re, f 4} ee ; = S Ss te 4 RE eat ey ete BN) at a LES oe iyi ees + enol ee, at State ‘bs ° ante ea epee ete vnc Aba aye | BY, Avia vas un H Nabeiny bie Feet ¢ iy Teh taba a dss salt a3 ual f | wal me eh bait Re our HN SUI We f } ntita iad AY a : hee 4 oe baby y ceo) : rs Nee PAHANG Lr NN SSP Hy ue g : .' - ia 7 VOL. XXI. SMITHSONIAN Cais a MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. XXI. “EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN.”—SMITHSON. WASHINGTON: PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1881. Bees aims pie ae os = 4 Cy © Pee Doe oe ve “se% ee as es saree ‘ 4orverzipAéaw emmrnmenets Kareomniy? 86 16i,( o>: oem 1et Qa snp 78 states CONTENTS. Advertisement. Articte I. (330.) James SmirHson AND His Bequest. By Wiu1aM J. Roees. 1880. Pp. 68. ArticLe IL. (327.) Tue Screnriric Wririncs oF JAMES SMITHSON. A Memorr on THE ScIrENTIFIC CHARACTER AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SmITHSON, Esq., F.R.S. By Water R. Jonnson. On THE WorKS AND CHARACTER OF JAMES Smiruson. By J. R. McD. Insy. 1879. Pp. 166. ArticLE III. (No. 356.) A Memoriat or Josepn Henry. 1880. Pp. 582. xxi-5 Ae, ee Oe : wy H ' aa - 7 : * . ' Aen i nd a. j ” : - he : marae) ; - nae lie 7. ae “ee Tee. e . o ® 7 — Ss. 7 : 1" v7 ; iy ; - 7 " 5 _ ; | . BPRS THOD qa Al ; sete mentrene hy io peeuell eb aes emrert come} (ae 2 anerah ea we coe eo nal wee? wen eet (OY) wag | . rargeprep lt ated) oes wae te orwell A, elk, ary list enamel smd wut ool reas apeat 20 ees? une wae ae &O omeT- cat! ath efi ape 1 ygi- Se) quel tyegerk w eset é ci be 2 eee 0 4 ee Y t * - 7. va ae 7 a i ue oe - uae -~e sey — } ADVERTISEMENT, | The present series, entitled “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collcc- tions,” is intended to embrace all the publications issued directly by the Smithsonian Institution in octavo form; those in quarto constituting the “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.” The quarto series includes memoirs embracing the records of extended original investigations and researches resulting in what are believed to be new truths, and constituting. positive additions to the sum of human knowledge. The octavo series is designed to contain reports on the present state of our knowledge of particular branches of science ; instructions for collecting and digesting facts and materials for research ; lists and synopses of species of the organic and in- organic world; museum catalogues; reports of explorations; aids to bibliographical investigations, etc., generally prepared at the express request of the Institution, and at its expense. The position of a work in one or the other of the two series will sometimes depend upon whether the required illustrations can be presented more conveniently in the quarto or the octavo form. In the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, as well as in the present series, each article is separately paged and indexed, and the actual date of its publication is that given on its special title page, and not that of the volume in which it is placed. In many eases, works have been published, and largely distributed, years before their combination into volumes. While due care is taken on the part of the Smithsonian Institu- tion to insure a proper standard of excellence in its publications, it will be readily understood that it cannot hold itself responsible for the facts and conclusions of the authors, as it is impossible in most cases to verify their statements. Spencer I". Barr, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. VII qikte? younatint®? opiate” talntwe erbee nenrey off Peed Baek teenies gel) The Pntchery 08 lohasiut w “ sat ory ef die yew erad oh atlellpel walrecendzhont. wah gel vd Vag kt «0 qupiiodtunge) iseiedtiad sib yatedleaee Vi abqdieey O41 Given ex vernany erbuinny ees aarp ery ap acaey ve) gattheors en aceemnnt bate. epabjeqiniew nd (eng hte lo mabe Pee a aad thy aettac, ba “eur iene i= live Vy) ae oO eimen tbadinnde eu iwige bed: 04 eda eatin ull pend worn weer Ve eoeluew et ee Woritiaet be aphidernay ma We wield trey oT 1 (beta da er yetangs) Lip qatriotine Wi eumsiripieoe ( eherure ‘te tng <2) \ wirelgye So teeth Teer nil, < (Pere ue dia petsatend yer tery pense! Cee iN hii. idegie’ a> to Jeneieg ¢apebg «a> COP Sher Risttgurigngittd of pnamqnp et ah Las gla @al hy) ey Coen ep Wie “elie Gad ee br ee 1 pe Op we Oe ardatenny roltt TT ee a Pe) oe a a on ea iyi an Moe al AgtaAoee TE + magteSeetinl? oa ah ada aT edt ino teanbed Baer bayett Tegan & Was Uw! see lpeod snap: wu byiwaye iM we aadg dwhi oi Reyna] Om ‘SO - leds Leer gee? “gM 4), icoealy @t th bent & want IG ipl an bom oni Ayr, palelittcd aaa Dental ant (=! Meat cfu pele eet nooo ia gy OAL, Fha"i/\ comple «hy in faq oi a haw ate ah ay ) eqn AN p10 a a) @ sai bora 1 Irie wate e=iote © beg we ane OA Anka Verti Vod wegen 41 ele hentai inane of Ube ee OO adt Tw coneodlianey Beit edna ate d niremeay Get GLaeT as apt anal *l eeesad vrutaal, aia eatowses SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 330 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. BY WILLIAM J. RHEES. WASHINGTON: PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1880. wowunTive aaM Al. . yy Teauosa aH OAS Oague ale ily eotmeianecae duiieiain wamaees (ate te Ae Last ADVERTISEMENT. The materials for a biography of James Smithson are exceedingly scanty, and no life of him has ever been published. Efforts have several times been made by the Smithsonian Institution to procure facts and incidents relative to its founder, and during the present year unusual exertions were put forth for this purpose. Nothing new has been elicited however from these recent inquiries, and Mr. Rhees has collected all the information likely to be obtained and presents it, for the first time, as an authentic account of the distinguished man who was no less noted for his own scientific attainments than for his . remarkable bequest. The following pages include a sketch of his life, list of his writings, notices of his death, and tributes to his memory. It also gives a concise account of the manner in which the legacy was obtained by the United States, of the legislation of Congress in relation to its acceptance and disposition, and of the final passage of the “ Act to establish the Smithsonian Institution.” SPENCER F. BAIRD, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. WASHINGTON, October, 1880. 880—iii ——— ee wanes ve pte eae ok iil wang tours orad exit, adelidhen cond ern iol ald to a ae Ta Lay ehuk Gia reed yl qf ata Pie analiocrs Leaner sede dimgray elt gab dua wheel gi ed coninpane, stele gil slo vines eee er sas dain bins ctls hall cal cal Dede tepaicniy of of poet encckerndte? alt Ur teasstfoo wot ell: babsiguiid of) ) luntaten sijandlan op a0 gael) beth og) tah BE yh ead: ape mates vbpeden ity ait wi tetcd eel of eon ode Gall jrped @. “4 depltien Aik Se dei iL ghd, We. dodvity » shisloy! aryit cutvetldY tt ee ee ee dee cr! ob dedde nt waltew ol Ye bree ee ot duksaler ob eeegguld to aulighigy! =i] 16 uct Iliad qf ey ee a *indtutlied saranda aii 0 s JMS 1 SRA . aalieleeD. erneignd oy yorened «« CONTENTS. Page. Birth and: Parentage of James Smithsones 2-2 ses a. Seee a oa ; Sir Hugh Smithson, First Duke of Northumberland___--.-_---._----.------ fiady eros ia eee see ee as hee es os ee eld ei eee ceies Colonel) Henry Louise Dickinsonaiee = 222 Sse ee eed oa ses eke Smithson’s feeling in regard to posthumous fame__---_-__--.---------------- John Quincy Adams in reference to Smithson’s fame____-- -----------.------ Prof. Walter R. Johnson’s remarks on Smithson’s fame__---.--------------- Education of Smithson at. Oxford University’... 222.25 2-3 2t 2-2 2st Graduation at Pembroke College, Oxford. 22-65 so2cSs 23) asso ee See Smithson's earnest pursuit of science. = 223-2 Soe a oe aaa Smithson's scientific ambitionso2255 2. -o5 -t ss oe eee eet cess Aropo's estimate of the Royal Sociefy:. ~~. 42-2 5- =: S2csn os sect cae Smithson’s name at first, James Lowis Macio.----------.-_..------------- =, Recommendation of Smithson’s application to Royal Society ....------_------ Smithson elected a member of the Royal Society of London-._---------------- Smithson’ stours and explorations sso. =.22 22-2342 eS ee cas 4, Hiaportable laboratory =+—=..--2-.2285 2082522252 see eee Se encase n-e Onbinet of minprals'-2 2-52 22a a ee ee Minute: researches2- +5 52253 satin Senco ees baa se eee te ences Privations encotmtered.on explorations. 25.22... --2 524 Se. eet xtracts from: his: journal.o-- 23 2553524267325 oe Priendship of eminent Savane. 2-2 foc b oe ose ee ee ee Presentation of books to Smithson by distinguished authors___.-.------------ Sir Davies Gilbert’s estimate of Smithson as a chemist______----------~------ Prof. W. R. Johnson’s opinion of Smithson’s works-_-_-_..----.------------ Labors in mineralopy and crystallocraphy 22222522202: -3 92s ne Mottovon| Smithsonian) publicationss==sssssee aes ee ee ‘‘Smithsonite,’’ a new mineral species named in honor of Smithson _-__--_-_-- Analysis of veeetable colors, 25.2245 23) 222 ss a ete et Practical value.of -his researches 9-23 poc est cn mees at endo co ete at ewes Wotes and scraps found among his: effeets:.i-. 2... -.- 95.24.22. 6. nasehenekon ibist.of Smithson’s writings..<=.>..2-e 02 states Jo ee ec bee eee 9, 10 Allusions made by Smithson to other writers_____-_----_-------.------------ 11 Death, of Hmithson..- 322-2 oe ot te ee ee oes bet be Zap ll! Description of his monument in Genoa .__.. 2-2. a tn Se ones w ey) 11 Sir Davies Gilbert’s tribute to his memory ..2. 42-2. se WDODWODODWAIMNBHMWMOAAInntiQonr FR BE WowwvownsnNONKH KK o Smithson’sianalysis of a: tear =--2 22-2 oes 2 ee 11 Remarks of Dr. Johnson and George Wilson on lack of details of private life Of .scientifie Mon... 22-22. ee nie ae ee 13 No autobiography or life of Smithson extant...__..--- ..-.-..--------- ------ 13 Inventory of his personal effects, at death =... .2.- 222 cose esa... , 18 Personal effects transferred to Mr. Rush--._-_--_---_- -------- A ot ae es 15 The same transferred to the National Institute .... ..-..- _.-__. _-.----. -_---- 15 830—v VI CONTENTS. Pa Mr. F. Markoe’s account of Smithson’s mineral cabinet --------------------- 16 Moties of various portraits of Smithson------ === eee 16 Personal effects exhibited in Patent)Omice:-22 > 2-2. 16 The same transferred to the Smithsonian Institution -_-.--------_----_------- » 16 Mheseiettects destroyed Dy Gira: ir) Veto ee 16 Wall of Smithson, deliberately mudess—= 2-6 (222. oe eee eee ee 17 Account of book on wills found in Smithson’s library.-__-.----------------. 17 Motives inducing the bequest to the United States .___.--.------------------- 18 Scientitic Activity Of the periodate. an ee ee ee ere ee 18 Organization of leading scientific societies._._-..-—.. .~---~-<. «.-=.=--22s2—-5- 19 Remarkable advances in science noticed by Arago__--_.-----.--------------- 19 Cuvier’sizetrospect Of the, same oe a ee ee ee 20 Hdwestionsl progress of the period toss s- esas eee aa an ee 20 Lord Brougham’s efforts in behalf of diffusion of knowledge-----.---------- 20 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge organized-_------------------ 21 Purpose of Smithson to leave fortune to Royal Society _------ ---- poate tee 21 Cosmopolitan spirit of Royal Society --.--.----__ --------_.-_--------------- 22 Estate received from Colonel Henry Louis Dickinson______------------------ 22 Wall-of- Smithson proved in-court:2-222 5" ea ea eee 23 Detailsieb the-willia.22— ee ee ee ee eee eae ee eee 23 Smithson’s estate devised to Henry James Hungerford ___------------------- 24 Claim of Mrs. de la Batut, mother of the nephew of Smithson___-__---------- 24 Decree of court of chancery relative to annuity to Mrs. de la Batut---------- 24 First announcement of bequest to United States__-.--_--------- .----------- 25 President Jackson’s message to Congress asking for action on bequest-_------- 25 Proceedings in United States Senate relative to acceptance of bequest--_------ 25 Proceedings in the House of Representutives relative to the same_------..----- 26 Hon. Richard Rush appointed agent to obtain the bequest___--_-------------- 27 Character of Mirs Rush,and yaluejof his services===22=-—-— 2 >See ee enon 27, 29 Suit of United States to procure bequeat-~-—---_-=----22-- ==" --_ a eee 28 Delays incident to chancery suits__-------------------------- -------------- 28 Bequest obtuined by Mr. Rush, and nature of the funds___~----------------- 30 Transfer of bequest fund to the United States--..-.-.----------------------- 30 Legislation of Congress in relation to the disposition of the bequest_--------~- 31 President Van Buren’s request for plans for organizing the Smithsonian Insti- PUtON meee ee cee ee oe Bee ee eer eee eee ees 81 Plans proposed by literary and scientific men--~~~- ~--- --------------------- 81 Investment of Smithson funds in State stocks by order of Congress--_--------- 34 President Tyler’s appeal to Congress for action in relation to bequest---.---~~- 86 Discussion of bills relative to bequest... -----.---.-------------- 35, 38, 39, 42 Speech of Mr. Choate advocating library scheme---~-~- ~~-------------------- 36 Speeches of Mr. Tappan, and others proposing plans-_---------. ------------ 38 Speech of Mr. Owen advocating plan, and reply to Mr. Choate_--- ----------- 40 Speech of Mr. Marsh on plan of organization ~-----.--------- -------------- 43 Action of House of Representatives on Mr. Owen’s bill-------~..------------ 48 Substitute bill by Mr. Hough for that of Mr. Owen, adopted .___ .-----.-.---- 49 Action of the United States Senate on bill for organizing Smithsonian Institution 49 Organization of Smithsonian Institution----~---------------- --------------- 49 jor aye silty Ibyeyryyel wre Ia Nite oe Ree See So ree es ones sees cescee 49 CONTENTS. . VII Page Obiiuary notice of Smithson, March, 1880.02. =.=... 2c ses 61 Account of the First Duke of Northumberland, by L. Dutens --_-_-__--_____ 51 Notice of the First Duke, in The Gentleman's Magazine, 1786___---_-_____- 52 Coiin-plateinseription of Buch Smithson2-—=---- ~~ + enn conan ees 54 Account of Earl Perey, Second Duke of Northumberland ._-.-.---_.-__-_--- 54 Notice of Smithson’s paper on tabasheer, from the Monthly Review, 1791-2_._ 56 Notice of Smithson’s paper on calamines, by Sir Humphrey Davy------_- ._-- 57 Illustrations of presentation of books to Smithson by scientific authors______- 58 Noties of Smithson's*researches, by Perzelius. 2.0.2.2 32i2. 3 222 Lusk 59 Extracts from Smithson’s scientific writings._-.-__------------------ eae 60 Cstalocue/ot ‘the library of Smithseas-.6225 25-0 2225 22S Soe 62 Notice of the city of Washington in Harriott’s Travels___.._.--_--._-.------ 67 Notice of the city of Washington in Isaac Weld’s Travels___--_--------. .. -- 68 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Facing Page PorTRAIT oF JAMES SMITHSON. From an oil painting by Johns. Aix la Chapelle, 1816. By the Heliotype Printing Co., Boston._-.---- PortTRAIT OF JAMES SMITHSON. In the costume of an Oxford student, 1786. From an oil painting; artist unknown. By the Helio- type Printing 'Co., Boston == ..-2.- 25.25.2202 2 ee PorrraiT or JAMxS SMITHSON. From a medallion. Engraved on steel by: Chas. Burt, of Brooklyn, N.Y ..-= 2-32. ee nee Toma or Smiruson, at Genoa, Italy. From a photograph taken in 1880_- Fac-SIMILE OF SMITHSON’S VISITING CARD, used in Paris __----_-----_- Fac-SImILk OF SMITHSON’s DINNER INVITATION CARD__-------------- SiLHovETTE PorTRAIT OF HENRY JAMES HUNGERFORD, nephew of James SEE] 0) ees a ee Oe es ees WAC SIMILN OF LAR VILL (OF SMITHSON: =. -2--5.- = 22 eo eee Portrait? oF Str Huau Smiruson, First Duke of Northumberland, father of James Smithson. From an engraving belonging to James Smithson 2. 2s2osat oo oo ee ee ee ee ee eee eee Nortu VIEW oF SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUILDING, Washington -_-- 880—viil 24 61 68 JAMES SMITHSON, FROM \ PAINTING BY JOINS. rSsi6, HMeliotype Printing Co., Boston JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. By WILLIAM J. RHEES. \ JAMES SMITHSON was born in England about the year 1754, the pre- cise date and place of his nativity being unknown.* He was a natural son of Hugh Smithson, first Duke of Northumberland, his mother being a Mrs. Elizabeth Macie, of an old family in Wiltshire of the name of Hungerford. Nothing has been learned of her history. Hugh Smithson, his father, was distinguished as a member of one of the most illustrious houses of Great Britain, and also because of his alliance with the renowned family of Percy. The Smithson baronetcy arose with an earlier Hugh Smithson, the second son of Anthony Smithson, esq., of Newscome or Newsham, in the parish of Kirby-on-the-Mount, Yorkshire, who was thus rewarded by Charles IL in 1660, for his services in the royalist cause during the civil wars. Ilis grandson, Sir Hugh Smithson, married Elizabeth, daughter of the second Lord Langdale, and had two sons. Hugh, the eldest, died unmarried, before his father; Langdale, the second son, married Miss Revely, by whom he left one son, Hugh. This son succeeded his grand- father as Sir Hugh Smithson, of Stanwick, in 1750, and was the father of the subject of the present sketch. He married Lady Percy on the 16th July, 1740. Her father inherited the Dukedom of Somerset in 1741, and. was created Earl of Northumberland in 1749. On his death, in 1750, Sir Hugh Smithson succeeded to these honors and on the 22d of October, 1766, was created first Duke of Northumberlandt and Earl Percy, with succession to his heirs male; and finally in 1784 the barony of Lovaine of Alnwick was added to his accumulated dignities. The Duchess died in 1776. The Duke survived till 1786,{ and was succeeded by his son Hugh (half brother of James Smithson), as the second Duke of Northumberland.§ Hugh Smithson, the first Duke of Northumberland, had (besides James Smithson) another natural son, who was known as Henry Louis Dickin- son. He received a good education, entered the military service, was commissioned lieutenant-colonel on the 1st of January, 1800, and on the 4th of August, 1808, took command of the EKighty-fourth Regiment of Foot. He saw active service on the Continent and in Asia and Africa. His estate was left to the care of his half-brother, Mr. James Smithson, in trust for the benefit of his son, and this was probably the source of a large part of the fund which eventually came to the United States. *See Appendix. Note 3. t There was a previous Duke of Northumberland who died without issue in 1716, and the title became extinct. tSee Appendix. Note 2. § See Appendix. Note 3. e 2 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. The possession by the first Duke of Northumberland of titles and dig- nities only inferior to those of royalty was of little consequence to his son James Smithson. Deprived by the bar sinister on his escutcheon from claiming the family name and honors, he nevertheless aspired to win a fame more universal and lasting than these could have bestowed upon him. He devoted himself to original research in the field of science, and sought to be known and honored by his fellow-men as a discoverer of new truths. Moreover, he resolved to attach his name to an institution unique in its character, noble in its object, and universal in its benefi- cence, of which John Quincy Adams has well said, “Of all the founda- tions of establishments for pious or charitable uses which ever signalized the spirit of the age or the comprehensive beneficence of the founder, none can be named more deserving of the approbation of mankind.” Smithson’s feeling in regard to posthumous fame was strikingly ex- pressed in the following sentence found in one of his manuscripts. ‘““The best blood of England flows in my veins; on my father’s side I am a Northumberland, on my mother’s I am related to kings, but this avails me not. My nameshall live in the memory of man when the titles of the Northumberlands and the Percys are extinct and forgotten.” As Prof. W. R. Johnson has well observed in speaking of Smithson: “The man of science is willing to rest on the basis of his own labors alone for his credit with mankind, and his fame with future generations. In the view of such a man, the accidents of birth, of fortune, of local uabitation, and conventional rank in the artificial organization of society, all sink into insignificance by the side of a single truth of nature. If he have contributed his mite to the increase of knowledge; if he have diffused that knowledge for the benefit of man, and above all, if he have applied it to the useful, or even to the ornamental purposes of life, he has laid not his family, not his country, but the world of mankind under a lasting obligation.” The eloquent words of John Quincy Adams in reference to the fame to be conferred on Smithson by the successful accomplishment of the great design he had in view by his bequest are appropriate in this con- nection. “The father of the testator upon forming his alliance with the heiress of the family of the Percys, assumed, by an act of the British Parliament, that name, and, under it,’ became Duke of Northumberland. But re- nowned as is the name of Percy in the historical annals of England ; resounding as it does from the summit of the Cheviot Hills to the ears of our children in the ballad of Chevy Chace, with the classical com- mentary of Addison; freshened and renovated in our memory as it bas recently been from the purest fountain of poetical inspiration in the loft- ier strain of Alnwick Castle, tuned by a bard from our own native land (Fitz Greene Halleck); doubly immortalized as it is in the deathless dramas of Shakspeare ; ‘confident against the world in arms,’ as it may have been in ages long past and may still be in the virtues of its present 20 | Soke fp thes te ee a) ONFORL thot | JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. - 8 possessors by inheritance, let the trust of James Smithson to the United States of America be faithfully executed by their representatives in Con- gress, let the result accomplish his object, ‘the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,’ and a wreath of more unfading verdure shall entwine itself in the lapse of future ages around the name of SMITHSON, than the united hands of tradition, history, and poetry have braided around the name of Percy through the long perspective in ages past of a thousand years.” The Duke of Northumberland provided a liberal education for his son James, who pursued his studies at Oxford University, where he became attached to Pembroke College, distinguished for having among its fellows the learned Blackstone, the eloquent Whitfield, and the cele- brated Dr. Samuel Johnson. Here the young student was noted for diligence, application, and good scholarship, and attracted marked at- tention by his proficiency in chemistry. His vacations were passed in excursions to collect minerals and ores which it was his favorite occu- | pation to analyze. At Oxford he received the impulse for scientific research which characterized all his future life, and the ardent desire not only to advance knowledge himself but to devote in after years his whole fortune to provide means by which others could prosecute this high and noble pursuit. He was graduated at Pembroke College on the 26th of May, 1786, as JAMES Lewis Mactiz,* by which name he seems at that time to have been known, and which he retained for about fourteen years, when he adopted that of JAMES SMITHSON.t Smithson never married, and as a man of wealth had ample op- portunity for leisure or the indulgence of mere personal gratification. But idleness and pleasure were not compatible with the spirit and ardor of the young student of chemistry. He diligently pursued his investi- gations, and his ambition to become associated with the votaries of science induced him to seek membership in the Royal Society of London. “The Royal Society of London,” says Arago, “ enjoys throughout the whole kingdom a vast and deserved consideration. The philosophical transactions which it publishes have been for more than a century and a half the glorious archives in which British genius holds it an honor to deposit its titles to the recognition of posterity. The wish to see his name inscribed in the list of fellow-laborers in this truly national col- lection beside the names of Newton, Bradley, Priestley, and Cavendish, has always been among the students of the celebrated universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Edinburgh, and Dublin, the most anxious as well as legitimate object of emulation. Here is always the highest point of ambition of the man of science.” *So given in the Oxford Catalogue. In the Philosophical Transactions and the Gentleman’s Magazine the name is given as James Louis Macie. t His second paper in the Philosophical Transactions, 1602, is by James Smithson. Sir Davies Gilbert, in his eulogy of him in 1830, calls him James Lewis Smithson. 4 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST, The following is the official recommendation of his application to the society, bearing the signatures of some of its most illustrious members: “James Lewis Macie, Esq., M. A., late of Pembroke College, Oxford, and now of John Street, Golden Bonireele gentleman well versed in various branches of Maeuel Philosophy, and particularly in Chymistry and Mineralogy, being desirous of becoming a Fellow of the Royal So- ciety, we whose names are hereto subscribed do, from our personal knowledge of his merit, judge him highly worthy of that honour and likely to become a very useful and valuable Member.” RicHARD KIRWAN. C. F. GREVILLE. C. BLAGDEN. H. CAVENDISH. DAVID PITCAIRN. He was admitted a fellow on the 26th of April, 1787, in less than one year after leaving the university.* Smithson’s lodgings for some time were in Bentinck street, a locality famous as the place where Gibbon wrote much of his “ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.” Here, with authors, artists, and savans, Smith- son found congenial fellowship. His mind was filled with a craving for intellectual development, and for the advancement of human knowl- edge. To enlarge the domain of thought, to discover new truths, and to make practical application of these for the promotion of civilization, were the great ends he had constantly in view. For purposes of scientific inquiry he engaged in extensive tours in various parts of Europe; making minute observations wherever he went on the climate, the physical features and geological structure of the locality visited, the characteristics of its minerals, the methods employed in mining or chee ores, and in all kinds of manufactures. These numerous journeys and sojourns abroad gave him a cosmopoli- tan character, and illustrated one of his own sayings: “the man of science is of no country, the world is his country, all mankind his coun- * Extract from Journal Book of the Royal Society. Ordinary meeting, Jan. 18, 1787.— Certificates were read recommending for election Louis Pinto de Sousa Coutinho, Knight of the Orders of Malta and Christ, and Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary from the Queen of Portugal to the Court of Great Britain. Also Sir Thomas Gery Cullum, Bart., of Bury Saint Edmunds, in Suffolk, and James Lewis Macig, Esq., M. A., late of Pembroke College, Oxford, and now of John Street, Golden Square. April 19, 1787.— Louis Pinto de Sousa Coutinho, Portuguese Minister at the Court of Great Britain, Sir Thos. Gery Cullum, Bart., and JamMEs Lewis MAcig, Esq., Certificates in whose favour had hung the usual time in the Meeting Room were put to the ballot and chosen into the Society, April 26, 1787.—James Lewis Mactn, Esq., and Sir Thos. Gery Cullum, Bart., elected at a former meeting attended. They paid their admission fees, compounded ‘for An- nual Contributions, and having signed the obligation in the Charter book were ad- mitted fellows of the Society. JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. a trymen.” ‘This fact is exemplified by the life of Smithson—born in Eng- land, spending most of his time in I'rance and Germany, buried in Italy, and leaving his name and fortune to the United States of America. Desiring to bring to the practical test of actual experiment every thing that came to his notice, he fitted up and carried with him a porta- ble laboratory. He collected also a cabinet of minerals composed of thousands of minute specimens, including all the rarest gems, so that immediate comparison could be made of a novel or undetermined speci- men, with an accurately arranged and labeled collection. With minute balances, his weights scarcely exceeding a gram, and with articles so delicate as to be scarcely visible, he made the most accurate and satis- factory determinations. With a few pieces, not exceedirg half a cubic inch in size, of tabasheer, a substance found in the hollow of bamboo canes, he made over two hundred and fifty different experiments. * The value which Smithson placed on such minute researches is inci- dentally shown by a remark in his paper on “fluorine.” He says, “there may be persons who, measuring the importance of the subject by the magnitude of the object, will cast a supercilious look on this dis- cussion; but the particle and the planet are subject to the same laws, and what is learned of the one will be known of the other.” Smithson’s ardor for knowledge and his zeal as a collector of new and rare minerals exposed him sometimes to hardship and privation. An interesting account of one of his journeysis given in his private journal. In 1784, in company with Mr. Thornton, Mons. Faujas de St. Fond, the celebrated geologist of France, the Italian Count Andrioni, and others, he made a tour through New Castle, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Duin- barton, Tarbet, Inverary, Oban, Arran, and the island of Staffa. As stated in Mr. Smithson’s journal, the party had arrived at a house on the coast of Mull, opposite the island, and the journal continues: “Mr. Turtusk got me a separate boat; set off about half-past eleven o'clock in the morning, on Friday, the 24th of September, for Staffa. Some wind, the sea a little rough; wind increased, sea ran very high ; rowed round some part of the island, but found it impossible to go be- fore Fingal’s cave; was obliged to return; landed on Staffa with diffi- culty; sailors press to go off again immediately ; am unwilling to de- part without having thoroughly examined the island. Resolve to stay all night. Mr. Maclaire stays with me; the other party which was there had already come to the very same determination; all crammed into one bad hut, though nine of ourselves besides the family ; supped upon eggs, potatoes, and milk; lay upon hay, in a kind of barn.” (‘The party, be it remembered, embraced two English gentlemen, one French savant, one Italian count.) “25th. Got up early, sea ran very high, wind extremely strong—no boat could put off. Breakfasted on boiled potatoes and milk; dined upon the same; only got a few very bad fish; supped on potatoes and *Seo Appendix. Note 4. 6 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. milk; lay in the barn, firmly expecting to stay there for a week, without even bread.” “Sunday the 26th.—The man of the island came at five or six o’clock in the morning to tell us that the wind was dropped, and that it was a good day. Set off in the small boat, which took water so fast that my servant was obliged to bail constantly—the sail, an old plaid—the ropes, old garters.” On the 29th, the tourists are at Oban, where a little circumstance is noted, which significantly marks the zeal and activity of the collector of minerals and fossils, and the light in which devotion to geology is sometimes viewed. “ September 29.—This day packed up my fossils in a barrel, and paid 2s. 6d. for their going by water to Edinburgh. Mr. Stevenson charged half @ crown a night for my rooms, because I had brought ‘stones and dirt,’ as he said into it.” A month later he visited Northwich. “October 28.—Went to visit one of the salt mines, in which they told me there were two kinds of salt. They let me down in a bucket, in which I only put one foot, and I had a miner with me. I think the first shaft was about thirty yards, at the bottom of which was a pool of water, but on one side there was a horizontal opening, from which sunk a second shaft, which went to the bottom of the pit, and the man let us down in a bucket smaller than the first.” * These incidents indicate the character of Smithson as a scientific en- thusiast, not easily deterred by the fear of personal inconvenience from the pursuit of his favorite object. Much of his life was passed on the Continent, in Berlin, Paris, Rome, Florence, and Geneva, enjoying everywhere the friendship and respect of the leading men of science,t and always devoting himself to the study of physical phenomena, Distinguished authors, as Gay-Lussac, Marcet, Haiiy, Berzelius, and Cordier, presented him with their scientific papers} as soon as published, and he enjoyed intimate association and corre- spondence with Davy, Gilbert, Arago, Biot, Klaproth, Black, and others. § As a chemist, Sir Davies Gilbert, President of the Royal Society, pro- nounced Smithson to be the rival of Wollaston, of whom Magendie said, “his hearing was so fine he might have been thought to be blind, and his. sight so piercing he might have been supposed to be deaf.” It is related of him that he made a galvanic battery in a thimble, and a platinum wire- much finer than any hair. * Smithsonian Miscell. Coll., No. 327, p. 140. . tGalton, in speaking of Erasmus Darwin, remarks: “ He was held in very high: esteem by his scientific friends, including such celebrities as Priestley and James Watt,. and it is by a man’s position among his contemporaries and competitors that his work may most justly be appraised.” Francis Galton, English Men of Science. tSee Appendix.—Note 5. §See Appendix.—Note 6. JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 7 Prof. Walter R. Johnson has made the following remarks respecting Smithson : “It appears from his published works that his was not the character of a mere amateur of science. He was an active and industrious laborer in the most interesting and important branch of research—mineral chemistry. A contemporary of Davy and of Wollaston, and a corre- spondent of Black, Banks, Thomson, and a host of other names re- nowned in the annals of science, it is evident that his labors had to un- dergo the scrutiny of those who could easily have detected errors, had any of a serious character been committed. His was a capacity by no means contemptible for the operations and expedients of the laboratory. He felt the importance of every help afforded by a simplification of meth- ods and means of research, and the use of minute quantities and accu- rate determinations in conducting his inquiries.” Smithson says in one of his papers, ‘‘chemistry is yet so new a science,” what we know of it bears so small a proportion to what we are igno- rant of; our knowledge in every department of it is so incomplete, con- sisting so entirely of isolated points, thinly scattered, like lurid specks on a vast field of darkness, that no researches can be undertaken without producing some facts leading to consequences which extend beyond the boundaries of their immediate object.” * Many of these “lurid specks ” in the vast field of darkness of which Smithson spoke so feelingly, have, Prof. Johnson observes, “since his days of activity expanded into broad sheets of light. Chemistry has assumed its rank among the exact sciences. Methods and instruments of analysis unknown to the age of Smithson have come into familiar use amon chemists. 'Lhese may have rendered less available for the present purposes of science than they otherwise might have been, a por- tion of the analysis and other researches of our author. The same may, however, be sail of nearly every other writer of his day.” Although his principal labors were in analytical chemistry, he distin- guished himself by his researches in mineralogy and crystallography, in all his work exhibiting the most careful and minute attention to accu- racy.t In his second published paper, he observes: “ It may be proper to say that the experiments have been stated precisely as they turned out, and have not been in the least degree bent to the system.” That he pursued his investigations in a philosophic spirit, and with proper methods, is evident from the favor with which his contributions to the scientific socicties and transactions of the day were received by his contemporaries, and the fact that the results he reached are still accepted as scientific truths.t *A chemical analysis of some calamines. Smithsonian Miscell. Coll., No. 327, p. 26. t He carefully noted on the margins of his books mistakes in grammar or orthography, and frequently corrected erroneous statements or improper references in the indexes. ¢ An account of some of Smithson’s experiments and copies of his notes on minerals and rocks are given in a paper on the works and character of James Smithson, by Dr. J. R. McD. Irby. Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 327, 1879, p. 143. 8 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. In one of his essays, he divides the sources of knowledge into, 1st, observation; 2d, reasoning; 3d, information; 4th, conjecture. In all his researches he began the process of acquisition by observing. One of his sentiments has been adopted as the motto on the publica- tions of the Smithsonian Institution; viz: “ Hvery man is a. valuable member of society, who, by his observations, researches, and experiments, procures knowledge for men.” In a critical notice of Davy’s Klements of Chemical Philosophy in the Quarterly Review for 1812, the writer speaking of recent advances in chemistry, and especially in the establishment and extension of the law of definite proportions, remarks: ‘ For these facts the science is princi- pally indebted, after Mr. Higgins, to Dalton, Gay-Lussac, Smithson, and Wollaston.”* The mineral species “Smithsonite,” « carbonate of zinc, was discovered and analyzed by him, among some ores from Somersetshire and Der- byshire, England. The name, Smithsonite, appears to have been con- ferred on it by the great French mineralogist. Beudant. It is interesting to notice the number and variety of specimens from the vegetable kingdom that Smithson subjected to analysis. They in- clude the violet, red rose, red clover, daisy, blue hyacinth, hollyhock, lavender, artichoke, scarlet geranium, red cabbage, radish, poppy, plum, pomegranate, mulberry, cherry, currant, buckthorn berries, elder and privet berries. He also examined the coloring matter of animal greens. It is perhaps worthy of note that his first paper related to an article of importance in the materia medica, and his last to a matter of prac- tical value to artists. He by no means confined his attention to abstract science, but contributed knowledge of improved methods of constructing lamps, and of making tea and coffee. That such practical questions might be considered of little importance by men of science he seems to acknowledge by the remarks he makes in one of his papers. “It is to be regretted,” he observes, “that those who cultivate science frequently withhold improvements in their apparatus and pro- cesses, from which they themselves derive advantage, owing to their not deeming them of sufficient magnitude for publication. When the sole view is to further a pursuit of whose importance to mankind a convic- tion exists, all that can should be imparted, however small may appear the merit which attaches to it.” t A sécretary of the French Academy deemed it his duty to offer an excuse for having given a detailed account of certain researches of Leibnitz, which had not required great efforts of the intellect. “We ought,” says he, ‘to be very much obliged to a man such as he is, when he condescends, for the public good, to do something which does not partake of genius.”. Arago remarked in his eulogy on Fourier, “ I can- not conceive the ground of such scruples; in the present day the sciences * Quarterly Review, 1812, vol. viii, p. 77. +Some improvements of lamps. Smithsonian Miscell. Coll. No. 327, p. 73. JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 9 are regarded from too high a point of view to allow us to hesitate in placing in the first rank of the labors with which they are adorned those which diffuse comfort, health, and happiness amidst the working population.” . In another of his papers Smithson says, referring to practical inves- tigations : ‘In all cases means of economy tend to augment and diffuse comfort and happiness. ‘They bring within the reach of the many what waste- ful proceeding confines to the few. ' By diminishing expenditure on one article they allow of some other enjoyment which was before unattaina- ble. A reduction in quantity permits an indulgence in superior quality. In the present instance the importance of economy is particularly great since it is applied to matters of high price, which constitute one of the daily meals of a large portion of the population of the earth.” “That in cookery also the power of subjecting for an indefinite dura- tion to a boiling heat, without the slightest dependiture of volatile mat- ter, will admit of a beneficial application, is unquestionable.” * In the books of his library are found numerous marginal notes, indi- cating his special attention to subjects relating to the health, comfort, resources, and happiness of the people. Among his effects were several hundred manuscripts and a great number of notes or scraps on a variety of subjects, including history, the arts, language, rural pursuits, &c. On the subject of “ habitations” were articles classified under the several heads of situation, exposure, exterior and interior arrangements, building materials, contents and adornment of rooms, furniture, pictures, statuary, &c. It is not im- probable that he contemplated the preparation of a cyclopedia or phil- osophical dictionary. Smithson’s contributions to scientific literature consist of twenty-seven papers, eight published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, in the years 1791, 1802, 1806, 1808, 1811, 1812, 1813, and 1817, and nineteen in Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, a journal of the highest scientific character, in 1819, 1820, 1821, 1822, 1823, 1824, and 1825. These papers have recently been collected and reprinted by the Smithsonian Institution.t Several of them were previously republished in foreign scientific journals translated by himself. It is highly probable that Smithson contributed articles to scientific and literary journals other than those mentioned, but they have not yet been discovered. * An improved method of making coffee. Smithsonian Miscell. Coll., No. 327, p. 88. tSmithsonian Miscell. Coll., No. 327, 1879, 8 vo., 166 pp. 10 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST, The following is a list of his scientific writings : 1791. 1802. 1806. 1807. 1808. 1811. 1813. 1813. 1817. [In the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. ] An account of some chemical experiments on agar eed vol. Ixxxi, pt. II, p. 368. A chemical analysis of some Calamines, vol. xciii, p. 12. Account of a discovery of native minium, vol. xcvi, pt. I, p. 267. On quadruple and binary compounds, particularly sulphurets,. [Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxix, p. 275.] On the composition of the compound sulphuret from Huel Boys, and an account of its crystals, vol. xeviii, p. 55. On the composition of zeolite, vol. ci, p. 171. On a substance from the elm tree, called ulmin, vol. ciii, p. 64. On a saline substance from Mount Vesuvius, vol. ciii, p. 256. A few facts relative to the coloring matter of some vegetables, vol. cviii., p. 110. [In Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy. ] . Ona native compound of sulphuret of lead and arsenic, vol. xiv, p. 96. . On native hydrous aluminate of lead, or plomb gomme, vol. xiv, p. 31. . Ona fibrous metallic copper, vol. xvi, p. 46. 20. An account of a native combination of sulphate of barium and. fluoride of calcium, vol. xvi, p. 48. . On some capilary metallic tin, vol. xvii. New series, vol. I, p. 271. 22. On the detection of very minute quantities of arsenic and mercury,. vol. xx. New series, vol. iv, p. 127. . Some improvements of lamps, vol. xx. New series, vol. iv, p. 363.. 3. On the crystalline form of ice, vol. xxi. New series, vol. v, p. 340.. . A means of discrimination between the sulphates of barium and. strontium, vol. xxi. New series, vol. v, p. 359. . On the discovery of acids in mineral substances, vol. xxi. New series, vol. v, p. 384. 23. An improved method of making coffee, vol. xxii. New series, vol. vi, p. 30. . A discovery of chloride of potassium in the earth, vol. xxii. New series, vol. vi, p. 258. . A method of fixing particles on the sappare, vol. xxii. New se- ries, vol. vi, p. 412. . On some compounds of fluorine, vol. xxiii. New series, vol. vii,, p. 100. . An examination of some Egyptian colors, vol. xxiii. New series, vol. vii, p. 115. . Some observations on Mr. Penn’s theory concerning the formation of the Kirkdale Cave, vol. xxiv. New series, vol. viii, p. 50. \ \\ ‘ ChE q q i sal . i iT; 1 il ‘o hagas TOMB OF JAMES SMITHSON. At Genoa, Italy. a 14 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 11 1825. Note to a letter from Dr. Black, describing a very sensible balance, vol. xxvi. New series, vol. x, p. 52. 1825. A method of fixing crayon colors, vol. xxvi. New series, vol. x, p. 236. Smithson’s writings all exhibit clearness of perception, terseness of language and accuracy of expression.* A trait of Smithson’s character is exhibited in the allusions he makes in his writings to other scientific men. His expressions are always kind or complimentary, evidently not for the sake of flattery, but from a sense of justice and truthful recognition of merit. He speaks of Mr. Tennant as one “whose many and highly important discoveries have so greatly contributed to the progress of chemical science.” Abbe Haiiy he refers to as one “so justly celebrated for his great knowledge in crystallography, mineralogy,” &c. “The analysis we possess of na- trolite by the illustrious chemist of Berlin,” &e. Of Baron Cronstedt he says, “ the greatest mineralogist who has yet appeared.” “A query from the celebrated Mr. Vauquelin.” “The celebrated Mr. Klaproth, to whom nearly every department of chemistry is under numerous and great obligations.” “M. Berzelius’ elegant method of detecting phosphoric acid,” &c.. ““M. Werner, its principal and most distinguished professor,” &c. Smithson died on the 27th of J une, 1829, at Genoa, Italy. He was buried in the Protestant cemetery, about a milo west of Genoa, on the high elevation which forms the west side of the harbor and overlooks the town of Sampierdarena. His grave is marked by a handsome monu- ment. The base is of pale gray marble, 6 feet and a half long, 3 feet wide, and 33 feet high. On the top of this is a white marble urn suit- ably proportioned to the base. The lot is inclosed by an iron fence, with gray marble corner posts. On one side of the monument the inscription is as follows: . “Sacred to the memory of James Smithson, esq., Fellow of the Royal Society, London, who died at Genoa the 26th J une, 1829, aged 75 years.” On the other side is the following: “This monument is erected, and the ground on which it stands pur: chased in perpetuity, by Henry Hun gerford, esq., the deceased’s nephew, in token of gratitude to a generous benefactor and as a tribute to de- parted worth.” The announcement of his departure called forth expressions of regret from prominent men of science, and as he had been an honored Fellow of the Royal Society, its president, Sir Davies Gilbert, alluded to it on two occasions. At the meeting of the Royal Society November 30, 1829, he remarked, “In no previous interval of twelve months has the society *A fow extracts from his published writings are given in the Appendix, Noto 7. 12 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. collectively, or have its individnal members, experienced losses so severe, or so much in every respect to be deplored.” Among the names then referred to were those of Dr. W. H. Wollaston, Dr. Thomas Young, and Sir Humphrey Davy. To these illustrious savans he adds that of James Smithson, who, he says, “has added eight communications to our Transactions. He was distinguished by the intimate friendship of Mr. Cavendish, and rivalled our most expert chemists in elegant analyses.”* At the following anniversary meeting of the Royal Society, November 30, 1830, the president, Sir Davies Gilbert, delivered an address in which, after speaking of the death of Major Kennele and Mr. Chevenix, he says: * * * The only remaining individual who has taken a direct and active part in our labours, by contributing to the Transactions, is Mr. James Lewis Smithson, and of this gentleman I must be allowed to speak with affection. We were at Oxford together, of the same college, and our acquaintance continued to the time of his decease. ‘‘Mr. Smithson, then called Macie, and an undergraduate, had the reputation of excelling all other resident members of the University in the knowledge of chemistry. He was early honored by an intimate acquaintance with Mr. Cavendish; he was admitted into the Royal Society, and soon after presented a paper on the very curious concretion frequently found in the hollow of bambi canes, named Tabasheer. This he found to consist almost entirely of silex, existing in a manner similar to what Davy long afterwards discovered in the epidermis of reeds and grasses. . ; “Mr. Smithson enriched our Transactions with seven other communi- cations: A chemical analysis of some calamines. Account of a discov- ery of native minium. On the composition and crystallization of certain sulphurets from Huel Boys in Cornwall. On the composition of zeolite. On a substance procured from the elm tree, called Ulmin. On a saline substance from Mount Vesuvius. TI acts relative to the colouring matter of vegetables. | ‘“‘ He was the friend of Dr. Wollaston, and at the same time his rival in the manipulation and analysis of small quantities. Ayal, & epic 70e Bpotocsr. Mr. Smithson frequently repeated an occurrence with much pleasure and exultation, as exceeding anything that could be brought into competition with it; and this must apologize for my in- troducing what might otherwise be deemed an anecdote too light and trifling on such an occasion as the present. ‘““Mr. Smithson declared that happening to observe a tear gliding down a lady’s cheek, he endeavored to catch it on a crystal vessel; that one-half of the drop escaped, but having preserved the other half he submitted it to reagents, and detected what was then called microcosmic salt, with muriate of soda, and, I think, three or four more saline sub- stances, held in solution. "Philosophical Magazine, 1830, vol. vii, p. 42. JAMES SMITHSON AND. HIS BEQUEST. 13 “For many years past Mr. Smithson has resided abroad, principally, I believe, on account of his health; but he carried with him the esteem and regard of various private friends, and of a still larger number of persons who appreciated and admired his acquirements.” * This tribute to his memory and worth shows the high standing Smith- son had attained in the estimation of his compeers, and that he secured the fidelity and affection of his dependants is evinced by the care with which, in his will, he provides a reward for their attachment and services. “It has been the lot of the greatest part of those who have excelled in science,” says Dr. Johnson, “to be known only by their own writings, and to have left behind them no remembrance of their domestic life or pri- vate transactions, or only such memorials of particular passages as are on certain occasions necessarily recorded in public registers.” To the same effect, Wilson, in his life of Cavendish (the warm friend of Smithson), remarks: ‘So careless has his own country been of his mem- ory that although he was for some fifty years a well-known and very dis- tinguished Iellow of the Royal Society, a member for a lengthened period of the French Institute, and an object of European interest to men of science, yet scarcely anything can be learned concerning his early history. This, no doubt, is owing in great part to his own dislike of publicity, and to the reserve and love of retirement which strongly characterized him. Long before his death however, he was so conspicuous a person in the scientific circles of London that the incidents of his early life might readily have been ascertained. They were not, it should seem, inquired into by any biographer.”t This is eminently true of Smithson. We are unfortunately debarred from acquiring an intimate knowledge of his personal traits and peculi- arities by the absence of an autobiography, or even of any sketch of his life by his friends. For this reason we are more ready to avail ourselves of every fact in regard to him that can be ascertained, however trivial or insignificant any one of these might otherwise be considered. Even an inventory of his wardrobe and a schedule of his personal property pos- sesses an interest and serves at least to gratify a natural curiosity. Such a list has recently been found as certified by the English consul at Genoa, after the death of Smithson, with a valuation of the different articles: Francs. A. Carnage, Complete? 20.6). 2va mene a abe Ae eee tee ee 2, 500 00 Twenty-six silver forks, one salad fork, eight desert spoons, eighteen spoons, four sauce-ladles, one soup ladle, four salt spoons, three sugar ladles, one tea shell, three silver-head corks, two silver vessels, one toasting fork, weighing in all 1934 ounces of silver, valued by Mr. A. ee agoldsmith 1,050 00 An Hnglish’ sold fepeater -<2ssc sos) eee Sey ee 200 00 * The Philosophical Magazine, January-June, 1831, vol. ix, p. 41. tGeorge Wilson. Life of Henry Cavendish. London, 1851. 14 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. A Geneva fold Waieh =} an eas o nee aad ete - 2 eerieretetes Two gold snuff-boxes, one toothpick case, and two shirt but- One pin with sixteen small diamonds bate not ae IAS pes Se One ring with composition set in diamonds ......-...-.-... Onering of apate - 7.2.6 Sete ee wel re wa ee tae Sees as One ring, cameo, head of a Moor.......--...--------+--+:- Two small boxes, one of tortoise shell, the other of amber.. - One poll ring 26 20H. e ee. Aid Saiki eci Me al Bas nls © perab ste One small silver pick case......,-.....--. ++ Seles nda 5 eet A. clasp of gold with hairs. .0)22. 2. aceite ee Avclasp with diamonds: - 224050 2) Sas Yo nls GStRees A pin with hair and diamonds..................-. tone 2 AACAMIOON Le aI hatte Wee OPT UN, Acrine with diamonds*: fists > tos Se 8s 2. at Sixteen shirts, nineteen cravats, forty- four pocket handker- chiefs, thirteen pairs of stockings, three nightcaps, two pair of drawers, two pair of sheets, three pillow-cases, seven waistcoats, two flannel waistcoats, six pair pantaloons, two cloth pantaloons, three coats, one nightgown, one dressing coat, two pair braces, four pair gloves Huectelescope fers LOST a Sh GI ee Man yismallariteles: < S27 ioe: sao. Ore eS ease Re eee e ees ee Two pasteboard boxes containing odaly coins, stones, &c. One parcel containing papers relative to the Grand Canal* Several parcels of papers and five books 112 Napoleons in gold and 34 franes 60 centimes, in the vans of MessrssGibbsig Cor 2 See OA ae Cash in hands of Messrs. Gibbs & Co .......-.........--- One parcel, thirteen certificates Spanish stock, Paris, 4th September, 1822, 350 piastres rente @Espagne, par value, franes 24, 097 50, valued at.....-..- Promissory note for 295 franes, dated 1st June, 1824, due by mi lepia SilOnne: slo 2se TL eee Poe eee ee Bond for 20,000 francs, dated 8th July, 1828, due ite Sailly & Soeur, of PAIS. 2355284. 6.5. Boees Ph Tees. SET ae Bill for 2,000 francs, dated 8th October, 1822, drawn by Mr. Sailly, accepted by MraSmithsons so. ue coe en ae. 52% Bank-note for £100, No. 14419, 19th December, 1827, in the hands:of Messts; Gibbs @ Oe iss. 16t.25) 4.2 eee Parcel containing accounts and letters from Messrs. Drum- mond & Co. Se a Francs. 60 00 417 00 33 34 66 73 3 40 50 00 6 30 13 00 6 00 16 67 203 34 45 67 50 00 92 00 eet ees ee we 3,780 00 295 00 20, 000 00 2,000 00 2,500 00 *The Grand Canal is 90 miles in length, uniting the rivers Trent and Mersey, with branches to the Severn, to Oxford, &c. It was proposed by Mr. Wedgwood, and was the second one made in England. JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 15 Very few of these articles were transferred to Mr. Rush, the agent of the United States Government, who received the bequest. His enumer- ation of the personal effects of Smithson is as follows: “A large trunk; a box containing sundry specimens of minerals; a brass instrument; a box of minerals; a box of chemical glasses; a packet of minerals; a glass vinegar-cruet; a stone mortar; a pair of silver-plated candlesticks and branches; a pair of silver-plated candlesticks without branches; a hone, in a mahogany case; a plated-wire flower-basket ; a plated coffee-pot; a small plated coffee-pot; a pair of wine-coolers; a pair of small candlesticks; two pair salt-cellars ; a bread-basket; two pair vegetable dishes and covers; a large round waiter; a large oval waiter; two small oval waiters; two plate-warmers; a reading shade ; @ gun; a mahogany cabinet; two portraits in oval frames; a china tea- service, consisting of twelve cups and saucers; six coffee-cups ; a tea- pot; .a slop-basin; a sugar-basin and lid; two plates; a milk-jug; a tea- canister; two dishes; a landscape in a gilt frame; a Derby-spar vase; a China tub; a piece of fluor-spar; a pairof glass candlesticks ; a marble bust; sundry books and pamphlets; two large boxes filled with speci- mens of minerals and manuscript treatises, apparently in the testator’s handwriting, on various philosophical subjects, particularly chemistry and mineralogy. Eight cases and one trunk filled with the like.” With reference to a gun, pieces of china, and articles of a miscella- neous nature belonging to Smithson, Mr. Rush was informed by bis at- - torneys that they were taken in possession by his nephew, Henry James Hungerford. Mr. Rush, in one of his dispatches to the State Department (July 14, 1838), says: “The boxes and trunk are to go on shipboard to-day. Be- fore knowing anything of their contents, I thought proper to have them opened and examined in the presence of our consul and two other per- sons. | s . a . . 6 + . vd a] JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 23 It has been shown with what zeal and pleasure Smithson himself en. gaged in the advancement of knowledge, and what general interest had been awakened in England in the cause of scientific organization and popular education at the very time he wrote his will, and it is not unrea- sonable, therefore, to believe that he EOS ee this contingency as @ very probable event. The will of Smithson, dated October 23, 1826, was proved in the Pre- rogative Court of Canterbury by his executor, Mr. Charles Drummond, a London banker, on the 4th of November, 1829. The value of the effects was sworn to be under £120,000.* In 1878, a copy of a will also in Smithson’s handwriting was procured by the Institution from Mr. de la Batut, almost identical with the one recorded in the courts of London. It appears from this that the word heretofore printed Audley in copies of the will should be “Studley,” and that the name of the former servant who kept the Hungerford Hotel at Paris should be Sailly, and not Jailly. In the record of the will at London, the word Smithsonian as the name of the Institution to be established is “ Smithsonean,” but as it is very plainly written “ian” in what we must consider his original draft, the misspelling referred to is undoubtedly due to an error of the transcriber. In all the proceedings in the court of chancery, and all the negotiations of Mr. Rush, the name “Smithsonian ” has uniformly been used. The first article of the will refers to an old and trusted servant, John Fitall, to whom, in consideration of his attachment and fidelity, Smith- son bequeaths an annuity of a hundred pounds sterling. This Fitall died in June, 1834, having enjoyed the benefit of his legacy for five years. Mr. Smithson next directs that various sums of money he had lent to another of his servants, Henri Honori Sailly, should be allowed to re- main uncalled for at five per cent. interest for five years. He then mentions the fact that all the money in the French five per cents. (livres de rentes) then standing in his own name and in that of - Colonel Dickinson was the property of his nephew, being what he in- herited from the colonel, who died on the 22d May, 1820, with what he had added himself to it from savings made out of the income. To this nephew, Henry James Hungerford, who was also known as Henry James Dickinson, and still later as Baron Eunice de la Batut, he leaves the rest of the income arising from his property during his life. The whole of his fortune is by the next clause of the will left absolutely and for- ever to any child. or children, legitimate or illegitimate, of the said nephew Hungerford. But in case of the death of his nephew without leaving a child or children, or of the death of the child or children he may have had under the age of twenty-one years or intestate, he then gays: * Gentleman’s Magazine, 1830, vol. o., p. 275. 24 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. “T bequeath the whole of my property to the United States of America, to found at Washington, wnder the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The nephew, Mr. Hungerford (alias H. J. Dickinson), to whom was bequeathed a life interest in Smithson’s estate, brought an amicable suit in chancery against the executors for the purpose of having the assets administered under the direction of the lord chancellor, and these were ascertained to be about £100,000 sterling. The income from this prop- erty, which consisted mainly of stock in the public funds of England, was promptly paid to young Hungerford, who led a roving life in Europe, without settled habits or occupation, and died under the name of Baron Eunice de la Batut, at the Royal Hotel in Pisa, Italy, on the 5th of June, 1835, under thirty years of age, never having married, and leaving no heirs who could, even under the broad provisions of his uncle’s will, make a claim to his bounty. | The mother of Hungerford, a Mrs. Mary Ann Coates, had married a Frenchman named Theodore de la Batut, and was still living at Port Louis in France. She now made a claim for part of the estate, on the ground that her son had given her an ample allowance while he lived, and that under the will of his father, Col. Henry Louis Dickinson, made in Paris in July 1819, by which he left all his property to his brother, James Smithson, half the income was to be for her benefit during her life. It was shown that young Hungerford lived up to his income, and had left nothing even to pay debts or funeral expenses. It was also urged that if Smithson’s will had come into operation then, instead of seven years before, Hungerford would, in consequence of an alteration of the law, have been entitled to a portion of the accruing half-year’s income up to his death; and that, in consequence of the change in the law, he could not be said to have enjoyed the income of the property during his whole life. It was also urged as a “moral claim,” that as the Smith- son bequest was to be applied “to increase and diffuse knowledge among men,” the children of Mrs. de la Batut were entitled to an allowance from it until the age of twenty-two for their education. The claim made was for an annuity of £240; but after long nego- tiation the decree was made by the court of chancery to allow Mrs. de la Batut £150 9s. during her life, with a payment of £526 11s. 6d. for arrears from the 22d September, 1834, to the 22d March, 1838. To se- cure this annuity, the sum of £5,015 in three per cent. consols was re- tained in trust by the court, the interest to be paid on the 22d September and 22d March annually. By the law of France, the life income is ap- portionable and payable up to the time of death; and Colonel Dickin- son having been domiciled in France, this rule applied in his case. Mrs. de la Batut lived to the year 1861, and the amount retained in England as the principal of the annuity was paid over to the Institu- tion on the 11th June, 1864. This is known as the “ residuary legacy” “GS oa pica Oy PELE GY TLT" “fg SGP io . atts ~ap JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 25 of Smithson, and the sum realized from it by the Institution, by the premium on gold, &c., was $54,165.38. The first announcement made to the American Government of the fact that the United States had become entitled to the bequest of Smithson was a dispatch, dated 28th July, 1835, from Hon. Aaron Vail, chargé daffaires of the United States at London, to Iton John Forsyth, Secre. tary of State, transmitting a letter from Messrs. Clarke, Fynmore and Fladgate, attorneys in that city. This communicated the intelligence that the nephew of Smithson had died, and that the United States was entitled to the estate, valued at £100,000. These facts were laid before Congress by President Jackson on-the 17th December, 1835, who stated in his message that he had no author- ity to take any steps toward accepting the trust. ‘In the Senate of the United States the message of the President was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary, which, by its chairman, Mr. Benj. Watkins Leigh, of Virginia, reported, on ine 5th of January, 1836, that they considered the bequest of Mr. Bouncer a valid one, and ite believed “that the United States would be entertained in the court of chancery of England to assert their claim to the fund as trustees for the purpose of founding the charitable institution at Washington to which it is destined by the donor.” The question whether it was within the competency of the Government to appropriate any part of the gen- eral revenue from the nation at large to the foundation of a literary or any other institution in the District of Columbia was suewpted by Mr. Leigh by stating that— ‘‘The fund given by Mr. Smithson’s will is nowise, and never can be- come, part of the revenue of the United States; they cannot claim or take it for their own benefit; they can only take a as trustee.” “The United States were 45 be regarded as the parens patria of the District of Columbia, and in that character they had a right and were in duty bound to assert a claim to any property given to them for the purpose of founding an ‘institution within the District, and to provide ‘for the due application and administration of such a fund when they obtained possession of it.” Resolutions were reported by the committee providing for the prose- cution of the claim. The report was considered in the Senate on the 30th April, 1836, and it was urged by Mr. W. C. Preston, of South Car- -olina, that the Government of the United States had no power to receive the money. He thought the donation had been made partly with a view to immortalize the donor, and it was ‘too cheap a way of conferring im- mortality.” He had.no idea of the District of Columbia being used as a fulcrum to raise foreigners to immortality by getting Congress as the ‘parens patric to accept.donations from them. He expressed the opinion that Smithson’s intention was to found a university. Mr. Leigh, in reply, maintained that the legacy was not for the benefit 26 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. of the United States, but only for one of the cities of the District of Columbia, and with this belief he had no difficulty in voting for the bill. Mr. John M. Clayton, of Delaware, also thought a university was in- tended by Smithson. Mr. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was of opinion that the dank: tion was made expressly to the United States, and that “it was beneath their dignity to receive presents of this kind from any one.” Mr. Samuel L. Southard, of New Jersey, advocated the measure, as he thought Congress had the unquestionable right to establish a national university. Mr. James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, believed that Congress had the power to receive and apply this money to the purposes intended by the testator, without involving the question whether it was for a univer- sity or not. — Mr. Robert J. Walker, of Mississippi, advocated the bill as a measure of justice to the city of Washington. Mr. John Davis, of Massachusetts, argued that the Senators were mis- taken who assumed that Smithson intended his bequest to establish a university. This word was not to be found in the will, and there were other means for diffusing knowledge besides the one referred to. He deemed the establishment of institutions for the promotion of knowl- edge a vital principle of republican government. After a somewhat protracted debate the resolutions were finally passed on the 2d of May, 1836, by a vote of 31 to 7, and on the 25th of June they were again passed in the shape of a bill as it had come from the House of Representatives. The message of the President was referred in the House, on the 21st of December, 1835, to a special committee, consisting of Mr. John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, Mr. Francis Thomas, of Maryland, Mr. James Garland, of Virginia, Mr. D. J. Pearce, of Rhode Island, Mr. Jesse Speight, of North Carolina, Mr. Thomas M. T. McKennan, of Pennsyl- vania, Mr, i, A. Hannegan, of Indiana, Mr. Rice Garland, of Louisiana, and Mr. G. H. Chapin, of New York. In this committee great opposi- tion was manifested at first to the acceptance of the bequest, but this yielded to the arguments and persuasion of the distinguished chairman, Mr. John Q. Adams. A bill was accordingly reported, directing the Pres- ident to appoint an agent to assert and prosecute for and in behalf of the United States in the court of chancery, England, the legacy be- queathed by James Smithson. The agent was to give bonds in $500,000 for the faithful performance of the duties imposed upon him. The Treas- urer of the United States was to take charge of and keep safely all the money received on account of the bequest, and “the faith of the United States was solemnly pledged that the fund should be applied for the purpose of founding and endowing at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffu- JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 27 sion of knowledge among men.” For the cost of prosecuting the claim an appropriation of $10,000 was made. On the 19th of January, 1836, Mr. Adams made an elaborate foots containing all the facts he had been able to collect relative to Smithson, and expressing in the most glowing and refined language his apprecia- tion of the value of the gift to America and its importance to mankind. Mr. Leigh had convinced the Senate that it was the duty of Congress. to accept the bequest, and Mr. Adams brought before the House an ac- count of the life of the testator, the nature of the trust, the character of the trustees, the practical influence of our political institutions upon Europe, and the vast benefits to the world which might grow out of the legacy. The report was unanimously agreed to in the committee, but Mr. Adams had great misgivings whether anything would ever be real- ized from the bequest. The delays of the English court of chancery were well known, and the opinion had even been expressed that the whole affair was an imposture. Mr. Adams never wavered, however, in his faith in the power of the government to procure the money and its ability to administer it properly. He refers in his diary to it as the favorite and almost absorbing subject of his thoughts, and for many years he devoted untiring activity and personal efforts to its successful accomplishment. No action was taken by the House on Mr. Adams’s report until the Senate had passed Mr. Leigh’s resolution; when that was taken up, changed in form to that of a bill, passed on the 25th of June, 1836, and was approved by the President on the Ist of July, 1836. In accordance with this act the President appointed, on the 11th of ‘July, Hon. Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania, as the agent to assert and prosecute the claim of the United States to the legacy. His salary was. fixed at $3,000 per annum, and $2,000 were allowed for contingencies, not including legal expenses. Mr. Rush gave the necessary bond for $500,000, Messrs. J. Mason, jr., and Benjamin C. Howard being his sure- ties, who were accepted by Mr. Woodbury, Secretary of the Treasury. This appointment was one eminently fit to be made, and its wisdom was proved by the successful accomplishment of the mission. Mr. Rush had been Comptroller of the United States Treasury at a time when the fiscal affairs of the government were in disorder; he was next Attorney-Gen- eral; then minister to England for a period of eight years; Secretary of the Treasury; and minister to France. ‘To these great and varied employments,” Hon. J. A. Pearce has remarked, “he brought integrity, | ability, intelligence, firmness, courtesy, and a directness of purpose which scorned all finesse and which served his country to the full extent of all that could have been demanded or hoped.” Mr. Rush immediately proceeded to London, placed himself in com- munication with the attorneys of the executor of Smithson, and entered with vigor into the measures necessary to assert the claim of the United 28 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. States. It was soon ascertained, on consultation with eminent counsel, Messrs. 'CThomas Pemberton and Edward Jacob, then at the head of the chancery bar, that it was necessary that a suit should be brought in the name of the President of the United States against the testator’s executors, and that the Attorney-General must be made a party to the proceedings in order that he might represent before the court any claim which the Crown might have to the bequest on account of its extension to illegitimate children, or by reason of any part of the property con- sisting of interests in land. Mr. Rush, in addition to Messrs. Pember- ton and Jacob, enrployed Messrs. Clarke, Fynmore, and Fladgate as his legal advisers, and a suit was commenced in the court of chancery in November, 1836. The first hearing, however, did not take place until the 1st of February, 1837, before Lord Langdale, master of the rolls, this court and that of the vice-chancellor being the two branches of the English chancery system before which suits are brought in the first instance. The case was fully opened on behalf of the United States by Mr. Pem- berton. The King’s counsel abandoned at once all opposition on the part of the Crown, and no question was raised under the doctrine of es- cheats or any other by the representatives of the British Government. The court then decreed that the case be referred to one of the masters in chancery, Mr. Nassau William, Sen., to make the requisite inquiries as to the facts on the happening of which the United States became enti- tled to the fund left by Mr. Smithson, and also as to the claim of Madame De la Batut. The United States had never before sued in an English court, but there were precedents of other nations having done so by their execu- tive heads, as, for example, the King of France and the King of Den- mark. The United States were therefore allowed to enter the courts in the name of the President. Advertisements were immediately inserted in the London Times, Her- ald, and Standard, and in French and Italian newspapers in Paris and Port Louis, in France, and Leghorn, in Italy, asking for information re- specting Henry James Hungerford; whether he married, whether he left any child, &e. Mr. Rush, in August, 1837, wrote to the Secretary of State that there were more than eight hundred cases in arrears in the court of chancery, and he felt much discouraged as to a speedy termination of the suit. While the population of England had increased in a definite period six- fold and her wealth twentyfold, the judicial establishment had remained nearly the same, There were only eleven masters in chancery, while double the number would not be sufficient. The subject of a reform in this court, Mr. Rush stated, had been specially recommended by the Throne to Parliament. It had been said, with truth, that “a chancery suit was a thing that might begin with a man’s life and its termination JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 29 be his epitaph.” Still later it will be remembered that Mr. Dickens stated in 1853 that there was then ‘a suit before the court of chancery which had been commenced twenty years before in which from thirty to forty counsel had been known to appear at one time, in which costs had been incurred to the amount of £70,000, which was a friendly suit, and which was no nearer its termination than when it was begun.” Mr. Rush refers in terms of high compliment to the solicitors he had employed on behalf of the United States. He says: “That more attention, diligence, discretion, and integrity could not have been exerted by any persons than they have shown throughout the whole suit from first to last. Could they ever have forgotten what was due to the United States and to themselves, in the desire to eke out a job, nothing is plainer to me, from what has been passing under my observation of the entanglements and delays.natural to a heavy suit in the English court of chancery, than that they might have found oppor- tunities in abundance of making the suit last for years yet to come.” It is therefore to be regarded as one of the most remarkable events in the history of the bequest that the suit of the United States, com- menced in November, 1836, should have been brought to a successful issue, in less than two years, on the 12th of May, 1838, which, it may be interesting to note, was the firstyear of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria. Mr. Rush was therefore placed in possession of the legacy with the exception.of the part reserved as the principal of an annuity to Madame De la Batut. Mr. Rush thus expresses his satisfaction at the result: “A suit of higher interest and dignity has rarely perhaps been before the tribunals of a nation. If the trust created by the testator’s will be successfully carried into effect by the enlightened legislation of Con- gress benefits may flow to the United States and to the human family not easy to be estimated, because operating silently and radually throughout time, yet operating not the less effectually.” Scarcely had the decision of the court been made and the amount of the award published in the newspapers, when two claimants for the estate of Smithson appeared, neither having any connection with the other; and they desired, rather importunately, to know if the case could not be reopened. They were much chagrined to find that they were a little too late in their application, and nothing more was heard of them. The American minister to England, Mr. Stevenson, and our consul at London, Mr. Aspinwall, united in testifying to the great tact and abil- ity of Mr. Rush, and in affirming— “That no litigant ever displayed a more ardent zeal or a more saga- cious, devoted, and unremitting diligence in the prosecution of his pri- vate suit than he did in urging on this public one to a prompt and suc- cessful conclusion. The dispatch with which in consequence this purpose was finally accomplished is almost without example in the annals of chancery. His solicitors will long remember his adroit and unsparing 4 30 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. application of the spur. Had he not urged them to the top of their speed, he would have had a lighter weight of gold to carry home with him.” The estate of Smithson which was transferred to Mr. Richard Rush consisted of the following securities: £64,535 18s. 9d. in consolidated three per cent. annuities, called con- sols, sold at an average of 953 per cent., yielded £56,175, £12,000 in reduced three per cent. annuities, sold at 94 per cent., yielded £11,280. £16,100 in Bank of England stock, sold at about 205 per cent., yield- ing £32,996 10s. Good-fortune again attended Mr. Rush, for the day when he sold the consols their value was higher than at any previous time for many years or than at any later period. The bank stock also commanded the © remarkably high premium of about 205 per cent. The estate, therefore, independent of the accumulations of interest and notwithstanding the delays in the court of chancery, was worth more than in the summer of 1835, when the right of the United States first attached to it by the death of Henry James Hungerford, and the entire amount of sales yielded an aggregate of more than one fended and six thousand pounds sterling. Mr. Rush’s next concern was how to transfer these funds to the United States, and he decided to convert the whole into gold coin and send it in this form. This was not only the most judicious course, but it secured an increase of the fund to upwards of a thousand pounds sterling on account of saving the cost of exchange. This sum was enough to cover commissions, insurance, freight, and other charges on the transfer of the gold. The costs of the suit and expenses connected with the shipment of the proceeds of the bequest were as follows: Costs of the chancery suit, £490 4s. 10d.; selling the stock, commission to Thomas Aspinwall, £797 15s. Gd.; charges for shipping, £6 19s. 4d.; premium of insurance, £605 3s. 10d.; brokerage, stamps, &c., £120 4s. 6d.; freight from London to New York, £393 12s.; primage, £19 13s. 8d. The proceeds of the sales of the stocks, &c., were converted into gold sovereigns, and these were packed at the Bank of England in bags con- taining £1,000 each and shipped in eleven boxes by the packet Mediator, of New York, on the 17th July, 1838. Three other boxes sent at the same time contained the personal effects of Smithson. The ship Mediator arrived in New York on the 29th of August, 1838, and the gold, amounting to £104,960 8s. 6d., was deposited in the Bank of America until the 1st of September, when it was delivered to the Treasurer. of the United States Mint in Philadelphia, and immediately recoined into American money, producing $508,318.46 as the bequest of Smithson. JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 31 LEGISLATION OF CONGRESS IN RELATION TO THE DISPOSITION OF THE BEQUEST. On the 6th of December, 1838, President Van Buren had the satis- faction of announcing to Congress that the claim of the United States to the legacy bequeathed to them by James Smithson had been fully established, and that the fund had been received by the government. He now urged the prompt adoption of a plan by which the intentions of the testator might be fully realized. For the purpose of obtaining information which might facilitate the attainment of this object, he applied, through the Secretary of State, to a number of persons “ versed in science and familiar with the subject of public education, for their views as to the mode of disposing of the fund best calculated to meet the intentions of Smithson, and be most beneficial to mankind.” He communicated to Congress the replies received, of which the fol- lowing is a brief abstract. President Francis Wayland, of Brown University, proposed a univer- sity of high grade to teach Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Oriental languages, and a long list of other branches, including rhetoric, poetry, intellect- ual philosophy, the law of nations, &c. Dr. Thomas Cooper, of South Carolina, also proposed a university, to be opened only to graduates of other colleges, where the higher branches of mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, &c., should be taught, but Latin and Greek, literature, medicine, and Jaw excluded. Mr. Richard Rush proposed a building, with grounds attached, suffi- cient to reproduce seeds and plants for distribution; a press to print lectures, &c.; courses of lectures on the leading branches of physical - and moral science, and on government and public law; the salaries to be ample enough to command the best men, and admit of the exclusive -devotion of their time to the studies and investigations of their posts; the lectures, when delivered, to be the property of the institution for publication. Mr. Rush also made the excellent suggestion that consuls and other United States officers might greatly aid the institution by col- lecting and sending home useful information and valuable specimens from abroad. Hon. John Quincy Adams expressed, in his reply, the opinion that no part of the fund should be devoted “to the endowment of any school, college, university, or ecclesiastical establishment”; and he proposed to employ seven years’ income of the fund in the establishment of an astronomical observatory, with instruments and a small library. The subject of the Smithson bequest was referred in the House of Representatives on the 10th December, 1838, to a special committee of 32 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. nine members, of which Hon. John Quincy Adams was chairman. Be- sides the letters transmitted to Congress by President Van Buren, other plans were brought before the committee. A memorial from Prof. Walter R. Johnson suggested the establish- ment of an institution for experiment and research in physical science especially pertaining to the useful arts, and the discovery, description,. application, and improvement of the natural resources of our country. Another scheme was presented by Mr. Charles I. Fleischman for the establishment of an agricultural school and farm, and he entered into the most minute detail as to the buildings and estimates for all the parts of the plan. There were also propositions to use the fund “for the in- struction of females,” for the establishment of “ professorships,” for “courses of lectures,” for “improved methods of rearing sheep, horses, and silkworms,” for founding a great library, &c. Mr. Adams very earnestly opposed the appropriation of any part of the fund to educational purposes, believing that it was the duty of the country itself to provide the means for this important object. His own favorite scheme was the establishment of an astronomical observatory, and this he advocated in the most ardent, able, and persistent manner. The chairman of the Senate committee, Hon. Asher Robbins, of Rhode Island, proposed the creation of “an institution of which there is no model either in this country or in Europe, to provide such a course of education and discipline as would give to the faculties of the human mind an improvement far beyond what they obtain by the ordinary systems of education and far beyond what they afterwards attain in any of the professional pursuits.” His speech in the Senate on the 10th of January, 1839, in presenting his views on this subject is remarkable for its beauty of diction, elevation of sentiment, and classical erudition. Mr. Robbins’s resolutions provided for a scientific and literary in- stitution, and stated that to apply the fund to the erection and support of an observatory ‘‘ would not be to fulfil bona fide the intention of the testator, nor would it comport with the dignity of the United States to owe such an establishment to foreign eleemosynary means.” The plan of Mr. Robbins was not received with sufficient favor in the Senate to secure its passage, and it was laid on the table by a vote of 20 to 15, on the 25th of February, 1839. Among those who favored the bill were Senators Clay, Davis, Prentiss, Preston, Rives, and Walker, and among those opposed to it were Senators Allen, Bayard, Benton, and Calhoun. | Mr. Adams remarks in his diary, October 26, 1839, that his mind was. “filled with anxiety and apprehension lest the fund should be squan- dered upon cormorants or wasted in electioneering bribery.” He adds: “Tt is hard to toil through life for a great purpose with a conviction that it will bein vain, but possibly seed now sown may bring forth some good fruit hereafter. If I cannot prevent the disgrace of the country by the failure of the testator’s intention, I can leave a record of what I JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 33 have done and what I would have done to accomplish the great design if executed - well.” At the beginning of the Twenty-sixth Congress, December, 1839, Mr. Adams again brought up the subject of the Smithson bequest and had it referred to 1 committee of nine, consisting of Messrs. Adams, Ogle, Shepard, Garland of Virginia, Lewis, Albert Smith, Barnard, Corwin, and Campbell of South Carolia. A memorial was presented to Congress from the Corporation of the city of Washington, expressing great anxiety “tu see the instructions of Smithson carried into effect, believing it impossible to calculate the good which an institution properly founded is susceptible of promoting in the improvement of the intellect, taste, and morals of the country.” It was deemed presumptuous, however, to express an opinion as to what should be the character of the institution. Mr. Hassler, then in charge of the Coast Survey, urged on Mr. Adams the establishment of an astronomical school. On the 5th of March, 1840, Mr. Adams presented an elaborate and extended report to the House of Representatives, reviewing all that had been done relative to the bequest, and presenting the establishment of an astronomical observatory as the best means of carrying out the pur- poses of Smithson. He gave in detail the arguments in favor of this plan, with estimates for carrying it into effect, and an interesting letter from Mr. Airy, the Astronomer Royal of England, relative to the origin, history, uses, and expenses of the famous Greenwich Observatory. Mr. Adams also gave a masterly summary of the progress of astronomical discovery, painted in the most brilliant colors the achievements of men of science, and portrayed in glowing language the future glory and renown of our country to be derived from the application of the Smith- son fund in the manner he proposed. | The impropriety of devoting any portion of the fund to establish a ‘school or college was- strongly urged, and he said, ‘““We should in no case avail ourselves of a stranger’s munificence to rear our children.” It is not clear how the learned and distinguished gentleman reconciled his apparent inconsistency in advocating the use of the fund for the establishment of ‘‘a national observatory to be superior to any other devoted to the same science in any part of the world,” and which would ‘“‘make an impression upon the reputation of the United States through- out the learned and scientific world.” The desire of increasing the brightness of our name in the eyes of other nations, and of effacing a ‘stain he detected upon the national escutcheon on account of our lack of ‘an observatory, rendered him insensible or indifferent to the merits of any other plan for the increase and diffusion of knowledge. He seems to have been wedded to his favorite scheme, and his whole course in Congress in relation to the bequest was governed by it. After provision had been made for astronomical observations by the general government he still advocated no other plan, and even, went so far as to 3 34 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. declare that he would rather see the money of Smithson thrown into the Potomac than to have it devoted to the advance of education. It appears that, without debate or explanation, a section was added to the regular appropriation bill, passed 7th July, 1838, for the support of the United States Military Academy at West Point, by which it was enacted that all the money arising from the bequest of Smithson should be invested, when received, by the Secretary of the Treasury, with the approbation of the President of the United States, in stocks of States bearing not less than five per cent. interest, and that the annual income accruing on the stock should also be reinvested in the same way for the increase of the fund. In accordance with this law, Mr. Levi Woodbury, Secretary of the Treasury, inserted an advertisement in the Washington Globe of August 6, 1838, asking for proposals from those having State stocks to dispose of. A large number of offers were received. Five per cents. of Indiana were offered at par, 98, and 99; of Louisiana, at 98; New York, 102; Maine, 983 and par; Massachusetts, 104; Kentucky, par; of five and a quarter per cents., Tennessee, at 994; of five and a half per cents., Mis- souri, at 102 and par; and of six per cents., Michigan, at par; Virginia, par; Illinois, 104, und Arkansas, 99,4. Mr. Woodbury accepted the offer of Mr. W. W. Corcoran, of the Arkansas bonds, and purchased $500,000 of them for the sum of $499,500. Subsequently he procured $38,000 more bonds of Arkansas, $8,000 Michigan, $56,000 Illinois, and $18,000 Ohio bonds: The two bills of Mr. Robbins and Mr. Adams, representing the univer- sity and the observatory plans, were reported together to Congress. The former was laid on the table, but the latter not acted on, on account of the pressure of other business at the close of the session. In 1841, Mr. Lewis F. Linn, of Missouri, introduced a bill in the Senate to appoint trustees for the investment of the Smithson fund, and for the organization of an institution with a superintendent and six professors, to be nominated by the “ National Institute,” a society which had been formed in Washington for the promotion of science, and many of whose members were anxious to obtain control of the bequest. Mr. Linn pro-. posed that all the collections of art and of natural history owned by the United States should be given to the Smithsonian Institution, but all the buildings, collections, &¢., should be under the supervision of the National Institute. This bill was referred to the Library Committee, and a substitute was reported by Mr. Preston on the 17th February, 1841, providing for the incorporation of the National Institute, and the estab- lishment of a Smithsonian Institution, with a superintendent and six pro- fessors, to be elected by the board of managers of the former, the offi- cers of the institute and the superintendent of the Smithsonian Institu- tion to constitute a board of management of the Smithson fund, to plan JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 35 and erect buildings, procure books, apparatus, collections, &c. It was provided that all works of art, and all books relating thereto, and all col- lectiors and curiosities belonging to the United States were to be trans- ferred to the Smithsonian Institution. The ground known as the Mall was appropriated for the buildings and use of the establishment. Noth- ing resulted however from this proposition. . Through the efforts of Mr. Adams, the act of 7th July, 1838, requir- ing the investment of the Smithson fund in State stocks, was repealed, and by an act of September 11, 1841, the Secretary of the Treasury was directed to invest the accruing interest thereafter only in United States stock. President Tyler, in his message at the opening of the Twenty-seventh Congress, urged the propriety of making a specific application of the funds derived from the will of Smithson, and said he felt confident that “no abatement of the principal would be made should it turn out that ~ the stocks in which the fund had been invested had undergone depre- ciation.” The Senate referred the message to the Library Cominittee, Mr. Pres- ' ton, chairman, and the House to a select committee of nine, of which Mr. Adams was again chairman. Mr. Preston soon after reported the bill he had offered at the previous session for combining the National Institute and the Smithsonian Institution, but this was laid upon the table on the 18th July, 1842. Mr. Adams presented a report and bill in the House on the 12th April, 1842, providing for the incorporation of the Smithsonian Institution; that all the money received from the bequest should be placed to the credit of a fund to be denominated the Smith- sonian fund, to be preserved undiminished and unimpaired, and to bear interest at 6 per cent. per annum. The interest of this fund was to be appropriated for the erection and establishment of an astronomical ob- servatory, the publication of the observations, and of a nautical almanac. About this period memorials were presented to Congress in favor of appropriating the fund for the purpose of awarding annual prizes for the best original essays on the various subjects of the physical sciences, for the establishment of an agricultural school and farm, for organizing a system of simultaneous meteorological observations throughout the Union under the direction of Professor Espy, &c. No definite action was had on any of these propositions, and President Tyler again called the attention of Congress in his message of December 5, 1843, to their neglect of an important duty. The subject was referred to the Joint Library Committee, of which Hon. Rufus Choate was chairman. ' Mr. Tappan, from this committee, reported a bill on the 6th June, 1844, providing that the original amount received as the bequest of Smithson, $508,318.46, be considered as a permanent loan to the United States, at 6 per cent. interest, from the 3d December, 1838, when the same was received into the Treasury; that the interest which accrued to the 1st 36 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. July, 1844, viz, $178,604, be appropriated to the erection of buildings and inclosure of grounds for the Smithsonian Institution ; that the business of the institution should be conducted by a board of twelve managers from different States or Territories ; that a plain and substantial building be erected, with rooms for a museum, library, chemical laboratory, lectures, arboretum; all the objects of natural history belonging to the United States to be transferred to said institution, exchanges of duplicate speci- mens to be made, a superintendent to be appointed to be professor also of agriculture and horticulture, additional professors of natural history, chemistry, astronomy, and‘such other branches as the wants of science may require, “excluding law, physic, or divinity,” experiments to be made to determine the utility of new fruits, plants, and vegetables, and finally students to be admitted to the institution gratuitously. Mr. Adams in February, 1844, succeeded in having a select committee of nine appointed to consider the proper disposition of the fund, and in behalf of this committee made a third elaborate and comprehensive re- port, together with a bill providing for the appropriation of $800,000 as. the Smithson fund, to be permanently invested instock of the United States at 6 per cent. interest, and the income to be devoted, as he had before recommended, for an observatory and nautical almanac. On the 12th December, 1844, Mr. Tappan introduced a bill in the Sen- ate of a similar character to the one he had offered before, but in addi- tion specified that the books to be purchased for a library should con- sist of works on science and the arts, especially such as relate to the ordinary business of life and to various mechanical and other improve- ments and discoveries. In prescribing the duties of professors and lec- turers, special reference was to be had to the productive and liberal arts, improvements. in agriculture, horticulture, and rural economy. Seeds. and plants were to be distributed throughout the country, soils were to be analyzed ; the professor of natural history was to refer in hislectures to the history and habits of useful and injurious animals; the professor of geol- ogy was to give practical instruction in the exploration and working of mines; the professor of architecture was to give instruction as to the best materials and plans for building; the professor of astronomy was to give a course of lectures on navigation and the use of nautical in- struments. It was also provided that works in popular form on the sciences and the aid they bring to labor should be published and dis- tributed. In the discussion to which this bill gave rise in the Senate on the 8th of January, 1845, Mr. Choate made the brilliant speech which is referred to in the North American Review as “a splendid offering on the shrine of literature by one of her most gifted votaries, and one which, in fu- ture times, will render more memorable the day on which it was deliv- ered than that gallant military achievement of which it is the anniver- sary. No prouder monument than this would be needed for his fame.” * * North American Review, vol. 79, p. 459. JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 37 In this famous speech, Mr. Choate remarked that “our sense of duty to the dead, the living, and the unborn who shall live; our justice, our patriotism, our policy, common honesty, common decorum, urge us, are enough to urge us, to go on without the delay of an hour, to appropri- _ate the bounty according to the form of the gift.” He opposed any- thing like the school or college proposed by Mr. Tappan on the ground of its narrow utilitarianism, as being wholly unnecessary and in a great degree useless. It would injure the universities already in existence; it would be exceedingly difficult to secure students; the expense of pro- fessors, books, apparatus, and buildings would secure a pretty energetic diffusing of the fund but not much diffusion of knowledge. He ap- proved of the suggestion that lectures should be delivered, especially during the sessions of Congress, not by professors permanently fixed on annual salaries, but by gentlemen eminent in science and literature, to be invited to Washington under the stimulus and with the ambition of a special and conspicuous retainer. He preferred however that the one simple object of the Institution should be to accumulate a grand and noble public library, one which for variety, extent, and wealth should be equal to any in the world. He claimed that this scheme was the only one that “would prevent the waste of money in jobs, salaries, sine- cures and quackeries, and would embody Smithson’s idea in some tangi- ble form, some exponent of civilization, permanent, palpable, conspicu- ous, useful, and than which nothing was safer, surer, or more unexcep- tionable.” Mr. Choate presented many interesting facts in regard to the public libraries of the world, and argued in his peculiarly forcible and eloquent manner that such a plan as he proposed was within the terms and spirit of the trust. “That directs us to ‘increase and diffuse knowledge among men. And do not the judgments of all the wise; does not the experience of all enlightened states ; does not the whole history of civilization concur to declare that a various and ample library is one of the surest, most constant, most permanent and most economical instrumentalities to in- crease and diffuse knowledge? There it would be, durable as liberty, durable as the Union; a vast storehouse, a vast treasury of all the facts which make up the history of man and of nature, so far as that history has been written; of all the truths which the inquiries and experiences of all the races and ages have found out; of all the opinions that have been promulgated; of all the emotions, images, sentiments, examples, of all the richest and most instructive literatures; the whole past spealk- ing to the present and the future—a silent, yet wise and eloquent teacher.\:*) * > “Tf the terms of the trust then authorize this expenditure, why not make it? Not among the principal, nor yet the least of reasons for doing so, is, that all the while that you are laying out your money, and when you have laid it out, you have the money’s worth, the value re- 38 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. ceived, the property purchased on hand to show for itself and to speak for itself. Suppose the professors provided for in the bill should gather a little circle of pupils, each of whom should carry off with him some small quotient of navigation, or horticulture, or rural economy, and the fund should thus glide away and evaporate in such insensible, inappre- ciable appropriations, how little there would be to testify of it! Whereas here all the while are the books; here is the value; here is the visible property ; here is the oil and here is the light. There is something to point to, if you should be asked to account for it unexpectedly, and something to point to if a traveler should taunt you with the collections which he has seen abroad, and which gild and recommend the absolut- isms of Vienna or St. Petersburgh. * * * “But the decisive argument is, after all, that it is an application the most exactly adapted to the actual literary and scientific wants of the States and the country. I have said that another college is not needed here because there are enough now, and another might do harm as much as good. But that which is wanted for every college, for the whole country, for every studious person, is a well-chosen library, somewhere among us, of three or four hundred thousand books.” Mr. Tappan, in reply, urged that Smithson’s own habits and pursuits should be considered; that it must be remembered that he was an emi- nently practical philosopher, intimately acquainted with chemistry, min- eralogy, geology, and natural history, to the minute study of which he devoted his life. His favorable resort had been the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, and there could be but little doubt that in making his bequest he had in view the establishment of a similar institution. He depre- cated the outlay of a large amount in the purchase of books, and as- serted that they not only did not promote knowledge, but that one-half of those then in the Library of Congress were to be considered as trash. Mr. Levi Woodbury, of New Hampshire, favored the employment of lecturers, and the purchase of a moderate-sized library, but preferred that the management of the bequest should be intrusted to the National Institute, a society already in active operation, created by Congress, and the objects of which were appropriate to the trust. Mr. John J. Orittenden, of Kentucky, thought the purchase of books should be confined to works on science and the arts. Mr. James A. Pearce, of Maryland, concurred in the views of Mr. Choate. Mr. Wm. C. Rives, of Virginia, believed that by knowledge was not merely meant the natural sciences, astronomy, mathematics, &c.; he considered the most important of all the branches of human knowledge that which re- lated to the moral and political relations of man. The field of moral science also embraced a much larger portion of knowledge than the physical sciences. He suggested the ‘ Faculty of letters and sciences” under the auspices of the University of France, as a much better model for the Smithsonian than the Jardin des Plantes. He remarked that it was his ‘firm and solemn conviction that we now have it in our power ! JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. 39 to do more good to this nation in our day and generation, by a judicious and wise application of this $500,000 which has been put into our hands, than by the application of the twenty-five or thirty millions we are in the habit of annually appropriating.” Mr. Choate’s amendments were adopted by the Senate and the bill recommitted to be more fully matured. It was again reported to the Senate on the 2d of January, including Mr. Choate’s plan of a great library. Mr. Woodbury endeavored again to place the Institution under the management of the National Institute, but was opposed by Senators Buchanan, Choate, and Tappan, on the ground that it was anti-republi- : can and anti-democratic to surrender all control by the people’s repre- sentatives in respect to a trust committed to their custody for the people’s benefit, and to place it in the hands of a close body wholly irresponsible to either Congress or the people. Mr. Woodbury replied with warmth that his plan, instead of being antagonistic to Congress, made it more in subordination to it, and placed stronger safeguards against any possible departure from its commands or wishes. He also believed that it would be placing a burden on the Institute rather than conferring a favor upon it. Mr. Buchanan “could imagine no other mode of using the fund” to advantage, than “the purchase of a great library,” and strongly op- posed any connection with the National Institute. Mr. William Allen, of Ohio, expressed his opposition to “any plan whatever for connecting anything called an institution with the public treasury.” He had never known a single instance of a fund of money, charitable or otherwise, being intrusted to the care of an incorporated body of men “that was not squandered and made to fall short of the object of the donor.” He wished to see no institution established in the capital of the United States to teach the American people how to think, and read, and speak, and he therefore opposed the whole project. Mr. Robert J. Walker, of Mississippi, defended the National Institute against the attacks made upon it; showed that it was worthy of and had received the greatest encouragement and most general favor, and claimed that an institution bearing the name of a foreigner never could concentrate in the same degree the affections and confidence of the American people. After some further debate the bill was laid over for several days, but was taken up and passed on the 23d of January, 1845. When it reached the House, a substitute was offered for it by Mr. Robert Dale Owen, of Indiana; but in the hurry of a short session of Congress the whole matter was left undisposed of. , On the opening of the Twenty-ninth Congress, Mr. Owen again offered his bill to establish the Smithsonian Institution, and it was referred to a select committee of seven members, viz, Messrs. Owen, of Indiana, John Q. Adams, of Massachusetts, Timothy Jenkins, of New 40 JAMES SMITHSON AND HIS BEQUEST. York, George P. Marsh, of Vermont, Alexander D. Sims, of South Car- olina, Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, ahd David Wilmot, of Pennsyl- vania. . On the 28th of February, 1846, Mr. Owen, from this select committee, reported an elaborate bill embracing the principal features of Mr. Tap- pan’s bill of the last session, but adding a section providing for a normal branch to give such a thorough scientific and liberal course of instruc- tion as may be adapted to qualify young persons as teachers of our common schools and to qualify students as teachers or professors of the ‘more important branches of natural science. she uf 240 Ls ‘Ge ca t a i* ' } } 4 ’ ’ ooh a. als — ; va) ioe na wv raat APG eaatl o] 7 A 4 i) é e ‘ Ho { a? LA t AN ACCOUNT OF SOME CHEMICAL EXPERI- MENTS ON TABASHEER. From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. LXXXI, for the year 1791, Part 2, p. 868.—Read July 7, 1791. The Tabasheer employed in these experiments was that which Dr. Russet laid before the Society, as specimens of this substance, the evening his Paper upon the subject was read.* There were seven parcels. , No. 1 consisted of Tabasheer extracted from the bamboo by Dr. Russrxt himself. No. 2 had been partly taken from the reed in Dr. Rus- SEL’s presence, and partly brought to him at different times by a person who worked in bamboos. No. 3 was the Tabasheer from Hydrabad ; the finest kind of this substance to be bought. Nos. 4, 5, and 6 all came from Masulapatam, where they are sold at a very low price. These three kinds have been thought to be artificial compositions in imitation of the true Tabasheer, and to be made of calcined bones. No. 7 had no account affixed to it. The Tabasheer from Hydrabad being in the greatest quan- tity, and appearing the most homogeneous and pure, the _ experiments were begun, and principally made, with it. Hydrabad Tabasheer. (No. 3.) § I. (A) This, in its general appearance, very much re- sembled fragments of that variety of calcedony which is known to mineralogists by the name of Cacholong. Some pieces were quite opaque, and absolutely white; but others * See Phil. Trans. Vol. LKXX, p. 283. 2 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. possessed a small degree of transparency, and had a bluish cast. The latter, held before a lighted candle, appeared very pellucid, and of a flame colour. The pieces were of various sizes; the largest of them did not exceed two or three-tenths of an inch cubic. Their shape was quite irregular; some of them bore impressions of the inner part of the bamboo against which they were formed. (B) This Tabasheer could not be broken by pressure be- tween the fingers; but by the teeth it was easily reduced to powder. On first chewing it felt gritty, but soon ground to impalpable particles. (C) Applied to the tongue, it adhered to it by capillary attraction. : (D) It had a disagreeable earthy taste, something like that of magnesia. - (IZ) No light was produced either by cutting it with a knife, or by rubbing two pieces of it together, in the dark; but a bit of this substance, being laid on a hot iron, soon appeared surrounded with a feeble luminous auréole. By being made red hot, it was deprived of this property of shining when gently heated; but recovered it again, on being kept for two months. (Ff) Examined with the microscope, it did not appear dif- ferent from what it does to the naked eye. (G) A quantity of this Tabasheer which weighed 75.7 gr. in air, weighed only 41.1 gr. in distilled water whose tem- perature was 52.5 I’. which makes its specific gravity to be very nearly = 2.188. Mr. Cavenpisu, having tried this same parcel when be- come again quite dry, found its specific gravity to be = 2.169. Treated with water. § II. (A) This Tabasheer, put into water, emitted a num- ber of bubbles of air; the white opaque bits became trans- parent in a small degree only, but the bluish ones nearly as . much so as glass. In this state the different colour pro- WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 3 duced by reflected and by transmitted light was very sensi- ble. (B) Four bits of this substance, weighing Scr while dry and opaque, 4.1 gr., were put into distilled water, and let become transparent; being then taken out, and the un- absorbed water hastily wiped from their surface, they were again weighed, and were found to equal 8.2 gr. In the experiment § I. (GQ), 75.7 gr. of this substance ab- sorbed 69.5 gr. of distilled water. (C) Four bits of Tabasheer, weighing together 3.2 gr. were boiled for 80’ in half an ounce of distilled water in a Florence flask, which had been previously rinced with some of the same fluid. This water, when become cold, did not shew any change on the admixture of vitriolic acid, of acid of sugar, nor of solutions of nitre of silver, or of crystals of soda; yet, on its evaporation, it left a white film on the glass, which could not be got off by washing in cold water, nor by hot marine acid; but which was discharged by warm caustic vegetable alkali, and by long ebullition in water. Upon these bits of Tabasheer, another half ounce of dis- tilled water was poured, and again boiled for about half an hour. This water also on evaporation left a white film on the glass vessel similar to the above. The pieces of Taba- sheer having been dried, by exposure to the air for some days in a warm room, were found to have lost one-tenth of’ a grain of their weight. To ascertain whether the whole of a piece of Tabasheer could be dissolved by boiling in water, a little bit of this substance, weighing three-tenths of a grain, was boiled in 36 ounces of soft water for near five hours consecutively ; but being afterwards dried and weighed, it was not dimin- ished in quantity, nor was it deprived of its taste. With vegetable colours. § III. Some Tabasheer, reduced to fine powder, was boiled for a considerable time in infusions of turnsole, of logwood, S WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. and of dried red cabbage, but produced not the least change in any one of them. At the fire. § IV. (A) A piece of this Tabasheer, thrown into a red hot crucible, did not burn or grow black. Kept red hot for some time, it underwent no visible change; but when cold, it was harder, and had entirely lost its taste. Putinto water it grew transparent, just as it would have done, had it not been ignited. (B) 6.4 gr. of this substance, made red hot in a crucible, were found, upon being weighed as soon as cold, to have lost two-tenths of a grain. This loss appears to have arisen merely from the expulsion of interposed moisture; for these heated pieces, on being exposed to the air for some days, recovered exactly their former weight. (C) A bit of this substance was put into an earthen cru- cible, surrounded with sand, and kept red hot for some time; when cold, it was still white both exteriorly and interiorly. (D) Thrown into some melted red hot nitre, this substance did not produce any deflagration, or seem to suffer any alter- ation. _ (E) A bit exposed on charcoal to the flame of the blow- pipe did not decrepitate or change colour; when first heated it diffused a pleasant smell; then contracted very consider- ably in bulk, and became transparent; but on continuing the heat it again grew white and opaque, but seemed not to shew any inclination to melt per se. Possibly, however, it. may suffer such a semi-fusion, or softening of the whole mass, as takes place in clay when exposed to an intense heat; for when the bit used happened to have cracks, it. separated during its contraction, at these cracks, and the parts receded from each other without falling asunder. If, while the bit of Tabasheer was exposed to the flame, any of the ashes of the coal fell upon it, it instantly melted, and small very fluid bubbles were produced. That the opacity which this substance acquires on continuing to heat WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 5 it after it is become transparent, is not owing to the fusion of its surface by means of some of the ashes of the charcoal settling upon it unobserved, appeared by its undergoing the same change when fixed to the end of a glass tube, in the method of M. pz Saussurz.* With acids. § V. (A) A piece of Tabasheer, weighing 1.2 gr. was first let satiate itself with distilled water; its surface being then wiped dry, it was put into a matrass with some pure white marine acid, whose specific gravity was 1.13. No ef- fervesence arose on its immersion into the acid; nor did this menstruum, even by ebullition, seem to have any action npon it, or itself receive any colour. The acid being evap- orated left only some darl coloured spots on the glass. These spots were dissolved by distilled water. No precipi- tation was produced in this water by vitriolic acid, or by a solution of crystals of soda. The bit of Tabasheer washed with water, and made red hot, had not sustained any loss of weight. The pores of the mass of Tabasheer were filled with water before it was put into the acid, to expel the common air contained in them, and which would have made it im- possible to ascertain with accuracy whether any effervescence was produced on its first contact with the menstruum. (B) Another portion of Tabasheer, weighing 10.2 gr. was boiled in some of the same marine acid. Not the least pre- cipitate was produced on saturating this acid with solution of mild soda. This Tabasheer also, after having been boiled in water, and dried by exposure for some days to the air, was still of its former weight. § VI. This substance seemed in like manner to resist the action of pure white nitrous acid boiled upon it. § VII. (A) A bit of Tabasheer weighing 0.6 gr. was di- gested in some strong white vitriolic acid, which had been * Journal de Physique, Tom. XXVI, p. 409. 6 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. sidad perfectly pure by distillation. It did not seem by this treatment to suffer any change, and after having been freed from all adhering vitriolic acid by boiling in water, it had not undergone any alteration either in its weight or proper- ties. The vitriolic acid afforded no precipitate on being ' saturated with soda. (B) Two grains of Tabasheer reduced to fine powder were made into a paste with some of this same vitriolic acid, and this mixture was heated till nearly dry; it was then digested in distilled water. This water, being filtered, tasted slightly acid, did not produce the least turbidness with solution of soda, and some of it, evaporated, left only a faint black stain on the glass, produced doubtless by the action of the vitriolic acid on a little vegetable matter, which it had re- ceived either from the Tabasheer, or from the paper. The undissolved matter collected, washed, and dried, weighed 1.9 er. § VIII. 2 gr. of Tabasheer, reduced to fine powder, were long digested in a considerable quantity of liquid acid of sugar. The taste of the liquor was not altered; and being saturated with a solution of crystals of soda in distilled water, it did not afford any precipitate. The Tabasheer hav- ing been freed from all adhering acid, by very careful ablu- tion with distilled water, and let dry in the air, was totally unchanged in its appearance, and weighed 1.98 gr. This Tabasheer being gradually heated till red hot, did not become in the least black, or lose much of its weight, a proof that no acid of sugar had fixed in it. With liquid alkalies. § IX. (A) Some liquid caustic vegetable alkali being heated in a phial, Tabasheer was added to it, which dis- solved very readily, and in considerable quantity. When the alkali would not take up any more, it was set by to cool, but was not found next morning to have crystallized, or un- dergone any change, though it had become very concen- WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON, 7 trated, during the boiling, by the evaporation of much of the water. (B) This solution had an alkaline taste, but seemingly with little, if any, causticity. (C) A drop of it changed to green a watery tincture of dried red cabbage. . (D) Some of this solution was exposed in a shallow glass to spontaneous evaporation ina warm room. At the end of a day or two it was converted into a firm, milky jelly. After a few days more, this jelly was become whiter, more opaque, and had dried and cracked into several pieces, and finally it became quite dry, and curled up and separated from the glass. The same change took place when the solution had been diluted with several times its bulk of distilled water, only the jelly was much thinner, and dried into a white powder. Some of this solution, kept for many weeks in a bottle closely stopped, did not become a jelly, or undergo any change. (EZ) A small quantity of this solution was let fall into a proportionably large quantity of spirit of wine, whose spe- cific gravity was .8388. The mixture immediately became turbid, and, on standing, a dense fluid settled to the bottom, and which, when the bottle was hastily inverted, fell through the spirit of wine in round drops, like a ponderous oil. The supernatant spirit of wine being carefully decanted off, some distilled water was added to this thick fluid, by which it was wholly dissolved. This solution, exposed to the air, shewed phenomena exactly similar to those of the undiluted solution (D). The decanted spirit being also left exposed to the air in a shallow glass vessel, did not, after many days, either deposit a sensible quantity of precipitate, or become gelatinous; but having evaporated nearly away, left a few drops of a liquor which made infusion of red cabbage green; and, on the addition of some pure marine acid, effervesced violently. No precipitate fell during this saturation with the acid; nor 8 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. did the mixture on standing become a jelly; and on the total evaporation of the fluid part, a small quantity of mu- riate of tartar only remained. The spirit of wine seems, therefore, to have dissolved merely a portion of superabun- dant alkali present in the mixture, but none of that united with Tabasheer. (F) To different portions of this solution were added some pure marine acid, some pure white vitriolic acid, and some distilled vinegar, each in excess. These acids at first produced neither heat, effervescence, any precipitate, or the least sensible effect, except the vitriolic acid, which threw down a very small quantity of a white matter; but, after standing some days, these mixtures changed into jellies so firm, that the glasses containing them were inverted without their falling out. This change into jelly equally took place whether the mixtures were kept in open or closed vessels, were exposed to the light or secluded from it; nor did it seem to be much promoted by boiling the mixtures. (G) Some solution of mild volatile alkali in distilled water, being added to some of this solution, seemed at the first instant of mixture to have no effect upon it; but in the space of a second or two it occasioned a copious white pre- cipitate. i (H) The flakes remaining on the glasses at (D) and (I) put into marine acid raised a slight effervescence, but did not dissolve. These flakes when taken out of the acid, and well washed, were found, like the original Tabasheer, to be white and opaque when dry; but to become transparent when moistened, and then to shew the blue and flame colour, § II. (A). (I) The jellies (F), diluted with water, and collected on a filter, appeared to be the Tabasheer unchanged. § X. A bit of Tabasheer, weighing two-tenths of a grain, was boiled in 127 gr. of strong caustic volatile alkali for a considerable time ; but after being made red hot, it had not sustained the least diminution of weight. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 9 § XI. (A) 27 gr. of Tabasheer reduced to fine powder, were put into an open tin vessel with 100 gr. of crystals of soda, and some distilled water, and this mixture was made boil for three hours. The clear liquor was then poured off, and the Tabasheer was digested in some pure marine acid; after some time this acid was decanted, and the Tabasheer washed with distilled water, which was then added to the acid. : (B) This Tabasheer was put back into the alkaline solu- tion, which seemed not impaired by the foregoing process, and again boiled for a considerable time. The liquor was then poured from it while hot, and the Tabasheer edulco- rated with some cold distilled water, which was afterwards mixed with this hot solution, in which it instantly caused a precipitation. On heating the mixture it became clear again; but as it cooled it changed wholly into a thin jelly; but in the course of a few days, it separated into two por- tions, the jelly settling in a denser state to the bottom of the vessel, leaving a limpid liquor over it. (C) The Tabasheer remaining (B) was boiled in pure ma- rine acid; the acid was then poured off, and the T'abasheer edulcorated with some distilled water, which was afterwards mixed with the acid. (D) The remaining Tabasheer collected, washed, and dried, weighed 24 gr. and seemed not to be altered. (E) The acid liquors (A and C) were mixed together, and saturated with soda, but afforded no precipitate. (Ff) The alkaline mixture (B) was poured upon a filter, the clear liquor came through, leaving the jelly on the paper. Some of this clear liquor, exposed to the air in a saucer, at the end of some days deposited a small quantity of a gelt atinous matter; after some days more, the whole fluid part exhaled, and the saucer became covered with regular crys- tals of soda, which afforded no precipitate during their solu- tion in vitriolic acid. What had appeared like a jelly while moist, assumed, on drying, the form of a white powder. 10 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. This powder was insoluble in vitriolic acid, and seemed still to be Tabasheer. Some of this clear liquor, mixed with marine acid, effer- vesced; did not afford any precipitate; but, on standing some days, the mixture became slightly gelatinous. (G) Some of the thick jelly remaining on the filter, being boiled in water and in marine acid, appeared insoluble in both, and seemed to agree entirely with the above powder (F). With dry alkalies. § XII. (A) Tabasheer melted on the charcoal at the blow- pipe with soda, with considerable effervescence. When the proportion of alkali was large, the Tabasheer quickly dis- solved, and the whole spread on the coal, soaked into it, and vanished; but, by adding the alkali to the bit of Tabasheer in exceedingly small quantities at a time, this substance was converted into a pearl of clear colourless glass. (B) 5 gr. of Tabasheer, reduced to fine powder, were melted in a platina crucible with 100 gr. of crystals of soda. The mass obtained was white and opaque, and weighed 40.2 gr. Put into an ounce of distilled water, it wholly dissolved. An excess of marine acid let fall into this solution produced an effervescence, and changed it into a jelly. This mixture was stirred about, and then thrown uponafilter. The jelly left on the paper did not dissolve in marine acid by ebulli- tion; collected, washed with distilled water, and dried, it weighed 4.5 gr. and seemed to be the Tabasheer unaltered. The liquor which had come through being saturated with mineral alkali yielded only a very small quantity of a red precipitate, which was the colouring matter of the pink blotting paper through which it had been passed. (C) 10 gr. of Tabasheer, reduced to powder, were mixed with an equal weight of soda, deprived of its water of crys- tallization by heat. This mixture was put into a platina crucible, and exposed to a strong fire for 15’. It was then found converted into a transparent glass of a slight yellow WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. - ft colour. This glass was broken into pieces, and boiled in marine acid. No effervescence appeared; but the glass was dissolved into a jelly. This jelly, collected on a filter, well washed and dried, weighed 7.7 gr. The acid liquor which came through, on saturation with soda, afforded not the least precipitate; but, after standing a day or two, it changed into a thin jelly. This collected on a filter was washed with distilled water, and then boiled in marine acid, but did not dissolve. Being again edulco- rated, and made red hot, it weighed 1.6 gr. The filtered liquor (B) would in all probability have changed similarly to a jelly, had it been kept. These precipitates were analo- gous to those § IX. (I). (D) An equal weight of vegetable alkali and Tabasheer were melted together in the platina crucible. The glass produced was transparent; but it had a fiery taste, and soon attracted the moisture of the air, and dissolved into a thick liquor. But two parts of vegetable alkali, with three of Tabasheer, yielded a transparent glass, which was perma- nent. Treated with other fluxes. \ § XIII. (A) A fragment of Tabasheer put into glass of borax, and urged at the blow-pipe, contracted very. consid- erably in size, the same as when heated per se; after which it continued turning about in the flux, dissolving with great difficulty and very slowly. When the solution was effected, the saline pearl remained perfectly clear and colourless. (B) With phosphoric ammoniac (made by saturating the acid obtained by the slow combustion of phosphorus with caustic volatile alkali) the Tabasheer very readily melted on the charcoal at the pee ee with effervescence, into a white frothy bead. (C) Fused, by the same means, on a plate of platina, with the vitriols of tartar and soda, it canoes entirely to resist their action; the little particles employed continuing to re- volve in the fluid globules without sustaining any sensible 12: ° WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. diminution of size, and the saline beads on cooling assumed their usual opacity. | (D) A bit of Tabasheer was laid on a plate of silver, and a little litharge was put over it, and then melted with the blow-pipe. It immediately acted on the Tabasheer, and covered it with a white glassy glazing. By the addition of more litharge the mass was brought to around bead; though with considerable difficulty. This bead bore melting on the charcoal, without any reduction of the lead, but could not be obtained transparent. (E) The ease with which this substance had melted with vegetable ashes, led to the trial of it with pure calcareous earth. A fragment of Tabasheer, fixed to the end of a bit of glass, was rubbed over with some powdered whiting. As soon as exposed to the flame of the blow-pipe, it melted with considerable effervescence; but could not, even on the charcoal, and with the addition of more whiting, be brought to a transparent state, or reduced into a round bead. Equal weights of Tabasheer and pure calcareous spar, both reduced to fine powder, were irregularly mixed, and exposed in the platina crucible to a strong fire in a forge for 20’; but did not even concrete together. (F) When magnesia was used, no fusion took place at the blow-pipe. (G) Equal parts of Tabasheer, whiting, and earth of alum precipitated by mild volatile alkali, were mixed in a state of powder, and submitted in the platina crucible to a . strong fire for 20’, but were afterwards found unmelted. Examination of the other specimens. No.1. This parcel contained particles of three kinds; some white, of a smooth texture, much resembling the foregoing sort; others of the same appearance, but yellowish; and others greatly similar to bits of dried mould. The white and yellowish pieces were so soft as to be very WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 13 easily rubbed to powder between the fingers. They had a disagreeable taste, something like that of rhubarb. Put into water, the white bits scarcely grew at all transparent ; but the yellow ones became so to a considerable degree. The brown earth-like pieces were harder than the above, had little taste, floated upon water, and remained opaque. Exposed to the blow-pipe, they all charred and grew black; the last variety even burned with a flame. When the vegetable matter was consumed, the pieces remained white, and then had exactly the appearance, and possessed all the properties, of the foregoing Tabasheer from Hydra- bad, and like it melted with soda into a transparent glass. No. II. Also consisted of bits of three sorts. (a) Some white, nearly opaque. (6) A few small very transparent particles, shewing, in an eminent degree, the blue and yellow colour, by the different direction of light. (c) Coarse, brownish pieces of a grained texture. These all had exactly the same taste, hardness, &c., and shewed the same effects at the blow-pipe, as No. I. 27 gr. of this Tabasheer thrown into a red-hot crucible, burned with a yellowish white flame, lost 2.9 gr. in weight, and became so similar to the Hydrabad kind as not to be distinguished from it. Some of this Tabasheer put into a crucible, not made very hot emitted a smell something like tobacco ashes, but not the kind of perfume discovered in that from Hydrabad, § IV. (E). No. IV. All the pieces of this parcel were of one appearance, and a good deal resembled, in their texture, the third variety of No. Il. Their colour was white; their hardness such as very difficultly to be broken by pressure between the fingers. 14 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. In the mouth they immediately fell to a pulpy powder, and had no taste. : A bit exposed on the charcoal to the blow-pipe became black, melted like some vegetable matters, caught flame, and burnt to a botryoid inflated coal, which soon entirely consumed away, and vanished. A piece put into water fell to a powder. The mixture being boiled, this powder dissolved, and turned the whole to a jelly. ) These properties are exactly those of common starch. No... ¥; Agreed entirely with No. IV. in appearance, properties, and nature. No. VI. The pieces of this parcel were white, quite opaque, and considerably hard. Their taste and effects at the blow-pipe, were perfectly similar to those of the Hydrabad kind. Noy Vi. Much resembled No. VI. only was rather softer, and seemed to blacken a little when first heated. With fluxes at the blow-pipe it shewed the same effects as all the above. Conclusion. 1. It appears from these experiments, that all the parcels, except No. IV. and V. consisted of genuine Tabasheer; but that those kinds, immediately taken from the plant, con- tained a certain portion of a vegetable matter, which was wanting in the specimens procured from the shops, and which had probably been deprived of this admixture by calcination, of which operation a partial blackness, observ- able on some of the pieces of No. III. and VI. are doubtless the traces. This accounts also for the superior hardness and diminished tastes of these sorts. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 15 2. The nature of this substance is very different from what might have been expected in the product of a vegeta- ble. Its indestructibility by fire; its total resistance to acids; its uniting by fusion with alkalies in certain propor- tions into a white opaque mass, in others into a transparent permanent glass; and its being again separable from these compounds, entirely unchanged by acids, &c., seem to afford the strongest reasons to consider it as perfectly identical with common siliceous earth. Yet from pure quartz it may be thought to differ in some material particulars; such as in its fusing with calcareous earth, in some of its effects with liquid alkalies, in its taste, and its specific gravity. But its taste may arise merely from its divided state, for chalk and powdery magnesia both have tastes, and tastes which are very similar to that of pure Tabasheer; but when these earths are taken in the denser state of crystals, they are found to be quite insipid; so Tabasheer, when made more solid by exposure to a pretty strong heat, is no longer perceived, when chewed, to act upon the palate, § IV. (A). And, on accurate comparison, its effects with liquid alka- ‘lies have not appeared peculiar; for though it was found on trial, that the powder of common flints, when boiled in some of the same liquid caustic alkali employed at § IX. (A) was scarcely at all acted upon; and that the very little which was dissolved, was soon precipitated again, in the form of minute flocculi, on exposing the solution to the air, and was immediately thrown down on the admixture of an acid; yet the precipitate obtained from liquor silicum by marine acid was discovered, even when dry to dissolve readily in this alkali, but while still moist to do so very copiously, even without the assistance of heat; and some of this solution, thus saturated with siliceous matter by ebullition, being ex- posed to the air in a shallow glass, became a jelly by the next day, and the day after dried, and cracked, &c., exactly like the mixtures § IX. (D and E). And another portion of this solution mixed with marine acid afforded no precipi- 16 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. tate, and remained perfectly unaffected for two days; but on the third it was converted into a firm jelly like that § TX. (F). : As gypsum is found to melt per seat the blow-pipe, though refractory to the strongest heat that can be made in a fur- nace, it was thought that possibly siliceous and calcareous earths might flux together by this means, though they resist the utmost power of common fires; but experiment showed that in this respect quartz did not agree with Tabasheer. But this difference seems much too likely to depend on the admixture of a little foreign matter in the latter body, to admit of its being made the grounds for considering it as a new substance, in opposition to so many more material points in which it agrees with silex. Nor can much weight be laid on the inferior specific grav- ity of a body so very porous. The infusibility of the mix- ture § XIII. (G) depended also, probably, either on an inaccuracy in the proportions of the earths to each other, or on a deficiency of heat. 8. Of the three bamboos which were not split before the Royal Society, I have opened two. The Tabasheer found in them agreed entirely in its properties with that of No. I. and IT. It was observed that all the Tabasheer in the same joint was exactly of the same appearance. In one joint it was all similar to the yellowish sort No. I. In another joint of the same bamboo, it resembled the variety (c) of No. II. Prob- ably, therefore, the parcels from Dr. RussELu, containing each several varieties of this substance, arose from the pro- duce of many joints having been mixed together. 4, The ashes, obtained by burning the bamboo, boiled in marine acid, left a very large quantity of a whitish insolu- ble powder, which, fused at the blow-pipe with soda, effer- vesced and formed a transparent glass. Only the middle part of the joints was burned, the knots were sawed off, lest being porous, Tabasheer might be mechanically lodged in them. However, the great quantity of this remaining WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. - 17 substance shews it to be an essential, constituent part of the wood. | The ashes of common charcoal, digested in marine acid, left in the same manner an insoluble residuum which fused with soda with effervescence, aud formed glass; but the proportion of this matter to the ashes was greatly less than in the foregoing case. 5. Since the above experiments were made, a singular circumstance has presented itself. A green bamboo, cut in the hot-house of Dr. Pircarrn, at Islington, was judged to contain Tabasheer in one of its joints, from a rattling noise discoverable on shaking it; but being split by Sir Josrmpu Banks, it was found to contain, not ordinary Tabasheer, but a solid pebble, about the size of half a pea. Externally this pebble was of an irregular rounded form, of a dark-brown or black colour. Internally it was reddish brown, of a close dull texture, much like some martial sili- ceous stones. In one corner there were shining particles, which appeared to be crystals, but too minute to be distin- guished even with the microscope. This substance was so hard as to cut glass! A fragment of it exposed to the blow-pipe on the char- coal did not grow white, contract in size, melt, or undergo any change. Put into borax it did not dissolve, but lost its colour, and tinged the flux green. With soda it effervesced, and formed a round bead of opaque black glass. These two beads, digested in some perfectly pure and white marine acid, only partially dissolved, and tinged this menstruum of a greenish yellow colour; and from this so- lution Prussite of tartar, so pure as not, under many hours, to produce a blue colour with the above pure marine acid, instantly threw down a very copious Prussian blue. P. 8.—In ascertaining the specific gravity of the Hydra- bad Tabasheer, § I. (G), great care was taken in both the experiments that every bit was thoroughly penetrated with the water, and transparent to its very centre, before its weight in the water was determined. 18 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. A CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME CALAMINES. From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. XCIII, page 12.—Read November, 18, 1802. Notwithstanding the experiments of Bereman and others, on those ores of zine which are called calamine, much uncer- tainty still subsisted on the subject of them. Their consti- tution was far from decided, nor was it even determined whether all calamines were of the same species, or whether there were several kinds of them. The Abbé Haty, so justly celebrated for his great knowl- edge in crystallography and mineralogy, has adhered, in his late work,* to the opinions he had before advanced,f that calamines were all of one species, and contained no carbonic acid, being a simple calx of zinc, attributing the effervescence which he found some of them to produce with acids, to an accidental admixture of carbonate of lime. The following experiments were made to obtain a more certain knowledge of these ores; and their results will show the necessity there was for their farther investigation, and how wide from the truth have been the opinions adopted concerning them. Calamine from Bleyberg. a. The specimen which furnished the subject of this article, was said by the German of whom it was purchased, to have come from the mines of Bleyberg in Carinthia. It was in the form of a sheet stalactite, spread over small fragments of limestone. It was not however at all crys- talline, but of the dull earthy appearance of chalk, though, on comparison, of a finer grain and closer texture. It was quite white, perfectly opaque, and adhered to the * Traité de Mineralogie, Tome IV. ; ¢ Journal des Minés. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 19 tongue; 68.0 grs. of it, in small bits, immersed in distilled water, absorbed 19.8 grs. of it, = 0.29. It admitted of being scraped by the nail though with some difficulty: scraped with a knife, it afforded no light. 68.1 grs. of it, broken into small pieces, expelled 19.0 grs. of. distilled water from a stopple bottle. Hence its density = 3.584. In another trial, 18.96 grs. at a heat of 65° FAHRENHEIT, displaced 5.27 grs. of distilled water; hence the density = 3.598. The bits, in both cases, were entirely penetrated with water. b. Subjected to the action of the blowpipe on the coal, it became yellow the moment it was heated, but recovered its pristine: whiteness on being let cool. This quality, of tem- porarily changing their colour by heat, is common to most, if not all, metallic oxides; the white growing yellow, the yellow red, the red black. | Urged with the blue flame, it became extremely friable ; spread yellow flowers on the coal; and, on continuing the fire no very long time, entirely exhaled. If the flame was directed against the flowers, which had settled on the coal, they shone with a vivid light. A bit fixed to the end of a slip of glass, wasted nearly as quickly as on the coal. It dissolved in borax and microcosmic salt, with a slight effervescence, and yielded clear colourless glasses; but which became opaque on cooling, if over saturated. Car- bonate of soda had not any action on it. c. 68.0 grs. of this calamine dissolved in dilute vitriolic acid with a brisk effervescence, and emitted 9.2 grs. of car- bonic acid. The solution was white and turbid, and on standing deposited a white powder, which, collected on a small filter of gauze paper, and well edulcorated and let dry, weighed only 0.86 gr. This sediment, tried at the blowpipe, melted first into an opaque white matter, and then partially reduced into lead. It was therefore, probably, a mixture of vitriol of lead and vitriol of lime. The filtered solution, gently exhaled to dryness, and kept over @ spirit-lamp till the water of crystallization of the ° 20 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. salt and all superfluous vitriolic acid were driven off, af- forded 96.7 grs. of perfectly dry, or arid,* white salt. On re-solution in water, and crystallization, this saline matter proved to be wholly vitriol of zinc, excepting an inappre- tiable quantity of vitriol of lime in capillary crystals, due, without doubt, to a slight and accidental admixture of some portion of the calcareous fragments on which this calamine had been deposited. Pure martial prussiate of tartar, threw down a white precipitate from the solution of this. salt. In another experiment, 20.0 grs. of this calamine afforded 28.7 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc. d. 10 grs. of this calamine were dissolved in pure marine acid, with heat. On cooling, small capillary crystals of muriate of lead formed in the solution. This solution was precipitated by carbonate of soda, and the filtered liquor let exhale slowly in the air; but it furnished only crystals of muriate of soda. e. 10 grs. dissolved in acetous acid without leaving any residuum. By gentle evaporation, 20.3 grs. = 2.03, of ace- tite of zinc, in the usual hexagonal plates, were obtained. These crystals were permanent in the air, and no other kind of salt could be perceived amongst them. Neither solution of vitriolated tartar, nor vitriolic acid, occasioned the slightest turbidness in the solution of these crystals, either immediately or on standing; a proof that. the quantity of lime and lead in this solution, if any, was excessively minute. f. A bit of this calamine, weighing 20.6 grs. being made red hot in a covered tobacco-pipe, became very brittle, di- viding on the slightest touch into prisms, like those of starch, and lost 5.9 grs. of its weight = 0.286. After this, it dissolved slowly and difficultly in vitriolic acid, without any effervescence. * Dry, as opposed to wet or damp, which are only degrees of each other, _ merely implies free from mechanically admixed water. Arid, may be ap- propriated to express the state of being devoid of combined water. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 21 According to these experiments, this calamine consists of Calx of zine = 2 - 0.714 Carbonic acid = = - 0.135 Water = “ = - 0.151 1.000. The carbonates of lime and lead in it are mere accidental admixtures, and in too small quantity to deserve notice. Calamine from Somersetshire. a. This calamine came from Mendip Hills in Somerset- shire. It had o Die rtaillniod form; was of a donso crystalline texture; semitransparent at its edges, and in its small frag- ments; and upon the whole very similar, in its general appearance, to calcedony. It was tinged, exteriorly, brown; but its interior colour was a greenish yellow. It had considerable hardness; it admitted however of being scraped by a knife to a white powder. 56.8 grs. of it displaced 18.1 grs. of water, at a tempera- ture of 65° Faurenueit. Hence its density = 4.336. b. Exposed to the blowpipe, it became opaque, more yellow, and friable; spread flowers on the coal, and con- sequently volatilized, but not with the rapidity of the foregoing kind from Bleyberg. It dissolved in borax and microcosmic salt, with efferves- cence, yielding colourless plane Carbonate of soda had no action on it. ec. It dissolved in vitriolic acid with a brisk effervescence; and 67.9 grs. of it emitted 24.5 grs. = 0.860, of carbonic acid. This solution was colourless; and no residuum was left. By evaporation, it afforded only vitriol of zinc, in pure limpid crystals. d. 23.0 grs. in small bits, made red hot in a covered tobacco-pipe, lost 8.1 grs. = 0.352. It then dissolved slowly 22 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. and difficultly in vitriolic acid, without any emission of car- bonic acid; and, on gently exhaling the solution, and heat- ing the salt obtained, till the expulsion of all superabundant vitriolic acid and all water, 29.8 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc were obtained. This dry salt was wholly soluble again in water; and solution of pure martial prussiate of soda oc- casioned a white precipitate in it. This calamine hence consists of Carbonic acid : = = 0.852 Calx of zine - = - 0.648 1.000. Calamine from Derbyshire. a. This calamine consisted of a number of small crystals, about the size of tobacco-seeds, of a pale yellow colour, which appeared, from the shape of the mass of them, to have been deposited on the surface of crystals of carbonate of lime, of the form of Fig. 28, Plate IV. of the Cristallo- graphie of Romé pr L’Iste. The smallness of these calamine crystals, and a want of sharpness, rendered it impossible to determine their form with certainty; they were evidently, however, rhomboids, whose faces were very. nearly, if not quite, rectangular, and which were incomplete along their six intermediate edges, . apparently like Fig. 78, Plate IV. of Romé pr L’Isue. 22.1 grs. of these crystals, at a heat of 57° Faurenueit, displaced 5.1 grs. of water, which gives their density = 4.333. Heat did not excite any electricity in these crystals. b. Before the blowpipe, they grew more yellow and opaque, and spread flowers on the coal. They dissolved wholly in borax and microcosmic salt, with effervescence. _ c. 22.0 grs. during their solution in vitriolic acid, effer- vesced, and lost 7.8 grs. of carbonic acid = 0.854. This solution was colourless, and afforded 26.8 grs. of arid vitriol of zine, which, redissolved in water, shot wholly into clear colourless prisms of this salt. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 23 d. 9.2 grs. of these crystals, ignited in a covered tobacco- pipe, lost 3.2 grs. = 0.38478 ; hence, these crystals consist of Carbonic acid ~ = me 0.848 Calx of zinc = = -- 0.652 1.000. Electrical Calamine. The Abbe Haty has considered this kind as differing from the other calamines only in the circumstance of being in distinct crystals; but it has already appeared, in the instance of the Derbyshire calamine, that all crystals of calamine are not electric by heat, and hence, that it is not merely to being in this state that this species owes the above quality. And the following experiments, on some crystals of electric calamine from Regbania in Hungary, can leave no doubt of its being a combination of calx of zine with quartz; since the quantity of quartz obtained, and the per- fect regularity and transparency of these crystals, make it impossible to suppose it a foreign admixture in them. a. 23.45 grs. of these Regbania crystals, displaced 6.8 grs. of distilled water, from a stopple-bottle, at the temperature of 64° Faurenugit; their specific gravity is therefore = 8.434. The form of these crystals is represented in the annexed Figure. ace ot". @eé—= 150°: eo — a d= ile". 94 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. They were not scratched by a pin; a knife marked them. b. One of these crystals, exposed to the flame of the blow- pipe, decrepitated and became opaque, and shone with a green light, but seemed totally iufusible. Borax and microcosmice salt dissolved these crystals, with- out any effervescence, producing clear colourless glasses. Carbonate of soda had little if any action on them. c. According to Mr. PELLETIER’s experiments* on the calamine of Fribourg in Brisgaw, which is undoubtedly of this species, its composition is, Quartz - - - 0.50 Calx of zine - - - 0.38 Water - - - 0.12 ¥ 1.00. The experiments on the Regbania crystals have had different results; but, though made on much smaller quan- tities, they will perhaps not be found, on repetition, less in conformity with nature. 23.45 grs. heated red hot in a covered crucible, decrepi- tated a little, and became opaque, and lost 1.05 gr. but did not fall to powder or grow friable. It was found that this matter was not in the least deprived of its electrical quality by being ignited; and hence, while hot, the fragments of these decrepitated crystals clung together, and to the cruci- ble. d, 22.2 grs. of these decrepitated crystals, = 23.24 grs. of the original crystals, in a state of impalpable powder, being digested over a spirit-lamp with diluted vitriolic acid, showed no effervescence; and after some time, the mixture became a jelly. Exhaled to dryness, and ignited slightly, to expel the superfluous vitriolic acid, the mass weighed 87.5 grs. On extraction of the saline part by distilled water, a fine powder remained, which, after ignition, weighed 5.8 grs. and was quartz. * Journal de Physique, Tome XX. p 424. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 25 The saline solution afforded on crystallization, only vitriol of zine. ; These crystals therefore consist of Quartz - - - - 0.250 Calx of zine - - - 0.683 Water - < - - 0.044 0.977 Loss - - : - 0.023 . 1.000. The water is most probably not an essential element of this calamine, or in it in the state of, what is improperly called, water of crystallization, but rather exists in the crys- tals in fluid drops interposed between their plates, as it often is in crystals of nitre, of quartz, &c. Its small quantity, and the crystals not falling to powder on its expulsion, but retaining almost perfectly their original solidity, and spath- ose appearance in the places of fracture, and, above all, preserving their electrical quality wholly unimpaired, which would hardly be the case after the loss of a real element of their constitution, seem to warrant this opinion. If the water is only accidental in this calamine, its com- position, from the above experiments, will be Quartz - - : - 0.261 Calx of zine - - - 0.739 1.000. I have found this species of calamine amongst the pro- ductions of Derbyshire, in small brown crystals, deposited, together with the foregoing small crystals of carbonate of zinc, on crystals of carbonate of lime. Their form seems, as far as their minuteness and compression together would allow of judging, nearly or quite the same as that of those from Regbania; and the least atom of them immediately evinces its nature, on being heated, by the strong electricity it acquires. On their solution in acids, they leave quartz. 26 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. OBSERVATIONS. Chemistry is yet so new a science, what we know of it bears so small a proportion to what we are ignorant of, our knowledge in every department of it is so incomplete, so broken, consisting so entirely of isolated points thinly scat- tered like Inrid specks on a vast field of darkness, that no researches can be undertaken without producing some facts, leading to some consequences, which extend beyond the boundaries of their immediate object. 1. The foregoing experiments throw light on the propor- tions in which its elements exist in vitriol of zinc, 23.0 grs. of the Mendip Hill calamine, produced 29.8 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc. These 28.0 grs. of calamine contained 14.9 ers. of calx of zinc; hence, this metallic salt, in an arid state, consists of exactly equal parts of calx of zine and vitri- olic acid. This inference is corroborated by the results of the other experiments: 68.0 grs. of the Bleyberg calamine, contain- ing 48.6 grs. of calx of zinc, yielded 96.7 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc; and, in another trial, 20.0 grs. of this ore, contain- ing 14.2 grs. of calx of zine, produced 28.7 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc. The mean of these two cases, is 62.7 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc, from 81.4 grs. of calx of zinc, | In the experiment with the crystals of carbonate of zine from Derbyshire, 14.85 grs. of calx of zine furnished indeed only 26.8 grs. of arid vitriol of zinc; a deficiency of about zip, occasioned probably by some small inaccuracy of ma- nipulation. 2. When the simplicity found in all those parts of nature which are sufficiently known to discover it is considered, it appears improbable that the proximate constituent parts of bodies should be united in them, in the very remote rela- tions to each other in which analyses generally indicate them; and, an attention to the subject has led me to the opinion that such is in fact not the case, but that, on the contrary, they are universally, as appears here with respect WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. a7 to arid vitriol of zinc, fractions of the compound of very low denominators. Possibly in few cases exceeding five. The success which has appeared to attend some attempts to apply this theory, and amongst others, to the composi- tions of some of the substances above analysed, and espe- cially to the calamine from Bleyberg, induces me to venture to dwell here a little on this subject, and state the composi- tion of this calamine which results from the system, as, besides contributing perhaps to throw some light on the true nature of this ore, it may be the means likewise of presenting the theory under circumstances of agreement with experiment, which from the surprising degree of near- ness, and the trying complexity of the case, may seem to entitle it to some attention. From this calamine, containing, according to the results of the experiments on the Mendip Hill kind, too small a quantity of carbonic acid to saturate the whole of the calx of zine in it, and from its containing much too large a por- tion of water to- be in it in the state of mere moisture or dampness, it seems to consist of two matters; carbonate of zinc, and a peculiar compound of zine and water, which may be named hydrate of zine. By the results of the analysis of the Mendip Hill cala- mine, corrected by the theory, carbonate of zinc appears to consist of Carbonic acid - - ~ 4 Calx of zine = = < Deducting from the calx of zine in the Bleyberg cala- mine, that portion which corresponds, on these principles, to its yield of carbonic acid, the remaining quantity of calx of zinc and water are in such proportions as to lead, from the theory, to consider hydrate of zine as composed of Calx of zine - - = Z Water, or rather ice - - And, from these results, corrected by the theory, I consider Bleyberg calamine as consisting of Carbonate of zine s - Er Hydrate of zine - . i ole exfeo 28 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. The test of this hypothesis, is in the quantities of the re- mote elements which analysis would obtain from a calamine thus composed. The following table will show how very insignificantly the calamine compounded by the theory, would differ in this respect from the calamine of nature. 1000 parts of the compound salt of carbonate and hydrate of zinc consist of Carbonic 400 == - = = — 188} Carbonate of zinc 400 = 38 Calx of 400 x2 zing == ——"' = 2663 y = - - —716} Calx of zinc = SOOKE == 450 Hydrate of zinc = 600 4 P 600 Ice - - =a . - - 150 1000. Great as is the agreement between the quantities of the last column and those obtained by the analysis of the Bleyberg calamine, it would be yet more perfect, probably, had there been, in this instance, no sources of fallacy but those attached to chemical operations, such as errors of weighing, waste, &c., but the differences which exist are owing, in some measure at least, to the admixture of car- bonate of lime and carbonate of lead, in the calamine analysed, and also to some portion of water, which is un- doubtedly contained, in the state of moisture, in so porous and bibulous a body. It has also appeared, in the experiments on the Mendip Hill calamine, that acids indicate a greater quantity of car- bonic acid than fire does, by 7235. If we make this deduc- tion for dissolved water, it reduces the quantity of carbonic acid in the Bleyberg calamine, to 0.1821. If we assume this quantity of carbonic acid as the datum to calculate, on this system, the composition of the calamine from Bleyberg, we shall obtain the following results : WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. _ 29 Compound salt, of carbonate of zine and hydrate of zine : “ = - - 990.3 Water in the state of moisture 3 - 2.5 Carbonate of lime and carbonate of lead = i 1000.0 It may be thought some corroboration of the system here offered, that, if we admit the proportions which it indicates, the remote elements of this ore, while they are regular parts of their immediate products, by whose subsequent union this ore is engendered, are also regular fractions of the ore itself: thus, The carbonic acid = < = 5 The water = ss 2 — a; The calx of zine - z mes fs 60 : ’ Hereby displaying that sort of regularity, in every point of view of the object, which so wonderfully characterises the works of nature, when beheld in their true light. If this calamine does consist of carbonate of zine and hydrate of zinc, in the regular proportions above supposed, little doubt can exist of its being a true chemical combina- tion of these two matters, and not merely a mechanical mixture of them in a pulveruleht state; and, if so, we may indulge the hope of some day meeting with this ore in regular crystals. If the theory here advanced has any foundation in truth the discovery will introduce a degree of rigorous accuracy and certainty into chemistry, of which this science was thought to be ever incapable, by enabling the chemist, like: the geometrician, to rectify by calculation the unavoidable errors of his manual operations, and by authorising him to eliminate from the essential elements of a compound, those products of its analysis whose quantity cannot be reduced to any admissible proportion. A certain knowledge of the exact proportions of the constituent principles of bodies, may likewise open to our view harmonious analogies between the constitutions of 30 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. relgted objects, general laws, &c., which at present totally escape us. In short, if it is founded in truth, its enabling the application of mathematics to chemistry, cannot but be productive of material results.* 3. By the application of the foregoing theory to the experiments on the electrical calamine, its elements will appear to be, Quartz - - - - a Calx of zinc - - - 3 A small quantity of the calamine having escaped the action of the vitriolic acid, and remained undecomposed, will account for the slight excess in the weight of the quartz. 4, The exhalation of these calamines at the blowpipe, and the flowers which they diffuse round them on the coal, are probably not to be attributed to a direct volatilization of them. It is more probable that they are the consequences of the disoxidation of the zine calx, by the coal and the inflammable matter of the flame, its sublimation ina metal- lic state, and instantaneous recalcination. And this alter- nate reduction and combustion, may explain the peculiar phosphoric appearance exhibited by calces of zine at the blowpipe. The apparent sublimation of the common flowers of zine at the instant of their production, though totally unsublim- able afterwards, is certainly likewise but a deceptious appearance. The reguline zinc, vaporized by the heat, rises from the crucible as a metallic gas, and is, while in this state, converted to a calx. The flame which attends the process is a proof of it; for flame is a mass of vapour, ignited by the production of fire within itself. The fibrous form of the flowers of zinc, is owing to a crystallization of the calx while in mechanical suspension in the air, like that which takes place with camphor, when, after having been sometime inflamed, it is blown out. A moment’s reflection must evince, how injudicious is the * It may be proper to say, that the experiments have been stated precisely as they turned out, and have not been in the least degree bent to the system. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 31 common opinion, of crystallization requiring a state of solu- tion in the matter; since it must be evident, that while solution subsists, as long as a quantity of fluid admitting of it is present, no crystallization can take place. The only requisite for this operation, is a freedom of motion in the masses which tend to unite, which allows them to yield to the impulse which propels them together, and to obey that sort of polarity which occasions them to present to each other the parts adapted to mutual union. No state so com- pletely affords these conditions as that of mechanical suspension in a fluid whose density is so great, relatively to their size, as to oppose such resistance to their descent in it as to occasion their mutual attraction to become a power superior to their force of gravitation. It is in these circum- stances that the atoms of matters find themselves, when, on the separation from them of the portion of fluid by which they were dissolved, they are abandoned in a disengaged state in the bosom of a solution; and hence it is in satu- rated solutions sustaining evaporation, or equivalent cooling, and free from any perturbing motion, that regular crystalli- zation is usually effected. | But those who are familiar with chemical operations, know the sort of agglutination which happens between the parti- cles of subsided very fine precipitates; occasioning them, on a second diffusion through the fluid, to settle again much more quickly than before, and which is certainly a crystal- lization, but under circumstances very unfavourable to its . perfect performance. 5. No calamine has yet occurred to me which was a real, uncombined, calx of zinc. If such, as a native product, should ever be met with in any of the still unexplored parts of the earth, or exist amongst the unscrutinized possessions of any cabinet, it will easily be known, by producing a quantity of arid vitriol of zine exactly double its own weight; while the hydrate of zinc, should it be found single, or uncombined with the carbonate, will yield, it is evident, 1.5 its weight of this arid salt. 82 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. “ACCOUNT OF A DISCOVERY OF NATIVE MINIUM. From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. XOVI, Part I, 1806, p. 267.—Read April 24, 1806. IN A LETTER TO THE RIGHT HON. SIR JOSEPH BANKS, K. B. P. R. S. My Dear Sir: I beg leave to acquaint you with a dis- covery which I have lately made, as it adds a new, and perhaps it may be thought an interesting, species to the ores of lead. I have found minium native in the earth. It is disseminated in small quantity, in the substance of a compact carbonate of zinc. Its appearance in general is that of a matter in a nalgene lent state, but in places it shows to a lens a flaky and crys- talline texture. Tts colour is like that of factitious minium, a vivid red with a cast of yellow. Gently heated at the blowpipe it assumes a darker colour, but on cooling it returns to its original red. At a strongor heat it melts to litharge. Onthe charcoal it reduces to lead. In dilute white acid of nitre, it becomes of a coffee colour. On the addition of a little sugar, this brown calx dissolves, and produces a colourless solution. By putting it into marine acid with a little leaf gold, the gold is soon intirely dissolved. When it is inclosed in a small bottle with marine acid, and a little bit of paper tinged by turnsol is fixed to the cork, the paper in a short time entirely loses its blue colour, and becomes white. A strip of common blue paper, whose colouring matter is indigo, placed in the same situation undergoes the same change. © WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 33 The very small quantity which I possess of this ore, and ‘the manner in which it is scattered amongst another sub- stance, and blended with it, have not allowed of more qualities being determined, but I apprehend these to be sufficient to establish its nature. ° This native minium seems to be produced by the decay of a galena, which I suspect to be itself a secondary pro- duction from the metallization of white carbonate of lead by hepatic gas. This is particularly evident in a specimen of this ore which I mean to send to Mr. GREVILLE, as soon as I can find an opportunity. In one part of it there is a cluster of large crystals. Having broken one of these, it proved to be converted into minium to a considerable thick- ness, while its centre is still galena. Ian, &e., JAMES SMITHSON. OassELL In HeEssxz, March 2d, 1806. From the Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XXXVIII, 1811, p. 34, After I had communicated to the president the account of the discovery of native minium, printed in the Philo- sophical Transactions for 1806, I learned that this ore came from the lead mines of Breylau in Westphalia. 84 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. ON QUADRUPLE AND BINARY COMPO UNDS, PARTICULARLY SULPHURETS. From the Philosophical Magazine, London, Vol. XXIX, 1807, p. 275. Read December 24, 1807. A paper, by Mr. Smithson, on quadruple and binary com- pounds, particularly the sulphurets, was read. The author seemed to doubt the propriety of the distinction, or rather the existence, of quadruple compounds, believed that only two substances could enter as elements in the composition of one body, and contended that in cases of quadruple com- pounds, a new and very different substance was formed, which had very little relation to the radical or elementary principles of which it was believed to be composed. This opinion he supported by reference to the sulphurets of lead (galena) and of antimony, and to the facts developed by crystallography. In the latter science he took occasion to correct and confirm some remarks of his in the Transac- tions for 1804, on different crystals, which he acknowledged have not hitherto been found in nature. ON TIE COMPOSITION OF THE COMPOUND SUL- PHURET FROM IIUEL BOYS, AND AN AC- COUNT OF ITS CRYSTALS. From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. XCVIII, Part I, 1808, p. 55.—Read January 28, 1808. It is but very lately that I have seen the Philosophical Transactions for 1804, and become acquainted with the two papers on the compound sulphuret of lead, antimony, and copper contained in the first part of it, which circumstance WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 85 has prevented my offering sooner a few observations on Mr. Hatouztr’s experiments, which I deem essential towards this substance being rightly considered, and indeed the principles of which extend to other chemical compounds; and also giving an account of the form of this compound sulphuret, as that which has been laid before the Society is very materially inaccurate and imperfect. We have no real knowledge of the nature of a compound substance till we are acquainted with its proximate ele- ments, or those matters by whose direct or immediate union it is produced ; for these only are its true elements. Thus, though we know that vegetable acids consist of oxygene, hydrogene, and carbon, we are not really acquainted with their composition, because these are not their. proximate, that is, are not their elements, but are the elements of their elements, or the elements of these. It is evident what would be our acquaintance with sulphate of iron; for ex- ample, did we only know that a crystal of ‘it consisted of iron, sulphur, oxygene, and hydrogene; or of carbonate of lime, if only that it was a compound of lime, carbon or diamond, and oxygene. In fact, totally dissimilar sub- stances may have the same ultimate elements, and even pro- bably in precisely the same proportions; nitrate of ammo- nia, and hydrate of ammonia, or crystals of caustic volatile alkali,* both ultimately consist of oxygene, hydrogene, and azote. ? It is not probable that the present ore is a direct quad- ruple combination of the three metals and sulphur, that these, in their simple states, are its immediate component parts; it is much more credible that it is a combination of the three sulphurets of these metals. On this presumption I have made experiments to deter- mine the respective proportions of these sulphurets in it. I have found 10 grains of galena, or sulphuret of lead, to produce 12.5 grains of sulphate of lead. Ilence the 60.1 SaaS eneermemmee * Fourcroy, Syst. des Con. Chem. t. I. p. 88. 86 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. grains of sulphate lead, which Mr. Harcuert obtained, cor- respond to 48.08 grains of sulphuret of lead. ° T have found 10 grains of sulphuret of antimony to afford 11.0 grains of precipitate from muriatic acid by water. Hence 81.5 grains of this precipitate are equal to 28.64 grains of sulphuret of antimony. The want of sulphuret of copper has prevented my de- termining the relation between it and black oxide of copper, but this omission is, it is evident, immaterial, as the quan- tity of this sulphuret in the ore must be the complement of the sum of the two others. But as the iron is a foreign adventitious substance in this ore, it follows that the foregoing quantities are the products of only 96.65 grains of it. 100 parts of the ore are there- fore composed of Sulphuret of lead - . 49.7 Sulphuret of antimony - - 29.6 Sulphuret of copper - - 20.7 | 100.0 It is impossible not to be struck with the trifling altera- tion which these quantities require to reduce them to very simple proportions, or to think it a very great violation of probability to suppose that experiments, effected with no errors, would have given them thus: Sulphuret of lead - - - 50. ‘Sulphuret of antimony - - 80. Sulphuret of copper - - - 20. However, I doubt the existence of triple, quadruple, &c. compounds; I believe, that all combination is binary ; that no- substance whatever ee more than two proximate or true elements; and hence I should be inclined to consider the present compound as a combination of galena and fahl- ertz; and if so, it will be accurately represented, as far as WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. | 87 chemical analysis has yet been able to go, by the following figure: $ galena — i sulphur Compound sulphuret § lead of lead, antimony, = dnd coaner (© $ sulphuret of __ {7 sulphur. PP } fablertz = antimony antimony. fe: muiphatey of __ i sulphur. \ copper copper. Its ultimate elements are therefore, - Sulphur - - 20... =H? Lead - - - 412. — 25 Antimony - an 25 = 15 Copper a = 134 t..4 = es and it is not a little remarkable, that here, as was the case with the calamine,* they are sexagesimal fractions of it. When in a former paper I offered a system on the pro- portions of the elements of compounds, I supported it by the results of my own experiments, which might be sup- posed influenced, even unconsciously to myself, by a favour- ite hypothesis, and I made the application of it principally to a substance whose nature was not very clear. But the present case is not liable to these objections: here no fond- ness to the theory can be suspected of having led astray, nor did even the experiments as they came from their author’s hands, bear an appearance in the least favourable to it, and yet when properly considered, they are found to accord no less remarkably with its principles. It is evident that there must be a precise quantity in which the elements of compounds are united together in them, otherwise a matter, which was not a simple one, would be liable, in its several masses, to vary from itself, according as one or other of its ingredients chanced to pre- dominate; but chemical experiments are unavoidably at- tended with too many sources of fallacy for this precise quantity to be discovered by them; it is therefore to theory * Phil. Trans. 1803, p. 12. 38 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. that we must owe the knowledge of it. For this purpese an hypothesis must be made, and its justness tried by a slrict comparison with facts. If they are found at variance, the assumed hypothesis must be relinquished with candour as erroneous, but should it, on the contrary prove, on a multitude of trials, invariably to accord with the results of observation, as nearly as our means of determination au- thorise us to expect, we are warranted in believing that the principle of nature is obtained, as we then have all the proofs of its being so, which men can have of the justness of their theories: a constant and perfect agreement with the phenomena, as far as can be discovered. The great criterion in the present case is, whether on the conversion of a substance into its several compounds, and of these into one another, the simple ratios always obtain which the principles of the theory require. Amongst the multitude of instances which I could adduce, in support of such being the fact, I will, for the sale of brevity, confine myself to a few in the substances which have come under consideration above, as they will likewise give the grounds on which some of the proportions in the table have been assigned, and every chemist, by a careful repetition of the experiments, may easily determine for himself to what at- tention the present theory is entitled. Lead - - = 4 of sulphate of lead , = $ of sulphuret of lead Sulphuret of lead - = § of lead = § of sulphate of lead Sulphate of lead - = 2 of lead = 4 of sulphuret of lead Antimony - - = 4 of powder of algoroth = 4 of sulphuret of antimony Sulphuret of antimony - = 19 of powder of algoroth. In the experiments by which these relations were ascer- tained, the portion of powder of algoroth and sulphate of lead dissolved in the precipitating and washing waters, was scrupulously collected. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 39 The importance of a knowledge of the true quantity in which matters combine, is too evident to require to be dwelt upon; but this importance will be greatly augmented, if it should prove that this quantity is, as has been suggested, expressive of the forces with which they attract each other. It is perhaps in the form of matters that we shall find the cause of the proportions in which they unite, and a proof, a priori, of the system here maintained. I have examined some of the grey ores of copper in tetraedral crystals; but the notes of my experiments are in England. I can, however, say, that they do contain anti- mony, and that they do not contain iron in any material quantity. With respect to the proportions of the constitu- ent parts, I cannot now speak with any certainty; but, I think, that at least some species of fahlertz contain a smaller portion of sulphuret of antimony, than the fahlertz does which exists as an element in the foregoing compound one. Of the Form of this Substance. . Of the seventeen figures which have been given, as of the erystals of. this compound sulphuret, in Part II. of the volume of the Transactions for 1804, great part are ac- knowledged to have no existence, nor are indeed any of them consistent with nature. This substance seems to have yet offered but one form, and which is represented in the annexed Plate under its two principal appearances; that is, having the primitive faces, the predominant ones of the prism; and having the secondary ones such, and which will be fully sufficient to make it known. In the first infancy of the study of crys- tals, it might be necessary to attend to every, the most trifling, variation of them, to trace each of their changes, step by step, to, as it were, spell the subject; but in the state to which the science has now attained, to continue to do so would be not only superfluous, but most truly puerile. 40 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. I have a very small, but very regular, crystal of the form of Fig. 1. Fig. 1 mp = 90° mt = 90° am = 135° mb == 185° ob. == 125". 1b! ae gb = 144° 44 8" d'm = 116° 33’ 64?’ Fm =—=153° (26° 6%; By mensuration the faces a and m appear to form together an angle of about 135°, and the faces ¢ and 6 an angle of about 125°. It is said in the account above quoted, that the primitive form of this matter is a rectangular tetraedral prism, but no proofs of this have been offered; nor have the dimen- sions of this prism been given, a circumstance of the first WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 41 moment to the determination of true or primitive form, nor have any quantities been assigned to the decrements sup- posed. I will, therefore, supply these very important omis- sions. That the atom of this substance is a rectangular tetrae- dral prism, is inferable, not from the striz on the crystals, for strie are by no means invariably indicative of a decre- ment in the direction of them; but from the angles which the faces a and ¢ make with the faces m and b, and these angles also prove, that the height of this prism is equal to the side of its base, that is, that it is a cube. Hence the face a is produced by a decrease of one row of atoms along the edge of the cube, and the angle it forms with the face m is really of 185°. The face ¢ is produced by a decrease of two rows of atoms at the corners of the cube, and the angle it forms with the face 6 is = 125° 15’ 52”. The face 6 being produced like the face a, forms the same angle with the face m. No crystal I possess, has enabled me to measure the in- clinations of the faces g,d, or f; should the face g, as is presumable, result from a decrease of one row of atoms at the corners of the cube, it will form with the face 6, an angle of 144° 44’ 8’’, and if the faces d and f are, as is also probable, produced by a decrease of two rows of atoms along the edges of the cube, the first will form an angle of 116° 33’ 54’, and the latter one of 158° 26/ 6’, with the face m. , The angles assigned here differ considerably from those given in the former account of these crystals; but the angles there given have not only appeared to me to be con- tradicted by observation, but, crystallographically consid- ered, are inconsistent with each other, as the tetraedral prism of dimensions to produce an angle of 135° by a decrement along its edge, would not afford angles of 140° and 120° by decrements at its corners. The sum of the faces of these crystals is 50. . 42 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. ON THE COMPOSITION OF ZEOLITE. From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. OI, p. 171.—Read February 7, 1811. MrneERAL bodies being, in fact, native chemical preparations, perfectly analogous to those of the laboratory of art, it is only by chemical means, that their species can be ascer- tained with any degree of certainty, especially under all the variations of mechanical state and intimate admixture with each other, to which they are subject. Aud accordingly, we see those methods which profess to supersede the necessity of chemistry in mineralogy, and to decide upon the species of it by other means than her’s, yet bringing an unavoidable tribute of homage to her supe- rior powers, by turning to her for a solution of the difficul- ties which continually arise to them, and to obtain firm grounds to relinquish or adopt the conclusions to which the principles they employ, lead them. Zeolite and natrolite have been universally admitted to be species distinct from each other, from Mr. KLaproru having discovered a considerable quantity of soda and no lime, in the composition of the latter, while Mr. VauquEeLIN had not found any portion of either of the fixed alkalies, but a considerable one of lime, in his analysis of zeolite.* The natrolite has been lately met with under a regular crystalline form, and this form appears to be perfectly simi- lar to that of zeolite, but Mr. Haty has not judged himself warranted by this circumstance, to consider these two bodies as of the same species, because zeolite, he says, ‘* does not contain an atom of soda.’’t I had many years ago found soda in what I considered to * Journal des Mines, No. XLIV. + Journal des Mines, No, OL. Juin 1810, p. 468. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 43 be zeolites, which I had collected in the island of Staffa, having formed GuavuBer’s salt by treating them with sul- phuric acid; and I have since repeatedly ascertained the presence of the same principle in similar stones from various other places; and Dr. Hutton and Dr. Krennepy, had like- wise detected soda in bodies, to which they gave the name of zeolite. There was, however, no certainty that the subjects of any of these experiments were of the same nature as what Mr. VAUQUELIN had examined, were of that species which Mr. Haiy calls mesotype. Mr. Haty was so obliging as to send me lately, some specimens of minerals. There happened to be amongst them a cluster of zeolite in rectangular tetrahedral prisms, terminated by obtuse tetrahedral pyramids whose faces coin- cided with those of the prism. These crystals were of a considerable size, and perfectly homogeneous, and labelled by himself “‘ Mesotype pyramidée du depart. de Puy de Déme.” I availed myself of this very favourable opportunity, to as- certain whether the mesotype of Mr. Haty and natrolite, did or did not differ in their composition, and the results of the experiments have been entirely unfavourable to their separation, as the following account of them will show. 10 grains of this zeolite being kept red hot for five min- utes lost 0.75 grains, and became opaque and friable. Ina second experiment, 10 grains being exposed for 10 minutes to a stronger fire, lost 0.95 grains, and consolidated into a hard transparent state. 10 grains of this zeolite, which had not been heated, were reduced to a fine powder, and diluted muriatic acid poured upon it. On standing some hours, without any ap- plication of heat, the zeolite entirely dissolved, and some ~ hours after, the solution became a jelly: this jelly was evap- orated to a dry state, and then made red hot. Water was repeatedly poured on to this ignited matter till nothing more could be extracted from it. This solution was gently evaporated to a dry state, and this residuum 44 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. made slightly red hot. It then weighed 3.15 grains. It was muriate of soda. The solution of this muriate of soda being tried with solutions of carbonate of ammonia and oxalic acid, did not afford the least precipitate, which would have happened - had the zeolite contained any lime, as the muriate of lime* would not have been decomposed by the ignition. The remaining matter, from which this muriate of soda had been extracted, was repeatedly digested with marine acid, till all that was soluble was dissolved. What remained was silica, and, after being made red hot, weighed 4.9 grains. The muriatic solution, which had been decanted off from the silica, was exhaled to a dry state, and the matter left made red hot. It was alumina. To discover whether any magnesia was contained amongst this alumina, it was dissolved in sulphuric acid, the solution evaporated to a dry state, and ignited. Water did extract some saline matter from this ignited alumina, but it had not at all the appearance of sulphate of magnesia, and proved to be some sulphate of alumina which had escaped decom- position, for on an addition of sulphate of ammonia to it, it produced crystals of compound sulphate of alumina and ammonia, in regular octahedrons. This alum and alumina were again mixed and digested in ammonia, and the whole dried and made red hot. The alumina left, weighed 8.1 grains. Being suspected to contain still some sulphuric acid, this alumina was dissolved in nitric acid, and an excess of ace- tate of barytesadded. A precipitate of sulphate of barytes fell, which after being edulcorated and made red hot, weighed 1.2 grains. If we admit } of sulphate of barytes to be sul- phuric acid, the quantity of the alumina will be = 3.1 — 0.4 = 2.7 grains. * These names are retained for the present, as being familiar, though, since Mr. Davy’s important discovery of the nature of what was called oxymuriatic acid, the substances to which they are applied, are known not to bo salts, but metallic compounds analogous to oxides. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 45 From tho experiments of Dr. Marcet,* it appears that 8.15 grains of muriate of soda, afford 1.7 grains of soda. Hence, according to the foregoing experiments, the 10 grains of zeolite analysed, consisted of Silica : - = - 4,90 Alumina -: = - - 2.70 Soda SET im - = 1.70 Ice - - - - “ 0.95 10.25 As these experiments had been undertaken more for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the component parts of this zeolite than their proportions, the object of them was considered as accomplished, although perfect accuracy in the latter respect, had not been attained, and which, in- deed, the analysis we possess of natrolite by the illustrious chemist of Berlin, renders unnecessary. I am induced to prefer the name of zeolite for this species of stone, to any other name, from an unwillingness to oblite- rate entirely from the nomenclature of mineralogy, while arbitrary names are retained in it, all trace of one of the discoveries of the greatest mineralogist who has yet ap- peared, and which, at the time it was made, was considered as, and was, a very considerable one, being ‘the first addi- tion of an earthy species, made by scientific means, to those established immemorially by miners and lapidaries, and hence having, with tungstein and nickel, led the way to the -great and brilliant extension which mineralogy has since received. And, of the several substances, which, from the state of science in his time, certain common qualities in- duced Baron Cronstept to associate together under the name of zeolite; it is this which has been most imme- . diately understood as such, and whose qualities have been assumed as the characteristic ones of the species. Indeed, I think that the name imposed on a substance by * Phil. Trans. 1807. 46 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. the discoverer of it, ought to be held in some degree sacred, . and not altered without the most urgent necessity for doing it. It is but a fecble and just retribution of respect for the service which he has rendered to science. Professor Struve, of Lausanne, whose skill in miner- alogy is well known, having mentioned to me, in one of his letters, that from some experiments of his own, he was led to suspect the existence of phosphoric acid in several stones, and particularly in the zeolite of Auvergne, I have directed my enquiries to this point, but have not found the phos- phoric, or any other acknowledged mineral acid, in this zeolite. Many persons, from experiencing much difficulty in com- prehending the combination together of the earths, have been led to suppose the existence of undiscovered acids in stony crystals. If quartz be itself considered as an acid, to which order of bodies its qualities much moro nearly assim- ilate it, than to the earths, their composition becomes readily intelligible. They will then be neutral salts, silicates, either simple or compound. Zeolite will be a compound salt, a hydrated silicate of alumina and soda, and hence a com- pound of alumina not very dissimilar to alum. And topaz, whose singular ingredients, discovered by Mr, KtLaprotu, have called forth a query from the celebrated Mr. VauquE- LIN, with regard to the mode of their existence together,* will be likewise a compound salt, consisting of silicate of alumina, and fluate of alumina. Our acquaintance with the composition of the several mineral substances, is yet far too inaccurate to render it possible to point out with any degree of certainty, the one of which zeolite is an hydrate, however the agreement of the two substances in the nature of their constituent parts, and in their being both electrical by heat, directs conjecture towards tourmaline. St. James’s Place, Jan, 22, 1811. * Annales du Museum d’Hist. Nat. tome 6, p. 24. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 47 ON A SUBSTANCE FROM THE ELM TREE, CALLED ULMIN. From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. CIII, Part I, 1818, p. 64.—Read December 10, 1812. 1. Tho substance now denominated Ulmin was first made known by the celebrated Mr. Kiaproru, to whom nearly every department of chemistry is under numerous and great obligations.* Ulmin has been ranked by Dr. Tyomson, in his System of Chemistry, as a distinct vegetable principle, on the ground of its possessing qualities totally peculiar and extraordinary. It is said, that though in its original state easily soluble in water and wholly insoluble in alcohol and ether, it changes, when nitric, or oxymuriatic acid is poured into its solution, into a resinous substance no longer soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, and this singular alteration is attributed to the union to it of a small portion of oxygen which it has acquired from these acids.* Being possessed of some of this substance which had been sent to me some years ago from Palermo, by the same person from whom Mr, Kuap- roTH had received it, I became induced, by the foregoing account, to pay attention to it, and have observed facts which appear to warrant a different etiology of its phe- nomena, and opinion of its nature, from what has been given of them. The ulmin made use of in the following experiments, had been freed from the fragments of bark by solution in water and filtration, and recovered in a dry state by the evapora- tion of the solution on a water bath. | 2. In lumps, ulmin appears black, but in thin pieces it is seen to be transparent, and of a deep red colour. * Dr. THomson’s Syst. of Chem. Vol. IV, p. 696. Fourth edition. 48 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. In a dilute state, solution of ulmin is yellow ; in a con- centrated one, dark red, and not unlike blood. When solution of ulmin dries, either spontaneously or by being heated, the ulmin divides into long narrow strips dis- posed in rays to the centre, which curl up and detach them- selves from the vessel, and the fluid part seems to draw together, and becomes remarkably protuberant. Solution of ulmin slowly and feebly restores the colour of turnsol paper reddened by an acid. 8. Dilute nitric acid being poured into a solution of ulmin, a copious precipitate immediately formed. The mixture was thrown on a filter. The matter which has been considered as a resin remained on the paper, and a clear yellow liquor came through. This yellow solution, on evaporation, produced a number of prismatic crystals look- ing like nitrate of potash. They were tinged yellow by some of the resin. This mixture, heated in a gold dish, deflagrated with violence, and a large quantity of fixed alkali remained. Dilute muriatic acid caused an exactly similar precipita- tion in solution of ulmin to nitric acid, and the precipitate was the same resin-like substance. The filtered liquor afforded a quantity of saline matter, which, after being freed by ignition from a portion of dissolved resin, shot into pure white cubes of muriate of potash, as appeared by decomposing them by nitric acid. Sulphuric, phosphoric, oxalic, tartaric, and citric acids, occasioned a similar precipitation in solution of ulmin. Distilled vinegar produced no turbidness in it; and the mixture being exhaled to dryness, at a gentle heat, was found to ke again wholly soluble in water. But when the mixture was made to boil, some decomposition took place. On adding muriatic acid to 'a mixture of solution of ulmin and distilled vinegar, a precipitate was produced, as in a mere solution in water. The nitric and muriatic acids received a small quantity of lime and iron from the ulmin, and I believe also a little, WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 49 magnesia; but these can be considered only as foreign ad- mixtures. 4, To acquire an idea of the quantity of potash in ulmin, 4 grains of ulmin were decomposed by nitric acid. They afforded 2.4 grains of resin-like matter. The nitrate of potash obtained was heated to deflagration, in small quanti- ties at a time, in a platina crucible to free it from resin. The alkali produced was supersaturated with nitric acid, dried, and slightly fused. It then weighed 1.2 grains.. If we admit 4 of nitrate of potash to be allcali, this will denote _ if; of potash in ulmin. 5 grains of ulmin were decomposed by muriatic acid. The resinous matter weighed 8.8 grains, and the muriate of potash, after being ignited, dissolved away from the char- coal, dried, and again made red hot, weighed 1.4 grains. If we suppose 3 of muriate of ascscit to be alkali, this will indicate 1% of potash in ulmin. 2 grains of ulmin were made red hot in a gold crucible. It then weighed only 1.05 grain. The form of the flakes was in no degree altered, but they had acquired the blue and yellow colours of heated steel, of which they had like- wise the metallic aspect and lustre, and could diflicultly, if at all, have been distinguished by the eye from heated stcel- filings, or fragments of slender watch-springs. Water im- mediately destroyed their metallic appearance. Muriatic acid, poured on, caused a strong effervescence, and formed muriate of potash, which, freed from all char- coal, and made red hot, weighed 0.6 grain, corresponding to ;°5 of potash in ulmin. These experiments assign about } for the quantity of potash in ulmin, but as it is impossible to operate, on 80 small a scale, on such substances without loss, it is proba- ble that it even exceeds this proportion. 5. The substance separated from ae by acids has the following qualities : It is ney glossy, and has a resinous appearance. 50 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. In lumps it appears black, but in minute fragments it is found to be transparent, and of a garnet-red colour. It burns with flame, and is reduced to white ashes. Alcohol dissolves it, but only in very small quantity. Water likewise dissolves it, but also only in very small quantity. Acids cause a precipitate in this solution, though this resin-like matter appears neither to contain any alkali, nor to retain any of the acid by means of which it was obtained.. . Its solution in water seems to redden turnsol paper. Neither ammonia, nor carbonate of soda, promote its solution in cold water. On adding a small quantity of potash to water in which it lies, it dissolves immediately and abundantly. This solu- tion has all the qualities of a solution of ulmin, and, on exhalation, leaves a matter precisely like it, which cracks and separates from the glass, and docs not grow moist in the air, &c. i, IIence it appears that ulmin is not a simple vegetable principle of anomalous qualities, but a combination with potash of a red, or more properly a high yellow matter, which, if not of a peculiar genus, seems rather more related to the extractives than to the resins. English Ulmin. I collected, from an elm tree in Kensington gardens, a small quantity of a black shining substance which looked like ulmin. i It was readily soluble in water, and the solution was in colour and appearance exactly similar to a solution of ulmin. This solution, exhaled to a dry state on a water-bath, jeft a matter exactly like ulmin, and which cracked and divided as ulmin does, when dried in the same manner. It did not, however, rise up from the watch-glass in long strips, like the Sicilian kind, but this may have been owing WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 51 partly to its small quantity, which occasioned it to be spread very thin on the watch-glass, and partly to its containing a considerable excess of alkali, for it differed also from the Palermo ulmin by becoming soft in the air, and its solution strongly restored the blue colour of reddened turnsol paper. Nitric acid, added to a filtered solution of this ulmin, im- mediately caused a precipitate in it, and the filtered solu- tion, on evaporation, afforded numerous crystals of nitrate of potash. | : This English ulmin made a considerable effervescence with acetous acid, which the Palermo ulmin had not been observed to do. This acetous solution, in which the acid was in excess, was exhaled dry, and repeatedly washed with spirit of wine. No part of the brown matter dissolved. Water dissolved this brown residuum readily and entirely. This solution did not sensibly restore the blue colour of reddened turnsol paper. Exhaled to a dry state, the mat- ter left did not separate from the watch-glass quite as freely as Palermo ulmin, which had been treated with acetous acid; but it seemed no longer to grow moist in the air. Redissolved in water, and nitric acid added, the mixture became thick from a copious precipitate. The spirit of wine contained a quantity of acetate of potash. . The excess of alkali, in this English ulmin, may be owing to the tree from which it was collected having been affected with the disease, which produces the alkaline ulcer to which the elm is subject. Sap of the Him Tree. Thinking that the production of ulmin by the plant might not be the consequence of disease, and that it might exist in the healthy sap, a bit of elm twig, gathered in the beginning of last July, was cut into thin slices and boiled in water. It afforded a brown solution, like a solution of ulmin. Exhaled to dryness, this solution left a dark brown 52 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. substance, in appearance similar to ulmin, but on adding water to this dry mass, a large quantity of brown glutinous matter remained insoluble. The mixture being thrown on a filter, a clear yellow liquor passed, which may have con- tained ulmin, but the quantity was too small to admit of satisfactory conclusions. Perhaps older wood, the juice of which was more per- fected, would afford other results, since ulmin appears to be the product of old trees; but the inquiry, being merely collateral to the object 1 had originally in view, was not. persevered in, ON A SALINE SUBSTANCE FROM MOUNT VESUVIUS. From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. CIII, Part I, 1818, p. 266.—Read July 8, 1813. It has very long appeared to me, that when the earth is considered with attention, innumerable circumstances are perceived, which cannot but lead to the belief, that it has once been in a state of general conflagration, The exist- ence in the skies of planetary bodies, which seem to be actually burning, and the appearances of original fire dis- cernible on our globe, I have conceived to be mutually cor- roborative of each other; and at the time when no answers could be given to the most essential objections to the hypothesis, the mass of facts in favour of it fully justified, I thought, the inference that our habitation is an extinct comet or sun. The mighty difficulties which formerly assailed this opinion, great modern discoveries have dissipated. Ac- quainted now, that the bases of alkalies and earths are metals, eminently oxydable, we are no longer embarrassed WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 53 either for the pabulum of the inflammation, or to account for the products of it. In the primitive strata, we behold the result of the com- bustion. In them we see the oxyd collected on the surface of the calcining mass, first melted by the heat, then by its increase arresting farther combination, and extinguishing the fires which had generated it, and in fine become solid and crystallized over the metallic ball. Every thing tells that a large body of combustible matter still remains enclosed within this stony envelope, and of which volcanic eruptions are partial and small accensions. Under this point of view, an high interest attaches itself to volcanoes, and their ejections. They cease to be local phenomena; they become principal elements in the history of our globe; they connect its present with its former con- dition; and we have good grounds for supposing, that in their flames are to be read its future destinies. In support of the igneous origin, here attributed to the primitive strata, I will observe, that not only no erystal im- bedded in them, such as quartz, garnet, tourmaline, &c. has ever beeri seen enclosing drops of water; but that none of the materials of these strata contain water in any state. a. The present saline substance was sent to me from Naples to Florence, where I was, in May 1794, with a re- quest to ascertain its nature. The general examination which I then made of it, shewed it to be principally what was at that time called vitriolated tartar, and it was in con- sequence mentioned as such in an Italian publication soon after. But as this denomination, surprising at that period, was not supported by the relation of any experiments, or _ the citation of any authority, no attention was paid to it; and the existence of this species of salt, native in the earth, has not been admitted by mineralogists, no mention being made of it, I believe, in any mineralogical work published since. 6. I was informed by letter, that it had “ flowed out liquid 54 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. from a small aperture in the cone of Vesuvius,” and which I apprehend to have happened in 1792 or 1798. c. The masses of this salt are perfectly irregular, their texture compact, their colour a clouded mixture of white, of the green of copper, and of a rusty yellow, and in some places are specks and streaks of black. d. A fragment melted on the charcoal at the blow-pipe formed hepar sulphuris. e. A piece weighing 9.5 grains was so strongly heated in a platina crucible, that it melted and flowed level over the bottom of it, but did not lose the least weight. f. Not the slightest fume could be perceived on holding a glass tube wetted with marine acid over some of this salt, while triturating in a mortar with liquid potash ; but a sim- ilar mixture being made in a bottle, and which was imme- diately closed with a cork, to which was fixed a bit of red- dened litmus paper, the blue colour of the paper was restored. g. Being dissolved in water, there was a small sandy residue, which consisted of green particles of a cupreous nature, of a yellow ochraceous powder, and of minute crys- tals of a metallic aspect of red oxyd of iron, by which the black spots in the mass had been occasioned.* Mr, Kuap- notH found a similar admixture in muriate of soda from Vesuvius. t h. The solution had a feeble green tint. It did not alter blue or reddened turnsol paper. i. Prussiate of soda-and-iron threw down a small quantity of red prussiate of copper from it. . Liver of sulphur and tincture of galls likewise caused very small precipitations, j. Carbonate of soda, and oxalate of potash, and solutions _ * What mineralogists denominate speculary iron ore, Fer oligiste of Mr. Havwy, appears to be merely red oxyd of iron in crystals; red hematite the same substance in the state of stalactite; and red ochres the same in a pul- verulent form, The homatites which afford a yellow powder are hydrates of iron. ¢ Essays, Vol. II. p. 67, Eng. Trans. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 55 of magnesia, clay, copper, iron, and zinc, either had no effects, | or extremely slight ones. k. Solution of sulphate of silver produced a white curd. like precipitate. 9.85 grains of this salt (the weight of the insoluble matter being deducted) afforded 1.05 grains of slightly melted muriate, or chloride, of silver. This pre- cipitate was equally produced after the salt had been made strongly red hot, so that it was not owing to a portion of sal ammoniac. l, Tartaric acid, and muriate of platinum, occasioned the precipitates in its solution which indicate potash. m. Nitrate of lime did not form any immediate precipi- tate in a dilute solution of it; butin a short time, numerous minute prismatic crystals of hydrate of sulphate of lime were generated. n. Nitrate of barytes poured into a solution containing 9.8 grains of this salt afforded a precipitate, which after be- ~ ing. ignited weighed 12.3 grains. The filtered solution crystallized entirely into nitrate of potash mixed with a few rhomboides of nitrate of soda. 0. Some of this salt finely pulverized was treated with alcohol. This alcohol on exhaling left a number of minute cubic crystals, which proved, by the test of nitric acid, to be muriate of soda. Prussiate of soda-and-iron caused a red precipitate of prussiate of copper-in this alcoholic solu- tion. p. The solution of this salt afforded, by crystallization, sulphate of potash in its usual forms, and some prismatic erystals of hydrate of sulphate of soda. _ g. To discover what had occasioned the precipitate with galls, (7) since copper has not this quality, a portion of this salt, which had been recovered by evaporation from a fil- tered solution of it, was made red hot in a platina crucible. On extraction of the saline part by water, a very small quantity of a black powder was obtained. Ammonia dis- solved only part of it, which was copper. The rest being 56 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. digested with muriatic acid, and prussiate of soda-and-iron, added, a fine Prussian blue was formed. r. From several of the foregoing experiments, it appeared that no sensible quantity of any of the mineral acids, be- sides the sulphuric and muriatic, existed in combination with alkali in this volcanic salt. But Mr. Tennant, whose many and highly important discoveries have so greatly con- tributed to the progress of chemical science, having detected disengaged boracic acid amongst the volcanic productions of the Lipari islands, and suggested that it might be a more general product of volcanoes than had been suspected,* it became important to ascertain whether the presence of any in this salt proved Vesuvius likewise to be a source of this acid. Alcohol heated on a portion of it in fine powder, and then burned on it, did not however shew the least green hue in its flame. s. To ascertain the proportions of the ingredients of this saline substance, the following experiments were made:. 10 grains of sulphate of potash of the shops were dis- solved in 200 grains of water, and an excess of muriate of platina added. The precipitate edulcorated with 100 grains of water, and dried on a water bath, weighed 21.1 grains. 10 grains of the saline part of the native salt, treated pre- cisely in every respect in the same way, afforded 17.2 grains of precipitated muriate of platina-and-potash. If 24.1 grains of this precipitate correspond to 10 grains of sulphate of potash, 17.2 grains of it correspond to 7.14 grains of this salt. Tt has been seen (n) that 10 grains of the saline part of this volcanic salt would have afforded 12.55 grains of sul- phate of barytes. But 7.14 grains of sulphate of potash form only 9.42 grains of sulphate of barytes,t and therefore the remaining 8.18 grains of sulphate of barytes would be produced by the * Trans. of the Geolog. Soc. + Dr. Manoer on Dropsical Fluids, WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 57 sulphate of soda, and correspond to 1.86 grains of it in an arid state, or uncombined with ice.* 10 grains of the saline part of this native salt would have produced 1.12 grains of ignited muriate of silver (x). By accurate experiments 241 grains of ignited muriate of silver have been found to correspond to 100 grains of ignited mu- riate of soda.t Consequently the soluble portion of the present Vesuvian salt consists of Sulphate of potash - - 7.14 Sulphate of soda - - 1.86 Muriate of soda - - 0.46 Muriate of ammonia Muriate of copper \ - - 0.54 Muriate of iron 10.00 t. The insoluble sandy residue (9) having been thoroughly edulcorated, dilute nitric acid was put to it. A green solu- tion formed without any effervescence. Acetate of barytes scarcely rendered this solution turbid; but nitrate of silver produced a copious curd-like precipitate, and iron abund- antly threw down copper from it. The green grains enclosed in this native sulphate of potash, appear, therefore, to be a submuriate of copper, of the same species as that of the green sands of Peru and Chili. Muriatic acid dissolved the yellow ochraceous powder, and prussiate of soda-and-iron produced Prussian blue. I am inclined to believe this yellow powder to be a submu- riate of iron, but its small quantity, and the admixture of the submuriate of copper, were impediments to entirely satisfactory results. Such a submuriate of iron, though, if I mistake not, overlooked by chemists, exists, for the pre- cipitate which oxygen occasions in solution of green muriate of iron, contains marine acid. ed ae ee ey * Prof. KLaproru’s Essays, Vol. 1; p. 282. { Dr. Henry, Phil. Trans. 1810. 58 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. Possibly this yellow powder, and the crystals of speculary iron which exist in this Vesuvian salt, have been produced by a natural sublimation of muriate of iron, similar to that of the experiment of the Duke d’AyeEn, recorded by Mac- QUER,* and which was known long before to Mr. Borie and Dr. Lewis.t This Vesuvian salt, considered in its totality, has pre- sented no less than nine distinct species of matters, and a more rigorous investigation, than I was willing to bestow on it, would probably add to their number. July 8, 1813. A FEW FACTS RELATIVE TO THE COLOURING. MATTERS OF SOME VEGETABLES. From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. CVIII, p. 110.—Read December 18, 1817. I BEGAN, a great many years ago, some researches on the colouring matters of vegetables. From the enquiry being to be prosecuted only at a particular season of the year, the great delicacy of the experiments, and the great care required in them, and consequently the trouble with which they were attended, very little was done. I have now no idea of pursuing the subject. In destroying lately the memorandums of the experi- ments which had been made, a few scattered facts were met with which seemed deserving of being preserved, They are here offered, in hopes that they will induce some other person to give extension to an investigation interesting to chemistry and to the art of dying. * Dict. de Chimie, Art. Fer. ‘ + A course of practical chemistry by Wituta Lewis, 1746, p. 63, note f. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. : 59 Turnsol. M. Fourcroy has advanced, somewhere, that turnsol is essentially of a red colour; and that it is made blue by an addition of carbonate of soda to it; and he says that he has extracted this salt from the turnsol of the shops. If turnsol contained carbonate of soda, its infusions should precipitate earths and metals from acids. I did not find an infusion of turnsol in water to have the least effect on solutions of muriate of lime, nitrate of lead, muriate of platina, or oxalate of potash. Its tinctures, or infusions, consequently, contain neither any alkali, nor any lime; nor probably any acid, either loose or combined. This is unfavourable to the opinion of urine being employed in the preparation of turnsol. I put a little sulphuric acid into a tincture of turnsol, then added chalk, and heated; and the blue colour was restored. It appears, therefore, that the natural colour of turnsol is not red, but blue, since it is such when neither disengaged acid or alkali is present. No addition of chalk brought the cold liquor back to a blue colour; the carbonic acid absorbed by it, during the effervescence of the carbonate of lime, being suflicient to keep it red. Some turnsol was put into distilled vinegar. An effer- vercence arose; and after some time the acid was become neutralized. On examining the mixture with a glass, there were seen, at the bottom of the vessel, a multitude of grains like sand. It was found on trial that these grains were car- bonate of lime; probably of slightly calcined Carrara marble. When turnsol is treated with water till this no longer acquires any color whatever, the remaining insoluble matter — is nearly as blue as at first. Acids made this blue insoluble matter red, but did not extract any red tincture. Carbonate of soda did not affect it. 60 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. If the vegetable part of this blue residuum is burned away, or it is washed off with water, a portion of smalt is obtained. On exhaling, on a water bath, a tincture of turnsol, the colouring matter is left in a dry state. This matter heated in a platina spoon over a candle, tume- fied considerably, as much as starch does, became black and smoked, but did not readily inflame, nor did it burn away till the blow pipe was applied. It then burned pretty readily, leaving a large quantity of white saline matter. This saline matter saturated by nitric acid afforded crystals of nitrate of potash, and some minute crystals like hydrous sulphate of lime. Is this potash merely that portion of this matter which exists in all vegetable substances? or is the colouring matter of turnsol a compound, analogous to ulmin, of a vegetable principle and potash? Its low combustibility gives some sanction to this idea. Of the colouring matter of the violet. The violet is well known to be coloured by a blue matter which acids change to red; and alkalies and their carbon- ates first to green and then to yellow. This same matter is the tinging principle of many other vegetables: of some, in its blue state; of others, made red by an acid. If the petals of the red rose are triturated with a little water and carbonate of lime, a blue liquor is obtained. Al- kalis, and soluble carbonates of alkalis, render this blue liquor green; and acids restore its red colour. The colouring matter of the violet exists in the petals of red clover, the red tips of those of the common daisy of the fields, of the blue hyacinth, the holly hock, lavender, in the inner leaves of the artichoke, and in numerous other flowers. It likewise, made red by an acid, colours the skin of several plumbs, and, I think, of the scarlet geranium, and of the pomegranate tree, WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 61 The red cabbage, and the rind of the long radish are also coloured by this principle. It is remarkable that these, on being merely bruised, become blue; and give a blue infu- sion with water. It is probable that the reddening acid in these cases is the carbonic; and which, on the rupture of the vessels which enclose it, escapes into the atmosphere. Of sugar-loaf paper. This paper has been employed by Berean as a chemical instrument. Iam ignorant of what it is coloured with. Sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, phosphoric, and oxalic acids make it red. Tartaric and citric acids, made rather yellow spots than red ones. Distilled vinegar, and acid of amber, had no affect on it. Carbonate of soda and caustic potash did not alter the blue colour of this paper. Water boiled on this paper acquired a vinous red colour; carbonate of lime put into this red Jiquor, did not affect its colour: nor did carbonate of soda or caustic potash change it to blue or green. Cold dilute sulphuric acid extracted a strong yellow tinc- ‘ture from this boiled paper: carbonate of lime put to this yellow tincture made it blue; but on filtering, the liquor which passed was of a dirty greenish colour; and sulphuric acid did not make it red: a blue matter was left on the filter, which was not made red by.acetous acid; but was so by sulphuric. After this treatment the paper remained brown; seem- ingly such as it was before being dyed blue. It should seem that there are at least two colouring mat- ters in this paper; one red, which is extricable from it by water; the other blue, which requires the agency of an acid to extract it. Its insolubility in water, and low degree of sensibility to acids, distinguish the blue matter from turnsol; to which its not being affected by alkalis otherwise much approximate it. Its easy solubility in dilute suphuric acid, and being 62 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. reddened by it and several other acids, show it not to be indigo. Of the black mulberry. The expressed juice of this fruit is of a fine red colour. Caustic potash made it green, which gradually became yellow. Carbonate of soda did not make it green, but only blue. Carbonate of ammonia changed it to a vinous red, rather than to blue; and this redness increased on stand Caustic ammonia made it bluer than its carbonate; but, on standing, the mixture became of the same vinous red. The mulberry juice mixed with carbonate of lime became purple. On filtering, a red liquor passed; and the carbon- ate of lime left on the filter was blue. An addition of whitening to the red filtered liquor did not alter its colour; nor did this second portion of whitening become blue. Heating did not affect the red colour of this liquor; so that it was not owing to carbonic acid, disengaged from the car- bonate of lime. Caustic potash instantly made this red liquor a fine green, and gradually yellow. Sulphuric acid rendered all the above mixtures florid red: It is remarkable that the mixtures with ammonia, and car- bonate of ammonia, which were become quite vinous red by standing, were made a perfect blue by the sulphuric acid ‘before they were reddened by it. It would hence seem that the red colour, caused by these alkalis, was owing to an excess of them; and that in a less quantity they would have produced a bia The filter, into which the mixture of mulberry j juice and chalk had been thrown, was become tinged blue. Water did not remove this colour. Sulphuric acid made this paper florid red. Caustic potash did not alter its blue colour; but put on the places made red by sulphuric acid, it restored the blue colour, but did not produce green. Future experiments must decide whether this blue matter WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 63 is the same as that of turnsol; or as the blue matter which the experiments above have indicated in sugar-luaf paper. The juices of many other fruits, as black cherries, red currants, the skin of the berries of the buckthorn, elder berries, privet berries, &c., seemed to be made only blue by mild fixed alkalis, but green by caustic. Puzzling anoma- lies, however, occasionally present themselves, which seem to show a near relation between the several blue colouring matters of vegetables, and their easy transition into one another. arent. : The corn poppy. The petals of the common red poppy of the fields rubbed on paper stain it of a reddish purple colour. Solution of carbonate of soda put to this stain occasioned but little change in it. Caustic potash made it green. Caustic ammonia seemed not to have more effect on it than carbonate of soda. Some poppy petals being bruised in a mixture of water and marine acid, formed a florid red solution: asuperabun- dance of chalk added to this red liquor, did not make it blue; but turned it toa dark red colour exactly like port wine. Some poppy petals bruised in a weak solution of carbon- ate of soda, and the mixture filtered, the liquor which came through was not at all blue, but of a dark red colour like port wine. Caustic potash made this red liquor green, which finally became yellow. i Some dried poppy petals of the shops, gave a strong obscure vinous tincture to cold water. This red tincture heated with whitening, did not alter to blue, but preserved its red colour. These very imperfect experiments may perhaps suggest the idea, that the colouring matter of this flower is the same as the red colouring matter of the mulberry. 64 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. Of sap green. The inspissated juice of the ripe, or semi-ripe, berries of the buckthorn, constitute the pigment called sap green; by the French, vert de vessie. This species of green matter is entirely different from the common green matter of vege- tables. It is soluble in water. ; Carbonate of soda and caustic potash changed the solu- tion of sap green to yellow. Paper tinged by sap green is a sensible test ot alkalis. Sulphuric, nitric, and marine acid, made it red. Carbon- ate of lime added to a reddened solution, restored the green colour, which therefore appears to be the proper colour of the substance. The green colour, which the last infusions of galls present, appears to be different, both from the usual green of vege- tables, and from sap green. Some animal greens. A green puceron, or aphis, being crushed on white paper, emitted a green juice, which was immediately made yellow by carbonate of potash (wrongly called sub-carbonate.) There are small gnats of a green colour: crushed on paper, they make a green stain, which is permanent. Neither muriatic acid nor carbonate of soda altered this green colour. It is consequently of a different nature from the foregoing. . WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. , 65 ON A NATIVE COMPOUND OF SULPHURET OF LEAD AND ARSENIC. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XIV., 1819, p. 96. Paris, May 19, 1819. This mineral is found in Upper Valais, in Switzerland. It is lodged in a white, granose, compound carbonate of lime and magnesia. It is accompanied in this rock by reg- ular crystals of yellow sulphuret of iron; by red sulphuret of arsenic; and by some other substances. This compound sulphuret has a metallic aspect. It is of a grey colour; it is exceedingly brittle and soft; its fracture in some directions is perfectly vitreous; but in at least one direction, it is evidently tabular; but the size of the frag- ments I had, not exceeding coarse sand, precluded research with respect to crystalline construction. By trituration, this ore afforded a red powder. At the blow-pipe, this ore: melted instantly on the con- tact of the point of tho flame. It smoked considerably ; and a small flame was visible on the surface of the melted button... On cooling, this button forced. out a quantity of fluid matter from its interior. During the fusion, the bead occasionally swelled up, and puffs of dense smoke issued from it; due evidently to a volatile matter, which the fire expelled from another less volatile. Finally, a button of a more fixed, less fusible, white metallic matter, extensible under the hammer, was left, and which proved to be lead. Some bits of this compound sulphuret heated in a tube over a candle, melted, and a red sublimate rose, which be- came yellow on cooling, and looked like orpiment. Some of this ore, being fused with nitre, deflagrated, and ‘became a white oxide. The solution of this nitre afforded a white precipitate with muriate of barytes; and with é 5 66 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. nitrate of silver, a brick-red precipitate of arseniate of silver. | The white precipitate by muriate of barytes’ was only partially soluble in nitric acid. The insoluble part of this precipitate, of which the quantity was so minute that no balanee’ would have been sensible to it, was carefully col- lected on to a very small bit of charcoal fixed to a pin. It was then strongly heated at the blow-pipe. This bit of charcoal now put into a drop of water, placed on a silver coin, immediately made a black stain of sulphuret of silver on the coin. This is the nicest test I am acquainted with of the presence of sulphur, or sulphuric acid, in bodies. The quantity I possessed of this mineral for experiment was very small. The above trials were made with particles little more than visible ; however, the results, I think, sufti- ciently establish the nature of the constituent parts. Their respective proportions must remain for inquiries on another scale. | t From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVI, 1820, p. 100. Compound of Sulphuret of Lead and Arsenic.—This is a new mineral species discovered by Mr. Smithson, and described by him in the Annals of Philosophy, xiv. 96. It was found in a magnesian lime rock in the Upper Valais. It has a metallic aspect, a grey colour, and a fracture in some directions vitreous, in others foliated. When triturated, yields a red pow- ‘der. Mr. Smithson, by a set of very minute but satisfactory experiments, demonstrated that its constituents were sulphur, arsenic, and lead. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON, 67 ON NATIVE HYDROUS ALUMINATE OF LEAD, OR PLOMB GOMME. 3 From Thomson’s Annals of Philozophy, Vol. XIV, 1819, p. 81. Paris, May 22, 1819. I see in the Annals of Philosophy for this month, which I have very lately received, an analysis by M. Berzelius of the mineral which was formerly known here under the name of “ plomb gomme.”’ The first discovery of the composition of this singular substance belongs, however, to my illustrious and unfortu- nate friend, and indeed distant relative, the late Smithson Tennant. He ascertained when last at Paris, on pieces fur- nished him by M. Gillet de Laumont, that it was a combi- nation of oxide of lead, alumina, and water. At that time I received a small specimen of this rare ore from M. de Laumont, accompanied with a label, of which the following is a copy : “ Hydrate d’alumine et de plomb reconnu par Mr. Ten- nant, du Iuelgoat, prés Poullaouen, en Bretange (Finisterre) qui paroit etre la méme substance decrite par Romé de I’Isle, tom. iii. de la Cristallographie, p. 399, comme plomb rouge en stalactite. “ J’en ai dit quelques mots en Mai, 1786, dans le Journal de Physique, p. 885, I’. 16.” This ore is of a yellow colour; it otherwise bears so great a resemblance to the siliceous substance found near Frank- fort on the Mein, called Miillen glass, that it might be mis- taken for it. Suddenly heated, it decrepitated violently; but heated slowly, it became white and opaque. The utmost fire did not appear to fuse it, or produce any further alteration in it. It dissolved readily in borax into a colourless transparent glass, but no reduction of lead took place. Not having any 68 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. carbonate of soda at hand, [added a particle of nitre, whose deflagration producing petaaly, lead was revived. A “bit, which had been made white by ignition, being wetted with nitrate of cobalt and again ignited, became blue. Heated in a glass tube over a candle, it decrepitated, be- came opaque and white, and water sublimed. Mr. Tennant mentioned to me a sort of explosion occa- sioned by the sudden expulsion of the water, and character- istic of this ore, which took place when it was heated at the blow-pipe. With the very minute particles I have tried, no effect of this sort was perceived. The above characters will prove sufficient, I apprehend, to make this substance known when met with. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. X V1, 1820, p. 100. Plomb Gomme.—Mr. Smithson has given us some interesting details respecting the history and properties of this mineral, which is a hydrous aluminate of lead. It has a yellow colour, and is oxceedingly similar in appearance to Mullen glass. When heated, it decrepitates violently ; and if it be heated by tho blow-pipe, in contact with an alkali, lead is reduced. Its nature was first ascertained by Mr. Tennant, Berzelius has lately anal- yzed it. Tho result of his analysis will bo found in the Annals of Philoso- phy, xiii, 881. (Seo Annals of Philosophy, xiv. 81.) ON A FIBROUS METALLIC COPPER. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVI, 1820, p. 46. i Paris, March 17, 1820. Sm: There occur, in mineral collections, pieces of a cop- per slag, having fibres of metallic copper in its cavities. I have seen this fibrous copper erroneously placed among native coppers. ’ I possess samples of this kind. from a foundery in the Hartz. The metallic copper in the cavities, or air-holes, is so delicately slender as to be a metallic wool. i | iF (Papi Wes ae GRC eR SN Raia ao MS sa Aipieh: Hoe "7 oD i bt, a ray ; oe: . ‘ae Ai . : 7 ‘ fy al ee iy z a aid | . ee i re 31, Ry Micln an oh 2 ns ots Bey Sa Vite ; ae a aT Me ae Aw ae ae ‘iat the Byte ' Wise . >» A qe (ay At “ Y WAR 4 hy 7 .. , aie in f 7 PAG GE ee sre | Pay 4 i oe iJ e ? vat e iu 1 \ } P ‘na i ; 7" \ ram ve {y of 4 + : y, v Wie , van a | a t 0 '. Pyth te ; tt we zh i . nae A. i! aT & ‘ Ui a i £ f ¢ ree = ar a tk ah s ae is Po ; fay a me Ve a c ih Py ; ites o 9 Ne . , Uy ee P| > yee , lie i Digi { ¥ - ‘7 ar . 7 4 h re ee os INSTIT SMITHSONIAN WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 69 From several considerations, it appeared to me to be be- yond all doubt that the opinion of these fibres having been produced by crystallization was perfectly inadmissible; and I was for a very long time totally unable to come to any conjecture with respect to Pe mode in, which reoey, had originated. 1 . Looking on one of these specimens this morning, an idea struck me which is, [ am convinced, the solution of this knotty problem. It occurred to me that these fibres had been generated at the instant of consolidation of the fused slag. That by its shrinking at that moment, it had compressed drops of cop- per, still in a fluid state, dispersed in its substance, and squeezed a portion of it through the minute spaces between its particles, under this fibrous ene into its ee or air- holes. nl . For this operation to take plies tha’ concurrence ‘of sev- eri conditions is required. The slag must be so thick and pasty as to retain metallic copper scattered through it. It must have developed bubbles of some gas which have occa- sioned vacuities in it.. It must be less fusible than the cop- per, but in so very small a degree that ne copper. consoli- dates as the fibres of it are formed. } It is evident that on this saopoccnon these fibres of copper are produced by a process entirely the same as that employed for the manufactory of macaroni and vermicelli; and which are made by forcing paste through small apertures by the pressure of a syringe. It is wire-drawing performed in- versely—by propulsion instead of traction. As soon as this hypothesis had presented itself to me, I became anxious to ascertain whether I could give birth to this fibrous copper at the blow-pipe. I melted a small fragment of the slag; and, on breaking it, I had the grati- © fication of finding its little cavities lined with minute fibres of metallic copper as those of its greater prototype. I wished now to form the slag itself which was to afford the copper fibres. As I had ascertained the slag of the 70 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. Hartz to consist of sulphur, copper, and iron, I had recourse to the yellow sulphuret of copper and iron. To produce the required portion of metallic copper, I calcined some small fragments of this yellow ore at the tip of the exterior flame. Finding that I had exceeded the proper point, and - rendered them too infusible, I added a little of the raw ore; and after encountering a few difficulties succeeded in pro- ducing a little mass of slag, whose internal cavities pre- sented me, on breaking it, with the fibres of copper which were the object of my toil. A repetition of these experiments in a furnace, on a larger scale, would undoubtedly have yet more successful results. It deserves to be noticed that the curved form which these fibres of copper generally have is entirely favourable to the foregoing theory of their formation, and equally contrary to the supposition of their being produced by crystallization. The power to which has been ascribed the phenomenon which forms the subject of these pages has hitherto been ovérlooked. It has not been considered what the effects might be of the contraction of a melted mass at the moment of its congelation. Itis, however, a means of effects which may have acted on many occasions in the earth. Two mat- ters of unequal fusibility, and of no attraction to each other, are not unlikely to have occurred blended in a state of fusion ; and then the most fusible to have become pressed out from between the particles of the other when it solidified. If some evolved vapour had opened cavities in the mass, or rents had formed in it, the fluid matter will have escaped from the pressure into these voids, as has happened ‘with the copper. If these receptacles for it have been wanting, it must have flowed to the external surfaces, and may have formed a crust there. The matter which lines or fills the cavities of some lavas has, perhaps, been so introduced into them. A knowledge of the productions of art, and of its opera- tions, is indispensable to the geologist. Bold is the man who undertakes to assign effects to agents with which he WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 71 has no acquaintance ; which he never has beheld in action ; to whose indisputable results he is an utter stranger; who engages in the fabrication of a world alike unskilled in the forces and the materials which he employs. AN ACCOUNT OF A NATIVE COMBINATION OF SULPHATE OF BARIUM AND FLUORIDE OF CALCIUM. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVI, 1820, p. 48. Paris, March 24, 1820. Srr: I acquired this substance in Derbyshire. It is many years since I ascertained its constitution. I have examined ~ several minerals which in appearance bore a resemblance to it, but have not found any of them to be of the same nature. This species would hence appear to be of rare occurrence in the earth. This substance formed a vein about an inch wide in a coarse shell limestone. Next to this substance was a layer of crystals of sulphuret of lead; and between these and the limestone rock a layer of crystals of carbonate of cal- cium. . I infer that these matters filled a alti fines in the limestone stratum; and from-the ideas I entertain of the mode by which such fissures have generally become occu- pied by their contents, I believe them to have been succes- sively deposited in it by sublimation, either through the intense vehemence of subterranean fire, or by the agency of the vapour of water, or of some other gas. This compound matter bears in its general appearance so strong a resemblance to fine compact grey limestone that the eye can probably not distinguish betaveen them. Forty-two grains of it lost 11.2 grs. in rain water at the 72 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. temperature of 61° Fahr.; consequently its density is 3.750, These 42 gra. of this stone by laying in the water did not absorb into their substance a quantity of it oe to one- tenth of a grain. . | Tt does not mark glass, and is sani pardned to a powder by aknife. It marked sulphate of barium. Its hardness and that of fluoride of calcium appeared to be the same. It showed no electricity by heat. By friction it readily became electrified... In the fire it lost no weight. At the blow-pipe, it readily melted. The little bead while in fusion was transparent. On evolving, it became opaque. The transparency of the bead in a melted state is best seen with a very minute one. On fusing this matter long, it spreads on the coal, and becomes a refractory mass, With borax, it dissolved with great effervescence into a brown glass. If much stone was used, the glass appeared quite black, but drawn out to a thread with the tongs, it was found to be of a fine hyacinth colour. These colours depend on the formation of sulphur. With microcosmic salt it fused with effervescence to a clear colourless glass, which became opaque, and white on adding more of it. A particle of this stone which had been fused on the charcoal being laid in a drop of water on a plate of silver, immediately made a black spot of sulphuret of silver on it. This bit of melted stone, transferred to a drop of marine acid, on a piece of glass, partially dissolved with efferves- cence. The solution let exhale spontaneously, afforded crystals of chloride of barium. Some of this stone in fine powder, being heated in a drop of sulphuric acid on a bit of glass, the pole of the glass was destroyed. Water in which this stone in fine powder had been boiled was not affected by solution of nitrate of lead. A bit of this stone, being heated in dilute marine acid, emitted a few bubbles of carbonic acid, but was not other- WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 73 wise affected: 5.4 grs. of this mineral in very fine powder were let remain in an excess of marine acid till all action on them had ceased. The undissolved portion washed and gently ignited weighed 5.15 grs. The acid had acquired lime; so that this mineral contains a mechanical admixture 4.6 ° of jooo Of carbonate of calcium. _ This fine powder, which had been treated with the marine acid, had sulphuric acid evaporated to dryness on it in a platinum crucible. It was then digested in dilute marine. ‘acid. On evaporating this solution, a large quantity of sulphate of calcium in crystals was obtained. From these results, sulphuric acid, fluorine, barytes, and lime, appear to be the elements of this mineral. It is con- sequently inferable that its proximate principles are sulphate of barium and fluoride of calcium. The following experiments were made to obtain some idea of the proportions in which these two compound com- ponents of this mineral exist in it: 5.6 gre. of this stone in powder were heated in a platinum crucible in so large a quantity of sulphuric acid as to be en- tirely dissolved. Tho mixture was then exhaled dry, and ignited. The ic was now 7.85 oe The increase had, therefore, been as 74%. This augmentation of weight could arise only from the change of the fluoride of calcium into sulphate of calcium. To know to what, quantity of fluoride of calcium it cor- responded, two grs. of pure fluoride of calcium in subtile - powder were treated with sulphuric acid till the augmenta- tion of weight ceased.. The two grains had then become 8.65 grs.;3 accordingly the augmentation of weight was = pA; 65 = iss: This Derbyshire mineral, therefore, consists of Sulphate of barium - 61.5 Fluoride of calcium Died Patrice pan ten 48.5 100.0 74 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. Some error is created by the admixed carbonate of lime ; and which had not been removed. This mineral presents us with a remarkable case of com- bination; that of a neutral salt with a body which is not a salt, but belongs to an order which is analogous to metallic oxides. I have met with another instance of the same kind. I have examined transparent crystals which were composed of anhydrous sulphate of calcium and chloride of sodium. These combinations of their compounds may, however, perhaps, appear to some persons to cast doubts on the opinion that chlorine and fluorine are not acids. These compounds will still be deserving of particular attention from consisting of four matters. ON SOME CAPILLARY METALLIC TIN. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XVII—New Series, Vol. I—1821, p. 271. Paris, February 17, 1821. Sir: M. Ampére, a few days ago, accidentally in conver- sation, mentioned a fact to me which much excited my attention, as it appeared to me completely to confirm the explanation I had ventured to offer of the mode of forma- tion of the capillary copper in the slag of the Hartz, printed in the Annals of Philosophy for July, 1820. For some purpose of the arts, Mr. Clement formed a cylinder of copper, and, to give it strength, introduced into it a hollow cylinder, or tube, of cast-iron. To complete the union of these two cylinders some melted tin was run between them. With the exact particulars of this construc- tion, I am not acquainted, but the material circumstance is, that during the cooling of this heated mass, a portion of the melted tin was forced by the alteration of volume of WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 75 the cylinders through the substance of the cast-iron cylinder, and issued over its internal surface in the state of fibres, which were curled and twisted in various directions. This form in the fibres of copper I had considered as very favour- able to my hypothesis. Such was the tenuity of these fibres of tin that little tufts of them applied to the flame of a candle took fire, and burned like cotton. This passage of melted tin through cast-iron has a perfect agreement with the passage of water by pressure through gold, and tends to elucidate and confirm the account of the celebrated Florentine experiment. Had the water on that occasion issued solid, it would have been‘in fibres. This penetration of solid matters by fluids, by means of great mechanical force, will, perhaps, come to be thought deserving of more attention than has been yet paid to it; besides any scientific results to which the consideration of it may lead, it may be found to afford compound substances, not otherwise obtainable, and of value to the arts. Iam, sir, your most obedient servant, JAMES SMITHSON. ON THE DETECTION OF VERY MINUTE QUAN- TITIES OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XX; New Series, Vol. IV, 1822, p. 127. Sir: To be able to discover exceedingly small quantities of arsenic and mercury must, on many occasions, prove conducive to the purposes of the chemist and the mineralo- gist, more especially now that a very diminished scale of experiment, highly to the advantage of these sciences, is becoming daily more generally adopted. But the occasion above all others in which the power of 76 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. doing this is important, are those of poisonings. In these it is often of the first moment to be able to pronounce with certainty, from portions of matter of extreme minuteness, on the existence and the nature of the poison. Of Arsenie: I have already communicated the method here proposed for the discovery of arsenic by employing it in the analysis of the compound sulphuret of lead and arsenic from Upper Valais, printed in the Annals of Philosophy for August, 1819, but not having mentioned the generality of its appli- cation, or the great accuracy of it, it seems not superfluous, from the importance of the subject, to resume it. If arsenic, or any of its compounds, is fused with nitrate of potash, arseniate of potash is produced, of which the solution affords a brick-red precipitate with nitrate of silver. In cases where any sensible portion of the potash of the nitre has become set free, it must be saturated with acetous acid, and the saline mixture dried and redissolved in water. So small is the quantity of arsenic required for this mode of trial, that a drop of a solution of oxide of arsenic in water, which, at a heat of 54.5° Fahr. contains not above 1-80th of oxide of arsenic,* put to nitrate of potash in the platina spoon and fused, affords a considerable quantity of arseniate of silver. lence when no solid particle of oxide of arsenic can be obtained, the presence of it may be estab- lished by infusing in water the matters which contain it. The degree in which this test is sensible is readily deter- mined, With 5.2 grains of silver, I obtained 6.4 grains of arse- niate of silver; but 0.65 grain of silver was recovered from the liquors, so that the arseniate had been furnished by 4.55 grs. of silver. In a second trial 7.7 grains of silver, but of which only 6.8 grains precipitated, yielded 9.5 grs. of arseniate. * Chimie de Thenard, ii, p. 167. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. (i The mean is 140.17 from 100 of silver. If we suppose 100 of silver to form 107.5 of oxide, we shall have Oxide of silver = - 107.50 Acid of arsenic ~ - 32.0% Consequently 1 of acid of arsenic will produce 4.29 of arseniate of silver; 1 of white oxide of arsenic, 4.97; and 1 of arsenic, 6.56. Of Mercury. All the oxides and saline compounds of mercury laid in a drop of marine acid on gold with a bit of tin, quickly amalgamate the gold. A particle of corrosive sublimate, or a drop of a solution of it, may be thus tried. The addition of marine acid is not required in this case. Quantities of mercury may be rendered evident in this way which could not be so by any other means. This method will exhibit the mercury iu cinnabar. It must be previously boiled with sulphuric acid in the platina spoon to convert it into sulphate. Cinnabar heated in solution of potash on gold amalga- mates it. A most minute quantity of metallic mercury may be dis- covered in a powder by placing it in nitric acid on gold, drying, and adding muriatic acid and tin. A trial I made to discover mercury in common.salt by the present method was not successful, owing, perhaps, to the smallness of the quantity, which I employed. _ Lam, sir, yours &e.,9 0: ; 7 JAMES SMITHSON. 738 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. SOME IMPROVEMENTS OF LAMPS. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XX; New Series, Vol. IV, 1822, p. 363. Sir: It is, I think, to be regretted, that those who culti- vate science frequently withhold improvements in their apparatus and processes, from which they themselves derive advantage, owing to their not deeming them of sufficient magnitude for publication. When the sole view is to further a pursuit of whose im- portance to mankind a conviction exists, all that can do so should be imparted, however small may appear the merit which attaches to it. Of the Wicks of Lamps.—The great length of wick com- monly put to lamps for the purpose of supplying the part which combustion destroys, is, on several accounts, ex- tremely inconvenient. It occupies much space in the vessel, and requires an enlargement of its capacity ; it is frequently the occasion of much dirt, &e. This great length of wick is totally unnecessary. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 8. Fig. 4. It is advantageously supplied by a tube containing a bit of cotton wick about its own length, or some cotton wool, fig. 1, and at the end of which is placed a stout bit of wick or cotton wool, fig. 2. i This loose end receives a supply of oil from the cotton under it with which it is put into contact, and when it be-’ comes burned, it is easily renewed. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 79 A loose ring of wick may in like manner be applied to the argand lamp. This removes the necessity of the long tube into which the wicks, now used, descend, and thus greatly contracts this lamp in height. | | Of Wax Lamps.—Oil is a disagreeable combustible for small experimental purposes, and more especially when lamps are to be carried in travelling. I have, therefore, substituted wax for it. I experienced, however, at first, some difficulty in accomplishing my object. The wicks of my lamps are a single cotton thread, waxed by drawing through melted wax. This wick is placed in a burner made of a bit of tinned iron sheet, cut like fig. 3, and the two parts a a raised into fig. 4. This burner is placed in a china cup, about 1.65 inches in diameter, and 0.6 in. deep. Fragments of wax are pressed into this cup. But great care must be taken that each time the lamp is lighted, bits of wax are heaped up in contact with the wick, so that the flame shall immediately obtain _ a supply of ele wax. This is the great secret on which the burning of wax lamps depends. When the wick is consumed, the wax must be pierced with a large pin down to the burner, and a fresh bit of waxed cotton introduced. : I employ a wax lamp for the erie This has, of course, a much larger wick, and this wick has a detached end to it, as above desehibad. Bactinguishing Lamps.—The best way of doing Ane is to extinguish the ignited part of the wick by putting sound wax on to it, and then blowing the flame out. This pre- serves the wick entire for future lighting again. This mode applied to candles is much preferable to the use of an extinguisher, or douters, to which there are many objections. 80 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. ON THE CRYSTALLINE FORM OF ICE. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXI; New Series, Vol- V, 1823, page 840. March 4, 1823. Sir: I have just seen a memoir in the Annales de Chi- mie et de Physique for Oct. 1822, but published about a month ago, on the crystalline form of ice. Mr. Hericart de Thury is said to have observed ice in hexagonal and triangular prisms; and Dr. Clarke, of Cam- bridge, in rhomboides of 120° and 60°. M. Haiiy supposed the form to be octahedral, and so did Romé de l’Isle; and, if I mistake not much, there is in an ancient volume of the Journal de Physique by Rozier, an account of ice in acute octahedrals. Are these accounts and opinions accurate ? Hail is always crystals of ice more or less regular. When they are sufficiently so to allow their form to be ascertained, and which is generally the case, it is constantly, as far as I have observed, that of two hexagonal pyramids joined base to base, similar to that of the crystals of oxide of silicium or quartz, and of sulphate of potassium. One of the pyra- mids is truncated, which leads to the idea that ice becomes electrified on a variation of its temperature, like tourma- line, silicate of zinc, &c. Ido not think that I have measured the linia of the fuces more than once. The two pyramids appeared to form by their junction an angle of about 80 degrees. Snow presents in fact the same form as hail, but imper- fect. Its flakes are skeletons of the crystals, having the greatest analogy to certain crystals of alum, white sulphuret of iron, &c., whose faces are wanting, and which consist of edges only. In spring and autumn; that is, between the season of oe: WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 81 snow and that of hail, the hail which falls partakes of the nature of both, is partly the one and the other; its crystals, though regular, are opaque, of little solidity, and consist, like snow, of an imperfect union of grains, or smaller crystals. . e A MEANS OF DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN THE SULPHATES OF BARIUM AND STRONTIUM. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXI; New Series, Vol. V, 1823, page 359. . April 2, 1828. Sir: To distinguish barytes and strontian from one an- other, it is directed in No. 19 of the Journal of the Royal Institution to dissolve in an acid which forms'a soluble salt with them, to decompose by sulphate of soda, and to add subcarbonate of potash to the filtered liquor. If the earth tried is strontian, a precipitate falls; if barytes, not. When these matters are in a state to be soluble in an acid, a more certain, I apprehend, and undoubtedly a much easier proceeding, is to put a particle into a drop of marine acid on a plate of glass, and to let this solution crystallize spon- taneously. The crystals of chloride of barium in rectangu- lar eight-sided plates are immediately distinguishable from the fibrous crystals of chloride of strontium: © I have not repeated the process above quoted; but if sul- phate of strontium did possess the solubility in water there implied, this quality presented a ready method by which mineralogists would be enabled to distinguish it from sul- phate of barium. . On trial I did not find water, or solution of sulphate of soda, in which sulphate of strontian had long lain, produce the least cloud on the addition of what is called pibcarbounte of soda. 82 ' WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. The means I have long employed to distinguish the two sulphates apart was to fuse with carbonate of soda, wash, dissolve in marine acid, &c.; but this process requires more time and trouble than is always willingly bestowed, and may even present difficulties to a person not familiarized with manipulations on very small quantities. A few months ago a method occurred to me divested of these objections. The mineral in fine powder is blended with chloride of barium, and the mixture fused. The mass is put into spirit of wine, whose flame is coloured red if the mineral was sulphate of strontium. The red colour of the flame is more apparent when the spirit is made to boil _ while burning, by holding the platina spoon containing it over the lamp. ON THE DISCOVERY OF ACIDS IN MINERAL SUBSTANCES, From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXI; New Series, Vol. V, 1828, pago 384. April 12, 1823. Sir: Acids, it is well known, have been repeatedly over- looked in mineral substances, and hence dubiousness still hovers over the constitution of many, although they have - formed the subjects of analysis to some of the greatest modern chemists. To be able to dissipate all doubts—to ascertain with cer- tainty whether an acid does or does not exist, and, if one is present, its species, and this with such facility that the trial may be indefinitely renewed at pleasure, and made by all, so that none need believe but on the testimony of his own experiments, is the degree of analytical power which it would be desirable to possess, So far as I have gone in these respects, I here impart. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 83 As the carbonates of soda and of potash precipitate all the solutions of earths and metals in acids, so do they decom- pose all their salts by fusion with them. Fusion with car- bonate of soda or potash affords there a general method of separating acids from all other matters. Lead forms an insoluble compound with all the mineral acids except the nitric. It may consequently be imme- diately known whether a mineral does or does not contain an acid element by the carbonate of soda or potash, with which it has been fused after saturation by acetous acid, forming or not forming a precipitate with a solution of lead. If the production of a precipitate proves the presence of an acid, the determination of its species will present no great difficulty. 1. Sulphurie Acid.—If the alkali which has received it from the mineral is fused on charcoal, and then laid in a drop of water placed on silver, a spot of sulphuret of silver will be produced, as I have stated on a former occasion.* Bright copper will likewise serve for this purpose. Fusion in the blue flame will often be sufficient to deoxi- date the sulphur. It is needless td observe that the alkali used in this trial must itself be perfectly free from sulphuric acid. When such is not possessed, its place may be supplied by Rochelle salt, or by cream of tartar. 2. Muriatic Acid.—I have likewise discovered a test of chlorine, and consequently of muriatic acid, of delicacy equal to the foregoing. If any matter containing chlorine or muriatic acid is laid on silver in a drop of solution of yellow sulphate of iron, or of common sulphate of copper, a spot of a black chloride of silver, whose colour is inde- pendent of light, and which has not been attended to by chemists, is produced. The chlorine in a tear, in saliva, even in milk, may bo thus made evident.. When the quan- tity of chlorine in a liquor is very small, a bit of sulphate a a ‘ * Annals of Philosophy for July, 1820. \ 84 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. of copper placed in it on the silver is preferable to a solu- tion. To find chlorine in milk, I put some sulphate of copper to it, and placed a small piece of bright silver in the mixture. 8. Phosphoric Acid.—The alkali containing it, after satu- ration by acetous acid, gives a sulphur-yellow precipitate with nitrate of silver, which no other acid does. The pre- cipitate obtained with lead crystallizes on the blow-pipe. M. Berzelius’s elegant method of detecting phosphoric acid is universally known. 4, Boracie Acid.—Its presence in carbonate of magnesia, and in some other of its compounds, is indicated by the green colour they give, during their fusion, to the flame of the lamp. M. Gay-Lussac has observed that a solution of boracic acid in an acid changes the colour of turmeric paper to red, like an alkali.* Borax, to which sulphuric acid has been put, does so, and the same is of course the case with a bead of soda containing boracic acid. : The most certain test of boracic acid in a soda bead, &c., is to add sulphuric acid to it and then spirit of wine, whose flame is coloured green, if boracic acid is present. 5. Arsenical Acid.—Alkali containing it produces a brick- red precipitate with nitrate of silver.ft 6. Chromic Acid.—Chromate of soda and its solution are yellow, and so is the precipitate with lead. That with silver is red. Chromate of soda or potash fused on a plate of clay leaves green oxide of chromium. Chromate of lead fused on a plate of clay produces a very dark-green mass, which is probably.chromate of lead; with an addition of lead, it forms a fine red, or orange glass. Lead added to the green oxide left by chromate of soda * Annales de Ohimie et de Physique, tome xvi. p. 75. f Annals of Philosophy, N. 8. vol. iv. p. 127. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 85 on the clay plate, dissolves it, and forms an orange-coloured - glass. The green oxide of chromium sometimes acts the part of an acid. I have seen a combination of it with oxide of lead found in Siberia, in regular hexagonal prisms, having the six edges of the terminal face truncated (Haiiy, pl. Ixviii. fig. 63); melted with lead on the clay plate this would un- doubtedly produce the orange glass; and fused with nitrate of potash it would form chromate of potash. 7. Molybdie Acid.—If molybdate of soda or potash, or, I apprehend, any other molybdate, is heated in a drop of sul- phuric acid, the mixture becomes of a most beautiful blue colour, either immediately, or on cooling. The solution of molybdate of soda in sulphuric acid affords with martial prussiate of potash, a precipitate of the same colour that copper does. Tincture of galls gives with this acid solution a green precipitate; but with an alkaline solution of molybdic acid galls produce a fine orange pre- cipitate. If an alkali is put to the green precipitate, it becomes orange; and if an acid to the orange precipitate, it becomes green. 8. Tungstic Acid.—If tungstate of soda is heated with sulphuric acid, the granules of precipitated tungstic acid become blue, but not the solution; and the phenomena can- not be confounded with those presented by molybdate of soda. Martial prussiate of potash has no effect on this acid liquor. Tincture of galls put to the solution of tungstate of soda in water does not affect it. On the addition of an acid to this mixture, a brown precipitate forms. If tungstate of soda is heated to dryness with a drop of muriatic acid, a yellow mass is left. On extracting the saline ‘matter by water, yellow acid of tungsten remains. It is readily soluble in carbonate of soda. If taken wet on the blade of a knife, it soon becomes blue. This is made very evident by wiping the blade of the knife with a bit of white ~ 86 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. yaper. Possibly a small remainder of muriatic or sulphurig acid among it is required for this effect. 9, Nitric Acid.—Nitrate of ammonia produces no defla- gration when filtering paper, wetted with a solution of it and dried, is burned; the salt volatilizing before ignition, most, or all, the other nitrates deflagrate. Lf ele copper is put into the solution of a nitrate, sulphuric acid added, and heat applied, the copper dissolves with effervescence. 10. Carbonic Acid.—It is to be discovered in the mineral itself. The application of heat is, in some cases, required to render the effervescence sensible. It has been sometimes overlooked in bodies from want of attention to this circum- stance. 11. Silica. —A simple and sufficient test of it is the form- ation of a jelly, when its combination with soda is put into an acid. It has evidently not been intended to enumerate all the means by which the presence of each acid in the soda bead could be perceived or established. Little has been said be- yond what appeared required and sufficient. Mention has been made above of small plates of clay. They are formed by extending a white refractory clay by blows with the hammer, between the fold of a piece of paper, like gold between skins. The clay and paper, are then cut together with scissars into pieces about 4-10ths of an inch long, and 24-10ths of an inch wide, and hardened in the fire in a tobacco-pipe. They are very useful additions to the blowpipe apparatus. . They admit the use of a new test, oxide of lead. They show to great advantage the colours of matters melted with © borax, &. Quantities of matter too minute to be tried on the coal, or on the platina foil, or wire, may be examined ‘on them alone, or with fluxes. Copper may be instantly WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 87 found in gold or silver by fusing the slightest scrapings of them with a little lead, &c., &c. Cut into very small, very acute triangles, clay affords a substitute for Saussure’s sappare. AN IMPROVED METHOD OF MAKING COFFEE. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXII; New Series, Vol. VI, 1828, page 30. June 4, 1828. Sir: From the highly fugacious nature of that part of coffee on which its fine flavour depends, a practice has become very generally adopted of late years of preparing the liquor by mere percolation. This method has not only the great defect of being ex- cessively wasteful, but the coffee is likewise apt to be cold. Coction and the preservation of the fragrant matter are, however, not inconsistent. The union of these advantages is attainable by performing the operation in a close vessel. To obviate the production of vapour, by which the vessel would be ruptured, the boiling temperature must be obtained in a water-bath. In my experiments I made use of a glass phial closed with a cork, at first left loose to allow the exit of the air. Cold water was put to the coffee. | This process is equally applicable to tea. Perhaps it may also be employed advantageously in the boiling of hops, during which, I understand, that a material portion of their aroma is dissipated; as likewise possibly for making certain medical decoctions. This way of preparing coffee and tea presents various ad- vantages. It is productive of avery considerable economy, since by allowing of any continuance of the coction without the least injury to the goodness, all the soluble matter may 88 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. be extracted, and consequently a proportionate less quantity of them becomes required. By allowing the coffee to cool in the closed vessel, it may be filtered through paper, then returned into the closed vessel, and heated again, and thus had of the most perfect clearness without any foreign addi- tion to it, by which coffee is impaired. The liquors may be kept for any length of time at a boiling heat, in private families, coffee houses, &c., so as to be ready at the very in- stant called for. It will likewise prove of no small conveniency to travel- lers who have neither kettle, nor coffee-pot, nor tea-pot, in places where these articles are not to be procured, as a bot- tle will supply them. In all cases means of economy tend to augment and dif- fuse comforts and happiness. They bring within the reach of the many what wasteful proceedings confine to the few. By diminishing expenditure on one article, they allow of some other enjoyment which was before unattainable. A reduction on quantity permits indulgence in superior qual- ity. In the present instance, the importance of economy is particularly great, since it is applied to matters of high price, which constitute one of the daily meals of a large portion of the population of the earth. That in cookery also, the power of subjecting for an indefinite duration toa boiling heat, without the slightest dependition of volatile matter, will admit of beneficial application, is unquestionable. “WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 89 A DISCOVERY OF CHLORIDE OF POTASSIUM IN THE EARTH. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXII; New Series, Vol. VI, 1828, page 258. Sir: A RED ferruginous mass, containing veins of a white crystalline matter, part of a block which was said to have been thrown out of Vesuvius during a late eruption, was brought to me, with a request that I would tell what it was. This red ferruginous rock was a spongy lava, in the sub- stance of which was here and there lodged a crystal of augite or pyroxene of Haiiy, or of hornblende. The white matter filled most of the larger cavities, and was more or less disseminated through nearly the whole of the mass. It had a saline appearance; a tabular fracture could be geen in it with a lens, and in some few tag regular cubi- cal crystals were discernible. il supposed it to be chloride of sodium, or muriate of am- monia. Heated in a matrass, it decrepitated slightly, and melted, but little or nothing sublimed. This white matter dissolved entirely in water. Laid on silver with sulphate of copper it produced an intense black stain. Chloride of barium added * the solution caused only a very slight turbidness, due probably to some sulphate of lime which is present. Tartaric acid occasioned an abundant formation of crys- tals of tartar. Chloride of platinum immediately threw down a precipitate, and distinct octahedral crystals of the game nature afterwards appeared. On decomposition by nitric acid, only prismatic crystals of nitrate of potash could be perceived. On a second crys- 90 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. tallization, a few rhombic crystals were discovered; but nitrate of potash sometimes presents this form, It appears from these experiments, that this white saline matter is pure, or nearly pure, chloride of potassium. T am inclined to attribute its introduction into the lava to sublimation. As chloride of potassium is a new species in mineralogy, T shall send the specimen to the British Museum. A METHOD OF FIXING PARTICLES ON THE SAPPARE. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXII; New Series, Vol. VI, 1828, page 412. October 24, 1823. Sir: When the species of minerals are ascertained by their physical qualities, they mostly undergo no injury, or but a very slight one; as that attending the determination of their hardness, the colour of their powder, their taste, &e. This is certainly a material advantage, and would highly recommend this method, was it constantly adequate to its purpose. That it is not so, however, we have a proof in the great errors into which have fallen those best skilled in it. Mr. Werner, its principal and most distinguished professor, was unable by its means to discover the identity of the jargon and the hyacinth; of the corundum and the sapphire; of his apatite and his spargelstein ; and while he thus parted beings, as it were, from themselves, he forced others together which had nothing in common. The chemical method justly boasts its certainty; but it carries destruction with it, and often bestows the knowledge of an object only at the expense of its existence. The sole remedy which can be opposed to this defect is to reduce the WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 91 scale of operating; and thus render the sacrifice which must be made as small as it is possible. M. de Saussure’s* ingenious. contrivance for subjecting the most minute portions of matters to fire, by fixing them on a splinter of sappare, appeared to fulfil the conditions of this problem, and to have accomplished all that could be desired. It has, however, been scarcely at all employed, owing to the excessive difficulty in general of making the particles adhere; and in consequence the almost unpossessed degree of patience required for, and time consumed by, nearly interminable failures. That such should be the case could not but be a subject of much regret, for besides economy of matter, of time, of labour, and the great beauty of deriving knowledge from so diminutive a source, and attaining important results with such feeble agents; reduction of volume became, in this in- stance, productive of increase of power, and thence, of an extension of the series of qualities by which substances are characterised. A slight alteration which I have made in M.. de Saus- gure’s process has removed the objection to it. To water, saliva, gum water, which he employed, the last of which is not sensibly superior to the former, I have’ substituted a mixture of water and refractory clay. Small triangles, or slender strips, of baked clay may be used in lieu of sappare, which is not at all times to be pro- cured; or a little of the moist clay may be taken up on the end of a platina, or other wire, and the object to be tried touched with it. This way may be applied to pieces of the ordinary size, and supersede the use of the platina tongs. But a proceeding which I have only recently adopted ap- pears to deserve the preference. Almost the least quantity of clay and water is put on the very end of a platina wire, filed flat there. With this, the particle of mineral lying on the table can be toucbed in any part chosen; for a moment * Journal de Physique, par Rozier, tome 45. 92 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. or two it is dry, and may be taken up, and put into the flame, without the clay exploding, as not unoften happens when more of it is used. Particles of the least visible mi- nuteness may be thus submitted to trial with the utmost facility. The contact of the particle with the wire may, in general, be so managed as to be extremely slight, as the slenderest point is sufficient to support it. ITowever, when the utmost heat possible is desired, a fragment of a less conducting matter may, if deemed necessary, be interposed. There may be cases in which the presence of the clay is objectionable. I conceived that some of the body itself to be tried, would on these occasions, supply its place. Flint was the least promising of any in this respect. It was se- lected for the experiment. With a paste of its powder and water, pieces of flint were successfully cemented to flint, and some of this paste taken on the end of a wire, served, if not quite as well as clay, yet very sufficiently. After sev- eral times igniting and quenching in cold water, the reduc- tion of very hard matters to subtile powder is attended with no difficulty. Earth of alum would perhaps be preferable to pipe-clay for making the triangles on strips, and for agglutinating objects to them. It would even have the advantage over sappare of being a simple substance. Some from the Paris shops acquired only little solidity in the fire; but I after- wards learned that it had been obtained from alum by fire. Since I have been in possession of this means of so effec- tually confining the subjects of examination as to be able to continue during pleasure to act on them, I have directed - but little attention. to the fusibility of matters. Quartz, whose fusion has been called in question by M. Berzelius,* has seemed to be quite refractory. On some few occasions when it has proved otherwise, the phenomena have neither corresponded with M. de Saussure’s account, nor been always the same, which certainly admits of the fusion being attributed to an accidental cause. * De l’emploi du Chalumeau, p. 108. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 93 But I have found with much surprise that flint can be melted without difficulty; and even of a considerable bulk. Where the heat is most intense, a degree of frothing takes place; where it is less, there is a swelling of parts of the surface. The effects were the same with French and Eng- lish flint, with black and with horn-coloured. Docs flint, like pitchstone, contain bitumen, which, at a certain heat, tends to tumefy it? This might explain the smell from its collision, and the oil which Neumann obtained by its distil- lation, and to which no credit has been ever given. No doubt can, I conceive, be entertained of flint being a vol- canic production. On this point I may speak again at a future opportunity. ; In using mere water, diamond, anthracite, plumbago, were particularly difficult of trial, as any adhesion they had contracted with the sappare was quickly destroyed by the combustion of their surface, while, as the intention in their case is not to subject to great heat, they may be so secured in the’ clay as at least very much to retard their escape. Here acting on very minute particles is essential, as when large pieces are employed, the effect is too slow to be per- ceptible, A pleasing way of demonstrating the combustion of plumbago, and of even exhibiting the iron in it, is to ruba little from the wetted point of a pencil on one of the clay plates mentioned in a former paper.* In trying diamond it was imagined that its glow contin- ued an unusual time after removal from the fire.’ The pres- ent method afforded the means of making a comparison. A fragment of diamond, and another of quartz, chosen pur- posely of rather a larger size, were fixed near each other in the clay; and it was observed that the diamond was most luminous while under the action of the flame, and longer 80 after removal from it. Its being a very slow conductor of heat may occasion in part the latter quality. acest Sit Lae Es REGINA * Annals for May. 94 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. Tn the same way the unequal fusibility of two substances may probably, on some occasions, be ascertained; and serve from deficiency of a better, as a means of distinction be- tween then. | Tam, sir, yours, &c. J. SMITHSON. ON SOME COMPOUNDS OF FLUORINE. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXIII; New Series, Vol. VII, 1824, p. 100. . January 2, 1824, Sir: When numberless persons are seen, in every direc- tion, pursuing a subject with the utmost ardour, it is natu- ral to conclude that their labors have accomplished all that was within their reach to perform. It must, therefore, in mineralogy be supposed, that those substances whose abundance has placed them in every hand, have been fully scrutinized, and are thoroughly understood ; and that if now to extend the boundaries of the science it is not indispensable to explore new regions of the earth, ~ and procure matters hitherto unpossessed, it is yet only to objects the most rare, the most difficult of acquisition, that inquiry can be applied with any hope of new results, A want of due conviction that the materials of the globe and the products of the laboratory are the same, that what nature affords spontaneously to men, and what the art of the chemist prepares, differ no ways but in the sources from whence they are derived, has given to the industry of the collector of mineral bodies an erroneous direction. What is essential to a knowledge of chemical beings has been left in neglect; accidents of small import, often of none, have fixed attention—have engrossed it; and a fertile | WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 95 field of discovery has thus remained where otherwise it would have been exhausted. Fluor spar has decorated mineral cabinets from probably the earliest period of their existence; every tint with which chance can paint it; each casual diversity of form and appearance under which it may present itself have been long familiar, and its true nature continues a problem; and its decomposition by fire was yet to be learned. Fluor Spar. If a very minute fragment of fluor spar is fastened by means of clay* to the end of a platina wire nearly as fine as a hair, which is the size I now employ even with fluxes, it will be perceived on the first contact of the fire to melt with great facility. As the fusion is prolonged, the fusibility will decrease; protuberances will rise over the surface of the ball; it will put on what is designated by the term of the cauliflower form; and finally become entirely refractory. On detaching it from the wire, it will prove hollow. This little capsula being taken up again by its side, and its edge presented to the flame, thin- and porous as this edge is, it will withstand its utmost violence. Such an alteration of qualities proclaims an equal one of nature. I had no doubt that the calcium had absorbed oxy- gen, and parted with fluorine; that the mass had ceased to be fluor spar, and was become quicklime. On placing it in a drop of water my conjecture was confirmed; a solution took place by which test papers were altered ; a cremor calcis soon appeared; and on allowing the mixture to become spontaneously dry, a white powder remained, which acids dissolved with effervescence. That the fluoric element was gone admitted not of doubt. To pursue it in its escape; to coerce it, and render it palpa- — ble to the senses, could not be required to establish the fact. It may, however, be done. * Annals for December. 96 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON, The open tube described by M. Berzelius in his valuable work on the blowpipe, is adapted to the purpose by an addi tion to it. A small plate of platina foil, or a curved plate of baked clay, is introduced a little way into one of its ends; and secured by bringing with the point of the flame the glass “hast Liew oem erp eat fea into contact with it. The body to be tried is fixed to this plate by means of moist clay; and may then be subjected for any time to any degree of heat. Thus tried, fluor spar quickly obscured the glass by a thick crust of siliceous matter; and coloured yellowa bit of paper tinged with logwood. M. Berzelius assigns fernambuc wood for the test of flu- oric acid. Bergman says that this wood affords a red infu- sion which alkalies turn blue.* None such could be procured, but it was found that logwood might be substi- tuted for it. The paper tinged with this, like that mentioned by M. Berzelius, is made yellow by fluoric acid and oxalic acid; but it did not seem to be so by sulphuric or muriatic acids, nor by phosphoric acid, Topaz. In extremely minute particles, topaz subjected to the fire at the end of a very slender wire soon becomes opaque and white; but I perceived no marks of fusion. This change is undoubtedly occasioned by the loss of its fluoric part. One of the times I was at Berlin, M. Klaproth gave me, as his reason for not publishing the analysis of topaz, that in the porcelain furnace it sustained a great loss of weight, the cause of which he had not then been able to ascertain. Topaz ground to impalpable powder, and blended with ‘carbonate of lime, melted with ease. Some of this mixture * Analysis of Mineral Waters. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. o7 fused on the platina plate at the mouth of the tube, made an abundant deposit of silica over its interior surface; and the bit of logwood paper at the end of it had its blue colour altered to yellow. In the trial in this way of substances of difficult fusion, an apparatus of the following construction is more favoura- ble than the one above described. a. A bottle cork. b. A slice of the same fixed with ev a ec. A wire. d. A cylinder of platina foil atte teed into the mouth of - the glass tube, to prevent its being softened and closed by the flame. e. A platina wire, at the end ue which is cemented with clay the subject of trial. I formerly suggested that topaz might be a compound of silicate of alumina, and of fluate of alumina.* ‘I am now convinced that no oxygen exists in it; but that it is a com- bination of the fluorides of silicium ond aluminum. This system produces a considerable alteration i in the pro- portions of its elements. ee ee a ee ee * Philosophical Transactions for 1811. 98 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. The mean of the six analyses quoted by M. Haiiy, in the second edition of his Mineralogy, is Silica - - - 36.0 Alumina - . - 52.3 Fluoric acid - - 9.7 98.0 Deducting the oxygen from the metals, we have Silicium - - - 13.0 ~ Aluminium - - - 27.7 Fluorine “ape - - 52.3 98.0 Kryolite. It has been observed to diminish in fusibility during fusion,* and it was in every respect probable, from what had been seen with the foregoing bodies, that it would be de- composed in the fire. After being kept some time melted, it afforded an alkaline solution, which, by exposure to the air, became carbonate of soda, effloresced, effervesced with nitric acid, and produced crystals of nitrate of soda. Fused on the platina plate at the mouth of the tube; a copious deposit of silex collected in the tube; and the bit of logwood paper became very yellow. Kr volite heated in sulphuric acid on glass anova its polish. 1. These experiments render it highly probable that flu- orino will be expelled from every compound of it by the agency of fire; and consequently that we are now in pos- session of a general method of discovering its presence in bodies. In cases where a matter is infusible, and parts with it with great difficulty, as in that of topaz, it may be required to reduce it to fine powder, or to act upon it by some ad- * Haty’s Mineralogy. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 99 mixture with which it melts, for the sake of promoting division and multiplying aay Hereby is supplied what may have seemed to be an omis- sion in the paper on acids.* Although it was not such, since fluorine is not an acid; and fluoric acid may never occur in a mineral substance; as it can probably exist in combina- tion only with ammonia; all its other supposed compounds being doubtless fluorides. _ 2 The theory of these decompositions may be acquired by experiment; and light obtained on the nature of the compounds. If fluor spar, for instance, is a combination of oxide of calcium and fluoric acid, and this is expelled from the oxide merely by the force of' fire, the decomposition of it will take place in closed vessels without the presence of oxygen or of water; fluoric acid will be obtained; and the weight of this acid and the lime will be equal together to that of the orig- inal spar. If the spar is metallic calcium and fluorine, and when heated in oxygen absorbs this, and parts with ae it is fluorine which will be collected in the vessels, and its pei and that of the lime will together exceed that of the spar by the oxygen of the lime. If it is water which is the agent of decomposition, fluoric acid will be collected; but bes the excess of weight will not only equal the oxygen absorbed by the lime, but also the hydrogen which has acidified the fluorine; and this in- ereased weight of the fluoric acid will prove that hydrogen is an element of it. It appears to have been fluoric acid which in the above related experiments passed into the tubes; but the inflam- mable matter of the flame would probably have rendered emitted fluorine such. It becomes of high importance to ascertain whether ignited fluor spar is decomposed by pass- ing water over it, and if so what are the products. It is * Annals for May. 100 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. not convenient to myself at present to make the experiment ; I therefore resign it to others. How far the difficulty which the action of fluorine on the vessels in which it is contained, as opposed to its examina- tion, would be obviated by employing vessels of its com- pounds, as of fluor spar, or of chloride of silver; or whether it'acts on all oxides as it does on silica, experiments‘ have not informed me, . 8. The vegetation of matters before the blow-pipe is attributed by a great chemist to a “new state of equilib- rium induced by heat between the constituent parts of bodies,”’* but the phenomena do not accord with the expla- nation. Was such the cause of the acquired infusibility, it would manifest itself through the whole mass as soon as fusion had enabled the new arrangement. It is, on the contrary con- fined to the surface; the interior portion continues fluid; but wherever any of this bursts the shell, and issues forth, it is instantly fixed in immovable solidity; and when the process has attained its final state, a hollow globule remains. Why is the change of quality limited to the surface; how has been produced the central cavity; what has forced away the matter which occupied it? A new clement has been received from without, one which existed in the matter has been parted with in a state of vapour. This double action may probably be inferred wherever a matter presents this species of vegetation. Some metallic bodies, as tin, lead, sulphuretted tin, arsen- icated nickel, &c., present another species of vegetation, caused by the absorption of oxygen, and the production over their surface of a matter more bulky than the metal from which it is produced, and infusible at the heat to which it is exposed. Here no internal void forms. The mode of fusion of epidote had led me to suspect the existence of fluorine in it; but on trial with the second ap- * De l’Emploi du Chalumeau, p. 94. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 101 paratus, represented above, I could not perceive a trace of it. A more accurate observation of its fusion has shown me that it does not, as generally supposed, form the cauli- . flower. It appears to do so only where so large a mass is exposed to the fire that but points of its surface are fused in succession. If a very minute bit is employed, it is clearly seen to puff up like borax, stilbite, &c.; and then, like them, become less fusible; from the separation, doubtless, of a vapourized element on which its greater fusibility had depended. The smallest particle of fluor spar shows no such inflation. 7 We see here three several cases of intumescence in the fire: one where a gas is absorbed; one where a gas, or vapour, is disengaged; one where the two effects are con- comitant. There may be persons who, measuring the importance of the subject by the magnitude of the objects, will cast a supercilious look on this discussion; but the particle and the planet are subject to the same laws; and what is learned upon the one will be known of the other. AN EXAMINATION OF SOME EGYPTIAN COLOURS. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXIII, New Series, Vol. VII, 1824, p. 116. January 2, 1824. Sir: More than commonly incurious must he be who would not find delight in stemming the stream of ages: returning to times long past, and beholding the then state of things and men. In the arts of an ancient people much may be seen con- cerning them: the progress they had made in knowledge of various kinds; their habits; their ideas on many subjects. 102 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. And products of skill, may likewise occur, either wholly unknown to us, or superior to those which now supply them. I received from Mr. Curtin, who travelled in Egypt with Mr. Belzoni, a small fragment of the tomb of King Psam- mis. It was sculptured in basso relievo which were painted. - The colours were white, red, black and blue. have heard the white of Egyptian paintings extolled for its brilliancy and preservation, I found the present to be neither lead nor gypsum; but carbonate of lime. Chlo- rides of barium caused no turbidness in its solution, An — entire sarcophagus of arragonite proves that the ancient Egyptians were in possession of an ‘abundant store of this matter, remarkable often for its perfect whiteness, Was it the material of their white paint ? Thered was oxide of iron. By heating, it became black, and returned on cooling to its original hue, In a case where so much foreign admixture was present, since the layer of red was much too thin to allow of its being iso- lated, I considered this as a better proof of red oxide of 4 iron than obtaining prussian blue. The black was pounded wood charcoal. After the car- bonate of lime with which it was mixed had been removed by an acid, the texture of the larger particles were perfectly discernible with a strong lens; and in the fire it burned entirely away. The blue is what most deserves attention. It wasasmalt, or glass powder, so like our own, though a little paler, as to be mistaken for it by judges to whom I showed it; but its tinging matter was not cobalt, but copper. Melted with borax and tin, the red oxide of copper immediately ap- peared. Many years ago I examined the blue glass with which was painted a small figure of Isis, brought to me from Egypt by a relation of ane and found its ‘colouring matter to be copper. I am informed that a fine blue glass cannot at present be WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 103 obtained by means of copper. What its advantages would be above that from cobalt, it is for artists to decide. Intent upon the blue smalt, it unfortunately did not occur to me to examine, till I had washed nearly the whole of it away to waste, what was the glutinous matter which had been so true to its office’for no less a period than 3,500 years; for the colours were as firm on the stone as they can ever have been. A small quantity of it recovered from the water did not seem to form a jelly on concentrating its solution; or to produce a precipitate with galls. I imagined its vegetable nature ascertained by its ashes restoring the colour of red- dened turnsol paper, till I found those of glue do the same. The employment of powder of charcoal for a black would seem to imply an unacquaintance with lamp-black, and, per- haps, with bone black, and that of copper to colour glass blue, a deficiency of cobalt. And if the glutinous matter should prove, on a future examination, to be vegetable, our glue being then possessed may, perhaps, be deemed ques- tionable. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON MR. PENN’S THEORY CONCERNING THE FORMATION OF THE KIRKDALE CAVE. | From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXIV; New Series, Vol. VIII, 1824, p. 60. June 10, 1824. Sir: No observer of the earth can doubt that it has undergone very considerable changes. Its strata are every- where broken and disordered; and in many of them are enclosed the remains of innumerable beings which once had life; and these beings appear to have been strangers to the climates in which their remains now exist. 104 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. In a book held by a large portion of mankind to have been written from divine inspiration, an universal deluge is recorded. . It was natural for the believers in this deluge to refer to its action, all, or many, of the phenomena in ques- tion; and the more so as they seemed to find in them a corroboration of the event. Accordingly, this is what was done, as soon as any desire to account for these appearances on the earth became felt. The success, however, was not such as to obtain the general assent of the learned; and the attempt fell into neglect and oblivion, Able hands have lately undertaken the revival of this system; Mr. Penn has endeavoured to reconcile it with the facts of the Kirkdale Cave, which appeared to be strongly inimical to it. Acquainted with Mr. Penn’s opinions only from the “Analysis of the Supplement to the Comparative Estimate” in the Journal of the Royal Institution for January, not having seen this Supplement itself, the Comparative Esti- mate, nor even a review of this in a former number of the Journal, and knowing of Mr. Buckland’s Reliquie Diluvi- ane, only the account of the Kirkdale Cave published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1822, I have hesitated long about communicating the present observations, which presented themselves during the perusal of the above-men- tioned slender abstract. T have yielded to a sense of the importance of the subject in more than one respect, and of the uncertainty when I shall acquire ampler information at more voluminous sources—to a conviction that it is in his knowledge that man has found his greatness and his happiness, the high superiority which he holds over the other animals who inhabit the earth with him, and consequently that no igno- rance is probably without loss to him, no error without evil, and that it is therefore preferable to urge unwarranted doubts, which can only occasion additional light to become elicited, than to risk by silence letting a question settle to WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 105 rest, while any unsupported assumptions are involved in it. If I rightly apprehend Mr. Penn’s ideas, they are these: Secondary limestones were originally in a soft state. The waters of the deluge while elevated above England, deposited on it a layer, or bed, of ‘“‘a soft and plastic’”’ cal- careous matter. On their departure from the earth, by flowing away to- wards the north, they floated over England the carcases of a number of tropical animals, clustered together into great masses, These masses became buried in the calcareous mud. On the sinking of the waters of the deluge below the surface of England, the bed of calcareous mud began to dry, and on doing so completely, ede der pe present Kirkdale rock. Fy teh The clustered animal ete gioata in the. eteateoue paste, by putrifying, evolved a great quantity of gas, which forced the limestone paste in all directions from them, and thus generated the Cave in which Mr. Buckland found er bones. Soft State of Secondary Limestones. That secondary limestones have been in a state to admit foreign Bs into their Sipe their existence in it is evidence. » Every shell aa’ tone on ih henett tells by if railed form the attrition to which it is subject at each flood and ebb of the tide; and that a subtil powder is abraded from ‘it which is collected somewhere. From the immense multitudes of marine bodies which exist in some of these limestones, from others consisting in fact entirely of them, from in general little or nothing.but calcareous matter being present, it becomes highly probable that it is to the calcareous part of marine animals, more or less comminuted, that secondary limestones owe their ori- gin. | + fren 106 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. ane of the ale ea The waters of ihe deluge ad wat ay either a dura- tion or power, to obtain the matter of this supposed layer of mud. No shores any longer existing, shells could not be pulver- ized by the beat of the wave, for it is not deep under water that such destruction is effected ; nor, was it so, would the | short period of a year have been sufficient to produce the material of all the secondary limestones of the earth ? To have harrowed up this matter from the depths of the ocean, would have required an agitation of the waters, which nothing warrants us in giving to them, which every thing denies their having had. No hurricanes, no tempestuous winds, no swollen billows, . are recorded. To: drown mankind they were superfluous. A wind having arisen at the termination of the calamity tells that none existed before; and this wind must have been a most gentle one, a very zephyr. A vessel, bulky beyond all the efforts of imagination to figure, so laden, so manned, could not have lived in any agitated sea, least in one which out-topped the Alps, and the Andes, all that could * curb its fury, and mitigate its violence. Had the ark not foundered, which is impossible, what yet had become of the millions which its sides enclosed? Few had survived to repair the effects of the divine wrath. The waters must have been at rest when the ark continued stationary for many months on the mountains of Ararat. Nor, do the agitations of a sea extend far below its sur- faco. What navigator has told of the storm in which the sea became thick with its own sediments ? But had such a deposit been made on our island, it would not have continued on it. Standing like a little turret in the bosom of the waters, each agitation of them would have precipitated part of it down its sides. Their gigantic tides must alone have washed it away, and on the rush of their WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 107 final departure, not a vestige of it could possibly have re- mained behind. If the waters of the deluge placed a bed of calcareous matter on England and Germany, they must have done so over the entire earth. It must have been an universal stratum. Yet so total was the deficiency of it at Botany Bay, that the first settlers, for the very little lime which a few struc- tures of immediate necessity required, were compelled, though spare as were the hands, and much as they were wanted for other purposes, laboriously and tediously, to col- lect shells along the beach. Where a limestone nodule was so anxiously sought and could not be found, great strata could not be near. But the sediment of the deluge waters would not be mere calcareous matter. It must have consisted of everything which they could receive, suspend, and deposit. If over the earth were spread such a layer of mire, Noah and the animals could not have landed‘ upon it. Or had they not sunk into it and been smothered; where yet had the weak found refuge from the voracious; where had the herbivorous found food ? What a time must have elapsed before Noah could culti- vate the vine! Nor is it from such a soil that the wine would have intoxicated the holy Patriarch. Had things so been, Ilam never had offended, nor Canaan incurred the fatal curse. Sinking of the Bodies into the Mud. Supposing, however, such a bed of “soft and plastic” calcareous matter deposited by the waters on Ingland, the immersion of the bodies into it is of no small difficulty. Animal bodies bloated with gas from decay, which water had “ floated on its surface,” are not easily conceived to have displaced a stony powder of a specific gravity of 2.7, and to have fallen below it. “Turbulent vortices,” which are imagined to have lent 108 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. their aid on the occasion, would have disseminated the clustered animals, and dispersed the powdery stratum, * That the bodies should in every case have descended into the calcareous pulp, in one unbroken group; that in none a fragment, even a lock of hair, should have parted from the putrid mass, and stopped by the way, cannot certainly plead probability in its favour, Yet what cabinet shows even the slenderest bone of a water-rat bedded in the solid stone? What limestone stratum has astonished the learned, by presenting them, in its substance, with an antediluvian hyzena’s bristles, or lion’s mane ? Formation of the Cave. If the limestone pulp was too thin, the gas would pass through it and escape, and the pulp fall back upon the bodies; if too thick, the elastic force of the gas would be insufficient to repel it fromthem. A precise point of indu- ration, at which it would at once yield and resist, was indis- pensable. This exact condition would but rarely occur; would, at least, often not do it, and consequently bodies buried in the solid rock must be frequent, if not most so. It is incredible that in every case the gas should have driven away from the bodies the whole of the mud in con- tact with them. Some of the mud must have insinuated itself between the several individuals of the cluster, some have penetrated by the mouth, by lacerations, into the cavity of the bodies, and isolated pieces of rock must now occur among the bones, bearing the impression of the parts with which they had been in contact; as at Pompeii, indurated ashes presented the cast of a woman’s breasts, As the parts receded from the bodies, it would carry with it some adhering fragments of them—bones, teeth, hair, feathers ; and which would now be fixed to the sides and roofs of the caves. Bodies which had been previously putrefying for twelve months in a tropical temperature, would not probably have WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 109 still afforded, after their interment, sufficient gas fer the supposed purpose. From some experiments, made a great number of years ago, on the decay of animal muscle con- fined over mercury, I am inclined to believe, that in no case, when secluded from oxygen, is any great volume of gas evolved by it. Subjected to the imagined pressure, would the matters of the gases have been able to expand to the elastic form ? Would they not rather have assumed the fluid one? ! Under these circumstances, “talk ae muscular part of the bodies have entirely sitemaps: Would not some portion of it have altered to adipocire? In such a state some of it must at least some times be met with. That fish have, in some cases, been inclosed in strata, in- vested with all their muscular part, seems indubitable, from the presence of the scales; but they are scattered singly through the stratum, and have blown up no caves round themselves. Indeed, the aad of the quadrupeds during their voyage, appears to be by no means a certain event. If they sunk below the surface, they would sink to different levels ; borne on the surface, they might assemble together, but no adherence would take place between them, and upon the slightest impulse they would part again. If the bodies were deposited with their integuments, the bones must be nearly all of them entire. _How should they have become broken, enveloped in a soft mass, rendered additionally elastic by the gases of a putrefying state, and floating on a sea which, high above all land, bore them out of the reach of every means of concussion, especially be- come shivered as are of those of the cave? The force which could thus destroy the bones, had reduced the mus- cular matter to pulp, and the waters had carried it off, and the cave had had no efficient cause. If the bodies were deposited entire, every bone of each must be forth coming, and its complete skeleton admit of being mounted. 110 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. Between “the animal remains discovered buried singly in strata of gravel and clay, and those found in multitudi- nous masses in the cavities of rocks,” there exist the im- — portant differences of the former not being in caves, and of the strata in which they occur being fresh-water ones. These remains may consequently be supposed those of animals washed from heights by inundations, and buried in the earthy matter transported with them. Nor can the bones of the cave be assimilated to the ‘shells kneaded into the limestone rock of Portland.” For the comparison to hold, the bones must be “ kneaded into the limestone rock” as the'shells are, and as are the bones in the Stunsfield slate, which have been placed in it by the sea. If the stalactites tea been produced by the descent of portions of the calcareous pulpy mass yielding to gravity, they would, like the stalactites of lava, formed in this way, have the texture of the rock. The stalactites of limestone strata are clusters of crystals, which have generated from solution in water. Induration of the Calcareous Stratum. The calcareous paste is supposed by Mr. Penn to have petrified by simple drying; and on this supposition much: of the hypothesis concerning the formation of the Cave reposes. Experiments will convince that a paste of calcareous powder and water does not dry to marble, but to whitening. An indurating faculty must not be attributed to time, it has it not. Chall strata cannot be assigned a less age than the rocks of Yorkshire, and they have not dried to stone, nor seem hastening to become such. Each particle of powder is a diminutive pebble, and an intervening cement is required to connect it with the neigh- ~ bouring ones. Carbonate of lime erie in water by means of an WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 111 excess of acid is the element of agglutination, which nature has in these cases made use of. The acid solvent exhales or becomes saturated, and the neutral salt, ceasing to be soluble, crystallizes on the particles of the powder. It is thus that the sands of the Calabrian shores are con- solidated. The sea water loaded with the calcareous salt, carries it into them. It cannot be by drying since they are wetted by every wave; and sand wetted with ordinary sea water and dried is not converted into millstone. The great hardness is due to the silicious part. I brought a mass of sand from the sea at Dumbarton, in- closing a recent razor shell with its epidermis on it, and fragments of coal, cemented to stone by carbonate of lime, so that the calabrain process takes place on that coast. In limestones consisting of considerable-sized fragments of shells, the sparry cement which connects them is perfectly evident. It is this cement which appears as regular crystals where cavities occur in the mass too large to have been filled by it. Beds of sediment can by this means become rock at the utmost depths of the ocean, and it is in all probability there that most of them have done so. The workings of contig- uous volcanos haye supplied the carbonic acid. Oolites have been evidently formed in a sea much loaded with dissolved carbonate of lime, and which on the escape: of the dissolving acid has crystallized round floating parti- cles. When the weight of the grains has become such as to occasion their subsidence, they have been cemented to- gether, every thing taking place in all respects as in the case of the pisolites of Carlsbaden. The Kirkdale rock being composed of oolites must have had this origin. Such a formation cannot be assigned to the time of the deluge. Besides the violence of bringing within the com- pass of a few months, operations whose accomplishment seems to have required centuries of centuries, the necessary conditions must have been wanting. Had not all the vol- canos become extinguished, they could not, and in such a as | \ 112 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. time, have poured forth carbonic acid to saturate the im- mensity of its waters; and it is also utterly impossible to believe that the beings in the ark, already not a little incon- venienced for respiration, could withstand the suffocating effluvium. Coming of the Animals by Sea. Of the animals having been tropical ones no testimony is offered. The elephant of Siberia being now ascertained to have been a very hairy animal may be supposed to have been a northern one, and if there were formerly northern elephants, there may have been northern hyenas and north- ern tigers. If the bodies were brought by water, no reason appears why they are, with the exception of a few birds, exclusively those of quadrupeds. Reptiles, insects, trees, even fish, for all of them must have perished from the mixture of salt and fresh water, must have entangled in the clusters. As the bodies must have been macerated for about a year in the tropical seas, before the retreat of the waters trans- ported them towards the north, those of the smaller animals, as the water-rats, must have been so completely decayed as to be reduced to the bones solely, which water would not float. The voyage from the tropics of the balls of album greecum in an entire state, is what will not, under any circumstances, be easy to admit; to suppose it amidst ‘‘ turbulent vortices, by which the framework of the animals was shattered, dis- located, fractured within the integuments,” reduced to splin- ters, is utterly impossible. The entire state of the balls of album grecum, and the extremely fractured one of the bones, are totally incompatible on Mr. Penn’ssystem. And such an ablution would not have left in these balls a trace of the triple phosphate. But quadrupeds are not the only animals of tropical features found in northern latitudes. Every shell in the strata, the nautili, the cornu ammones, the belemnites, the: e WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 113 anomia, are now as foreign to the surrounding seas, as are the others to the land. If one then came from afar, both did. . What must have been the mass and impetuosity of the wave which could buoy a huge oyster, a massive brain stone, from the equator‘to the British Islands, and at an elevation to deposit it on Shotover Hill, or at Kingsweston? Such waves had tumbled down the mountains of the earth, shiv- ered its islands and its continents, and choked up the bed of the ocean with their ruins. Surely it is a far less diffi- culty to “ bring the climate to the exuviee, than the exuvie to the climate.” The existence together of the bones of many species does not necessitate the conclusion of the animals having been associates in the cave. If hyenas “do not always resort to the same den,” neither is it probable do other wild beasts. A succession of inhabitants is admissible. Nor is it required to believe that any of the animals whose bones were found in the cave died there. If hyzenas col- lect bones round their dens, it must be allowed not very improbable that they sometimes, often even, carry them a little further. Alarmed by the roar of a more mighty de- vourer, or even by that of one of equal strength, it seems natural for them to retreat with their spoil to their last refuge. Why, but to be able to do this, do they bring them near their dens ? The smallness of the cave’s mouth, admitting it to have been always what it now is, would indeed oppose the idea of elephants having walked into it, but no: entire skeleton requires the admission of their having done this; and hyx- nas who feed on putrid carcases, may have found no difli- culty in parceling such; or they may have collected ‘the Bushman’s harvest,” or the bones may have been carried into the cave by animals more powerful than hyzenas. If animals as ravenous of bones as hysenas are said to be did not, in any hour of dearth, devour those of the water- rats, an be because those became tenants of the cave 114 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. only when the water had expelled the hyznas. It is alike improbable that animals of such contrary habits should dwell together, and that hysenas should carry so diminutive a prey as a water-rat, to their den to devour it. The small quantity of the album grecum can afford no argument against the animals who produeed it having lived in the cave. So brittle a substance could not last long under the trample of numerous animals of such bulk. The water which subsequently entered the cave may have destroyed a part. The existence of any is a strong circumstance in favour of the supposition of their having lived in the cave, and such as it would scarcely have dared to hope for, in its support. | Dy woes i If bones of quadrupeds are found inclosed in no rocks but limestone ones, which it may, however, require more extended observation to establish, the reason may be, that in no other rocks are caverns, in which wild beasts can take shelter, so common. These are likewise the only rocks in which the formation of stalactite would close the openings, and preserve the bones through a long course of ages, and so as to have reached our times, from the decay and all the accidents to which in an open cave they would be exposed. Of the Deluge. Should every argument which has been adduced to estab- lish that the animals were not brought from remote regions by water, that they lived and died in the countries in which their remains now lie, have appeared insufficient for the purpose, yet, that it is not to the Mosaical flood that their existence, where they now are, is to be referred, two great facts appear to place beyond controversy. One is the total absence in the fossil world of all human remains of every vestige of man himself and of his arts. The magnitude of the chastisement, the order of nature subverted to produce it, proclaim the multitudes of the criminal. JIluman bodies by millions must then have cov- WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 115 ered the waters; they must have formed a material part, if not the principal one, of every group, and human bones be now consequently met with everywhere blended with those of animals. . Objects of human industry and skill must likewise con- tinually occur among the bones. Of tlhe miserable victims of the disaster numbers would be clothed, and have on their persons articles of the most imperishable materials; and the dog would retain his collar, the horse his bit and har- ness, the ox his yoke. To men who wrought iron and brouze, who manufactured harps and organs, these things must have been familiar. But more; embalmed within the substance of the dilu- vian mud, entire cities, with their monuments, with a great part of their inhabitants, with an infinity of things to their use, would remain. Every limestone quarry should daily present us with some of these most precious of all antiqui- ties, before which those of Italy and Egypt would shrink to nothing. How greatly must we regret that this is not the case, that we must relinquish the delightful hope of some day finding in the body of a calcareous mountain, the city of Enoch built by Cain, at the very origin of the world, with what awful sentiments had not present generations contemplated objects which once had been looked upon by eyes which had seen the divinity ! The other great fact which forcibly militates against the diluvian hypothesis is, that thé fossil animals are not those which existed at the time of the deluge. The diluvian species must have been the same as the present. The mul- tifarious wonders of the ark had for sole object their pres- ervation; while of the fossil kinds, not perhaps one, or quadruped, or bird, or fish, or shell, or insect, or plant, is now alive. * Amazing proofs of inundations at high levels” are appealed to. Had they being, of the deluge they could at most speak but to their existence; on its influence in the 116 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. contested cases, they would be silent; but it appears that this stupendous prodigy, : ‘¢ Like the baseless fabric of a vision, Left not a wreck behind.”’ ' Of the occurrence of marine depositions at great altitudes, the elevation of the stratum by volcanic efforts, furnishes a far more easy solution than the elevation of the sea, as it. refers the phenomenon to a natural cause, and does not require the immediate interposition of the divine hand; and the ruptured state and erect position of the strata on all these occasions, testify strongly in favour of the simpler supposition. To collate the revered volume with the great book of nature, and show in their agreement one author to both, was an undertaking worthy of the union of picty and science. If the result has not been what was anticipated ; if we look in vain over the face of our globe for those mighty impressions of an universal deluge, which reason tells us that it must have produced and left behind itself, to some cause as out of the natural course of things as was that event, must this doubtless be attributed. By his entering into a covenant with man and brute ani- mals, and having for ever “ set his bow in the cloud,” asa token that the direful scene should never be renewed, the Creator appears to have repined at the severity of his justice. The spectacle of a desolated world,—of fertility laid waste,—of the painful works of industry and genius over- thrown,—of infantine innocence involved in indiscriminate misery with the hardened offender,—of brute nature whose want of reason precluded it from the possibility of all offence, made share in the forfeit of human depravity, may be supposed to have touched his heart. Under the impression of these paternal feelings, to oblit- erate every trace of the dreadful scourge, remove every remnant of the frightful havoc, seem the natural effects of his benevolence and power. As a lesson to the races which WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 117 . were to issue from the loins of the few who had been spared,—races which were to be wicked indeed as those which had preceded them, but which were promised exemp- tion from a like punishment, to have preserved any memento of them would have been useless. To a miracle then which swept away all that could recall that day of death when “the windows of heaven were opened” upon mankind, must wo refer what no natural means are adequate to explain. A LETTER FROM DR. BLACK DESCRIBING A VERY SENSIBLE BALANCE. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXVI; New Series, Vol. X, 1825, page 62. Epinbureu, September 18, 1790. Dear Sir: I had the pleasure to receive your letter of the 9th. The apparatus I use for weighing small globules of metals, or the like, is as follows:' A thin piece of fir wood not thicker than a shilling, and a foot long, 8, of an inch broad in the middle, and 4% at each end, is divided by transverse lines into 20 parts; that is, 10 parts on each side of the middle. These are the principal divisions, and each of them is subdivided into halves and quarters. Across the middle is fixed one of the smallest needles I could pro- cure to serve as an axis, and it is fixed in its place by means of a little sealing wax. The numeration of the divisions is from the middle to each end of the beam. The fulcrum is a bit of plate brass, the middle of which lies flat on my table when I use the balance, and the two ends are bent up to a right.angle sv as to stand upright. These two ends are ground at the same time on a flat hone, that the extreme 118 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. surfaces of them may be in the same plane; and their dis- tance is such that the needle when laid across them rests on them at a small distance from the sides of the beam. They rise above the surface of the table only one and a half or two-tenths of an inch, so that the beam is very limited in its play. The weights I use are one globule of gold, which weighs one grain; and two or three others which weigh one-tenth of a grain each; and also a number of small rings of fine brass wire made in the manner first mentioned by Mr. Lewis, by appending a weight to the wire, and coiling it with the tension of that weight round a thicker brass wire in a close spiral, after which the extremity of the spiral being tied hard with waxed thread, I put the covered wire in a vice, and applying a sharp knife which is struck with a hammer, I cut through a great number of the coils at one stroke, and find them as exactly equal to one another as can be desired. Those I use happen to be the 1-30th part of a grain each, or 800 of them weigh 10 grains; but I have others much lighter. You will perceive that by means of these weights placed on different parts of the beam, I can learn the weight of any little mass from one grain or a little more to the yyp¢ of a grain. For if the thing to be weighed weighs one grain, it will, when placed on one extremity of the beam, counterpoise the large gold weight at the other extremity. If it weighs half a grain, it will counterpoise the heavy gold weight placed at 5. If it weigh 5%; of a grain, you must place the heavy gold weight at 5, and one of the lighter ones at the extremity to counterpoise it; and if it weighs only 1, or 2, or 8, or 4-100ths of a grain, it will be counter- poised by one of the small gold weights placed at the first, or second, or third, or fourth division. If on the contrary it weigh one grain and a fraction, it will be counterpoised WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 119 by the heavy gold weight at the extremity, and one or more of the lighter ones placed in some other part of the beam. This beam has served me hitherto for every purpose; but had I occasion for a more delicate one, I could make it — easily by taking a much thinner and lighter slip of wood, and grinding the needle to give it an edge. It would also be easy to make it carry small scales of paper for particular purposes. We have no chemical news. Iam employed in examin- ing the Iceland waters, but have been often interrupted. I never heard before of the quartz-like crystals of barytes aérata, nor of the sand and new earth from New Holland. Indistinct reports of new metals have reached us, but no particulars. Some further account of these things from you will, therefore, be very agreeable. Dr. Hutton joins me in compliments, and wishing you all good things; and I am, Dear Sir, Your faithful humble servant, - JosEPH Buack. eet Norr sy Mr..Smiruson.—The rings mentioned above have the defect of their weight being entirely accidental; and consequently most times very inconvenient fractions of the grain. Ihave found that a preferable method is to ascertain the weight of a certain length of wire, and then take the length of it which corresponds to the weight wanted. If fine wire is employed, a set of small weights may be thus made with great accuracy and ease. Inconvenience from the length of the wire in the higher weights is obviated by rolling it round a cylindrical body to a ring, and twisting this to a cord. This little balance is a very valuable addition to the blow- pipe apparatus, as it enables the determination of quantities in the experiments with that instrument, which was an un- hoped-for accession to its powers. Dr. Black mentioned to me its having been used by an 120 WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. assayer in Cornwall, to whom he had made it known; and I have since heard, from another person, of an assayer in that county, who, finding the assays he was employed to make, ~ cost him more in fuel than he was paid for them, had con- trived means of making them at the blowpipe on one grain of matter. I presume him to have been the same Dr. Black. had spoken of. Lonpon, May 12, 1825. A METHOD OF FIXING CRAYON COLOURS. From Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XXVI; New Series, Vol. X, 1825, page 236. Lonpon, August 23, 1825. _ GENTLEMEN: Wishing to transport a crayon portrait to a distance for the sake of the likeness, but without the frame and glass, which were bulky and heavy, I applied to a man from whom I expected information for a method of fixing the colours. He had heard of milk being, spread with a brush over them, but I really did not conceive this process of sufficient promise to be disposed to make trial of it. Thad myself read of fixing crayon colours by sprinkling solution of isinglass from a brush upon fhem, but to this too, I apprehended the objections of tediousness, of dirty operation, and perhaps of incomplete result. On thinking on the subject, the first idea which presented itself to me was that of gum-water applied to the back of the picture ; but as it was drawn on sized blue paper, pasted on canvass, there seemed little prospect of this fluid pene- trating. But an oil would do so, and a drying one would accomplish my object. I applied drying oil diluted with spirit of turpentine; after a day or two when this was grown dry, I spread a coat of the mixture over the front of the picture, and, my crayon drawing became an oil painting. WRITINGS OF JAMES SMITHSON. 121 NOTES: AND ADDENDA TO TITLES. Page 29: In acritical notice of Davy’s Elements of Ohemical Philosophy in the Quarterly Review for 1812, the writer speaking of recent advances in chemistry, and especially in the establishment and extension of the law of definite proportions, remarks: ‘for these facts the science is principally indebted after Mr. Higgins, to Dalton, Gay Lussac, Smithson, and Wollas- ton.’”’ Quarterly Review, 1812, vol. viii, p. 77. Page 84: On the composition of the compound sulphuret from Huel Boys, and an account of its erystals—otherwise called Bournonite. Page 42: On the Composition of Zeolite. This article was translated by Smithson himself into French, and pub- lished under the title ‘* Memoire sur la Composition de la Zéolite,’’ in the Journal de Physique, de Chimie, et d’Hist. Nat., etc. Paris, 1814, vol. Ixxix, pp. 144-149. Page 47: On a substance from the Elm Tree, called Ulmin. This article (translated by M. Vogel) was published under the title ‘‘ Ex- périences sur 1’U]mine,”’ in the Journal de Physique, de Chimie et d’Histoire Naturelle. Paris, 1814, vol. Ixxviii, pp. 811-8165. Page 65: On a native compound of sulphuret of lead and arsenic.—Binnit of Naumann. Page 68: Thomson’s Annals lof Philosophy October, 1821, vol. ii, New Series, pp. 291-292. Contains comments by Charles Kénig, on Smithson’s article on ‘‘ Fibrous Metallic Copper.’’ Page 71: An account of a native combination of sulphate of barium and fluoride of calcium. Das von Smithson als Flussbaryt aufgefiihrte Mineral aus Derbyshire ist wohl nur ein sehr inniges Gemenge von Fluorit und Baryt. (Naumann, Min. 9th edit., p. 261, Ann. 8.) oa ar, - - oJ \ rs . as . opus ar iG Sipruwall ‘vial ans J PWyvsd lak, ano: ate re an a on i ealaty, wlvi, Oe Tt re vin ee i waroyes ‘Yes oat “ost infen mote im fuod thaw pn 4 Git, ial pone * CACHE DOS? Ct cet VAY in hate oon ine nie af zat’ 7 yated hit ie Ray toe (i 4¢ aetus Lie. acta hud srg a | - ; 34 F He ad -- oe * ¥ .* P a) iy eteuwelll Oy vet? te plies ; tape wal ac.) @ a j t hye } | = i<4aics 4 had wit yeah 1%) oo) walle ’ ia = ome UO ) » GW "; » lore An oat ' Coles eaF wi > fe ial has 1 ee @ bie 4A } wi albehes | jane AMY jel 24) e098 athehed aul nr oh oe et ih ‘yy ald ee \y ; \ a a : ‘ Aa ‘ f arr ex . aoe A es Bl teed - wy i i" aa ‘ y j or : ‘ ; a rWihie ik: ® ? ( , is .. 4 ° J ' , “A f y if i t es * c fr w 4a 4 Ven é 3 t of ) hy pei wy 4 ‘ fad eo) |) A, » 4 A > tT ut os a (hiavide if : * Y ‘a ” rarer piadslia are Dory tai tee € 10! th Oper ere se ohn 4 nap apie le Son. al ; Le ne oA & ip A. nal ad pened rayy; a aw Be ie ol bet a begets karla Hl #| eee eel) 4 +" bane n we ad tne | Be P d an. e se M aae? Oe a Me aa ATE . wing rites ober ie jenak at AM eae OME ring tomo ate OPP aiamMnENS ° _— lo A MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER AND RE- SEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON, ESQ., F.R.S., By WALTER R. JonNson, Corresponding Secretary of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- dolphia, Member of the National Institute, &c. Read before the National Institute, Washington, D. C., April 6, 1844.* PRELIMINARY NOTE. In the many notices of Mr. Smithson’s bequest, and plans for establish- ing an institution on its basis, which have either officially or otherwise been brought before the public, no succinct account has, so far as the writer’s recollection serves, been offered of the scientific pursuits of Mr. Smithson himself ,—a very material omission, it is conceived,—and one which could not fail to encourage, or at least excuse, the multiplication of schemes, for carrying out the provisions of his will. A knowledge of the habits, pur- suits and feelings of the testator, on the contrary, may relieve us from un- certainty in the interpretation of his language, and the application of his bequest. If the gratitude of posterity attaches to the memory of successful warriors who enlarge the boundaries of a nation’s physical domain, much more is it due to him who opens the fields of knowledge, invites ardent votaries to their cultiva- tion, and thus promotes that nation’s happiness, glory, and prosperity. Under whatever form of government, in whatever social condition, the man of practical benevolence seeks to give his benefactions the character of intellectual blessings ; whether, like Bridgewater, he aspires with lofty aim to un- ravel the designs of creation, explain the final causes of physical Jaws, and impress by written treatises, the lessons of eternal truth on the matured understandings of men ; whether, with the acute, discriminating and practical Girard, he content himself with the humbler but not less honorable office, of rescuing from ignorance, vice and degradation, the homeless and friendless orphan ; whether, with Franklin, he found a library; with Maclure endow an academy for re- searches in natural science; or, with Smithson, seek to stimulate into activity the spirit of philosophical research ; * Philadelphia, Barret & Jones, Printers, 83 Carter’s ulley, 1844, 123 124 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER to ‘‘ increase’? by deepening the sources, and “ diffuse” by multiplying the channels of knowledge; in each and all of these cases, the universal sentiment of mankind awards a grateful recognition to the intellectual, moral, social bene- factor. But when, in addition to other circumstances of the bene- faction, the author has selected for the exercise of his beney- olent spirit, not a small circle of votaries of science in a region where the avenues to knowledge are sedulously guarded, but, a great nation, which has made equal rights the basis of its social system, and virtue and intelligence the supports of all its institutions, it is evident that a higher meed of praise, and a deeper feeling of gratitude should spring from the breast of every lover of liberty and of truth. Having made our country the recipient of his benefac- tion; having given us the inheritance of his fame as well as of his fortune, Smithson may justly claim from this side of the Atlantic the tribute of a recognition of his merits, a due appreciation of his own labors, in those paths to which he has invited the scientific efforts of our citizens—efforts on which he has, virtually, and it is to be hoped, not ineffectually, invoked the fostering care of this nation’s government. Let one instance in our country suffice—let not a second be exhibited, of that shameful violation of trusts, solemnly assumed, which seeks, in the indulgence of personal vanity, in the execution of splendid schemes of architecture, utterly incongruous to their purpose, or in the search after inappli- cable, far-fetched plans of organization, to find a substitute for the simple directions of a man of plain common sense. On the basis of his labors alone, the true votary of science is willing to rest his credit with mankind, and his fame with future generations. He can look with indifference on the artificial distinctions which fashion, and the greedy love of nvtoriety, conspire to throw or to draw around pretension and mediocrity. As he deals with the great truths of nature, and not with the changeful humors of man; as he investigates and promulgates laws, not subject to REPEAL ; announces resulis, not of bargains and compromises, but of the eternal fitness and congruity of parts in creation, he ex- periences none of the feverish anxiety about adverse inter- ests, that may one day undo his works, which often accom- panies the labors of men in other walks of intellectual effort. In the view of such a man, the accidents of birth, of for- tune, of local habitation, and conventional rank»in the artificial organization of society, all sink into insignificance AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 125 by the side of a single truth of nature. If he have con- tributed his mite to the “increase” of knowledge; if he have diffused that knowledge for the benefit of man; and, _ above all, if he have applied it to the useful, or even to the ornamental purposes of life, he has laid not his family, not his country, but the world of mankind under a lasting obligation. As with societies, so with individuals occupying them- selves with scientific pursuits, the estimation in which they must be held, will ever depend on the amount, but especially upon the quality of new published truths which they dis- seminate. Hence we look primarily to the published works of a scientific man for the evidences of what he has done for science. They whose recollections of scientific works go back to the first years of the present century, will have no difficulty in judging how far the principle just stated will rank James Smithson among the working scientific men of his time. The transactions of the Royal Society of London, and the scientific journals of the day, will, without reference to other evidence, place us in a condition to solve this ques- tion. But we are fortunately not left to these alone. In his written journals, scientific notes, and more elaborate manu- script papers on a great variety of topics, connected with his tours of observation, and with his studies in numerous departments, we witness the workings of a mind ever active in its endeavors to elicit from the volume of nature truths worthy to fix the attention of all intelligent beings. Let us first recur to his printed works. 1. In the Philosophical Transactions, vol. 93, is a paper on the Chemical Analysis of some Calamines. Read November 18, 1802. In this paper’ the author describes calamine—1, from Bleyburg in Carinthia; 2, from Somersetshire; 8, from Derbyshire; and 4, electrical calamine. In this essay the author remarks that ‘‘ Chemistry is yet 80 new a science; what we know of it bears so small a pro- portion to what we are ignorant of; our knowledge in every department of it is so incomplete, consisting so entirely of isolated points, thinly scattered, like lurid specks on a vast field of darkness, that no researches can be undertaken without producing some facts leading to consequences which extend beyond the boundaries of their immediate object.” 126 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER The Abbe Haiiy had advanced the opinion that calamines were all of one species, and all mere oxides or “ calces”? Of zinc, containing no carbonic acid, and that their effervescence with acids was due to an accidental admixture of carbonate of lime. Smithson’s analyses completely overthrew this opinion, and established these minerals in the rank of true carbonates. His remarks on the action of the ores of zinc before the blow-pipe, evince much discernment in relation to the effects there observed. ‘‘The exhalation of these calamines at the blow-pipe, and the flowers which they diffuse round them on the coal, are probably not to be attributed to a direct volatilization of them. Itis more probable that they are the consequence of the disoxidation of the zine calx, by the coal, and the in- flammable matter of the flame, its sublimation in a metallic state, and instantaneous recalcination. And this alternate reduction and combustion may explain the peculiar phosphoric appearance by calces of zine at the low-pipe.”? ‘The apparent sublimation of the common flowers of zinc at the instant of their production, though totally unsublimable afterwards, is certainly, likewise, but a deceptious appearance. The reguline zinc, vaporized by the heat, rises from the crucible, as a metallic gas, and is, while in this state, converted to calx (oxide.) The flame which attended the process is a proof of it. ‘‘ The fibrous form of the flowers of zinc is owing to a crystallization of the calx while in mechanical suspension in the air, like that which takes place with camphor when, after having been sometime inflamed, it is blown out.”? As incidental to this inquiry on calamines, he introduces a remark of great interest in connection with the subject of crystallization—a subject, which, when applicd to a partic- ular body of the highest interest to the arts, (I refer to wrought iron,) has of late awakened great attention both among practical and scientific inquirers; and which has been invested with a deep tragic interest by a recent la- mentable occurrence in our own community : ‘¢A moment’s reflection,’’ says Smithson, ‘* must evince how injudicious is the common opinion of crystallization requiring a state of dissolution in the matter, since it must be evident that while solution subsists, as long as a quantity of fluid admitting of it is present, no crystallization can take pluce. ‘I'he only requisite for this operation is a freedom of motion in the masses which tend to unite, which allows them to yield to the impulse which propels them together, and to obey that sort of polarity which oc- ° casions them to present to each other the parts adapted to mutual union. ‘“ No state so completely affords these conditions as that of mechanical suspension in a fluid, whose density is relatively, to their size, such as to oppose a resistance to their descent in it, and to occasion their mutual attrac- tion to become a power superior to their force of gravitation. ‘Tt is in these circumstances that the atoms of matter find themselves, whon, on the separation from them of the portion of fluid by which thoy wero dissolved, they were abandoned in a disengaged stato in the bosom of a solution, and hence it is in saturated solutions sustuining cvaporation, or equivalent cooling, and free from any perturbing motion, that regular crys- AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. a ir tallization is usually effected. But those who are familiar with chemical operations, know the sort of agglutination which happens between the par- ticles of subsided and very fine precipitates, occasioning them, on a second diffusion through the fluid, to settle again much more quickly than before, and which is certainly a crystallization, but under circumstances very un- favorable to its perfect performance.”’ The recent discovery of the reduction of wrought-iron from a fibrous to a granular state by a mechanical percus- sion, especially at a certain elevated temperature, is a case strongly illustrative of the views of Smithson on this ab- struse and difficult subject. In the same paper (on the calamines) he has attempted to show a simple definite relation to exist between the constit- uents of this material. In attestation of the value of these observations by Smith- son, we may cite Gregory Watt’s paper on the basalts pub- lished in the following year, (1803 :) ‘It has been most justly remarked by Mr. Smithson, that solution, far from being necessary to crystallization, effectually prevents its commence- . ment; for, while solution subsists, crystallization cannot take place. It may remain a question, whether previous solution be essential as a prepara- tory means of obtaining by subsequent evaporation, the small parts of bodies disengaged so that they may unite to form regular crystals. If by solution be only meant that simple action of heat or water which merely counteracts the force of aggregation, and relieves the molecules from their bond of union with each other, it certainly is a requisite; but if by solution be meant that action of affinities by which not only the force of aggrega- tion is overcome, but the combinations which constitute the molecules are destroyed, it obviously is not only unnecessary, but prejudicial to the crys- tallization; as a new set of molecules must be formed, by a new combina- tion of the elementary particles, before tho formation of regular bodies can take place. The euspension of the molecules ready to crystallize may be correctly said to be merely mechanical. Though the mechanical action of trituration can never be expected to resolve even the most divisible body into its molecules, because the fractures will be at least as frequently across the natural joints as in their direction; yet, even by this rude method, some perfect molecules may be disengaged ; for we find that water, passing over large surfaces of silicious sand, finds some molecules of silex in the state proper for aggregation, and even for crystallization. Mechanical sus- pension in a fluid medium of such density that the crystalline polarity may be enabled to counteract the power of gravity, is with justice considered by Mr. Smithson the only requisite for the formation of crystals. “The particles of bodies upparently solid must be capable of some inter- nal motion enabling them to arrange themselves according to polarity, while they are still solid and fixed as far as they have reference to the ordi- nary characters of fluidity.” The mode of examining calamines, adopted by Smithson, was to subject them to Flea in order to expel water and sarbonic acid, and then to dissolve the residue in sulphuric acid, drying the white vitriol thus produced, and estimating the weight of oxide by that of anhydrous sulphate. This estimation of a metallic oxide in its state of a dry sulphate, enables the chemist to avoid two or three operose and 128 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER troublesome processes, including filtration, washing and ig- niting, which ordinarily consume much time, labor, and minute attention. As the result of his careful inquiry into the truth of the position assumed, it appears, by Haiy, without a sufficient examination, Smithson makes the following statement at the conclusion of his paper: ‘No calamine has yet occurred to me which was a real uncombined calx of zinc. If such, as a native product, should ever be met with in any of the still unexplored parts of the earth, or exist among the unscrutinized possessions of any cabinet, it will easily be known by producing a quantity of arid vitriol (anhydrous sulphate) of zinc, exactly double of its own weight; while the hydrate of zinc, should it be found single or uncombined with carbonate, will yield 1.5 times the weight of this arid salt.” 2. In the Phil. Transactions, vol. 96, p. 267, 1806, is an “ Account of a discovery of Native Minium,” in a letter from James Smithson, Esq., F. R.8., to the Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, K. B., P. R. 8. Read April 24, 1806. This letter is dated at Cassel, in Hesse, March 2d, 1806. Te states that he has found minium native in the earth—the gangue, compact carbonate of zinc—with a flaky, crystalline appearance, Ile gives, in the course of his remarks, the chemical reactions and modes of testing employed to detect its nature, ‘This native minium,’’ he remarks, ‘‘seems to be produced by the decay of a galena, which I suspect to be itself a secondary production from the metallization of the white carbonate of lead by hepatic gus. This is par- ticularly evident in a specimen of this ore, in one part of which is a cluster of large crystals. Huving broken one of these it proved to be converted into minium to a considerable thickness, while its centre is still galena.”’ I may remark, in confirmation, that the mineral veins of iron, copper, lead, and silver of the United States, afford abundant evidences of the production of ‘secondary ”’ ores,—such as hydrated peroxides of iron, from the argilla- ceous carbonates, the protoxide and peroxide, and carbonate of copper, from the yellow sulphuret ; the carbonate of lead with its protoxide and peroxide, from galena; this last be- ing the reverse of the order of change conjectured by Smithson. In the silver mines of North Carolina, now worked with considerable activity, the metallic silver is at the outcrop of the veins found mixed with carbonate of lead and of copper, phosphate of lead, with other materials much disintegrated, and offering great facilities for their extraction, while at greater depths, below the reach of at- mospheric and other surface influences, the body of ore comes to be almost altogether a mass of galena intermixed with metallic silver. AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. . 129 8. In the Phil. Trans. vol. xeviii., p. 55, (1808,) is a paper by Mr. Smithson, “‘ On the composition of the compound sul- phuret from Huel Boys and an account of its crystals,” p. 8, 1 plate. Read January 28, 1808. In this paper the com- pound sulphuret of lead, antimony, and copper is described with an account of its chemical properties, and theoretical views of the manner in which proximate elements like these co-exist. He states his bélief that all combination is binary, that no substance whatever has more than two proximate or true elements. He makes the mineral to consist of— Sulphuret of lead 2 alesis WW 849.7 Sulphuret of antimony - — - 29.6 Sulphuret of copper - - 20.7 100. Ilo gives a figure representing the forms of tho crystals and the angles formed by the several faces with each other. In Tilloch’s Magazine, vol. xxix., for 1808, in an account of the proceedings of the Royal Society, we have the fol- lowing remarks relative to this paper: ‘“ December 24, 1807. A paper by Mr. Smithson, on quadruple and binary compounds, particularly the sulphurets was read. The author seemed to doubt the propriety of the distinction, or rather the existence of quadruple compounds; believed that only two substances could enter as elements in the composition of one body, and contended that. in cases of quadruple compounds a new and very different substance was formed, which had very little relation to the radical or elementary principles, of which it was believed to be com- posed. This opinion he supported by reference to the sul- phurets of lead, galena, and of antimony, and to the facts developed by crystallography. In the latter science, he took occasion to”correct and confirm some remarks of his in the Transactions for 1804, on different crystals, which he acknowledged have not hitherto been found in nature. 4, In the Phil. Trans. vol. ci., p. 171, for 1811, is a paper * On the composition of Zeolite,’ read Feb. 7. 1811. In the commencement of this paper the author recognizes the principle that mineral bodies are native chemical com- pounds, and that it is only by chemical means that their species can be ascertained with any degree of certainty. He found the Zeolite to contain, Silica - - - - 49.0 Alumina - - - 27.0 Soda - - - 17.0 “Tee” - ~ - 09.5 130 MEMOIR ON THE SOIENTIFIO CHARACTER He calls it a “ hydrated silicate of alumina and soda.” In relation to this paper on Zeolites, the following notice is contained in Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxxvil., from January to June, 1811, (p. 152,) under the head of the “‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society :” “February 7th, Mr. Smithson’s paper on Zeolite was read. This in- genious mineralogist having received some specimens of this mineral from Hauy himself, and labelled by his own hand, he deemed it a favorable opportunity of ascertaining if there were any chemical difference between the mesotype of the French crystallographer, and zeolith of Klaproth, as he had previously discovered the existence of soda in all the specimens of zeolite, which are found in these kingdoms, as well as those in Germany. M. Vauquelin analyzed several specimens of zeolite, without discovering any traces of soda, but Mr. Smithson discovered alkali even in the mezo- type sent him by M. Hauy, and in every other specimen of zeolite in his possession, From this circumstance he is inclined to prefer the original name of zeolite as given to this mineral by its discoverer Cronsted, to that of mezotype, as given it by Hiauy, and considers the distinction between mezotype and natrolith as unsupported by chemical analysis.” 5. In the Phil. Trans. vol. ciii. (1818,) p. 256, to 262, is a paper “ On a saline substance from Mount Vesuvius.” Read July 8, 1818. This paper gives a chemical quantitive analysis of a com- pound sulphate of potash. Sulphate of potash - - 71.4 Sulphate of soda - - 18.6 Muriate of soda - - 04.6 Muriate of ammonia Muriate of copper - - 05.4 Muriate of iron. 100.0 In the commencement of the paper are some very interest- ing genera) views relative to the connection of volcanoes with the theory of geology. One remark is worthy of citation : ‘In support of the igneous origin here attributed to the primitive strata, I will observe that not only no crystal imbedded in them, such as quartz, garnot, tourmaline, &c., has ever been seen enclosing drops of water, but that none of the materials of these strata contain water in any state.’’ * 6. In the Phil. Transactions, vol. ciii. p. 64, (1813,) is a paper ‘“‘ On a substance from the Klm Tree, called Ulmine.” Read December 10, 1812. This paper gives an account, Ist. Of ulmine received from Sicily; 2d. Of English ulmine; and 8. Of the sap of the elm tree. * In confirmation of this statement see a late paper by Professor Lewis C. Beck, entitled ‘‘ Views concerning igneous action,” in Silliman’s Jour- nal, vol. xlvi., page 887, April, 1844. AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 131 The experiments were made to determine the properties and composition of the substance. 7. In the Transaction of the Royal Society, vol. eviii., for 1818, p. 110, are “‘ A few facts relative to the coloring mat- ters of some vegeiables.”” Read December 18, 1817. The vegetables particularly examined and described in this paper are: a Turnsol, (litmus,) b eo violet. e Sugarloaf paper. d Black mulberry. e The common poppy. Jf Sap green, and g Some animal greens. The above paper is chiefly an account of experiments made for the purpose of testing the chemical characters ot the coloring materials of the different substances—an ex- ceedingly interesting branch of inquiry in organic chemis- try—scarcely much advanced at this day beyond the point at which Mr. Smithson left it. From the period of 1818, Mr. Smithson appears to have ceased his contributions to the Transactions of the Royal Society. After this time we find his name most frequently occurring in the Annals of Philosophy, a work too well known to require any remarks upon its scientific character. 8. In this periodical, vol. xiv., 1819, is a letter from Mr. Smithson, dated Paris, May 22, 1819, relative to ‘ plombe gomme,” in which he claims the discovery of the composi- tion of that substance for his “ illustrious and unfortunate friend, and indeed distant relative the late Smithson Ten- nant,” who he asgerts had ascertained that it was a combi- nation of oxide of lead, alumina and water. He describes the ore, its reactions and modes of reduction. The alumine was detected by the usual test of igniting, wet- ting the whitened mass with nitrate of cobalt, and again igniting producing a blue color. It decrepitated when heated in a glass tube over a candle, and deposited water in the upper part of the tube, thus proving it to be a hydrate. 9. In the Annals, same vol., page 96, is another letter dated Paris, May 19, 1819, (three days before the preced- ing,) in which he describes a native sulphuret of lead and arsenic, found in Upper Valais, in Switzerland, in a granose compound of carbonate of lime and magnesia. 183 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER He gives the native characters of the ore, its reactions before the blow-pipe and the action of reagents upon it, particularly of a delicate test of the presence of sulphur, which consisted in placing a minute portion of an insoluble sulphate of baryta formed by treating its solution with chloride of baryum on a very small bit of charcoal, heating it strongly, then dipping it in a drop of water on polished silver, giving to the latter a deep black stain. Mr. Smithson conducted his researches on a minute scale. The above trials were made with particles little more than visible; the results, however, sufliciently established the nature of the constituent parts. The proportions were nec- essarily left for inquiries on another scale. The two preceding subjects are honorably noticed in a historical sketch of improvements in physical science dur- ing the year 1819, contained in the 16th vol. of the Annals, (1820,) p. 100. 10. In the same vol. (xvi.) of the Annals, are contained two letters to Dr. Thomson, one dated Paris, March 17th, the other March 24th, 1820. The former contains a “‘ View of the probable causes which produce fibrous metallic copper, found both in the ores of copper, and in the slag of copper furnaces.” Mr, Smithson conceives these fibres to be produced by squeezing metallic copper in a state of fusion into or through pores of the glass, while the latter is cooling and contracting. 11. The latter communication contains An account of a native combination of sulphuret of barium and fluoride of cal- cium. This substance was found in Derbyshire, in close proximity with sulphuret of lead. He describes with great minuteness the reaction of this substance with tests, and infers that it consists of— Sulp. of Barium, - - - 51.5 Fluoride of Calcium, - - - 48.5 12. In the Annals, vol. xvii., p. 271, is a letter from Mr. Smithson, dated February 17, 1821, in which he describes capillary metallic tin forced through the pores of cast tron. 18. In the Annals for August, 1822, vol. xx., p. 127, is an article (Art. v.) On the detection of very minute quantities of ar- senic and mercury. In this publication he refers to his paper in the Annals for August, 1819, relative to the compound sulphuret of lead and arsenic. AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 133 “If arsenic, or any of its compounds, is fused with tho nitrate of potash .arseniate of potash is produced, of which the solution affords a brick red precipitate, with nitrate of silver. ‘In cases where any sensible portion of the potash of the nitre has be- come free, it must be saturated with acetous acid, and the saline mixture dried and redissolved in water. ‘So small is the quantity of arsenic required for this mode of trial, that 4 drop of a solution of oxide of arsenic in water, which at a heat of 54.6 deg., Fahr., contains not above ,4 of oxide of arsenic, put to nitrate of potash, in the platina spoon, and fused, affords a considerable quantity of arseniate of silver. Hence, whence no solid particles of oxide of arsenic can be obtained, the presence of it may be established by infusing in water the matter which contains it. ‘« The degree in which this test is sensible is readily determined. “With 5 2 grains of silver he obtained 6.4 grains of arseniate of silver; but 0.65 grains of silver was recovered from the liquors, so that the arsen- iate had been furnished by 4.65 grains of silver. In a second trial, 7.7 grains, of which only 6.8 grains precipitated, yielded 9.6 grains of arseniate. The mean is 140.17 from 100 silver.”’ Before the invention of the method of subliming a rin of arsenic in a glass tube, and that more recently employe by Marsh, of converting it, by means of hydrogen, into ar- seniuretted hydrogen, the method of Smithson was among the most delicate in use, and, as a means of obtaining col- lateral evidence ofthe presence of arsenic, it still continues to be employed. ; With respect to mercury, he remarks: ‘* All the oxides and saline compounds of mercury laid in a drop of ma- rine acid, on gold, with a bit of tin, quickly amalgamate the gold. ‘A particle of the corrosive sublimato, or a drop of a solution of it may be thus tried. The addition of marine acid is not required in this case. Quantities of mercury may be rendered evident in this way which could not be so by any other means.”’ - This test for mercury, it may be remarked, still keeps its place among the best evidences of the presence of that metal. ‘This method will exhibit the mercury in cinnabar. It must be pre- viously boiled with sulphuric acid, in the platina spoon, to convert it into sulphate.” ‘Cinnabar heated in a solution of .potash, on gold, amalgamates it.’’ ‘A most minute quantity of metallic mercury may be discovered, in a powder, by placing it in nitric acid, on gold, drying, and adding muriatic acid and tin.” 14. In the same volume (xx.) is, at page 368, a letter to the editor of the Annals, On some improvements on lamps, particularly referring to the form of the wicks, the employment of wax as their fuel, and the mode of extinguishing them, by putting sound wax to the wicks, and then blowing out the flame. ‘Tt is to be regretted,’’ remarks the author, ‘‘ that those who cultivate science, frequently withhold improvements in their apparatus and processes, from which they themselves derive advantage, owing to their not deem- 134 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER ing them of sufficient magnitude for publication. When the sole view is to further a pursuit of whose importance to mankind a conviction exists, all that can be so, should be imparted, however small may appear the merit which attaches to it.”’ On the fuel for chemical lamps, he remarks : ‘¢ Oil is a disagreeable combustible for small experimental purposes, and more especially when lamps are to be carried in travelling. i have there- fore substituted wax for it. I employ a wax lamp for the blow-pipe.”’ 15. In the 21st volume of the Annals, p. 340, is a short article, (Art. IT.) ‘On the crystalline form of ice,” dated March 14, 1823. After referring to several contradictory statements, he remarks : ‘‘ Hail is always crystals of ice, more or less regular. When they are sufficiently so to allow their form to be ascertained, and which is generally the case, it is constantly, as far as I have observed, that of two hexagonal pyramids, joined base to base, similar to that of the crystals of oxide of silicium, (or quartz,) and of sulphate of potassium. One of the pyramids is truncated, which leads to the idea that 1ce becomes electrified on a varia- tion of its temperature, like the tourmaline, silicate of zinc, &e.” —- ‘‘The two pyramids appeared to form, by theis junction, an angle of about 80°. ‘¢ Snow presents, in fact, the same form as hail, but imperfect. Its flakes are skeletons of crystals, having the greatest analogy to certain crystals of alum, white sulphuret of iron, &c., whose faces are wanting, and which consist of edges only.’’ 16. In the same volume of the Annals, (xxi.) p. 359, is a short paper on a Means of discriminating between the sulphates of barium and strontium. It is dated April 2d, 1823. Mr. S. states that when these earths are in a soluble state, (in acids,) the easier process is to put a particle into a drop of marine acid, on a plate of glass, and to let the solution crystallize spontaneously. The crystals of choride of barium, in rectangular eight- sided plates, are immediately distinguishable from the fibrous crystals of the chloride of strontium. Another method is suggested, that of blending the min- eral in fine powder, with chloride of barium, and fusing the mixture, putting the mass into spirits of wine, and inflaming it while heated, over a lamp, the flame is red if any strontium is present. 17. In the same volume of the Annals, at p. 884, is a paper On the discovery of acids in mineral ‘substances, dated April 12, 1823. This paper gives specific directions in re- gard to—1, Sulphuric; 2, Muriatic; 8, Phosphoric; 4, Bo- racic; 5, Arsenic; 6, Chromic; 7, Molybdic; 8, Tungstic ; 9, Nitric; 10, Carbonic; 11, Silicic acids. 18. In the 22d volume, p. 258, of the Annals of Philoso- AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 135 phy, is a short paper On the discovery of chloride of potassium in the earth. This discovery resulted from an examination of a red feruginous mass, containing veins of white crystalline mat- ter, part of a block said to have been thrown from Vesu- vius. It was a spongy lava, with sparse crystals of augite, pyr- oxene, or ramblende, the white crystalline matter was wholly soluble in water, and when laid on silver with sulphate of copper, gave an intense black stain. : The potash was detected by chloride of platinum and by tartaric acid. When decomposed by nitric acid, nitrate of potassa was the solid obtained by crystallization. 19. At the 30th page of the same volume (xxii.) of the Annals of Philosophy, is a short tract ‘On the improved method of making coffee.” The object is to preserve the aroma of the coffee during the coction, which Mr. Smithson effected in a phial closed with a cork, left loose at first, to allow the escape of air, and afterwards closed tight, and kept immersed in boiling water until the process was concluded. It may, when cooled, be filtered, without losing the aroma, and then re- turned to the close vessel to be re-heated. ‘¢ In all cases means of economy tend to augment and diffuse comfort and happiness. They bring within the reach of the get what wasteful pro- ceeding confines to the few. By diminishing expenditure on one article, they allow of some other enjoyment which was before unattainable. A reduction in quantity permits an indulgence in superior quality. In the resent instance the importance of economy is particularly great, since it is applied to matters of high price, which constitute one of the daily meals of a large portion of the population of the earth. ‘That in cookery also, the power of subjecting for an indefinite dura- tion, to a boiling heat, without the slightest dependiture of volatile matter will admit of a beneficial application, is unquestionable.’’ 20. In the same volume of the Annals, (xxii.,) p. 412, is a paper, by Mr. Smithson, On a method of fixing particles upon the sappare, (cyauite,) dated October 24, 1823. He refers to the uncertainty of physical qualities to deter- mine the species of minerals. Werner was unable, by this means, to discover the identity of the jargon, (zircon,) and the hyacinth; of the corundum and the sapphire; of his apatite and his spargelstein, and ‘“ while he thus parted be- ings from themselves, as it were, he forced others together, which had nothing in common.” Hence, Smithson infers the necessity of chemical analy- sis; and, to avoid waste, the practice of analyzing on a very small scale. 136 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER To fix the particles of minerals on a sappare, in order to subject them to high temperature, Mr. Smithson employed’ water with gum, as used by Saussure, who invented the method, but he added refractory clay. The particle of mineral was then made to adhere to this clay, a small por- tion of it being for this purpose taken upon the end of a flattened platina wire. 21. In the 23d volume of the Annals, (p. 100,) we find a paper, by Mr. Smithson, dated, January 2d, 1824, “ On some compounds of fluorine.” In this, he makes the apposite and just remark: that, ‘‘a want of due conviction that the materials of the globe, and the products of the labora- tory are the same, that what nature affords spontaneously to men, and what the art of the chemist prepares, differ in no ways but in the sources from whence they are derived, has given to the industry of the collector of mineral bodies, an erroneous direction.” ‘‘ What is essential to a knowledge of chemical beings, has been left in neglect ; accidents of small import, often of none, have fixed attention— have engrossed it—and a fertile field of pene has thus remained wn- explored, where, otherwise, it would have been exhausted.” Tis method of illustrating the character of fluor spar, was by fixing with clay a small piece, on a bit of platinum foil, and holding the latter on a clay support, in the end of a bit of glass tube, and thus subjecting it to the action of the blow-pipe. The topaz was also assayed, and gave out fluorine or fluoric acid. Smithson expresses his conviction that topaz is a compound of fluate of silicium and fluate of alumiua.* He also examined kryolite, which had been observed to diminish in fusibility during fusion. The result of his experiments were: Ist. That fluorides are in general decomposable by heat, and hence, that “‘ we now have a method of discovering the presence of fluorine.” 2d. The theory of these decompositions may be obtained by experiment. Reterring to the minute blow-pipe experiments with which his results had been obtained, he significantly re- marks : ‘‘There may be persons, who, measuring the importance of the subject by the magnitude of the object, will cast a supercilious look on this discus- sion; but the particle and the planet are subject to the same laws, and what is learned upon the one will be known of the other,” 22. In the same volume (xxiii.) of the Annals, p. 115, is a short paper of the same date, (January 2, 1824,) containing An account of an examination of some Egyptian colors. * At this day he would probably have substituted the terms jluoride of silictum and fluoride of aluminum. AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 137 “‘ More than commonly incurious must he be, who would not find dolight in stemming the stream of ages, returning to times long past, and behold- ing tho then existing state of things and of men. «In the arts of an ancient people, much may be seen concerning them, the progress they had made in knowledge of various kinds, their habits and their ideas on various subjects. Products of skill may likewise occur, either wholly unknown to us, or superior to those which now supply them.’? He received from Mr. Curtin, who traveled in Egypt, with Belzoni, a small fragment of the tomb of King Psam- mis. It was sculptured in basso relievo and painted, the colors being white, red, black and blue. The white was found to be carbonate of lime; the red, oxide of iron ; the black, pouneee wood charcoal, the texture of the larger particles eing perfectly discernible with a lens, after dissolving out the other coloring matters. The blue was a smalt of glass powder, its tinging matter, however, was not cobalt, but copper. Melted with borax and tin, the red oxide of copper immediately appeared. 23. In the 24th volume of the Annals, p. 50, is a paper of ten pages, bearing date June 10, 1824, and containing Some observations on Mr. Penn’s theory concerning the formation of the Kirkdale cave. The writer whose work Smithson criticises, had attempted to account for the bones by referring them to the period of . “the Deluge.” This opinion Mr. Smithson very successfully combats. A confutation is, however, hardly needed by geologists in our day. It is not therefore deemed necessary to follow the writer through the steps of his reasoning. 24. In the 25th volume of the Annals, is a letter from Dr. Black, to Mr. Smithson, describing his delicate balance for weighing minute quantities of metals, and other results of analysis, consisting of .a thin bit of fir, with a fine cambric needle for an axis, and an upturned bit of brass for a gup- port. To this apparatus Mr. Smithson suggested some im- provement in the formation of the weights. oa There is much reason to suppose that the foregoing list of twenty-four papers, does not embrace all the published works of Mr. Smithson. The numerous lists of loci or topics, evidently designed to form the heads of essays or treatises, either found disconnected, or united with loose notes, on each topic, or wrought out into formal essays, of which several are found among his manuscripts, afford ground for believing that he was a contributor to some of the literary productions of the day; but as such pieces _ generally appear anonymously, it is not easy to ascertain 138 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER the precise object for which these numerous tracts were composed. . It appears from all which has been cited, from the pub- lished works of Smithson, that his was not the character of a mere amateur of science. He was an active and industri- ous laborer in the most interesting and important branch of research—mineral chemistry. A contemporary of Davy, and of Wollaston, and a cor- respondent of Black, Banks, Thomson, and a host of other names renowned in the annals of science, it is evident that his labors had to undergo the scrutiny of those who could easily have detected errors, had any of a serious character been committed. His was a capacity by no means contemptible, for the operations and expedients of the laboratory. He felt the importance of every help afforded by a simplification of methods and means of research, and the use of minute quantities, and accurate determinations in conducting his inquiries. Many of those “lurid spots in the vast field of darkness,” of which he spoke so feelingly, have, since his days of activity, expanded into broad sheets of light. Chemistry has assumed its rank among the exact sciences. Methods and instruments of analysis, unknown to the age of Smithson, have come into familiar use among chemists. These may have rendered less available for the present pur- poses of science, than they otherwise might have been, a portion of the analysis and other researches of our author. The same may, however, be said of nearly every other writer of his day. Having dwelt so long on the published papers of Mr. Smithson, it will be practicable to give but a brief account of his unpublished memoirs and other writings. These are comprised in about two hundred manuscripts, besides numberless scraps and miscellaneous notes of a cyclopedical character. Many of these are connected with general sub- jects of history—the arts—language—rural pursuits—gar- dening—the construction of buildings, and kindred topics, such as are likely to occupy the thoughts and to constitute the reading of a gentleman of extensive acquirements and liberal views, derived from a long and intimate acquaintance with the world. In a pretty copious mass of notes on the subject of habita- tions, for example, the materials are discussed under the several heads of situation, exposure, exterior, and interior arrangements, materials for their construction; contents of AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 1389 rooms, furniture, pictures, statuary, and other objects of taste. In a tract upon knowledge, he takes occasion to remark, that men may consider themselves as having four sources of knowledge: 1st. Observing. 2d. Reasoning. 3d. In- formation. 4th. Conjecture. It is evident that in his own acquirements in knowledge, he followed this order of pro- ceding, and did not, as many have done, both before and since his time, begin with conjecturing, proceed next, to ask information as to the opinions of others, receiving, as sound, all those which tally with the conjecture, and rejecting the rest, and end with attempting to reason themselves into a belief that this mass of crude fantasies constitutes philoso- phy. Smithson began the process of acquisition by observ- ing. For this purpose he made a number of tours or scien- tific journeys, taking, as opportunity offered, careful obser- vations of all interesting facts. It was in 1784, (now sixty years since,) that, in company with Mr. Thornton, Monsieur Faujas De St. Fond, the cele- brated French philosopher, and the Count Andrioni, he made one of these tours, through New Castle, Edinburg, Glasgow, Dunbarton, Tarbet, Inverary, Oban, Arross, Tur- tusk, and the island of Staffa. In all these places observa- tions on the evidences of geological structure, on the min- eral contents of rocks, on the superposition of beds, on the methods of mining, smelting ores, and conducting manu- facturing processes, were made with all the minuteness which the arrangements of the journey could permit. The period of two generations of men elapsed since the journey to Fingal’s cave was undertaken, has seen a vast accession of strength to that ruling passion which now sends forth the votaries of geology of all countries, with hammer and knapsack, to explore alike the desert and the fertile field, to indulge in the luxury of toilsome wander- ings, soiled apparel, hard lodgings, and scanty fare. ‘he hardships and privations of such expeditions were, at that day, not so often encountered as at present, because the expeditions themselves were seldom undertaken. Still, it would, even in our own time, be thought a very respect- able piece of hardihood and scientific self-denial, to en- counter such risks and privations as are here and there jotted down in Smithson’s journal, in relation to this visit to the island of Staffa. The party had arrived at a house on the coast of Mull, opposite the island. The journal proceeds: “ 140 MEMOIR ON THE SCIENTIFIC OHARACTER “Mr. Turtusk got me a separate boat,—set off about half-past eleven o’clock in the morning, on Friday, the 24th of September, for Staffa. Some wind, the sea a little rough,—wind increased, sea ran very high,=- rowed round some part of the island, but found it impossible to go before Fingal’s cave,—was obliged to return,—landed on Staffa with difficulty,— sailors press to go off again immediately,—am unwilling to depart without having thoroughly examined tho island, Resolve to stay wll night. Mr. Maclaire stays with me; the other party which was there had already come to the very same determination,—all crammed into one bad hut, though nine of ourselves, besides the family ;—supped upon eggs, potatoes, and milk,—lay upon hay, in a kind of barn.’’? (The party, be it remembered, embraced two English gentlemen, one French savan, one Italian count.) ‘25th. Got up early, sea ran very high, wind extremely strong—no boat could put off. Breakfasted on boiled potatoes and milk; dined upon the same; only got a few very bad fish ; supped on potatoes and milk ;—lay in the barn, firmly expecting to stay there for a week, without even bread.” “Sunday, the 26th. The man of the island came at five or six o’clock in the morning, to tell us that the wind was dropped, and that it was a good day. Set off in the small boat, which took water so fast’ that my servant was obliged to bail constantly—the sail, an old plaid—the ropes, old gar- ters.”’ With this unpromising outfit, however, the party, at length, once more, reach terra firma. On the 29th, the tourists are at Oban, where a little cir- cumstance is noted, which significantly marks the zeal and activity of the collector of minerals and fossils, and the light in which that devotion to geology is sometimes viewed by the unscientific part of the community : ‘September 29, This day packed up my fossils in a barrel, and paid 2s. 6d. for their going by water to Edinburg. Mr. Stevenson charged half a crown a night for my rooms, because I had brought ‘ stones and dirt,’ as he said, into it.” A month later we find him at Northwich: ‘‘ October 28. Went to visit one of the salt mines, in which they told me there were two kinds of salt. They let me down in a bucket, in which I only put one foot, and I had a miner with me. I think the first shaft was about thirty yards, at the bottom of which was a pool of water, but on one side there was a horizontal opening, from which sunk a second shaft, which went to the bottom of the pit, and a man let us down in a bucket smaller than the first.”’ Tn these trivial incidents we may note the character of an enthusiast in pursuit of his favorite objects; a man not to be turned aside by the fear of a little personal inconvenience from the attainment of his ends. In his tours on the con- tinent, of which, one was made from Geneva to Italy, through Tyrol, in 1792; one through certain parts of Ger- many, in 1805; another in 1808, and a third from Berlin to Hamburg, in 1809, are found many interesting remarks on the physical features, geology, and climate of the districts of country through which he passed. What has now been presented, may perhaps enable us to judge of the animus which impelled Smithson to found an AND RESEARCHES OF JAMES SMITHSON. 141 institution “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” It may at least enable us to- decide whether it was any undue assumption on his part, to constitute himself a patron of science. ‘Those who look at the matter in the humble light of a mere pecuniary transaction, will, readily enough, answer the question. ‘They will say ‘“ every man has a right to do what he will with his own.” But the inquiry is one of far higher import, it addresses itself to men of science. Had Smithson the qualifications which should authorize and require us to defer to his judgment, were he now living, in regard to the specific objects of an institu- tion, founded in the broad and comprehensive terms employed in his will? To this, I think, there can be but one answer. If anybody has a right to direct how institutions of science should be founded and conducted, it is they, who have in- ured their own hands to the work, who have taken the laboring oar, and won, by its use, an honorable distinc- tion. Such a man, we have seen, was JAMES SMITHSON. A single question more.—What would have been the purposes of an institution founded by Smithson in his life- time ? To this, his lifetime is a sufficient answer. Researches to “increase” positive knowledge, and publi- cations to “diffuse” and make that knowledge available to mankind—such were the great objects of his own con- stant, praiseworthy, and laborious efforts.* *The Smithson fund in possession of the Government of the United States, now amounts (April 10, 1844) to $700,000, of which the interest is $42,000 per annum. Two years’ interest are said to be unpaid.(?) ba ee | ma 7 a A ayy. med a pre sayals hy ah ue.| ee ® ¢ ejuuak doom cat = A eisas ait eee of hand, bent 2 j a Lng SHRINE itd | oy 5 ve Maghopl 1b ai eine mg! inawinecthitres » pf eatin ey / eG nih ye eee inns 3 r ays ‘Ye , ah ‘a Lem Suis stats * ve a, mn 6 bi iaay ae eotened twh Werle geailae Disa iad shal MiP, pay es ic bis et ifhe ie hy iyo “9 matey “ri % ie tal: ay ; Hae 4 i een TAT POUND ANTS, “Oita Yi) Sahin See Ree ¥ j ‘ ’ ( “- ; Re (Oren ee ee bry br MAG) Pais ne at, oan ay vat D Ten wy Ay ;ole ty ¥ > ou Hit) HEA sere % : “A Ari. Peay | Ag by wow a, | : 4 Pg Oe ’ UJ ft i ' AG \? pea ’ } ‘ a Wha ‘ : 7') of? Ae ’ Ove TL d : ° a oe tii 4 ‘ ALP & ah is Pe et 6 ale tal 2 RA ii ‘7 Wilh i] ‘ ,s 4 it Bat i i rie a 7 a, | j ‘ sores 4 eit . Fl ; wi? j a ? ' : ‘ce i" t Tii 4 ) ; i ‘ win ° rity a ‘4 ‘ ’ ! +ia 5 : Mil P pag’ . in , a 4 ree | TP 4 gti To iebe . ¥ ‘ vy H i ’ +f | : 7 i) sha Le if dbf Wis diy" ‘ ‘ j ; e igt AORIVE - ‘ ii ou /eneDee mri ) A A eee a by i j ell rom tae et ¥', rs ‘ . évini Garee, of (ante, ais A P ; ny er ied od herin ; i ta ol: trad vignaetag 40 “tat Tee tthe * ‘ 1 ‘ mm, & of ih: iad > \ Dede of sit wi aad a i shew terres Ai (meee - v5 wen, sorenaabed tiny gr) 4h oti ag “aA iq aud wee ’ ri y pi ‘ i af ae te} ha —— ; ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER OF JAMES SMITHSON. By J. R. McD. Irpy.* It is the characteristic of modern biography that it seeks to know the personalities of men. It has ceased altogether to be amere chronology. It attempts to introduce to us its subjects as we would have known them in actual life and to make them the people of our inward world. Who that has known the splendid benefits derived from Smithson’s great foundation has not felt a desire to know more nearly him from whom the gift proceeded? Who has not been impressed with his persevering philanthropy, when, failing to accomplish his object through the Royal Society of Great Britain, he turned his face to the New World and laid up his name in the new order of things and men? Who has not discerned in this the spirit of a real benefactor of mankind, and not that of a vain builder of his own monu- ment. It is my pleasant task to show something of his way, his work, and his thought. Smithson’s actual additions to knowledge are not great, but they are distinct. It was his misfortune to work at two sciences, chemistry and mineralogy, which were yet in their infancy, and at a third, geology, which, though pregnant to the birth, was still unborn, in a true sense. In the dark beginnings of things, when both ideas and methods are im- perfect, it is seldom that the bewildered gropings of men become valued heirlooms to posterity. We could wish Smithson’s name to have been coupled with some great discovery, or with the apprehension of some far-reaching law that would have formed a worthy in- scription for the portal of his institution. Though this be not gratified, we shall find that he appreciated the great Mle ae before him and attempted their solution; that he nocked earnestly and worthily at the portal of great knowl- edge, and that although it was denied him to be the first to enter into the greater chambers, he was, nevertheless, no unworthy seeker. When we have caught the utterances of * Prepared at the request of the Institution, September, 1878. 1438 144 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER his writings we shall learn that his mind was tuned to great things. : The greater part of Smithson’s work was in analytical chemistry. He discovered several tests, the most important of which is the blow-pipe test for sulphur by reducing its compounds on charcoal with carbonate of sodium, and ob- serving the stain on silver when the fused mass is laid upon it in a drop of water (p. 66). In the paper “ On the Detec- tion of very Minute Quantities of Arsenic and Mercury,” (p. 75,) two very good tests for these elements are given, especially that for the first : “Tf arsenic, or any of its compounds, is fused with nitrate of potash, arseniate of potash is produced, of which the solution affords a brick-red precipitate with nitrate of silver.’’ The paper on page 82 gives a systematic coutse for distin- guishing the mineral acids. On page 82 a flame-test is given for strontium, which is perhaps .the earliest applica- tion of colored flames in analytical chemistry. In the paper, page 94, “On some Compounds of Fluorine,” the method of detecting this element is described, and a very neat form of apparatus given. The latter is peculiarly con- venient in that the etching of glass and the change of color of logwood paper may be simultaneously observed. A glance through his papers will show how much of his work was actual analysis. Owing to the great improve- ments in analytical chemistry since his day, his quantitative results are of little value to us. This is not true, though, of the qualitative work. The composition of the so-called Tabasheer (hydrous silica), of the Egyptian colors, the pres- ence of some carbonate in certain calamines, as well as other of his results, have a permanent value. We are apt to overlook them because they are become so obvious and ele- mentary. Connected with and occasioned by certain of his analyses are some considerations on the laws of the chemical compo- sition of bodies. These, though erroneous, are the greatest of his scientific attempts. They are found on page 27, “Observations? appended to the paper on calamines. | These were published in 1802. A further development of his views is found in the paper, page 84, ‘On the Compo- sition of a Compound Sulphuret from Huel Boys,” pub- lished in 1808. His idea was that the weights of the prox- imate constituents of any complex compound bore a simple relation to one another. His experiments lead him to infer that sulphate of zinc is composed of equal weights of ZnO and 80%. This, though very nearly, is not accurately true; so OF JAMES SMITHSON. 145 nearly that the analytical chemistry of that day was power- less to detect the difference. His analyses of the Mendip Hill calamine seemed to show (and did show as nearly as they showed the truth) that it was composed of— Garbonio’neid’s: 222.5 322 Sacks a8 pees A Gals’ or ‘zing SoU ete Sos Rieu es eoees He thought to have found further confirmation of his views in the analysis of the compound sulphuret from Huel ‘Boys. It must be borne in mind that these attempts were anterior to the publication of Dalton’s theory, (his Chemical Philosophy, appeared in 1808.) The second of the above mentioned papers was also in 1808, but in the very begin- ning of the year. . He seems to have been absent from Eng- land, for he mentions in the beginning of the paper that the Philosophical Transactions for 1804, had just come into his hands; and on page 39, paragraph 2, that certain of his notes were in England. We may be sure he had no know- ledge of Dalton’s theory. In the paper ‘On the Composition of Zeolite,” published in 1811, he does not recur tothem. I think these views are worthy of notice in the history of chemical theory. They were as certainly established as was possible with the analytical methods of that day. Ilis very correct apprehension of the true problem of ana- lytical chemistry probably confirmed him in his error. In the second paper above referred to, on page 85, we find the following passage : ‘t'We have no real knowledge of the nature of a compound substance until we are acquainted with its proximate elements, or those matters by whose direct or immediate union it is produced; for these only are its true elements. Thus, though we know that vegetable acids consist of oxygene, hydrogene, and carbon, we are not really acquainted with their composi- tion, because these are not their proximate—that is, their true elements, but are elements of their elements, or elements of these. It is evident what would be our acquaintance with sulphate of iron, for example, did wo only know that a crystul of it consisted of iron, sulphur, oxygene and hydrogene; or of carbonate of lime, if only that it was a compound of lime, carbon or diamond, and oxygene. In fact, totally dissimilar sub- stances may have the same ultimate elements, and even probably in pre- cisely the same proportions; nitrate of ammonia and hydrate of ammonia or crystals of caustic volatile alkuli both ultimately consist of oxygene, hydrogene, and azote,’’ Paes This remarkably lucid passage could not be improved upon now, three quarters of a century later. Without doubt "his exceedingly clear conception of importance of proxi- mate analysis led him to seek the laws relative to compounds in their proximate constituents; and he thought to have found them. The following passage, page 87, relating to the same 10 ° 146 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER subject, shows his perfect understanding of the inductive method, and the inherent indeterminateness of his analysis. ‘Tt is evident there must be a precise quantity in which the elements of compounds are united together in them, otherwise a matter, which was not a simple one, would be liable in its several masses, to vary from itself, accor- ding as one or the other of its ingredients chanced to predominate; but chemical experiments are unavoidably attended with too many sources of fallacy for this precise quantity to be discovered by them; it is therefore to theory that we must owe the knowledge of it. For this purpose an hypoth- esis must be made, and its justness tried by a strict comparison with facts, If they are found at variance, the assumed hypothesis must be relinquished with candor as erroneous; but should it, on the contrary, prove, on a mul- titude of trials, invariably to accord with the results of observation, as nearly as our means of determination authorize us to expect, we are war- ranted in believing that the principle of nature is obtained, as we then have all the proofs of 'its being so, which men can have of the justness of their theories: a constant and perfect agreement with the phenomena, as far as can be discovered.’’ The following passage, page 29, shows how clearly the object to be attained was set forth in his own mind: ‘‘ Tf the theory here advanced has any foundation in truth the discovery will introduce a degree of rigorous accuracy and certainty into chemistry, of which this science was thought to be ever incapable, by enabling the chemist, like the geometrician, to rectify by calculation the unavoidable errors of his manual operations, and by authorizing him to eliminate from the essential elements of a compound those products of its analysis whose quantity cannot be reduced to any admissible proportion. ‘© A certain knowledge of the exact proportions of the constituent prin- ciples of bodies, may likewise open to our view harmonious analogies be- tween the constitutions of related objects, general laws, &c., which at present totally escupe us. In short, if it is founded in truth, its enabling the application of mathematics to chemistry cannot but be productive of material results.’’ At the time his paper on the ‘“‘ Compounds of Fluorine” was published, the composition of fluor spar was still a mat- ter of doubt. ‘The following is a sketch of a proposed method for determining it: “‘Tf fluor spar, for instance, is a combination of oxide of calcium and fluoric acid, and this is expelled from the oxide merely by the force of fire, the decomposition of it will take place in closed vessels without the pres- ence of oxygen or of water; fluoric acid will bo obtained; and the weight of this acid and the lime will be equal together to that of the original spar. ‘‘ Tf the spar is metallic calcium and fluorine, and when heated in oxygen absorbs this, and parts with fluorine, it is fluorine which will be collected in the vessels, and its weight and that of the lime will together exceed that of the spar by the oxygen of the lime.” Further on he suggests the employment of vessels of fluor spar for the examination of fluorine. He then dis- cusses the phenomenon of intumescence as observed in fluor spar and similar substances, in order to correct an erroneous explanation of its nature that it was a “ new state OF JAMES SMITHSON. 147 of equilibrium induced by. heat between the constituent parts of a body.” “Why is the change of quality limited to the surface; how has been produced the central cavity; what has forced away the matter which occupied it? A new element has been received from without, one which existed in the matter has been parted with in a state of vapor. This double action may probably be inferred wherever a matter presents this species of vegetation,” (p. 100.) As the story of his analysis of a tear indicates, he was an exceedingly nice manipulator. Ie was one of the very first who commenced the cardinal practice of rnodern analytical chemistry, the use of delicate methods and small quantities of material. THis quantitative determinations were usually made with about a gramme, and his qualitative determina- tions often with almost invisible bits. In the examination of the “ Native Compound of Sulphuret of Lead and Arsenic” (binnite of Naumann) from Upper Valois, his “ trials were made with particles little more than visible.” On page 95 he says: “A very minute fragment of fluor spar is fastened by means of clay to the end of a platina wire nearly as fine as a hair, which is the size I now employ even with fluxes.” We have before noticed the neat and simple apparatus (p. 97) for the detection of fluorine. On page 86 a method of making and using thin clay plates is given, which might, at the present time, be advantageously employed in blow- pipe work, especially if they were made from a pure kaoline. Lhe paper on the “ Method of Fixing Particles on the Sap- pare” (fibres of cyanite) contains repeated instances of his delicacy and neatness. Smithson’s contributions to mineralogy consists princi- pally in the discovery of several new species. Native red lead was first examined by him and its having been derived from galena demonstrated. He also first observed chloride of potassium, in a native state from Vesuvius, He attributed its presence in lava to sublimation. The native compound of sulphuret of lead and arsenic is the rhombic mineral binnite (of Naumann), as is recognized by its locality, chem- ical composition, hardness and cleavage. Ie also described a native compound of sulphate of barium and fluoride of cal- cium from Derbyshire. Naumann (Min., 9te Aufl., p. 261, Anmerkung 8) thinks, as is correct, that this is only a mix- ture and not a true species. The crystallographical observations of Smithson are of rather a rough character, owing perhaps to his instruments. They refer to the forms of electric calamine, of bournonite (the compound sulphuret from Huel Boys) and of ice. The me 148 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER rhombic character of bournonite escaped him, he having taken it for quadratic. Snow he found to have the form of a double six-sided pyramid, with a lateral angle of about 80° The various observations on its forms are so discrep- ant, however, that it is impossible to state which are correct. On page 81 he gives a crystallographical test to distinguish between the chlorides of barium and of strontium. The crystals of the one are rectangular, eight-sided plates; those of the other fibrous. At this point, a handful of Smithson’s manuscripts may be mentioned, which escaped the fire at the institution in 1865. They consisted of notes on various specimens of minerals and rocks belonging to his collection, and also several fragments of catalogues, which seem to have been begun in various years. The earliest bears the date 1796, the latest 1822. ‘These are of little or no scientific value, except in so far as they illustrate the way in which he worked. The following are a few extracts from them: No. 1.—Carbonate of lime containing manganese, from near Aix la Chappelle. Tt dissolved in nitric acid with effervesence like carbonate of lime. The salt obtuined from this solution by drying over a candle is quite white, but on heating more it becomes brown, and then on solution in water leaves a small quantity of brown powder. Prussiate of soda and iron caused a white precipitate in solution of this stone, and in it the least blue was per- ceivable. Tincture of galls produced no black color with it. Somo of the above nitrous salt melted on platinum with nitrate of pot- ash gave the green color of manganese. Copperas put into some of this nitrous solution caused a precipitate of sulphate of lime. This carbonate of lime and manganese becomes brown at tho blow-pipe. This carbonate of lime and manganese colored borax red. No. 19.—Reduced nickel free from arsenic. It was made at the blow-pipe from oxide of nickel which had been fused with saltpetre. It contains admixed borax. It is infusible. It probably contuins cobalt. No. 4.—Crust from the church bell of Torre del Greco, formed by the lava in 1794. There is a crystal in the little group which is the most regular. The two larger faces of this crystal seem to form an angle of 140° with the prism, and meet together at the summit in an angle of 80°. There is a broken crystal in the same group which seems to show that the four larger faces of tho prism form together angles of 90°. The form of these crystals is 8- sided prisms and 4-sided pyramids and are similar to ITI. 55. d., having the four edges of the prism slightly truncated. - No. 7.—A small group of native gold in 24-sided crystals from V6réspatak, in Transylvania. The matrix is evidently a quartzose stone. Shows in many parts minute OF JAMES SMITHSON. 149 crystals of quartz, and contains pyrites disseminated in it, which are probably auriferous. No. 25.—Arseniate of iron. Paris, September 25, 1820. 1. Nitric acid was put on tosome native arsenuret of cobalt to form nitrate of cobalt, and this mutter formed as a sulphur colored powder in tho mix- ture, It was washed and dried. 2. Heated in a tube some water and crystals of arsenious acid sublimed and a dark mass remnained. 8. This dark mass heated on coal at the blow- ipe omitted fumes prob- ably of arsenious acid and became like a scoria o iron, but the magnot did not effect it. 4. The scoria-like mass dissolved in borax with effervesence and spread much on the coal. This glass in the whole looked black, but where there were air-bubbles it had the color of chrysoberyl. 5. This borax was heated in dilute muriatic acid ina tube. The acid quickly became yellow. Prussiate of soda and iron formed an abundant recipitate of prussian blue; but nitrate of silver formed only a white cutie precipitate of chlo- ride of silver, and no arseniate of silver. It is probable, however, that the above yellow powder is arseniate or ar- senite of iron. ' No. 955.—Paris, May, 1819. 1. In Mr. Stockhausen’s catalogue this is called mountain cork, and said to be from Dauphenée. Both the black fibrous part and the white art, when held in the flame of a candle, tako fire and burn with a large flare, When the white part was tried, a fluid matter like oil flowed from it and ran along the lips of the pincers, and on cooling set with a crystalline tex- ture. The color was greenish, and it was soft nnd brittle like spermacite, No fetid animal smell was perceived during the combustion, The matter is more like adiposcere than mountain cork, No. 1166. Octahedral crystals from Clausthal. 1. These crystals are easily broken. te Put into pure muriatic acid, the fragments of it did not suffer any change. : 3. er se, at the blow-pipe they did not decrepitate, but readily reduced to a white metal, which exhaled. 4. They dissolve in borax with effervescence, without coloring it. Balls of a white metal were produced, but when the borax became fluid it soaked into the charcoal like alkali, and the whole disappeared. 5. The form of the crystals is regular octahedral, with tho six points cut off. 6. Their color is gray, and their aspect metallic. 7. Their fracture is perfectly tubular and parallel to the six corners of the octahedron. Their true form is a cube, fissile, parallel to its six faces, N. B.—These are, most probably, common sulphuret of lead. No. 1564.—Native gold from the Edder, a river in Hessia, in Germany. T had it from Capt. Stockhausen’s cabinet, N. B.—It is only mica. » 150 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER No. 1639.—A button, which is a white compound of cop- per, ete. 1. Melted on a bit of slate with saltpetre—the solution of this salt gave a yellow precipitate, with nitrate of silver, 2. Melted on the coal the metal spread ; no flowers of oxide. It was very fusible; seemed white while melted ; the cooled button filed was yel- low like brass; hence, perhaps, an alloy of copper and zinc or tin. 3. It dissolved wholly in nitric acid, forming a clear blue solution; ex- haled dry, and pure water added, a small quantity of grey powder was left insoluble. This solution poured into much water became milky, and some of this milky liquor put into a watch glass with ammonia, and then nitrate of sil- ver added, yielded a yellow precipitate. No. 1672.—Braunkohle mit Stockwerk vom Ahlberge bei Mariendorf. In the fire it emits a copious pungent smoke, which pains tho eyes greatly. An incombustible residuum remains of the form and nearly size of the bit of wood, which very slowly burned to a white ash. (Paris, March 2, 1820.) With saltpetre this incombustible residuum burned like anthracite. While tho saltpotre was fluid it looked like a dark green color, though not like manganese, On fusing again this color vanished, but on sudden cooling in water tho blue was restored. The solution in water was not green, and did not become red. No. 1766.—Fuller’s earth. . Does not lose its black color in water. . Decrepitates. . Melts easily into a black glass, which seems opaque. . This black glass is taken up by the magnet. . Adheres to the tongue. . Rubbed with a little water on a bit of unglazed china it gives a yellow greenish color. 7. Found in a basalt quarry at Wilhelmshdhe, 1804. anr Oh No. 2012.—Green clay found by self near Frankfort, April the —, 1805. 1, In a moist state it is very lubric. 2. Compressed in this state to a thin plate it is considerably hard. 8. In the fire hardens and melts to a black glass; is not very fusible, and shows no inflation. 4, Seems to dissolve in borax without much difficulty, and colors it very green, If a great quantity of the clay is put to the borax, a black bead is obtained. 5. I found it adhering to (coating one side of) a mass of lava lately extracted from the earth, 1t had probably formed in a fissure of the lava stratum. 6. Strongly heated on coal it became black, and the edges melted toa black glass. In this state it was not drawn on by the horse-shoe magnet ;. but reduced to powder, on a brass plate, some of the powder was taken up. 7. Sulphate of soda and iron did not dissolve it, but the bead became slightly milky on cooling. 8. Put into water it falls into lumps like curds, but which pressed with the fingers, reduce to a powder. ‘ OF JAMES SMITHSON. 151 No. 2952. Unknown plated metallic ore, said to come from the Hartz, in my cabinet marked No. 2952. . Its color is grey, like that of lead or sulphuret of zinc. . It is brittle. . Has the metallic gloss and opacity. . Per se on the charcoal decrepitates greatly. . With borax melts, effervesces, emits » white smoke, and exhales, leaving a small ball of white metal, which appears to be lead, as it is en- tirely fluid when not very hot. 6. Melted in the gold spoon with carbonate of soda produces a greyish mass; water added formed a black powder, and tho solution stained silver only very slightly. This solution being mixed with nitric acid produced but a very slight smell of sulphide of soda, and the black powder continued insoluble. 7. Reduced to powder and very strong nitric acid poured on it there was no effect, but gradually a very gentle effervescence took place, the ore was decomposed and sulphur became visible. 8. A small bit held at the end of a clay-slip in the flame of the lamp it partially melts and glazes the clay-bit around itself. The flamo being directed on it by the blow-pipe it melts to a metallic ball and spreads a yellow gloss on the clay. The little metallic button, being separated from the clay-bit and beat on the steel plate, extended to a thin and hot platg which was flexible like lead. 9. The solution No. 7 afforded colorless octahedral crystals. No. 3098—Black slate. 1. It feels very light. 2. The lens shows particles of mica in it. 8. Before the blow-pipe it takes fire and burns with a flame like coals, but docs not melt, leaving a greyish mass of its former shape and volume, This muss is as hard as the slate. The burned bit put into muriatic acid produced a smell of liver of sulphur. ae 4, Another burned bit at a strong fire melted quickly at the angles to a glossy black matter. It did not stain silver—was not drawn by the mug- net. Put on to silver with a drop of muriatic acid it made some small spots on it. 5. Put into pure muriatic acid it effervesced eo slowly as to_be scarcely visible, and the smaller bits did not fall to powder or soften. Put in pow- der into muriatic acid the effervescence was more sensible, but I could not not find that the solution reddened sensibly the flame of a candle. N. B.—This might prove a new test. No. 3912.—Carbonate of lime. St. Andreasberg. Qe oc = 90° no = 127° 380’ com ooh ne = 142° 30’ From the above figures it is probable that the faces » are those of the rhombohedron, A, fig 7, Haiiy, though the angles differ by 8° 16’. [(—¢R:0 = 127° 15". L] 152 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER No. 8926.—Black lead pencil bought at Frankfort. May, 1805. 1. It cost thirty-six kreutzers, or about one shilling and two pence, Eng- lish, 2. Held in the candle the point does not soften or seem affected, 8. A bit heated at the blow-pipe in the spoon emits a copious white smoke witbout any sensible smell of sulphur, and the smoke settled as a white powder on bodies. The bit of pencil falls into a coarse scaly powder. This powder looked so like the scaly manganese or iron I suspected its being such ; but melted with saltpetre it consumed and did not impart to it the least bit of green. A bit of the pencil heated with carbonate of soda did not form visible liver of sulpkur, but the solution of the mass stained silver. No. 8926.—Factitious pencil bought at Frankfort in 1805. 1. A bit exposed at the blow-pipe burns with a flame and emits a copious white smoke. A matter remains which falls to powder under the touch and seems to be plumbago. No. 5763.—Perhaps Fluorspar, from a lead mine, Matlock bath, in Derbyshire, 1799. 1. Powdered, and put into muriatic acid, there is a momentary efferves- cence from some particles of carbonate of lime but no sensible diminution of the powder. 2. Heated in sulphuric acid on a bit of glass it effervesced much, but the rluss was not depolished. 3. Sulphate of soda formed hydrated sulphate of lime in the solution No. 1. 4. It melted with carbonate of soda, with effervescence, and formed a transparent glass, with opaque white quartz in it which morealkali did not dissolve. . 6. This stone scratches glass, 6. The glass (4) was treated with muriatic acid; the whole did not dis- solve, 7. This muriatic solution exhaled dry, left no crystals on adding water. On drying again, and heating more, and adding a small quantity, a dark matier, probably oxide of manganese, was left. Sulphuric acid added to this solution formed no immediate precipitate, but one of hydrated sulphate uf lime formed. q These minute experiments are recorded for a considerable number of specimens. It may be that there were many more of them than have been preserved. They show with what careful and minute accuracy Smithson worked and noted all he did. A large number of these notes were of rocks and clays. This seems to have been the only way in which he busied himself with geology. A system of chemical nomenclature was made use of in these jottings which, perhaps, deserves notice on account of its curiousness. It is an extension of the astronomical Hee as applied to certain of the metals. ‘They are as fol- OWS: OF JAMES SMITHSON. Water. Fire. Platinum. Tron. Sulphur. Copper. Mercury. Arsenicum. Gold. Nickel. Zine. Silver. Oxygen. Silica. Carbonic Aeid. Distilled Vinegar. x Orystal. “1S Precipitate. @ Curdy. —f \ Sublimate. Cr Baryta. Ore Boda. Cur Potassa. 10 Lime. + Oo” Oxide of Iron. OO Arsenic. +0O-O Arsenious Acid. | Lo _ Lime Water. A O Magnesia. Tavasys Barium Chloride. AP Fluor-Calcium. Ag Carbonate of Lime. 158 154 ON THE WORKS AND CHARACTER The following extracts illustrate his manner of thinking: “ ‘‘ Chemistry is yet so now a science, what woe know of it bears so small a proportion to what we are ignorant of, our knowledge in every department of it is so incomplete, so broken, consisting so entirely of isolated points thinly scattered like lucid specks on a vast field of darkness, that no re- searches can be undertaken without producing some facts, leading to some consequences, which extend beyond the boundaries of their immediate object,’’ (p. 26.) “The only requisite for this operation (crystallization) is a freedom of motion in the masses which tend to unite, which allows them to yield to the impulse which propels them together, and to obey that sort of polarity which occasions them to present to each other the parts adapted to mutual union,’”’ (p. 31.) ‘‘T doubt the existence of triple, quadruple, &c., compounds; I believe that all combination is binary; that no substance whatever has more than two proximate or true elements,”’ (p. 36.) ‘‘ Many persons, from experiencing much difficulty in comprehending the combination together of the earths, have been led to suppose the exis- tence of undiscovered acids in stony crystals. If quartz itself be consid- ered as an acid, to which order of bodies its qualities much more nearly assimilate it, than to the earths, their composition becomes readily intelli- gible. They will then be neutral salts, silicates, either simple or compound,’’ (p. 46.) It would be interesting to know if this be the first men- tion of the acid nature of silica; if so, it should be noticed. This was written in January, 1811: ‘A knowledge of the productions of art, and of its operations, is indis- pensable to the geologist. Bold is the man who undertakes to assign effects to agents with which he has no acquaintance; which he never has beheld in action; to whose indisputable results he is an utter stranger; who en- gages in the fabrication of a world alike unskilled in the forces and the materials which he employs,” (p. 70.) : The following passages would not be lost on certain mod- ern philosophers : ‘© A want of due conviction that the matcrials of the globe and the pro- ducts of the laboratory are the same, that what nature affords spontaneously to men, and what the art of the chemist prepares, differ no ways but in the sources from whence they are derived, has given to the industry of the collector of mineral bodies an erroneous direction,” (p. 94.) ‘‘ There may be persons who, measuring the importance of the subject by the magnitude of the objects, will cast asupercilious look on this discussion (on intumescence ); but the particle and the planet are subject to the same laws; and what‘is learned upon the one will be known of the other,’’ (p. 101.) ‘Tn the arts of an ancient people much may be seen concerning them 3, the progress they have made in knowledge of various kinds; their habits; their ideas on many subjects,”’ (p. 101.) ‘Tt is in his knowledge that man has found his greatness and his happi- ness, the high superiority which he holds over the other animals who in- habit the earth with him, and consequently no ignorance is probably with- avt loss to him no error without evil.”’ (p, 104.) OF JAMES SMITHSON. 155 I have thus attempted to indicate the salient parts of Smithson’s scientific achievement. More interesting than the work, however, is the worker. He was eminently an experimenter. All through his papers he is found dili- gently collecting facts before he proceeds to theorize. This is well shown in his very first paper, that on the so-called Tabasheer. Perhaps the most finished of his papers is that “ On a’Fibrous Metallic Copper,” combining, as it does, an ingenious explanation of a singular phenomenon and sub- sequent confirmatory experiments. His style, so clear, so direct, and so exact, is a model for scientific purposes. Of this the extracts above given are good specimens. ‘The paper just referred to, on fibrous copper, and that that on native minium are others. Of his neatness as a manipulator and skill in devising ap- paratus I have already spoken. The papers on “Improvements of Lamps” and an ‘“ Im- proved Method of Making-Coffee”’ show his practical turn. It is in the Jast paper but one of the book relative to the ‘Formation of Kirkdale Cave,” that we, perhaps, best of all discover the true fibre of Smithson’s mind. The paper was a refutation of the idea of the Leliquie Diluviane, which attempted to refer this cave and some bones found in it to the flood of Genesis: Smithson discusses the subject with the greatest cogency, showing the utter failure of the theory to account for the facts. Ilis argument is of the greatest per- spicuity and justness, so correctly does he apprehend every point. This discussion has, of course, lost all its interest at this day, but it had not then, when. geology was so imper- fectly known. In the last section of this paper the subject is the Deluge, and the effects which must have -followed. With real eloquence he shows that, if the secondary lime- stones were formed during the flood, “embalmed cities, with their monuments” would be found in “every limestone quarry.” Such antiquities as these being wholly unknown, he concludes that the removal of the effects of the deluge, like the deluge itself, was due to supernatural causes. “To a miracle, then,” he says, “which swept away all that could recall that day of death, when ‘the windows of heaven were opened’ upon mankind, must we refer what' no natural means are adequate to explain. Yor this stupen- pendous prodigy, | ‘¢ Like the baseless fabric of a vision, Left not a wreck behind.” te ida vist ‘raoareque aad aaibl Sealhewtea tad rad bere hahaa’ agro ieretant nie avant ale = Uk ew, +m iy oe Peay ETAT MUTT ES UIT Godt A ThE Oa, blr rey ae} A o ks nl at ay ie’ Leahy Paring Giese al ere nid 2 Nis ; yl 6). oe ok 12 DOr r saat OF ty rf he bs ‘} olan at : the puget , Sty oa ots Loh | Piva cael ‘ah | m3 ay witl Rieital ad pels i pol 9g oy ‘vate fad) ~ wh wa) slew -- Vocab We) wa : ‘ n — ae. rents ad 4 Peat? 6) N att wile Lan ® ¥ Ve HY. hee ON hee nf ‘76, W ‘ Lt a* ' iit? Te niu? fi at 2 poe rs , é ‘ 7 ~ = 2 : HA 7h, pied We Re aan yes “pe RLU ke { Ue & Gu , baa j : vr 4 ' uj cri é 1,9, ~ ioe r ibdees. LSet > ' ~ Nr eT J ; tp ith whew. sash ; . . ry? Dire) GiPR ebony PY # ekg pay Crea Pay ant Aes "A UT - Fee up” is ~oell Wa a iH) ne »if v ) ae a a Limp, Mh want 7 | aiged 5 opfaldi callie the dee vem ing ‘oft wadn maw Pen Ueie: 4 fn ol eer it We i Aina ? ’ i ee es 1" dh UP chee emhaT her ain venga - bs . > nawr CaM , on & ied pelea ow aD n seeds tol? 0% ws paw ver J é % A es Me ec wha ie wofiag mn, Sh yBatrqerni'y & » iiestentb in prey INDEX. — of chemical experiments on taba- sheer, 1. Account of discovery of native minium, 82. Acids, discovery of, in mineral substances, 82, 134, 144. Ampére on metallic tin, 74. Anaigais of calamines, 18. Analysis of tabasheer, 1. Animal greens, 64. Arid, distinction between dry and, 20. . Ark, Noah’s, described in the Bible, perils of, 106. Arsenic, detection of minute quantities of, 5. sulphuret of, 65, 132, 144, 147. Arsenical acid, test of, 84. Arts of ancient peoples, 101. Balance, description of, by Dr, Black, 117. notes on, by Smithson, 119, 137. Bamboo, tabasheer from, 1. Banks, Sir Jose h, letter to, 32. Barium, sulphates of, 71, 81, 132, 134. Basalts, Gregory Watts on, 127. Beck, Lewis C., on igneous action, 130. Belzoni, Mr., specimen from, 102. Bonefactions to scionce, 124, Borgman on calaminos, 18, on fernambue wood, 06. employed sugar loat paper, 61. Berzelius on blow-pipe, 92, 96. on plomb gomme, 67. Binary compounds, 34. Binnite, 65, 147. Bleyberg, calamine from, 18, Blow-pipe apparatus, 86. Boracic acid, test of, 84. Bournonite, 34. : Boyle on muriate of iron, 68. Buckland’s Reliqux Diluvians, 104. Calamines, analyses of, 18, 125, 144, 145. Calcium, fluoride of, 71. Capillary metallic tin, 74. Carbonic acid, test of, 86. Cave, formation of the Kirkdale, 103. Character of Smithson, W. R. Johnson, 123. Chemical analysis of calamines, 18. experiments on tabasheer, 1. nomenclature of Smithson, 152. Chemistry, Smithson on, 26, 125. Chloride of potassium, discovery of, in the earth, 89. Chromic acid, test of, 84. Clarke, Dr., on form of ice, 80. Clay, method of formin plates of, 86. Clement, experiments of, 74. Coffee, improved method of making, 87, 135, 155. Coloring matters of vegetables, 58, 131. Colors, method of fixing, 120. of Egyptian paintings, 101, 102, 136, Combination, all binary, 36. Compounds of fluorine, 94. Compounds, quadruple and binary, 34. composen of compound sulphuret from uel Boys, 34. Composition of zeolite, 42. Conflagration of the earth, 52. Cookery, improvements in, 88. Copper, 68, 132. Corn poppy, coloring matter of, 63. Crayon colors, method of fixing, 120. Cronstedt, Baron, on zeolite, 45. Crystalline form of ice, 80. Crystallization, Smithson on, 126. Crystallography, Smithson’s papers on, 147. Crystals, ores of copper in, 39. Curtin, Mr. specimen from, 102. Cranlte, notice of Smithson’s paper on, 135, Dalton’s theory, 145. Davy, Humphrey, discovery by, 44. D’Ayen, Duke, on muriate of iron, 58. De Laumont on plomb gomme, 67. Deluge, views of a universal, 104, 139, 155. Derbyshire, calamine from, 22. De Saussure’s contrivances, 91. De Thury, H., on forms of ice, 80. Detection of very minuto quantities of arsonic and morcury, 75. Diamonds, experiments with, 93. Discovery of acids in mineral substances, of chloride of potassium in the earth, 89. of native minium, 32. Dry, distinction between arid and, 20. Earth, changes observed in, 103. discovery of chloride Et pe aeeiam in, 89. Economy, importance and advantages of, Egyptian colors, examination of, 101. Elephant, hairy, of Siberia, 112. Elm tree, ulmin from, 47. Error always associated with evil, 104. Examination of some Egyptian colors, 101. Experiments on decay of animal muscle, 09 109. Extinguishing lamps, 79. Extracts from Smithson’s writings, 164. Fibrous metallic copper, 68. Fingal's cave, Smithson’s visit to, 139. Fixing crayon colors, method of, 120. Florentine experiment, 75. Fluoride of calcium, 71. Fluorine, compounds of, 94, 136, 144, 146. Fluor spar, nature of, 95. phe world, absence of human remains n, 114, Fourcroy, observations of, 35, 59. Franklin, founding of a library by, 123, Fuel for chemical lamps, 134. Fusibility, experiments on, 93. 157 158 Gay Lussac, observations of, 84. Girard, benevolence of, 123. Habitations, Smithson on, 138. Hail, form of crystals of, 80. Hatchett’s experiments on sulphurets, 365. Haiiy, Abbé, analyses quoted by, 98. on calamines, 18, 126. on form of ice, 80. on specular iron ore, 54. on zeolite, 42. Henry on muriate of soda, 57. Honorable notice of Smithson’s researches, 182. Huel Boys, sulphuret from, 34. ‘ : Human remains, total absence of, in fossil world, 114. Hutton, Dr., compliments of, to Smithson, 119. on zeolite, 43. Ice, crystalline form of, 80, 134, 147. Igneous action, Lewis C. Beck on, 130. Smithson on,-130. Ignorance always attended with loss, 104. Improved method of making coffee, 87. Improvements in lamps, 78. Increase of knowledge by Smithson, 124. Inspiration of book recording a universal deluge,104, Irby, J. R. McD., on the works and char- acter of Smithson, 143. Iron, reduced from fibrous to granular state, 127. Isis, coloring matter of figure of, 102. Johnson, Walter R., on scientific character and researches of Smithson, 123. Kennedy on zeolite, 43. Kirkdale Cave, on formation of, 103, 137, 155. Klaproth on barytes and soda, 66. on topaz, 96. on ulmin, 47. on zeolite, 42, 46. Knowledge, Smithson on, 164, 124, 139. Kryolite, experiments with, 98. Lamps, improvements in, 78, 133, 155. Lead, aluminate of, 67. sulphuret of, 65, 147. Letter from Dr. Black describing a very sensiblo balance, 117. Letter of Smithson toSir Joseph Banks, 32. Lewis, Wm., on muriate of iron, 58. Maclure, endowment by, of an academy for science, 123. Magnitude of objects not a test of their importance, 101. Manuscripts of Smithson, 137, 148. Marcet, experiments of, 45. on dropsical fluids, 66. Marsh, experiments on arsenic, 133. Means of discrimination between sulphates of barium and strontium, 81, Memoir on scientific character and re- searches of Smithson, by W. R. John- son, 123. Mendip Hill calamine, 21. Mercury, detection of minute quantities of, 75, 132, 144. Mesotype, 43. Metallic copper, fibrous, 68. Metallic tin, 74. Method of fixing crayon colors, 120. Method of fixing particles on the sappare, 90 Mineralogy, Smithson’s papers on, 147. Mineral substances, acids in, 82, 134. INDEX. Minium, account of discovery of, 32, 128. Miracle to sweep away consequences 0 deluge, 117. ° Molybdie acid, test of, 85. Mulberry, coloring matter of, 62. Muriatic acid, test of, 83. Mull, Smithson’s visit to, 139. Native combination of sulphate of barium and fluoride of calcium, 71. Native compound of sulphuret of lead and arsenic, 65. Native hydrous aluminate of lead or plomb gomme, 67. Native minium, 32. Natrolite, 42. Naumann, 65. Nitric acid, test of, 86. Noah’s ark, 106, 107. Northwitch, Smithson’s visit to, 140. aictes on minerals and rocks by Smithson, 8. Oban, Smithson’s visit to, 140. Observations on Penn’s theory of the Kirk- dale Cave, 103. Particle and planet subject to same laws, 101, Pellectier’s experiments on calamines, 24. Penetration of solids by fluids, 75. Penn’s theory of the formation of the Kirk- dalo cave, 103. Phosphoric acid, test of, 84. Plomb gomme, 67, 131. Potassium, chloride of, in the earth, 89, 135. Proportion of elements, Smithson’s theory of, 29, 37. Peers King, specimen from tomb of, Quadruple and binary compounds, 34. Researches of Smithson, W. R. Johnson, 123. Rozier, on sappare, 91. Russell, Dr., on tabasheer, 1. Saline substance from Mount Vesuvius, 52. Sap green, coloring matter, 64. Sap of the elm tree, 51. Sappare, method of fixing particles on the, 90, 135, 147. Saussure’s sappare, 87, 91. Silica, acid nature of, 154, test of, 86. Silver mines of North Carolina, 128. Smithson fund, April, 1844, 141. ; Smithson, James, account of unpublished writings of, 138. manuscripts of, 137. on the works and character of, J. R. Mc- D. Irby, 143. scientific character and researches of, by W. R. Johnson, 123. scientific journeys of, 139. Snow, form of crystals, 80. Somersetshire, calamine from, 21. Staffa, Smithson’s visit to, 139. Strontium, sulphates of, 81, 134, 144. Struve on zeolite, 46, Sugar-loaf paper, coloring matter of, 61. Bolphates oF arlum and strontium, 71, 81, 114, 132. Sulphur, blow-pipe test for, 144. Sulphuret from Huel Boys, 34. Sulphuret of lead and arsenic, 65. Sulphurets, paper on, 34, 129, 131, 144, Sulphuric acid, test of, 83. f, Symbols used by Smithson, 153. INDEX. Tabasheer, account of the chemical exper- iments on, 1, 136, 144, 155. Tea, improved method of making, 87. Tear, analysis of a, 147. Tennant, Smithson, discovery of plomb gomme, 67. experiments of, 56. Theory of formation of Kirkdale Cave, 103. Thomson on ulmin, 47. Tin, capillary metallic, 74, Tomb of King Psammis, specimen from, 102. Topaz, experiments with, 96. Tours of Smithson, 139, 140. Tungstic acid, test of, 85, Turnsol, coloring matter of, 59. > 159 Ulmin, substance from elm tree, 47, 130. Vauquelin on zeolite, 42, 46. Vegetables, coloring matter of, 58. Vesuvius, analysis of matter from, 89. saline substance from, 52, 130. Violet, coloring matter of, 60. Volcanoes, 53, 130. Watt, Gregory, on basalts, 127. Wax lamps, 79. Werner on minerals, 90. Wicks of a 78. Works and character of Smithson, J. R. McD. Irby, 143. Zeolite, composition of, 42, 129, 145, A) cieteaoterenir yaa | hii fe cltapese’y - a ivan 3 <> pall tes mi ioe “tnd peices ile’, Cites . , rue afd Sere Lag we yet oan 1 ® We Figg, ohhh, Sm Boel ph patel eee, UF, | fo pom i : a ' Set be i vente et ie a ig v1 Westnet ; NP ncstaan et an Ps ae J el et sane “i cin ss t¥pve! ~ 44d Gy’ eee See .- ey orate » Ofte eer;-t0t a wa fe it | Oreay Gry? 2s0¥ art at pat with ne DENT |) mre) om wh: Pays lioly ae Ds panaiaes ‘ac — J ~y Mey ee at YW < onseekii cult ur eayy’ a aoe as ; " dade ee 4 1) Weenies | a ee emt Jem | gene ay (feVies ¥ in Of) 2 : 1, toa ~_¢ ‘ 1% yetr ‘ 2 ie PLAN) a Oey oti Men | 4 : ou p A Cry “e hus , hs " rey i¢. _ ‘ i tub 4a, 5 9 ita * Ry w ade iss ‘1 F i iy 5 Dine F il é = - Pan ted Fe ji Pay a, 9a, 86 4 * edt 24> A ofa) 4 ; on rie 4 ovtes apy 11, &, ? 3 ree, ers wet bow, 244 fi : ee ae j i neh & BY dee wae te, a ( ore eer te tee io parr ag i ; é wee | Demers ‘ay hemes af ‘ too J 5 | j ® VV Tony i y, 7 yo iu * j . » : ( - q ? , «i SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 356 ——_________ MHMORIAL OF 2 lo ai el Ge lel et fnl ala (El WASHINGTON: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1881. 7 ly tie tt on 7 a i 2 7 7 > _ isso eeinerhels di cecmcrecracell a a 7 = P ; - . | : j TATHOMEM leivendsexes OME TEIAKY 3 aa Te OC NTE INL Be «ueaie INTRODUCTION. ; Page Proceedings in Congress relative to a public commemoration---._--------------- > PART I. Obsequies of Joseph Henry. « Announcement by Chancellor M. R. Waiter May 1d) 187822522825 soe =e ea 7 Proceedings of the Board of Regents, May 18, 1878-_-----------.-----------------. The Muneral, May 16, 1878-..---- =. = 8 ee ne a so sn ence esesesescs ll Prayer at the Funeral by Rev. Charles Hodge, D. D., May 16, 1878_------------- 13 Funeral Sermon by Rev. Samuel S. Mitchell, D. D., May 16, 1878_-----__------- 15 Proceedings of the Board of Regents, May 17, 1878, and January 17, 1879__----- nee PART 1. Memorial Exercises at the Capitol. Announcement by Executive Committee of the Regents, January 6, 1879-_--- 37 Introductory Prayer by Rey. Dr. JAMES McCosH, January 16, 1879_----------- 39 Hon. HANNIBAL HAMULIN’s Address, (read by Vice-President WHEELER)---- 43 Address! by, Hon; ROBERT EN. WiEDHE RS so2scc. oe eas ee eae eee eee eee 49 Address: by Professor ASA \GRAW=—-o2 223222322282 oe a ee eee 53 Reading of Telegrams by Hon. HIESTER CLYMER-------------------------------- 75 Address by. Professor WiihTAMt By ROGERS os. 22 esse een ena oeeeee eee ea 77 Address) by) ‘Hons JAMES) A. GARRITY D 22222552 oe esas asa eee eee nee ae 9L Address by Hon. SAMUEL S. Cox.---} Sa a a eee Bee ey ele a = 109 Address by, General WinuraMe (T. SHERMAN 22s. - seo =e ee eee nee aeneee 117 Concluding Prayer by Rey. Dr. Byron SUNDERLAND--------------------------- “120 PARS LEL Memorial Proceedings of Societies. Proceedings of the ‘Philosophical Society of Washington,” May 14, 1878_----- 125 Proceedings of the ‘“‘ Albany Institute,” May 14 and 28, 1878 --------------_---_- 128 Memorial Minute by Orlando Meads, LL. D. -------------------------------------- 180 Proceedings of the U.S. ‘‘Light-House Board,’ May 15, 1878_------------------- 135 1V CONTENTS. ) Page. Memorial Discourse by Rev. Samuel B. Dod, delivered in the College Chape¥ at: Princeton, .N. J.) May 19,1818. .2- 2225-3 o-oo ee neem ean nsec eeee 1389 Reminiscences by Prof. Henry C. Cameron, D. D. presented in the College ~ Chapel at Princeton, N. J. May 19 and June 2, 1878 -----_--__ --------------- 166 Memorial Address by Dr. J: ames C. Welling, before the ‘Philosophical Society of Washington,” October?26. 1878222 es Sn ae ee ee eee 177 Memorial Address by William B. Taylor, before the ‘Philosophical Society off Washington, October !26) 1818 sasss0 onsen eee ene eee eaeeeee 205 Obituary Memoir, by Prof. Joseph Lovering, Vice-President of the ‘‘American Academy of Arts and Sciences.” Report of the Council of the Am. Acad- pat a CO 22 A ee ree ere ee Ee Oe ee aera ea 427 Biographical Memoir, by Prof. Simon Newcomb, read before the “ National Academy of Sciences)” ‘Aiprill! 21; 1880.22 2 = So ee 441 Memorial Address by Prof. Alfred M. Mayer, before the ‘American Association for the Advancement of Science,” August 26, 1880 --_---_----_------------------- 475 APPENDIX. Prococdings in Congress regarding the erection of a Monument to JosEru TREN RY 5 oo ae on rn ee re ee ee es 511 5600) <->, Cees eee es ee ne ee oe ee ee ee ee ee ea 515 » “a ° iin psc ndaalaiadat esl fr tecinn, ee. ee ee eee _ Sanstormemans 1h Prd Thnew 1% Comhiann Hh pemmeplad tu ube timigs | Pup 64 Miemes, ©], Mee Oe. nar Witensetad ative ty Hi) Seyere ty) Ween, the * Pe evrewiyene) Haeliy | a aabinntany” teates Mi MR I ef ee ee ie O Dae taia™ Cmte Mh, Wy pee bt a | (omcaaenaty Mariesle, Op Peteh Didagpis pwenting, Wiepivehtee ad ihe + dstammllnhge® ae heetonts ov be aml eu atn” fepary af Mie Demet w tie Je Ae omy, War DP, OP Wx. a Sineentveant ae @egripfigs! Mreni:, 02 Pd See Booey, peg bape Ge * Malle dfetensy uf big,” Ape 4, aide Uelio=n)i bbice i» Pus 6 bet t. Woee:, Mobos 44 urbe doe ee he 6 (et erqes) Wire,” 4 ogteet @ i = : ie ATTRA Pemmmengs | Gor gram Gepriing Woo earth af « mempawt & farage lawns 7 =< = = S : = ong 9 ieee © . . - * y INTRODUCTION. On the death of JosEpH Henry, who for the third of a century had administered the operations of the Smithsonian Institution, as its first Secretary and executive officer,—with honor to himself and credit and distinction to the Institution — the Board of Regents felt that in grateful appreciation of one whose services in the advance- ment of science, no less than in the promotion of the interests of the General Government, had been so conspicuous and so valuable, some formal and public memorial was pre-eminently fitting. Accord- ingly, at a meeting of the Regents held on the day following the furieral, the Executive Committee of the Board (consisting of Dr. Parker, Dr. Maclean and General Sherman) were requested to make arrangements for a public commemoration in honor of the late Secretary, “of such a character and at such time as they may deter- mine.” 7 In pursuance of this instruction, the said Committee, through the Hon. Hiester Clymer, a Regent, and a Member of the House of Representatives, presented the subject to the attention of Congress. In tHe House or REPRESENTATIVES. Monday, December 9, 1878. Mr. CLyMER. (Member from Pennsylvania.) “TI ask unanimous consent to submit for adoption at this time a concurrent resolution, to which I think there will be no objection.” The concurrent resolution was read, as follows: “ Resolved by the House of Representatives, (the Senate concurring,) That the Congress of the United States will take part in the services to be observed on Thursday evening, January 16, 1879, in honor of the memory of JosepH Henry, late Secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution, under the auspices of the Regents thereof, and for that purpose the Senators and Representatives will assemble on that evening in the Hall of the House of Representatives, the Vice- President, supported by the Speaker of the House, to preside on that occasion.” There being no objection, the resolution was adopted. 2 ’ INTRODUCTION. IN THE SENATE. Tuesday, December 10, 1878. . Mr. Hamitn. (Senator from Maine.) “Mr. President, I ask the indulgence of the Senate to take from the table the resolution of the House making provision for the services in memory of the late Professor Henry. I think it will occupy no time of the Senate, and it is desirable that it shall be passed, so that it may be known that the agreement is concluded.” The Presrpinc Orricer. (Mr. Hoar, Senator from Massa- chusetts, in the chair.) “The Chair will lay before the Senate the concurrent resolution of the House of Representatives.” The resolution was read by the Clerk: [as before given. ] The resolution was agreed to. In tHe House or REPRESENTATIVES. Thursday, January 16, 1879.—Evening Session, At five minutes before eight o’clock the Senate of the United States, preceded by the Sergeant-at-Arms and the Chaplain, and headed by the Vice-President of the United States, with the Sec- retary, entered the Hall and were properly announced, and the Vice-President took his seat on the right of the Speaker, and the Senators took the seats assigned them. At eight o’clock the Chief-Justice and the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court and the President of the United States and the members of the Cabinet entered the Hall, were properly announced, and were conducted to the seats assigned them. The SPEAKER of the House of Representatives (Hon. 8. J. RANDALL) then called the assembly to order, and, after announcing the occasion of the meeting, presented his official gavel to the VIcE- PRESIDENT, who thereupon presided, supported by the SPEAKER. The Vicre-Prestpent. (Hon. W. A. WHEELER.) “The Sen- ators and Members of the Congress of the United States, in pursu- ance of the resolutions of their respective bodies, have assembled for the purpose of taking part in the services to be observed in memory of JosEPH HENRY, late Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, under the auspices of the Regents of that Institution.” The Vice-PREsIDENT then announced that the exercises would be commenced by prayer from Rey. Dr. McCosu, the president of the College of New Jersey, at Princeton. The Memorial Services were then proceeded with; the V1cE- PRESIDENT announcing each of the speakers by name, in accordance with the order of exercises arranged and adopted by the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. INTRODUCTION. 3 The Vicr-PRESIDENT, after the concluding prayer by the Chap- lain of the Senate, (at eleven o’clock p. M.) announced that the exercises of the evening were closed ; whereupon the President of the United States with his Cabinet, the Chief-Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and the Senate of the United States with the Vice-President, retired from the Hall. The Speaker then said: “The object of this evening’s session, as provided for by the order of both Houses of Congress, having been fittingly realized, the duty remains to me to declare this House adjourned until to-morrow at twelve o’clock.” In tHe House or REPRESENTATIVES. Wednesday, January 22, 187°. Mr. Srepuens. (Member from Georgia.) “TI submit a resolution upon which I ask immediate action.” The Clerk read as follows: __ “Resolved by the House of Representatives, (the Senate concurring,) That the memorial exercises in honor of Professor Henry, held in the Hall of the House of Representatives on the 16th of J anuary, 1879, be printed in the CONGRESSIONAL REcorD, and that fifteen thousand extra copies of the same be printed in a MEMORIAL VoL- UME, together with such articles as may be furnished by the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution ; seven thousand copies of which shall be for the use of the House of Representatives, three thousand copies for the use of the Senate, and five thousand copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution.” The Speaker. “The Chair is not advised whether these fifteen thousand extra copies to be published in book-form would cost five hundred dollars. If they would, then under the requirement of the law the resolution must be referred to the Committee on Printing. “The Chair is advised that the book would cost over five hun- dred dollars, and therefore it had better go to the Committee on Printing, under the law. The committee has a right to report at any time.” , Mr. STEPHENS. “Let it take that reference.” The resolution was accordingly referred to the Committee on Printing. Saturday, January 25, 1879. Mr. Stneueron, (Member from Mississippi,) Chairman of the Committee on Printing, reported back with a favorable recom- mendation the following resolution of the House: [the resolution to print, as above given.] The resolution was adopted. 4 . INTRODUCTION. ‘In THE SENATE. Tuesday, January 28, 1879. The VicE-PREsIDENT laid before the Senate the following con- current resolution from the House of Representatives; which was read and referred to the Committee on Printing: [the resolution to print, as before given. | Thursday, February 6, 1879. Mr. ANTHONY. (Senator from Rhode Island.) “Tam instructed by the Committee on Printing, to whom was referred a concurrent resolution of the House of Representatives to print the Memorial Exercises in honor of the late Professor Henry, to report it without amendment, and to recommend its passage. I ask for its present consideration.” The resolution was considered by unanimous consent and agreed to, as follows: “ Resolved by the House of Representatives, (the Senate concurring,) That the memorial exercises in honor of Professor Henry, held in the Hall of the House of Representatives on the 16th of January, 1879, be printed in the ConGREssIonAL REcorD, and that fifteen thousand extra copies of the same be printed in a MEMorIAL VOL- UME, together with such articles as may be furnished by the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution ; seven thousand copies of which shall be for the use of the House of Representatives, three thousand copies for the use of the Senate, and five thousand copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution.” In the Senate, April 7, 1879.— Mr. AnrHony, by unanimous consent, introduced a joint resolution authorizing the engraving and printing of a portrait of the late JosepH Henry, to accompany the Memorial Volume heretofore ordered, and appropriating five hundred dollars for that purpose. The joint resolution was reported to the Senate April 9, 1879, ordered to be engrossed for a third reading, read the third time, and passed. . In the House oF REPRESENTATIVES, April 11, 1879.— Mr. CLYMER moved to take from the table the joint resolution received from the Senate ; which was accordingly read three times and passed. The joint resolution authorizing the engraving and printing of the portrait for the Memorial Volume, as passed by Congress, was approved by the PREsipENT April 18, 1879. P Ake ook OBSEQUIES OF JOSEPH HENRY. (5) Sia . 7s ow Seta o ‘tas basin he i cu tatiae the Bide (6 eee ae frun de, Tigiaa of vey: pod per mery , eanameaaia im jing ) in an oe eee ; Tipvmlog, Pidounry 6, 0977, Me, Mecuiie. (heniec ye Djapche, ileal. | * ta ied the. 4 tegatana Pigtiog, What wan ngwred & vsiPillee of 4 Yee of Begneeniiellyia print the Ménwriek” Bivprdens Leos of Ge lain is deen ieiy, i= report ob opt ame bow. ‘wo iy wea en! ite pay T ok foe tie gu weno awe tlnreti.m.” / - The petuutic: tae «dmb ler. by ureeemene poe acl : ” pope GS. bg Ue J vac . ajermatiniless, (ide Meants ee ih Thiet, he wep ge! ahve wey ny eoarr if } (1 arg WTeder, al ¥ a j cha Biull oF @e Sigase a Pinta pity on iia Lith, of Vascepalpes§ ies 0 LIT, be priser ‘ys Be 7. Unie, wil Cot Se * Goavan’ wile wert wl the damn to pardiol im & ry eum iat We UES, dyes , be, ¢ tee) ie ing pai: iN a. pauittie ) nyhet a ii, ari ie tem A ‘Ploy oc” Aeerecunn iad] tv: (pie oe ee) oe el! Ae itt Os [he Cates, ite, (YR Wh eertes ope ® = 7 aa tin the Sun ate Apel 7, 1614. & ale. ANTHONY hy ata ( Meewale, Veinam hori iagead, sw ap tupe anny aa borveieesdd datlers fav Web paaepen rari ay evholytion was bOrnet in) ie iow bopoafe “a twat i, ‘Laye abet bc vig ang! iva ds | deguthiye, gem tie shat vs : “. je Jlomet qe iternaceyvi yes, Apew' id, rave) Mis c,W ne? conver, ty tote ree ae hp Be feet Oi peEn . feast the Sarwar; phynly ore eemestogiy | veg i ‘The Jota rim leledy wiiNiactiatleng ina Meygeey theo previeedt, fix thy, Mieteaae 9 cain a ee) apes Ter hem neaag: A aes 14, pe SMG 5 * CL i . : i via é —“ * laa Sinithsonian Hestitution, Washington, D. C., May 14, 1878. On behalf of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, it becomes my mournful duty to announce the death of the Secretary and Director of the Institution, JOSEPH HENRY, LL. D., which occurred in this city on Monday, May 13th, at 12.10 o’clock p.m. Professor Henry was born in Albany, in the State of New York, December 17th, 1799. He became Professor of Mathe- matics in the Albany Academy in 1826; Professor of Nat- ural Philosophy in the College of New Jersey, at Princeton, in 18382; and was elected the first Secretary and Director of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846. He received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from Union College in 1829; and from Harvard University in L851. (7) He was President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1849; was chosen President of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1868; President of the Philosophical Society of Washington in 1871; and Chairman of the Light- Howse Board of the United States in the same year; the last three positions he continued to fill until his death. | Professor Henry made contributions to science in elec- tricity, electro-magnetism, meteorology, capillarity, acows- tics, and in other branches of physics ; he published valuable memoirs in the transactions of various learned societies of which he was a member; and devoted thirty-two years of his life to.making the Smithsonian Institution what its founder intended it to be, an efficient instrument for the “increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” M. R. WaITE. Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Wasuinaton, D. C., May 13, 1878. A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- tion was held this day at the Institution, at eight o’clock P. M., under the call of the Chancellor, for the purpose of making suitable ar- rangements for the obsequies of Professor JosepH HENRY. Present: The Chancellor, Chief Justice WAITE, Hon. HANNIBAL Hamutn, Hon. AAron A. SARGENT, Hon. Ropert EK. WITHERS, Hon. HresterR CLYMER, Hon. JAMES A. GARFIELD, Hon. PETER PARKER, and General WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. The Chancellor made the following remarks: My BRETHREN OF THE BoArD oF REGENTS: I have asked you to come together this evening not to take action upon the great loss our Institution has sustained, but to consult as to what may best be done to pay honor to all that is mortal of the great and good man who, conceiving what SMirHsoN willed, has devoted his life to making the bequest of our benefactor what he wished it to be, an instrument “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” (9) 10 : PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. The Chancellor stated that he understood that the family of Professor Henry had expressed the wish that the Board of Regents should make all the arrangements for the funeral. The following resolutions were adopted : Resolved, That the Chancellor be directed to notify the President of the United States and his Cabinet, the Supreme Court of the United States, the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, the two houses of Congress, the General of the Army, the Admiral of the Navy, the Diplomatic Corps, the Light-House Board, the National Academy of Sciences, the Washington Philosophical Society, and other organizations with which he was connected, of the death of Professor JosEPH HENRY, and to invite them to attend his funeral. Resolved, That the funeral take place on Thursday, the 16th of May, at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church, at half past four o’clock P. M. Resolved, That the Regents meet at the Institution on Thursday next, at four o’clock P. M., to attend the funeral in a body. Resolved, That a committee, consisting of General SHERMAN, Hon. Perer PARKER, and Professor 8. F. Barrp, Assistant Sec- retary of the Institution, be appointed to make arrangements for the funeral ceremonies. Resolved, That a meeting of the Board of Regents be held on Friday next, 17th of May, at ten o’clock a. M., for the purpose of transacting such business as may come before it. The Board then adjourned. THE OBSEQUIES. | The funeral of Professor JoserH HEnry, late Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, took place at half-past four o’clock, Thurs- day, May 16, 1878. The services were in the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church. The interment was in Oak Hill Cemetery, Georgetown. . The arrangements for the funeral were made by General WixL- LIAM 'T’. SHERMAN, Dr. PETER PARKER, and Professor SPENCER F. Barr, a special committee appointed by the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. The supervision of the arrangements at the church was intrusted to General ALEXANDER McCook, U. S. Army. The pall-bearers were— . Mr. Justice Srrone, of the Supreme Court of the United States. Wiuii1AM W. Corcoran, of Washington. Admiral Joun Ropeers, Superintendent National Observatory. General ANDREW A. Humpnureys, Chief Engineer U. 8S. Army: JOSEPH PATTERSON, of Philadelphia. GrEoRGE W. CuILps, of Philadelphia. General JosepH K. Barnes, Surgeon-General U.S. Army. Captain CARLILE P. Parrerson, Sup’t of U.S. Coast Survey. General ORLANDO M. Por, member of U.S. Light-House Board. _ Professor Simon NEwcoms, Sup’t U.S. Nautical Almanac. Professor ARNOLD Guyot, of the College of New Jersey. Dr. JAMES C. WELLING, President of Columbian University. A few intimate friends of the family, the Board of Regents and the officers and attendants of the Smithsonian Institution met at the residence, where brief services were held at four o’clock, con- i (11) 12, ; . THE FUNERAL. sisting of selections of Scripture, by the Rev. Dr. James*H. CurnsBeRrt, of the First Baptist Church, and prayer by the Rev. Dr. Byron SUNDERLAND, of the First Presbyterian Church. The leading officials in every branch of the Government, men ~ eminent in science, in literature, in diplomacy, and in professional and business life, assembled at the church. Among them were the President of the United States; the Vice-President of the United States; the Secretary of State; the Secretary of the Treasury; the Secretary of War; the Secretary of the Navy; the Secretary of the Interior; the Postmaster General; the Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States; the General of the Army; the Admiral of the Navy; the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States; the Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution . Officers of the Army and Navy; the Clergy of the District; the National Academy of Sciences represented by its officers and others; the Philosophical Society of Washington; the Alumni of the College of New Jersey; the Trustees of the Corcoran Art Gallery; the Washington National Monument Society; the Examining Corps of the Patent Office; the Superintendent and Trustees of Public Schools; and the Telegraphic Operators’ Asso- ciation of Washington. Only a small portion of the vast concourse of citizens and strangers could gain access to the church. ; The services in the church were begun with Mendelssohn’s anthem Beati Mortui, which was impressively sung by the choir of St. John’s Episcopal Church. The fifteenth chapter of first Corinthians was read by Rev. Dr. SUNDERLAND; prayer was offered by the venerable CHARLES Honae, D. D., of Princeton, N. J.; and the address was delivered by the Rev: Samuet 8, MircHet, D. D., pastor of the church of which Professor HENry became a member when he removed to Washington, thirty. years ago... 4 Pb Ac yt BY REV. CHARLES HODGE, D. D. ALMIGHTY Gop, we adore Thee as infinite in thy being and per- fections, as the creator of heaven and earth, and as the Father of the spirits of all men. We adore Thee as the rightful and absolute sovereign of the universe, governing all thy creatures and all their actions. We confess our absolute dependence on Thee for our existence, our faculties, for all we-have, all we hope. We acknowledge our responsibility to Thee for our character and conduct—for all we think, or do, or say. We humbly confess that we have sinned against Thee, that we have broken thy holy law times and ways without number, and have forfeited all claim to thy favor. We call upon all that is within us to bless Thee, that Thou hast not left our apostate race to perish in their state of sin and misery, but didst give thy only begotten Son that whosoever believes on Him should not perish but have everlasting life. We thank Thee, O Lord, that Thou hast given us thy testimony concerning thy Son Jesus Christ, that He is God manifest in the flesh, God in fashion as a man—the wonderful—the central object of adoration to the intelligent universe, to whom every knee of things in heaven, things on earth, and things under the earth must bow. We thank Thee that Thou hast made Him the light of the world, our infalli- ble teacher as to the things unseen and eternal; that He is the High Priest of our profession, who offered Himself unto God as a sacrifice for the sins of the world; that He died the just for the (13) 14 PRAYER BY REV. ©. HODGE. unjust, and redeemed us from the curse of the law by being made a curse for us. We thank Thee for the promise that whosoever, renouncing every other dependence, trusts simply to what Christ is and what Christ has done, and who devotes himself to his service, shall share his kingdom and glory. We thank Thee for the mission of the Holy Ghost to apply to men the redemption purchased by Christ, without which all else had been in vain. And now, O God, in this solemn hour, standing as we now do around the remains of our illustrious friend, from our hearts we bless Thee that this is the faith in which he was nurtured, the faith which molded his character, controlled his life, and now illumines his tomb, banishing the gloom of uncertainty and fear, and making the grave to him the gate of heaven. We thank Thee, O God, that JoseEpH HENRy was born; that Thou didst endow him with such rare gifts— intellectual, moral, and spiritual; that Thou didst spare him to a good old age, and enable him to accomplish so much for the increase of human knowl- edge and for the good of his fellow men ; and above all, that Thou didst hold him up before this whole nation as such a conspicuous illustration of the truth that “moral excellence is the highest dignity of man.” We would remember before Thee his widow and daughters. He gave them to Thee. They are safe within thy arms, Thou canst give the peace which passes all understanding. May their father’s name illumine his children’s path through life, and their father’s faith sustain their souls in death. To the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, be glory in the highest, world without end. Amen. FUNERAL ADDRESS BY REV. SAMUEL 8. MITCHELL, D. D. “KNOW YE NOT THAT THERE IS A PRINCE AND A GREAT MAN FALLEN THIS DAY IN ISRAEL?” These words, coming down through the centuries from the mouth of Israel’s King, I take up as the fittest ones with which to open my mouth in the presence of all that is not already immortal of JosEPH HENRY. Know ye not that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day? And yet why do I ask the question? ‘This day, this hour, this assemblage, this pageant, so unusual and so illustrious even in this world of death — these are my answer before that I utter a word of the sublime interrogatory. Yes! the nation’s capital knows that a prince and a great man has fallen. So does our whole country; so does the civilized world. That quick-footed servant which years ago was yoked to the car of human progress by the hands which have now forgotten their cun- ning, — the swift messenger which he himself lured from duty in the skies unto the service of man, —this messenger, slower-winged, it seems to me, than usual, as if loath to tell the story, has already run earth’s circuits with the sad news; and at this hour, wherever science is known, or learning respected, or goodness revered, there are those who clasp hands with us in the consciousness of a great loss and in the communion of a heartfelt sorrow. You will not, therefore, blame me, I am sure, my hearers, if, in a world where great men are ever scarce, and in a capital city which better perhaps than any other illustrates the truth that even (15) 16 FUNERAL ADDRESS BY a nation’s production of this class of men, its noblest wealth, is ever very small,— you will not blame me if, under these circumstances,. I ask you, within this inner circle of family and church relation- ships, to pause and meditate upon the thought that in the great man who has fallen a pure and noble spirit has passed from the commu- nion of the Christian Church on earth to the communion of the church triumphant in the heavens. While human learning and science are pressing forward to do honor to one who-was known and loved as a leader, I come in the name of the Christian Church, and in the name of my Saviour, to place upon this casket a simple wreath of immortelles, forming, weaving the words—JosEPH HENRY, THE CHRISTIAN. He was such in his disposition, in the spirit and temper of his mind, “Let this mind be in you, which was also in Christ Jesus,” is the injunction of the apostle, in which he sets forth the essence of Christianity and points the path to individual discipleship. And Professor HENRY walked this path. He came unto the possession of this essence. Look back, I pray you, through the centuries, Scrutinize that Life which is the life of the world. Analyze that Mind which molds the ages, which is world-regnant through the sceptre of the Cross, which is the leayen working unto the regeneration of earth and man. What is it? What were its leading qualities? How is it differentiated? Purity, simplicity, benevolence-s— these were its characteristics; these formed the Christ mind; these were the forces by which it impressed itself upon the world eighteen centuries ago, and through which it makes itself felt upon the world of to-day. Purity, simplicity, benevolence! A purity without a spot, a simplicity which is transparency itself, a benevolence wide as the sphere of human want and as limitless as the love of Heaven — this is God taking shape in human life; this is the mind of Christ trans- forming the mind of the world; this is the new creation, the redeemed REV. 8. 8. MITCHELL. 17 life, the ideal man, unto which, through the mighty power of the Cross, the whole creation moves. Upon whatever land the sun of the Gospel rises, there these moral qualities spring up; and what- ever and wherever the human heart which is touched by the love of Christ, that heart becomes Heaven’s soil for the growth of this, which is Heaven’s life. Now, Professor Henry possessed these constituent qualities of the Christian mind, and possessed them in a degree at once beautiful and rare. You who knew him, and who knew him well, will bear cheerful witness to my words. He was simpleas a child — without folds, without dissimulation, without guile. He was not smart, as some men count smartness. Neither was his Saviour. Neither have been many of the great spirits of time. His mind was the crystal depths of our Northern lakes, —not the noisy course of the shallow and frothy river. . And he was pure. Pure!—we lay him to rest to-day without a spot. ‘The product of four-score years in this rough world, we lift up his character to-day and say, “Behold it!—the freshness, the purity, the stainlessness of childhood are yet upon it.” Grand, is it not, and comforting, is it not, my hearers, that God now and then builds up a man before us of whom we can say, “Look upon him; walk round about him; you will find no ugly scar, — you will dis- cover no running sore.” Grand, is it not, and comforting, is it not, ‘that now and then, in this world of smirched reputatidns and dis- eased lives, God gives us a whole man—a man whom, without a blush, we can lift up to the Great Maker, saying, “Take him again ; he is unharmed, and he is worthy of Thee.” But Professor HENRY was not only Christian in the spirit and temper of his mind, but also in the unselfish aims and purposes of his life. Christianity is not a quality simply. It is also a force, — a force which, under the law of love, works unto external results, unto a reproduction of itself in the world. Here again the Christ 2 18 FUNERAL ADDRESS BY is perfection. “I came not to be served, but to serve.” So He announced His life-philosophy. ‘Went about doing good.” So history stereotyped that life itself. A manger here, and a cross there; and between these two, and binding them together, a span of service—this was the incarnation of the Divine principle in human history ;—this was the Christ-life giving itself for the life - of the world. : . And here again was the life which we reverence, —the life of a disciple. Never was more unselfish service rendered by man than was given by Professor HENRY. ‘Through long years, and under temptations which would have been too strong for the ordinary man, he served his Institution on a half-salary, and the Government, saving it tens of thousands, on no salary at all.. And the lack here, he made up in no other way, Paying for not a half of it, the Smithsonian and the Government had all his time, —all his service. He used not his high position as a watch-tower for the discovery of | personal opportunities. He grew not rich onasmall salary. And having given all of himself to the service of his country in the cause of science, he also, as freely and as unselfishly, gave all the results of his labor. His was the greater part, the nobler work, to discover principles. He lifted up this force of nature only to say to the inventor: ‘Use this while I look for another.” And then he went on searching. So he lived; so he labored. He served others; himself he did ° not serve. With Aaassiz, he could have said: “T have not time to make money,” Neither had he. God does not give time to such men for such a purpose. The vision of the true life and the endless glory breaking upon such minds forbids the debasement. The eyes which are to look into the universe for the generations must not have the death-weight of the dollar upon their lids, But once more. Professor HENRY was a Christian, in that he held as his pronounced creed the truth contained in the Scriptures REV. S. 8S. MITCHELL. 19 of the Old and New Testaments, —in that he regarded these as a revelation from God. These moral qualities to which I have alluded were not in him so much natural amiability, nor were they the product of so much culture. They were the inspiration of a Christian faith. They were moral ends aimed at, principles chosen for life’s guidance, by one who believed in God, and in Jesus Christ whom He has sent. “But Sunday last, with mind as clear as ever, his conversation hindered only by his rapidly-shortening breath, he said to me: “T have not given much attention to the minutiz of theology ; possibly not so much as I ought; but as to the Christian scheme in its main outlines—that there is one God, an infinite Spirit; that man is made up of body and soul; that there is an immortal life for man reaching out beyond the present world; that the power and love of God are brought into relation with the weakness and sinfulness of man in the Lord Jesus Christ—of these great truths, I have no doubt. . I regard the system which teaches them as rational beyond any of the opposing theories which have come under my view. Upon Jesus Christ—[and here his eyes filled with tears and his voice broke as he repeated the words]—upon Jesus Christ, as the One who, for God, affiliates himself with man—upon Him I rest my faith and my hope.” This was all the strength of the dying man allowed him to utter; but that it was nota casual or spasmodic ‘utterance, but the drift of his life-long thought and the faith of his calmest moments, is beautifully shown in the last formal letter he ever wrote, and which is now, happily, given to the world.* So our friend and brother lived and thought; so he reasoned upon the mystery of the universe; and so he came to rest his hope of a blessed immortality upon the heaven-sent One, who came to seek and to save the lost of earth. And this faith, which was the product of his ripest thought and calmest days, was his support * See page 23. 20 FUNERAL. ADDRESS BY and consolation in the supreme hour. It was a rock beneath him when the cold waves of the dark river dashed upon his feet; it was a pillow of rest beneath his head. when flesh and heart failed him. Faith in Jesus Christ, as the revealer of God and Saviour of man—this anchor he had cast within the veil, and his spirit held firm and steady, while its earthly moorings were being sundered and its fleshly tabernacle dissolved. But once more. Professor HENRY was a Christian, in that he lived and died in the communion of the Christian Church. He emphasized no church-ism. It was impossible that he should. Only narrow minds, only little souls, do this. But he found his chosen spiritual home in the Presbyterian Church, and while he laid no stress upon any one of her peculiarities, yet in all loyalty, and in all comfort, he abode in her communion until the day of his death. So, again, the great man witnessed to the world that he was a follower of the Saviour. He heard the voice of the Christ calling him unto confession; and.he obeyed. His heart listened to the tender accents of the Crucified One, saying, “Do this in: remem- brance of Me,” and in glad and grateful loyalty he reached forth for the consecrated emblems of the broken body and the shed blood. The Church was not too narrow for JosepH HENRY, as it has not been too narrow for many of the profoundest minds and noblest souls of the ages, And his example teaches, with emphasis, what many of us knew before—that in the Church, as in the State, it is not always the largest man who requires the most room. - But I must not detain you. These—that he possessed the mind of Christ; that in the aims and purposes of his life he was like unto the Master; that his faith of immortality was the faith of the Son of God, and that he lived and died in the communion of the Christian Church — these are my reasons, and these my justification, for pressing through the illustrious throng which surrounds it, to place upon this casket this simple wreath—JosEpH HENRY, THE REV. S. 8. MITCHELL. 21 CurisTIAN. And while I do this, I must believe that there is a world wider, grander, crystalline above this one, in the eyes of which my offering will not be counted the meanest or the smallest of those which crowd and crown this bier to-day. Methinks, even as human hands, after the funeral, select from all the floral offerings some few choice ones which they may embalm and preserve, so will angel hands, after that the world has paid its honors to-day, culling over all the offerings which have been laid upon this princely bier, select the simple token that I now place upon it, and hang high up upon Heaven’s walls, this fragrant and imperishable symbol— “Jos—EPpH HENRY, THE CHRISTIAN.” For, my hearers, whether there be prophecies, they shall fail; and whether there be knowledge, it shall vanish away; but Faith, Hope,-Charity,—these endure; and character is the man forever and forever. Two voices sound out from this occasion, as its highest inspiration and noblest lesson. Jirst, a pure heart, a good life—a heart touched by the love of Christ, and a life bowing in loyalty to him, —these easily unite the profoundest thought and the simplest faith, We hear much about the conflict between science and religion, chiefly, we must believe, from those who are young in science or ignorant of religion; but, in reality, there is no necessary clashing. Obedience, character, —this is the amalgam which easily and forever unites the two. Secondly, how beautifully the truth and fact of human immor- tality supplements and crowns the human life! The career of earth, imperfect as it must always be, demands the hypothesis of a future existence, and from this hypothesis receives completeness and symmetry— ‘Even as the arches of the bridge Are rounded in the stream,” That great mind, clear, strong, vigorous on Sunday noon, is it at an end now? Is it nothing, now? Is it dispersed through the 23, FUNERAL ADDRESS. universal all, now? ‘Then are man’s works greater than »man himself! Then are the Pyramids grander than their builders! Then it were better to be a Yosemite pine than a JosepH HENRY! But the truth of human immortality forbids this supposition of debasement, and speaks the truth which our hearts crave, and which our minds demand, as the necessary supplement of the interrupted human career. Yes! we shall see him again. In a land that is fairer than day!—in the full possession and active exercise of those mental powers which have been the admiration and gratitude of earth, shall we see him;—see him as along the pathway of an unending progress, and amid the ever-rising, ever-thickening glories of the universe, he makes his way upward and unto the infinite goal, “lost in wonder, love, and praise.” The sublime creation of God which we have known as JoserH Henry is endowed with the power of an endless life. ‘Eternal form shall still divide The eternal soul from all beside; And we shall know him when we meet.” Till then, reverent philosopher, humble Christian, noble man, — farewell and farewell! LETTER OF PROFESSOR HENRY, REFERRED TO IN THE FOREGOING ADDRESS. SMITHSONIAN InstrruTion, APRIL 12, 1878. My Dear Mr. Parrerson: We have been expecting to see you, from day to day, for two weeks past, thinking that you would be called to Washington to give some information as to the future of our finances and the possibility of resuming specie payment. I commenced, on two occasions, to write to you, but found so much difficulty in the use of my hand, in the way of holding a pen, that I gave up the attempt. The doctors say that I am gradually aie better. Dr. MITCHELL gave me a visit on his going South and on his return. His report was favorable, but I still suffer a good deal from oppres- sion in breathing. I have learned with pleasure that and yourself intend to go to Europe this summer. ‘Travel is the most agreeable way of obtaining cosmopolitan knowledge, and it is probable that events of great importance will transpire in the East within a few months. You will have subjects of interest to occupy your attention. J have also learned that is to be married next month; and we shall be happy to receive a visit from him and his bride, when they go upon their wedding tour. We live in a universe of change: nothing remains the same from one moment to another, and each moment of recorded time has its separate history. We are carried on by the ever-changing events in the line of our destiny, and at the end of the year we are always at a considerable distance from the point of its beginning. How short the space between the two cardinal points of an earthly career!—the point of birth and that of death; and yet what a universe of wonders is presented to us in our rapid flight through (23) 24 LETTER OF PROF. HENRY. this space! How small the wisdom obtained by a single life in its passage, and how small the known, when compared with the unknown, by the accumulation of the millions of lives, through the art of printing, in hundreds of years! How many questions press themselves upon us in the contemplations whence come we, whither are we going, what is our final destiny, the object of our creation ? What mysteries of unfathomable depths environ us on every side! But, after all our speculations, and an attempt to grapple with the problem of the universe, the simplest conception which explains and connects the phenomena is that of the existence of one Spiritual Being —infinite in wisdom, in power, and all divine per- fections, which exists always and everywhere—which has created us with intellectual faculties sufficient, in some degree, to compre- hend His operations as they are developed in Nature by what is called “Science.” , This Being is unchangeable, and, therefore, His operations are always in accordance with the same laws, the conditions being the same. Events that happened a thousand years ago will happen ‘again a thousand years to come, provided the condition of existence is the same. Indeed, a universe not governed by law would bea universe without the evidence of an intellectual director. Tn the scientific explanation of physical phenomena, we assume the existence of a principle having properties sufficient to produce the effects which we observe; and when the principle so assumed explains, by logical deductions from it, all the phenomena, we call it a theory. Thus, we have the theory of light, the theory of elec- tricity, &e. There is no proof, however, of the truth of these theories, except the explanation of the phenomena which they are invented to account for. ! This proof, however, is sufficient in any case in which every fact is fully explained, and can be predicted when the conditions are known. In accordance with this scientific view, on what evidence does the existence of a creator rest? First. It is one of the truths best established by experience in my own mind, that I have a thinking, willing principle within me, capable of intellectual activity and of moral feeling. LETTER OF PROF. HENRY. 25 Second. It is equally clear to me that you havea similar spiritual principle within yourself, since when I ask you an intelligent ques- tion you give me an intellectual answer. Third. When I examine the operations of Nature, I find every- where through them, evidences of intellectual arrangements, of contrivances to reach definite ends, precisely as I find in the opera- tions of man; and. hence I infer that these two classes of operations are results of similar intelligence. Again, in my own mind, I find ideas of right and wrong, of good and evil. These ideas, then, exist in the universe, and, there- fore, form a basis of our ideas of a moral universe. Furthermore, the conceptions of good which are found among our ideas associated with evil, can be attributed only to a Being of infinite perfections, like that which we denominate “God.” On the other hand, we are conscious of having such evil thoughts and tendencies that we can- not associate ourselves with a Divine Being, who is the Director and the Governor of all, or even call upon Him for mercy, without the intercession of One who may affiliate himself with us. I find, my dear Mr. Parrerson, that I have drifted into a line of theological speculation ; and without stopping to inquire whether what I have written may be logical or orthodox, I have inflicted it upon you. Please excuse the intrusion, and believe me, as ever, Truly yours, JOSEPH HENRY. Mr. JoserpH PaATTERsON, Philadelphia, * a aM a * 3 ae Tlie ‘nt mer eH 7 ' al 7 ay? i ¥ é ! ® 1 4 'e ar ; he i ahe- Kow lapel sa aul gg gel per’ egy aon iy son AAD a. he . ‘ yebyt) Lue A dacs alkeoyh , 5 wr lis bu nwa ovens. ie malt +k wine ; te j ‘ bah yey " ‘_. eke , a and ms ate rab ty le Yaighh yi 4h) f ny” ee - ° y a re Tuy tee nN Ag ee evant , axl ? he ah. site Lie wil be: +s do anal ie A if? ppee » (MEE, . wer zi Nt a vere ei Mens WeLo os athe 4 - bua j fs g 7 y is ! half at : ruth ory ‘vt nT i 4 } a‘ TE atv) 4 t e arts e ? id ' le RA ‘ ‘ F eit ‘ ' ‘ Th , i * aa ' ; ae rt wr] , Pil et ' ' " 5 i; y j : tg. ” y i f - i Ty ; ’ , i } tery fuga ' Hw e wid Toe | iis ehawe ot sont! babii é ‘ iJ bilder ay npeHonaat la bon j + [Leen ) par etie ete witht : ’ hi f ; j .- aL a . h PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Wasuinaton, D. C., May 17, 1878. A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- tion was held this day at ten o’clock A. M. Present: The Chancellor, Chief Justice Warrr, Hon. HANNIBAL HAMutIn, Hon. AAron A. SArcent, Hon. Ropertr E. WiTHers, Hon. Hrester CiyMmer, Hon. JAMES A. GARFIELD, Rev. Dr. JoHN Macuean, Hon. PErEr Parxker, Dr. AsA Gray, General WitiiAM T. SHERMAN, President Noau Porter. General GARFIELD was requested to act as Secretary. At the request of the Chancellor, a prayer was offered by Rev. Dr. MacuEAn for Divine guidance of the Regents in their present deliberations. The following resolutions were then adopted : 1. Resolved, 'That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution hereby express their profound sorrow at the death of Professor JoserpH Henry, late Secretary of this Institution, and tender to the family of the deceased their sympathy for their great and irreparable loss. 2. Resolved, That in consideration of the long-continued, faithful, and unselfish services of JosEpH HENRY, our late Secretary, there _ be paid to his widow the same sum to which he would have been entitled, as salary, for the remainder of this year, and that the Secretary be directed to make payment to her for the amount thereof monthly. (27) 28 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 3. Resolved, That Mrs. HENRY be informed of this action’ of the Board, and the desire of the Regents that she will continue the occupancy of the apartments now in her use for such period, during the remainder of this year, as may suit her convenience. 4, Resolved, That a committee be appointed who shall prepare and submit to this Board at its next annual meeting a sketch of the life, character, and public services of the late lamented Secretary, which shall be entered upon the records. 5, Resolved, That the Executive Committee of the Board be requested to make arrangements for a public commemoration in honor of the late Secretary of the Institution, of such a character and at such a time as they may determine. The Chancellor appointed as the special committee under the fourth resolution, President PorRTER, Dr. GRay, and Dr, MAcLEAN, k *k *k *k *k On motion, it was Resolved, That the Chancellor prepare a suitable notice of the death of Professor HENRY, to be sent to foreign establishments in correspondence with the Institution. - - -— The Board then adjourned sine die. _ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C., JANUARY 15, 1879. A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian: Institu- tion was held this day in the Regents’ room, at ten o’clock A. M. Present; The Chancellor, Chief Justice Waite, Hon. WILLIAM A. WHEELER, Vice-President of the United States, Hon. AaRon ~ A. Sarcent, Hon. Ropert E. Wirners, Hon. James A. GARFIELD, Hon. Hiester CLYMER, Dr. Jonn Macwean, Dr. Asa Gray, Dr. Henry Coppfr, Hon, PETER Parker, President Noau Porter, General W1LLIAM T, SHERMAN, and the Secre- tary, Professor SPENCER F. Barrp. PROCEEDINGS OF .REGENTS. 29 Dr, PARKER, in behalf of the Executive Committee, presented a report. in relation to the duty imposed on them: by the fifth resolution of the Board of Regents, adopted at the meeting of May 17, 1878, “to make arrangements for a public commemoration in honor of the late Secretary of the Institution.” The Committee had held numerous meetings, the minutes of which were read, and the arrangements had finally been made as follows: The exercises will be held in the Hall of the House of Repre- sentatives on Thursday evening, 16th of January, 1879. The Vice-President of the United States, supported by the Speaker of the House, will preside on this occasion, and the Senate and House will take part in the exercises. 1. Opening prayer by Rev. Dr. JAmMEs McCosu, President of Princeton College. 2. Address by Hon. HANNIBAL HAMLIN, of the United States Senate, and one of the Regents. 3. Address by Hon. Ropert E. WITHERS, of the United ous: Senate, and one of the Regents. 4, Address by Professor ASA a of Harvard University, and one of the Regents. 5. Address by Professor WILLIAM B. Rogers, of Boston. 6. Address by Hon. JAMES A. GARFIELD, of the House of Representatives, and one of the Regents. 7. Address by Hon. Samuet S. Cox, of the House of Repre- sentatives. 8. Address by General Wi1LL1AM T. SHERMAN, one of: the Regents. 9. Concluding prayer “bp Rev. Dr. SUNDERLAND, Chaplain of the Senate. By authority of the Speaker of the House, reserved seats will be provided on the floor of the House for the following bodies with which Professor HENRY was associated : 30 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS, 1. The Regents of the Smithsonian Institution and the orators of the evening, who will meet in the room of the Speaker of the House. 2. The National Academy of Sciences. 3. The Washington Philosophical Society. 4, The Light-House Board, who will meet in the room of the Committee of Ways and Means. 5. The Alumni Association of Princeton College. 6. The trustees of the Corcoran Gallery of Art. 7. The Washington Monument Association, who will meet in the room of the Committee on Appropriations. On motion of Mr. SARGENT, the action of the committee was approved, On motion of General GARFIELD, it was Resolved, That the Board of Regents assemble on ‘Thursday evening next at half-past seven o’clock, in the Speaker’s room at the Capitol, to proceed in a body to attend the exercises in the Hall of the House of Representatives in honor of the memory of Pro- fessor HENRY, On motion of General GARFIELD, it was | Resolved, That the Chancellor be empowered to act for the Board of Regents in making the final arrangements for the memorial exercises. | _ President Porrsr, from the special committee appointed at the last meeting, under the fourth resolution adopted by the Board, to “prepare a sketch of the life, character, and public services of Professor Henry,” made a report that Dr. GRAY had been selected by the committee to prepare the eulogy on behalf of the Board of Regents, and that it would form part of the exercises at the public commemoration at the Capitol. PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 3bl WASHINGTON, D.C., JANUARY 16, 1879. A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at half past seven o’clock P. M., in the room of the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and at eight o’clock the Regents proceeded in a body to the Hall of the House of Representatives, to attend the public exercises in honor of Professor JosEPH Henry, late Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. On the day after that on which the Memorial Services were held in the Capitol, the following action was taken by the Board of Regents, with reference to the preparation of a Memorial Volume, in commemoration of Professor JosepH HENRY. WasuineTon, D.C., JANUARY 17, 1879. A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day in the Regent’s room at half past nine o’clock A. M. Present: The Chancellor, Chief Justice WArrE, Hon. AARON A. Sarcent, Hon. Rosert FE. Witruers, Hon. James A. GARFIELD, Hon. H1EsTER CLYMER, Hon. PETER PARKER, Rev. Dr. JouHn MACLEAN, Prof. Asa GRAY, Professor HENRY CoPPE&E, President NoAH PorTER, General Wi1LLIAM T. SHERMAN, and the Secretary, Professor SPENCER IF’, BArrp. ' The subject of the publication of the eulogies on Professor. HEnry, together with an account of his scientific writings, &c., was discussed, and on motion of Dr. MACLEAN, it was Resolved, That a special committee of three be appointed, of which the Secretary of the Institution shall be one, to prepare a memorial of Professor HENRY, to include in a separate volume of the Smithsonian series such biographies and notices of the late Secretary of the Institution as may be considered by them worthy of preservation and publication. 32); PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. The Chancellor appointed Messrs. GRAY, PARKER, and Bairp as the committee. tbe: The Chancellor then stated that any remarks the Regents desired to make in relation to Professor HENRY were in order. Dr. ParKER addressed the Board as follows: . Mr. CHANCELLOR AND FELLOW-REGENTS: We are making history, and I wish to say a few words that shall remain upon its page, in memory of JosepH Henry, our beloved and lamented friend and Secretary, when we, like him, shall have passed from earth. Many have already pronounced his eulogy and set forth his rare talents and influence upon the world, and I need not, and could not, were I to attempt it, add to your appreciation of Professor HENRY, his life and character, as a friend, scientist, and christian, the highest type of man. For twenty years I have been intimately acquainted with Pro- fessor HENRY, and happily associated with him in many ways; for ten years as a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and as a member of the Executive Committee, during all that period our intercourse has been frequent and intimate. I have never known a more excellent man. His memory has been much on my mind since he left us, and I often find myself inquiring how he and others like him are occupied now. His connection with time is severed, but his existence con- tinues. When I recall the names of Professors FRANKLIN BACHE, Cyarues G. Pager, Louis Acassiz, and JosepH Henry, and others of similar intellect: and virtue, I find myself asking the question, Are to them all consciousness and thought suspended by separation from the body? I am reluctant to come to such conclu- sion. But this I know, the Infinite Father’s ways are right. Tt seems most providential that Professor Henry had the oppor tunity and the strength to give in person his last words, a priceless legacy, to the National Academy at its annual meeting in Wash- PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 33 ington, in April, and through that association to the civilized and scientific worlds; I refer to his sentiment “that moral excellence is the highest dignity of man.” The loftiest talents and highest attainments without this are deficient in that, which, in the judg- ment of wise men and of Infinite Wisdom, is of greatest worth. Was there ever a man from whom the sentiment could come with better grace? The opinion has been expressed, and I do not regard it extrava- gant, that the letter addressed by Professor HENRY to his friend JOSEPH PATTERSON, emanating from such a mind, such a man, at the close of a protracted life of singular distinction, was worth a man’s lifetime to produce. It has probably been read by millions, in various languages, and will be by future generations. Professor HENRY was not only a man of science, a discoverer of nature’s laws and forces, but a sincere believer in God their Author and in his atoning Son. To quote his language: “We are conscious of having evil thoughts and tendencies that we cannot associate ourselves with a Divine Being, who is the Director and Governor of all, or even call upon him for mercy, without the intercession of One who may affiliate himself with us.” Let me quote from the prayer offered at his obsequies, and to which we repeat our sincere Amen; the lips that uttered it, in less than one short month were silent in death, and the two remarkable men, Professors JoseEpH HENRY and CHARLES HonekE, closely united in life were not long divided by death: “We thank Thee, O God, that JosrEpH HEnry was born; that Thou didst endow him with such rare gifts, intellectual, moral, and spiritual; that Thou didst spare him to a good old age, and enable him to accom- plish so much for the increase of human knowledge and for the good of his fellow-men; and above all that Thou didst hold him up before this whole nation as such a conspicuous illustration of the truth that moral excellence is the highest dignity of man.” 3 seat PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. On motion of Dr. MAcLEAN, it was— . Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents be presented to the gentlemen who took part in the memorial services held in the United States Capitol on the 16th of January, in honor of the late Professor HENRY, and that they be requested to furnish copies of their remarks on that occasion. | Pav if: MEMORIAL EXERCISES AT THE CAPITOL. (35) . ee a | Se - Pabidand, Thee tha Mavala wf ible Vand Peginia | $e te pprtarnee else ter ek th Car abaoenal abv - CTultnt Bests Cupted am Wee bth. af Paseaiey, ba ete iP Prabmae Hl sa Ui Yo tonne ar chiral at meet lt THAY JOPITAD SET PA BIRMOANTA {ATHONSEM MEMORIAL EXERCISES IN HONOR OF ee Noel Fe cledacddeN sete Vos HELD IN THE HALL OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES On Thursday Evening, January 16, 1879. ANNOUNCEMENT. PUBLIC COMMEMORATION IN HONOR OF THE LATE JOSEPH HENRY. The Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, on the 17th of May, 1878, passed a resolution requesting the executive committee to make arrangements for a public commemoration in honor of the late Secretary of the Institution, of such character and _at such time and place as they might determine. ~The committee has now the satisfaction of announcing that in conformity with the above action the following concurrent resolu- tion was unanimously adopted by both Houses of Congress on the 9th and 10th of December, 1878: Resolved, That the Congress:of the United States will take part in the services to be observed on Thursday evening, January 16, 1879, in honor of the memory of JoseEPpH HENRY, late secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, under the auspices of the Regents thereof, and for that purpose the Senators and Members will assem- ble on that evening in the Hall of the House of Representatives, the Vice-President of the United States, supported by the Speaker of the House, to preside on that occasion. (37) 388 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. In accordance with the foregoing resolution, the services will be held in the Hall of the House of Representatives on Thursday, the 16th of January, 1879, at eight p. m., which the public are invited to attend. PETER PARKER, JOHN MACLEAN, _WiiiiaM T. SHERMAN, Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. WasHINGTON, January 6, 1879. | PROCEEDINGS. Haut oF THE House OF REPRESENTATIVES, * oF THE UNITED STATES, Tuourspay Eventne, January 16, 1879. Tn accordance with the arrangements made by order of Congress, the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States assembled in the Hall of the House, and were called to order at eight o’clock by the Hon. Samuet J. RANDALL, the Speaker of the House, the President with members of the Cabinet occupying front seats on the right and the Chief-Justice with associate justices of the Supreme Court corresponding seats on the left. The Speaker announced briefly the object of the meeting, and then handed the gavel to the Hon. Witt1AmM A. WHEELER, the Vice-President of the United States, who thereupon presided on the occasion, sup- ported by the Speaker of the House. bel? Ris Yo Bakts REV. JAMES McCOSH, D. D. O Gop, we look up and by faith we behold Thee as the Infinite and the Perfect One; almighty in power, unerring in wisdom, inflexible in justice, spotless in holiness, and, with thy tender mer- cies over all thy works; our Maker, our Preserver, our Redeemer, our Sanctifier, our Judge, our exceeding great reward. We adore Thee as a Spirit; and we would worship Thee in spirit and in truth. We adore Thee as light, and we would walk in that light. We adore Thee as love, and we would dwell and rejoice in that love. We bless and praise Thee as the creator of all things; and we would see and acknowledge Thee in all thy works. All the powers of nature are thine; light and heat and attraction are thine; they obey thy will, and fulfill thy pleasure, and accomplish thy end. Thou sayest unto them go, and they go; come, and they come; do this, and they do it. | O Lord, how manifold are thy works; in wisdom hast Thou made them all. The earth is full of thy riches. We bless Thee, because Thou didst make man after thine image, taught him more than the beasts of the earth, and made him wiser than the fowls of heaven, and capable of so far knowing Thee, and believing Thee, and loving Thee. We cannot indeed with our finite minds com- prehend Thee in thy amplitude. Who can by searching find out God? Who can find out the Almighty unto perfection? But being in thy likeness we can know Thee in part, and sufficiently to call forth our admiration and our affection; we feel the behold- ~ ing of thy glory to be the highest contemplation in which we can (39) 40 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. engage; and the more we know, we adore Thee and love Thee the more. No man indeed can find out the work which God doeth from the beginning unto the end; yet thy intelligent creatures can behold thy working, and understand the invisible things of God from the things that are made. We thank Thee, Lord, for the high gifts with which Thou didst so plentifully endow thy servant, whose services in the cause of science and humanity we meet this evening to commemorate. We praise Thee because Thou didst put wisdom into his inward parts, and give understanding to his heart, so that he applied himself to seek out and to reach knowledge and the reasons of things. We bless Thee because he was enabled to throw light on that which God doeth, on those things which are forever, and those things to which no man can add and from which no one can take away. We exalt Thee because mankind have been able to take advan- tage of the discoveries of the departed in order to make knowledge to pass to and fro all over the earth, and to add to the intelligence, the wealth, and the comfort of thy creatures. We pray Thee to raise up other great and good men who, in like spirit, will puis on the work in which he was so honorably engaged. We pray for his widow and for his family, whom he so loved ; that the prayers he offered for them when on earth may return in the richest blessings from heaven and from earth upon their heads and upon their hearts. We thank Thee, Lord, because Thou didst bestow on him not only gifts, but graces, faith, and humility, and integrity and love. We rejoice that we can this day contemplate so pleasantly his char- acter; that we can cherish the remembrance of him as of a man of high aims and lofty purpose, devoting his life to the cause of science and to the glory of God and the good of mankind. We bless Thee for that faith in Christ which supported him in life, and for that hope that cheered him in death, and that we can PRAYER BY REY. JAMES McOCOSH, D. D. 4] believe that he is still occupied in thy service, and that now, ina clearer light, he is doing nobler work than he performed on earth. We rejoice this day because by his profession and by his con- sistent walk and conversation he gave such evidence that he was truly a follower of Christ and led by the sanctifying Spirit. May we all be enabled to follow his good example, trusting like him in Thee, and giving praise to Father, Son, and Holy Ghost: Amen. * = aed Ge) eal, i Sieh a8 aioli ca 4 ahd 4 a. aiiibassl tangs, oe ro : -. It was. found that with the small battery a shock could be given from the current of the third order to twenty-five persons joining hands; also shocks perceptible in the arms were obtained from a current of the fifth order.” As Henry simply remarks: “The induction of currents of different orders, of. sufficient inten- sity to give shocks, could scarcely have been anticipated from our previous knowledge of the subject.” By means of the small magnetizing helix introduced into each circuit, the direction of these successive currents was found to be alternating or reversed to each other. These remarkable results were obtained in the summer of 1838. * The concluding section of this important memoir is occupied with an account of “The production of induced currents of the different orders, from ordinary electricity.” An open glass cylinder about six inches in diameter was provided with two long narrow strips of tin foil pasted around it in corresponding helical courses, the one on the outside and the other on the inside, directly opposite to each other. The inner coiled strip had its extremities connected with insulated wires which formed a circuit outside the cylinder, and included a small magnetizing helix. The outer tin foil strip was also connected with wires so that an electrical discharge from a half-gallon Leyden jar could be passed through it. The magneti- zation of a small needle indicated an induced current through the inner tin-foil ribbon corresponding in direction with the outer cur- * Trans, Am. Phil. Soc. vol. vi. (n. 8.) p. 303, 250 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. rent from the jar.* By means of a second glass cylinder similarly provided with helical tin-foil ribbons in suitable connections, a ter- tiary current of induction was obtained, analogous to that derived from galvanism. ‘Also by the addition in the same way of a third cylinder, a current of the fourth order was developed.” Similar as these successive inductions from an electrical discharge were to those previously observed in the case of the galvanic cur- rent, they presented one puzzling difference in the direction of the currents of the different orders. ‘These in the experiments with the glass cylinders, instead of exhibiting the alternations of the gal- vanic currents, were all in the same direction as the discharge from the jar, or in other words they were all plus. On substituting for the tinned glass cylinders, well insulated copper coils, “alternations were found the same as in the case of galvanism.” ‘The only differ- ence apparently between the: two arrangements, was that the tin-foil ribbons were separated only by the thin glass of the cylinders, while the copper spiral coils were placed an inch and a half apart. By varied experiments, the direction of the induced currents was found to depend notably on the distance between the conductors ;— the induction ceasing at a certain distance, (according to the amount of the charge and the characters of the conductors,) and the direction of the induced current beyond this critical distance being contrary to that of the primary current.* “With a battery of eight half- gallon jars, and parallel wires about ten feet long, the change in the direction did not take place ‘at a less distance than from twelve to * About a year later, the distinguished German electrician PETER RIESs, appa- rently unaware of HENRY’s researches, discovered the secondary current induced from mechanical electricity, by a very similar experiment. (Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1839, No. 5, vol. xl vii. pp. 55-76.) +The variation in the direction of polarization (without reference to induction currents) appears to have been first noticed by FELIX SAVARY, some dozen years before. In animportant memoir communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences July 81, 1826, M. Savary announced that “The direction of the magnetic polarity of small needles exposed to an electric current directed along a wire stretched longi- tudinally, varies with the distance of the wire:’—the action being found to be periodical with the distance. M. Savary observed three periods, and also the fact that the distances of maximum effect and of the nodal zeros ‘‘ vary with the length and diameter of the wire, and with the intensity of the discharge.” He also found . that “‘when a helix is used for magnetizing, the distance at which the needle placed within it is from the conducting wire, is indifferent; but the direction and the de- gree of magnetization depends on the intensity of the discharge, and on the ratio between the length and size of the wire.” (Brewster’s Edinburgl Jour. Sci. Oct. 1826, vol. v. p. 369.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 251 fifteen inches, and with a still larger battery and longer conductors, no change was found although the induction was produced at the distance of several feet.” With Dr. Hare’s battery of 32.one-gallon jars, and a copper wire about one-tenth of an inch thick and 80 feet long stretched across the lecture-room and back on either side toward the battery, a second wire stretched parallel with the former for about 35 feet and extended to form an independent circuit, (its ends being connected with a small magnetizing helix,) was tested at vary- ing distances beginning with a few inches until they were twelve feet apart: at which distance of the parallel wire, its induction though enfeebled, still indicated by its magnetizing power, a direc- tion corresponding with the primary current. The form of the room did not permit a convenient separation of the two circuits to a greater distance.* . The eminent French electrician Antoine C. Becquerel, in a chap- ter on Induction in his large work, remarks: “Very recently M. Henry, Professor of Natural Philosophy in New Jersey, has extended the domain of this branch of physics: the results obtained by him are of such importance, particularly in regard to the intensity of the effects produced, that it is proper to expound them here with some detail.” ‘Twenty pages are then devoted to these researches. + A memoir was read before the Society, June 19th, 1840, giving an account of observations on the two forms of induction occurring on the making and on the breaking of the primary galvanic circuit, the two differing in character as well as in direction. In these ex- periments he employed a Daniell’s constant battery of 30 elements; the battery being “sometimes used as a single series with all its elements placed consecutively, and at others in two or three series, arranged collaterally, so as to vary the quantity and intensity of the electricity as the occasion might require.” As the initial induc- tion had always been found so feeble as to be scarcely perceptible, (although in quantity sufficient to affect the ordinary galvanometer * Trans. Am, Phil. Soc., vol. vi. (n. 8.) art. ix. pp. 303-337. In' the Proceedings of the Society for November 2d, 1838, when this memoir was read, it is recorded ‘' Pro- fessor H&NRY made a verbal communication during the course of which he illus- trated experimentally the phenomena developed in his paper.’ (Proceed. Am. Phil, Soc. Nov. 2, 1838, vol. 1. pp. 54-56.) + Traité erpérimental de U Blectricité et du Magnétisme, vol. v. pp. 87-107. 252 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. as much as the terminal induction;) most of' the ‘results: previously obtained (such jas the detection of sudcessive orders of currents) were derived from the strong inductions ‘at the moment of breaking the circuit.» It became therefore important to endeavor: to intensify the initial: induction for its more especial examination: and this it was found could be effected in two ways, — by increasing the “intensity ” of the battery, and by sajuabenteieat within aos dieu the length of the primary coil. i ge “With the current from one alenene the alioek ‘at thRekiae the circuit was quite severe, but at making the same it was very feeble, and could be perceived in the fingers only or through'the tongue. With two:elements in the circuit the shock at the beginning was - slightly increased: with three elements the increase was more decided, while the shock at breaking the circuit remained nearly of the same intensity: as. at first, or was. comparatively but’ little - increased. When: the number of elements was increased to ten, the shock at making contact was found fully equal to that at breaking, and by employing a still greater number, the former was ‘decidedly: greater than the latter, the difference continually increasing’ until all the thirty elements were introduced into the circuit.» “+)'-+" --» Experi- ments were next made to deterrnine the influence’ of a variation in the length of the coil, the intensity of the battery remaining the same.” For iis! purpose the battery consisting of a single element “was employed ; and the length of the copper ribbon coil was suc- cessively reduced from 60. feet, by measures of 15 feet. With 45 feet, the initial induction was stronger than with 60 feet: with the next shorter length it was more perceptible, and increased in intensity with each diminution of the coil, until a length of about fifteen feet appeared to give a maximum ae ” At the same time it was found that “the intensity of the shock at the ending of the battery current diminishes with each diminution of the length of the coil. - - - By the foregoing results we are evidently fur- nished with two methods of increasing at pleasure the intensity of the induction at the beginning of a battery current, the one con- sisting in increasing the intensity of the source of the electricity, and the other in diminishing the resistance to conduction of the circuit while its intensity remains the same.” DISCOURSE OF W: B. TAYLOR. ' 250 ‘Having ‘thus succeeded ‘in exalting the initial induction, Henry proceeded ‘in his ‘investigation. . Distinct currents of: ‘the third, fourth, and fifth orders were readily obtained from it;:and as was enticed arith their signs (or directions) the reverse of the cor- responding: orders derived from the'terminal induction. In: other respects “the: series of induced currents:produced at the beginning of the primary current appeared to possess all the properties belong- ing to those of. the induction at the ending of the same current.” In the course of ‘these investigations. the. idea having occurred to him “that the intense shocks given by the electric fish may possibly be. from a secondary current, ” as’ it Appeared to him that “this is - the only way in which we can conceive of such intense electricity being produced i in organs imperfectly insulated and immersed in a conducting medium,” he endeavored to simulate the effect by ar- ranging a secondary \ wire coil furnished with terminal handles, over a primary copper ribbon coil, the two being insulated as usual. “By immersing the apparatus in a shallow vessel of water, the handles being placed at the two extremities of the diameter of the helix, and the hands plunged into the water parallel toa line j join- ing the two poles, a shock i is felt through the arms.’ ~The former experiment of obtaining an induction alae fin one room to-another through a- partition, was repeated on a still larger scale. All the coils of copper ribbon having been united in a single continuous conductor of about 400 feet in length, “this was rolled: into a ring of five and a half feet in diameter, and sus- pended vertically against the inside of the large folding doors which ‘separate the laboratory ftom the lecture-room. Beyond the doors, in the lecture-room and directly opposite the coil, was placed a helix formed of upwards of a mile of copper wire, one-sixteenth of an inch in. thickness, and wound into a hoop of four feet in diameter. With this arrangement, and a battery of 147 square feet of zine surface divided into eight elements, shocks were. perceptible in. the tongue when the two conductors were separated to the distance of nearly seven feet. At the distance of between three and four feet, the shocks were quite severe. The exhibition was rendered more inter- esting by causing the induction to take place through a number of persons standing in a row between the two conductors.” 254 _ MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. The second section of the memoir is mainly oceupied with details of experiments on the screening effect of conducting plates (of non- magnetic metals) when interposed between, the primary and second- ary coils; showing remarkable contrasts in the “quantity” and “intensity” classes of galvanic effects. When the annular spool or helix (of nearly one mile of copper wire) was employed with the large spiral coil of copper ribbon, “the coil being connected with a battery of ten elements, the shocks both at making and breaking the circuit were very severe; and these as usual were almost entirely neutralized by the interposition of the zinc plate. But when the galvanometer instead of the body, was introduced into the circuit, its indications were the same whether the plate was interposed or not: or in other words the galvanometer indicated no screening, while under the same circumstances the shocks were neutralized. A similar effect was observed when the galvanometer and the mag- netizing helix were together introduced into the circuit. The interposition of the plate entirely neutralized the magnetizing power of the helix (in reference to tempered steel) while the deflec- tions of the galvanometer were unaffected.” The induction currents of the third, fourth, and fifth orders, were found to be of consid- erable “ intensify: —-magactieine steel needles, giving shocks, not being interrupted by a drop of water placed in the circuit between the ends of the severed wire,—and yet being screened or neutral- ized by a metallic plate interposed between the coils.* A continuation of the memoir was read before the Philosophical Society November 20th, 1840, discussing further the theoretical differences between an oa or an increasing galvanic current, and a decreasing or an arrested current, in producing the phenomena of induction, On the same occasion Henry described “an apparatus for producing a reciprocating motion by the repulsion in the consec- utive parts of a conductor through which a galvanic current is passing.” About ten years before, he had devised the first electro- magnetic engine (operating by intermittent magnetic attractions and repulsions); and now he had contrived the first galvanic engine, operating by the analogous intermittent attractions and repulsions of the electric current.t * Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. June 1840, vol. viii. (n. s.) art. 1. ‘pp. 1-18. + Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. Novy. 20, 1840, vol. i. p. 801. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 255 Oscillation of Electrical Discharge.—In June, 1842, he presented a communication to the Society recounting an investigation of some anomalies in ordinary electrical induction. While with the larger needles (“ No. 3 and No. 4’’) subjected to the magnetizing helix, the polarity was always conformable to the direction of the discharge, he found that when very fine needles were employed, an increase in the force of the electricity produced changes of polarity. About a thousand needles were magnetized in the testing helices in these researches. Sige: ; This puzzling phenomenon was finally cleared up by the important discovery that an electrical equilibrium was not instantaneously effected by the spark, but that it was attained only after several oscillations of the flow. “The discharge—whatever may be its nature, is not correctly represented by the single transfer from one side of the jar to the other: the phenomena require us to admit the existence of a principal discharge in one direction, and then several reflex actions backward and forward, each more feeble than the pre- ceding, until the equilibrium is obtained.”* In every case therefore of the electrostatic discharge, the testing needles were really sub- jected to an oscillating alternation of currents, and consequently to successive partial de-magnetizations and re-magnetizations. The complications produced by this residual action, satisfactorily ex- plained for the first time, the discordant results obtained by different investigators. This singular reflux of current was ingeniously ap- plied by Henry to explain the apparent change of inductive current with differing distances. Should the primitive discharge wave be in excess of the magnetic capacity of the needle at a given position, the return wave might be just sufficient to completely reverse its polarity, and the diminished succeeding wave insufficient to restore it to its former c6ndition; while at a greater distance, the primitive wave might be so far reduced as to just magnetize the needle fully, * Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. June 17, 1842, vol. ii. pp. 193-196.— Prof. HERMANN IL. F. IIgLMHOLTz some five years later (in 1847), but quite independently, suggested “a backward and forward motion between the coatings’? when the Leyden Jar is discharged. (Scientific Memoirs, edited by Dr. J. Tyndall, 1853, vol. i. p. 143.) And still five years later (in 1852) Sir WILLIAM THOMSON made the same independent conjec- ture. (L. E. D. Phil. Mag. June, 1858, vol. v. pp. 400, 401.) To FELIX SAVARY however is due the credit of having first advanced the hypothesis of electrical oscillations, as early as 1827. See Supplement,” NoTE F. 256 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. and the second wave, being still more enfeebled, would only partially de-magnetize it, leaving still a portion of the original polarity ; and so for the ellewine diminished oscillations. In the course of these extended researches the presence of inductive action was traced to most surprising and unimagined distances. “A. single spark from the prime conductor of the machine, of about an inch long, thrown on the end of a circuit of wire in an upper room, produced an induction sufficiently powerful to magnetize needles in a parallel circuit of wire placed in the cellar beneath, at a perpen- dicular distance of thirty feet, with two floors and ceilings—each fourteen inches thick intervening.” . “The last part of the series of ton dears relates to induced currents from atmospheric electricity. By a very simple arrange- ment, needles are strongly magnetized in the author’s study, even when the flash is at the distance of seven or eight miles, and when the thunder is scarcely audible. On this principle he proposes a simple self-registering electrometer, connected with an elevated exploring rod.” For obtaining the results above alluded to, a thick wire was soldered to the edge of the tin roof of his dwelling and passed into his study through a hole in the window frame; while a similar wire passing out to the ground, terminated in con- nection with a metal plate in a deep well close by. Between the wire ends within his study, various apparatus, including magnetiz- ing helices of different sizes and characters, could be attached, so as to be within the line of conduction from the roof to the ground. The inductions from atmospheric discharges were found to have the oscillatory character observed with the Leyden jar; and by inter- posing several magnetizing helices with few and with many con- volutions, Henry was able to get from a needle in the former the polarity due to the direct current, and in thé latter, that due to the return current; thus catching the lightning (as it were) upon the rebound. In examining the “lateral discharge” from a lightning-rod in good connection with the earth, he had often observed that while a spark could be obtained sufficiently strong to be distinctly felt, it scarcely affected in the slightest degree a delicate gold-leaf electro- scope. How explain so incongruous a phenomenon? Henry DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 257 discovered the very simple solution, by a reference to the self-induc- tion of the rod,—a negative wave passing, succeeded immediately by a positive wave so rapidly as to completely neutralize the effect upon the electroscope before the inertia of the gold-leaf could be overcome, while actually producing a double spark (sensibly co-in- cident) to and from the recipient. A few months later, “he had succeeded in magnetizing needles by the secondary current, in a wire more than two hundred and twenty feet distant from the wire through which the primary current was passing, excited by a single spark from an electrical machine.”* In this case the primary wire was his telegraph line stretched seven years before across the campus of the college grounds in front of Nassau Hall; the secondary or induction wire being suspended in a parallel direction across the grounds at the rear of Nassau Hall, with its ends terminating in buried metallic plates:—the large building intervening between the two wires. This brilliant series of contributions to our knowledge of a most recondite and mysterious agent, placed Henry, by the concurrent judgment of all competent physicists, in the very front rank of original investigators.. His persevering researches in the electrical paradoxes of induction, perhaps more than any similar ones, tended to strengthen the hypothesis of an etherial dynamic agency; although he himself had for a long time been inclined to favor the material hypothesis, f INVESTIGATIONS IN GENERAL PHYSICS: FROM 1830 TO 1846. In order to give a proper connection to the experimental inqui- ries undertaken by Henry in various fields, it is necessary to pause here, and to recur to some of his earlier scientific labors,— begin- ning again at Albany. * Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. Oct. 21, 1842, vol. fi. p. 229. Itis barely possible that the primary current might have returned through the second wire. tIn a paper ‘On the Theory of the so-called Imponderables” published some years later, in referring to the phenomena of electrical oscillation in discharge, and of the series of inductions taking place and “extending toa surprising distance on all sides,” he remarks: “As these are the results of currents in alternate directions, they must produce in surrounding space a series of plus and minus motions, anal- ogous to—if not identical with undulations.” (Proceed. Amer. Association, Albany, Aug. 1851, p. 89.) 17 258 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Meteorology. F rom an early date Henry took a deep interest in the study of meteorology: not only on account of its practical importance, but from its relation to cosmical physics, and because from the very complexity and irregularity of its conditions, it ‘challenged further investigation and stood in need of larger gener- alizations.. His early association with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck in the first development of the system of meteorological observations established in the State of New York, has already been referred to in the sketch of his “Early Career.” (Page 212.) ‘This active and zealous co-operation continued from 1827 to 1832; or as long as he resided in Albany. In September of 1830, he commenced a series of observations for Professor Renwick of Columbia College, to determine the magnetic intensity at Albany. With the assistance of his brother- in-law, Professor Stephen Alexander, these observations were con- tinued daily for two months.* In April, 1831, a second serics of observations was commenced; in the course of which his attention, was attracted by a great disturbance of the needle during the time of a conspicuous “aurora” on the 19thof April, 1831. At noon of the 19th the oscillations were found to be perfectly accord- ant with previous ones, but at 6 o’clock Pp. M. a remarkable increase of magnetic intensity was indicated. At 10 o’clock of the same evening, during the most active manifestation of the aurora, the oscillations of the needle were again examined. “ Instead of still indicating as at 6 o’clock an uncommonly high degree of magnetic intensity, it now showed an intensity considerably lower than usual.” Thus, designating the normal intensity at the place as unity, at 6 o’clock it had increased to 1,024, and at 10 o’clock had subsided to 0.993, which according to Hansteen’s observations is the usual *The needles employed in these observations were a couple received by Professor RENWICK from Capt, SABINE,—one of which had belonged to Professor HANSTEEN of Norway. ‘‘They were suspended according to the method of Hansteen in a small mahogany box, by asingle fiber of raw silk. The box was furnished with a glass cover, and had a graduated arc of ivory on the bottom to mark the amplitude of the vibrations, In using this apparatus, the timeof three hundred vibrations was noted by a quarter-second watch, well regulated to mean time; a register being made at the end of every tenth vibration, and a mean deduced from the whole, taken as the true time of the three hundred vibrations, Experiments carefully made with this apparatus were found susceptible of considerable accuracy ;”’ the individual observa- tions not differing from the mean number, ordinarily more than one- ‘thousandth. (Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. April, 1832, vol. xxii. p. 145.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 259 relation of magnetic disturbance by an aurora.* An account of these results was communicated by Henry to the Albany Institute, January 26, 1832; and was also published in the Report of the Regents of the New York University. A little more than a month later (to wit on March 6, 1832,) he.had been able to collate the various published accounts of this aurora; and he learned “ the fact of a disturbance of terrestrial magnetism being observed by Mr. Christie in England on the same evening, and at nearly the same time the disturbance was witnessed in Albany, and that too in con- nection with the appearance of an aurora.” This circumstance led him to make a careful comparison of the notices of auroral displays given in the meteorological reports in the Annals of Philosophy for 1830 and 1831, with those of the Reports of the New York Regents for the same period. “ By inspecting these two publica- tions it was seen that from April, 1830, to April, 1831, inclusive, the aurora was remarkably frequent and brilliant both in Europe and in this country; and that most of the auroras described in the Annals for this time, particularly the brilliant ones, were seen on the same evening in England and in the State of New York.” From which he argues that “these simultaneous appearances of the meteor in Europe and America would therefore seem to warrant the conclusion. that the aurora borealis cannot be classed among the ordinary local meteorological phenomena, but that it must be referred to some cause connected with the general physical principles of the globe; and that the more. energetic action of this cause (whatever it may be) affects simultaneously a greater pons of the northern hemisphere.” + In attempting to classify and digest the meteorological data within his reach, Henry became strongly impressed with the necessity of much more extensive, continuous, and systematic obser- vations than any as yet undertaken: and he neglected no oppor- tunities of directing influence upon the minds of our national *Professor HANSTEEN has remarked that ‘A short time before the aurora borealis appears, the intensity of the magnetism of the earth is apt to rise to an un- common height; but so soon as the aurora borealis begins, in proportion as its force in¢reases, the intensity of the magnetism of the earth decreases, recovering its former strength by degrees, often not till the end of twenty-four hours.” (Edinburgh Philosoph. Jour. Jan. 1825, vol. xii. p. 91.) { Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci, April, 1832, vol. xxii. pp. 150-155. 260 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. . legislators, to impress them with the great need—as well as the practical policy of prosecuting the subject by governmental resources. No one at that day seemed so fully awake both to the importance and to the methods of prosecuting such inquiry: and no one more effectually advanced both by direct and by indirect. exertions the wide-spread interest in this study, than he. In 1839, while at Princeton, he in conjunction with his friend Professor Bache, induced the American Philosophical Society officially to memorialize the National Government to establish stations for magnetic and meteorological observations: a movement which was partly successful, though not to the extent desired. On the subject of international systems of observation and register, he justly remarks at a later date: “In order that the science of meteorology may be founded on reliable data, and attain that rank which its importance demands, it is necessary that extended systems of co-operation should be established. In regard to climate, no part of the world is isolated: that of the smallest island in the Pacific, is governed by the general currents. of the air and the waters of the ocean. To fully understand therefore the causes which influence the climate of any one country, or any one place, it will be necessary to study the conditions, as to heat, moisture, and the movements of the air, of all others. It is evident also that as far as possible, one method should be adopted, and that instruments affording the same indications under the same conditions should be employed. - - - A general plan of this kind, for observing the meteorological and magnetical changes, more extensively than had ever before been projected, was digested by the British Asso- ciation in 1838, in which the principal Governments of Europe were induced to take an active part; and had that of the United States, and those of South America, joined in the enterprise, a series of watch-towers of nature would have been distributed over every part of the earth, - - - Though the Government of the United States took no part with the other nations of the earth, in the great system before described, yet it has established and sup- ported for a number of years a partial system of observation at the different military posts of the army.” * * Agricultural Report of Commissioner of Patents, for 1855. pp. 367, 368. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 261 A large collection of original notes of various meteorological observations,— on magnetic variations, on auroras with attempts at ascertaining their extreme height, on violent whirlwinds, on hail- stones, on thunder-storms, and the deportment of lightning-rods,— unfortunately never published nor transcribed, were lost (with much other precious scientific material) by fire in 1865. The phe- nomena of thunder-storms were always studied by Henry with great interest and attention. A very severe one which visited Princeton on the evening of July 14, 1841, was minutely described in a communication to the American Philosophical Society, Novem- ber 5th, 1841. * | On November 3d, 1843, he made a communication to the Society “in regard to the application of Melloni’s thermo-electric apparatus to meterological purposes, and explained a modification of the parts connected with the pile, to which he had been Jed in the course of his researches. He had found the vapors near the horizon, powerful reflectors of heat; but in the case of a distant thunder-storm, he had found that the cloud was colder than the adjacent blue space.” { On June 20, 1845, he read a paper before the Society on “a simple method of protecting from lightning, buildings covered | with metallic roofs ;” urging the importance in such cases of having the vertical rain pipes always in good electrical connection with the earth, since “on the principle of electrical induction, houses thus covered are evidently more liable to be struck than those furnished either with shingle or tile. It is of course necessary to have the metallic roof in good metallic connection with the gutters and pipes; and the latter may conveniently have soldered to the lower end a ribbon of sheet copper two or three inches wide, continuing into the ground surrounded with charcoal and extending out from the house till it terminates in moist ground. { * Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 111-116. + Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 22. { Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 179. HENRY appears to have been much im- pressed with the conducting value of the tinned sheet-iron pipes commonly used as rain spouts, from observing that amid the strange vagaries of the circuitous path pursued by the lightning (in cases of houses struck by this destructive agent), the rain pipe was not unfrequently selected as part of the route;—marks of explosive violence being exhibited at its lower end, and sometimes at its top as well,— while the pipe itself was found to be uninjured. 262 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. In this paper he incidentally meets the much debated question whether a lightning-rod is efficient as a conductor by its solidity, or by its surface only. While he had been able to magnetize small needles placed transversely to the edges of broad strips of copper, through which electrical discharges were passed, he could obtain no signs of magnetism in needles when placed transversely near the sides of such strips about mid-way from the edges. In like man- ner he failed to discover any action in a small magnetizing helix placed within a section of gas-pipe and connected with it at either end, when transmitting through the system an electrical spark; while he easily obtained magnetic effects with a galvanic current passed through the same arrangement.* From these and other experiments he was led to believe that mechanical electricity tends to pass mainly along the exterior surface of a conductor, and accord- ingly that Ohm’s law of conduction is not applicable to lightning or mechanical electricity. f Some popular uneasiness having been excited i in 1846, in conse- quence of telegraph poles being occasionally struck by lightning, and of the supposed danger to travellers along highways likely to result therefrom, a communication on the subject addressed to Dr. Patterson, one of the Vice-Presidents of the American Philosophical Society, was read before the Society, and referred to Professor Henry for report. This was in the very infancy of the electro- magnetic telegraph; as it had not then been in existence more than a couple of years. Henry responded in a communication read June 19th, 1846, to the effect that while telegraph wires as long conductors were eminently liable to receive discharges of atmos- pheric electricity both from charged clouds and from the varying electrical condition of the air at distant points along the line (as for *In passing a galvanic current through an iron tube, he obtained the evidence of an induction from both the inside and the outside of the tube, but in opposite directions. + This very important question cannot be regarded as even yet decisively: settled:—eminent authorities maintaining that electricity in jsjlow—of whatever origin—observes equally the ratio of proportionality to area of cross section in the conductor. Probably the law of conductivity varies with circumstances, RircHig£ remarks that “if a metallic rod be raised to a red heat, its power of conducting common electricity is increased, whilst its conducting power for voltaic electricity 1s considerably diminished,’”’ (Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Oct. 1830, vol. i. (n. 8.) p. 37.) . DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 265 pression is found by experiment to differ very little from that of water contained in a vessel,” * all the most popular text-books on physics continued to teach that the cohesion of the liquid state is intermediate between that of the solid and the gaseous states.¢ It seemed therefore desirable to test the question by some more direct means than the resistance of liquids contained in closed vessels ; and for this purpose Henry employed the classical soap-bubble. ‘The effect of dissolving the soap in the water is not as might at first appear, to increase the molecular attraction, but to diminish the mobility of the molecules.” In fact the actual tenacity of pure water is greater than that of soap-water. The first set of experiments was directed to determine “the quantity of water which adhered to a bubble just before it burst.” The second set of experiments was devised to measure the contractile force of a soap-bubble blown on the wider end of a U-shaped glass tube half filled with water, by the barometric column sustained in the narrower stem of the tube; the difference of level being care- fully observed by means of a microscope. The thickness of the soap-bubble film at its top was estimated by the last of the Newton rings shown previous to bursting. . The result arrived at from both sets of experiments was that water instead of having a cohesion of 53 grains to the square inch (as was very commonly stated), ‘has a cohesive force of several hundred pounds to the inch; or that the inter-molecular cohesion of a liquid is fully equal to that of the sub- stance in the solid state. { * Young’s Lectures on Nat. Philos. Lect. 50, vol. i. p. 627. +“If we attempt to draw up from the surface of water a circular disk of metal say of an inch in diameter, we shall see that the water will adhere and be supported several lines above the general surface. This experiment which is frequently given in elementary books as a measure of the feeble attraction of water for itself, is im- properly interpreted. It merely indicates the force of attraction of a single film of atoms around the perpendicular surface, and not of the whole column elevated.” (Agricultural Report for 1857. p. 427.— Henry’s paper on Meteorology.) t Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. April 5 and May 17, 1844, vol.iv. pp. 56, 57,and 84, 85. The original notes of these interesting experiments containing the numerical results obtained under a great variety of conditions, laid aside for further reductions and comparisons, were destroyed by fire in 1865. Since the density of most solid sub- stances differs very slightly from that of their liquid state, being indeed less in many,—unless at considerably lower temperatures, (as in the case of ice, and most of the metals,) it appears quite improbable that the difference between solidity and liquidity could depend in any case on the degree of cohesion. On the contrary, the cohesion of water should be sensibly greater than that of ice, since its constituent 266 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. In 1846, he presented to the Philosophical Society an epitome of his views on the molecular constitution of matter; giving the reasons for accepting the atomic hypothesis of Newton. He pointed out that the discovery and establishment of a general scientific prin- ciple “is in almost all cases the result of deductions from a rational antecedent hypothesis, the product of the imagination ; founded it is true on a clear analogy with modes of physical action, the truth of which has been established by previous investigation:” and he urged that the hope of further advancement lies in the assumption “that the same laws of force and motion which govern the phenomena . of the action of matter in masses, pertains to the minutest atoms of these masses.” He therefore felt “obliged to assume the existence of an etherial medium formed of atoms which are endowed with rears the same properties as those we have assigned to common matter.” “According to the foregoing rules we may assume with Newton, the existence of one kind of matter diffused throughout all space, and existing in four states, namely the etherial, the aeriform, the liquid, and the solid.”* [In referring to this postulated fourfold state of matter, Henry was accustomed to point out the remarkable analogy between this conception, and that of the four elements of the ancients, — fire, air, water, and earth. | “Tn conclusion, it should be ane that the Tesitiintetat use of speculations of this kind, is not to furnish plausible explanations of known phenomena, or to present old knowledge én a new and more imposing dress, but to serve the higher purpose of suggesting new experiments and new phenomena, and thus to assist in enlarg- ing the bounds of science, and extending the power of mind over matter; and unless. the hypothesis can be employed in this way, however much ingenuity may have been expended in its construc- tion, it can only be considered as a scientific romance worse than molecules are closer together. Of the natureof that “lateral adhesion” which resists the flow of solids (excepting under the conditions of great strain— long continued), and whose absence is marked in liquids by their almost perfect and frictionless mo- bility, our present science affords us no intimation, : *T wo hundred years ago, NEWTON speculating on the unity of matter, ventured the suggestion, ‘Thus perhaps may all things be originated from sether.”—Letter to the Secretary of the Royal Society—Henry Oldenburg, January, 1676. (History of the Royal Society : by Thomas Birch, vol. iii. p. 250. ) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 263 example even by a fog or precipitation of vapor at one station) as also from induction at a distance, the danger to travellers along a telegraph road would be very slight, unless a person should be standing or passing quite close to a pole at the moment of its being struck. He however recommended that for the protection of the poles, they should be provided with conductors. “The effects of powerful discharges from the clouds may be prevented in a great degree by erecting at intervals along the line and beside the support- ing poles a metallic wire connected with the earth at the lower end, and terminating above at the distance of about half an inch from the wire of the telegraph. By this arrangement, the insulation of the conductor will not be interfered with, while the greater portion of the charge will be drawn off. I think this precaution of great importance at places where the line crosses a river and is supported _ on high poles. Also in the vicinity of the office of the telegraph, where a discharge falling on the wire near the station might send a current into the house of sufficient quantity to produce serious acci- dents.” * This precaution has now been largely adopted, especially on the telegraph lines of the central portion of the United States, which are more liable to the effects of lightning.t Molecular Physics. — Among other inquiries many original exam- inations were made by Henry in the domain of molecular physics. While Professor in the College of New Jersey in 1839, his attention was attracted to a curious case of metallic capillarity. A small lead tube about eight inches long happening to be left with a bent end lying in a shallow dish of mercury, he noticed a few days afterward that the mercury had disappeared from the dish, and was spread on the shelf about the other end of the tube. On a careful exam- ination of the tube by incision, it appeared that the mercury had not passed along the open canal of the tube, but had percolated through its solid substance. To test this, a solid rod of lead about one- fourth of an inch thick and seven inches long was bent into a siphon form, and the shorter end immersed in a small shallow vessel of mercury ; a similar empty vessel being placed under the longer end. * Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 266. +Prescott. Electricity and the Electric Telegraph, 8vo. N. York, 1877, chap. xxiii. pp. 296 and 411. 264 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. , Tn the course of 24 hours a globule of mercury was found at+the lower end of the lead rod; and in five or six days it had all passed over excepting what appeared in the form of crystals of a lead amalyam in the upper vessel.* A long piece of thick lead wire was afterward suspended in a vertical position, with its lower end dipping into a cup of mercury. In the course of a few days, traces of the mercury were found in the rod at the height of three feet above the cup: thus showing that a metal impervious to water or oil (excepting under very great pressure) was easily penetrated to great distances by a liquid metal. Some years later on a visit to Philadelphia he endeavored with the assistance of his friend Dr. Patterson (then Director of the United States Mint), by melting a small globule of gold on a plate of clean sheet-iron, to obtain its capillary absorption; but without effect; probably owing to the interposition of a thin film of oxide. | Applying to another personal friend, Mr. Cornelius of Philadelphia, a very intelligent and ingenious manufacturer of bronzes, and plated ornaments for chandeliers, etc. to try whether a piece of silver-plated copper heated to the melting point of silver would show any absorp- tion of that metal, he learned that it was a common experience under such circumstances to find the silver disappear; but that this had always been attributed to a volatilization of the silver, or in the -workman’s phrase,—to its being “burnt off.” At Henry’s request the experiment was tried: the heated end of a silver-plated piece of copper exhibited on cooling and cleaning, a copper surface; the other end remaining unchanged. Henry next had the copper sur- face slightly dissolved off by immersion for a few minutes in a solution of muriate of zinc, when as he had anticipated, the silver was again exposed, having penetrated to but a very short and toler- ably uniform distance below the original surface. ¢ In 1844, he made some important observations on the cohesion of liquids. Notwithstanding that Dr. Young early in the century maintained that “the immediate cause of solidity as distinguished from liquidity is the lateral adhesion of the particles to each other,” and had shown that “the. resistance of ice to extension or com- * Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. i. p. 82. + Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. June 20, 1845, vol. iy. p. 177. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 267 useless, since it, tends to satisfy the mind with the semblance of truth, and thus to render truth itself less an object of desire.” * Tight and Heat.— Henry also made important investigations on some peculiar phenomena connected with light and heat. For the purpose of experimenting on sun-light he devised in 1840, a very simple form of heliostat, based on the suggestion of Dr. Young, whereby the solar ray was received into an upper room in a direc- tion parallel to the earth’s axis, by means of a simple equatorial movement of the reflector ;{ which was effected by the aid of a common cheap pocket watch placed on a small hinged board set by a screw to the angle of latitude. The mirror mounted on a swivel and properly balanced, presented no sensible resistance to the run- ning of the watch, which was arranged for the 24-hour rotation by a watchmaker of Princeton. The whole cost of the completed in- strument (including the time-movement) was but sixteen dollars. If any particular direction of the ray was required, it was only necessary to place a stationary mirror in the fixed path of the ray, adjusted to the desired angle. { In 1841, on repeating experiments of Becquerel and Biot on “ Phosphorescence,” he discovered some new characteristics in the emanation (particularly when excited by electrical light) which had not before been observed.§ ‘These were more fully detailed in a communication made to the American Philosophical Society, in 1843, “On Phosphorogenic Emanation.” This phenomenon had been first observed in the diamond, when taken into a dark room immediately after exposure to direct sunlight, or to a vivid electric spark; and was afterward observed in several other substances,— notably in the chloride of calcium —“ Homberg’s phosphorus.”’|| It had also been shown by Becquerel that while this phosphores- * Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Nov. 6, 1846, vol. iv. pp. 287-290. + Dr. Young's Lectures on Nat. Phil. lect. xxxvi. vol. i. p. 426. LESSEE helio- stat appears to have been first suggested by FAHRENHEIT. { Proceed. Am, Phil. Soc. Sept. 17, 1841, vol. li. p. 97. @ Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. April 16, 1841, vol. ii. p. 46. | HompBera’s phosphorus is a calcium chloride prepared by melting one part of sal ammoniac (ammonic chloride) with two parts of slaked lime. CANTON’sS phos- phorus isacalcium sulphide formed by a mixture of three parts of sifted and cal- cined oyster shells, and one part of flowers of sulphur, exposed for an hour to astrong heat. 268 | MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. cence may be fully excited in the sensitive body by rays which have passed through transparent sulphate of lime, or through quartz, the effect is entirely arrested by a plate of transparent mica, or glass.* Henry by a long series of experiments greatly ex- tended these lists, including in them a large number of liquids. He also subjected both the exciting rays (especially that of the elec- tric spark), and the luminous emanation, to various treatment, by reflection, refraction, polarization,'etc. The Nicol prism was found to obstruct this peculiar exciting ray so much as to permit scarcely any impression; but what was remarkable and unexpected, a pile of thin mica plates which seemed to cut off entirely the phosphoro- genic impression, was found’ when placed obliquely at the best polarizing angle, to distinctly excite a surviving luminous spot. On examination of the phosphorescence excited by polarized light, no effect was perceived by a rotation of the analyzer: “when the beam was transmitted through crystals in different directions with reference to their optical axis, no difference could be observed.” The phosphorescence was completely depolarized, as if taking an entirely new origin in the sensitive substance: a fact re-discovered by Professor George G. Stokes some ten years later, with regard to fluorescent emanations. That the phosphorogenic effect docs not depend on a heating of the substance, appeared to be shown by the fact that “the lime becomes as luminous under a plate of alum as under a plate of rock-salt.”” ‘The emanation was examined by a prism of rock- crystal, and by one of rock-salt : science had not then the spectro- scope. While the impression could be readily made by a reflected beam from a metallic mirror, it failed entirely when directed from a looking-glass. The luminous effect on the phosphorescent sub- stance was found to be defined in location by the form ‘of the open- ing made in sheet-metal screens. Different portions of the electric spark being tested by means of a narrow. slit in the screen, the two. terminals of the spark were found to be much more active (as measured by the subsequent duration of the phosphorescence) than the middle portion. By a suitable arrangement of double screens * That there should be such a difference between quartz and glass or mica, is cer- tainly a remarkable circumstance, DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 269 with three slits each, he was able to make simultancous star-like “photographs” on the substance, of the two extreme portions of the spark and of a middle point: and while the latter point “exhibited a feeble phosphorescence for two or three seconds” only, the two former “continued to glow for more than a minute:” and yet the middle of the spark appeared to the eye quite as vivid as its ex- tremities.. It was also observed that while a sensitive daguerreo- type plate received no impression from the electric spark, inversely - another similar plate exposed for several minutes to the direct light of the full moon received a photographic impression, while the lime similarly exposed, exhibited no phosphorescence.* ° As.a striking illustration of the closely allied phenomenon of fluorescence, Henry was afterward accustomed on the occurrence of a bright aurora, to expose a sheet of paper written or figured with a solution of bisulphate of quinia to the auroral light, when the characters (quite invisible by lamp-light or even by day-light) ‘would distinctly glow with a pale blue light; — indicating the electrical nature of the meteor. In January, 1845, in conjunction with Professor Stephen Alex- ander, he instituted a series of experimental observations on the relative heat-radiating power of the solar spots. On the 4th of January a large spot through which our terrestrial globe could have been freely dropped, (having been estimated at more than 10,000 miles in diameter,) favorably situated near the middle of the disk, was examined with a telescope of four inches aperture. A screen having been arranged in a dark room, with a thermo-electric apparatus behind it and having its terminal or pile just projecting through ahole in the screen, the image of the spot was received upon it, giving a clearly defined outline about two inches long and one inch and a half wide. By a slight motion of the telescope the spot could readily be thrown on or off the end of the pile as desired. A considerable number of observations indicated very clearly by the * Proceed. Am, Phil. Soc. May 26, 1843, vol. iii. pp. 38-44. This interesting but ob- scure subject although apparently connected with the phenomenon of ‘fluores- cence”’ has yet an entirely distinct phase in its abnormal continuance of lumin- osity,—similar to the familiar effect of a thermal impression. It is possible how- ever that the conversion of wave-periodicity (wave-length), shown by Stokes to be the characteristic of fluorescence, may require time for its full development. 270 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. differing deflections of the galvanometer needle “that the*spot emitted less heat than the surrounding parts of the luminous disk.” * A brief account of the results obtained by these researches given in a letter to his friend Sir David Brewster, was read by the latter at the Cambridge Meeting of the British Association in June, 1845. The determinations arrived at have been. fully confirmed by the later observations of Secchi and others. { In 1845, he contributed a paper to the Princeton Review, on “Color Blindness ;” which although in the modest form of a literary review of two Memoirs then recently published, (that of Sir David Brewster in the Philosophical Magazine; and that of Professor Elie Wartman, of Lausanne, in the Scientific Memoirs,) supplied original observations on this interesting department of the physi- ology of vision. Miscellaneous Contributions—Henry’s miscellaneous contribu- tions to’ physical science are so numerous and varied, that only a brief allusion to some of them can be afforded. In 1829, he published quite an elaborate “Topographical sketch of the State of New .York, designed chiefly to show the general elevations and depressions of its surface.”§ , And in later years he devoted much attention to physical geography. He also made some geological explorations and observations in the State of New York. He per- formed at various times a good deal of chemical work (chiefly of an analytical character), —first as Dr. T, Romeyn Beck’s assistant, || * Proceed. Am, Phil. Soc. June 20, 1845, vol. iv. pp. 173-176, + Report Brit. Assoc, 1845, part ii. p. 6. {P. ANGELo SEccHI—during the years 1848 and 1849, (then a young man of thirty,) was Professor of Mathematics at the College of Georgetown, D. C, and in the pre- paration of his ‘‘ Researches on Electrical Rheometry,” published in the third volume of the Smithsonian Contributions, (art. ii, 60 pp.) he received from Henry the friendly ‘assistance of apparatus and suggestions. It is interesting to refer to Henry’s introduction: of Professor Secchi’s first researches to the attention of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, when the name was as yet wholly un-. known to the scientific world. ‘Another memoir is by Professor Secchi, a young Italian of much ingenuity. and learning, a member of Georgetown College. It’ consists of a new mathematical investigation of the reciprocal action of two galvanic currents on each other, and of the action of a current on the pole of a magnet.” (Smithsonian Report for 1849, p. 172, S. ed. and p, 164, H. R. ed.) Professor, Secchi was appointed Director of the Observatory at Rome, in 1850. ; ¢ Trans. Albany Institute, vol. i. pp. 87-112. ‘ | ‘HENRY was then Dr. BECK’s chemical assistant, and already an admirable’ experimentalist.” . Address before the Albany Institute, by Dr. O. Meads, May Dae 1871. (rans. Albany Institute, vol. vii. p. 21.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 271 and afterward independently, as well as mediately in directing his own pupils and assistants. In 1833, he devised an improvement on Wollaston’s mechanical scale of the chemical equivalents, for the benefit of his pupils in chemistry :—a contrivance which was much used and highly appreciated at the time. The suggestion had been thrown out by more than one astron- omer, that carefully timed observations on characteristic meteors or “shooting-stars” might be made available for determining differences of longitude between the stations of observation.* For many years however the proposition had been generally regarded as offering rather a speculative than a practical method of solving a problem of so great nicety. Henry in concert with his brother- in-law, Professor Alexander, and with his friend Professor Bach, determined to ascertain by actual trial the availability and value of the system. On the 25th of November, 1835, Professor Bache observing at his residence in Philadelphia (assisted by Professor J. P. Espy,)—simultaneously with Professor Henry and Professor Alexander, at the Philosophical Hall at Princeton, they obtained seven co-incidences: —the instant of disappearance of the meteor being in each case selected as the most accurately attainable epoch. These seven observations (whose greatest discrepancies amounted to but a trifle over 3 seconds) gave a mean result of 2 minutes 0.61 second (time longitude), differing only one second and two-tenths from the mean estimate of relative longitude arrived at by other methods. Tf’ In 1840, Henry gave an account of “electricity obtained from a small ball partly filled with water, and heated by a lamp.” t *“The merit of first suggesting the use of shooting-stars and fire-balls as signals for the determination of longitudes is claimed by Dr. Olbers and the German astronomers for BENZENBERG, who published a work on the subject in 1802, Mr. Bailey however has pointed out a paper published by Dr. MASKELYNE twenty years previously, in: which that illustrious astronomer calls attention to the sub- ject, and distinctly points out this application of the phenomena,” This was dated Greenwich, November 6th, 1783. (. 2. D. Phil. Mag. 1841, vol. xix. p. 554.) + Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Dec. 20, 1839, vol. i. pp. 162, 163. ‘‘This appears to have been the first actual determination of a difference of longitude by meteoric obser- vations.” (ZL. E. D. Phil. Mag. 1841, vol. xix. p. 553.) Several years later (in 1838 ) similar meteoric observations wére made betweeh Altona and Breslau; and also bétween Rome and Naples. t Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Dec. 18, 1840, vol. 1. p. 333. 272 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. In 1843, he read a communication to the Society, “On amew method of determining the velocity of Projectiles: for this purpose employing two screens of fine insulated wire each in circuit with a galvanometer, and at determined near distances in the path of the projectile ;— whereby the galvanic currents would be successively interrupted at the instants of penetration. To record the interval, each galyanometer needle is provided at one end with a marking pen touching a horizontally revolving cylinder, which is divided by longitudinal lines into 100 equal parts, and is driven by clock-work at the rate of ten revolutions per second, giving therefore to the interval of passage between two consecutive lines, the thousandth part of a second.* Another still more ingenious method is sug- gested, whereby the galvanometer may be dispensed with: each circuit including an induction coil, one end of whose secondary circuit is connected with the axis, and the other end placed very nearly in contact with the surface of the graduated paper on the revolving cylinder, so as to give the induction spark through the paper at the instant of the interruption of the primary circuits by the projectile passing through the wire screens. This is really a much neater and more direct application of the electric interruption than the employment of a galvanometer needle for making the record, as it involves no material inertia, If desirable, the cylinder may be made to have a very slow longitudinal movement by a screw, so as to give a helical direction to the tracings; and different pairs of screens similarly arranged at distant points in the path of the projectile may be employed to determine the variations of velocity in its flight. T Henry was always a watchful student of psychological and sub-. jective phenomena. Witnessing on one occasion the performance of an athlete before a large assembly, he noticed with a’ curious interest the “inductive” sympathy manifested by nearly every spectator (himself included) in being swayed by a movement as of *Tt appears that WHEATSTONE devised his ingenious electro-magnetic ‘‘ chrono- scope” in 1840; though he unfortunately published no account of it till 1845; or two years after the publication by Henry. And this was called out as a reclama- tion, on the publication of a similar invention by L. BREGUET, of Paris, in January of the same year. See “Supplement,” Notre G. ‘ + Proceed. Am, Phil. Soc. May 30, 1843, vol. ill. pp. 165-167. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 213 assistance to the performer. In remarking the i impression of being moved, while steadily watching a series of passing canal boats, he ee the impression (amounting almost to a sensation of move- ment on each boat reaching a certain point,) to the relative angle of vision formed by the moving body. He made a number of experiments on the flow of water jets under varying conditions: also observations on sonorous flames when pass- ing into a stove-pipe of eight inches diameter and about ten feet in length: on the comparative rates of evaporation from fresh and from salt water: on the slow evaporation of water from the open end of a U-shaped tube, and the much greater rapidity of evapora- tion when the tube is open at both ends: extended notes of which, with a great number of other researches, perished in the flames. In 1844, he published a Syllabus of his Lectures at Princeton. In December of that year he presented to the Philosophical Society a communication of a somewhat more theoretical character than usual,—on the derivation and classification of mechanical motors.: He refers these to two classes ;— the first, those derived from celes- tial disturbance (as water, tide, and wind powers),—and the second, those derived from organic bodies or forces (as steam and other heat powers, and animal powers). The forces of gravity, cohesion, and chemical affinity are not included, since these tend speedily to stable equilibrium; and they become sources of mechanical power only as they are disturbed by some of those before mentioned. It is not the running down of the water-fall, or the clock-weight, which is the true origin of their useful work, but the lifting of them: up. The same is true.of the power derived from combustion. ' He then adds that his second class (the forces derived from the organic world) might perhaps by a similar process of reasoning be derived from the first class; (that of celestial disturbance ;)— regarding “animal power as referable to the same-sources as that from the combustion of fuel,” and the action of the vegetative power as “a force derived from the divellent power of the sunbeam,” being simply a case of solar de-oxidation. Organism — vegetable and animal, he considers as built up under the direction of a vital principle, which is not itself a mechanical force. Volcanic power is neglected as compara- 18 274 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. tively feeble and limited, and not practically utilized.* This inter- esting digest presents one of the earliest and clearest theoretical statements we have, of the correlation and transformation of the physical forces; including with these the so-called organic forces. ADMINISTRATION OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. By an Act of Congress approved August 10, 1846, the liberal bequest to the United States, for the promotion of Science, by James Smithson of London, England, was appropriated to the foundation of the Institution bearing his name; the establishment being made to comprise: the chief dignitaries of the Government as the super- vising body, and a Board of Regents being created for conducting the business of the Institution after completing its organization. As the testator had bequeathed his fortune, in simple terms “for the increase and diffusion: of knowledge among men,” there arose not unnaturally a great diversity of opinion both among Congress- men, and among the Regents, as to the most desirable method of executing the purpose of the Will: and the organizing Act was itself a sort of compromise, after many years of discussion and _ disagreement in both branches of Congress. To literary men, no instrument of knowledge could be so important as an extensive Library : —to the professional, a seat of education or public instruc- tion—general or special—supplemented by elaborate courses of public lectures, appeared the obvious and necessary means of dif- fusing useful learning,—to the “practical,” a large agricultural and polytechnic institute—supplemented perhaps by a museum, was the only fitting plan of developing the resources of our coun- try: — to the artistic, extensive galleries of art were the most worthy and instructive objects of patronage. The Regents sought counsel from the distinguished and the learned: and several of them applied to Professor Henry for his opinion. He gave the subject a careful * Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Dec. 20, 1844, vol. iv. pp. 127-129. This appears to be the first—as it is probably the best—analysis of physical energy, which has been proposed. Twenty years later, a similar analysis (with certainly no improvement in the classification) was adopted by Professor Tait, in an essay on “ Energy;” (North British Review, 1864, vol. x1. art. iii. p. 191, of Am, edition:) and by Dr. Balfour Stewart, in his Elementary Treatise on Heat, Oxford, 1866; (book iii, chap. v. art, 388, p. 354.) +The whole amount of the bequest was a trifle over 100,000 pounds, or about 540,000 dollars. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 275 consideration; and announced very decided views. As Smithson was a man of scientific culture, a Fellow of the Royal Society, an expert analytical chemist, and devoted to original research, Henry held that the language of his Will must receive its most accurate and scientific and at the same time most comprehensive interpreta- tion; that the words “increase and diffusion of knowledge among men” were deliberately and intelligently employed; and that no local or even national interests were as broad as its terms,—that no merely educational projects of whatever character, no schemes of material and practical advancement however useful, could justly be regarded as fulfilling the obvious intent —expressed by a scien- tific thinker and writer—first of all the increase of knowledge by the promotion of original research,—the addition of new truths to the existing stock of knowledge, and secondly—its widest nites diffusion ¢ among mankind.* . These wise and far-reaching views exerted a marked influence; and though hardly then in accord with the opinion of the eset ee yet led to his election December 3d, 1846, as the “Secretary” and actual Director of the infant entation Y A second time was Henry called upon to sever dearly prized associations,—the pros- perous and congenial pursuits of fourteen years within the classic’ halls of Princeton. One motive turned the wavering scale. Here was a rare occasion offered by the enlightened provision of James Smithson, to secure for abstract science and unpromising original research, a much needed encouragement and support; and an obli- gation imposed upon the scientific few to resist and if possible prevent the perversion of the trust to the merely popular uses of the short-sighted many. That years would be required for shaping the character and conduct of the institution as he desired, was certain ;—that this could not be effected without much opposition and various obstacle, he very clearly foresaw. That during these years of active supervision and direction, he must abandon all hope - of personal opportunity for original Seseatcl , he as freely accepted in the expressive remark made to a trusted friend in consultation on «Programme of Organization,” Smithsonian Report for 1847. See ‘Supple ment,’ Nore H. +See “Supplement,’’ Nore I. 276 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. the occasion: “If I go, I shall probably exchange permanent fame for transient, reputation,” With the assurance of the Trustees of the College of New Jersey, that should he fail to realize his programme, or should he satisfac- torily accomplish his apostolic purpose, his chair should always be at his command, with a hearty welcome back, Henry, neither spurred by over-confidence, nor depressed with undue timidity, though filled with anxious solicitude for the future, accepted the appointment tendered to him. He removed with his family to Washington, December 14, 1846, and at once commenced his administration of the duties assigned to him by the Regents of the Institution. Summoned thus to the occupancy of a.new and untried field, and to the discharge of essentially executive functions, he from the first displayed a clearness and promptness of judgment, a singleness and steadiness of aim, a firmness and consistency of decision, combined with a practical sagacity and moderation in adapting his course to the exigencies of adverse conditions, which stamped him as a most able and successful administrator, Without concealment and with- out diplomacy, his distinctly avowed principle of action was steadily and patiently pursued.* With honest submission to the controlling ‘Act of Congress, he made as honest avowal of his desire and of his endeavor to have that legislation modified. _Hampered by pro- visions he deemed unwise and injurious, he yet skillfully managed to reconcile contestant interests, and to secure the entire confidence and concurrence of the Regents. Henceforth his purpose and his effort were to be directed to the unique object of encouraging and fostering the development of what has so flippantly been designated “useless knowledge;” and merging self in the community of physi- cal inquirers and collaborators, to become the high-priest of abstract investigation ;— prepared to lend all practicable assistance to that small but earnest band of nature-students, who inspired by no aims of material utility, seek from their mistress as the only reward of their devotion, a closer intimacy, a higher knowledge of truth. *See ‘‘Supplement,” Notre J. + HENRY has finely said; ‘‘Let censure or ridicule fall elsewhere,—on those whose lives are passed without labor and without object; but let praise and honor be bestowed on him who seeks with unwearied patience to develop the order, harmony, and beauty of even the smallest part of God’s creation. A life devoted DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. AEE Of the two distinct objects of endowment specified by Smithson’s Will, —“ the increase—and the diffusion —of knowledge,” Henry forcibly remarked: “These though frequently confounded, are very different processes, and each may exist independent of the other. While we rejoice that in our country above all others, so much attention is paid to the diffusion of knowledge, truth compels us to say that comparatively little encouragement is given to its increase.* There is another division with regard to knowledge which Smithson does not embrace in his design; viz. the application of knowledge to useful purposes in the arts. And it was not necessary he should found an institution for this purpose. There are already in every civilized country, establishments and patent laws for the encourage- ment of this department of mental industry. As soon as any branch of science can be brought to bear on the necessities, con- veniences, or luxuries of life, it meets with encouragement and reward. Not so with the discovery of the incipient principles of science. The investigations which lead to these, receive no fostering care from Government, and are considered by the superficial observer as trifles unworthy the attention of those who place the supreme good in that which immediately administers to the physical needs , or luxuries of life. If physical well-being were alone the object of existence, every avenue of enjoyment should be explored to its utmost extent. But he who loves truth for its own sake, feels that its highest claims are lowered and its moral influence marred by being continually summoned to the bar of immediate and palpable utility: Smithson himself had no such narrow views.t The promi- exclusively to the study of a'single insect, is not spent in vain: No animal how- ever insignificant is isolated; it forms a part of the great system of nature, and is governed by the same general laws which control the most prominent beings of the organic world.’’ (Smithsonian Report for 1855, p. 20.) - *[SWAINSON the Naturalist, the countryman and friend of Smithson, has very pointedly marked this recognized distinction. “The constitution of the Zoological Society is of a very mixed nature, admirably adapted indeed to the reigning taste, © It is more calculated however to diffuse than to increase the actual stock of scien- tifie knowledge.”’ (Discourse on the Study of Natural History, Cabinet Cyclopedia, 16mo. London, 1834, part iv. chap. i. sec. 221, p. 314.) And again: ‘It is very essential when we speak of the diffusion or extension of science, that we do not confound these stages of development with discovery or advancement; since the latter may be as different from the former as depth is from shallowness.’’ (Same work, part iv. chap. Ii. sec. 240, p. 343.) ] . +{In regard to the value of scientific truth, SMITHSON in a communication dated June 10th, 1824, has forcibly expressed his strong ‘‘conviction that it is in his 278 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. nent design of his bequest is the promotion of abstract science? In this respect the Institution holds an otherwise unoccupied place in this country; and it adopts two fundamental maxims in its policy ;. —first to do nothing with its funds which can be equally well done by other means; and second to produce results which as far as pos- sible will benefit mankind in general.” * Congress —naturally with a prevailing tendency to the literary, the showy, and the popular, had (after eight years of dilatory con- troversy) diregted in its organizing Act (sec. 5,) the erection of a building “of sufficient size, and with suitable rooms or halls for the reception and arrangement upon a liberal scale, of objects of natural history, including a geological and mineralogical cabinet, also a. chemical laboratory, a library, a gallery of art, and the necessary lecture-rooms.” By the 9th section of the Act, the Board of Re- gents were authorized to expend the remaining income of the endow-- ment “as they shall deem best suited for the promotion of the pur- pose of the testator.” Out of an annual income of some 40,000 dollars, the Regents in full accord with their Secretary (whose care- fully elaborated programme they officially adopted December 13, 1847,) succeeded in creditably inaugurating all the objects specified in the charter; and at the same time in establishing the system of publication of original Memoirs, to which Henry justly attached the first importance. An incident in itself too slight to produce a visible ripple on the current of Henry’s life, is yet too characteristic to be here omitted. Dr. Robert Hare having in 1847 decided upon resigning his Professorship of Chemistry in the Medical Department of the | University of Pennsylvania, (the largest and best patronized in the country,) the vacant chair was tendered by the Board of Trustees to: Professor Henry. His friend Dr. Hare himself used his influence ta induce Henry to become his successor ; particularly dwelling on the large amount of leisure afforded for independent investigations. knowledge that man has found his greatness and his happiness, the high superi- ority which he holds over the other animals who inhabit ‘the earth with him; and consequently that no ignorance is probably without loss to him, no error without evil.’ (Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, 1824, vol. xxiv. or new series, vol. vill, p.54.)] @ * Smithsonian Report for 1853, p. 8. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 279 The income of this professorship was more than double the salary of the Smithsonian Secretaryship. The position, tempting as it might have been under different circumstances, was however declined. Henry felt that to leave his present post before his cherished policy was fairly settled and established, would be most probably to abandon nearly all the results of the experiment: and having set before him- self the one great object of directing the resources of the Smithsonian - Institution as far as possible to the advancement of science, in con- formity with the undoubted intention of its founder, (and as the execution therefore of a sacred trust,) he resolutely put aside every inducement that might divert him from the fulfillment of his task. * Of the half a dozen objects of attention specified in the 5th section of the organizing Act, (the various inspiration of different partisans,) not one directly tended to further the primary requirements of the Will; —even the Laboratory being avowedly introduced simply as a utilitarian workshop for mining and agricultural analyses. Regarded as methods of diffusing existing knowledge they were obviously local and limited in their range: and as compared with the instrumentality of the Press, were certainly very inefficient for spreading the benefits of the endowment among men. ft Henry with a rare courage dared maintain against most powerful influence, that the interests specifically designated must all be subordinated to the fundamental requirement, the promotion of *Some six years later, a somewhat similar temptation was presented. In 1853, on the resignation of President Carnahan of the College of New Jersey at Prince- ton, an effort was made to induce the return of Professor Henry to his academic seat, by 2 movement to obtain for him the Presidency of the College. Such a token of affectionate remembrance could not but be grateful and touching to his feclings; but a sense of obligation was upon him, not to be laid aside. He had undertaken a work and a responsibility which must not be left to the hazard of failure. He declined the proffered honor— with thanks; and warmly recommended Dr. Maclean to the vacant position: who thereupon was duly elected. (Maclean’s Hist. of College of New Jersey, vol. il. p. 336.) +‘‘The objects specified in the Act of Congress evidently do not come up to the idea of the testator as deduced from a critical examination of his will. A library, a museum, @ gallery of arts, though important in themselves, are local in their influence, I have from the beginning advocated this opinion on all occasions, and | shall continue to advocate it whenever a suitable opportunity occurs.’’ (Smith- sonian Report for 1858, p. 122 (of Senate edit.)—p. 117 (of H. Rep. edit.) The superficial pretext was not wanting on the part of some, that the words “increase and diffu- sion’’ were not to be taken too literally, but to be considered as the tautology of legal equivalents, applicable to the development of the individual mind; since school-boys (if not the pundits) were evidently capable of an “increase” of knowledge. 280 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. original research for increasing knowledge: and that this »was amply sustained by the residuary grant of authority to the Regents (under the 9th section of the Act) “to make such disposal as they shall deem best suited for the promotion of the purposes of the testator, anything herein contained to the contrary notwithstanding,” of any income of the Smithsonian fund “not herein appropriated, or not required for the purposes herein provided.” Henry’s carefully studied programme comprised two sections: the first, embracing - the details of the plan for carrying out the explicit purpose of Smithson; the second, indicating the proper steps for carrying out the provisions of the Act of Congress. The first and principal section proposed as methods of promoting research, — the stimula- tion of particular investigations by special premiums, — the publi- cation of such original memoirs furnishing positive additions to knowledge by experiment and observation as should be approved by a commission of experts in each case,—the active direction of certain investigations by the provision of instruments as well as of the necessary means, the appropriations being judiciously varied in distribution from year to year,—the prosecution of experimental determinations and the solution of physical problems, —the exten- sion of ethnology (especially American), and in general the conduct of such varied explorations as should ultimately result in a complete physical atlas of the United States. As methods of promoting the diffusion of knowledge, it was proposed to give a wide circulation to the published original memoirs or Smithsonian “ Contributions to Knowledge” among domestic and foreign libraries, institutions, and scientific correspondents, to have prepared by qualified collab- orators, series of careful reports on the latest progress of science in different departments, and to provide facilities for the distribution and exchange of scientific memoirs generally. It is unnecessary here to follow closely the slow steps by which — through all the obstructions of narrow prejudice and ignorant mis- construction, of selfish interest and pretended philanthropy, of friendly remonstrance and hostile denunciation, — the policy origin= ally marked out by the Secretary was with unwavering resolution and imperturbable equanimity steadily pursued, until it gained its _ DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 281 assured success ; the vindication and the unpretentious trrumph of “the just man tenacious of purpose.’ The most formidable of the specialist schemes both in Congress and elsewhere, was that of the Library faction, which prosecuted with remarkable zeal and energy, threatened by the acknowledged ability of its leading advocates to control the action of the Regents, even to the neglect and abandonment of all the other interests indicated by the statute.* In Henry’s judgment the Institution should possess simply a working library, an auxiliary for those engaged in scientific research, a repertory well supplied with the published Proceedings and Transactions of learned Societies, but which so far from aiming at an encyclopedic or a literary character, should be mainly supplementary to the large National Library already established at the Capital.t “The idea ought never to be entertained that the portion of the limited income of the Smith- sonian fund which can be devoted to the purchase of. books will ever be sufficient to meet the wants of the American scholar. On the contrary it is the duty of this Institution to increase those wants by pointing: out new fields for exploration, and by stimulating other researches than those which are now cultivated. It is a part of that duty to make the value of libraries more generally known, and their want in this country more generally felt.’{ 9... Processes of Divestment.—Henry’s declaration that the moderate means at command were insufficient to support worthily either a Library, or a Museum, alone, was early justified. The Library though slowly formed of only really valuable scientific works, and this largely by exchanges with the Smithsonian publications, § in "* See “Supplement,” Nore K, ¢''To carry on the operations of the first section a working library will be re- quired, consisting.of the past volumes of the transactions and proceedings of all the learned societies in every language. These are the original sources from which ‘the most important principles of the positive knowledge of our day have been drawn.” (Smithsonian Report for 1847, p. 139 of Sen. ed.—p. 131 of H. Rep. ed.) {Smithsonian Report for 1851, p. 224 (of Sen. ed.)—p. 216 (of H. Rep. ed.) 2“It is the intention of the Regents to render the Smithsonian library the most extensive and perfect collection of Transactions and scientific works in this country, and this it will be enabled to accomplish by means of its exchanges, which will furnish it with all the current journals and publications of societies, while the separate series may be completed in due time as opportunity and means may offer.’ The Institution has.already more complete sets of Transactions of learned societies than are to be found in the oldest libraries in the United States.” (Smithsonian Report for 1855, p. 29.) 282 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. the course of a dozen years amounted to about 40,000 volumes: and the annual cost of binding, superintendence, and the constant enlargement of room and of cases, was becoming a serious tax upon the resources of the Institution. The propriety of transferring the custody of this valuable and rapidly increasing collection to the National Library established by Congress, was repeatedly urged upon the attention of that body: and by an Act approved April 5th, 1866, such transfer was at last effected. “Congress had presented to the Institution a portion of the pub- lic reservation on which the building is situated. In the planting of this with trees, nearly 10,000 dollars of the Smithson income were expended.” Ultimately however opportunity was taken to have the Smithsonian park included in the general appropriation by the Government for improving the public grounds, The courses of Lectures which were continued from their estab- lishment in 1849, to 1863, were then abandoned. In conformity with the judicious policy entertained from the beginning not to consume unprofitably the limited means of the Institution by attempting to do what could be as well or better accomplished by other organizations, its herbarium comprising 30,000 botanical specimens and other allied objects, was transferred to the custody of the Agricultural Department. Its collection of anatomical and osteological specimens was transferred to the Army Medical Mu- seum. And its Fine-Art collections were transferred to the custody of the “Art-Gallery” established at Washington (with a larger endowment than the whole Smithsonian fund) by the enlightened liberality of Mr. W. W. Corcoran. Such were the successive processes by which much of the early and injudicious legislative work of organization, intended for pop- ularising the activities of the Institution, was gradually undone; greatly to the dissatisfaction and foreboding of many of its well- meaning friends. “It should be recollected” said Henry, “ that the Institution is not a popular establishment.”’* * Smithsonian Report for 1876, p. 12. A distinguished politician, now many years deceased, (an influential Member of Congress—and possible statesman,) in the con- fidence of friendship pointed out with emphasis, how by a few judicious expedi- ents— involving only a moderate reduction of the income of the Institution, golden opinions might be won from the press, and the Smithsonian really be made quite DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 283 The National Musewm.—The last heritage of misdirected legisla- tion—the National Museum, still remains in nominal connection with the Institution; although Congress has recognized the justice of making special provision for its custody by an annual appropria- tion ever since its establishment in 1842,—four years before the organization of the Smithsonian Institution. The Government collection of curiosities had accumulated from the contributions of the various exploring expeditions; and Henry from the first, had objected to receiving it as a donation, foreseeing that it would prove more than “the gift of an elephant.”* In his first Report, he ventured to say: “It is hoped that in due time other means may be found of establishing and supporting a general collection of objects of nature and art at the seat of the general Government, with funds not derived from the Smithsonian bequest.”+ In his third annual Report he remarked: “The formation of a Museum of objects of nature and of art requires much caution. With a given income to be appropriated to the purpose, a time must come when the cost of keeping the objects will just equal the amount of the appropriation: after this no further increase can take place. Also, the tendency of an institution of this kind unless guarded against, will be to expend its funds on a heterogeneous collection of objects of mere curiosity.” Justly jealous of any dependence of the Institution, designed as a monument to its founder, upon the varying favors or caprices of a political government, or of any confusion between the National Museum, and its own special collec- tions for scientific study rather than for popular display, he added: “Tf the Regents accept this Museum, it must be merged in the Smithsonian collections. It could not be the intention of Congress a “popular’’ establishment. Unseduced by these friendly suggestions of worldly wisdom, Henry astonished his adviser by the smiling assurance that his self- imposed mission and deliberate purpose was to prevent, as far as in him lay, precisely that consummation. Had the philosopher repudiated the ‘breath of his nostrils’? he could not have been looked upon by the politician, as more hope- lessly demented. *His friend Professor Silliman in a letter dated December 4th 1847, wrote: ‘If it is within the views of the Government to bestow the National Muscum upon the Smithsonian Institution, the very bequest would seem to draw after it an obligation to furnish the requisite accommodations without taxing the Smithso- nian funds: otherwise the gift might be detrimental instead of beneficial.”’ + Smithsonian Report for 1847, p. 139 (Sen. ed.)—p. 132 (H. Rep. ed.) 284 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. that an Institution founded by the liberality of a foreigner, and to which he has affixed his own name, should be charged with the keeping of a separate Museum, the property of the United States. - - = Thesmall portion of our funds which can be devoted to’ a museum may be better employed in collecting new objects, such as have not yet been studied, than in preserving those from which the harvest of discovery has already been fully gathered.” Nor was he reconciled to the gift by the suggestion that a suitable appro- priation. would be granted by the National Government, for the expense of its custody. “This would be equally objectionable; since it would annually bring the Institution before Congress as a supplicant for government patronage.”’* In his Report for 1851, he forcibly stated in regard to the require- ments of a general Museum, that “the whole income devoted to this object would be entirely inadequate:” and he strongly urged a National establishment of the Museum on a basis and a scale which should be an honor and a: benefit to the people and their Capital city. “Though the formation of a general collection is neither within the means nor the province of the Institution, it is an object which ought to engage the attention of Congress. A general Museum appears to be a necessary establishment at the seat of government of every civilized nation. - - - An establish- ment of this kind can only be supported by Government; and the proposition ought never to be’ encouraged of: putting this duty on the limited though liberal bequest of a foreigner.”+ This policy was urged in almost every subsequent Report. “There can be but little doubt that in due time ample provision will be made for a Library and Museum at the Capital of this’ Union, worthy of ‘a Government whose perpetuity depends upon the virtue and intelli- gence of the people. It is therefore unwise to hamper the more important objects of this Institution by attempting to anticipate results which will be eventually produced without the expenditure of its means.” { “The importance of a collection at the seat of government, to illustrate the physical geography, natural history, * Smithsonian Report for 1849, pp. 181, 182 (of Sen, ed.)—pp, 178, 174 (of H. Rep, ed.) + Smithsonian Report for 1851, p. 227 (of Sen, ed,)—p. 219 (of H. Rep. ed.) t Smithsonian Report for 1852, p, 253 (of Sen. ed.)—p. 245 (of H, Rep. edi) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 285 and ethnology, of the United States, cannot be too highly estimated : but the support of such a collection mel not to be a burden aa the Smithsonian fund.” * ; The popular mind did not eee st appear to be prepared to accept these earnest presentations; and in 1858, thé National Museum was transferred by law to the custody of the Smithsonian Institution, with the .same annual appropriation (4,000 dollars) which had been granted to the United States Patent Office when in charge of it. So rapidly were the treasures of the Museum increased by the gathered fruits of various government explorations and surveys, as well as by the voluntary contributions of the numerous and wide-spread tributaries of the Institution, that the policy was early adopted of freely distributing duplicate specimens to other institu- tions where they would be most appreciated and most -usefully applied. And in this way the Smithsonian became a valuable, center of diffusion of the means of investigation in geology, miner- alogy, botany, zoology, and archeology.t The clear foresight which announced that the Museum must very soon outgrow the entire capacity of the Smithsonian resources, has been most amply vindi- cated: { and to-day a large Gavennmnen building is stored from basement to attic, with boxed up rarities of art and nature, suffi- cient more than twice to fill the Smithsonian halls and galleries, in addition to their present overflowing display.§ The strong desire of Henry to see established in Washington a National. Museum on a scale worthy of our resources, and in which the existing. over- grown collections might be so beneficially exhibited, he did not live * Smithsonian Report for 1858, p. 11 (of Sen. ed.)—p. 9 (of H. Rep. ed.) +See “Supplement,” Norte L. tFrom the rapid growth of the, national collection after it was transferred to’ the custody of the Smithsonian Institution, the annual appropriation of 4,000 dol- lars by Congress very soon became wholly insufficient to defray even one-half its necessary expenses. A memorial signed by the Chancellor and the Secretary, was presented to Congress May 1, 1868, in which the memorialists ‘beg leave to represent on behalf of the Board of Regents, that the usual annual appropriation of 4,000 dollars is wholly inadequate to the cost of preparing; preserving, and exhibiting the specimens;—the actual expenditure for that purpose, in 1867, having been over 12,000 dollars.’’ (Smithsonian Report for 1867, p. 115.) It was not however till 1871 that the appropriation was raised to 10,000 dollars. In 1873, it was increased to 15,000 dollars, and in 1875, to 20,000 dollars. 2See “Supplement,” NorE M. 286 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. / to see gratified. That the realization of this beneficent project is only a question of time, is little doubtful; for it cannot be supposed that collections so valuable, and so manifestly beyond the capacities of the Institution, will be suffered to waste in usclessness. And when established, its being and its benefits will in no small degree be due to him who first realizing its necessity, and most appre- ciating its: importance, with unwearying perseverance for twenty- five years omitted no opportunity of urging upon members As Congress its importunate claims. Meteorological Work.—In the conduct of what were appropri- ately called the “active operations” of the Institution—under the first section of the programme (in contradistinction to the local and statical objects of the second section), a rare energy and promptness was exhibited. The very first Report of the Secretary announced not only the acceptance and preparation for publication of an elab- orate work by Messrs. Squier and Davis, on explorations of “ Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” but the commencement of official preparations “for instituting various lines of ‘physical research. Among the subjects mentioned by way of example in the programme, for the application of the funds of the Institution, is terrestrial magnetism. - - - Another subject of hecatie, mentioned in the programme, and which has been urged upon the immediate attention of the Institution, is that of an extensive sys- tem of meteorological observations, particularly with reference to the phenomena of American storms. Of late years in our country more additions have been made to meteorology than to any other branch of physical science. Several important generalizations have been arrived at, and definite theories proposed, which now enable -us to direct our attention with scientific precision to such points of observation as cannot fail to reward us with new and inter- esting results. It is proposed to organize a system of observations which shall extend as far as possible over the North American continent. - - - The present time appears to be peculiarly auspicious for’ commencing an enterprise of the proposed kind. The citizens of the United States are now scattered over every part of the southern and western portion of Northern America, and the extended lines of telegraph will furnish a ready means of DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 287 warning the more northern and eastern observers to be on the watch for the first appearance of an advancing storm.” * An appropriation for the purpose having been made by the Regents, a large number of observers scattered over the United States and the Territories became voluntary correspondents of the Institution. Advantage was taken of the stations already estab- lished under the direction of the War, and of the Navy Depart- ments, as well as of those provided for by a few of the States. The annual reports of the Secretary chronicled the extension and success of the system adopted; and in a few years between five and six hundred regular observers were engaged in its meteorological service. ‘The favorite project of employing the telegraph for obtaining simultaneous results over a large area was at once organ- ized; and in 1849, a system of telegraphic despatches was estab- lished, by which (a few years later) the information received in Washington at the Smithsonian Institution was daily plotted upon a large map of the United States by means of adjustable symbols. Espy’s generalization that the principal storms and other atmos- pheric changes have an eastward movement, was fully established by this rapidly gathered experience of the Institution; so that “it was often enabled to predict (sometimes a day or two in advance) the approach of any of the larger disturbances of the atmosphere.” Eminently efficient as the enterprise approved itself, increasing experience served to demonstrate the expanding requirements of the * Smithsonian Report for 1847, pp. 146, 147 (of Sen. ed.)—pp. 138, 189 (of H. Rep. ed.) Professor Loomis (to whom among others “distinguished for their attainments in meteorology” letters inviting suggestions, had been addressed,) recommended that there should be at least one observing station within every hundred square miles of the United States; and he sagaciously pointed out that “When the magnetic telegraph [then an infant three years old] is extended from New York to New Orleans and St. Louis, it may be made subservient to the protection of our com- merce.” This interesting letter was published in full as “Appendix No. 2,” to the Report. In 1848, a paper was read before the British Association by Mr. John Ball, “On rendering the Electric Telegraph subservient to Meteorological Research: in which the author suggested that simultaneous observations so collected, might reveal the direction and probable time of arrival of storms. (Report Brit. Assoc. Swansea, Aug. 1848. Abstracts, pp. 12, 13.) + FRANKLIN is said to have been the first who stated the general law, that the storms of our Southern States move off to the northeastward over the Middle and Eastern States. tSmithsonian Report for 1864, p. 44. An interesting and instructive résumé of results accomplished within fifteen years was given in this Report, pp. 42-45: and continued in the succeeding 2eport for 1865, pp. 60-59. 288 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. service; and it was seen that to prosecute the subject of meteor- ology over so large a territory, with the fullness necessary, would require a still larger force of observers, and a greater drain upon the resources of the Institution, than could well be spared from other objects; and as the great value of, the system was fully recognized by the intelligent, the propriety of maintaining a meteorological bureau by the national support was early presented to the attention of Congress, This most important department of _ observation had been advanced by Henry to that position, in which a larger annual outlay than the entire income of the Institution was really required to give just efficiency to the system. In his Report for 1865, he remarked: “The present would appear to be a favorable time to urge upon Congress the importance of making provision for the reorganizing all the meteorological observations of the United States under one combined plan, in which the records should be sent to a central depot for reduction, discussion, and final ' publication. An appropriation of 50,000 dollars annually for this purpose would tend not only to advance the material interests of the country, but also to increase its reputation. - - - It is scarcely necessary at this day to dwell on the advantages which result from such systems of combined observations as those which the principal governments of Europe have established, and are now constantly extending.” * Five years later, in support of the proposition that the subject from its magnitude now appealed to the liberality of the nation, he briefly recapitulated the work accomplished by the limited means of the Institution. “The Smithsonian meteorological system was commenced in 1849, and has continued in operation until the present time. - - - It has done good service to the cause of meteor- ology; 1st, in inaugurating the system which has been in operation upward of twenty years: 2nd, in the introduction of improved instru- ments after discussion and experiments: 3rd, in preparing and pub- lishing at its expense an extensive series of meteorological tables: 4th, in reducing and discussing the meteorological material which could be obtained from all the records from the first settlement of the country till within a few years: 5th, in being the first to show * Smithsonian Report for 1865, p. 57. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 289 the practicability of telegraphic weather signals: 6th, in publishing records and discussions made at its own expense, of the Arctic ex- peditions of Kane, Hayes, and McClintock: 7th, in discussing and publishing a number of series of special records embracing periods of from twenty to fifty years in different sections of the United States,—of great interest in determining secular changes of the climate: 8th, in the publication of a series of memoirs on various meteorological phenomena, embracing observations and discussions of storms, tornadoes, meteors, auroras, etc.: 9th, in a diffusion of a knowledge of meteorology through its extensive unpublished cor- respondence and its printed circulars. It has done all in this line which its limited means would permit; and has urged upon Con- gress the establishment with adequate appropriation of funds, of a meteorological department under one comprehensive plan, ‘in which the records should be sent to a central depot for reduction, discus- sion, and final publication.’’’* In 1870, a meteorological department was established by the Government under the Signal Office of the War Department, with enlarged facilities for systematic observations: and agreeably to the settled policy of the Institution, this important field of research was in 1872, abandoned in favor of the new organization.t Of the voluminous results of nearly a quarter of a century of system- atic records over a wide geographical area which have been slowly digested and laboriously discussed, only a small portion has yet been published. ~The publication of the series when practicable, will yet prove an inestimable boon to meteorological theory. Although our country can boast of many able meteorologists, who have greatly promoted our knowledge of the laws of atmos- pheric phenomena, it is safe to say that to no single worker in the field is our nation more indebted for the advancement of this branch of science to its present standing, than to Joseph Henry. Quite as much by his incitement and encouragement of others in such re- searches, as by his own exertions, does he merit this award. To * Smithsonian Report for 1870, p. 43. +As an illustration of the popular favor in which this Signal service is held, it may be stated. that the annual appropriation by Government for its support now exceeds not merely the entire Smithsonian income, but sizteen times that amount; or in fact its whole endowment. 19 290 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. him is undoubtedly due the most important step in the modern eys- tem of observation,—the installation of the telegraph in the service of meteorological signals and predictions.* While giving however his active supervision to the extensive system he had himself inau- gurated, publishing many important reductions of particular features, as well as various circulars of detailed instructions to observers, of the desiderata to be obtained by those haying the opportunities of arctic, oceanic, and southern explorations, and directing the constant observations recorded at the Institution as an independent station, he made many personal investigations of allied subjects;—as of the aurora, of atmospheric electricity and thunder-Storms, of the supposed influence of the moon on the weather,—and contributed a valuable series of memoirs on meteorology, embracing a wide range of physical exposition, to the successive Agricultural Reports of the Commissioner of Patents, during the years 1855, 756, ’57, ’58, and 1859. Instructive articles on Magnetism and Meteorology were prepared in 1861 for the American Cyclopmdia. And one of his latest published papers comprises a minute -account of the effects of lightning in two thunder-storms; one occurring in the spring of last year (1877) at a Light-house in Key West, Florida, and the other occurring in the summer of last year at New London, Connecticut. Archeological Work.— One of the earliest subjects taken up for investigation by the Institution, was that of American Archeology ; the attempt by extended explorations of the existing pre-historic relics, mounds, and monuments, of the aborigines of our country, to ascertain as far as possible their primitive industrial, social and intellectual character, and any evidences of their antiquity, or of *“ However frequently the idea may have been suggested of utilizing our knowl- edge by the employment of the electric telegraph, it is to Professor Henry and his assistants in the Smithsonian Institution that the credit is due of having first actually realized this suggestion. - - - It will thus be seen that without mate- rial aid from the Government, but through the enlightened policy of the telegraph companies, the Smithsonian Institution first in the world organized a comprehen- sive system of telegraphic meteorology, and has thus given—first to Europe and Asia, and now to the United States, that most beneficent national application, of modern science—the Storm Warnings.” Article on ‘‘ Weather Telegraphy” by Professor Cleveland Abbe. (Am. Jour. Sci., Aug. 1871, vol. ii. pp. 83, 85.) + Journal of the American Electrical Society, 1878, vol. ii. pp. 37-44. The communica- ttian is dated Oct. 13, 1877; though not published till during the author’s last illness, . DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 291 their stages of gas The first publication of “Smithsonian _ Contributions” comprised in a good sized quarto volume an account of extensive examinations of the mounds and earthworks found over the broad valley of the Mississippi, with elaborate illustrations of the relics and results obtained: and this volume extensively cir- culated. by gift and by sale, attracted a wide-spread attention and interest, and gave a remarkable stimulus to the further prosecution of such researches. “Whatever relates to the nature of man is interesting to the students of every branch of knowledge; and _ hence ethnology affords a common ground on which 'the cultivators of physical science, of natural history, of archeology, of language, of history, and of literature, can all harmoniously labor. Conse- quently no part of the operations of this Institution has been more generally popular than that which relates to this subject.’’* Special explorations inaugurated by the Institution, have sup- plied it with important contributions to archeological information, and with the rich spoils of collected relics; which together with much material gathered from Arctic and from Southern regions, from Europe, from Asia, and from Africa, fill now a large museum hall 200 feet long and 50 feet wide, exclusively devoted to compara- tive Anthropology and Ethnology. In 1868, the Secretary reported that “during the past year greater effort had: been made than ever before to collect specimens to illustrate the ethnology and archeology of the North American continent:” and he dwelt upon the impor- tance of the subject as a study connecting all portions of the habitable earth, pointing out that “it embraces not only the natural history _and peculiarities of the different races of men as they now exist upon the globe, but: also their affiliations, their changes in mental and moral development, and also the question of the geological epoch of the appearance of man upon the earth. - - - The ethnolog- ical specimens we have mentioned are not considered as mere curiosities collected to excite the wonder of the illiterate, but as contributions to the materials from which it will be practicable to reconstruct by analogy and strict Bay the history of the past in its relation to the present.” + * Smithsonian Report for 1860, p. 38. + Smithsonian Report for 1868, pp. 26 and 33. 292) - MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Two years later he reported: “The collection of objects, to illustrate anthropology now in possession of the Institution is almost unsurpassed, especially in those which relate to the present Indians and the more ancient inhabitants of the American conti- nent.” Deprecating the frequent dissipation of small private collections of such objects at the death of their owners, he forcibly urges that “the only way in which they can become of real impor- tance, is by making them part of a general collection, carefully preserved in some public institution, where in the course of the increasing light of science, they may be made to reveal truths beyond present anticipation.” * In his last Report — for 1877, (just published, and which he did not live to see in print,) he says: “Anthropology, or what may be considered the natural history of man, is at present the most popular branch of science. It absorbs a large share of public attention, and many original investigators are assiduously devoted to it. Its object is to reconstruct as it were the past history of man, to determine his specific peculiarities and general tendencies. It has already established the fact that a remarkable similarity exists in the archeological instruments found in all parts of the world, with those in use among tribes still in a savage or barbarous condi- tion. The conclusion is supported by evidence which can scarcely be doubted, that by thoroughly studying the manners and customs of savages and the instruments employed by them, we obtain a knowledge of the earliest history of nations which have attained the highest civilization. It is remarkable in how many cases, customs existing among highly civilized peoples are found to be sur- . vivals of ancient habits.” He then argues from the significance thus developed of many trivial practices and unmeaning ceremonies handed down from immemorial time, the importance to a full com- prehension of the customs of modern society, of a scientific study of the myths and usages of ancient peoples. “American anthro- pology” he remarks, “early occupied the attention of the Smith- sonian Institution ;” and alluding to its first published work, he says, “from the time of the publication of this volume until the present, contributions of value have been made annually by the * Smithsonian Report for 1870, pp. 35, 36. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 293 Institution to this branch of knowledge. - - - The collection of the archeology and ethnology of America, in the National Museum, is the most extensive in the world: and in order to connect it permanently with the name of Smithson, it has been thought ad- visable to prepare and publish at the expense of the Smithsonian fund, an exhaustive work on American anthropology, in which the various classes of specimens shall be figured and described.” * This great work still remains to be perfected. Publications—To attempt the recapitulation of the various branches of original research initiated or directly fostered by the Institution, would, be to write its history. The range and variety of its active operations, and the value of their fruits, are in view of the limited income, and the collateral drains of less important objects exacted from it, something quite surprising. Scarcely a department of investigation has not received either directly or indirectly liberal and eflicient assistance: and a host of physicists in the successful prosecution of their diverse labors, have attested their gratitude to the Institution, and no less to the ever sympa- thetic encouragement of its Director. | Of the various works submitted to the Institution,— differing widely as they necessarily must in the comprehensiveness as well as in the originality of treatment of their diversified topics,—only those were accepted for publication, which had received the approval of a commission of distinguished experts in each particular field of inquiry. But even after such formal approval and acceptance, Henry ever maintained a sense of responsibility which entailed upon him a vast amount of unrecognized and little appreciated labor, in his desire to make each publication a credit to the Institu- tion as well as to its author. In the editing of this multitudinous material, he gave a critical attention to each memoir; and there are probably few of the series which do not bear the marks of his watchful care, in the elimination of obscurities, of redundancies, or of personalities, and in the pruning of questionable metaphors, of * Smithsonian Report for 1877, pp. 22, 28. Circulars broadly distributed by the Institution, have served to give desired direction to popular attention and activity in this fleld of research; and the extent of co-operation is such as probably only the “Smithsonian” could have secured, unless by a vastly greater outlay. 294 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. imperfect or hasty generalizations, or of incidental inaccuracies of statement or inference. ; : Over one hundred important original Memoirs, generally too elaborate to be published at length by any existing scientific society, issued in editions many times larger than the most liberal of any such society’s issue, most of them now universally recognized as . classical and original authorities on their respective topics, forming twenty-one large quarto’ volumes of “SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBU- TIONS TO KNOWLEDGE,” distributed over every portion of the civilized or colonized world, constitute a monument to the memory of the founder, James Smithson, such as never before was builded on the foundation of one hundred thousand pounds: and before which the popular Lyceums of our leading cities, with endowments averaging double this amount, are dwarfed into insignificance. Such as these Lyceums with their local culture, admirable and invaluable in their way, but exerting no influence upon the progress of science, or outside of their own communities, and scarcely known beyond their cities’ walls—such was the type of institute which early legislators could alone imagine. Such as the “Smithsonian Institution” stands to-day,—such is the monument mainly con- structed by the foresight, the wisdom, and the resolution of Henry.* All honor. to the Regents, who with an enlightenment so far in advance of the ruling intelligence of former days, and against the pressures of overwhelming preponderance of eyen educated popular sentiment, courageously adopted the programme of the Secretary and Director they had appointed ; and who throughout his career, so wisely, nobly, and steadfastly upheld his policy and his purpose. Fifteen octavo volumes of “Smithsonian Miscellaneous. Collec- tions” of a more technical character than the “ Contributions,” *“Tt is not by its castellated building, nor the exhibition of the museum of the Government, that the Institution has achieved its present reputation; nor by thé collection and display of material objects of any kind, that it has vindicated the intelligence’ and good faith of the Government in the administration of the trust. It is by its explorations, its researches, its publications, its distribution of specimens, and its exchanges, constituting it an active living organization, that it has rendered itself favorably known in every part of the civilized world; has made contributions to almost every branch of science; and brought, more than ever before, into intimate and friendly relations, the Old and the New Worlds.” (Memo- rial to Congress, by Chancellor S. P. CHASE, and Secretary JOSEPH HENRY. Smith- sonian Report for 1867, p. 114.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 295 (including systematic and statistical compilations, scientific sum- maries, and valuable accessions of tabular “constants,”) form in themselves an additional series; and represent a work of which any learned Society or Institution might well be proud. And thirty octavo volumes: of annual Reports, rich with the scattered thoughts and hopes and wishes of the Director, form the official journal of his administration. The Bibliography of Science.—Among the needful preparations for conducting original inquiry, none is more important than ready access and direction to the existing state of research in the particu- lar field, or its allied districts. This information is scattered in the - thousands of volumes which form the transactions of learned Societies; and its acquisition involves therefore in most cases a very iaborious preliminary bibliographical research. To make this vast store of observation available to scientific students, by the directory of well arranged digests, would appear to fall peculiarly within the province of an Institution specially established for pro- moting the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men: and was early an object of particular interest to Henry. In his Report for 1851, he remarked: “One of the most important means of facilitating the use of libraries (particularly with reference to science,) is well-digested indexes of subjects, not merely referring to volumes or books, but to memoirs, papers, and parts of scientific transactions and systematic works. As.an example of this, I would refer to the admirably arranged and valuable catalogue of books relating to Natural Philosophy and the Mechanic Arts, by Dr. Young. This work comes down to 1807 ; and I know of no richer gift which could be bestowed upon the science of our own day, than the continuation of this catalogue to the present time. Every one who is desirous of enlarging the bounds of human knowledge, should in justice to himself as well as to the public, be acquainted . with what has previously been done in the same line; and this he will only be enabled to accomplish by the use of indexes of the kind above mentioned.’’* * Smithsonian Report for 1851, p. 225 (of Sen. ed.)—p. 217 (of H. Rep. ed.) The valu- able Repertorium commentationum a societatibus litterariis editarum, edited by Prof. JERoM D. Reuss, and published in 16 quarto volumes at Gottingen, (1801-1821,) to a large extent supplied this desideratum, down to the end of the last century. 296 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. . At the time, and for years afterward, one-half of the Smith- sonian income was diverted by the requirements of Congress to the local objects of the Lyceum: and the hopelessness of attempting a work —additional to that already mapped out, which would require thé united labors of a large corps of well-trained and educated assistants for many years, and the subsequent devotion of the whole available income for many years following, to complete its publica- tion, was fully realized. The project however was not abandoned: and in 1854, Henry conceived the plan of taking up the more limited department of American Scientific Bibliography; and by the persevering application of a fixed portion of the income annually for a succession of years, of finally producing a thorough subject- matter index, as well as an index of authors, for the entire range of American contributions to science from their earliest date. Inspired with this ambition, he sought to enlist the co-operation of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in procuring with its large resources, a similar classified index for British and European scientific literature. The favorable reception of this project, was officially announced to Henry by the Secretary of the Association, in the transmission of the following extract from the proceedings of that body for 1855. “ A communication from Professor Henry of Washington having’ been read, containing a proposal for the publication of a catalogue of philosophical memoirs scattered throughout the Transactions of Societies in Europe and America, with the offer of co-operation on the part of the Smithsonian Institution, to the extent of preparing and publishing in accordance with the general plan which might be adopted by the British Association, a catalogue of all the American memoirs on physical science, — the Committee approve of the sug- gestion, and recommend that Mr. Cayley, Mr. Grant, and Professor Stokes be appointed a committee to consider the best system of arrangement, and to report thereon to the council.” * The report of this committee dated 13th June, 1856, was presented to the succeed- ing Meeting of the British Association ; in which they take occasion to say: ‘The Committee are desirous of expressing their sense of the great importance and increasing need of such a catalogue. - - * Report Brit. Assoc. Glasgow, Sept. 1855, p. Lxvi. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 297 The catalogue should not be restricted to memoirs in Transactions of Societies, but should comprise also memoirs in the Proceedings of Societies, in mathematical and scientific journals:” etc. - - - 3 he catalogue should begin from the year 1800. There should be a catalogue according to the names of authors, and also a cata- logue according to subjects.” * The committee comprising Fellows of the Royal Society of London finally succeeded in interesting that grave body in the undertaking: and the result was that greatly to Henry’s satisfaction, the entire work was ultimately assumed by the Royal Society itself. In the course of ten years that liberal Society aided by a large grant from the British Government gave to the world its half instalment of the great work, in its admirable “ Catalogue of Scien- tific Papers” alphabetically classified by authors, in seven or eight large quarto volumes. In the Preface to this splendid monument of industry and liberality, stands the following history of its incep- tion. “The present undertaking may be said to have originated in a communicatior from Dr. Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution, to the Meeting of the British Association at Glasgow in 1855, suggesting the formation of a catalogue of Phil- osophical memoirs. ‘This suggestion was favorably reported on by a Committee of the Association in the following year, - - - In March, 1857, General Sabine, the Treasurer and Vice President of the Royal Society, brought the matter before the President and Council of that body, and requested on the part of the British Asso-_ ciation, the co-operation of the Royal Society in the project: where- upon a committee was appointed to take into further consideration the formation of such a catalogue. - - - No further step was taken by the British Association or by the Royal Society in co-op- eration with that body: but the President and Council of the Royal Society acting on the recommendations contained in a Report of the Library Committee dated 7th January, 1858, resolved that the prepa- ration of a Catalogue of scientific memoirs should be undertaken by the Royal Society independently, and at the Society’s own charge.” * Report Brit. Assoc. Cheltenham, Aug. 1856, pp. 463, 464. } Preface to Catalogue of Scientific Papers, (1800-1863) vol. i. 1867, pp. iil. iv. The second and most important division of this great and invaluable work,—the classified Index to Subjects,—still remains to be accomplished. 298 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. System of Exchanges.—For the diffusion of knowledge afong men, one of the methods adopted by Henry from the very com- mencement of his administration was the organization of a system by which the scientific memoirs of Societies or of individuals from any portion of the United States, might be transmitted to foreign countries without expense to the senders: and by which in like manner the similar publications of scientific work abroad might be . received at the Smithsonian Institution, for distribution in this country. * This privilege however is properly restricted to bona fide donations and exchanges of scientific memoirs; all purchased publications being carefully excluded and left to find their legiti- mate channels of trade. By an international courtesy — creditable to the wisdom and intelligence of the civilized Powers, —such packages to and from the Institution are permitted to pass through all custom-houses, free of duty; an invoice of authentication being forwarded in advance. When it is considered that this large work of collection and distribution (including the constant supply of the Institution’s own publications, and the extensive ’returns: therefor of journals, proceedings, and transactions, for its own library) requires the systematic records and accounts in suitable ledgers, with the accurate parcelling and labelling of packages, large and small, to every corner of the globe, it may well be conceived that no small amount of labor and expense is involved in these forward- ing operations. t A recognition of the benefits conferred by this *‘The promotion of knowledge is much retarded by the difficulties expe- rienced in the way of a free intercourse between scientific and literary societies in different parts of the world. In carrying on the exchange of the Sinithsonian volumes, it was necessary to appoint a number of agents, These agencies being established other exchanges could be carried on through them and our means of conveyance, at the slight additional expense owing to the small increase of weight. - - - The result cannot fail to prove highly beneficial, by promoting a more ready communion between the literature and science of this country and the world abroad.” (Smithsonian Report for 1851, p. 218, Senate ed.) +It may be stated that the number of foreign institutions and correspondents ‘receiving the Smithsonian publications exceeds two thousand; whose localities embrace not only the principal cities of Europe. (from Iceland to Turkey), of British America, Mexico, the West Indies, Central and South America, and of Australia, but also those of New Zealand, Honolulu in the Sandwich Islands, twelve cities in India, Shanghai in China, Tokio and Yokohama in Japan, Bata- via in Java, Manila in the Philippine Islands, Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt, Algiers in northern Africa, Monrovia in Liberia, and Cape Town in southern Africa, The correspondents and recipients in the United States, are probably nearly as numerous, DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 299 generous enterprise, is practically indicated by the rapid enlarge- ment of the operations. The weight of matter sent abroad by the "Institution at the end of the first decade was 14,000 pounds for the year 1857: the weight sent at the end of the second decade was 22,000 pounds for the year 1867: and the weight sent at the end — of the third decade was 99,000 pounds for the last year 1877. This admirable system has been greatly encouraged and facilitated by the most praiseworthy liberality of the great lines of occan steamers, and of the leading railway companies, in carrying the Smithsonian freight in many cases free of charge, or in other cases at greatly reduced rates: an appreciative tribute alike to the beneficent services and reputation of the Institution, and to the personal character and influence of its Director. * “This part of the system of Smithsonian operations has every- where received the commendation of those who have given it their attention or have participated in its benefits. The Institution is now the principal agent of scientific and literary communication between the old world and the new. - - - The importance of such a system with reference to the scientific character of our coun- try, could scarcely be appreciated by those who are not familiar with the results which flow from an easy and certain intercommu- nication of this kind. Many of the most important contributions to science made in America have been unheard of in Europe, or have been so little known, or received so little attention, that they have been republished as new discoveries or claimed as the product of European research.” + It would indeed be difficult to estimate rightly the benefit to science in the encouragement of its cultivators, afforded by this fostering service. Few Societies are able to incur much expense in the distribution of their publications ; and hence **“*The cost of this system would far exceed the means of the Institution, were it not for important aid received from various parties interested in facilitating international intercourse and the promotion of friendly relations between distant parts of the civilized world. The liberal aid extended by the steamship and other lines, mentioned in previous reports, in carrying the boxes of the Smith- , son exchanges free of charge, has been continued, and geveral other lines have been added to the number in the course of the year.” (Smithsonian Report for 1867, p. 89.) Notwithstanding this unprecedented generosity, the exchange system has reached such proportions as to require for its maintenance one-fourth of the entire income from the Smithsonian fund. + Smithsonian Report for 1853, p. 25 (of Senate ed.) 300 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. their circulation is necessarily very limited. The fructifying inter- change of labors and results, dependent on their own resources, would be obstructed by the recurring expenses and delays of cus-_ toms interventions, and by unconscionable exactions: and indeed without the Smithsonian mechanism, nine-tenths of the present scientific exchanges would be at once suppressed. Let it be hoped that so beneficent a system will not break down from the weight of its own inevitable growth. Astronomical Telegraphy.—Analogous in principle to the system of exchange, is that adopted for the instantaneous trans-Atlantic communication of discoveries of a special order. In the year 1878, in the interests of astronomy (to which Henry was ever warmly devoted) he concluded “a very important arrangement between the Smithsonian Institution and the Atlantic Cable Companies, by which is guaranteed the free transmission by telegraph between Europe and America of accounts of astronomical discoveries which for the purpose of co-operative observation require immediate announce- ment.”* This admirable service to science, so creditable to the intelligence and the liberality of the Atlantic Telegraph Companies, embraces direct reciprocal communication between the Smithsonian Institution and the foreign Observatories of Greenwich, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Pulkova. During the first year of its opera- tion, four new planetoids were telegraphed from America, and seven telescopic comets from Europe to this country. “ Although the discovery of planets and comets will probably be the principal subject of the cable telegrams, yet it is not intended to restrict the transmission of intelligence solely to that class of observation. Any remarkable solar phenomenon presenting itself suddenly in Europe, observations of which may be practicable in America several hours after the sun has set to the European ob- server,— the sudden outburst of some variable star similar to that which appeared in Corona borealis in 1866,— unexpected showers of shooting stars, etc. would be proper subjects for transmission by cable. “The announcement of this arrangement has called forth the approbation of the astronomers of the world: and in regard to it eee ne * Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 32. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 301 we may quote the following passage from the fifty-fourth annual report of the Royal Astronomical Society of England: ‘The great value of this concession on the part of the Atlantic telegraph and other Companies, cannot be too highly prized, and our science must certainly be the gainer by this disinterested act of liberality. Already planets discovered in America haye been observed in Europe on the evening following the receipt of the telegram, or within two or three days of their discovery.’ ”* Official Correspondence.—A. vast amount of individual work having in view the diffusion of knowledge, has been performed by the correspondence of the Institution ; which may be best described in the language of an extract from one of the early reports: “There is one part of the Smithsonian operations that attracts no public attention, though it is producing important results in the way of diffusing knowledge, and is attended perhaps with more labor than any other part. I allude to the scientific correspondence of the Institution. Scarcely a day passes in which communications are not received from persons in different parts of the country, con- taining accounts of discoveries, which are referred to the Institution, or asking questions relative to some branch of knowledge. The rule was early adopted to give respectful attention to every letter received, and this has been faithfully adhered to from the beginning up to the present time. - - - Requests are frequently made for lists of apparatus, for information as to the best books for the study of special subjects, for suggestions on the organization of local societies, etc. Applications are also made for information by persons abroad, relative to particular subjects respecting this coun- try. When an immediate reply cannot be given to a question, the subject is referred by letter to some one,of the Smithsonian co-labor- ers to whose line of duty it pertains, and the answer is transmitted to the inquirer, either under the name of the person who gives the * Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 33. In 1876, a stellar outburst in the “Swan” observed by Dr. Schmidt of Athens, on the 24th of November, was announced. Less brilliant than the similar outburst which occurred in the northern ‘‘Crown” in May, 1866, it continued to decline through the month of December, and at the close of the year, had dwindled from the third to the eighth magnitude. (This may possibly be the same “temporary star’’—seen in Cygnus in 1600, and again in 1670: and having therefore a period of variability of about 69 years.) 302 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. information, or under that of the Institution, according to the cir- cumstances of the case. - - - Many of those communications are of such a character, that at first sight it might seem best to treat them with silent neglect; but the rule has been adopted to state candidly and respectfully the objections to such propositions, and to endeavor to convince tlteir authors that their ground is untenable. Though this course is in many cases attended with no beneficial results, still it is the only one which can be adopted with any hope of even partial good.”* The information given to scientific inquirers has been of an ex- ceedingly varied and highly valuable character, not unfrequently involving a large amount of research from: special’ experts; who have been accustomed cheerfully to bestow a degree of attention on difficult questions thus presented, which would have been accorded perhaps less ungrudgingly to others than to the universally honored Smithsonian Director. As to the pretensions and importunities of the unscientific,—such is the judgment pronounced after a quarter of a century of laborious experience with them: ‘The most troublesome correspondents are persons of extensive reading, and in some cases of considerable literary acquirements, who in earlier life were not imbued with scientific methods, but who not without a certain degree of mental power, imagine that they have made great discoveries in the way of high generalizations. Their claims not being allowed, they rank themselves among the martyrs of science, against Phas the scientific schools and the envy of the world have arrayed themselves. Indeed to such intensity does this feeling arise in certain persons, that on their special sub- jects they are really monomaniacs, although on others they may be not only entirely sane, but even evince abilities of a high order. - - - Two persons of this class have recently made a special journey to Washington, from distant parts of the country, to demand justice from the Institution in the way of recognition of their claims to discoveries in science of great importance to humanity ; and each of them has made an appeal to his representative in Congress to aid him in compelling the Institution to acknowledge the merits of his speculations, Providence vindicates in such cases the equality * Smithsonian Report for 1853, pp. 22, 23, (of Senate ed.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 303 of its justice in giving to such persons an undue share of self-es- teem and an exaltation of confidence in themselves, which in a great degree compensate for what they conceive to be the want of a just appreciation by the public. Unless however they are men of great benevolence of disposition, who can: look with pity on what they deem the ignorance and prejudice of leaders of science, they are apt to indulge in a bitterness of denunciation which might be injurious to the reputation of the Institution, were their effects not neutral- ized by the extravagance of the assertions themselves.” * To the projectors and propellers of Paine electric engines, and Keely motors, eager for a marketable certificate from such an authority, Henry would calmly reply: ‘““We may say that science has established the great fact—without the possibility of doubt, that what is called power, or that which produces changes in matter, can- not be created by man, but exists in nature in a state of activity or in a condition of neutralization; and furthermore that all the original forces connected with our globe, as a general rule have assumed a state of permanent equilibrium, and that the crust of the earth as a whole (with the exception of the comparatively exceedingly small proportion, consisting of organic matter such as coal, wood, etc.) is ‘ as it were a burnt slag, incapable of yielding power; and that all the motions and changes on its surface are due to actions from celes-_ tial space, principally from the sun. - - - All attempts to substitute electricity or magnetism for coal power must be unsuc- cessful, since these powers tend to an equilibrium from which they can only be disturbed by the application of another power, which is the equivalent of that which they can subsequently exhibit. They are however, with chemical attraction, etc. of great impor- tance as intermediate agents in the application of the power of heat as derived from combustion. Science does not indicate in the slight- est degree, the possibility of the discovery of a new primary power comparable with that of combustion as exhibited in the burning of coal. Whatever unknown powers may exist in nature capable of doing work, must be in a state of neutralization, otherwise they would manifest themselves spontaneously; and from this state of neutralization or equilibrium, they can be released only by the action * Smithsonian Report for 1875, pp. 37, 38. 304 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. of an extraneous power of equivalent energy; and we therefore do not hesitate to say that all declarations of the discovery of a new power which is to supersede the use of coal as a motive-power, have their origin in ignorance or deception, and frequently in both, A man of some ingenuity in combining mechanical elements, and hay- ing some indefinite scientific knowledge, imagines it possible to ob- tain a certain result by a given combination of principles, and by long brooding over this subject previous to experiment, at length convinces himself of the certainty of the anticipated result. Hay- ing thus deceived himself by his sophisms, he calls upon his neigh- bors to accept his conclusions as verified truths; and soon acquires the notoriety of having made a discovery which is to change the civilization of the world, The shadowy reputation which he has thus acquired, is too gratifying to his vanity to be at once relin- quished by the announcement of his self-deception; and in prefer- ence he applies his ingenuity in devising means by which to continue the deception of his friends and supporters, long after he himself has been convinced of the fallacy of his first assumptions. In this _ way what was commenced in folly, generally ends in fraud.” * In looking back upon the struggles, conflicts, and obstructions of the past, it really seems quite marvelous that so much should have been accomplished, with so limited expenditure. These large re- sults are partly due to the admirable method of the Secretary, his clear presage of effects, and his high power of systematic distribu- tion and appliance; partly to the intelligent zeal and sympathetic energy of the able assistants whom he had associated with him almost from the organization of the institution; and partly to the personal magic of the man,—to the surprising amount of voluntary co-operation he was able to call forth in almost every direction, by the sheer force of his own earnest industry, and the contagious influ- ence of his own devotion to the cause of scientific advancement. Scientific Observatories.—One of the objects very dear to Henry’s heart, was the establishment of a physical observatory (with a phys- ical laboratory in connection) for the systematic observation and record of important points in celestial and terrestrial physics. For — * Smithsonian Report for 1875, pp. 89, 40. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 3805 the proper maintenance of such an establishment, he thought an income as large as that of the Smithson fund, would not be too much: and on two different occasions he endeavored to enlist the interest of wealthy and public-spirited citizens in such an enterprise. One of these was Mr. McCormick of Illinois; and a letter on the subject was afterward printed (without its address) in the Report for 1870.* The other was Mr. Lick of California: who after some hesitation, decided in favor of an astronomical observatory. Another allied object of great interest to Henry, and one requiring as large an endowment, was a well-equipped chemical laboratory, in which —under judicious restrictions—those really engaged in original researches, should have liberal facilities of appliances and needed materials, furnished them. He considered that an important part ° of the work to be accomplished by a physical and chemical labora- tory, would be the determination and tabulation of “The Constants of Nature and Art” with a much wider range of subjects, and on a scale of much greater completeness and accuracy, than had heretofore been attempted: and thus might be realized the great work or works of reference, suggested by Charles Babbage as a scientific desider- atum.t Had the Smithsonian fund been twice as large as it is,- both these great enterprises for the increase of knowledge, would undoubtedly have been successfully inaugurated by Henry. Loss by Fire.—FEarly in the year 1865, (on the 24th day of Jan- uary,) the central portion of the Smithsonian Building suffered fromya disastrous fire, the effects of which were aggravated by the extreme severity of the winter cold, which greatly obstructed the efficiency of the engines brought into action. { “The progress of the fire was so rapid, that but few of the contents of the upper rooms could be removed before the roof fell in. ‘The conflagration was only stayed by the incombustible materials of the main build- ing :” the flooring of the upper story, forming an iron and brick * Smithsonian Report for 1870, pp. 141-144. +Brewster’s Edinburgh Jour. Sci. April, 1882, vol. vi. pp. 334-340. — Smithsonian Report for 1856, pp. 289-302. tThe accident resulted from the carelessness of some workmen in the upper picture gallery, who in temporarily setting up a stove, inserted the pipe through a wall-lining into a furring space (enppeding it a flue), but which conducted directly under the rafters of the roof. : 20 306 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. vaulting over the lower or principal story. Neither wing of, the building was reached by the fire; and the valuable Library (not then transferred to the Capitol), and the Museum, fortunately escaped without injury. The Stanley collection of Indian portraits, comprising about 200 paintings, and estimated as worth 20,000 dollars, was entirely destroyed. A fine full-sized copy in Carrara marble, by John Gott, of the antique statue known as “The Dying Gladiator,” was crumbled into a formless mass of stone. The Secretary’s office unfortunately fell within the range of the flames. “The most irreparable loss was that of the records, con- sisting of the official, scientific, and miscellaneous correspondence ; embracing 35,000 pages of copied letters which had been sent, (at least 30,000 of which were the composition of the Secretary,) and 50,000 pages of letters received by the Institution; the receipts for publications and specimens ; reports on various subjects which have been referred to the Institution; the records of experiments insti- tuted by the Secretary for the Government; four manuscripts of original investigations, [memoirs by collaborators, ] which had been adopted by the Institution for publication ; a large number of papers and scientific notes of the Secretary ; a series of diaries, memorandum and account books.” * ‘This truly “irreparable loss” of the original notes of many series of experiments by Henry, of varied character, running back for thirty years, kept for the purpose of reduction and discussion, or further extension (as leisure might permit), and of which but few had been published even by results, — was borne - by their author with his characteristic equanimity; and was very rarely alluded to by him, unless when in answer to inquiries respect- ing particular points of his researches, he was compelled to excuse the absence of precise data. , The Lecture Room —a model of its class — entirely burned out by the fire, was not reconstructed: but the space it occupied on the upper floor, was with the adjacent rooms (used as the apparatus room, and the art gallery) thrown into one large hall, 200 feet long, —at present occupied as the ethnological museum. Advantage was taken of the hazard demonstrated by the fire, to induce Con- gress in the following year to transfer the custody of the Smith- * Smithsonian Report for 1865, p. 18. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 307 sonian collection of scientific works to the National Library: and the propriety of this change was thus defended. “The east wing of the Smithsonian building, in which the books were deposited is not fire-proof, and is liable to destruction by accident or the torch of the incendiary, while the rooms of the Capitol are of incom- bustible materials. This wing was moreover filled to overflowing ; and a more extended and secure depository could not be obtained, except by another large draught on the accumulated funds intended to form part of the permanent capital.” * Second Visit to Hurope.—At a meeting of the Board of Regents, held February 3rd, 1870, “General Delafield in behalf of the Exec- utive Committee, stated that they deemed it highly important for the interests of the Institution in the promotion of science, and due to the Secretary for his long and devoted services, that he should visit Europe to consult with the savans and societies of Great Britain and the continent; and he therefore hoped that a leave of absence would be granted to Professor Henry for several months, and an allowance be made for his expenses. On motion of Dr. Maclean it was unanimously Jesolved, That Professor Henry, Secretary of the Institution, be authorized to visit Europe in behalf of the interests of the Smithsonian Institution, and that he be granted from three to six months leave of absence, ea two thousand dollars for travelling expenses for this purpose.” + It is not necessary here to recount the particulars of this second visit of Henry to Europe, more fully than in the brief account given by him in his annual Report. “Before closing this report, it is proper that I should refer to a resolution adopted by your honor- able board at its last session, granting me leave of absence to visit Europe to confer with savans and societies relative to the Institu- tion, and making provision for the payment of my expenses. The presentation of this proposition was entirely without my knowl- edge, but I need scarcely say that its unanimous adoption was highly gratifying to my feelings; and that I availed myself of the privilege it offered with a grateful appreciation of the kindness * Smithsonian Report for 1866, p. 14. + Smithsonian Report for 1869, p. 89. 308 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. intended. I sailed from New York on the 1st of June, returning after an absence of four and a half months, much improved in health, and with impressions as to science and education in the Old World, which may be of value in directing the affairs of the Insti- tution. Although limited as to time, and my plans interfered with somewhat by the war, I visited England, Ireland, Scotland, Bel- gium, parts of Germany and France. But deferring for the present an account of my travels, and the observations connected with them, I will merely state that as your representative, I was every- where kindly received, and was highly gratified with the commen- dations bestowed on the character and operations of the Institution intrusted to your care.” * Service on the Light-House Board.—While the whole high bent of Henry’s mind was rather toward abstract than utilitarian research, there was no well devised system of practical benefit for man, that did not command his earnest sympathy or enlist his active co-operation ;—no labor in such co-operation from which he shrank, if he felt that without the sacrifice of other duties, he could make such labor useful. On the establishment of the Light- House Board, in 1852, Henry was appointed one of its members; and although his valuable time was already fully occupied, he con- sented to serve on the Board, in the hope of aiding to benefit the interests of navigation. ‘To the requirements of his new position, he brought his accustomed energy, skill, and eminently practical , judgment; and soon made his influence felt throughout the light- house service. * Smithsonian Report for 1870, p. 45. t+ In less than ten years from the organization of the Light-House Board, the lenticular system of AUGUSTIN JEAN FRESNEL had been introduced into all the light-houses of the United States. LEONOR FRESNEL, Secretary of the Light-House Board of France, (the brother of that distinguished physicist,) in a letter addressed to the Secretary of the United States Light-House Board, dated May 7th, 1861, says: “The prodigious development of this service within so short a time under the Light-House Board. has truly astonished me My old experience in fact enables me the better to appreciate how mu¢h energy and activity were necessary to bring to this degree ot perfection, the light-house service of such a vast expanse of coast, as well on the Pacific. as onsthe Atlantic. without mentioning the task of succeeding in establishing against hostile prejudices the adoption of a new - system.” (Report to Secretary of the Treasury, Feb. 4, 1862. Mis. Doc, No, 61, 37th Cong. 2nd Sess. Senate, p. 16.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 309 When the steadily advancing cost of whale oil made it necessary to seek for some more economical illuminant, he attacked the prob- Jem with his habit’of scientific method. Colza oil or rape-seed oil had been used in France with some success;' and efforts were made to introduce its culture and production in this country. Lard oil had been tested by Professor J. H. Alexander of Baltimore, and pronounced by him of very inferior value as an illuminant. For accuracy of determination, Henry caused to be prepared at the Light-house Depot on Staten Island, a long dark fire-proof cham- ber, and had it painted black on all its interior surfaces for the purpose of photometric observations. In ordinary lamps, the colza oil was found to be about equal to whale oil in illuminating power, and lard oil inferior to it. Petroleum or mineral oil was also tried ; but its quality was at that time too variable, and its use was found to be too dangerous. Experiment showed that lard oil had a greater specific gravity than sperm oil, a less capillarity or ascen- sional attraction in a wick, and a less perfect fluidity. The con- ditions were varied; and it was found that with elevation of temperature, the fluidity, and the capillarity, of the Jard oil increased more rapidly than those of the sperm oil, until at about 250° I*. the former surpassed the latter in these qualities. With these results, it became important to compare the oils in large lamps, such as were actually required for the lanterns of light- houses. The heat evolved by the large-sized Argand burners, would seem peculiarly to favor the lard oil: a few trials, with a proper adaptation of the lamps, established its supremacy; and conclusively demonstrated —contrary to all the laboratory trials of former experimenters, that for the purpose desired, this contemned article was for equal quantities a more brilliant illuminant than mineral kerosene oil, or vegetable colza oil, or animal sperm oil, while its market price was only about one-fourth that of the latter.* Against all the opposition of interested dealers, and prejudiced keep- ers, the lard oil was at once introduced into actual use in the years 1865 and 1866, in all the light-houses of the United States; with a saving of at least one dollar on every -gallon of the hundred thousand in annual use; that is of 100,000 dollars per annum. *See “Supplement,’”’ Nore N. 310 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. During the progress.of these useful labors, no less important investigations were commenced, on the most efficient forms of apparatus for acoustic signalling, as the substitutes for light signals during thé prevalence of sea-board fogs. “Among the impedi- ments to navigation, none perhaps are more to be dreaded than those which arise from fogs. - - - The only means at present known for obviating the difficulty, is that of employing powerful sounding instruments which may be heard at a sufficient distance through the fog, to give timely warning of impending danger.” * Gun signals were early abandoned, as inefficient, dangerous, and expensive: inefficient, because of both “the length of the intervals between the successive explosions, and the brief duration of the sound, which renders it difficult to determine with accuracy its. direction.” Innumerable projects eagerly pressed upon the Board by visionary inventors (some of them being rattles, gongs, or organ pipes operated by manual cranks, many of them being varieties of automatic horn or whistle operated by the winds or the waves) were impartially tested, and uniformly rejected as wholly insuffi- cient: very few of their projectors having the slightest practical idea of the requirements of the service. Experiments on steam- whistles of large size and on horns with vibrating steel tongues or reeds, sounded by steam-power, or by hot-air engines, varied and continued for several years under wide changes of conditions, finally determined their most efficient size and character. + In 1867, comparative trials were made at Sandy Hook (on the Jersey shore, at the entrance to Raritan Bay, and to New York Bay,) with three powerful instruments; a large steam-whistle whose cup was 8 inches in diameter, and made adjustable in pitch; a large reed trumpet 17 feet long and 38 inches in diameter at its flaring mouth, whose steel tongue was 10 inches long, 2} inches. * Report of Light-House Board for 1874, p. &3. + An enterprising inventor had secured a patent for ‘a metallic compound or alloy for steam-whistles, especially adapted to increase greatly their power as fog- signals. In yain was he assured that his “improvement” was a fallacy; that the cylindrical cup of the whistle was not a bell, but only a resonant chamber; and that its material was compdratively unimportant. He was only with difficulty convinced, when HENRY had his whistle formally tested, with a stout cord wound tightly around its cylindrical surface: when its tone under steam escape was proved to be as full, as loud, and as penetrating, as with the cord removed. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. oll wide, and half an inch thick at its smaller vibrating end, and was blown by a hot-air engine; and lastly a large siren horn operated by steam at different pressures, the aerial vibration being produced by the intermittence of a revolving grating disk or valve in the small end of the horn, driven at high velocities by the steam engine, and its pitch regulated by the adjustable speed of the revolv- ing disk. The trumpet or fog-horn was provided with a series of replaceable stcel tongues of different sizes, and the siren was driven at five different pitches of from 250 to 700 impulses per second, and at steam pressures varying from 20 pounds to 100 pounds per square inch. For the purpose of accurate estimation, within short distances, a phonometer or “artificial ear” was employed, having at its smaller upturned end a horizontal drum of stretched mem- brane, sprinkled with sand, after the plan devised by Sondhauss. Trumpets of thé same size, were made of different materials, as of brass, iron, and wood; but these differences were found to exercise little or no influence on the intensity or penetration of the sound. Trumpets were also made of different shapes, straight and curved, and square as well as round, with equal lengths and equal areas of cross section; from whose trials it appeared that the conical form gave nearly double the distance of action on the sand of the “arti- ficial ear,” that was given by the pyramidal form. Such investi- gations — varied and long-continued, serve to show the conscientious earnestness with which Henry sought to give the highest efficiency to the expedients available for the protection of life and property along our extended sea coast. The steam-whistle was found to be less powerful than the trum- pet, with the same expenditures of fuel. Steam-whistles were afterwards tried of 10 inches, 12 inches, and 18 inches in diameter. The largest size was not found to give results proportioned to its increased consumption ; and the 10 or 12 inch size was regarded as practically the most efficient. The siren was found to be the most powerful and penetrating of the instruments tested, as it admitted more advantageously the application of a higher steam expenditure. The best result with this instrument was attained with a pressure of from 60 to 80 pounds, and at a pitch between 350 and 400 vibrations per second. Under favorable conditions, 312 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. this instrument frequently made itself heard at a distance of fifteen, and twenty miles. THenry’s large experience with the occasional aerial impediments to sound propagation,* and his strong sense of the vital importance of having fog-signals recognized at a distance, under the most adverse conditions, led him to favor the introduc- tion of the most powerful sounders attainable, without absolutely limiting the decision to their relative economy. Hence he was the first to devise improvements in the siren, and to press its adoption at important or dangerous stations, notwithstanding its higher con- sumption of steam or heat power. f Partly under the stimulus given to the sale of lard oil by the striking proofs of its excellence as an illuminant under favorable conditions, furnished by Henry, this article slowly advanced in price; though probably not to an extent of more than a fourth part additional cost. Henry’s energies again were called into requisition to devise a remedy, ‘Neither gas, nor electricity, the favorite means of numerous projectors and advisers, appeared just:fied, on the score of economy. { A new series of elaborate experiments was undertaken to determine whether mineral oil (so abundant as to be easily procurable at one-third the cost of lard oil) could not be made available. The great improvements introduced into its prep- *An abstract of Henry's elaborate and invaluable researches on some abnormal phenomena of Sound—the crowning labor of his life, must be reseryed for a con- cluding section. + Major G. H. Elliott, commissioned by the U.S. Light-House Board to make a tour of inspection of European Light-house establishments in 1873, in his Report ‘published by the Senate in 1874, says of the British and French systems, “I saw many details of construction and administration which we can adopt to adyan- tage, while there are many in which we excel. Our shore fog-signals particularly, are vastly superior both in number and power.” (Leport on European Light-houses, p.12,) “To the careful and laborious Investigations and experiments of the dis- tinguished Chalrman of the Light-Ifouso Bourd, prolonged through a series of years, and prosecuted under a great variety of conditions, Is largely to bo at- tributed the acknowledged superiority of our fog-signal glace (Journal of Franklin Institute, Jan. 1876, vol. xxi. p. 43.) t Report of L. H. Board for 1874, p. 11. No agency (for whatever purpose) has proved so enticing to the half-informed as electricity. For years past scarcely a month has elapsed without some new form of patent electric-light, or some marvelous application of electric-lights, being pertinaciously urged by sanguine “reformers”? upon the Light-House Board for adoption; some of these ideal schemes being the mounting of electric-lights on buoys, or on the masts of light ships, or their suspension from moored balloons. Many eminently original minds haye earnestly desired to obtain contracts for supplying all the light- . houses with oxy-hydrogen lime lights. In a fog, the most powerful electric-light is as useless as the cheapest kerosene lamp. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 313 aration in later years by high distillation, seemed to justify the attempt. Not only was a laborious inquiry into the best conditions of combustion, by precise photometric measurement required, but for the security of the service, equally laborious examinations into the best practicable methods of testing, of handling, and of storing this material.* To secure a proper oxygenation*in burning, a modification of the lamp was required. “It was soon apparent that the use of mineral oil would necessitate a change of lamps, and attention is now directed to the perfection of one which will produce the best results from this illuminant. It is thought that the lamps now used with lard oil can be converted at no great expense and successfully used with mineral oil. Our experiments have shown that this oil can be more readily used in the smaller lamps; and it is proposed as soon as suitable ones can be prepared, to put it into use at such stations of the fifth and sixth order, as may be thought expedient; when if it be found satisfactory, an attempt will be made to substitute it for lard oil in lamps of the higher orders.” | “This change is proposed entirely with reference to economy; for it has been found by repeated experiment, that while a somewhat superior light may be obtained from a small lamp charged with kerosene, a larger lamp charged with lard oil affords the greater illuminating power. So great is this difference in lamps of the first order with five wicks, that the rates of light from kerosene and lard, are as three to four respectively. Since the safety of the keeper and the continuity of the light are essen- tial elements in the choice of an illuminant, a thorough acquaint- ance with the nature of the substance is essentially necessary. With a view therefore to the introduction of kerosene, a series of experiments have been made during the last two years on the different varieties of this material found in the market.” { *“Tt has been established that the ordinary fire-test is insufficient as usually applied, and that an explosive mixture may be formed by confining the vapors given off at a temperature in some cases twenty degrees lower than that certified to by the public inspector. That this inquiry is of great practical importance to the Light-house system, must be evident when we reflect that means must be dlevised for testing the ofl offered for acceptance in accordance with contracts; for storing it; for transporting it to light-house stations; for preserving it in butts at the stations; and for the instruction of the keepers in its daily use.” (Report of L. H. Board, 1877, p. 5.) + Report of L. H. Board, 1875, p. 6. t Report of L. H. Board, 1877, p. 4. 314 eB MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. In 1871, on the resignation of Admiral Shubrick, Henry*was chosen as the Chairman of the Light-House Board; and his ener- getic labors in behalf of the service, fully vindicated the wisdom of the choice. Punctual in his attendance on the weekly meetings of the Board, he inspired others with a portion of his own zealous devotion. Nor did he fail to urge upon the Government, the con- stant need and responsibility of maintaining an efficient establish- ment. He emphatically declared that “The character of the aids which any nation furnishes the mariner in approaching and leaving its shores, marks in a conspicuous degree its advancement in civili- zation. Whatever tends to facilitate navigation or to lessen its dangers, serves to increase commerce; and hence is of importance not only to the dwellers on the seaboard, but to the inhabitants of every part of the country. - - - Therefore it is of the first importance that the signals, whether of light or sound, which indi- cate the direction of the course, and the beacons which mark the channel, shall be of the most improved character, and that they be under the charge of intelligent, efficient, and trustworthy attend- ants.” * And rising to a higher argument, he pointed out that “It is not alone in its economical aspect that a light-house system is to be regarded: it is a life-preserving establishment founded on the principles of Christian benevolence, of which none can so well appreciate the importance as he who after having been exposed to the perils of the ocean—it may be for months—finds himself approaching in the darkness of night a lee shore. But it is not enough to erect towers, and establish other signals: they must be maintained in an efficient state with uninterrupted constancy.” f Unfailing continuity was the watch-word of his administration. * Report of L. H, Board, 1873, pp. 3,4. The coast line of the United States Is far more extended than that of any other nation on the globe. ‘The magnitude of the Light-house system of the United States may be Inferred from the following facts; from the St. Croix River on the boundary of Maine, to the mouth of the Rio Grande in the Gulf of Mexico, includes a distance of over 6,000 miles; on the Pacific coust, a length of about 1,500 miles; on the great northern Lakes, about 8,000 miles; and on inland rivers about 700 miles; making a total of more than 10,000 miles, Nearly every square foot of the margin of the sea throughout the whole extent of 5,000 miles along the Atlantic and Gulf coast, is more or less illuminated by light-house rays; the mariner rarely losing sight of one light until he has gained another,” (p.4, of same Report.) + Report of L, H, Board, 187A, p. 5. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 315 A formal report made to the Honorable Secretary of the Treas- ury by the Naval Secretary of the Light-House Board, dated May 21st, 1878, (very shortly after Henry’s death,) simply detailing for information, the character of his gratuitous services to the light- house establishment during a quarter of a century, (and not intended for the public,) takes the inevitable form of eulogy. A portion of it is here quoted: “As Chairman of this committee, Professor Henry acted as the scientific adviser of the Board. But in addition it was his duty to conduct the experiments made by the Board, not only in the matter of original investigation, and testing of the material used, but in examining and reporting on the models, plans, and theories, pre- sented by others to the Board. The value of the services he ren- dered in this position is simply inestimable. He prepared the formula for testing our oils; he conducted the series of experiments resulting in the substitution of lard oil for sperm oil, which effected an jmmense saving in cost; and he also conducted the experiments which have resulted in making it possible to substitute mineral oil for lard oil, when another economy will be made. His original investigation into the laws of sound have resulted in giving us a fog-signal service conceded to be the best in the world. ' Iis exami- nations into the action of electricity, have enabled the Board to almost completely protect its stations from the effect of lightning. The result of his patient, continuous, practical experimentation is visible everywhere in the service. No subject was too vast for him to undertake; none too small for him to overlook. And while he has brought into the establishment so many practical applications of science, he has done almost as much service by keeping out what presented by others seemed plausible, but which on examin- ation proved impracticable. “Every theory, plan, or machine, which was pressed on the Board, as for the interests of commerce and navigation, was referred to the committee on experiments, when it was examined by its Chairman, and was formally reported upon. If it had no practical value, the report on record simply stated the inexpediency of its adoption: but the Professor often verbally pointed out to the pre- senter, its fallacy; and sent him away—if not satisfied —at least 316 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. feeling that he had been well treated. He thus prevented not only the adoption of impracticable plans, but avoided the enmity of their inventors. “Professor Henry made many valuable reports, containing the results of his elaborate experiments into matters which were for- mally referred to him, which are spread on the records of the Board; and the reports were drawn in such form that his sugges- tions were capable of and received practical application. But in addition to this, he was constantly extending his scientific researches for the benefit of the service in all directions. His summer vaca- tions were as a rule passed in experimentation at the laboratory of the Establishment at Staten Island, on its steamers, or at its light- stations, pushing his inquiries to their last results. To experimen- tation in the interests of this service, Professor Henry seemed to give his whole heart. It appeared as if he never lost sight of the needs of the Establishment, and as if he never neglected an oppor- tunity to advance its interests. In addition to his other duties, Professor Henry presided as Chairman of the Light-House Board for the last seven years at its weekly meetings, when he did much to infuse into the different members of the Board, his own spirit of labor for, and devotion to its interests.” * Services to the National G'overnment.—The value of Henry’s services to the various Executive Departments of our Government, faithfully and unostentatiously performed through a long series of years and a succession of Presidential Administrations, cannot be estimated, as its history can never be written. Whatever material for it existed in the form of abstracts of inquiries, trials, and reports, prior to 1865, unfortunately perished in the fire of that year. Whenever in any important case a scientific adviser could be useful to the proper conduct of a Bureau, Henry’s reputation generally pointed him out as the most suitable expert and arbiter. On the outbreak of the great civil war, the number of such refer- * Hxecutive Documents, No. 94, Forty-fifth Congress, 2d Session, Senate, pp. 2,3. It is gratifying to know that on the presentation of his report and recommendation to Congress, by the high-minded Secretary of the Treasury, a moderate appropri- ation for the benefit of his bereaved family was at once passed, in slight recogni- tion of Henry’s ‘‘inestimable’”’ services. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 317 ences was naturally very considerably increased. The Departments of War, of the Navy, and of the Treasury, were besieged by pro- jectors with every imaginable and impossible scheme for saving the country, and demolishing the enemy. ‘Torpedo balloons, electric- light balloons, wonderful compounds destined to supersede gun- powder and revolutionize the art of war; cheap methods for the manufacture of Government bonds and paper-money ; multitudinous expedients for the prevention of counterfeiting, by devices in the engraving, by secret markings, by anti-photographic inks, by pecu- liar textures of paper, (applicable to coupons, to circulating notes, to revenue stamps,)—each warranted to be infallible; such were among the agencies by which patriotic patentees and adroit adven- turers were willing to serve their country and to reap their reward by the moderate royalty or percentage due to the magnificence of the public benefit. Such were among the unenviable tasks of examination and adjudication accepted by Henry, only from an intrepid sense of duty. “The course which has been pursued of rendering the Govern- ment in its late trials, every aid which could be supplied by scientific research, has been warmly approved. As most persons are probably entirely ignorant of the services really rendered to the Government by the Institution, I may here state the fact that a large share of my time, (all indeed which could be spared from official duties,) has been devoted for the last four years to investigations required by the public exigencies. Within this period, several hurdred reports, requiring many experiments, and pertaining either to pro- posals purporting to be of high national importance, or relating to the quality of the multifarious articles offered in fulfillment of legal contracts, have been rendered. The opinions advanced in many of these reports, not only cost much valuable time, but also involved grave responsibilities. While on the one hand the rejection of a proposition would be in contravention to the high importance claimed for it by its author, on the other the approval of it would perhaps incur the risk of the fruitless expenditures of a large amount of public money. It is not necessary, I trust, to say that the labor thus rendered was entirely gratuitous, or that in the judgment pronounced in any case, no regard was paid to the inter- 318 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. ested solicitations or personal influence of the parties concerned # on the contrary it has in some instances resulted from the examination of materials sold to the Government, that attempted fraud has been exposed, and the baffled speculator received his due reward in con- demnation and punishment. These facts it ‘is thought will be deemed a sufficient answer to those who have seemed disposed to reproach the Institution with the want of a more popular demon- stration—but of a really far less useful or efficient aid in the support of the Government.” * In the performance of these troublesome and often disagreeable labors, conducted with the single aim necessitated by all his scien- tific habits and instincts, it-of course resulted that a great majority of his judgments and recommendations were decidedly adverse to the hopes and wishes of the aspirants to fame and fortune. Having once satisfied himself of the frivolity or the chicanery of an article or project, his decision was inflexible; and although importunate appeals to the Department Secretary, abetted by a prostituted political or other influence, in one or two instances succeeded in fastening for a time upon the public Treasury a worthless or a noxious leech, the vast number of such, excluded from experi- mental imbibitions by Henry’s critical supervision, must have been a protection to the public interests quite beyond the reach of esti- mation: while on the other hand, the supplies of honest contractors awarded their just commendation, and the rare proposals of real merit’ favorably reported upon, which from a hasty survey might have been confounded and overlaid with the mass of untried puerilities, no less served to strengthen and assist the Government during its years of greatest trial, need, and exhaustion, Krom the outset of the unnatural sectional revolt, fully appre- ciating the vastness of the interests, the sacrifices, and the dangers involved, Henry contemplated the crisis—not with despondency, but with a profound sorrow and solicitude. While his sympathies and his hopes were all for the preservation of the national integrity of jurisdiction, he was little given to public exhibitions of his feel- ings. _Undemonstrative—less from: temperament than from the deliberate and habitual subjection of emotional expression to reason, * Smithsonian Report for 1864, p. 15. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 319 during those times of feverish excitement apprehension and circum- spection necessarily attendant on the prevalence of a gigantic rebel- lion, (unparalleled in incentive, in temper, and in magnitude,) many of whose leaders had been among his personal friends, he was not unnaturally looked upon by many as lukewarm in his patriotism, if not disloyal in his citizenship. ‘To the occasional inuendoes of the press, he deigned no answers: he was the last man to accord compliance with the urgency of a popular clamor. And yet during the entire period of the Southern Insurrection, he was the personal and trusted friend of President Lincoln. * CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENCE AT WASHINGTON. In addition to what may be called the public labors of Henry so diligently performed in various fields after his advent to the Smith- sonian Institution, it is well briefly to contemplate the special scien- tific work he was able to accomplish in the intervals of his exacting occupations, that some estimate may be formed of the independent value of his later contributions, as well as of his wonderful indus- try. While still engaged in his difficult task of organizing and shaping the policy of the Institution, in 1850, on taking occasion to present before the American Association at New Haven, Conn. * Early in the war (in the autumn of 1861,) a caller at the Presidential Mansion very anxious to see the Chief Magistrate of the nation, was informed that he could not then be seen, being engaged in an important private consultation. The caller not to be repulsed, wrote on a piece of paper that he must see Mr. Lincoln personally, on a matter of vital and pressing importance to the public welfare. This of course secured his admission to the presence of Mr. Lincoln, who was sitting with a middle-aged gentleman. Observing the hesitancy of his visitor, the President told him he might speak freely, as only a friend was present. Whereupon the visitor announced that for several evenings past he had observed a light exhibited on the highest of the Smithsonian. towers, for a few minutes about nine o'clock, with mysterious movements, which he felt satisfled were designed as signals to the rebels encamped on Munson’s hill in Virginia. Having gravely listened to this information with raised eyebrows, but a subdued twinkle of the eye, the President turned to his companion, saying “What do you think of that? Professor Henry.” Rising with a smile, the person addressed replied, that from the time mentioned, he presumed the mysterious Nght shone from the lantern of an attendant who was required at nine o'clock each evening to observe and! record the indications of the meteorological instru- ments placed on the tower. The painful confusion of the officious informant, at once appealed to Henry’s sensibility; and quite unmindful of the President, he approached the visitor, offering his han@, and with a courteous regard counselled him never to be.abashed at the issue of a conscientious discharge of duty, and never to let the fear of ridicule interfere with its faithful execution. 320 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. a résumé of the electrical phenomena exhibited by the Leyden ¥ar, and their true interpretation, he remarked that “for the last three and a half years, all his time and all his thoughts had been given to the details of the business of the Smithsonian Institution. He had been obliged to withdraw himself entirely from scientific research; but he hoped that now the Institution had got under way, and the Regents had allowed him some able assistants, that he would be enabled in part at least to return to his first love—the investigation of the phenomena of nature.” * Thermal Telescope.—Shortly after his establishment at Washing- ton, he continued a series of former experiments with the “thermo- galvanic multiplicator” devised by Nobili and Melloni in 1831; and by some slight but significant modifications of the apparatus, he succeeded in imparting to it a most surprising delicacy of action. With the thermo-electric pile carefully adjusted at the focus of a suitable reflector, his “thermal telescope” when directed to the celestial vault, indicated that the heat radiated inward by our atmosphere when clear, is least at the zenith, and increases down- ward to the horizon; as was to have been inferred from its increas- ing mass: when directed to clouds, they were found to differ very widely accordingly as they were condensing or being dissipated ; some even indicating a less amount of radiation than the surround- ing atmosphere. When directed to a horse in a distant ficld, its animal heat concentrated on the pile, was distinctly made manifest on the galyanometer needle. Even the heat from a man’s face at the distance of a mile could be detected; and that from the side of a house at several miles distance.t These and many similar obser- vations demonstrated to sense the inductions of reason, that there is a constant and universal exchange by radiation in straight lines from every object in nature, following the same laws as the palpable emanation from incandescent bodies; and that even when the amplitude of the thermal vibrations (equivalent to the square root of their dynamic energy) is reduced a million fold, its existence may still be distinctly traced. * Proceed. ‘Am. Assoc. 4th Meeting, New Haven, Aug. 1850, p. 878. + Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. 1848, vol. y. pp. 118, 144. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. ool Henry showed by experiment, that ice could be employed both as a convex lens for converging heat to a focus, and also asa con- cave mirror for the same purpose: a considerable portion of the incident rays being transmitted, a large portion reflected, and the remainder (a much smaller quantity ) absorbed by the ice. In 1849, for the purpose of estimating the effects of certain meteorological conditions of .the atmosphere, he made some experi- ments on the lateral radiation from a current of ascending heated air at different distances above the flame; the latter being thoroughly eclipsed. ‘ He also experimented on the radiation of heat from a hydrogen ' flame, which was shown to be quite small, notwithstanding the high temperature of the flame. By placing an infusible and incombus- tible solid in the flame, while the temperature is much reduced, the radiant light and heat are greatly increased: *—results closely analogous to those obtained by him in the differences between the audibility of vibrating tuning-forks when suspended by a soft thread, or when rigidly attached to a sounding-board. These results have also an undoubted significance with regard to celestial radiations; not only as to the differences between gaseous nebule and stars or clusters, but as to the differences between stars in a probably differ- ent state of condensation or of specific gravity. A few years later, he continued his investigation of this subject of radiation, more especially with reference to Rumford’s “Obser- vations relative to the means of increasing the quantities of Heat obtained in the Combustion of Fuel:” published in Great Britain in 1802. He found that Rumford’s recommendation of the intro- duction of balls of clay or of fire brick (about two and a half inches in diameter) into a coal fire, was fully justified as an eco- nomic measure: more heat being thereby radiated from the fire into the room, and less being carried up the flue. He also showed however that for culinary purposes, while the incandescent or heated clay increases the radiation, and thereby improves. the quality of the fire for roasting, it correspondingly expends the tem- perature, and thereby diminishes its power for boiling. “That a * Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Oct. 19, 1849, vol. v. p. 108. + Journal Royal Institution, 1802, vol. i. p. 28. 21 322 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. solid substance increases the radiation of the heat of a flame, is an interesting fact in connection with the nature of heat itself. It would seem to show that the vibrations of gross matter are neces- sary to give sufficient intensity of impulse to produce the phe- nomena of ordinary radiant heat.” * In 1851, he read before the American Association at Albany, a paper “On the Theory of the so-called Imponderables:” (mainly a development of his earlier discussion in 1846, of the molecular constitution of matter,) in which he forcibly criticised a frequent. tendency to assume or multiply unknown and unrealizable modes of action: holding that with regard to the most subtle agencies of nature, we have no warrant by the strict scientific method, for resorting to other than the observed and established laws of matter and force, until it has been exhaustively demonstrated that these are insufficient. The fundamental laws of mechanical philosophy “are five in number; viz. the two laws of force—attraction, and repulsion, varying with some function of the distance; and secondly, , the three laws of motion—the law of inertia, of the co-existence , of motions, and of action and re-action, Of these laws we can give no explanation: they are at present considered as ultimate facts; to which all mechanical phenomena are referred, or from which they are deduced by logical inference, The existence of these laws as has been said, is deduced from the phenomena of the operations of matter in masses; but we apply them by analogy to | the minute and invisible portions of matter which constitute the atoms or molecules of gases, and we find that the inferences from this assumption are borne out by the results of experience.” He regarded the modern kinetic or dynamic theory of gases, by its predictions and verifications, as furnishing almost a complete estab- lishment of the atomic and molecular theory of matter. Referring to the ingenious hypothesis of Boscovich, he thought that though well adapted to embrace the two static laws above mentioned, it did not appear equally well adapted to satisfy in any intelligible sense the three kinetic laws. He contended that any attempt at conform- ing our conception of the ultimate constitution of matter to the * Proceed. Am, Assoc. Providence, Aug. 1855, pp. 112-116, “On the Effect of min- gling Radiating substances with Combustible materials.” DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. S20 inductions of experience, would seem to conduct us directly to the atomic hypothesis of Newton. A careful study of the dynamics of the so-called “imponderables” certainly tended to their unifica- tion. Admitting the difficulty of framing an entirely satisfactory theory of the resultant transverse action of electricity, he suggested that a tangential force was not accordant with any inductions from actual experience; and was incapable of direct mechanical realiza- tion. Extending the atomic conception of matter to the setherial medium of space, he concluded by urging “the importance in the adoption of mechanical hypotheses, of conditioning them in strict accordance with the operations of matter under the known laws of force and motion, as exhibited in. time and space.” * Among the various public Addresses delivered by Henry on special occasions, reference may be here made to his excellent expo- sition of the nature of power, and the functions of machinery as its vehicle,—concluding with a sketch of the progress of art, pronounced. at the close of the Exhibition of the Metropolitan Mechanics’ Institute, in Washington, on the evening of March 19th, 1853. After representing to his hearers the close physical analogy between the human body as a moving machine, and the steam loco- motive under an intelligent engineer, he remarked: “In both, the direction of power is under the influence of an immaterial, think- ing, willing principle, called the soul. But this must not be con- founded as it frequently is with the motive power. ‘The soul of a man no more moves his body, than the soul of the engineer moves the locomotive and its attendant train of cars. In both cases the soul is the -directing, controlling principle; not the. impelling power.” + | Views of Education.—Another address deserving of special notice (delivered the following year,) is his introductory discourse before the “ Association for the Advancement of Education,” as its retiring President. In this, he maintained that inasmuch as “the several facultics of the human mind are not simultaneously developed, in educating an individual we ought to follow the order of nature, and ‘to adapt the instruction to the age and mental stature of the pupil. * Proceed. Am. Assoc. Albany, Aug. 1851, pp. 84-91. }+ Closing Address Metr. Mech. Inst. Washington, 1853, p. 19. 324 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Memory, imitation, imagination, and the faculty of forming mental habits, exist in early life, while the judgment and the reasoning powers are of slower growth.” Hence less attention should be given to the development of the reasoning faculties, than to those of observation: the juvenile memory should be stored rather with facts, than with principles: and he condemned as mischievous “the proposition frequently advanced, that the child should be taught nothing but what he can fully comprehend, and the endeavor in accordance with this, to invert the order of nature, and attempt to impart those things which cannot be taught at an early age, and to neglect those which at this period of life the mind is well adapted to receive. By this mode we may indeed produce remarkably intelligent children, who will become remarkably feeble men. The order of nature is that of art before science; the entire concrete first, and the entire abstract last. ‘These two extremes should run gradually into each other, the course of instruction becoming more and more logical as the pupil advances in years.”—“The cultiva- tion of the imagination should also be considered an essential part of a liberal education: and this may be spread over the whole course of instruction, for like the reasoning faculties the imagination may continue to be improved until late in life.” Applying this same reasoning to the moral training of youth, hie considered that (as in the intellectual culture) the object should be “not only to teach the pupil how to think, but how to act and to do ; placing great stress upon the early education of the habits. - - - We are frequently required to act from the impulse of the moment, and have no time to deduce our course from the moral principles of the act. An individual can be educated to a strict regard for truth, to deeds of courage in rescuing others from danger, to acts of benevolence, generosity, and justice. - - - The future character of a child and that of the man also, is in most cases formed prob- ably before the age of seven years. Previously to this time impressions have been made which shall survive amid the vicissi- - tudes of life, amid all the influences to which the individual may be subjected, and which will outcrop as it were, in the last stage of ° his earthly existence, when the additions to his character made in later years, have been entirely swept away.” Childhood (he inti- DISCOURSE OF W. B. 'TAYLOR. 325 mated) is less the parent of manhood, than of age: the special vices of the individual child though long ieebatced sometimes surviving and re-appearing in his “second childhood.” Affirming that culture is constraint,— education and direction an expenditure of force, and extending his generalization from the . individual to the race, he controverted the idea so popular with some benevolent enthusiasts, that there is a spontaneous tendency in man to civilization and advancement. The origins of past civilizations — taking a comprehensive glance at far distant human populations —have been sporadic as it were, and their prevalence - comparatively transitory. “It appears therefore that civilization itself may be considered as a condition of unstable equilibrium, which requires constant effort to be sustained, and a still greater effort to be advanced. It is not in my view the ‘manifest destiny’ of humanity to improve by the operation of an inevitable necessary law of progress: but while I believe that it is the design of Provi- dence that man should be improved, this improvement must be the result of individual effort, or of the combined effort of many indi- viduals animated by the same feeling and co-operating for the attainment of the same end. - - - If we sow judiciously in the present, the world will assuredly reap a beneficent harvest in the future: and he has not lived in vain, who leaves behind him as his successor, a child better educated — morally, intellectually, and physically, than himself. From this point of view, the responsi- bilities of life are immense. Every individual by his example and precept, whether intentionally or otherwise, does aid or oppose this important work, and leaves an impress of character upon the suc- ceeding age, which is to mould its destiny for weal or woe, in all coming time. - - - The world however is not to be advanced by the mere application of truths already known: but we look forward (particularly in physical science) to the effect of the development of new principles. We have scarcely as yet read more than the title-page and preface of the great volume of nature, and what we do know is as nothing in comparison with that which may be yet unfolded and applied.” * * Proceed. Assoc. Adv. Education, 4th Session, Washington, Dec. 28, 1854, pp. 17-31. 'The pregnant thought that human civilization is an artificial and coerced con- dition, would seem to have a suggestive bearing on the two great theories of 326 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Experiments on Building-Stone.—In 1854, a series of experiments on the strength of different kinds of building-stone, was undertaken by Henry as one of a commission appointed by the President, having reference to the marbles offered for the extension of the United States Capitol. Specimens of the different samples— accu- rately cut to cubical blocks one inch and a half in height, were first tried by interposing a thin sheet of lead above and below, between the block and the steel plates of the crushing dynamometer. “ ‘This was in accordance with a plan adopted by Rennie, and that which appears to have been used by most if not all of she subsequent experimenters in researches of this kind. Some doubt however was expressed as to the action of interposed lead, which induced a series of experiments to settle this question; when the remarkable fact was discovered that the yielding and approximately equable pressure of the lead caused the stone to give way at about half the pressure it would sustain without such an -interposition. For example, one of the cubes precisely similar to another which with- stood a pressure of upwards of 60,000 pounds when placed in immediate contact with the steel plates, gave way at about 30,000 pounds with lead interposed. ‘This interesting fact was verified in a series of experiments embracing samples of nearly all the mar- bles under trial, and in no case did a single exception occur to vary the result. “The explanation of this striking phenomenon (now that the fact is known) is not difficult. The stone tends to give way by bulging out in the centre of each of its four perpendicular faces, and to form two pyramidal figures with their apices opposed to each other at the centre of the cube, and their bases against the steel plates. In the case where rigid equable pressure is employed, as in that of the thick steel plate, all parts must give way together. But in that of a yielding equable pressure as in the case of inter- development, and evolution, so generally confounded by the superficial. What may be called the radical difference between these two views of organic extension, is that the former assumes an inherent mysterious tendency to progression, whose motto is ever “excelsior;” while the latter assumes a general tendency to vari- ation within moderate limits in indefinite directions; so that elevation is no more normal than degradation, and indeed may be regarded as rarer and more exceptional, since at every upward stage attained by the few, there are probably more further digressions downward than upward, the motto being ever ‘‘aptior.’” DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. BPH | posed lead, the stone first gives way along the outer lines or those of least resistance, and the remaining pressure must be sustained by the central portions around the vertical axis of the cube. After this important fact, was clearly determined, lead and all other inter- posed substances were discarded, and a method devised by which the upper and lower surfaces of the cube could be ground into perfect parallelism. - - - All the specimens tested were subjected to this process, and on their exposure to pressure were found to give concordant results. The crushing force sustained was therefore much greater than that heretofore given for the same material.” * In the same communication, interesting remarks are made on the tensile strength of materials, particularly the metals. “ According to the views presented, the difference in the tenacity in steel and lead does not consist in the attractive cohesion of the atoms, but in their capability of slipping upon each other:” that is on the differ- ence of lateral adhesion of the molecules, as exemplified in ice and: . water. A bar of soft metal—as lead—subjected to tensile strain, by reason of the greater freedom of the exterior layers of mole- cules, exhibits a stretching and thinning; while the interior mole- cules being more confined by the surrounding pressure, are less mobile, permit less elongation of the mass,.and are therefore the first to commence breaking apart. Accordingly on ultimate sepa- ration, each fragment exhibits a hollow or cup-like surface of fracture, where the interior portion of the material has first parted : the depth of the concavity being somewhat proportioned to the malleability or ductility of the substance. “With substances of greater rigidity, this effect is less apparent, but it exists even in iron, and the interior fibres of a rod of this meta] may be entirely separated, while the outer surface presents no appearance of change. From this it would appear that metals should never be elongated by mere stretching, but in all cases by a process of wire-drawing, or rolling. A wire or bar must always be weakened by a force which permanently increases its length without at the same time compressing it.” + * Proceed. Am. Assoc. Providence, Aug: 1855, pp. 102-112. f This conclusion is not at all in opposition to the ascertained fact of the increased strength imparted to an iron rod by “‘thermio-tension,” discovered by Professor WALTER R. JOHNSON, in 1838. (Journal of Franklin Institute, Oct. 1839, vol. Xxiv. n.s. pp. 232-236.) 328 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY Hydrometric Experiment,—A. novel project for the rectification of spirits by the simple process of static separation of the alcohol and water by the stress of their specific gravities when exposed in long columns, produced in 1854 a considerable sensation. It was alleged i in various publications by those interested in the new enter- prise, that the coercitive compression exerted by the water in a long hydrostatic column greatly accelerated the displacement and separation induced by gravitation, and that only a few hours were necessary to complete the process, if the depth of the liquid were sufficiently great.* iui A. patent was obtained: affidavits and samples fully attested the wonderful efficiency cf the process; and only the co-operation of confiding capitalists was required, to realize fabulous profits, and effect a manufacturing and commercial revolution. Simply in the interests of truth, Henry undertook the careful investigation of this surprising pretension. One of the towers of ‘the Smithsonian Building supplied a convenient well for the experi- . ment, easily accessible throughout its height. “A series of stout iron tubes of about an inch and a half internal diameter formed the column; the total length of which was one hundred and six feet. Four stop-cocks were provided ; one at the bottom, one about four feet from the top, and the other two to the intermediate space equally divided or nearly so.” ‘Very careful hydrometer and ther- mometer registers were made at increasing intervals of time, the last being that of nearly half a year: a portion of the reserved liquor being simultaneously tested. The result stated, is: “There is not the slightest indication of any difference of density between the original liquor and that from the top or bottom of the column, after the lapse of hours, days, weeks, or months. The fluid at the bottom of the tube it must be remembered was for five months exposed to the pressure of a column of fluid at least one hundred feet high.” + * An incidental remark in Gmelin’s ‘‘Handbook of Chemistry’’ seemed to give some color of plausibility to the scheme. ‘Brandy kept in casks is said to con- tain a greater proportion of spirit in the upper, and of water in the lower part.” Gmelin’s Handbook, Translated by Henry Watts, London, 1841, part i. sect. 4,— vol. i. p. 112. +t Proceed. Am. Assoc. Providence, Aug. 1855, pp. 142, 143. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 329 Sulphuric-acid Barometer.—In 1856, Henry had constructed. for the Smithsonian Institution, at the suggestion of Professor George C. Schaeffer, a large sulphuric-acid barometer, whose column being more than seven times the height of the mercurial column (about 184 feet) gave correspondingly enlarged and sensitive indications. Water barometers with cisterns protected by oil, (as that constructed by Daniell for the Royal Society,) have always proved instable. With reference to sulphuric acid, “The advantages of this liquid are: Ist that it gives off no appreciable vapor at any atmospheric temperature; and 2nd that it does not absorb or transmit air. The objections to its use are: Ist the liability to accident from the cor- rosive nature of the liquid, either in the filling of the tube or in its subsequent breakage; and 2nd its affinity for moisture, which tends to produce a change in specific gravity.” The latter defect was obviated by a drying apparatus consisting of a tubulated bottle con- taining chloride of calcium, and connected by a tube with the glass bottle forming the reservoir, which excluded all moisture from the transmitted air. “The glass tube [of the barometer] is two hundred and forty inches long, and three-fourths of an inch in diameter; and is inclosed in a cylindrical brass case of the same length, and two and a half. inches in diameter. The glass tube is secured in the axis of the brass case by a number of cork collars, placed at intervals.” * This barometer continued in successful and satisfactory use for many years; and had its readings constantly recorded. Of several of Henry’s courses of experiments, no details have been published; and his original notes appear to have perished. In 1861, he made a number of experiments on the effects of burn- ing gunpowder in a vacuum, as well as in different gases. “A series of researches was also commenced, to determine more accurately than has yet been done, the expansion produced in a bar of iron at the moment of magnetization of the metal by means of a galvanic current. The opportunity was taken with the consent of Professor Bache, of making these experiments with the delicate instruments which had previously been employed in determining * Proceed. Am. Assoc. Albany, Aug. 1856, pp. 135-138: 330 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY, the varying length, under different temperatures, of the measuring apparatus of the base lines of the United States Coast Survey.” * This wonderfully, microscopic measuring’ apparatus—devised by Mr, Joseph Saxton, was capable of distinguishing (by means of the light-ray index of its contact reflector,) a dimension equal to a half wave-length of average light, or the 100,000th part of an inch, The long under-ground vaults of the Smithsonian building having been selected as a suitable place for the precise verification of the residual co-efficient of compensated temperature expansion of the base rods of the Survey, the opportunity was seized by Henry, at the termination of the investigation, to apply the same delicate apparatus to the determination of the polarized or magnetic expan- sion, ‘The results of these delicate and interesting investigations are lost to the world, In less than six years from the time of these researches, he was called on to mourn the death of his life-long intimate and honored friend, who had always exhibited so brotherly a sympathy and co-operation with his own varied labors, In consequence of this event—the death of his friend Professor A. Dallas Bache in 1867, Henry was chosen in 1868, to be his successor as President of the National Academy of Sciences. At the request of that body, he prepared a eulogy of his friend the late President, which was read before the Academy April 16th, 1869, In grateful acknowledg- ment of the wise counsels and valuable services of Dr. Bache as one of the Smithsonian Regents, he observed; “In 1846 he had been named in the act of incorporation as one of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and by successive re-election was continued by Congress in this office until his death, a period of nearly twenty years. ‘lo say that he assisted in shaping the policy of the estab- lishment would not be enough, It was almost exclusively through his predominating influence that the policy which has given the Institution its present celebrity, was after much opposition finally adopted. - - = Professor Bache with persistent firmness tem- pered by his usual moderation, advocated the appropriation of the proceeds of the funds principally to the plan set forth in the first * Smithsonian Report for 1861, p. 48. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 301 report of the Scerctary, namely of cncouraging and supporting original research in the different branches of science. - - - It would be difficult for the Secretary — however unwilling to intrude anything personal on this occasion, to forbear mentioning that it was entirely due to the persuasive influence of Professor Bache, that he was induced —almost against his own better judgment, to leave the quiet pursuit of science and the congenial employment of col- lege instruction, to assume the laborious and responsible duties of the office to which through the partiality of friendship he had been called. Nor would it be possible for him to abstain from acknowl- - edging with heart-felt emotion, that he was from first to last sup- ported and sustained in his difficult position by the fraternal sympathy, the prudent counsel, and the unwavering friendship of the lamented deceased.” * | Many minor contributions in various fields of scientific observa- tion, must here be omitted: but it would be inexcusable, in this place and on this occasion, to neglect a reference to the active part he took in the organization and advancement of this Society ; + and the unflagging interest ever exhibited in its proceedings, from the date of its convocation, March 13th, 1871, to that of his last illness, All here, remember with what punctuality he attended the meet- ings—whether of the executive committee or of the society, undeterred by inclemencies of the weather which often kept away many much younger members. All here, recall with what unpre- tentious readiness he communicated from his rich stores of well- digested facts, observations— whether initiatory or supplementary, on almost every topic presented to our notice; how apt his illustra- tions and suggestions in our spontaneous discussions ; and with what unfailing interest we ever listened to his words of exposition, of knowledge, and of wisdom: utterances which we shall never hear again; and which unwritten and unrecorded, have not been even reported in an abstract. * Biographical Memoirs, Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. 1. pp. 181-212. Republished in the Smithsonian Report for 1870, pp. 91-116. The father of Professor BAcHE—Richard Bacho, was a son of the only daughter of the illustrious BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, + The Philosophical Society of Washington. Be MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Range of information.—It was not alone in those physital branches of knowledge to which he had made direct original con- tributions, that the mental activities of Henry were familiarly: exercised and conspicuously exhibited. There was scarcely a department of intellectual pursuit in which he did not feel and manifest a sympathetic interest, and in which he did: not follow with appreciative grasp its leading generalizations. Holding ever to the unity of Nature as the expression and most direct illustration of the Unity of its Author, he believed that every new fact discovered in _ any of nature’s fields, would ultimately be found to be in intimate correlation with the laws prevailing in other fields—seemingly the most distant.* To his large comprehension, nothing was insignifi- cant, or unworthy of consideration. He ever sought however to look beyond the ascertained and isolated or classified fact, to its antecedent cause; and in opposition to the dogma of Comte, he averred that the knowledge of facts is not science, — that these are merely the materials from which its temple is constructed by the generalizations of sagacious and attested speculation. Among his earlier studies, Chemistry occupied a prominent place. The youthful assistant in the laboratory of his former Instructor and ever honored friend, Dr. T. Romeyn Beck, and later, himself a teacher of the art and knowledge to others, a skillful manipulator, an acute analyst and investigator of re-actions, he seemed at first destined to become a leader in chemical research. Like Newton, he endeavored to bring the atomic combinations under the concep- tion of physical laws; believing this essential to the development of chemistry as a true science. He always kept himself well- informed on the progress of the more recent doctrines of quantiva- lence, and the newer system of nomenclature. He had also paid considerable attention to geology; with its relations to paleontology on the one side, and to physical geography on the other. * A proper view of the relation of science and art will enable him [the reader] to see that the one is dependent on the other; and that each branch of the study of nature is intimately connected with every other.” (Agricultural Report for 1857, p. 419.) “The statement cannot be too often repeated, that each branch of knowledge is connected with every other, and that no light can be gained in regard to one, which is not reflected upon all.” (Smithsonian Report for 1859, p. 15.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 333 As intimated in touching upon the stimulus given to “arche- ological work” by the Smithsonian publications, (ante, p. 290,) Henry ever displayed a warm sympathy with researches in Anthro- pology; and he would hg eee Si this partiality by repeating the familiar “homo sum” of Terence.” A student of the “com- parative anatomy” of ethnology,—of the obscure but cumulative traces of a remote human ancestry,—and of the curious relics of social, civil, and religious customs, apparently derived from distant or from vanished races, he amassed a fund of well-digested informa- tion in these alluring fields, to be appreciated only by the specialist in such pursuits. Familiar with the details—as well of astronomical observation as of the mathematical processes of reduction, he would have done honor to any Observatory placed under his charge. He was lenient in his judgment of the ancient star-worshippers; and was always greatly attracted by astronomical discoveries. As already men- tioned (ante, p. 239 » he delivered in 1834, a course of Lectures on » Astronomy. Well read in the science of Political ee he had by guar vation and analysis of human nature, made its inductive principles . his own, and had satisfied himself that its deductions were fully confirmed by an intelligent appreciation of the teachings of finan- cial history. He attributed the lamentable disregard of its funda- mental doctrines, by many of our so-called legislators, to a want of scientific training, and consequent want of perception and of faith in the dominion and autonomy of natural law. A good linguist, he watched with appreciative interest the prog- ress of comparative philology, and the ethnologic significance of its generalizations, in tracing out the affiliations of European nations. By no means neglectful of lighter literature, he enjoyed at leisure’ evenings, in the bosom of his cultivated family, the readings of modern writers, and the suggestive interchange of sentiment and criticism. Biikine passages of poetry made a strong impression on his retentive memory; and it was not unusual to hear him embellish some graver fact, in conversation, with an unexpected but most apt quotation. With a fine esthetic feeling, his appreciation and judgment of works of art, were delicate and discriminating. 334 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Among the subjects to which he had given a close and critical attention, was the attractive field of Architecture, both in its his- torical development as a Fine-art—symbolizing devotional senti- ment, and in its later manifestations as the application of antique ° and eclectic forms of ornamentation to utilitarian structures. His very admiration of ancient classic and gothic art, made him intoler- ant of the servile reproduction of Temple and Cathedral styles for purposes and uses to which they were wholly unsuited.* And he was severe in his criticisms on the too frequent practice of wasting a large portion of the funds bequeathed to scientific, edu- cational, or charitable purposes, on showy and pretentious piles, (the inspiration and the monument of an ambitious architect,) to the permanent spoliation and restriction of the endowment intended for intellectual and moral ends, The Reign of Law.— Henry held very broad and decided views as to the reign of order in the Cosmos. Defining science as the “Inowledge of natural law,” and law, as the “will of God,” he was always accustomed to regard that orderly sequence called the “law,” as being fixed and immutable as the omniscient providence of ‘its Divine Author: admitting in no case caprice or variableness: and he would quote with expressive emphasis, Halley’s classic lines, —‘Quas dum primordia rerum Pangeret Omniparens:leges violare Creator Noluit, seternique operis fundamina fixit.” *“The Greek architect was untrammelled by any condition of utility. Archi- tecture was with him in reality a fine-art. The temple was formed to gratify the tutelar deity. Its minutest parts were exquisitely finished, since nothing but perfection on all sides and in the smallest particulars, could satisfy an all-seeing and critical eye, It was intended for external worship, and not for internal use, - - - The uses therefore to which in modern times, buildings of this kind can be applied, are exceedingly few. - - - Modern architecture is not like painting or sculpture, a ‘fine-art’ par excellence: the object of these latter is to produce a moral emotion, to wwaken the feelings of the sublime and the beau- tiful; and we egregiously err when we apply these productions to a merely utilitarian purpose. To make a fire-screen of Rubens’ Madonna, or a candela- brum of the statue of the Apollo Belvidere, would be to debase these exquisite productions of genius, and do violence to the feelings of the cultivated lover of art. Modern buildings are made for other purposes than artistic effect, and in them the sesthetical must be subordinate to the useful; though the two may co-exist, and an intellectual pleasure be derived from a sense of adaptation and fitness, combined with a perception of harmony of parts, and the beauty of detail. The buildings of a country and an age should, be an ethnological expres- sion of the wants, habits, arts, and sentiments of the time in which they were erected.” (Proceed, Am. Assoc. at Albany, Aug. 1856, part i. pp. 120, 121, and Smith- sonian Report for 1856, p. 222.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 335 The doctrine of the absolute dominion of law—so oppressive and alarming to many excellent minds, was to him accordingly but a necessary deduction from his theologic and religious faith. » Lhe series of meteorological essays already referred to as con- tributed to the Agricultural Reports of the Commissioner of Pat- ents, (ante, p. 290,) commences with this striking passage: “All the changes on the surface of the earth and all the movements of the heavenly bodies, are the immediate results of natural forces acting in accordance with established and invariable laws; and it is only by that precise knowledge of these laws, which is properly denomi- nated science, that man is enabled to defend himself against the adverse operations of Nature, or to direct her innate powers in accordance with his will. At first sight, it might appear that meteorology was an exception to this general proposition, and that the changes of the weather and the peculiarities of climate in differ- ent portions of the earth’s surface, were of all things the most uncertain and farthest removed from the dominion of law: but scientific investigation establishes the fact that no phenomenon is the result of accident, or even of fitful volition. The modern science of statistics has revealed a permanency and an order in the’ occurrence of events depending on conditions in which nothing of this kind could have been supposed. Even those occurrences . which seem to be left to the free will, the passion, or the greater or less intelligence of men, are under the control of laws— fixed, immutable, and eternal.” And after dwelling on the developments and significance of moral statistics, he adds: “The astonishing facts of this class lead us inevitably to the conclusion that all events are governed by a Supreme Intelligence who knows no change; and that under the same conditions, the same results are invariably produced.” * Organic Dynamics.— The contemplation of these uniformities leads naturally to the great modern generalization of the correlation of all the working energies of nature: and this to the subject of organic dynamics.. ‘ Modern science has established by a wide and careful induction, the fact that plants and animdls consist princi- * Agricultural Report Com. Pat. for’ 1855, pp.’ 357, 358. 336 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. pally of solidified air; the only portions of an earthy character which enter into their composition, being the ashes that remain: after combustion.” Some ten years before this, or in 1844, (as already noticed in an earlier part of this memoir,—ante, p. 273, Henry had very clearly indicated the correlation between the forces exhibited by inorganic and organic bodies: arguing that from the chemical researches of Liebig, Dumas, and Boussingault, “it would appear to follow that animal power is referable to the same sources as that from the combustion of fuel:” * probably the earliest explicit announcement of the now accepted view. In the series of agricul- tural essays above referred to, he endeavored to frame more defi- nitely a chemico-physical theory by which the elevation of matter to an organic combination in a higher state of power than its source, might be accounted for. Regarding “ vitality” not as a mechanical force, but as an inscrutable directing principle resident in the minute germ — supposed to be vegetative, and inclosed in a sac of starch or other organic nutriment, he considered the case of such provisioned germ (a bean or a potato for instance) embedded in the soil, supplied with a suitable amount of warmth and moisture to give the necessary molecular mobility, soon sending a rootlet down- ward into the earth, and raising a stem toward the surface, fur- ~nished with incipient leaves. Supposing the planted germ to be a potato, on examination we should find its large supply of starch exhausted, and beyond the young plant, nothing remaining but the skin, containing probably a little water.. What has, become of the starch? “If we examine the soil which surrounded the potato, we do not find that the starch has been absorbed by it; and the answer which will therefore naturally be suggested, is that it has been trans- formed into the material of the new plant, and it was for this pur- pose originally stored away. But this though in part correct, is not the whole truth: for if we weigh a potato prior to germination, and weigh the young plant afterward, we shall find that the amount * Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc, Dec. 1844, vol. iv, p. 129, The admirable treatise of Dr. JuLius R, MAYER of Heilbronn, on “Organic Movement in its relation to material changes,” in which for the first time he maintained the thesis that all the energies developed by animal or vegetable organisms, result from internal changes having their dynamic source in external forces, was published the fol- lowing year, or in 1845, RUMFORD nearly half a century earlier, had a partial grasp of the same truth, (Phil. Trans. R, 8S. Jan, 25, 1708, vol. 1xxxviil. pp. 80-102.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 337 of organic matter contained in the latter, is but a fraction of that which was originally contained in the former. We can account in this way for the disappearance of a part of the contents of the sac, which has evidently formed the pabulum of the young plant. But here we may stop to ask another question: By what power was the young plant built up of the molecules of starch? The answer would probably be, by the exertion of the vital force: but we have endeavored to show that vitality is a directing principle, and not a mechanical power, the expenditure of which does work. The con- clusion to which we would arrive will probably now be anticipated. The portion of the organic molecules of the starch, &c. of the tuber, as yet unnaccounted for, has run down into inorganic matter, or has entered again into combination with the oxygen of the air, and in this running down and union with oxygen, has evolved the power necessary to the organization of the new plant. - - - We see from this view that the starch and nitrogenous materials in which the germs of plants are imbedded, have two functions to fulfill, the one to supply the pabulum of the new plant, and the other to furnish the power by which the transformation is effected, the latter being as essential as the former. In the erection of a house, the application of mechanical power is required as much as a supply of ponderable materials.” * : The less difficult problem of the building up of the plant after the consumption of the seed, under the direct action of the solar rays, is then considered; the Jeaves of the young plant absorbing by their moisture carbonic acid from the atmosphere, which being decomposed by solar actinism, yields the de-oxidized carbon to enter * Agricultural’ Report, for 1857, pp. 440-444. In May, 1842, Dr. JuLIus R. MAYER» published in Liebig’s Annalen der Chemie etc. his first remarkable paper on “The Forces of Inorganic Nature,” constituting the earliest scientific enunciation of the correlation of the physical forces; and (if we except the work of SEQUIN in 1839,) of the mechanical equivalent of heat. (Annalen u.s.w. vol. xlii. pp. 233-240.) In September, 1849, Dr. R. FowLer read a short paper before the British Asso- ciation at Birmingham, on “ Vitality as a Force correlated’ with the Physical Forces.” (2eport Brit. Assoc. 1849, part il. pp. 77, 78.) In J une, 1850, Dr. W. B. CAr- PENTER presented to the Royal Society a much fuller memoir “On the Mutual Relations of the Vital and Physical Forces.” (Phil. Trans. R. S. vol. exl. pp. 727-757.) Neither of these essays accounts for the amount of building energy dis- played in the development of the seed, under conditions of low and diffused heat: and the expression “ Vital Force” used both by FowLER and CARPENTER, was studiously avoided by HENRY. 22 338 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. into the structure of the organism. “All the material of which a tree is built up, (with the exception of that comparatively small portion which remains after it has been burnt, and constitutes the ash,) is derived from the atmosphere. In the decomposition of the carbonic acid by the chemical ray, a definite amount of power is expended, and this remains as it were locked up in the plant so long ‘as it continues to grow.” And thus under the expenditure of an external force, the plant (whether the annual cellular herb or the perennial fibrous tree) was shown to be built up from the simpler stable binary compounds of the inorganic world to the more com- plex and unstable ternary compounds of the vegetable world. “In the germination of the plant, a part of the organized molecules runs down into carbonic acid to furnish power for the new arrange- ment of the other portion. In this process no extraneous force is required; the seed contains within itself the power, and the material, for the growth of the new plant up to a certain stage of its development. Germination can therefore be carried on in the dark, and indeed the chemical ray which accompanies light retards rather than accelerates the process.” This important organic principle appears to receive in these passages its earliest enunciation. It was also pointed out that on the completion of the cycle of growth (however brief or however extended), the decay of the plant not only returns the elevated matter to its original lower . plane, but equally returns the entire amount of heat energy absorbed in its elevation: an amount precisely the same, whether the slow oxidation be continued through a series of years, or a rapid combustion be completed in as many nfinutes. “The power which is given out in the whole descent is according to the dynamic theory, just equivalent to the power expended by the impulse from the sun in elevating the atoms to the unstable condition of the organic molecules. If this power is given out in the form of vibrations of the stherial medium constituting heat, it will not be appreciable in the ordinary decay say of a tree, extending as it may through several years: but if the process be rapid, as in case of combustion of wood, then the same amount of power will be given out in the energetic form of heat of high intensity.” DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. . 339 The elevation of inorganic matter (carbonic ‘acid, water, and ammonia,) to the vegetable plane of power, introduces naturally the consideration of the still higher elevation of vegetable organic matter to the animal plane of power. ‘As in the case of the seed of the plant, we presume that the germ of the future animal pre- exists in the egg; and that by subjecting the mass to a degree of temperature sufficient perhaps to give greater mobility to the mole- cules, a process similar in its general effect to that of the germi- nation of the seeds commences. - - - During this process, power is evolved within the shell, we cannot say in the present state of science under what particular form; but we are irresistibly con- strained to believe that it is expended under the direction again of the vital principle, in re-arranging the organic molecules, in build- ing up the complex machinery of the future animal, or developing a still higher organization, connected with which are the mysterious manifestations of thought and volition. In this case as in that of the potato, the young animal as it escapes from the shell, weighs less than the material of the egg previous to the process of incu- bation. The lost material in this case as in the other, has run down into an inorganic condition by combining with oxygen, and in its descent has developed the power to effect the transformation we have just described.” The consumption of internal power does not however stop with the development of the young animal, as it does in the case of the young plant. “The young animal is in an entirely different condition: exposure to the light of the sun is not necessary to its growth or its existence: the chemical ray by impinging on the surface of its body does not decompose the car- bonic acid which may surround it, the conditions necessary for this decomposition, not being present. It has no means by itself to elaborate organic molecules; and is indebted for these entirely to its food. It is necessary therefore that it should be supplied with food consisting of organized materials; that is of complex molecules in a state of power. - - - The power of the living animal is immediately derived from the running down of the complex organ- ized molecules of which the body is formed, into their ultimate combination with oxygen, in the form of carbonic acid and water, and into ammonia. Hence oxygen is constantly drawn into the 340 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. lungs, and carbon is constantly evolved. - - - The animal is a curiously contrived arrangement for burning carbon and hydro- gen, and for the evolution and application of power. A machine is an instrument for the application of power, and not for its crea- tion. The animal body is a structure of this character. - - - A comparison lias been made between the work which can be done by burning a given amount of carbon in the machine—man, and an equal amount in the machine—steam-engine. The result derived from an analysis of the food in one case, and the weight of the fuel in the other, and these compared with the quantity of water raised by each to a known elevation, gives the relative work- ing value of the two machines.. From this comparison, made from experiments on soldiers in Germany and France, it is found that the human machine in consuming the same amount of carbon, does four and a half times the amount of work of the best Cornish engine: - - - “There is however one striking difference between the animal body and the locomotive machine, which deserves our special atten- tion; namely the power in the body is constantly evolved by burn- ing (as it were,) parts of the materials of the machine itself; as if the frame and other portions of the wood-work of the locomotive were burnt to .produce the power, and then immediately renewed. The voluntary motion of our organs of speech, of our hands, of our feet, and of every muscle in the body, is produced not at the expense of the soul but at that of the material of the body itself. Every motion manifesting life in the individual, is the result of power derived from the death as it were of a part of his body. We are thus constantly renewed and constantly consumed; and in this consumption and renewal consists animal life.” * Seven years after the publication of this highly original and sug- gestive exposition, (whose topics and line of discussion had been * Agricultural Report for 1857, pp. 445-449. This important essay it will be observed, antedates Prof. JOSEPH LE CONTE’s paper ‘“‘On the Correlation of Physi- cal, Chemical, and Vital Force,’’ read before the American Association at Spring- field, Aug. 1859, (Proceed. Am. Assoc. py. 187-203: and Sill. Am. Jour. Sci. Nov. 1859, vol. xxviii. pp. 305-319,) as well as Dr. CARPENTER’S second and more mature paper ‘On the application of the Principle of Conservation of Force to Physi- ology,” published in Crookes’ Quarterly Journal of Science, for Jan. and April, 1864, (vol. i. pp. 76-87; and pp. 259-267.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 341 distinctly formulated and sketched out more than two years before, at the commencement of the series in. 1855,) the eminent physiolo- gist. Dr. Carpenter produced his valuable memoir on the Conserva- tion of Force in Physiology; in which for the first time he dis- tinctly affirms the development of vegetative reproductive energy, by the partial running down of matter to its stabler compounds,— “by the retrograde metamorphosis of a portion of the organic com- pounds prepared by the previous nutritive operations:” and also the ultimate return by decay, of the whole amount of force as well as of matter, temporarily borrowed from nature’s store. . Likewise with animal powers, “these forces are developed by the retrograde metamorphosis of the organic compounds generated by the instru- mentality of the plant, whereby they ultimately return to the simple binary forms (water, carbonic acid, and ammonia,) which. serve as the essential food of vegetables. - - - Whilst the vegetable is constantly engaged (so to speak) in raising its component materials from a lower plane to the higher, by means of the power which it draws from the solar rays,—the animal whilst raising one portion of these to a still higher level by the descent of another portion to a lower, ultimately lets down the whole of what the plant had raised.”* So little was Henry’s earlier paper known abroad, that his name does not occur in Dr. Carpenter’s dissertation. Derivation of Species— With regard to the great biologic ques- tion of the past fifteen years—the affiliation of specific forms, it was impossible that Henry should remain an unconcerned observer. Brought up (as it may be said) in the school of Cuvier, but slightly impressed with the brilliant previsions of his competitor, Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, accustomed to look upon the recurrent hypotheses of automatic development as barren speculations, and beside all this, ever the warmly attached personal friend of Agassiz, he approached the consideration of this controverted ‘subject, certainly with no antecedent affirmative pre-possessions. His general acquaintance with the ascertained facts of the metamorphic development of the individual organism from its origin, as well as with the remarkable analogies and homologies disclosed by the sciences of comparative I ea * Quart. Jour. Sci. 1864, vol. i. pp. 87 and 267. 342 ‘MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. physiology and embryology, served however in some measure to prepare his mind to apprehend the significance of the indications which had been so industriously collected, and so intelligently collated: and from the very first, he accepted the problem as a purely philosophical one; employing that much abused term in no restricted sense. With no more reserve in the expression of his views, than the avoidance of unprofitable controversies, (though no one more than he—enjoyed the calm and purely intellectual dis- cussion of an unsettled question by its real experts,) he yet found no occasion to write upon the subject. The unpublished opinions however, of one so wise and eminent, cannot be a matter of indiffer- ence to the student of nature; and their exposition cannot but assist to enlighten our estimate of the mental stature of the man, and of his breadth of apprehension and toleration, Whatever may be the ultimate fate of the theory of natural selection, (he remarked in the freedom of oral intercourse with several naturalists,) it at least marks an epoch, —the first elevation of natural history (so-called) to the really scientific stage: it is based on induction, and correlates a large range of apparently dis- connected observations, gathered from the regions of paleontology or geological successions of organisms, their geographical distribu- tion, climatic adaptations and remarkable re-adjustments, their comparative anatomy, and even the occurrence of abnormal varia- tions, and of rudimentary structures—scemingly so uselessly dis- played as mere simulations of a “type.” It forms a good “ working hypothesis” for directing the investigations of the botanist and zoologist.* Natural selection indeed—no less than artificial, (he: was accustomed to say,) is to a limited extent a fact of observation ; and the practical question is to determine approximately its reach of application, and its sufficiency as an actual agency, to embrace larger series of organic changes lying beyond the scope of direct. human experience. It is for the rising generation of conscientious zoologists and botanists to attack this problem, and to ascertain if practicable its limitations or modifications. *“Tn the investigation of nature, we provisionally adopt hypotheses as ante- cedent probabilities, which we seek to prove or disprove by subsequent observa- tion and experiment: and it is in this way that science is most rapidly and securely advanced.” (Agricult. Teport, 1856, p. 456.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 343 ‘These broad and fearless views, entertained and expressed as early as 1860, or 1861, exhibiting neither the zealous confidence of the votary, nor the jealous anxiety of the antagonist, received scarcely any modification during his subsequent years. Nor did it ever seem to occur to him that any reconstruction of his religious faith was involved in the solution of the problem. So much reli- gious faith indeed was exercised by him in every scientific judgment, that he regarded the teachings of science but as revelations of the Divine mode of government in the natural world: to be diligently sought for and submissively accepted; with the constant recognition however of our human limitations, and the relativity of human’ knowledge.* Not inappropriately may be here recalled a char- acteristic statement of the office of hypothesis, made by him some ten years earlier: presenting a consideration well calculated to restrain dogmatism — whether in science or in theology. “It is not necessary that an hypothesis. be. absolutely true, in order that it may be adopted as an expression of a generalization for the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena: it is only necessary that it should be well conditioned in accordance with known mechanical principles. - - - Man with his finite faculties cannot hope in this life to arrive ata knowledge of absolute truth: and were the true theory of the universe, or in other words 'the precise mode in which Divine Wisdom operates in producing the phenomena of the material world revealed to him, his mind would be unfitted for its reception. It would be too simple in its expression, and too gen- eral in’ its application, to be understood and applied by intellects like ours.” f INVESTIGATIONS IN ACOUSTICS. During the last quarter of a century, among the many interests which demanded and engaged his attention, Henry studied with * With reference to the intimations of the comparative antiquity of man, HENRY quoted with sympathetic approbation the sentiment so well expressed by the Bishop of London in a Lecture at Edinburgh, that ‘The man of science should go on honestly, patiently, diffidently, observing and storing up his obser- vations, and carrying his reasonings unflinchingly to their legitimate conclu- sions, convinced that it would be treason to the majesty at once of science and of religion, if he sought to help either by swerving ever so little from the straight line of truth.’’ (Smithsonian Report for 1868, p. 33.) + Proceed. Am, Assoc, Albany, Aug. 1851, pp. 85, 86, and 87, 344 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. much care various phenomena of acoustics, and added much to, eur practical as well as theoretical knowledge of that important agency —sound, _ In.1851, he read a communication before the American Association, “On the Limit, of Perceptibility of a direct and reflected Sound,” in which he gave as the result of experimental observations, the subjective fact that.a wall or, other. reflecting sur- face if beyond the distance of about 35 feet from the ear, or from the origin of the sound, gives a distinguishable echo from the sound ; but that if the ear or the sounding agent be placed within this distance, the reflected sound appears to blénd. completely with the ‘original one, From a number of experiments, he found that under the same circumstances, this limit of perceptibility did not. vary more than a single foot; but that under differing conditions the limit of distance ranged from 30 to 40 feet, (equivalent to a differ- ence of from 60 to 80 feet of sound. trayel,) depending. partly on the sharpness or clearness of .the sound, and partly on the pitch or the length of the soniferous wave, which affected the amount of overlapping of the two series. ,,, These results. imply.a duration of acoustic impression on the ear of about one-sixteenth of a second ; serving to show that 16 vibrations to the second must be about the lower limit of a recognizable musical tone, * As applied to Lecture- rooms, he pointed out that the ceiling should not be more than about thirty feet high, within which elevation, a smooth ceiling would tend to re-inforce the sound of a speaker’s voice. f Many experiments were afterward made on the resonance of dif- ferent materials, by means of tuning forks. While a tuning fork suspended ‘by a fine thread continued to vibrate for upward of four minutes with scarcely any appreciable sound, if placed in contact with the top of a pine table, the same vibration continued but ten seconds, but gave a loud full tone. Ona marble topped table the sound was much more feeble, and the vibration continued nearly two minutes. While the tuning fork against a brick wall gave a * FELIX SAVART some twenty years previously, concluded from observations with the siren, “that sounds are distinctly perceptible, and even strong, when composed of no more than eight vibrations in a second,” (Rev. Encycl. July, 1832, Quoted in Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. for 1832, vol. xxii. p. 374.) This does not seem to agree with ordinary observations, as it is certain that intervals of one-eighth of a second would give a very appreciable rattle to almost every ear, + Proceed. Am. Assoc, Cincinnati, May, 1851, pp. 42, 43. .DISCOURSE OF W. B, TAYLOR. 345 feeble tone continuing for 88 seconds, against a lath and _ plaster partition it gave a sound considerably louder but continuing only 18 seconds. On a large block of soft india-rubber resting on the marble slab, the vibration was very rapidly extinguished, but with- out giving any sensible sound. This anomaly required an explana- tion. By means of a compound wire of copper and iron inserted into the piece of rubber, and having the extremities connected with a thermo-galvanometer, it was found that in this ense the acoustic vibrations were converted into heat. Sheets of india-rubber there- fore are among the best absorbers and destroyers of sound. A series of experiments was also made on the reflection of sound, to determine the materials least adapted, and those best adapted to this purpose. A résumé of these researches, having reference. to the acoustic properties of public halls, was read before. the American Association in August, 1856. * In 1865, as Chairman of the Committee of Experiments of the U.S. Light-House Board, Henry commenced an extended series of observations on the conduct and intensity of sound at a distance, under varying meteorological conditions., Well aware that for the practical purposes of giving increased security to navigation, the experiments of the laboratory were of little value, he undertook a number of experimental trips on board sailing vessels, and on steamers, in order to make his observations under the actual con- ditions of the required service. As many of his investigations demanded intelligent co-operation, and sometimes at the distances of many miles, he associated with him at different times, among mem- bers of the Light-House Establishment, Commodore Powell, Com- modore Case, Admiral Trenchard, Commander Walker, Captain Upshur, General Poe, General Barnard, General Woodruff, Mr. Lederle, and other engineers of different Light-House Districts, and outside of the establishment, Dr. Welling and others. At the outset of his experiments, he found that sound reflectors, which play so interesting a part in lecture-room exhibitions, were practically worthless (of whatever available dimensions) for the purpose of directing or concentrating powerful sounds to any con- * Proceed. Am. Assoc. Albany, Aug. 1856, pp. 128-131. 346 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. siderable distance. At the distance of a mile or two a large steam whistle placed in the focus of a concave reflector 10 feet in diameter could be heard very nearly as well directly behind the reflector, as directly in front of it. In like manner the direction of bell- mouths and of trumpet-mouths, was found to be of comparatively little importance at a distance; showing the remarkable tendency to diffusion, especially with very loud sounds. Most of the obser- vations made on ship-board were afterward repeated on land; and several weeks were occupied with these important researches. “During this series of investigations an interesting fact was dis- covered, namely, a sound moving against the wind, inaudible to the ear on the deck of the schooner, was heard by ascending to the mast-head. . This remarkable fact at first suggested the idea that sound was more readily conveyed by the'upper current of air than the lower.” After citing observations by others apparently con- firming the suggestion of some dominant influence in the upper wind, Henry adds: “The full significance however of this idea did not reveal itself to me until in searching the bibliography of sound, I found an account of the hypothesis of Professor Stokes in the Proceedings of the British Association for 1857,* in which the effect of an upper current in deflecting the wave of sound so as to throw it down upon the ear of the auditor, or directing it upward - far above his head, is fully explained.” A rough attempt was made in the course of these observations (which were undertaken at the Light-house near New Haven, Connecticut) to compare the velocity of the wind in the upper regions with that near the surface .) of the earth. “The only important result however was the fact that the velocity of the shadow of a cloud passing over the ground was much greater than that of the air at the surface, the velocity of the latter being determined approximately by running a given distance with such speed that a small flag was at rest along the side of its pole. While this velocity was not perhaps greater than six miles per hour, that of the shadow of the cloud was apparently equal to that of a horse at full speed.” f * Report Brit, Assoc. Dublin, 1857, vol, xxvii. 2d part, pp. 22, 23. + Report of Light-House Board for 1874, p. 92. {This difference has since been established by a number of independent observations. Mr. Glaisher from his balloon ascents in 1863-1865, ascertained that ‘ DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 347 In October, 1867, a series of observations was made at Sandy Hook (New Jersey) with various instruments. A sound reflector being employed, the distance at which the sand on the: phonometer, drum —carried in front, ceased to move was 51 yards, as compared with a distance of 40 yards, without the reflector. At a greater distance, with a more sensitive instrument, the ratio was very much diminished. Experiments were also made on the relative distances at which the trumpet affected sensibly the drum of the phonometer in different directions, giving as their result a limiting spheroid whose reach in the forward axis of the trumpet was about double that in the rear axis, and at right angles to the axis, was about a mean proportional between the two. With greater distances, these differences were evidently very much reduced, the radii becoming more equalized. In the summer of 1871, Henry made investiga- tions at different Light-stations, on our western coast of California. The very important observation that a sound could best be heard at an elevation when the wind is adverse (that is when it blows from the observer towards the acoustic signal,) and that after it had even been entirely lost to the ear in such case, it might be regained in full force by simply ascending to a suitable elevation,— admitted apparently but one explanation, namely that the line of successive impulse constituting a sound-beam was deflected or bent upwards by the action of the opposing wind. If—as had already been shown to be the case sometimes, and as might therefore be expected generally,—the adverse wind were assumed to be a little’ stronger at the elevation than at the surface, such a result would at once follow. ‘The explanation of this phenomenon as suggested by the hypothesis of Professor Stokes is founded on the fact that in the case of a deep current of air the lower stratum or that next the earth is more retarded by friction than the one immediately above, the upper currents of air are frequently five or six times more rapid than the surface currents. (7ravels in the Air, p.9.) Prof. Cleveland Abbe remarks; ‘From seven balloon ascensions made on July 4th, 1871, at different points in the United States, I have deduced the velocity of the upper currents as about four times that of the surface wind prevailing.” (Bulletin Philosoph. Soc. Washington, Dec. 16, 1871, vol. i. p. 39.) And M. Peslin states in general terms: “It is certain according to all observations made both in mountains and in balloons, that the force of the wind increases considerubly as we ascend in the atmosphere.” (Bulletin Inter- national de l’ Observ. de Paris et de l’Observ. Phys. Cent. Montsouris, July 7, 1872.) 348 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. and this again than the one above it,and so on. The effect of: this diminution of velocity as we, descend toward the earth is in the case of sound: inoving with the current, to carry the upper part of the sound waves’ more rapidly forward than the lower ‘parts, thus causing them to incline toward the earth, or in other words, to be thrown down upon the ear of the observer. When the sound is in a contrary direction to the current, an opposite effect is produced, the upper portion of the sound-waves is more retarded than the lower, which advancing more rapidly in consequence, inclines the waves upward.and directs them above.the head of the observer.” * From several observed and reported cases where the sound of a fog-signal was exceptionally heard to a greater distance against the - wind than toward the direction of the wind, Professor Henry for a while hesitated to give the hypothesis of Professor Stokes an unqualified acceptance; but forced as he was constantly to recur to it as the only plausible explanation of the ordinary influence of wind on the transmission of sound, he finally was able to satisfy himself that even the apparent exceptions to the rule were really in accord with it. Having more than once observed that when the upper current of ajr, as indicated by the course of the clouds, is in an opposite or different direction from the lower or setiiis wind, the range of audibility is more affected and favored by the upper current, it was a natural induction to extend such a condition in imagination to other cases of abnormal behavior of sound. A large amount of subsequent labor and attention was devoted to the determination of this important question. In 1872 it was observed from on board a steamer aprenchiae Portland Head station in the harbor of Portland (Maine) that the fog-signal which had been distinctly heard through many miles, was lost to the ear when within two or three miles of the point, that it continued inaudible throughout the nearer distance of a mile or so, and that it was again heard as the station was neared. At Whitehead light station on a small rocky island about a mile and a half from the coast, (being some 65 miles northeast of Portland Head,) it was observed on board a steamer approaching the station during a thick fog, that the signal (a 10-inch steam whistle) though * Report of Light-House Board for 1874, p. 106. DISCOURSE OF. W. B. TAYLOR. 349 distinctly .heard at the distance of six miles or more, and with increasing distinctness as the steamer’ advanced, was suddenly lost at about three miles, and was not recovered until within a quarter of a mile from the station; the wind at ‘the time being approxi- mately adverse to the sound. A six-inch steam whistle on board the steamer was meanwhile distinctly heard at the station during the whole time of inaudibility of the larger ten-inch whistle, which had also been sounded without any interruption. This remarkable phenomenon implied a compound flexure of the sound-beams, and accorded with previous observations made at the same points by General Duane the engineer in charge of the first and second Light- House Districts. In 1873 observations were again made at Whitehead station, and at Cape Elizabeth light station, both on the coast of Massachusetts. At Whitehead the steam whistle was heard through a distance of 15 miles, with a light adverse wind. At Cape Elizabeth, with a stronger adverse wind, the siren was heard only about -nine miles. In 1874, observations were made at Little Gull island, (off the coast of Connecticut;) at Block island, (off the coast of Rhode Island ;) and at Sandy Hook, (New Jersey.) ‘At Little Gull island the sound of a siren was heard against a moderate wind, only three and a half miles. At Block island the siren was reported to have been heard under favoring conditions of wind-through a distance of more than 25 miles. While it was frequently heard at Point Judith station, and the siren at the latter point was as frequently heard at Block Island, (the distance between the two points being 17 miles,) it was shown on comparison of records, that the two instruments had not been heard simultaneously; the wind when favorable to the one being unfavorable to the other. At Sandy Hook, for the purpose of making simultaneous obser- vations in different directions, three steamers (the tenders of differ- ent light-houses). were employed, with steam whistles specially - adjusted to the same tone and power. The latter quality having been carefully tested by the phonometer, the three vessels steamed out abreast on trial; and their whistles sounding in regular succes- sion “became inaudible all very nearly at the same moment.”’ One of the vessels being then anchored at a distance from land, the two 300 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. others were directed in opposite courses, one with the wind, or east- ward, the other against it, or westward. In 15 minutes the whistle of the former ceased to be heard, while that of the latter was very distinctly heard; the anemometer showing a wind of about six miles per hour. About noon the vessels changed positions, but the sound from the west continued audible for about three times the distance of that from the east, though the wind had declined to nearly a calm or to about half a mile per hour, In an hour and a half the wind had changed to “within two points of an exactly opposite direction, blowing from the indications of the ancmometer at the rate of ten and a half miles per hour.” ‘The vessels once more departing, one with the wind, the other against it, the sound of the whistle coming against the wind .was this time heard for the greater distance, contrary to expectation. On the following day a number of small balloons having been provided, a similar series of experiments to that of the preceding day was made; a station being selected at a greater distance from land. Qn the first trial, with a light wind from the west of about one and a quarter miles per hour as indicated by the anemometer, a balloon was set off which con- tinued rising and moving eastward till lost to sight. Two of the vessels taking opposite courses as before, gave the sound in the direction of the wind about double the-duration of that coming against the slight wind. ‘The vessels then changed places in their opposite courses; the wind having subsided to a calm, “A balloon let off ascended vertically until it attained an elevation of about 1,000 feet, when turning east it followed the direction of the pre- vious one, In this case the sound of the whistle coming from the east was heard somewhat longer than the opposite one. At the third trial made after noon, the wind had changed nearly one-third of the circle, its force being about five miles per hour. ‘The vessels once more taking their courses with the wind and against it, “several balloons set off at this time were carried by the surface wind west- wardly until nearly lost to sight, when they were observed to turn east, following the direction of the wind traced in the earlier obser- vations.” In this case the sound was heard with the wind very slightly farther than against it. It was thus shown that the upper current of wind had remained constant throughout the day, while DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 351 the changing surface wind was apparently a land and sea breeze “due to the heating of the land as the day advanced:” and the varying behavior of the sound-beams was easily explained by the varying differences of velocity in their wave fronts at different heights. In.1875 Henry continued his observations at Block island, (R. I.) and at Little Gull island: (Conn.) The southern light-house on Block island standing on the edge of a perpendicular cliff 152 feet above the sea level, and being itself 52 feet high (to its focal plane) this point was selected for making investigations on the effect of altitude in modifying unfavorable conditions of audibility. Obser- vers were accordingly stationed on the beach at the foot of the cliff, and also on the tower 200 feet above, to record simultaneously the duration of the whistle signals of two steamers proceeding in oppo- site directions toward the right and the left. The sound coming against the wind (of about seven miles per hour) continued audible at the upper station four times longer, (i.e. for four times greater distance ) than at the lower station. The sound coming with the wind, was unexpectedly heard at the lower station for a longer period than at the upper one. Another observation (with the wind about five miles per hour) gave for the sound against the wind, rather more than twice the distance of audibility at the upper station; and for the sound favored by the wind, a slightly greater distance at the top than at the bottom station. ‘The next observa- tion gave as before, with the adverse wind, the advantage of more than double the distance of audibility to. the upper station; mean- _while one of the observers at the foot of the cliff, after the sound was entirely lost, managed by climbing to a ledge about 30 feet above the beach, to recover the signal quite distinctly, and to hear it for some time. The sound coming with: the wind ‘continued to be heard at both the higher and the lower stations for precisely the same time, giving on this occasion no advantage to either. Obser- vations made on board the two steamers while moving in opposite directions, gave for the sound travelling with the wind, a duration and distance more than: five times that for the sound which came against the wind. Five similar experiments gave very similar - results. The two vessels moving in opposite courses, each at right 352 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. angles to the direction of the wind, gave a very close equality, for the reciprocal durations of the sound. In the following month, similar observations were.made at Little Gull island, which were _very accordant with those made at the former station. As a result of plotting the ranges of audibility in different directions from a - given point, producing a series of circular figures (more or less distorted) of very different sizes, Henry was inclined to believe that the whole area of audition is less in high winds than in gentle winds.: These investigations as their author well remarks,— “though simple in their conception, have been difficult and laborious in their execution. To be of the greatest practical value they were required to be made on the ocean under the conditions in which the results are to be applied to the use of the mariner, and therefore they could only be conducted by means of steam vessels of sufficient power to withstand the force of rough seas, and at times when these vessels could be spared from other duty. They also required a number of intelligent assistants skilled in observa- tion and faithful in recording results.” * In the summer of last year, 1877, with undiminished ardor, - continued his observations on ad selecting this time Portland harbor, Monhegan island, and Whitehead light station, on the coast of Maine. At the latter station, the abnormal phenomenon of a region of inaudibility near the fog-signal, and extending outward ‘ for two or three miles, (beyond which distance the signal is again very distinctly: heard,) had for several years been frequently observed. This singular. effect is noticed only in the case of a southerly wind when the vessel is approaching the signal from. _the same quarter, and consequently with the wind adverse to the direction of the sound-beams, a condition of the wind which is the usual accompaniment of a fog. The observation showed this intermediate “belt of silence” to be well marked -on board the steamer both on approaching the station and,on receding from it by retracing the same line of travel. Meanwhile the intermittent signal whistle from the steamer was distinctly heard at the station on both the outward and homeward trips of the vessel, throughout its course. ‘The next set of observations was made on the opposite * Report of the Light-House Board for 1875, p. 107. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. ‘ 300 side of the small island, by directing the course of the steamer northward; and in this case the shore signal was distinctly heard throughout the trip, while the signal from the vessel passed through the “belt of silence” to the observers at the station. The hypothesis of a local sound shadow of definite extent, is excluded by the simple fact that the regions traversed were entirely unobstructed, the two points of observation—movable and stationary — being constantly in view from each other when not obscured by fog. The hypothesis of a stationary belt of acoustic opacity is equally excluded by the uninterrupted transmission of sound through the critical region in one direction; and this too whichever order of observation be selected. So that in one of the cases the powerful whistle ten inches in diameter blown. by a steam pressure of 60 pounds, failed utterly to make itself heard, while the sound from a much feebler whistle only six inches in diameter and blown by a steam pressure of 25- pounds, traversed with ease and fulness the ‘very same space. The only hypothesis left therefore is that. of diacoustic refraction; by which the sound-beam from one origin is bent and lifted over the observer, while from an opposite origin the refraction is in a reversed direction; and such a quality in the moving air is referable to no other observed condition but that of. ‘ its motion, that is to the influence of the wind. Observations were afterward made at Monhegan island, on some of the more normal effects of the refraction of sound by differences of wave velocity, % all fully confirming the supposition which had been so variously and critically subjected to examination. The principal conclusions summed up in the last Report for 1877, are: Ist. The audibility of sound at a distance depends primarily upon the pitch, the intensity, and the quantity of the sound: the most efficient pitch being neither a very high nor a very low one,—the intensity or loudness of sound resulting from the amplitude of the vibration, and the quantity of sound resulting from the mass of air simultaneously vibrating. 2nd. ‘The external condition of widest transmission of sound through the air is that of stillness and perfect uniformity of density and temperature throughout. 3rd. The most serious disturbance of the audibility 23 : 354 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. of sound at a distance, results from its refraction by the wind, which as a general rule moving more freely and rapidly above than near the earth, tends by this difference to lift the sound-beams upward when moving against the wind, and in a downward curve when moving with it. 4th. When the upper current of air is adverse to the lower or sensible wind, or whenever from any cause the wind below has a higher velocity than that above—in the same direction, the reverse phenomenon is observed of sound being heard to greater distances in opposition to the sensible wind than it is when in the direction of the surface wind. 5th. While suitable reflectors and trumpet cones are serviceable in giving prominent direction to sounds within moderate or ordinary distances, yet from the rapid diffusibility of the sound-beams, such appliances are worthless for distances beyond a mile or two. 6th. The siren has been frequently found to have its clearest penetration through a widely extended fog, and also through a thick snow-storm of large area. 7th. Intervening obstructions produce sound shadows of greater or less extent, which however at a distance but slightly enfeeble the sound, owing to the lateral diffusion and closing in of the sound-waves. 8th. The singular phenomenon of distinct audibility of sound to a distance with a limited intermediate region of inaudibility where no optical obstruction exists, is due sometimes ° to a diffusion of upper sound-beams which have not suffered the upward refraction; sometimes to the lateral refraction of sound- beams or to the lateral spread of sound from directions not affected by the upward refraction; and very frequently to a double curva- ture of the refracted sound-beams under an adverse lower wind, by reason of the wave fronts being less retarded by the lower or surface 'stratum of wind than by that a short distance above, and at still greater heights being again less retarded, and finally accelerated by the superior favoring wind. These remarkable series of acoustic investigations undertaken after the observer had considerably exceeded his three-score years,— perseveringly continued weeks at a time, and sometimes for more than a month,—extending through a period of twelve years, and pursued over a wide and extremely irregular range of sea-coast, \ . DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 355 and under great variety of both topographical and meteorological conditions, untiringly prosecuted by numberless sea trips of 10, 15, and even 20 miles in single stretches, in calm, in sunshine, in storm, with every variety of disregarded exposure,—form altogether a labor and a research, quite unequalled and unapproached by any similar ones on record. As a result of so great earnestness and thoroughness in the conduct of an enterprise of so great difficulty, ‘Henry has advanced and enriched our knowledge by contribu- tions to the science of acoustics, unquestionably the most important and valuable of the century. By persistent cross-examination of the bewildering anomalies of sound propagation under wide diver- sities of locality and condition, he has succeeded in evolving order -out of apparent chaos, in reclaiming a new district, now subjected ‘to the orderly reign of recognized law, and in raising the plausi- -ble but long neglected hypothesis of Stokes into the domain of a -verified and fully established theory. Only on the subject of the ‘ocean echo had he failed to reach a solution which entirely satisfied -his judgment ;* and at the ripe age of four-score years he had mapped out a further extension of his laborious search after truth, when his untiring and beneficent purposes were cut short by death. With these great labors—(a full demand upon the energies of youthful vigor) fittingly closed the life of one whose long career had been dedicated to the service of his race,—no less by the unre- corded incitations and encouragements of others to the prosecution of original research, than by his own direct and earnest efforts on all occasions to extend the boundaries of our knowledge. Nor is it permitted us to indulge in vain regrets that thirty years of such ‘a life were, seemingly so much withdrawn from his own chosen ; *“The ‘question, therefore, remains to be answered: what is the cause of the aerial echo? As I have stated, it must in some way be connected with the hori- zon. The only explanation which suggests itself to me at present is, that the spread of the sound which fills the whole atmosphere from the zenith to the horizon with sound-waves, may continue their curvilinear direction until they ; strike the surface of the water at such an angle and direction as to be reflected back to the ear of the observer. In this case the echo would be heard from a _ perfectly flat surface of water, and as different sound-rays would reach the water at different distances and from different azimuths, they would produce the pro- longed character of the echo and its angular extent along the horizon. While ‘we do not advance’ this hypothesis as a final solution of the question, we shall ‘provisionally adopt it as a means of suggesting further experiments in regard to .this perplexing question at another season.” (Report of L. H. Board, 1877, p. 70.) 356 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. ministry at the altar of science, to be occupied so largely with the drudgery and the routine of merely administrative duties. “True. though it be, that talents adapted to such functions are very much. more common and available than those which form the successful interrogator of Nature, who that knows by what exertions Smith- son’s wise endowment was rescued from the wasteful dissipation of heterogeneous local agencies and objects— by what heroic constancy, ‘and through what ordeals of remonstrance and misconception, of contumely and denunciation, the modest income of the fund (hus- banded and increased by prudent management) was yearly more and more withdrawn from merely popular uses and interests, and more and more applied to its truest and highest purpose, the foster- ing of abstract research, the founding of a pharos for the future,— the “increasing and diffusing of knowledge among men,’— who that knows all this, can say that Henry was mistaken in his de- votion, or that his ripest years were wasted in an unprofitable mission?* But in addition to this vast work,—accomplished as probably no one of his scientific compeers would have had the forti- | tude and the indomitable persistence to carry through, his personal contributions to modern science (as has been shown) have through- out been neither few nor unimportant. One remarkable circumstance relating to Henry’s directorship of the Smithsonian publications (which have had so-wide a distribution and influence) must not be here passed over. Having himself, *“But it is not alone the material advantages which the world enjoys from the study of abstract science on which its claims are founded, Were all further applications of its principles to practical purposes ta cease, it would still be entitled to commendation and support on account of its more important effects upon the general mind. It offers unbounded fields of pleasurable, healthful, and ennobling exercise to the restless intellect of man, expanding his powers and enlarging his conceptions of the wisdom, the energy, and the beneficence of the great Ruler of the universe, From these considerations then, and others of a like kind, I am fully justified in the assertion that this Institution has done good service in placing prominently before the country the importance of original reseurch, and that its directors are entitled to commendation for having so uni- formly and persistently kept in view the fact that it was not intended for educational or immediately practical purposes, but for the encouragement of the study of theoretical principles and the advancement of abstract knowledge.” (Smithsonian Report for. 1859, p. 17.) +“The number of copies of the Smithsonian Contributions distributed, is greater than that of the Transactions of any scientific or literary society; and therefore the Institution offers the best medium to be found for diffusing a knowledge of scientific discoveries.” (Smithsonian Report for 1851, —p. 202.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 357 amidst the absorbing occupations of his position, conducted so valu- able original investigations —on the strength of building materials, —on the best illuminants and their proper conditions,— and espe- cially in his last great labor on the philosophy of sound, we should naturally expect to find them displayed in the “Smithsonian Con- tributions ;” where in interest and importance second to none contained in that extensive and admirable series, these memoirs would have found their fitting place, and have given honor to the collection. But asif to avoid all semblance of a personal motive in his resolute policy of administration, he published nothing for him- ' self at the expense of the Smithsonian fund; his numerous original productions being given to the public through the channel of vari- ous official reports. And thus it has occurred that his writings scattered in the different directions which seemed to him at the time most suitable, with little thought of any special publicity or perpetuity, have largely failed to reach the audience which would most appreciate them. And many of his most valuable papers — never by himself collected —must be searched for in unsuggestive volumes of Agricultural, or Light-House Board Reports. * For him it seemed enough that what was once established, would - not be willingly let die; that the medium or the occasion of com- munication was of comparatively little consequence, if but a new fact or principle were thrown into proper currency, and duly accepted as part of the world’s wealth: and beyond all ordinary men he seemed to feel the insignificance of personal fame as com- pared with the infinite value of truth. The most appropriate monu- ment of such a man would be a‘full collection of his writings, produced in a worthy and appropriate style of publication. Less than a year ago, (on the evening of November 24th, 1877,) he delivered in this place before this Society his annual address, shortly after his re-election as its President ;—an address which as we beheld the remarkable fulness and freshness of the speaker’s * Many valuable communications made to the Anferican Association, to the National Academy of Sciences, to the Washington Philosophical Society, and to other bodies, from rough notes, which their author was prevented from writing fairly out, by the unceasing pressure of his multitudinous official and public duties, have unfortunately been published only by title. 358 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. mental and bodily powers,— we little thought was in reality his valedictory. In it he concisely yet lucidly portrayed for the stimu- lation of more youthful physicists, the processes and the qualities necessary for success in original research ;—the awakened attention to “the seeds of great discoveries constantly floating around us,’— the careful observation, the clear perception of the actual facts uncolored as much as possible by a priori conceptions or expecta- tions,— the faculty of persevering watchfulness, and the judgment to eliminate (with all due caution) the conditions which are acci- dental,—the importance of a provisional hypothesis,—the con- scientious and impartial testing of such by every expedient that. ingenuity may suggest,—the lessons taught by failure,—the firm holding of the additional facts thus gleaned, though adverse and. disappointing,— the diligent pondering, and the logical application. of deductive consequences, to be again examined, until as the reward of patient solicitation, the answer of nature is at least revealed. “The investigator now feels amply rewarded for all his toil, and is conscious of the pleasure of the self-appreciation which flows from having been initiated into the secrets of nature, and allowed the place not merely of an humble worshipper in the vestibule of the temple of science, but an officiating priest at the altar. In this sketch which I have given of a successful investigation, it will be observed that several faculties of the mind are called into operation. First, the imagination, which calls forth the forms of things unseen and gives them a local habitation, must be active in presenting to the mind’s eye a definite conception of the modes of operation of. the forces in nature sufficient to-_produce the phenomena in question. Second, the logical power must be trained in order to deduce from the assumed premises the conclusions necessary to test the truth of the assumption in the form of an experiment; and again the inge- nuity must be taxed to invent the experiment or to bring about the arrangement of apparatus adapted to test the conclusions. ‘These faculties of mind may all be much improved and strengthened by practice. The most important requisite however to scientific investigations of this character, is a mind well stored with clear conceptions of scientific generalizations, and possessed of sagacity in tracing analogies and devising hypotheses. Without the use of DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 359 hypotheses or antecedent probabilities,as a general rule no extended series of investigations can be made as to the approximate cause of casual phenomena. They require to be used however with great care, lest they become false guides which lead to error rather than to truth.” * Who that listened could fail to perceive that the speaker was unconsciously giving us precious glimpses into his own ex- perience ? In less than two weeks after this, his last appearance among us, he suffered at New York a temporary numbness in his hands, ~which he feared might threaten a paralysis; but a subsequent swell- ing of his feet and hands revealed to his physician the nature of his inward disease as a nephritis, which had _insidiously assailed him before it was suspected, and had ‘doubtless been, aggravated by his unremitting scientific labors continued.as usual through his last summer vacation. Only a month before he died, he thus described the commencement of his malady: “After an almost uninterrupted period of excellent health for fifty years, I awoke on the 5th of December at my office in the Light-House Depot in Staten Island, finding my right hand in a paralytic condition. This was at first referred by the medical adviser, to an affection of the brain, but as the paralysis subsided in a considerable degree.in the course of two days, this conclusion was doubted, and on a thorough examination through the eye, and by means of auscultation, and chemical analysis, Dr. S. Weir Mitchell and Dr. J. J. Woodward pronounced the disease an affection of: the kidneys.” { : * Bulletin Phil. Soc. Washington, Nov. 24, 1877, vol. ii. pp. 165, 166. + Opening Address, written for the meeting of the National Academy of Sci- ences, April 16th, 1878. (Proceed. Nat. Acad, Sci., vol. i. part 2, pp. 127, 128.)—In the same address (read to the Academy by the Secretary) he remarked: ‘‘I am warned that I must devote my energies with caution, and expend no more power— physical or mental, than is commensurate with my present condition, and in consideration of this I think it advisable to curtail as much as possible, the various offices which have been pressed upon me in consideration of my resi- dence in the city of Washington, and my association with the Smithsonian — Institution. - - - I therefore beg leave to renew my request to be allowed to resign the presidency of the Academy, the resignation to take effect at the next meeting. I retain the office six months longer, in the hope that I may be restored to such a condition of health as to be able to prepare some suggestions which may be of importance for the future of the Academy.” And in his closing Address at the end of the session, three days later (April 19th), in earnest words having now the solemnity of a valedictory charge, he urged that moral integrity of character is essential to conscientious fidelity in scientific research; and that 360 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Aware that his illness was fatal, he yet felt lulled by that strange flattery of disease when unattended with a painful wasting, into the thought that he might probably survive the approaching warmer weather; and fully prepared for death, with the sense of life still strong within him, he planned what might yet be accomplished. But with occasional alternations of more favorable symptoms, with the uremia steadily increasing, his strength slowly declined: and as he lay at noon of the 13th of last May, [1878,] with grow- ing difficulty of breathing —surrounded by loving and anguished hearts—his last feeble utterance was an inquiry which way the wind came.' With intellect clear and unimpaired, calmly that pure and all unselfish spirit passed away; leaving a void all the more real, all the more felt, that. the deceased had reached a good old age, and had worthily accomplished his allotted work. PERSONALITY AND CHARACTER. Of Henry’s personal appearance, it is sufficient to say, that his figure, above the medium height, was finely proportioned; that his mien and movement were dignified and imposing; and that on whatever occasion called upon to address an assembly, ‘With grave aspéct he rose, and in his rising seemed A pillar of state: deep on his front engrayen Deliberation sat, and public care,” His head and features were of massive mould; though from the perfect proportion of his form, not too conspicuously so. His expansive brow was crowned with an abundant flow of whitened hair; his lower face always smoothly shaven, expressed a mingled gentleness and firmness; and his countenance of manly symmetry was in all its varying moods, a pleasant study of the mellowing, moulding impress of long years of generous feeling, and a worthy exponent of the fine and thoughtful spirit within: wearing in it should therefore be an indispensable test of membership in an Academy strenuous in maintaining its exalted function. “It is not social position, popu- larity, extended authorship, or success as an instructor in science which entitles to membership, but actual new discoveries; nor are-these sufficient if the repu- tation of the candidate is in the slightest degree tainted with injustice or want of truth. Indeed I think that immorality and great mental power exercised in the discovery of scientific truths, are incompatible with each other; and that more error is introduced from defect in moral sense than from want of intellec- tual capacity.” (Same Proceedings, p. 129.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. 361 repose a certain pensive but benignant majesty, in the abstraction of study a semblance of constrained severity, in the relaxation of friendly intercourse a genial frank and winning grace of expression. The varying shades of such expression, with the changing current of his thought, combined with a certain reserve, —or (perhaps more properly) freedom from effusiveness, —imparted to his aspect and his intercourse a singular charm.* His whole physique was in ad- mirable harmony with his power of intellect ;—the fitting vesture of the mens sana in corpore sano. Like his intimate personal friend Agassiz, he seemed to stand and to move among men as the very embodiment of unfailing vigorous health and physical strength; and . only a year ago, he walked with as erect and elastic a carriage, with as firm and sprightly a step, as any one here present. It is difficult to attempt even a sketch of Henry’s intellectual character, without allusion to his moral attributes; so constantly did the latter dominate the former. It may be said that the most characteristic feature of his varied activities was earnestness, and this as usual, was the ofepring as much of a moral as of a mental purpose. His mind was cainentl logical ; and this rational power was exhibited in every department of his theoretical or his practical pursuits. He never showed or felt uneasiness at necessary deduc- tive consequences, if the premises were well considered or appeared to be well founded; confident that all truth must ultimately be found consistent. If presented with the problem of an untried case, while avowing the necessity of reserve in predicting results, he seemed to have an almost intuitive apprehension of the opera- tion of natural law. If confronted with an unfamiliar phenomenon, whether in the experience of others, or in his own observations, his imagination was fertile in the suggestion of test conditions for eliminating variable influences. While few have ever held the function of hypothesis in higher estimation as an instrument of research, no one ever held hypothesis in more complete subjection. *Of the numerous photographic portraits of Henry taken within the past ten or twenty years, it has been often remarked that no two appear to have the same character, or to bear a very close resemblance to each other, Three or four meri- torious portraits in oil (of life-size) perpetuate his likeness, with the same char- acteristic differences, 362 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. As a lecturer and instructor, he was always most successful. Free from all self-consciousness, thinking only of his subject, and its fittest mode of presentation, he spoke from the fullness of a ripened knowledge, — intent on communicating to others the intel- lectual pleasures of insight he had made his own; and without attempt at oratorical display, his expositions — in simple, direct, and conversational language, were so lucid, satisfying, and convincing, that they enlisted from the beginning and secured to the close, the attentive interest of his auditors. His sympathy with the pursuits of the rising generation of phys- icists was ever manifested in a disposition to frequent consulta- tion and interchange of views with them; as if’ (aware of the usual tendency to mental ossification with advancing years,) he thus sought by familiar association to drink at the fountain of perennial youth, And surely no one was ever more successful in retaining life’s coveted greenness in age;—not more in the child-like sim- plicity of his disposition, in the geniality of his affections, and in his undimmed faith, hope, and charity, for mankind, than in his intellectual freedom from undue prejudices, and in his readiness calmly to discuss or adopt new theories. And this leads to the reflection that in the seeming contrasts of his nature were combined qualities which formed in him a resultant of character and of temperament as rare as admirable. With this great mobility of aptitude and of circumspection, this adaptability of mental attitude, he yet possessed an unusual firmness of resolu- tion. With a manly sturdiness of conviction he presented an unvarying equability of temper and of toleration; and with per- fect candor as perfect a courtesy. With a characteristic dignity of figure of presence and of deportment, he preserved an entire free- dom from any shade of arrogance. With a warm and _ active charity, he still displayed a shrewd: perception of character; and while ever responsive to the appeals of real distress, his insight into human nature protected him from being often deceived by the wiles of the designing. Intolerant of charlatanry and imposture, he was capable of exhibiting a wonderful patience with the tedium of honest ignorance. Possessing in earlier life a natural quick- ness of temper, and always a high degree of native sensibility, his DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR. ; 363 perfect self-control led the casual acquaintance to regard him as reserved and unimpressible. Of him it may be truly said in simple and oft-quoted words: ‘“ Wis life was gentle; and the elements - So mized in him, that Nature might stand up And say to all the world—This was a MAN!” With all his broad humanity, he possessed but little of what is known as “humor.” He could enjoy the ludicrous more heartily when drolly narrated by its appreciative victims, than when sarcas- tically recited at the expense of another. The sparkle of wit he fully appreciated, provided it were free from coarseness and from personal satire. From the subordination of his sense of humor to his native instinct of sincerity, he had no approbation —or indeed tolerance of “practical jokes,” holding that the shock to the feel- ings or to the confidence of the dupe, is far too high a price for the momentary hilarity enjoyed by the thoughtless at a farcical situa- tion. Newspaper hoaxes—literary or scientific, in like manner received his stern reprobation, as uncompensated injuries to popular trust and to the cause of popular enlightenment. Strong in his unerring sense of justice and of right, he allowed. no prospects of personal advantage to influence his judgment in action, in decision, or in opinion: he never availed himself of the opportunities offered by his position, of reaping gain from profitable suggestions or favorable awards: and he never willingly inflicted an injury even on the feelings‘of the humblest. This was characteristically shown in the pains taken to convince the judg- ment of those against whose visionary projects he was so often called upon to report in the public interests of. the Smithsonian Institution, of the Light-House service, and of the General Government :— often expending an amount of valuable time and of patience which few so situated would have accorded, or could well have afforded. And yet on the other hand when himself the subject of injustice, misconstruction, or abuse, he never suffered himself to be provoked into a controversy ;—as if holding life too serious, time too pre- cious, to be wasted in mere disputation. Least of all did he ever think of resorting to retaliatory conduct or to the expression of opprobrious sentiments. He calmly put aside disturbing elements, \ 364 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. and seemed endowed with the power of excluding from his mental vision all irritating incidents. In that benignant breast there harbored no resentments. Great ‘as is the loss we have sustained of “guide, philosopher, and friend,” we have yet the mournful satisfaction of reflecting that his‘influence, powerful as it always has been for good, still survives—in his works, his high example, and his unclouded memory ;—that our community, our country, ihe world itself, has been benefitted by his existence here; and that as time rolls on, its course will be marked by increasing circles of appre- ciation, reverence, and aoe for the teachings of his high and noble life. 1825. 1827. 1829. 1829. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1831. 1831. 1831. 1831. LIST OF THE SCIENTIFIC PAPERS OF JOSEPH HENRY. | On the production of cold by the rarefaction of “Air: accompanied with Experiments. (Presented Mar. 2.) Abstract, Trans. Albany Institute, vol. i. part ii. p. 36. On some Modifications of the Electro-magnetic Apparatus. (Read Oct. 10.) Trans. Albany Inst. vol. i. pp. 22-24. Topographical Sketch of the State of New York; designed chiefly to abbey the General Elevations and Depressions of its Surface. (Read Oct. 28.) Trans. Albany Inst. vol. i. pp. 87-112. First Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New York, for 1828. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.) Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of New York.—Albany, 1829. On the Mean Temperature of Twenty-seven different Places in the State of New York, for 1828. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.) Brew- ster’s Edinburgh Jour. Science, Oct. 1829, vol. i. n. 8. pp. 249-259. Second Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New York for 1829. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.) Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of New York.—Albany, 1830. On the Application of the Principle of the Galvanic Multiplier to Electro- magnetic Apparatus, and also to the development of great Magnetic power in soft iron, with small Galvanic Elements. Silliman’s American Jour. Science, Jan. 1831, vol. xix. pp. 400-408. Jour. of Roy. Institution of Gr. Brit. May, 1831, vol. i. pp. 609, 610. Tabular Statement of the Latitudes, Longitudes, and Hlavaeas of 42 Mete- orological Stations in New York. Annual Report Regents of Sctate, to Legislature N. Y. 1831. Third Abstract of Meteorological Records of State of New York for 1830. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.) Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of New York.—Albany, 1831. An Account of a large Electro-magnet, made for the Laboratory of Yale Col- lege. (In conjunction with, Dr. Ten Eyck.) Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. , April, 1831, vol. xx. pp. 201-203. Jour. of Roy. Institution of Gr. Brit. Aug. 1831, vol. ii. p. 182. On a Reciprocating Motion produced by Magnetic attraction and repulsion. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. July, 1831, vol. xx. pp. 340-343. Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, etc. vol. iii. pp. 430-432. ; (365) 366 1832, 1832. 1832, 1832. 1833. 1835. 1835. 1837, 1838, 1838. MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. On a Disturbance of the Earth’s Magnetism in connection with the appear- ance of an Aurora as observed at Albany on the 19th of April, 1831. (Communicated to the Albany Institute, Jan, 26, 1832.) Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of New York.—Albany, 1832. Silliman’s Am, Jour. Sci. July, 1832, vol, xxii. pp. 143-155. Fourth Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New York for 1831. (In conjunction with Dr, T. Romeyn Beck.) Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of New York.—Albany, 1831. On the Production of Currents and Sparks of Electricity from Magnetism. Silliman’s Am, Jour. Sci, July, 1832, vol. xxii. pp. 403-408. On the effect of a long and helical wire in increasing the intensity of a galvanic current from a single element. (Conclusion of preceding paper.) Silliman’s Am, Jour, Sci. July, 1832, vol. xxii. p. 408, Beequerel’s Traité expérimen- tal de U Electricité, etc. 1837, vol. v. pp. 231, 232. Fifth Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New York for 1832. (In conjunction with Dr, T. Romeyn Beck.) Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of New York.—Albany, 1833, Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. I. Description of a Gal- vanic Battery for producing Electricity of different intensities. (Read Jan. 14.) Transactions Am. Philosoph, Society, vol. v. n. 8. pp. 217-222. Stur- geon’s Annals of Electricity, etc. vol. i. pp. 277-281. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism, No. II. On the influence of a Spiral Conductor in increasing the intensity of Electricity from a Galvanic arrangement of a single Pair, ete. (Read Feb, 6.) Trans, Amer. Phil. Soc. vol, v. n. 8. pp. 223-232. Sturgeon’s Annals of Hlectricity, etc. vol. i. pp. 282-290. ‘Taylors Scientific Memoirs, vol. i. pp. 540-547, . Facts in reference to the Spark, etc. from a long Conductor uniting the poles of a Galvanic Battery. Journal of Franklin Institute, Mar. 1835, vol. xv. pp. 169, 170, Silliman’s Am, Jour, Sci. July, 1835, vol. xxviii. pp. 327-331, A Notice of Electrical Researches, particularly in regard to the “lateral dis- charge.” (Read before the British Association at Liverpool, Sept. 1837.) Report Brit. Assoc, 1837, Part II. pp. 22-24. Silliman’s dm. Jour. Sci. April, 1838, vol. xxxiv. pp. 16-19, A Letter on the production directly from ordinary Electricity of Currents by Induction, analogous to those obtained from-Galvanism, (Read to Philo- soph. Society, May 4.) Proceedings Am, Phil. Soc, vol. i. p. 14. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism, No. III. On Electro-dynamic Induction. (Read Nov. 2,) Trans. Am, Phil. Soc. vol. vi. n. 8, pp. 303- 337. Silliman’s Am. Jour, Sci. Jan, 1840, vol. xxxviii. pp. 209-243, Stur- geon’s Annals of Electricity, ete. vol. iv. pp. 281-310. L. BE. D. Phil. Mag. Mar. 1840, vol. xvi. pp. 200-210: pp. 254-265: pp. 551-562. Becquerel’s Traité expérimental de U Electricité, etc. vol. v. pp. 87-107. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Dec. 1841, 3d series: vol. iii. pp. 394-407. Poggen- dorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie. Supplemental vol. i. (Nach Band li.) 1842, pp. 282-312. 1839. 1839. 1839. 1840. 1840. 1840. 1840. 1841. 1841. 1841. 1842. 1842. 1843. 1843. SCIENTIFIC. PAPERS OF HENRY. 367 | A novel phenomenon of Capillary action: the transmission of Mercury through Lead. (Read Mar. 15.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. i. pp. 82, 83. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Dec. 1839, vol. xxxviii. pp. 180, 181. Biblioth. Universelle, vol. xxix. pp. 175, 176. Liebig’s Annalen der Chemie, etc. vol. xl. pp. 182, 183. A Letter on two distinct kinds of dynamic Induction by a Galvanic current. (Read to Phil. Soc. Oct. atl Eopeetetings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. i. pp. 134- 136. Observations of Meteors haan Nov. 25, 1835, bt iy at Princeton and at Philadelphia, for determining their difference of Longitude. (In con- junction with Professors A. D. Bache, 8. Alexander, and J. P. Espy.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. Dec. 21, vol. i. pp. 162, 163. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Oct. 1840, vol. xxxix. pp. 372, 373. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. IV. On Electro-dynamic Induction. (Read June 19.) Trans. Am: Phil. Soe. vol. viii. n.s. pp. 1-18. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. April, 1841, vol. xli. pp. 117-152. Sturgeon’s Annals Electricity, etc. vol. vii. pp. 21-56. L. B.D. Phil. Mag, June, 1841, vol. xviii, pp. 482-514. Annales de Chim, et de Phys. Dec. 1841, 3d ser. vol. iii. pp. 407-436. Poggendorff’s Annal. der Phys. und Chem, 1841, vol. liv. pp. 84-98. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. IV,—continued. Theoret- ical Considerations relating to Electro-dynamic Induction. (Read Nov. 20.) Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. viii. n. 8. pp. 18-35. On the production of a reciprocating motion by the repulsion in the consecu- tive parts of a conductor through which a galvanic current is Passing: (Read Nov. 20.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. i. p. 301. Electricity from heated Water. (Read Biba. 18.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. i. pp. 322-324. Report of the Tenth Meeting of the British Association, ete. Princeton Review, Jan. 1841, vol. xiii. pp. 132-149. Description of a simple and inexpensive form of Heliostat. (Read Sept. 17.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 97, 98. , Observations on the effects of a Thunderstorm which visited Princeton on the evening of the 14th of July, 1841. (Read Nov. 5.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 111-116. Résumé des Recherches faits sur les Courants d’Induction, Archives de l’ Elec- tricité, 1842, vol. ii. pp. 348-392. : Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. _No. VY. On Electro-dynamic Induction: and on the oscillatory discharge. (Read June 17.) Proceed- . ings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 193-196. : On Phosphorogenic Emanation. (Read May 26.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iii. pp. 38-44. _ Walker’s Electrical Magazine, 1845, vol. i. pp. 444-450. On a new Method of determining the Velocity of Projectiles. (Read May 30.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iii. pp. 165-167. Walker's Electrical Maga- zine, 1845, vol. i. pp. 350-352. 368 1843. 1843. 1843, 1844. 1844, 1844, 1844, 1845, 1845. 1845, 1845, 1845. 1845. 1845, 1846. 1846. MEMORIAL, OF JOSEPH HENRY, Nouvelles Expériences sur Induction développée par }’Electricité ordinaire. (Translated.) Archives de U Electricité, 1843, vol. iii, pp. 484-488, * On the application of Melloni’s thermo-electric apparatus to Meteorological purposes. (Presented orally Nov. 3.) Proceedings Am, Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 22. Theory of the discharge of the Leyden jar. (Presented Nov. 3.) Proceed- ings Am. Phil. Soc, vol. iv. pp. 22, 23. On the Cohesion of Liquids. (Read April 5.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 56, 57. Silliman’s dm. Jour, side Oct, 1844, vol. xlviii. pp. _ 215, 216.. ‘ On the Cohesion of Tirtdeeragitinted (Read May 17.) Proud dm. Phil. Soc, vol. iv. pp. 84, 85. Silliman’s Am, Jour, Sci, Oct. 1844, vol. xlviii, pp. 816, 217. L. E. D. Phil. Mag. June, 1845, vol. xxvi. pp. 541- 543. Syllabus of Lectures on Physics. Princeton, 8vo. 1844. Republished in part in Smithsonian Report, 1856, pp. 187-220. Classification and Sources of Mechanical Power. (Read Dec. 20.) Proceed- ings. Am, Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 127-129. On the Coast Survey. Princeton Review, April, 1845, vol. xvii, pp, 321-344, On the relative Radiation of Heat by the Solar Spots. (Read J une 20. ) Pro- ceedings Am, Phil. Soc. vol, iv. pp. 173-176. Brief Abstract in Report Brit, Assoc. 1845, Part II. p. 6, Walker’s Electrical ‘Magazine, | 1846, vol. ii. pp. 321-324. Troriep’s Neue Notizen, etc. No. 826, 1846, vol. xxxviii. col. 179-182. Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Ohemie, 1846, vol. Ixviii. pp. 102-104. | ; On the Capillarity of Metals, (Read June 20.) Proceedings Am, Phil. Soc. vol. iy. pp. 176-178. Froriep’s Neue Notizen, etc. No. 855, 1846, vol. xxxviii, col, 167-169. Poggendorft’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 2d supplemental vol. (Nach Band 1xxii.) 1848, pp. 358-361, On the Protection of Buildings from Lightning, (Read June 20.) ° Proceed- ings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p.179, Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. 1846, vol. ii. pp, 405,406. Walker's Electrical Magazine, 1846, vol. ii, pp. 824-326, Froriep’s Neue Notizen, etc, No, 823, 1846, vol. xxxviii. col, 133, 134, : An account of peculiar effects on a house struck by Lightning. (Read June 20.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc, vol, iv. p. 180, On Color Blindness. Princeton Review, July, 1845, vol. xvii. pp. 483-489. Smithsonian Report, 1877, pp. 196-200. On the discharge of Electricity through a long wire, ete. (Read Nov. 7.) Proceedings Am, Phil, Soc, vol, iv. pp. 208, 209. Repetition of Faraday’s Experiment on the Polarization of Liquids under the influence of a galvanic current. (Read Jan, 16.) Proceedings Am. Phil, Soc. vol. iv. pp. 229, 230. Extrait d’une Lettre a M. de la Rive, sur les Télégraphes Electriques dans les Etats-Unis de l'Amérique. Biblioth. Universelle. Archives, 1846, vol. ii. p. 178. 1846. 1846. 1855. 1855. SCIENTIFIC PAPERS OF HENRY. 369 Report on the action of Electri¢ity on the Telegraph Wires: and Telegraph- poles struck by Lightning. (Read June 19.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 260-268. Silliman’s 4m. Jour. Sci. 1847, vol. iii. pp. 25-32. L, E. D, Phil. Mag. 1847, vol. xxx. pp. 186-194. Agricultural Report, Commr. Pats. 1859, pp. 509-511. On the ball supported by a water jet: also experiments in regard to the “interference” of heat. (Read Oct. 16.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 285. . On the corpuscular hypothesis of the constitution of Matter. (Read Nov. 6.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 287-290. On the Height of Aurore. (Read Dec. 3.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 370. Programme of Organization of the Smithsonian Institution. ( Presented to the Board of Regente, Dec. 8, 1847.) Smithsonian Report, 1847, pp. 120-132. Article on Magnetism” for the Encyclopwdia Americana, Zncycl. Amer. 1847, vol. xiv. pp. 412-426. On Heat.—A Thermal Telescope. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. 1848, vol. v. pp. 113, 114. Explanations and Illustrations of the Plan of the Smithsonian Institution. Silliman’s Am. Jour, Sci. Nov. 1848, vol. vi. pp. 305-317. On the Radiation of Heat. (Read Oct. 19.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. v. p- 108. Analysis of the dynamic phenomena of the Leyden jar. Proceedings Amer. Association, Aug. 1850, pp. 377, 378. . On the Limit of Perceptibility of a direct and reflected Sound. Proceedings Amer. Association, May, 1851, pp. 42, 43. On the Theory of the so-called Imponderables. Proceedings Amer, Association, Aug. 1851, pp. 84-91. ’ Address before the Metropolitan Mechanics’ Institute, Washington. (Deliv- ered March 19.) 8vo. Washington, 1853, 19 pp. Meteorological Tables of mean diurnal variations, etc.—Prepared as an Appen- dix to Mr. Russell’s Lectures on Meteorology. Smithsonian Report for 1854, pp. 215-223. Re . Thoughts on Education; an Introductory Discourse before the Association for the Advancement of Education. (Delivered Dec. 28.) Proceedings Assoc. Adv, Education, 4th Session, 1854, pp. 17-31. Amer. Jour. of Education, Aug. 1855, vol. i. pp. 17-31. On the mode of Testing Building Materials, etc. Proceedings Am, Assoc. Aug. 1855, pp. 102-112. Silliman’s Am. Jour, Sci. July, 1856, vol. xxii. pp. 30- 38; Smithsonian Report, 1856, pp. 303-310. On the effect of mingling Radiating Substances with Combustible Materials : (or incombustible bodies with fuel.) Proceedings Am. Assoc. Aug. 1855, pp. 112-116. 24 370 1855. 1855. 1855. 1855. 1855. 1855. 1857, 1857. 1857, 1858. 1859.. 1859. MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Account of Experiments on the alleged spontaneous separation of Alcohol and Water. Proceed. Am. Assoc, Aug. 1855, pp. 140-144. = On the Induction of Electrical Currents. (Read Sept. 11.) | Proceedings Am, Academy of Arts, etc, vol. iii. p. 198. Note on the Gyroscope, Appendix to Lecture by Professor E, 8. Snell. Smith- sonian Report, 1855, p. 190. Remarks on Rain-fall at varying elevations. Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 213, 214. Directions for Meteorological Observations. (In conjunction with Professor A. Guyot.) Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 215-244, Circular of Inquiries relative to Earthquakes. Smithsonian ite 1855, p. 245. . Instructions for Observations of the Aurora. Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 247-250. >. On Green’s Standard Barometer for the Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 251-258. . Circular of Instructions on Registering the peniodics! phenomena of animal and vegetable life. Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 259-263. 55. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part I. Agricultural Report of Commr. Pats, 1855, pp. 357-394, . On Acoustics applied to Public Buildings. “Proceedings Am. Assoc. Aug. 1856, pp. 119-135. Smithsonian Report, 1856, pp. 221-234. Canadian Journal, etc. Mar. 1857, vol. ii, n. 8. pp. 130-140, . Account of a large Sulphuric-acid Barometer in the Hall of the Smithsonian Institution Building. Proceedings Am, Assoc, Aug. 1856, pp. 135-138. . Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part II. General Atmos- pheric Conditions. Agricultural Report of Commr. Pats. 1856, pp. 455- 492.. Communication to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, rela- tive to a publication by Professor Morse. Smithsonian Report, 1857, pp. 85-88. Statement in relation to the history of the Electro-magnetic Paearayes Smith- sonian Report, 1857, pp. 99-106. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part III. Terrestrial Physics, and ecaperaiare: Agricultural Report of Commr, Pats. 1857, pp. 419- 506. : : Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part IV. Atmospheric Vapor, and Currents. Agricultural Report of Commr. Pats. 1858, pp. 429-493, On Meteorology. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, Aug. 1859, vol. iv. pp. _ 289-291. Application of the Pia to the Prediction of Changes of the Weather, — (Read Aug. 9.) Proceedings Am. Academy of Arts, etc. vol. iv. pp. 271-275. 1859, Meteorology in its ‘connection with Agriculture, Part V. Atmospheric Elec- tricity. Agricultural Report of Commr. Pats. 1859, pp. 461-508. 1859, 1860. -1860. 1860. 1861. 1861. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1865. 1865. 1865. 1866. ‘1866. 1866. 1866. 1866. SCIENTIFIC PAPERS OF HENRY. _ 371 On the Protection of Buildings from the effects of Lightning. Agricult. Report, Com. Pat. 1859, pp. 511-524. On the Conservation of Force. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. J uly, 1860, vol. xxx. pp. 32-41. Circular to Officers of Hudson’s Bay Company (April 20.) Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 137, vol. viii. pp. 1-4. Description of Smithsonian Anemometer. Smithsonian Report, 1860, pp. 414-416. Letter on Aeronautics to Mr. T. S. C. Lowe. (March 11.) Smithsonian Re- port, 1860, pp. 118, 119. Article on “Magnetism” for the American Cyclopedia. Edited by Ripley and Dana. Am. Cycl. 1861, vol. xi. pp. 61-63. Article on ‘‘Meteorology” for the American Cyclopedia. Edited by Ripley and Dana. Am. Cycl. 1861, vol. xi. pp. 414-420. Report of the Light-House Board on the proposed Transfer of the Lights to the Navy Department, Exec, Docts. 37th Cong. 2d Sess. Senate, Mis. Doc. No. 61, pp. 2-18. piv & : Letter to Orlando Meads, Chairman of Committee of Trustees, etc. on the semi-centennial celebration of the Albany Academy. (Dated June 23.) Proceedings on Semi-Centennial Anniversary, etc. pp. 66, 67. Introduction to Memoir by Professor J. Plateau. On the Figures of Equili- brium of a Liquid Mass, etc. Smithsonian Report, 1863, pp. 207, 208. On Materials for Combustion in Lamps of Light-Houses. (Read Jan. 12, before the Heavens Academy of Sciences.) [Not published in Proceed- ings. ] Report relative to the Fire at the Smithsonian Institution, occurring Jan. 24th, 1865. (In conjunction with Mayor Richard Wallach.) Presented to the Regents February, ‘1865. Smithsonian Report, 1864, pp. 117-120. Queries relative to Tornadoes : directions to observers. _ Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 190, vol. x. pp. 1-4. Remarks on the Meteorology of the United seo _ Smithsonian Report, 1865, pp. 50-59. | ; Remarks on Ventilation: especially with reference to the U. S. Capitol. Smith- sonian Report, 1865, pp. 67, 68. Report on the Warming and Ventlatne of the U. 8. Capitol. (May 4.) Exec. Doc. No. 100. ° ‘H. of Rep. 39th Cong. 1st Sess. pp. 4-6. Report of Building Committee on Repairs to Sm. Inst. building from Fire. (In conjunction with Gen]. Richard Delafield, and Mayor Richard Wallach.) Presented to Regents April 28. “Smithsonian Report, 1865, pp. 111-114. ‘On the aboriginal Migration of the American races. Appendix to: paper: by F. Von Hellwald. Smithsonian Report, 1866, PP. 344, 345. Remarks on Vitality, Smithsonian meres 1866, pp. 386-388. : Meteorological Notes. “To Correspondents.” ' ” Sinithsonian Report, ‘1866, pp. 403-412, paren 372 1866. 1867. 1867, 1867. 1867. - 1867. 1867. 1868. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1871. 1871. 1871. 1871. 1871. 1871. 1871. 1871. 1872, MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Investigations in regard to Sound. (Read Aug. 10, before the National Acad- emy of Sciences.) [Not published in Proceedings. ] Circular relating to Collections in Archeology and Ethnology. (Jan. 15.) Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 205, vol. viii. pp. 1, 2. Circular relative to! Exchanges. (May 16.) Smithsonian Report, 1867, pal: ; Suggestions relative to Objects of Scientific Investigation in Russian America. (May 27.) Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 207, vol. viii. pp. 1-7. Notice of Peltier, Smithsonian Report, 1867, p. 158. Notes on Atmospheric Electricity. To Correspondents. Smithsonian Report, 1867, pp. 320-323. On the Penetration of Sound. (Read Jan. 24, before the National Academy of Sciences. [Not published in Proceedings. ] Appendix to a Notice of Schoenbein. Smithsonian Report, 1868, pp. 189-192. On the Rain-fall of the United States. (Read Aug. 25, before the National Academy of Sciences.) [Not published in Proceedings. ] Memoir of Alexander Dallas Bache. (Read April 16.) Biographical Memoirs of Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. i, pp. 181-212. Smithsonian Report, 1870, pp. 91- 116. Letter. On a Physical Observatory. (Dec. 29.) Smithsonian Report, 1870, pp. 141-144. Observations on the Rain-fall of the United States, Proceedings California Academy of Sciences, vol, iv. p, 185. i Instructions for Observations of Thunder Storms. Smithsonian Miscell. Col- lections, No, 235, vol. x. p. 1. Circular relative to Heights. For a topographio chart of N. America, Smith- sonian Miscell, Collections, No, 236, vol. x. p. 1, Directions for constructing Lightning-Rods. Smithsonian Miscell, Collections, No. 237, vol. x. pp. 1-3. Silliman’s dm. Jour, Sci. Noy. 1871, vol. ii. pp. 344-346. Letter to Capt. C. F. Hall, in regard to the Scientific Operations of the Expe- dition toward the North Pole. (June 9.) Smithsonian Report, 1871, pp. 364-366. Suggestions as to Meteorological Observations; during the Expedition toward the North Pole. Smithsonian Report, 1871, pp. 372-379. Meteorological Notes and Remarks. Smithsonian Report, 1871, pp. 452, 455, 456, 459, 461. Effect of the Moon on the Weather. Smithsonian Report, 1871, pp. 460, 461. Anniversary Address as President of the Philosophical Society of Washington. (Delivered Nov. 18.) Bulletin Phil. Soc. Washington, vol. i. pp. 5-14. Remarks on Cosmical Theories of Electricity and Magnetism: an Appendix to a Memoir by Professor G. B. Donati. Smithsonian Report, 1872, pp. 307-309. 1872. 1873. 1873. 1873. 1874. 1874. 1874. 1875. 1875. 1875. 1875. 1876. 1876. 1876. 1876. 1877. 1877. 1877. 1877. 1877. SCIENTIFIC PAPERS OF HENRY. 373 t On certain Abnormal Phenomena of Sound, in connection: with Fog-signals. (Read Dec. 11.) Bulletin Phil. Soc. Washington, vol. i. p. 65, and Appendix ix. 8 pp. Letter to John C. Green, Esq. of New York, on his establishment of the “Henry Chair of Physics” in the College of New Jersey. Washington Daily Chronicle, Mar. 21, 1873. On Telegraphic Announcements of Astronomical Discoveries. (May.) Smith- sonian Miscell. Collections, No. 263, vol. xii. pp. 1-4. Remarks on the Light-House Service. Report of Light-House Board, 1873, pp. 3-7. Report of Investigations relative to Fog-Signals, and certain abnormal phenomena of Sound. Report of Light-House Board, 1874. Appendix, pp. 83-117. Memoir of Joseph Saxton. (Read Oct. 4.) Biographical Memoirs of Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. i. pp. 287-316. Remarks on Recent Earthquakes in North Carolina. Smithsonian Report, 1874, pp. 259,260. Remarks on the Light-House Service. Ieport of Light-House Board, 1875, pp. 5-8. An account of investigations relative to Illuminating Materials, Report of Light-House Board, 1875. Appendix, pp. 86-103. Investigations relative to Sound. Report of Light-House Board, 1875. Appen- dix, pp. 104-126. On the Organization of Local Scientific Societies. Smithsonian Report, 1875, pp. 217-219. Article on ‘‘ Fog,” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia. Edited by Dr. Bar- nard. J. Univ. Cycl. vol. ii. pp. 187, 188. Article on ‘“Fog-Signals” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia. Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cyel, vol. ii. pp. 188-190. Article on ‘‘Hygrometry” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia. Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cycl. vol. ii. pp. 1072-1074. Letter to Rev. S. B. Dod; on researches made at Princeton. (Dated Dec. 4.) Princeton Memorial, May 19, 1878, 8vo. N. Y. pp. 51-70. Article on “Lightning” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia, Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cycl. vol. iii. pp. 32-36. Article on ‘‘ Lightning-Rods” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia. Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ, Cycl. vol. iii. pp. 36, 37. Remarks on the Light-House Service. Report of Light-House Board, 1877, pp. 3-7. Report of Operations relative to Fog-Signals. Report of Light-House Board, 1877. Appendix, pp. 61-72. Address before the Philosophical Society of Washington. Bulletin Phil. Soc. Washington, vol. ii. pp. 162-174. 374 1878. 1878. 1878. 1878 1878 1878 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. | On Thunder Storms. (Letter Oct. 13.) Journal Am, Electrical Society, 1878, vol. ii. pp. 37-44. ; . Letter to Joseph Patterson, Esq. of Philadelphia, on the “Joseph Henry Fund.” (Dated Jan. 10.) Public Ledger and Transcript, May 14, 1878.. The Press: of Philadelphia, May 14, 1878. Report on the Ventilation of the Hall of the House of Representatives. (Jan. 26.) 45th Cong. 2nd Sess, H. R. Report, No. 119, pp. 1-6. . Report on the Use of the Polariscope in Saccharimetry. (Feb.5.) Mis. Doc. 45th Cong. 2nd Sess, H. R. . Opening Address before the National Academy of Sciences. (Read April 16.) Proceedings Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. i. part 2, pp. 127, 128, . Closing Address before the National Academy of Sciences. (Read April 19.) Proceedings Nat. Acad, Sci. vol. i. part 2, pp. 129, 130. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. Note A. (From p. 209.) HENRY’S FIRST EXPERIMENTS. From the time of leaving the Albany Academy young Henry exhibited a great fondness for chemical experimentation., The wonderful transformations of familiar substances under the magic spell of decomposing re-actions and combining affinities, seemed to his ardent imagination to offer a possible clue’ to the mystery of matter and of force. His mental activity sought an outlet in assist- ing to establish the “Albany Lyceum.” i's ; Orlando Meads, LL.D. in the “Annual Address” read before the Albany Institute, May 25, 1871, thus records his early reminis- cences : : "s ; “When a boy in the Albany Academy in 1823 and 1824, it was my pleasure and privilege, when released from recitations, to resort to the chemical laboratory and lecture room. There might be found from day to day through the winter, earnestly engaged in experiments upon steam and upon a small steam-engine, and in chemical and other scientific investigations, two young men—both active members of the ‘Lyceum,’ then very different in their exter- nal circumstances and prospects in life, but of kindred tastes and sympathies; the one was Richard Varick DeWitt, the other was . Joseph Henry, as yet unknown to fame, but already giving promise of those rare qualities of mind and character which have since raised him to the very first rank among the experimental philosophers of his time. Chemistry at that time was exciting great interest, and Dr. Beck’s courses of chemical lectures, conducted every winter in the lecture room of the Academy, were attended not only by the students, but by all that was most intelligent and fashionable in the city. Henry, who had been formerly a pupil in the Academy, was . then Dr. Beck’s chemical assistant, and already an admirable ex- perimentalist, and he availed himself to the utmost of the advan- tages thus afforded, of prosecuting his investigations in chemistry, electricity, and galvanism.” * * Transactions of Albany Institute, 1872, vol. vii. pp. 20, 21. : (375) 376 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Note B. (From p. 227.) | “INTENSITY” AND “QUANTITY” CURRENTS. Karly in the century, the eminent chemist Dr. Thomas Thomson endeavored to express the difference between mechanical electricity and chemical electricity, by characterizing the former as’ possessing “intensity,” and the latter as possessing “quantity.” Irom the increase of electrical effects with the multiplication of galvanic — pairs in a pile or battery, Volta a short time before had designated such action as “electromotor” force. Dr, Robert Hare in 1816 devising a galyanic battery in which all the positive elements were directly connected together, as were all the negative elements, (thus constituting it virtually a battery of a single pair,) from the heating effects obtained, designated the action as “‘calorimotor” force. It | appeared quite ‘natural afterward to distinguish these classes of effects by the old terms—“‘intensity” for electromotive force, and “quantity” for calorimotive force. There is obviously a close anal- ogy between these differences of condition or resultant, and the more strongly contrasted conditions of mechanical and chemical electricity: and indeed the whole may be said to lie in a continuous series, from the highest “intensity” with minimum quantity, to the greatest “quantity” with minimum intensity. Peltier in 1836 published a paper entitled “Definition of the terms electric Quantity and Intensity, derived from direct experi- ment;” in which he showed that “if we form a voltaic pair of two fine wires, zinc and copper, immersed in pure water, and connected by a circuit of copper wire 300 metres (328 yards) long, although there is as we know a continuous current in this closed circuit, the copper wire if placed immediately over a magnetic needle, will not deflect it from the magnetic meridian. But if the needle be sur- rounded by a “multiplicator” formed of 100 or 200 coils of the ° long wire, there will be at once a notable deviation; and if the number of coils be increased to 2,000 the deviation may extend to 60 degrees.” In this experiment, as the primitive current has not been changed, but a “factitious quantity” only has been produced by conducting it 2,000 times around the magnetic needle, Peltier inferred that it is by the quantity (and by no other modification) that the action has been thus enhanced; and that it is therefore through its quantity that a current acts on the magnetic needle. “Taking now a thermo-electric pair, zinc and copper, of five square millimetres, (the 129th part of a square inch,) and ‘heating one of the solderings to 40 degrees, (104° I’.) we find that with the same closed circuit and multiplicator of 2,000 coils, the needle will not be deflected; the electricity will not pass. But if we retrench \ DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR:— NOTES. ott 1,800 coils, (shortening the conductor to this extent,) the galva- nometer now of 200 coils will begin to give notable deviations. If we reduce it to 10 coils, the deflection will be considerably aug- mented. Finally, if we reduce it to a single coil formed of a strip of copper containing as much substance as the 200 coils, the deflec- tion of the needle may amount to even 60 degrees. The quantity of electricity produced in this experiment by the thermo-electric pair is therefore’ evidently 2,000 times greater than that of the above hydro-electric pair, since we obtain the same deviation with a single coil as with the factitious quantity given by the reduplication of the coils. On the other hand, in the first experiment the length of the conducting wire was easily traversed by the hydro-electric current; the inertia of the matter was overcome without difficulty and without appreciable loss of the current: in the second experi- ment this inertia could not be overcome; the power of action was insufficient and it was necessary to reduce the circuit to a very small length for the electricity to be able to traverse it.” From these phenomena, Peltier argued that two very distinct conditions were presented, which should not be confounded; an action of quantity without resistance, and an action of intensity y independent of quan- tity, capable of overcoming considerable resistance.* In the same memoir however, Peltier took occasion to say that he considered “dynamic intensity” an inappropriate expression for electricity in movement; and that the term if retained should be used to designate not a modification of the electric current, but a particular disposition of the electro-motor. He discarded the idea that intensity represents a peculiar quality in the current itself; but considered the action as only the consequence of increased resistance offered by the pile to a backward movement or return of the electric flow: or in other words that intensity regarded as the power of overcoming obstacles in the external path, results from the greater obstacles presented by the battery to a neutralization by rctrogra- dation.t The designations under discussion have been largely superseded in modern authorities by the mathematical treatment of the subject, which takes cognizance alone of the ratio between electromotive force and resistance differences inthe circuits. Thus Professor Jenkin, speaking of the two classes of batteries, remarks: “ With a short circuit of small external resistance, we can increase the cur- rent by increasing the size of cells, or what is equivalent to this, by joining several cells in multiple are. With a long circuit of great external resistance, large cells (or many of them joined in multiple * Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1836, vol. Ixiii, pp. 245, 246. + Same work, p. 253. 378 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. arc) will fail to give us strong currents, but we may increase ,the current by joining the same cells in series. - - - Cells joined in series are sometimes described as joined for ‘intensity’; and cells joined in multiple arc, as joined for ‘quantity,’ These terms are remnants of an erroneous theory.” * Again, in speaking of galvanometers of long and_ fine coils, as distinguished from those of short and thick wire coils, he says: “In some writings these two classes of instruments are spoken of as adapted to two different classes of ‘currents’ instead of to two different classes of circuits. ‘The instrument with numerous turns of fine wire is said to indicate ‘intensity’ currents, the other class to indicate ‘quantity’ currents. These two old names survive, although the fallacious theory which assumed that there were two kinds of currents is extinct: the term ‘intensity galvanometer’ is used to signify an instrument with thousands of turns of thin wire in its coil, and ‘quantity galvanometer’—an instrument with few turns of thick wire. I shall name the two varieties ‘long coil’ and ‘short coil’ galyanometers.” + Admirable as the mathematical theory of galvanic circuits has proved itself in its fullness and precision, it does not supply us with any satisfactory physical conception of the palpable dynamic differ- ence in the resultant galvanic currents. The old terms, whether accurate or not, are still convenient designations of the acknowl- edged differences when reference is had to effects rather than to arrangements, f No one has more clearly pointed out the’ almost constant an- tithesis between the actions of “‘static” and “dynamic” electricity, than Peltier himself. “Static electricity is duplex; each of its forms is collected, controlled, and maintained separately; being manifested only in the state of isolation and separation: these forms are only preserved thus separate by non-conducting substances, and their action endures as long as their insulation, Dynamic electricity is not double; it cannot be separately either collected, controlled, or maintained; being manifested only at the instant of its trans- mission through conductors insulated or not: for continuous effect it is necessary that the producing cause be continuous. ‘The former collects only at the surface, being equally or unequally distributed thereon according to the form of the surface. The latter is propa- * Electricity and Magnetism. By Fleeming Jenkin. 16mo. London and New York, 1873, chap. iv. sect. 7, p. 88. + Same work, chap, xiii. sect. 3, p. 190. t Peltier from experiments (the results of which he has detailed) controverted the universality of the law of Ohm and Gauss, that galvanic resistance is directly proportioned to the length of the conducting wire, and inversely proportional to the area of its cross-section. (Comples Rendus, Oct, 12, 1835, vol. i. pp. 208, 204.) DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR:—WNOTES. 379 gated equally through the interior of , conducting bodies, and in proportion to their mass quite irrespective of the form of their surfaces. ‘Two bodies charged with the same kind of static elec- tricity, exhibit mutual repulsion; while if charged with contrary kinds they exhibit mutual attraction: and by contact establish a complete neutralization. .T'wo currents of dynamic electricity, in the same direction attract each other; in opposite directions repel each other: the contact of their conductors produces neither divis- ion nor neutralization; nor does any external communication disturb the current in a closed circuit. A body charged with either kind of static electricity exerts no action but attraction on a neutral body; it induces_the opposite electrical state on the portion of a body approached, repelling its own kind to the further extremity. A current of dynamic electricity produces various inductive effects on neighboring bodies, as transverse magnetization, instantaneous impulses at the moment of any change, chemical actions, etc. The former finds, an Ee of its two forms in very unequal degrees in different metals.* The latter finds’ only conducting differences between the metals; and is not affected by other cur- rents. The former is feeble or intense according to the extent of surface on which it is accumulated; and manifests its tension by a greater or less attraction or repulsion. The latter exhibits the states of quantity—measured by the deflection of the galvano- meter, and of ‘intensity —-measured by the power of overcoming resistance or of traversing poor andictest 7 Characteristically different as are the phenomena thus exhibited by mechanical and chemical electricities, (to distinguish which we ‘ have unfortunately no satisfactory expressions,) almost as marked — though in a much smaller degree, are the peculiarities of galvanism itself, in what must be called its varying states of tension. ' And for these striking differences, Ohm’s celebrated law ‘that “the strength of the current is proportional to the electro-motive force divided by the conducting resistance,” affords no more intelligible explanation than it does for the peculiar deportment of so-called “static” electrigity.™ Indeed Ohm’s formula represenits but a close * Peltier first derhonétrated that the electric capacity of the metals for the same kind from 4 constant source, is very unequal: thus zinc takes and retains more positive than negative electricity, while the contrary takes place with copper: so gold is more apt than silver or platina to become charged with posi- tive electricity. (Comptes Rendus, 1835, vol. i. pp. 860 and 470.) + Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1838, vol. Ixvil. pp. 426-428. The title of this memoir is '' Experimental researches on the quantities of static and dynamic action produced by the oxidation of a milligramme of zine: and the author arrives at the conclusion that the static effects are as the squares of the dynamic effects; or conversely, the dynamic as the square roots of the static. (p. 446.) 380 ‘VAs MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. approximation to the actual facts of electrical transmission; and gives us no account of the remarkable fact discovered by Henry: that the magnetizing power of a current actually increases with the length of the conductor, up to a certain point; nor of his other discovery, the “extra current” or the induction of a current upon . itself. Indeed it takes no cognizance of any of the numerous per- turbations dependent on the mvsterious re-actions of electrical “induction.” Note C. (From p. 229.) THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. From among living eye-witnesses of Henry’s early telegraphic experiments in the years 1831 and 1832, the following may be cited : Dr. Orlando Meads, a former student of the Albany Academy, in an anniversary discourse commemorating the fiftieth year of its existence, thus referred to the scenes he witnessed a third of a cen- tury before: “The older students of the Academy in the years 1830, 1831, and 1832, and others who witnessed his experiments which at that time excited so much interest in this city, will remember the long coils of wire which ran circuit upon circuit for more than a mile in length around one of the upper rooms in the Academy, for the purpose of illustrating the fact that a galvanic current could be - transmitted through its whole length so as to excite a magnet at the farther end of the line, and thus move a steel bar which struck a bell. This in a scientific point of view, was the demonstration and accomplishment of all that was required for the magnetic telegraph. - - - Let us not forget that the click of the telegraph which is heard from every joint of those mystic wires which now link to- gether every city, and village, and post, and camp, and station, all over this continent, is but the echo of that little bell which first sounded in that upper room of the Academy.” * On the same occasion, the Hon. Alexander W. Bradford, also a former pupil of the Academy, (who finished his course at the Insti- tution and left it in 1832,) recalled the suspended lines of insulated copper wire through which his teacher had demonstrated “the magnetic power of the galvanic battery ; and years before the inven- tion of the telegraph, proclaimed to America and to Europe the means of communication by the electric fluid. I was an eye- * TTistorical Discourse”; on the Celebration of the Semi-Centennial Anni- - versary of the Albany Academy, June 23, 1863. Proceedings, etc. pp. 25, 26. DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR:—NOTES. 381 witness to those experiments, and to their eventual demonstration and triumph.” * . Professor James Hall, (in the same year in which he was Presi- dent of the American Association at its Albany meeting,) in a letter addressed to Professor Henry, January 19, 1856, relates the circum- stances of a visit to the Albany Academy in August, 1832, on which occasion he was shown a long circuit of wire about the walls of a larger upper room, “and at one termination of this, in the recess of a window, a bell was fixed, while the other extremity was connected with a galvanic apparatus. You showed us the manner in which the bell could be made to ring by a current of electricity transmitted through this wire; and you remarked that this method might be adopted for giving signals by the ringing of a bell at the distance of many miles from the point of its connection with the galvanic apparatus. All the circumstances attending this visit to Albany are fresh in my recollection; and during the past years while so much has been said respecting the invention of electric telegraphs, I have often had occasion to mention the exhibition of your electric telegraph in the Albany Academy, in 1832.” + Professor Morse, who states that the idea of an electric telegraph first occurred to him in October, 1832, commenced experimenting on this conception in the latter part of 1835. The following is his own account of his first experiments: __ “Tn the year 1835, I was appointed a professor in the New York City University, and about the month of November of that year, I occupied rooms in the University buildings. There I immediately commenced with very limited means to experiment upon my inven- tion. My.first instrument was made up of an old picture or canvas frame fastened to a table, the wheels of an old wooden clock moved by a weight to carry the paper forward, three wooden drums upon one of which the paper was wound and passed over the other two, a wooden pendulum suspended to the top piece of the picture or _ stretching frame and vibrating across the paper as it passed over the center wooden drum, a pencil at the lower end of the pendulum in contact with the paper, an electro-magnet fastened to a shelf across the picture or stretching frame opposite to an armature made fast to the pendulum, a type-rule and type for breaking the circuit on an endless band (composed of carpet-binding) which passed over two wooden rollers. moved by a wooden crank and carried forward by points projecting from the bottom of the rule downward into the carpet-binding, a lever with a small weight on the upper side and a *“Commemorative Address”: at Semi-Centennial Anniversary of Albany Academy, June 23, 1863. Proceedings, etc. p. 48. 4 Published in the Smithsonian Report for 1857, p. 96. 382 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. tooth projecting downward at one end operated on by the type,,and a metallic fork also projecting downward over two mercury-cups and a short circuit of wire embracing the helices of the electro- magnet, connected with the positive and negative poles of the bat- tery and terminating in the mercury-cups. - - - Karly in 1836, I procured forty feet of wire, and putting it in the circuit I found that my battery of one cup was not sufficient to work my instru- ment.” * The last statement exhibits a singular unconsciousness of the real defect of his receiving apparatus, and of the fact that no number of galvanic cups would have sufficed “to work the instrument” as then constructed. It is true (as first shown by Henry) that an “intensity”? battery of many elements is required to operate a mag- netic telegraph line; but (as also shown by him) a no less essential constituent, is an “intensity” magnet, if any use’is to be made of the armature. And on this point Professor Morse seems never to have understood the vital importance of Henry’s discoveries to the success of his own invention. . Had he employed the most powerful of then existing magnets, (Henry’s Yale College magnet of 1831, lifting 2,300 pounds, or Henry’s Princeton College magnet of 1834, lifting 3,500 pounds,) he would still have found neither one cup nor one thousand cups “sufficient to work the instrument” through a circuit of fine wire, at the distance of a single mile.f Although Professor Morse was enabled therefore to operate the armature of his Sturgeon magnet through a few yards of wire, it is certain that his experiments in 1836 were, for any telegraphic purpose, an abso- lute failure:—a failure as complete as were those undertaken by Barlow in 1825. The relevancy’ of his incidental remark as in extenuation— one cup was not sufficient to work my instrument,” may therefore be appreciated. As an artist of repute, Mr. Morse had been appointed professor of the “Arts of Design,” in the newly established New York City University, in the autumn of 1835; but with any literature of sci- ence, he was remarkably unfamiliar. He therefore very naturally had recourse to his colleague Professor Leonard D. Gale Os the chair of chemistry) for needed scientific assistance, The following is Dr. Gale’s account of Morse’s original invention: ) “In the winter of 1836—’37, Samuel I’. B. Morse, who as well’ as myself was a professor in the New York University, city of * Professor Morse’s deposition in the ‘Bain case,’’ 1850. + ‘*Electro-magnets of the greatest power, even when the most energetic bat- teries are employed, utterly cease to act when they are connected by considerable lengths of wire with the battery.”. (J. .F. Daniell’s Introduction to the Study of ° Chemical Philosophy, 2nd ed, 8yo. London, 1848, chap, xvi. sect. 859, p. 576.) - DISCOURSE OF W. B. TAYLOR: — NOTES. 383 New York, came to my lecture room, and said he had a machine in his lecture room or studio which he wished to show me. I accom- panied him to his room and there saw resting on a table a single- pair galvanic battery, an electro-magnet, an arrangement of pencil, a paper-covered roller, pinion wheels, levers, etc. for making letters and figures to be used for sending and receiving words and sentences through long distances. - - - It was evident to me that the one large cup-battery of Morse should be made into ten or fifteen smaller ones to make it a battery of intensity. - -- - i ae ' ’ (427) 428 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. and for which he wrote and acted tragedy and comedy, —absorhed his time and thoughts. All who have seen and admired the refined, intellectual face, and' the erect, dignified form of the ripe hiloss- pher, can easily imagine the success of the young aspirant for dramatic distinction when these charms of person and mind were decked in the beauty of youth: the self-possession, the repose, and the grace of this expounder of physical science alone remained to tell of his: short-lived eccentricity. ‘Those’ readers, who allow the mythical apple to divide with Newton the glory of a great discovery, will listen eagerly to the statement that the theatrical career of young Henry was'suddenly arrested. by his accidental encounter, during a brief illness, with Dr. Gregory’s popular lectures. The literal truth of the story is not questioned ; for Professor Henry himself believed it, and \reyerently cherished the , precious volume to the last. Such however was the occasion, but not the cause, of his dedicating him- self henceforth to science. Innumerable accidents of a similar kind happen to every one, but! not with the same result. | Man, especially such a-man, is not. the creation of any accident. The inspiration comes from within; it is the unbidden thought, and not the external events with which :it is associated. ; Said a great divine, “If you say that man is the creature of circumstances, it must be with the understanding that the greatest and ‘most effective of these circum-. stances is the manihiniself.) vty il voter opel con aadeds Bidding farewell to’ the stage and his theatrical companions, Henry went seriously to work to complete his education; at first in an evening school, then with an itinerant pedagogue, and finally in the Albany Academy, where he was successively pupil, and teacher. Next he was private tutor in the family of the patroon, devoting his leisure to the study of mathematics, and) subjects which would fit him for the medical profession. In 1826 he made, in connection with Amos Eaton, the survey for a road across the State of New York, In this work he displayed so much energy and ability that his friends hoped to find, or to create for him, a permanent position as engineer. . But the State failed to respond, and Henry returned to the Albany Academy as. assistant teacher, and in 1828 as Pro- fessor of Mathematics. Only a few years had elapsed since the science of electricity had NOTICE BY PROF. J. LOVERING. 429 taken: a new departure under the name of electro-magnetism. Oersted, of Copenhagen, had kindled the flame, which passed rapidly from hand to hand among the scientific workers of Europe, until it ' culminated in the splendid generalization of Ampére. This west- ern continent may have been tardy in welcoming the bright light in the east, but the response, when given, was not a fire, but a conflagration. Professor Henry led in the new line of physical research with a self-born enthusiasm which seven hours of daily teaching in mathematics could not extinguish or cool. The limits of this notice forbid a lengthened statement of his contributions to electro-magnetism. But the fertile principle which he. deduced from his experiments must not be passed over in silence. His dis- tinction between quantity and intensity magnets, and between quantity and intensity batteries, (though now differently expressed, ) is all-important and of manifold applications. Every experiment with electro-magnetism, in the laboratory, in the lecture-room, and in the arts, is a success or a failure in proportion as this. law is obeyed or ignored. If this discovery has linked Professor Henry’s name with the telegraph especially, it is because that was the great problem of the hour, — unsolved, and as some supposed unsolvable. It is not easy to draw the dividing line: between the merits of the discoverer and the inventor, when one follows closely upon the heels of the other. Professor Henry’s contribution to the final triumph was large, and brilliant, and indispensable; but it was not all- sufficient. An alphabet was wanting ; a sustaining battery must be invented ; moreover, a:man must appear with a capacity for busi- ness and a courage born of hope, with no original knowledge of the familiar laws of electricity but with an easy absorption of the science of other. men, who, by a happy combination of experimental. devices and the devotion of. years, might finally achieve a grand!commer- cial success, .In view of Professor Henry’s additional conquests in the,realm of physical research, science will ever rejoice that he was not himself dazzled by the inviting prospect of riches and popular applduse; that he. renounced the fruits of invention when they were almost within his grasp; that he preferred to any short-lived, meteoric display the. chance of shining for ever as a star in the. upper heavens, with Agassiz, Cuvier, and Faraday. 430 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. _. Loyalty to the devotees of scientific research does not demand any disparagement of the usefulness or the genius of inventors. If the former enlarge the area of human knowledge, the latter contrib- ute to the civilization of the race. If there are individuals in one class who think only of their pecuniary success, the other class is not without examples of those who mean to achieve, even if they do not deserve, a high scientific reputation. It is not incumbent on every scientific man to think, with Cuvier, that he must abandon a discovery the moment it enters the market,— that its practical application is of no concern to him. No one certainly has a better right to the fruits of this application than the discoverer himself. Inventors may sometimes stumble on good fortune; but the rich prizes are. comparatively few, and, on the average, they are dearly earned by years of severe thought and anxious waiting. No grave- yard holds so many buried hopes as the Patent Office at Washing- ton, Since the first introduction of the telegraph, discovery and invention have advanced, hand in hand, over continents and through the ocean, leaving the world in doubt which to admire the most, — the conceptions of pure science, or the exquisite mechanism in which they are embodied. If on one occasion this harmony was disturbed by the repudiation of an indebtedness which had often before been freely acknowledged, the ingratitude was rebuked by the indignant voice of science, and the just claims of Mr, Henry were established on an impregnable foundation, It does not detract from the merit or the originality of Professor Henry’s early discoveries that the same ground had been covered by Fechner, in a work published in 1831, and that both had been anticipated by Ohm’s experimental and mathematical analysis of the galvanic circuit, which dates back to 1827. For Ohm’s little book of that date, which now shines as a foreland light for the guidance of all who explore in that direction, was known only to a few in Germany, and was unknown in France, England, and America at a time when, if known, it might have illuminated Pro- fessor Henry’s researches. At a later period, Pouillet published the results of his own experiments, without knowing that he him- self had been anticipated by Ohm. The father of Ohm had intended his son for a locksmith; but, unlike Henry, he did not NOTICE BY PROF. J. LOVERING: 431 even begin his apprenticeship. He pursued his studies to the verge of starvation; his heated brain worked ‘while his body shivered before a fireless stove, often covered with ice. His book, which placed him before his death, in 1854, among the greatest of Ger- man physicists, was coldly received by his colleagues in the College of Jesuits, at Cologne. On the contrary, Professor Henry’s recog- nition was prompt and sympathetic, at home and abroad; at a single bound he came to the front, and there he always remained.) | ' In 1832, Professor Henry removed to Princeton to fill’ the chair of Natural Philosophy in the College of New Jersey. :'\Here he found sympathizing associates, congenial duties, and the opportunity for original research. One year earlier Faraday, already widely known by his chemical discoveries, appeared upon ‘the field of experimental electricity, and immediately became the most conspicu- ous figure thereon, the cynosure of admiring eyes in every land. His discovery of induced currents, and of the evolution of elec- tricity from magnets, marked a new era in the science of electricity, elucidating facts which had defied the ingenuity of Arago, Herschel, - and Babbage, creating the science of magneto-electricity as the cor- relative of electro-magnetism, and justly claiming for its Jast-born the splendors and wonders of the Ruhmkorff coil, the Gramme machine, and the telephone.!' Henry supplemented, the work of Faraday by his own discoveries of the evtra-current in the primi- tive circuit, and of induced currents of higher orders in as many adjacent circuits: _He:also succeeded where Faraday had doubts about his own experiments; viz: in obtaining unequivocal indica- tions of similar induction in the momentary passage of electricity of high tension; proving also the oscillating discharge of the Ley- den jar. Numerous experiments were made on induction by thun- der-clouds, and on atmospheric reat ie in see by means of - tandem-kites and lightning-rods.) “(iisy! levi iiby eo bi) | Nobili and Melloni had nore and deepened the foundations . of thermotics, unveiling new and intimate analogies between radiant light and heat, and enriching physical cabinets with many novelties, especially the thermopile and the galvahniometer. Henry took advan- tage of the new instruments, for: measuring the heat of different parts of the sun." Secchi; the late astronomer and meteorologist of 432 MEMORIAL OF. JOSEPH HENRY, the Collegio Romano, distinguished as the foster-brother of Victor, Emmanuel, but more as the gifted expounder of solar physics, owed: his first inspiration in science, in:his youth, (for he died in 1878, ati the age of fifty-nine,) to Henry, whom he assisted in these experi- ments. Doubtless, other young men, if they could be heard, would. ' confess to an equal enthusiasm for science, caught from the same. high example... But the multitudinous productions which issued in rapid succession. from. the. prolific. brain and pen of Secchi, without the adventitious. reinforcement of imaginary. cases, justify and demand the assertion that what Henry led others to do is second only in importance to what he.did himself, ,,, bbiasgutirs : More than fifty years:ago, a little book was E mblichat dee the fascinating title of “Philosophy in Sport made Science in Earnest,” Of the many ingenious, complex, and, costly instruments of research, has any one been richer in its revelations to science than the child’s. soap-bubble? .. But where the child saw. only an evanescent display of colors; Newton read with mathematical clearness his celebrated, theory of fits of easy transmission and reflection, and Young mea-. sured the constants of the undulations of light. To-day, the micro-., . scopic molar, or molecular motions of the, telephone-plate are trans- lated into visible speech by the colors of a sympathetic film of liquid in the phoneidoscope. In 1844, Henry experimented with this every ready minister to the delight and instruction of all ages, so beautiful but apparently so tender, and found that its cohesion, and its contractile force were those of a giant if its own thinness, were made the standard of measure, , Thus was opened an, avenue; into the study of molecular action which Plateau has extended and. embellished. with the, most varied and original experiments, not disheartened by; .the, totalloss of eyesight: finding, by the way a. beautiful experimental. illustration of the cosmogony of [a Place,, and building architectural forms out of aan films. as if they had. the cohesion of marble..), |. | 1) | When, at the close of 1846, jeg aan Hemy left the quiet walks of the Academy for a more public career, in. Washington, in obedi- ence to the summons of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, though all applauded the wisdom of the choice, not a few regretted the sad interruption in his scientific life, already rich in performance NOTICE BY PROF. J. LOVERING. 433 and bright with the promise of more and perhaps greater discov- eries. ‘The sacrifice seemed to be too great to demand of science in a country where the taste and the mental qualifications, combined with the opportunity, for original research are rare. If Professor Henry had remained at Princeton, he would certainly have added other jewels to his crown: would it, however, have shone more brightly than it now shines? When posterity makes up its verdict on his claim to its gratitude and remembrance, ae discoveries will not be counted, but weighed. uf | : On the Sher hand, no friend of science can contemplate with complacency the aus alternatives if: the Regents had come to a different choice, or if they had been defeated in their first selection. Literature or science; popular lectures or original research; the diffusion of old uch or the discovery’ of new truth; a pial library, a national university, or a national museum sea ay had warm and influential advocates. Professor Henry’s plan of organi- zation bears the date of December 8, 1847, and was adopted by the Regents on the 13th of December. It tha its departure from the words of the founder, viz: an establishment: for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men; and it emphasized every word of the pregnant sentence., Not science in its restricted sense, but' knowledge was to be first increased, then diffused world-wide,— by. the endowment of research; by the publication and liberal distri- bution of contributions to knowledge, which may have little value. in the market, but which are of transcendent importance to man’s culture and civilization; by elaborate reports in special departments, in which the known would be separated from the unknown for the benefit of new explorers; by the translation of writings otherwise inaccessible to most students; by opening a highway along which the current literature and science of the day could easily pass from continent to continent, and reach their remotest corners. This sober and catholic scheme, in literal fulfillment of the will of Smithson,’ was less dazzling to the popular imagination, and enlisted a smaller numerical support, than rival propositions which were more on the level of the average understanding. Because these antagonistic plans narrowed the enjoyment of a benefaction, (itself absolutely unfettered, ) to a.small community, they secured a local influence 28 434 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. which threatened to defeat the comprehensive views of the Secretary. These views, recommended by their reasonableness and indorsed by individuals, academies, and societies of science and learning, had a tower of strength in the high scientific reputation and the weight of character of the Secretary himself. Winning and persuasive in his manner, he was inflexible in his purpose. Ixperience has proved the truth of that which was the conten- tion at the time; viz; that universities, libraries, museums, lectures, because they confer local benefits, will never lack endowments, whereas the Christian world had waited eighteen centuries for a large-minded and large-hearted benefactor, whose bequest was all knowledge, existing or to be discovered, and whose recipients were all nations of men, Slowly but steadily time has revealed the wis- dom and foresight of the Secretary; individuals and communities, in increasing numbers, have felt the benefits of his administration ; the Government of the United States has known where to look for impartial advice on matters outside of .its own knowledge, in times of prosperity and also in its darkest days; and now all opposition has died out; and, after a trial of thirty years, no one probably desires any thing better for the Smithsonian Institution than that the plan, so wisely conceived and so faithfully administered by the first Secretary, should continue the abiding rule for his successors. Moreover, the plan of Professor Henry, cosmopolitan in its geo- graphical embrace, did not sacrifice the interests of the unborn to those of the living, He would not allow the hopes of Smithson to be frustrated by lavishing upon a single generation what was intended for all time; or, what is worse, sacrificing both the present and the future upon’ the altar of an ambitious architecture. Ex- amples abound, if experience is all which men need, of fatal ship- wrecks on these alluring shores; of endowed churches, colleges, observatories, laboratories, libraries, which have nothing to show but a mass of masonry, lacking in the highest beauty of art, (fitness for its purpose,) however much it may please the eye, even if the merciless architect had left any thing for administration. The rigid rules of science, unqualified by good common sense, may work a disaster in matters of business. ‘The consummate mathematician, La Place, omnipotent in the domain of physical astronomy, when NOTICE BY PROF. J. LOVERING. ' 435 appointed by Napoleon I. to a high office of state, attempted to carry the laws of the infinitesimal calculus into his administration, and failed. Not a few men of brilliant intellect, masters of thought and of the pen, have prided themselves on a childlike simplicity in the ways of the world. If Professor Henry had been one of these, much would have been forgiven to his honesty of purpose, to his love of truth, and to the success with which he had wooed her in her most secret recesses. Therefore, it is not the least of his tri- . umphs that he did not, in imitation of an old astronomer, walk into a pitfall on this lower earth while gazing into the depths of space. He could roam with ‘Emerson through the universe of thought, but the feet of both were firmly planted on the ground. Henry’s judicious system of expenditures, so essential to the per- manent prosperity of the Institution, put to shame the short-sighted- ness and the short-comings of many professed financiers; and exemplified, by anticipation, the magical products of the Holtz and Ladd induction machines, in which a trifling capital of well-invested electricity, the income of which is partly spent: and partly saved, yields an ample return for the present, and by the law of compound interest secures still more brilliant results for the future. When Professor Henry left Princeton, he knew, and his friends knew, that he must leave behind him the object of his highest ambition, viz: the undisturbed and the unostentatious study of the unfolding laws of the material universe. But he did not, and he could not, renounce the spirit of independent research which had made him what he was. As opportunity offered in the discharge of his official duties he manifested this spirit himself, and communi- cated it to others. His second report to the Board of Regents, for 1848, exhibits the promptness with which he had conceived, and begun to execute, the project of covering the United States, and eventually the North American continent, with a net-work of meteorological stations, which, with the facilities of the telegraph, yet in its infancy, would prove a perennial blessing to commerce and agriculture; and, by consolidating the scattered efforts of emi- nent meteorologists, (among whom Coffin, Espy, Loomis, and Guyot were conspicuous,) throw some light on the law of storms and meteorology in general. In the Patent Office Report for 1857, he 436 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. gave his views of the relations between |meteorology and agricul- ture. In this and other ways, the Smithsonian Institution has been a hot-bed for starting and nursing new projects in their days of infancy and weakness, , After they have, outgrown its accommo- dations and proved their usefulness, they have been adopted by the general Government and transplanted, to a richer soil. For many years Professor Henry has been a conspicuous figure, not merely in scientific, circles, but in the full view of the. public: his name and his co-operation haye been in constant demand. | ; He naturally gravitated to places of honor which were often: places of additional labor, Men of leisure have no time to give to occasional calls upon their publio spirit.,ii The, hard-workers must also 'do:all the extra work., Professor Henry was no exception: to this rule. To the day of hig,death, he filled positions of trust and. responsi- bility, with duties sufficient to crush an effeminate!man.: But they seemed to rest lightly, upon, shoulders which sustained, beside, the weight of a great institution,, His mind was ever in a state of prolonged. tension ; | but it kept its balance under. these distractions, as do the rings of Saturn amid the multitudinous disturbances of its satellites... Often he waited for, the leisure which never came to him, when he might, write, out for publication ‘scientific’ communi- cations which he had made from a brief. . He was President of the American Association at its second meeting, in Cambridge, in 1849. He gave. the usual address of the retiring President at the fourth meeting, in New Haven, but it was not printed, He was Vice~ President of, the National Academy of Sciences in 1866, succeeded Dr. Bache as President in/1868,\and died.in offices) | it | The most responsible and the most onerous of the gratuitous ser- vices which, he gave to, science and the country were rendered in his capacity of member of, the; Light-House Board, of, which ‘he was for seven years the chairman, The substitution of lenses for mir- rors began the revolution in light-houses; but lens or mirror, with- out the light, ig no better than a steam-engine without steam. ‘To conquer prejudice by experiment, and save millions to the country by exchanging sperm oil for lard oil, is not so brilliant a service as the discovery of a new law of nature. But, more than any dis- covery, it makes science respected in high places, and enlists the 4 NOTICE BY PROF. J. LOVERING. 437 sympathy of the unscientific community. There are times when sextants, chronometers, tables of the moon, and even light-houses, are of no avail, and an impenetrable veil of darkness shuts out the mariner from the lights of heaven and earth. ‘But what is opaque to light may be pierced by sound. The experiments which have been made by Henry in this country and by Tyndall in England, in their official capacity, on the fog-penetrating power of the fog-horn, _ the fog-bell, the siren, the steam-whistle, and cannonading, have raised interesting questions in science, to which different answers have been given; but the facts remain, above controversy, to instruct governments in the best way of supplementing optical signals by. acoustic signals. These last investigations of Professor Henry, to which it is feared he was a willing martyr, will always have a pathetic interest for those who knew and loved him. It has been the aim of this notice to place in strong relief a few of the salient points in the intellectual life of Henry. Any state- ment in detail of the accumulations of his long life, in the way of experiment or deduction, must be very voluminous or very meagre. For he was not a concentrated specialist.’ His expanded thought swept the whole vast horizon of the physical sciences; not to specu- late, but to discover. The severe discipline of science did not harden him against the fascinations of literature, poetry, and art. It would be a delicate task, and premature, to attempt to assign to Henry his exact rank among those who have legislated for science in this and former centuries. There are laws of perspective in time as well as in space, whereby a small eminence seems to out- . climb the distant Alps, and the present generation dwarfs apparently all its predecessors. Foreign countries and posterity will pronounce their irreversible verdict in this as in other. cases. In his own country, and among his contemporaries, Mr. Henry was long and . easily the acknowledged chief of experimental philosophers. If the earlier science of the country is passed in review, only a few names’ shine so brightly across the intervening years as to deserve any comparison with' him ‘who has ‘recently departed. Winthrop and Rittenhouse in astronomy,' Franklin in electricity, Rumford in thermotics, and Bowditch in mathematics, exhaust the catalogue of possible rivals. Of these, all but Winthrop ‘were’ self-instructed, 438 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. as was Henry, at least in what relates to their higher education. -.Of these, Franklin and Rumford, no less than Henry, were as remark- able in administration as in science; Franklin and Rumford from taste, and Henry from a sense of duty, All three served their country well,— Franklin and Henry while living, and Rumford by his bequests. Winthrop, Rittenhouse, and Bowditch reached their exalted position by paths wholly untrodden by Henry. They can- not therefore be the standard for his measure. Rumford’s mind _ was essentially practical, even in its science, He had more of the spirit of an inventor than a discoverer. In Henry’s place he would have been more interested in pushing the telegraph to its final issue than in supplementing Faraday’s laws of electro-dynamical induc- tion. But in dealing with the heat of friction, Rumford displayed an experimental skill and a boldness of conception which have vin- dicated his claim to a high scientific position, The progress of recent discovery and the tendency of scientific speculation have promoted Rumford from the position which he long held, as leader of a forlorn hope, to the place of hero in the last act of the scien- tific drama. , In this connection Henry’s views on the correlation of the physical and organic forces may be recalled, which. only lacked the fuller development and the wider publication which he finally gave to them, to have secured for him the first complete announcement of one of the grandest generalizations of modern science. It might seem to be easy to institute a comparison between Frank- lin and Henry in’ reference to the value of their original scientific work, which was largely in the field of electricity. Buta century . has made great changes in the starting-point, the opportunities, and the resources of the discoverer. Franklin, with humble tools, had a virgin soil to cultivate. He had also the rare felicity, for which Newton also was envied, of living at a time when the scattered . facts of a new science were waiting for a comprehensive generaliza- tion. If Franklin had made no experiments on the Leyden jar, or on the thunder-cloud, his theory of electricity, which has held its own to this day without any amendment, (though its final doom is written upon it,) would have secured for him a place second to no other among the worthies of science. Now the instruments of NOTICE BY PROF. J. LOVERING. 439 physical research are numerous and delicate; but uscless unless the senses are educated to them.- The literature of science is volumin- ous and in many languages. Success in scientific investigations demands now original thought, disciplined senses, scientific culture, and a well-chosen field, where the discoveries of other men will not be repeated. Both Franklin and Henry burned brightly in their allotted spheres, and in the future may differ only as one star differs from another star in glory. The funeral services on May 16, 1878, proclaimed to the world that the republic had lost an illustrious citizen. There was no hollow pageant of empty carriages of state, but the highest and best in the land felt a personal bereavement. A patriotic and devoted servant of the Government was dead; a bright light in science had gone out; a noble man, born to attract and to sway, in whom science was illuminated by faith, and faith was enlightened by science, lived on earth no longer except by his example; a long life, crowded with beneficent services to truth and to man, was closed. Not less, affecting were the memorial exercises of J anuary 16, 1879, in the hall of the House of Representatives, before the assembled wisdom and grandeur of the nation. Science may be proud of this spontancous tribute to her favored child, if she only remembers that it is character which makes intellect a blessing and not a scourge to mankind, and awakens genuine sympathy and admiration. Mr. Henry was not the favorite and ornament of a court, but the peer of the greatest and wisest in a free republic. The monument of Humboldt was not thought to be worthy of a place in sight of the king’s palace in Berlin. That was a spot consecrated to princes ‘of the blood and military heroes. Will any American think that any ground in this country is too sacred to contain a monument to Henry? ik) BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR:* BY PROF. SIMON NEWCOMB. In presenting to the Academy the following notice of its late lamented President the writer feels that an apology is due for the imperfect manner in which he has been obliged to perform the duty assigned him. The very richness of the material has been a source of embarrassment. Few have any conception of the breadth of the field occupied by Professor HENRY’s researches, or of the num- ber of scientific enterprises of which he was either the originator or the effective supporter. What, under the circumstances, could be said within a brief space to show what the world owes to him has already: been so well said by others that it would be impracticable to make a really new presentation without writing a volume. The Philosophical Society of this city has issued two notices which together cover almost the whole ground that the writer feels com- petent to occupy. The one is a personal biography —the affection- ate and eloquent tribute of an old and attached friend; the other an exhaustive analysis of his scientific labors by an se member of the society well known for his philosophic acumen. The Re- gents of the Smithsonian Institution made known their indebted- ness to his administration in the Memorial Services held in his honor in the Halls of Congress. Under these circumstances the only practicable course has seemed to be to give a condensed resumé of Professor HENRY’s life and works, by which any small occasional gaps in previous notices might be filled. That in doing this the writer may repeat much that has already been better said by others is a fault which he hopes the Academy will pardon in view of the difficulty of avoiding it. *An Address read before the ‘‘ National Academy of Sciences,’ April 21, 1880. (441) 442 . MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE. . Tu& interest which, in the light of modern theories of heredity, attaches to the ancestry of men possessing uncommon intellectual powers would naturally lead us to desire a knowledge of Professor HeEnry’s ancestors. We have, however, no sufficient historical data for gratifying any desire of this kind, Little more can be said than that his grand-parents were of Scottish origin, and landed in this country about the beginning of the revolutionary war. Of his father little is known, and that little does not enable us to explain why he had such a son. His mother was a woman of great refine- ment, intelligence, and strength of character, but of a delicate physical constitution. Like the mothers of many other great men she was of deeply devotional character. She was a Presbyterian of the old-fashioned Scottish stamp, and exacted from her children the strictest performance of religious duties. } The son Joseph was born in Albany, on the 17th of December, either 1797 or 1799.* The doubt respecting the year has not yet been decisively settled. At the age of seven years he left his pater- nal home and went to live with his grandmother at Galway, where he attended the district school for three years. At the age of ten he was placed in a store kept by a Mr. Broderick, and spent part of the day in business duties and part at school. ‘This position he kept until the age of fifteen. During these early years his intel- lectual qualities were fully displayed, but in a direction totally dif- ferent from that which they ultimately took. He was slender in person, not vigorous in health, with almost the delicate complexion and features of a girl. His favorite reading was books of romance, The lounging-place for the young villagers of an evening was around the stove in Mr. Broderick’s store. Here young Henry, although the slenderest of the group, was the central figure, retail- ing to those around him the stories which he had read, or which his imagination suggested. He was of a highly imaginative turn of mind, and seemed to live in the ideal world of the fairies. *This uncertainty appears to have resulted from the difficulty of deciphering the faded record of date in the old family Bible, ADDRESS OF PROF. 8S. NEWCOMB. 443 At the age of fifteen he returned to Albany, and, urged by his imaginative taste, joined a private dramatic company, of which he soon became the leading spirit.. There was every prospect of his devoting himself to the stage when, at the age of sixteen, accident turned his mental activities into an entirely different aditéction, Being detained in-doors by a slight indisposition, a friend loaned him a copy of Dr. Gregory’s lectures on Experimental Philosophy, Astronomy, and Chemistry. He became intensely. interested in the field of thought which this work opened'to him. Here in the do- main of Nature were subjects of investigation far more worthy of attention than anything in the ideal world in which his imagination had hitherto roamed. . He determined to make the knowledge of this newly opened domain the great object of his life, but did not confine himself to any narrow sphere. He devoted himself imme- diately, with great ardor, to study.’ During the three years follow- ing he was successively English teacher, pupil of various masters, and a student at the Albany Academy. At about eighteen years of age he was recommended by Dr. BEcK to the position of private tutor in the family of the patroon. He found this situation to be a very pleasant one, and was treated with great consideration by the family of Mr. Van Rensselaer. His duties required only his morning hours, so that he could devote his entire afternoons to mathematical and physical studies. . In the former he went so far as to read the Mécanique Analytique of La Grange. His delicate constitution now suffered so much from confinement and study that at the age of twenty-two he accepted an invitation to go on a surveying expedition to the western part of the State. In this work his constitution was completely restored, and he returned home with a health and vigor which never failed him during the remainder of his long and arduous life. Soon after his return he was elected a professor at the Albany Academy. Here a new field was opened to him. It is one of the most curious features in the intellectual history of our country that after producing such a man as Franklin it found no successor to him in the field of science for half a century after his scientific work was done. There had been without doubt plenty of professors of eminent attainments who amused themselves and instructed their pupils and the public \ 444 MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. by physical experiments. But in the department of electricity, that in which Franklin took so prominent a position, it may be doubted whether they enunciated a single generalization which will enter into the history of the science. This interregnum closes with the researches now commenced by Professor Henry. His first published paper on the subject was read in 1827 before the Albany Institute, and is entitled, “On some modifications of the electro- magnetic apparatus.” It consisted simply of a brief discussion of several forms of apparatus designed to exhibit the mutual action of the galvanic current and the magnet, but does not appear to com- prise any discussions of new ideas. ‘Two years later he published a topographical ‘sketch of the State of New York, which also appeared in the Transactions of the Albany Institute. It comprises a brief sketch of the physical geography of the State with especial reference to the newly inaugurated canal system. In 1831, he published in Silliman’s Journal, a paper on the devel- opment of great magnetic power in soft iron with a small galvanic element. This paper is in some sort a continuation of his first paper, the fundamental object of both being to show how the greatest development of power could be obtained with the smallest battery. The ideas were suggested by the study of Schweigger’s Galvan- ometer. He shows that in a piece of soft iron the magnetic power produced by the galvanic current may be greatly increased by increasing the number of coils. A still further improvement is made when, instead of passing a single coil between the two poles of the battery, a number of separate insulated wires are wound around the magnet, so that each shall form an independent connec- tion. He was thus enabled with a battery of a single pair of small plates (4 by 6 inches) to form an electro-magnet which would lift a weight of 39 pounds. He also intimates that by winding a separate wire on each inch of the magnet a yet greater effect could be attained. This paper also contains the germ of the theory of electro-magnetic force, and of electrical resistance and quantity, though not developed in any generalized form. He explains that with one very long wire a combination of several plates must be used so as to obtain “projectile force,” while when several larger wires are used the battery must consist of a single pair. A great -ADDRESS OF PROF. 8. NEWCOMB.’ , 445 number of experiments illustrative of the theory are described. ‘With a battery having a single plate of zinc, of half a square foot of surface, he made a magnet lift a weight of 750 pounds,— more than thirty-five times the weight of the magnet.. - In the same year, 1831, he describes a little machine for produ- cing continuous mechanical motion by magnetic attraction and repulsion. He considered the apparatus to be merely a philosophical _toy involving a principle which at some future time might be applied toa useful purpose; . ay Aen os Ae] In 1830, at the request of Professor Renwick, he commenced a series of observations to determine the magnetic intensity at Albany. This gave him occasion to’ investigate a subject of which the evi- dences had before been very conflicting, namely, the effect of the aurora upon the magnetism of the earth. In 1831, April 19, at 6 P. M., a remarkable phenomenon was noticed, namely, an extraordinary increase in the number of vibra- tions of the needle, and in the consequent magnetic intensity of the earth. ' Every precaution was taken that no local influence should affect the magnet, but the result was the same. ‘ About 9 o’clock in the evening a brilliant aurora commenced. . ‘The idea now occurred to _ him that it might be connected with the magnetic disturbance, and another observation of the magnet was therefore made. . ‘The result was the opposite of what had been ‘anticipated, for instead of show- ing a continuous increase the intensity was now far below the aver- age. An extended discussion of other results of the: same sort is given, followed by an inquiry into the origin of the aurora. |The next important: investigation, in which. Professor Henry appears is that which led to his being an independent discoverer of magneto-electricity. ' In the early experiments in this direction we have an interesting example of how a discovery may be long re- tarded through the want of correct theoretical notions. The idea entertained by the early experimenters of the present century seems to have been that since a galvanic current passing around a core of soft iron renders it magnetic, it may be expected that a magnet placed inside of a coil of wire will cause a current of electricity to pass through it. Accordingly, endeavors were made to produce this current by using powerful magnets. But since a continuous gal- ) 446 ‘MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. vanic current can be employed to produce both heat and mechan- , ical force, it follows that if it could be produced and kept up by simply inserting a permanent. magnet in a coil of wire we should have a machine working without any supply of power. Since it can hardly be supposed that these experimenters would have hoped to realize the perpetual motion, the direction in which their efforts were prosecuted could have been taken only through a failure to grasp the proper principles. These principles once apprehended, it would have been obvious that either the project of producing electricity from magnetism must be given up, or the production must be accompanied by motion or change in the magnet. The latter idea being grasped, success would at once have been assured. It happened, however, that the experiments pursued in a wrong direction necessitated this motion or change, because the magnet had to be moved to get inside the coil, or magnetism had to be produced in it in commencing the experiment. In 1831, Faraday and. Henry - were independently working upon the problem. The former was entirely successful in showing how a momentary electric current could be produced by changes of magnetism in a soft iron body, or by other electrical currents, before Henry published anything of his work. No question, therefore, can attach to Faraday’s claim to priority, and on the system some- times adopted no other name than his would be mentioned in a history of the subject. But a more liberal principle now prevails, and the propriety of giving due credit to the independent investi- gator, though he may be behindhand in publishing, is very gen- erally acknowledged.. From Professor Henry’s paper it would appear that he had actually reached a similar result before Fara- day’s work came to his knowledge. The magnet with which elec- tricity was to be excited was the soft iron armature of his great galvanic magnet. A piece of copper wire thirty feet long was coiled around the middle of this armature and connected with a distant galvanometer. The great magnet being suddenly excited, the north end of the needle was deflected 30 degrees to the west, indicating a current of electricity in the helix surrounding the armature. The needle soon returned to its former position, and when the plates were withdrawn from the acid moved 20 degrees ADDRESS OF PROF. 8. NEWCOMB. 447 to the east. The conclusions of these experiments are now too familiar to need discussion. We can only regret that the American physicist did not immediately publish his first experiments. In this same paper Professor Henry appears as the first ob- server of another previously unnoticed phenomenon, sometimes called the self-induction of the current. A vivid spark is seen when a current through a long wire of considerable resistance is suddenly broken by withdrawing the wire from the cup of mercury through which the connection is produced. The longer the conducting wire and the larger the plates of the battery, the more vivid the spark. He attributes it to the long wire becoming charged with electricity, which by its reaction on itself projects a spark when the - connection is broken.* The same discovery was independently made two or three years later by Faraday; who does not appear to have noticed Henry’s description of the phenomenon. Shortly after this Professor Henry. was called to the chair of natural philosophy in Princeton College. Although the duties of an American college professor seldom allow much time for original investigation, he soon resumed his electrical researches, and the first of a regular series was communicated to the American Philosophical Society in 1835. On February 6 of that year he continued the subject of the self-induction of the electric current with especial reference to the influence of a spiral conductor upon it. ‘The series of experiments on this subject are very elaborate, but cannot be fully described without going into a series of minute details. On November 2, 1838, he presented an extended paper on Elec- tro-Dynamic Induction.t He states that since the discovery of magneto-electricity by Faraday in 1831 attention had been almost exclusively devoted to the induction of electricity from magnetism. He had therefore been engaged in reviewing and extending the purely electrical part of ‘Faraday’s admirable discovery” in the _---------..-.-----------_--___ 130, 375 Albany, New York, the birth-place of Henry-_-----------------_.-----_--_ 7, 54, 177, 427, 442 Alexander, Prof. J. H.—experiments by, on illuminating oils for the U.S. Light- House Board: 25-52 22s2 ee es Se sa a eS eh ee 309, 422 Alexander, Prof. Stephen,— observations by, with Henry, on comparative heat Of the solar spots.2e-ss22 lessees je soo eet Re 269, 448, 502 Alexander, Prof. Stephen,—observations by, with Henry, on determination of longitude: by meteors) -12-2-2222! = Ase ee Ee e eee eee 271 Alexander, Prof. Stephen,—observations by, with Henry, on terrestrial mag- Me@bism == 2. 22a ee ee ee eee 258 Allen, Robin, Secretary of Trinity House,—letter from, on the death of Henry__ 137 Ampére, discovery by,—of the magnetic action of galvanic currents ~_______ 80, 215, 478 Ampére first to suggest the electro-magnetic telegraph___.---------_-___-__________ 223 Announcement of the death of Joseph Henry by the Chancellor of the Smith- Rontan Institution — = 5.52 = 28s a ae ee Se ees Bott Announcement of Memorial Services at the U.S. Capitol, by the executive com- mittee of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution___-_-_----______________. 37 Announcement of the speakers at the Memorial Services, made by the Vice- TP resident a sn os es eto Sa aa 2 Anthony, Hon. Henry B.,— resolution reported by, to the Senate to print Memo- rinl Volume, also portrait of Henry, for the same____.......--.-----_- 4 Appointment of speakers for the public commemoration, by the executive com- mittee of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution_____._____-_--_-_-________ 29 Appropriation of $15,000 by Congress, for a statue of Henry ____-_-----_-________-___ 514 Arago the first to magnetize a needle by the galvanic current__-___--__-________ 213, 479 Archeological work fostered by the Smithsonian Institution______.--_-___________ 290 Architectural adaptation,— Henry’s views of__--.---------.-------.---_-______ 334, 434, 455 (517) 518 INDEX. : Page Architecture,—lectures on, by Henry----------.--------..-...---- -~-=--= = «== -==---- 200 ok Astronomical discoveries,— the announcement of, by telegraph------------------- 300 Astronomy,—lectures on, by Henry-----.~--.----._--.—-.-------------------------- 239, 333 Aurora polaris observed to be related to terrestrial thagnetism pie Sc aeeeeee 259, 445 Bache, A. Dallas,—active interest of, in Henry’s discovery of the “extra cur- Ta) Ap Or a ree 241, 394 Bache, A. Dallas,—eulogy of, by Henry---..-.--._---.-._._---___----..-----------_-~ 330 Bache, A. Dallas ye Oba S RANE by, with Henry, on meteors for determining DOV GT Coes ee ree ee 271 Bache, A, Dallas,—urgent solicitation of Henry by, to accept the Smithsonian Cobb ered oy gs) a1 lo peepee 331, 454 Baird, Prof. Spencer F. ,one of a committee appointed by the Regents to arrange the funeral caremanien Of Joseph Eienn ye eee eno nane ne eamee 10,11 Baird, Prof. Spencer F., one of a committee appointed by the Regents to prepare 8, Memorial Voli Gi aoe eee aera eager ae ee eee nee 32 Barlow, Peter,— experiments by, in electro-magnetic telegraphy in 1825___58, 83, 223, 485 Barnes, Surgeon-General Joseph K., a pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph DS 2) 6 Gage 11 Barometer erected by Henry, containing sulphuric acid______--.-----_------------ 329 Battery, galvanic, first devised by Volta, in 1800 ___-_________________-------------- 79, 213 Battery, galvanic, modified for ‘‘quantity”’ by Hare, in 1816_-__-------------- 82, 239, 376 Battery, galvanic, modified for “quantity” and ‘‘intensity’”’ convertibly by Ve eyay igs Vey 1. yee ee re 239 Beck, Dr. T. Romeyn, principal of the Albany Academy, the teacher and friend © (0) B=) 08 va a ne ee 183, 208, 332 Bibliography of science,—Henry’s plan for digesting_------------------------------ 295 Biographical Memorial of Joseph Henry, by Prof. Asa Gray_---------------------- 53 Biographical Memoir of Joseph Henry, by Prof. Simon Newcomb---------------- 441 Birth of Joseph Henry,—the date of___..__--___--... .._----.--------------------- 54, 177, 442 Birth-place of Joseph Henry,— Albany, N, Y., the_---------------------- 7, 54, 177, 427, 442 “Bobbin” coil for the electro-magnet, first devised by Henry, in 1829__--__---_--- 217 “ Bobbin ” coil for the electro-magnet, introduced into France in 1832, by Pouillet. 226 Bradford, Hon, A. W.—testimony of, to Henry's early magnetic telegraph__----- 380 Brewster, Sir David,—appreciation of Henry by----.-------------------------- 61, 169, 270 British Association,—favorable reception by, of Henry’s proposal of a scientific 1X6 Uc), ee ee a See a ae ee a ee re ee Se er pe ee err 296 British Assoclation,— meeting of, at Liverpool, attended by Henry---_----------- 245 Bronze statue of Henry, authorized by Congress_----------------------------------- 614 Building-stone,—experiments on, by Henry ---------------------------------------- 326 Cameron, Prof. Henry C.—Reminiscences of Joseph Henry by -------------------- 166 Capillarity between liquid and solid metals observed____-----.2----------------- 263, 495 Catalogue of scientific papers, suggested by a and published by the Royal Society of TeOndOn 2 se el 297 Chairmanship of the Light-House Board conferred on Henry in 1871 ----69, 183, 314, 436 Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution,—announcement by ------------------ ff Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution,—remarks by, on the death of J oseph EM a ya sw a ee 9 GRALACHALIOL ELON Ty,’ Hs Dean ye a a ere Sea eee are ere rere ete 73, 191, 361, 469 Chemical professorship in the University of Pennsylvania offered to Henry_—_-193, 278 Chemical. skill ofsdenry c= 3-2 ae es Se eee eee 332, 375 Chemistry, chair of,—at Princeton, temporarily filled by Henry_----------------- 238 Chemistry,— early experiments of Henry in ---------------------------------- 130, 208, 270 Chief-Justice M. R. Waite,— official announcement by_---------------------------- 7 Chief-Justice M, R. Waite,—remarks by, on the death of Joseph Honry---------- 9 Ohilds, George W., a pall-bearor at the funeral of Joseph Henry .----------------- 11 Christian character of Joseph Henry--_---/--.----------------- 16, 21, 33, 73, 114, 134, 147, 200 INDEX. 519 Page Chronograph, electric, invented by Henry-___-.-.----------------------___ 155, 272, 398, 448 Chronoscope, electric, of Wheatstone, compared with the chronograph of Henry_ 398 Civilization not spontaneous, according to Henry, but coerced________----=_______ 325 Classification of motive powers, by Henry_._..-0-—- <2 oee eee ee 273 Clymer, Hon. Hiester,—bill presented by, in the House of Representatives, for CLOCuUINE KEANE OL Ong. se. a cee ne ee mee ee Os ot Nw eee ee “614 Clymer, Hon. Hiester, of the House of Representatives,—reading of telegrams Dyaveuohe WleMOnal Services! asses i= se ec ce ee ee ee ee ee ee 75 Clymer, Hon. Hiester,—resolution presented by, in the House of Representa- tives, to participate in the Memorial Services --_-_____--_____-_____------________ 1 Clymer, Hon. Hiester,—resolution presented by, in the House of Representa- tives, to print portrait of Henry in the Memorial Volume______-_--------_-_-__ 4 Cohesion of liquids found by Henry to be equal to that of solids___-___-_--_-___ 265, 498 College of New Jersey at Princeton,— Henry professor in _.____-_---__61, 131, 238, 431, 447 College of New Jersey at Princeton,—memorial services of__--_-------_-____- 63, 139, 166 Combination of two galvanic circuits by Henry, in 1835_-_-_____________---________ 243 Commemoration, public; in honor of Henry == == 2-52 2,38 Committee appointed by the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution to make arrangements for the funeral ceremonies of Joseph Henry —-._____----________ 10 Committee appointed by the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare for their records, a biographical sketch of Joseph Henry_-_-_--__-___-__________ 28 Committee appointed by the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare or MenmionialiViol ume! 22a ssi Se ere ee Ee aren ee oe 31 Committee, executive, of the Board of Regents, directed to make arrangements folvanpublicicommemorntiOnyce.csse eases ee sces meee ae ee anes arene ees 1, 28 Congress, proceedings in, relative toa monument to Henry _-_-____----_______--- 611 Congress, resolution of, directing the publication of a Memorial Volume-_______ 3 Congress, resolution of, to participate in the Memorial Services to be held at the: Capito] See ee ee a ee ee ea Se ee 1,37 Contributions to scientific research by Henry at Washington ea te a eae 319 Convertible “quantity ’’ and “intensity” battery contrived by Henry______-____ 239 Corcoran, William W., 2 pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Henry__--.--------- 11 Correspondence of the Sinithsonian Institution on sclontifie subjeots_.-------- 72, 301 Cox, Hon. Samuel S., of the House of Representatives,— Address by_---__-__-_-__ 99 Cox, Hon. Samuel §., selected by the Regents to deliver an Address at the Memo- Tiali Services ese a-8 eee ae ee nn re ee ee 29 Cuthbert, Rev. Dr. James H.,— offices by, at the funeral of Joseph Henry_______- 12 Date of Henry's birth somewhatiuncertainss ee ee re ee 64, 442 Deathiof Josep hehe miy assess ae. ee ee Oa ee eee 7, 130, 188, 360, 467 Derivation of organic species,—the doctrine of______---____-___----____-__-_--_____- 341, 507 Discourse by William B. Taylor, before the Philosophical Society of Washington_ 205 Discourse by Dr. James C. Welling, before the Philosophical Society of Wash- tA OY) 90) 0 eee eS ee Rene eee ee as ee AP tc aha nt es LO os MO aN ae 177 Discourse memorial of Joseph Henry, by Rev. Samuel B. Dod____--------_________. 139 Distribution of Smithsonian material, for the promotion of science___-_--__-__ 418, Dod, Rey. Samuel B.— Discourse memorial of Joseph Henry ~---------_--_______ 139 Dod, Rev. Samuel B.— letter to, from Joseph Henry____-------._-__-_------_____- 149 Dove, Prof. H. W.—account by, of the disparagement of Ohm’s theory__------- 489 Drama;— Henry’s'youthfuliaddiction to 22225 ee ee ee 109, 179 Duties imposed on Henry by various Bodies________----_ seaseteeesrseecsead 69, 103, 436 Early experimental researches of Henry-.--------------------_----------- 209, 375, 476, 481 Hducation,— Henty7siviewsoncsess ee on ee Re ee ee 323, 507 Hauchtionvof Joseph lent yerce seaat soso eek acenee saat ea ee eee 64, 56, 177, 206 Electrical discharge discovered by Henry to be oscillatory___---.-----_-_- 255, 396, 448 Electrical induction discovered by Henry to exist in successive orders___85, 248, 494 Electrical researches of Henry at Albany-__-_------. ieee ee ace ees ee ner 212, 476 520 INDEX. Page Electrical researches of Henry at Princeton_------------------------------------ 238, 494 Electrical self-induction in a long wire discovered by Henry ----- 287, 239, 394, 447, 493 Electric Telegraph,— Barlow’s experiments on ----------------------------- 59, 83, 223, 485 Electric Telegraph,— Morse’s experiments on-----~--------------------------- 59, 382, 488 Electro-magnet first made by Sturgeon----------------------------------------- 58, 82, 213 Electro-magnet greatly developed by Henry-------------------------- 84, 111, 181, 218, 444 Electro-magnet of intensity, first produced by 18 (yey ae Se ee ee 223, 227, 488 Electro-magnetic action developed by Ampére____----------------------- 81, 213, 215, 477 Electro-magnetic chronograph invented by Henry --------------------- 155, 272, 398, 448 Electro-magnetic engine invented by Henry -------------------------------- 143, 230, 445 Electro-magnetic influence discovered by Romagnosi and Oersted ------------ 79, 213 Electro-magnetic telegraph first devised by Henry -------------- 85, 131, 149, 228, 380, 487 Electro-magnetic telegraph first suggested by Ampére -----~--------------------- 223 Elevations, topographical, of the State of New York tabulated by Henry ----- 270, 444 Engineering survey in New York State, Dye RGM yeaa see eee 57, 183, 210, 428 Engine operated by electro-magnetism, the CEES ee 143, 230, 445 Eulogy by Henry, of A. Dallas Bache ----------------- ----------------------------- 330 Europe,— Henry’s first visit to, in 1837 -------------------------------------------- 64, 244 Europe,— Henry’s second visit to, in 1870 --------------------.---------------------- 307 Exchanges of scientific publications, established by Henry---------------------- 298 Executive Committee of the Board of Regents, directed to make arrangements for a public commemoration_-_-_-------------------------------~--------=--------- 1, 28 Expansion of iron by magnetization,—experiments On--------------------------- 329 Experiment by Henry on the static rectification of alcohol_-------------------- 328 Experiments of Henry on the strength of building-stone ------------------------ 326 “Extra current” in a long electric wire, discovered by Henry ---237, 239, 394, 447, 493 Faraday and Henry GOUMpaNed at. oe ae Re ee oe Ocean Oe Faraday,— employment by, of Henry’s multiple-coil magnet -------------- 222, 230, 390 Faraday ,— production of electro-magnetic rotation ) ee 81, 479 Faraday’s regard for Henry--------------------------------------------------------- 64, 506" Field, Cyrus W.,—Telegrams to, from London companies, read at the Memorial Services...__------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76 Finances of the Smithsonian Institution,— flourishing condition of_----------- 48 Financial ability and accuracy of Henry ------------------------------------------ 46, 97 Fine-arts,— fine appreciation of, by Henry_------------------------------ 191, 333, 437, 471 Fire at the Smithsonian Institution in 1865,—loss of papers by--------------- 305, 459 Fluidity,—experiments on, by Henry -------------------------------------------- 423, 498 Fog-signaling instruments,— experiments on, by. Henry... 310 Fog-signals greatly improved by Henry-_------------------------------------- 311, 464, 499 Forces of nature as motive powers, classified by Henry ------------------------- 273 Forecasts of the weather inaugurated by Henry -------------------------------- 287, 463 Four elements of the ancients, typical of the fourfold state of matter -------_- 266 Fourfold state of matter postulated ___--_------------------------------------------- 266 Franklin and Henry compared___--------------------------------------------- 407, 408, 438 Franklin’s successor in Henry-------------------------------------------- 70, 83, 93, 170, 444 Fresnel, Augustin,—experiments by, in 1820, to obtain magneto-clectricity ---. 233 Fresnel, L. (secretary of the Light-House Board of France),-—testimony of, to the activity of the United States Light-House Board__------------------------ 308 Funds of the Smithsonian Institution,— flourishing condition of ~-------------- 48 Funeral of Joseph Henry------------------------------------------------------------- 11 Funeral Sermon by Rey. Samuel 8. Mitchell_------------------------------------- 15 Funeral services at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church of Washington- 12 electric telegraph _---------------------------- ------------------------------------ 59, 150 Gale, Dr. L. D.—letter from, to Henry, on the telegraph of Morse__------------- 388 Gale, Dr. L. D.—successful application by, of Henry’s discoveries, to the tele- graph of Morse ------------------------------------------------------------ 59, 150, 383, 488 INDEX. 521: Page Galvanic battery devised by Volta in 1800 ___--------_-------_- si hale aia es 79, 213 Galvanic battery modified by Dr. Hare in 1816, as a ‘‘calorimotor”’_____-- 82, 239, 376 Galvanic battery modified by Henry in 1835, for either ‘‘ quantity” or “‘inten- Slit: CHEE CMUS 2 Sas sate se aa oon aan ea = nce ack enc nea te eh ee 239 Garfield, Gen. James A., of the House of Representatives, a Regent,— Address byqatiuhewMeomorial Servicess=-n..0.- ones aaa) an eae Dee ee ee 91 Garfield, Gen. James A., of the House of Representatives, a Regent,— resolutions ofered|by, at meeting. ofthe Rerents .—-~- 2-3 ona enc nek at sacs eennuceenns. 30 Garfield, Gen. James A., of the House of Representatives, a Regent, selected by the Regents to deliver an Address ___----__-- Beccwaeeesccbaccs saan senss aaceesau 29 Goethe’s intellectual awakening and that of Henry, compared -—----.-_--.-----. 92 Government of the United States,— Henry’s services to__.---------..------ 133, 143, 316 Gray, Prof. Asa, a Regent,—Address by, at the Memorial Services__--__--.__--____ 53 Gray, Prof. Asa, a Regent, one of 2 committee appointed by the Regents to pre- pare for their records a biographical memoir of Joseph Henry ~--------------- 30 Gray, Prof. Asa, a Regent, one of a committee appointed by the Regents, to pre- S PAYela mM OMOFr AlV OLNMG sates nee oe eee on kee a ee ne ee 32 Gray, Prof. Asa, a Regent, selected by the Regents to deliver an Address at the Memorial Services acs a. nate aaa oe ee ee oe eee ee ees Sa a 28, 29 Guyot, Prof. Arnold, a pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Henry--_-_____-___-___ ll Hall of the House of Representatives assigned by Resolution of Congress, for the holding of Memorial! Services| 2.2. oa a ees 37 Hall, Prof. James,—letter of, on the death of Henry--__--..-----__---------------- 129 Hall, Prof. James,— testimony of, to Henry’s early magnetic telegraph__-__-___ 381 Hamilton, Col. C.S.—letter from, to the Light-House Board, on lard and rape- Seed oll sree asa see a sen ns acacasecec sen secae tenon ne acanaheneccabensobessscscases 424 Hamlin, Hon. Hannibal, Senator, a Regent,—Address of, at the Memorial Serv- ices)\(read bythe! Vice-President) )sssensee enon eens ee eee 43 Hamlin, Hon. Hannibal, Senator, a Regent,—resolution presented by, in the Senate, to participate in the Memorial Services ~_----------_--_-_--------_---_- 2 Hamlin, Hon. Hannibal, Senator, a Regent, selected by the Regents to deliver an Address at the Memorial Services ___------__..-------------------------------- 29 Hare, Dr. Robert,—calorimotor galvanic battery devised by ------~---- 82, 239, 376, 484 Heat-radiation, comparative, of the solar spots___-_-.--.---------_---.-- 269, 431, 448, 502 Heat-radiation detected at great distances by the thermal telescope -.-_____- 156, 320 Heat-radiation,— experiments on, by Henry --------------------------------------- 321 Hendrie, the ancestral name of the Henry family ~----------------_---__---------.-- 507 Ienry-.as'a: Christian: 22a ss ee ee ee 16, 21, 33, 73, 114, 134, 147, 200 BieniryAasayGiscoviere nts eee ee ee een cea a ee eee 475 Ifon ry asia financler so-so sescc ae oe ere ee en see eee ee en eee ee eee 46, 51, 97 Henry as) a: teachers Sos ee Ee oe See ence aasconteoca 62, 197, 212, 362 Henry,—contributions to science at Washington by -----------_--_---_- pe oooskoe 319 Henry ;—deathofs Sisk ee ae ee oda oe ee een toe 7, 188, 360, 467 Ienry:— education) Of 25222 - oo ae Ss oo ee ee ee 54, 56, 177, 206 Henry elected professor of mathematics at Albany Academy---____ 67, 130, 211, 443, 476 Henry elected professor of physics at Princeton ~_-_----------___--__ 61, 131, 238, 431, 447 Henry elected Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution _--_65, 132, 169, 185, 275, 453, 406 Henry,—improvement of the Light-House service by —-------__---»___ 97, 308, 315, 436, 464 Henry independent discoverer of magneto-electricity --..------------------ 235, 445, 490 Henry inventor of the electric chronograph--_------..-.-_.-------------- 155, 272, 398, 448 Henry inventor of the electro-magnetic engine -__--_____-_--------_--~-_--_---- 230, 445 Henry inventor of the magnetic telegraph -___---.._--_. ise 85, 131, 149, 228, 380, 487 Henry,—letter from; to Rey. 5: DOG oo. 2. noon aaa aces ean e mecca eeean 149 Henry,—letter from, to) Prof. 8S: Ws 0B) Morse — 2-2... sn a none ce nena nos 384 Henry,—letter from, to Dr. Ei. NO ttsese ac cone nner cn once cscs cneenenccsces meneneoces 409 Henry,—letter from, to Mr. J. Patterson -.........--._...------------~-.----------- 23 LON MARITIS PO Ol cco acco cenen Uncee ne ene esc cesc cecceccbcnsaacascsuacaceusessesund 61, 238 522, INDEX. Page Henry,—the mother of__-----------------.--=-=-=--=---=<------------==----==-====--==- 54 Eleni y — ODS ci Uil eis) 0 he ree eee ee ee PEs Henry,— parentage and date of birth of_------------------------------------ 64, 177, 427, 442 Henry's administration of the Smithsonian Institution -----------------_-_- 274, 409, 435 Henry's eesthetic perceptions -----_----_--_-_------------------------------- 190, 333, 437, 471 Henry's character_---_---.____._.__------.------ === -- = -— =< = = = = == 73,191, 361, 469 Tionry’s carly electro-magnet______-__ 84, 131, 218, 444, 483 Henry’s first attraction to books_—__——— ee ae ee 54,178 Henry’s first introduction to scientific literature_----____--____- 55, 167, 180, 207, 428, 443, 505 Henry’s personal appearance ___---_—-__-_-___-_ ne 189, 360 Henry’s researches on the radiation of sound --------------------------------- 346, 465, 500 Henry’s scientific papers,—list of ~.----2----_--_---_------__------_----=_--_--.------ 365 TOnr’y/8 | SCLOUM bith C7 ww OLN ee ae ee ee eed 83, 209, 476 Heliostat of simple form arranged by Henry---_.___-_---_-________________ 267 Hodge, Rey. Charles,— death of, referred to by Dr, Parker ---------------_--------- 33 Hodge, Rev. Charles,— prayer by, at the funeral services of Joseph Henry__----- 13 Humphreys, Gen, Andrew A., a pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Hfeury, Se 11 Hydrometiic experiment by Henry, on the separation of liquids__-_--------_-__- 328 Tlluminants,— ivestigation Osby ELON Vy esate ese see tec s ec eee e 309, 313, 421, 502 “Tmponderables,”— theory of, controverted by Henry_-----_----------------------- 322 Increase of the Smithson fund during Henry’s administration_---_-___-----______ 48 Index to scientific literature proposed by Henry_------__.__--_______-.______-_.._.. 296 Index to scientific literature undertaken and published by the Royal Society of POCO C0) a SE Se ee ee ee 297 Induction, electrical, of successive orders, discovered by Henry-------------- 85, 248, 494 Induction, initial and terminal, investigated .----_________-_______________.._____- 251 Tnformation'—Henry h wide LANE Ol ose n es ae ae ae eee 332, 437, 471 Intensity and quantity galvanic battery contrived by Henry- -----------------__- 239 “Intensity” and “ quantity” galvanic currents considered__---------------------- 376 Intensity and quantity magnets and batteries ---__---___--_---------------- 84, 226, 429, 483 “Intensity” electro-magnet first produced by Henry------------------------- 223, 227, 448 International exchanges of scientific publications established by Henry-------.- 208 Jonkin, Mr.— observation by, on electric self-induction ~----------_------_------- 240, 494 Jenkin, Prof. F.—remarks of, on the terms “intensity” and “ quantity” ---_-__. 377 Joint resolution of Congress to have engraved and printed a portrait of Henry Poy PLA HCING Ce} Coy eC} WAY PE Pec) ee = ae Ee ee ee 4 Joule’s testimony to Henry’s original electro-magnetic engine__---_--_--_--_---_. 231 ast days of Joseph) Hem ry nnn rr nge ee opt ence semen cere 188, 466 Law, the domain of, recognized by 8 (5) 0) ih ee ee ee ee ee eee 334 Letter from Dr. L. D. Gale, to Henry, on the telegraph of Prof. Morse ~-_---_---__ 388 Letter from Col, C.8, Hamilton, to the Light-House Board, on the success of ave) be Ep-g aVere WONT NET eee a eee 424 Letter from Henry to Rev.S. B. jib 0k ees iN ach et: te AIST 149° MUCEBEC TOMA ELOMITY, GO NOVOL, coe kaye LON SC aera 384 Letter from Henry to Dr; EB. NOtl an 409 JER Mere oye yd S (sya eto oe Wey cl JR I EE ns) gO) 0 23 Letter of condolence from the Trinity House, London ee ee 137 Letter of Prof. James Hall, onthe death of Menry_—-______ 129 Library scheme,— struggles of, for control of the Smithson endowment ____281, 410, 457 Light-House Board of England,— memorial from ___--_-_--------------------------- 137 Light-House Board of France,— testimonial from______-_----__----- ee 308 Light-House Board of the United States,— Henry, chairman of__---_--_-- 69, 133, 314, 463 Light-Ifouse Board of the United States,— memorial proceedings of, on the death CON td 8 IC) Yoh eee ree eal eee ee ee ee eee 135 Light-House establishment,—services of Henry to ------------------------ 70, 315, 464, 502 INDEX. 523 Page Light-House illumination,— Henry’s investigations in ~-_-__------__- 97, 309, 312, 421, 502 Light-House service greatly improved by Henry_-_------------------------- 97, 308, 316,436 - igo hunine-rOds \ODSELVaviOns OMe — n-ne ee ae ee ee ee 261 Lightning-rods suggested for telegraph poles_-___~---_-.----...-.-----....-.-..--__- 262 Liquid cohesion found to be equal to solid cohesion ~_--------____---_-__-_-_-_-__- 265, 498 ishonelvenvy Ss Scientinic papers... =~ 225 eat eee as oe ree ee 365 Longitude determination by simultaneous observations on meteors____---------_ 271 Loss of valuable scientific papers by fire, in 1865_..-________-__.-..-_-.-------.-.._-- 305 Lovering, Prof. Joseph,— obituary memoir of Henry, by ~-------------------------- 427 McCosh, Rev. Dr. J., appointed by the Regents to offer introductory prayer at the UN Seas a OUEST a Ce a aoe ee ae ae ae ee 29 McCosh, Rev. Dr. J.— opening prayer by, at Memorial Services ~.-----------_----- 39° Maclean, Dr. John,— account by, of Henry’s election to Princeton__--_--__---_- 168, 238 Maclean, Dr. John, one of executive committee appointed by the Regents to make arrangements for a public commemoration _______----------------------- 1, 28 Maclean, Dr. John, one of a select committee appointed by the Regents to pre- pares) biographical sketch of Henry ._2- —..- an none eee ese ceaee 28 Maclean, Dr. John,— prayer offered by, at meeting of the Regents, on the death Cos eUCorstc) 0) alld & =) 0) hk i ae ae oe QT Maclean, Dr. John,—resolution of thanks presented by, at meeting of the VANS) ESPNU ese ee caps prea a CE ee ee ee ee ee ee 34 Maclean, Dr. John,—resolution presented by, at meeting of the Regents, rela- tive to preparation of a Memorial Volume —______--.______________..-=...__-_._- 31 Magnet, Henry’s Albany, of 750 pounds, made in 1830, for the Academy _-__-____-- 220 Magnet, Henry’s New Haven, of 2,300 pounds, made in 1831, for Yale College_____ 229 Magnet, Henry’s Princeton, of 3,500 pounds, made in 1835, for the College of DSN PICS Ye a a a ee a el eS ee ee ee ee 244, 484 Magnet, Intensity, for acting at a distance, made by Henry in 1830__-__-_-_ 223, 227, 488 Magnetic expansion of iron tested by Henry_--... ---_---_._—_---__-.- === 329 Magnetic needle by galvanism, first produced by BSA na eee 479 Magnetic telegraph first made possible by Henry- ----------------------------- 93, 225, 486 Magnetic telegraph invented by Henry-_-------- -------------------- 85, 131, 149, 228, 380, 487 Magnetism, by menns of a galvanic current, first developed by Arago-_-_--_----- 213, 479 Magnetism, torrestrial,— observations by Henry on the intensity of_..-.------_- 268, 445 Magnetizing “bobbin” first devised by Henry~._- ~..-..-.-----._-_..-.-----.-...... 217 Magneto-electricity first attempted by Fresnel in 1820 -----_----__---_----_-_-_---_---_- 233 yee first discovered by Faraday in 1831 -_-_------------___-___--_- 234, 446 agneto-electricity independently discovered by Henry early in 1832_61, 235, 445, 490, 493 Marriage of Joseph Henry to Miss Alexander ____-_-_-___-___-_-__-_-------------- 61, 238 Mathematics,— attainments of Henry in .------_.- =. 2 eee 208, 443 Mathematics,— Henry, professor of, at Albany Academy -_------------------- 57, 130, 211 Meads, Dr. O.—account by, of Henry’s early experiments________-_-_-___----------- 375 Meads, Dr. O.— memorial minute by, on the death of Henry ~-----------_--_~----_ 130 Meads, Dr. O.— testimony of, to Henry’s early magnetic telegraph____----_--_-__ 131, 380 Medal, Copley, proposed for Henry, by Faraday and Wheatstone____-__------- Zoe) O06: Memorial minute for the Albany Institute, by Dr. Orlando Meads -_:_----_------_ 130 Memorial Services appointed by Congress, to be held in the Hall of the House of Representatives, United States Capitol_---.___-_______________--_.~__.--_---.--... 37 Memorial Services at the Capitol, arrangements for..____----_ --------------------- 29 Memorial Services at the Capitol, held on the evening of January 16, 1879 _-___- 2, 38 Memorial tribute to.A. Dallas Bache; by Henty ..-- 2222-25202 eee ae ec eeenene 330 Memorial Volume in honor of Joseph Henry, directed by the Regents__---------- 31 Memorial Volume in honor of Joseph Henry,—the printing of 15,000 copies of, OLA CTERIDyACONPTCSS aoe Sa ew ne tae eee nena eean eee ses eee nena 4 Memoirofetoenry by erof. Erenry ©. C8 Orou ss aos cre eee 166 Memoirot Henry.by Revsaniuel Bs DOG Sac cee ere ee ee eee 139 Memoir of Henry by Prof. Asa Gray ------ Bec ee eee aa neem ea eee 53 524 INDEX. Page Memoir of Henry by Prof. Joseph Lovering ----------------------------------------- 427 Memoir of Henry by Prof. Alfred M. Mayer- ---------------------------------------- 415° Memoiniof, ELennys ly. Dr.) OT) arn Om Cah eer ee 130 Memoir of Henry by Prof. Simon Newcomb----------------------------------------- 441 Memoirof Henry by William: BD. Da ylon ene race ee 205 Memoinoflenry by Dr. James CC, Welling eee eee eee 177 Memoir of Henry directed by resolution of the Regents -----__-----_--_----------- 28 Metals,— capillarity of, observed_-_.--------------------_---___---____-_------__------- 263 Meteoric determination of longitude, by Henry, Bache, and others__------------- 271 Meteorological observations for the country, inaugurated by Henry-------- 287, 435, 463 Mete@rol op ice lw Orbs Of bel CM Type eee rrr rarer eer ere eet meee 212, 257, 286 Mitchell, Rev. Samuel S.— Funeral Address by-------------------------------------- 15 Molecular constitution of matter, hypothesis of__.--------------_------------------- 266 Moll’s “quantity” electro-magnet compared with Henry’s --_--------------------- 220 Monument to Henry,— proceedings in Congress regarding_------------------------ 611 Morrill, Hon. J.8.— Bill presented by, in the U.S.Senate for erecting a statue of DEI UN a A SE SES 612 Morse, Prof.S. F. B.— experiments of, in electric telegraphy_-------- ---------- 50, 150, 381 Morse, Prof.S. F. B.— Henry's encouraging letter to_-_--------- --------------------- 384 EOUMET OL DOSC PN VC Ways sea ca eee 54 Motive powers discriminated and classifled_____------------------------------------ 273 Motor, electro-magnetic, first devised by Henry ------------------------------ 143, 230, 445 Multiplé-coll magnet of Henry soa sean sna aaeeen eee eee 85, 218, 229, 390, 444, 484 Multiple-coil magnet of Henry, employed by Faraday-_-_--------------------- 222, 230, 390 Museum, beyond the capacity of the Smithsonian building-----------__---------- 419 Museum ,— efforts of Henry to detach, from the Smithsonian Institution--_-__-_ 283 Museum, National, supported by the Government -_-_~-_----_--------------------- 460 National Government,—services of Henry to ~----------------------------------- 133, 316 National Museum,—efforts by Henry to obtain the establishment of______--------- 285 Naturdl selection,— views of Henry on---.-----.--------__-_____________-_________ 342, 507 Newcomb, Prof. Simon,— biographical memoir of Henry by------ ------ ---------- 441 Newcomb, Prof. Simon, a pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Henry------------ 11 New York State,—suryey of a State road through, by Henry in 1826_---- 57, 183, 210, 428 New York State,— topographical elevations of, by Henry in 1829__--__--------__ 270, 444 Nott, Dr. E.—letter to, from Henry -----------------------------~-----------.------------ 409 Obituary memoir of Joseph Henry, by Prof. Joseph Lovering--------------------- 427 Observations on the comparative heat of the solar spots ~--------------- 269, 431, 448, 502 Observations on the earth’s magnetic intensity at Albany-_--------- ~--_-------- 258, 445. Observatories for physical, magnetical, and chemical research____---------------- 304 Oersted’s announcement of the re-action between a galvanic current and the magnetic needle_______-_-__.___.-.....---.----------.---------~-------=---==-- 79, 213, 477 Official correspondence of the Smithsonian Institution____-__-----_-_--.---------- 301 Ohm the first to announce the law of galvanic currents in 1827 __---__----_-___- 227, 430. Ohm,— the papers of, first published in English in 1841__--__---_-----__--_-------- 227, 490 Ohm,—the theory of, for years universally neglected —__--------__----------- 227, 430, 489 Oils for illumination,— investigation of, by Henry----------- ------------ 309, 319, 421, 502 Organic dynamics — Henry’s conception) Of- aan aa aaa aaa cea a eee neer nee nena= 335 Organic “ force’”’ but a department of the physical_____-_ -------------------------- 273. Organization of the Smithsonian Institution, proposed by Henry_---~_275, 399, 433, 456 Oscillation of electrical discharge, discovered by Henry--------------------- 255, 396, 448 Pall-hearers:at the funeral of Joseph Henly. 11 Parentage Of JOsep iy EMC mi ry aa a car ry 54, 177, 442 Parker, Dr. Peter, chairman of executive committee of the Board of Regents, to make arrangements for a public commemoration _-_---------__---------------- 1, 28 Parker, Dr. Peter, one of a committee appointed by the Regents, to arrange the funeral ceremonies of Joseph Henry-_-* 10, 11 INDEX. 525 . Pago Parker, Dr. Peter, one of n committce appointed by the Regonts, to propare a Momorial Volume ---_.---.___..--- eee a i ree eee eee ee 32 Parker, Dr. Peter,— Remarks by, before the Regents on the character of Joseph LEI EA eee See eee ce Se 32 Parker, Dr. Peter,—report by, of arrangements made for a public commemo- TODD OT a on ee Sete SES Se Se a Se eee ee ae 29 Patterson, Carlile P., a pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Henry-_--_------------- 11 Patterson, Joseph, a pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Henry------------------ 11 Peltier,— discussion by, of the terms electric ‘‘quantity ’’ and ‘‘ intensity 5 eR ete 376 Peltier;—eulogistic tribute'to; by Henry 22-32 206 Personal appearance of Joseph Menry=--<2- ee ee 189, 360 Philosophical Society of Washington,— active interest of Henry in organizing endsmoail ntainin Coecsaanees rae eee ees ae ee enka te oes cnenacnencscantoce 331 Philosophical Society of Washington,—appointment by, of Vice-presidents Welling and Taylor to deliver addresses at a memorial service on Oct. 26,1878 127 Philosophical Society of Washington,— Address before, by Dr. J.C. Welling-_---- 117 Philosophical Society of Washington,— Address before, by W.B. Taylor -—-------- 205 ‘Philosophical Society of Washington, — memorial proceedings of, on May 14 and Oct 26; 1878 ere ae a ee ee he ee ee ee eee ee 125, 177 *Phosphorescence,— original observations on, by Henry-----------~ --------------- 267 Poe, Gen. Orlando M., 2 pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Henry —------------- ll Poetry,— Henry/s fondness lors === a 225 a a ee 191, 207, 333, 507 Pope, Frank L.—appreciative eulogy of Henry, by---- ----------------------------- 485 ’ Porter, President Nonh, one of 2 committee appointed by the Regents, to pre- pare.a bierraphicalisketchof Menry i222 a2 eae conten atone ae eae ene 28 Porter, President Noah,—report by, to the Regents on the selection of memorial blographer of Henry s-s2.5255.. so-so ese ee ee a eS 30. Portrait of Joseph Henry,—joint resolution of Congress to engrave and print, for the Memorial sVol tim ese cae ees Sea Ee Oa ee wee oe ee 4 Pouillet,—introduction by, of Henry’s “bobbin’”’ coil magnetinto France, in 1832 226 Prayer at conclusion of Memorial Services at the Capitol, by Rev. Dr.Sunderland 121 Prayer at Funeral Services, by Rev. Charles Hodge ---_--.-__-----_-_-- ~----------- 13 Prayer at Memorial Services at the Capitol by Rev. Dr. James McCosh ae eee 39 Presidency of College of New Jersey at Princeton; proposed to Henry---- ----- 194, 279 Presidency of National Academy of Sciences, conferred on Henry --------- 330, 436, 441 Princeton,— College of New Jersey at, Henry professor of physics in_61, 131, 238, 431, 447 Princeton electro-magnet of 3,500 pounds made by Henry in 1835___-_-_---_--___ 244, 484 Princeton Memorial, of May 19) 187822220625 st 63, 139, 166 Princeton,— Presidency of the college at, offered to Henry___-__ ~----. ---------- 194, 279 ‘Printing of 15,000 copies of a Memorial Volume ordered by Congress__------------ 4 Proceedings of the Albany Institute, on the death of Joseph Henry-_------------- 128 Proceedings of Congress on the evening of the Memorial Services, (Jan. 16, 1879)_ 2,38 Proceedings of Congress, relative to the holding of Memorial Services, in honor Of Henry 2.22. ee Se eee ere es ae ee ee tk Se ae eee 7 Proceedings of Congress, relative to a Memorial Volume_-__-_-----_-.-____----___- 3 ' Proceedings of Congress, relative to a monument to Henry--___-----------___---- 611 Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Washington, on the death of Joseph ED ON Ty or nt ee ee ee ee PARTE) FAS Ee Se eee 125 Proceedings of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution on the death of Joseph: Henry - 2 223 ee ee es a a ee eed ee 2s ee ea oes Se ee 9,27 Proceedings of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution relative to a Memo- rial Volume. 2. 2 Seen Be eed Pale Se ees 2A a ee 31 Proceedings of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution relative to a public commemoration, in honor of Joseph Henry------------ ------------------------ 28 Proceedings of the U. 8. Light-House Board, on the death of Joseph Henry ----- 135 Professorship of mathematics at Albany Academy, conferred on Henry-------- 57, 130 Professorship of physics, at Princeton, conferred on Henry ---------- 61, 131, 238, 431, 447 Programme of Memorial Services at the Capitol___------------ eee ae aereniemere 29 526 INDEX. : Page Programme of organization by Henry for the Smithsonian Institution_-__- 66, 275, 399 Projectiles,— the velocity of, recorded by electric chronograph--_----------- 155, 272, 448 Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, edited by Henry----- ------ -------- 293 Quantity and intensity galvanic battery contrived by Henry--------------------- 239 “Quantity ” and ‘intensity’ galvanic currents considered_---------------------- ' 376 Quantity and intensity magnets and batterles__-_----------- ------------- 84, 226, 429, 483 Quantity electro-magnets of Henry_---.------------------------ 84,111, 131, 218, 244, 444, 484 Randall, Hon. Samuel J., Speaker of the House of Representatives,— Memorial Services at the Capitol, opened by--------------------------- Se eae 2, 38 Randall, Hon Samuel J., Speaker of the House of Representatives,—remarks Ly, at the close of the Memorial Services ---- .__-----------_--------------------- 3 Range of information possessed by Henry, very extended_-_____----_-__- 332, 437, 471, 507 Reading of Henry. yaried and extensive aoe ee ee en 192, 507 “ Receiving’’ magnet of telegraphy, first devised by Henry------- ---------------- 244 Refraction of sound suggested by Prof.Stokes in 1857, and established by Henry YRC 87 a ea eed a ee ee EE, 346, 353, 465, 501 Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,— proceedings of, on the death of Joseph 18 ep eb eee se a pore He SS Soros S So pe eo 9, 27 Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,— proceedings of, relative to a Memorial SOUND cos a a a 31 Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,— proceedings of, relative to a public commemoration ~~~... ee ee eee Acpee cae s= Saes 28 “ Roign of Law,”— Henry’s views on----------.----------------- fe eeiss en ee 334 Remarks by Dr. Peter Parker, on the death of Joseph Henry, before the Regents of the Smithsonian Institutlon—---_--_- 8 cence een 32 Remarks by Chief Justice M. R. Waite, on the death of Joseph Henry_-_--------- 9 Remarks by Speaker 8. J. Randall, at the close of the Memorial Services_-_------ 3 Remarks by Hon. William A, Wheeler, Vice-President of the United States, at the: Memorial! Servicess.-25 sc. =o se a oe eee 43 Reminiscences of Joseph Henry by Dr. Henry C. Cameron _--_-------------------- 166 Renwick, Prof. James,— emphatic testimonial of, to Henry_-----.--------------- 169, 238 Renwick, Prof. James,— observations on terrestrial magnetism for, by Henry-268, 445 Report of Naval Secretary on Henry’s services to the Light-House Establishment 315 Representatives, Hall of,— devoted to Memorial Services______-------------------- 37 Resolution of Congress, appropriating the Hall of Representatives to the Me- eae) ot Oy ES hey ig Cele | ee ee 1,37 Resolution of Congress authorizing the publication of the Memorial Volume___ 4 Resolution of Congress to participate in the Memorial Services -----_------__--_- 1, 37 Resolution of the Regents of 8. I. to arrange a public commemoration_-_---_-_-__- 28 Resolutions of the Philosophical Society of Washington, on the death of Joseph 18 wy ee ee Se Eo Seis ea 125 Resolutions of the Regents of S. I. on the death of Joseph Henry._-.----....-..-.. 27 Resolutions of the Regents of §, I. relative to the funeral of Joseph Henry ------ 10 Resolutions of U. 8. Light-House Board, on the death of Joseph Henry--------_- 135 Rodgers, Admiral John, o pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Henry-----.-----. 11 Rogers, Prof. William B.— Address by, at the Memorial Services__-----_----.----- T7 Rogers, Prof. William B., selected by the Regents to deliver an Address ~_______- 29 Romagnosi,— discovery by, of the influence of galvanism on a magnet____-_-__ 79, 213 Royal Society of London,—adoption by, of Henry’s plan of a scientific index____ 297 Rumford’s experiments on heat supplemented by Henry------------------------ 321, 438 Schweigger’s “multiplier” or galvanometer -__-___---------.-------------- 82, 213, 444, 480 Science,— bibliographic index of, planned by Henry------------------------------- 295 Scientific exchanges,—system of, organized and established by Henry-_--------- 298 Scientific interest,— first awakening of, in Henry’s mind__-_~-------_- 55, 56, 167, 180, 207 Scientific investigations made by Henry at Washington__---_-------------_---_-_- 319 INDEX. 527 Page SCLENUMNI CG ODSCEVALORIES. DFO|CCtS Ofe 8 nae aa eee eee ee ee 304 Pieclomeianer bi Henrys en bere ee Seen tt eee 365 Sclentiticihwork commenced by, Henry 22-9 ee 83, 209, 476 Secchi, Prof. A.— observations of, on solar spots__---------------__----___- 270, 431, 448, 503 Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,— Henry elected as____- 65, 132, 169, 185, 275, 406 Self-induction in a long electrical wire, discovered by Henry_-_____- 237, 239, 394, 447, 493 Sermon, Funeral, by Rey. Samuel S,Mitchell, at the New York Avenue Pres- DycerinniGhurchrin Washing tonessss 222 ee ee Sermon, Memorial, by Rev. Samuel B. Dod, at Princeton, on the death of Joseph 15100) 95 ces ea er ea abl Ne ee aes aah yD aad eh IU 1 pale ates ec dete ooh 135 Services of Henry to the General Government ___-__---__-----------------__- 133, 143, 316 Sherman, General William T.,a Regent,— Address by, at the Memorial Services. 117. ‘Sherman, General William T.,a Regent, chairman of select committee of Board of Regents, to arrange the funeral ceremonies_______________________- imeocepaee LOS LL: Sherman, General William T., a Regent, one of executive committee of Board of Regents, to arrange a public commemoration_______--______________-.-______ 1, 28 Sherman, General William T., a Regent, selected by the Regents to deliver an PNGATEES aE Ue MenIOLial Services sens coat ene ee ee eee 29 Silliman, Prof. Benjamin,—account by, of Henry’s Yale College magnet_-__._.-.- 229 Silliman, Prof. Benjamin,— appreciation of Henry, by__---_-.--------------_--_- 169, 238 Singleton, Hon. 0. R.— resolution presented by, to the House of Representatives, to print portrait of Henry for the Memorial Volume________-_-__-_-___________ 4 Siren adopted by Henry as a fog-signaling trumpet______-____----___-____--_________ 311 Smithsonian Annual Reports, in 30 vols., edited by Henry ___-___--_----_-________ 295 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, in 21 vols., edited by Henry —_--_----- 294 Smithsonian fund,— condition of, at Henry’s death _______---____________________.- 47 Smithsonian Institution established in 1846___.._--__-_--___-___--_-_-_-_-- 65, 274, 452 Smithsonian Institution,— Henry Secretary and Director of _-_______________ 65, 132, 453 Smithsonian Institution,—the plan of, devised by Henry________ 45, 50, 95, 118, 132, 170, 433 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, in 15 vols., edited by Henry -_------_--_- 294 Smithson’s endowment waiting for an interpreter _----_--_-.-_-----______ 95, 186, 434, 451 Smithson’s will,—the scope of _____-__-________.-_-_--------_----------- 67, 185, 399, 433, 449 Solar spots,—comparative heat of, observed_____-_---------____-_-------__ 209, 431, 448, 602 Sound,—observationsof Henry on 2-2-2222. -s2so225-2-eeenne 344, 464, 499 Sound radiation,—the laws of, investigated by Henry__----------------_- 346, 353, 465, 501 Speaker of the House of Representatives, Memorial Services at the Capitol OPENED yas eee ome A OTNE LAh PASEO ALN) gt AUN NTO, ORY NT: EN eM 2,38 Speaker of the House of Representatives,_remarks by, at the close of the Me- morialiServicessseee tas = ras oe LOS e AT) a REET SES, 2b) eRe 3 Speakers at the Memorial Services, introduced by the Vice-President --____-_____ 2 Speakers for the public commemoration, appointed by the Regents of the Smith- SODLANMINSOLbUt ON sss es See Bd eee Ne Re Pei ad Le 29 Species, organic,— doctrine of the derivation of __-__--_--___-________--4_________- 341, 507 Speculations on the constitution of matter______________-____._______ 266 Spofford, A. R.— remarks of, on the Smithsonian library ~_-_-------__--___________ 417 Stage performances,— early predilection of Henry for_____---2.-------------_- 55,179, 427 Statement of the Smithsonian fund at Henry’s death ___-__-_--__------------_______ 47 Statue of Henry, authorized by Congress__-____--_---..------_-_-_------------------- 514 Steam,—early experiments by Henry Oe 209, 375 Steam-siren adopted by Henry for signaling through fogs______ PROS. “aeNE" wide ied 311 Stephens, Hon. Alexander H.,—resolution presented by, in the House of Repre- sentatives, to print Memorial Volume_.___-.---..-___.---.---_-_----2-_--- 3 Stokes, Prof. G. G.— hypothesis by, of refraction of sound by wind___-__ 346, 355, 465, 501 Story, W. W., tho sculptor, selected to model a statue of Henry__----------------- 614 Strong, Mr. Justice William, of the Supreme Court, a pall-bearer at the funeral Oh Tosephebien ty {tence eo Peet ati ete Pe ete ber, Peeks ee eileen, Pee 11 Sturgeon, William, the first to make an electro-magnet_________--_-_______. 58, 82, 213, 480 Sturgeon, William,— tribute by, to Henry’s Yale College magnet_---_--__--__----_ 230 528 INDEX. Page Successive orders of electrical induction discovered by Henry__-------------- 85, 248, 494 Sulphuric-acid) barometerierected by Plemivy sss ee 329 Sunderland, Rey. Dr. Byron, Chaplain of the U.S. Senate, selected by the Regents tovonter prayer at the Memorial Services sas a eee 29 Sunderland, Rey. Dr. Byron,—concluding prayer by, at the Memorial Services__ 121 Survey for a State road through New York, by Henry-_-------___-------__- 57, 183, 210, 428 Taylor, William B.—Sketch by, of the scientific work of Henry____--------___-___ 205 Teacher.— Henrys Sicill an dsucCess: As seen eee eee ee ee 62, 197, 212, 362 Telegram from Anglo-American Telegraph Company at London ---__----_------- 75 Telegram from Direct United States Cable Company at London-_------------------ 76 Melee rametronl Sita W ills Ok OMIS OM see ae ee ee ee ee ee 75 Telegrams read by Hon. Hiester Clymer at the Memorial Services___--_--------_- 75 Telegraphic announcement of astronomical discoveries established by Henry__ 300 Telegraph, magnetic, invented by Henry in 1831___-__-_--_-------- 85, 131, 149, 228, 380, 487 Telescope for detecting heat-radiation at a distance__-___--.---------------___-_-- 156, 320 Ten-Kyck, Dr.—assistant to Henry in constructing electro-magnets____----_----- 224 Dheory, of theso-called “imponderaples a = ee fates $22 Thermal telescope devised pysMenry =o os oee na nee eee oe 156, 320 Thermopile applied by Henry in 1845, to test solar spots----_______-----_- 269, 431, 448, 502 Thomson, Sir William,—Telegram from, read at the Memorial Services ~-------- 75 Topographical sketch of the State of New York, by Henry-___-------------------- 270, 444 Trinity House, London,—letter of condolence from-_-------------------------------- 137 Union of short quantity circuit with long intensity circuit, by Henry in 1835____ 243 University, New York City,— Professor Morse’s first telegraphic experiments in, UY OY BSG Ua Se ake Te ee a pe alt iy Nt So erg we a es Bek Ng Se ee Dae Le ah 381 University of Pennsylvania,— chemical professorship in, offered to Henry_174, 193, 278 University of Virginia,—a professorship in, proposed to Henry by Mr. Calhoun, 194 Van Rensselaer, Gen. Stephen,— Henry’s employment by, as tutor_---_-- 57, 183, 208, 443 Velocity of projectiles registered by electric chronograph-_-_----------------- 155, 272, 448 “Vice-President of the United States, presiding officer at the Memorial Services__ 2,38 » Vice-President of the United States,— reading of Mr. Hamlin’s Address by------- 43 ‘Vice-President of the United States,—remarks by, at the Memorial Services_____ 2, 43 Volta, the inventor of the galvanic pile and battery__--_--------------------_----- 79, 213 Waite, Chief Justice Morrison R., Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution,— official announcement by, of the death of Joseph Henry ---------------------- i Waite, Chief Justice Morrison R., Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution,— remarks by, on the death of Joseph Henry__-—___._-_- ee 9 Weather forecasts\organized by ElCnry.----oas-as—- secon ee eee ee 287, 463 Welling, Dr. James C.— Notes by, on the life and character of Joseph Henry____- 117 Welling, Dr. James C., a pall-bearer at the funeral of Joseph Henry-------------- 11 Wheatstone’s chronoscope compared with Henry’s chronograph--_--------------- 398 Will of James Smithson,—the purport of _-.-------- .------------------- 57, 185, 399, 433, 449 Withers, Hon. Robert E., Senator, a Regent,—Address by, at the Memorial Services. ..< 2g ee ee ae ee ene ee ee ee ee 49 Withers, Hon. Robert E., Senator, a Regent, selected by the Regents to deliver QnA dGYeSS8o 2-8 en a ee ec oe ee ee eee eee 29 Wheeler, Hon, William A., the Vice-President,— presiding officer at the Memo- Mla Services. sos. see Ee es a ee ee ee ee ee 2,38 Wheeler, Hon. William A., the Vice-President,— reading of Hon. Mr. Hamlin’s Address by, 2220 et ee Se eee ee ee eon one eee 43 Wheeler, Hon. William A., the Vice-President,— Remarks by, at the Memorial Services!2..24. = sess 30s 2 eee ee bt aS SS ee eee ee 2, 43 Wollaston’s scale of chemical equivalents, modified by Henry_------------------- 271 This preservation photocopy was made at BookLab, Inc. in compliance with copyright law. 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