from India, Tibet, and eastern Turkestan, the Hindu Kush appears as a geographic barrier. To the south there have expanded dolichocephals represented by the Indo-Afghans, which, according to Turner and Deniker, penetrated into the province of Khams in Tibet, and even to Yunan and Szechwan. On the other hand, to the north of the Pamiro-Altai mountain system there have spread brachycephalic Europeans represented by the above race of the Central Asiatic Duab. To judge from Stein’s data, this race has also penetrated deep into eastern Turkestan where it forms the basis of the population in oases bordering the desert of Takla-Makan. In the narrow gorges of the Piandzh, squeezed between the Pamiro- Altai and the Hindu Kush, the brachycephalic Iranian tribes have settled. Their position intermediate between the Armenoids and the peoples of the Duab has already been mentioned. 3. The third problem is that of the Mediterranean race in Asia. As stated above, to the south of Hindu Kush there has expanded the Indo-Afghan race, of which typical representatives are Sikhs, investi- 16 See publications by Buxton, Coon, Field, Huzayyin, Shevket Aziz Kansu, Keith, Krogman, Pittard, Shanklin, and Bertram Thomas. NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 125 gated by von Eickstedt.*? IArkho, in his work ** on the Turkomans of Khwarazm noted a similarity between the Turkomans on the one hand and the Sikhs of Punjab and the Rifs *° of Morocco on the other. Oshanin’s tables fully confirm this similarity, and the crania obtained by Pumpelly at Anau in 1904 and studied by Sergi show that the Mediterranean racial complex appeared at a very early date in Central Asia.*° In conclusion, Oshanin states that this appears to be a tall variety of the Mediterranean race, which is now represented only by the following separated groups: the Rifs of Morocco, the Kabyls, certain Beduin tribes, the Turkomans of the Transcaspian steppes, and the Indo-Afghan race. According to N. G. Malitskii’s theory, which on the basis of an- thropological and ethnohistorical data Oshanin developed into a working hypothesis, the dolichocephalic European type, now common among the Turkomans of the Transcaspian steppes, was in the past an element of the Scytho-Sarmatian tribes, or Sacae, of Central Asia. MOUNTAIN TAJIKS 21 There is no uniformity in the descriptions of the Tajiks, owing to the subjective approach of the older scholars. Most of the older and many of the current scholars, basing their conclusions on the Indo- European theory of the origin of the languages, accept the Tajiks to be more or less pure descendants of the ‘““Aryans,” who, according to some of the adherents of that theory, originated in Central Asia. In the majority of the descriptions there is a tendency to idealize the Tajik type, to endow it with positive moral and physical characters, and to contrast it with the other peoples of Central Asia. Scholars have been attempting to isolate a specific “Tajik.” A typical exponent of this school was Shishlov, according to whom the Tajiks are “the most solid basic Iranian type.”’ Shishlov admits that sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the specific Tajik type from the Persian variety and even from the Central Asian Jews, at the same 17 von Ejickstedt, E., Rassenelemente der Sikh. Zeitschr. Ethnol., pts. 4-5, Berlin, 1931. 18TArkho, A. I., Die Alterveranderungen der Rassenmerkmale bei den Erwachsenen. Anthrop. Anz., vol. 12, pt. 2, 1035. 19 Coon, Carleton, The tribes of the Rif. Harvard African Studies, vol. 9, Peabody Mus. Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass., 1931. 20 Pumpelly, R., Explorations in Turkestan, vol. 2, pp. 445-446, Washington, 1905. Excavation of Anau was recommenced in 1946. (H. F.) 21 Ginzburg, V. V., Gornye Tadzhiki [The Mountain Tajiks: Materials on the anthropology of the Tajiks of Karategin and Darvaz]. Trudy, IAE, vol. 16, 1937. IIo VOL. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 126 ulueysO urlueysO urlueysO urueysO ulueysCO ulueysO ulueysCO ulueysO ory T EGA orev outtVI ousVI ouyTVI ulueysO urueysO urueysO ulueysO ulueysO JdAI9NSqO IvI oS rg cri £g°fQ 6£1 orSg ori S1°€g LVI zS'€g LVI PE'Eg OrI goss Or rg'¥g OSI s1°Sg vrI L6°€g vVI avvg evi 9Z€8 Ivl 39'F8 ev tory oS! 0z°SQ QeI oz’ bg orl £f'bg Zvi I1'¥g Vr S98 Yypeesq xoputr ‘21g orpeydea ‘upys uary ‘sumog usasspy fo sajgoad yp iyyo yy puo wmbnys fo uosianguoj—t SSI €QI SSI Fg €S1 Sgr gSI ZQI SSI ZgI SSI Zg1 OSI Zg1 OSI Zg1 ogI 6g1 ZS1 ZQ1 Q&SI 98t gsi 98I Seid €g1 GSI Sgr Ogl gg ISI IgI ZSt IQI ZSI IQI SSI IgI Yypesiq y3sue] yso}eatn yeydr1990 “BTI9qP 1D 9 6z zs Ze ce ZZ OO! oo1 gZ gbz OOI OOI 66£ ool £Q1 S6 00z 49 “ON suvluel] wweg uslajsopy “°° sueluety awe J Uso ISON ee ues oee6 suvIUvI]T Weg UII}sSo\\ neaje[q weg ATA IV lepy pue sired AdJeA sepeL TA Ass] uryS Udy AaeA eueyssa iy AayjeA eueyss1oy AaeA eueyssoy AaeA eueysioy AayeA eueyssay AaJeA seyey, UOISay genqd uolsay qenqd UOIsaY qend uolsay qend Azpeo0T suovbay qonq 42yj0 pun ‘Kayo 4 puny b4o7 eeee eeoereeee eee eevee lusnysS yunr) “++ TusNYS erepyreys scot eee erent a1av eeoeeeeee . ZI SII ZY SIN ZY S11 ZY S10] ZI SUX ZY SITS ZIYSIIY ce SeUIC by * syediey-eiey (jeqryjuow) syaqz/ eeeeeeesreeee syrfey teeeeeeees suyezey * syfey, ereyyng "** Syoqz—) sUIWIIO ST need eee seer ‘tts syoqz—) reyoT ajdoag SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 127 NO. 13 cro = Ser blo = ogt fg°o = SoZ 1z70 = Lor 820 = 99h oo = ES £9°0 = O6O'F ‘AO eee’ gS"gz fz'o1 69°4 61-92 16°z£ ogee go'6e x@Au0s Zr0 = t6£ tz'0 = zot blo = bgt So = I1'P "CES 6z FI 6£°S1 gf of zS°6 Ze-o1 02g 1S‘Z1 6OZLE1 SARA g$Z ffg i S'€6 bo'sg 1S°0 = oF Sg §3'0 = Sortg ool = Lbtg Szo > Szbg €f'0 = zI'bg gro = oS"tg 920 = ff°fg ur, 49°99 €1°ZS gZ°ss Z19F 0o0'0S ot 6r 00°0$ zg oF zsSg WEIS eee eee £ og Sz Z o'f6 oSZ zs S06 o'6Z £1 OIOI orl zb obo orl 1£z $6 obZ gti o'r6 oll +9 0°06 G22 6z “XE “UY ‘ON xapur ryoydaj— wav oO £ oO L 09°6 zs gsr £1 Oz’ FI zr gf°Z 1£z 02g gtr 1g°Z 9 o 6z aavouoy ‘ON apfoug osoN—z a1av tuelory) rurysexys] Hye AA +. reese" *SoqL uviuRsy AIO ured 1uUeBYsny [BIOL Seeeese ees soeeteeesese msnyS yzpuetg ee eee reeeeree estes teeee m3nyS yunr) Coes ee reer es et stieeses m3nys erepyyeys Coe eee eee eters teeeeeee tu3nyS oq, ajdoog 1uUBIOF) ruysexys] HIPAA possess saguy ueuesy 190 Wuryieg rueysny [2I0.L eee ee eee ee tugnys yzpurig eee eee ee t3nys juny) eee ee eee ee eee m3nys erepyyeys eee eee eee tusnys qu, a 128 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO time stressing the importance of preserving “this corner-stone [i.e., the Tajik type] for our ethnographical constructions.” Some authors (e.g., Ivanovich) has attempted to identify the Tajiks with the remains of the Nestorian Christians (who lived in Central Asia during the sixth century) or with Slavs, remarking that the Tajiks are blond, have large features, and amiable, frank dispositions. Other investigators (e.g., Vambery) did not regard the Tajiks as pure representatives of the “Aryans” or of their Iranian branch. Vambery states that it is impossible to consider the Tajiks to be a primary type of the Iranian race; that while their Iranian type is TABLE 4.—Grouping according to cephalic index Group Range No. Shugni No. Rushani No. Wakhi Dolichocephalteeeo ee x-75.9 3 T.29 3 7.14 I 1.92 Mesocephalunt ans. =.oc 76.0-80.9 34 14.71 8 19.04 4 7.09 Brachycephaly 42 .\.). 4. 81.0-85.9 04 40.09 12 25.57 18 34.61 Hyperbrachycephal .. 86.0-x I00 43.31 I9 45.25 29 55.78 otal Ween Wes! nas 231 100.0 42 100.0 52 100.0 readily apparent to the eyes, their facial characters manifest some alien Turanian traits (broad forehead, wide zygomatic arches, thick nose, and large mouth). Only the inhabitants of Mountainous Badakhshan (Faizabadians) have a more truly pronounced Iranian type. Danilov does not consider the Tajiks as Iranians. He bases his conclusions partly on the studies of Korsh, who derived the name of Tajiks from the Pehlevi word tazi, meaning ‘‘Arab,” and partly on the brachycephaly of the Tajiks, which Danilov, whose work lay only among the dolichocephalic population of Persia, did not consider an Iranian character. Other investigators considered the Tajiks to be the resultant mix- ture of several races. Thus, Virskii considers the Galchas to be a mixed Aryo-Turkish type, preserving certain tribal characters. The Tajiks, according to Virskii, represent a mixture of the Aryan and Turkish races with the Persian and the Jewish types. Grebenkin, who described the Tajiks of the valleys, states that they do not belong to any established type, but unite in their composition the characters of all the tribes inhabiting the region. “The Tajiks of this region are an amalgam of all the surrounding tribes. . . . This mixture reflects in it the type of Uzbek, Tatar, Hebrew, Gipsy, even Slavic, Arabic, Persian and Indian.” 129 S‘ozI QIzI L0z1 L1z1 gtz1 £fz1 LezI o'ZzI WW "Oey 101, SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD NO. 13 $"gZ oll al A Vee oZZ g'9£ S°2Z S°2Z La g ror g’Sor }zo1 £901 6901 6901 £901 Igor "3q “31g g°SS £e°ss fz-o8 Zg's$ zbss 6z°Ss o6'ss £6°rS “par seq OIF g'gtt LZE1 OoOf1 Lori O'orl titi ocri 3q “21g tre bbe ore ace “aq seq S79 06°09 PS'gs 6z°19 Sg S'So oz9 I'bg 4 aeg 00°89 0z°99 09°89 02°99 00°99 oF99 br'So SS°S9 ‘pur ‘sty ese fre fre are fre Se ore gre *1q ‘Stn ozs tuYyseyysy SOMA UDIUDAT 49410 yy wbnYS fo uosianduo7—DS az1av 7. Pg01 z Zor gor £01 8901 o'901 Igor gZor “wer “quoi “Ur Posy or'sg Sg'tg Lrbg Sarg zibg oS'bg £fg a zS1 eS1 ISI Por PS £S1 csr csi at cx) 941 ogl ISI Sgr €gi fg €gr Pg IOS S‘SoI go’rol Oz Por IP'ggI zl Lol biZgr zZLo1 eSoZ1 21njBIS 4 I _ ens +¢es+++goquay mepmesy 3900 S-1S rueysny zs ee eee [e190 LT ors yzpuerg eee ee eee eee ee ewes tsnys ozs JUND) “teeter eee eee eeee ugh ozs viepyyeys ee ee ee wsnys ‘Iq ‘StN mq aidorg 1usNys uznys rusnys £ 1WYyseyYsy] 7 1yye o1 ‘eaten "eee" "soqiay UBIUBIT 910 cP 1ueysny 1¢z eee eee [BIOL gti yzpuerq Steaetessseaanvesenn 9 juny) COCveaeronaseteceesesce 6z eiepyyeys SCOCECS SO OS ESSE SESE ES “ON aqui S9giy UDMIDAT 49410 YM WMOnYS fo uostaDduo7—S aTAV a ajdoag 130 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO TABLE 6.—Cephalic index of peoples in the Caucasus 1 People Locality SIIT Si rerts ctersheterateke ove Nakhichevan WabatSy cece sreselsveccrotenyteieis Azerbaidzhan Kurds ins camccunyascercts Transcaucasia Matar Sas sr: cesctrees scree orels Aralych Azerbaidzhanis ........ Azerbaidzhan Persiansine one etme nee Azerbaidzhan Keurds\ ase ce orc cite Transcaucasia Circassians (Mokoch ELIDG)® Geese ahi cee 5 HRALATS aides Seer cee Azerbaidzhan Mezidisctscsaduosm ests . Yerevan district BALES) carte ee atenoeetore pee baka ditinkomantisseeeeeeeee -» North Caucasus AD keSirnee pices Soresier eins Gandzha, Azerbaidzhan Azerbaidzhanmis 5... Azerbaidzhan Tatar spaces tis: Atcnoricstase Yerevan Pay ikg Ree shee: 2 te A Norachaine Chechiensieen 0-20 oso. es Ingushetia OSetes: nice ois cea: Gunlanswe tian. WieziGismcn attuary sas otis Total in Tbilisi Osetesmtr ar Geis) feos Terek KGhevstnsin eee ieee Khevsuretia N. Abkhazians (Abaze Crabbe! eae Lee ee Kuimiyks ain Bie. . beens [meretiansi cee eeecos Realms. 20 tac cen sees Edishkul Nogais ....... Edissan Nogais ........ OSEtESiaye hic eens etpaceercias Katatchaismeprererciocee @setesa(tall)) Sane eee Circassians’... aa Adighe Oseteswce Vara crests @setesast. Saris Oe Azerbaidzhanis ........ Lake Goktcha INDAZ ES. ci cen ant acto ete ve Keund Si saisiiere eve oko MeEZIdISHeR eee ei coneee Lake Van district Oseteste ete Scene Gircassianspesaeeeeen ner Kabardinsmerencrnccener Kuban @ircassiansmeee meee: Circassians (Shapsug ATIDE)* Miva oe dee eee No. I51 207 16 19 20 129 302 230 17 14 14 51 130 145 146 16 20 16 300 II 22 554 54 Gxt 76.1 776 77.6 77-96 78.1 78.4 78.5 78.5 78.83 78.900 79.2 79.3 79-3 79.4 80.11 80.11 80.4 80.5 80.5 80.58 80.7 80.7 80.7 80.8 80.9 80.9 80.9 81.0 81.1 81.1 81.3 81.4 81.4 81.5 81.6 81.6 81.6 81.75 81.9 81.9 82.0 82.05 82.1 Observer Anserov Various Ivanovskii Chantre Deniker Deniker Deniker Chantre Chantre Field Deniker TArkho TArkho von Erckert Chantre Chantre Chantre von Erckert Chantre Field Chantre Chantre Chantre Debets and Trofimova Chantre von Erckert TArkho TArkho von Erckert Chantre Gilchenko Deniker von Erckert Riskine Chantre von Erckert Chantre Field Deniker von Erckert Chantre Kappers Chantre + Note.—In the compilation of the data on the cephalic index among the peoples of the Caucasus I have used Baschmakoff (1937, pp. 29-31), Rudolf Martin, Gilchenko, IArkho, and the figures quoted in my “Contributions to the Anthropology of Iran.” (H. F.) NO. 13 People SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD TABLE 6.—Continued Locality Circassians (Beslinais tribe) . Osetes Osetes ... Chechens Circassians Abkhazians Osetes Mingrelian Georgians Kara-Nogais Embailuk Nogais Georgians Tatars (M Kabardins Pedi aaiaed «0 200 Imertia Temergais Coastal Abkhazia Terek Valley (7), Koban (10) eee eee eee eee 188 Ries 176 ountain) .... Circassians (Natukhai tribe) Kumyks . Kara-Nogais Nogais .. Chechens Georgians Osetes Balkars Lesghians Jews Kumyks . Karachais Assyrians Armenians Lazes eee eee ee eee eee eee Eastern Terek region 156 eee utaat s ae% 108 North Osetia 105 Weikien vas vee 314 ee eee eee Koban necropolis Khasavyurt region Daghestan pees sta s