Sh Eawaas an wir) Rte as wn Rapa Uh ty Poa HAHA viet yce Soa i ite ra hes ate aren i at his I ne Ht 5 BH Hat ii i PN Reet a ee thet sO 4 a ‘4 i Keno i My Ve nn aa shan : ae aaa OSE TR AR Caine i AMA Cha d wo t i es i Fae ay st A Pay tes eT ERENT a Ne b neat ra ANT ha ae et pine it Seana st eu ; SS Rat i mo ae rity Lh ARV) v Hien bps ahh megen can ease! oa oH} Naa Wate cy, ane sai i bit p Fa iy pana (wi r an, ini oath he if ma ht ‘ 4 Nt vie i DPS iver OUR ee Pa HE eT Sa cH i oes a (ey sh HHS ans iw HY Hage AY SH pi} ith rit He 4 ini i ae ee Se Seas peepee seis 5 Shes eve. a => aa tot i i iN pi RH i} Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections VOLUME LII (QUARTERLY Issurz, VOLUME V) ‘“ EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN.’’—SMITHSON No. 1921 CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1910 in 5 > ie bee i > aa? phe 44, JUDD & DETWEILER, INC Pal eOcGIO tee eee 416 Pictographs onsclithenedr pl ceson.. 6c. SG: sie oe eee 418 Riu opposite, old: BosteGrante. 2.20. Ss.) 5. saat eee 428 1. Type skull of Proinia patagonica, new species. 2. Man- dible of Prosqualodon australis Lydekker.............. 456: Teeth of Prosqualodon australis Lydekker............... 456 . Vertebre of Prosqualodon australis Lydekker............ 456 1. Miami river between Miami and the edge of the Ever- glades. 2. Young mangroves along north bank of Miami ITE S4 aoe EE aye Op Ae Ae NOE er ae ae Ee RRNA oy 464 1. Mangroves along south bank of Miami river. 2. Adult mangroves along north bank of Miami river............ 464. 1. Mangroves at new cut, eastern side of Biscayne bay. 2. Manetovertootss Saimenocalitycere ener ares 464. 1. Mangrove roots at Pigeon Key. 2. Mangroves along the southushoreror thes Marqwesdseree=: a. sone ca aeeciee 464. 1. Young mangrove on southwest side of Bear Cut. 2. Young mangrove on shoal two miles northeast of Pigeon Key. 3. Two young mangroves from shoal about two milestnonthivol seteeons Meye eer ree cere 464 I. Young mangroves on shoal, upper end of Long Island. 2. Young mangroves, near view, same locality.......... 464. 1. Elevated coral reef rock and vegetation at southern end of old Rhodes Key. 2. Mangrove Key, between Largo andvold' Rhodesulveyss .. yous eee here eeeee 464 Joplinucalerteres:. 5 i. ctautow oct ae aie eee een ae ae 468° CalcitestwinelGuanatlatow\lextCOneeee en sere e eee 468 Georychus RGpitt, New USpeCleSs nc x)-cehinske deers 469 Thamnomys loringi Heller and Mus peromyscus Heller... 471 The Thomson, Georgia, meteorite. Natural size......... 473 The Thomson, Georgia, meteorite. Showing microstruc- ELIE EN 2 2) ca) a apes ceatedal | oleicuaetevertehste tata) stain tere Pe Paselele tate ache enete retest 475- Cube: faceiokspy rites. cere se cae oe tere eer eee 484 Otocyon vurgaius: typCm tea tee och eee Soe 488 Woodwardiatand Dennsicdid cose a eee ee 496 Perspective elevation of shelter on Mount Whitney....... 502 Shelter for observers on Mount Whitney................ 504 VOL. 52 1908 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. V QUARTERLY ISSUE PaRT I THE CRETACEOUS FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL By DAVID STARR JORDAN anp JOHN CASPER BRANNER (WitH FEicH? PLATES) The first part of this paper deals with the general geology and geography of the region from which the Cretaceous fishes of Ceara come, while the second part is a systematic description of the fishes themselves. The collection is especially important because it con- tains all of the species hitherto described from Ceara, besides three new genera and four new species. The large number of duplicates has made it possible to restore several of these fishes almost entirely. The collection belongs to Senhor Francisco Dias da Rocha, pro- prietor of the Museo Rocha in Ceara, to whom it has been returned, but Sr. Rocha has generously presented several important counter- parts and duplicates to the junior author. These counterparts and duplicates are deposited with the geological collections of Stanford University, in California, and of these several specimens have been given to the Smithsonian Institution, at Washington. A. Notes oN THE GEOLOGY OF THE CRETACEOUS FISH-BEARING Beps oF CrearA, BRAZIL The collection of fossil fishes described in this paper was made by Sr. Francisco Dias da Rocha, of the Rocha Museum, at Fortaleza, Ceara, Brazil. They come from several places about the base of the Serra do Araripe, in the extreme southern end of the State of Ceara, but the precise localities are not given. The region is one that has been so rarely visited by scientific men that but little is known of the details of its geology. By far the most extensive and most valuable notes on the geology of Ceara are those made by Barao de Capa- I 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLI,ECTIONS VOL. 52 nema in 1859. Unfortunately the results obtained by that writer were never published in full, and the paper giving a general outline of his explorations is disconnected and contains much irrelevant matter. However, the general geology of the Serra do Araripe itself is quite simple and its relations to the surrounding regions seem to be clear. The following facts are gleaned from the scanty notes of Gardner and Capanema, and from those of a few others.who have crossed adjacent portions of Maranhao, Piauhy, Parahyba, and Pernambuco. Spix and Martius refer to fossil fishes being found at Barra do Jar- N Araripe Ss MARANHAO = f= Para - Fic. 1—Hypothetical section across northeastern Brazil, showing the struc- tural and geographical relations of the fish-bearing beds of the Serra do Araripe to the coast sediments of Maranhao and Sergipe. dim, but it is not clear from their note (Reise in Brasilien, 11, 799) that the place was visited by either of the authors. The lithographed figure of a fish, Rhacolepis buccalis, published in one of the plates of the atlas accompanying their work, is reproduced here. It is the first one of the fossil fishes ever figured from that region (pl. v1, fie ie): The water-sheds between the State of Ceara and the-States that adjoin it on the south and west are mostly flat-topped table-lands or plateaus. These plateaus are composed for the most part of hori- zontal sedimentary beds. ‘They rest unconformably upon schists, gneisses, and granites, and at some places upon what seem to be folded but unaltered Paleozoic sediments. The position, distribu- aan Ss ae S ast tee Fic. 2—East-west section through the Serra do Araripe, constructed from the notes of Gardner and Capanema. tion, and character of the beds show that the sediments forming the plateaus formerly had a wide distribution over northeastern Brazil, and that they have been gradually removed by the ordinary processes of denudation. On the west these beds extend across Piauhy, probably with some interruptions, into the State of Goyaz; on the north they extend across Piauhy and into Maranhao; on the south they extend into Bahia and Pernambuco, approaching the Rio Sao Francisco; on the FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 3 east they form, in part at least, the flat-topped mountains of the western and southern boundaries of the State of Ceara. The section across the Serra do Araripe given herewith has been constructed from the notes of Gardner and Capanema: Sandstone forming the top of the mountain, 140 feet (Capanema). Sandstone series, yellow, white, and red, 600 feet (Gardner) ; (this includes the top bed of Capanema). Thin-bedded limestone (thickness not stated). Lignite, 2 feet (Gardner) ; bituminous shale (Capanema). Blue clay and gray sandstone at base (Capanema). The sequence, character, and relations of the rocks in the Serra do Araripe are sufficiently clear from this section to render further ver- bal description unnecessary. The fishes have only been found in concretions, and are said to come from the sandstone bed above the limestone layer. They have never been found in place, but occur in the talus and soil on slopes at the base of the sandstone ridges. The matrix in which the fossils occur is mostly the buff or cream-colored limestone in which these fossils have hitherto been found. The rock matrix suggests that while some of the specimens are from sandstone beds, most of them are from beds, or at least from lenses, of limestone. Slides were made of the matrix of two of the concretions. Under the microscope it is seen that the bulk of the rock is composed of microscopic crystals of calcite somewhat stained with iron. The cal- cite crystals, however, are so small that they are scarcely distin- guishable, even under an enlargement of 90 diameters. Between 5 and 10 per cent of the rock is made up of clear round calcite bodies evidently of organic origin. _ Fragments were broken from specimens in the Rocha Collection and chemical analyses were made of them with the following re- sults. Care was taken not to include parts of the fossil fishes in the pieces analyzed. Analysis of pieces of a fossil-bearing concretion from Cearé, Brazil L. R. Lenox, Analyst (Record Book 779) Silitoce (SOD) Meera ee ern etn tele ce ce hetero sto ctde we bes 3.64 @xidessoriron and valamina CAO: FesOs)i. 32. occ. si jasc oes ead ese ws 1.46 IFisricm Ca @)) eee etre ey ements ay orate cote bed wy 'eteare 521.2 eter tnectcaim (ii O)) wesiaen WARP yA choles, Pheer ae Sova d 4 elev yao BEd les tedlete- ach dhs 0.56 Bes sm ttilie Conlon Te (©) a4 oles ©) CLG. ia, - us lore baer Solo &:sitoth vie oi, lsc ave.'0id 3. obee 42.28 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS WOM 8S Equivalent to— Carbonate of limes (CaCO: eee eis. re leer ee eee 93.26 Carbonate or macnesia (Mic COn) pare rere ier eae ae eer 1.16 Analysis of part of @ concretion containing a somewhat telescoped fossil fish (Rhacolepis buccalis) (Record Book 781) Silica i CS1O Da ac nN AECT os Io eo hs is Ol 6a, ee 4.31 Lrompand alimannas @iies Ose aricdernlls Os) aa eet re =e eee 3.05 Time CCAO eee ote oi reese pe aa OT ere soa Oe oie aro ree aaa 50.39 Magnesia NGO) a Ao7h 0 areas CR mn nee ee Meter eS ht ~) \shssenae se uo Ree 0.66 Toss COs arrdewater ye ocean eee ine EO car store ree ATS PEO GAM ee. oe eins ESC Yecds Men Eee ISMN FESR se pen ee 99.94 Equivalent to— ACarbouatezot lime (Cac@ee eer asec ey cee ee Se ae eee 89.98 Carbonate of magnesia, (Mie @;) 0c. che ede eee oe eee ee eae 1.38 Analysis of part of a concretion containing a fossil fish, Calamopleurus vestitus, ; Specimen No. 15 (Record Book 7&2) Carbonatexof lime (GaCOn iene ees eee ee 90.64 Carbonate ofsmacnesia (UMiaCO:) ee. aa sso cere een nee Tey Analysis of part of the concretion containing the large specimen of Calamo- pleurus cylindricus received from Dr. Paula Pessoa, of Rio de Janeiro (Record Book 783) Carbonateto£-lime: (‘CaCOs)i.ck ca eam cee EEE ee eee 92.57 Carbonatetor magnesias(MioCOn)en..nor = oe cee ee een ies Many of the specimens of fossil fishes have been crushed together lengthwise or telescoped, so that the scales are thrust farther over than they should be. This peculiarity of these fishes has been noted before by Dr. A. Smith Woodward in his paper published in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 1887. The chem- ical analyses suggest that this telescoping may be due to the partial dolomitization and consequent shrinking of the original limestone caused by the substitution of magnesium carbonate for the calcium carbonate. The appearance of the rock and the analyses given above lead one to suppose that the composition of the concretions is fairly uniform. Some of them, however, are much more sandy than others, and the specimens in the sandy rocks are not so well perserved as those in FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 5 the limestone concretions. Possibly the sandy concretions are not from the same localities as the more calcareous ones. The fossil fishes from Ceara are generally spoken of as coming from Barra do Jardim, but they have been found at many other local- ities, though always about the base of the Serra do Araripe. Gard- ner’s collections came from Barra do Jardim, from a sugar planta- tion called Massapé (or Macapé, as he spells it), five leagues east of Barra do Jardim; from Mundo Novo, three leagues west of Barra do Jardim, and from Brejo Grande, a plantation west of the Serra do Araripe and about 35 miles west of Crato. Capanema found them also at Breijinho, a locality not mentioned by Gardner, but in the same neighborhood. A few other fossils occur in the rocks containing the fossil fishes, but no effort seems to have been made to collect these other fossils on the ground. The only ones mentioned by the collectors are noted here. Gardner found a single valve of a Venus half an inch long, the cast of a cephalopod an inch and a half long and supposed by him to be a Turrilites. Both of these came from loose pieces of sandstone. He was told of a small snake having been found rolled up in one of the concretions, but he thinks it was probably a species of cephalopod.t Judging from the Rocha Collection, it seems more likely that it was a specimen of Belonostomus comptoni, which is occasionally found thus coiled up. The specimens in the Rocha Collection contain a few entomostracan remains, but none of them have been specifically idenitfied. Dr. A. Smith Woodward notes that entomostracans found in the British Museum specimens were examined by Prof. T. Rupert Jones and Mr. C. D. Sherborn, who refer them with some doubt to Cytheridea.* Barao de Capanema, who visited the Serra do Araripe in 1859, reports finding associated with the fossil fishes coprolites “‘the bones probably of saurians, the teeth of fishes, and an unknown plant with imbricated leaves. I heard of fossil shells and zodphytes on the Piauhy frontier.”* Gardner says that flints are common on the side of the mountain northwest of Crato, and he speaks of chalk being found in the mountains near Crato. Gardner found limestone and marl beneath the fossiliferous sandstone, and beneath the limestone a bed of lignite about two feet thick. Capanema thinks that the *Geologia Elementar, por N. Boubeé, p. 55; Rio, 1846; Trans. Brit. Assoc., 1840, 120. * Proc. Zodl. Soc., London, 1887, 541. *Trabalhos de Commissao Scientifica de Exploracao, 1, Introduc¢do, p. 130. Rio de Janeiro, 1862. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 material reported to be chalk is only a white clay, but he confirms the existence of a thin-bedded limestone beneath the fossiliferous sandstone, and “beneath this limestone is a bed of very bituminous laminated shale. It is a kind of lignite changed to coal, only a few inches in thickness.” He says that fossil wood was found by Dr. Goncalves Dias near Sao Pedro, two leagues from the Villa de Mila- gres. ‘The existence of the limestone and lignite induce one to hope that a careful search may yet lead to the discovery of considerable additional paleontologic material, though Gardner distinctly states that no fossils could be found in the limestones.* In the Rocha Collection the rock inclosing the fossil fishes contains many fish scales and the remains of microscopic shells that have not been studied. One of the concretions is rather darker and more marly than the others, and in this are found many small rounded bodies evidently of organic origin. Some of these were submitted to Dr. E. O. Ulrich, paleontologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, who kindly reports as follows upon them: The ostracod seems to be one of the simple types of Cytheridea, apparently closely allied to the Miocene C. subovata U. & B. It resembles an Eocene species also very closely, and I know of a late Cretaceous form that is not far removed. However, with specimens in rock like yours it is difficult to satis- factorily determine even the genus of the host of smooth and subovate ostracods. Referring to the broader features of the Cretaceous geology of northeastern Brazil, the area covered by the Cretaceous rocks is not known with any certainty. Even where they are best known they . have been identified at only a few places on and near the coast. On the coast, however, they form only a narrow belt approximately parallel with the present shoreline, toward which they have a general and gentle dip, except on the immediate shores, where the dip is often landward. This coast belt of Cretaceous sediments is in places from twenty-five to fifty miles or more in width, while at other places the beds have been entirely removed and the old underlying rocks of the interior are exposed on the seashore. On the land side of the Cretaceous belt the surface rocks are usually granites, gneisses, schists, and other metamorphics of uncertain age or ages. In the region drained by the Rio Paranahyba above Theresina, and lying mostly in the State of Piauhy, there is a series of hori- zontal sedimentary beds which appear to be the inland remnants of the series exposed along the coast. But little is known of the geology ‘Trans. Brit. Assoc., 1840, 119. FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 7, of these inland sediments, however. What is here given has been collected from the notes of Spix and Martius and of Gardner. While the structural relations of these highland beds is not cer- tainly known at present, such information as we have suggests the relations indicated by the accompanying theoretic section across northeastern Brazil, say from about Maranhao on the north to Sergipe on the south, and passing through the Serra do Araripe. It should be added, however, that the slates reported near Lavras in Ceara are probably Paleozoic. No attempt is made to represent those slates in this section. ‘There are probably local variations in the dips and relations of the Cretaceous beds which are not sug- gested in this hypothetical section. Barao de Capanema says that the beds of the Serra da [biapaba along the northwestern boundary of Ceara dip toward the west, and he appears to think that the rocks of that range are the same as those of the Serra do Araripe. This attempted correlation is not based upon paleontologic evidence, and may be altogether erroneous. The table-lands so characteristic of the Serra do Araripe follow the water-sheds toward the south and west. Mr. J. W. Wells de- scribes what seems to be a similar topography and similar rocks about the southern ends of the states of Piauhy and Maranhao.? It is not to be inferred, however, that these sediments form the Serra Vermelha and Serra Dois Irmaos in the intermediate region, for the notes of Spix and Martius show that where they crossed the Serra Dois Irmaos the rocks are granites and schists,” a fact that lends support to the theory that this region was an archipelago during Cretaceous time. The junior author’s acquaintance with the geology of the sur- rounding region and the few published notes of travelers suggest that this northeast corner of Brazil was an archipelago at the time of the deposition of these Cretaceous sediments, and that the mechan- ical portions of these sediments were derived from islands of gran- ites, gneisses, and schists. BIBLIOGRAPHY J. B. von Sprx und C. F. P. von Martius: Reise in Brasilien, 1817-1820, 11, 799; Atlas, pl. 22, fig. 5; Miinchen, 1828. GEORGE GARDNER: On the geology and fossil fishes of North Brazil. Rep. Brit. Assoc. Ady. Sci. for 1840, Transactions, 118-120. London, 1841. Abstract L’ Institut, 9¢ Anneé, No. 586, Ix, 173-174. Paris, 1841. *James W. Wells: Exploring and traveling three thousand miles through Brazil. London, 1886, 1, 144. ? Reise in Brasilien, 11, 768. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 G. GARDNER: Geological notes made during a jourtiey from the coast into the interior of the Province of Ceara, etc. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, xxx, 1841, 75-82. Edinburgh, 1841. GEORGE GARDNER: On the existence of an immense deposit of chalk in the northern provinces of Brazil. Proc. Philosophical Society of Glasgow, I, 146-153. Glasgow, 1844. GrorGE GARDNER: Peixes petrificados que se-achao na provincia do Ceara. Journal do Commercio, Rio de Janeiro, 9 de Abril de 1842; also appendix to Boueé’s “Geologia Elementar,” pp. 54-55. Rio de Janeiro, 1846. GEORGE GARDNER: Travels in the interior of Brazil, 1836-1841. London, 1846. L. Acassiz: On the fossil fishes found by Mr. Gardner. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, xxx, 1841, 83. L. Acassiz: Recherches sur les poissons fossiles. Neuchatel, 1833-1843, J, 40, 139, 303-304; IV, 293; V, 103, 122, 134. L. Acassiz: Sur quelques poissons fossiles du Brésil. Comptes Rendus, xvi, 1007-1015. Paris, 1844. F. CHABRILLAC: Sur quelques poissons fossiles de la province de Ceara au Brésil. Comptes Rendus, xvi, 1007. Paris, 1844. GUILHERME S. DE CAPANEMA: ‘Trabalhos da Commissao Scientifica de Ex- ploragao. Introducgao. Rio de Janeiro, 1862. Secgaa Geologica, pp. 120- 143. E. D. Cope: On two extinct forms of Physostomi of the neotropical region. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., x11, 53-55. Philadelphia, 1871. A. Smita Woopwarp: On the fossil Teleostean genus, Rhacolepis Agass. Proc. Zool. Soc. London for 1887, 535-542. J. C. BranneEr: Geologia Elementar preparada com referencia especial aos estudantes Brazileiros. Rio de Janeiro, 1906, pp. 273-274. B. Nores ON THE Fossit, FISHES OF CEARA ANALYTICAL K&y TO THE CRETACEOUS FISHES KNowWN FROM CEARA a—GANnorE!I: Scales large, diamond-shaped or plate-like; tail strongly hete- rocercal; dorsal inserted behind the ventrals. b.—(ASPIDORHYNCHID#): Scales plate-like, those on the sides of the body much deeper than the others; both jaws much elongate, POMS Fayre a lheecesteras Morne stand sesame Belonostomus comptont, I bb.—(SEMrIoNoTIpa): Scales large, firm, diamond-shaped; a series of spine-like scales along middle of back; jaws not greatly elongate. Lepidotes temnurus, 2 aa.—IsosponpyLI: Scales thin, cycloid or rhombic; no spines in fins; tail homocercal or slightly heterocercal; snout (in Brazilian Cretaceous species) not produced. d.—(LeEpro.Eerip): Scales small, thin, more or less diamond- shaped, at least along back; tail somewhat heterocercal, the last vertebra reduced in size and turned upward; ventral fins inserted under front of dorsal; subopercle small, its suture horizontal; cheek and postorbital region with three large plates (gular plate unknown) ; distance from gill open- ing to dorsal not greater than depth of body. Tharrhias araripis, 3 FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 9 dd.—(Eorip#): Gular plate present ventrals (in Cretaceous species from Brazil) inserted under last rays of dorsal; temporal region with a bony plate or sheath; two parallel bony plates behind eye, with a third, usually larger, one sheathing the cheek. f.—Teeth subequal, without large canines. g.—Lateral line well developed; teeth small (less than one-tenth diameter of eye). h.—Scales small, 30 to 33 in a cross-series from dorsal to ventral; suborbital broad, its suture oblique. Calamopleurus cylindricus, 4 hh.—Scales large, about 20 in a cross-series from dorsal to ventral; suborbital very narrow; its suture nearly horizontal Calamopleurus vestitus, 5 gg.—Lateral line obsolete or nearly so; teeth rather large. 1.—Scales cycloid, entire; teeth strong, more than one-tenth diameter of eye. Notelops brama, 6 i1.—Scales crenate; teeth probably small. j—Body subcylindical, the depth not much greater than length of head. Rhacolepis buccalis, 7 jj-—Body compressed, the depth much greater than length of head. Rhacolepis latus, 8 ff.—Teeth very strong, unequal, many of those in each jaw canine-like (scales unknown) ..Enneles audax, 9 e.—CHIROCENTRIDA(?): Gular plate wanting; scales large, the surface pustulose (no lateral line). Cladocyclus gardneri, 10 cc.—OsTEOGLOssib%(?): Opercle large, without suture, the subopercle wanting; scales firm, with concentric striz; dorsal inserted over ventral, at a distance behind head greater than depth of body. Cearana roche, It Famity ASPIDORHYNCHIDA Genus BELONOSTOMUS Agassiz Belonostomus Acassiz, Neues Jahrbuch, 1834, p. 388; type, dspidorhynchus tenuirostris AGASSIZ. Ophirhachis Costa, Ittiol, Fossil, Ital., 1856, p. 13; type, Ophirhachis de- perditus Costa. ? Platycerhynchus Costa, Atti Acad. Pontan, vu, 1864, p. 98; type, Platy- cerhynchus rhombeus. This genus contains numerous species of large, gar-like fishes, having rhombic scales, those of the lateral line deeper than the others, and having both jaws produced, subequal in length. Accord- IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 ing to Woodward, the suborbitals lie in contact with the cheek-bone, without separate cheek-plate, such as exists in Aspidorhynchus. In both these genera the vertebre are double-concave, not concave- convex, as in the true gar-fishes or Lepisosteide. According to Woodward, the vertebre in Belonostomus are “well ossified, smooth and constricted, about as long as deep, and pierced by a small thread of persistent notochord.” SOS SOS SS OES Sessa “S Fic. 3—Belonostomus comptoni (Agassiz). Barra do Jardim, Brazil. (Restoration. ) The Brazilian species of Belonostomus differs from the type of the genus in the very much greater depth of the scales composing the lateral line. These are anteriorly about five times as deep as long. The jaws are also more robust than in the typical species. 1. BELONOSTOMUS COMPTONI (Agassiz) Aspidorhynchus comptonit Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, xxx, p. 83, 1841 ; Ceara. Agassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvitI, p. 1009, 1844; Ceara. Belonostomus comptont Woopwarp, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 629, pl. LIV, LV, figs. 1-10; Ceara. Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1, p. 435, 1895; Ceara. Of this species we have fragments of different sizes from 5 or 6 different fishes (Nos. 6, 7, 10, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, and 31, Rocha Col- Fic. 4.—Belonostomus comptoni Agassiz. Top of head. lection, the largest fish (No. 7) being about 20 inches long if re- stored and nearly 214 to 3 inches in depth, the depth about 7 in length. Length of head about twice greatest depth, about 4 in length. Jaws apparently equal, both pointed, the tips of both broken in all our specimens. Snout half head, or perhaps less, the tip being lost. Eye about 2 in snout, nearly 5 in head; maxillary broad FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER iat behind, almost fan-shaped, extending to a little behind middle of eye; opercle large, with concentric striz, provided with small pustu- lations along the ridges; top of head flat, narrow, the interorbital space about width of eye; lower jaw with what seem to be traces of long, slender, unequal teeth, but this is not certain. Scales ganoid, those of the median series very much enlarged, with parallel edges, the depth of each scale anteriorily 4 to nearly 5 times its length, each scale with vertical striz ; about 4 rows of small scales above these, the small scales about as long as deep, impricated. Be- low the large scales are about three rows of smaller ones, those of the upper low largest. Posteriorly the large scales are progressively less deep, and at base of caudal they are scarcely deeper than those of the lowest of the upper rows or the highest of the lower row; 18 scales in a lengthwise series back- wy XS ward from the front of dorsal, about 33 anteriorly Fic. 5.—Scales of z : Belonostomus from the front of ventral; the scales in all probably an about 60. Bands of scales anteriorly nearly vertical, those posteriorly extending downward and backward. Scales all enameled, their surface rugose. Pectorals placed low, the upper ray broad (the fin broken) ; ven- trals inserted at a distance behind head equal to 11% length of head. Body tapering backward, subterete, but distinctly compressed, much deeper than broad; depth at dorsal fin 2% in distance from front of dorsal to base of caudal; dorsal and anal opposite each other, each of about 10 rays; both fins higher and long, the posterior rays rapidly shortened, caudal broken, evidently strongly heterocercal, with rudi- mentary rays at base of each lobe. Vertebrz distinctly biconcave, apparently well ossified. Two of the specimens are partly coiled within nodules of stone, their position and armature suggesting millipedes, or even snakes. From our excellent material we have ventured on a restoration of this species (fig. 3). Of these specimens numbers 7, 10, and 27 are in the United States National Museum. 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Famity SEMIONOTIDA Genus LEPIDOTES Agassiz Lepidotes Acassiz, Neues Jahrbuch, 1832, p. 145; type, Lepidotes gigas AGASSIZ. Lepidotus Acassiz, Poissons Fossiles, 1, pt. 1, 1833, pp. 8, 233 (altered spelling). Lepidosaurus voN Meyer, Paleologica, 1832, p. 208; type, Lepidotus un- guiculatus AGASSIZ. Scrobodus voN MUNSTER, Neues Jahrb., 1842, p. 38; type, Scrobodus subo- vatus. Plesiodus WAGNER, Abh. Bay. Akad. Wiss., 1x, 1863, p. 632; type, Plestodus pustulosus WAGNER. Prolepidotus MicHaktn, Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol. Ges. xiv, 1893, p. 729; type, Prolepidotus gallineki MICHAEL. This large genus is distinguished among the Semionotidz by the deeply fusiform body, the presence of grinding teeth on the inner part of the jaws, and by the relatively low dorsal and anal fins. The teeth have not been preserved in any specimen of the Brazilian species. 2. LEPIDOTES TEMNURUS Agassiz f Gi@ecereathe OEBoLsLes ess PO a ees TA SSS TEE ES SSS SSS SSS ANNA SSSR SIO SS ANS ESSE Ka > \ooees Fic. 6.—Lepidotes temnurus Agassiz. Barra do Jardim, Serra do Araripe, Brazil. Lepidotus temnurus AGAssiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, 1841, p. 83; Serra do Araripe, Ceara. : Agassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvirt, 1844, p. 1010; Ceara (misprinted lemnurus ). Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1, p. 123, 1895; Ceara. ? Lepidotus mawsont Woopwarp, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vi, p. 135, 1888; Cretaceous at Bahia, Brazil. Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, m1, p. 120, 1859; Bahia, Plataforma, Itacaranha, Pedra Furada, Brazil. Of this species we have one specimen within a concretion (No. 2, Rocha Collection), preserved also in counterpart. It includes the greater part of the body of the fish; is somewhat distorted by being FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 13 bent downward in the middle, the head is entirely crushed, and the dorsal, anal, and tail are absent and the pectoral fin broken (fig. 6). The head was about 3% times in length to base of caudal, the greatest depth over the ventral fins about 33. The scales are rhom- bic, entire, deeply overlapping, most of them deeper than long. The surface of the scale is not smooth, but marked with about three coarse ridges, parallel with the anterior margins. The distance of the ventral from the head is apparently a little more than length of head. The ridge scales on the back are very distinct, spine-like, more elevated than usual in Lepidotes. ‘Three are distinct behind the nuchal region, and there are traces of others farther back. In the description of Lepidotus mawsoni it iS fc. 7—Scale of stated that the principal flank scales are “with fre- Lepidotes quently discontinuous enamel marked with a few ae broad ridges and furrows radiating from the center to the hinder border, where they form feeble indentations.” The markings on L. temnurus do not answer to this description. Famitry LEPTOLEPIDA ° This family stands almost intermediate between the Ganoids and the Isospondyli. It has the general fin arrangement of the latter, but the scales are more or less diamond-shaped and ganoid on their exposed parts, and the last vertebrz are more or less turned upward, although the tail is usually or always forked. The orbital plates cover the cheek as in the Elopidz, but there is no gular plate, so far as known. Genus THARRHIAS Jordan and Branner, new genus A species from Ceara is referred by us to the family of Lepto- lepidze, and it is very closely allied to the typical genus, Leptolepis, of the Triassic and Cretaceous of Europe. It is, however, distinguish- able by the much larger opercle, which is more than four times as deep as the subopercle and separated from it by a horizontal suture. The vertebre are 50 to 55 in number, while the type of Leptolepis' * Leptolepis Acassiz, Neues Jahrbuch 1832, p. 146; type, Leptolepis bronni Acassiz (1832), Cyprinus corypenoides Bronn (1830). Ascalabos von MUwnsvter, Beitr. Petrsfakt, 1, 1839, p. 112; type, Ascalabos voitht voN MUNSTER. Tharsis GiEBEL, Fauna der Vorwelt, Fische, 1848, p. 145; type, Tharsis radiatus GIEBEL. Sarginmites Costa, Alte. Accad. Pontan, v, 1850, p. 285; type, Sarginites pygmaeus COSTA. Megastoma Costa, 1. c., 1850, p. 287; type, Megastoma apenninum Costa. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 (Leptolepis coryphenoides Bronn, L. bronni Agassiz) has but 40. In Leptolepis dubius (subgenus Tharsis) the number is 50. The name Tharrhias, equivalent to Tharsis (@apoos, 6appos, cour- age, boldness), is suggested for the Brazilian fish. In Tharrhias, as in Leptolepis, the dorsal is inserted slightly before the ventrals. 3. THARRHIAS ARARIPIS Jordan and Branner, new species Type No. 4, Rocha Collection, in Counterpart. Prats II Head about 3% in length to base of caudal; opercle large, with radiating strize; nearly 4 deeper than long; subopercle small, its depth not more than one-fourth that of the opercle, the suture hori- zontal; depth of opercle 13 in distance from gill opening to dorsal; 22522 5 2252 Z eZ 252 oe 222532252225 Fic. 8.—Tharrhias araripis Jordan & Branner. Barra do Jardim, Brazil. Restored. preopercle with its upright limb nearly vertical; two bones behind eye and bone on cheek traceable, but the form not clearly made out (jaws and front of head destroyed). Dorsal fin with strong interneural bones, its insertion behind gill opening nearly equal to length of head and greater than depth of body, which is about 4} times in length to base of caudal; dorsal short, higher than long, about 12 rays traceable; ventrals about under middle of dorsal; anal inserted behind dorsal at a distance greater than depth of body and about equal to length of head; the fin smaller than the dorsal, of about 9 rays, the first longest, as in the dorsal. Vertebrze about 55, the last five small and turned upward; caudal apparently forked, the upper lobe perhaps the longer. Scales rather small, very thin, even, diamond-shaped along back, those below obscurely shown, but apparently rounded; no enamel on scales or ganoin; no trace of lateral line or of scaly sheaths. Scales about 56-19, 18 in a longitudinal row before dorsal; those at base of upper lobe of caudal smaller and more distinctly rhombic. FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER I on The type (No. 4, Rocha Collection) is 844 inches long, fairly well preserved from the preopercle backward, and represented in counter- part in a nodule of coarse sandstone. The species may be known from the Elopidze found at Ceara, by the narrow scales, by the subheterocercal tail, and by the large opercle, which is many times larger than the horizontal subopercle. This small subopercle separates this from other species of Lepto- lepide. From the Cretaceous species of Elopidee it is distinguished by the insertion of the ventrals under or slightly before the front of the dorsal. This is seen also in the genus Cearana, but in that genus both dorsal and ventrals are inserted farther back. A second specimen (No. 3, Rocha Collection), also in counterpart, 94 inches long, shows the thin rhomboid scales and the fins fairly well, but the head is entirely crushed. Another nodule (No. 1, Rocha Collection) is referred provision- ally to Tharrhias araripis, with which it agrees in general form, in the insertion of the ventrals directly below the dorsal, and in having the distance from dorsal to gill opening about equal to depth of body. The bones of the head are all crushed, and the thin scales, about equal in number to those of T’harrhias araripis, are not any of them_ enameled nor rhombic in form; but, on the other hand, none of them are well preserved. The vertebrz are well preserved and compactly inserted. There is no trace of lateral line. We do not much doubt the identity of this specimen with the type of Tharrhias araripis, but the difference in the scales suggests that possibly the rhombic form in the latter case may be due in part to shrivelling of the specimen before it was encased in clay. Of these specimens, No. 3 is in the U. S. National Museum and the counterpart of No. 1 in the geo- logical collection of Stanford University. FamMiIty ELOPIDA The family of Elopide is characterized among the soft-rayed fishes by the presence of a triangular bone, or gular plate, between the rami of the lower jaw. This plate is present in the Amiatide and in some other ganoids, and it furnishes strong evidence that the Elopide are descended from extinct forms resembling Amiatus. In any event, the Elopide are among the oldest and most generalized of all the bony fishes. Their occurrence at Ceara in company with extinct ganoids like Belonostomus and Lepidolepis is significant. Another character of the Elopide is the enlargement of three bones of the suborbital ring below and behind the eye, a character which appears in others of the lower Isospondyli and points to their ganoid origin. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Genus CALAMOPLEURUS Agassiz Calamopleurus Acassiz, Edinburgh Journ. xxx, 1841, p. 84; type, Cala- mopleurus cylindricus AGASSIZ. Agassiz characterizes the fragments on which this genus is based by the following characters: ~ “Le long tube étroit des écailles de la ligne latérale, et par l’uni- formite de ses écailles arrondies.” To this Woodward (499) adds the following, based on a specimen in the British Museum: “The scales are cycloidal, very much imbricated, and apparently longer than deep; the fin-rays are widely spaced and much divided distally.” A fine, large specimen in counterpart, from Ceara, shows the lat- eral line with well-developed tubes, and the scales equal, cycloid, and closely imbricated. As the species is one not specifically recognized by Woodward and as it is from Agassiz’s original locality, we ven- ture to identify it with Agassiz’s unrecognized Calamopleurus cylin- dricus. The genus Calamopleurus, as understood by us, belongs to the Elopide, differing from Notelops in the well-developed lateral line and in the small teeth, and from Elops in the more posterior insertion of the ventrals and in the less elongate form. Mouth large, the jaws subequal, the gape oblique, extending beyond the eye; teeth even, pointed, small, less than one-fifteenth the diameter of the eye; two large, oblong, parallel postorbital bones; below these a large trape- zoidal cheek-plate, broadest posteriorly; two parallel postorbital bones above this; subopercle very broad, its depth rather more than half that of the opercle. Scales cycloid, closely imbricated, the indi- vidual scales a little longer than deep; a sheath of scales at base of dorsal, as in Elops; a sheathing projection on occiput and one above opercle; lateral line well developed, nearly straight and median, its tubes simple and straight ; dorsal short, median, inserted at a distance behind gill opening about equal to depth of body ventrals; inserted under or perhaps behind last ray of dorsal; moderate; caudal well forked, its base closely scaly nearly to the tips of the median rays. 4. CALAMOPLEURUS CYLINDRICUS Agassiz PATE Selene Calamopleurus cylindricus AGAssiz, Edinburgh Journ. xxx, 1841; Ceara. Agassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvii, 1844, p. 1012; Ceara. Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 11, p. 499, 1894. Jordan, Bull. Cal. Univ., 1907, p. 139, pl. 12; Ceara. We refer to this species the large specimen above mentioned. It is about 15 inches long. It was presented by Dr. Paula Pessoa, of FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 7, Rio de Janeiro, to Dr. Branner. It was found in the Barra do Jardim, Serra do Araripe, State of Ceara. This specimen in a con- cretion, represented in counterpart, is one of the most perfect of fossil fishes, showing most distinctly the eye-ball and the dark pig- ment which lies in streaks along the rows of scales. It was at first identified by us with Notelops brama, but the distinctness of the lat- eral line and the small size of the teeth render this identification un- tenable. The genus Calamopleurus is very close to Elops, having the same general structure of the head and the same extension of the scales on the tail. The firmer character of the suborbital bones and the insertion of the ventrals furnish the only tangible difference, unless we consider the greater elongation of the body in Elops. Zo oo we Son) oH tet $524 <4 ood <4 $25 Ss = SS a ye He a i a Fic. 9.—Calamopleurus cylindricus Agassiz. Cretaceous of Ceara, Brazil. Partial restoration of type. Head 31 in length to base of caudal; depth about 4 in body, 1% in head. Eye 5 in head, 114 in snout, snout 3% in head, head as long as from gill opening to last ray of dorsal (bones of head all more or less crushed). Scales about 13-120-18. Mouth large, oblique, the maxillary extending well beyond eye, 11% in head; teei*small, sharp, even, not one-fifteenth diameter of eye; opercle broadly triangular, with the broad base anterior, the lower suture separating it from the subopercle, distinct and very oblique; upper part of opercle covering more than one-third of the bone separated from the rest by a hori- zontal mark indicating a ridge or suture, this perhaps due to crush- ing; subopercle nearly twice as long as deep, nearly half as large as opercle ; preopercle broadly rounded, the upright limb directed some- what forward; a large trapezoidal plate on cheek extending from level of lower part of eye to angle of mouth; this is a little longer than high and deepest posteriorly ; two parallel horizontally elongate suborbital bones behind eye; these’ about equal in size and each about twice as long as high; rest of orbital chain obscurely shown. The 2 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 cheek-plate evidently belongs to this suborbital series. A trace of an occipital sheathing bone, as seen in Elops. Scales on body small, cycloid, those along base of dorsal enlarged, forming a distinct sheath; lateral line well defined, slightly curved downward, anteriorly about 15 rows of scales between dorsal and lateral line; the tubes straight and simple, scales extending over mid- dle part of caudal fin nearly to its posterior edge. Dorsal rays about 12 (all the fins more or less broken) ; ventrals inserted under last rays of dorsal (or a little farther backward) ; caudal deeply forked, the vertebre of the caudal peduncle strong. Each scale of upper anterior and middle part of body with a dis- tinct black spot of pigment, these spots forming distinct lines along Fic. 11.—Scales of the lateral line of Calamopleurus Fic. 10.—Head of Elops saurus Lin- cylindricus. Show- neus. Honolulu. ing pigment. the rows of scales. No fossil fish known to the writers shows its original coloration so clearly as this. Of this specimen we have attempted to give a restoration. The pigment stripes doubtless ex- tended the whole length of the body. Besides this specimen, we have another smaller one with its coun- terpart (No. 14, Rocha Collection). This shows the lateral scales very perfectly! ut the lateral line is obliterated, being crushed against the vertebral column. Specimen No. 14 also shows black pigment underneath some of the scales. Specimen No. 23, Rocha Collection, is a crushed head, showing the opercular bones. Another nodule (No. 20, Rocha Collection) shows the side of the head and the anterior part of the body; the lateral line is traceable, though obscured by the telescoping of the scales, which are abnor- mally crowded together. Another fine specimen (No. 21, Rocha Collection) has the anterior part of the head crushed, but the anterior part of the body is very well shown. ‘The bones of the head are as in the larger specimen. The distance from gill opening to dorsal is a little less than greatest depth of body and considerably less than length of head. There are 25 scales along the lateral line before dorsal and about 30 FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIIL~—JORDAN AND BRANNER 19 (14 +1-+ 15) between dorsal and ventrals. The lateral line is very distinct. The well-preserved ventral is under the very last rays of the dorsal, a character which at once distinguishes Calamopleurus from the living genus Elops, in which the dorsal is inserted directly over the ventrals. Another specimen (No. 12, Rocha Collection) shows much the same parts, but not nearly so well preserved. The head is somewhat crushed and telescoped; the teeth are obliterated. The gular plate is apparently present. The lateral line is evident, but its position is dis- torted. There are 25 scales before the dorsal along the course of the lateral line. ‘The ventrals are under the last rays of the dorsal, at a distance from base of caudal but little more than the length of the head. Vertebrz about 50. Another nodule (No. 13, Rocha Collection) is a badly telescoped individual of Calamopleurus cylindricus showing the scales of the sides. 5. CALAMOPLEURUS VESTITUS Jordan and Branner, new species PLATE V A nodule contains the outline of the body and of part of the side of the head of a fish with cycloid scales, similar to those of Calamo- pleurus cylindricus, but very much larger. ‘The specimen when com- plete would be about a foot in length. We here describe this specimen (No. 11, Rocha Collection) as a new species of Calamopleurus. It differs from the type species, however, in the very much smaller size of the subopercle, a character which may distinguish it generally. We call the species Calamo- pleurus vestitus, as the body is well clothed with scales. Head about 3% in length to base of caudal. Greatest depth about equal to length of head. Distance from gill opening to dorsal a little more than greatest depth. Anterior part of head destroyed; traces of three plates behind and below eye, as in other Elopide. Upright limb of preopercle directed forward above. Opercle large, convex, with some black pigment within the bone as long as deep. Sub- opercle with concentric striz, its depth about 3% times in depth of opercle. Suture between opercle and subopercle very oblique and somewhat curved. Scales cycloid, deeper than long, much larger than in any other of the Cretaceous Elopide from Brazil, about 28 along lateral line to front of dorsal; 8 in a vertical series from front of dorsal to lateral line, 10 to 12 between lateral line and ventrals. In Calamopleurus cylindricus there are about 32 scales before dorsal on lateral line, about 15 above it and 18 to 20 below. 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Lateral line very distinct, nearly median, slightly decurved ante- tiorly. Dorsal mostly obliterated, and pectorals also. Ventrals and anal wholly wanting, as is the whole caudal peduncle. Gular plate obliterated. This fish is undoubtedly one of the Elopide. It is near Calamo- pleurus; distinguished from C. cylindricus by the large scales and (perhaps generically) by the narrow subopercle. A second nodule (No. 15, Rocha Collection) shows a portion of the posterior part of the body of a large example. The ventral fins, as in Calamopleurus cylindricus, are inserted under the last rays of the dorsal, both fins being apparently rather small. Between the dor- sal and ventrals there are apparently only about 20 scales. The lat- eral line, although abraded, is readily traceable. Opercle and sub- opercle separate, separated by a distinct suture. The relatively large size of the scales leads us to refer this example to Calamopleurus vestitus. The counterpart of No. 11 is in the geological collections at Stan- ford University. Genus NOTELOPS Woodward Notelops Woopwarp, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, p. 27, 1901; type, Rhacolepis brama AGASSIZ. This genus is close to Calamopleurus, from which it differs in the much stronger teeth and in the absence of a distinct lateral line. From Rhacolepis it differs in the entire scales, and, according to Woodward, in having the parietal bones not separated by a supra- occipital. This character we have been unable to verify. 6. NOTELOPS BRAMA (Agassiz) IPiegAans) WA Vente ? Amblypterus olfersi Acassiz, Poissons Fossiles, 1, pt. 1, p. 40, 1833; Ceara, Brazil (fragment; said to be unidentifiable). Agassiz, Poissons Fossiles, 1v, p. 293, 1844; Ceara. (Not Rhacolepis olfersi Acassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvii, p. 1012, 1844, which is based expressly on a figure of Rh. buccalis.*) Phacolepis brama Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, p. 83, 1841. Barra do Jardim, based on a better specimen (misprint for Rhacolepis). Rhacolepis brama Woopwarp, Proc. Zodl. Soc. London, p. 539, pl. XLvI, fig. 1; pl. xiv, fig. 4; Ceara. Notelops brama Woopwakrp, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, p. 27, 1901; Ceara. *In the Comptes Rendus, Agassiz thus refers to “Rhacolepis olfersi:” “Cest au genre Rhacolepis qu’ appartient l’espéce figurée par Spix; elle est plus large que la votre (R. buccalis), ses écailles sont plus grandes, et le second sous-orbitaire est plus étroit que les autres. Je l’ai appellée R. olfersi.” FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 21 Of this species, well described and figured by Woodward, we have one head (No. 25, Rocha Collection), more or less crushed and split through the middle, but showing the long jaws armed with long, sharp, slender, even teeth, each 14 to % the diameter of the eye. Maxillary more than half head, extending far behind eye; subopercle about half size of opercle and nearly % its depth; the suture hori- zontal, the lower bone with radiating ridges; orbital bones obscurely shown. This head corresponds fairly well to Woodward’s figure of the head of Notelops brama, but the postorbital bones are wanting and no scales are preserved. Whether this is the same as the [thacolepis brama of Agassiz we are not certain. The name brama should apparently stand for this species, the name olfersi being rather a synonym of buccalis. Genus RHACOLEPIS Agassiz Phacolepis Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, p. 83, 1841; type, Phacolepis buccalis; misprint for Rhacolepis. Rhacolepis AcAssiz, Comptes Rendus, xvuit, 1844, p. 1011 (buccalis). This genus is very close to Notelops, the only difference evident in our specimens being the subcylindrical form of the body, the more pointed head, and the crenate edges of the scales. According to Woodward, the genus differs in having the parietals separated by the intervention of the supraoccipital. The lateral line is obsolete, though a few traces of tubes can be seen on the anterior region. 7. RHACOLEPIS BUCCALIS (Agassiz) Prate VI, Fic. 2 Spix and Martius, Reise Brasilien, pl. xxu1, fig. 5; Ceara. Rhacolepis buccalis Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, p. 83; Cre- taceous of Ceara. Rhacolepis buccalis Acassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvi1t, p. ror1, 1844; Agassiz, Poiss. Fossiles, 1v, p. 293, 1844; Ceara. Woodward, Proc. Zoél. Soc. London, 1887, p. 530, pl. xiv, figs. 2-7; pl. xiv, figs. I to 3; Ceara. Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, 1901, p. 30; Ceara. ? Amblypterus olfersi Acassiz, Poissons Fossiles, mu, pt. 1, p. 40, 1833; Ceara; a fragment said to be unidentifiable. Rhacolepis olfersi Acassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvii, p. 1012, 1844; based expressly on the figure of Spix and Martius. Body subcylindrical, a little compressed, more slender than in Calamopleurus. Scales small, with crenate edges, about 12 above and 12 below lateral line. Lateral line inconspicuous or obsolete, 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 traceable anteriorly as a narrow streak or faint ridge on nearly all our specimens. Size small, the length about 6 inches. Of this species we have fragments of five individuals (Nos. 8, 9, 16, 17, Rocha Collection), besides a geodized trunk (Pessoa Collection) PDD yyy yy 4 , ) ae PD . m PS ¥ ye xy) Bee ROR DN i Fic. 12.—Rhacolepis buccalis Agassiz. Barra do Jardim. ‘The head restored after Woodward. filled with quartz crystal, more or less telescoped, showing the scales well, but without head or fins. This specimen shows no trace of ventral fins, although the belly is completely preserved. In most of Fic. 13.—Rhacolepis buccalis Agassiz. Ceara. Top of head. these specimens the substance under the scales is jet black. This is apparently due to the presence of the original pigment, in which case we may assume that the fish itself was black in life. The plate or sheath-like projection above the opercle, more or less developed in all the Elopidz, is very distinct in this species. 8. RHACOLEPIS LATUS Agassiz PLATE. Vile sbic.g Rhacolepis latus AcAssiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ. xxx, p. 83, 1841; Cre- taceous of Ceara. Rhacolepis latus AcAssiz, Comptes Rendus, xvitl, p. 1012, 1844; Ceara. Agassiz, Poiss. Fossiles, 1v, p. 293, 1844; Ceara. Woodward, Proc. Zodél. Soc., London, 1887, p. 539, pl. xiv, fig. 5; Ceara. Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, 1901, p. 322; Ceara. FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN.- AND BRANNER 23 Of this small species we have two fragments (18, 19, Rocha Collection) fram Ceara. The best of these (No. 18) shows a crushed head and part of the side of the body. Scales in about 15 rows above lateral line and 15 below. It seems to differ from Rhacolepis buccalts in the greater depth and compression of the body, the head being rather abruptly reduced in depth. Three orbital plates subequal, parallel; distance from gill opening to ventrals less than length of head. Opercle more than twice as large as subopercle, the suture very oblique; nuchal plate distinct. A trace of lateral line. The other specimen shows mainly the scales on the side anteriorly. Our specimens, however, add nothing to the account given by Woodward, and it may be possible that these specimens are simply Rhacolepis buccalis crushed flat. Genus ENNELES Jordan and Branner, new genus Allied to Elopopsis (Heckel, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien., X1, 1856, p. 251; type, Elopopsis fenzli Heckel). Among the Elopide this genus is distinguished by the very wide-set teeth, and by the wide gape which extends beyond the eye. From the type of the genus Elopopsis our Brazilian species differs in having a series of short, compressed teeth in the posterior part of the mandible, and the teeth on maxillary sharp and equal in length. Pachyrhizodus, Agassiz, another Cretaceous genus with similarly large teeth, is closely related, but in that genus the teeth are closer set and more uniform. 9. ENNELES AUDAX Jordan and Branner, new species PiaTEe VII Type a skull six inches in length, from Ceara (No. 22, Rocha Col- lection). With this is a partial counterpart showing the anterior part of the head without the lower jaw, the teeth of the maxillary being well preserved. Depth of head 1% in its length. Snout rather pointed, longer than eye, 3/4 in head; eye about 5%. Gape of mouth extending far be- yond eye, its length about 134 in head; supraoccipital crest somewhat elevated ; branchiostegals numerous, 10 behind the end of the gular plate. Gular plate well preserved, very large, narrowly fan-shaped, its length nearly half that of head, its breadth at posterior end nearly half its length; mandible very strong, about 12 in length of head; jaws even in front. Teeth large, robust, wide-set, broadened at base and bluntly and rather abruptly narrowed at tip, the free portion of the longest about 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS —— SSS ae ——— SS Poe == =s = = <= Fic. 15.—Skull of Enneles audax from below, show- ing gular plate and branchiostegals. VOL. 52 Barra do Jardim. Type. one-third diameter of eye. Premaxillary with four very large teeth at its tip, these thicker and rather longer than any other teeth in the mouth. Similar teeth at tip of lower jaw, these followed by slenderer teeth ; those in the middle of the jaw also very robust and nearly as large as the front teeth; posterior part of lower jaw with a row of small compressed teeth, not very dissimilar and not one-third the length of the middle teeth; about eight of these teeth are evident. Teeth all one- rowed, none of them close-set ; maxillary with a row of 8 or Io stout, large, equal, sharp-pointed teeth, the anterior teeth most robust, similar to those of the mid- dle of lower jaw; suborbital region nar- row, the space between the eye and the roots of the maxillary teeth about half diameter of eye. Edge of maxillary straight. The maxillary teeth seem to be equal, not increasing in size backward, as in Elopopsis fenzli. ‘The lower teeth do not increase in size backward, the large fangs being followed by a series of short, compressed teeth. FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 25 The species is apparently new. On the characters at hand it is separable from Elopopsis by the form of the small teeth on the pos- terior part of the mandible, the presence of sharp subequal teeth on the maxillary, and by the relative size of other teeth. This may be held to indicate generic difference. In Pachyrhizodus the teeth of the mandible are subequal and close-set. The type of this species is in the possession of Senhor da Rocha at Ceara; the broken counterpart is in the geological collections at Stanford University. The genera of Brazilian Cretaceous Elopide may be thus compared with the living genera: a.—ELopIna:: Pseudobranchie large (in living species); scales relatively small; last ray of dorsal not prolonged; anal smaller than dorsal; base of caudal more or less scaly. b.—Dentition even, the teeth slender and close-set; dorsal with a sheath of scales. c.—Ventrals inserted behind middle of dorsal. d.—Lateral line well developed; teeth small....... Calamopleurus dd.—lLateral line obsolete or developed on the anterior scales only. e.—‘Parietals not separated by the supraoccipital’; scales entinesor: mearly SOs. ail erai sre (Sieia aio usie tend sh al eteiowen sto Notelops ee.—Parietals separated by the supraoccipital; scales crenate. Rhacolepis cc.—Ventrals inserted under first ray of dorsal; lateral line well de- veloped; body elongate; teeth small, even............... Elops bb.—Dentition uneven, some of the teeth large, robust canines..... Enneles aa.—MEGALOPINA: Pseudobranchiz none; scales large, firm; anal fin larger than dorsal; last ray of dorsal produced in a long filament; postorbital bones very thin, membranaceous. e.—Dorsal fin inserted above ventrals (cyprinoides) .Megalops ee.—Dorsal fin inserted behind ventrals (atlanticus)...Tarpon Fic. 16.—Head of Megalops cyprinoides — Broussonet. Fic. 17—Head of Tarpon atlanticus Riu Kiu Islands. C. & V. Porto Rico 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Famity CHIROCENTRIDZ (?) Genus CLADOCYCLUS Agassiz Cladocyclus Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, 1841, p. 83; type. Cladocyclus gardneri Agassiz. Anedopogon Cork, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., x1, 1871, p. 53; type, An@do- pogon tenuidens Cope. This genus is notable for its large scales. The teeth are said to be small and nearly uniform. 10. CLADOCYCLUS GARDNERI Agassiz PEATE, VLE Bie, 1 Cladocyclus gardneri Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, p. 83, 1841; Cretaceous of Ceara. Agassiz, Poiss. Fossiles, v, pl. 1, pp. 8, 103, 1844; Ceara. Agassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvitt, p. 103, 1844. Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, 1901, p. 108, pl. 9, fig. 1; Ceara. Ane@dopogon tenuidens Cork, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xu, 1871, p. 53; Ceara. We refer to this species a piece of a broken nodule (No. 26, Rocha Collection), showing a cast of part of the side of a very large fish. It. shows little except that the scales are very large, about half an inch in diameter, with uneven or pustulose sur- Fic. 19.—Scale of Cla- Fic. 18.—Species unknown. Barra do docyclus gardneri. Jardim. Perhaps Cladocyclus gardneri. Ceara, Brazil. face and edges. No trace of lateral line. We follow Woodward in referring the genus Cladocyclus to the Chirocentride. Besides this specimen we have also a fragment of the caudal por- tion of the backbone of some unknown species (No. 30, Rocha Col- lection), possibly Cladocyclus gardneri. ‘The fragment is remarkable for the regular rhombic form of the interspaces between the vertebrze and for the extreme narrowness of the centrum of each vertebra as seen in section. FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—-JORDAN AND BRANNER 27 Famity OSTEOGLOSSID/ (?) Genus CEARANA Jordan and Branner, new genus; type, Cearana roche A specimen, badly preserved in a sand nodule, of different and harder texture than most of the others from Ceara, seems to repre- sent a new genus, which we refer very doubtfully to the Osteo- glosside, because, as in Osteoglossum, there is no division between the opercle and subopercle. The elongate body distinguishes this genus from Phareodus (Dapedoglossus) and Brychetus; fossil genera of the Eocene, referred to the Osteoglosside. In Cearana the head is oblong, forming about two-sevenths of the length to base of caudal. The greatest depth of the body is a little less; the body is oblong; the distance from the gill opening to the dorsal is considerably more than the greatest depth, a character ap- parently important in this group. About two-fifths of the length of the head is formed by the very large convex opercle, which is a single undivided bone marked by radiating striz ; preopercle with the upper limb erect and forming nearly a right angle. Jaws and teeth not preserved, and mouth apparently large and oblique, extending past the eye. ‘Two postorbital bones behind eye and one on cheek approx- imately subequal in size; vertebre 50. Distance of ventrals from gill opening about equal to length of head. Dorsal short, rather high, inserted over ventrals, its basal bones strong; ventrals midway between gill opening and anal. Caudal rays fine, the fin well forked, the tail a little heterocercal. Scales not well preserved, apparently small, firm and somewhat bony, with marked striz. 11. CEARANA ROCH: Jordan and Branner, new species BRAT EMV lem hirey2 Of this species we have two specimens (No. 5 and No. 32, Rocha Collection), one in a nodule and represented in counterpart and one small one not in a nodule. In one specimen (No. 5) part of the body and the posterior portion of the head are very badly preserved. The head must have been a little less in length than the distance from the gill opening to the ventral fin. The preopercle is rounded, its upright portion nearly vertical. The opercle is very large, very con- vex, and in one piece, without separation of the subopercle. Its length is about equal to its depth and about three-fifths the greatest depth of the body, which is two-thirds the distance from gill opening to central. Surface of opercle nearly smooth. Pectoral fin placed low, a little longer than the opercle. Dorsal few-rayed (8 to 10) and rather high, the first rays longest, the first interneural large and 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 wedge-shaped, broadest below. Ventrals rather large, inserted opposite front of dorsal; vertebree spool-shaped, about 22 before dorsal. Scales mostly lost, apparently firm and cycloid, with marked concentric striz, about 14 in a cross-series below dorsal, these much larger than in Calamopleurus. This specimen is about 5 inches long, represented in counterpart, the portion in front of the preopercle and that behind the vent being lost. A small example (No. 32, Rocha Collection) of the same spe- cies and showing nearly the same parts is not quite 3 inches long. Fic. 20.—Cearana roche Jordan and Branner. From type. Ceara, Brazil. This shows the large, undivided opercle. The eye is shown also, its diameter about two-thirds that of the opercle, and the space between eye and opercle about two-thirds eye. Fic. 21.—Scale of Fic. 22.—Osteoglossum bicirrhosum Cearana roche. (a living form). Itaituba, Brazil. What seems to be the maxillary is also evident, rather broad, and extending behind the eye. About 18 vertebre before dorsal, which is rather higher than long. On the same stone is a faint impression of another specimen still smaller. FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—-JORDAN AND BRANNER 29 The species cannot be fully described without better material, but in any event it may be known at once among Brazilian Cretaceous fishes by the character of the large convex undivided opercle, very conspicuous in all these specimens. It is also distinguishable at once from Calamopleurus, Notelops, and Tharrhias by the much greater distance from the gill opening to the dorsal fin. This is greater than length of head or than depth of body. At the request of Senhor Dias da Rocha, its discoverer, this genus is named for his native province of Ceara, where the type was obtained; the species is named for Senhor Rocha himself, who brought together this remarkable col- lection. The counterpart of No. 5 is in the department of geology at Stan- ford University ; the type is with Senhor Francisco Dias da Rocha at Ceara: It may be noted that a peculiar interest attaches to this, as to any other accessible portion of the Cretaceous fish fauna. This period represents the decline and partial disappearance of the ganoid types, with rhombic enameled scales, represented by Belonostomus and Lep- idotes. ‘This is contemporaneous with the first appearance of the lowest of the bony fishes, of which the Leptolepidz and the Elopide are both among the most primitive, followed later by Chirocentride, Osteoglossidz, and other forms allied to the herring. ie b-5 Seon 5 eee } aod ty a[Npou v Ur payiod ajduexy—"f ‘uolBai jepned--'c ‘sj1ed 1oilojue pue pesy—') zisse6y INOLdWOO SNWOLSONO1348 [izeig ‘vievag ‘adire1y op eiitag ‘addy, “4eauueig pue uepior SIdlIYVYV SVIHYYVHL Il ‘Id ‘2S “10A SNOILO31109 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS mivay “z!sseBy SNOIYGNITAD SNYNAIdOWVIVO {ll ‘1d ‘ZG “10A SNOILO31109 SNOANVW1INIZOSIW NVINOSHLIWS II 3}¥[d JO JAvdiazyunoD zisseBy SNOINGNITAD SNYNAIGOWV1VO Al “1d ‘GS “10A SNOILO3Z1109 SNOANV11SO0SIW NVINOSHLIWS wivag ‘addy, “Y3NNV¥Yqg GNY NvGHOF SNLILSAA SNYNAIdOWVIV9O A ‘Id ‘ZS “10A SNOILO311090 SNOANV11S9SIN NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. VI 1. HEAD OF NOTELOPS BRAMA (Agassiz). Ceara, Brazil 2. RHACOLEPIS BUCCALIS Agassiz (From figure of Spix & Martius, type of Rhacolepts olferst) 3. RHACOLEPIS LATUS Agassiz. Ceara a A * ah ’ 4 % : ‘ . ‘ ‘ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. VII 1. ENNELES AUDAX Jordan and Branner Head. Cretaceous of Ceara 2. ENNELES AUDAX Jordan and Branner Counterpart of part of head. Cretaceous of Ceari vipa “seauueig pue uepiof FVHOOY VNVUV3O *c vinag “ZzIsse6y IYSNGYVD SNIOADOAVIO “tf OBSERVATION OF THE. TOTAL-SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY: 2, 1008> (A), BOLOMETRIC: SLUDY OF -THE SOLAR CORONA By°C; G-ABBOT DIRECTOR OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION By invitation of Director Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, an expedition in charge of the writer was sent by the Smithsonian Insti- tution to join with the Crocker Eclipse Expedition to Flint Island. In all matters of transportation, subsistence, and companionship the writer and his assistant, Mr. A. F. Moore, were cared for by Director Campbell as if members of his own staff; but the expenses of the Smithsonian party were paid in full by the Smithsonian Institution. NARRATIVE The writer left Washington on November 7, 1907, necessary equipment, comprising 14 boxes of apparatus, having preceded him on the way to San Francisco. A stop was made at Pasadena, Cali- fornia, in order to ascend Mount’ Wilson and make there certain comparisons of readings between a pyrheliometer which was carried as hand baggage and instruments of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory stored on Mount Wilson. Additional small pieces of apparatus were taken from Mount Wilson and a few supplies were procured in San Francisco. According to previous arrangement, the provisions and camping outfit for the stay on Flint Island were procured by Director Campbell. At San Francisco the Flint Island eclipse party, comprising Director and Mrs.Campbell, Professors Per- rine and Aitkin, and Doctor Albrecht, of the Lick Observatory; Pro- fessor Lewis, of the University of California; Mr. Moore (a student at the University of California), and the writer, besides some friends of members of the expedition who were to accompany us as far as Tahiti, embarked on the steamship Mariposa November 22, 1907. We had a calm and pleasant voyage of 12 days to Tahiti, where it was expected that the gunboat Annapolis, under command of Gov- at 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 ernor Moore, of Tutuila, would be in waiting to convey the expedi- tion to Flint Island. Owing to a broken steam pipe, the Annapolis was delayed in reaching Tahiti until two days after our arrival, and owing to the making of necessary repairs, the start for Flint Island was deferred until the evening of December 7. About noon of December 9 the island was sighted, and soon a boat was seen to leave its shore to meet us. On near approach it proved to contain the English manager, Mr. Hawk, and a half dozen native boatmen. Our landing was immediately begun, as the circumstances were unusually favorable, owing to the complete absence of surf—a condition which Mr. Hawk said was not apt to be met with three days in a year. Flint Island, a low coral island lying in latitude 11°! S., longi- tude 152° W., is about two and a half miles long by half a mile wide, and only 24 feet above sea-level at the highest point. It is sur- rounded by a fringing reef, upon which the surf beats so strongly on the eastern, or windward, side that landing is there impracticable. An opening has been blasted out of the reef on the western, or lee- ward, side to facilitate the shipping of copra, or dried cocoanut pulp, which is the only export. The water becomes deeper so rapidly be- yond the reef that there is no anchorage for ships, although it is sate to cruise back and forth within a quarter of a mile of the shore. Favored by a bright moonlight, the equipment of the expedition, comprising over 300 separate packages and weighing more than 25 tons, was all taken ashore by the natives of the island and the Samoans of the Annapolis by 9 o'clock p. m. of December 9. Our first night was spent on the veranda of the manager’s house, where we slept most comfortably, lulled by the swaying branches of the cocoanut palms and the incessant murmur and croaking of birds. Toward morning the sudden coming of a smart shower made us glad that we had worked late, tired though we were, and had thoroughly secured our equipment. ‘Two days later we learned how fortunate we had been in getting ashore so easily, for without much wind or roughness at sea the surf rose rapidly on the western side of the island and finally reached almost to the highest land of all. At this time our surf-boat was floated away and narrowly escaped loss at sea. The Lick Observatory camp was located in an open space of the cocoanut grove near the manager’s house, but as the writer desired to make measurements of the brightness of the sky, he preferred to locate the Smithsonian apparatus on the beach. After partly de- ciding upon a place nearly a quarter of a mile south of the main camp, he at length chose a point about 1,000 feet north of the camp and near the landing. As the event proved, the whole fortune of the SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABBOT Be Smithsonian expedition hung upon this choice, for on January 3, the day of the eclipse, a rain-cloud almost hid the total phase from view, and rain would probably have fallen throughout totality at the station first proposed. In the three and a half weeks spent on Flint Island the apparatus was put in the most perfect condition, many practice rehearsals were carried through, measurements were made of the brightness of the sky, the sun, and the moon, and a meteorological record was kept by Mr. Moore. At the suggestion of Mr. Rathbun, Assistant Secre- tary in charge of the U. S. National Museum, the writer collected a number of kinds of shells and corals for the use of that Museum. Among the interesting social events were the coming of the Eng- lish eclipse party of Mr. F. K. McLean and the celebration of Christ- mas, New Year’s, and a marriage anniversary. On Christmas day Rev. Mr. Walker, of the McLean party, read a service at 9 a. m., and in the evening a company of seventeen English-speaking people from England, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, and the United States had a turkey dinner together on this coral island of the South Pacific. On New Year’s evening a prize poetic contest was enjoyed. After the eclipse the expedition left Flint Island on January 5, reached Tahiti on January 7, and embarked for San Francisco Jan- uary 13. During the stay at Tahiti on the outward trip the presence of so many Americans had been taken advantage of by Consul Dreher as a fitting time to celebrate the completion of the new con- sulate at Papeite. Our stay on the return was also made pleasant by the attentions of the consul, and by trips to the interior and along the coast to the home of Chief Tati Salmon. The scenery of Tahiti is exceptionally beautiful and fine, for high mountains are broken at many points by nearly vertical precipices thousands of feet high, yet clothed from top to bottom by luxuriant tropical verdure.. Clear streams run down the steep-sided valleys and water-falls of more than 600 feet sheer fall are found upon them. Our visit to Chief Tati Salmon was made most interesting by his recounting of ancient stories of the islands and by the serving of native dishes cooked on hot stones by the seashore. Our voyage to San Francisco, while unpleasantly rough, was made without mishap to the expedition, and the writer reached Washing- ton on February 1, 1908. OsjzEcts AND METHODS We proposed to measure with the bolometer the intensity of the radiation of the solar corona and to determine the quality of coronal radiation as compared with that of the sun. 3 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 In the year 1900 the first bolometric observations of the corona were made by Smithsonian observers,’ and from these observations certain inferences were drawn by different authors as to the quality of the radiation of the inner corona. All bodies, by virtue of their temperatures, emit radiation; but it is only when the temperature is fairly high that any considerable part of the radiation is visible. ‘The higher the temperature the larger becomes the proportion of the radiation caused thereby which is visible. All bodies exposed to radiation reflect some fraction of it dif- fusely, but thereby generally alter the quality of complex radiation. When the reflecting bodies are particles whose diameters are small compared with the wave-length of light, they reflect the shorter wave-lengths better than the longer ones, and thus tend to render a larger proportion of the radiation visible. Larger particles and gross bodies, like the moon, by reflecting, generally alter the quality of radiation in a way to diminish the proportion visible. Visible rays are sometimes emitted by bodies which are apparently far below the temperature of incandescence, as in the cases of electrical discharges and of luminous insects. Such radiation may perhaps be almost wholly visible, without much intensity in the infra-red spectrum. In view of these considerations and others, the inferences drawn by the writer from the bolometric study of the corona made in 1900 were contrary to the view that the radiation of the inner corona is produced mainly by the incandescence of matter heated to high tem- peratures by reason of its proximity to the sun, and more favorable to supposing the coronal radiation due largely to luminescence, or perhaps to the reflection of solar radiation by small particles. Arrhenius came to a different conclusion; but, as pointed out in the reference last cited, he misinterpreted the position of the bolometer in the coronal image. The bolometric observations at Flint Island were designed to test the inferences above referred to and to measure more definitely the quantity and quality of the coronal radiation. 1See Astrophysical Journal, vol. 12, pp. 71-75; also pp. 366-375, 1900. “The 1900 Solar Eclipse Expedition of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith- sonian Institution,” pp. 22-26. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1904. Lick Observatory Bulletin No. 58. Astrophysical Journal, vol. 20, pp. 224-231, 1904; Astrophysical Journal, vol. 21, pp. 194-195, 1905. SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, 1908—ABBOT 35 APPARATUS ‘\ concave mirror of 50 centimeters diameter and only 100 centi- eters focus, mounted equatorially and driven by a clock, served to produce a very intense image of the corona.’ A small guiding telescope was attached to the mirror frame, so that the observer might point the mirror toward any desired object. In the focus of the mirror was placed the bolometer. A glass plate three millimeters thick was fixed close to the bolometer, between it and the mirror, so that the radiation examined was thereby limited to wave-lengths less than about 3u. This device prevented any exchange of rays of long wave-lengths between the bolometer and the sky, such as pro- duced negative deflections when the bolometer was exposed toward the corona in 1900.2. The bolometer had blackened platinum strips 8 millimeters long and 0.7 millimeter wide and of 0.5 ohm resistance. A metal diaphragm with circular aperture of I millimeter diameter was fixed between the glass plate and the central bolometer strip, so as to limit the region of the corona examined at each observation to an angular area of about 3’ of arc in diameter. About 10 centimeters in front of the bolometer was a self-closing blackened metal shutter which cut off the beam excepting when designedly opened. The opening of this shutter therefore exposed the central part of the bolometer to such rays as are transmissible by glass. Between the shutter and the glass plate, and close to the Jatter, was a special screen composed of a thin stratum of asphaltum varnish laid on one side* of a plane parallel glass plate 3 millimeters thick. ‘This screen was held out of the beam by a spring, except when designedly interposed. Its property, when used, was to cut off nearly all the visible part of the radiation, while transmitting nearly all of the infra-red rays transmissible by glass. ‘The transmissibility of this screen for rays of different wave-lengths follows: | = ee | F Ie Me be |» Tee aN beg I PS. Oe | lb Wave-length...... | 0.50 | 0.55 | 0.60 | 0.65 | 0.70 0.80 1,00 | 1.20 a 2.00 | oO 92 Transmissibility. - | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.20 0.41 0.66 | 0 80 | 0.90 | | | | 1’ he mirror was freshly silvered and polished on the day before the total eclipse. ?Negative deflections in those experiments were due to the fact that the card screen used was warmer than the effective temperature of the sky, not, as Deslandres intimated, because any kind of rays cools rather than warms when absorbed. 2’The side nearest the bolometer. 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 By interposing this absorbing screen the proportion of the observed radiation which lay in the infra-red spectrum could be roughly determined. Various trials made on Flint Island showed that ordinary sun-rays comprised from 29 to 37 per cent of rays transmissible by this screen, depending on the humidity of the air and the altitude of the sun; whereas sky-rays were only about 20 to 25 per cent transmissible. Moon-brightness (and by this is meant reflected sun-rays, not rays proper to the moon itself, for such were eliminated by the glass plate) was examined on one occasion and showed a transmissibility of about 50 per cent. Several diaphragms were provided for graduating the aperture of the concave mirror. The apertures of these diaphragms were knife-edged, and those of less than 1 centimeter diameter were adjusted to lie within 3 millimeters of the silvered surface of the mirror. Allowing for the portions of the mirror shaded by the bolometer and its adjuncts, the apertures available were as follows: | | | Aged (qi er): fo25 =. | ryOr8vay) "|| 263-6 62.0 | 0.316 | 0.077 | | | | SA CCOT Aster svre susecisiel 6 svcheys | 1.0000 | 0.1750 | 0.0383 | 0.000195 0.000048 The equatorial was set up at Flint Island, on the beach, at about 12 meters’ distance from the galvanometers used for observing the indications of the bolometer. ‘Two galvanometers were provided, exactly alike in resistance and general construction, and arranged so that if at the last moment any accident should happen to one, the observer might pass at once to the other.t A thatched hut shaded by palm trees sheltered the galvanometers and their appliances and was found to give most satisfactory protection both from heat and rain. ‘The galvanometers were each of 1.5 ohms total resistance, composed of 12 coils all connected in series. The needle systems, of 30 needles each, had mirrors I mm. by 1.2 mm. and weighed com- plete 0.011 gram each. Acetylene lamps were employed as light sources, and the images of the narrow flames were read on ground- glass scalesgocentimeters in front of the galvanometers. Resistances of 3, 8, 17, 45, 200, and 1,000 ohms, respectively, could be put in series with either galvanometer to reduce its deflections if required. The corresponding factors of reduction are 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 13.1, 60.0, and 300. ‘These numbers were obtained by actual trial. The Wheatstone’s bridge of the bolometer comprised the two platinum strips of 0.5 ohm each and two coils of 5.0 ohms each. ‘This prudent measure was suggested by Mrs. Abbot. SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, 1908—ABBOT 37 hese were inclosed in a wooden cylinder 7 centimeters in diameter and 18 centimeters long, itself shaded by a ventilated double-walled brass shield. A battery of 4 Gladstone-Lalande cells was used, fur- nishing a current of 0.4 ampere. This battery was located in the hut, and means for exactly balancing and trying the sensitiveness of the bolometric circuit were provided by joining to one galvanom- eter terminal and one battery terminal an adjustable resistance of about 500 ohms, acting as a shunt around one of the 5-ohm coils. It proved necessary to shade the copper cables connecting the bolom- eter and the apparatus in the hut, but after this was done the whole apparatus worked very satisfactorily, without prejudicial drift or wiggle of the galvanometer spot. When considerable changes of the pointing of the equatorial were made, it was generally necessary to alter the balancing resistance slightly, as would be expected in consideration of the changed inclination of the bolometer strips. During the eclipse the time of single swing of the galvanom- eter was 1.9 seconds, and a change of 1 ohm in the balancing re- sistance produced 250 millimeters deflection. This indicates that a rise of temperature of one bolometer strip of about O1OCOOL 4. ©: would have produced 1 millimeter deflection at that time. These, of course, are far from the most sensitive conditions possible,’ but were regarded as good for a temporary installation. The attention of the reader is invited to the following improve- ments in the apparatus of 1908 as compared with that of 1900: 1. One mirror replaces seven. 2. The uncertain exchange of radiations of long wave-length between the bolometer and sky is eliminated by interposing glass. 3. Each observation is limited to a comparatively small angular area, well defined in position. 4. An absorbing screen for indicating the quality of the rays is introduced. 5. Means are employed for comparing in intensity the rays of the sun, the sky, and the corona. During the eclipse the writer was charged with pointing and manipulating the equatorial, Mr. Moore with reading the galvanom- eter, and Chief Yeoman Edward M. Chase, of the Annapolis, with giving time signals and exposing two small cameras. 1In Washington, with a scale distance of 4 meters and a time of single swing in a vacuum galvanometer case of 7 seconds, a deflection of 0.1 milli- meter has been measurable. This corresponded to a rise of temperature of 0.0000000T. 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS METEOROLOGICAL The sky conditions were seldom constant for any great length of time on Flint Island, so that pyrheliometer readings were not often attempted. On December 29, at noon, the intensity of solar radiation at the camp was 1.423 calories per square centimeter per minute, with fine blue sky. Mr. Moore observed on Flint Island the temperatures of wet and dry bulb thermometers, barometric pressure, direction, and approxi- mate velocity of the wind in miles per hour, and cloudiness, at the hours 7 a. m., 11° 18™ am. 5 pm, and 9 p. m., each day itom December 10, 1907, to January 4, 1908. Without giving individual values, excepting for January 3, a summary of the mean results of his observations follows. ‘The column marked P indicates the press- ure of aqueous vapor at the earth’s surface in centimeters of mer- cury, and that marked Q the corresponding total precipitable water in a vertical column of the atmosphere 1 sq. cm. in cross-section, ac- cording to Hann’s formule. | Temperature. | | Baro- | ; | | | - | Direc-| Veloc- Time. | Onan metric | tion of ity of Cloud- Dry Webs | Press- | iad. | wind, | ess bulb | bulb. | | ture: Pl : : } am lay | RA Geen a 8 AOlEs cm. +|~ cm. In. | pote imettice se 27 Onna 24.7, 2A 2 ee eetSeO2 ils Orluleany bie rey) Of. Mn O18 Vien tn \Mean..| 26.75 | 24.23 2.48 | 5.70 | 30078 E Ghee) || eG! rr 18" (GI ATMS Set Se Seater | Meese EP cages leeeiutecece licoatet Saseiauel anette |S Paes haces exes \ Mean ..| 28.83 | 24.69] 2.74 | 6.30 | 30.049] FE. | 11.7 | 0.63 ie eee 28 252570 2.68 6.16 | BOOS ae macau One| LOl9 5 P- ™- ) Mean ..| 27.09 | 24.22| 2.52 | 5.80 30.012 | ‘E. 5.6 | 0.62 9p. m esa, 35 |) BOG 24.5 2:47 | 5.08" /230. 540 ONG, yt CLO cme le Vicat -. 2AM e552 | Soro) E. 8.4 | 0.53 Nv on H = Nv S \O ° BoLoMETRIC The eclipse observations are of much more interest when consid- ered along with other observations which have been made of the relative brightness and quality of sun, sky, and moon rays. SUN-BRIGHTNESS, SKY-BRIGHTNESS, AND MOON-BRIGHTNESS * On December 29, 1907, one of the very few days during our stay on Flint Island when the sky was mostly free from clouds and of a *T propose to employ these terms for brevity, to mean the intensity of the radiation of the sun, sky, or moon transmissible by glass, and therefore of less wave-length than 3 p. SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, IQ08—ABBOT 39 good blue color for a considerable time, numerous measurements were made with pointings on the center of the sun’s disk and on many parts of the sky. In these measurements the full aperture of the concave mirror was employed for the sky, and the “o.316” aperture for the sun. Sun-brightness was further reduced by inter- posing in the beam a rotating disk from which a sector of -045 of the whole circle had been cut. Eight ohms’ resistance was placed in series with the galvanometer, under which circumstances I ohm change in the balancing resistance produced 55 mm. deflection. The measurements were begun about 92 4o™ a. m. and continued till To" 40™ a. m., local time, so that the sun was 20° to 40° from the zenith. Reserving for another publication a detailed study of these and other comparisons of sun and sky brightness, it will be sufficient here to state that the relative brightness of sky and sun, equal areas being measured, varied from 0.0000031 at distant parts of the sky to 0.0000140 at 20° from the sun. The average value was 0.0000062. It was impossible to secure accurate observations nearer the sun than 20°, because the mirror could not be properly shaded from the sun in such cases, and the diffused reflection of sun-brightness would have masked the true sky-brightness. Measurements made on Mount Wilson, in California,? in 1905-6 showed that the average ratio at that altitude was about 0.0000015, so that the sky at sea-level appears to be, roughly, four times as bright as on Mount Wilson. From measurements made on December 27 at 3. 30™ a. m., the moon-brightness was about 0.0000012 of sun-brightness; but this ratio can only be regarded as roughly approximate,” and likely to be altered with the haziness or humidity of the air as well as with the altitudes of the sun and moon. QUALITY OF SUN-BRIGHTNESS, SKY-BRIGHTNESS, AND MOoON-BRIGHTNESS On December 26, with the sun about 40° from the zenith, the ratio of the sun-brightness transmissible by the asphaltum screen to the total sun-brightness was found to be 0.366, while for zenith sky- brightness the result came out 0.248. Owing to the change of hu- midity from time to time, with consequent large alterations of the * Altitude, 1,800 meters. * This ratio is not directly comparable with the determinations which dif- ferent observers have made of the relative photometric measures of the light of the sun and moon, nor, on the other hand, with determinations of the relative amounts of the total radiation of the sun and moon. 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 intensity of the infra-red spectrum, ratios like these just given are not to be regarded as constants. In order to avoid errors from this cause, care was taken on eclipse day to determine the transmissibility of sun-brightness immediately before and after totality, as will appear in its place. On other days before the eclipse, values of the transmissibility ratio for sun-brightness were obtained, ranging from 0.29 to 0.37. On the morning of December 27, at 3" 30™ a. m., the transmissi- bility of the moon-brightness was found to be 0.50.1 It is very sig- nificant to note that the day sky and the moon, both reflecting sun rays, alter the quality of sun rays in opposite directions and in such marked degrees. The blue quality of the sky-brightness, as Lord Rayleigh has shown, is probably due to the fact that the reflection takes place from particles small compared with the wave-length of light, and principally perhaps from the molecules of air themselves. In view of the data just given, we should suppose that the bright- ness of the solar corona, if we imagine it to be caused merely by the reflection of ordinary sun rays, would be more transmissible to the asphaltum screen than sun-brightness, if the reflecting particles are of gross magnitude, like those composing the surface of the moon; but less transmissible than sun-brightness, on the other hand, if the reflecting particles are minute like the molecules of gases. OBSERVATIONS ON ECLIPSE Day The approach of totality was uncommonly exciting on this oc- casion. Early in the morning the sky was overcast with high clouds, but these gradually grew thinner, so that after 9 a. m. the prospects indicated a streaky sky containing something almost too thick for haze, but almost too thin for cirrus clouds. These prospects were fulfilled exactly during totality, but in the quarter of an hour next preceding a thick cloud came up, rain fell fast from 112 o8™ to 114 14™, and the view of the sun became clear of the rain-cloud only 15 seconds before totality, at the Smithsonian station. The rapid change from fair prospects to completely discouraging ones and the return of good conditions just at the critical time will long be re- membered. Our entire immunity from rain during totality was due to the fact that our station was about 1,000 feet north of the one occupied by the Lick Observatory. Second contact was observed by the writer, and recorded by Yeoman Chase at 11 15” 7.85, local civil time. *See also Langley’s comparison of the visible spectra of the sun and moon. Memoirs National Academy of Sciences, vol. 11, 1884, p. 21. SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABBOT 41 At about 108 55™ and 115 45™ the following two series of obser- vations were recorded on the brightness of the center of the sun’s crescents visible respectively before and after the eclipse. In each series there was employed the “o.077” aperture, and also a series re- sistance of 200 ohms in the galvanometer circuit. The table includes actual readings on the galvanometer scale before and after opening the shutter of the bolometer, sometimes with, sometimes without, the asphaltum screen. In reading the galvanometer, the position of steady condition is first noted; then the furthest excursion of the spot of light after opening the shutter, which corresponds to the first swing of the galvanometer. In computing actual deflections, no account has been made of drift of zero between the steady position and the end of the first swing, because this interval is only 2 seconds, and the drift was at no time rapid enough to be of import in this brief interval. During all these measurements of sun-brightness the time of swing of the galvanometer was the same as employed during the total eclipse. The places on the sun may be regarded as having been 0.7 radius distant from the center of the solar disk. Measurements at toh 55 Open. | Deflection. Closed: |——— | : = | No screen. Screen. No screen. Screen. cm cm. cw cm, cw 16.0 DOG MMM ere tric cts G5 aU Sem eace nbs TOE Ost are steak Speers SEZ BN cee eae ay: 2D 16.3) BOES= Wen Seana. cs GES reer onan ROWS og yl cence eee PONS Mad tiere ware ae 252 16.5 | Date Mises csr GlOw S altreas cats TONS Sh byte week LOsOus ils aerate Daa 16.6 | Doane Pe Mensh crys 6.7 | Paes aoe: WS aBUMoR UN eerints sc cane 1A 7we | cea eet ae | 2a lw Wieainsoeariliserrtcien 6.60 | 2:20) Ratio, 0.333 | 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Measurements at 11% 45™ | Open. | Deflection. CI OSEG es | rs | No screen. | Screen. | No screen. | Screen. | | cm. cm. anatczz8 cm. | cm. | 8.4 Ses Wate ove seene | GIO alec siener. SPO eale aes Saree LGAG eile cease neneazes 8.4 D5 3c, wi sistnsiiees G59" Sher eistaeea te ONS MeL mise tee TO 7 PAN ea vatersts erect 252 Sea TAN GMa lic. Watass Piet Gray Nise cre Neer SeA cae eich cree rave TOW, velcro. xcusehesae coll Dae 8.4 THEA lee em ess FeO Ape. Ul cchar raat GOs Sie Met ocnct steed cheat ae TON orcie tet pe evokes 22 sss TSS ee Ml Mecsowe erases FAO otal rN? Rares ee | MCGanSt a alee 6.80 2.25 Ratio, 0.331 | Mean transmissibility of sun-brightness, 0.332 | MEASUREMENTS ON THE CORONA In the field of the finder telescope were cross-threads, two of which intersected in the center, making an angle of 75°. One of these threads was adjusted along the line of diurnal drift of the sun, as found by stopping the clock of the equatorial. When the moon’s image was adjusted tangent to the threads, there were four positions available, according as the moon occupied one of the obtuse angles or one of the acute angles between the intersecting threads. During the eclipse, measurements were made of the corona-brightness at the two positions of tangency in the obtuse angles, and one measurement was made in one of the acute angles. Besides these three positions, two others were employed, situated 1.5’ of arc beyond the extremi- ties of the moon’s east and west diameter, and one position in the center of the dark moon, making six in all. In view of the symmet- rical character of the results to be given, and of the uncertainty of precise setting on so small an image with the bolometer, it seems unnecessary to specify the first three positions more definitely than to add, that in the two positions of obtuse angle tangency the bolom- eter was central on points 4’ of the arc beyond the extremities of a lunar diameter inclined 52.5° to the east and west diameter, and in the position of acute angle tangency the distance from the moon’s limb was about 12’ of arc. | Let the six positions be designated in the order described above as Positions 1, 1, iit AV. Ve anda. SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABBOT ‘The measurements are as follows: Position I Open. | Deflection. Closed. | = al No screen. | Screen. | No screen. | Screen. cw. cm, | cn, cm, cm, 11.3 14 2 | See aed Dei ame IS eretatchs WN 2 14.5 Kevateucatatvuree Briar | AE ye cteie tell TORS2F yr leet yh ect: | 12.4 | re oe Bes TELA) il Serer stars «20 nate Web Gag Apove | sists eucvewers | Bor L.2 Ratio, 0.387. Position VI No deflection whatever. Position II | . | Open. Deflection. | Closed. : as Se | No screen. | Screen. No screen. | Screen. eae : al E | | cm cm | cm cm, cm | al 10.2 | Pe eae Bys Tet eae teens | Ratio, 0.323 Position III No deflection whatever. Position IV Open. Deflection. | Closed. Seer ee ee | | No screen. | Screen. No screen. | Screen. | cn. om | cn cn cm | eiger. || 23.9 Segoe Se toe ‘10.8 Nee nnshe. eas [Gace | Bocas IMG. llharapars ie uate ote amare 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 PosITIon V 17.8 | D7, [fe crete tous os 9.9 le rete | Ratio, 0.384 On account of the number of observations, the result in Position I is entitled to twice as much weight as that in Position II; and on account of the larger deflections observed, the results jn Positions IV and V are regarded as each of twice the weight of those in Posi- tion II. It is not thought that the variations of the ratio of trans- missibility between the several observations just noted are beyond the probable errors of the single determinations, so that without dis- tinguishing separate positions, the weighted mean result for the transmissibility of the inner corona-brightness may be regarded as 0.364. For positions I, II and IV, V, taken in pairs, the means are 0.366 and 0.362 respectively. In order to determine the intrinsic corona-brightness as compared with sun-brightness, we must first multiply the average solar deflec- tions observed before and after the eclipse by the two factors appro- priate to allow for the ratio of size of mirror apertures employed and for the introduction of series resistance in the galvanometer circuit respectively. Performing this reduction and introducing also the data of sky-brightness already given, we obtain the following values based on a sun-brightness of 10,000,000: Suneneara zenith CHlant sland) aye seseeerien eee reenere iercete 10,000,000 Skyi2ocstrom® sun cGPlint ‘Island)\. aac asen sem sem ee eceree acre 140 Sky distant from sun (Flint Islanved)ijo sec enter iced ecto 31 Skysaverage (Cilint Island). 2. .ceeeieeceere eee eee eae 62 Skaymaverace (Nit Walsom)meon ose ee eee ee ec arr 15 Corona Positions: LV ands Vis..,-c emcee coecnie series ana 13 CoronasPositions’ land: lence nome ere ie sereeraieent Moon about 50° zenith distance (Flint Island)................ ToaGe) DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS When we recall the extreme brightness of the sky within a single degree of the sun as compared with that 20° away, and con- sider also the figures just given, the proposal to observe the carona without an eclipse seems an unpromising one. SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABROT 45 From the figures just given it appears that the corona of 1908 equaled the moon in radiation transmissible by glass only at the brightest observed part of the inner corona. Referring to the con- clusions made by the writer from the bolometric observation of the eclipse of 1900, it will be recalled that it was assumed by him that the region of the corona then observed was equally as bright as the moon visually. It now seems probable that this was not so, and ac- cordingly the argument he made for an exceptional richness of visible light in coronal radiation, which depended on the assumption just referred to, is weakened. In actual fact the coronal radiation proves to be almost, but not quite, as rich in visible light as the ordinary solar radiation coming from points 0.7 radius from the center of the sun’s disk, as shown by the measurements of 1908 made with and without the screen. PROBABLE NATURE OF THE CoRONA The nature of the radiation of the inner corona has been supposed by some to be principally reflected solar radiation; by others, prin- cipally due to the incandescence of particles heated by reason of theiz proximity to the sun; by others, principally luminescence, perhaps similar to the aurora; and by some as a combination of all these kinds of radiation. A satisfactory theory of the corona must take cognizance of the following facts at least: 1. The color of the corona does not appear to change at varying distances from the limb of the sun, and the transmissibility of its rays to the asphaltum screen is the same at 1.5’ and 4’ from the limb. 2. Its brightness is very small and falls off rapidly with increas- ing distance from the limb. 3. Its spectrum is mainly continuous near the limb, but shows dark Fraunhofer lines, more and more distinctly, at increasing dis- tances therefrom. A few not very conspicuous bright spectral lines are present near the limb and perhaps in the outer corona also. 4. Its light is polarized in the outer regions, but polarization grows less marked, and at length disappears near the limb. 5. Its brightness is almost, but not quite, as little transmissible to the asphaltum screen as that of the sun itelf, and is far less so than the reflected brightness of the moon, but far more so than the re- flected brightness of the sky. 6. Any kind of matter so near the sun must be hot and must also reflect solar rays. 7. There is no evidence of high pressure in the corona. 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 The considerations (3), (5), and (7), taken together, are hard to satisfy; for if the inner corona were hot enough to give out a spectrum of incandescence satisfying (5), the matter composing it must be gaseous, if it is like any matter we know of.* Accordingly we should expect a bright line spectrum like that of the chromo- sphere if the inner corona shines chiefly by incandescence,? and, fur- thermore, we should expect its rays to increase in transmissibility to the screen and grow red to the eye with increasing distance from the sun. If we may suppose that the temperature of the corona is every- where low enough to allow solid or liquid particles to be formed, then all the specifications excepting (3) are easily satisfied by the hypothesis of a corona of reflection.* Our knowledge is not sufficient to enable us to prove that the particles even of the inner corona would be too hot to be mainly liquid (that is to say, above 3,000° to 3,500°). If the particles were all gaseous, the rays reflected would probably be richer than sun rays in visible light, and this would be contrary to (5). May it not be that while a large proportion of the particles of the inner corona is gaseous, a considerable proportion is liquid or solid? Then may not the light of the inner corona be mainly reflected, like that of the outer corona, but with the bright line spectrum of incandescent gases present in sufficient strength to nearly obliterate the dark Fraunhofer lines of the reflected sun rays? The continuous spectrum of the incandescent solid and liquid par- ticles present would tend to increase the transmissibility of the coro- nal brightness to the asphaltum screen; so that the opposite tendency of the diffuse reflection of the gaseous particles present would be counteracted. At increasing distances from the limb we may suppose the particles would be cooler, and mainly solid or liquid, so that in- candescence would wane and a dark line spectrum would gradually appear. Still, the transmissibility and color would remain nearly unchanged, because the light would be still mainly reflected sunlight, and the particles now so large as not to enrich the proportion of blue light, but rather slightly to decrease it. * Arrhenius computes a possible temperature of 4,620° at 0.7’ from the limb, and then suggests that the matter there may be liquid drops. How is this possible? ?The gaseous material of the sun itself is under enormous pressure, so that its spectrum is thereby made continuous. Not so the corona. * Specification (4) is no obstacle, because the particles near the sun receive light from a solid angle of nearly a whole hemisphere, and would therefore show no polarization in any particular direction, because partially polarized in all. SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABBOT 47 As for the attractive hypothesis of electrical discharge lumines- cence, like that of the aurora, one hesitates to recommend recourse to a source so little known. So far as known, too, this hypothesis, like the others, has difficulty to reckon with the character of the photographic coronal spectrum. The cause of the corona-brightness seems very difficult to decide, in view of conflicting considerations; but in the judgment of the writer the hypothesis that it is mainly due to the reflection of ordi- nary sun rays, but modified by radiation of incandescence and per- haps also luminescence, seems most tenable. In conclusion, it is a pleasure to acknowledge the great aid afforded by the director and staff of the Lick Observatory Expedi- tion; the conscientious and able work of my assistant, Mr. Moore; the intelligent and faithful assistance rendered on the day of the eclipse by Chief Yeoman Chase, of the Annapolis; the aid furnished by the owners and manager of Flint Island, and the uniformly cor- dial and courteous attentions of Governor Moore and the officers of the Annapolis, and of many others during the time when the expedi- tion was in transit. REPORAWON Ay TRIP POR THE PURPOSE OF STUDYING THE MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA By AUGUST BUSCK In order to gain some knowledge of the mosquitoes of. Panama, heretofore practically unknown, Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology of the U. S$. Department of Agriculture, instructed the writer to proceed to the Canal Zone on this mission. It was arranged that I should report to Col. W. C. Gorgas, Chief Sanitary Officer of the Canal Commission, in order that the work might be carried out in conjunction with the Sanitary Department with reference to the economic aspects of the subject. I left Washington April 12, 1907, and sailed the following day from New York on S. S$. Advance, arriving in Colon a week later. After a few days of general inspection, during which I made myself acquainted with the general lay of the land, I made my headquarters in Tabernilla, about midway between the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. A very suitable tent was constructed and equipped for me, which I occupied during the following three months, except when my work temporarily caused me to take other quarters. Most of my work was done in the country around Tabernilla, but numerous trips to other localities along the Panama Railroad from Panama to Colon were made, and two more extended excur- sions were undertaken outside the Canal Zone, up the Chagres River in native dugouts. In accordance with the time limit of my authorization, I was pre- pared to leave the Isthmus on July 21, but prolonged my stay on a telegraphic request from the chairman of the Commission in order to be able to give a preliminary verbal report to Colonel Gorgas, who had been absent from the Zone during the latter part of my sojourn there. I finally left Colon July 30 and reached Washington August 6, 1907. During my stay I was given every courtesy and constant help in my work by the officers of the Sanitary Inspector’s Department, especially by its Chief, Mr. J. Le Prince, and the Associate Chief, Dr. Herman Canfield, who thoroughly entered into the spirit of my investigations and fully realized their important bearing on the practical work of their department. 4 49 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. ey Mr. Allen H. Jennings, of the department, was detailed to be with me as much as possible in order to learn our methods in the routine work of collecting, breeding, and taking care of the mosqui- toes; his frequent companionship in the field and in the laboratory was very pleasant and facilitated my work in many ways. He was good enough to take charge of my living larye on two occasions of more prolonged absence. The several local sanitary inspectors along the Zone line gave me much assistance by collecting material and giving me facilities for work when I visited their stations. Through the foresight of Doctor Canfield, a system was inau- gurated whereby each sanitary inspector sent me weekly a bottle of mosquito larvee, and though this material could not be expected to be of especial value, it furnished additional localities for the common species and occasionally yielded rarer ones. I must especially men- tion Mr. C. H. Bath, sanitary inspector at Las Cascadas, whose care- ful and regular sendings yielded several interesting larve. ‘The number of species of mosquitoes secured was 83, of which 30 species were new to science. Most of the species were bred from the larvee. Besides these I have included in the following list, in order to make it as complete as possible, 7 additional species, previously received by the U. S. Department of Agriculture from Panama through other collectors, bringing the total number of species at present known from Panama up to go. The collection was de- termined by Dr. H. G. Dyar and Mr. F. Knab.* All the types of new species are deposited in the U. S. National Museum, as well as all the other material, with the exception of a duplicate set presented to the Isthmian Canal Commission. Large as this number of species is—the largest number recorded from any one limited locality—there is yet much work to be done before the entire mosquito fauna of the Zone is known. It was impossible to work up théroughly so large an area within three months, and only the immediate region around Tabernilla was at all adequately investigated. Even here additional species will undoubtedly be found, because the fauna changes considerably with the season, and some species may not have been active at all during the period of my visit, though this was intentionally arranged so as to cover both the end of the dry season and the early part of the rainy season. The appearance of different species of tropical mos- quitoes at different seasons is a well-marked phenomenon and was repeatedly observed even during my short stay. *The new species were described in Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., vol. xv, 1907, pp. 197-214. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 51 Aside from obtaining a more complete list of the species of mos- quitoes, much additional work is needed on the biology of the species now known, both from a scientific standpoint and for practical reasons in connection with the fight against the mosquitoes in the Canal Zone. The anti-mosquito work of the Sanitary Department is considered of prime importance and is carried on throughout the Zone. It is a gigantic undertaking, but even now shows remarkable results in the constantly improving health conditions, apparent from the health reports, which are more gratifying every month. The Canal Zone proper is about 50 miles long by ten miles wide. It includes, as far as sanitation is concerned, the cities of Panama and Colon. The population of the Zone is about 100,000, of which the city of Panama has about 33,000, Colon 14,000, and the Zone proper 52,000. In the Zone proper this population centers at the towns La Boca, Ancon, Coracal, Miraflores, Pedro Miguel, Paraiso, Culebra, Empire, Las Cascadas, Bas Obispo, Matashin, Mamei, San Pablo, Tabernilla, Frijoles, Bohio, Lion Hill, and Gatun, with several native towns and camps for employees between, all of which lie along the line of the Panama Railroad. Anti-mosquito work is carried on throughout the area covered by these towns and settlements. The routine method is to brush, drain, and oil the whole area of a town or camp and its surroundings to a distance of not less than 200 yards from the last house in the town or camp. The same rule applies to isolated houses or native towns, but outside of this area no attempt is made to control the mosquitoes, on the correct supposition that these normally do not fly such a distance. In the beginning the land is cleared by the removal of all brush, undergrowth, and grass; only shade and fruit trees are left, and these are thinned out to admit sunlight and free ventilation. Where pos- sible, swamps and low land are filled in, the immense excavations at the Culebra cut furnishing abundant material. Then the whole area is drained to carry off the surface water or any constant flow from springs or seepage from the hills. ‘This drainage is extended to all new work in the canal cut and to railroad work or dumps near set- tlements. The drainage is accomplished by subsoil tile drains, open ditches, and open concrete or stone and cement ditches. Drain tiling or cement ditches are made where possible, as they require very little care afterwards, while the open dirt-ditches must be constantly cleaned and regraded to prevent “pocketing” and the consequent formation of breeding pools for mosquitoes. In open dirt-ditches the alge will form in two or three days after cleaning, and to pre- vent this drip-cans are placed at the head of those ditches with a 52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 solution of sulphate of copper, five pounds to a barrel of fifty gallons of water. This is also used in all running streams after the removal of alge. Open ditches in which the water flows sluggishly have oil drip- cans at their heads. These oil drip-cans are raised three feet above the water to give a wide spread to each drop, and are arranged to drop about twenty drops to the minute. The oil used is a rather heavy dark grade, which costs the department $4.34 a barrel. About 3,200 barrels of oil were used within the last year. All streams are kept free from alge and are kept within restricted banks as far as possible; this is done by blowing out the rapids or falls to produce a uniform flow, and the edges are filled in by hand. All swamps, pools, or even temporary collections of water are oiled at least weekly, and in the rainy season oftener; this applies to the smallest collection of water, even animal tracks, ruts from wagon wheels, and crab-holes. It entails a great amount of work, which is done by colored labor under continual supervision. All receptacles holding water must be screened or oiled. Water barrels are screened by covering with a board with a small screened opening in the center for the inflow. Below this board are two screened holes for overflow, and the water is drawn from a faucet at the bottom. Buckets and pails in daily use in a household are not permitted to stand filled more than twenty-four hours. All tin cans, bottles, etc., must be buried. No gutters are allowed on houses. There is a daily inspection of all water receptacles, and weekly the inspector at the head of the station must make a personal inspection and report any receptacle found containing mosquito larve. The second offense, after a warning, means the arrest and fine of the householder. All old machinery, which is found in great quantity all over the Canal Zone, left from the French occupation, is drained by punching holes in any part that will hold water, or where this is not possible, such places are filled with dirt. Even patent car couplings on the trains in use must be inspected and oiled, as they are often found to contain mosquito lanvee. When any house or camp is found: to contain any number of mosquitoes, it is fumigated with sulphur by the dry method. All cracks or openings are pasted over with paper; enough pots, each containing five pounds of sulphur, are placed at intervals on the floors to make about one pot for each 1,000 cubic feet of space. After fumigation, the house is left closed from three to four hours. All barracks, whether for white or black laborers, bachelor quar- ters, married quarters, offices, churches, lodge-rooms, and other MOSOUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 53 rooms used for sleeping, living, or eating quarters are screened; the Sanitary Department is responsible for all repairs of this screen- ing and employs a large force of carpenters for this purpose. The physicians in each district make a weekly report on the num- ber of cases of malaria in the different camps; these reports are tab- ulated in the central office of the Sanitary Department and compared with the previous records, and if an increase of even a fraction of one per cent is shown for any locality, the local inspector is telephoned and ordered to locate the point of infection and eradicate the breed- ing places. Long-continued statistics show how nicely this system works. If any more serious increase occurs, a special mosquito in- spector is sent out from the central office to locate the trouble and report on the best measures to be taken. The difficulties of this work are numerous. The constant increase of population requires new sites for camps to be made in the unim- proved brush-covered country; the ever-changing conditions due to the canal work are a continued source of trouble; the progress of each steam shovel or of each of the extensive dumps produces new prob- lems to be solved in the way of drainage; and, above all, the recur- ring deluges of the rainy season cause rising creeks and rivers and overflow of lowlands so irregular as to be impossible to foresee. The Sanitary Department has, aside from its office force, about thirty sanitary inspectors and employs between 1,200 and 1,300 labor- ers. The total cost of the Sanitary Inspector's Department is be- tween three and four hundred thousand dollars. With all due credit to the truly excellent work and the undeniably brilliant results achieved, the work is nevertheless done more or less in the dark, at present, from lack of accurate knowledge of the enemy. It could undoubtedly be made both more effective in some ways and less expensive in others through a more intimate knowledge of the mosquitoes concerned, toward which the present investigation has made but a small beginning. At present the department deals with all mosquitoes as a nuisance to be done away with, whether they are good, bad, or indifferent ; but the work could be more profitably done with an accurate knowl- edge of those species which are infectious, those which are merely annoying, and those which are harmless or even beneficial. It is true that special attention is given the supposed malaria- carrying species, but even here there is little definite knowledge, and inferences may not prove reliable. Thus, it is generally supposed that all the species of Anopheles are capable of carrying malaria; but no accurate experiments have been 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 made to prove it in the case of most of the species occurring in the Canal Zone. One of the species, Anopheles eiseni, has an abnormal life history. It breeds in tree-holes and similar places instead of open puddles. It is quite possible that this species is not infectious; but it is most important for the practical work that this should be in- vestigated, as the usual methods of destruction by drainage and oil- ing of the ponds does not affect this species. Another large group of mosquitoes not affected by the present methods are those breeding in the parasitic plants high up in the branches of trees. None of these are supposed to carry disease,’ though it might be rash to take this for granted, with our present limited knowledge about them. At all events, the species of the genus Wyeomyia, which almost exclusively breed in such places, are among the few day-biting mosquitoes and are decidedly noxious, where they abound, as in the case of Wyeomyia adelpha around the I. C. C. Hotel in Tabernilla. It might be difficult to arrange the work of extermination so as not to destroy the predaceous, and therefore beneficial, species of Megarhinus, Psorophora and Lutzia; in fact, this discrimination would be somewhat doubtfully warranted, as some of these are them- selves aggressive biters. Some mosquitoes are known not to bite man, as the true crab-hole mosquito of the genus Deinocerites. The tedious and at best uncertain Work of oiling these numerous holes, as it is now done, might be saved if it were definitely ascertained, as it is reasonable to suppose, that the other crab-hole-inhabiting species also are harmless. It would seem within the scope of the work of the Sanitary De- partment to utilize the unique opportunities on the Zone to work out some of the hundreds of problems of a similar nature which must be solved before our knowledge of these insects, so intimately connected with human welfare, is complete. With easy access to abundant material of many species of mosquitoes, now that the life histories of most of them have been studied; with the constant influx of malarial patients in the hospitals available for observation and experimenta- tion, and with the large staff of medical men, among whom talents for bacteriological and systematic scientific work can not be wanting, the Sanitary Department on the Canal Zone has great opportunities to acquire knowledge which can not be gained except on the spot, and thus contribute this nation’s full share in the solution of the world’s problems in this important part of tropical medicine. Such knowledge, though in its nature merely theoretical and purely scientific, would be of great practical value and would alone enable *See footnote page 08. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 55 truly intelligent work against this scourge of the tropics. When the Panama Canal is finished, most of the localities in which the present work is going on will disappear, submerged under the lakes of the canal. Even then these problems will not cease to exist, but will, if possible, be of added importance on account of the traffic through the canal and the possibility of carrying infectious diseases between two hemispheres. It may be of value for the rediscovery of the many new species of mosquitoes obtained during the trip and for the continued study of these insects by the Sanitary Department that some general de- scription of the localities in which the collections were made should be given as well as some of the methods employed in obtaining and rearing the mosquitoes. The neighborhood of Tabernilla, in which most of the work was done, is low; from the Panama Railroad line the ground slopes grad- ually down toward the Chagres River. In the intervening country is the bed of the old French sea-level canal, which even in the dry season is covered by a series of shallow lakes connected by low meadows. Between this and the river the land is covered with tall bamboo, sparsely interspersed by large hardwood trees ; the crowns of these latter are thickly covered with parasitic plants, such as Tilland- sia and Agave, which constitute in themselves a thickly populated world for several species of mosquitoes. A few neglected trails wind their way through the heavy under- brush to native villages on the other side of the river, where patches of land are burned off and cleared for pastures or for sugar-cane and banana fields. When passing through this region one finds, as every- where on the lowland of the Zone, the old narrow-gauge railroad tracks left from the French works and quantities of old French machinery completely overgrown by heavy underbrush. During the rainy season the Chagres River rises, and this entire area is covered with water and is only accessible by wading knee deep. Here in the bamboo woods swarms of mosquitoes seek one out, and many species can be secured as adults, when they come to bite; but their larve are rarely accessible in nature, occurring as they do in broken bamboo joints filled with rain-water or in tree-holes, some- times high up in the branches or difficult to reach through the tangle of underbrush and fallen bamboos. A good way to secure these larvee is to clear spaces in the woods with a machete, fell a couple of bamboo trunks, and cut them up in short joints, which are then placed upright in the ground and filled with water. These bamboo 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 joints make ideal breeding places for the mosquitoes, and a large majority of the species, which have been attracted to you during this work, are induced to lay their eggs in these traps. The larve can be easily secured by a suction bulb or by turning the contents of the joints into a white enameled plate. Numerous larve of Joblotia, Carrollia, Aedes, Sabethes, Hemagogus, and the bamboo Wegarhinus were obtained in this way, which otherwise could not have been found at all or only by hard work, in small numbers. In the small pools in the woods and in the water-filled old French machinery, various Culex and Anopheles species were found, the former commonly preyed upon by the larve of Lutszia bigottu. On the other side of Tabernilla the country is higher and hilly, partly cultivated and sprinkled with small native settlements. In the still pools of small sluggish streams between the hills, good collecting grounds are found, which vielded several Culex, Uranotema, and Anopheles larve. ‘The trees in and around the villages, covered as they are by water-bearing epiphytic plants, furnish a rich fauna of mosquitoes, especially species of MVyeomyia, Phoniomyia, and Megarhinus. ‘The best way to secure the larvz in these plants is to carefuly cut the plant off with a machete and turn it over and wash it out into a bucket half filled with water. In the case of the tall trees in the lowlands, the whole tree was felled in order to secure the epiphytic plants and their mosquito population. ‘The corners of the leaves of the Spanish bayonet and other similar leaves holding water afford breeding places for several species of mosquitoes. The sharp spines on the leaves of these plants make it difficult to reach the mosquito larve. The best results in obtaining these are secured by cutting all the leaves off close to the stem, cutting the plant off near the ground, and turning the contents out into a bucket. On excursions to more remote localities, where a bucket can not well be carried along, one must depend upon a suction bulb with a long glass tube with which to suck up the larve from these and other similar plants; but the small amount of water found in most of these plants makes it difficult to use the rubber bulb, and it is advisable to carry a bottle of water along from which to replenish the leaf corners and thus enable repeated suctions. The suction bulb is indispensable in many other cases, as with tree-holes too narrow to admit a dipper. Once secured, the mosquito larve should be taken home as soon. and with as little shaking as possible, each lot in a separate bottle. In the laboratory each lot is given a serial number referring to the notes on their habitat; the larve are placed singly in breeding tubes with cotton stoppers. Each larva receives a separate isolation num- MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 57 ber. When it pupates, the cast skin is carefully preserved in alcohol in a small tube with this isolation number, which the adult specimen also will bear. In this way only is it possible to be sure of associating the adult with the correct larva. Pannily CULICI DA Subfamily CULICIN Genus ANOPHELES Meigen ANOPHELES PSEUDOPUNCTIPENNIS Theobald This appears to be the commonest and most widely distributed Anopheles on the Zone, at least during the season of the year in which the present observations were made. It was bred from larve from the edges of a slowly running stream near Gatun; from a large ill-smelling stagnant pool near Tabernilla, caused by dumping dirt across a small stream; from a small swamp near Culebra; from still pools of a clear, cold mountain brook near the Culebra cut at Empire; from the borders of a large stream near Empire; from a large open pool in a bend of the upper Chagres River, and from a stagnant pool near Panama City. Adults were col- lected at Las Cascadas, Culebra, Tabernilla, La Boca, and Colon. ANOPHELES ALBIMANUS Wiedemann This species was bred from stagnant pools at La Boca and near Panama City. After my departure, Mr. A. H. Jennings bred it from water in an old boat on Taboga Island, where we both had failed to find any Anopheles six weeks before, though we carefully searched for them. This is a striking example of the repeatedly observed periodicity in the activity of tropical mosquitoes. Adults were also collected in large numbers by Mr. Jennings in the barracks at Gatun, and by the writer in houses at Tabernilla, Pedro Miguel, and Panama City. From its persistence in seeking human habitations for the purpose of biting, it is reasonable to sup- pose this species particularly concerned in the distribution of malaria. At one time in July during my stay the species became excessively abundant in La Boca, breeding in a temporarily dammed-up swamp near the laborers’ quarters. The subsequent increase of malaria in these barracks caused considerable anxiety as well as extra work for the Sanitary Inspector’s office. 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 ANOPHELES TARSIMACULATA Goeldi Two specimens were attracted to my tent at Tabernilla by the light. These specimens appear to have flown at least three hundred yards from the nearest possible breeding place, which was in the swamp back of the residence hill at Tabernilla. Their flight, however, was aided by the shelter of intervening trees and houses. ANOPHELES EISENI Coquillett This large white-kneed Anopheles was bred from larve taken in water in hollow trees and in bamboo-joints near Tabernilla. It was also bred from a palm leaf, lying on the ground and filled with rain- water, on the banks of the upper Chagres River. Other Anopheles larve, taken in water in the leaf corners of Spanish bayonet near Tabernilla, were not bred, but possibly belonged to this species.* The supposed Anopheles larve, reported to have been found in the leaf-corners of the banana, are probably all larve of small flies be- longing to the genus Corethrella. The small, triangular, often red- dish, larve have a certain resemblance to those of Anopheles and were sent me from sanitary inspectors as such on two occasions. They are very abundant on the Zone and are sometimes found in bananas as well as in tree-holes and bamboo-joints, feeding in part at least on young mosquito larve. The possibility of Anopheles breeding between the leaf-stalks of the banana might at times be of importance in the practical work against mosquitoes and has at least in one instance caused extra work and expense for the Sanitary Department on the Zone; but I have personally never found Anopheles larve in these plants, though I made it a point to investigate them, whenever an opportunity pre- sented itself. It would be of advantage in the practical mosquito work on the Canal Zone to ascertain whether this tree-hole-inhabiting Anopheles is capable of transmitting malaria. Its circumscribed breeding places necessarily limit its abundance, and the species can therefore at most not be a very important factor in the spread of the disease. The * Anopheles bellator D. & K. was bred from the leaf corners of Spanish bayonet in Trinidad, and this species may have to be added to the list. ‘The present larve were not bred; no adults of bellator were captured. As this is going to press, Mr. Jennings has sent in an example of Anopheles lutzii Theob. (not Cruz), which he bred from larve in the water in Tillandsia leaves. If this should prove to be a malaria-carrying Anopheles, the removal of epiphytic plants from trees in the vicinity of habitations would be imperative. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 59 specialized life habits and the consequent modifications in the anat- omy of the larva suggests that this species also differs from the pool- inhabiting species in disease-carrying power. ANOPHELES MALEFACTOR Dyar and Knab Bred from black-headed larve in a still pool of drying mountain stream along the upper Chagres; also from a slow-running spring, full of leaves, near Tabernilla, containing numerous small fish, so many that each dip of the cup would bring one or several of the fish. Evidently the fish did not play any important role in the extermina- tion of these mosquito larve.t The Anopheles larve and the larve of Culex elevator D. & K., found in the same spring, were present in considerable numbers. Mr. Jennings obtained adults of this species inside the barracks at Gatun. ANOPHELES GORGASI Dyar and Knab Collected as adult at La Boca by Mr. A. H. Jennings. The larva is as yet undiscovered. This species is named in honor of Colonel W. C. Gorgas, head of the Sanitary Department of the Canal Zone. ANOPHELES APICIMACULA Dyar and Knab A single specimen was collected at night on the outside of my mosquito-screened tent in Tabernilla. ANOPHELES PUNCTIMACULA Dyar and Knab There is a single specimen of this species in the collection of the U. S. National Museum from Colon, Panama, collected by Major W. M. Black. ANOPHELES ARGYRITARSIS Desvoidy xred from larve in water in an old dump car near the Culebra cut. The water in this car was recent, clear rain-water with no trace of algze; also bred from a shaded pool covered with algz in the native village near Pedro Miguel and from a swampy pasture near Empire. *Thirteen specimens of these fishes were submitted to Dr. E. B. Evermann, who determined them as four species, Tetragonoptcrus panamensis Gunther, Rivulus godmant Regan (?), Gambusia episopi Steindacher and Platypecilus mentalis Gill, of which the two latter were the predominating species. 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Genus MEGARHINUS Desvoidy MEGARHINUS TRINIDADENSIS Dyar and Knab Bred during May from water in bamboo near Tabernilla. The larve were feeding upon those of Joblotia. MEGARHINUS HYPOPTES Knab Bred from the identical bamboo-joints near Tabernilla from which the foregoing species was obtained; the larve of this species also were observed feeding upon Joblotia larve, The present species appeared a month later than trinidadensis, thus not interfering with it. Presumably another interesting example of the seasonal occurrence of mosquitoes in the tropics, though hardly convincing from the comparatively small number of specimens (seven of both species) reared. The female of this species was not previously known. MEGARHINUS SUPERBUS Dyar and Knab Bred near Tabernilla from larve in the leaf corners of bromelia, growing on a calabash tree. The larve feed on those of [Vyeomyia circumcincta and probably on the other mosquito larve present (Culex jenningsi and Phoniomyia scotinomus). The adult with its brilliant red abdominal tufts was seen on the wing in the tree-top, while I secured the larve. Genus MANSONIA Blanchard MANSONIA TITILLANS Walker Several adult specimens were captured in the palm-shaded swamp near Lion Hill, where they came in numbers to bite. Nothing is known of the life history of this common tropical mosquito; the larval habits must be peculiar to have so long escaped observation. MANSONIA PHYLLOZOA Dyar and Knab A small, very striking-looking species with spotted wings, bred from larve from water in the leaves of a bromeliaceous plant grow- ing on a tree in the native village near Tabernilla. Genus DEINOCERITES Theobald DEINOCERITES MELANOPHYLUM Dyar and Knab This species is a geographic variety of the common West Indian crab-hole mosquito, Deinocerites cancer, but it appears very distinct, owing to its dark brown color. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 61 It is identical in life-mode with the West Indian form and is found only near the crab-holes in which the larve live. During the day the adults remain within the holes. They come out in a swarm, if a stick is inserted into the hole, but return quickly to their hiding place when left alone. At dusk they come out and swarm above the hole for copulation. Though a few specimens alighted on my hand, which was held close to the hole, when I disturbed the mosquitoes, none attempted to bite, and I do not believe this species ever molests man. This is abundantly corroborated by earlier observations on Deinocerites cancer by Mr. Knab and the writer in Central America and the West Indies, against the observation of Dr. Grabham in Jamaica that ‘it is a voracious bloodsucker.” There are even good grounds for believing that none of the other crab-hole mosquitoes associated with this species bite man. This could be very easily determined by further observations on the spot, and if they should be found to be harmless, it would save considerable labor and expense at present spent by the Sanitary Department in oiling these crab-holes. The species was bred and collected from crab-holes at La Boca and back of the wireless telegraph station at Colon. The mosquitoes found associated with this species in the crab- holes, and whose proclivity for biting should be tested, are Dinomi- metes epitedeus and Culex extricator. Genus URANOTZENIA Arribalzaga URANOTAENIA GEOMETRICA Theobald Bred from larve in the pool of a clear, cold mountain brook back of the Culebra cut, near Empire. The larva looks curiously like an Anopheles larva, but furnished with a long tube. I bred this species also from a slow-running stream near Gatun and from a swamp near Culebra. Mr. A. H. Jennings bred it from streams near Gatun and on Taboga Island. In the U. S. National Museum there is also a single specimen of this species from Panama received from Dr. A. J. Kendall. URANOTZENIA CALOSOMATA Dyar and Knab This pretty little species is one of the smallest mosquitoes found in the Canal Zone; it is easily recognized by its size and by the silvery lateral line and the silvery edging around the eyes on the otherwise dark body. It was bred from deep hoof-prints in a swampy meadow near Tabernilla. The larve are very elongate, with reddish body, 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 deep black head, and comparatively short tube; they are easily over- looked, as they go down at the least disturbance and remain at the bottom for a long time, burrowing in the mud. URANOTZENIA LOWII Theobald This species, which is still smaller than the foregoing, was bred from similar black-headed larvz in a small semi-stagnant stream near Las Cascadas. URANOTANIA TYPHLOSOMATA Dyar and Knab Bred by Mr. A. H. Jennings from a still pool in the small stream supplying the water-tanks of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company on Taboga Island. Genus PSOROPHORA Desvoidy PSOROPHORA IRACUNDA Dyar and Knab The large predaceous larve of this species were taken in numbers near Las Cascadas in a newly flooded meadow covered with bushes and tall grass. They were preying upon the larve of Culex lactator and Janthinosoma posticata, which were very abundant in these tem- porary pools. The larve are very voracious, biting and even eating each other if confined together. Apparently their development is quick. All the larve taken pupated within a day, and adults issued from all of them within the next two days. This species was taken in May. PSOROPHORA S/EVA Dyar and Knab The larve of this species occurred sparingly at the same time and together with those of the foregoing species, but a month later it was the greatly predominating species in the same locality. It is a similar but longer and more slender larva, with longer tube than that of iracunda. Genus THINIORHYNCHUS Arribalzaga TANIORHYNCHUS COTICULA Dyar and Knab A single specimen, caught, as it came to bite, in the black swamp near Lion Hill. The larve of this and the following species may be expected to have a similar specialized life-mode to our Tentorhynchus perturbans, which baffled entomologists for several years, before Prof. J. B. Smith lately discovered that it lives several inches down in the mud at the bottom of certain ponds, attached to the roots of plants. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 63 The types of this species in the U. 5. National Museum came from Bocas del Toro (P. Osterhaut, collector). TZENIORHYNCHUS FASCIOLATUS Arribalzaga In the U. S. National Museum are specimens of this species from Panama (| We Ross collector), trom Colon (A. ©. H. Russell, collector), and from Bocas del Toro, Panama (McKenney, collec- tor). It was not met with by me. Genus AEDES Meigen AEDES TRIVITTATUS Coquillett The extension of the range of this species to the tropics is inter- esting. It has hitherto been recorded only from the eastern United States. It was bred from large, dark, fat-tubed larve, which were found in enormous numbers, together with Janthinosoma posticata, in a newly flooded meadow near Las Cascadas. The adult was also taken repeatedly at La Boca, Pedro Miguel, and at Colon. AEDES TENIORHYNCHUS Wiedemann Bred from larve occurring in countless numbers in the brackish swamp at La Boca. Adults were collected by Mr. Jennings in the barracks at Pedro Miguel. The species is a well-known inhabitant of brackish marshes on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States. AEDES POSTICATA Wiedemann The large, fat-tubed larve of this species were taken and bred in numbers from a recently flooded meadow near Las Cascadas; also from still pools of a nearly dried-up mountain stream emptying into the upper Chagres River and from a shallow pool formed by a slow-running stream on Taboga Island. ‘The adults were repeatedly captured, when they came to bite, in the bush around Tabernilia and Lion Hill. AEDES LUTZII Theobald Several adults were taken in the bamboo and palm swamps around Tabernilla and Lion Hill, where they came to bite. The larvee were not found, nor have they been bred in the United States. 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 AEDES NIGRICANS Ccquillett The types of this species in the U. S. National Museum came from Panama (J. W. Ross, collector). No other record of its capture has been made and I did not meet with it. AEDES LITHC:CETOR Dyar and Knab Bred from larve in a pot-hole in a rock at the edge of the upper Chagres River between Allehuela and San Juan. It is probable that the species breeds only in rock-holes, as in the case of the North American Aedes atropalpus Coq. AEDES INSOLITA Coquillett Bred from larvz in hollow trees in two localities along the upper Chagres River+far from civilization. The larve are known to be normally inhabitants of hollow trees. AEDES SERRATUS Theobald Bred by Mr. A. H. Jennings from a pool near Pedro Miguel. Genus HH MAGOGUS Williston HHMAGOGUS REGALIS Dyar and Knab The larve of this brilliant blue mosquito were taken in bamboo- joints and in several tree-holes near Tabernilla. One of these was a mere knot-hole holding only a spoonful of water. It was also bred from very foul water in old French machinery and from a wooden box near a house at Las Cascadas; also from a pot-hole in a rock, inhabited by a crab, along a small stream on Taboga Island, and from the rotten center of a cut banana trunk, filled with slimy juice, near Lion Hill. The short-tubed larva reminds one of that of Stegomyia by its slow, snaky movements. H2MAGOGUS SPLENDENS Dyar and Knab Bred from Stegomyia-like larve in a tree-hole along the upper Chagres River, far from civilization; also from bamboo-joints and tree-holes near Tabernilla. HAMAGOGUS AFFIRMATUS Dyar and Knab Adults, collected as they came to bite in the palm-shaded black swamp near Lion Hill. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 65 Genus STEGOMYIA Theobald STEOGOMYIA CALOPUS Meigen The scarcity of this, the yellow-fever mosquito, on the Canal Zone illustrates better than any other example the efficiency of the mos- quito-work done by the Sanitary Department. To a person who has traveled in other parts of the tropics and who has experienced the noxious abundance of Stegomyia everywhere—in the best hotels as well as in the humblest negro hut—it is indeed gratifying to be able to live for weeks in the Canal Zone without encountering a single Stegomyia. The yellow-fever mosquito is a strictly domestic animal, which is never found outside of man’s immediate environment, and which only breeds in artificial receptacles, such as barrels, water-coolers, bottles, tin cans, etc., in and around human habitations. Due to these cir- cumscribed habits, its control is comparatively easy, and it would be quite possible, with slight augmentation in the well-organized force of sanitary inspectors, to absolutely eliniinate this dangerous mos- quito from the Zone. The suggestion of such a radical attempt was enthusiastically received by the chiefs of the department, and their efforts will undoubtedly produce conditions within another year under which it can. confidently be asserted that a yellow-fever epi- demic on the Canal Zone is impossible, due to the total absence of the fever-carrying agent. The two coast cities, Panama and Colon, the sanitation of which is as yet only nominally under American control, constitute the only really difficult localities to treat. ‘The constant danger of infection through these cities should be sufficient reason for an arrangement under which the Sanitary Department of the Canal Zone should be given full power and responsibility in them. The larve of Stegomyia was met with in barrels and tin cans in native villages near Pedro Miguel and Tabernilla; in a barrel with rain-water in Bas Obispo; in a barrel in a house in San Pablo; in water-holders in a private house in Panama; in several receptacles in a large hotel in Colon; in the bottom of an old boat, and in barrels on Taboga Island. The adults were also taken in small numbers at La Boca, Panama, Las Cascadas, Culebra, Bohio, and occasionally on the passenger trains across the Isthmus. In Colon they were found in large num- bers in several places, notably in one of the largest hotels. Or 66 SMITESONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Genus LUTZIA Theobald LUTZIA BIGOTII Bellardi This large yellow species is prevalent on the Zone and comes quickly and unhesitatingly to bite whenever one visits shady places. The predaceous larve are found quite as commonly in artificial re- ceptacles of water around human habitations as in shallow pools in the woods. The larva is easily recognized by its size and by the pecu- liar curved position it assumes, looking as if about to spring upon its prey. The larve are unquestionably beneficial in destroying other mosquitoes, though they are not a dependable factor for their control. They are very voracious during their growth, and they have, like the larve of Megarhinus, the habit of killing all surrounding larve be- fore they pupate, so as to have quiet during the pupal period. In many cases I found Lutzia larve which had completely cleared the receptacle in which they lived of other mosquito larve. If the food supply runs short before they are ready for pupation, the Lutzva larvee become cannibalistic, and thus in a measure counteract the value of the species by materially diminishing their own numbers. The species was bred from the following localities: Irom hoof- prints in a meadow near Tabernilla, where the larve were feeding upon those of Uranotenia calosomata; from an open lagoon south of San Pablo; from a rusty iron bucket near a house at Las Cascadas, with no other mosquito larve present; from a small temporary pool near Bohio, without any other mosquito larve present; from old French machinery in the woods south of Tabernilla; here again a few full-grown Lutzia larve alone remained; from larve in an old tin can near a house in Pedro Miguel, feeding on Stegomyia larve ; from large unused sugar boilers near Tabernilla; here the Lutzia larvee were present by the hundreds, preying upon those of Culex coronator. In one of the boilers all the Culex larve had been eaten and the nearly full-grown Lutzia larve were feeding upon their weaker companions. Genus CULEX Linnzus CULEX INQUISITOR Dyar and Knab sred from larvee taken along the edges of a slowly running stream near Pedro Miguel; larve were also taken in a shaded pool of a drying-up mountain stream along the upper Chagres River. The adults were obtained at Las Cascadas by Mr. Jennings. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 67 CULEX CUBENSIS Bigot Bred from larve taken in very foul water in some old French machinery near Las Cascadas. It was also bred, both by Mr. Jen- nings and myself, from old boats on Taboga Island associated with Culex coronator and Stegomyia calopus. CULEX CORONATOR Dyar and Knab Bred near Tabernilla, from a stagnant ill-smelling pool, caused by recent dirt dumping, and from a rain-water barrel near there; from hoof-prints along a stream and from an old iron sugar boiler; also from a stream back of Culebra prison; from a cement trap contain- ing sink-water in Las Cascadas; from a still pool of a shaded stream along the upper Chagres River; from a drinking-water tank at Allehuela; from a rain-water pool near Bohio; from a barrel in Pedro Miguel, and from an old boat on Taboga Island. Mr. Jen- nings also obtained this species from a boat on Taboga Island. CULEX REGULATOR Dyar and Knab Bred from an old boat on Taboga Island, and also by Mr. Jen- nings from a tub with water used for cattle, on the same island. CULEX LEPRINCEI Dyar and Knab Bred from larve taken from the grassy edges of a slowly running stream near Pedro Miguel, where it was associated with Culex in- quisitor, and from a large ill-smelling pool caused by dumping of dirt near Tabernilla; associated with Culex coronator and Culex conspirator. The species is named in honor of Mr. J. A. Le Prince, whose re- markable work against mosquitoes in Cuba and Panama is well known. CULEX EQUIVOCATOR Dyar and Knab Bred from larve taken near Lion Hill in the water-filled center of a cut banana trunk, where they were found together with the larve of Culex lactator and Hemagogus regalis. The water was foul and slimy. CULEX INTERROGATOR Dyar and Knab Bred from larve associated with those of Culex coronator in a barrel with rain-water near Tabernilla, and from a stagnant pool near the same place, from which Culex coronator and Culex leprincet were also bred. 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 The species was also bred by Mr. Jennings and the writer on Taboga Island from larvze taken in a boat filled with rain-water. CULEX CONSPIRATOR Dyar and Knab Bred together with Culex leprincei from grassy edges of a slow- running stream near Pedro Miguel. CULEX LACTATOR Dyar and Knab Bred from a barrel, from bamboo, and from a stagnant pool near Tabernilla ; from a metal washtub and from recently flooded meadow at Las Cascadas; from a tin can and from a rotten banana trunk in the black swamp near Lion Hill; from a hollow tree-stump in an open field near Gatun, and by Mr. Jennings from a water-tub used for cattle on Taboga Island. CULEX EXTRICATOR Dyar and Knab The larve of this species were taken in crab-holes near the wire- less telegraph station at Colon, and the species is clearly closely asso- ciated with these crabs, the adults remaining in the holes during day- time like those of the genus Deinocerites. A large series was bred, but neither adults nor larvze were obtained in other localities. This species was described from the larve collected and bred by the writer two years ago in Cedros, Trinidad. It is one of the sey- eral convincing examples justifying Messrs. Dyar and Knab in their classification of the mosquitoes, even to the extent of erecting new species on the immature stages alone. The closer study of the adults proved the distinctness of this species from the composite species “pipiens,” and now the study of the habits of the species further em- phasizes the correctness of the deduction from larval characters. This species also illustrates the importance of exact observations of superficially unimportant details. The Trinidad specimens were bred from larvee found in a small bucket used for holding live crabs; it was, in other words, an artificial crab-hole and thereby alone at- tractive as a place to oviposit for this crab-hole-inhabiting species. The importance for practical work on the Canal Zone of definitely ascertaining, by further observations, whether this species sucks blood from man or not, has been commented upon under the genus Deinocerites. CULEX JUBILATOR Dyar and Knab Bred by Mr. A. H. Jennings from larvee taken in an old tub in a pasture and from a slow-running stream on Taboga Island. Neither MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 69 this nor the following species were secured by Mr. Jennings and the writer during our visit to Taboga Island, six weeks previously to Mr. Jennings’ last visit. As our investigations were careful and covered practically every water accumulation on the island, including the above-mentioned tub, this can only be explained by the periodicity of the activity of these mosquitoes. On Mr. Jennings’ second visit he failed to secure several of the species I took during my stay on the island, which is not so large, but that it can be thoroughly explored in a few days. CULEX REVELATOR Dyar and Knab Bred by Mr. Jennings from an old rain-filled boat on Taboga Island. CULEX HESITATOR Dyar and Knab Bred from a small swampy stream near Las Cascadas. CULEX ELEVATOR Dyar and Knab The larve of this species are dark prettily marked with black, “zebra-striped.”” They were taken in a slow-running spring, full of leaves and small fishes, which evidently did not seriously interfere with the mosquito larve; it was also bred from the edges of a small stream full of fishes, near Tabernilla. CULEX TANIOPUS Dyar and Knab A single adult specimen was taken. CULEX CORRIGANI Dyar and Krab Bred from small larve with very long, slender tubes, taken in bamboo-joints near Tabernilla. | The species is named in honor of my friend, Mr. J. Corrigan, Sanitary Inspector at T'abernilla, whose efficient work has made that place one of the healthiest settlements in the Canal Zone. His con- stant courteous attention to my needs greatly facilitated my work and made my sojourn in Tabernilla very pleasant. CULEX JENNINGSI Dyar and Knab Bred from larve taken in water in the leaves of bromelias, Ti7l- landsia sp., in a tree in the native village near Tabernilla, associated with Phoniomyia scotinomus and Wyeomyia circuimcincta, and with these was preyed upon by the larve of Megarhinus superbus. ‘This Species is named in honor of my friend, Mr. Allen H. Jennings. 7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 CULEX GAUDEATOR Dyar and Knab Very close to and possibly merely a color variety of the preceding species, together with which it was found in a Tillandsia species on a tree near Tabernilla. The eggs of this species are very remarkable, quite different from any mosquito-eggs at present known. They are laid in an egg-shaped gelatinous mass about 6 by 10 mm., which suggests a mass of frogs’ eggs. The mass contained about twenty-five eggs, each of which is oblong, more pointed at one end and rounded at the other, and each surrounded by its own spherical gelatinous envelope, about 2.5 mm. in diameter. The egg-mass floats at the surface of the water, kept buoyant by small air-bubbles, one near the end of each egg. The gelatinous substance is consumed at least partly by the newly hatched larve. CULEX FACTOR Dyar and Knab Bred from leaf corners of a Tillandsia species, on a tree overhang- ing the water on the upper Chagres River. It was there associated with the larve of Wyeomyia macrotus. Also bred from bromelia water near Tabernilla. CULEX FUR Dyar and Knab The type of this species is in the U. $. National Museum and came from Colon, Panama (A. C. H. Russell, collector). 1 did not find the species. o CULEX (CARROLLIA) IRIDESCENS Lutz This pretty, easily recognized little mosquito was bred on several occasions in large numbers from my bamboo traps in the neighbor- hood of Tabernilla. The species was not hitherto represented in the collection of the U. S. National Museum. Subfamily SABETHIN A Genus SABATHES Desvoidy SABETHES UNDOSUS Cogquillett A common species bred in large numbers from bamboo at Taber- nilla, Lion Hill, and Gatun. The larva has a long air-tube and hangs perpendicularly from the surface of the water when at rest. Adults of this species were also collected as they came to bite in the bamboo woods. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 7X SABETHES IDENTICUS Dyar and Knab The large, fat, milky-white larva of this species is strongly seg- mented and has a short tube; it hangs perpendicularly from the sur- face film when breathing; the adults were bred in two localities near Tabernilla, from my bamboo traps, and are very similar to those of the preceding species. SABETHES LOCUPLES Desvoidy A single specimen of this species, very conspicuous by its long- tufted legs, was caught by my friend Mr. H. Simms, Sanitary In- spector at Empire. Nothing whatever is known of the life history or larva of this curious species. SABETHES LONGIPES Fabricius Also one of the species with heavy tufts of scales on its legs. A single specimen in the U. S. National Museum was received from Bocas del Toro (P. Osterhaut, collector). The early stages are en- tirely unknown. SABETHES CANFIELDI Dyar and Knab This large, striking species, dark bluish green, with silvery belly, was the common mosquito in the black swamp from Ahoga Lagarto to Gatun, and came in numbers to inflict its rather severe sting, whenever one stepped into the shade of the brush. I was not able to locate its larve. These will probably be found to inhabit tree- holes or bamboo, or still more probably the inaccessible leaf corners of some palm. This species was named in honor of my friend, Dr. Herman Can- field, whose broad comprehension of the problems of sanitation in general and of the bearings thereon, which insects may have, greatly adds to the efficiency of the work done by the Sanitary Department. Genus SABETHOIDES Theobald SABETHOIDES CYANEUS Fabricius sred from larve taken in leaf corners of Spanish bayonet in a native village near Tabernilla. Genus WYEOMYIA Theobald WYEOMYIA APORONOMA Dyar and Knab Bred from larve in a hollow tree-trunk lying in the open field near Gatun, surrounded by a few bushes. ‘The larve are long, 72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 slender, and moniliform, with yellow head, short tube, and long anal appendages; they hang perpendicularly from the surface of the water when breathing, but can remain very long under water and burrow down into the sediment on the bottom when disturbed; they are thus easily overlooked. WYEOMYIA ADELPHA Dyar and Knab Bred from Tillandsia on a calabash tree near the railroad station in Tabernilla. The mosquitoes of this genus are small sombre-colored insects, with silvery-white bellies, and generally escape detection, though they are very persistent biters during the daytime. While nothing is known about this group of mosquitoes as possible carriers of disease, they are, on account of this day-biting habit, to be reckoned with as a nuisance and consequent detriment to humor and health, and it might be well worth while for the Sanitary De- partment to direct their efforts against them. The oiling and drain- ing of surface water does not affect this group at all. Trees infested with plant parasites, as Agave and Tillandsia, should not be per- mitted in the immedite neighborhood of residences or working dis- tricts, or, if they are desired for shade, should be cleared of the water-bearing growth. The single small tree, now cut down, from which the present species was bred, contained about a hundred speci- mens of epiphytic plants, and the resulting mosquito fauna was large enough to be distinctly felt in the surrounding area, which in this case happened to be about the most frequented lounging place for the workmen in Tabernilla during noon hours. | WYEOMYIA GALOA Dyar and Knab The very specialized larvee of this species live in the conspicuous red flower-sheaths of a Bihai (Heliconia) species, common on the Zone. These flower sheaths contain but little water and that of a slimy character, but they harbor a number of dipterous and coleop- terous insects. The mosquito larve of the present species are slender, flattened, strongly segmented with yellow head, short tube, and long anal appendages; they have the ability to move head fore- most, more crawling than swimming through the sometimes thick fluid, in which they live; they are even able to crawl head first up the sides of the calyx above the fluid, and undoubtedly seek another lower and wetter flower sheath in this way, if for some reason the sheath in which they are goes dry. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 73 This species looks very much like and has identically the habits of Wyeomyia pseudopecten D. & K., bred from similar flowers in Trinidad and Santo Domingo. As in this species, the eggs, which are black, smooth, and elliptical, are laid singly, but in large numbers, in the uppermost, just-opening, and yet dry flower sheath, where they await a rain for their development. WYEOMYIA LEUCOPISTHEPUS Dyar and Knab Bred from Tillandsia on branches of a tree near JTabernilla. WYEOMYIA CODIOCAMPA Dyar and Knab Adults of this species were repeatedly taken in the bamboo woods near Tabernilla, where they came to bite. Only two larve were taken, both in the bamboo traps. These were the most extraordinary- looking mosquito larve, which have come under my observation, and resemble more young caterpillars than dipterous larvz; they are short, fat and rotund, and covered with many long black spines in closely set clusters. The movement of the body is therefore short and slow, and they remain for long periods under water, quietly feeding in the decomposed vegetable matter on the bottom. WYEOMYIA MACROTUS Dyar and Knab The larve of this species were found, together with those of Phoniomyia scotinomus, in Tillandsia on trees along Bogueron River. Only a few specimens survived the upsetting accident on my way home. They have a very long, thin tube and lie on their backs, with the tube downward for long periods at a time. The species was also bred from bromelia water near Tabernilla. The pupze of this species have very remarkable long, thread-like breath- ing tubes, quite different from the short, stout tubes normally found in mosquito pup. The length of these tubes keeps the pupa well under the surface of the water when it takes air, and this may likely be of value to the species in the limited and often crowded surface area of its habitat. WYEOMYIA HOSAUTUS Dyar and Knab Bred from bamboo near Tabernilla. WYEOMYIA MELANOCEPHALA Dyar and Knab Bred from a single larva taken, together with Culex and Ano- pheles larve, in a nearly quiet pool of a slow-running, cold, clear brook in the mountains back of Empire. 74. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 This is a very unusual breeding place for a larva of this genus, and it is probable that this single larva had been washed out by a rainstorm from a Tillandsia on an overhanging branch or from an overflowing tree-hole or bamboo-joint. WYEOMYIA CHALCOCEPHALA Dyar and Knab Bred from bamboo near Tabernilla. WYEOMYIA BROMELIARUM Dyar and Knab Bred in numbers from the bamboo traps around Tabernilla. WYEOMIA CIRCUMCINCTA Dyar and Knab Bred from larve in Tillandsia in trees along the Bogueron River and in a native village near Tabernilla. WYEOMYIA PANAMENA Dyar and Knab Bred from larve in bamboo near Tabernilla. WYEOMYIA HOMOTHE Dyar and Knab The adults were collected in bamboo woods near Tabernilla in the act of biting. The larve were not discovered. WYEOMYIA AGNOSTIPS Dyar and Knab Adult, collected, while biting, in bamboo woods near Tabernilla. No larve were found. WYEOMYIA AUTOCRATICA Dyar and Knab A single specimen of this species was received from Culebra (Wm. Black, collector). I did not meet with the species. Genus LIMATUS Theobald LIMATUS DURHAMI Theobald This widely distributed little mosquito, which is easily recognized by its brilliant golden and royal-blue thorax, was bred from larve found in rain-water collected in a fallen palm-leaf on the bank of the upper Chagres River, where it was associated with Anopheles eisent. It was also bred from an old tin can, full of rain-water and rotten leaves, in the woods near Tabernilla, and from a small wooden barrel in a native village near Tabernilla. The larvee are very long and slender and have a snaky movement ; they are only found in water rich in decomposed vegetable matter. MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 75 Genus PHONIOMYIA Theobald PHONIOMYIA PHILOPHONE Dyar and Knab Bred from larve in Tillandsia on a tree near Tabernilla. The adults were also collected on Taboga Island by Mr. A. H. Jennings. PHONIOMYIA CHRYSOMUS Dyar and Knab Bred, together with the foregoing species, from Tillandsia in a native village near Tabernilla. PHONIOMYIA SCOTINOMUS Dyar and Knab Bred from leaf corners of Tillandsia on branches of trees along the Bogueron River, Panama. ‘This species was secured and bred in large numbers, but most of my material was lost by the upsetting accident on the return trip; a vial with a few live larve had for- tunately been placed in my valise, which was ultimately recovered after floating for a few miles through the rapids of the upper Chagres River, and they were bred to adults at my headquarters in Tabernilla. A single specimen of this species was also bred from Bromelia water in a native village near Tabernilla, where it occurred together with IV yeomyia macrotus. Genus DINOMIMETES Knab DINOMIMETES EPITEDEUS Knab This peculiar mosquito, at once distinguished from all others ex- cept Deinocerites by the very long antennz, was bred from crab- holes near the wireless telegraph station at Colon, where it was found associated with Deinocerites melanophylum and Culex ex- tricator. Though possessing a well-developed proboscis, this species prob- ably does not bite man; but this should be definitely ascertained by observations. (See note under Deinocerites melanophylum.) Genus LESTICOCAMPA Dyar and Knab LESTICOCAMPA ULOPUS Dyar and Knab Taken at Lion Hill and near ‘Tabernilla. The larva lives between the stalk and the leaf stalk of a juicy large-leaved dark-green plant, which reminds one of Monstera deliciosa. ‘The space in these leaf corners is so limited and the amount of water they hold so small and so slimy from the plant’s juice that it would hardly be suspected to 70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 harbor mosquitoes ; and yet the plant probably has another sauekay peculiar to it upon which the present species preys. LESTICOCAMPA CULICIVORA Dyar and Knab The larve are predaceous on those of Wyeomia galoa in the red flower-sheaths of a Bihai (Heliconia) species. (See note under Wvyomyia galoa.) LESTICOCAMPA LEUCOPUS Dyar and Knab In the U. S. National Museum are four specimens of this species received from Bocas del Toro (P. Osterhaut, collector). I did not meet with it. Genus JOBLOTIA Blanchara JOBLOTIA DIGITATUS Rondani This and the following two species of this genus were abundant in bamboo woods. The adults were sure to come to bite, and the very similar looking, fat, short-tubed larve were to be found in any bamboo-joint, which contained the thick, saturated, often ill-smelling fermenting fluid, to which they seem partial. The present species, which is the Trichoprosopon nivipes of Theo- bald, has a wide distribution within the moist tropics. The writer bred it in Trinidad from cacao husks, in which the fluid was as thick as gruel. ‘Transferred to water, which is less rich in food, these larve remain alive unchanged for long periods. Some of my Trini- dad larve lived for four months after reaching Washington, and some of the Panama material did nearly as well. The normal de- velopment, under natural conditions, with abundant food, takes about two weeks. Eges of the following species, which were laid May 1, produced the first adults on May 14, 1907: JOBLOTIA TRICHORRYES Dyar and Knab Bred commonly together with the above somewhat larger species from bamboo near Tabernilla. The eggs are laid singly on the sur- face of the water. They are elliptical, black, with four longitudinal fringes of short white hairs from tip to tip. The larva issued from one end. Ina bamboo-joint, which I prepared and filled with water at 5 o'clock on the evening of May 1, I found the next morning at 9 o'clock some twenty such eggs, kept floating on the surface by the hair fringes. Some of these eggs were submerged during transit to the laboratory, and with the fringes once wet remained under water, MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK ig but these hatched nevertheless successfully, together with the non- submerged eggs, during the afternoon of the same day. The young larve were white, with black mouth-parts and black lateral hairs pointing forward on the anterior half of the body. They remained under water for several hours, eating of the vegetable matter at the bottom of the jar to which they had been transferred. The next morning the larve had doubled in size, and on the third day they attained their full size; they came regularly, though not very fre- quently, to the surface to breathe. When feeding on the bottom they would lie in the soft residue of vegetable matter in different positions, sometimes on their back, sometimes with the back up, or on the side. The first adult from this lot issued May 14. The adults of this and other species of Joblotia are conspicuous objects in the bamboo woods, when they approach to bite, gracefully floating their long white-tipped middle and hind legs. JOBLOTIA MOGILASIA Dyar and Knab Bred with the two preceding species from bamboo near Tabernilla. While the larva and adult in a general way look much like the two other species, the pupa of this species is easily distinguished from the somber, dark pupa of the others; it is bright yellow, prettily marked with black cross-bands on the back of the abdominal seg- ments. CARL LUDWIG ROMINGER By GEORGE P. MERRILL Heap Curator oF GroLocy, U. S. Nationa, Mus&umM Carl Ludwig Rominger, the son of Ludwig and Johanna Dorothea (Hoecklin) Rominger, was born at Schaitheim, in Wurtemberg, December 31, 1820, and died at Ann Arbor, Michigan, April 27, 1907. He was matriculated at the University of Tubingen in the fall of 1839, receiving his diploma as a doctor of medicine in the fall of 1842. His record as a student was that of a painstaking, detailed worker and the winner of two academic prizes, one for a research demonstrating the mode of ascension and distribution of the sap in plants, and the other for making a detailed geological map of the environs of Tubingen. From 1842 to 1845 he remained at Tubingen as an assistant in the chemical laboratory of Chr. Gmelin, and at the same time devoted considerable attention to the study of geology and paleontology under the guidance of Professor Quen- stedt. From 1845 to 1848, under an an- nual grant of four hundred florins from the government of Wurtemberg, he trav- eled extensively on foot over a great por- Fy6 93. Carl enti eRe tion of Germany, Austria, Hungary, minger Switzerland, and France, his main ob- ject being the study of the geological structure of these coun- tries. At the outbreak of the Revolution in 1848, fearing an interruption of his studies, he crossed the Atlantic with the idea of continuing his work in America, though, as it subsequently proved, the step was premature and ill-advised, owing to his being poorly equipped for such an undertaking and mainly on account of his slight knowledge of the English language. He shipped in a sailing vessel from Bremen in April, 1848, arriving in New York some fifty days later. Being unable to understand the language or make himself understood ; without letters of introduction or knowledge of the manners and customs of the people, and without funds, he was obliged to follow his medical profession for a livelihood. After a 79 80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 few months of travel through the coal regions of Virginia and Ken- tucky, he finally arrived in Cincinnati, to which locality he was attracted by the rich paleontological nature of the underlying forma- tions. His financial condition, however, was such that the only choice left open to him was to establish himself in his profession, which he continued to practice for the ensuing twenty-four years, in the meantime perfecting himself in his English studies as best he might and occupying his leisure hours with a study of the natural sciences, particularly the fresh-water mollusks and invertebrate fossils with which the region abounded. After a few months’ residence at Cin- cinnati he removed to Chillicothe, Ohio, where he remained for eleven years, though only fairly prosperous. In 1860 he removed to Ann Arbor, Michigan, where he resided for the remainder of his life. During the first twelve years’ residence here he continued his medical practice, and was pecuniarily somewhat more successful than at Chillicothe. | The Geological Survey of Michigan was reorganized in 1869, with Professor Alexander Winchell as director. On the recommendation of the numerous friends he had made through his paleontological studies, and especially through the influence of Professor James Hall, of Albany, Dr. Rominger was engaged by the survey as paleontolo- gist in 1870. Professor Winchell resigned in 1871, and Rominger remained in full charge, first of his particular department and finally, after the withdrawal of Brooks and Pumpelly, of the entire survey, until, with a change in the political administration in 1883, he was succeeded by Professor Charles E. Wright. During all this time his chief interests were paleontological, though circumstances naturally caused him to devote attention also to stratigraphy. Among the reports of this survey, the third part of volume 1 (1873), volumes m1 (1876) and 1v (1881) in their entirety, and the first part of volume v (1895) are of his authorship. The third part of volume 1 related to the Paleozoic rocks in the upper peninsulas. Of volume 111, two hundred and twenty-five pages and fifty-five plates were devoted to paleontology—amainly to fossil corals. The reports of 1881 and 1895 dealt almost entirely with economical problems relating to the iron and copper regions of the Upper Penin- sula. Rominger’s life was typical of that of many of the earlier geolog- ical workers, and that he accomplished so much, considering the dif- ficulties under which he labored, is one of the many impressive facts brought out by the study of the history of early American geology. Aside from financial considerations, his ignorance of the language CARL LUDWIG ROMINGER—MERRILIL 81 offered a great obstacle to his progress. Indeed, he never became a ready writer of English. German was his native tongue and to it he resorted whenever conditions would allow. Even when: writing or talking, his form of construction was more German than English, and the force and point of his remarks and criticisms were often wholly lost on this account. The following quotation from a personal memorandum to the present writer, made a few years before his death, and referring to his work on corals (vol. 111 of the Survey reports), will illustrate both of these points: “It was my original intention to continue the work I had begun under the auspices of the Geological Survey, but the installation of Governor Alger made a sudden end of my position, which I had filled for fourteen years. . . . . To continue this work on my own expense [| became totally discouraged after I had made the experience with the extra copies I had printed of the third volume on my own expense. Urged to do it by more than one hundred letters of persons wishing to obtain it from me after the State had no more of this volume to give away, I ordered two hundred fifty copies printed, and paid for each volume $4.75; wanted to sell them for the same amount, but to my surprise most of the persons order- ing the volume were expecting it as a donation. With difficulty I could sell at the rate of $3.00 about fifty volumes, and one hundred fifty I gave away, and about one hundred are left in my hands un- sold. This experience cost me about $800.00 direct loss and cured me of every attempt to edit a book at my own expense.” Dr. Rominger is described by those who knew him as a genuine scientist of the old school—brusque in his manner, not always too patient toward those who asked what seemed to him foolish ques- tions, but withal generous and unpretentious. He was an indefatigable collector and spared neither time nor energy in the pursuit of his favorite study. His tremendous physique enabled him to make collections in regions which were practically in- accessible to those having less power of endurance. In illustration of this, attention may be called to the extensive collections of choice Silurian corals made by him in the Glade regions of west Tennessee. These glades even today are penetrated with difficulty, and at that time the entire journey had to be made on foot. Rominger left two important paleontological collections, the first being now the property of the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, and the second of the National Museum, at Washington. The first collection was especially rich in’ corals—in fact, it was the most complete set from the Paleozoic extant at the time it was made, and was the basis of his monograph (vol. 11 of the Michigan Survey). The second collection was of a more general Bisiowteal nature and 6 82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 included a particularly fine set of Stromatoporoids. Unlike many of the earlier paleontologists, Rominger was most careful to accurately label his material, giving the exact horizon and locality. This, of course, added enormously to the value of his collections. He will be remembered by paleontologists, particularly those who appreciate the importance of such methods, as being one of the first, if not the first, to study fossil corals, Stromatoporoids and Bryozoa, by means of thin-sections. Many species of fossils and one genus, the unique coral Romingeria, are named in his honor. He was married in 1854 to Frederika Meyer, of Tubingen, by whom he had two daughters, Louise and Marie, and one son, Dr. Louis Rominger, now of Louisville, Kentucky. His bibliography is given as follows: Beitrage zur Kenntnisse der BOhmischen Kreide. Waiblingen, 1845. Vergleichnung des Schweizer Juras mit der Wiirtembergischen Alp. Tubin- gen, 1846. True Position of the So-called Waukesha Limestone of Wisconsin. Am. Jour. of Sci., 2d series, vol. 34, p. 136, 1862. Paleozoic Rocks (of the Upper Peninsula). Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1869-1873, VOl sie ptqess TO2.pp., loss. Observations on the Ontonagon Silver Mining District and the Slate Quarries of Huron Bay. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1873-1876, vol. 111, pt. 1, Appendix A, pp. 151-166, 1876. Geology of the Lower Peninsula. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1873-1876, vol. m1, pt. I, 166 pp., 1876. Paleontology (of the Lower Peninsula). Fossil Corals. Geol. Surv. of Mich., vol. III, pt. 2, 225 pp. and 55 pls. Marquette Iron Region. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1878-1880, vol. Iv, pt. I, pp. I-154, map, I881. Menominee Region. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1878-1880, vol. Iv, pt. 2, 241 pages, map, I88r. A Sketch from the State Geologist. In Michigan and its Resources, 1881. Observation in Chztetes and some related Genera in regard to their systematic position, with an appended description of some new species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, May, 1886, p. 36. (Title only.) On the Minute Structure of Stromatopora and its Allies. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1886. Descriptions of Primordial Fossils from Mt. Stephen, Northwestern Territory of Canada. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1887, pt. 1, pp. 12-19, pl. 1. Rejoinder to Mr. C. D. Walcott (on Primordial Fossils from Mt. Stephen, Canada). American Geologist, vol. 1, pp. 256-359, 1888. Studies on Monticulipora. American Geologist, August, 1890. On the Occurrence of Typical Chztetes in the Devonian Strata at the Falls of the Ohio and likewise in the Analogous Beds of the Eifel of Germany. American Geologist, vol. x, pp. 56-63, 1802. Geological Report on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, exhibiting the progress of work from 1881-1884. Iron and copper regions. Geol. Surv. of Mich., vol. v, pt. I, pp. 1-179, with map and geologic cross-sections. 1895. EDWARD TRAVERS COX By GEORGE P. MERRILL Heap Curator oF GroLtocy, U. S. Nationa, MusEum Edward Travers Cox was born in Culpeper County, Virginia, April 21, 1821, and died at Jacksonville, Florida, January 6, 1907. The family, when the boy was but four years of age, moved to New Harmony, Indiana, joining the communistic colony founded by Robert Owen. Here he was educated, pursuing his geological studies under David Dale Owen, whose assistant he subsequently became on the geological surveys of Arkansas and Kentucky. After the death of Owen, in 1860, Cox became engaged in commercial work, and in 1864, in company with R. E. Owen, made ex- aminations of mining properties in New Mexico, including the Spanish Peaks and Raton coal fields and the copper and iron mines at the upper Gila River. In 1865, at the request of State Geologist Wor- then, he made an examination of the coal beds of Gallatin County, Illinois, and later those of the southern portions of the same State, the results being pub- lished in the reports of the State survey for 1875. In 1869, with the organization of a fourth attempt at a systematic sur- vey, he was appointed State Geologist of Indiana, which office he continued to hold until 1880, in the mean- Fic. 24. Edward Travers Cox time occupying also the chair of geology in the University of Indiana. Annual reports were issued for each of the ten years which marked the life of this survey. Those of 1869 and 1872 were accompanied by county maps, though no geological map of the State in its en- tirety was furnished. A colored section across the State from Green- castle to Terre Haute accompanied the report for 18609. Cox was assisted during the entire period or for a part of it by Frank H. Bradley, Rufus Haymond, G. M. Levette, B. C. Hobbs, R. B. Warde, W. W. Borden, M. N. Elrod, John Collett, and E. S. McIntire, the fossil flora being described by T,eo Lesquereux and the 83 84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS fauna of Wyandotte Cave by E. D. Cope. Zodlogical a subjects were treated by D. S. Jordan, J. M. Coulter, an These reports as a whole contained little that was or im- pressive. In the eighth, which was the most int € 50 far issued, Cox himself called attention to the fact that the geological history of the State “appears tame and devoid of the marvelous in- terest which attaches to many other regions, and that there is not a single true fault or upward or downward break or displacement of the strata thus far discovered.” The oldest rocks of the State were found in the southeastern portion, extending from the Ohio River near the mouth of Fourteen Mile Creek to the eastern boundary line. These are the so-called Hudson River rocks of Hall, which Cox correlated with Safford’s Nashville group, and which Worthen and Meek had included under the name of Cincinnati group. He re- garded the Silurian strata ‘as uplifted, not by a local disturbance, but “by an elevating force that acted very slowly and extending over the entire central area of the United States.” The seat of greatest force, he thought, however, was not limited to southwestern Ohio, but was to be looked for in Kentucky. Cox accepted the general theory of glacial drift as at present un- derstood, and conceived that the climatic changes might be due to the relative position of land and water, possibly a change in the course of the Gulf Stream. He could find no evidence of a subsi- dence of the land to terminate the glacial period, nor could he find in Ohio, Indiana, or Illinois anything to militate against the com- mencement of a glacial period in Tertiary times and its continuation “until brought to a close by its own erosive force, aided by atmos- pheric and meteorological conditions. By these combined agencies acting through time the mountain home of the glacier was cut down and a general leveling of the land took place.” After retiring from the survey, in 1880, Cox once more resumed private work, making New York City his headquarters. Becoming interested in the phosphate deposits of Florida, he removed to that state, taking up his residence at Albion, in Levy County. For a time he was employed as chemist of the Portland Phosphate Company, and from 1896 to 1902 served also as postmaster at Albion. In the latter year he retired from active work and removed to Jacksonville, where he died on January 6, 1907, at the ripe age of eighty-five years. AN APPARENTLY NEW PROTOBLATTID FAMILY FROM THe LOWER CRETACEOUS By EVELYN GROESBEECK MITCHELL The following description is based on a single nearly perfect wing found in association with numerous species of plants in the Kootanie beds (Lower Cretaceous) of the Great Falls coal field, Montana. It is noteworthy that all other Protoblattids appear to be from the Car- boniferous, the American forms coming from the Alleghany stage. It was detected by Dr. F. H. Knowlton while studying the plants, and by him placed in my hands for investigation. It has been care- fully compared with such specimens of the Protoblattoidea as are contained in the collection of the United States National Museum, as well as with the available literature on the subject, especially the recent work of Handlirsch, with the result that it appears to repre- sent not only a new genus and species, but a new family. It may be named and characterized as follows: Superfamily PROTOBLATTOIDEA Handlirsch Family Lycopma:, new family This family seems intermediate between Oryctoblattinide Hand- lirsch and Euceenide Handlirsch of the Carboniferous. The main venation would seem to place Lygobius among the Euczenide, but the latter entirely lacks intercalary and cross-venation, which are prominent characteristics of the former. This last venation much resembles that of some of the Oryctoblattinidz, but the strongly com- pound radial sector of the latter family is indistinct contrast to the almost simple radius of the new family. The Lygobidz is also characterized by the extension of the cubital area, which comprises nearly half the width of the wing; the com- paratively few-branched medius; almost complete intercalary vena- tion and numerous cross-veins, especially regular in the distal half of the wing, and a costal area apparently broad, especially at the base. LYGOBIUS, new genus Cubitus strongly compound, with branches directed obliquely backward and presenting a typical forking, with strong intercalary 85 86 SMITHSONTAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 venation and regular cross-veins; medius free and with three main branches; radius once forked distad of the middle. Cross-veins irregular in areas proximad of intercalary veins and in costal area, So SRS SSRs is RAW: Y CS « - SSseees Fic. 25.—Lygobius knowltont otherwise fairly regular and closer spaced. Apex of wing bluntly rounded. Costal margin nearly straight, and, in distal half of wing, almost parallel to the posterior margin. LYGOBIUS KNOWLTONI, new species LocaLity.—Meriditt mine, 6 miles southwest of Geyser, Cascade County, Montana. Kootanie formation (Lower Cretaceous). LENGTH oF WING.—6.5 mm. GREATEST WiIDTH.—3.3 mm. Subcosta reaching decidedly beyond middle of wing, rather sin- uous, originating caudad of middle of base of wing. The two simple branches of the radius extend to the costal margin, near to the begin- ning of the apical border. Medius forking somewhat proximad of middle of wing, lower branch forking again at about the middle of wing, all three branches forking again at about distal fourth of wing. Cubitus ending in a fork beyond distal fourth of wing; proximad of this are a fork, a simple branch, and five forked branches. At least three slightly sinuous anal veins. Anal area defective.* Abypes Ups. WN. M.,\Cat.;No®so,461, * The drawing was made by the author with camera lucida. No restoration was attempted, save in the case of the cubital cross-veins, which are somewhat. obliterated and difficult to see. NECESSARY CHANGES IN THE NOMENCLATURE OF SLARFISHES By WALTER K. FISHER, oF LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY A number of generic names of starfishes are being incorrectly used. In view of the general acceptance of the International Code of Nomenclature there is now no valid excuse for the retention of such names as Cribrella Agassiz, Palmipes Agassiz, Ctenaster Per- rier, Crenaster Perrier, Asteropsis Miller and Troschel, Gymmnast- tria Gray, Pentaceros Schulze, Patiria Gray, and a few others listed below. The case of Cribrelia’ and of Palmipes? has already been argued, and need now only be mentioned in passing. Cribrella Agassiz, 1835, is a pure synonym of Linckia Nardo, 1834. Cribella Forbes, 1841 (not of Agassiz) is antedated by Henricia Gray, 1840, the correct name for the group of which Asterias sanguinolenta O. F. Miiller is the type. Palmipes Agassiz, 1835, is antedated by Anseropoda Nardo, 1834. The fact that Anseropoda is of mixed derivation has no bearing on its tenability as the name of the genus of which Asterias placenta Pennant is type. The other cases follow.° ANASTERIAS Perrier (Revision des Stellérides, 1875, 81), type, Anasterias minuta Per. Leipoldt (Vettor-Pisani Asteroidea, Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., Bd. 59, 1895, 570-571) considers Anasterias minuta a synonym of Spor- asterias rugispina. Ludwig (Seesterne, Voy. S. Y. Belgica, 1903, 42) takes essentially the same view. Es TORm\ Gane! “Ce poisson est appelé parles naturels Nat-chee-gews. Il a été péché dans la riviere de Saskatehewan [sic]. L’individu est long d’un pied. “Cest un curieux poisson que je ne retrouve pas cité dans l’ouvrage de M. Richardson. Je n’ose donner de nom a ce Salmonoide, parce que je ne puis pas assez préciser la forme des dents, des machoires et par conséquent fixer d’une maniére assez certaine le genre. Ma premiére impression avait été cependant d’en faire une Corégone puisque j’avais placé ce dessin a cOté des autres especes du méme genre. On pourrait l’appeler Coregonus angusticeps?” NO. 1800 IDENTITY OF A SUPPOSED WHITEFISH—KENDALL Q7 series, could not be a whitefish, much less any other salmonoid. This character suggests a cyprinid or a Catostomid, but the character of the mouth precludes the latter. According to Valenciennes, the drawing upon which the description was based was made from a specimen from the Saskatchewan River furnished by Richardson. The only cyprinid recorded from the Saskatchewan by Richard- son? is his “Cyprinus (Leuciscus) gracilis,’ of which he gives a full description and an excellent plate figure. In the following com- parison of the essential features given in Valenciennes’s account with the corresponding characters shown in Richardson’s description and figure, it will be see that they almost exactly agree: Val.Remarkably small head. Rich.—Small head. Head 1/6 total length. “Head 5 in length to tip middle rays of caudal. # Depth of body something over “Depth of body 5 in length to 5 in total length. tip middle rays of caudal {from figure]. depth of head, measured from “Depth of head a little more nape, I/2 its length. than 1/2 its length [from figure]. Length of mouth 1/3 head. Length of mouth slightly less than 1/3 head [from figure]. Pectoral long and pointed, al- “Pectoral long and pointed, ex- most reaching ventral. tending a little over 2/3 the distance from its origin to base of ventral [from figure]. Anal almost as high as dorsal. “Longest dorsal ray 1 inch and 10 lines; longest anal ray I inch and 7 lines. Scales large, 55 in length. Seventeen scales in cross- series [only 15 shown in Scales moderate, 55 in length. Fifteen scales in cross-series. figure]. Scales grooved with 8 or 10 "3 Scales with 10 or 12 fine radiating striz. streaks radiating from the center. IDETO} FAS 105 1C. 10s) PeTOs Vins: pe DAO AeelOl Galo} ee Oi NWiao: ; Length of specimen 1 ft. “Length 12 inches and 2 lines. Native name, Nat-Chee-Gees. “~~ Cree Indian name, No- nathchee-gees. The evidence presented by this strikingly close agreement in de- tails justifies the belief that Valenciennes had before him a drawing of the above-mentioned cyprinid of Richardson. Further evidence is *Funa Boreali-Americana, 111, 1836, 120, pl. 78. 7 98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 found in Richardson’s work (loc. cit.), where he says “our specti- men having been submitted to the inspection of Baron Cuvier, was returned, with the following note attached to it: ‘Espeéce particuliere de Cyprin voisin de notre Cyprinus microcephalus. ” This specimen was therefore sent to Cuvier and returned with his or Valenciennes’s diagnosis prior to the publication of the first vol- ume of the Fauna Boreali-Americana (1836). It seems not improb- able, then, that the drawing was made from this specimen some 10 or 12 years before Valenciennes made the description of “Coregonus angusticeps,’ which was published in 1848, and that after so long a time the subject of his drawing was forgotten and he did not recog- nize the strange fish therein represented, which elicited the remarks and hesitating description quoted in footnote’, page 96. But to some it will doubtless seem improbable, and even impossible, that an ichthyologist of Valenciennes’s attainments should not detect that such a fish, even represented in a drawing only, having so few longi- tudinal scales and other unsalmonlike peculiarities, was not a Core- gonus. Moreover, in volume xvi, 1844, p. 324 (Hist. Nat. Poiss.), there is a description of “Leuciscus gracilis’ copied from Richard- son’s work and a reference to Richardson’s “very pretty” figure of it, while, also, Valenciennes explicitly states in the description of C. angusticeps that he does not find it mentioned in Richardson’s work. But the fact that he did not find it mentioned by Richardson in- dicates that something was amiss; for Richardson would hardly have omitted such a “remarkable” species, especially one concerning which he considered it necessary to seek the opinion of Cuvier and Valen- ciennes. That Valenciennes did not find the fish mentioned in Fauna Boreali-Americana may possibly be accounted for by assuming that, his attention being concentrated mainly on the head parts, as the original description suggests,’ he overlooked the above-mentioned discrepancies, and, prepossessed by the idea that it was a salmonoid from its superficial resemblance in form, he searched only among the Salmonidz for its citation in Richardson’s work. A tracing of the original drawing of Valenciennes, made by a very experienced draughtsman connected with the Museum d’His- toire Naturelle and very kindly furnished by Prof. Leon Vaillant, conclusively proves that no other fish than the previously mentioned cyprinid could have been the subject of the drawing, notwith- standing the fact that the drawing shows an adipose fin, for the “Jen trouve un aussi remarquable par la petitesse de sa tete que par la singuliére disposition de sa bouche. NO. 1800 IDENTITY OF A SUPPOSED WHITEFISH—KENDALL 99 form of the head and mouth parts and the fins are diagnostic, aside from the characters mentioned in the description. In a letter accompanying the tracing, Professor Valliant says that it is not to be doubted that the resemblance between the fish repre- sented in Valenciennes’ drawing and that of Richardson’s plate of Leuciscus gracilis is striking, and were it not for the adipose dorsal one would not hesitate to consider them identical. But, he con- tinues, it is not difficult to admit that Valenciennes may have added the fin afterwards. Professor Vaillant further suggests that, while Valenciennes was a very skillful and conscientious draughtsman, it is possible that he may have been deceived by some accident which happened to the specimen that he had before him. Either of the above suggestions may be the true explanation of the erroneous presence of the adipose fin in the drawing; which is the more probable is hard to say. THE MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS By THEODORE GILL I A quite common and characteristic denizen of the cold streams of the entire northern hemisphere is a small brownish fish with a wide head, which is mostly found recumbent on the bottom of the stream and generally under a stone or some other object used for partial concealment. ‘The name best known is Millers-thumb. “It is one of a large family. The species are numerous and constitute a natural group which may advantageously be recognized as a subfamily (Cottine) closely related to the marine fishes known along the coast of the United States as Sculpins (Myoxvocephaline). Although the species are mostly confined to fresh water, a few may occasionally wander into brack- ish or moderately salt water, as the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the North Pacific Ocean. Very little is known Fic. 27.—Skull of Sculpin. After Girard. to most persons about these fishes, but é considerable has been published in a scat- Fic. 26.—Skull of Sculpin. tered form, and the principal data are for After Girard. the first time brought together in the pres- ent article; these have been arranged so as to facilitate comparison with the account of “the Sculpin and its habits,’ published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections in 1905 (vol. 47, p. 348-359). II The Millers-thumbs, or Cottines, are a subfamily of Cottids* dis- tinguished from the Sculpins or Myoxocephalines by the restricted *The characters of the Cottids are given in the article on “the Sculpin” (p. 349). IoI 102 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 lateral branchial apertures and the broad isthmus between them. The skull is differentiated into three regions—a broad, subquadran- gular, postocular portion, an abruptly contracted, narrow, interocu- lar region, and a wider preocular or rostral region. The armature of the head is weak, only one pair of conspicuous spines being de- veloped, a single one about the hinder angle of the preopercle ; there are, however, rudiments of two or three more below. There are a number of genera, especially in northern Asia, several of which are peculiar to the great lake Baikal and others to Japan.* The name-giving genus, Cottus, embraces nearly fifty species, most of which are very much alike and difficult to discriminate. LO They are most numerous in the northern portions of America and Asia, and less so Rig aoe Seuitor Millers: in Europe; but in the latter continent is to thumb. After Girard, be found the longest and best-known species, Cottus gobio. Millers-thumb is the most generally used name for the species of the genus in England. Yarrell explains how it came into use: “The thumb, by a peculiar movement, spreads the sample over the fingers and, employed with tact, becomes the gauge of the value of the meal produced. Hence the saying, ‘Worth a miller’s thumb.’” The thumb of the miller of the olden time became thus spread out be- Fic. 28.—Skull of fresh- water Millers-thumb. ‘ OE \ \N Zz Fic. 30.—Cottus gobio. After Smitt (W. v. Wright). neath the nail, and a likeness was fancied between it and the little fish. ‘The name, however, is not the only one in use in England: “The Triglopsis thompsoni of the Great Lakes, often associated with the Cottines or otherwise misplaced, is a typical Myoxocephaline, very closely related to the common Oncocottus quadricornis (Cottus quadricornis of most authors). The present author indicated this relationship as early as 1862 (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., p. 13). NO. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—GILL 103 Bullhead, Bull-knob, Bull-jub, Cob, Cod-pole, Cull, Harbeau, Nog- gle-head, Tom-cull, and Tommy-logge are applied in various re- stricted districts. None of these, unless it be Bullhead, was brought over to America by the early settlers, although it is said by Goode (1884, 259) that species are “known in some localities by the Eng- lish name of Miller’s thumb,” etc. The name in most general use in the United States appears to be Blob; the primitive use of blob was for a bubble or drop, then for a splotch or blotch, and its transfer to a fish resembling foo on a blotch when seen at the bottom of a stream [@) @) \ / \ \ was not unnatural. Other names applied in various parts of the United States are | , Bull-head, Muffle-jaws, and Spring-fish. ; Still more restricted are Stone-fish and ae Flying-fish, current, according to S$. H. _ ee a a f f See ee = = Gage, to some extent in central New York, i f 1 the former being given because “it is found ! | | almost exclusively under stones,” and the | \ latter “from its rapid movements,” which, however, are only manifest as short darts. | | | Another name, Star-gazer, is a book name, originating from Dekay’s ignorance of the relations of the fish so named, but adopted by a naturalist (S. H. Gage) of later times (1878). In Maine, according to | Kendall (1904), in the Aroostook region, it | is known as Rock Cusk, “from a fancied resemblance to the Cusk? (Lota maculosa) ; Brook Cusk is also given by Kendall (1908) for the same fish; Goblin is another narie recorded by S. A. Forbes (1883) as a term for the C. meridionalis in Mlinois; Mullhead, according to H. Smith (1907), is used in Fic. 31.—Cottus gracilis. Virginia.? Aiter Girard. ——— ao 1The same idea seems to be prevalent in Sweden, where one of the names (Stenlake or Stone-burbot) recorded by Smith (p. 172) conveys the same idea as Rock-cusk. * Numerous popular names given to species of Cottus in various countries of Europe are recorded for the Austrian Empire by Heckel and Kner; for Germany by Siebold and others; for Scandinavia by Smitt, and for France by Blanchard, Rolland, and Moreau. 104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 III The only species whose habits are known are several of the genus Cottus.' ‘These have been referred by some authors to two genera, Cottus and Uranidea, but they are so very closely related that what is true of one may be predicated for the other. They agree in all structural details and size as well as appearance and have only been distinguished because Cottus has four soft rays to each ventral fin, while Uranidea has only three; the former includes all the Kuropean and most of the American species, while the latter, so far as known, is confined to America. Inasmuch, however, as individuals from the same pond may differ in the number of ventral rays, and even the same individual may have four rays in one ventral and three in the other, the groups must be reunited under the name Cofttus.’ The species are so similar in most characters that they can only be distinguished by a close, critical examination. The differences are mainly in the trend and character of the large preopercular spine, the number and condition of the rudimentary spines, the number of rays (especially anal), the relative size of the head and other parts, the presence or absence of palatine teeth (of less sig- nificance than in most groups), the spinescence or smoothness of the skin, the size of the mouth, the character of the nostrils, and the color. According to Jordan and Evermann, there are twenty-two species of Cottus and nine of Uranidea found in the United States and Canada, but no two original investigators, at present at least, would agree as to the exact number. The species are nearly unt form in size, most of them attaining a length of about three to five inches, few less, and few reaching a length of seven inches, or, quite exceptionally, a little more. There are no such sexual differences in the Cottines as occur among the Myoxocephalines, although the sexes are readily distin- guishable by the great development of a genital papilla in the male and its absence in the female; there may also be a difference in the size of the head (it being broader in the mature males than in the females), in the development of teeth on the palatine bones, the "A singular case of nomenclature occurs in Prevost’s article “De la Généra- tion chez le Séchot (Mulus gobio).” This name occurs only in connection with the title, but is reproduced in the reprint of the article in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles (x1x) in 1830. J/ulus may have originated as a printer’s mistake for Cottus; it could scarcely have been meant for a new generic name. * For extent of variation in number of rays, see appendix to this article. NO. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—GILL 105 spinescence, and the size of some of the rays as well as the size of the body. Males appear to attain a larger size than the females, although the reverse is claimed by some.t All such probable differ- ences, however, require confirmation and may vary apparently with the species. The best observations on habits have been made on the Cottus gobio of Europe and the Cottus gracilis of the United States. The most notable on the former have been published by Newman, Heckel and Kner, Fatio, and Smitt; for the American species the best have been made known by S. F. Baird and Simon H. Gage; by the latter in “Notes on the Cayuga Lake Star Gazer,” in ““The Cornell Review” for 1878, pages 91-94, which merit exhumation from the obscurity in which they were buried. IV The species, numerous as they are, probably differ very little from each other in habits. All are inhabitants of fresh waters, though not all absolutely confined to such, and most of them of clear, cold a Fic. 32.—Cottus gracilis female. After C. viscosus Girard (Sonrel). streams or lakes with a stony or rocky bottom. When in lakes, they affect the mouths of streams discharging into them. ‘They are soll- tary most of the time, although where one is found, others may be lurking not far away. S. F. Baird, who explored extensively the fresh waters of the northern United States in the early years of his life, summarized (1851) the results of his investigations of the most common of the *My own observations have led me to believe that the male may attain a larger size than the female. Such was also represented to be the case by J. L. Prevost (1825). Fatio, a most careful observer, however, thought that the female was generally larger; he specified (p. 116): “Males présentant une tete plus largement arrondie en avant, avec une taille volontiers un peu moindre que celle des femelles.” It is apparently a case of averages. 106 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 eastern cottids, Cottus gracilis, under the name C. viscosus: ‘These fish usually inhabit clear, spring waters, especially the spring runs which flow through rich meadows, bordered by turf, and hav- ing a shallow pebbly bottom. They lie concealed under projecting clods, flat stones, boards, or whatever may serve their purposes of concealment. On being disturbed, they usually hasten off to fresh cover, but sometimes remain motionless. Occasionally they occur in larger bodies of water, of less purity; but we have never seen them in creeks or rivers. Sometimes they are seen lying close to the edge of rivulets formed by leaking embankments, and where the water is far from clear. They always lie close to the bottom, and are never seen poised in the water.” According to Smitt, the common European species (Cottis gobio) “frequents shallow beaches and at spots of this nature is seldom Fic. 33.—Cottus gracilis male. After C. gobioides Girard (Sonrel). sought in vain, if one raises the stones. It is under them that it usually passes its time in quiet and inactivity,’ but watching for prey. Under a stone it may be often seen with its head or pectoral fins just exposed. “Its movements are quick; when driven from shelter, it darts with the speed of an arrow under the nearest stone or other suitable place of refuge.” ‘This peculiarity of lurking about stones has given rise to various names by which it is known in differ- ent parts of Sweden, as “Stensugare (stone-sucker)” and the like. In dart-lke movements the species resembles the little Perches of America’ known as Darters, and its American relatives indeed, to some extent, have been confounded with them. But, aside from the momentary darting movements, its actions are slow and laborious. It has, according to FE. Newman (1856), “no power of sustained swimming, and never suspends itself in water like a true swimming fish; but it will occasionally make a forced march to the surface, working its enormous pectorals with great vigour and great labour. Sometimes such efforts extend even to a tour of the globe or vessel No. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—-GILL 107 in which it is kept, but after such extraordinary exertions it sinks down apparently exhausted to the bottom, and there for hours remains motionless.” Newman’s observations have been corroborated by the present writer. The attitudes and movements of the Millers-thumb are, in- deed, very characteristic. They contrast with those of the perches and minnows by their attachment to the bottom. There they will remain for minutes and perhaps hours, motionless save for the res- piratory movements of the gill and mouth—about 40 a minute. Gen- erally they rest on the exserted ventral or anal rays and the body is more or less tilted forwards and backwards. All the fins are erect and motionless, and the pectorals outstretched sideways. The eves are lateral, but directed somewhat upwards, and they bulge on each side of the interorbital area. The color is partly accommodated to the ground on which the fish rests, and when that ground is gray- ish sand, the color closely approximates, although the bands are generally distinct. They are quite apathetic and may not be at all disturbed by some other fish approaching and rubbing against them. Sooner or later, however, one is impelled to move, and with a flirt of the tail darts forwards. It rarely goes more than two or three inches away unless very much frightened. If induced to swim, it does so by a wriggling motion and laborious exercise of the pectoral fins.* Another characteristic early (1856) insisted on by Newman is a certain change of hues. ‘There is something very remarkable in the changes of colour,” and “these changes do not appear referrible to the ordinary tendency which the colour of certain fishes has to as- similate with the colour of the surface on which they are lying, but extraneous causes produce the effect; the swallowing a worm, the effort of a swimming adventure, and, on one occasion, the extrusion of ova, have produced such changes that the fish could not have been recognized under its altered aspect; the colours are various shades of gray and brown, and these are sometimes homogeneous, some- times varied with great distinctness and brilliancy.” Such changes of color surprised Gage, who experimented “over and over again to make sure there was no mistake.” The change “from black to gray takes place in five minutes and sometimes even less.” The “cause seemed” to Gage “to be the great fright and the light.’ Further, “pon studying them more carefully in an aquarium it was found that when the water became deprived of its oxygen they would pant like a suffocating animal, and become very pale, just as they did The observations of the present writer have been chiefly made on fishes in aquariums at close range and repeated very recently (April, 1908). 108 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 when frightened. If the water is changed, these pale fish soon re- gain their natural color and respire slowly and regularly.’ According to Gage, “If one be carefully watched at a considerable distance, the respirations, indicated by the alternate opening and closing of the mouth and gill fissures, will be seen to take place about forty times per minute. Now if one suddenly moves up very near the fish, not the slightest motion of the body or of the respiratory apparatus can be detected. If, however, one remains perfectly still for about half a minute and watches the gill-covers, he will see them commence to rise and fall very gently, and in two or three minutes the respirations will be as vigorous as ever. This experiment may be tried over any number of times and always with the same result. This is equivalent to holding the breath with the higher animals, and is apparently for the same purpose, viz, to escape detection.” One of the means of defense resorted to by the Millers-thumb is the puffing sideways of the head and the consequent extension of the preopercular spines. This may not only deter an enemy, but may entail serious consequences on one that attempts to swallow the little fish. Birds have been found dead with a Millers-thumb sticking in the throat. The species are noted for voracity, and they are indiscriminate feeders. ‘They are most active in search of food during the hours of darkness, as has been remarked by Fatio. “Insects, worms, gam- maroids and other small crustaceans, or the fry or even the small fishes of no inconsiderable size’ have been noted by Smitt and others as subjects of capture. ‘They are even cannibalistic and do “not object to eating smaller brothers and sisters.” lL, Lépinay (1907) records an instance of two individuals which had seized on the same victim, and the smaller, refusing to let go, was taken in by the larger one as far as the head, the greed resulting in death to both. When two or more fishes seize the same object there is a regular tussle and pulling to and fro, which reminds the observer of a couple of dogs tugging at a string. Girard (1851) found only “insects and larve” in the stomachs of fishes he dissected. Six specimens, taken in southern Illinois and examined by S. A. Forbes, had eaten only animal food, about one- fourth of which consisted of fishes, one of which was furnished with ctenoid scales. Undetermined aquatic larve (thirty-six per cent) and other insects, were estimated at forty-four per cent of the food. *The changes of color have been also especially noticed by Fatio (1882, p. TO, 7!) \e No. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—GILL 10g Crustacea, all belonging to the genus Asellus, eaten. by two of the fishes, composed the remaining twenty-nine per cent.” But they are interesting to man, more especially on account of their destructiveness to fish-eggs. Inhabitants of the same waters as the Trouts, they are notorious for their ravages on the eggs of the latter fishes. They are consequently objects of detestation to pisciculturists and their numbers have sometimes to be reduced by special efforts. They crush the eggshells as well as the horny cover- ings of crustaceans and insects and reject them. A kind of masti- cation is thus manifested.* Fatio has well described the manner in which the Cottus gobio procures its food. It lays in wait patiently and motionless till a fit victim comes within easy distance, and then springs upon it before the incautious animal is aware of its danger. If the prey is compar- atively large—a Minnow, for instance—it will be seized head first, and while it is gradually taken inward, the Cottid looks as if it were chewing with its pharyngeal teeth. At other times, without moving its body, it will blow a current of water against some small body suspended above and in this way make it fall towards itself. Such a feat (which the present writer has never witnessed) was several times observed by Fatio and reminded him of the superior skill of the Archer-fish of Java (To.votes jaculator). ‘The mobility of the eyes upwards is advantageous to the fish for such purpose.’ *Quoique doué d’appétits voraces ce petit carnivore parait, en effet, ne pas gouter beaucoup les proies a enveloppes dures; du moins, je l’ai vu souvent happer par inadvertance et cracher de suite diverses sortes d’articulés. (Fatio, Faune Vert. de la Suisse, Iv, 1882, p. 127. See also this article, p. 113.) *Si la proie est grosse, un petit goujon ou un véron, par exemple, l’animal avalé, la téte la premiére disparaitra petit a petit dans le gouffre qui I’attire, sans que le Chabot ait l’air d’opérer la moindre mastication avec les maxil- laires, probablement sous l’action et la traction des dents pharyngiennes. D’autres fois, enfin, mieux nourri ou plus paresseux, notre Cottus usera de petits subterfuges pour amener jusqu’a lui les miettes qu’il désire; sans prendre la peine de bouger, il projetera ou soufflera, par exemple, un courant d’eau contre tel ou tel petit corps suspendu au-dessus de lui et qu’il veut détacher pour le faire rouler jusqu’a lui. Cette petite manceuvre, que j’ai eu Yoccasion de voir exécuter plusieurs fois, rappelle, jusqu’a un certain point, ladresse du Toxotes jaculator de Java qui projette, souvent a une distance de trois a cinq pieds, une goutte d’eau sur les insectes posés au-dessus de la surface, dans le but identique de les faire tomber et de s’en emparer (Fatio, Op, Cit, pp. 126; 127)). 110 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 VI Distinctive sexual characters become manifest during winter or spring, varying in time of development with temperature. The color of the males becomes more intense. “The female, the belly of which is almost monstrously distended during pregnancy, lays its eggs in March” in Sweden—both then as well as earlier or later, according to temperature, in other countries.t But first preparation is made for the deposit, and a hiding place is prepared by the male or female (it eee Fic. 34.—C. gobio male. Fic. 35.—C. gobio female. After Prevost. After Prevost. is uncertain which) scraping a hole with its tail under a stone, or it fastens the deposit of eggs (which is in a mass about the size of a “sparrow’'s egg”) to “stones or bridge-piles driven into the bottom.” * According to Baird (1851), the eggs of Cottus gracilis (viscosus) “are laid from the middle of April to the end of May, and are deposited in round packets about the size of an ounce bullet, under boards, stones, and in shallow, springy water. It is possible that they are watched by the parent, as we have frequently found individuals under the same cover as the eggs. ‘The ova are of a rose color, and about the size of No. 3 shot, conveying the impression of disproportionate size.” No. I801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS GILL Tr The female then “deserts them, and the male takes” her “place as their protector and guards them for a month, until the young are able to shift for themselves.” Special data on oviposition or parental care have been published by Edward Newman and Simon Gage. The fish observed by Newman was a female, and soon after its reception (March) it “extruded during the night a mass of ova, col- lectively equal in size to a sparrow’s egg;” the eggs were “nearly transparent and enclosed in a tough envelope; the mass was closely adherent, somewhat reminding one of frog’s spawn, but the ova appeared to have no mucilaginous, covering. The number of ova must have been about a hundred.” ‘Two mornings after their extrusion, the un- natural parent had torn the mass asunder and devoured the greater part of the ova, 2 and before night the work of demolition was Fic. 36.—Eggs of Cottus completed by the combined efforts of the 822#e- After Prevost. Millers-thumb and two minnows.” ‘There was no male to assume guardianship. If there had been, doubtless he would have protected and taken charge of the eggs. According to Gage, if one goes to the west shore of “Cayuga Lake from April to July, and lifts up flat stones in water twelve to fifteen centimetres deep, there will be found clinging to the under side of many of them an irregular conical mass of beautiful salmon- colored eggs; and under the same stone a Stargazer.” Gage thought “the fish seems to have forethought,” for the eggs “are never laid above the low-water mark of July; hence in April or May one must look in deeper water for them than in July.” Soland, in a work on the Fishes of Anjou (1869), has affirmed that, after hatching, the male continues his care of the young and remains with them until they are nearly full grown. No other ob- server has confirmed this claim, which is probably based on some error of observation or deduction. Vit No detailed observations corresponding to those on the Sculpin have been published about the embryology of the Millers-thumb. J. L. Prevost long ago (1825) noticed the eggs and the newly hatched embryo, 5 millimeters long, but did not carry his observa- tions further. Baird (1851) remarked that he had occasionally “found the eggs with embryos moving freely within the envelope. A 1i2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 set examined April 22d, 1848, had the eye very distinct, and of large size. “The foetal fin extended from the head, by the tail, to the anus. In the course of the day, many became liberated and swam about with the yolk-bag attached. This was ses- sile, and filled with a transparent, reddish liquid, excepting opposite to the embryo, where was a hard, yellowish cake. All [his] attempts at raising the young, or of development of the egg, failed for want of Fic. 37-—Embryo of C.fresh spring water.” No later investiga- gobio. After Prevost. tions have been published. From the figure given by Prevost, it appears that Cottws has a larger yelk-sac than Myoxvocephalus. Growth appears to be moderately rapid, but exact data are want- ing. Specimens in the collection of the National Museum are not in sufficient number nor with exact dates of capture enough to enable Fic. 38.—Fetus of C. gobio 5 mm. long. After Prevost. one to distribute them according to size at any given period. Ac- cording to Hartmann and Fatio the common Cottid of Switzerland (Cottus gobio) became capable of reproduction at the age of two years—that is, about the beginning of its third year. VIII None of the species are utilized for food in the United States, at least by natives. In Europe, however, they are to some extent em- ployed—not in England, but on the continent. Moreau informs us that in France the quality of the flesh is variously appreciated ; Smitt remarks that in Scandinavia “‘it is stated by many to be of extremely good flavour.” The flesh is “white, but is said to turn red when boiled,” in some localities, but, according to Day, “not so in others.” Fatio tells that in Switzerland the fish is much sought for, not only \ No. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND {I's IABITS—GCILA, 113 by fishermen for bait for other fishes, but by lovers of dainties as an agreeable food. In America, as already noted, the Millers-thumbs, under the name of blobs, are best known as destroyers of the eggs of the trouts as well as salmons, and as such do much damage, and are consequently regarded as pernicious pests. The published data respecting the injury inflicted on piscicultural interests are scanty. Mr. F. M. Chamberlain, in “Some observations on Salmon and Trout in Alaska,” compiled for the “Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries” for 1906 (issued December 18, 1907), simply reported that “the Sculpin or Bullhead would seem to be a more dangerous enemy to the Salmon fry than is the trout; it lurks under the stones in just such places as the fry will seek for shelter (p. 108) ; on the other hand, it has been asserted that the little fish not infrequently falls a victim to the old trouts (p. 107). An appeal to the U. S. Fish Commission, and especially Dr. B. W. Evermann, Mr. J. W. Titcomb, Dr. W. C. Kendall, Mr. E. L. Golds- borough, and Mr. H. W. Clark, elicited confirmation of the charge against the Cottids. Mr. Goldsborough communicated data which are noteworthy, not only for their bearing on the matter in question, but also confirmatory of the deliberate manner of feeding previously described by Fatio; his communication is herewith given: “Tn the fall of 1903 (September), while at the Salmon hatchery of the Alaska Packers Association, located at Loring, Alaska, I was watching and helping the men spawn the fish. We were wading around in the stream (Naha River) and many eggs were dropped into the water. These were at once gobbled up by the blobs (C. gulosus), hundreds of which were lurking around among and under the small stones in the stream. They were so voracious as to at once attract my attention. I got a handful of the fresh, soft eggs and pitched them where I could observe what happened. ‘They were devoured in a few minutes by several blobs and sticklebacks. I kept account of the work of one little blob particularly, which was per- haps three or four inches long; it ate twenty of the eggs and hunted for more. The eggs were all devoured in perhaps two or three minutes. ‘The fish would take a single egg in its mouth, puncture it to get the soft contents, then spit out with some force the soft shell, and immediately take another egg and do the same thing. “The blob has since been recognized by the superintendent of their hatchery, Mr. Fred Patching, as so destructive to salmon fry that he has made a regular and persistent effort to capture them, and by using traps bated with salmon eggs he has caught thousands,” 8 {14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Cottids have been little used in medicine, but in Russia, according to Pallas, dried fishes were used by peasants as charms or amulets worn round the neck as antidotes against fevers.* APPENDIX While engaged in the examination of Cottids many years ago, I was struck by the fact that there was unusual variation in the num- ber of rays of the ventral fins and was convinced that it had not the systematic value which it might naturally be supposed to have. Recent observations have fully justified the skepticism. Especial observations were made with reference to the value of the number of ventral rays by W. C. Kendall in “Notes on some fresh-water fishes from Maine,” published in the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1902 (XXII, 1904, pp. 361, 362). Dr. Ken- dall examined a large number of individuals of the Cottus gracilis. “Out of 28 specimens otherwise essentially alike from Caribou, 18 had 3 ventral rays in each ventral fin, 6 had 4 rays in each fin, and 4 had 4 rays on one side and 3 on the other. Of 15 specimens from six other localities in northern Maine, 4 had 3 rays in each ventral, 7 had 4 on each side, and 4 had 3 on one side and 4 on the other. Six specimens from Bear River, Newry, in the western part of Maine, had uniformly 3 rays in each fin.” Being desirous to have still fuller statistics respecting the structure of the ventral fins and the development of sexual characters in the genus Cottus, I requested Mr. Alfred C. Weedy assistant .in the Division of Fishes, to compile certain data. He kindly prepared for me the results of examination of 50 specimens of the Cottus richardsonii. ‘In cibo a nemine adhibetur, sed siccatum, amuleti instar, appendunt collo, ut pectus tangat, creduntque prodesse ad Tertianas abigendas. Pallas Zoé- eraphia Rosso-Asiatica, 3, 126. No special locality in the Russian empire is mentioned in connection with the superstition. NO. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—GILL II5 COTTUS RICHARDSONII' Number of specimens, 50.” Number of males, 32. Number of females, 18. Number with ventral rays same on both sides, 45. Number with ventral rays 3 right and 3 left, 38. Number with ventral rays 4 right and 4 left, 7. Number with 3 ventral rays on right side, 42. Number with 3 ventral rays on left side, 39. Number with 4 ventral rays on right side, 8. Number with 4 ventral rays on left side, 11. Number with more ventral rays on right side than on left, 1. Number with more ventral rays on left side than on right, 4. The only asperities found were a small patch of prickles in the axilla of the pectorals, extending caudad as far as the end of the pectoral. In 5 specimens (4 males and 1 female) these were ap- parently absent. The sexes showed no noticeable differences in regard to the pec- toral and ventral fins. In the specimens from Labrador the longest dorsal spine was about 1/4 inch in males and about 3/16 inch in females, without re- gard to the length of the fish. Males from Labrador were 2 1/8 inches to 3 9/16 inches long. Females from Labrador were 2 1/4 inches to 3 1/8 inches long. Males from other localities were 2 11/16 inches to 5 1/2 inches long. "The Cottus richardsonit has been called Cottus ictalops in recent ichthyo- logical works by reason of the assumption that it was the species intended by Rafinesque under the name Pegedictis ictalops. WRafinesque’s fish with “small scales,” “thoracic fins with five rays,” and “secotid [dorsal] with twelve” rays was, however, apparently the same as his Etheostoma flabellare and E. fon- tinalis. * Number of specimens from Labrador, 42. a o : “Wytheville, Va., 1. . SS “White R., Ind., 1. s a “ Vermont, I. 3 PS “2 Evanston, cll... I: He a “Alabama, 2. “6 “ “ “Marshfield, Mo., 2. 116 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 A female from another locality was 2 5/16 inches long. As a whole, the dorsal and anal rays are a little higher in males. Other than this I can see no differences between the sexes except the structure of the post-anal region. Fic. 39.—Cottus punctulatus (Gill). No. 1802 NOTES Notre on A Fossr, STICKLEBACK FisH FROM NEVADA In the Proceedings of the U. S$. National Museum, vol. 32, for 1907, p. 271, fig. 12, Dr. Oliver P. Hay describes a fossil fish from the Lahontan beds of the Truckee irrigation canal near Hazen, Nevada, under the name of Gasterosteus williamsont leptosomus. In Publications of the University of California, Geology, v, no. 5, p. 131, figs. 25, 26, the present writer has described the same species from the same region, under the name of Merriamella doryssa. From the incomplete material, the relationships of this form were thought to be with the Atherinide, but the photographs given by Dr. Hay show clearly that the little fish is a genuine Stickleback ; in fact, the species can not be separated, on the material photographed, from the genus Gasterdsteus, the typical group of living Sticklebacks. Its slender form and longer spines sufficiently distinguish it from the living Gasterosteus williamsom, Girard, which is probably a fresh- water form or ontogenetic representative of the common marine Gasterosteus cataphractus, Pallas. As my paper was issued in April, 1907, and Dr. Hay’s on May 18, 1907, the species should apparently stand as Gasterosteus doryssus, Jordan. I am indebted to Dr. Gill for calling my attention to the identity of these fossils—a fact still earlier noticed by Dr. Merriam and by Dr. Hay.—Davip Srarr JorDAN. ConGRESS OF AMERICANISTS At the suggestion of the Smithsonian Institution, the Department of State has designated Prof. Franz Boas, of Columbia University ; Prof. Marshall H. Saville, of Columbia University; Prof. George Grant MacCurdy, of Yale University; Prof. Charles Peabody, of Harvard University, and Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, to represent the United States at the Sixteenth International Congress of Americanists, to be held at Vienna, September 9-14, 1908. Dr. Franz Boas will be the official representative of the Smithsonian Institution. SMITHSONIAN GRANTS A grant from the Smithsonian fund has recently been approved to enable Dr. George P. Merrill, of the National Museum, to inves- EL7 118 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 tigate personally the results of further borings in the Meteor crater of Canyon Diablo, Arizona. A grant has recently been approved in behalf of Miss Alice Fast- wood to aid in the re-collecting of the types of genera and species of plants collected by Thomas Nuttall in 1836 at Santa Barbara, Cali- fornia, and subsequently described by him. NAPLES ZOOLOGICAL STATION The Smithsonian seat at the Naples Zodlogical Station was occu- pied by Mr. I. F. Lewis, of Johns Hopkins University, during the month of March, and by Prof. F. M. Andrews, of the Department of Botany of Indiana University, during the months of April and May. Assignments of the Smithsonian seat have already been made for the first six months of 1909. The application of Prof. Charles A. Kofoid, of the University of California, has been approved for the first five months of the year, while through the courtesy of Dr. Anton Dohrn, the director of the station, Prof. Michael T .Guvyer, of the University of Cincinnati, will also occupy a seat through the months of April and May, as well as through the month of June. PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CoNnTINUED FROM List IN QuarTEeRLY Issur, Vor. IV, Part 4 No. Title. 1791 ReEsE, Arsert M. The Development of the American Hae iA Tea LOO, « etctst cst alalsy cis) a/c\s' opera's slcyellelsisusiei= ole) cin 1792 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Quarterly Issue, Vol. V, Part 1 (containing Nos. 1793-1802) TNO SEIT lela re TET efor ar oherer skate Ste stays Sart ay ete) evetat neha sts 3 1793 JorvAN, Davip Starr, and BRANNER, JOHN CASPER. The Cretaceous Fishes of Ceara, Brazil. (Quarterly RSSI1C) MOOS ra Sade ci. Sa einieleo te ch a arcvetele ey Neeiels- : 1794 Aszot, C. G. Observation of the Total Solar Eclipse of January 3, 1908: A Bolometric Study of the Solar Corona. (Quarterly Issue) 1908............ 1795 Buscx, Aucust. Report on a Trip for the Purpose of Studying the Mosquito Fauna of Panama. (Quar- LORS USS UCI MOOS septal tat oie iat ott ye ayet cio sis op sVaitu etal eLeiate 1796 Merritt, GEorcE P. Carl Ludwig Rominger. (Quar- LORIE USSILE ie LOOM: wieis oie cveselsvarays s s\nis- oslo’ o/ePa's- oye, 4 pieueie.e 1797 Merritt, GEorcE P. Edward Travers Cox. (Quar- LEHI SSILE TAL QOO) Meritea) heels cas, etieteiaicis ons see siele eis aievels 1798 Mrrcuei., EvenyN Grorspeeck. An Apparently New Protoblattid Family from the Lower Cretaceous. CO arenas We TOS. waste wanes ciara ecicte qerelsrsucie anes 1799 FisHER, WALTER K. Necessary Changes in the No- menclature of Starfishes. (Quarterly Issue) 1908.. 1800 KenpALL, WitttAmM Converse. Identity of a Sup- posed Whitefish, Coregonus angusticeps, Cuvier & Valenciennes, with a Northern Cyprinid, Platygobio gracilis (Richardson). (Quarterly Issue) 1908.... tor Grit, THuKopore. ‘The Millers-thumb and its Habits. COmarterig: USSUe) QOS. crsae sieicisite hes «cs seta store 4,2 oho 1802 Notes to Quarterly Issue, Vol. V, Part 1. 1908...... 1803 TTowNsEND, CuaruEs H. T. The Taxonomy of the Muscoidean Flies, Including Descriptions of New Genenamand Speciesy mOsm scisiisicl ec cretion sins ks 1804 Watcort, CHartEs D. Cambrian Geology and Pale- ontology. No. 1—Nomenclature of Some Cambrian Cordilleran’ Hormationsy) wo0Ss.-.ceceeasscc eee 1805 Watcorr, CHarLEs D. Cambrian Geology and Pale- ontology. No. 2—Cambrian Trilobites. 1908....... 1806 Classified List of Smithsonian Publications Available TODOS EIU OM py Vilas LOOGH ee a ste cle cs ovelelstecrneeis 1807 Gi,MorE, CuHartEs W. Smithsonian Exploration in Alaska in 1907 in Search of Pleistocene Fossil Vertebrates. 1008........- ei eee con ere eee rere Series. M.C. MEG: M.C. M.C. M.C. M.C. M.C. M.C. ool LI Pi leh a yo eae 1 ~ LAD Li LII LI Lit LI LI Li A! 119 Price. .05 05 .05 .40 .25 .) e 7 i ao * ; ‘ ; < * i ae - o =) ” oe . i ~ es - ‘ wy ee = 4 ‘ c oat er. = "s : re i ‘ ~ 5 7 I, 1 . ny z ' * . i - yo + ee ~ ee Re ” ‘ ~- 1 fe ‘ >= - —_ = ~~ i ae : oan ee = . > i ' 1 5 - ‘ 5 i q i - ‘ < ‘ - ; . % 7 a ‘ es . a . : iv ned * : = a / 1 ; - ae ts ' ‘ - 7 . 6 1 i i = , . ~ ies = - “a : ~~ / a ae at VOL. 52, PL. IX SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS HENRY NETTELROTH VOL, 52 1908 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS QUARTERLY ISSUE PART 2 VOR, “V, tree NE TT hPROTE COLLECTION OF INVERTEBRATE FOSSILS By R. S. BASSLER (WitH 3 PLATES) One of the most important accessions in the division of strati- graphic paleontology during the year 1907 was the collection of the late Henry Nettelroth, acquired jointly by the Smithsonian Institu- tion and the U. S. National Museum from his sons, H. H. Nettel- roth and Dr. Alexander Nettelroth, of Louisville, Kentucky. ‘The registration and installation of these specimens was recently com- pleted, and it seemed in order, as well as very desirable on account of Mr. Nettelroth’s work in science and of the valuable nature of his collection, to publish an article upon the subject. The collection is composed entirely of invertebrate fossils, mainly from the Silurian and Devonian strata of Indiana and Kentucky, although many other American as well as foreign localities are represented. The total number of specimens is rather small compared with the number of species represented, the collection comprising about 8,000 specimens, registered under nearly 1,000 entries; but all of the material is the best that could be had. Mr. Nettelroth prided himself upon the fact that his cabinet contained only choice specimens, representing years of careful selection. Imperfect material was retained only when it showed something of scientific interest. In exchanging, Mr. Nettelroth also insisted upon a few good specimens rather than numerous poor representatives of a species. Likewise he paid par- ticular attention to a class of fossils, the mollusca, which is seldom well represented in the cabinets of even the best collectors. The result of this continual selection was that in the course of years his collection was unequaled along certain lines, and it was only fitting that the specimens should be used for study and illustration in the 9 I2I 122 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 monograph of “Kentucky Fossil Shells” prepared by Mr. Nettelroth and issued by the State as a memoir of the Geological Survey of Kentucky. Practically all of the specimens figured by Mr. Nettel- roth in this work were from his own cabinet and are now preserved in the U. S. National Museum collections. A list of these type specimens is given beginning on page 135. I am under obligations to Mr. Nettelroth’s sons for many courte- sies extended to me during my work upon the collection. Dr. Alex- ander Nettelroth has kindly furnished me with biographical notes from which the following sketch was prepared. Henry Nettelroth was born in the Kingdom of Hanover, on June 6, 1835. His family from a remote period were land-owners, in- habiting that portion of German territory, with estates located about the village of Nettelrode. Henry Nettelroth attended the German universities and was graduated as a civil engineer just before the war between Prussia and Hanover; he was an engineer officer in the Hanoverian army, but came to America shortly after the battle of Langensalza. Here he took up the practice of civil engineering. His first employment as topographical engineer on the Elizabeth- town and Paducah Railroad, then building, taking him to Kentucky, determined his subsequent location in Louisville. In that city he continued the pursuit of civil engineering, both active and consult- ant, until incapacitated by ill health a few years before his death. He became an American citizen, having immediately on his arrival in this country renounced allegiance to any European government. In 1867 he was married, in Louisville, Kentucky, to Emma Vassmer, also of Hanover. Mr. /Nettelroth died on September 2, 1887, his widow and two sons surviving. He had been interested in paleontology while still in his native country, and it was but natural that the collection and study of fos- sils should be continued in connection with a profession which offered such good opportunities. In his spare time, therefore, dur- ing more than fifteen years, he enthusiastically collected geological specimens, wisely limiting his cabinets principally to those fossils found in the immediate vicinity of Louisville and the Falls of the Ohio, but including, however, related specimens from other sections of the country. His zeal in this pursuit stimulated the local interest in paleontology, and there appeared a number of collectors, several of whom became known later as capable and discriminating paleon- tologists. As a result of the enthusiasm of this coterie, a number of excellent collections were brought together and some rich beds and fossil-bearing strata were discovered which are now known universally to geologists. No. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 123 Mr. Nettelroth’s contribution to geological literature consists of a quarto volume of 245 pages and 36 plates, entitled “Kentucky Fossil Shells: A Monograph of the Fossil Shells of the Silurian and Devonian Rocks of Kentucky.” This work, which was issued by the Kentucky Geological Survey in 1889, two years after the death of its author, is strictly biological in its scope. Over two hundred species of mollusca from the strata mentioned in the title were de- scribed and illustrated, in addition to a few Ordovician brachiopoda, sponges, and bryozoa. (<4 = i a oe | “yr ; ay : J 4 : f ; Ea oe | = o } i’ i ‘ n= te f » . = - hoe ro a v7 i . So, : " A " * 7 . i mW x a 2 ® Me rere f i,t — » So ina NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER n27, SECTION OF STRATA, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY, AND VICINITY Sandstone and shale,. siigcedeereimse ese sss Knobstone sandstone and shale | Ferruginous limestone and shale........... 'Knobstone shale (New Provi- | dence) Goniatite limestone..,..0....-....+....-..-| Rockford Devonian black slate or shale..............| Genesee and Portage Brrerini tall sbedeaempreyetere savers acts raareieya ets ok 5 =e ae = i Hamilton (Sellersburg) Corals, shells, and fish bed...... ae ee: | J Upper cherty bed Middle Hydraulic limestone....| Hamilton (Silver Creek) Lower | Spleiier actiminatus: DEC ys ca. sun omen en eel EriayOZOaIa De Ge nyse en tetororteis «/- crelsterellas see /e ene | IMMClEOCrintIs: DEG yee eteea oe cise casks erent | | Onondaga (Jeffersonville) BMT OM DECC nit ane erate et tari rcrssehe aie Seouvatee White—Upper Black— Middle Coralbedsteraqaniacie cere i | Brown—Lower Ftallysiteswbedieyn aera actrees elder cieio sara Sas Silurian (Touisville) The following generalized section of the Paleozoic rocks in the vicinity of Louisville, Kentucky, is introduced to show the stratigra- phy of the region as now understood, and also to indicate the faunas chiefly represented in the Nettelroth collection. Indeed, the faunas of the rocks concerned are so well represented that this entire por- tion of the collection was assigned to the general stratigraphic series 128 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 of the department. The fossils from foreign and other American localities are too few in numbers of species to represent faunas in the great detail desired for the Museum stratigraphic series, so these particular species were referred to the biologic collection. Grotocic SECTION, VICINITY OF LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY Mississippian. Knobstone group. Knob (Riverside) sandstone: Feet More or less pure, soft sandstones and sandy shales, holding Te MIEN OVATION LAI. cee uc soe oleyetate’ lalciesetr ie eae eke ratte ee 75-100 Lingulodiscina newberryi Hall. Chonetes illinoisensis Worthen. Chonetes logani Norwood and Pratten. Chonetes planumbonum Meek and Worthen. Productella pyxidata Hall. Productus gracilis Winchell. Productus newberrw Hall. Spirifer keokuk Hall. Spirifer mortonanus Miller. Reticularia tenuispinata (Herrick). Spiriferina subelliptica (McChesney). Syringothyris texta Hall. Platyceras herzeri Winchell. Platyceras lodiense Meek. Conularia micronema Meek. Conularia newberryi Winchell. Goniatites greenei Miller. Goniatites indianensis Miller. Proetus missouriensis Shumard. Upper Knobstone shales: Soft light gray to green shales with impure fine-grained sand- stone at the top. No fauna has been recorded from this division, but in all probability most of the species registered under the New Providence shale below will be found here also 200 Lower Knobstone (New Providence) shale: Blue to green, soft clay shales, with occasional thin ferruginous limestone bands holding numerous fossils..............-.... 50-106 These limestone beds are often made up of crinoidal remains; at other times their surfaces are covered with fenestelloid bryozoa. ‘The most common species are : Paleacis cavernosa Miller. Zaphrentis centralis Edwards and Hainte. Zaphrentis cliffordana Edwards and Haime. Zaphrentis declinis Miller. Cyathaxonia cynodon Edwards and Haime. Trochophyllum verneuilli Edwards and Haime. NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLIER 129 Rhombopora angustata Ulrich. Rhombopora elegantula Ulrich. Rhombopora incrassata Ulrich. Streblotrypa major Ulrich. Fenestella compressa Ulrich. Fenestella regalis Ulrich. Fenestella triserialis Ulrich. Thamniscus divaricans Ulrich. Thamniscus sculptilis Ulrich. Ptilopora cylindracea Ulrich. Cystodictya americana Ulrich. Cystodictya pustulosa Ulrich. Cystodictya lineata Ulrich. Meekopora ? aperta Ulrich. Athyris lamellosa 1) Eveille. Spirifer mortonana Miller. Spirifer suborbicularis Hall. Syringothyris texta Hall. Rhipidomella oweni Hall and Clarke. Productella arcuata Hall. Chonetes logani Norwood and Pratten. Chonetes illinoisensis Worthen. Goniatites brownensis Miller. Rockford (Goniatite) limestone (Kinderhook)................. . I-3 Caleareous shale and fine-grained, ferruginous limestone with conchoidal fracture; brown when weathered, but mottled green upon fresh exposure. In places an abundant fauna is preserved, of which the cephalopods Brancoceras ixton Hall and Munsteroceras owent Hall are best known. Other species are Paleacis enorme Meek and Worthen, Amplexus rock- fordensis Miller and Gurley, Spirifer marionensis Shumard, Spiriferina solidirostris White, Euomphalus lens Hall, Prod- romites gorbyt Miller, Soleniscus rockfordensis Miller, Tre- matodiscus trisulcata Meek and Worthen, and Orodus multi- carinatus Meek and Worthen. Devonian black shale New: Albany shale)* eric. 4.0606 oncecel 100 Black fissile, often bituminous shale with few fossils. Leior- hynchus quadricostatum Hall, Chonetes lepidus Hall, Styliola fissurella Hall, Lunulicardium fragile Hall, Schizobolus con- centricus (Vanuxem), Lingula spatulata Vanuxem, and Barroisella subspatulata Meek and Worthen have been noted. The lowest layer of the shale is almost invariably made up of an iron band 2 inches thick; in some places this band is con- glomerate, the pebbles being most abundant in the hollows of the underlying limestone. Devonian limestone: Sellersburce formation Cbamialtom) ie as. access datp sae as cers 8 White to gray crystalline crinoidal limestone with the basal layer frequently arenaceous and containing small phosphatic 130 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 concretions. The following is a partial list of the fauna of this limestone : Megistocrinus rugosus Lyon and Casseday. Megistocrinus depressus Hall. Ancyrocrinus bulbosus Hall. Genneocrinus kentuckiensis Shumard. Dolatocrinus greenei Miller and Gurley. Dolatocrinus bulbosus Miller and Gurley. Favosites placenta Rominger. Alveolites goldfussi Billings. Heliophyllum juvene (Rominger). Heliophyllum corniculum (Lesueur). Heliophyllum halli Edwards and Haime. Cystiphyllum americanum Edwards and Haime. Diphyphyllum archiact Billings. Acervularia davidsoni Edwards and Haime. Dendropora ornata Rominger. Athyris fultonensis (Swallow). Spirifer hobbsi Nettelroth. Spirifer audaculus Conrad. Spirifer granulosus Conrad. Stropheodonta perplana Conrad. Rhipidomella vanuxemi Hall. Camarotoechia sappho Hall. Pholidostrophia iowaensis Owen. Productella spinulicosta Hall. Platyceras dumosum Conrad. Feet Silver Creek hydraulic limestone (cement rock)................ 20 Massive fine-grained limestone with hydraulic properties, breaking with subchoncoidal fracture and varying in color from buff on weathered surface to bluish drab when freshly exposed. Chonetes yandellana Hall is the most abundant and characteristic fossil. Spirifer granulosus Conrad, S. for- nacula Hall, S. varicosus Hall, Atrypa reticularis (Linneus), Tropidoleptus carinatus Conrad, Stropheodonta concava Hall, S. perplana Conrad, and Aviculopecten princeps Conrad are more or less abundant. Jetersonville limestone (Onondaca) een a4 se eae eee 22-30 Bluish gray to white crystalline limestone, often crowded with fossils. ‘The upper member of this formation is marked by its many fine specimens of Spirifer acuminatus Owen. ‘This Spirifer bed is underlaid by extremely fossiliferous limestone which, when weathered, yields in its cherty débris an abund- ance of exquisitely preserved silicified specimens of bryozoa and ostracods. Nucleocrinus verneuili and its several varie- ties, or closely related species, are characteristic of the next lower bed, while species of Stropheodonta are abundant in the next. The large gastropod Turbo shumardi or the abund- ant brachiopod Spirifer gregarius are the diagnostic fossils NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL, COLLECTION—BASSLER of the underlying bed, while the many lower Devonian corals described from the Falls of the Ohio come from the lowest division of the Jeffersonville limestone. A few of. these corals have been listed below with a partial fauna from the other beds. The bryozoan bed contains a fauna so distinct and prolific that special lists of the bryozoa and ostracods are given. The Devonan rocks forming the Falls of the Ohio are illustrated on the accompanying plate. The following are the more common fossils: Favosites limitaris Rominger. Favosites canadensis Billings. Favosites emmonsi Rominger. Favosites hemisphericus Troost. Favosites tuberosus Rominger. Alveolites mordax Davis. Cladopora roemeri (Billings). Eridophyllum arundinaceum Davis. Blothrophyllum decorticatum Billings. Acrophyllum oneidaense Billings. Zaphrentis gigantea Lesueur. Syringopora hisingeri Billings. Romingeria umbellifera (Billings). FHadrophyllum orbignyi Edwards and Haime. Nucleorinus verneuili (Troost). Spirifer acuminata Conrad. Spirifer arctisegmentum Hall. Spirifer duodenarius (Hall). Spirifer gregarius Clapp. Spirifer raricosta Hall. Cyrtina crassa Hall. Athyris fultonensis Swallow. Leptena rhomboidalis Wilckins. Atrypa reticularis Linnzus. Meristella nasuta (Conrad). Pentagonia unisulcata (Conrad). Pentamerella arata (Conrad). Chonetes acutiradiatus (Hall). Stropheodonta demissa Conrad. Stropheodonta perplana Conrad, Stropheodonta concava Hall. Turbo shumardi Verneuil. Euomphalus decewi Billings. Glyptodesma erectum Conrad. Aviculopecten princeps Conrad. Paracyclas elliptica Hall. Platyceras dumosum Conrad. 131 132 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. FAUNA OF THE BRYOZOAN BEDS OSTRACODA Leperditia ? subrotunda Ulrich. Tsochilina rectangularis Ulrich. Aparchites inornatum Ulrich. Beyrichia lyoni Ulrich. Beyrichia kolmodini Jones. Ctenobolbina spinulosa Ulrich. Ctenobolbina armata Ulrich. Ctenobolbina cavimarginata Ulrich. Ctenobolbina insolens Ulrich. Ctenobolbina papillosa Ulrich. Ctenobolbina informis Ulrich. Ctenobolbina antespinosa Ulrich. Kirkbya subquadrata Ulrich. Kirkbya parallela Ulrich. Kirkbya semimuralis Ulrich. Kirkbya cymbula Ulrich. Kirkbya germana Ulrich. Bollia ungula Jones. Z Bollia obesa Ulrich. Halliella retifera Ulrich. Octonaria stigmata Ulrich. Octonaria stigmata var. loculosa Ulrich. Octonaria ovata Ulrich. Octonaria clavigera Ulrich. Bythocypris devonica Ulrich. Bythocypris punctulata Ulrich. Bythocypris indianensis Ulrich. Pachydomella tumida Ulrich. Barychilina punctostriata Ulrich. Barychilina punctostriata var. curta Ulrich. Barychilina pulchella Ulrich. Bry0zoA Botryllopora socialis Nicholson. Buskopora bistriata Hall. Buskopora dentata Ulrich. Buskopora pyriformis Hall. Chetetes ? ponderosus Hall. Chetetes? tenuis Hall. Clonopora semireducta Hall. Coscinium cribriforme Prout. Cystopora geniculata Hall. Cystodictya gilberti Meek. Cystodictya ovatipora Hall. Cystodictya vermicula Hall. 52 No. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL, COLLECTION—BASSLER 133 Dekayia devonica Ulrich. Discotrypa ? devonica Ulrich. Eridopora ? clivulata Hall. Eridopora denticulata Hall. Fenestella @qualis Hall. Fenestella cultrata Hall. Fenestella curvijunctura Hall. Fenestella depressa Hall. Fenestella perplexa Hall. Fenestella proutana Miller. Fenestella pulchella Ulrich. Fenestella serrata Hall. Fenestella singularitas Hall. Fenestella stellata Hall. Fenestella tenella Hall. Fenestella variapora Hall. Fenestella verrucosa Hall. Fenestrapora infraporosa (Ulrich). Fistulipora alternata (Hall). Fistulipora conulata (Hall). Fistulipora geometrica (Hall). Fistulipora granifera (Hall). Fistulipora normalis Ulrich. Fistulipora ovata (Hall). Fistulipora subcava (Hall). Fistulipora substellata (Hall). Glossotrypa paliformis (Hall). Hederella adnata (Davis). Hederella canadensis (Nicholson). Hederella cirrhosa Hall. Helicopora ulrichi Claypole. Hemitrypa cribrosa Hall. Hernodia humifusa Hall. Intrapora puteolata Hall. Lichenotrypa longispina (Hall). Lioclema intercellatum (Hall). Orthopora regularis (Hall). Orthopora rhombifera (Hall). Phractopora cristata Hall. Phyllopora aspera Ulrich. Polypora aculeata (Hall). Polypora blandida Ulrich. Polypora celsipora minor (Hall). Polypora intermedia Prout. Polypora levistriata (Hall). Polypora levinodata (Hall). Polypora quadrangularis (Hall). Polypora shumardi Prout. Polypora striatopora (Hall). Polypora submutans (Hall). Polypora transversa Ulrich. 134 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Prismopora sparsipora (Hall). Prismopora triquetra Hall. Ptiloporella ? bifurca (Ulrich). Reteporidra adnata (Hall). Rhombopora lineinoides Ulrich. Rhombopora lineinoides-humilis Ulrich. Scalaripora scalariformis Hall. Scalaripora subconcava Hall. Selenopora circincta (Hall). Selenopora complexa (Hall). Semicoscinium Semicoscinium Semicoscinium Semicoscinium Semicoscinium Semicoscinium Semicoscinium biimbricatum (Hall). biserrulatum (Hall). imterruptum Hall. latijuncturum (Hall). lunulatum (Hall). permarginatum Hall. planodorsatum Ulrich. VOL. 52 Semicoscinium rhomboideum Prout. Semicoscinium semirotundum (Hall). Semicoscinium tortum (Hall). Semicoscinium tuberculatum Prout. Strotopora perminuta Ulrich. Thamniscus nanus Hall. Trematella annulata (Hall). Trematella arborea (Hall). Unitrypa acaulis (Hall). Unitrypa anonyma (Hall). Unitrypa fastigata (Hall). Unitrypa tegulata (Hall). Feet Silurian. Niagaran limestone: ousville. formato tie eserves Melses See ae ee eee 38+ Argillaceous, cherty limestone, with the upper 8 feet crowded with fossil corals. Bluish, compact limestone below with few fossils. Pentameroid brachiopods are the prevailing forms in the lower bed. The molluscan part of the Louisville formation fauna is listed on a succeeding page. The fossil corals have been described or illustrated by Hall, Rominger, Greene, and Davis, par- ticularly. The list is large and no doubt many synonyms exist. The following forms are either very common or char- acteristic of the upper coral bed: Alveolites niagarensis Rominger. Amplexus shumardi (Kdwards and Haime). Anisophyllum trifurcatum Hall. Calceola tennesseensis Roemer. Cladopora complanata Davis. Cladopora equisetalis Davis. Cladopora reticulata Hall. Cenites verticillata (Winchell and Marcy). NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER I Os qn Cystiphyllum granilineatum Hall. Cystiphyllum niagarense Hall. Dictyostroma undulata Nicholson. Eridophyllum dividuum Davis. Eridophyllum yugosum Edwards and Haine. Favosites cristatus Edwards and Haime. Favosites discus Davis. Favosites favosus Goldfuss. Favosites niagarensis Hall. Favosites spongilla Rominger. Favosites venustus (Hall). Halysites catenulata (Linneus). Halysites nexus Davis. Heliolites interstinctus (Linneus). Heliolites megastoma McCoy. Heliolites subtubulatwim McCoy. Heliophyllum dentilineatum Hall. Heliophyllum gemmiferum Hall. Lyellia americana Edwards and Haime. Lyellia glabra (Owen). Lyellia parvituba Rominger. Omphyma verrucosa Rafinesque and Clifford. Plasmopora elegans Hall. Plasmopora follis Edwards and Haime. Rhizophyllum attenuatum Lyon. Romingeria vannula Davis. Streptelasma spongiaxis Rominger. Striatopora huronensis Rominger. Strombodes pentagonus Goldfuss. Strombodes mammillaris (Owen). Strombodes striatus D’Orbigny. Thecia major Rominger. Thecia minor Rominger. NETTELROTH TYPES OF ORDOVICIAN FOSSILS In the following lists the number cited is that of the U.S. National Museum Catalogue. The type terms are those regularly used by the department, holotype and cotypes being primary types, and plesiotypes referring to secondary types: 51342. CYPRICARDITES HALLI Nettelroth. Cotypes. Richmond (Ordovician), Oldham County, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 206, pl. xxxtv, figs. 1-6. = Cyrtodonta halli. 51187. ZYGOSPIRA KENTUCKIENSIS James. Plesiotypes. Richmond (Ordovician), Taylors Station, Oldham County, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 138, pl. xxx1v, figs. 21-25. UL 51186 51189 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52: . PTILODICTYA HILLI (James). Plesiotypes. Lorraine (Ordovician), Danville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 30, pl. xxxv, figs. I, 2, 4, 5. == Escharopora hilli. . RHYNCHONELLA INCREBESCENS Hall. Plesiotype. Trenton (Ordovician), Frankfort, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 83, pl. xxx1Vv, figs. 26-29. = Rhynchotrema inequivalve. . ORTHIS LINNEYI James. Plesiotypes. Trenton (Ordovician), Danville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 41, pl. Xxx1v, figs. 7-13. = Orthorhynchula linneyi. . ORTHIS BOREALIS Billings. Plesiotypes. Trenton (Ordovician), Frankfort, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 36, pl. xxx1v, figs. 14-20. = FHebertella borealis. SILURIAN ‘TYPES Unless otherwise noted, all the species listed under this heading are from the Louisville limestone division of the Niagaran at Louis- ville, Kentucky. 51330. 51331. 51314. 51340. 51326. BRACHIOPODA ANASTROPHIA INTERNASCENS Hall. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 47, pl. xxx, figs. 17-20. ATRYPA CALVINI Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 89, pl. xxxu, figs. 64-66. = Atrypa rugosa. ATRYPA RETICULARIS NIAGARENSIS Nettelroth. Cotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 92, pl. Xxxu, figs. 5-8, 44-47. CAMARELLA CONGESTA (Hall). Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 48. CYRTIA EXPORRECTA (Wahlenberg). Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 93, pl. xxvut, fig. 20. 51327. CYRTIA EXPORRECTA ARRECTA Hall and Whitfield. Ple- siotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 94, pl. xxvu, fig. 21; pl. xxxIv, fig. 35. = Cyrtia myrtia. 51322, LEPTOCOELIA HEMISPHERICA (Hall). Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 152, pl. xxx, figs. 21-23, 36-39. = Anoplotheca hemispherica. NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL, COLLECTION—BASSLER 137 51315. 51332. 51345. 51349. 51340. 51347. 51353. 51339. 51354. 51328. 51310. MERISTINA MARIA (Hall). Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. ror, pl. XXIx, figs. 7-10. MERISTINA NITIDA Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 102, pl. XXXII, figs. 10, IT. — Whitfeldella nitida. _NUCLEOSPIRA ELEGANS Hall. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 104. _NUCLEOSPIRA PISIFORMIS Hall. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 104, pl. Xx x1, figs. 7-9. _ ORTHIS BIFORATA (Schlotheim). Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 35, pl. XXIX, figs. 18-22. = Platystrophia biforata, var. ORTHIS ELEGANTULA Dalman. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 37, pl. XXXII, figs. 52-57. = Dalmanella elegantula. ORTHIS FLABELLUM Sowerby (Hall). Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 38, pl. xxx1v, fig. 30. = Orthis flabellites. ORTHIS HYBRIDA Sowerby. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18889, p. 39, pl. XXXxUL, figs. 32-35. = Rhipidomella hybrida. ORTHIS NISIS Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 42, pl. xxvu, fig. 4. PENTAMERUS COMPLANATUS Nettelroth. Cotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 53. = Conchidium tenuicosta. PENTAMERUS GLOBULOSUS Nettelroth. Cotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 54. = Gypidula globulosus. . PENTAMERUS KNAPPI Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 55. == Conchidium knap pi. . PENTAMERUS KNIGHTI Sowerby. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 57, pl. 20, figs. I, 2, 17. PENTAMERUS KNOTTI Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 56, pl. xx x11, figs. 9-12. = Gypidula knotti. PENTAMERUS NUCLEUS Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 59, pl. Xxx, figs. 31-33. = Gypidula nucleus. PENTAMERUS OBLONGUS Sowerby. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 60, pl. xx x11, figs. 15-17. IO 51311. 51355- 51337- 51323. 51300. 51338. 51330. 51325. 51320. 51350. 51310. 51350. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 PENTAMERUS OBLONGUS CYLINDRICUS Hall and Whit- field. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 61, pl. xxx, figs. 2-4. PENTAMERUS PERGIBBOSUS Hall and Whitfield. Plesio- type. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 62, pl. XxIx, figs. 23, 24. PENTAMERUS UNIPLICATUS Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 63, pl. XxxuI, figs. 25, 26. = Gypidula uniplicata. PENTAMERUS VENTRICOSUS Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 64, pl. Xxx10, figs. 12-14. = Clorinda ventricosus. RHYNCHONELLA ACINUS Hall. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 73, pl. xxvi, figs. 6, 13, 14; pl. XXXII, figs. 13-16. = Camarotechia acinus. RHYNCHONELLA BELLAFORMA Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 73. RHYNCHONELLA INDIANENSIS Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 76, pl. xxx1m, figs. 18-20. = Camarotechia indianensits. RHYNCHONELLA PISA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 78, pl. xxx11, figs. 24-27. RHYNCHONELLA RUGACOSTA Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 78, pl. xxxu, figs. 48-51. RHYNCHONELLA SAFFORDI Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 79, pl. xxx1mt, figs. 4-6. = Wilsonia saffordi. RHYNCHONELLA SAFFORDI DEPRESSA Nettelroth. Holo- type. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 80, pl. xxx1n, figs. 1-3. = Wilsoma satfordi depressa. RHYNCHONELLA STRICKLANDI Sowerby. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 81, pl. xx1x, figs. 3-6. = Uncinulus stricklandi. . SPIRIFER CRISPUS SIMPLEX Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 111, pl. xvit, figs. 36, 37. . SPIRIFER DUBIUS Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 115, pl. xxx, figs. 23, 24. . SPIRIFER FOGGI Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 117, pl. Xxxu1, figs. 28-31. . SPIRIFER RADIATA Sowerby. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 130, pl. XxIx, figs. 13-16. NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 139 51318. SPIRIFER ROSTELLUM Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 129, pl. xxvir, figs. 17-19; pl. GTX 25: 51313. STREPTORHYNCHUS SUBPLANUS (Conrad). Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 141, pl. XXIx, figs. II, 12. = Schuchertella subplanus. 51329. STREPTORHYNCHUS TENUIS Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 142. = Schuchertella tenuts. 51319. STRICKLANDINIA LOUISVILLENSIS Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 65, pl. Xxx1Vv, figs. 31-34. 51309. STROPHODONTA PROFUNDA (Hall). Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 148, pl. xvi, figs. 20, 21; pl. SkIx fig, 26: 51335. STROPHODONTA STRIATA Hall. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 149. = Strophonella striata. 51321. TREMATOSPIRA HELENA Nettelroth. Holotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 137, pl. xxxu1, figs. 40-43. = Rhynchospira helena. GASTROPODA 51362. CYCLONEMA RUGAELINEATA Hall and Whitfield. Plesio- type. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 187. 51342. PLATYCERAS UNGUIFORME Hall. Plesiotypes. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 168. 53232. PLATYOSTOMA NIAGARENSE Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 185, pl. xx x11, fig. 30. 51341. PLEUROTOMARIA CASII Meek and Worthen. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 171, pl. xxvu, fig. 11. CEPHALOPODA 51378. LITUITES MARSHI Hall. Plesiotype. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 195, pl. xxx, fig. 1. DEVONIAN ‘T'yPEs In this list, the faunas of the four Devonian formations, Jefferson- ville, Silver Creek, Sellersburg limestone, and New Albany shale, are not given separately because of the occurrence of a number of species in two or more of the divisions. Moreover, the exact horizon of a few of the types is uncertain, so that this would have prevented the preparation of exact faunal lists. 140 51235. 51182. 51214. 51179. 51220. 51228. 51222. B1223: 51364. 51200. 51178. 51176. SMITHSGNIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 BRACHIOPODA AMBOCOELIA UMBONATA (Conrad). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 86, pl. xvit, figs. 25, 26. ATHYRIS VITTATA Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 87, pl. xvi, figs. 25-32. = Athyris fultonensis. ATRYPA ASPERA Schlotheim. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 88, pl. xiv, figs. I-11. ATRYPA ELLIPSOIDEA Nettelroth. Cotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. go. = Atrypa reticularis ellipsoidea. ATRYPA RETICULARIS Linnzus. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 91, pl. xiv, figs. 12-22. CENTRONELLA GLANSFAGEA (Hall). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 153, pl. XXxX1, figs. 14-17. CHONETES ACUTIRADIATUS (Hall). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Indiana side, Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 66, pl. xvitt, figs. 18-20. CHONETES SUBQUADRATUS Nettelroth. Holotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 67. CHONETES YANDELLIANA Hall. Plesiotype. Silver Creek (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 68, pl. xvit, figs. 16-19. CRANIA BORDENTI Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Watson’s Station, Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 32, pl. 1, fig. 14. = Cramia sheldont. CYRTINA CRASSA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 95, pl. x11, figs. 21-24. CYRTINA HAMILTONIAE (Hall). Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 96, pl. xt, figs. 4-12. = Cyrtina hamiltonensis. NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER I4!I 51177. CYRTINA HAMILTONIAE RECTA Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 97, pl. x11, figs. 13-16. = Cyrtina hamiltonensts recta. 51212. DISCINA DORIA Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 32. == Orbiculoidea doria. 51215. DISCINA GRANDIS (Vanuxem). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Watson’s Station, Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 33, pl. m1, fig. 3. = Roemerella grandis. 51231. LEIORHYNCHUS QUADRICOSTATUM (Vanuxem). Plesio- $1232. types. New Albany shale (Devonian), Lexington, Indiana, and Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 71. 51218. LINGULA TRIANGULATA Nettelroth. Holotype. Silver Creek (Devonian), Kentucky side, Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 34, pl. x xvi, fig. I. = Glossina triangulata. 51308. MERISTELLA NASUTA (Conrad). Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohic. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 98, pl. xv, figs. 2-8. 51207. MERISTELLA UNISULCATA Conrad. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 90, pl. xv, figs. 9-16. = Pentagonia unisulcata- 51368. NUCLEOSPIRA CONCINNA (Hall). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 103, pl. xxx, figs. 1-4. 51184. ORTHIS GOODWINI Nettelroth. Holotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p: 39, pl. xvu, figs. 30-32. = Rhipidomella goodwint. 51185. ORTHIS LIVIA Billings. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 40, pl. xv1, figs. 23, 24. = Rhipidomella livia. 142 51188. 51183. 51301. 51216. 51230. 51210. 51365. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 ORTHIS PROPINQUA Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 43, pl. xvi, figs. I-3, 7-II. = Schizophoria propinqua. ORTHIS VANUXEMI Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 45, pl. xv1, figs. 4-6, 12-14. = Rhipidomella vanuxemt. PENTAMERELLA ARATA (Conrad). Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 49, pl. x11, figs. 17-20. . PENTAMERELLA PAPILIONENSIS (Hall). Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 50. PENTAMERELLA THUSNELDA Nettelroth. Holotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 51, pl. Xxx1, figs. 26-28. PRODUCTELLA SEMIGLOBOSA Nettelroth. Holotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 70, pl. xxvu, fig. 7. . PRODUCTELLA SUBACULEATA CATARACTA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 69, pl. xv, figs. 5-9. = Productella spinulicosta. RHYNCHONELLA CAROLINA Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 75, pl. x1m, figs. 1-3, 34, 35. = Camarotechia carolina and Cyclorhina nobilis. As pointed out by Kindle, figures 1-3 are of Cyclorhina nobilis, while figures 34 and 35 refer to Camarotachia caro- lina. RHYNCHONELLA GAINESI Nettelroth. Cotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Jefferson County, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 76, pl. Xxx1, figs. 6-9. . RHYNCHONELLA LOUISVILLENSIS Nettelroth. Holotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 77, pl. xxx1, figs. 1-4. . RHYNCHONELLA TENUISTRIATA Nettelroth. Holotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 82, pl. xvi, figs. 27-20. NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 143 51200. 51190. 51194. 51193. 51194. are 51190. 51191. 51203. 51204. RHYNCHONELLA TETHYS Billings. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 83, pl. x1, figs. 25-33; pl. XXXI, figs. 22-25. = Camarotechia tethys. SPIRIFER ACUMINATUS (Conrad). Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 105, pl. viru, figs. 1-8. SPIRIFER ARCTISEGMENTUM Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 108, pl. xu, figs. 14, I5. SPIRIFER ATWATERANA Miller. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 107, pl. Tx, figs. I-5. = Spirifer towaensis. SPIRIFER BYRNESI Nettelroth. Cotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 109, pl. x, figs. I-5, 31-34, 30-39. SPIRIFER CONRADANA Miller. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, t889, p. 110, pl. vu, figs. I1-13. = Reticularia fimbriata. . SPIRIFER DAVISI Nettelroth. Holotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 112, pl. x11, figs. 1-4. SPIRIFER DIVARICATUS Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Lebanon, Kentucky, and Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 113, pl. x1, figs. 6-11; pl. x1, figs. 5-IT. . SPIRIFER DUODENARIUS (Hall). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 114, pl. x, figs. 12, 13, 16. SPIRIFER EURUTEINES Owen. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 115, pl. vi, figs. 1-8, II, 17, 21, 2 = Spirifer fornacula. 1) SPIRIFER EURUTEINES FORNACULA Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p: 117, pl. v1, figs. 9, 10, 18-20. = Spirifer fornacula. 144 51108. 51192. 51195. 51200. 51200. 51205. 51201. 51202. 51230. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOI,. 52 SPIRIFER GREGARIA Clapp. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 119, pl. vit, figs. 9-13; pl. x, figs. 6-10. SPIRIFER GRIERI Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 120, pl. 1x, figs. 8-14. SPIRIFER HOBBSI Nettelroth. Cotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 121, pl. x, figs. 21, 22, 26-30, 35; 40. SPIRIFER KNAPPIANA Nettelroth. Holotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 122, pl. vil, fig. 14. = Reticularia knap piana. SPIRIFER MACCONATHII Nettelroth. Holotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 123, pl. x1, figs. I-5. SPIRIFER MEDIALIS Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 125, pl. XxvI, figs. 2-5. = Spirifer audaculus. SPIRIFER OWENI Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 126, pl. vu, figs. I-10. = Spirifer granulosus. . SPIRIFER SCULPTILIS Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 132, pl. XxxI, fig. 13. = Delthyris sculptilis. . SPIRIFER SEGMENTUM Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 132, pl. xt, figs. 36-38. SPIRIFER VARICOSUS Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 134, pl. x, figs. 11-20, 23-25. . STREPTORHYNCHUS ARCTOSTRIATA (Hall). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 140, pl. Xxx1, figs. 31-33. = Schuchertella chemungensis arctistriata. STROPHODONTA DEMISSA (Conrad). Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. IKentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 143, pl. xviu, figs. 10, 16. NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION SIIso. 51360. o1 = bo wo a SII8t. BASSLER 145 STROPHODONTA HEMISPHERICA Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 144, pl. xvmt, figs. 4-6, 7-9. . STROPHODONTA INEQUISTRIATA (Conrad). Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 145, pl. xvi, figs. Io, Ir. . STROPHODONTA NACREA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 146. = Pholidostrophia iowaensis. . STROPHODONTA PERPLANA (Conrad). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 147, pl. xvut, fig. 17. . STROPHODONTA PLICATA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 149. . STROPHOMENA RHOMBOIDALIS (Wilckens). Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 150, pl. xvimt, figs. 1-3. —= Leptena rhombaidalis. . TEREBRATULA HARMONIA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 154, pl. xv, figs. 1-4. = Euneila harmonia. . TEREBRATULA JUCUNDA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 889, p. 154. . TEREBRATULA LINCKLAENI Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 155, pl. xvit, figs. 22-24. = Eunella linckleni. TEREBRATULA ROEMINGERI Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 155, pl. xvz, figs. 20-22. = Cranena romingeri. . TREMATOSPIRA HIRSUTA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 136, pl. xvi, figs. 15-Io9. = Parazyga hirsuta. TROPIDOLEPTUS CARINATUS Conrad. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 46, pl. xvu, figs. 14, 15. 146 51299. 51303. 51289. 51359. 51358. 513060. 51373. 51305. 51300. U1 — ty A 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 PELECYPODA ACTINOPTERIA BOYDI Conrad. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 229, pl. 11, fig. 2. AVICULOPECTEN CRASSICOSTATUS Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. Silver Creek (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 223. . AVICULOPECTEN FASCICULATUS Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 224, pl. m1, fig. 4. _ AVICULOPECTEN PECTENIFORMIS Conrad. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 225, pl. 11, fig. I. AVICULOPECTEN PRINCEPS Conrad. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 225. CLINOPISTHA ANTIQUA Meek. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 200, pl. Iv, figs. 9-IT. CLINOPISTHA STRIATA Nettelroth. Cotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 200, pl. Iv, figs. I, 2. CLINOPISTHA SUBNASUTA Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 199, pl. Iv, figs. 6-8, 12. CONOCARDIUM CUNEUS (Conrad). Plesiotypes Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 203, pl. v, figs. 10-19. . CYPRICARDINIA CATARACTA Conrad. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 204, pl. Iv, fig. 3. CYPRICARDINIA CYLINDRICA Hall and Whitfield. Plesio- types. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 205, pl. iv, figs. 13, 14. CYPRICARDINIA INFLATA SUBEQUIVALVIS Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 206. . GLYPTODESMA CANCELLATA Nettelroth. Holotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 227, pl. v, fig. I. NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 147 51283. GLYPTODESMA OCCIDENTALE Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 228, pl. 111, fig. 5. 51288. GONIOPHORA TRUNCATA Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 214, pl. Iv, figs. 21-23. 51287. GRAMMYSIA GIBBOSA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 208, pl. Iv, figs. 16-20. 51285. LIMOPTERA CANCELLATA Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 198, pl. 11, figs. 6-8; pl. Iv, fig. 24, 512901. MODIOMORPHA AFFINIS Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Watson Station, Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 216. 51293. MODIOMORPHA ALTA Conrad. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 217, pl. XxXvI, fig. Io. 51292. MODIOMORPHA CHARLESTOWNENSIS Nettelroth. Holo- type. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 218, pl. v, figs. 7-9. 51295. MODIOMORPHA CONCENTRICA (Conrad). Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 219, pl. 1, figs. 9-12, 14. 51204. MODIOMORPHA MYTILOIDES Conrad. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 220. 51300. NUCULA HERZERI Nettelroth. Cotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 221. 51374. NUCULA NEDA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 222, pl. v, figs. 5, 6. 51301. NUCULA NIOTICA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 222, pl. v, figs. 2-4. 51279. PARACYCLAS ELLIPTICA Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 200, pl. 1, figs. 1-3. 51282. PARACYCLAS ELONGATA Nettelroth. Holotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 210, pl. um, fig. S. 51305. 51286. 51208. 531061. 51262. 512061. 51263. 51254. 51376. 51258. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 . PARACYCLAS LIRATA (Conrad). Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 211, pl. 11, figs. 4-7. . PARACYCLAS OCTERLONII Nettelroth. Holotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 212, pl. xxx1, fig. 18. PARACYCLAS OHIOENSIS (Meek). Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 213, pl. v, fig. 20. PTYCHODESMA KNAPPIANA Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 201, pl. 11, figs. 13, 15, 18. YOLDIA ? VALVULUS Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 223, pl. 1v, figs. 4, 5. PTEROPODA TENTACULITES SCALARIFORMIS Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 156, pl. XXxI, fig. 12. GASTROPODA BELLEROPHON LEDA Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 158, pl. xv, figs. 12, 13. BUCANIA DEVONICA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 160, pl. Xx, figs. 3, 4. CALLONEMA BELLATULA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 175, pl. xx, fig. 7. . CALLONEMA CLARKI Nettelroth. Cotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 175, pl. xxiv, figs. 2-5. CALLONEMA IMITATOR Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 176, pl. xx, figs. 12, 13. CYCLONEMA MULTILIRA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 188, pl. xx11, fig. 5. EUOMPHALUS DECEWI Billings. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 181, pl. xx1, figs. 1, 2. No. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL, COLLECTION—BASSLER 149 51259. 51276. 51205. 51264. 51372. 51270. 51371. 51275. 51272. EUOMPHALUS SAMPSONI Nettelroth. Holotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Watson’s Station, Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 182, pl. xx, figs. 3, 4. LOXONEMA HAMILTONIAE Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 177, pl. XXxXI, fig. 20. LOXONEMA HYDRAULICUM Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 178, pl. xx, figs. 8, 9. LOXONEMA LAEVIUSCULUS Hall. Cotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. talib Naty Elise New. York ebale valPy. li sI87Os)p. T3i, plt Xxviul, figs. 10, 11.—Nettelroth, Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, DeL7ZOmply KRU, TS. On O: . MACROCHEILUS CARINATUS Nettelroth. Cotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 180, pl. xx, figs. 20-23. . MURCHISONIA DESIDERATA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 160, pl. xxv, fig. 8. PLATYCERAS BUCCULENTUM Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 160, pl. xxv, fig. 3. PLATYCERAS COMPRESSUM Nettelroth. Holotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 162, pl. xxv, figs. 8, 9. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 161, pl. xxv, figs. 2, II. . PLATYCERAS DUMOSUM Conrad. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 162, pl. xx1mI, figs. I-6, 12.» . PLATYCERAS DUMOSUM RARISPINUM Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 163, pl. xx1u, figs. 7, 8. PLATYCERAS ECHINATUM Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 164, pl. xxxt, fig. 21. PLATYCERAS ERECTUM Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 165. 150 51274. 512067. 51273. 51370. 512066. 51271. 51248. 51240. 51249. 51250. 51253. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 PLATYCERAS MILLERI Nettelroth. Cotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 165, pl. xxv, fig. 1. PLATYCERAS MULTISPINOSUM Meek. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 166, pl. xxv, fig. 4. PLATYCERAS RICTUM Hall. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 166. PLATYCERAS SYMMETRICUM Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 167, pl. xx11, fig. Io. PLATYCERAS THETIS Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 168. PLATYCERAS VENTRICOSUM Conrad. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 168, pl. xxv, fig. 10. . PLATYOSTOMA LINEATA Conrad. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil. Shells, 1889, p. 183, pl. xrx, figs. 5-8; pl. xxi, figs. 7, 8. PLATYOSTOMA LINEATA CALLOSA Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 184, pl. xx1, fig. 14; pl. xxu, MCSE, MO) TILA OE nora, ankesy, 5 (oy xe) PLATYOSTOMA TURBINATA Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 184, pl. xx1, figs. 7, 8. PLEUROTOMARIA ARABELLA Nettelroth. Holotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 171, pl. Xxv1, fig. 12. PLEUROTOMARIA LUCINA Hall. Plesiotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 172. . PLEUROTOMARIA PROCTERI Nettelroth. Cotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana, and Lou- isville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 173, pl. Xx, figs. 9, I0, 13. PLEUROTOMARIA SULCOMARGINATA Conrad. Plesio- types. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 174, pl. Xx1, figs. II, 12. NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER I51 51244. STROPHOSTYLUS VARIANS Hall. Plesiotype. Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 186, pl. xxu, figs. 6, 7. 51260. TROCHONEMA YANDELLANA Hall and Whitfield. Plesio- type. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 190. 51257. TURBO SHUMARDI Verneuil. Plesiotypes. Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 191, pl. x1x, fig. 4; pl. xxu1, figs. 1 2. CEPHALOPODA 51243. NAUTILUS MAXIMUS Conrad. Plesiotype. Silver Creek (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 196, pl. xxiv, fig. I. 51277. GOMPHOCERAS OVIFORME Hall. Plesiotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 193, pl. XxX1, figs. 17, 18. 51278. GOMPHOCERAS TURBINIFORMIS Meek and Worthen. Ple- siotypes. Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 194, pl. Xx1, figs. 15, 16. Types oF Fossit, CoRALS The following species of fossil corals, illustrated by Davis in his Kentucky Fossil Corals, form a part of the Nettelroth collection: 52754. ALVEOLITES LOUISVILLENSIS Davis. Cotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xvi, fig. 6. 52774. CALCEOLA PROTEUS Davis. Cotypes. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. cxxxI, figs. 2, 3, 13. 52639. CALCEOLA SANDALINA Lamarck. Plesiotype. Devonian, Eifel, Germany. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. cxxxz1, fig. 18. 52642. CLADOPORA EQUISETALIS Davis. Holotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xivui, fig. 7. 52641. CLADOPORA LAQUEATA Rominger. Plesiotypes. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xvii, figs. 8, 9. 52 52640. 51643. 52776: 52645. 52660. 52743. 52638. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 CLADOPORA RETICULATA Hall. Plesiotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. XLvil, fig. 2. CLADOPORA STRIATA Davis. Holotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xivut, fig. 8. ERIDOPHYLLUM DIVIDUUM Davis. Cotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. crx, fig. 5. . FAVOSITES AMPLISSIMUS Davis. Cotype. Jeffersonville (Devonian), near Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xvu1, fig. I. 4. FAVOSITES FAVOSUS Goldfuss. Plesiotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. vin, fig. 1. . FAVOSITES FORBESI Edwards and Haime. Plesiotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. vit, fig. 5. FAVOSITES SPONGILLA Rominger. Plesiotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. vi, fig. 7. PLASMOPORA FOLLIS Edwards and Haime. Plesiotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. 1, fig. Io. . PTYCHOPHYLLUM STOKESI Edwards and Haime. Plesio- types. Niagara (Silurian). Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xv, fig. 6. ROMINGERIA VANNULA Davis. Cotype. Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. LXxt, fig. I. THECIA VETUSTA (Hall). Plesiotypes. Richmond (Ordovician), Oldham County, Kentucky. Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xxx1Vv, figs. 9, Io. = Protarea vetusta. 7 oe » , 1 ee 52, PL. XII VOL. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS OPUNTIA VIVIPARA Rose A NEW OPUNTIA FROM ARIZONA By aN ROSE (WitH ONE PLATE) While going from Tucson, Arizona, to the Pictured Rock some 12 miles to the southwest, my attention was called by Dr. D. T. Mac- Dougal to a peculiar Opuntia resembling the very common O. versi- color, but of very different habit, branching and with larger fruit, etc. At first we came upon a large group of these plants where they formed the dominant element in the landscape. Farther on the species was less common and was associated with O. versicolor and O. spinosior, but it surely does not intergrade with either of them. It is much more open in its manner of growth than O. versi- color, while the branches readily drop off and take root about the old plant. This is shown very well in the accompanying illustration. This species may be technically described as follows: OPUNTIA VIVIPARA Rose, sp. nov. Stems 2 to 3.5 meters high, usually several from the base, 8 to Io cm. in diameter, much branched, but not compactly so; old stems with rather smooth bark; young branches bluish green, slen- der, I to 2 cm. long, 10 to 12 mm. in diameter; tubercles low, ob- long, 15 to 20 mm. long; areoles when young forming a dense cush- ion of yellow wool with few or no glochides; spines I to 4, 2 cm. or less long, covered with straw-colored sheaths; leaves small, terete, acutish, purple; flowers numerous, borne in clusters at the top of last year’s branches, purplish; ovary strongly tubercled, bearing white deciduous bristles; fruit oblong, 4 to 6 cm. long, smooth with a somewhat depressed umbilicus, yellowish-green, spineless; seeds white, 5 mm. long. On a mesa near Tucson, Arizona, to the southwestward, J. N. Rose, April 21, 1908 (No. 11836). Type in U. S. National Herbarium, No. 454,531. Illustration (Pl. x11) furnished by courtesy of the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington. 3 s 153 THE STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH? By THEODORE GILL rt One of the most remarkable of animals is the great Ray, most widely known as Devil-fish, but which bears also several other names. Devil-fish is a name by no means restricted to any one of the Rays, for it is well known in connection with the gigantic Cuttlefishes and is also used locally in England for the Angler (Lophius piscatorius), and in California for the Gray whale (Rhachianectes glaucus). Among the Rays the name is applied not only to all of the same family as the great fish, but also, in some places (for instance, North Carolina and the Gulf of Mexico), to species of Eagle-rays. Sea- devil may be considered to be a natural variant of the same name, but it has also been used for the same animals as Devil-fish and even for those of another family, the species of the Sharks known as Squatina. Vampire originated in the form “Oceanic Vampyre” as a selective name and was given by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, in 1823, as the popular name for his Cephalopterus vampyrus. He claimed that “this fish being perhaps the largest of the Rays, as the vampyre is of the bats, or vespertilios, the name vampyrus may be attached.” ‘The name has somehow been taken up and found limited currency in cer- tain localities where the fish abounds. Thus C. F. Holder? has re- corded that it is in use in southern Florida. When, during a night on the water about Garden Key, he heard “a rushing, swishing sound ; then a clap as of thunder,” a negro boatman exclaimed ‘“Vampa fish, sah,” and later alluded to it as “Sea Vampa” or collectively as “Vampas.”’ ‘Every well-known fish student is more or less frequently asked some ques- tion or questions about the Devil-fish. Not infrequently the student is at a loss for an answer. The requisite information may have been published, but to obtain it perhaps hundreds of articles may have to be examined. After a search through such articles the present paper has been compiled and will furnish answers to many of the questions that may be propounded. It will at least serve as a basis for investigation and a repertory of what has been ascer- tained or thought to be facts. *Big Game at Sea, 1908, pp. 2, 3, 4. 155 150 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Sea-bat was found by Holder to be in use in the same locality as Vampire. When the negro Paublo exclaimed “Sea Vampa, sure,” the Seminole chief in the same boat corroborated his identification rather than contradicted by exclaiming, “Sea-bat. . . . They Fic. 40.—The Devil-fish. After a photograph." ‘The iconography of the Devil-fish is very defective and the figures herewith given are merely provisional. ‘The plate first given by Jordan and Evermann (1900), later reproduced by Fowler (1906), Hugh Smith (1907) and others, is quite inaccurate so far as the tail is concerned. Instead of the tail being much longer than the body, as therein represented, it is only about 6/10 as long. Elliott (p. Io1) especially criticized De Kay’s “characteristic, viz., tail longer than the body,” and affirmed “that the length of the tail is, to that of the body, as six to ten.” He had examined “almost twenty individuals.” The illustra- tion cited was drawn in Dec., 1894, but the present writer was long unable to learn. what was the basis of the figure. He finally traced it to De Kay, who published a composite figure based on Mitchill’s and Lesueur’s plates. There is no specimen of the Devil-fish in the National Museum. ‘The figures here presented are (1) the old one with the tail modified to suit photographs and Elliott’s description; (2) one drawn after the former outline with the under surface represented from a photographic illustration in Holder’s work, and (3) a reproduction of a photograph of a fish caught in 1869 or 1870, during a cruise in the Pacific of a revenue cutter (Captain Freeman commanding). The last was taken while the fish was suspended from a tripod and the drooping fins may have been partly at least due to the suspension. ‘That fish was about 13 feet wide. ‘The photograph is very obscure behind and the reproduction consequently is unreliable, as are the other figures. Seven photographs or reproductions are at hand, but all are too obscure behind for guidance. A good one is extremely desirable as are also exact data as to relative propor- tions and weight. All published are deficient. A special article on the subject will follow. NO, I816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 157 jump five—yes, eight—feet high.’ Bat-fish and Black-bat are sometimes used variants. Another name for the monster Ray has been borrowed from the Spanish. Among the fishermen, and especially the pearl divers of Central America and western Mexico, it is known as the Manta; this is a Spanish term, meaning originally blanket, and was given by the fishermen of parts of Spain and the island of Mallorca to a spe- cies of the Mediterranean? and extended thence to similar fishes of other regions. It has been explained that the name was given by the Spaniards of America to the Devil-fish because it was alleged to hover over and cover a fisherman at the bottom as a blanket prepar- atory to killing him for good. The belief, indeed, that the Devil- fish may so attack a man is not only widely spread, but of an ancient origin. Such an idea, however, is contrary to our knowledge of the fish. Like several other of the gigantic selachians,* its diet is itt almost inverse ratio to its size. Inasmuch as Devil-fish is the best known of all these names and has been long current in story as well as in works on natural history, it will be retained here and will be used for the great fish best known as such, as well as for its congeners of smaller size. The species especially called Devil-fish is one of a number having the same essen- tial characters and all designated in a general way as Devil-fishes. II The form of the Devil-fishes is extraordinary; the body, exclusive of the tail, is about twice as wide as long; the tail, however, corre- sponds to the hind part of the body in distant relations of the Devil- fish. Different as the animal is from Sharks generally, there is or has been every gradation from an ordinary Shark to the Devil-fish. 1’Tlhe Manta of Mallorca, or Majorca, is the Mobula giorna, and is the Vacca or Vaca (Cow) with various qualifications of some other localities in the Mediterranean. It is also the Bous of Aristotle. ‘The names Vacca and Bous allude to the horn-like caropteres or head-fins. ‘The species is said sometimes to reach a width of 28 feet. Carus, in his Prodromus Faune Mediterranez (11, 1803, p. 520), specifies “Longit. 1.5-3 m.” Pellegrin in 1901 (Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., vit, 327) noticed one 5m. 20 wide, and 4m. 15 long. There is record of one 28 feet wide and 21 feet long and “estimated to weigh a ton” (Zodl., 1890, p. 146). ‘The data are insufficient and a fish of the dimensions noted must have weighed very much more than a ton. *The gigantic Basking Shark (Cetorhinus maximus) and the still larger Rhinodon (Rhineodon typus) of the Indian Ocean subsist mainly on the minute crustaceans and other animals living near the surface of the ocean. 158 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 FIG. 41. ['iGs. 41 Fic. 42. AND 42.—Squalus acanthias. Vics. 43 T0 45.—Rhinobatus lentiginosus, No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL, 159 mi if Be Fic. 46.—Raja erinacea. Fics. 47 AND 48.—Dasybatis sabina. 160 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 A few forms still living exemplify the manner in which the extreme modification of the last has been attained; these forms, it is true, are not in the direct line of descent, but they are not very far off. The common Dog-fish of the New England coast (Squalus acan- thias) has a slender tail, but there is a regular gradation from the preanal region, or trunk, into the postanal, or tail, and the pectorals have the slender bases characteristic of the Sharks generally. The Guitar-fishes (Ithinobatide) still have the regular gradation of the trunk into the tail, but the pectorals have a broad basis of union with the body and head, and a narrow disk is thus formed. In the ordi- nary rays (Raude) the tail has become disproportionately slender and the disk wider and more sharply differentiated; in the Sting- rays (Dasybatide) the tail has almost entirely lost its muscular de- velopment, but the disk is much like that of an ordinary ray. The tail of the Sting ray is essentially like that of the Devil-fish, but in the Devil-fish the disk has become extended sideways into acutely angu- lated and wing-like fins. The homologies of the respective parts are thus evident. In the course of evolution, more and more resort has been had to the pectoral fins for progression and the tail correspond- ingly disused; the culmination has been reached in the Devil-fishes, which progress by wing-like flapping of their pectorals and the tail is carried inert behind. The tranformation of shark-like forms into the ray-like type must have commenced early in Mesozoic times, for well-developed repre- sentatives of the Dasybatids and Myliobatids were living in the Cre- taceous epoch and were abundant in the Eocene. It has been be- lieved that no fossil remains of Devil-fishes have been found, or rather identified. If this had been a fact, it might have been partly explained by the pelagic habitat of the species and partly by the reduction of teeth and spines, the parts most likely to be pre- served. ‘There is, indeed, one record of an extinct form which, however, only takes us one stage back in the geological series. The record is of a supracaudal tubercle from the “phosphate beds” of South Carolina, which are supposed to be of post-Pliocene age; the tubercle has been considered by Joseph Leidy to represent an extinct species closely related to the living Devil-fish of the same State and has received from him the name Ceratoptera unios; it was described and figured in 1877 in the Journal of the Academy of Nat- ural Sciences of Philadelphia (2nd ser., vi11, 248-9, pl. 34, figs. I, 2). The individual development of the fishes is to a large extent par- allel with the evolution of the type from the shark-like form to the ray-like one. The Devil-fishes form a family of ray-like Selachians to which the No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 101 names Cephalopteride, Pterocephalide, Mobulide, and Mantide have been given. Mantide@ is that used for it by most recent Ameri- Fic. 50. Fics. 49 AND 50.—The Devil-fish. After Jordan and Evermann. (With reduced tail.) can ichthyologists, as Jordan and Evermann, but it had been previ- ously taken for a family of insects. Mobulide may be used here. The essential external characters of the family follow: 162 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL: §2 MosuLip# The Mobulids or Devil-fishes include the largest as well as the widest of rays. Behind the anus the tail is abruptly attenuated and developed as a whip-like appendage without efficient spines. The mouth, instead of being inferior, as in other types, is in front, and the jaws have weak teeth or are partially toothless. The pectoral fins are extended outward in a wing-like manner, and long, flexible, horn-like processes or fins are developed on each side of the head and bound a preoral space. ‘These processes (caropteres, head-fins, or horns) can be used for grasping, and a number of cases have been Fic. 51.—Tail of the Devil-fish. After Holmes. (Proceedings Elliott Society of Natural History, I, pl. 3.) About half natural size. 1. Knob and base of tail. 2. Bone with the small spine as extracted from the knob. 3. Upper view of the same with the posterior spinelet (in white). recorded of a Devil-fish seizing the anchor of a vessel and running away with both anchor and vessel for some distance, to the wonder and fear of the sailors. ‘The spines about the base of the whip-like tail, characteristic of the nearest relations of the Devil-fishes, the Sting-rays and Eagle-rays, are reduced in size and sometimes to a minimum in the Devil-fishes. In the typical species the spine is quite rudimentary and concealed in a subosseous swelling at the base of the tail behind the small dorsal fin. Further, the Devil-fishes are peculiar in the possession of pre- branchial organs, to be noticed later. No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 163 i The Devil-fishes are inhabitants of warm-water seas. They are to some extent pelagic, though, as a rule, they appear not to extend far out into the high seas. ‘They belong to the category of tropico- politan forms, some one or other species occurring in every tropical and every subtropical sea. Besides, some may venture far beyond the limits of the Tropic of Cancer or of Capricorn, one wandering occasionally as far as New York and another into the Mediterranean Sea: If we may also believe Turner-Turner, “a characteristic pose is that of lying motionless, or at most with its disk slightly undulating with respiration, in the sand just under the water. Sometimes, in- deed, they are found a yard or so above low-water mark, in pits of their own making.’ ‘This observation needs confirmation for Devil- fishes, although applicable to Sting-rays. But certainly they require to rest on the ground, and sometimes, when harpooned, they descend and (to use a term of the angler) sulk on the bottom. Elliott re- marks that at times one “plunges desperately for the bottom, to which he sometimes clings for hours.” But they are best known as active— and very active—frequenters of the surface waters. Another characteristic of a Devil-fish’s action is a tendency to turn somersaults. According to Elliott,t “It is a very curious exhibi- tion. You first see the feelers thrown out of the water; then the white stomach, marked with five gills, or branchial apertures, on each side (for the fish is on his back) ; then his tail emerges. After a disappearance for a few seconds, the revolution is repeated, some- times as often as six times. It happens occasionally that in making these somersets the fish does not rise quite to the surface, but is several feet below; so that his revolutions are detected by the ap- pearance and disappearance of the white or under part of his body, dimly seen through the turbid water in which he delights. Some- times, indeed, he is unseen; but his presence is shown to the observant sportsman by the boiling of the water from below, as from a great caldron. With no better guide than this, the harpoon has been darted down, and reached him when twelve feet below the surface.” These somersaults (or somersets as Elliott? calls them) are often made by the fishes when leaping out of the water. Eliott especially noticed a number in 1846 (July Ist) at four o’clock in the afternoon near Hilton Head (S. C.): “They did not show themselves somer- - 2 Bec Ope 7 Op-cit.; p. ox ot 85. 164 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL,-52 setting for some time, but after a while began to sport and throw somersets under the water, but so near to the surface as to show their bellies in the evolution. We saw, I do not doubt, as many as twenty fish. We counted eleven that leaped entirely out of the water. They were in the channel, and were further from shore than where we had usually met with them; and, on approaching near to them in our boat, we remarked that those which leaped entirely out of the water did not again show themselves on the surface until they had silently gone a mile or so toward the sea, when they reappeared, gambolled awhile, threw new somersets, and again disappeared for anew seaward movement. ‘The fish which were behind came along sporting until they had reached the spot where the first had thrown their somersets. They, too, then threw their somersets, and disap- peared like the first. Usually they leaped twice—leaping from their backs, and falling likewise on their backs; leaping, I should say, at least ten feet above the water.” The appearance and evolutions of the Devil-fish are indeed im- pressive and startling. Holdert thought that “no more diabolical creature could be imagined. ‘They resembled enormous bats, and in following one another around the circle raised the outer tip of the long wing-like fin high out of the water in a graceful curve, the other being deeply submerged.” ‘They might be seen, “now gliding down with flying motion of the wings; sweeping, gyrating upward with a twisting vertical motion marvelous in its perfect grace; now they flashed white, again black, so that one would say they were rolling over and over, turning somersaults, were it possible for so large a fish to accomplish the feat.” Such evolutions, Holder learned, were “really a common practice of the big rays.” But it is the great leaps out of the water that are most striking, especially during the stillness of the night. Holder,? on such an occasion on the outer Florida reef, first encountered the fish. ‘There came out of the darkness, near at hand, a rushing, swishing noise; then a clap as of thunder, which seemed to go roaring and reverberating away over the reef, like the discharge of a cannon. So startling was the sound, so peculiar, that the negroes stopped rowing, and one or two dropped their oars in consternation.” * Opi cit pss: Opreit pee: NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 165 VE In some warm sea a fortunate observer may find perhaps a Devil- fish or a couple swimming on or near the surface; not rarely a school, or “shoal,” of them. (Shoal is the word used by the Hon. William Elliott in his earliest full treatise on them as subjects of sport.) Frequently they project themselves in the air to a consid- erable height and for some distance. ‘Their progression indeed is rather of the nature of flight than swimming, and has been likened to “the flight of a bird of prey”; it is by flaps of the wing-like pec- toral fins and not at all by the tail, as in Sharks and fishes generally. T'tc. 52.—Eagle-rays in motion. After Mangelsdorff. (Natur und Haus, 8, 1900, p. 255.) In fact, the progression of the Devil-fishes is quite similar to that of their near relatives, the Eagle-rays, which have been portrayed from life by Mangelsdorff. Meanwhile, according to Holder, their caropteres, or head-fins, otherwise called arms, feelers, claspers, or horns, are “in constant motion, being whirled about like the tentacles of a squid.” Mr. Hector von Beyer, of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, informed Dr. Hugh Smith? that he had ‘observed the animal in the Gulf of *Carolina Sports by land and water, including incidents of Devil-fishing, [ete.]. Charleston, 1846. (2d edition, N. Y., 1850; 3d edition, N. Y., 1859.) * The Fishes of North Carolina, 1907, p. 48. 166 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 California’ and noticed that “each of these appendages may be curved on itself like an elephant’s trunk, and can firmly grasp ob- jects within reach.” According to Elliott,’ “It is the habit of this fish to ply these arms rapidly before its mouth while it swims, and to clasp with the utmost closeness and obstinacy whatever body it has once inclosed. In this way, the boats of fishermen have often been dragged from their moorings and overset by the Devil-fish having laid hold of the grapnel.” That these “arms” are muscular and powerful has been demon- strated on many occasions. ‘The natural movement of the head-fins or caropteres is inward, and when any object strikes between them it is instinctively held, a proceeding which explains the undoubted fact that these fishes can run away with quite large vessels. Many such cases of towing vessels have been recorded. One of the characteristics for which the Devil-fishes are celebrated is the capture of vessels and carrying them off far from their moor- ings. In one of the earliest notices of the Devil-fish, by John Law- son in “The History of Carolina” (1714), this peculiarity is de- scribed. ‘Ihe Devil-fish,” he says, “has been known to weigh a ship’s anchor, and run with the vessel a league or two, and bring her back, against tide, to almost the same place.’ Later notices do not give the animal credit for the same accommodating treatment! A number of accounts, however, corroborate the tendency indicated. William Elliott noticed several instances, and, in later times, Holder (p. 18) records that “at least instances of this were heard of on the reef occurring from ‘Tampa Bay to Garden Key.” He adds: “In every case the vessels, always at anchor, suddenly moved off in a mysterious manner and were towed greater or less distances. The Ray had collided with the chain, and, true to its instincts, threw its two tentacular feelers or claspers around it and rushed ahead, thus lifting the anchor.” In accordance, too, with this proclivity to seize upon objects which bar their progress, Devil-fishes have been charged with damage and destruction to wharves which extend into the water. “It was in obeying this peculiarity of their nature that a shoal of these fish, as they swept by in front of ‘Elliott’s’ grandfather’s residence, would sometimes, at floodtide, approach so near to the shore as to come in contact with the water fence, the firm posts of which they would clasp and struggle to uptear, till they lashed the water into a foam with their powerful wings.’ Any such action, however, would be entirely exceptional and the statement requires authentication. a Opmcit-pywl0! SOpucitn wpselo: Pay NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 167 V The food of the Devil-fishes, so far from being large animals and occasionally a man or so, as has been alleged, appears to be chiefly the small crustaceans and young or small fishes which swarm in cer- tain places near the surface of the water. Rarely does one prey on large fishes. Once only did the man who had the most experience with the fish (Hon. William Elliott) see evidence of disposition to resort to scaly fish; he gives this testimony :* “I have frequently ex- amined the contents of their stomachs, and found little else in them than portions of shell-fish, highly triturated, resembling the shells of shrimps. Once a small crab was found entire; but I sought in vain for the scales of small fish, which I supposed to be their food, partly because the Devil-fish make their appearance in our waters in May, before the shrimps are found on our shores, and would thus be anticipating their food—a mistake which fish are not apt to make—and partly because I witnessed a performance on the part of a Devil-fish which could scarcely be referred to anything else but to an occasional indulgence in a fish diet. “T was watching a Devil-fish, who was playing close to the shore. But in shallow water he is often alarmed by the noise of the oars, and he would not suffer my approach within striking distance. While thus engaged, I observed a shoal of small mullets swimming near the surface, and showing signs of extraordinary agitation, when suddenly the open mouth of the Devil-fish was protruded from below, and the small fry disappeared from view, and were received into it, as into the mouth of an enormous funnel. I do not think it was mere wantonness on the part of the fish, but that he was, on that occasion, indulging a caprice of appetite, and substituting a diet of scale-fish for his ordinary mess of shrimps.” We have, in this observation, a hint as to the function of the “horns” or head fins; these may not only serve by their extension to partly confine the prey, but they may be actively used to drive or scoop them in. The stories of their grasping intentionally may be received with some skepticism, although they do so accidentally. It is, indeed, largely by means of the head fins, or caropteres, that the Devil-fishes secure their food. ‘That consists at least in part of crustaceans and other organisms which live about the surface of the seas they frequent. In the Gulf of California, where the Devil-fishes are most numerous, such animalcules are said by one observer to so abound that a thick sheet (nappe épaisse) of the organisms is AO pMcite pps ots.os: 168 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 formed at the surface of the water. The fishermen in such localities affirm that they never find any large animals in the stomachs of the Devil-fishes. But, if Richard Hill’ is to be credited, some Devil-fishes may be also “ground feeders.” ‘They are, he thought, “formed for shoving through the fields of turtle grass, testudinaria, but, unlike the Rays, which are likewise ground feeders,” one of the Devil-fishes “does not seize its prey on the ground, but, pushing on through the marine herbage, it takes into its wide-open mouth the congregated living things that are in the way—it may be the fish that nestle in the vege- tation or the naked mollusca that depasture there—at once swallow- ing them, or rather cramming them in with its cranial arms into its mouth and stomach, without deglutition, having no cesophagus. As the animal in this gathering in of food can not see forward, it must depend on casualties in the course it steers through the marine meadows for prey. The rolled-up head-fins between the crescented head sufficiently direct the food to the mouth.” In the Gulf of Mexico and elsewhere, the Devil-fish has been charged with feeding on shell-fish and complaint has been made that it does considerable damage to oyster beds. This charge is due simply to the fact that the animal has been confounded with the Eagle-rays, whose large molar teeth eminently fit them for crushing shells. ‘The general resemblance as well as real relationship of the Devil-fish to the Eagle-rays is indeed such as to leave no room to wonder that the same name is applied to species of both families, but the singular head-fins of the Devil-fish distinguish it from all its relations of different families. Probably connected with the food and feeding of the Devil-fches are peculiar organs within the mouth, called by Panceri? and Dumé- ril, who first described them, “prebranchial appendages.” “On examining at the bottom of the mouth the pharyngeal aper- tures of the branchial chambers, or separating the walls of their external apertures, we see, in front of each of the respiratory sur- faces, a very regular series of organs which do not occur in any other fish, whether bony or cartilaginous. “These organs are elongated lamelle, the aspect of which some- what reminds us of that of the stems of ferns, but with the leaflets *The Devil-fish of Jamaica. Intellectual Observer, 2, 1862, p. 167-176. *Panceri (P.) e Leone de Sanctis. Sopra alcuni organi delle Cephaloptera Giorna, M. H. Atti Accad. Pontoniana, Napoli, vol. 9, 1871, pp. 335-370, 2 pls. *Duméril (A.). On the presence of peculiar organs belonging to the 3ranchial Apparatus in the Rays of the Genus Cephaloptera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), 5, 1870, pp. 385, 386. NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 169 turned back toward the branchiz. Each being formed of a fold of mucous membrane supported by a cartilage, these lamelle are attached to the anterior surface of the branchial arches, in front of the membranous and vascular folds of the respiratory organs; and it is their position that has suggested the name of prebranchial ap- pendages, by which they are designated by the Italian anatomist. “They do not serve for respiration. By means of injections, M. Panceri has ascertained that they receive arterial vessels, like the other organs, and not branches of the branchial artery.” These organs are thought by Panceri (and Duméril did not dis- sent) to be “destined, on account of the remarkable size of the aper- tures of the branchial chambers, the orifices of which are much Fic. 53.—Anterior Hemibranch of the Fourth Left Pouch. Fourth branchial arch. Section of the special muscle of the branchial arch or adductor of the two ceratobranchial and epibranchial portions, Branchial lamelle. Prebranchial appendages. av. Fold of the mucosa which partly covers the branchial lamellz. Saks aH smaller in the other Rays, to retain the water and prevent it from traversing these cavities with a rapidity which would be injurious to the perfect accomplishment of the act of hematosis.” A more probable use for these organs would be as strainers, sub- serving thus the same function, or rather an analogous one, as that of the gill-rakers of the giant Sharks. They would retain the smail organisms contained in the ingesta taken into the mouth, while the I2 170 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 water itself would find exit as usual, relieved of a large part of its life. Fic. 54.—A Branchial Arch with Annexed Organs; transverse section next to the articulation of the arch (semischematic). a. Branchial arch with fossa of adductor muscle. b. One of the cartilaginous rays of the branchial diaphragm adherent to the anterior branchial lamelle. c. Accessory stem which connects with the arch. d. Muscle of the branchial diaphragm or interbranchial muscle to which posterior branchial lamellze adhere. e. Adductor muscle of the ceratobranchial and epibranchial parts of the arch. ff. Branchial lamellz whose external surface as usual is folded. gg. Cartilaginous stems of the bases of the branchial lamellze. hh. Muscles which unite the latter to the arch. it. Hydrophorous canals. jj. Prebranchial appendages in profile. 1. Branch of the branchial artery. mm. Branchial veins with efferent lamellar branches, from which proceed the branches for the prebranchial appendages. n. Principal nervous trunk. x. Fold of mucosa covering partly the branchial lamellz. VI The Devil-fishes, of course, like other Selachians, come together in sexual intercourse.t ‘The details of their union as well as the ‘According to Risso (Hist. Nat. Europe Mer., 1826, p. 165) the female of the M. giorna is always (toujours) much larger than the males. No observations have been made on the American Devil-fish; it is to be hoped that some may be. NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL I7I length of gestation are unknown. Even the exact date of the one observation that has been published has not been given, although it appears to have been some time in July. It is, indeed, quite possible that the appearance of the animals close to the coasts of the Southern States may be for the purpose of finding a suitable place for the birth of the young. By Elliott,) it was found, in the first years of his experience with them, that they appeared “only in August”; in 1843, “for the first time, in July,” and in 1844 they were “taken in June.” Care seems to be extended even to the place of parturition by the Sting-rays, so that the young shall encounter the least danger from the tide as well as from living enemies. Alcock tells that all the small Sting-rays (Dasybatis walga) with embryos he observed “were found in shallow little tidal pools lying behind natural breakwaters of sand,” and he urges, “it seemed as if this comparatively safe sit- uation had been deliberately chosen by the mother as a nursery for her expected family, as, in the opinion of Professor McIntosh, is the case with the viviparous Blenny (Zoarces) of northern seas.” Anal- ogous care may therefore be exercised by the Devil-fishes, the rela- tions of the Sting-rays. A pair of these huge animals, male and female, were seen in union by Mr. Elliott and described by him.’ VII Whatever be the size or other characters of the Devil-fishes, so far as observed, they agree among themselves and differ from most other fishes® by having, normally, only a single young one at a birth. The giant mothers noticed by Duhamel, Risso, Mitchill, and Lamont = Op; Cit. ps 07. *Subito, leva—sed longiore spatio, quam, si jaculatus essem, speraverim transfigere ictu—duos pisces cephalopteras aspexi, amplexu conjunctos. Ven- tribus juxtapositis—capitibus erectis, et supra undam oblatis—antennis lascive intersertis—coitum salacem, ut solet genus squalus, ipso contactu corporis, tunc sine dubio exercuere. Ferire, ob distantiam non licitum, aut duos cephalopteras, solo ictu transfixisse, gloria inopinata mihi contegisset. Cym- bam appropinquantem, hastamque minantem, circumspecte evitant—et, in profundo paulisper latentes, iterum, dextra emergunt, ludosque lascivos repetunt. Tunc, quasi deliciis satiati, saltatione in aére, utrinque facta—aper- tum mare petivere. Hoc concursu tam raro notato—antennis albis, cum nigris admixis utsi lacertis—imago fcedi et immundi coitus, nudi Africani cum Caucasiana, plane prefigurabatur. (Elliott, Carolina Sports, 3d edition, pp. 93, 94). *The Stingrays (Dasybatids) of some species at least have only a single young. 172 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 each had only one (one or two, according to Risso*). In case of the small species named Ceratobatis robertsti or massenoidea, the mother likewise had a single foetus (a foetus sixteen inches wide). Although only one young is formed, that one is worthy of the giant mother and larger than any of the full-grown common Rays of ordinary size. It is practically immune from danger from the cus- tomary enemies of fishes and well able to take care of itself. Nature is economical in her methods and there is some adjustment of ways and means. In the case of egg-laying fishes of inferior size and when no care is taken of the eggs, many thousands—even inil- lions—may be laid by a single fish, and yet the number of adults remains practically the same, generation after generation. In the case of viviparous fishes like the Devil-fishes, a single young one at a birth is enough to keep up the species. The fishermen of Jamaica, according to Hill, “say that the mother fish makes the violent leaps she is seen to take out of the water to eject the foetus from the matrix; that the young fish is then observed to fall from her ; and that for a time it swims upon the parent’s back, and possibly enters the wide mouth-sack when necessary to seek shelter from apprehended danger.” All this is improbable. It ap- pears to be certain that the “leaps” are habitual to males and females alike, and it is probable that they are the extension of their peculiar mode of progression or “flight.” A pregnant female, 15 feet wide and which with difficulty forty men with two lines attached to it could drag along the ground, was landed, after a five hours’ fight, at Port Royal, Jamaica, in 1824. “On opening it a young, about 20 pounds weight, was taken out, perfectly formed”; it was five feet broad. An account of the cap- ture was given by Lieutenant Lamont in the Edinburgh Philosophi- cal Journal (x1, 113-118). Two observations respecting the procreation of Devil-fishes re- quire attention. That the Devil-fishes have only one young each, and consequently are viviparous, is the statement made by all observers. This vivi- parity is in analogy with the gestation in the relatives of the Devil- fishes, all the Sting-rays and Eagle-rays. Nevertheless a gentleman * Risso, in his “Remarques” on the “Céphaloptéres” gives the following data: L’époque de leurs amours est l’hiver ; les femelles mettent bas en Septembre un a deux petits, qui originairement sont renfermés dans un ceuf oblong jaunatre. Les males paraissent quelquefois n’abandonner leur compagne qu’aprés qu'elle a déposé ses feetus; et si l’un des deux se jette dans un filet, l’autre ne tarde jamais a le suivre. Risso Hist. Nat. Europe Mer., 3, 1826, p. 165. NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 173 with considerable knowledge of ichthyology, Swinburne Ward, once the Civil Commissioner of the Seychelles Islands, after an account of the capture of a Devil-fish which “ten men could not haul” up on the beach, concluded with the affirmation that “she was full of eggs.” The idea might be (and has been) derived that this may have been a case of oviparity or multiparity, but the eggs (if they were such) were possibly the reserve stock left perhaps after the birth of a young one. The statement is in great need of confirmation. Mitchill, in 1823, tells that a “‘female that was struggling after having been wounded brought forth in her agony a living young one, as Captain Potter related, and Mr. Patchen, while he showed [ Mitchill] the orifices through which sucking is probably performed, declared that on dissection mammary organs were found, which dis- charged as much as a pailful of milk.” This at first incomprehen- sible and incredible statement may be reconciled with facts when we recall the mode of nutrition of the embryo among the Sting-rays, described by Alcock. It was the honest statement of an inex- perienced observer who misinterpreted facts. A remarkable provision among the Sting-rays for the nutrition of the embryo within the body of the mother has been made known by A. Alcock, on whose description, published in 1902, we may draw. It is by means of a secretion which is regarded as “analogous to milk” that the embryo is for some time fed. ‘The mucous membrane of the oviduct is “shaggy, with vascular filaments [named trophone- mata] dripping with milk” or rather a milk-like fluid, and on micro- scopic examination it was found that “each filament was provided with superficial muscles whose contraction must serve to squeeze the milk out. Some such mechanism is undoubtedly necessary, seeing that the young one has no power of extracting the secretion for itself. On examination of the young one, the mother’s milk was found inside the modified first pair of gill-clefts or spiracles (the other gill-clefts being tightly closed), and also in large clots within the spiral valve of the intestine, so that there can be no doubt that in these viviparous Rays the unborn young ones may be said to * Alcock (A.). A Naturalist in Indian Seas [etc.], London, 1902, pp. 210, 71, 159. See, also, Observations on the Gestation of some Indian Sharks and Rays. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 59, pt. 2, 1890, pp. 51-56, pl. 1; On the Uterine Villiform Papille of Pteroplatea micrura, [etc.] Proc. Roy. Soc., 49, 18901, PP. 359-367, pls. 7, 8; Further observations on the Gestation of Indian Rays; [etc.]; Proc. Roy. Soc., 50, 1891, pp. 202-209. On Utero-gestation in Trygon bleekeri. Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), 9, pp. 417-427, pl. 19, 18902; Some Obser- vations on the Embryonic History of Pteroplatea micrura, Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), 10, pp. 1-8, pl. 4, 1802. 174. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 ‘drink its mother’s milk’ like a mammal, even though the milk-like secretion does not go in at the mouth, but by channels homologous with the ear-drum of air-breathing vertebrates.” cmatiienn Wsene ene 2 & Vitis : 3 Fic. 55.—Pteroplatea micrura, After Alcock. No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 175 EXPLANATION OF FIG. 54. 1. Embryo of Pteroplatea micrura, from dorso-lateral aspect; nat. size, but with only a few of the gill-filaments represented, for the sake of clear- ness. Ss, spiracle. 2. End of a gill-+filament, showing marginal capillary filled in places with blood-clot. XX 42. 3. Transverse section of a gill-filament, showing the marginal capillary in section and the single fold of epithelium. XX 188. For the sake of clear- ness the blood-clot is represented in one limb of the capillary only, and the spaces between the nuclei of the surface epithelium are a little exaggerated. 4. End of a trophonema, or nursing-filament, seen as a transparent object in glycerine, showing the marginal artery and the superficial capillary plexus. X 42. The median vein is not seen so near the end. . Obliquely transverse section through a nursing-filament, showing the glands still in the form of solid bulbs lying beneath a still unbroken surface of epithelium. X II0. aa, arteries; v, vein; cc, superficial capillaries. on Doubtless an analogous provision for the nutrition of the embryo is developed in the Devil-fishes, and thus we have a satisfactory ex- planation of the statements of Patchen and Mitchill. Something like milk is secreted by the mother fish and is ingested by the young, but it is chemically different from milk, and instead of being sucked in by the mouth is absorbed through the postocular spiracles. The statements which have been much ridiculed have therefore a sound foundation in fact and are susceptible of a natural explanation. Nothing is known respecting the development of the embryo of any Devil-fish, but undoubtedly it is similar to that of the Sting-rays. The very young embryo of the Sting-rays, as of all other Rays, contrasts remarkably with the mother, especially in the case of the very wide forms, such as the Pteroplateines. The embryo at an early stage has a form very like that of a Shark, but with pectorals provided with basilar extensions free from the head, and extending forward parallel with it in advance of the eyes. These extensions later unite with the sides of the head, and the regular Ray has then become developed. Essentially, the form of the mother has been attained by the young when ready for extrusion from the mother’s womb. This much at least is known of the new born of Devil- fishes. VIII The various species of Devil-fishes are representatives apparently of three different generic types, distinguished by differences of deri- vation. Mobula (also called Aodon, Cephaloptera, or Dicerobatis., 176 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 has teeth in both jaws; Manta (or Ceratoptera) has teeth confined to the lower jaw, and Ceratobatis has teeth only in the upper jaw. The species also differ in size and the character of the dorsal spine. While a width of twenty feet or more may be attained by some, others become sexually mature when four feet wide. In most of them the tail is short and the dorsal spine characteristic of Sting- rays is obsolete, but it is asserted to be well developed in the Mobula glorna. The number of species of Devil-fishes is uncertain. In 1870 seven species were recognized, five of the genus Dicerobatis (Mobula)* and two of Ceratoptera (Manta). One representing a new generic type (Ceratobatis) was added in 1897. One of gigantic size, generally supposed to be Manta vampyrus, has been observed at many places. Whether there are more than one species is uncertain.2 There is a discrepancy in the length of the tail assigned to some. Most of the giants have a tail nearly as long as the body, but one referred to by Hill, about fifteen feet wide, had a tail only two feet long. The spe- cies of Mobula differ. The M. giorna of the Mediterranean is said to have a tail about three times longer than the width of the disk; the M. japonica one “nearly thrice as long as the body,” and the M. olfersii of Brazil and the Caribbean Sea one about as long as the disk and much less than its width. The Ceratobatis robertsti has the tail not much less than twice the length of the disk (620: 350), but considerably less than its width (620: 780).* One species—the true Devil-fish of the United States, Manta vampyrus—is not uncommon in the warm American waters and ap- pears on the South Carolina coast in summer in “shoals.” The Manta vampyrus has a body or disk nearly twice as wide as long, and a tail about 6/10 as long as the body; the body and tail are rough from the development of small tubercles which extend almost everywhere; the band of teeth (confined to the lower jaw) extends over almost the whole width of the jaw and is composed of about a "Three nominal species were described later—Dicerobatis draco, Giinther, 1872; D. monstrum Klunzinger, 1871, and Cephaloptera tarapacana, Philippi, 1894. °'This subject will be considered in a future article. * The tail may have been decurtated in youth. “The figure in Day’s Fishes of India (1878, p. 745), which he “surmises” may represent “Ceratoptera chrenbergii’ is nothing but an illustration of a not unconimon monstrosity of an ordinary Ray (Raia) with free anterior exten- sions of the pectorals, resulting from arrest of development. (See Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, 1895, pp. 195-108.) NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 177 hundred transverse rows; the rows are separated from each other by well-marked interspaces. It is said to attain a width of 30 feet.' This or a very closely related species has been found not only in the West Indian and Carolinian seas, but along the west coast oi America, along the African coast, and in the Indian Ocean. A Devil-fish fourteen feet six inches wide, caught near Durban, Natal, also presented the same proportions as the American species. A plate representing it from before and behind was published in the Zoologist for April, 1899. Like most other large Selachians, the Devil-fish is beset by Echen- eidids, commonly known as Sucking-fish or Suckers and often confounded with the Pilot-fish. Elliott? noted that “he is attended by a band of parasites,” which “followed him into shoal water” and “adhered so closely after he was aground that several suffered them- selves to be taken by the hand.’ IX The Devil-fish from time to time has been the object of sport. He who indulged most in it and captured almost twenty has given animated pictures of some of his adventures. One of the most con- densed and entertaining accounts may be welcome here. One day in late June (24th), sailing toward “Hilton Head” (South Carolina), Mr. Elliott with his crew went after Devil-fish. Soon he saw “a shoal” of them “sweeping along the beach, traveling rapidly downward with the tide” and freely showing themselves at the surface. After an ineffectual cast with a harpoon, “three showed themselves below and one above.” *The records of size are very defective. ‘The largest actually measured by Elliott was 17 feet wide (p. 64), another 16 feet (p. 80), and another 15 feet (p. 43). Another lost after being dragged “into three feet water” was esti- mated to be larger; “there he lay, extending twenty feet by the wings” (p. 51). One taken in the Gulf of California in 1846 was 19 feet wide, 3 feet 6 inches thick, and had a mouth 3 feet 5 inches wide (Zodl., 1849, p. 2358). Another noticed by Gosse (The Ocean, p. 193-194, Amer. Edit., p. 189) taken at La Guayra, was 20 feet wide, with a “length from end of tail to end of tusks [caropteres] 18 feet,” a “mouth 4 feet wide,” and “its weight 3,502 pounds.” * Op’, cit.,. p. 44, *Le Vaillant, near the African coast, met three Devil-fishes (“diable”), one of which was accompanied by a sucking-fish (“pilote du diable”) attached to each horn (“corne”) of the Devil-fish. His account is unreliable. ‘The para- site is the Remora remora according to Street (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 7, p. 54), and Pellegrin (Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, VII, 327). 178 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Now he shall speak for himself :* “T pushed at one that showed his back fairly above water, as he swam; but he sank just before I reached him, and I drove down the harpoon at a venture. He had a narrow escape, for the staff struck him. At this moment, three showed themselves below and one above. I pushed for the latter, and when I approached the spot, I saw the water boiling up like a caldron—from which sign I knew that the fish was throwing his somersets below the surface (in the way which is so very peculiar to them). Making the oarsmen check the headway with their oars, I looked anxiously for a view, when, unex- pectedly, I saw the white of his belly far beneath the water, and quite away toward the stern. He was thus behind me, but wheeling suddenly to the right, I pitched the harpoon at him, across the oars, and felt a sensation of surprise, as well as pleasure, in finding that I had struck him. ‘The fish dashed out violently for the channel, and we payed him out thirty fathoms of rope until, headway being given to the boat, we brought him to a dead pull; and now his mo- tions were very erratic; unlike some that I had before struck, he did not take a direct course for the sea, but sometimes drew the boat against the tide, then suddenly turned and ran directly toward us, so as to give slack line. I inferred from these signs that he was mor- tally hurt. As often as he approached the Middle Bank and shoaled the water, he drew off in alarm, and would not cross it until he had got to its tail; his course was then for Paris Bank, which, suiting well with our intention to land him, if we could, at Bay Point, we did not interrupt. About this time he came to the surface without being pulled, and showed great distress—and we resolved, then, to draw upon him and get a second harpoon planted. It was after various fruitless efforts, and by shortening the rope as far as we prudently could, that we at length drew him so far up that the dark shadow of his body was indistinctly seen beneath. ‘The second harpoon was now driven, and the gush of blood to the surface showed that it had done its work. We now drew mainly on this second, leaving only a moderate strain upon the first—and after a few convulsive runs, brought him up helplessly to the surface, and with a spear dispatched him outright. With a hatchet we now cut a hole in one of his feelers, and inserting a rope, passed it to the stern, drawing solely on this, so that the resistance of the fish through the water should be as small as practicable. ‘The wind was now due east and moder- ately fresh; we raised both sails, and, helped at the same time by the oars, made some way in our tedious progress on towing our prize to land. At this time, espied a boat beating down from Beaufort, and on signalizing her, she proved to be that of Col. De Treville, then on his way to Bay Point. His offer of assistance was accepted, and a tow-line being passed to his boat, we landed our fish at the Point exactly at sunset. ‘This fish measured sixteen feet across, which I suppose to be the medium size of those that visit our waters. The first harpoon had struck it near the center of the belly—had pierced *Op. cit., pp. 68-72. The punctuation of the original is preserved. No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 179 the liver, and passed nearly through to the back. The second had passed from the back into his lungs or gills—so that the full power of so large a fish was never fairly exerted against us. Had the same fish been struck in the wings, or other parts not vital, his capture would have been uncertain—and would at any rate have cost us the work of many hours. “T suppose the shoal of Devil-fish was a large one; the third which appeared we struck at—the fourth we harpooned—and as we were rapidly drawing off from the shore, a fifth was seen. How many were still behind, we had not leisure to observe; but conjecture this was but the advance guard of the column.” Later adventurers after sport with the Devil-fish have hunted it along the Florida coast as well as in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. C. J. Holder has told of his experience in “Trailing the Sea-bat” in “Outing” for 1900, and J. Turner-Turner has de- voted two chapters of his book entitled “The Giant Fish of Florida” (1902) to the “Enormous Rays, or Devil-fish,’ which he pursued. The article by Holder has been republished in that author’s work entitled “Big Game at Sea,” published in 1908 (pp. 1-35). The pursuit of such a giant as the Devil-fish is necessarily attended with some danger, but this incident adds to the zest the sportsman feels. Elliott records that he had been “carried twenty-five miles in the course of a few hours by two of these fish (having struck a relay when the first sea-horse escaped, and losing both), with three boats in train.” According to Leon Diguet? (1898), in the Gulf of California, where Devil-fishes are numerous, the pearl-fishers, when caught during a calm away from mooring places, always take the precaution of dropping two anchors at night for fear that one should be seized by a Devil-fish and hauled afar by it. Diguet went in pursuit of a specimen for the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle of Paris, and, after one had been harpooned, it turned back on the boat, seized the bow with its headfins, and held it in its clasp till it was lanced a second time. But this clasping is largely automatic, and the Devil-fish only makes for the boat from which it has been attacked when it experiences the stress through the line from that direction. It is not like the attack of some sharks when wounded. ‘The Devil-fish, in fact, has been called a “timid animal” by Diguet. The Devil-fish, nevertheless, is the object of considerable dread among the fishermen of the Gulf of California; for, although not aggressive, it is frequently encountered, and Diguet tells that numer- *Vaillant (L.) et L. Diguet. Sur le Céphaloptére du Golfe de Californie. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, 1808, pp. 127-128. 180 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 ous cases have occurred of death resulting to divers,as well as bathers from encounters with the Devil-fish, or Manta, as the men call it. On the other hand, the carcasses of many that are killed are used for bait for other fishes. * An accomplished naturalist of the second quarter of the last century, Col. Hamilton’ Smith, “once witnessed the destruction of a soldier by one of these Cephalopteri off Trinidad. It was supposed that the soldier, being a good swimmer, was attempting to desert from the ship, which lay at anchor in the entrance of the Boca del Toro. * * * ‘The Colonel is positive as to this fish being a Cephalopterus.” ‘The full account is given in Griffith’s edition of Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom (“The Class Pisces,’ p. 654). The evidence is very unsatisfactory. ® - — r Pra! = 6 k. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XIII TYPE OF INDIAN OF THE PERUVIAN REGION Hipurina man, 22 years old, from Acre District, Brazil INDIANS OF PERU By CHARLES:.C. EBERHARDT AMERICAN CoNnsuL At Iguitos, PERU (WitH Two PLaTEs) INTRODUCTION The difficulty experienced in obtaining reliable information relative to conditions in general in the region about Iquitos, leads me to believe that the results of certain studies I have made regarding the Indians of Peru may be of some value and interest to others. I had hoped to make a more thorough study of this interesting subject from actual observation among the different tribes, obtain- ing specimens of their weapons of warfare, their clothing, utensils, etc., but ill health has prevented any systematic work along these lines. I have been fortunate, however, in having been able to make several trips among different tribes with Mr. George M. von Hassel, thus gaining first hand a limited amount of information on the sub- ject, but the greater part comes from Mr. von Hassel himself, who, it seems to me, is probably one of the best authorities on the subject and one highly qualified to speak regarding these Indians. Mr. von Hassel has had long experience in the interior of Peru. During the last ten or twelve years he has lived for months at a time with various tribes, speaks the Quechua language and many other dia- lects, and by gaining their confidence has been able to mingle freely with the Indians, gaining an insight into their customs, methods, and manner of living such as few white men have enjoyed. The accompanying photographs were taken by the French ex- plorer Robushon, who spent a number of years among different tribes. Among his experiences was his romantic marriage with an uncivilized Indian girl, whom he met in the forest one day roaming about entirely nude and alone, her father and mother and others of the tribe of which she was a member having died of some pestilence. ‘Consular report to the Department of State, transmitted to the Smith- sonian Institution by the Department. Dated Iquitos, Peru, November 30, 1907. Slightly abridged and several illustrations omitted. 181 182 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 He took her to France, where she was educated, and she returned to this country a few years later thoroughly conversant with three languages and assumed, with credit to herself, a place in local society among the best families here. Mr. Robushon undertook another trip in a wild part of the Upper Putumayo district about two years ago. He has never returned, and searching parties which have been sent out have been unsuccessful in their efforts to find him. It seems most probable that he was killed and eaten by some of the cannibal tribes of that region. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining authentic data as to popula- tion, due allowance must be made for the estimated number of in- habitants of the Department of Loreto (in which Iquitos is situated), 120,000, and that of trans-Andean Peru, 300,000. Of this latter number one-half, or 150,000, are said to be wild Indians, most of whom, aside from petty tribal wars, are peaceably inclined, obtaining food and such raiment as they require from the supply furnished by a generous and lavish nature. ENUMERATION OF ‘TRIBES Following is a list of the principal tribes which go to make up this total of 150,000, with the approximate number of inhabitants of such tribes as are said to number more than 2,000, though names of smaller tribes and subtribes almost without number could be added. ‘The total of these numbers is 116,000, and the difference, therefore, 34,000, comprises such tribes as those whose number of in- habitants does not appear on the list and which are composed mostly of from 200 to I,000 souls each. Some of these tribes are said no longer to exist as such, having become extinct by intermarriage with other tribes, taken prisoners by stronger tribes and the whites, or dying from diseases introduced by the white man, usually small- pox. In the spelling of these names one will detect at once the Spanish style, which has been given to the words as pronounced by the na- tives themselves, and as there is always considerable difference in accent, enunciation, etc., of different individuals in the pronunciation of the same word, one often meets with several ways of spelling the name of a certain tribe. Most of the tribes retain the name handed down for generations, though others are known by the names of the rivers or vicinity in which they live, being thus designated by the rubber-gatherers or the whites with whom they come in contact. NO. 1817 INDIANS OF PERU—EBERHARDT 183 Principal Indian Tribes of Peru Tribe Number Atti EOLOSMP TMT eretee oreo tee rere eae oer e le Sie Orb ihn ES Besaueels Cells Me RO eee are aah a avainsd os hust lig Stara a Oe ecole bie | TMT HS COMMON EI Ten hh elecssciva cis oid Seren cas ele ane Oe ake WPUMAS urate ijs.s: ots sie) cher ae Ne ota cinoab were Sisco ke poeta (Wickte nulasmencrie rr rks ce ee ieesiaiiaee Sesh sonia nia be citieteusieitete, 6 @nocaiSeskwecr ate eer cece Sal ole hai sPae eaeianrns erate S CD MAS MMR Ter Net en ee tinrree vcfe iste e real srtestn nue stdmie a oh a inde eis NOMS Ori Semper heresy Pe eiseeitie iloe erepeie serine ocucis cite sincmeie a els COMeV OMe Smet el Verses isk ots teTa here caren has eae Goes sa tie ees SAV OL MEN R tent eet ota eee oucr on che deo eieasunattunitoe ew eis aes Witt rallesmmeyerperen tercfoeer fcrerercisra cis corte arnt oer otseeae ays ions i ales Meebrarawi oes IB OMAtL SAVES = arteistar ve. Scss estas) Siaiers hanes sivas hemes theese aa nies. CASADES Me eT ee Oe eens cierto ree ee ae nen Sarcrllas terre re eee anys etcetera olneials UIT AS gue FL Pe card eR PRA, Ana tag POR rea we) tralia $ oye NYCI EW a FIC). eral Gis GC rc REGIE EEIGIS Tene Ale Eerie vene ne = eee IMiitncay Se Stars ees earteencs ce eecten ct tae cic susie ans uetarsia Sle’ eip.s/e ssoucin doth WONG yaereterre ce tla os cloa hele e are ties eon ai on Reeiislc Aa eis 6 PAMELA SUR Pee ce iekare see ein ld oe iors elele oS REE Ges eee ; TENANCY REISE Site ie ROR OERS ICC SRO ein ROA Cea (CTRABIOYORS iste, pee SRS Oa RC EINE er aL eee Canimesweie eee ee Tat arei ees oe Aen RecN IS tae Pee ren enone eters OP Eset tenes SC ees era ne Dake Misaatcttacpers, era ane excel crake ares Ao eis Soe oe Aca ok aes IMinetaspevrcrestis cet kc citer ees: REE LT TR eons 20,000 GESe VES pe era. risen casteienis soa Boh Maine eas TUETT TEES ete pct CCN A PR TORRE EA Sa aT Pa OR a PRORAV CS Maas Fie Gye Aaah digrstets oeishd pepe Be poe ad a Siciyeni CM eSata ae eae AA et aerate Merit Ne titans NI eS Se CC oI1N9) 1 eee Te eater rae eYt ees ioras hes etcuo ale cc: Skois Li eTe tee CREPES Crete en ee bie NUP OU CLOS ME tee ve nie citthr cris) totereey ccuiepticlses ion clots Suece 6.6:Sitrdwaloters D oisverslsveeaieuns 2,000 @rTrejones. ere onicseon ies RE eens ee rae Gane TOPO Ta a akon 2,000 EROS AIO SMEs etc tate core Gre iar shine aiaeno oc Dark sid ares OO use tee owe Peay fe Lit ituereraits cr sree eee avai le tae cic aks Sues Ges ye aa Bvsvereia Sots aAtOSMMby yee are cei is ot cess oti aa aes, 3 ? PTLGOAS Barrera ore fa arc eevere va cieca ake sia oie ken ei ioen Nei aiees See er otonvae Ve aGhie sd ( ReqtitOSsaeee ses erecta eee busthre sake Bereta Sie tiera etalelay erie piers & Sievsieaisielee ws EA TOS Hey arctescve arses wiier ciars/ aren’ Peter eersier eis sw esiere sivas ovsvalevels Nee veers ERT AMIDISAS Fue tances pate asians Sefer ae crartre Gevamaihier sia os at) SAGLECOS 4 cucsercnseie ct sia vatecs ine ie cle aa eaia aiolaaiaieis we ale eros eicie oe aioe = PSTIEI DAS MAEM er. Cyaya eter ceased site casio ceie sine on. Sis mvorehavshereiojaiess¥ersyerctovsiav aver sreyerorares oie PNOUATIIN A Siem ayeprcriersit sei kouserarss Soalele oxhere the dahalcievais o averertaverolereis eibiers Sasa 2,000 WEDELOS ven -totce atte eteterats sels HONS aes 6-3 ses Bee Iveratoie aielelsieieiereicisisie-s CavanaSec.c 25 one cao. Ips sete atte MINERS ee chars TET nee e ave wate Se Calitianamasn cai censteGudewicm nee sens BAER ren ala eee ares eee cak 7,000 2,000 184 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Tribe Number CA OS 35545 si ahh ws aieyecetes ete eek eee Ret pe ekcrres Son arate ce 2,000 Cocamullas: so.3.5 Bae oo ds Leas SAE Le ene fae Le Mae UnMas® ss 2 s45. Sasad cee Sine cele eee are SS ee eS eRe Omagitas-i55°4 15 24.2 Te Shc, peas eee tis AVS RE FS nee need ae Mavorutias i255 iis itu. sore be Aer ee CE et UT hdc oe Re Capanahwasy ei): 2 sheeec eh eee eee EEO De cas D SLE SER eee 3,000 INaiiitaSm esr eeries Ly day Semana ee Seats PMP RPRRE TRS oad 2B ved ci as hooey th ee ace 2,000 SMipibes.. i creed cares eee aah ts cee TT MESA & tik pscieala ek A ae Shetibos, ase vices 1815 Rosr, J. N. A New Opuntia from Arizona. (Quarterly SLES S1UEa) Von OS oe nee treicpomer are aia he reeetee ieee oe ei eee eee i 1816 Gi, THEopoRE. The Story of the Devil-fish. (Quarterly HES S16C)) PERL OO GME IAT PERC SCT nai eee cicic oD acini era ee 1817 EBERHARDT, CHARLES C. Indians of Peru. (Quarterly ISS 1UC) PML OS REE aca eet STP SYA ae cierto oa oma aaron 1818 Ross, J. N. On Opuntia Santa-Rita, a species of Cactus of Ornamental Value. (Quarterly Issue). 1908.......... 1819 HEIMERL, ANTON. Two New Species of Abronia. (Quar- LEHUVMEUS SICA) S) MeL OOS cease ets oe oie ale om SCINS CR CNS Piles Seale 1820 CLrarK, Austin Hopart. Preliminary Notice of a Collec- tion of Recent Crinoids from the Philippine Islands. CO marten loMissde WaaTOOSseh ae oc ais sche et Srassiew tents lla ius 1821 ApLER, Cyrus. The Relation of Richard Rush to the Smithsonian Institution. (Quarterly Issue). 1909..... 1822 Dyar, Harrison G., and KNaAs, FREDERICK. Descriptions of Some New Species and a New Genus of American Mosquitoes. (Quarterly Issue). 1900..............00 1823 Notes to Quarterly Issue, Vol. 5, Part 2. 1900............ 1824 Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1907 (containing Nos. 1737, 1825-1854). ROOM er cree tare aes mrofagel el aperisy, Mee sie. 5-ahapthe ao eiaves cole are 1825 Proceedings of the Board of Regents, Report of Execu- tive Committee, Acts of Congress, for the vear ending Niu ees OOO sete rere ere eo ces co oe aero 1826 Parsons, Cuartes A. ‘The Steam Turbine on Land and LE SCAM Te ae ee RR ay Se abet h cd rte rate ba evel kocaie are eae oa renerarentteah Series. Sp. MiGs 53 M.C. 53 M.C. 53 M.C. 52 M.C. 52 M.C. 52 M.C. 52 IMEC 52 M.C. 52 MEG 52 IMEC=552 MING. 7) M.C. 52 M.C. 52 R. 1907 Price. 25 25 50 276 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 No. Title. Series. Price. 1827 ‘TurpAInN, A. The Development of Mechanical Composi- CON AM TINE «2 oiss.njsstne store sieia? sey sieve staavose AVS tele R. 1907 1828 SPRAGUE, FRANK J. Some Facts and Problems Bearing on Blecttie Trunk-Line Operationv....c5-+-.. ssc .et one eee R. 1907 1829 FLEMING, J. A. Recent Contributions to Electric Wave Tele SrAaply: cassis ve < sis aie ee eee ine ols Sie eee seas R. 1907 1830 Bracc, W. H. On the Properties and Natures of Various Electric Radiations =n. ..2: creme eae ceil eon aah R. 1907 1831 KersHaAw, JoHN B. C. Progress in Electro-Metallurgy.. R. 1907 1832 Sminuiz, TtHomAS W. Recent Progress in Color Pho- LOemaphy, eee hes eats celta wee ea tem etc s ante ers ees yere tet agers R. 1007 1833 CaJAL, S. R. The Structure of Lippmann Heliochromes.. R. 1907 1834 DE Mortiniet, ApriEN. Bronze in South America before the Arrivalcoh Europeans: ao. sence eee cer eee eee R. 1907 1835 Hate, Georck E. Some Opportunities for Astronomical Work with Inexpensive Apparatus..................... R. 1907 1836 ApsE, CLEVELAND. The Progress of Science as Illustrated by the Development of Meteorology................-.. R. 1907 1837 Grecory, J. W. Geology of the Inner Earth—Igneous ORES rere Sia Schock eee sara ea AE aoe ePnae ee eis Sloe Serene eke nrreree re R. 1907 Toso eNE WELT: bbls. eeu SaltGi Sea. aries so ctea anid fl rie R. 1907 1839 CuisHoLM, GEorcE G. Inland Waterways................ R. 1907 1840 Scorr, D. H. The Present Position of Paleozoic Botany.. R. 1907 1841 LorseL, Gustave. The Zoological Gardens and Establish- ments of Great Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands.. R. 1907 1842 Gitt, Turopore. Systematic Zodlogy: Its Progress and PATH POSGs dee ie ora no ees asi agus ares sui eras hice ee tear eneketene R. 1907 1843 ABEL, O. The Genealogical History of the Marine Mam- TYVLS RE od case cece ens. at eee ods eR E IS Fe CoeaT Sh BV eats OMe on ares SSUER None T en R. 1907 1844 Fiscuer, T'HKopatp. The Mediterranean Peoples......... R. 1907 1o1s. BAtiz. 5) Prehistoric: Japan. ... sj. As to the cause of sickness, it is generally believed to be punishment inflicted by the spirits of the dead. Among 292 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 the tribes of the Atayal and Paiwan groups a superstition obtains to the effect that if a sick person can balance a round particle on the end of a pipe then recovery is certain; on the other hand, should the particle fall to the ground it is a sign that spirits are opposed to recovery. Among the Vonuum, Tsou, Paiwan, and Amis groups, in advanced stages of disease the body of the patient is cleaned with leaves. The tribes of the Tsarisen group shampoo their sick mem- bers in advanced stages of disease, while in the early stages of suf- fering from snake bites, sucking the wound is resorted to. RELIGION The ideas concerning after-death which commonly obtain through- out the various tribes are as follows: 1. After death the spirit continues to live. 2. Dream is a medium through which the spirits of the dead may communicate with the living. 3. The spirits of the dead are sometimes given to the acts of the devil. 4. The spirits of one’s ancestors are able to counteract the evil done by other spirits. 5. The spirits of one’s ancestors have also the power to cause disaster. As a natural outgrowth of these superstitions ancestor worship became a recognized institution. The Atayal and Paiwan groups believe the virgin forests to be the abode of the spirits of their an- cestors. The tribes of the Tsou and Tsarisen groups consider cer- tain old trees to be the abode of the spirits of their ancestors, while the Vonuum, Puyuma, and Amis tribes believe they live in the azure skies. The idea is so far advanced with the tribes of the Paiwan group that they never destroy the trees within a certain designated sacred precinct, which precincts are in reality their places of wor- ship. All of the savage tribes worship with much reverence the sup- posed dwelling places of the spirits of their ancestors. In fact, this worship seems to constitute the greater part of their religion. It is generally recognized by all tribes that good or bad crops de- pend upon the extent of the protection which they afford to the spirits of their ancestors. Accordingly before the sowing of the seed or after the harvesting of a crop, certain ceremonies are in- dulged in, these ceremonies partaking of the nature of ancestral worship. In case of sickness it is supposed that all suffering is due to a visitation of evil spirits, and ancestral worship is indulged in for the sake of combatting the work of such spirits. NO. 1862 THE PEOPLES OF FORMOSA—ARNOLD 293 In soliciting the aid of the spirits of their ancestors certain forms are used, as, for instance, three whistles or the pouring of wine on the ground three successive times. This idea of appealing to the spirits of their ancestors for aid in whatever undertakings they may be desirous of embarking upon has advanced a step farther in most of the tribes, in that the appeals are made through the interposition of a third person. Generally the old men and women of the various tribes are supposed to possess powers akin to those attributed to witches, and for this reason perform the religious rites for the tribes. As the idea of worshiping the spirit of ancestors advanced, there developed a strong hatred for the spirits of others than ancestors. Originally the word for spirit in the various savage dialects or lan- guages conveyed but one idea; gradually the term came to suggest reverence as well as hatred—reverence when the term was applied to the spirit of the ancestors and hatred when applied to other spirits. There exists among the various tribes a faith termed “parisi.” It embraces the idea of religious purification to dispel evil spirits or the work of such spirits. This ceremony of purification is performed at the time of the ancestral festival. Abstinence from food or drink during sickness and the ceremony of cleansing from evil spirits at the time of death are also classed as acts of “parisi.” A neglect to perform the ceremonies of “parisi” at the required times is consid- ered to be a forerunner of calamity. SUPERSTITION Mr. Ino cites a large number of instances of superstitious ideas which prevail among the various tribes. Probably the most interest- ing among these is that which has to do with head-hunting. He states that the practice of head-hunting originally stood for nothing more than a mark of superiority in combat. Gradually this practice became part of their superstitions. For instance, the tribes of the Atayal group now consider that the spirits of their ancestors will not be satisfied unless a human head is part of the offering made at the ancestral ceremonies. Likewise in the case of a dispute between two or more persons, the spirit of his ancestors will guide and protect the one whose cause is just, so that he may secure the first human head, and thereby win his case. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XX HUMAN SKULLS ON THE SKULL SHELVES OF THE TSARISEN SAVAGES SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XxXI SAVAGE ‘ DUG-OUTS’’ ON LAKE CANDIDIUS IN CENTRAL FORMOSA ATAYAL SAVAGE VILLAGE 30V4 3H1 4O S3GIS NO SHYVW OOLLVL ‘NVYWOM IVAVLV Galyuv HLONO SNIAWAM NAWOM IVAVLY even en cn Yn Nv SOR rea ee Er rT wen | IIXX “Id ‘ZS “10A SNOIL0377090 SNOZNW11390SIW NVINOSHLIWS OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF CANAL RAYS: A DETAILED BIBLIOGRAPHY By GORDON SCOTT FULCHER INTRODUCTION My object in compiling the following collection and correlation of the chief facts and theories regarding canal rays, as published to date by various experimenters, is two-fold. First, it is hoped that the paper will prove valuable in itself. It aims to be complete, to include all important phenomena discovered, and to give exact references where details and methods may be found. It should be an accurate map of the boundaries of knowl- edge in this domain of Physics, and should prove suggestive to research by indicating unexplored regions, and helpful to theorists by containing the important phenomena to be explained and the suggestions put forward by others. Second, it is hoped that the paper may illustrate the general method well enough to commend its use by others in connection with other branches of Physics, that these, too, may be mapped. Every physicist would value greatly such a boiling down of the literature in his field. In making the compilation, the articles were read as far as pos- sible in chronological order, notes of facts reported being made on cards and slipped into a card index under suitable heads. When all the articles had been read, it was a simple matter to put together the facts thus garnered. The method is perfectly flexible; results reported later can easily be incorporated. I shall be under deep obligation to any who will let me know of such mistakes or omissions as they may find in the following article. I am indebted to the authorities of Clark University for the privi- lege of using their fine Physical Library. The subjects included in the present paper are arranged under the following heads: 295 296 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 I. Bre_rocraPHy. II. Genera, DEscrIPrIon. III. ExprrimENntTAL REsuLts. 1. Apparatus. 2. Color of the bundles of rays. 3. Propagation of the rays. Direction and dispersion. Absorption and reflection. . Fluorescence excited on glass wall and on metallic salts. . Charge carried by rays. . Magnetic deflection. . Electrostatic deflection and acceleration. . Simultaneous magnetic and electrostatic deflection. . Secondary emission of negative rays. . Chemical effects. . Mechanical effects, Disintegration of metals struck. Penetrating power. Heating effect. 12. Miscellaneous effects. Ionization and screening. 13. Spectrum of light from canal rays. Spectrum and Doppler effect in various gases. Shift of lines toward red. Broadening of lines. 14. Partial polarization of light. IV. MatHEeMarticat, THEORY. 1. Notation. 2. Equations for energy, velocity, and specific charge of rays. 3. Calculations. Specific charge and velocity of rays. V. THEorETICAL DiscUSSION AND EXPLANATION. I. Constitution of the rays. What are they? Place of origin. Explanation of non-homogeneity. 2. Light from the rays. Carriers of line and band spectra. Intensity distribution in Doppler effect. Emission of light by an atom. 3. Chemical effects. 4. Secondary emission of negative rays. = HOMO ON AN £ = I, BIBLIOGRAPHY, Andi J. ANDERSON......... Astrophys. Journ. 24, 362-4. Dec., 1906. CATT NV, UREN ©) er ckteesy eal erake Wied. Ann. 61, 325-7. Mar. 10, 1897. Rey. (Ecl. Electr. 12, 320). AGT? on (AROS EN eon eer tae Bull. Bur. Stand. 1, 439-41. Nov., 1904. Au2 “ ole Casctapte vale e Phys. Rev. 22, 312-9. Feb. 10, 1906. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 47, 423). B ocrda@)s vB EUR Ghee were eat Wied. Ann. 68, 692-7. June 11, 1899 Rev. (&cl. Electr. 22, 68-9). Bor 2. “BOSE ann seee con nee Zeitschr. Phys. Chem. 34, 717-21. Sept., 1900. NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER Dr Bey DONRIN Sars acess hs Phys. Zeitschr. 8, 589-90. Aug. Bae BRR os ee eae ae Phys. Zeitschr. 1, 134. Oct. Ewes UE SEVIER Oe. aac ecco sc Wied, Ann. 69, 167-199. June Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 22, 70-2). Ew2 “ Serer Vienne ace Phys. Zeitschr. 6, 500-2. July Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 44, 461-2). Ew3 “ Cpe ees Cee NAS Jahrb. Rad. Elek. 1906, 291-321. Nov. Er Cae UO CLE BAU ERs e Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 153-6. Dec. Rev. (Electr. 16, 887; Ecl. Electr. 47, 223). F2 er ee ee: Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 748-50. Sept. Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 8, 394-8. Rev. (&cl. Electr. 49, 422-3). F3 ce SAM gee Ney A afer Ann, Phys: 23) 301-7. Apr. (Git 1B, (GOILIDSIPIRIING, ono sue Sitz. Berl. Akad. 1886, 691-0. July, Reprint-Wied, Ann. 64, 38-48. Jan. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 10, 364-8). G2 Pr onmirete wee ebhys: Zeitsehr, =f, 1331: Oct. G3 pi ae siete oe .... Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 3, 204-12. Dec. G4 ‘ Saat R Te dae Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 4, 11-12. Jan. Ann. Phys. 8, 101-2. G5 Leb Wena eahrtes Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 4, 70-71. Mar. G6 : BMS eee oe Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 4, 228-44. May Reprint-Phil. Mag. 15, 372-8s. Grr PEs GEARCKE..3c...08 Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 181. Feb. Rey. (fcl. Electr. 47, 104). GR_ FE. GEHRCKE and Phys, Zeitschr. 8, 724-9. Sept. O. REICHENHEIM Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges.9, 374-85. HK W. HERMANN and Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 564-7. July S. KINOSHITA Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 48, 376-8). DTG: EUW, on nee eee Roy. Soc. Proc. 78-A, 80-1. June Nature, 74, 603. His. 9“ a eee ea Astrophys. Journ. 25, 12-23. Jan., Hig = teas due Astrophys: Journ, 25, 234-5. Mar. Ea SAMA oes Astrophys. Journ, 26, 117-9. June Hrs” iW. HERMANN: .«....::. Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 567-0. July Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 48, 420-2). Klr V. KOHLSCHUTTER. Zeitschr. Electrochemie 12, 869-72. Nov. nis) Ose OSEUIDA: 2 3.. 45. Phys. Zeitschr. 8, 35-8. Dec. Rev. (ficl. Electr. 50, 307-10). KOZ Te IWIN Zyeace ceca Phil. Mag. 16, 161-183. Mar. na eo PE ININGER:. 12204; Phil. Mag. 7, 180-199. June, Miri OF VEAINIVANIE ICE: eae “Les Découvertes Modernes,” 112-3. Oct., Ete Hea PAW ACI wa. cieiaaine ss Comptes Rendus 141, 1008. Dec. etratige) is eri RUIN hace cae fst Comptes Rendus 121, 1132-4. Dec. Rey. (Ecl. Electr. 6, 378). IES 3, tae |e LO © el ee Wied. Ann. 61, 336-7, § 6. June Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 13, 375). Pry witty Yas wy aeaneces 6 Phys. Rev. 24, 447-8. Feb. 207 6, 1907. I, 1899. 3, 1899. 7, 1905. 7, 1900. 14, 1905. 18, 1906. 3, 1907. 1886. T, 1808. I, 1899. 13, IQOT. 21, 1902. 7, 1902. 30, 1902. 1908. 4, 1900. 30, 1907. 17, 1906. 28, 1906. 1907. 4, 1907. 26, 1907. 17, 1900. II, 1906. 15, 1906. 5, 1908. 1903. 1907. II, 1905. 20, 1895. I, 1897. 18, 1907. 298 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Psp. bee CEG Nr esses Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 924. Nov. 14, 1906. iPs2e ee Se Presta eta a tr. Ann. Phys. 23, 247-260. Mar. 27, 1907. ee sg oe EN ge ohn ga aa Ann. Phys. 23, 261-5. Dec. II, 1905. PSA ih ete en a Ann. Phys. 23, 997-1000. Sept. 24, 1907. Ray ie eA Ae eit ot cee Phys. Zeitschr, 7, 421-3. May 21, 1906. Pele) phe Mee Chie s deh ee Gott. Nachr. 1898, 140. May 14, 1808. Ste ew Aen oak Ooeeee “Elektrizitat in Gasen,” 133-6, 344-7, 457. 1902. Winklemann’s Handbuch 4, 507-8. S2 s ea E at Raat atte ee Phys. Zeitschr. 4, 583-6. July 7, 1903. 83 S pe tt! Aree epee Ann. Phys. 13, 389-91. Oct. 25, 1903. S4 a SA ete tee Winklemann’s Handbuch, 2nd ed., 4, 599-606, 630, 649, 654. 1905, $5 a FR aaa Sn rate! Gott. Nachr, 1905, 459-71. Nov. 5, 1905. Phys. Zeitschr. 6, 892-7 (abbreviated). Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 46, 56-8). S7 ; ith Sener Nature 73, 389-90. Jan: 6, 1906: $8 5 ei Merahe te eee Os Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 8, 104- 110. Mar. 7, 1906. So ‘ A Ere RT A e e Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 8, 111-115. Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 249-51. Mar. 9, 1906. Rev. (Nature 73, 533; Ecl. Electr. 47, 258-60.) SHO, SRM He aretok tren Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 251-6. Mar. 14, 1906. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 47, 419-23). Si, Beer Erato re otelatete ate Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 353-5. Apr. 15, 1906. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 47, 460-3). Si2 “ MLA. tine ea Phys, Zeitschr. 7, 355-61. Apr. 15, 1906. Rev. (Kcl. Electr. 47, 381-5). Sis fe mae eae eae Astrophys. Journ. 25, 23-44, 170-94. Sept. 14, 1906. Ann. Phys. 21, 401-56. SILOM as SC ser eters tees ey ae Phys. Zeitschr. 8, 79-81. Jan. 7, 1907. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 50, 348-50). S27 vCAs Review isn. se ae eieme Nat. Rundschau 22, 93-6, 105-8, 117—20. 1907. S18) PAR See ees Astrophys. Journ. 25, 230-4. Feb., 1907. Sig) =. fe gdh Aaah nieve tech Phys. Zeitschr. 8, 397-402. June 4, 1907. 520) a reat ipa Neh Astrophys. Journ. 26, 63-5. Mar. 10, 1907. Sota Saal gare kan Ann. Phys. 23, 798-804. Aug. 22, 1907. S22 “ Tae Aman ten a Phys. Zeitschr. 8, 913-0. Dec. 2, 1907. ee Seay Ea Re eR oe Ann. Phys. 26, 806-32. June 16, 1908. Berl. Ber. 1908, 554-577. SH. 4; STARK and. Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 92-7. Dec. 8, 1905. W. HERMANN Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 46, 420-2). SHK J. STARK, W. HERMANN and © SRINGSHITA. 3s Ann. Phys. 21, 462-0. Sept. 14, 1906. SrigGa Cars CUM eee Ann. Phys. 9, 703-11. Aug. 5, 1902. Singles peek ora taneecatae Ann, Phys. 13, 622-33. Dec. 3, 1903. Smq “ Seg Bete eit “Die Kathodenstrahlen,” 108-13. Feb., 1904. SS Jj. STARK and . ee et Cr ate ees Ann. Phys. 21, 457-61. Sept. 14, 1906. SSt J. STARK and W: STEUBING, .. 0s Ann. Phys. 26, 918-26, June 16, 1908. NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER SemeGs SCHOUMD. ks. ..eosc6 Phys, Zeitschr. 8, 292-3. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 51, 340-2). Sia DO Racer esas sie Phil. Mag. 13, 657-687. -SW_ B. STRASSER and Phys. Zeitschr. 7, 744-6. M. WIEN Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 8, 537-42. sw © OWINDTON: 20. o.3. a Proc. Roy. Soc. 79-A, 391-5. peer cel ANE Been ccnitc. ice 3 cts Ann. Phys. 11, 613-8. Rey. (Ecl. Electr. 36, 304). io a MERE eee tae Ann. Phys, 14, 206-7. Emre je TELOMSON 32.02.26 “Conduction of Electricity through Gases,”’ I17-120, 519-522. ain?) am eee LER Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc. 13, 212-4. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 46, 493). ‘mg * eM oe hae 255 So Phil. Mag. 13, 561-75. (Electr. 58, 1017-8). “ imag “ SRS cman oe, “Conduction of Electricity through Gases,” 2nd ed., 146-0, 639-43. mse « Toe Petiivste te sct ee “Corpuscular Theory of Matter,” 17-23. im6s s UNM eed ier rats Stats Phil. Mag. 14, 295-7. Tm7 “ aa Ce ae Phil. Mag. 14, 359-64. Tms ~*~ oe Secs cine tr; Phil. Mag. 16, 657-601. Tere. TROWBRIDGE... .: Sill. Journ. 25, 141-2. r2e RN Sty NA aoe Proc. Amer. Acad. 43, 511-517. Phil, Mag. 16, 697-702. AV arom enV LSTe Ter ANGERS ID) peers eects Comptes Rendus 126, 1340-1. Rev. (Kcl. Electr. 14, 485-6; 15, 34). V2 " Se ae Comptes Rendus 126, 1565-6. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 15, 513). V3 ws ee are Journ. de Phys. 8, 14-6. V4 e eRe ets hae Journ. de Phys. 8, 160. Vian VV VVCIOECIN ots ree wre sunray Verh. Berlin. Phys. Ges. 16, 170-1. W2 * TD gp Bea eee arsed Verh. Berlin. Phys. Ges. 17, 10-12. WV ae ce Ba a eras etn Wied. Ann. 65, 445-52. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 16, 558-60). Was di or? rs, NITES Ann. Phys. 5, 421-35. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 28, 542-3). VIS ee Na td oo ta Electrician 49, 523-5, 560-2. Ann. Phys. 8, 244-66. Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 34, 19-20). WG & SEE Latches s Zeitschr. Electrochemie 8, 587-01. V7 oe edd ek partes a ae Phys. Zeitschr. 3, 440-I. ws “* ee Boe of oy eats an Ann. Phys. 9, 660-4. WO aos i LAI Pein ALL Ann. Phys. 13, 669-77. Wio “* Sse ns Maa vanes a Phil. Mag. 14, 212-3. WED Te ne eet Ann. Phys. 23, 415-38. Wire A WA EUIN BI hs. oie ects Wied. Ann. 67, 421-6. Rey. (Ecl. Electr. 19, 311-3). Wh3 “ Sea cee the srstet ss Ann. Phys, 14, 464. WWI eAS VIGIL NIB so kje.s ccs Phys. Zeitschr; 1, 132. Mar. June, Sept. June Apr. Mar. Aug., Nov. Mar. Sept., July July Aug. Oct; Feb. May Mar. May Jan; Jan; Nov. Jan. Mar. Mar. Mar. May June July Dec. May, May Nov. Apr. Oct. 299 18, 1907. 1907. 18, 1906. 6, 1907. 6, 1903. 26, 1904. 1903. 27, 1905. 23, 1907. 1906. 15, 1907. 12, 1907. 6, 1907. 1908. 7, 1908. 18, 1908. 4, 1808. 31, 1808. 1899. 1890. 10, 1897. 13, 1808. 22, 1808. 2, 1808. 27, 1902. 10, 1902. 3, 1902. 29, 1902. 19, 1903. 1907. 7, 1907. 4, 1806. 20, 1904. I, 1899. 300 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Wly1 N. M. WILHELMY..... “Discharge of Electr. in Gases,” 54-6, 74-5. 1905. WS W.WIEDEMANN and Wied. Ann. 62, 468-73. July 17, 1897. G.-C SCHMID Rev. (Ecl. Electr. 14, 575-6). WW W. WIEDEMANN and Fortschr. Phys. 2, 811. 1898. A. WEHNELT Mitth. Phys. Inst. Erlang, pp. 16-17. 1808. 2nr + 0, ZEEUN DIR. Asse. ot Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 1903, 38. Jan. 9, 1903. The following articles I have been unable to see, so they are not re- ferred to in the summary: Sip] OE UICEL Se yf! Sone jaca Prometheus, 7, 784. 1896. int, oh. PEUNINGE Reece ea Dissert. Wurtzburg, 1902. Sim15) G SCH MIDE S.J ote): “Die Kathodenstrahlen,” 2nd ed. 1907. SG.) bs SONEVIER: cheese “Uber Elektr. Entladungen,” Miinchen. 1907. S22 eke, Sl Gillean sees Wien. Anz. 81-82. 1907. S23 .° Hrs Bagh Gavan cate Wien. Ber. 116, 129. 1907. WE E. WIEDEMANN and Ee MEER Ite ean bones Sitz. Erlangen Med.-Phys. Soc. Dec. 11, 1891. Paria, List of ARTICLES ON Positive RAys OTHER THAN CANAL Rays. PositivE Rays IN GENERAL: GR(726-9, 380-5) ; also Ann. Phys. 25, 882. CatTHoODE AFFLUX: VI; V2; V3; Whz2. K,-Rays: G1(6098, 47) ; G3(207) ; G6(229, 373). S:-Rays: G2; G6(230, 374); Tm7(363); Kz1; Tm8(664). Puoro-Erectric Positive Rays: H. Dember, Ann. Phys. 26, 403-8. J. J. THomson Rays: J: J. Thomson, Proc. Roy. Inst. 1897; Din7(362)); Tm8 (658). P. Villard, Comptes Rendus 143, 674-6. ANoDE Rays: Battelli and Magri, Phys. Zeitschr. 1, 18-20. E. Gehrcke and O. Reichenheim, Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 8, 559-566 ; 9, 76-83, 200-4, 374-80; 10, 217-25. Arch. Soc, Phys. Nat. 26, 5-15. Bull. Sce. France Phys. 1908, 40-7. Naturw. Rundschau 23, 209-11. Ann, Phys. 25, 861-84. W. Wien, W3(449). Concerning the discovery of POSITIVE ELECTRONS reported by Lillienfeld see following: Jee dealienteldh.-jes om cece oe Verh. Deutsch, Phys. Ges. 8, 631-5; 9, 125-35. E. Gehrcke and O. Reichenheim...Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 9, 593-7. Bi Goldstein os week she see eee Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 9, 598-615. A. Bestelmeyer and S. Marsh..... Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 9, 758-63. A, Bestelimey@tis cs. cok cess eine Phys. Zeitschr. 9, 541, 1908. JeBecquerele sancti ce ose ae Comptes Rendus 146, 1308-11, 1908. TeBeediterel cdeescwcsnsiewee eee Comptes Rendus 147, 121-4, 1908. NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—IULCHER 301 II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. When a discharge is passed through an exhausted tube divided into two compartments by a perforated metal cathode, luminous bun- dles of rays appear, extending from the holes in the cathode back away from the anode. ‘These are the canal rays, discovered and named by Goldstein—G1 (692,39). Similar rays may be obtained with other arrangements of the cathode, but the rays obtained under the simplest conditions, 7. e., when the two compartments communi- cate only through the perforations in the cathode, alone will be considered in what follows. The rays move in straight lines except in a magnetic or in an electric field. ‘They excite glass and some other substances placed in their path to fluoresce temporarily, thus rendering the place where they strike them visible. They consist for the most part of positively charged particles of matter, with a mass not less than the hydrogen atom. With these preliminary remarks, we proceed to give a sum- mary of their properties as determined so far by experimental besearchi: Several authors have suggested changing the name from canal rays (Kanalstrahlen) to anode or positive rays—W8 (660), Ew3(300), I'm3(56r). By “canal rays” as used here is meant a specific form of positive rays. For brief general discussion of canal rays, see the following: S1; Tm1; Sm4; S4; Wlyr; Ew3; Andi; S17; Tig; Tms; Mnt; GR(726-9) ; of which the most complete is Ew3. For photo of Paysesce lenht- kat. Vil fr4, Ill. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS. 1. APPARATUS. ILLUSTRATIONS OF DiscHARGE TUBES. Original tube: Grf1; Sm4fqo. Simple tubes: Giff2 and 3; Bgtf1; WSffr and 2; Wif2; W3f3; Ewrffi and 2: Borf1; G3f1; S13f1; Hleffs, 6; SHf1; Tm7f12; Mnrf17. To show charge: Prniffr and 2; V1f6; WSff1, 2, 3 and 4; Lnoff1, 2; Aurft: Au2f1; Tm8fs, To show magnetic deflection: Weft; W3f4; Ws5f7; Sifti9; Woffr and 2k S4ff224 and 225; Tm3f2; Tm8ff1, 2 and 6. To show electrostatic effects: V3f2; Wsff2, 5, 6 and 7; W6f1; Wofft and 2; $13f8; Tm3f2; Tm7f2. To show fluorescence: Ar1f3; W7f1; Smeffr and 2. To show secondary emission: Tm2f1; Fiff1 and 2; Auaffr, 2, 3 and q; Fafr. 302 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 To show ionization: WSff2, 3, 4 and 5. To show mechanical action: Swiffi and 3. To measure energy radiated: W11(420). With alkaline gases: SSff1 and 2. For very slow rays: S2f1; cf.Wh3(464), Ew3(308). SUGGESTIONS FOR OBTAINING THE CANAL Rays. To obtain “Pure” Canal Rays, that is, to prevent cathode rays from “striking back,” thus obscuring the canal rays: 1. Perforations in cathode must not be too large. The lower the gas pressure and the thicker the cathode, the larger they may be: G1 (697,45) ; G3(205) ; Ew3(298). With extreme vacuum, however, cathode rays may appear: W1(170) ; W3(446). 2. Cathode rays may be bent aside with a weak magnet: G3(206) ; W5(523,245). ‘They may be distinguished from canal rays by their magnetic or electrostatic deflection or by their charge: W5(523, 245) ; or by fluorescence excited: G4(1I, I0T). To obtain “Slow” Canal Rays, even with high vacuum: 1. An alloy of Na and K, or Ca may be used on cathode: Wh3(464) ; Ew3(307) ; T'm3(562). 2. Gas may be ionized by some other agent: S2(585); Wh3(464) ; Ew3 (308). FLUORESCENT SCREEN; a willemite screen is best: Tm3(562). Purse Gas filling is necessary for some experiments. For precautions and devices used see the following: He. W4(423); W5(525, 255); W6(so1, Hittorf); SH(93); Fr(154); S13(28,407) ; St9(400) ; Ps2(248). O2 W4(423); W5(525, 256); W8(661); SH(93); Ps3(261). He. Rau1(422) ; T'm3(568). Hg. W5(525, 255); S19(400). z. COLOR OF THE BUNDLES OF RAYS. In N or Air. Apparently bright chamois yellow: G1(692, 696, 309, 44); G3(205). Due to diffuse secondary rays: G2(133); G6(229). Really bluish: Bg1(695) ; G2(133) ; G6(229) ; Kn3(37). In Oz Yellow-pink: G1(696, 44). Turns bluish as potential rises: Ps4(999) ; In Hz. Rosy: Gr(696, 44). Color very sensitive to impurities in gas, is red for pure H: $13(28, 407). In Hz and Na vapor. Brilliant sodium yellow: 5S(459). In H2 and K vapor. Beautiful violet like potassium Bunsen flame: SS(460). In CO2. Greenish gray, white: G1 (606, 44). In N.O. Momentarily gray, becomes blue in 5 sec.: Kn3(37). In illuminating gas. Gray: Kn3(37). In GeneErAL.—Color is the same as that of first cathode layer: G1(696, 44). Color is independent of the material of cathode: G1 (697, 45). Color depends to some extent on velocity: S10(254) ; S23(81r). NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 303 3. PROPAGATION OF THE CANAL RAYS. PROPAGATION IS RECTILINEAR except in a magnetic or electrostatic field: G1(694, 41); Sm4(109). Any obstacle in their path casts a sharp shadow on a screen: G1(608, 46). DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION. Relation to Cathode. Plane cathode: G1(694,41) ; Ew3(209). Each bundle slightly divergent: V3(15) ; ‘I'm3(1017). Axes of the various bundles converge slightly toward a central axis: W5(469) ; G5(70) ; $13(20, 408) ; G6(236). Convergence increases with vacuum, bundles may cross. Convergence greatest for circle of holes farthest from the center. Front surface of cathode sufficiently concave. Axes of various bundles may be parallel or diverge from a cen- tral axis: G1(695, 43) ; S13£3b. Front surface convex. Bundles converge and may cross: S13f3a. In general: Direction is approximately normal to the front surface of cath- ode: Wh2(424) ; G3(205). Direction is independent of shape of back surface, that is, the surface turned away from the anode: Gr(695, 43). Direction is independent of the obliquity of the canals, but intensity may be decreased by rays striking the sides: G1 (695, 43). Relation to Cathode Afflux and cathode rays. Apparently the rays are the prolongation through the cathode, of the cathode afflux, both always having the same direction: V1; Wh2(423); V3(15). By deflecting the cathode afflux the canal ray bundles are deflected. Relation to cathode rays only apparent: G1(695, 43) ; G6(236). Canal rays come from those holes alone which are covered by the first cathode layer: G1(695, 43) ; Wh2(423)f1; Gs5(70); G6 (236). DIspERSION, due to collision with gas molecules. Dispersion greater the larger the molecules: SH(06), least in Hs: $1(346), greater in Hg vapor: SH(06). Little dispersion for high discharge potentials: S16(81). Diffuse rays produced: G6(239) ; ‘I'm7(359). ABSORPTION OF THE Rays. By gas. Independent of the material of the cathode (Al, Fe, Pt): Ew1(182). Decreases as velocity increases, pressure being constant: [,n2(106). With constant velocity, the maximum distance penetrated by the rays as measured with an electrode, depends merely on the mean free path of the gas molecules, at a given pres- sure being greater in H2 than in O2, in Q2 than in CO.: Ew1(182, 198); Ew3(300) ; S4(606); Ln2(106) ; W11 (437). Also shown in connection with the Doppler effect: Ew3(312). 304 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 ABSORPTION OF THE Rays. By thin film of grease. Thin film on electrode reduced charge received 95%. After polishing electrode with flannel, only 50% penetrated: Au2(314). Length of rays increases with decreasing pressure; visible rays may be over 50 cm. long: G1r(695, 43) ; Sm4(109). REFLECTION ON STRIKING AN OBSTACLE. Diffuse: Au2(318). Per cent reflected is a function of the discharge potential, reaching a maximum at a low potential: F1(156). At 2,500 volts, more than 10% are reflected from Pt, Ag, or Cu: F1(155). At 600 volts, about 50% are reflected from Pt, Ag, or Cu: F1(156). Reflection on glass wall produces thick bright layer when near enough to cathode: Raur(421I). Shown by Doppler effect in spectrum of light received by a slit at the end of tube: HK(566) ; S13(41, 423). 20 to 35% of H rays reflected: S13(41, 423). 4. FLUORESCENCE EXCITED. On Giass WALL. In air. Color shows great variations, even with same glass: W5(524, 252). Green, yellow, reddish yellow, and salmon observed: G1(697,45) ; G3 (211); Ar1(326); W2(10); W3(447); V3(15); G4; W5(524, 252). Differences due to variations in gas filling: W5(524, 252). Color differs for deflectable and non-deflectable rays. Deflectable excite bright green fluorescence; non-deflectable, a weak yellow brown fluorescence: W4(432, 435); W6(5890) ; Wo(675); Sm4(111); 54(649). In helium. Sodium light and green fluorescence: Raur(421). Deflected fluorescence blue: Raut(422). In hydrogen. With pure H, fluorescence is pure green: W5(525, 255) ; W6(590) ; 54(649) ; Rau1(421). With impure H, undeflected part is yellowish: W5 (525, 255). With potassium glass, fluorescence is weak blue: W5(525, 250). In mercury vapor. Brownish or salmon red, no green: W5(525, 255) ; W6(590) ; $4(649). White?: SH (96). In nitrogen. Sodium light persists in spite of all efforts to get rid of oxygen: Rautr(421). Glass wall previously exposed to cathode rays, at first shows no sodium light: Rau1(422). In oxygen. Brown fluorescence, no green: W5(525, 256); W6(590) ; $4(649). Sodium light alone appears after careful drying: Raur(421). No fluorescence with potassium glass: W5(525, 256). NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 305 In general. Weak effect compared with that of cathode rays: Ew3(302). Temporary effect, soon dying down, but may be revived by heating: Art (326). Color depends on gas filling, very sensitive to impurities: W5(524, 253); W6(589). Also depends on glass: W5(525, 256). Differences persist even for very low pressures, hence are not due to differences of absorption: W6(590). Spectrum is always a line spectrum: Ew3(302). Strongest fluorescence in the case of H: W4(435), cf. G3(2I0). Sodium light appears inside of glass wall and is easily distinguishable from cathode ray fluorescence: G4; V3(15); Ew3(302). On METALS AND METALLIC SALTS. Cobalt, Manganese, Mercury, Nickel, and Thallium Salts show no fluo- rescence: Ar1(326); Sm2(706). Solid solutions: See Ar1(326) ; Sm2(706, 708). Aluminum. Polished metal shows no fluorescence: W7. Oxide. Pure Al2O; does not fluoresce: Sm3(625). One part in 10,000 of chrome oxide causes bright red fluor- escence: Sm3(625) ; Ew3(304). A trace of CuO causes weak green fluorescence, which becomes bluish and then blue as more CuO is added: Sm3 (626) ; Cf. W7; S4(649). Cadmium salts show yellow fluorescence: Ar1(326) ; Sm2(706). Oxide. Weak greenish fluorescence in Hz or O2:: W7; S4(649). Calcium salts. White fluorescence: Arr(326). Bluish; Sm2(706). Caesium salts show bright blue fluorescence: Tr1(142). Copper oxide. No fluorescence in Oz or Hz: W7. Iron salts. No fluorescence: Ar1(326) ; Sm2(706). Oxide. No fluorescence: W7. ' Lithium, Salts show weak red fluorescence: Ar1(326); G6(220) ; Tr1(141) ; Tm3(1017). Chloride becomes black in H2: Tr1(141). Magnesium. Salts show green fluorescence, line spectrum: G6(229). Oxide obtained by burning Mg shows red fluorescence in O2 or H:2: W7; S4(649). Fluorescence probably due to an oxide impurity held in solid solution: Sm3(633). Potassium. Pure metal shows no fluorescence: I'm3(1017). Rubidium salts show red and blue fluorescence: Tr1(142). Sodium. Pure metal shows no fluorescence: T'm2(214) ; I'm3(1017). Sodium glass. Gold yellow fluorescence, D-line: G4; G6(229). % oxide. Greenish yellow: Tm2(214). salts. Red yellow, D-line, no noticeable discoloration of salts: Ar1(326); Sm2(705). Strontium salts. Rose-white fluorescence: Ari(326). Zinc. Salts show green fluorescence: Ar1(326). Willemite dusted on glass fluoresces brightly, especially in Hz: Tm3(562, 570). “ 300 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Zine oxide. 1. When prepared by burning thoroughly in O:, it showed an intense green fluorescence: W6(590) ; Tf1(613); S4(649). Oxide became coffee-colored and sticky: Tf1(614). Oxide permanently discolored yellow during fluorescence: W6(590) ; W7. White color and power to fluoresce restored by heating: T'f1(616). Oxygen is released during the fluorescence: W6(590) ; T’f1(613). No chemical change occurs large enough to detect by balance: Tf1(614). Oxide can be discolored and power to fluoresce be removed by intense pressure: Tf1(615). 2. Chemically precipitated oxide shows little or no fluorescence: W6(590) ; Tf1(616). Oxide may be purified chemically until it will no longer fluoresce: Sm3 (623, 628). Minute traces of cadmium oxide caused it to show an intense green fluorescence: Sm3(628). Flakes or smoke from burned Zn show no fluorescence unless heated: $3(390). Explanation offered is that pure ZnO does not fluoresce except when it contains some other oxide in solid solution: Sm3(623, 628); cf. Tfa. METALLIC OXIDES IN GENERAL. Pure oxides, chemically obtained, do not fluoresce: Sm2(707); Sm3 (625, 628, 633); Ew3(303). Oxides obtained by burning the metal may fluoresce: Ew3(303). Oxides containing other oxides in solid solution may fluoresce: Sm2(707) ; Sm3(625, 628, 633). Fluorescence the same in either H2 or O2: Ew3(303). FLUORESCENCE IN GENERAL. S4(649). Temporary. All substances soon lose capacity to fluoresce in canal rays: Ari (326) ; Sm2(706) ; W6(590) ; W7. Extremely sensitive to minute quantities of impurity: Sm2(71I0). Superficial: Arr(326) ; Sm2(706). Spectrum. As fluorescence dies down spectrum bands widen out and finally disappear in a continuous spectrum: Sm2(707, 711). 5. CHARGE CARRIED BY THE RAYS. Rays PositivELY CHARGED for the most part. Shown by the direction of the magnetic and electrostatic deflection (see below) : Tm1(521) ; Sm4(11I0). Shown by the positive charge received by a Faraday cylinder or electrode struck by the rays, cathode being earthed: Prnr; W1; W3(446); Ew1(175); Bgt(692); Ws5(524, 251); Ln2(198) ; Wo9(671); Aut; Fr(153); Pry. Nore.—In order to give the true current carried by the rays, charge received by an electrode must be corrected for two secondary effects elsewhere described, viz: NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 307 (1) Reflection of rays from electrode (see § 3), and (2) Secondary emission of cathode rays excited (see § 9). Nevertheless, Austin’s work seems to be conclusive: Aut. Failure to consider these effects may account for the following negative results reported: Ar1(327); V1; V3(16); Ln2(180); Bg1(602). Some NEGATIVELY CHARGED, as shown by the direction of the magnetic deflection: W5(262) ; Tm3(568) ; T’m8(671). Proportion of negative rays to whole is small: Wro(212). Some Rays Uncuarcep for a portion of their path: T'm8(670). CURRENT CARRIED BY THE RAYs. Ratio of current flowing to earth from electrode, to total discharge cur- rent, determined under varying conditions of pressure and tension, in air, O2 and H2: Ewr(176-82), plate I; Ln2(198) ; cf. Pry (448). Maximum current measured about 10o-tamp.: Ewt, plate I. No correction for secondary emission: F1(153). Ratio reaches a maximum about at pressure when cathode ray fluo- rescence begins: PryI (448). Undeflected rays also charged in part: W4(434) ; W9(671, 673). 6. MAGNETIC DEFLECTION. DIFFICULTY IN OBSERVING EFFECT. First overcome by W. Wien, in 1898: W2(11) ; W3(448) ; W4(423). Effect a thousand times smaller than in the case of the cathode rays. Main discharge must be protected from the influence of the strong mag- netic field employed: Wa2(11); W3(448); W4(422); G5(70) ; W5(523, 244) ; G6(237) ; T'm3(563). Negative results reported: G1(608, 46); Arr(325); Prtr; Vr; V3(15); G3 (208). Suggestions for observing effect: W5(523, 245); Tm3(562). SENSE OF DEFLECTION, such as to prove the positive charge carried by the rays: Wa(12) ; W3(448) ; W5(523, 245) ; Tm3(568). Part of the rays are deflected in the opposite sense, indicating that part of the rays for a portion of their path are negatively charged: W5(262) ; T'm3(568). CHARACTER OF THE DEFLECTION. Non-uniform, spot drawn out in streak, part undeflected: W2(12) ; W3(448) ; W4(431) ; Raut (422) ; Tm3(564), 568). Diagram of deflection streak in air, also in Hz shown in T'm3. Not due to impurity in the gas filling: W4(431). Deflected fluorescence brighter than undeflected, in Hz: W4(432); W6(589). May differ in color from wundeflected: W4(432); Wo9(675); Sm4(111); S4(649). Most deflected fluorescence is always green, but becomes very faint if gas is carefully purified of H:: W10(213). Deflected beam much less bright than undeflected: W4(432, 435). 308 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 MAGNITUDE oF MAxiMuM MAGNETIC DEFLECTION. Maximum deflection about 2 cm. with field of 500 C. G. S. units, tension 30,000 v., screen at a distance of 7 cm. from cathode: W4(431) ; W5(561, 263) ; W8(663). Originally reported deflection much smaller: W2(12) ; W3(448). Independent of gas and also of cathode material. In Ho», however, a larger proportion seem to be deflected nearly the maxi- mum amount: W4(431) ; Wo9(674) ; I'm3(575). Lone Canat Ray Bram. Curious behavior in magnetic field: Pl1 (1008). 7. ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION. DIFFICULT TO OBSERVE because gas becomes ionized by the rays, and electric field cannot be maintained: W2(11); W3(447); W4(425). Effect small; first observed by W. Wien in 1808: W2(10) ; W3(447). SENSE OF DEFLECTION same as that of magnetic deflection: W2(11), etc. CHARACTER. Same as that of magnetic deflection: W5(560, 259) ; I'm3(564). MacnitrupE. With a field of 400 v./cm., discharge potential of 10,000 v., length of plates 5 cm., distance of screen 10 cm., a deflec- tion of about 1 cm. would be obtained: W5(561, 259, 254). ELECTROSTATIC ACCELERATION OF Rays. By applying a field parallel to the rays, the fluorescence can be weakened or brightened according to direction of field: W5(s561, 260). 8. SIMULTANEOUS MAGNETIC AND ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION. EXPERIMENT due to W. Wien: W5(561, 261). Magnetic and electrostatic fields are superposed, and so arranged that they tend to deflect the rays in mutually perpendicular planes. ‘The resultant deflection streak is observed on the glass or willemite screen at the end of the tube. Wir Orpinary Low PRESSURES. Fairly straight diagonal streak extending from origin, in air, H» or pure O2: W5(561, 263) ; W6(588) ; W8(661-3). For diagrams see I'm3(568, 571). Wirt ExtrReEMELY Low Pressures. Undeflected spot and negative branch disappear: ''m3(572). Streak breaks up into two or three patches. Same two patches for all gases air, Hz, O2, He, CO2, Ar, and Ne. He giving, in addition, a third patch: T'm3(573, 575); Tm6(295). One patch is deflected the amount to be expected if canal rays are singly charged hydrogen atoms. Second patch corresponds to singly charged hydrogen molecules. Third patch, obtained under certain conditions with helium, cor- responds to singly charged helium molecules: Tm3(571)- NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL, RAYS—FULCHER 309 Effect not due to presence of H2 as impurity. Brightness of fluorescence patch measured photometrically and found to be the same whether extreme precautions were taken to elimi- nate H2 or not: Tm6(2z93) ; Tm7(360) ; cf. W10(212). Hydrogen canal rays abundant when no hydrogen ions can be detected in other parts of the tube: T’m8(680). As pressure increases, patches enlarge, overlap and merge to form the continuous, fairly straight streak: 7'm3(574). 9. SECONDARY EMISSION OF NEGATIVE RAYS FROM A METALLIC SURFACE STRUCK BY CANAL RAYS. INTENSITY OF SECONDARY RADIATION. Function of the velocity of the canal rays, few negative rays for low tensions (600 v.) : F1(156) ; F3(30r). Kinetic energy of canal rays must exceed a certain value: Pry1 (448). Function of the angle of incidence. Much less for normal than for greater angles of incidence in case of Al and brass: F1(153) ; F2(749) ; Au2(315) ; F3(306). In case of Cu, variation is slight: F1(153) ; F3(306). Depends on the metal struck. For high tensions (30,000 to 75,000 v.), the secondary negative cur- rent emitted is the following per cent of the canal ray current: Al, 300 per cent; Zn, 170 per cent; Cu and Ag, 100 per cent; Pt, 80 per cent: F1r(155). For brass, 6,000 v., 45 per cent: Au2(314). Measurements complicated by the positive reflection, which for the lower tensions may overbalance the negative emission: Fr(155). Relation to cathode fall. Metals which used as cathodes have the greatest cathode fall for a given pressure, show the least negative emission when struck by canal rays: Ew3(3I!0). VELOCITY. Not very great, since emission is stopped if electrode is charged to a low positive potential: T'm2(213). Varies considerably among the rays: Au2(318). AVERAGE Ve ocity, that is, the velocity of most of the rays, measured by deflecting them magnetically through a curved canal, and determining the current received by an electrode at the end as a function of the field strength: F2(749). Value is 3.2 to 3.5 x 10° cm. for Pt or Al: F2(749) ; F3(301, 304). Independent of the velocity of canal rays: F2(749). Independent of the gas (Hz or air): F2(749). Independent of the angle of incidence: F2(749). Independent of the metal struck (Pt or Al) : F2(749) ; F3(301, 304). Same as that of secondary rays produced by cathode rays striking a metal: Ew3(310). Distribution of the rays among different velocities shown by curves: F3(303). Varies with gas and with metal: F3(304). OD 310 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS — VOL. 52 to. CHEMICAL EFFECTS. Repucine EFFEct. In Hz, HgCl reduced to Hg:Clz to some depth, no fluorescence: Sm2(709). FeCls reduced to FeCle: Sm2(71I0). Various other metallic compounds reduced: Sm3(622). In Oz, these reducing effects do not take place: Sm2(710). Metallic oxides in solid solution are reduced, oxygen being evolved dur- ing fluorescence: W6(590) ; W7; Tf1(613); S4(654). Oxipiz1nc EFFect. All oxidizable metals are superficially oxidized by the rays: Wh2(425) ; Sm2(708) ; $4(654) ; Sm3(622) ; Sm4(112). Cu shows effect better than Cd, Al or Zn. Oxidization proved by chemical analysis: Sm2(708). Shaded parts of surface also oxidized as well as parts directly struck by the rays: Sm2(708). Au, Ag, and Pt show no oxidization in four hours: Sm2(609). PbO turns brown by formation of PbO2z: Sm2(709). Heg-Cl. turned black: Sm2(709). Not a heat effect, red HgI2 not changed to the yellow iodide: Sm2(708). DissocraTING ACTION. With acetylene, carbon is deposited on walls: Kn3(35). No deposit where rays strike walls: Kn3(35). N:O and CO: easily dissociated by the rays: Kn3(37). Dissociation of Hz and Oz may account for apparent chemical effects de- scribed above: Sm2(711); Sm3(622); Sm4(113); $4(654) ; Ew3(304). Metallic compounds decomposed: V2; V4; Tr1(142); Ar1(327). AcTION ON SENSITIZED PAPER. Canal rays affect sensitized papers, rendering them less sensitive to day- light, so that by exposing a canal ray positive to sunlight, it may be changed to a negative: Zn1(38). Celluloid paper is rendered more reflecting where rays strike: Znr. Photographic action slow, long exposure necessary: Prtt. 11. MECHANICAL EFFECTS. DISINTEGRATION OF METALS struck by the rays: S4(630) ; Tm2(214). Too small in amount to weigh: Kl1(871). Varies for different metals: Al, none; Cu, small; Au and Pt, distinct deposit on walls of tubes; brass disintegrated but no deposit: K11(871). Varies with gas, greater in air than in H2 in case of Au and Pt, Not sensitive to traces of impurity in gas: K11(872). PENETRATING POWER. Canal rays will penetrate only extremely thin thicknesses of metal, paper, or mica: Wr; W3(445); V3(15). Metallic compounds decomposed: V2; V4; Tr1(142). Penetrate deeper in Al than in Cu, a possible explanation of some of the secondary cathode ray emission phenomena: F3(307). NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY’ OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 3r1 Heatine ErrFkcr. Obstacles struck are warmed: V1(1341) ; Ar1(327); Sw1(393). Heating of end of tube measured calorimetrically; 10 to 20 per cent of total energy of discharge regained as heat: Ew1(183, 199). Measured bolometrically : W4(425). Mica mill-wheels rotated, probably a thermal radiation effect: Sw1(393). 12, MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS. CHARGED ELECTRODES do not appreciably affect rays: V1; V3(15) ; G3(208). BuNDLES Cross without any apparent interference: G1(698, 46). IONIZATION oF GAs takes place if canal rays have sufficient velocity (500 v.): S13(170, 427). Second discharge may be passed through part of tube traversed by the rays using only one-fourth the potential otherwise re- quired: WS(470-3). Effect makes the use of an electrostatic field difficult: W3(447). ScREENING Erect. Electric waves are absorbed by a tube traversed by canal rays: WS(470). 13. SPECTRUM OF LIGHT FROM CANAL RAYS. The light may be received in a collimator pointed in a direction parallel or perpendicular to the rays. In the former case, whatever light is being radiated from the particles forming the rays while they are in motion should show a Doppler effect, since the wave length of the light from the moving particles will be slightly altered by the motion in the line of sight, causing a shift in the position of the lines in the spectrum. ‘There is always besides the “displaced line” the “rest line” with, usually, an “intensity minimum” between: S22(905). ALUMINUM LINES show Doppler effect 3944, 3962. Intensity weak: $23 (822). In Arr. Band spectrum of N appears: G1(692, 39). In Arcon. Doppler effect observed for 20 lines surely; for ten more, prob- ably: D1. In Carson DIOXIDE. Contains C line \ 4267 and H lines, all very bright. N, Swan, and C bands also present: Kn3(37). Doppler effect shown by H lines and \ 4267: Kn3(37) ; S1of2(photo). 4267. Shift of 5A with 10,000 v.: Kn3(37). H lines more intense for lower pressures: Kn3(37). Band spectrum shows no Doppler effect: Kn3(37). IN HELIUM. Doppler effect shown by \ 4472 and other lines: S1roft(Rau) ; D1(589). Negative results: Raul (423) ; Hl2(15, 16). 312 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 In HyproceEn, Contains main series line spectrum: Whlr1(132); SH(94)f4; 55 (804, 462) ; So(112, 249). Also 44688: S13(43, 425) ; So(112, 249). Also H band spectrum and sometimes metal lines: SH(94) f4; $5 (461, 893) ; 513(43, 425). Line spectrum relatively more intense, the greater the discharge potential: SH(95). Intensity of shorter wave lengths increases faster: S10(253); S21(799). Hence, as potential increases, the intensity maximum in the series shifts to shorter wave lengths: $13 (184, 444). Doppler effect—see photo Ss5f1; Ps2, plate III; S2o0f1; SWff3 and 4. Shown by all lines of line spectrum: S5(462, 894); S13(33, 414); Hl2(12) ; Dr(589) ; Ps2(250). Cathode fall must exceed 700 v.: $20(64). Rest line sharp, intensity less than that of displaced line: S5(462, 804); S13(183, 443). Intensity closely related to that of band spectrum: $13(173, 43). Intensity of displaced line not a function of pressure: $13(34, 415) ; not related to stationary intensity: $13(175, 434). Ratio of intensities of displaced lines of different wave length in the same series is a function of the cathode fall: SSt(924). Intensity distribution, or cross section of intensity is similar for all lines of series: Ps2(250); Ps4(997) ; cf. S13(182, 442) ; S21(799) ; SSt(924-5). For diagrams of intensity dis- tribution see: HK (565) ; S13f5; Ps2(250). Shift as a function of wave length. A /d constant for maximum displacement of all lines showing effect: S5(462, 894) ; So(112, 249) ; S13(33, 414). Constant for maximum intensity of displaced line: Ps2(251) ; Ps4(997) ; cf. S21(799). Shift as a function of discharge potential. See Fig. 61. Maximum shift proportional to the square root of potential approximately: $5 (462). Shift of about 5A for velocity of 3x10'cm.: Hl2(12); $13(33, 414). Shift the same for light from all parts of rays: SW(745). Second displaced line appears with low velocities, 800 to 2,000 v.: Ps2(252 and plate m1). Sharp for the lower velocities, widening for higher. Band spectrum shows no Doppler effect: $5(463, 804) ; $13(43, 425). In SopIuM VApor. Difficulties of experiment: SS(457); S5(463). Only one plate of a number, intense enough. Contains main and first and second sub-series of line spectrum: $5(463). Doppler effect observed in case of two doublets of first series, a fine, displaced line, shift not measurable: SS(460) ; $5(463). NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 313 In Mercury VAPOR. Contains first and second sub-series of triplets: Sg(112, 250). Also A 4358, 4047, and 2537: SHK (463, 467). Doppler effect. Unquestionably observed for 12 Hg lines: $18(233) ; S2of3. 5461. Small displacement: S5(463). Observed by Paschen: S20(65). No displacement observed with echelon, tension 60,000 v.: Hl1; Hl2(13). dA 4347, 4078. Distinctly observed only with high voltages, 45,000 to 60,000 v.: SHK (468) ; S13(180, 439). Shift points to trebly charged atom as carrier: SHK (468). 2537. Shift points to singly charged atom as carrier: SHK(467). Lines of 1st and 2nd series of triplets: S5(463); SHK(468) ; S20 (64). Same modified shift, AX/A, for all components of a triplet and for all triplets of both series: Sg(112, 250) ; SHK (466) ; $13(181, 440). Shift points to doubly charged atom as carrier: SHK (465). Displaced intensity relatively very weak, greater for higher velocities and for shorter wave lengths: S13(176, 434) ; S20(63). Effect independent of the presence of Hz: S20(65). Discussion of Hull’s negative results: S18; H13; S20; Hl4. In Nirrocen. See SHff2 and 3. Contains both the band and series line spectra of N, but band spectra subside as potential increases: Hr3(568) ; SH(95). Doppler effect. 3995. Shift distinctly observed: $5(463); SH(94); Hr3(569) (photo). Intensity minimum well defined: S10(256). Width varies but slightly with cathode fall: Hr3(569). Maximum shift points to singly charged N atom as carrier: Hr3 (569). AA 5006/03, 4643/31/22/14/07/01, 4530, etc., all show shift similar in appearance and amount to 43995: Hr3(569). Band spectra show no Doppler effect: S5(463) ; Hr3(568). IN OXYGEN. Contains : (1) elementary line or spark spectrum of O: G1(606, 44); Wlr1; Ps3(261) ; Ps4(999) ; S23(814). (2) series of triplets: Ps3(261). Become weaker with higher dis- charge potentials: Ps4(999). (3) traces of bands: Wirt. Doppler effect shown by elementary line spectrum: Ps3(263) ; Ps4(998). All lines in question show same displacement and appearance: Ps3 (263) ; 523(814). Doppler effect for triplets even with high velocities doubtful: Sg3(129) ; Ps3(263) ; Ps4(998) ; S21(804); S23(819). Intensity very weak, shift not measurable: S23(82r). 314 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 In PorasstuM VAPOR. Difficulty of experiment: SS(457) ; S5(463). Contains main and first and second sub-series of line spectrum: $5 (463). Doppler effect observed in case of doublet, \\ 4044-47 distinctly: S5 (463) ; SS(460) ; So(112, 250). No intensity minimum. Shift corresponds to singly charged potassium atom as carrier: 55 (463) ; So(112, 250). In ILLUMINATING GAs. Contains H lines, C line 44267, N line » 3995, all very bright, also N bands and Swan bands which are rather weak: Kn3(37). Doppler effect shown by all lines, but by no bands: Kn3(37). In ACETYLENE. Contains H lines and C line \ 4267, all bright. N, C, and Swan bands are visible also: Kn3(36). Doppler effect shown by all lines but by no bands: Kn3(36). 4267 shows intensity minimum, shift points to singly charged C atom as carrier: Kn3(36). SPECTRUM IN GENERAL. Spectrum is a part of that of gas in tube, same part as that of light from first cathode layer, that is the series line spectrum: G1(696, 44) ; Wlrr(132). May contain lines of metal forming cathode: SH(93). May contain band spectrum of gas besides line spectrum, but the latter is relatively more intense the greater the discharge potential: SH (95). DorrLER Errect IN GENERAL. For summary see §$23(828). Conditions to be satisfied to obtain effect: S18(231) ; S19(399). Measurements only semi-quantitative because of inestimable errors: 513(33, 179, 413, 438). Shown by series line spectra of H, N, O, Na, K, and Hg: S5(461, 893), perhaps also by O triplets: Sg3(129); S23(821); Ps4(998). Also by spectrum of He: S19(401) and of Al: $23(822). Not observed for any band spectrum. Amount of shift serves to distinguish light from singly, doubly, and trebly charged atoms: $5(464, 894). All lines of same series show same modified shift, AX/A, hence have same carrier: $13(33, 414). Intensity minimum in general separates displaced from rest line: $10(252, 256) ; S13(31, 412, 179, 438) ; S19(399). Width varies with gas and in any series varies with \(?): S21(799) ; Ps2(250). Less distinct the greater the pressure: Ew3(312). Velocity corresponding to width of intensity minimum must be exceeded by the canal rays or no displaced line will be obtained: S13(180, 439) ; S18(232) ; S19(3909) ; S20(64). Minimum velocity varies for different gases and for different lines in any series (?): S21(799). NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER Bus Intensity of displaced line obeys different laws from that of rest line increasing with the velocity of the rays: S18(232). Displaced intensity varies with gas and, in any series, with A: 513(176, 434) ; 520(63). Ratio of stationary to displaced intensity same on any one spectro- gram for all lines of one series: S13(182, 441). Stationary intensity appears to vary in step with that of band spec- trum, increasing with the pressure: S13(175, 434). Absence of Doppler effect in some cases not well understood: H14(119). Suirt oF Lines Towarp REp, observed with collimator perpendicular to rays. Definitely observed on all spectrograms taken, determined by measuring the position of lines in question with reference to certain band lines, most probably unshifted: S7; S8(107); S13(191, 452). Amount 0.7 A for Hg with 8,000 v.: S13(194, 453). No shift observed by Hull for H or Hg lines: Hl1; Hl2(19). Apparent shift may be due to error in setting collimator and may be the Doppler effect: S13(189, 450). BROADENING OF LINEs observed with collimator perpendicular to rays. H lines greatly broadened, most just behind cathode: Hl1; Hl2(19). Broadening increases with velocity, shorter wave lengths broaden more rapidly: $7; S8(107) ; S13(190, 451). Also with pressure: S(42, 423). Partly a Doppler effect: S13(191, 452). Less than Doppler effect in the ratio, velocity of rays to that of light: S8 (109). Hg lines show slight broadening: H1t. He lines show no broadening: H1l2(19). 14. PARTIAL POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. . Slight effect reported by Stark in case of H lines, vibrations parallel to rays being more intense than those perpendicular to their direction, difference very small and difficult to observe: $7; S8(105, 106) ; S18(230). No polarization as great as one-half per cent of light was detected by Hull, using optical glass window and very sensitive Nicol prism and Savart plate: Hlr; Hl2(17); H13(234). 316 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 IV. MATHEMATICAL THEORY. 1. NOTATION. c= velocity of light. A= % F (? — B) é = charge on each particle. B= iy PH. £ = energy of » particles. /'=electrostatic field strength. H= magnetic field strength. /= distance from cathode to screen. m — mass of each particle. n = number of particles. g = ne = charge on # particles. p = radius of curvature of path in magnetic field. v = velocity of particles. V = cathode fall. x = electrostatic deflection on screen. y =magnetic deflection on screen. Ad, = shift of line \, in Angstrom units or tenth-meters. 2. EQUATIONS. BAG v F (1) ai ae W4(431); $5(464, 894); W5(560, 258); Ew3(309). Kinetic energy of rays: (2) L=¥% nm. ea weer from definition of @. 2e (A) ei ai from (1) and (2). a some number greater than one. (5) 2a" where | a— eat, in absolute mechanical units, generated by 7 particles striking an obstacle. Velocity of rays: (1) ce ge WL (6) va,/2% , ©; from (2) and (5): Ew1(184). ) g m pee . 2» Walagi)s: Wa(s6n, 261); S4(6 CD ray + on W4(431); W5(561, 261); S4(603). Vy (8) y= ari from (7) and (1). 2 . (9) == Care Tm3(565). é (11) v= Hp: Tm3(564). (12) v= fF") _ ©: W5(561, 261); S1(346); Tm3(564). i WL NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ol CANAI, RAYS—FULCHER 317 — A . es i x mM A Gea)37— Ss FP—8) y Ay (13) v= Se = RO Tm3(564); W5(561, 261). [(12) and (7) |. Ary (OFF Oa $5(459, 464, 893, 894); Ew3(313). Specific charge, e/m. 2 yee ) mm” 2V Coen O78) oe ; (6) ieee sea Ew1(184). [(2) and Gils 6 em 2a 5, Cea = ee W4(431); W5(561, 261); S4(603). Che Oy (9) Seas eS Tm3(565). C8 V. : (10) uae a TEae W4(431); S1(310, 345); S4(600). [(7) and (1)]. Pee Cec ; ian a" T'm3(564). é 2s (12) FEB) * W5(561, 261); S1(346); S4(603); Tm3(564). nee mA e PAVE (14) Sage oes W5(561, 261); Tm3(567). [(7) and (12)]. e 2 (21) 7 = a ppim (Adn )?: S5(464, 894). 3. CALCULATIONS. For calculation of the effect of lack of uniformity of the magnetic field upon the deflection see W4(426). For experimental method of inte- grating non-uniform field see Tm3(565). Vetociry or Rays, from simultaneous magnetic and electrostatic deflection using formula (13). Maximum velocity is a function of the cathode fall and varies from Io’ to 2x Io°cm.(15,000 v.) : W3(449) ; Ew3(306) ; W5(561, 263) ; Tm3(571); cf. Ew2(sor) ; Ew1 (186). Maximum velocity for voltages above 15,000 vy. is 2x 10° cm.; Ws (561, 263) ; I'm3(571) ; Tm8 (668). Velocity approximately the same for all the rays of one kind, as shown by the shape of the deflection streak: W5(561, 261); W6(588) ; Tm3(s60) ; W8(664); Str(686). H rays have velocity ;/ 2 times that of H: rays. 318 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 VELOCITY OF THE SOURCES OF THE LicHT SHOWING THE Doppler EFFECT. Maximum velocity varies from 30 per cent to 85 per cent of the velocity of the canal rays computed from the cathode fall and the probable value of e/m: Ps2(257) ; SHK (464) ; $13(36, 417) ; S19(399). Sources of the H series lines: Ps2(252) ; S13(36, 417). See Fig. 61. For low voltages the displaced line is composed of two lines whose maxi- mum shifts are to each other as I: 1 2 20 +x 107 cm./ sec. 18+ xx - Stark. 16+ °° - Paschen 14 | 10+ 0 | 0 2000 4000 6000 10,000 14.000 18000 VOLTS. Fic. 61.—Range of velocities of sources of H lines as a function of the cathode fall in volts. Full lined curves are calculated, using formula (1). Sources of O spark lines: Ps3(263) ; S23(815). See Fig. 62. Phenomenon seems similar to that with H, data not so complete. Sources of He lines: Maximum velocity half that calculated for the canal rays assuming e/m = 2500, m= 4: D1(s5g0). Sources of C lines: Maximum velocity 0.9 times that calculated for canal rays assuming e/m = 800, m= 12: Kn3(36). SPECIFIC CHARGE, e/m. From magnetic deflection, equations (7) and (10), maximum values are: . In air. e/m=10' (He carefully eliminated): Tm3(560). Other values obtained range from 3x 10°: W2(12); W3(449), and 3.6x 10°: W5(561, 264), to 3.6x 10°: W4(432, 435). In H> e/m=10': W8(660, 662, 663) ; Tm3(571) ; Raur(422). In O2 e/m=10* (approximately): Ws5(562, 265): W8(663); Ew3 (306). In He. e/m=1o': Tm3(571); cf. Raur(522). In Ar. e/m=10‘: Tm3(573). At extremely low pressure, deflection strip divides into two patches, the maximum deflection of second giving for all gases (H, He, Air, Ar, Ne) e/m=5x10°: Tm3(571); Tm8 (664). NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 319 5 +x 10%cm,/sec 2 62° | 0° — Paschen. te xx — Stark Fic. 62.—Range of velocities of sources of O spark lines as a function of the cathode fall. Full lined curves calculated from formula (1). With He, a third patch may be divided off for which maximum e/m = 2.9 x 10°: ‘T'm3(571). Maximum value of e/m independent of the pressure of gas: Tm3(575). From Doppler effect, assuming the canal rays are the sources of light : For H. e/m=7,500 for V < 2,000 v.: $13(35, AIG) s"Ps2(25ai. = 3,000 for V 2 2)000 y.: Ps2(253). For O. e/m=500 for V < 3,000 v.: Ps3(264) ; e/m= 584, $23(816). = 180 for V > 3,000 v.: Ps3(264). For C. e/m=500 to 670: Kn3(36, 37). For Al. e/m=200: S$23(823). In general. As judged from the magnetic deflection, results are of same order ‘for (©) Hi: CO2, He, Ar, and Air: W6(588); Tm3(575) ; Tm6(295). Extreme precautions to get rid of Hz do not affect result: Tm7(361) ; W8(661). In each gas, however pure, there seem to be besides rays characteristic of the gas (detected by the Doppler effect), also two kinds of rays having a specific charge equal to that of a singly charged hydro- gen molecule and atom respectively: cf. W10(213). 320 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 V. THEORETICAL DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATION. 1. CONSTITUTION OF THE RAYS. WHAT ARE THE CANAL Rays? Not Roentgen rays, do not affect photographic plate: Ar(327) ; GR(726). Not cathode rays, much greater mass: Bor(717). Identical with first cathode layer particles: Gr(692, 699); Wh2(423) ; Sm4(109). Prolongation of cathode afflux: V1; Wh2(422) ; Bg1(692). Consist mostly of positively charged gas atoms, together with some metal atoms from electrodes, according to Doppler effect: Gr; W4(421) ; Ew3(316) ; W5(561, 263). Always contain some rays with same mass as hydrogen atom, as shown by magnetic deflection: Tm3(575). Hydrogen seems to play a unique role in discharge tube phenomena: V2; V4. These singly charged H atoms and molecules may form the greater part of the rays even at high pressures: H13 (235). At extremely low pressures, consist mostly of two kinds of particles, singly charged hydrogen atoms and molecules, irrespec- tive of the gas filling the tube: I'm3(575) ; T'm6(295). Professor J. J. Thomson’s results seem to prove that various gases under the action of strong electric fields in extreme vacuum, give off identical carriers of positive electricity: Tm3(575); Tm6(295). Similar to a-rays: Ew3(310). PLACE OF ORIGIN. In gas beyond cathode dark space: W3(451); W4(422); G3(207); S1(133, 507) ; $4(602) ; Ew3(301). Theory: Gas molecules ionized by cathode rays or positive rays from anode, start to move along a line of force, acquire con- siderable velocity, forming the cathode afflux, and shoot through the canals, forming the canal rays: $4(602). See diagram of lines of force in canals: S1(134, 508). Not on cathode front surface or in canals because of shadows cast: Whz; cf. G1(699) ; Gr; Ew3(299). Not in dark space, since there is no ionization there and they could not acquire sufficient velocity: S2(583); Ps2(257); Ew3 (307). Not an anode: Ew1(193) ; Ew3(300) ; cf. Bg (696) ; Bo1(717). EXxpLANAtTION oF Non-Homocenerty (shown by non-uniform magnetic deflec- tion). Not due to variations of velocity, slower rays would be more deflected, not less: S2(583) ; Ps3(257) ; Ew3(307). Must be due to continuous variation of e/m since deflection streak is not fluted at ordinary pressures: ‘I'm3(560, 572). Assumption that e or m or both may be integral multiples of unit charge and unit mass (the H atom) respectively, is not sufficient: S2(583); Ps2(255); cf. Wo(669, 675); Gr. NO. 1863 = BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 221 Complex nature of the rays, perhaps containing H, N, Al, Hg. atoms, not a sufficient explanation, since carefully purified gases have been tried, and no fluting effect obtained: T'm3; cf. Ew3 (316). Probable explanation. The mean value of e/m for each ray during its passage through the magnetic or electric field, is evi- dently the quantity which determines the deflection. By collision with stray corpuscles or negative electrons, any canal ray may become discharged and charged again so that its average charge may have any value between +e and —e. This also explains the negative deflection observed: S2(585) ; W5(561, 263) ; I'm3(570). See also W4(433, 435); Wo9(669, 670, 675, 677); Sm4(111) ; $4 (604, 605) ; Tmr(520) ; SH(95); Ew3(307). Other effects mentioned above, as the variation of e and m by steps, complexity of the rays, probably do enter, but are insuffi- cient in themselves to explain the phenomena reported. Mass may also change en route, molecules being formed of atoms and vice versa: Ew2(sor). Non-homogeneity disappears at very low pressures as then collisions are much less frequent: 7m3(575); Tm6; Tm7. CHARGE. While for the most part the rays are positively charged, by collision with negative electrons some of them at various stages of their career become neutralized and later perhaps nega- tively charged, as evidenced by magnetic deflection ex- periments: I'm8(670). 2. LIGHT FROM CANAL RAY REGION. CENTERS OF Emission. ‘The negative electrons, from the Zeeman effect: Sia(@3, 401): SouRcES OR CARRIERS OF SERIES LINE SPECTRA. All lines of one series have same carrier: S5(464, 894); So(113, 250); 513(33, 414). Sources are positively charged. For confirming experiments see $13(24, 403). First hypothesis: Sources are the canal rays themselves, positive atoms, singly, doubly, or trebly charged: S5(464, 804); SH(95); So(113, 250); Raut (423) ; $13(34, 39, 415, 419) ; 523(830). Main and first and second series of doublets (H, Ca, Hg, C, K, Na) have singly charged atom as_ carrier: Sg(1I2, 249); S13 (36-38, 416-419); SS(461); Kn3(36). Doubtful: $23 (830). Series of triplets of Hg have doubly charged atom as carrier: So(112, 250); $13(38, 419); SHK(465). Doubtful: S23 (830). Some Hg lines, \ 4078, 4347, appear to have trebly charged atom as carrier: S13(38, 419); SHK(468). 322 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS - VOL. 52 Norke.—This hypothesis seems to be rendered doubtful by the discrep- ancy between the maximum velocity of the rays and that of the sources of the light showing the Doppler effect. If true, since the canal rays must probably be rendered luminous by the collision which ionized them, and emit most light while speeding up, no intensity minimum would be expected. Second hypothesis: Sources are gas molecules hit and ionized by the rays. To see how this explains the curve of maximum velocities Fig. 61, consider the case of H rays and Hz rays, having velocities u and 0.71 u respectively. Assuming perfectly elastic collision, maximum possible velocity is, for the collision of (1) H ray with H atom, I.00 u; (4) H ray with H molecule, 0.71 u; 2) sia i AE 6S O04 ieee te gg ee y 0.67 u; (3) or | He srays socom (OE) forming oy O77 ts Assuming collision is not perfectly elastic, energy being lost in radiation and ionization, and that collisions of types (1), (2), (3), are less important with the higher cathode falls, the curve is accounted for. Now to see whether this hypothesis explains the intensity minimum. Assuming; that gas molecules hit squarely enough to be ionized, alone emit light, the canal rays being mostly neutralized by the collisions; that ioniza- tion occurs only when the energy imparted exceeds a certain minimum; and that the intensity of the light emitted is proportional to the momentum given to the molecule as a result of the collision; the author has calculated by a laborious statistical method (starting with 10,000 canal rays and computing the directions and magnitudes of the velocities of the gas atoms hit in five generations of collisions) the probable distribution of intensity in the resulting Doppler effect. One set of curves is shown in Fig. 63. The intensity minimum is seen to be distinct and of fairly constant width, in spite of the fact that the number of sources with small velocities is much greater than the number of the swifter sources. The importance of more data regarding the deflection streak and the Doppler effect so as to decide between these two theories is obvious. CARRIERS OF BAND SpEcTRUM. (Stark’s hypothesis.) Not the positive atoms while in motion since light shows no Doppler effect: 55(464, 894) ; SH(95). Probably neutralized atoms formed by the collision of charged rays with gas atoms, the former being stopped by the collision: S4(605); $5(461, 803); $12(355); S13(43, 425); S19(399) ; Ew3(314). Why canal rays neutralized by electrons and retaining their velocity do not emit the band spectrum is not explained. DoprLeR Errect, INTENsIty MINIMUM. Explanation. Either (1) Rays of slow velocity are relatively few: W5(561, 263) ; W6(588) ; W8(663) ; S2(583) ; S13(31, 412); St1(686) ; T'm3(569). This assump- tion fails to explain the constancy of width of the intensity minimum; or (2) Intensity of radiation is a function of the velocity: Sro(253) ; S13(31, 177, 180, 412, 435, 439) ; Kn3(36); Ps2(259). Velocity must exceed a certain minimum or no displaced line is ob- tained: S13(180, 439). NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 323 INTENSITY - VELOCITY CURVES. Rest a 10 x 10’cm /Sec. Fic, 63.—Doppler effect to be expected if sources of light are H gas atoms hit by H canal rays of fairly uniform velocity. DopreLER EFrect, STATIONARY INTENSITY. Explained as due to emission of light either (1) By a positive atom on collision with a neutral atom which stops it, the intensity being proportional to the gas density: S13(172, 430). This hypothesis is not reconcilable with the existence of the intensity minimum; or (2) By neutral atoms ionized by secondary negative rays created by the canal rays: S19(308) ; S22(917). Surrt TowArRDS THE RED, Theoretical importance in deciding between the various electromagnetic theories of the emission of light by electrons in motion, those of Bucherer, Einstein, and Lorentz: St1(293). EMISSION OF LIGHT BY AN ATOM. The Doppler effect shown by light assumed to come from canal rays, since it may give a means of distinguishing the light emitted by singly charged atoms from that emitted by those which are neutral or doubly charged, promises valuable data as to the circumstances, even the mechan- ism concerned in this radiation of light. However, no theories advanced so far explain satisfactorily the phenomena observed, hence deductions from them seem premature. The theories are as numerous as the writers and at the present stage, it seems unnecessary to attempt the difficult task of abstracting them, but a partial list of articles on the emission of light by an atom based on the results of investigations with canal rays is sub- joined: S8(104, 109) ; St10(251, 253); S12(360) ; S13(40, 174, 422, ABZ) Hl2(17-20) ; W11(428, 437); S16(80); SW; Ps2(259); Str; St2(683) ; $22. Also— 324 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Pe enardt-sec ect oe ee Ann. Phys. 17, 187. C. Fredenhagen.....220.5 Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 9, 393-401. C. Fredenhagen......./..< Phys, Zeitschr. 8, 729-737, 927-9. GiSchottenrids.22 none Phys. Zeitschr. 9, 214-2106. GES chotts sepmema ce oe Phil. Mag. 15, 172-108. GUuSchotte teense Ann. Phys. 25, 63-01. AStankssacne come ee eeee Phys. Zeitschr. 9, 85-04. 3. CHEMICAL EFFECTS. No Drirecr Cuemicat Action of the rays other than that of splitting up the gas molecules, releasing their latent chemical activity. Hence in O:2 oxidation takes place, in Hz reduction: Sm2(708-710) ; Sm3 (622) ; Sm4(113) ; $4(654) ; Ew3(304). DISINTEGRATION. Double dependence on metal and gas indicates chemical process, perhaps indirect. Not sensitive to traces of impurity: K11 (872). FLUORESCENCE. (1) Explained as due to pressure of impact of rays: T'f1(616); Tf2; Ew3 (304). (2) Explained as accompanying chemical reaction indirectly produced by the rays, varying with the gas: Sm2(71I0). Na light not the result of heating or oxidizing process: Rau1I(421). Solid solutions. Fluorescence explained (1) as accompanying reduction of higher oxides: W7. (2) as accompanying reduction of active compounds: Sm3(622). 4. SECONDARY EMISSION OF CATHODE RAYS. Unirorm Maximum Ve ocity explained by assuming electrons are merely released by canal rays, being shot out by the atom with a definite velocity. Distance penetrated by the rays determines how thick a layer the cathode rays must pass through before emerging, hence determines the distribu- tion of cathode rays of less velocity: F2(750) ; F3(302). INCREASE OF INTENSITY WITH ANGLE OF INCIDENCE is explained by assuming canal rays do not penetrate so far, hence negative rays are not so much absorbed in emerging. Effect is more marked with Al than Cu since rays penetrate farther in the former: F3(306, 307). Negative rays may be created by ultra-violet light or Roentgen rays, but probably not: F2(750) ; F3(301). AMHERST CoLLEcE, AMHERST, MASss., November 1, 1908. OBSERVATIONS ON LIVING WHITE WHALES (DEL- PHINAPTERUS LEUCAS); WITH A NOTE ON THE DENTIFION OF DELPHINAPTERUS AND STENODELPHIS By FREDERICK W. TRUE Heap Curator oF Bronocy, U. S. Nationa, MusEuM WitH ONE PLATE In June, 1908, I had an opportunity of studying two living white whales which were kept in confinement in a large tank on one of the piers at Atlantic City, New Jersey. Although living individuals of this species have been many times exhibited to the public, very little has been published regarding them, so far as I have been able to ascertain, and it seems to me, therefore, desirable to Eo on record the observations which I have made. The two specimens exhibited at Atlantic City were both youngish, and one of them (which I will designate as specimen A) was in an enfeebled condition, either through disease or lack of nourishment. It died soon after I saw it, and the remains were towed out to sea. This individual was about 10 feet long and was reported to be a female. The second individual (specimen B) was a young female 8 feet 2¥Y inches long in a straight line. It was very active when I saw it, but died about a month later, and the body was presented to the Na- tional Museum by Mr. A. M. Renshaw through Mr. J. S. Young. The larger female (specimen A) was of a purplish white color, with darker purplish gray spots, lines and mottlings. The principal mottled area was on the head. There were several straight lines on the back about a foot long, each consisting of three strize—a central dark purplish one, with a white edging, and a lighter purplish line on either side. ‘The dorsal fin, or ridge, and the anterior edge of the pectorals were purplish gray, and some faint purplish lines indicated the position of the digits. The posterior margin of the pectorals was white. “The flukes were similar in color to the pectorals. ‘The head presented the blunt, rounded form characteristic of the species. Its girth increased from the eyes backward, but the neck, seen from above, presented a slight constriction. The thorax was nearly flat on top. The dorsal fin, or ridge, was quite sharp and distinct, be- 4 325 326 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 ginning about opposite the tip of the pectorals when laid back against the body, and was about one foot long and of a grayish color. Be- ginning opposite the anterior end of the dorsal fin, the body, seen from above, assumed a form resembling a pillar consisting of three attached columns, laid horizontally. It was made up of a median dorsal rounded ridge, with a similar rounded mass below it on either side. ‘This form, which was quite unlike that represented in any pub- lished figure of the animal, was probably due to extreme emaciation. The body tapered rapidly toward the flukes, the pedicel of which was very slender. The pectoral rested in a furrow which ran backward along the side of the body, and was probably due to emaciation. From the same point of view, the upper lip appeared as a thick rounded ridge, above which was the protuberance of the “forehead,” marked off by a concavity in front. The blowhole was nearly linear when closed, but oblong or elliptical when open. This whale remained nearly motionless in a corner of the tank, with its head under water and its flukes held almost vertically down- ward, but raised its head from time to time to spout. The expira- tion took place as soon as the head came to the surface, and was very feeble and quick, and usually noiseless, but occasionally ac- companied by a sound similar to that which a person makes in blowing dust off of an object, though rather more metallic. At the same time, drops of water ascended in a curve and fell forward some three or four feet beyond the head of the whale. Then the blowhole opened wider, the lower internal folds were seen to move, and inspiration took place with a rather faint sound. The flukes, as already mentioned, were held downward, and were waved about gently, the axis of motion being at the anterior base of the flukes. The pectorals were held horizontally and were nearly motionless. The smaller female (specimen B) was of a light purplish color, with whitish “forehead,” upper lip and blowhole. ‘The posterior ‘edges of both pectorals and flukes were dark purple, but with a white marginal line. On the top of the head a dark purplish band about 8 inches wide extended backward from the blowhole. Between this and the pectoral was a large oval area lighter in color than the sur- rounding parts, which area extended across the upper surface of the pectorals. The external orifice of the ear was situated in a depression. The dorsal fin, or ridge, appeared smooth, except for a few cross-fur- rows at intervals of less than an inch apart. ‘There appeared to be glandular openings in the longitudinal furrow below the dorsal ridge. The surface of the back along the median line began to assume a No. 1864 LIVING WHITE WHALES—TRUE 327 ridge-like shape about opposite the insertion of the pectorals, while the dorsal ridge, or fin, itself began about opposite the tips of these limbs when Jaid backward. The sharpness of the back in front of the dorsal fin nearly disappeared when the head was raised. A rounded ridge, or swelling, extended from the pectoral to the orifice of the ear. The posterior edge of the pectorals, or that nearest the body, was curved upward, as was also the outer edge, but in much less degree. This female (specimen B) was constantly in motion, swimming back and forth across the tank in an irregular fashion. It usually re- mained under water from 2 to 3 minutes, then came to the surface with the head up, and spouted 5 or 6 times irregularly, lying be- tween times with the top of the back out of water. Its swimming movements were also irregular. It sometimes “rolled,” as dolphins do at sea—that is, with an undulating motion in a vertical plane. At other times it turned about lazily from side to side. Occasionally it turned suddenly on its side and gave a sharp stroke with its flukes, causing the body to move in a curve, but much of the time it remained motionless with a curved portion of the back out of water from about opposite the insertion of the pectorals to the posterior end of the dorsal fin, and both head and flukes curved downward. ‘The head was occasionally turned from side to side at a considerable angle. This whale, as already mentioned, spouted 5 or 6 times at irregu- lar intervals of a few seconds each, after which it went down quite suddenly and remained under water from 1 to 5 minutes. At the expiration there was a distinct rather metallic sound, and at the same time drops of water ascended in a curve and fell forward invariably some 3 or 4 feet beyond the head of the whale. A gentler sound sometimes accompanied the inspiration, but it was usually noiseless. The whale moved by strokes of the flukes. The flukes were held downward much of the time, with the two lobes in the same plane, but occasionally the lobes were at different angles, probably from unequal pressure of the water. The flukes were not put out of water at any time while the whale was under observation, although an attendant stated that it sometimes put them out. In sounding they were turned upward, but did not quite reach the surface. The whole tail was extremely flexible, and as it was turned about, the flukes were often at an angle with the surface of the water, but no screw-like motion was observable in them. They seemed, however, soft and flexible. 328 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 The pectorals were held out from the body, but quite close to it, with the posterior margin tilted upward. They were moved but little, and apparently only for steering and not as an aid in swimming. To turn the head down, the whale seemed to thrust the thorax up- ward violently, rather than to effect the movement by a stroke of the flukes. This peculiar movement was repeated many times and always in the same connection, so that it would appear to be char- acteristic rather than exceptional. This whale was at times especially active, rolling and churning up the water, and on such occasions the expiration was accompanied by a louder “puff” than usual. It appeared to swim on its side under water a great deal of the time. Occasionally it made convulsive movements, as if shuddering, and moved its pectorals rather rapidly. On one occasion I timed the movements of this whale, as regards remaining at the surface and below the surface, respectively. The results were as follows for 2614 consecutive minutes, the time under water being denoted by black-faced type and the time at the surface by light=faced type: 2, 1,2, 1, 2, 12, 2, 1, 114, 644, 4, 2, 74,2,.(6 trifle), I, I, 1%. The body of this whale was received at the National Museum on August 18, 1908, and the following measurements were taken: Measurements of specimen B; female, Atlantic City, N. J., Aug. 18, 1908: Total length from tip of snout to notch of flukes in a straight line, 8 ft. 2% in. (98% in.) ; the same along the curves of the body, 8 ft. II in. (107 in.) ; greatest girth of body, 52% in.; girth of head at eyes, 35; girth of neck, 38%; length from tip of snout to highest point of dorsal ridge (straight), 48; to blowhole, 8% ; to eye, 9; to ear, 14; to anterior base of pectoral, 22; to posterior base of pectoral, 27; to navel, 47; to anus, 71; length of pectoral along center, 12% ; length of pectoral from anterior base, 14; from posterior base, 10% ; greatest breadth of pectoral, 734 ; breadth between axille, 17; trans- verse breadth of flukes, 2314; greatest antero-posterior breadth of flukes, 12%4; depth of notch of flukes, 3; vertical depth of caudal peduncle, 7; length of eye, 34; breadth of blowhole, 134; length of dorsal ridge, or fin, 101% ; length of genital slit and anus, 9%; length of mammary slit, 11%4; distance between anterior ends of mammary slits, 244; distance between posterior ends of mammary slits, 234 ; distance from mammary slit to anus, 2; distance from notch of flukes to posterior end of pelvic bone when in the natural position, 31. For purposes of comparison, I append measurements of a male observed at Provincetown, Mass., Aug. 16, 1893: ‘Total length from tip of snout to notch of flukes, 13 ft. 1 in. (157 in.); length from No. 1864 LIVING WHITE WHALES—TRUE 329 tip of snout to anterior base of pectoral fin, 32 in.; to eye, 14%; to ear, 2114; length of pectoral, 18; greatest breadth of pectoral, 13; transverse breadth of flukes, 3714; greatest antero-posterior breadth of flukes, 17 in.; depth of notch of flukes, 4; distance from notch of flukes to anus, 41; to prepuce, 54%. Nore ON THE DENTITION OF DELPHINAPTERUS AND STENODELPHIS. In the literature relating to the white whale, the teeth are de- scribed as having simple conical crowns, like the typical dolphins. Dr. John Struthers, for example, remarked in 1895 that “the teeth of Beluga have all originally a simple conical fang and a simple conical crown.”? An examination of young skulls in the National Museum, however, having the teeth, or a part of them, entirely un- worn, shows that the crowns of at least four of the posterior teeth on either side of the lower jaw, and perhaps some in the upper jaw, are really trituberculate when perfect. The crowns of the teeth men- tioned are somewhat flattened internally and curved inward at the apex. Situated on either side of the main cusp (anteriorly and pos- teriorly) and a little internally is a small, linear accessory cusp, which is attached to the crown of the tooth throughout its length. ‘These accessory cusps do not reach the level of the apex of the main cusp. The presence of these accessory cusps would at first appear to lend support to Professor Abel’s opinion? that the genus Delphinap- terus belongs in the family Iniidze (Acrodelphidz of Abel) rather than in the Delphinide. It seems to me probable, however, that the character of the teeth adds one more item to the evidence, chiefly paleontological, which is accumulating, that the two families cannot be kept separate, if the fossil forms are taken into consideration. Leaving out of account the genus Stenodelphis, the affinities of which are still in dispute, there are two other genera, at least, beside Del- phinapterus in the family Delphinidz in which the crowns of the teeth are not entirely simple cones. ‘These genera are Phocena, in which the teeth are appressed, and many of them multituberculate ; and Steno, in which the enamel of the teeth is rugose. It is reason- able to suppose that the teeth in the earlier representatives of the Delphinidz were furnished with a number of cusps, and I believe it will be found eventually that neither simple teeth nor conjoined cervical vertebree can be regarded as an essential character of the * Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol. 30, 1895, p. 137. *Mém. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, vol. 3, 1905, p. 129. 339 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 family. In spite of differences observable in living species, it seems to me probable that the Delphinidz and Iniidz were derived from common ancestors. In accounts of Stenodelphis which I have examined, the teeth are described as having simple conical crowns. Professor Abel remarks regarding the dentition of the genus that it presents “pas de trace d(hétérodontie.”* In two youngish skulls which I have examined, however, ten or twelve pairs of teeth at the posterior end of the series, in both the upper and the lower jaws, have incurved and somewhat spatulate crowns, with rugose enamel, which is raised into more or less linear denticles on the internal surface. Each tooth usually presents a median denticle and indications of another on either side of it, the general form being not unlike that occurring in Delphinapterus. I do not regard this character as differentiating the rather composite genus Stenodelphis from the Delphinide, but as strengthening the evidence that the Delphinide were derived from forms having tuberculate teeth. *Mém. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, vol. 3, 1905, p. 42. (seona| snaazdeulydieq) 3IWHM ALIHM 31IVNS4 ONNOA IIXX ‘Id ‘%G “10A SNOILO3A1I109 SNOANVITS0SIW NVINOSHLIWS SOME RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF TEE SUN * By GHEORGHE. HALE, Sse D. LED. DrrEctor OF SOLAR OBSERVATORY OF CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, At Mount WILSON, CALIFORNIA Wir THIRTEEN PLATES Mr. Secrerary, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: When I was honored by an invitation to deliver the Hamilton Lecture, and to describe in it some of our recent solar investigations, I accepted with special pleas- ure, since it would afford me a fitting opportunity to acknowledge the important debt owed by the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory to the Smithsonian Institution. Soon after the Carnegie Institution of Washington was organized, Doctor Walcott, then Secretary of its Executive Committee, requested Secretary Langley, of the Smith- sonian Institution, to express an opinion as to the advisability of es- tablishing a solar observatory at some mountain station. Doctor Langley, who knew, from personal experience at Mount Whitney and other elevated points, the importance of conducting solar re- search above the denser and more disturbed portions of the atmos- phere, strongly recommended to the Carnegie Institution that pro- vision be made for the proposed observatory. In the subsequent consideration of this project by the Executive Committee, Doctor Walcott gave it his full support, and thus contributed in an important way toward the favorable decision finally reached. It is therefore easy to understand why we of the Solar Observatory owe a debt of gratitude to these Secretaries of the Smithsonian Institution. I beg to assure Doctor Walcott that his interest in our work is most heartily appreciated. When one pauses to reflect that the United States possesses more astronomical observatories than any other nation, and that it is un- surpassed in its contributions to astronomical discovery, one may naturally ask why it seemed advisable to establish another new ob- . servatory. If it were a question of duplicating existing instruments, or of entering fields of research already well occupied, it is probable *Lecture delivered at Washington, D. C., April 22, 1908, under the auspices of the Hamilton Fund of the Smithsonian Institution. 331 332 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 that a more effective use of available funds might have been found. But the aim of the Solar Observatory differs essentially from that of any other American institution. Hitherto the study of the Sun has been conducted at a disadvantage, partly for lack of suitable instrumental means and partly because of the obstacles arising from unfavorable atmospheric conditions; yet it would be easy to demon- strate that no other star in the heavens is so well worthy of our in- vestigation. As the central body of the solar system, controlling the motions of the planets, and making life possible upon the Earth, the Sun has always been an object of admiration, and sometimes even of worship, to mankind. A permanent decrease of one hundred de- grees (about 0.6 per cent) in the effective temperature of the Sun is considered by good authorities to be sufficient to produce another Ice Age on the Earth. So great a change could hardly occur; but smaller variations, due to internal causes, or to modifications in the absorbing power of the Sun’s atmosphere, are very probable. Since solar phenomena follow more or less definite cycles of change, a bet- ter understanding of them might conceivably permit variations in its radiating power, sufficient to determine seasons of good or bad harvest, to be in some degree anticipated. The importance of solar research from this standpoint is thus sufficiently obvious. But if the Sun commands our attention as the source and support of terrestrial life, it must appeal no less strongly to every intelligent person as the unique means of opening to us a knowledge of stellar development; for the student who would untangle the secrets of the universe recognizes in the Sun a typical star, placed conveniently within reach and exemplifying the physical and chemical conditions which are repeated in millions of other stars so far removed that they appear to us only as minute points of light. If we are to form a true estimate of the nature of these distant stars, and find the means of tracing out the progressive stages in their development from the nebule, we must base our investigations upon solar research. The great disk which the Sun exhibits in our telescopes would shrink to the size of a needle point if removed to the distance of the other stars. This may be made clearer through a simple comparison. Consider the dimensions of the solar system so reduced that the diameter of the Earth would be one foot and that of the Sun 109 feet. The distance between them would then diminish from 95,000,000 to 2.2 miles, but the proportionate distance of the nearest fixed star would be 600,000 miles. This illustrates the comparative nearness of the Sun and the great advantages thus afforded-of ob- serving its various phenomena. NO. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 333 In this presence it is quite unnecessary to dilate upon the im- portance of the general question of evolution, or to discuss the re- lationship of the problems of the astronomer to the more complex ones encountered by the student of evolution in biology. It is evi- dent that if we are to acquire a correct understanding of evolution in all of its phases, we should start from a knowledge of those pro- cesses which result in the formation of stars and the development of planetary systems. ‘The generalizations of thinkers like Kant, Laplace, and more recent writers who have furnished hypotheses to explain the origin of suns and planets must be put to the test of observation. But these hypotheses leave untouched scores of ques- tions relating to the physical state of stars in various stages of growth; their relation to one another and to their environment; their connection in systems, and the part they play in the universe as a whole. All of these questions lie within the province of the student of stellar evolution and call for the exertion of his best efforts to contribute toward their solution. We thus see that solar research may be divided into two classes: (1) measurement of the intensity of the Sun’s radiation, to deter- mine whether the heat received by the Earth is constant or under- goes fluctuations; and (2) observation of the various phenomena of the Sun’s disk, to determine the laws by which they are governed. The first of these subjects has been investigated with great success by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, established by the late Secretary Langley and directed by Mr. Abbot. The work of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory lies in the second field. The two departments are closely related, and I am glad to say that through a plan arranged with Doctor Langley and extended by Doctor Walcott, the work inaugurated here in Washington is being continued by Mr. Abbot on the summit of Mount Wilson, in close cooperation with our own investigations. It has been conclusively shown by Koppen, and confirmed by New- comb, that the average temperature of the Earth, as determined by the combination of a great number of thermometer observations made at several stations, indicates a fluctuation of from 0°.3 to 0°.7 C. during the eleven-year Sun-spot period. ‘The mean temperature is greatest at the time of minimum Sun-spots, and least at the time of maximum Sun-spots. This relationship having been proved to exist, it remains to inquire whether there is any direct connection between the mean temperature of the Earth at a given time and the total heat radiation of the Sun as measured at a point outside of the Earth’s atmosphere. Since all observations must be made within 334 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52: the atmosphere, the determination of the correction to be applied to eliminate the loss by absorption becomes the most important and, at the same time, the most difficult part of this investigation. It is in this connection that the transparency and the uniformity of the at- mosphere on Mount Wilson have proved to be so great an advantage in the work of the Smithsonian expeditions. The results already obtained by Mr. Abbot show that the heat radiation of the Sun ranges in value from 1.93 to 2.14 calories per square centimeter per minute, and seem to indicate a real variability outside of the Earth’s atmosphere. Newcomb. in his recent paper on “A Search for Fluctuations in the Sun’s Thermal Radiation through their Influence on Terrestrial Temperature,” is inclined to believe that such apparent variability must be due to changes in the absorption of our atmosphere, rather than in the heat radiation of the Sun. He was led to this conclusion by the fact that short-period temperature changes, such as would result from a change in the Sun’s heat, are not shown to exist in an extensive examination of the Farth’s mean temperature as recorded during a period of 34 years at 13 stations. Langley and Abbot, on the contrary, maintain that the method employed in their observa- tions eliminates the effect of atmospheric absorption so completely that the observed variations must be due to changes within the Sun. The fact that the thermometer records employed by Newcomb were all made at seacoast stations, where the steadying effect of the ocean might tend to eliminate short period fluctuations, leads Abbot to doubt the validity of Newcomb’s conclusions. His method having proved capable of showing the small progressive differences in the solar heat due to the change in the Earth’s distance from the Sun during the period of observation, he sees no reason to dispute the solar origin of the larger differences. Since variations in the Sun’s heat radiation could not fail to be accompanied by changes in other solar phenomena, investigations on the nature of these phenomena, and on their relationship to the so-called “solar constant,’ may yield reliable information as to the origin of such differences as Abbot has observed. ‘The possibility of predicting variations in the mean temperature of the Earth caused by the influence of the Sun must depend upon the acquirement of much more complete knowledge than we now possess of the solar constitution. We thus perceive the intimate connection which unites the work of the Smithsonian As- trophysical Observatory with that of the Mount Wilson Solar Ob- servatory, and recognize the importance, from this standpoint, of continuing and greatly extending solar research in all its phases. No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 335 COOPERATION IN SOLAR RESEARCH The widespread appreciation of the importance of solar investiga- tions is illustrated by the formation of the International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research, which counts among its members astronomers and physicists in many parts of the world. In the es- tablishment of the Union the initiative was taken by our National Academy of Sciences, which invited various academies, as well as astronomical and physical societies in Europe and America, to send delegates to a preliminary meeting at Saint Louis in September, 1904. ‘The favorable responses and the presence of delegates from the academies of Paris, Stockholm, Saint Petersburg, and Vienna, the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society of London, the physical societies of Paris and Berlin, and other leading scientific bodies on both sides of the Atlantic promised well for the future of the Union. The preliminary organization effected at Saint Louis was given more definite form at Oxford a year later, where codpera- tive work was set on foot in the study of the spectra of Sun-spots, solar photography with the spectroheliograph, and the measurement of the solar radiation. It was also decided to adopt a new system of standard wave-lengths, based upon Michelson’s determination of the length of the international meter in terms of the wave-length of the cadmium lines. The high degree of precision attained by Row- land in his Table of Solar Spectrum Wave-lengths no longer suffices for the needs of spectroscopists. The new system, based upon stan- dards measured with extraordinary accuracy by the interferometer method, should provide a firm foundation for all spectroscopic in- vestigations, whether of an astronomical or physical nature, for many years to come. As the primary standards are being measured by French, German, and American physicists, it will soon be possible to prepare new tables of the wave-lengths of the lines in solar, me- tallic, and gaseous spectra. A grant to assist in this work has been made by the Bache Fund, and it is hoped that the publication of the tables may be undertaken by the National Academy. The spectra of Sun-spots, as will be shown later, contain a great number of lines, which require the most careful study. Hitherto our knowledge of spot spectra has been derived almost exclusively from the results of visual observations, made by individual observers without the aid of a general plan. As a natural consequence cer- tain regions of the spectrum have been altogether neglected, and the time required for the identification of the lines has seriously limited the amount of work accomplished. A committee of the Solar Union, 336 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 numbering among its members most of the active observers in this field, has now divided the spectrum into limited regions, one of which is selected by each observer. With the aid of the photographic map mentioned below, an observer may easily make an exhaustive study of the lines he has chosen. Although it will be shown that pho- tographic observations are far superior to visual ones in most work on spot spectra, there are various phenomena in which the eye still has the advantage of the sensitive plate. The Solar Union has al- ready secured valuable results through this cooperation, and many more may be expected in the future. In accordance with a plan prepared by another committee of the Solar Union, the Sun is photographed almost every hour of the twenty-four with spectroheliographs in India, Sicily, Germany, France, Spain, England, Wisconsin, and California. This nearly continuous record of the calcium flocculi will soon be supplemented by similar work in Mexico, and there is some reason to hope that the Japanese and Australian governments will assist in overcoming the breaks in the record due to the absence of spectroheliographs between California and India. Other committees are formulating plans for a codperative attack on the problem of the solar rotation, securing greater uniformity in the methods of recording observations of the solar prominences and inquiring as to the advisability of coordinating the plans of eclipse expeditions. In every phase of the work the results to be derived from personal initiative and individual effort are recognized as likely to transcend in importance any that may follow from routine codperation. From this standpoint the best accomplishment of the Solar Union is the creation of a renewed interest in solar re- search and in related problems of physics and astronomy. Every member is strongly encouraged to develop and extend his own ideas and methods, an aim by no means incompatible with the prosecution of cooperative work in fields where routine observations are essential. It is hoped that the large attendance and hearty interest which char- acterized the recent meeting of the Solar Union in Paris may not be lacking when the members again come together on Mount Wilson in 1910. Tue Mount Wirson So_aArR OBSERVATORY The Carnegie Institution was not slow to recognize the exceptional opportunities which, through a fortunate combination of circum- stances, lay open to its proposed solar observatory. These included: 1. The application to the study of the Sun and stars of powerful i" es Po 7 7 ey Vien ru a - ” 7 oe a 7 i = : 7 ¢ : 7 . =a ’ : ' - a 7 y ™ ' ; — Fi ; ‘ . 7 ; > 7 ; yy wT : 7 is - 7 - a ,¢ i o rth on - é ae 7 ¢ : a) vt / - 7 7 Y. : i : Va a 7 7 + an Reet ewe 5 1 a a : - Saat arena Pai ee ee i; - ae & ia Ps eS = a : a oe Co et. -_ _ a a — —_ 7 : (pavuavg) edoosaje} sonig 394} yyWM poeydessojoyd S30VIa1d SHL mgh yf ainsod xt mZ¥ y6 sinsodxy NOSTIM LNQOW LY—'s “8!4 AMYOLVAUNASHO SSNYNSA SHL Lvy—"} “8!4 AIXX “1d “@S “10A SNOILOA1100 SNOANVIIZOSIN NVINOSHLIWS cs No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 237 spectroscopes and other instruments developed during the preceding quarter of a century in the physical laboratory, but still unused in the observatory. 2. The development of the spectroheliograph and of other research methods involving new principles. 3. The development of the reflecting telescope, in forms adapted for solar research and for physical investigations of the stars and nebule. 4. The more adequate recognition of the close union which should unite laboratory researches with solar and stellar investigations. The opportunities enumerated above relate to the possibility of improving and extending the methods of astrophysical research. An- other special opportunity had its origin in the basic principles which underlie the Carnegie Institution. A large proportion of the world’s observatories are connected with universities or with institu- tions affected by local interests. The Carnegie Institution es- tablishes its laboratories and observatories on the islands of the Carribbean Sea, the deserts of Arizona, the mountains of Cali- fornia, and at other points where their work can be done most effectively. On Mount Wilson, the long periods of cloud- less weather, the purity of the atmosphere, and the absence, during a large part of the year, of winds and atmospheric fluctuations which seriously hamper astronomical work in most parts of the world afford great advantages. To illustrate the purity of the night sky, two photographs of the Pleiades, one made with an exposure of g' 47™ at Williams Bay, Wisconsin (1,200 feet), the other made at Mount Wilson (5,886 feet), with an exposure of only 3 48™, are reproduced in Plate xxiv. These were both taken by Professor Barnard with the 10-inch Bruce photographic telescope, on plates of equal sensitiveness and on nights of normal clearness at each station. Though the exposure time was two and one-half times longer at Williams Bay, yet the number of stars recorded at Mount Wilson is fully as great and the details of the nebula much sharper. Other proofs of the fine quality of the Mount Wilson at- mosphere are afforded by many visual and photographic observa- tions, made by night and by day, during the past three or four years. Plate xxv shows the summit of Mount Wilson, where a large tract of land has been set apart for the purposes of the observatory. This site commands a magnificent view of southern California, extending on the east to the snowy peaks of the San Bernardino Range, on the west to islands lying far out in the Pacific, on the north to an 338 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 endless succession of mountains tributary to the high Sierras, and on the south to the Mexican frontier. In the San Gabriel Valley, lying at the base of Mount Wilson, and about eight miles distant in an air line, is the city of Pasadena. Here a large part of the ob- servatory work, such as various laboratory investigations, the design and construction of instruments, and the measurement and discus- sion of astronomical photographs taken on the mountain, is con- ducted. By confining the work on Mount Wilson almost entirely to observations, the expense of maintaining the rest of the establish- ment there is avoided and many other advantages are secured. In enumerating the various opportunities which: lay open to the Solar Observatory at the time of its inception, the possibility of bringing into use large and powerful spectroscopes, which had been developed in physical laboratories, was first mentioned. In 1859 Kirchhoff discovered with the spectroscope the chemical composi- tion of the Sun, and proved that this instrument is capable of analyzing the light which reaches us from any luminous source. When applied later to a study of the phenomena of the Sun and stars, the spectroscope, then of small dimensions, was simply at- tached to the end of a telescope tube. The invention of the concave grating by Rowland in 1882, and the widespread use of this powerful instrument in physical laboratories, introduced a new era, through the great increase in precision of measurement rendered possible by its high dispersion. In astronomy, however, the equatorial refractor continued to be the popular form of telescope, and the spectroscope, though improved in many particulars, did not increase greatly in size. It was obviously impossible to attach a concave grating spectro- scope over 21 feet in length to the end of a moving telescope tube. Consequently the precision of measurement in astronomical spectro- scopy has been far inferior to that attained in the laboratory. THe Snow TELESCOPE At the period when the plans for the Solar Observatory were taking form, the principles which should govern the construction of a fixed telescope were partly understood, and had been frequently applied in eclipse observations. Almost simultaneously with our experiments with fixed telescopes at the Yerkes Observatory, a large instrument of this type, giving a solar image well suited for bolo- metric work, was constructed for the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Such telescopes, however, had not been used for re- searches demanding a large and sharply defined solar image. ‘The Snow telescope, constructed in the instrument shop of the Yerkes GHYVAYVH LNNOW WOYS N3aS SV NOSTIM LNNOW SNOILO311090 SNOANV11IS9SIN NVINOSHLIWS AXX “1d ‘ZS “10A en hy rere eer c Het a4 a > 4ad00S313L MONS 3O YOYYIW GNOOAS GNV LV1SO13090 SNOILO31109 SNOANV11S0SIN NVINOSHLIWS 1AXX “Id 2G “10A No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 339 ‘Observatory, with the aid of funds given by Miss Snow, of Chicago, had its first trial shortly before our work on Mount Wilson was undertaken. It was afterwards brought to California in connection with an expedition sent out by the Yerkes Observatory, with the aid of a grant from the Carnegie Institution, and was ultimately pur- chased by the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory as a part of its permanent equipment. This instrument is designed to give a sharply defined image of the Sun, nearly 7 inches in diameter, at a fixed position within a laboratory, where its various details can be investigated with spectro- scopes or spectroheliographs of any desired dimensions. The ccelostat shown in Plate xxVI carries a mirror 30 inches in diameter, mounted so that the plane of its front (silvered) surface is exactly parallel to the Earth’s axis. When this mirror is rotated by a driving-clock at such a rate that it would complete a revolution in forty-eight hours, a beam of sunlight reflected from it is maintained in a fixed position, in spite of the apparent motion of the Sun through the heavens. This beam falls upon a second silvered mirror, 24 inches in diameter, which sends the rays toward the north. Both of these mirrors have optically plane surfaces, and their function is merely to bring the Sun’s rays into the telescope house and to direct them upon a con- ‘cave mirror 24 inches in diameter, mounted 95 feet north of the ccelostat. This mirror, which may be regarded as the telescope proper, returns the rays 60 feet toward the south to a point just outside of the entering beam, where it forms an image of the Sun nearly 7 inches in diameter. By setting the concave mirror at the proper angle, the solar image can be made to fall upon the slit of a spectrograph of 18 feet focal length, or upon the slit of a large spectroheliograph. Both of these instruments are mounted on mas- sive stone piers. ‘Thus all restrictions as to the dimensions and weight of such auxiliary apparatus are removed. The house in which the Snow telescope is mounted (Plate xxvir) was designed with the object of keeping the temperature of the air within it as nearly as possible the same as that of the outer air. It is ‘constructed of a light steel framework covered with canvas louvers and provided with a ventilated roof. Without such precautions the air within the house would become heated during the day, and the difference in temperature between the inner and outer air would cause distortion of the solar image and consequent blurring of its details. In practice, on day after day in the summer months, the image of the Sun given by the telescope during the early morning hours is nearly as clear and distinct as a steel engraving. 340 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 If this solar image (obtained with reduced aperture of the concave mirror) is permitted to fall for less than the thousandth part of a second upon a photographic plate, a picture of the Sun will result. Such pictures are made every clear day, in the early morning or late afternoon, when the atmospheric conditions are at their best. They show the Sun as it appears to the eye in visual observations. The principal solar phenomena visible on such photographs are the Sun-spots, several of which appear in Plate xxviit. These spots, when observed under the best conditions, are found to have an ex- tremely intricate structure, which changes from hour to hour, and sometimes from minute to minute, under the observer’s eye. Indi- vidual spots sometimes exceed 90,000 miles in length, but their area is very small as compared with that of the entire solar disk. Thus the great group of February, 1892, had a length of 166,000 miles and a breadth of 65,000 miles. Its area was eighteen times as great as that of the Earth, but only 0.15 of one per cent of the solar surface.’ PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS OF SUN-SPOT SPECTRA In spite of the fact that Sun-spots have been under observation for nearly three hundred years, little is known as to their true na- ture. Various theories to account for them have been brought for- ward, but the complexity of the phenomena and the lack of suff- cient observational data have stood in the way of accurate knowledge. It is not certainly known, for example, whether Sun-spots are to be regarded as elevated regions or as depressions below the general level of the solar surface. Even the cause of their darkness has re- mained uncertain, and astronomers have differed as to their tempera- ture, some contending that they are much hotter than other parts of the Sun, and others believing them to be comparatively cool. In support of his theory that the chemical elements are broken up into simpler constituents at very high temperatures, Lockyer adduced observational evidence of a periodic change in the Sun-spot spec- trum. At times of maximum solar activity, when spots are numer- ous on the Sun, Lockyer found the most conspicuous lines in their spectrum to be of unknown origin. Five or six years later, when the solar activity had declined to a minimum, these lines seemed to be replaced by the well-known lines of iron and other familiar sub- stances. Lockyer accordingly concluded that at the maximum the temperature of Sun-spots was sufficiently high to break up iron and *Maunder, Journal British Astronomical Association, vol. Xv, p. 126. IIAXX "Id ‘ZG “1OA NOSTIM LNNOW NO 3SNOH 3d00S314dL MONS 43O GN3 HLNOS Shi ir aP Sissel SNOIL0311900 SNOANVITSOSIN NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XXVIII DIRECT PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SUN August 25, 1906, 64 o0gm A. M. No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 341 other elements into simpler substances, whose spectra, being un- known on the Earth, could not be identified. If we analyze the light of a Sun-spot with a spectroscope, we find that the Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum are almost all pres- ent, though their relative intensities are greatly changed. Many solar lines, for example, are much strengthened or widened where they cross the spot, while others are weakened or, in some cases, completely obliterated. Lockyer’s method of observation is to record, day after day, the most conspicuous lines in the spot spec- trum—those of the solar lines which are most widened or strength- ened. Under the ordinary conditions of visual observation, the study of the spot spectrum is a difficult operation, on account of the im- mense number of lines affected. Recognizing this, Lockyer confined his attention to only twelve lines, in the expectation that their varia- tions would sufficiently indicate the nature of any changes going on within the spot. The inadequacy of this method has been shown by recent results, which give no indication that the spot spectrum undergoes a radical change in passing from maximum to minimum solar activity, and demonstrate that an interpretation of the true meaning of the strengthened and weakened lines must involve the systematic study not merely of twelve lines, but of a far larger number. When the Snow telescope was first employed for this work, only a few hundreds of lines had been catalogued in the entire Sun-spot spectrum. Previous experiments at the Kenwood and Yerkes ob- servatories had indicated that the application of photography would probably make possible an important advance, provided a spectro- graph of sufficiently high dispersion were employed. A Littrow spectrograph of 18 feet focal length, having a plane Rowland grating ruled with 14,438 lines to the inch, was accordingly constructed for use with the Snow telescope. Good photographs of spot spectra were soon obtained with this instrument. After some minor tech- nical difficulties had been overcome, it appeared that the photographs could be counted upon to show nearly all that can be seen visually, while at the same time they would permit the positions of the lines to be accurately measured and their relative intensities to be deter- mined. From negatives taken with the Snow telescope, Ellerman prepared a preliminary map of the Sun-spot spectrum, extending from the violet to the extreme red. Casual inspection of this map, which comprises twenty-six sections of one hundred Angstréms each, is sufficient to show that the number of lines whose intensities are affected in Sun-spots is several thousands. In the hands of ob- 5 342 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 servers cooperating in the work of the International Solar Union, this map has greatly facilitated visual observations, and has con- siderably strengthened the view, now almost universally held, that the Sun-spot spectrum undergoes few striking variations from spot to spot or at different periods in the eleven-year cycle of solar ac- tivity. The negatives having been secured and a preliminary map of the spectrum prepared, it became necessary to draw up a catalogue of all the lines affected, showing their intensities in the spot and in the ordinary solar spectrum. The first section of this catalogue, extend- ing from 4000 (the extremity of the visible spectrum) to A 4500 in the violet, has been published by Adams.? In this limited region of the spectrum, where the Sun-spot and solar spectrum were previously re- garded as identical, about eight hundred lines of altered intensity are recorded. The publication of the second section of the catalogue has been somewhat delayed by the fact that negatives of the spot spectrum made with the 30-foot spectrograph of the new “tower” telescope (p. 356) are so much superior to the earlier plates that the results obtained from them must also be added. As the complexity of the spot spectrum increases from this region toward the green and yellow, it is evident that the complete catalogue will comprise many thousands of lines. Having thus acquired suitable data, the next step was to attempt to interpret the true meaning of the Sun-spot spectrum. At this point the need of laboratory experiments presents itself. Take, for ex- ample, the spectrum of iron in a Sun-spot. The photographs show that many of the iron lines are relatively much stronger than the cor- responding ones in the solar spectrum, others are reduced in in- tensity, and others are essentially unchanged. From experiments on the spectrum of iron as observed in the laboratory, it is known that the relative intensities of its lines depend upon the physical con- ditions under which the vapor is observed—1. e., that variations in the pressure, temperature, density, or electrical state of the vapor are competent to affect their relative intensities. Adequate informa- tion on this subject, however, is lacking. It was therefore necessary to observe the effect of varying these physical conditions, in the hope that the results might be applied to the interpretation of spot phenomena. The apparatus provided on Mount Wilson for work of this char- acter is illustrated in Plate xxrx. Around the annular pier are ar- * Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 22, Astrophysical Journal, vol. 22, pp. 45-65, January, 1908. NOSTIM LNNOW NO AYOLVYHOEV1] ODldOOSOYLOAdS SHL XIXX “Id ‘%G “10A SNOILOI1100 SNOANW1T3S90SIW NVINOSHLIWS No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 343 ranged various light sources, in each of which the physical conditions can be controlled by the observer. One of the simplest ways of vapor- izing iron is to place fragments of the metal between the carbon poles of an ordinary arc light. By varying the amount of metal present in the arc, the effect-of change of density of the vapor can be observed. To study the influence of change of pressure. the arc must be in- closed within a chamber, so constructed that air or some other gas can be admitted and raised to the desired pressure. ‘The effect is to shift the lines of the spectrum toward the red, and by measuring the displacement produced by an increase in pressure of one atmos- phere, the pressure within a Sun-spot or in a star, corresponding to any observed shift of the lines, can be determined. To ascertain the effect of change of temperature upon the spectrum, the iron vapor at the very hot center of the arc may be compared with the cooler vapor in the outer part of the flame. If the highest tempera- ture of the arc is not sufficiently great, a powerful electric spark, taken between two poles of iron, will afford a still hotter light- source. Apparatus suitable for all of these purposes and for other similar ones is arranged upon the annular pier. When the light from any particular source is to be investigated, it is reflected from a plane mirror at the center of the circle to a concave mirror (shown near the middle of Plate xx1x), which forms an image of the source on the slit of a powerful spectrograph. For various reasons it seemed probable that reduced temperature might be the cause of the strengthening and weakening of lines in spot spectra. Accordingly, special attention was directed to a study of the effect of temperature change on the relative intensities of the lines. After an extensive investigation it was found that the iron lines whose relative intensities increase at reduced temperatures are invariably among the lines which are strengthened in Sun-spots. Moreover it was also found that the iron lines which are weakened at reduced temperatures are weakened in Sun-spots. After these experiments had been extended from iron to titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and other substances con- spicuously represented in Sun-spots, the conclusion was reached that a reduction in temperature of the spot vapors is competent to ex- plain a large part of the characteristic spectral phenomena. Assum- ing this hypothesis to be correct, one would naturally be led to ask whether the temperature of the spot vapors is sufficiently reduced to permit elements existing uncombined at the higher temperature of the solar surface to enter into combination within the spot. Titanium and oxygen, for example, both occur among the vapors which lie 344 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 above the photosphere. Is the temperature within the spot low enough to permit these substances to combine? For many years the spot spectrum had been known to contain a number of bands and of faint lines, but none of these had been identified. Fortunately, the photographs obtained with the Snow telescope show these bands far better than they can be seen visually, and bring to light many new bands and thousands of faint lines of unknown origin. Fig. 1, Plate xxx, illustrates a comparison of one of the red titanium oxide bands, made up of a great number of fine lines terminating in three distinct heads, with the corresponding region in a photograph of the spot spectrum. It will be seen that practically all of the lines of the band photographed in the flame of the electric arc are present in the spot. As many other titanium bands have been found on the photographs, we now know not only that many hundreds of the spot lines can be accounted for in this way, but also that the hypothesis of reduced temperature is partially confirmed. ‘This identification of the titanium oxide flutings is due to Adams. Soon after its publication, Fowler, of London, found some of the bands in the green portion of our photographic map to be due to magnesium hydride, another compound capable of with- standing high temperatures. Still later, Olmsted discovered in our Mount Wilson laboratory that certain spot bands in the red are due to calcium hydride. He is continuing the search for other com- pounds with improved apparatus in our new Pasadena laboratory. The investigation may be an extensive one, because the spectra of only a few of these compounds, which are formed at the high tem- perature of the electric furnace, have hitherto been observed. Even in these cases no large scale photographs, or sufficiently accurate measurements of the lines, have been published. The presence of compounds in spots appears favorable to the hypothesis of reduced temperature, though it does not settle the question beyond doubt. It next became interesting to inquire whether analogous conditions could be found among the stars. As already remarked, the stars are so distant that their images in the most powerful telescopes are mere needle points, so that objects like Sun-spots, if they exist on the stars, cannot be observed. Accord- ing to current ideas of stellar evolution, the stars pass through a long process of development, during which their temperature, per- haps comparatively low in the embryonic stage represented by the condensing nebulz, reaches a maximum in the white stars, and then declines during the period of old age exemplified in the red stars. If, then, a Sun-spot is a mass of solar vapors reduced somewhat in XXX “Id ‘ZG “1OA @WI1 YVAN g) GNV YALNAO LV (v) NNS 3O WNYLOAdS—'s “Bly OuV OIYLOAIS AO AWV1I4 ( 6°Se:2 Y ) QNV 1OdS NNS (v) JO VHYLO3dS NI SONILAIS 3G o-ggod XO WAINVLIL—'L *6!4 gbSoL SNO 1031109 SNOANV1IIZ90SIN NVINOSHLIWS (Q) (9) No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 345 temperature, a red star, assumed to have the same composition as the Sun, might be expected to give a spectrum resembling that of a Sun-spot, if its temperature were the same. In order to test this question with sufficient precision, the spectra of Arcturus, an incipient red star, and of a Orionis, a conspicuous red star in the constellation of Orion, were photographed with a very powerful spectrograph. Here, again, the principle of using a high dispersion spectrograph, mounted on a massive stone pier in a constant temperature chamber, was substituted for the ordinary method of attaching a small spectrograph to the tube of a moving telescope. The Snow telescope provided a fixed image of the star, and it was only necessary to maintain this upon the slit of the spec- trograph during an exposure long enough to permit the greatly dis- persed light to impress itself upon the photographic plate. With the comparatively small aperture of the Snow telescope, exposures of from fifteen to twenty hours, carried on through several suc- cessive nights, were required. ‘The great amount of light which will be collected by our 60-inch reflector will reduce these exposures and will also permit fainter stars to be photographed with high dis- persion. A study of the plates thus obtained showed an interesting parallel- ism between the relative intensities of the lines in the spectra of these stars and those of Sun-spots. Many of the lines that are strengthened in spots are strengthened in these stars, and many of the lines that are weakened in spots are weakened in these stars. There are some important points of difference, probably due to the fact that the relative intensities of the lines in spots and stars are not determined solely by temperature condition. In general, how- ever, the agreement is sufficiently close to indicate the probability that a common cause—reduced temperature—is at work in both cases. If any doubts remained as to the resemblance between the spectra of red stars and Sun-spots, they were removed when the titanium oxide bands were discovered in our photographs of spot spectra. ‘These bands are the characteristic feature of one of the two great classes of red stars, their spectra showing them in all de- grees of intensity, from the comparative faintness which delayed their discovery in Sun-spots to the blackness observed in such deep red stars as a Herculis and Antares. The absence of these bands in the other great class of red stars, in whose spectra the bands of carbon (not found in Sun-spots) predominate, suggests interesting possibilities in future work on the Sun’s stellar relationships. These results leave unanswered scores of questions involved in 346 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 the complete interpretation of Sun-spot spectra, and do not even af- ford conclusive evidence that reduced temperature is the principal agent in determining the relative intensities of the lines. They nevertheless carry us a step forward in our study of solar physics and are of special service in illustrating the interdependence of solar, laboratory, and stellar investigations. They render evident the im- portance of increasing our knowledge of the Sun, of imitating solar phenomena and interpreting solar observations by means of labora- tory experiments, and of using these investigations as a guide to the study of the stars and nebulz. SPECTRA OF THE LIMB AND CENTER OF THE SUN Many years ago, when a student at Yale, Hastings made a com- parative study of the spectra of different parts of the Sun’s disk, devoting special attention to any differences that might distinguish the light of the center from that derived from points very near the limb. Although his instruments were inadequate for the task and his observations necessarily visual, he nevertheless noticed slight differences in the appearance of a few lines. Strangely enough, the importance of this work was overlooked by later investigators, though Halm, two years ago, without perceiving the differences noted by Hastings, detected a slight displacement of certain lines at the limb as compared with their positions at the center of the Sun. Halm’s work was also visual and accomplished with a comparatively small spectroscope. Had he used a more powerful instrument and bene- fited by the aid of photography, he would doubtless have discovered the interesting series of phenomena which the Snow telescope and 18-foot spectrograph have brought to light. Some of these are illustrated in Fig. 2, Plate xxx, which represents only one region of the spectrum. The broad diffuse wings which accompany many lines are greatly reduced in intensity near the limb, and in a number of cases disappear entirely. The relative intensities of the lines themselves undergo marked changes, resembling in most instances the changes observed in Sun-spots; that is to say, the lines that are strengthened in Sun-spots are usually strengthened near the Sun’s limb, while the lines that are weakened in Sun-spots are weakened near the limb. However, the phenomena are by no means strictly parallel, and much work will be required to arrive at their true meaning. Perhaps the most interesting effects observed at the limb are the displacements of the solar lines with respect to their positions at the center of the Sun. In general, the relative displace- No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 347 ments for different lines agree fairly well in magnitude with those ob- served for the same lines in the laboratory when a source of light containing the vapor in question is observed under pressure. ‘That increased effective pressure near the limb is probably the cause of the line-shifts is further illustrated by the fact that the lines in bands or flutings, such as those of cyanogen (shown in Fig. 1, Plate xxx), which are not displaced by pressure in the laboratory, retain the same relative positions at the center and limb. These changes, and many others which it would be tedious to enumerate, have been observed on photographs taken by Adams and myself for the purpose of extending and perfecting our interpre- tation of Sun-spot spectra. Almost the entire extent of the spec- trum has been photographed and a large scale-map showing the differences between the spectra of the limb and center is now in preparation. The work of measurement is necessarily long and trying, since the positions of hundreds of lines must be determined on many photographs with the extreme precision required to reveal the minute displacements concerned. For the interpretation of the results extensive laboratory investigations on the effect of pressure must be carried out, and special apparatus for this purpose is now being prepared. Moreover, the possibility that anomalous dispersion and other physical phenomena are involved must not be overlooked ; and here, again, much laboratory work must be done. THE SoLAR ROTATION In mentioning the cyanogen band, I remarked that it occupies the same position at the center of the Sun and at the limb. This is true, of course, only after the effect of the solar rotation has been cor- rected. All the lines of the spectrum, when observed at the east limb of the Sun, are displaced toward the violet, while at the west limb they are displaced toward the red, with respect to their normal place as given by the light of the center of the Sun. The displace- ments here involved are due to the Sun’s axial rotation, and afford the most accurate means we possess of determining its velocity. The east limb of the Sun, in the region of the equator, is moving toward us at the rate of 2.08 km. per second. Such a motion of a luminous source shifts the lines of its spectrum a small distance toward the violet. At the west limb, the motion being away from the observer, the displacement is toward the red. In practice, the spectrum of the east limb is photographed side by side with that of the west limb, so that the double displacements may be measured. 348 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 These displacements have been studied by Adams, who has utilized the facilities offered by the Snow telescope and the 18-foot spectro- graph to carry out what is probably the most accurate spectroscopic investigation of the solar rotation hitherto accomplished. In the earlier investigations of Dunér and Halm, both of which exhibit a high degree of precision, visual observations were employed, and as all of the measures had to be made at the telescope, the observers re- stricted themselves to the use of only two lines. The advantages of . photography are obvious when it is remembered that in a single short exposure a portion of the spectrum from 15 to 20 inches long, show- ing opposite limbs of the Sun and containing thousands of lines suitable for measurement, can be recorded upon a sensitive plate. The work on Mount Wilson is limited to making the photographs, which are afterwards measured in the Computing Division at Pas- adena, with measuring machines which give the positions of the lines within about one-thousandth of a millimeter. Since iron, cal- cium, carbon, sodium, hydrogen, and other elements are represented on the plates, it is possible, by measuring the displacements of the corresponding lines, to determine the velocity of rotation of the vapor due to any one of these elements. The lines measured by Adams (assisted by Miss Lasby) include some for each of the following elements: iron, manganese, nickel, titanium, lanthanum, carbon, chromium, and zirconium. ‘The fol- lowing table gives the values obtained for different latitudes :? | Velocity, Daily Rotation | | | | | Latitudes. | km. per | angular | period, | | second. motion. | days. area = BRS ° | ° } 0.2 27S) hl) | AS75 Ol) eedes9 HO 2.023) |e T4.50 24.83 15.0 i Oboe Til LAS3Q) ees OL 2G (ee 8O8) (Ul as -O2 aie F255 3b 29.7 | 2-673 | 13.68 26.32 QTE TAGE "jst = 27eAG 44.7 Ley Vi 277 28.19 B27 TOS 5h a Lens 5 29.15 59 OLSO7 a eens 29.68 657 O1606) te enc. OO 30.02 74-9 0.434 11.85 20.38 80.4 eor7 7 11.84 30.40 It will be seen that, as in the case of Sun-spots, the period of the Sun’s rotation increases from the equator toward the poles. The- oretical investigations suggest that this remarkable law of rota- 1 Adams: Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 20, Astrophysicat Journal, vol. XxXvi, pp. 203-224, November, 1907. No. 1805 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 349 tion dates from a former epoch in the Sun’s history, and that it perhaps arose from the motion of the gases concerned in the for- mation of the Sun from a nebula. After the lapse of some millions of years, the effect of internal friction will tend to bring the veloci- ties corresponding to different latitudes more and more closely into harmony, and finally the Sun will rotate as a solid sphere. One of the most important results obtained by Adams is the dis- covery that the lines of carbon and lanthanum, elements which lie at a low level in the Sun’s atmosphere, give values for the daily rate about 0°.1 less than the mean values for all of the lines meas- ured. Two lines of manganese, on the contrary, give systematically high results. It seems probable that these differences are due to differences in the level of the vapors of these elements in the solar atmosphere, and that those substances which lie at high altitudes complete a rotation in a shorter period than the vapors beneath them. ‘This supposition is confirmed by the fact that Adams’s recent meas- ures of the velocity of hydrogen, which rises higher above the solar surface than any of the vapors included in the above investigation, give very high values. Moreover, as the following table shows, the rotational velocities of hydrogen in low and high latitudes are in close agreement, and the equatorial acceleration characteristic of lower levels does not exist. | ; Linear : | : | | 5 : Daily | Rotation | Latitudes. | ROSIN angular | period, | RENE motion. days. | ee eee aE ee ° | ° | —o.I | 222% ye tS/ 22.9 | 9.3 2.15 | 15.5 22e2 | 14.8 2ATOw et TI5 34 220A | 2207, 2.03 15.6 | 22e1 | 29.7 187) ey eL5e3 DE | 44.5 155m mea aA 23.4 | 59.3 Te 2 lf ar526 23.1 | 2iKOl a | 73-5 0.67 ON, | | This important discovery leads us to inquire whether hydrogen clouds in the solar atmosphere, if observed in projection against the Sun’s disk, would show daily motions corresponding to these results obtained with the spectroscope. Fortunately, the spectroheliograph permits these clouds to be photographed, as will be explained in the next section of this lecture. 350 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 WorRK WITH THE SPECTROHELIOGRAPH The spectroheliograph is an instrument for photographing the Sun with the monochromatic light of any of the vapors present in its atmosphere. ‘The instrument consists essentially of a spectro- scope, on the slit of which an image of the Sun is formed. The spectroscope analyzes the light of that portion of the Sun’s image which enters the slit, and spreads it out into a spectrum, crossed by lines characteristic of the various elements. If a luminous cloud of calcium vapor in the Sun’s atmosphere happens to be intersected by the slit, the dark calcium line of the solar spectrum will show a ‘bright line corresponding to a section of this cloud. Suppose the eye-piece of a spectroscope to be replaced by a slit, and assume this slit to be adjusted so that only the line of calcium passes through it. If a photographic plate is placed almost in contact -with the slit, and the spectroscope is moved at a uniform rate across the fixed solar image, the second slit moving with it across the fixed photographic plate, it is evident that an image of the Sun will be built up on the plate from the successive images of the slit. The only light that enters into the formation of this image is that of calcium vapor, and the resulting picture therefore represents the distribution of this vapor in the solar atmosphere. The advantages of using a fixed telescope are as great in the case of the spectroheliograph as in that of the spectrographs already de- scribed. ‘The limitations in size imposed by the necessity of carry- ing a spectroheliograph at the end of a moving equatorial telescope do not obtain here, so that the instrument can be built of the dimen- sions required to accomplish its purpose to the best advantage. Plate XXXI represents the spectroheliograph constructed in the instrument shop of the Solar Observatory for use with the Snow telescope. The image of the Sun, 6.7 inches in diameter, falls on the first slit of the instrument in about the position of the metallic disk shown on the right of the plate (this disk is removed when the solar surface is photographed). The light, after passing through the slit, falls upon an 8-inch photographic objective, which renders the rays parallel. They then meet the surface of a plane mirror, from which they are reflected to two large prisms. The prisms disperse the light into a spectrum, an image of which is formed on the second slit by a second 8-inch objective. ‘The prisms are so adjusted that the curved second slit, which may be seen near the middle of Plate xxx1, coin- cides accurately with the calcium line H,. The photographic plate is placed in the supporting frame in front of the slit and the door 3d008314L MONS 3HL HLIM 3SN HOS GALNNOW *HdVYDOITSHOYLOSdS LOOS-S SIRE SNOILO37109 SNO3ANVIIZOSIN NVINOSHLIWS IXXX “Id “gS “10A re i a te 7 a A 7 A a eS ny NA : ; Pit 4 i. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XXXII THE SUN, PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE 5-FOOT SPECTROHELIOGRAPH August 25, 1906, 6b 18m A. M. Camera slit set on He line of calciuin No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 351 closed, excluding from the plate all light except that which comes through the slit. An electric motor is then started, causing the iron bed-plate, which is mounted on steel balls and carries the two slits, the lenses and the prism-train, to move at a uniform rate across the solar image. Plate xxxi1 reproduces a photograph made in this way, for com- parison with a direct photograph (Plate xxviir) showing the Sun as it appears to the eye in the telescope. “The luminous clouds of calcium vapor, or “flocculi,” are well shown on the monochromatic image, but do not appear in the direct photograph. It will therefore be recog- nized that this method opens up an extensive field, by permitting the invisible phenomena of the solar atmosphere to be investigated. ‘The wide range of the new information thus to be derived will be ap- preciated when it is remembered that by photographing the Sun with the lines of hydrogen, iron, sodium, magnesium, or any other element represented among the thousands of lines of the solar spec- trum, the distribution of the corresponding vapor can be recorded. For example, Plate xxx11I is a picture of the hydrogen flocculi, made six minutes after the calcium image in Plate Xxx1I was obtained. It will be seen that most of the hydrogen clouds, instead of giving bright images like those obtained with calcium, are comparatively dark, though certain eruptive phenomena and regions in the neighborhood of Sun-spots appear bright on the hydrogen plates. This spectro- heliograph is also used to photograph the iron vapors in the Sun, but, as will be explained later, a larger instrument is required to yield satisfactory solar photographs with the narrower lines of other ele- ments. The 5-foot spectroheliograph has been in regular use with the Snow telescope since October, 1905. Photographs of the Sun are made with the calcium, hydrogen and iron lines every clear day, both in the morning and in the afternoon. About 3,700 negatives thus obtained give a connected history of the Sun during the period in question, and provide the material for such investigations as will now be described. The first use of these plates that suggests itself is a study of the solar rotation as determined by the rate of motion of the flocculi. The flocculi change more or less in form from hour to hour, but some of them may be identified on plates taken on several consecutive days. Two plates, taken about twenty-four hours apart, are closely compared and only those flocculi which undergo small change of form are marked for measurement. The process of measurement in- volves the determination of the latitude and longitude of each of 352 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 these points, referred to the center of the Sun. As the flocculi are seen in projection on the surface of a sphere, it is evident that a considerable amount of calculation would be required to deduce the latitudes and longitudes if the ordinary methods of measurement, giving their distance along a radius from the center of the disk, and the angle between this radius and the north pole of the Sun, were employed. ‘Io obviate this computing, the heliomicrometer was de- vised for the measurement of these photographs, and constructed in the instrument shop of the Solar Observatory. This instrument consists essentially of two 4-inch telescopes, one of them pointed at the solar photograph, the other at a silvered bronze globe, placed near it. By a suitable device the images given by the two telescopes are brought together in a single eye-piece, so that the observer sees the photographs projected upon the surface of the globe. If, then, the globe is ruled with meridians and parallels one degree apart, and the axis of the globe is inclined at such an angle as to correspond with that of the Sun on the date of the photograph, it is evident that the latitude and longitude of any point on the photograph can be read off to a tenth of a degree, with reference to the nearest meridian and parallel. In practice, many refinements are introduced to increase the precision of measurement. For convenience, the two telescopes are mounted immediately above the globe and photo- graphic plate and pointed at two plane mirrors 30 feet away, in which the globe and plate are seen. It has been found that the rapidity and precision of measurement with this instrument are as great as with the ordinary method, while all of the extensive compu- tations are eliminated. During the summer season of 1907 the Sun was photographed with the Snow telescope on 113 consecutive days. Such an un- broken series of negatives provides the best of material for the study of changing solar phenomena, since the successive phases can be observed without the interruptions encountered under less favorable atmospheric conditions. In the determination of the solar rotation, for example, a cloudy period of two or three days may prevent the measurement of a large proportion of the calcium flocculi, because their changes of form are so rapid. 2,585 positions of calcium flocculi have been measured on 76 plates, by Miss Ware, with the heliomicrometer, and the combined results furnish the following values for the rotation periods of the calcium flocculi at different latitudes. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL 52, PL. XXxXIill THE SUN, PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE 5-FOOT SPECTROHEL!IOGRAPH August 25, 1906, 6b 36m A. M. Camera slit set on //6 line of hydrogen PL. XXXIV VOL. 52, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Iv HH stheepesiaia once eesiompauiee alaeraoemreret 1 oy IER BOLO ALLELE ESOS Bohn oso Ra eI BRIGHT H AND K LINES ON THE DISK (@), (4), AND (c), IN THE CHROMOSPHERE (4), AND IN A PROMINENCE (@) NO. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 353 Daily | Rotation Latitude. angular UP SL oF | period, motion. a a3 days. | | Goeeen5e 14°.43 364 24.95 lie 20 be LO 14 .33 391 25.12 | = 100), Sami 14 .29 518 25.19 | +15 + 20 14 .26 530 25.25 2 Ome =o Ale 277 423 2522) | Ey O 14 .07 215 25.59 SOME 13 .86 144 25.97 The measurement of the hydrogen flocculi is complicated by their changes in form, which are much more rapid than in the case of calcium. It is not surprising that this should be true, if the hypoth- esis provisionally adopted to account for the nature of the flocculi is correct. According to this hypothesis, the calcium flocculi shown by the spectroheliograph correspond to three different levels, defined in any case by the position of the second slit with reference to the H or K line. These lines are of complex structure, as Plate xxxiv illustrates. H consists of a broad hazy band, designated as H,; superposed on this is a narrow bright line, called H,; and near the center of this bright line is a very narrow dark line, called H,. K is similar to H (though somewhat stronger) and contains the con- stituents K,, K,, and K,. If the second slit of the spectroheliograph is set at some point on the broad H, or K, band, only the low-lying calcium vapor which is dense enough to produce a band of this width is capable of showing its presence on the photograph (Fig. 1, Plate xxxv). When the second slit is set so as to include H, or K.,, the less dense vapor, lying at a higher level (a few thousands of miles above the photosphere), produces the calcium flocculi measured in the above mentioned determination of the solar rotation (Fig. 2, Plate Xxxv). The H, photographs frequently show evidences of the ab- sorbing effect of vapors lying at the H, level, which give rise to dark calcium flocculi. When the spectra of these flocculi are photo- graphed, the H, and K, lines are found to be greatly widened and strengthened in them. ‘There can therefore be but little doubt that they correspond to absorption effects produced at a comparatively high level. Independent evidence in favor of this view is afforded by the fact that spectroheliograph pictures of the Sun’s limb fre- quently show prominences, many thousands of miles in height, to be present at points where dark flocculi extend on to the disk. This question has been specially investigated by Michie Smith and Ever- shed, at Kodaikanal, India, and their conclusion that these dark flocculi are prominences, absorbing the light of the disk, is in perfect harmony with the Mount Wilson results. In some cases, however, 354 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 it is probable that calcium vapor lying in the upper chromosphere, below the level of prominences, may produce dark flocculi. Our discovery at the Yerkes Observatory of the dark calcium flocculi was made soon after we had first photographed the hydrogen flocculi and found them (in most cases) to be dark. On the hydro- gen plates there occasionally appeared exceptionally dark flocculi, and when one of these plates was compared with a calcium plate taken at about the same time, a dark object, similar in form to that shown by the hydrogen plate, was found to be present. We thus have strong presumptive evidence, since the hydrogen and calcium plates show these effects in the same way, that these particular hydrogen flocculi are comparatively high-level phenomena. While it of course does not follow that the ordinary hydrogen flocculi, which are not so dark as these exceptional ones, lie at the same level, the very fact that they are dark suggests the view that they are due to the absorptive effect of the cooler hydrogen in the upper chromosphere. ‘The bright hydrogen flocculi, so frequently recorded in the neighborhood of Sun-spots, are supposed to be due to radiation from hydrogen at a higher temperature. Assuming for the present the validity of this hypothesis, it ap- pears that the ordinary dark hydrogen flocculi recorded in our daily photographs of the Sun represent a higher level than the bright cal- cium flocculi obtained in the daily series made with the H, line. Thus we might reasonably expect that the rotation period derived from a study of the motion of these flocculi would differ from that of the bright calcium floccull. The measures of the daily change in longitude of the hydrogen flocculi at present available are too few in number to give a reliable determination of the solar rotation. Indeed, the marked proper motions of these objects in all directions on the solar surface, and their rapid change of form, will make it necessary to obtain a great number of these measures before final conclusions can be drawn; 547 flocculi measured on 20 different plates give the results obtained in the following table. Daily Rotation Latitude. No. points. angular period, motion. days. ° Oo ae gI 14.3 25.2 5 oO 77 14.4 25.0 Noy Tee 95 14.6 24.7 LS) == 20 aS 14.5 24.8 2ON=I25 71 14.7 24.5 25 = 30 65 14.7 24.5 | 3° +35 35 i eae 24.2 | 935) ==4o0 23 14.6 24.7 [400 EEA 19 14.4 25.0 Syy uoyasS PIS ly uo yas BLS podas YIM UMOYS Sv ITHOIOY WINTO]BD ‘wok yf *6 19q0790 pllooas YPM UAMOYS S¥ ITNIOy WNTO[eD ‘mE yf ‘6 19q0}790 @-OIa €061 ‘Y3dOL00 4O LOdS-NNS LV3HD I ‘OI SNOANV1IZOSIW NVINOSHLIWS AXXX ‘Id ‘ZS “1OA SNOIL0311090 i 7 Pavan Fink No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 355 The following table brings together the results of various deter- minations of the solar rotation: | Spots. | Facule. at: Latitude. F | Z | Reversing z Carring- |Unweighted | .,_, ; 5 toa. Spoerer. | Mauna eT! lie a aaie: Stratonoff, ee { ==) Ogee) 5° 14.42 14.34 14.44 14.40 14.68 14 70 ee Se == 0 14.35 14.30 | 14.4r | 14.35 14.61 14.58 a= 00) as ath 14.21 14.21 14.34 14.25 14.31 14.43 Sta 5a 20) 14.06 14.08 14.25 14.13 14.18 14.23 ae 20) ae 25 13.90 1290 14.13 | 13.98 14.19 14.00 25) a0 13573 13.69 13.99 13.80 14.08 13.72 + 30 + 35 13.54 13-44 | 13.83 | 13.60 13.60 | 13-43 Calcium flocculi (Hs). wea ai wl =e) Eloceull |) /(Spectro- | ea tt K ares Fox, | Mount — Unweighted | (H6). graphic. eae Oot lH ngozso4s5 |lWalson: means. | —— ie (i ate Fi ay | ° ° SE Ot ine ays 14.66 | 14.49 14.43 14.53 14.6 15.05 S55) sa uy |p sliahge 14.42 14.33 14.42 SOM sal See Asal L424) is LATZG 14.30 a= U5) s= 20 | 14.22 13.94 | 14°26 14.14 Wee 20) 25 14.12 EO ee AC 7 14.02 25a 30 13.90 13.96 | 14.07 13.98 =t=y OU ta 35 132.70) I) 213.70) ||) 13-86 Loe The long series of observations by Carrington, Spoerer, and Maunder furnish ample material for the study of Sun-spot motions, but it is doubtful whether such results should be combined, since they cover long time intervals, during which (as some evidence sug- gests) the rotation period may undergo variation. ‘The same may be said of the flocculi. ‘The unweighted means of determinations of the motions of the calcium flocculi, made at the Kenwood, Yerkes and Mount Wilson Observatories, differ so little from the mean motions of the spots that no safe conclusions can be drawn. Strato- noff’s results for the faculz are of rather low weight, since they com- prise a comparatively small number of measures, necessarily made near the Sun’s limb (since the faculze are not visible near the center of the disk), and therefore subject to greater errors of setting. But if we are not warranted in concluding that the calcium flocculi move more rapidly than the spots, we may at least recognize the striking differences which distinguish their rotational motions from those of the hydrogen flocculi. The lower calcium clouds follow the motions of the spots, and show the same marked acceleration of angular velocity toward the equator. The hydrogen flocculi, floating 356 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 at higher levels, and thus escaping the effects of friction experienced by the calcium vapor, move at greater velocities in the higher lati- tudes, and show little increase in the equatorial zones. It will be observed that the spectrographic velocities, both in the low-lying vapors of the reversing layer and even more markedly in the case of hydrogen, are decidedly greater than the results ob- tained by measuring the daily motions of spots, faculz or flocculi. Is it possible that the flocculi, rising from lower levels, retain, in part, the lower velocities characteristic of these levels? It will be a matter of great interest to study this question, as more measures. become available. RED AND VioLEtT HyprocEn FroccuLt Adams’s spectrographic measures of hydrogen make it probable (though hardly certain, as yet) that the rotational displacements of the red hydrogen line (Ha) are greater, on the average, than those of the blue and violet lines (HB and Hy; H8 was too diffuse for accurate measurement). ‘The Ha line is also greatly strengthened and widened near the Sun’s limb, while the other lines retain about the same intensity they exhibit at the center of the disk. Hence it might be suspected that photographs of the hydrogen flocculi, made with Ha, would exhibit corresponding peculiarities. Fortunately the new “Pan-iso” plates, for which we are indebted to Wallace, are remarkably sensitive to red light. They enabled us to try the experiment of photographing the Sun with the Ha line, using the high dispersion of a spectroheliograph of 30 feet focal length, employed with the new tower telescope. The first plate showed large bright hydrogen flocculi, in a region (near a group of small Sun-spots) where an H8 photograph, taken simultaneously with the 5-foot spectroheliograph and Snow telescope, showed only dark flocculi. This first plate, however, was under-exposed, and full timing also revealed dark Ha flocculi. Later it was found pos- sible to make excellent Ha photographs of the entire Sun with the 5-foot spectroheliograph. Curiously enough, both the bright and dark flocculi shown by these plates differ in many particulars from the H8 flocculi, though there is a general resemblance of various de- tails (Plate xxxvt). These results have been obtained very recently and no complete explanation of the differences between the Ha and the H8 flocculi has yet been worked out. We found at the Yerkes Observatory that the HB, Hy and H6 flocculi closely resemble one another, and this. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Fig. 1.~HYDROGEN FLOCCULI, PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE a LINE 1901, May 1, 44 48m P.M. Scale: Sun's diameter — 0.2 meter Fig. 2. HYDROGEN FLOCCULI, PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE #6 LINE 1908, May 1, 507m P.M. Scale: Sun’s diameter = 0.2 meter 4 Pe ‘ f ~ MW GAHRAN TO a4 HOORAY ee earistess. Seay sie Mee oe ee bel alk he re eager cet r et he i y 2 i” 2 7 oy « Fat ai! j "% . ; i Re. 2 i "Ps fi ah oS y : ir a » ‘ & wo he f ’ ; * é 7 Pas “ tig ‘ ct t 12 ote 4 . 1 j en « b ; oe res i ent? { 6, z it i Ly Ar } f . ne 4 ee i AY on, ; i i RSE es inca a etal Ow Op lk lee eb i Tire Ao Beh. NG SA Oe ute Waendayy { i eo hrc yn oe Teiorreth wie + afin Me Le id No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN HALE 357 has recently been confirmed on Mount Wilson. WHa, therefore, is the exceptional line, as its spectroscopic peculiarities also indicate. We are at once reminded of the remarkable behavior of the hydro- gen lines in the Wolf-Rayet stars, where Ha is sometimes bright and the other hydrogen lines invisible or dark. Kayser has ex- plained this condition of things by a simple application of the law of radiation and absorption. But in the well-known variable star o Ceti, and others of its type, Ha and H® are invisible, while Hy and H8, and the more refrangible hydrogen lines, are bright. In R Andromede HB is the chief bright line, while Ha is absent. More- over, the bright line spectra of the nebule contain HB and Hy, but Ha, when visible at alls very faint. Finally, such stars as y Cas- siopeie show Ha and the other hydrogen lines with the same rela- tive brightness they exhibit in a hydrogen tube. As the relative temperatures of the radiating and absorbing gases may play a dominant part in determining the character of the spec- tral lines, and therefore the appearance of the flocculi, the question of their level in the solar atmosphere assumes greater importance than ever. An attempt to photograph prominences at the Sun’s limb with the Ha line met with instant success, and brought out a most interesting fact: a large prominence appeared at exactly the point where a dark Ha flocculus was being carried over the limb by the Sun’s rotation. As the structure of the prominence closely re- sembles that of the flocculus, it is very probable that the latter was simply the prominence seen in projection on the disk, its darkness being due to the fact that the temperature of the gas was low enough to produce perceptible absorption. Most of the Hé image of the prominence was very weak on the photograph, and thus the absence of a corresponding dark H6 flocculus is readily accounted for. Furthermore, a portion of the H8 prominence, which was as bright as the corresponding portion of the Ha prominence, is clearly shown as a dark flocculus on the H8 image of the disk. Hereafter the Ha prominences, as well as the Ha flocculi, will be photographed daily for comparison.* *For an account of the discovery of vortices and magnetic fields associated with Sun-spots, which resulted from work with the Ha line soon after this lecture was delivered, see Hale, “Solar Vortices,’ Contributions from the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, No. 26, Astrophysical Journal, September, 1908, and Hale, “On the Probable Existence of a Magnetic Field in Sun-spots,” Contributions from the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, No. 30, Astro- physical Journal, November, 1908. 358 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Soar ACTIVITY AND TERRESTRIAL PHENOMENA In the introductory part of this lecture reference was made to the relationship between solar phenomena and terrestrial temperatures. The fact that the temperature of our atmosphere’ undergoes small fluctuations which correspond with the Sun-spot period indicates that the solar heat radiation varies with the number of Sun-spots. Unfortunately, however, since the total area of Sun-spots is only a very small fraction of that of the Sun’s disk, and since intervals of several weeks sometimes elapse during which no Sun-spots are seen, the spot area may not prove to be the most reliable index of the solar activity. ‘The total area of the flocculi is always much greater than that of the spots, and even at Sun-spot minimum these objects are never entirely absent from the Sun. For this reason it seems probable that measurements of their area will serve as the best index to the state of the Sun and the surest means of detect- ing rapid fluctuations in activity, which may be associated with changes in the solar heat radiation or in terrestrial temperatures. The selection of the flocculi whose areas are to be measured is necessarily a more or less arbitrary matter, depending upon the judgment of the person engaged in the work. As will be seen from Plate xxxu1, the calcium flocculi range in size from extensive regions covering a considerable area of the solar surface to minute points barely discernible by the unaided eye on the original negatives. Moreover, the range in brightness of the flocculi is almost as great as the range in area. Evidently many of the fainter and smaller flocculi must be excluded from consideration, especially as their visibility depends upon the quality of the photographs, which dif- fers from day to day with the conditions of the atmosphere. After all has been said, however, the difficulties of selection appear to be no greater than in the case of the faculz measured on direct photo- graphs at Greenwich. The faculz are clearly visible only in the immediate neighborhood of the Sun’s limb and gradually disappear as they approach the center. Their total area, as measured on any given photograph, is far less than the area of the calcium (H,) flocculi of the same date, and the effect of atmospheric conditions on their visibility is more marked than in the case of the flocculi. After experimenting with several methods of measuring the areas of the flocculi, a simple photometric device was adopted. A piece of clear glass is placed over the solar negative and the image of each flocculus selected for measurement is painted over with opaque No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 359 black paint. The corresponding area is inversely proportional to the measured amount of light, from a source of known intensity, which is transmitted by the blackened plate. In practice, the investigation has been planned so as to permit the determination, not only of the total area of the calcium flocculi, but also their distribution in latitude and longitude. For this pur- pose the points on the solar negative corresponding to the intersec- tions of meridians and parallels 10° apart are marked on the glass side with the heliomicrometer, which is provided with an electrical marking pen for this work. The area of the flocculi lying within each square, 10° ona side, is then measured. The sum of these areas gives the total area of the calcium flocculi for the date in question, while the values obtained for the individual squares per- mit the variations in solar latitude and longitude to be studied. In order to avoid errors incident to the measurement of areas at points near the Sun’s limb, the region investigated is confined to the middle of the Sun’s disk and extends 40° east and west, and 40° north and south, from the central point. A large number of photographs have been measured in this way at the Solar Observatory, and in the course of time it will be possible to learn whether these results indicate any significant relationship between solar and terrestrial phenomena. CoNCLUSION I trust this account of recent investigations will make clear some of the means at present employed to extend our knowledge of the Sun. Every advance in this department must contribute toward the solution of the great problem of stellar evolution, as well as the lesser problem of the solar constitution. The latter is of special interest to the inhabitants of the Earth, since our very lives depend upon the constancy of the solar radiation, and thus upon the mechan- ism which maintains it. But the problem of stellar evolution is of even greater philosophical interest. As the biologist withdraws, one by one, the veils which enshrouded the mysteries of organic development, and as the paleontologist reconstructs for us the life of former times, the desire to learn of the earliest steps along the great highway of evolution must grow in every intelligent mind. Fortunately the problems of the astronomer, difficult though they be, are more open to attack than those which confront his biological colleague. With the powerful telescopes and spectroscopes of the present day, and the climatic advantages which well-placed mountain 360 SMITHSONIAN MISCELILAANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 observatories enjoy, unlimited opportunities lie at his command. But if he is to give effective aid in solving the innumerable questions raised by the distant stars, he must first of all profit by the advantages which the proximity of one star affords. From this standpoint I commend to you the far-reaching possibilities of solar research. SOME NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LAND SHELLS By WILLIAM H. DALL Curator, Division oF Moriusks, U. S. Nationa, Musrtum With ONE PLATE Among some shells collected near the Atrato River, in the Sierra Darien, by Mr. A. E.. Heighway, and generously presented to the Museum were Pleurodonte (Labyrinthus) plicata Born, P. (L.) sipunculata Forbes, and the following species which appears to be very distinct from any other heretofore described. PLEURODONTE (LABYRINTHUS) TENACULUM, new species Pirate XXXVII, FicurEs 5, 6, 10, 11 Shell dark purplish or chocolate brown, with a broad yellowish- white band near the periphery of the whorls above and below; whole surface finely granulate, and covered with a thin brownish dehiscent periostracum ; shell five-whorled, depressed, sharply carinate; upper surface of the whorls (except the nucleus) flattened; the base mod- erately convex, compressed near the periphery, rounding gently into a deep funicular umbilicus; nucleus pale, with obscurely vermiculate Fic. 64.—Diagram of aperture of Pleurodonte tenaculum showing armature. surface and a deep suture, which is subsequently closely appressed ; incremental lines rather distinct and close set; peristome white, the whorl beneath the internal plications impressed externally ; the aper- ture nearly parallel to the basal plane, thick, reflected, with no sulcus at the umbilicus or carina, obscurely subquadrate; parietal lamella low, oblique, thin, strongly reflected outwardly, about five or six millimeters long; basal lamelle two, the inner not longer than the width of the reflection of the peristome, low, rounded, simple, nearly 361 362 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 vertical; the outer similar but longer, beginning externally near the carinal angle and extending backwarde obliquely about six milli- meters; all these projections are, like the peristome, white; between the two basal lamella, slightly nearer the outer one and near its inner end, is a thorn-like projection of a chocolate color, not con- nected with either lamella, rapidly attenuated and bent forward toward the aperture, the extreme end sharply recurved, white and acute, like a cat’s claw; maximum diameter of shell, 30.0; of peri- stome, 16.0; of umbilicus, 5.0; minimum diameter of shell, 24.0; of aperture, 9.0; altitude of shell, 6.0 mm. U. S. Nat. Museum no. 111,073. Two specimens were obtained. The remarkable armature seems to be unique in the group. HELICINA HEIGHWAYANA, new species PiatE XXXVII, Ficurss 7, 8, 9 Shell large, depressed, biconic, very sharply carinated, the carina prominently rostrate at the peristome; color pale lemon yellow fading into creamy white, whorls about five; surface finely radially closely striate, the stria somewhat wavy near the carina; nucleus small, smooth; suture closely appressed; periphery impressed just within the carina, the remainder of the whorl moderately convex, above and below; base imperforate with a very small inconspicuous callus ; aperture subtriangular, wider than high, the upper and basal mar- gins thick, strongly reflected, but the callus not carried across the body; at the angle the thickened lip is strongly produced, rostrate, and bent slightly forward with a faint channel internally ; operculum lost. Maximum diameter of shell, 25.0; of aperture, 13.0; minimum diameter of shell, 19.0; of aperture (vertical), 7.0; altitude of the shell, 13.0 mm. One specimen was obtained with the preceding species. U. 5. Nat. Museum no. 111,074. This is the largest and most strongly rostrate species of the group yet described. Its nearest relative seems to be H. rhynchostoma, of the same region, which is much smaller, differently colored, and with a polished surface. With these shells were found Aperostoma gigantea Gray, in some numbers, but a poor state of preservation. While traveling in the interior of the province of Bahia, Brazil, in 1908, Dr. J. C. Branner, vice-president of Stanford University, ob- served that landshells, mostly dead, were remarkably abundant, NO. 1866 NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LAND SHELLS—DALL 263 especially Bulimulus (Anctus) angiostomus Wagner, and _ allied forms. The surface soil, beside silica, contained nearly fifty per cent of lime, over four per cent of carbonate of magnesia, and nearly nine per cent of sodium chloride and sulphate. There is so much salt in the soil that it is leached for the manufacture of common salt. Cer- tain of the landshells, especially the Anctus, seemed to thrive best on this salty ground; after the pools of the rainy season had dried up, they were noted upon the stems of weeds which grow abundantly over this low ground. There were found a number of the shells of Strophocheilus oblongus, variety crassus Albers, which had become remarkably thickened internally ; some of the shell was about half an inch thick, and the unbroken specimen felt as if it had been filled with lead. Besides this species, Bulimulus pachys Pilsbry and Odonto- stomus sectilabris Pfeiffer were identified, together with the follow- ing new species. ODONTOSTOMUS (CYCLODONTINA) BRANNERI, new species PLATE XXXVII, FicureEs 2, 3, 4 - Shell slender, elongate, subacute, with nine and a half whorls sepa- rated by a narrow, deep, but not channeled suture; nucleus small, minutely punctate, with an apical dimple; the subsequent sculpture _of fine, even, close-set retractive wrinkles, or riblets, extending from suture to suture and over the base; color white, with irregularly dis- posed brown lines, usually distant and in harmony with the sculp- ture; whorls very slightly rounded, the last finally attenuated and externally impressed over the internal denticles; under the reflected lip and behind the large lamina on the pillar is a minute umbilical chink ; aperture with a strongly reflected white peristome, with a thin layer of parietal callus, separated from the lip at either end by a channel, shallow at the pillar-lip but deep at the external angle, where it is bounded in front by a small lamina; this sulcus, however, is not indicated externally (as in O. sectilabris) by a marginating band in front of the suture; the armature of the aperture externally visible resembles that of O. sectilabris Pfeiffer, but, in harmony with the whole aperture, is narrower, and the left hand basal tooth of sectilabris is represented by two small but quite separate teeth; an examination of the internal armature shows that half a whorl behind the large pillar-tooth the margin of the pillar is gyrate and swollen, forming a lumpy callosity in the first half of the last whorl; in O. sec- tilabris, however, the same part of the axis is slender, not gyrate or swollen, but merely twisted like the axis in the whorls above. Length 364 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 of shell, 30.0; of last whorl, 16.0; of aperture, 10.5; maximum diam- eter of shell, 9.0; of aperture, 7.0 mm. Two specimens and a fragment were obtained near Rio San Fran- cisco, Serra do Mulato, province of Bahia, Brazil, by Dr. Branner, one of which was donated by him to the National Museum, no. 205,950. This species differs from the numerous varieties of sectilabris by its more slender and elongated form, the internal callus on the axis, and, in the specimen described, by the duplication of the left-hand basal denticle ; this last character is, however, probably merely indi- vidual. In a large series of O. sectilabris from various localities none approached the slender form of O. brannert. On plate xxxvit, figure I, is a figure of O. sectilabris for comparison with O. branneri, both being in the same scale. The fragment has been utilized to show the callosity on the axis of O. branneri, two views being given. Pirate XXXVII Figures all about natural size and on the same scale Fic. 1. Odontostomus sectilabris Pfeiffer, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 205957. Fics. 2,3. Views of the axis of Odontostoma branneri Dall, from slightly different angles, the last half of the outer wall of the last whorl broken away, allowing the callosity to be observed; p. 363. Fic. 4. Odontostomus branneri Dall, n. sp., front view, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 205956; p. 363. Fic. 5. Pleurodonte (Labyrinthus) tenaculum Dall, n. sp., oblique view ot shell showing the hook in the aperture, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. III073; p. 361. Fic. 6. The same specimen in profile. Fics. 7,8,9. Helicina heighwayana Dall, n. sp., profile, upper and basal views; U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 111074; p. 362. Fics. 10,11. Pleurodonte (Labyrinthus) tenaculum Dall, views of base and upper surface of the specimen represented by figure 5. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XXXViI SOME NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LAND SHELLS THE AMERICAN FERNS OF THE GROUP OF DRYORTERIS OPPOSITA CONTAINED IN Tae Us: NATIONAL MUSEUM By CARL CHRISTENSEN, CopENHAGEN In a paper entitled “Revision of the American species of Dryop- teris of the group of D. opposita,’1 1 presented recently a review of the American species of Dryopteris having free, simple veins and the bipinnate lamina narrowed downwards. There were mentioned in some detail 82 species, of which I had seen original specimens, or, in some few cases, specimens which could be regarded as typical. Those species of which I had seen no specimens were omitted, as I found it impossible to form an exact idea of these from descriptions alone. Mr. William R. Maxon, Assistant Curator in the U. S. National Museum, offered, however, to send me typical material of some of the species described by Jenman, and at the same time suggested that I examine critically the whole collection of this group in the U. S. National Herbarium, consisting largely of specimens gathered in Central America and the West Indies in recent years by several collectors. Inasmuch as many of the species included in my “Revision” had been treated on the basis of a few specimens, or even of a single specimen, I was anxious to study this material, but for different reasons, partly on account of Mr. Maxon’s absence in the field, it did not reach me before my paper was in press. Upon his request I then undertook to work out a separate paper, dealing only with these specimens. Later on, Mr. Maxon sent me a large number of specimens from the John Donnell Smith Herbarium, a collection extraordinarily rich in Central American forms, presented by Captain Smith to the Smithsonian Institution, and now a part of the U. S. National Herbarium. I have thus had in these two lots about 425 specimens, representing practically all the material of this group in the National Herbarium, and in the following paper all of these which I could determine with accuracy are enumerated by locality, collector, and collector’s number, with the exception only of the identical numbers enumerated from other herbaria previously, in my “Revision,” these being omitted. *Kel. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, 7 Raekke, Naturvidensk. og Math. Afd. 4: 247-336 1907. 365 VOL. 52 MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 2 SeOMsSni sce eae) [by ueesa sues tascge tere ean F ToC We nenk, a tee ra Se cae. a eae oH | iva euidus ‘Iz Coca s = \ Ssice ts isiva is) |\lal sualiallecceienell folate s)|Sshaie'ei|llaireiele\||ta/ ene an eee . . NEST So piclia sehen. pe ere aH aA noud ‘Oz Reaiisaar oes bike. «||leltelra : eele | Dek eae: oe Oma o a BTaNaee)|\euwire! mi Hania’ faut ca''al] ah el iss deite Me panier atte * emg “61 . Soe) ke . see . eee! . COO ORO OE) . MONO ie 11) ate ae ei hy reer at 4 S608, (Sea ees e renewal [tae 8) ial erto:< is: amin si aiselis: ote "cre . Rosle: rede ke x ) | | Se eeere ae nn ae | | : a a3) 3 saptoinjdyeos SL Se |e ead | oe seed | aoa na ccs eer (ese iweslRereare ae one eeane ogee eae eWercel Penance Jiritiee “fee tein oe | ''** panimSuestoo ‘Ly Ses eerie creer leccrsh yee ae: vefeees| eh Arent le eaeds eet B)OURS “OF cee ele . ee nele wae oe ire eee eee ne ean aria Niel eiievemelh acer syecrenw ||| te)taniests, + Se Ne Se ealieeten| 2 esas reson aRe ecm Sreiehelliprwulsitel| Ke anen' Kecrtsay a lsmon ed centres taiterrsitedl eater shies | rah aitelien| oikee chee Pn age 3 kev ntece por aa [naa | eas PAIRS as ny lt 22 els = eaprloleurasAnd PI ee ees) SSS 18 SPA a wees) tie el epesine ere i { ROR OR ORG Oe eee Gupie, (tele, a ee nike. TO su eee oga(br tel Potala aleae tee SO Ge 16h o. 6 (eee lie auervel-x ave ie tes . | * Peeks “*"BlnzBorfep “f1 spo ae es is Sy iae Sisuomeued *z1 = tn Scie BTA a SOTO SMITHSONIAN 366 : aI | | a a oer ae ee | ste yates ete ite paket: (es) woe RSIS STG el ene a ain separated da TI Aieifejatt| folie wees ea . SE RALS | Taco ere) |e eles tte lae sitel pi lima) (eirenel 6 . + sacha |tcse e "| Sceyeesueieitivwulieiwt aide ne saplorpidse ‘OI Pee ee ea ee Peewee sia Kevesen | aWov fed leivepen cnet lakes pee slleretere | See ae cs inh ea eqZIaA “6 | | Suietiesm,| ial cenelie) berate were, [Myr cay ics «he Nels epi) eel lKaeireite | ae Siw ill Pevwieitantenain al favs sisuavoneo *9 se sifisase is @eelesene . Sdecdvoanen Peles ARORA tego mol | miei etl Saute palls|Mslusyellell qetrayeuaiiel |fsite, sxee. ts gee a eeeelee al . Hollen Cilkeveer’m a tele teehee ISIpur’y i, -\: : cpeneted louousk dl teeter lteuceaell icccezaicd neon lfoysctra ell ee eee = power Sas foal Reh ersta nl Coordi a eee aoe: sisuaspaid ‘9 . Sirol siayt | | . . cel | eae Sea e| | jiwiceiie) 18)(el oil's, heke ea silel sere BURLYION °C hase : | fey oa | fojreeefenes |e Saveaeteudl roa ceie sisuioiieAeu “P jaa lea . . | . oe eres ee SES CRS . pea medley coke s Sidi coha ane tel |. i Gees eS Ora °¢ = | | | (+)): . Wire; eis + ate -+ Meg aes + | sieges) |e teres ie [eee + @) 9 sievetatie,/« * edie2081[0 ae ; eee aun | ae See he ese ofiaiieceiis'.0'| Sige) eile -6 | . | . SSR fe ee + "*eB}JeSuola oe “pl | (+ )}- , eats a | =I tle es + | Si aanaiee: | (olivn Wika ie | + == Wolsize a kattee Ge he ca BUUIOTOO T | | | | | | | | | | | —str1a}dosiq | | ae Se SRO Wes | | x 4 wn n ‘A n n | i Believe: a|naeeas| Eran Bo) Slee pam teat cee ti) DS e Biles Ae ene toe Oo) 8 S e 4 et 4 3 » 5 = y Bale ieee et so 3S a | 8 5 = D 8 a 5 sy 2 = es i ogee | a = ON een ts 2 2 s e a 5 ad on 3 a | & E iS pawl ime meet leg Ey Q || B fo = aaares 3 eaalees Baler meres se alps: Oats | a | 3 Z\|ee p p 08 a oe ° : ram a ¢ » | \ aa > 2 |me s Rat 9 5 : Si ‘satoads ae cewles Ral | cies P| Bese sinc B ee *SOIPUT ISOM ‘OOIXIW pUe voLIaUry [e1yUaD 367 AMERICAN FERNS—-CHRISTENSEN | | it | I | gI \(2z)or! a sie fafleienve) sie ele) wie [BIO], stenene | eee ‘| + | 4. Jee eens sapioqyuUe[aygo ‘ty eevee hme c lie | eorcnithcao ore saploisuaz1out ‘Iv eeeeleeee Nene fer tlena ue ecm ie MET OUTING ‘ov ss) « | celts oui saos ee eifupieyeuia\'e- sete <6! 6 al" sadiury 6¢ Si aye Nellie) ate 'ailiisiiejie ve | s.ielaie/|Veiel le, 0/8 6 lies letal opevierleneliateve BSOAIOU “Of ae a eae salience —- | + | 6. p10) a’e) ¢).e) 0 fe) 0! 0) 2! @ stpni AG Lesley ieseia ln Bae ate (+) ©) elle, siete) sales’ © SIIB[eos *9f ausitelte,||| ene .6 [pees 2a tee ee ey seh eat Sor ee eT CLUE “Ce wie 8 (wife ie, '6.'s |6 (9.0 Je weccelsecevecee “ILMOSUD}STIYO “7G cil emeeeenen| Renente fecseeca [etic eal aera noes 1TuosTMOY TL, “cf eel yieleé) wifi ei aise +- | (+) Viste eencieac ne TAN OII IAT "Ze ey eh |e auss Neves - ce ee eleae saproiszdoryynays ne ei ieig) 14) \eneliene: bE | + Joo t ts Wyasmaidg “of oe See ee -. | Sieltsa a eg | sie) signlie) ele ee © SUdIIAOI}E ‘6z fe ietewier |eire) ie ‘| ee celocoe | alist sisi ielis)||iayetepstin tei lal sie BY[IOIA}9Y "9% 500-0 aie aenetell|! Me\erfer|\el isis toilet) |iaceeslerele\ailel ely SI[LWIsuoOo SZ Le ihe a Aeaeeoes tne ehie 9984] e) (sueiiat| feral sctel| |i nieise ||\wiiauietrey afte | Siero Vai alews SISUdOTUTUIOp “Cz sifo le) 6;|Leliaxe'e)||'«) © (6 ai|\ele,ee)| ie) mca! ele) .6 fiekelievsi sie ‘BURLIURIIAS bz eeemotiy ewer | eee le els ‘++ -eraeqpoourjam Cz 368 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 For the courtesy of the authorities of the U. S. National Museum and the kindness of Captain Smith in lending me these rich collec- tions I wish here to express my most sincere thanks. I have studied these specimens with unusual satisfaction and pleasure, owing to their careful preparation and the detailed data of locality, altitude, and conditions of habitat, in which respect they very far surpass most of the material with which I had previously worked. I have on this account been able to gain a more exact idea of several species and of their distribution. In the following paper 9 species are described as new, and 3 older species not mentioned in my “Revision” are included; thus, alto- gether, 94 American species of this narrow group are now dealt with by me. About a dozen more have been described by Jenman and Sodiro, but of these I have seen no specimens. Recently Dr. E. Rosenstock has described a new species of this group from Bolivia, and he sends me another apparently new species from Ecuador. The whole number of valid described species thus exceeds 100, but I have no doubt that the number will eventually prove to be considerably greater. In the vast amount of material examined by me are to be found not a few fragments which, I believe, belong to undescribed species. It is interesting to note that among the few species known from Bolivia at least 2 are new to science. From the Peruvian and other parts of the Andes very few specimens are seen, but it is prob- able that these regions possess a similar number of species to the Andes of Ecuador, Colombia, and Costa Rica, and that not a few will appear to be new. I have in my “Revision” pointed out a remarkable difference be- tween the species of southern Brazil and those of the Andes and the West Indies, the fern floras of the last two regions showing an intimate alliance. The rich collections of the U. S. National Herba- rium show this alliance to be still closer than supposed. The occur- rence of the Jamaican D. Thomsoni in Colombia (D. Stuebelit), of the West Indian D. sancta in Guatemala, and of the continental D. rudis in Jamaica are new examples of this relationship. In the preceding table is shown the distribution of the species occurring north of Panama, as known to me. A “--” indicates that the species is found in the country or island indicated; “(+)” that it is recorded, but not surely in the true form; and an “*” that it is endemic or hitherto not found beyond. In this table Costa Rica, Jamaica, and Guatemala figure as having the largest number of species; the other Central American republics are not so thoroughly explored as the two named, but will probably No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 369 be found to have a similar number of species. In Central America and Mexico together 26 species are found, of which number 16 are found south of Panama, 8 in the West Indies, and 7 thus far not found elsewhere. Only 3 Central American species, viz., D. sancta, D. diplazioides, and D. Sprengel, are with certainty found east of Jamaica and Haiti. In the West Indies the continental element is strongest in Jamaica, with such species as D. concinna, D. oligo- carpa, D. panamensis, D. rudis, D. cheilanthoides, and D. Thomsoni, which do not occur at all in the smaller islands. It is probable that most of these species are very old, as well in Jamaica as on the con- tinent, but the possibility is not excluded that an exchange of species may have taken place by means of wind-blown spores, or may be taking place today. It will, therefore, always be impossible to decide definitely in what region a species has had its origin, but certainly Jamaica, like the Andine valleys, is an endemic center of a high order. D. sancta and D. delicatula seem to be species of insular origin. The occurrence of the former in Guatemala gives us an example of a West Indian element in Central America. Another instance is found in the Central American D. pseudosancta, which has its nearest allies in the West Indies. On the other hand, such species as D. opposita (vera) and D. Sprengelu, both generally dispersed over all the smaller islands, are to me reduced insular, but specifically fixed, forms of species which have had their origin on the continent. More is said as to this in the treatment of these two species below. GROUP OF DD. OLICOCARPA Smaller species; pinnze seldom more than Io cm. long by 1.5 cm. broad; tertiary veins 3-10 to a side. Lamina gradually narrowed downwards, with 1-4 pairs of abbreviated pinne, rarely abruptly at- tenuate. Basal pair of segments not prolonged. DRYOPTERIS CONCINNA (Willd.) Kuntze (REvIsION 271, No. 1, Fic. 2.) I can not find out under what name Jenman may have described this species, which in its typical forms has been frequently collected in Jamaica in recent years. ‘The species is very distinct in habit and pubescence, and especially in its uniformly setose sporangia. Jamaica: Hart 304. ‘Tweedside, rocky bank in the open, 2,000 ft. Mazon 984. Second Breakfast Spring, grassy bank in the open, 2,000 ft., Maxon o89a. Shaded edge of Green River, Maxon 1501 (=Under- 370 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 wood 2566). Near Silver Hill Gap, on dryish bank, 3,500 ft., Maxon 1135 (=Underwood 2271).* CuBA: Josephina, north of Jaguey, Yateras, Oriente, about 575 meters, border of forest, Maxon 4100. Farallones of La Perla, north of Jaguey, 540-585 meters, moist bank at edge of rocky woods, Maxon 4409. Mexico: Cordoba, Vera Cruz, Fink 62. GUATEMALA: Cengaguilla, Depart. Santa Rosa, 1,300 meters, Heyde and [ux (Donnell Smith 4681). Duefias, Salvin. Coban, Depart. Alta Verapaz, 4,300 ft., von Tuerckheim (Donnell Smith 168 in part). Costa Rica: Juan Vifias, Reventazon Valley, 1,000 meters, on bank near road, Cook and Doyle 386. Vicinity of the River Tirivi, near San José, 1,100 meters, on shaded bank of river, Maron 131. D. concinna is known from the West Indies and the Andes from Mexico to Ecuador; it varies but little, mainly in texture. The fol- lowing variety, connected with the type by intermediate forms, may be distinguished by its longer and broader pinnz with subfalcate segments and often by its firmer texture; it is the most common form of the species in southern Mexico. DRYOPTERIS CONCINNA ELONGATA (Fourn.) C. Chr. (REVISION 272.) Mexico: Orizaba, 4,000 ft., Seaton 68. Cordoba, Vera Cruz, Fink 58. DRYOPTERIS ARGENTINA (Hieron.) C. Chr. - (REVISION 273, No. 4.) Only the following additional specimen has been seen: Borivia: Near La Paz, 10,000 ft., Rusby 421. DRYOPTERIS OLIGOCARPA (H. B. Willd.) Kuntze (Revis1on 274, No. 5, Fic. 5.) Under this name I unite provisionally a number of forms, which in size and habit differ considerably from each other, but in essential *T collected most of my 1903 Jamaican plants in company with Prof. L. M. Underwood. Frequently material was divided between us at the time of col- lection and dried separately, Dr. Underwood giving his numbers to the series intended for the New York Botanical Garden and I my numbers to the plants for the U. §. National Museum. For convenience of reference I kept a record of such of Dr. Underwood’s numbers as were thus exactly equivalent to my own. Except for a few scattering specimens Mr. Christensen has seen only my series; but as an aid to those who may have received Dr. Underwood’s duplicates, his equivalent numbers are here cited in parentheses by Mr. Chris- tensen, these being copied from my labels —Wut11AM R. Maxon. NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 371 characters agree very well. Still, it is very probable that this D. oligocarpa is a collective species which includes several ‘“‘elementary species,” the limitations of which I am unable to define at present. St. Kirrs: Summit of Mt. Misery, Britton and Cowell 520. Hartt: Without locality, Jaeger. (As the preceding rather doubtful.) JAMAICA: Cuna Cuna Pass, on banks, Fredholm 3234. Swift River near Hope Bay, Alex. Moore. In the vicinity of Castleton, edge of Ginger River, Maxon 835. CuBa: Upper slopes and summit of Gran Piedra, Oriente, 900 to 1,200 meters, moist shaded bank, Mazon 4o4ta. Mexico: Pedro Paulo, Territorio de Tepic, Rose 3330. Costa Rica: Juan Vifias, Reventazon Valley, 1,000 meters, on bank by road-side, Cook and Doyle 193. DRYOPTERIS NAVARRENSIS Christ Aspidium navarrense Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 6: 160. 1906. Dryopteris navarrensis Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 7: 262. 1907, Costa Rica: Navarro, Werckle. This species, which in my “Revision” I regarded as a variety of D. pilosula, may stand preferably as a distinct species, differing from D. pilosula by its exindusiate sori. The rachis, coste, and veins are, especially beneath, clothed with long whitish patent hairs. Some specimens from Jamaica (Hart 304), distributed as Nephrodium conterminum var. pubescens Baker, agree almost exactly with the Costa Rican plants. Probably this is the species described as “Polypodium pubescens Raddi” by Jenman (Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica iA: 1265. 1807). DRYOPTERIS NOCKIANA (Jenman) C. Chr. (REvISION 279, No. 8, Fic. 7 (small).) In my “Revision” I have compared this species, endemic in Ja- maica, to D. panamensis and D. oligocarpa. Having now seen numerous specimens, I find that the species very much resembles D. concinna in habit and pubescence, but that it can be distinguished at the first glance by its glandular under surface and by its densely setose, persistent indusia. As a rule the hairs of the rachis and midribs below are longer than those of D. concinna, but in some specimens one finds the characteristic minute pubescence of that species. D. Nockiana, besides a type specimen from Jenman’s herbarium, is represented in the U. S. National Herbarium by the following specimens from different localities in Jamaica, ranging vertically 372 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOI,. 52 from 600 to 1,500 meters: Maxon 998 (=—Underwood 2132), 999 (=Und. 2134), 1407 (=Und. 2533), 1593 (=Und. 2643), 1879, 1146 (Und. 2277), 2297, 2285; Underwood 110, 449, 1826; Clute IOl. DRYOPTERIS PIEDRENSIS C. Chr., sp. nov. Cugsa: Upper slopes and summit of Gran Piedra, Oriente 900 to 1,200 meters, Maxon 4041, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 522690. Eudryopteris rhizomate erecto-obliquo, radicibus numerosis. Stipitibus fasciculatis, gracilibus, angulatis, stramineis, 15 cm. longis, minute hirtis, ad basin squamis paucis brunneis instructis. Lamina lanceolata, 50-60 cm. longa, 15 cm. lata, utrinque attenuata, firmo- membranacea vel papyracea, graminea, rachi tenui brevissime puberula, bipinnatifida. Pinnis 2.5-3 cm. inter se remotis, alternis, horizontalibus, sessilibus, inferioribus 3-5 jugis gradatim abbreviatis, infimis auriculiformibus hastatis, inframedialibus maximis, oblongo- lanceolatis, 7.5 cm. longis, 1.5 cm. latis, ad apicem serratum acumi- natum sensim attenuatis, supra pilis microscopicis rigidis rudis, subtus ad costas costulasque brevissime puberulis et glandulis rubris sparse obtectis, ad alam vix 0.5 mm. latam pinnatifidis vel ad basin perfecte pinnatis. Laciniis ca. 20 jugis, basalibus aequalibus vel parum reductis, posteriori auricula interna instructa, superioribus obliquis vel subfalcatis, ca. 2 mm. latis, subacutis vel obtusis, margin- ibus integris vel leviter crenatis revolutis. Venis indivisis, 8-9 jugis, utrinque prominulis. Soris margini approximatis, parvis; indusiis minimis, mox deciduis, glandulosis, ciliatis. Sporangiis glabris. This species is in size, shape of the lamina, and pubescence, almost identical with D. concinna, but it differs from that species by (1) its glabrous sporangia, (2) its firm lamina with prominent veins and reflexed margins, which partly cover the sori. In these respects it may be compared to D. scalpturoides, which, however, is much ‘more hairy and has many pairs of reduced pinne. The basal pair of segments is in the larger pinnz quite free. DRYOPTERIS COLUMBIANA C. Chr. (Revision 279, No. 9, Fic. 8.) CoromsBia: Cauca, Lehmann 2068. I now prefer to refer here this number, determined previously by Hieronymus and myself as D. oligocarpa, from which it differs by its longer leaf and by the shorter pubescence of the rachis. Never- NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 373 theless, I have some doubt if my proposed species can be held dis- tinct from D. oligocarpa. DRYOPTERIS MUZENSIS Hieron. (REvisIoN 280, No. Io.) Corompia: Hills of Miraflores above Palmira, Central Cordillera, 1,600 to 1,200 meters, Pittier 892. This specimen is larger than the type (leaf 1 m. long by 22 cm. broad), but is otherwise typical. The main difference from D. columbiana is in the absence of long setz on the veins above. DRYOPTERIS VELATA (Kunze) Kuntze (Revision 286, No. 22.) This, the most beautiful species of the group, was rediscovered in Cuba by Mr. Maxon in April, 1907. His specimens are from the shaded talus of limestone cliffs at the Caverns of Thermopyle, Monte Libano, province of Oriente, altitude about 600 meters (No. 4238). DRYOPTERIS ASPIDIOIDES SUBHASTATA C. Chr. (REVISION 287, No. 23.) Costa Rica: Cafias Gordas, 1,100 meters, Pittier 10990. [Note.—Nephrodium brachypodum Baker, mentioned in my “Revision” as unknown to me, is represented in the U. S. National Herbarium by a specimen of the type collection (im Thurn 275, not 225 as quoted in my “Revision”). It probably does not belong to the group of D. opposita, but is rather an ally of the West Indian D. sagittata (Sw.) C. Chr. It is not unlike D. ptarmica but is smaller, with the pinnz sessile, entire or shallowly lobed, often auricled on both sides at the base, the short stipe and rachis clothed with small dark brown scales, the rachis and veins hairy. ] * Nephrodium brachypodum Baker, Timehri 5: 213. 1886; Trans. Linn. Soc. II. Bot. 2: 290. 1887. Dryopteris brachypoda (Baker) C. Chr. Index Fil. 255. 1905. 374 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 GROUP OF D, OPPOSEEA The old collective species Aspidium conterminum Willd. included the species D. opposita, D. coarctata, D. consanguinea, and D. pana- mensis, as delimited in my “Revision.” While the typical forms of D. consanguinea and D. coarctata are well marked from the allied species by their whole habit, the line of separation between D. oppo- sita and D. panamensis is more difficult to define. The collection of these species in the U. S. National Herbarium is very rich in speci- mens from Central America, Jamaica, and Cuba. Sorting these specimens one can quickly take out the typical forms of the two species. It then appears that the specimens of true D. opposita are all from the Lesser Antilles, and those of D. panamensis from Jamaica, Cuba, and mainly Central America. Besides these remains a number of specimens, mostly from Mexico and Jamaica, which may as well be referred to D. opposita as to D. panamensis. The question, then, is whether these intermediate forms are to be con- sidered as real, phylogenetic intermediates, connecting the two pro- posed species, which in this case ought to be united into one very variable species, or if they represent one or more additional species intermediate between the two. To solve this question a still larger number of specimens from more localities is necessary. I am in- clined to believe that the whole series of forms includes at least three or four species, each of which varies considerably in different directions, especially in size; thus, the large forms of D. opposita very much resemble D. panamensis, and small forms of D. pana- mensis similarly resemble D. opposita. Such doubtful forms show some features easily seen by the experienced eye but described only with difficulty. It is evident that all forms are of the same phylo- genetic origin; the richest development is reached in Central Amer- ica, where D. panamensis rivals in size species of the group of D. Sprengelu, while D. opposita of the Lesser Antilles is an insular reduced form derived from the same ancestors. Using the modern terminology, it may be said that the series of forms includes a num- ber of elementary species in the sense of de Vries, some of which seem to be fixed species, while others are at the present period in a state of quick evolution. A more remote derivative from the same ancestors is the common Brazilian form called D. oppostta var. rivulorum (Raddi), which I now consider a distinct, fixed species. I shall here confine myself to pointing out some additional different forms, which I describe as varieties of the species adopted in my “Revision,” to which species I refer the whole number of specimens. NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 375 DRYOPTERIS OPPOSITA (Vahl) Urban. (REviIsIon 288, No. 25, Fic. 15.) Typica, Form: Rather small, the leaf narrowed downwards through a long row of gradually reduced pinne. Segments a little oblique, obtuse or with rounded apex, short, with 4 to 6 pairs of veins, the basal ones not much prolonged. Dominica: Laudat, F. E. Lloyd 26. St. Kirrs: Wingfield Estate, forest ravine, Britton and Cowell 446. St. Vincent: Ad Calvary, in locis umbrosis, Eggers 6732. GRENADA: Sherring. Tosaco: Ad Cremorin River, in sylvestribus humidis, Eggers 5850. TRINIDAD: Without locality, Fendler 65; Jenman. Porto Rico: Clay bank, road from Guayama to Cayey, Underwood and Griggs 432. Cayey, ad rupes in flumine Morillos, Sintenis 2281. I have seen no specimens exactly agreeing with this typical form either from the larger islands or from the continent. In Central America it apparently does not occur. The specimens in my “Re- vision” referred to D. opposita I now believe to belong to D. pana- mensis. FORMS INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN D. OPPOSITA AND D. PANAMENSIS JAmMAIcA: Maxon 802, 821, 996 (= Underwood 2130), 1000 (= Und. 2135), 1528 (=Und. 2601) ; Hart 128. Mexico: Without locality, Kerber 437. Frorma: Miry hammock near Fort Meade, Polk Co., J. Donnell Smith, March, 1880, These intermediate forms resemble in size and fewer reduced pinne D. panamensis, in their opposite pinnze and short segments D. opposita; in general habit most of them agree very well with D. panamensis, to which species I am inclined to refer them. The specimen from Mexico belongs to the form named by Fournier? Aspidium exsudans var. myriocarpum; it is a form with linear pinne and short segments. The Florida plant is Aspidium conter- minum var. strigosum of North American authors, believed to be identical with A. strigosum Fée from Guadeloupe, which, however, is true opposita. Jenman (as shown in letters to Capt. Donnell Smith) considered it to be D. Sprengelii, which indicates that Jen- man quite misunderstood D. Sprengel, as also his descriptions under that name show. The Florida fern is to me not essentially + Mex, Pl. x: 08, 1872. 376 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 different from the common D. panamensis, although some of the smaller leaves very much resemble D. opposita. DRYOPTERIS PANAMENSIS (Presl) C. Chr. (REvISION 292, No. 28, Fic. 19.) Under this name I unite a wide range of forms. Presl’s type of the species, collected in Panama by Hzenke is, according to the orig- inal specimens in herb. Presl proper, a long and narrow form (leaf 7 to 8 dm. long by 5 to 8 cm. broad) ; the pinne are scarcely 4 cm. long by 0.5 cm. broad, from a hastate base gradually tapering toward the acuminate apex; segments oblong, oblique, acute, with revolute edges. In my “Revision” I have referred this form to D. opposita, which it resembles in habit; still the segments are longer and nar- rower and the reduced pinna not auriculiform, as in true D. oppo- sita. To this form belong the following specimens: Costa Rica: Rio Turrialba, Prov. Cartago, 1,600 ft., J. Donnell Smith 5087. Dans la forét 4 Terraba, 260 meters, Pittier 3538. El General, Pittier 10488. The form illustrated by fig. 19 in my “Revision” is the most de- veloped of the species, and is very common in Central America. I have examined the following additional specimens: Costa Rica: Vicinity of Cartago, rocky border of stream, Maxon 32. Vicinity of the River Tirivi, near San José, 1,100 meters, on banks of shaded river, Maxon 132. San José, 1,160 meters, P. Biolley. Pied- ades prés San Ramon, 1,000 to 1,100 meters, Brenes 14236. San Jose, Pittier 1067. Surubres prés San Mateo, 200 meters, Pittier 4063. Cartago, J. J. Cooper (Donnell Smith 6027). Rio Reventazon, Prov. Cartago, 2,000 ft., Donnell Smith 5088. Satvapor: Prope San Salvador, L. V. Velasco (Donnell Smith 8890). Vicinity of Izalco, 400 to 600 meters, Pittier 1943. GuateMALA: Moran, Depart. Amatitlan, 1,205 meters, Kellerman 4874. Escuintla, 1,100 ft., Donnell Smith 2453, 2738. Pantaleon, Depart. Escuintla, 1,370 ft, W.C. Shannon (Donnell Smith 174). Without locality, Heyde 703, 720. Mexico: Without locality, E. Kerber 440. CusBa: Valley of the Rio Bayamita, south slope of Sierra Maestra, among rocks in bed of river, Maxon 3964. El Guama, Prov. Pinar del Rio, in the bed of a mountain stream, among rocks, Palmer and Riley 158. Jamaica: Maxon 828, 832, 855, 1001 (= Underwood 2136), 1002 (= Und. 2137), 1107 (= Und. 2227), 1737 (=Und. 2695), 1743 (= Und. 2703), 1744 (=Und. 2704), 1745 (= Und. 2705), 1746 (= Und. 2706), 1757 (= Und. 2721), 2789; Harris 7377. In Mexico the species is represented by two forms, of which the first differs from the common large form only in its rather small No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 377 size and less falcate segments. It is Polypodium litigiosum Lieb- mann and Lastrea leiboldiana Presl, according to the original speci- mens of these. ‘The second form I name: DRYOPTERIS PANAMENSIS PROXIMA C. Chr., var. nov. Leaf with a very short stipe, reduced downwards as in typical panamensis, glandular beneath, almost wholly glabrous. Pinnz about 10 cm. long, short-acuminate, the upper ones alternate; seg- ments approximate, oblique, not falcate, oblong-triangular, acute, the basal ones equal sized or a little prolonged. The type specimen of this was collected by H. Ross (no. 326) in Mexico: Cuernavaca ad riv. umbr. c. 150 m. (Herb. Munich) and was by me considered a distinct species. Another specimen, in the U. S. National Herbarium, also from Mexico, Rose and Painter 7320, from the vicinity of Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, is, however, evi- dently the same, but connects the type with D. panamensis ; therefore I now prefer to give to these specimens the varietal name proxima, originally used as a specific name. Further specimens are: Pringle 1844, from wet places near Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, and prob- ably Pringle 11794 from the same locality, Sept., 1903, which is a slender and more hairy form, in habit more resembling D. opposita. By its almost completely glabrous leaf, short-pointed pinnz, and closely placed oblong-triangular acute segments, this variety seems very different from true D. panameitsis. DRYOPTERIS LEUCOTHRIX C. Chr., sp. nov. Borivia: Near Yungas, 4,000 ft., H. H. Rusby 432, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 828993. Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus 2-3 dm. longis, rigidis, angulatis, breviter crispato-pilosis, fusco-stramineis. Lamina lineari- lanceolata, 6-7 dm. longa, medio 16-18 cm. lata, versus basin longe et gradatim attenuata, submembranacea, crassiuscula, siccitate brunnea, rachi profunde sulcata molliter crispato-pilosa, bipinnatifida. , Pinnis numerosis, oppositis vel sursum alternis, sessilibus, inferiori- bus 6-7 jugis gradatim reductis, infimis minimis, medialibus maximis, inter se 2 cm. remotis, linearibus, 8-9 cm. longis, 8-9 mm. latis, acuminatis, ubique (maxime ad costas) pilis albidis brevibus hirtis, ad alam vix 1 mm. latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis numerosis, recte patentibus, sinubus latis rotundis separatis, obtusis vel rotundatis, marginibus integris paulum revolutis, basalibus aequalibus. Venis simplicibus ca. 5 jugis indistinctis. Soris medialibus vel paulum inframedialibus; indusiis persistentibus, pilis albis valde pilosis. 378 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 This most distinct new species resembles in habit some forms of D. opposita, especially the variety rivulorum (Raddi) ; but it differs from that species as well as from all other species known to me by its rather peculiar indusia, which appear as a cluster of white hairs like white dots on the under side of the leaf. It is also remarkable for its long stem, its long and narrow leaf, and its linear pinnz with patent round-pointed segments. Although the leaf has a long stem and equal-sized basal segments the species must be placed in my system between D. opposita and D. riopardensis. DRYOPTERIS PSEUDOSANCTA C. Chr., sp. nov. Costa Rica: Rio Toro Amarillo, Llanuras de Santa Clara, 300 meters, J. Donnell Smith 6902, Apr., 1896, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 828901. GUATEMALA: Rio Pinula, Depart. Santa Rosa, 4,000 ft., Heyde and Lux (Donnell Smith 4004). Eudryopteris rhizomate erecto, breve. Stipitibus dense fascicula- tis, tenuibus, brevissimis (2-3 cm.), basi fuscescentibus. Lamina lineari, usque ad 4.5 dm. longa, 5 cm. lata, ad basin longe et gradatim attenuata, tenuiter herbacea, obscure viridi, rachi tenui pilis patenti- bus mollibus sparse hirta, bipinnatifida. Pinnis subpatentibus, oppositis vel superioribus alternis, sessilibus, inferioribus (e medio laminae) sensim abbreviatis, infimis minimis trilobis, medialibus, inter se I-I.5 cm. remotis, a basi lata versus apicem acutum sensim attenuatis, equilateralibus, 2 cm. longis, supra basin ca. 5 mm. latis, ad costas venasque utrinque sparse pilosis denique glabris, subtus sparse glandulosis, profunde serrato-lobatis vel pinnatifidis. Laciniis obliquis, acutis, basali anteriore producta. Venis 2-3 jugis, sim- plicibus. Soris medialibus, parvis; indusiis reniformibus, subper- sistentibus, sparse ciliatis. This species is a very near ally of D. delicatula (Fée) C. Chr., from Guadeloupe, but it has a longer and narrower leaf, a shorter stem and medial sori. From D. sancta it is more different by its equilateral pinnze and long, narrow leaf. DRYOPTERIS SANCTA (L.) Kuntze (REvIsION 295, No. 32, Fic. 20.) This species includes a number of forms, some of them probably of local origin. It varies in size from the small Jamaican plants to the large var. Balbisii (Spreng.) C. Chr., and in pubescence from almost entirely glabrous (the typical form) to a condition in which the rachis and costa are often rather densely hairy above. It may NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 379 be mentioned here that while most of the Jamaican forms are nearly glabrous, the specimens from other islands, especially from Porto Rico and partly from Cuba are rather hairy, and that this pubescence is found both in the small, more typical forms and in the var. Bal- bisii. ‘The specimen from Guatemala appears to be identical with the Jamaican type. In the numerous specimens seen the sori are apparently exindusiate. The different forms may be arranged as follows: A. SMALL Forms, often only a few cm. high; pinne unequal- sided; stem very short. 1. var. typica. Leaf quite glabrous or rachis only finely pubescent. Jamaica: Various localities, Maxon 1468 (=Underwood 2481), 1496, 1559, 1829 (= Und. 2794), 1959, 2415, 2550, 2584 (large) ; Underwood 1430, 1908, 2492; Clute 252. Cusa: Wright 814. Slopes and summit of El Yunque near Baracoa, Pollard and Palmer 125. Monte Verde, Yateras, Oriente, 575 meters, rocky bank of small stream in forest, Maxon 4313. Santo Dominco: In umbrosis ad Rio Mameges, 250 meters, Eggers 2780. Porto Rico: Road from Utuado to Arecibo, wet limestone rocks, Under- wood and Griggs 822, 828. GuatrEMALA: Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, 350 meters, von Tuerck- heim (Donnell Smith 8353). 2. var. hirta (Jenman) C. Chr. Nephrodium sanctum var, hirtum Jenman, Bull. Bot. Dept. Jam. II. 3:20. 1806. Upper surface finely pubescent. Jamaica: Doll Wood, near Silver Hill Gap, 3,000 ft., wet shaded cliff, Maxon 1175. Blue Hole, Fredholm 31091. 3. var. strigosa C. Chr., var. nov. Rachis and costa rather densely furnished with patent hairs; surfaces glabrous. Cuza: Mountain slope, directly north of Jaguey, 420 to 500 meters, rocky bank by stream, Maxon 4142, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 522848. Josephina, north of Jaguey, Yateras, Oriente, 575 meters, bank by small stream at border of forest, Maxon 4096 (large form). Porto Rico: Eastern slope of the Luquillo Mts., 1,500 ft. Heller 4614. Sierra de Luquillo, in monte Jimenis, Sintenis 1753. B. LARGE Forms; largest pinne equal-sided, pinnate below; seg- ments or pinnules long, linear; stem up to IO cm. or more long. I. var. magna (Jenman) C. Chr. Nephrodium sanctum var. magnum Jenman, Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica II. 3: 20 1806. 380 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Segments entire, narrow, distant, as are the pinne; leaf quite glabrous. JAMAICA: Vicinity of Hollymount, Mount Diabolo, 750 meters, rocky border of forest, Maxon 2239, 2269; Underwood 1781. 2. Segments or pinnules broader, crenate; pinnze closer (habit of the leaf more compact). (var. Balbisii sensu lat.) I. var. portoricensis (Kuhn) C. Chr. Aspidium sanctum var. portoricense Kuhn, Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 24: 115. 1897. Rachis and costa more or less hairy, as is also the upper surface in some specimens. Porto Rico: Maricao ad vias in monte Montoso, Sintenis 403. Utuado, in praeruptis ad Los Angeles, Sintenis 5956. In wet places beside stream, road from Utuado to Lares, Underwood and Griggs 60. Il. var. Balbisu (Spreng.) C. Chr. Revision 296, fig. 20. Leaf quite glabrous. Cusa: Los Cafios ad Rio Seco, 200 meters, Eggers 4721. Jamaica: Road between Port Antonio and St. Margaret’s Bay, Under- wood 1712. Hartt: Marmelade, 2,450 ft., Nash and Taylor 1229. Porto Rico: Prope Pepino ad Eneas, Sintenis 5828. This last variety is the most developed form, and is very different, both in habit and size, from the small forms mentioned above. I have tried above to arrange in a key the forms represented in the U. S. National Herbarium. The arrangement is, however, not a natural one. The order of evolution is, I believe, rather the following : Series I: var. typica; var. magna; var. Balbisit. Series II: var. strigosa; var. portoricensis. The var. hirta is probably only a slight variety of the typical form. DRYOPTERIS CONSANGUINEA (Fee) €2Chr: (REvISION 297, No. 33, Fic. 21.) The true form of this distinct species is not represented in the U.S. National Herbarium, but I find some specimens, which in most characters agree with it very well. I refer them to a new variety: DRYOPTERIS CONSANGUINEA AQUALIS C. Chr., var. nov. Jamaica: Second Breakfast Spring, near Tweedside, 2,000 ft., open grassy bank, Maxon 997 (= Underwood 2131), type; U. S. National No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 381 Herbarium, No. 427229. Banks at the left of Moody’s Gap, 4,000 ft., Jenman. GrENADA: In sylvestribus umbrosis ad Mt. Filix, 1,500 ft., Eggers 6036. Differs from the type by its equal-sided pinnze with patent or a little oblique, oblong segments, which generally bear 3 or 4 obtuse teeth at the apex; veins not prominent. This variety thus recedes from the type towards D. opposita and D. panamensis; it differs from these species like the typical form, by its distant pinnz, by its only a little elongated basal scgmeuts, which at their inner side bear an auricle overlying the rachis, by its almost completely glabrous frond and by its caudate-acuminate pinne. The natural position of this species in my system must be next to D. opposita. DRYOPTERIS SCALPTUROIDES (Fee) CoGhr: (Revision 298, No. 34, Fic. 22.) Jamaica: Moody’s Gap, 3,000 ft., Clute 173. Vicinity of New Haven Gap, 1,650 meters, border of forest, Maxon 2659. Without special locality, 1,500 meters, Hart 128. These three specimens belong to my variety jamaicensis (Revi- sion 299), which differs from the Cuban type by the glandular under surface and less pubescent upper side of the lamina. While the specimens from Cuba have their upper side throughout coated with short, hamate hairs, such are rarely found in the Jamaican form, in which the veins above are furnished with more stiff sete. These constant differences between the specimens from the two islands make it probable that the plants from Jamaica represent a distinct species. This variety can be mistaken for D. Nockiana; still, it is much more hairy and more firm, even coriaceous in texture. DRYOPTERIS FIRMA (Baker) C. Chr. (REvision 299, No. 36, Fic. 24.) JAMAICA: Slopes of Monkey Hill, 1,800 meters, forest ravine, Maron 2730. At the summit of Blue Mountain Peak, at about 7,400 ft., dry path-edges, Maxon 1438 (=Underwood 2553). These beautiful specimens show more fertile leaves, which are on longer stems than the sterile ones and richly soriferous. The young sori are furnished with a densely setose indusium, which sometimes bears one or two glistening yellow or red glands. The basal pair of segments in the larger pinnz is prolonged as in D. opposita, or in the sterile leaves the upper basal segment is somewhat reduced. The 382 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 = rhizome is horizontally creeping, ligneous, with numerous bases of old stipes, and densely clothed at the apex with finely pubescent, brown scales. By its slightly reduced, coriaceous lamina and its creeping rhizome D. firma is a most distinct species. [Note.—D. Pavoniana (K1.) C. Chr. must be placed next to D. firma. It has, as shown by a specimen from Ecuador, Rimbach 118, sent me by Dr. Rosenstock, a long,. creeping rhizome. | GROUP OF D: PACHYRACHIS DRYOPTERIS PACHYRACHIS (Kunze) Kuntze (REVISION 305, No. 44, Fic. 31.) In my “Revision” I referred the Jamaican Nephrodium Jenmani Baker to D. pachyrachis, having seen only one specimen, which ap- peared to be almost exactly D. pachyrachis, but without the charac- teristic sessile red glands of the under side of the lamina. Having now seen additional specimens of N. Jenmant, the question of its identity with D. pachyrachis becomes more difficult. The specimens seen belong to two somewhat different forms: (1) A more firm, nearly glabrous and eglandulose form, which in habit and pubescence agrees very well with true D. pachyrachis but differs from it, as mentioned, in the lack of glands. In its most developed state this form is considerably larger than the Brazilian forms of D. pachyrachis (Aspidium platyrachis Fée), much more resembling D. tenerrima (Fée) C. Chr. It is the typical Jenmani, as shown by type specimens in U. S. National Herbarium. . (2) A very thin-leaved form with the under side densely glandu- lose and with the midribs of the segments, like the costa, setose above. This form I referred (p. 311) to D. Germaniana as a new variety, var. glandulosa. I now think it best to consider it a form of Jenmani, resembling D. Germamiana in size but differing from that species in being glabrous between the veins above and in its fewer reduced pinnz. I dare not consider these two forms specifically different, nor separate them as a species distinct from D. pachyrachis. In general habit, texture, pubescence, number of veins, position of sori, shape of indusium they agree very well with the continental forms of D. pachyrachis. Still, I see clearly a difference between these West Indian forms and true D. pachyrachis, but it is impossible for me to point out even one character by which they may be distinguished from the continental form. However, should some other pteridolo- No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 383 gist prefer to let D. Jenmani stand as a distinct species I shall ap- prove it. 1. Form without glands [D. Jenmani (Baker) C. Chr.]. St. Vincent: H. H. and G. W. Smith 855. JaMAIcA: Without, special locality, Jenman; Hart 281a, 215. Latimer River, 4,000 ft., Clute 142. Vicinity of Morce’s Gap, 1,500 meters, moist wooded slope, Maxon 2670. 2. Glandulose form [D. Germaniana var. glandulosa C. Chr., Re- vision 311]. Jamaica: Near the summit of Blue Mountain Peak, 7,000 ft., steep moist wooded slope, Maron 1404 (= Underwood 2529) ; moist woods, Maxon 1422 (=Und. 2540), 1422a; Underwood 1496. DRYOPTERIS RORAIMENSIS (Baker) C. Chr. Polypodium roraimense Baker, Timehri 5: 214. 1886; Trans. Linn. Soc. II. Bot. 2: 2091. 1887. Dryopteris roraimensis C. Chr. Index Fil. 289. 1905. BritisH GuiANA: Mount Roraima, upper slope, im Thurn 168 (type num- ber). A weakly characterized species, not unlike D. pachyrachis in essen- tial characters, but having the under side of the lamina without glands, the segments oblique or subfalcate, obtuse, sori exindusiate, and the 3 or 4 pairs of lower pinnz reflexed. Leaf gradually and shortly attenuate downwards, with 2 or 3 pairs of reduced pinnz, the lowermost about 1 cm. long. The whole leaf glabrous, except as to rachis and coste, these setose above. Veins distant, 6 or 7 to a side, simple. Sori about medial or slightly supramedial, globose, superficial, exindusiate. Sporangia glabrous. In the key to species given in my “Revision” (p. 267) this species must be placed between no. 44, D. pachyrachis, and no. 45, D. Hiero- nymusit. It differs from this latter mainly in its lower reflexed pinne and its more oblique or even subfalcate segments. DRYOPTERIS RUSTICA (Fee) C. Chr. (REVISION 310, No. 53.) St. VincENt: H. H. and G. W. Smith 1130. Agreeing very well with the type from Guadeloupe. Known also from Jamaica (Nephrodium nimbatum Jenm.). 384 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 DRYOPTERIS MELANOCHLENA C. Chr., sp. nov. GUATEMALA: Coban, Depart. Alta Verapaz, 4,300 ft., J. Donnell Smith 168 in part, July, 1885, type; U. S. National Herbarium, no. 828982. (Besides the single leaf, which is the type specimen of our new species, this number contains a mixture of other species.) Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus gracilibus, griseis, basi squamis nonnullis brunneis instructis, minute puberulis, 12 cm. longis. Lamina ad 6 dm. longa, 15 cm. lata, lanceolata, ad basin gradatim attenuata, firmo-herbacea, viridi, ubique pilis albescentibus minute puberula, rachibus costisque stramineis, bipinnatifida. Pinnis inferioribus fere e medio laminae gradatim abbreviatis, infimis auriculiformibus, medialibus maximis, patentibus, sessilibus, sub- oppositis, inter se 2.5 cm. remotis, oblongis, 8 cm. longis, 1.5-1.75 cm. latis, breviter acuminatis, ad alam 1 mm. latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis patentibus vel parum obliquis, 3 mm. latis, sinubus sub- obtusis angustis separatis, obtusis vel subacutis, integris, basalibus aequalibus. Venis ca. 7 jugis, remotis, simplicibus. Soris margini approximatis, parvis; indusiis ebeneis, squamiformibus, persistenti- bus, pilis albidis nonnullis ciliatis. Sporangiis glabris. A very remarkable new species, resembling D. rustica in size, habit, and its uniform minute pubescence throughout, but differing from that species, as from all other species of the group, by its coal- black, scale-like indusia, ciliate with whitish hairs. DRYOPTERIS GERMANIANA (Fee) C. Chr. (REviIsION 311, No. 55 (excl. var.).) Cugsa: Upper slopes and summit of Gran Piedra, Oriente, altitude 900 to 1,200 ‘meters, moist shaded slope under tree-ferns, Maxon 4059. An interesting discovery, as the species was previously known only from Guadeloupe. The specimen agrees exactly with the type. It resembles some forms of D. pachyrachis included under Jenmani, but it has a scaly stem, many pairs of reduced pinnz, and the upper surface pubescent. DRYOPTERIS DOMINICENSIS C. Chr., sp. nov. Dominica: Mt. Diablotin, F. E. Lloyd 876, type; U. S. National Herbar- ium, No. 429322. Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus 3 mm. crassis, 8-10 cm. longis, superne late sulcatis, ubique squamis brunneis crispatis dense vestitis. Lamina ovato-lanceolata, 4-5 dm. longis, ca. 18 cm. latis, No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CURISTENSEN 385 versus basin gradatim attenuata, versus apicem breviter acuminatum brevius attenuata, firmo-herbacea, obscure viridi, rachi grisea, pilis patentibus hirta et squamis brunneis crispatis (maxime in parte inferiore) squamosa, bipinnatifida. Pinnis ca. 20 utroque latere, inferioribus oppositis, 4-5 jugis sensim reductis, infimis 1 cm. longis et latis, superioribus alternis, sessilibus, maximis 8-10 cm. longis, 2 cm. latis, lineari-oblongis, versus apicem integrum breviter acumi- natis, ad basin aerophoro magno acuto nigro instructis, supra ad costas late sulcatas ac inter venas pilis adpressis setosis, subtus ad costas costulasque pilis. patentibus hirtis, ad alam 2 mm. vel ultra latam pinnatifidis. lLaciniis approximatis, sinubus angustis acutis separatis, ca. 15 jugis, 4-5 cm. latis, patentibus vel paulum obliquis, obtusissimis, integris. Venis simplicibus, 6-7 jugis, distantibus. Soris parvis, medialibus; indusiis parvis, ciliatis, mox evanidis. This new species stands next to D. Germaniana, but is consider- ably different in its scaly rachis, its differentiated pubescence, and its distinct, setose indusia. In the system adopted in my “Revision” the species must be placed between D. Germaniana and D. Morits- tana. DRYOPTERIS DEMERARANA (Baker) C. Chr. Polypodium demeraranum Baker, Timehri 5: 214. 1886; Trans. Linn. Soc. II. Bot. 2: 290. 1887. Dryopteris demerarana C. Chr. Index Fil. 261. 1905. BritisH Guiana: Mount Roraima, old Cath, im Thurn 356; (type num- ber). A species of the group of D. pachyrachis, but having the leaf more abruptly reduced below, about as in a species of the group of D. Sprengel. Reduced pinnz about 4-jugate, at distances of 4-5 cm., auriculi- form. Stem at base with brown scales more than 1 cm. long, up- wards like the rachis with a dense and coarse gray pubescence, intermixed with a few linear brown scales, especially along the rachis. Lower pinnz subopposite, upper ones alternate, sessile, 10-12 cm. long by 2.5 cm. broad, thin, the upper side along the costz densely setose, between the veins with fine, scattered, hamate hairs, the under side setose along the coste and veins, almost glabrous between the veins. Segments slightly oblique, subacute or roundish at the apex, entire, 3.5-4 mm. broad, rather close, with subacute sinuses between; basal segments equal in size, or the upper one slightly reduced. Veins all simple. Sori exindusiate, near the edge. Sporangia glabrous. 386 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 In habit this species resembles D. Leprieurti (Hook.) Kuntze, but it can be distinguished by its reduced lower pinnz, scaly rachis, and non-patent hairs. In the key to the species (“Revision,” p. 268) it must be placed between no. 56, D. Moritziana, and no. 57, D. cora- zonensis ; it is abundantly different from both. DRYOPTERIS DIPLAZIOIDES (Desv.) Urban. (REVISION 312, No. 58.) To this species I refer with some doubt a specimen from GUATEMALA: Near the Finca Sepacuité, Alta Verapaz, Cook and Griggs 177. DRYOPTERIS CONSIMILIS (Fee) C. Chr. Jamaica: Without locality, Jenman. Mt. Moses, Harris 1555. Mansfield, near Bath, 300 to 500 meters, moist shaded bank, Maxon 2370; at edge of woods, Maxon 1796 (=Underwood 2770); Maxon 1788 (=Und. 2765). Trail from Bath to Cuna Cuna Pass, 1,000 to 2,000 ft., on a wayside bank, Maxon 1723 (=Und. 2687). Near Tweedside, 2,000 ft., grassy bank in the open, Maxon 989. Vicinity of Hollymount, Mount Diabolo, about 750 meters, rocky ravine in humid forest, Maxon 2321. DRYOPTERIS HETEROCLITA (Desv.) C. Chr. Gymnogramme gracilis Hew. Mag. Nat. Hist. II. 2: 457. 1838. Jamaica: Without locality, Jenman. Vicinity of Cinchona, 1,500 meters, shaded bank by trail, Maxon 1196 (=Underwood 2336). At the base of Blue Mountain Peak, 6,000 to 7,000 ft., Maxon 1453 (= Und. 2469). Cinchona Plantation, 5,000 ft., Underwood 167. New Haven Gap, 5,600 ft., Clute 205. My treatment in the “Revision” of these two closely allied species is unsatisfactory. The specimens enumerated above show more clearly the differences between the two species, which I point out in the following table. Figures 37 and 38 of my “Revision” both illustrate D. consimilis, although the latter in the position of the sori resembles D. heteroclita. D. consimilis Leaf 5-6 dm. long. Pinne 8-10 cm. long by I.5-2 cm. broad. Whole plant clothed with a dense and coarse gray pubescence, the under side sometimes with a few yellow glands, Veins immersed, not very distinct, 10-12 to a side. Sori distinctly oblong or linear about medial. D. heteroclita Leaf 8-10 dm. long. Pinne 12-15 cm. long by 2.5 cm. broad. Whole plant furnished with fewer but longer and stiffer hairs, some- times subglabrous on the under side and always without glands. Veins raised above stramineous like the coste, 10-15 to a side. Sori short, sometimes nearly round, distinctly supramedial. No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 387 DRYOPTERIS ATROVIRENS C. Chr. (REVISION 316, No. 61, Fic. 39.) GUATEMALA: Trail between Sepacuité and Secanquim, Alta Verapaz, 1,000 meters, rocky bank in humid forest, Maxon and Hay 3281 (type number). GROUP OF D. SPRENGELII Tertiary veins close, 10-12 to a side, lamina in most species abruptly attenuate downwards, with several pairs of greatly reduced pinne, which appear as mere warts upon the stem. A distinct aéro- phore is oiten present at the base of the larger pinnze. Most of the species belonging to this group are large, having leaves often more than 1 meter long. DRYOPTERIS SPRENGELII (Kaulf.) Kuntze (REvISsION 318, No. 65, Fic. 42.) St. THomas: Signal Hill, 1,400 ft., Eggers 32. St. Kirts: Molyneaux Estate, Britton and Cowell 312. Lambert Estate, Britton and Cowell 637. Dominica: Soufriere, Lloyd 543. St. Vincent: Mt. St. Andrews, 2,000 ft., in locis umbrosis inter herba, Eggers 6807. Chateau Belair, 1,000 ft., in sylvestribus umbrosis, Eggers 6843. GRENADA: Without locality, Murray and Elliott 9; Sherring. Topaco: In sylvestribus ad flumen Great Dog River, Eggers 5757. Trinwwap: Fendler 22. Porto Rico: Luquillo Mts., Percy Wilson 62; 255. Guayama Road, Goll 601. Quebrada Arriba, on rocky hillside, Goll 488. Road from Ponce to Adjuntas, Underwood and Griggs 764. Road from Utuado to Lares, Underwood and Griggs 108. San Juan, Mr. and Mrs. A. A. Heller 676. On the Adjuntas road, eight miles from Ponce, Heller 6137; 6346. JAMAICA: Near Priestman’s River, 75 to 300 meters, partially shaded moist bank, Maxon 2529; 2532. Swift River near Hope Bay, Alex. Moore. The specimens enumerated above belong to typical D. Sprengelii, characterized by its almost hairless surfaces and rachis and its gland- ular under side. In the specimens from Jamaica, especially Maron 2529, the upper side is, however, somewhat more hairy than in the plants from the smaller islands; thus, it is intermediate between the type and the Central American form. This has the upper side finely pubescent and the rachis somewhat hairy, as is the case in D. Mer- curt; but it agrees very well with the type in habit. This form, 388 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 perhaps worth a name of its own, is represented by the following specimens : GUATEMALA: Cuyuta, Depart. Escuintla, 200 ft., Donnell Smith 2457 (the locality in my “Revision” erroneously referred to Mexico). NicarAGuA: Volcan Mombacho, C. F. Baker 2449. Costa Rica: Plains of San Carlos, 100 meters, on bank by road, Cook and Doyle 99. Cuesta de la Vieja, 300 meters, on bank by road, Cook and Doyle to1. Juan Vifias, Reventazon Valley, 1,000 meters, on bank by roadside, Cook and Doyle 195. Rio Reventazon, Prov. Cartago, Don- nell Smith 5088. I now refer to this more hairy form J. R. Johnston’s no. 190 from the island of Margarita, Venezuela, listed in my “Revision” under D. Mercurii. DRYOPTERIS STRUTHIOPTEROIDES C. Chr., sp. nov. (GUATEMALA: Concepcion, Depart. Escuintla, 1,200 ft., J. Donnell Smith 2459, March, 1890, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 829,013. Mazatenango, Depart. Suchitepéquez, W. A. Kellermann 4701. Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus rigidis, stramineis, basi squamis brunneis deciduis sparse instructis, vix Io cm. longis. Lamina ovato-lanceolata, ad 6-7 dm. longa, medio ad 2.5 dm. lata, versus basin sensim attenuata, ad apicem serratum breviter acumi- nata, gramineo-viridi, firmo herbacea, rachi straminea glaberrima, bipinnatifida. Pinnis numerosis, valde approximatis, I cm. remotis, inferioribus 3-4 jugis sensim abbreviatis, imis auriculiformibus, lobatis, ca. 1 cm. longis, medialibus maximis, linearibus, 10-13 cm. longis, 1.5 cm. latis, sessilibus (aerophoro nullo), subhorizontalibus, oppositis, apicibus serratis longe acuminatis, supra ad costas strami- neas sparse setosis, utrinque inter venas sparse et minute puberulis denique glabris, ad alam vix I mm. latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis numerosis, valde approximatis, sinubus angustissimis acutis sepa- ratis, parum obliquis, integris, acutis, marginibus planis, basalibus aequalibus. Venis 10-11 jugis, indivisis. Soris parvis, luteis, sub- marginalibus ; indusiis minimis, hyalinis, glabris, mox deciduis. This new species can only be compared to D. panamensis and D. Sprengelii, from both of which it differs in its remarkably closely- placed overlapping pinne and segments, the leaf resembling the sterile frond of Matteuccia struthiopteris—hence the specific name. It resembles large forms of D. panamensis in general habit, especially in the base of the lamina, but it is considerably different in its almost glabrious and eglandulose lamina, in its not very oblique segments, No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 389 in its more numerous veins, and in having the sori placed very near to the margin. From D. Sprengelii, which it resembles in pubes- cence, size, and texture, it recedes by the absence of glanduliform abortive pinnze and aerophore, by the position of the sori, by its fewer veins, etc. Still, I think it best to place the species next to D. Sprengel in the “system,” mainly because its veins are closer than in any species of the groups of D. opposita and D. pachyrachis. DRYOPTERIS MERCURII (A. Br.) Hieron. (Revision No. 66, Fic. 43.) This is most probably a large, more hairy continental form of D. Sprengel, in its typical form very characteristic, the pinnz 2-2.5 dm. long, thin, with numerous segments separated by open roundish sinuses, the rachis and coste beneath furnished with long patent hairs and the upper side more densely pubescent. But it will be, I believe, impossible to draw a sharp line between the smaller forms and the continental form of D. Sprengelii mentioned above. ‘Thus, we have here a series of forms which grow larger from the Lesser Antilles to Central America, the increase in size being associated with an increase of pubescence, exactly as was the case in D. oppo- sita-D. panamensis. Also, we find here the intermediate forms in Jamaica. Provisionally, I find it best to let D. Mercuri, like D. panamensis, stand as a species. Costa Rica: Santo Domingo de Golfo Dulce, Tondus 10023 (=—Donnell Smith 7215 B); Tonduz 6885 (=D. S. 7218). Haie a Turrialba, Pit- tier 4087bis. Foréts de Tsaki, Talamanca, 200 meters, Tonduz 9461. A critical form is W. A. Kellerman’s no. 4864 from Puerto Bar- rios, Guatemala; in pubescence exactly D. Sprengeli, in habit D. Mercurit. DRYOPTERIS THOMSONII (Jenman) C. Chr. (REviston 320, No. 67, as D. Stuebelii) Polypodium Thomsonti Jenman, Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica II. 4: 130. 1897. Dryopteris Thomsonit C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 208. 1905. Dryopteris Stuebelii Hieron. Hedwigia 46: 340. pl. 6. f. 13. 1997. This species is given as unknown in my “Revision.” In the U. S. National Herbarium there are, besides a type specimen from Jen- man, several specimens from Jamaica, and it is rather surprising to find that the species is exactly identical with D. Stuwebeli Hieron. from Colombia. Thus we here come upon a new illustration of the 8 390 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 close relationship existing between the fern-floras of Jamaica and the Andes. I have only to add to the descriptions of Jenman and Hieronymus that the lamina narrows downwards very abruptly, as in D. rudis, with a few pairs of glanduliform warts, and that the stem is clothed throughout with thin, light brown scales. The species resembles in habit not a little D. pterifolia, but it is inter alia very distinct by its densely glandular under side and thin texture, and by its midribs and costules of the pinnz being clothed beneath with short, crisped, stellate hairs. ; Jamaica: Near Vinegar Hill, 4,000 ft., Harris 7446; moist shaded bank, Maxon 1520. Vicinity of New Haven Gap, 1,650 meters, humid forest slope, Maxon 2693. At the base of Blue Mountain Peak, 6,000 it., shaded edge of trail, Maron 1442 (=Underwood 2465); Maxon 14424. DRYOPTERIS LIMBATA (Sw.) Kuntze (REVISION 323, No. 71.) St. Kirrs: Belmont Estate, forest ravine, Britton and Cowell 397. Slopes of Mt. Misery, Britton and Cowell 560. By its toothed segments, with the sori in the teeth, different from all allied species. DRYOPTERIS SCALARIS (Christ) C. Chr. (REVISION 323, No. 72, Fic. 47.) GUATEMALA: Vicinity of Secanquim, Alta Verapaz, 500 meters, partially shaded bank, Maron and Hay 3193. Costa Rica: Vicinity of Santiago, on partially cleared slope, Maxon 122. Foréts de Tuis, 650 meters, Tonduz 11332. Waldeck, prés Madre de Dios, 50 meters, Pittier 10260 (in my “Revision” referred to D. Mercurti, but probably belonging here). DRYOPTERIS RUSBYI C. Chr., sp. nov. Borivia: Near Yungas, 4,000 ft., H. H. Rusby 429, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 828081. Eudryopteris rhizomate lignoso, obliquo vel breviter repente. Stipitibus 0.5-1 cm. inter se remotis, ad pinnas infimas abortivas 10-15 cm. longis, rigidis, sulcatis, basi squamis paucis praeditis, griseo-stramineis, ubique brevissime puberulis. Lamina 6 dm. vel ultra longa, 12-20 cm. lata, lanceolata, versus basin abrupte attenuata, membranacea, bipinnatifida. Rachi grisea, dense et minute puberula. Pinnis oppositis, horizontalibus, sessilibus, majoribus aérophoro praeditis, infimis 5-6 jugis valde reductis, glanduliformibus, pinnis No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 391 paris superioris 4 cm. longis reflexis, inframedialibus maximis, 7-9 cm. longis, ad 2 cm. latis, obtusis vel breviter acuminatis, apice integro vel serrato excepto ad alam 1.25 mm. latam pinnatifidis, utrinque ad costas costulasque dense setosis, supra inter venas minute pubescentibus, subtus glabriusculis. Lacintis 13-15 jugis, paulum obliquis, subobtusis vel subrotundatis, integris, 3 mm. latis, approximatis, sinubus angustis acutis separatis, basalibus reductis. Venis in laciniis majoribus 10-12 jugis, simplicibus, satis approxi- matis. Soris mediocribus fere medialibus, exindusiatis. Sporangiis glabris. This new species I refer to the group of D. Sprengelii, as it most resembles species of this group in its very abruptly reduced lamina below and in its rather close veins. It will stand in this group be- tween D. lasiopteris and D. Christensenti, being intermediate be- tween these species in pubescence, but distinguished by its opposite, horizontal pinnz with rather broad, subpatent and subobtuse seg- ments. Its rachis is not so tomentose as in D. lasiopteris and D. rudis,; still not with the microscopical pubescence of D. Christensenii. The species could also be considered a member of the group of D. pachyrachis. It will then stand near D. atrorubens, from which it differs by its closer veins and gray puberulous rachis. Allied to this species is another specimen from Bolivia, Miguel Bang 2320, which probably belongs to an undescribed species, but the specimen is too incomplete for a description. It resembles D. Rusbyi in pubescence of the rachis, but while the upper side is almost glabrous, except along the cost, the under side is rather densely hairy throughout. The acute segments have up to I5 pairs of veins. The sori, which are small and covered by a setose indusium, are placed within the margin. The collector’s number 2320 is cited in my “Revision” under D. oligocarpa, but this specimen does not be- long to that species. DRYOPTERIS RUDIS (Kunze) C. Chr. (REVISION 324, No. 73, Fic. 48.) Mexico: Sierra de Clavellines, State of Oaxaca, 9,000 ft., Charles L. Smith 2056. Cerro de San Felipe, 3,000 meters, Gonzatti and Gonsdlez 331. Wet mountain canyon above Cuernavaca, State of Morelos, 6,500 ft., Pringle 13773. Sierra Madre near Santa Teresa, Territorio de Tepic, J. N. Rose 2213. GUATEMALA: San Rafael, Zacatepequez, 6,500 ft., Donnell Smith 2732; 2461. Costa Rica: Sabanilla de los Granados, 1,200 meters, Alfaro 16302. Vicinity of Coliblanco, about 1,950 meters, Maxon 267. 392 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Polypodium ctenoides (Fée) Jenman from Jamaica I have sup- posed in my “Revision” to be this species, and the three specimens at hand (Jenman; Hart 343) confirm that opinion; I see no essen- tial difference. Maxon 267 from Costa Rica is identical with the narrow-leaved form collected by Biolley (no. 67 in part) which in my “Revision” I referred to D. lasiopteris (Sod.) C. Chr. Also, I now consider this form to belong to the species of Sodiro, although this author describes D. lasiopteris as being indusiate, while our Costa Rican specimens are without indusia; but I cannot see any important difference between this form and ordinary D. rudis. It is almost glabrous above and has shorter pinne, while the most common form of D. rudis is setose throughout; probably D. lasiop- teris (Sod.) C. Chr. must be reduced as a synonym of D. rudis. Another synonym of D. rudis is Aspidium subdecussatum Christ,* as shown by the type specimen from Costa Rica, Alfaro 16556. It is glabrous between the veins upon both sides, and identical with the form which I have called D. lasiopteris. D. rudis varies considerably in size and in density of pubescence. From D. pterifolia it can be distinguished by its acute segments and by its coste being clothed beneath with antrorse (not patent) hairs. A large variety, eventually a new species, is Pringle 8920, Mexico (State of Puebla, by brooks in pine forests, near Honey Station, 5,000 ft.). It has pinnz 25 cm. long by 3.5 cm. broad. Nephrodium tetragonum Presl? has been much misunderstood. It is, according to the type specimen in herb. Presl, not at all the same as Nephrodium tetragonum Hook (which is Dryopteris pseudo- tetragona Urban), but either D. rudis or a closely related species. The whole type specimen consists only of the upper half of a single leaf, and is therefore rather indeterminable. DRYOPTERIS HEIMERI C. Chr. I have recently described* this Brazilian representative of D. rudis. The diagnosis and comments are here reprinted without change. “Eudryopteris e turma D. rudis (Kze) C. Chr. rhizomate (erecto?) dense radicante. Stipitibus ad pinnas infimas abortivas c. 15 cm longis, fusco- stramineis, quadrangularibus, ubique brevissime hirtis, ad basin squamis nigro- brunneis ovato-acuminatis marginibus sparsim ciliatis subdense vestitis. Lamina lanceolata, ad 8 dm longa, medio 17—18 cm lata, ad apicem pinnati- * Aspidium subdecussatum Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. IT. 4: 960. 1904; Dryop- teris subdecussata C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 295. 1905. *Rel. Haenk. 1:35. 1825. *Fedd., Repertarium 6: 380, 381. 1900. NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 393 fidum sensim attenuata, versus basin. abrupte reducta, supra obscure viridi, nitida, subtus pallidiore, submembranacea vel firmo-herbacea, bipinnatifida; rachi trisulcata breviter hispido-pilosa. Pinnis infimis 2—3-jugis tuberculi- formibus, c. 8 cm inter se remotis, sequentibus 2—3-jugis auriculiformibus 4—5 cm inter se remotis, medialibus maximis, 10 cm longis, 2 cm latis, sessilibus aérophoro tuberculiformi instructis, a basi versus apicem breviter acuminatum sensim attenuatis, supra ad costa venasque sparsim et brevisime puberulis, subtus ad costas costulasque pilis fuscis brevibus dense setulosis ac ad costas paleis nonnullis nigro-brunneis minutis instructis, inter venas utrinque sub- glabra, ad alam I mm latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis approximatis, marginibus planis fere parallelis recte patentibus, obtusis, basalibus pinnarum inferiorum reductis. Venis simplicibus, 12—14-jugis, pellucidis, supra parum prominulis. Soris minimis, exindusiatis, paulo ultra mediam venulae partem sitis. Spor- angiis paucis, 2—3 setis robustis instructis. “Hab. Brasilia, Sao Paulo, Campinas oppidum, leg. A. Heiner no. 540, 9. 9. 1905 (typus in Herbario Regnelliano, Stockholm). “Species nova distincta, a speciebus brasiliensibus adhuc detectis abunde diversa sed speciebus andinis nonnullis (D. rudi, D. Engelii) magis affinis. Magnitudine, pubescentia, textura, reductione laminae D. rudi C. Chr. similis, a qua specie valde recedit: sporangiis setosis, laciniis patentibus obtusis (nec falcatis nec acutis), stipitibus ad basin subdense paleaceis, costis subtus Sparsim squamosis, pilis rachis brevioribus, pagina utraque inter venas sub- glabra, aliisque notis.” DRY OPTERIS PITTIERI C: Che. sp. nov. CoLtomBia: Paramo de Buena Vista, Huila Group, Central Cordillera, upper forest zone, 3,100 meters, H. Pittier 1200, January, 1906, type; U. S$. National Herbarium, No. 531395. Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus (?). Lamina 1 m. vel ultra longa, 2-2.5 dm. lata, dure coriacea, rachi rigida griseo- straminea pilis brunneis crispis laxe dispositis dense hirta, bipinnati- fida. Pinnis sessilibus, horizontalibus, oppositis, basi aérophoro instructis, 3 cm. inter se remotis, 12-14 cm. longis infra medium 2.25-2.5 cm. latis, utrinque attenuatis, supra costis sparse strigosis exceptis glaberrimis, infra ad costas costulasque pilis crispis brunneis subdense pilosis et ad partem inferiorem costarum squamis nonnullis angustis brunneis ciliatis vestitis, apice breviter caudato-acuminato excepto ad alam vix 1 mm. latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis numerosis, subpatentibus vel saepe subfalcatis, remotis (sinubus rotundis latis), integris, obtusis, marginibus ubique revolutis, basalibus perparvis. Venis simplicibus, ad 20 jugis, supra distinctis. Soris submedialibus, brunneis, exindusiatis. Sporangiis glabris. The species here described as new is founded upon an imperfect specimen without rhizome and stipe. Probably the leaf is narrowed downwards as in D. rudis and other allied species. Although the leaf very much resembles that of D. Engelii Hieron. in size, general 394 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 habit, and very coriaceous texture, it is, however, that of a new and very distinct species of high andine habit, distinguished by the glabrous upper surface, the scales along the lower part of the cost beneath, and by the crisped, lax pubescence of the rachis and of the costz and costules beneath. DRYOPTERIS LANIPES C. Chr., sp. nov. GUATEMALA: Pinula, Depart. Guatemala, 4,300 ft., J. Donnell Smith 2462, April, 1889, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 828979. Eudryopteris rhizomate obliquo-erecto, I cm. crasso. Stipitibus fasciculatis, ad auriculas infimas ad 12 cm. longis, stramineis, pilis mollibus luteo-albidis patentibus ad 5 mm. longis densissime vestitis. Lamina lanceolata, 5-6 dm. longa, medio 15 cm. lata, ad basin sub- abrupte valde reducta, ad apicem serratum vel integrum breviter acuminata, subcorlacea vel papyracea, luteo-viridi, rachi straminea maxime ad basin pilis mollibus patentibus luteo-albidis dense vestita, bipinnatifida. Pinnis oppositis vel subalternis, sessilibus, inferioribus 3-4 jugis gradatim abbreviatis, infra has 3-4 jugis subito valde reductis auriculiformibus ca. I mm. longis et latis, medialibus maxi- mis 8 cm. longis, 1.5 cm. latis, subfalcatis, utrinque glaberrimis vel subtus ad costas pilis longis nonnullis deciduis instructis, apice integro breviter acuminata excepto pinnatifidis, superioribus serratis vel integris. Laciniis approximatis, sinubus rotundis angustis sepa- ratis, integris, parum obliquis, acutis, 2.5 mm. latis, basalibus aequalibus vel posteriore paulo longiore. Venis distinctis, approxi- matis, ca. 10 jugis, simplicibus. Soris margini approximatis, parvis ; indusiis deciduis, glabris. Sporangiis glabris. This new species is different from all known species by the pecu- liar lanose pubescence of the stem and lower part of the rachis. It is evidently a member of the Sprengelii group, although it is rather small and has few veins, which, however, are closely placed. In color it is not unlike typical D. cheilanthoides from Brazil. Remark- able also is the reduction of the lamina. Below the 3 or 4 pairs of gradually reduced pinne is a similar number of suddenly reduced very small auricles, not glanduliform warts, as in certain species of the Sprengelii group. Further must be mentioned the nearly entire upper pinne. ‘The position of the species in my “system” must be before no. 76, D. strigifera. To this species belongs, I have no doubt, as a forma minor, Don- nell Smith’s no. 2463, also from Guatemala (Department of Guate- mala, 4800 ft.). It is quite identical in pubescence, but smaller (20 NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 395 cm. by 6 cm.), with a very short stem and only 3 or 4 indistinct veins. DRYOPTERIS PTERIFOLIA (Mett.) Kuntze (REVISION 327, No. 78, Fic. 49.) GUATEMALA: Pansamala, Depart. Alta Verapaz, 3,8co ft., von Tuerck- heim (J. Donnell Smith 971); Donnell Smith 1551. Trail from Senaht to Actala, Alta Verapaz, rocky bank at border of forest, Maxon and Hay 3311. Coban, 1350 meters, von Tuerckheim II. 2181. Bouivia: Yungas, 6,000 ft., Rusby 1885, sine num. A large species with pinnz up to 25 cm. long by 4 cm. broad, the cost and costules clothed sparsely beneath with stiff, patent hairs. In my “Revision” I considered Nephrodium retrorsum Sodiro the most developed form of this species. It is, however, rather a variety with pendent pinnz; none of the specimens listed above, although very large, show this peculiarity. The species is apparently exin- dusiate, and the sori show a tendency to elongation; the receptacles are setose. In my “Revision” I have supposed that Alsophila pilosa Mart. and Gal. belongs to D. rudis, and not to D. pterifolia. The Guatemalan specimens listed above seem, however, to agree completely with the plate of Martens and Galeotti, and most probably Professor Hier- onymus was right in regarding A. pilosa as a synonym of D. ptert- folia. This Central American form is a very large plant, and it may he doubted whether it is conspecific with true D. pterifolia, which was described from scanty material from Bolivia. Still, the Bolivian specimen listed above is to me not specifically distinct from the Cen- tral American form, although considerably smaller and more soft- hairy. A further synonym of D. pterifolia is Aspidium gleichenioides Christ.1 I omitted this form in my “Revision” because Dr. Christ described the lamina as “basi vir attenuata.’ However, an exam- ination of the type specimen from Costa Rica, Tonduz 1935, shows at once that it belongs to the group of D. opposita and not to the group of D. patens, as Christ supposed, and, further, that it can scarcely be separated from D. pterifolia. The hairs of the cost and costule beneath are somewhat more autrorse than in common D. pterifolia, but it agrees otherwise. *Aspidium gleichenioides Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 960. 1904; Dryop- teris gleichenioides C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 268. 1905. 396 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 DRYOPTERIS CHEILANTHOIDES (Kunze) C. Chr. (REVISION 329, No. 82, Fic. 51.) Jamaica: Without locality, Jenman; Hart. Near Hardware Gap, 4,000 ft., moist bank, Maxon 1104 (= Underwood 2220). GUATEMALA: San Rafael, Zacatepequez, 6,500 ft., Donnell Smith 2560. I have now no doubt that the Jamaican specimens belong here; they agree in habit and other characters exactly with the type from Brazil, but recede a little by their small, fugacious indusia. The Guatemalan specimen has, on the contrary, very large indusia, but its pinnz are more hairy along the coste beneath than in the type. It seems to be without glands, thus belonging to my variety eglandu- losa. An excellent mark for this species is the lower basal segment, which in the well-developed pinnz is considerably longer than the other ones. Synonyms of this species are: Nephrodium Sprengelu var. persicinum Jenman (Journ. Bot. 17: 261. 1879) and Lastrca grossa Presl (Epim. Bot. 41. 1851). NOTES THE CypR@A NOTATA REVIVED The first “new species” described by Dr. Theodore Gill was a cowry named by him Cyprea notata. It was described in 1858 in the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York (vol. v, p. 255-257, pl. 9, figs. 1-3); it had been found among other cowries said to have come from Singapore. Although rather a striking and handsome species, it was overlooked or regarded as a mere variety of some other species till 1g07._ Then it was revived and recognized as a perfectly distinct species by J. G. Hidalgo in his monograph of the genus Cyprza (“Monografia de las especies vivientes del género Cypreea”’), published in Madrid. Hidalgo refers to the same species the Cyprea macula of Adams, described in 1867, and the C. inter- punctata of Brazier, indicated in 1895. He takes the same view of its relationship as Gill did. Specimens have been found in a number of places ranging from Arabia (Aden) to New South Wales (Port Jackson) and Polynesia (Funafuti). It is, however, a rare species, and there are only two specimens in the United States National Museum, one of which has long been labeled Cyprea notata and the other C. macula; neither is a typical representative of the species.— THEODORE GILL. ESTABLISH MENT OF THE LANGLEY MEDAL At the annual meeting of the Board of Regents in December, 1908, there was established a medal to be known as the Langley Medal, in recognition of Mr. Langley’s contributions to aerial navi- gation, and to be awarded by the Institution from time to time for specially meritorious investigations in connection with the science of aerodromics and its application to aviation. Following precedent, the Secretary later appointed a Committee of Award, composed of the following-named gentlemen of recognized attainments in the science of aerodromics: Mr. Octave Chanute, of Chicago, Chairman ; Dr. Alexander Graham Bell; Major George O. Squier, U. S. A.; Mr. John A. Brashear, of Allegheny, Pennsylvania, and Mr. James Means, formerly editor of the “Aeronautical Annual,’ Boston, Massachusetts. 397 398 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 AWARD OF THE LANGLEY MEDAL At a meeting of the Board of Regents on February 10, 1909, the Langley Medal was awarded to Wilbur and Orville Wright by the adopton of the following resolution: “Resolved, That the Langley Medal be awarded to Wilbur and Orville Wright for advancing the science of aerodromics in its ap- plication to aviation by their successful investigations and demon- strations of the practicability of mechanical flight by man.” This was not only the first. award of the Langley Medal, but was the first official recognition in America of the achievements of the Wright brothers. CONGRESSES AND CELEBRATIONS DARWIN CELEBRATION.—At the commemoration by the University of Cambridge, England, on June 22 to June 24, of the centenary of Charles Darwin’s birth (February 12, 1809) and the fiftieth anni- versary of the publication of the “Origin of Species” (November 24, 1859), Secretary Walcott represented the Institution. While in Cambridge, Doctor Walcott was honored by the conferring upon him of the degree of Doctor of Science, in recognition of his investi- gations of the early geological formations. PAN-AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC Concress.—At the first Pan-Ameri- can Scientific Congress, held in Santiago, Chile, December 25, 1908, to January 5, 1909,-Mr. William H. Holmes, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, who represented the Institution, read a paper on “The Peopling of America.” The Congress decided to hold the second Pan-American Scientific Congress in Washington, D. C., in IgI2. ARCHEOLOGICAL CONGRESS.—At the Second International Arche- ological Congress, held in Cairo, Egypt, at the Latin Easter, 1909, upon suggestion of the Institution, Mr. Albert M. Lythgoe, of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and Prof.:Paul V. C. Baur, of Yale University, were designated by the Department of State as representatives of the United States. UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA CELEBRATION.—Dr. James Mark Baldwin, Professor of Philosophy and Psychology in Johns Hopkins Univer- sity, Baltimore, was designated to represent the Smithsonian Institu- tion at the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of the University of Geneva, held in Geneva, Switzerland, July 7 to 10, 1909. NO. 1868 NOTES 399 ANNIVERSARY OF UNIVERSITY OF Leipzic.—Dr. William H. Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, has been appointed delegate on the part of the Institution to the celebration in Leipzig, from July 28 to 30, 1909, of the five hundredth anniversary of the founding of the University of Leipzig. GRANTS A grant of a considerable sum was recently made from the Hodg- kins Fund for the erection during this summer, on the summit of Mount Whitney, California (14,500 feet), of a stone and steel struc- ture to be used by investigators in the study of astrophysics or in the prosecution of any other researches for which high altitudes and clear atmosphere are desired. An allotment was approved for the erection on Mount Wilson, California, of a shelter for the Smithsonian observers of the Astro- physical Observatory during the summer months, when conditions for solar radiation measurements are peculiarly favorable. An appropriation from the Hodgkins Fund is being devoted to the construction of several copper-disk pyrheliometers, these instruments to be lent to observers in different parts of the world for the purpose of establishing an international scale of pyrheliometry. A considerable grant has also been made by the Smithsonian Insti- tution on behalf of Professor J. P. Iddings, of the United States Geological Survey, for the collection in Manchuria of Cambrian fos- sils and rocks, and in Japan, Java, and neighboring countries of volcanic rocks. hy we tiers . 4% SF PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CoNTINUED FROM List IN QUARTERLY IssuE, Vou. V, Part 2 No. Title. Series. Price. 1858 Git, THropore. Contributions to the Life Histories of Fishes. Vol. I, 1904-1907. (Reprints from Smiths. Misc. Coll., Ann. Rep. Smiths. Inst. and Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.) LG) OS RMN set 2a) hasten Vaan eeile = teikceas go) arinhe Petar’ ya /alevere es Sp. 1859 Classified List of Smithsonian Publications Available for DistuibuionsmVlanchenQOOs | 1GOOk 1. - sev-c seis cles cere er Sp. 1860 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Quarterly Issue, Vol. 5, Part 3 (containing Nos. 1861-1868). 1909...... M.C. 52 .50 1861 Git, TuHEoporr. The Archer-fish and Its Feats. (Quar- LET NAURS SILC?) oem WOOO sage rate ayers oa aha ta soce whch veh Savehenc fol eats) alae a M.C. 52 1862 ARNOLD, JULEAN H. The Peoples of Formosa. (Quarterly TAS SAU CD MARLO OD) erst ce Oar reset See aR Mees occa fo sifotapeasNe oes ore aes See M.C. 52 1863 FuLcHER, Gorpon Scorr. Our Present Knowledge of Canal Rays: A Detailed Bibliography. (Quarterly Issue). TOO OMI PR Ree re ct Tne esa ed stoke kearer> ereveaieherere M.C. 52 1864 TRUE, FREDERICK W. Observations on Living White Whales (Delphinapterus Leucas); with a note on the dentition of Delphinapterus and Stenodelphis. (Quar- EOP MMPS CD) MPT OOM ee pees ee Oe. area iach. i ov otnse tatian ards M.C. 52 1865 Hate, Grorce EF. Hamilton Lecture: Some Recent Con- tributions to Our Knowledge of the Sun. (Quarterly ESS ICN) Em LOO Os ete epithe ane Te eats ee, Savane ane eha Ne chal nates shoe MiGs 52 1866 DatLt, WitttaAM H. Some New South American Land Sell ss ( Owarterly lssweie sOOOk. :.01.1.)ccsleee aa ain « so o> = Mac 52 1867 CHRISTENSEN, Cart. American Ferns of the Group of Dryopteris Opposita contained in the U. S. National Miursetmss (Ouantenlyn iisste). WQ00%. ..2140-52 e109. =: M.C. 52 1868 Notes to Quarterly Issue, Vol. 5, Part 3. I909............ IMNGS 52 1869 (In preparation). 1870 (In preparation). 1871 BECKER, GEorcE F., and VAN OrstrRAND, C. E. Smithsonian Mathematical Tables—Hyperbolic Functions. 1909..... Sp: 4.00 4or VOL. 52 1909 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. » QUARTERLY | Issue PART 4 BREEISLORIC-RUINS OF THE GILA, VALLEY By J. WALTER FEWKES Wire Five Plates At the close of the author’s field work at Casa Grande, Arizona, in the spring of 1908, he received a grant from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for comparative studies of the same type in the Gila Valley and its tributaries. The following pages contain a report of this work, including some additional data collected in former years. The present investigation is limited especially to that type of mounds supposed to indicate Great Houses like Casa Grande, the type of buildings characteristic of southern Arizona. As the particular object of the study is to determine the geographical exten- sion of ruins of this kind, many buildings, like cliff dwellings and cavate rooms, common on the northern tributaries of the Salt, as the Verde and Tonto rivers, are not considered.? The Casa Grande type of buildings is practically found only in the plains bordering the Gila, Salt, and Santa Cruz rivers, where we have every reason to suppose this specialized form of structure first arose and later reached its highest development. Although it is probable that this type, somewhat modified, occurs in the Tonto and San Pedro valleys, it has not yet been recognized along the Verde and does not occur, so far as exploration has thus far gone, in the highlands in which the Salt and Gila rivers originate. It was of course impossible, considering the vast extent of desert in which these ruins are situated and the short time at the disposal of the author, to visit all of the ruins in these regions. Although the present report cannot be regarded as exhaustive, yet it is believed 1The forms and general archeological features of the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua appear to be identical with those of Casa Grande in Arizona, but as the pottery objects are wholly different in the two regions, it would appear that there were important cultural differences. 403 404 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 to embrace the more important clusters of the Casa Grande type in the valleys under consideration. Small mounds? with fragments of pottery or broken metates indicative of habitations are scattered over the plain in every place in the desert where irrigation was possible. Their number and distribution indicate a considerable population, often settled at some distance from the great dwellings, but gener- ally near remnants of the prehistoric irrigation ditches that one con- stantly encounters in these regions. The level plains bordering the Gila River and its tributaries were inhabited in prehistoric times by an agricultural people having a homogeneous culture. The prehistoric inhabitants built houses of two types: the one large, often several stories high, with massive walls, and the other, of more fragile character, serving for their dwellings. The material with which the latter were built and the manner in which they were constructed were not sufficiently durable to resist the elements, and the walls have fallen, augmenting the height of the debris accumulated at their foundations. Sand blown by winds has drifted over the ruins, covering the rooms and forming mounds over them, from which, in a few cases, there still project, a few feet high, irregular fragments of the original walls. When the Gila Valley was first visited by the Spanish explorers the projecting walls of these buildings were more plainly visible than at present and their true character and architecture were more ap- parent. It was at that time easier to recognize the characteristic type of structure of the buildings to which they belonged, for the walls are now almost completely buried. The massive walled build- ings in these plains were early called Casas Grandes, or Great Houses,? one of the best of which, the historic Casa Grande, still preserves the ancient type. A knowledge of these houses, derived from laying bare the walls by excavations, shows that in their form and construction they are characteristic. They differ radically from cliff dwellings, pueblos, or those other prehistoric constructions in our Southwest,? with which, however, they have certain affinities. *Many artificial mounds in the Gila Valley show no indication of walls. Among these may be mentioned those formed of refuse or trash heaps and accumulations of earth incidentally thrown up in digging reservoirs or irriga- tion ditches. The sites of “mescal pits” or depressions in the earth where mescal was formerly roasted are indicated by earth much darker than that of the surrounding plain. *’The words “Casas Grandes” and Great Houses are used as synonyms of compounds, : * The four types of prehistoric dwellings in the Southwest may be known as: (1) cavate habitations; (2) cliff dwellings; (3) pueblos; (4) compounds. The essential difference between (1) and (2) is that the former are dug out NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 405 The architectural features of these prehistoric buildings of the Gila plains is well shown in the historic Casa Grande, which may be designated, for purposes of study, a “type ruin.” Its walls have now been excavated and are well preserved, showing the best example of other Casas Grandes scattered over the valley of the Gila and its largest tributary, the Salt River. The predominating feature of this Gila type of ruin is a rectangular inclosure bounded by a massive wall oriented about north and south and inclosing buildings, large and small, courts, and plazas. From the universal existence of a protective surrounding wall, the author has designated this type of prehistoric ruin a “compound” to distinguish it from other prehis- toric ruins of the Southwest above mentioned, with which it has little in common. Although the more striking mounds of this valley are formed of the debris of these great houses, or Casas Grandes, there is good evidence that the prehistoric inhabitants built synchronously with these other less conspicuous dwellings, which are not unlike the ancestral dwellings of the Pima, Sobypuri,t and Papago. These dwellings were rectangular in form. Their walls were supported by upright logs, between which were woven matting or possibly branches of the cactus called ocatilla, the whole frame being covered with adobe. The floors of such houses were made of mud firmly trodden down, while the fireplace was a simple depression near the middle of the floor, generally in front of a doorway opening in the longest side. We may suppose that the roof was also constructed of mud laid on boughs or split logs, the interstices being filled with mud. A typical prehistoric settlement of the Gila may be supposed to have been composed of buildings constructed of massive walls one or more stories high and smaller huts or jacales (Aztec, xa, earth; calli, houses), the upright walls of which were supported by logs. Both types of houses occur in the rectangular area that has been of the cliff, while the latter have taken advantage of natural caverns. The two types grade into each other, and no strict line of demarkation separates one from the other. The essential feature of the compound is the surround- ing wall, which is sometimes morphologically represented in aboriginal build- ings known as pueblos. *The walls of houses of rancherias of the Sobypuri in the San Pedro are spoken of by Father Kino as made of “palos” (sticks) and “petates” (mat- ting), the chinks being filled in with clay or mud. No reference is made in his account of buildings in this valley with massive walls, although the “capilla” at Victoria may have been a special house made of stone and set aside for ceremonial purposes. 406 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 called a compound inclosed by a massive wall over breast high for protection.* In some instances nothing remains of the larger buildings, in others there is no indication of those with more fragile walls, but in both cases the surrounding wall is present and constructed of clay or stone, whichever material was most convenient for the builder. The two kinds of rooms would seem to indicate a dual use,” or that the rooms with massive walls were constructed for a purpose dif- ferent from those with fragile walls supported by logs. ‘The former may be supposed to have been used for ceremonials, councils, protec- tion from foes, or for granaries, while the latter served simply as habitations. If the number of walled compounds in the Gila Valley is any indication of its former population, it is apparent, from their number, that many people inhabited this part of southern Arizona in prehis- toric times. As bearing on this point, attention may also be called to the fact that the ancient aboriginal population was more or less scattered and not confined to these great compounds, or even to their immediate vicinity, for there is abundant reason to suppose that they had many dwellings on farms situated between them and dotting what is now a desert. ‘The prehistoric population of the Gila Valley may have risen into the thousands, and it is not too much to say that the number of Indians in the valley at the advent of the Spaniards could not have been more than a tithe of what it was in prehistoric times. For convenience in the presentation of the subject, the prehistoric compounds of the Gila Valley have been grouped geographically as follows: 1, Compounds on the Gila; 2, Compounds in the Santa Cruz Valley ; 3, Compounds in the Salt River Valley. The first of the above groups includes those mounds of Great Houses scattered all the way from the upper Gila,* or the vallev * Refuse heaps and other artificial mounds without walls are almost always found just outside the surrounding walls of the compounds. * Cushing, who apparently found the same “thin-walled” buildings, ascribed them to an “ultra urban” population, and Bandelier (Final Report) suggests that they were late Pima constructions. ‘There seems no good reason to doubt that they were dwellings as old as the massive-walled structures and con- structed by the same race. * Mr. F. H. Cushing writes, “Preliminary Notes,” p, 184: “Contemplating the numerous structures in no fewer than thirteen cities, scattered throughout a single valley not exceeding seven hundred and fifty square miles, * * * we are impressed not only by the prodigious industrial energy qf their builders and makers, but also by the unavoidable conclusion that they harbored popula- tions far denser and more numerous than heretofore had been deemed (by scientists at large) possible, in reference to any group of ancient North American remains.” YSAIY LIVS ‘WVG LISASSOOY YV3SN SONITISMG 435110 qd uiny—'z vy uiny—'! IIIAXXX "Id ‘9 “1OA SNOILO31109 SNOANVIIFOSIN NVINOSHLIWS - = Wee Oi Fa +e NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 407 called Pueblo Viejo, to the so-called Gila Crossing; the compounds of the Salt River are strung along this river from near Mesa to the junction of the Salt and Gila, while the Great Houses of the Santa Cruz extend from the old missions at Tubac and Tumacacori, in southern Arizona, past the mission, San Xavier del Bac, to the isolated peak Picacho and the point where this river is lost in the sands of the desert. Mounds marking the former sites of these Great Houses occur on both sides of the rivers mentioned near to or remote from their banks. There are evidences that these Casas Grandes were most numerous in regions of the Gila Valley, where at the present day the white population is the densest. In other words, large settlements of Americans now occupy some of the same sites that the aborigines chose for the construction of their compounds. This occupation by a later race has led in some instances, as at Tucson, the oldest white settlement in Arizona, to the almost complete destruction of all evi- dences of these Great Houses of the aborigines. The same is true of the settlements near Phcenix and Mesa, where we note the same reduction in size and rapid disappearance of the ancient mounds. On the other hand, the desert south of the Gila, at Casa Grande, or the plains of the Santa Cruz between Red Rock and the “mouth”? of the river, show mounds indicative of former Casas Grandes more scattered, smaller in size, and fewer in number. It appears that the valley of the Salt River in the neighborhood of Phcenix, Tempe, and Mesa was the most densely populated region of this whole drainage area and apparently contained the oldest settle- ments. These facts may be ascribed to the ease with which the plains in this region could be irrigated as compared with other parts of the valley, or may have been due to the presence of more fertile land in those localities. The mounds in the valley above mentioned are known to the Pima Indians as the old houses (vaaki) and are associated with certain chiefs, called civans, whose names vary with localities. The following ruins and corresponding chiefs, recorded by Dr. Frank Russell in his monograph® on the Pima Indians, may be mentioned: ‘In the upper Salt we find several other types of ruins, the most striking of which are the two large cliff dwellings (pl. xxxviul, figs. I, 2) a few miles from Roosevelt Dam. ? Atcin, Pima word for mouth of the river. *26th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. According to the legends published by Dr. Russell the Great Houses were formerly inhabited by the Vulture or Red people, the A’kol, A’pap, and A’puki. 408 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOI,. 52 Casa Grande, Sia’-al Teu-vtaki, Morning Blue. Santan, Kia/-atak, Handle. Ruin four miles northwest of Tcuf/haowo-o, Dipper. Santan, Sweetwater, Ta’-a, Flying. Casa Blanca, Tco’-otcuk Ta’tai, Black Sinew. Gila Crossing Ruin, Teu/narsat, Lizard. Mesa (name ?), A’-an Hi’ttipaki, Feather Breathing. Tempe (name?), Vi/ik V’alt Ma’kai, Soft Feathers Rolling. The author has found that different Indians apply other names to the above ruins, but although their nomenclature of individual mounds varies, all refer a name of a chief to each of the larger clusters. The geographical center of the culture area, characterized by Great Houses inclosed in compounds, as indicated by the largest number and purest architectural forms, lies near Phcenix, Tempe, and Mesa.t. The San Pedro, Santa Cruz, upper Gila, and Salt and the northern tributaries of the Salt are frontiers of this area, the culture being considerably modified by local environment. For convenience in treatment, the mounds or ruins in the region under consideration will be classified as follows: I, Middle Gila Valley Compounds; II, Santa Cruz Valley Compounds; III, Salt Valley Compounds; and, IV, Ruins on the San Pedro. I. MippLE Gita VALLEY COMPOUNDS The more prominent of the Great House mounds of the Gila are the following: 1, Ruin 15 miles east of Florence; 2, Ruin 3 miles east of Florence; 3, Ruin near Florence; 4, Escalante ruin; 5, Tcurikvaaki (Ruin near Adamsville) ; 6, Ruin 5 miles east of Casa Grande; 7, Casa Grande; 8, Ruin on right bank of Gila opposite Blackwater; 9, Santan; 10, Ruin 4 miles west of Santan; II, Snake ruin; 12, Sweet Water; 13, Casa Blanca; 14, Ruins at Gila Cross- ing. ‘The following ruins have been associated with names of chiefs (civans) who inhabited them: 7, Casa Grande; Sialim tcutuk (Green or Blue); 11, Taa (Flying) ; 13, Tcuk tatai (Black Sinew) ; 14, Tcunarsat (Lizard). These people were conquered by Elder Brother in the following order: (1) Casa Grande; (2) an extensive “pueblo” at Santan, the pueblo of chief Tcuf’- haowo-o; (3) Sweetwater, ruled by Ta’-a; (4) Casa Blanca, pueblo of Teo’-otcaik Ta’tai; (5) Vultures pueblo; (6) Tcu’narsat’s pueblo at Gila Crossing; (7) that of A’an Hi’tipaki at Mesa; and (8) Vi'ik T’alt Ma’kai, at Tempe. ‘The Septenary arrangement of these Great Houses and compounds to which Mr. F. H. Cushing, op. cit., ascribed considerable importance is not evident. NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 409 The architectural features characteristic of the Great Houses in the middle Gila appear also in the ruins in the upper Gila, or the so-called Pueblo Viejo, Old Pueblo, in which are situated the towns San José, Solomonsville, Safford, and Pima, considered in a previous report’ on the ruins of that region. There are many localities in this region of the Gila Valley where there are fine examples of ancient pictographs, among which may be mentioned those cut on cliffs near Sacaton and on the lava hills north of the river. About six miles east of Florence there are pictured rocks that are particularly interesting. 1.—Ruvuin 15 Mines East or FLORENCE” This ruin (fig. 65) has the rectangular shape characteristic of a compound, and its surrounding wall measures approximately 222 by 12oitcet. It is sit- uated a few miles north of the old road from Florence to Old Fort Grant. Not far’ from this ruin there can still be seen two old reser- voirs,, called by the P1- mas “vashki’ and by the Americans “Indian tanks.” One of these Fic. 65.—Ccmpound 15 miles east of Florence contained water at the time of the author’s visit; the bank*® of the other tank was washed out and cut in two, so that it resembled two mounds and is so desig- nated by the cow-men who have stock in this region. One of these “vashki” or “Indian tanks,” (fig. 66) is identical in shape with the problematically ‘oval mound” at Casa Grande, suggesting a sim1- | | | | | J oS SS | | I | ! larity in use. 150d Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The compound as a distinct type of Southwestern ruin was not recognized in this report. It is recognizable at the Epley Mound, which is the central citadel of a compound near Solomonsville. ? Florence, the capital of Pinal County, is the most conveniently placed city from which to visit most of the Gila compounds in the eastern region, and Sacaton, the Pima agency, is the best point of departure for those visiting ruins on the Pima reservation. *There are no walls built around the depressions, but they are surrounded by a bank of earth thrown out of the depression. ‘This fact was determined by digging a cross-section of the bank of the “oval mound” at Casa Grande. 410 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VO!,. 52 Another so-called “Indian tank,” situated in a valley six miles from the two reservoirs mentioned above, was used by Sr. Paisano for watering his stock when the author visited the place. It con- tained considerable water at that time (March), and from its geo- graphical position is supposed to be the reservoir in the valley west of the Tortilla Mountains, which is designated as a “tank” on the United States engineers’ map of 1879. Everything indicates that this is undoubtedly an old Indian reservoir. 2.—RuIN 3 Mites East or FLORENCE This ruin, having the form of a low mound, is situated not far from the main irrigation ditch of Florence and about three miles Fic. 66.—Ancient Reservoir east of that town. Although the compound form is not easily detected in this mound, there is no doubt that it belongs to the characteristic ruins of the Gila-Salt Valley. The absence of smaller mounds in its neighborhood indicates that this settlement was never of great size or importance. In the immediate neighborhood of the modern irrigation ditch that now furnishes Florence with water were found several sections of a much older, perhaps prehistoric, ditch that once irrigated the fields cultivated by the aborigines near the settlement. NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEW KES 4II 3-—RuIn NEAR FLORENCE This mound is of considerable size and is situated a short walk from the town, on the south side, near a settlement of Papagos. It is referred to in the author’s account! of excavations made at Casa Grande in 1906-07, where a plan of the compound is published. The author visited the large modern reservoir south of Florence and searched carefully for a “ruin” which is designated on several maps, but failed to find it. A small mound was discovered near the bank of the reservoir, but larger “buildings” which were re- ported by several Americans did not materialize.2 There are mounds in the broad stretch of desert between the reservoir and the prehistoric buildings at Picacho which several reliable men whose stock “run” in this region have described in detail, but the author was unable to locate them with any certainty. 4.—ESCALANTE RUIN It is recorded that when Father Kino’s party, in 1694, followed down the left bank of the Gila, Sargent Escalante and some com- rades swam this river to visit a ruin the walls of which they had observed on the opposite bank. All that now remains of this “tower” is supposed to be the mound situated about a mile west of Posten’s Butte, which is nearly opposite Florence and about the same distance from the right bank of the river. Mr. H. C. Hodge thus refers to a ruin not far from Florence: “Four miles to the west of Florence, on the line of the canal, are the ruins of another old town, the outlines of some of the buildings being easily traced. One of them is 120 feet long, and 80 feet wide. It was surrounded by a wall of concrete and stone, portions of which now remain; and this wall was 130 feet long on two sides of the building and 225 feet long on the other two sides, forming a kind of court-yard enclosing the buildings. This court-yard was filled in on the south and east sides with earth to the depth of four feet.” * Possibly the ruin here referred to is that which the author has called the Escalante ruin, or it may be Tcurikvaaki. Although the standing wall that once attracted Escalante’s atten- tion as a tower has now fallen, a high mound marking the position of a massive walled building or “citadel” and the low ridge, indi- ‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Quarterly Issue, Vol. IW Soy

WELL = = 6.—RvuIN 5 MILES East oF Casa GRANDE This ruin is conspicuous for a considerable distance, its largest mound or citadel being clearly visible from the last-mentioned mound. It lies about half way between Tcurik vaaki and Casa Grande and was apparently once a settlement of considerable size. It is still pointed out by the Pimas, who retain the name Uturituk? for this place. _ Two sections of the surrounding wall of this compound still project several feet above ground on the east side, indicating that it was similar to the surrounding wall of the Casa Grande compound. There are prehistoric mounds on the north bank of the Gila about opposite Blackwater, not far from a modern Pima settlement con- ‘These are figured in the author’s account of the excavations of Casa Grande in 1907-1908. *The author has heard the ruin Casa Grande called Uturituk, probably a confusion of names of the ancient and more modern settlement. 414 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 taining several houses. The largest of those, which may be called conspicuous, is situated a few feet from a house belonging to the mother of Juan Enos, a Pima workman employed by the author in his work at Casa Grande. No walls of buildings stand out of the ground, but the general character of the mounds show that in form the ruins were compounds like those on the south bank of the river. There are many pictographs on the lava hills north of this mound, which resemble those shown in the accompanying illustrations (pl. SEXIER), 7,—Casa GRANDE The general character and architectural features of the Casa Grande cluster of mounds will be described elsewhere* and will therefore not be here considered. A lagoon mentioned in early writings as Cumani or Laguna was probably situated not far from where the Santa Cruz in times of flood empties into the Gila. ‘The mouth of the river is near Sacaton Flats, known to the Pimas as Huring, “place of the standing cactus,” and is mentioned by Fathers Font, Garces, and other early visitors. The name Cumani is adopted from their writings. 8—RuIN Opposite BLACKWATER The Pima village called Blackwater, near Casa Grande, is com- paratively modern, its inhabitants being descendants of certain families which moved there from Casa Blanca a few years ago. Previously, however, or at the time Casa Grande was first visited by the Spaniards, there was a Pima settlement near its site, called Uturituk or the place at the angle or corner.* Although the exact site of Uturituk is now washed away, the banks of the river at that point having been much modified by the changes in its current from the approximate position. 9.—SANTAN RUIN There are mounds at Santan, on the north side of the Gila, oppo- site Sacaton.2 These mounds resemble those of Casa Grande and 1A view of the largest compound is shown in the author’s preliminary re- port on Casa Grande for 1907-1908. * Referring to the island in the Gila near this place. Dr, Russell calls Casa Grande, Tcdolttik, Pima word for “corner,” which is believed to be a part of the sivan or chief's name, Sialtcutuk, Morning Blue, or Green. ® Good views of the Santan Ruin, the ruin west of Santan, and that at Sweet- water are given by Dr. Russell in 26th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Eth., pl. 1, a, b, and c. XXXIX S27 ,PE. VOL. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS SALT VALLEY PICTOGRAPHS FROM GILA NO. 1873. PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 415 preserve traces of the same compound architecture or buildings with a surrounding wall. They show signs of sporadic digging by ama- teurs, but have never been systematically excavated. Io.—RvuIN 4 MiLEs WEsT oF SANTAN This ruin, like that at Santan, is situated on the north side of the Gila and is a large mound surrounded by a rectangular wall. It apparently belongs to the compound type. II.— SNAKE RUIN Snake Ruin, north of the Gila, was not visited by the author. From reports it is believed to be a compound. I2— SWEET WATER RUIN There is a low mound surrounded by a wall to the left of the road from Sacaton to Casa Blanca which shows the compound type. A plan of this compound has been published in a preliminary report on Casa Grande. 13.—CasA BLANCA RUIN The mounds at Casa Blanca are among the largest in the Gila Valley and the compound wall of one of them is most extensive. In the middle of the last century, according to a contemporary writer, the walls of this building projected above the ground, but today they are level with the surface of the mound, though they can be readily traced. The mounds in the neighborhood indicate that this was formerly a settlement of importance and large size.? A considerable number of Pima Indians, possibly descendants of the ancients, now inhabit a cluster of houses west of the main mounds. 14.—RUIN AT GILA CROSSING * The mounds situated a short distance from Gila Crossing are extensive, but have not been studied by the author. From descrip- tions by those who have visited them, it appears that one or more * Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Quarterly Issue, Vol. IV, 1907. This was a vaaki of considerable size, having one or more compounds, clan houses, - burial mounds, and a large circular or oval well or reservoir with low banks. The indications are that its size was greater than that of the Casa Grande group of buildings. * This compound is called by some of the Pimas Tcunarsat vaaki, or Lizard Old House. Many folk tales are current among Pimas and Papagos concern- Ing it. 410 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 has the true compound form or type identical with the Casa Grande and Florence region. It is desirable to explore the mounds reported from Gila Bend, which are supposed to be old habitations of the ancestors of the Maricopas. II. Santa Cruz River COMPOUNDS The mounds indicating Casas Grandes along the Santa Cruz have the same general characters as those of the Gila and Salt rivers. ‘The typical compound architecture characteristic of the plains along the Gila almost universally prevails in this region. The Santa Cruz is not a constant stream, but in portions of its course may be called a subterranean river, the water literally flow- ing as a subway sometimes at a considerable depth. Near the Gila it is generally just below the surface, but its presence above ground is indicated by alkali lagoons, as at “Cumani,” not far from Sacaton Flats. There are several mounds of large size along the valley of this river marking the sites of former Casas Grandes. Among these may be mentioned the Picacho settlement and those in the vicinity of Tucson, the most ancient Spanish settlement in Arizona. Numerous large ruins south of Casa Grande railroad station, near the road to the Vekol and other mines, belong to this same drainage area. The Casas Grandes of the Santa Cruz will be considered under the following headings: 1, Ruins near Tucson; 2, Chakayuma; 3, Aquituno ; 4, Quitoac; 5, Ruins near Kwahadt Indian Villages. 1.—Rvuins NEAR Tucson The valley of the Santa Cruz from the city of Tucson south appears to have been the most densely populated in prehistoric times. In this part of the valley the stream rose to the surface, and the supply of water was probably more constant here than farther down the river, where it was less available for agricultural purposes. The author failed to find in the immediate neighborhood of Tucson any large mounds, such as occur in the deserts near Casa Grande or in the midst of the cultivated fields at Mesa and Pheenix, but near the city there are mounds bearing evidences of several old Indian rancherias or vaaki.1 These, however, have been consider- ably reduced in size and so worn down that in most instances they ‘The term bac in San Xavier del Bac, Tubac, and other names of settle- ments or sites may be a contraction of vaaki, old house or old ruined house. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XL b RUIN AT EL RANCHO DEL TUCSON NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 417 are inconspicuous. The land in this neighborhood has been culti- vated for several generations, the valley at this point being one of the earliest settled portions of Arizona. About a mile south of the site of the former presidio of Tucson there are remains of old mounds (pl xt, figs. a, b), out of which, according to Hon. Samuel Hughes, who settled in Tucson in 1853, there formerly rose cajon or caliche walls. One of these mounds was of considerable size, suggesting the central building of a com- pound. The author has been informed by several persons that formerly low massive walls projected out of this mound, which statement, if true, would indicate that this was actually a compound. It is about the center of a group. In the immediate neighborhood there is a cluster of Papago huts, the place being known to old resi- dents as El Rancho del Tucson.? The first mission at Tucson was called by the oldest inhabitants Casa de los Padres, and was established at another Indian settlement on what is now the Grosetta Ranch, about three miles down the Santa Cruz from Tucson. The rancheria Santa Catalina was not far from this neighborhood. Here and at various other points on the Rillito, up the Santa Cruz north and northwest of the old Rancho del Tucson, there are low mounds on which are still found scattered fragments of Indian pottery indicating ancient aboriginal rancherias. It is, however, extremely difficult to distinguish historic from pre- historic sites of dwellings, both of which are found in numbers near ‘Tucson, in the valleys of the Rillito and Santa Cruz. The elevated land west of the city of Tucson called ‘Tumanoac or Lizard Hill, has on its sides and near its summit walls, trin- cheras, or lines? of fortifications constructed of blocks of lava, near which are many boulders bearing pictographs, thus indicating the former presence of the aborigines. Some of the best pictographs in this region, the general character of which appears in the accompanying plate® (pl.xi1), are clustered on the cliffs about 5 miles west of Tucson. ‘Several writers assert that the Pima word Tucson means black water, but other informants declare that it means black foothills; took, black; son, foot- hills, referring to the laval flows of the ‘Tucson Mountains, “Similar lines of stones set upright are also found in the valley. These could hardly be called trincheras. Their interpretation is doubtful. “From a photograph by Dr. MacDougal, Director of the Carnegie Desert Laboratory, to whom the author is indebted for an opportunity of visiting this locality. 418 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 On the north side of the Santa Cruz Valley, in the Tortilla Moun- tains opposite Tucson, there are several ruins, some of which have walls standing high out of the ground.* 2.—CHAKAYUMA This ruin lies at the foot of the northwest point of the Tucson Mountains, about 18 miles from Tucson, opposite the station Rillito, on the Southern Pacific Railroad. "The face of the mountain, called by Garces “Frenta Negra,” bears many pictographs, and lines of trincheras, fortifications, are still visible on the summit. The settle- ment spreads over several acres, the houses consisting of low mounds, with indistinct evidences of walls and many fragments of pottery. The sites of these houses are generally marked by rows of stones set on edge. ‘These stones in some cases formerly supported and protected the bases of the walls, which were held upright by logs now much decayed. Shallow excavations at this place revealed the face of the wall in which these upright stones had been set and a hard clay floor, upon which was generally found a layer of char- coal. Evidently the stones served the same purpose as the logs found at Casa Grande, the remainder of the walls and the roof being constructed of perishable material, possibly brush or ocatilla cactus. Several good vases, one of them in the collection of the University of Arizona, at Tucson, have been excavated at this ruin, which seems rich in specimens and offers unusual advantages for further study. 3.—AguituNo Ruin (AxkurTciny, RUSSELL) There are several mounds, indicating ancient Casas Grandes, not far from the desert butte, Picacho, that were not visited by the author. The site of Cutcia vaaki (Kistcoit, Russell), frequently mentioned by the early Spanish priests, has not yet been definitely made out, but was possibly east of Picacho, and maybe the mounds at Aqui- tuno are remains of this settlement. 1 . . . < 5 . 33 . A site near Tucson mentioned in “Garces’ Diary” as Laguna still bears the saine name. Professor Blake, of the University of Arizona, has shown the author ground plans of ruins in the Tortillas and Mr. Brown reports stone ruins with high walls. NOSONL YVAN 44170 NO SHdVYDOLO!d 1X “Td ‘ZS “10A SNOIL037109 SNO3NVI7390SIW NVINOSHLIWS NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 419 4.—QuitToac RuIN* Another cluster of mounds in the neighborhood of Picacho,” also not visited by the author, appears from reports to be the remains of a considerable prehistoric settlement. In the time of the Spanish fathers there were apparently several Pima rancherias in this local- ity, which was a constant halting place in early visitations. 5.—Ruins NEarR Kwauant INDIAN VILLAGES South of the railroad station called Casa Grande, on the Southern Pacific Railroad, there are Indian villages inhabited by Kwahadts, Papagos, and Pimas.? Near one of these settlements there is a cluster of mounds, one or two of which are large, indicating build- ings of compounds like those at Casa Grande and elsewhere along the Gila and Salt rivers. The largest cluster of these mounds has been described to me as situated on the road from the “Jack Rabbit Mine” to the “Reward Mine,” near an Indian village about 6 miles south of the former. The informant said that while the general appearance of the mounds resembled those of Casa Grande, there were no extensive walls above ground. IlJ].—Sarit RivErR CoMPoUNDS The majority of ancient mounds of the Salt River Valley lie in the neighborhood of Phoenix, Tempe, and Mesa City. Although house walls are now generally hidden, their exposed tops, when traced, show the same compound structure as those of the Gila between Florence and Casa Blanca. Seven such compounds exist in the neighborhood of Phcenix, as shown in Mr. Patrick's map,* * Kihu, carrying basket; toac, mountain. * Called by the Pimas Taatukam (Russell) Tacom, which appears in Spanish writers as Ttacca, Taceo, or Quitcak. Dr. Russell mentions the following ruins near Picacho: 1, “Small pueblo ruin” northeast of the mountain, 15 miles from the river; 2, East of the mountain “Kistcoit Vatcik,” Table Tank; north, Mo’ok‘ Vatcik, Sharp Tank; west, A’alt Vap‘tck, Small Tanks; north- west of Akttciny, small pueblo ruins. *The region extending south from the Southern Pacific Railroad to the Mexican boundary is ethnologically a most interesting one, pleading for visits of both ethnologists and archeologists. *’'The best published map we have of the distribution of aboriginal ruins and irrigation ditches in this region is by Mr. Patrick, of Phcenix, Arizona, to whom the author is indebted for many kindnesses. 2 420 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 and it is probable that there were formerly others unrecorded, which have in the course of time been leveled to the surface of the culti- vated fields. ‘There are also other signs of former settlements of smaller size, many smaller mounds, and banks of irrigation ditches and canals lined with rows of stones, indicating lateral branches. In general appearance the prehistoric mounds of the Salt River Valley resemble those of the Gila, but the ground plans of a few of them are larger than any of the Gila Casas Grandes. None of them show walls standing above ground, a fact indicating great age. The Salt River Valley ruins are commonly regarded by the Pimas as older than those along the Gila and Santa Cruz. The legends of these Indians declare that the culture of their builders was somewhat more advanced and older than that of the Gila, but that the com- pounds of these two regions were inhabited simultaneously. It is said that there was a constant communication between them, and that the relations were not always friendly. An examination of the ruins of the two regions indicates that those of the Salt are more ancient than those of the Gila and the Santa Cruz. The Salt River Valley compounds may be divided into three groups: A, Phcenix Ruins; B, Tempe Ruins; C, Mesa City Ruins. A.—PHCNIX RUINS The ruins and prehistoric irrigation ditches in the neighborhood of Phoenix have been studied by Mr. Patrick, who as surveyor has for many years professionally visited almost every part of this valley. ‘The city itself is built on the site of one or more prehistoric settlements, which have long ago disappeared, its very name being derived from its relation to other more ancient settlements of the region. The ruins near Phoenix here considered may be grouped as fol- lows: 1, Patrick Compound; 2, Kalfus Mounds; 3, Heard Mounds. I.—PAatTRICK COMPOUND This cluster of mounds lies on the left of the road from Phoenix to Tempe, about half the distance of the Great Tempe Mound from the former city. In its neighborhood there are now many houses, the leveling of the ground for which has greatly changed the aspect of the place since the author’s visit in 1892, but outlines of walls and ditches can even now be traced. NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 421 2.—KatFrus Mounps West of Phcenix there are two large mounds that may be called the Kalfus Mounds, both of which, especially the smaller, are being rapidly destroyed. A road has been cut through one of these and the material is being rapidly carted away for use elsewhere. The larger of the two ruins west of Phoenix has the compound shape, its surrounding wall measuring 500 by 260 feet, the orienta- tion being about north and south. This surrounding wall incloses two large mounds (fig. 69) in addition to one or two smaller eleva- tions, which are evidently remains of rooms. ‘The material of one of the Kalfus mounds is almost pure adobe, but there are no stones in the walls. The larger Kalfus mound was constructed on a slight SS wa stn hs Sa ZAMAN ROSES HENS Hues ait Tati Gan "trigy $e CRAG Cre ns Fic. 69.—Kalfus Mound natural elevation ; the smaller of the compounds measures 275 by 210 feet. 3.—HeEarp Mounpns? One of the ruins south of the Salt River, opposite Phcenix, called Ruin E, by Mr. Patrick, has been considerably leveled by plowing. It consists of a cluster of mounds, including one with an oval form which is much mutilated.? It is very difficult to trace the surrounding wall of this ruin or to determine whether it was a compound, but another large mound on the same side of the river is surrounded by a rectangular wall, the west side of which is about 200 feet and the south 150 feet long. "This “caleche” is much sought for by Americans, as it makes a very firm road-bed. * The author was guided to these ruins by Mr. Heard, owner of the property on which they stand. 422 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 B.—TEMPE RUINS. The several ruins near Tempe have the same general compound structure as those in the Gila Valley, namely, mounds inclosed in surrounding walls.1. It would appear that the largest compounds exist in this region, where there are some of the best preserved prehistoric irrigation ditches in Arizona. There are several descriptions of the Tempe ruins that might be quoted. Mr. J. H. Bartlett's account is as follows :? “On reaching the great pile, I found it to be the remains of an adobe edifice from two hundred to two hundred and twenty-five feet in length, by from sixty to eighty feet wide, its two sides facing the cardinal points. Portions of the wall were visible only in two places, one near the summit, at the south end, where, from the height of the pile it must have originally been three or four stories high; and the other at the northern extremity, on the western side. These remains just projected above the mass of rubbish and crumbled walls. The rest formed rounded heaps of various heights and dimensions, worn into deep gullies by the rain, the whole presenting a striking resemblance to the mound which marks the site of ancient Babylon. “The higher walls seen in the sketch probably belonged to an inner portion of the building. Near this is a conical hill, formed, doubtless, by the crum- bling away of the higher portion or tower. Near the wall, which projects from the lower portion, at the northern end, are two large masses of this wall which have fallen. The adobe is still very hard, so much so that I could not break it with the heel of my boot. Several broken metates, or corn-grinders, lie about the pile. I picked up a stone pestle and some small sea shells. Along the eastern side are the remains of a long wall, extending beyond the building, now but a rounded heap, which seemed to have formed an enclosure. On the western side is an excavation about four feet deep, and extending from sixty to eighty feet from the main heap, and along its entire length, from which I suppose the mud and gravel to have been taken to make the adobe. To the northeast, about a distance of two or three hundred feet, are the ruins of a circular enclosure. This was not large enough for a canal; nor could it have been a well, as it is too near the margin of the plateau where the canal ran, which would always furnish a supply of water. At the south, two hun- dred yards distant, are the remains of a small building with a portion of the wall still standing. “From the summit of the principal heap, which is elevated from twenty to twenty-five feet above the plain, there may be seen in all directions similar heaps; and about a mile to the east, I noticed a long range of these ruins north and south, which the Indians said were of a similar character to that on *From this region and Mesa City have been obtained some of the finest col- lections of prehistoric objects found in this valley. Among these may be men- tioned the complete series collected by the Hemenway Expedition at Los Muertos and that of Dr. J. S, Miller, obtained from various points in the valley. * Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents, 1854, p. 245. NO. 1873. PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 423 which we stood. In every direction the plain was strewn with broken pottery, of which I gathered up some specimens to show the quality, as well as the style of ornamentation.” Mr. H. C. Hodge’ thus speaks of the Tempe ruins: “Six miles east from Phcenix, and two miles from the Hellings mill, now owned by Major C. H. Vail, are the ruins of a large town, near the center of which is one very large building, 275 feet long and 130 feet wide. The debris of this building forms a mound which rises thirty feet above the surrounding plain. The walls are standing about ten feet in height and are fully six feet thick. There seem to have been several cross-walls, and the whole was sur- rounded by an outer wall, which on the south side was thirty feet from the main wall; on the east, sixty feet; on the north, one hundred feet; and on the west side sixty feet. “On the north and at the northwest corner were two wings, perhaps guard or watch houses. On the south of the outer wall was a moat, that could be flooded with water from a large reservoir fifty yards to the south. Several other large reservoirs are at different points in and around the main town, which was over two miles in extent. “A large irrigating canal runs to the south of the large building, which was from twenty-five to fifty feet wide. This canal took the water from the Salt River eight miles above, and can be easily traced for twenty miles or more below. * * * The largest of the old irrigating canals visited and examined by the author is some twenty-five miles above Phcenix, on the south side of the Salt River, near the point where the river emerges from the mountains. This one, for eight miles after leaving the river, is fully fifty feet wide. For this distance it runs in a southwest course through hard, stony ground, and enters on a vast stretch of mesa or table-land, which extends south and southwest from thirty to sixty miles, having an elevation above the river of nearly one hundred feet. “At about eight miles from where this great canal leaves the river, it is divided into three branches, each twenty-five feet wide, one of which runs in an east of a south course, one nearly south, and the third southwest, the three probably carrying water sufficient to irrigate the whole of the immense plateau before mentioned. Two miles west of where the main canal branches are the ruins of a large town, which extends along the mesa for many miles. “Near the center of this town are the ruins of the largest building yet dis- covered. Its ground measurement is 350 feet by 150 feet, with outer walls, moats, embankments, and reservoirs outside the main walls, and ruins of smaller buildings in all directions. “On the line of the branch canals, distant many miles from this one, are other ruins of towns similar to the others described. Below the great canal and the large ruin described, extending through what is called the Tempe settlement, are other irrigating canals of nearly equal size to the others, and which were taken out of the river many miles below the large one mentioned, and along there are also the ruins of great houses and towns.” Father Sedelmair, according to the last authority, described a ruin 36 miles below the Casa Grande, on the same side of the Gila. * Arizona as it is, or the Coming Country, 1877. 424 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 The following quotation! evidently refers to the Tempe mound: sq y Pp “Several mounds were found on the Salt River measuring from 80 feet wide to 120 feet long. One of these is plainly discernible, as our illustration shows, from the stage road at La Tempe. On the other side of the river two mounds larger in size are to be seen, one near Hayden’s mill and the other close to East Phcenix. Mr. Bartlett, as well as other explorers, calls attention to the fact that the pieces of pottery so widely scattered show that the vessels were all painted or glazed white inside, an art which the Pima and other Indians do not possess. The La Tempe mound was measured by him, and found to be from 200 to 225 feet long by from 60 to 80 wide. This would give a much larger edifice than the Casa Grande. It is true to the cardinal points of the compass—a peculiarity common to all these ruins and mounds. Father Sedelmair also describes the La Tempe mound, and gave an account, too, of the three-storied building or ruin there which he found at the junction of the Gila and Salt rivers.” 1.—Great ‘TEMPE MouNnp The largest of all the mounds is the Great Tempe mound,? on the left of the main Phcenix-Tempe road, about 4 miles from the peeled OV eV RD y we CMd cane Rn everett PES TO EN LOS w =A Qa = w FE AMIS 4 PBN \ TTIW ae fires Fic. 70.—Great Tempe Mound former city. This is probably seen by more white people in the course of a year than any other ruin in Arizona. It is conspicuous from the railroad and is a marked object in all the surrounding country. The main mounds with their walls form one of several clusters, covering more than 40 acres, evidently formerly one of the largest settlements in the Gila-Salt Valley. * Hinton’s Handbook to Arizona, pp. 411-412. * This is possibly the ruin called by Dr. Russell by the name of the chief, S‘o’am Nyu‘i vaaki. NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 425 The largest compound (fig. 70) is oriented north and south, the wall surrounding it being approximately 353 by 246 feet in dimen- sions. The north wall and the northeast and northwest angles of the compound are entire, and were the earth removed would show unbroken corners: ‘The whole west wall from the northwest to the southwest corner is likewise in fair condition, but the southwest angle, the southwest wall, and the southeast angle are more or less broken, the latter having been washed away by the “Cross-cut” canal. ‘The road following this canal cuts across the southeast side and the Phcenix-Tempe road has more or less obscured or destroyed the south wall. The large central mound of this compound has been somewhat mutilated.t It is from 15 to 18 feet high and shows walls of many rooms, some of them constructed of stone laid in adobe with smooth surfaces. ‘This mound was evidently once covered with fragile walled buildings like those on Compound B of the Casa Grande group, but at present the supports have decayed and the walls are covered by fallen debris. There are several other smaller mounds in this group, among which may be mentioned a circular depression or reservoir, vask1, 1,400 feet north of this compound. About 2,230 feet north of it there is a cluster of mounds, one of them in part excavated many years ago by Mr. F. H. Cushing.? Of the several other mounds in this vicinity the largest has the form of a compound and is situated about 600 feet west of the first. This compound has the general form of the type, but it has no central mounds indicating large buildings. Apparently its rooms were fragile walled habitations and it closely resembles Compound C of the Casa Grande group. 2.—CARROLL, COMPOUND This compound, situated about a mile and a half west of Tempe, was not visited in 1907, but was examined by the author in 1892. The massive walled building is considerably worn down and reduced almost to the level of the surrounding plain. * Excavations into the east side of this mound were made several years ago by the Arizona Antiquarian Society. The idea that the rooms of this mound were subterranean is erroneous, and the indications are that there were floors one above another as at Compound B, in the Casa Grande group, one room being built on the debris that had accumulated after the lower had been deserted. *From the many small mounds in this vicinity this cluster of rooms was called Los Pueblitos by Mr. F. H. Cushing, who first opened them. 420 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLFCTIONS VOL. 52 C2=VMESAV GLE RUINS I.—STEWART COMPOUND The largest ruin near Mesa, situated about two miles and a half north of the post-office, is one of the largest ruins in the Salt River Valley. It is now occupied by Mr. S. O. Stewart and called the “Aztec Poultry Farm.” His house and outbuildings stand in the northeast corner of the compound. This compound is one of the largest and the best-defined in the Salt River Valley, measuring 430 by 250 feet. Its orientation is practically north and south, the majority of the mounds being on the left side. The surrounding wall can still be traced by the slight RVECE CCE EEE E RECTOR ROCCE T eee COE TRO CECE HHO COEEUCEe ange Nicisi ROU UEUCRMUL SES SECIS UUSE MELON en Cer, Waianae Tay ee eettreane 1 uw ' Hn why 4 == Ws! ISS 1 SW ws AN S verte ts SMU Ls Om) AYA 4, O14 AAV SANS = D ¥ ’ Vee wt ' ' Vey -- Tren my my . Mi OAM Vin u Nat Wels LEP UT UUUT CED eTT Cea iy { yyy aan WE teaya VEC VOUP VE UD pa te Ane Fic. 71—Stewart Compound : swell in the surface of the earth. Several rooms that have been excavated exhibit smooth, well-polished walls. There is a circular mound with depressed interior and raised bank, reminding one of a similar “well”? (vaskki) at Casa Grande, situated a short distance from the compound. 2.—Los MUuERTOS The mounds called by Mr. F. H. Cushing “Los Muertos,” are those in the Salt River Valley where much work was done by the ‘Mr. Cushing gives an account of oval structures or “sun temples” having a distinct resemblance to the hollow mound at Casa Grande. According to him, these “sun temples” had smooth floors with fireplaces, banquettes, and evidences of ceremonial use. Remnants of the upright logs that formerly supported a roof and method of construction of the roof are described by Cushing. NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 427 Hemenway Southwestern Expedition.t The remains are now in the midst of cultivated fields; many formerly conspicuous are invisible, having been reduced to the surrounding level. These mounds are of great interest as the site of the first archzological field work in this valley. 3.—DRAINES’S COMPOUND Although the compound situated on Mr. Draines’s farm is now almost wholly destroyed, its great mound rises as a white or ash- colored elevation in the midst of the cultivated fields, and is con- spicuous for some distance, being easily seen from the railroad train. A ditch divides the mound into two parts. There are many instructive pictographs (pl. XxxIx, figs. a, b, and c) not far from the Salt River. TV.—RUINS ON THE SAN PEDRO. The San Pedro River, the largest tributary of the Gila on the south, is in fact the only one of size which rises in Mexico and flows approximately north with highlands on both sides. It is sup- posed that the trail taken by Coronado in 1540 on his trip to Cibola (Zuni) followed the San Pedro Valley, through which we know Father Kino passed in 1694. Although this was the only known route from Mexico to the unknown north in the 17th century, it was abandoned by the Spaniards in favor of the valley of the Santa Cruz in the following century. A study of the ruins on the San Pedro leads one to believe that the ancient structures in this region had certain features of the Gila compounds. It is evident that they had stone walls built for protec- tion, inclosing areas in which were erected the fragile walled domi- ciles of the people. Within this inclosure were also other buildings with massive walls corresponding to the houses in the compounds of Casa Grande. The San Pedro Valley was inhabited in 1694 by the Sobypuri, agricultural Indians of Pima stock, and from the scanty records ‘Preliminary Notes on the Origin, Working Hypothesis and Primary Re- searches of the Hemenway Southwestern Archeological Expedition. Congrés International des Americanistes, 7th session, Berlin, 1888. It will be seen by a comparison of the author’s interpretation of the Casa Grande ruins with those given in this pioneer work that they differ in some particulars. The oval structures at Los Muertos called sun temples were not recognized at Casa Grande or the other ruins here considered. The author in- terprets the fragile walled buildings as the same as the thin-walled rooms described by Mr. Cushing. 428 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 that have come down to us it appears that they lived in rancherias and cultivated farms, the whole valley being artificially irrigated. Their chief, named Coro, accompanied Kino down the river past these rancherias, the names of which he mentions. In 1694 the contest between Sobypuri and Apaches had begun, but the former still held possession of the valley. Later, however, the Sobypuri having been forced from their homes, the tribes along the San Pedro Valley became hostile to Europeans, and the valley ceased to be a line of communication between Mexico and the Gila. For over 150 years following this expedition the trail to the north from Mexico passed along the Santa Cruz River by way of Tucson and through the gap at Picacho into the deserts of the Gila. An examination of the configuration of the San Pedro Valley from a point 15 miles south of Monmouth to the junction of the river with the Gila has led me to believe that Padre Kino, after following the San Pedro many miles, left it opposite where old Fort Grant now stands, and marched west until he came to the Gila, not far from the present site of Florence. The place where he turned away from the river was probably the rancheria called Victoria del Ojio, not far from the ruin at the mouth of the Arivaipa, which empties into the San Pedro, but in his diary he says that on the 16th of November, “after mass,” he followed down the river 6 leagues until he came to the junction with the Gila. We cannot definitely say whether the rancherias mentioned by Kino stood on the same site as the ruins now found in the valley, but it is believed they did. He speaks of the houses as being made of “palos” or “petates,” or a kind of jacal structure, which we have reason to suppose housed the common people at the Casa Grande ruins. Probably the buildings with stone walls found in the San Pedro were structurally the same as those the author has called massive walled rooms at Casa Grande and served for citadels, granaries, or ceremonial buildings’ rather than habitations for the people. ; The existence of ruins along the San Pedro has been known for several years, but their character and the kinship of their former inhabitants have been a matter of speculation. A more exact knowl- edge of these ruins being desirable, the writer included them in his comparative studies and made a brief visit to the lower course of the river in April, 1908, when he examined several of the more “Kino speaks of one building as a “capilla,” chapel, as if it were different from others, but whether it was a massive walled house or not does not appear evident from his brief mention. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XLII RUIN OPPOSITE OLD FORT GRANT te re ae ri » Wee ae J NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 429 important ruins in this part of this valley, entering it from the junction with the Gila. Prehistoric mounds of considerable size were first encountered in the immediate neighborhood of Dudleyville, at the mouth of the San Pedro. One of the most striking evidences. of the former presence of Indians at that point are the pictographs, possibly of Apache origin, in a cave not far from the road on the left bank of the river. Ruins are found at intervals as far up the river as the exploration was continued. I.—RUIN OPPosITE OLp Fort GRANT Old Fort Grant is situated a short distance north of the mouth of the Arivaipa Canyon, on the east side of the San Pedro. Di- rectly opposite the fort to the south, on -the low hills, there are remains of walls, rows of foundation walls, and piles of stones, indicat- ing the site of a con- siderable settlement (pl. MET hess 11. 2) Al though here and there a rock formation of red color “occirs1 in ~ this neighborhood, neither the walls nor the soil are red, so that environment adds little to support the theory that here was situated the red house (Chachilticalli)* of Cas- taneda. The rectangular arrangement of rows of stones character- istic of compounds is indicated in this ruin. ‘The east wall (fig. 72) of this rectangle measures not far from 250 feet. In the inclosure there is a large central mound composed of stones, .the altitude of which is from Io to 15 feet. On a neighboring mesa, situated a few hundred feet south of that on which the compound lies, there are many piles of small stones suggesting a cemetery. The author believes that the ruin near the mouth of the Arivaipa ] wv. °, ' | | | ! Fic. 72.—Ruin opposite Old Fort Grant “It has been suggested that the building called by Castaneda Chachilticalli, or Red House, was situated near Old Fort Grant, but neither the rock in place, earth, nor stones that compose the walls examined by the author in that neighborhood have a red color. 430 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 may have been the last rancheria on the San Pedro mentioned by Kino in 1694 and called by him Victoria del Ojio. The chief of this settlement was named Humari. It consisted of 70 houses, the walls of which were made of sticks and matting and contained 380 persons. One of these houses was capacious enough to hold all the soldiers in the expedition. 2.—RuIn Opposite MonMoutH Just across the San Pedro, opposite Monmouth, there is an inter- esting ruin, the stone walls of which are situated on an elevation overlooking the river. sates Ay is 2 tt sete Ayes ' NUH = “Yh, , Sar . * ZL ipyare arts ‘jf ern ree cere Nase ce alyssa 86 Tee etn a "yee tt . = Fic. 73.—Ruin opposite Monmouth This ruin consists of a central building, the subterranean rooms of which, excavated by Mr. Childs, have a surrounding wall (fig. 73) inclosing a rectangular area measuring about 275 feet on the north and 178 on the west sides. The wall of this inclosure cannot be followed throughout, as there is a continuation of the wall beyond the rectangle on the south side. On the east side there are several rooms, the form and dimensions of which were not traced with any accuracy. ‘This settlement may have been Kino’s Tutoida,! said to have been situated 18 miles south of the mouth of the Arivaipa. *The rancheria at this point was composed of 20 houses and 100 souls, ac- cording to Kino’s diary. NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 431 3.— SEVEN Mite RuIN This ruin is situated 7 miles from Monmouth, on the left bank of the river. One takes the road on the east side of the river to Clark’s ranch, then crosses it to the bluffs on the side. These bluffs have been very much eroded since the site was inhabited and many ‘of the walls have been washed out, revealing many specimens of minor antiquities. The surface of the ground is covered in places with fragments of pottery. There are no high mounds, but the rooms are indicated by the tops of their walls projecting out of the sand. These rooms seem to have been arranged in blocks. \Utl AA wt RAN wit OCU et \ R i EN ity jANiN ISMN Leah Wee SEP yak Ly SS utettny St \} wy itt HUANG A bi, Peace eE] ETG 7a 4.—RUIN NEAR CLARK’S RANCH This ruin is remarkable in having indications of circular rooms that remind one of kivas or subterranean “pit dwellings.” These resemble reservoirs or wells, their true nature being as yet unknown. 5.—FIFTEEN MILE RuIN This ruin (fig. 74) is situated 15 miles up the river from Mon- mouth, on the opposite side of the road from a small ranch house. Not far from it there is a natural rock formation of red color that might be mistaken for a house perched on topof a much-eroded mesa. It is suggested that this building may have been at or near the site of Kino’s rancheria Arivaipa, which was not more than 27 miles from the mouth of the Arivaipa Canyon. 432 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Specimens from San Pedro Ruins The only collection of small antiquities from the ruins along the San Pedro examined by the author are those owned by Mr. E. O. Childs, at Monmouth, who has kindly allowed the author to exam- ine and publish an account of them. ‘The prehistoric inhabitants of this valley cremated?* their dead, a vessel with calcined human bones’ having been found by the author near one of the houses at the ruin 15 miles above Monmouth, where the majority of objects were obtained. The most remarkable specimen in the collection (fig. 75, a, b) is the figure made of black stone resembling lava and representing a quadruped with curved horns like those of a mountain sheep. The most unusual feature of the specimen is a circular depression in the back, notched on the rim, as shown in the figure.? Several clay effigy figures (fig. 75, c, f, 4), among which are the two-figured, have been found in the San Pedro ruins. An arrow polisher and a circular stone disk recalls similar objects found in the ruins on the Gila. Perhaps the most exceptional piece of pottery consisted of a double neck of a vase, d, of which the bowl is missing. The pottery is a dark brown ware, smooth on the surface and deco- rated. The people of the San Pedro had flat shovels made of slate, not unlike those from Casa Grande, and made use of perforated stones, g, and ornaments, e, recalling those commonly excavated in the Salt River Valley ruins. The culture of the people, as shown by the small collections of known objects, did not greatly differ from that of the rest of the Gila, but environmental conditions did not lead to the erection of Casas Grandes like those near Phcenix and Tempe. CoNCLUSIONS From the points where the Gila River and its two tributaries, the Salt and Santa Cruz, emerge from the mountains, their broad val- leys become level or rolling and slightly elevated, forming low mesas. These valleys are practically deserts, on which the rainfall is not “Two methods of disposal of the dead—one, house burial; the other, crema- tion—existed among the inhabitants of the Great Houses of the Gila-Salt region. ‘This might mean that two distinct peoples occupied this valley or that the builders of the Casas Grandes were composite in stock. Possibly it might be interpreted as an indication that one of the components was akin to tribes near the mouth of the Gila, where cremation is still practised. “There is a similar stone idol in the museum of the University of Arizona, at Tucson. NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—TEW KES 433 ae ee ee Aah oT cee a fe Fic. 75.—Prehistoric objects from San Pedro Valley A434 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 regular enough for successful agriculture without irrigation. They present a good field for the evolution of a sedentary, agricultural stage of human culture dependent on artificial irrigation. The ex- tent of the aboriginal ditches that can be traced for miles show that the prehistoric inhabitants had discovered and applied a more exten- sive system of irrigation than any of their contemporaries who dwelt in other sections of what is now the United States. Here was developed a highly organized autochthonous stage of social life which we have good evidence to believe was of great antiquity.’ The indications are that it was from this center that there radiated a form of culture which influenced the whole area now embraced in the territories of New Mexico and Arizona and the southern parts of Utah and Colorado. In order successfully to bring an area of the size of the Gila and Salt River valleys under cultivation, the construction of large irriga- tion ditches was necessary, but these great canals could not be dug by individuals, and were possible only through cooperation of many workers. There must have been an intelligent leader to carry this work to completion. This cooperation of many under one head meant a high social organization. The natural result would be a sociological condition higher than any that existed among bands of hunters, fishermen, or even agriculturists depending on natural rain- falls. A people accustomed to building irrigation canals naturally be- came accustomed to cooperation and combined to construct other public works, as houses for defense, for ceremony, or for storage purposes. Hence there occur with these extensive irrigation ditches great houses, and wherever the population was the densest, there are great buildings and canals, the most numerous and largest.2 Such Casas Grandes as the Gila compounds are to be expected among people in this high social condition resulting from cooperation. There seems no valid objection to the theory that these settlements were built by ancestors of the present house-building Indians of the Southwest. It can hardly be supposed that the builders of these Casas Grandes disappeared from their native land without descend- ants, even if they lost the habit of constructing massive houses and “A somewhat similar culture arose independently in the valley of the Casas Grandes in Chihuahua, which in certain arts, as ceramics, reached a higher stage of development, perhaps being unmolested for a longer period. * The existence of artificial reservoirs, or vashki, in the deserts, miles from any compound, implies an aboriginal population in their neighborhood living in huts, or jacales, the walls of which can no longer be traced. No. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 435 compounds. ‘The ancient mode of life and difference in their style of building from that of Pueblos and Pimas are adduced to support the theory that the latter are not descendants of the inhabitants of the Casas Grandes. It is held that when the ancients left their houses they migrated into other lands, where we should now look for their descendants. This supposed disappearance of the ancients was a favorite theory with some early writers, like Clavijero, who identified the ancients of the Gila Valley as Aztecs and regarded these buildings as marking one of the halting places of the Mexicans in their southern migrations. Some authors have gone so far as to regard the Gila Valley as a cradle of Aztec culture.* Other writers have held that the descendants of the original peo- ples migrated into the northern mountains and later built the cliff houses and pueblos of northern Arizona and New Mexico. It is probable that certain clans were driven away from their homes and forced into other regions by the changed conditions as inroads of hostiles. This theory is in fact supported by legends still told by the Hopi and other pueblo people. It is logical to suppose that other clans of prehistoric builders remained in the valley and continued to live in houses similar to those their ancestors inhabited, even after they had lost the custom of building the massive walled structures that distinguish the ancient phase of their culture. The survivors of those who remained are the modern Pimas Kwahadts and Papa- gos, whose legends distinctly state that the ancients (hohokam) built Casa Grande. The abandonment of the custom of building Casas Grandes dates back to prehistoric times, and none of the great buildings in the Gila were constructed subsequent to the arrival of the Spaniards. Casa Grande was a ruin when Kino discovered it, and the great buildings along the Salt River appeared to have been abandoned before Casa Grande was deserted, for old Pima legends state that the Great Houses of the Salt River were the oldest in the valley. The war between nomads and the house-builders of the Gila, who overthrew the Casas Grandes, had practically ceased before the advent of the Spaniards, although in 1694 the Sobypuri along the San Pedro were holding back the Apaches,? a hostile encroachment from the east. *No doubt some of the people did migrate southward, but the acceptance of this conclusion does not mean that they later became Aztecs. There is little in common between objects found in the valley of Mexico and that of the Gila. * There is nothing to show that these people overthrew the inhabitants of the Casas Grandes, and it is much more likely that the earliest foes of the people of the Great Houses came from the west, from the Gulf of California. 3 430 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 A few years later the Sobypuri were forced westward and the Pimas, who were probably the offspring of an earlier union of hos- tiles and the house-builders they conquered, retreated to Casa Blanca and Sacaton, leaving the Apaches to raid the whole of the eastern part of the Gila Valley, including the San Pedro. The author would state in conclusion that he believes the abandon- ment of the Casas Grandes was brought about by an invasion of nomads from farther down the river, in prehistoric times. The aborigines who inhabited the valley of the Gila when the Spaniards first entered it were a mixed race, with blood of conquered and con- queror. These people—Pimas, Papagos, and others—practically inhabited fragile walled houses built in two forms—some rectangu- lar, others circular—the former of which were practically the same as those of their ancestors who built the Casas Grandes. The cir- cular dwellings may have been introduced by the alien prehistoric hostiles from the west. As the Great Houses on the Salt and Santa Cruz seem to have been destroyed before those on the Gila, the con- clusion would be that the prehistoric enemies came from the west and south. The advent of the Apaches and their struggles with the mixed race that replaced the builders of the Casas Grandes is a sub- sequent practically historical event. DESCRIPTION OF A NEW FROG FROM, THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS By LEONHARD STEJNEGER Curator, DIvIsION oF REPTILES AND BatracuiAns, U. S. Nationa, MuszEuM Having received through the courtesy of Mr. Thomas Barbour a topotype of Duméril and Bibron’s Rana macrodon from Java, a sus- picion entertained by me for several years has received confirma- tion, namely, that the species occurring in the Philippine Islands, and commonly recorded as Rana macrodon, in reality is a well- differentiated form. I therefore propose to separate it under a dis- tinctive name. RANA MAGNA, new species Diagnosis—First finger longer than second; a distinct dermal flap along outer edge of fifth toe and metatarsal; no outer metatarsal tubercle; tympanum one-half diameter of eye, or less, its distance from eye larger than or equaling its own diameter; vomerine teeth in two oblique series between and behind the choane, their distance from the choanz nearly equaling the diameter of the latter; upper surface smooth, with numerous small pointed tubercles on sacrum and upper surface of tibia. Habitat.—Philippine Islands. T ype-specimen.—Cat. No. 35231, U. S. N. M.; Mount Apo, Min- danao, between Todaya and camp, 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude; Dr. E. A. Mearns, collector. Description of type-specimen.—Vomerine teeth in two oblique series between and behind the choane, their distance from the choane nearly equaling the diameter of the latter; two bony “teeth,” 6 mm. long, near the anterior end of lower jaw fitting into deep holes in the upper; head large, broad, its width at tympanum greater than distance from tip of snout to posterior rim of tympanum; snout short, rounded; canthus rostralis well-defined, angular; nostril just below canthus; distance between nostrils but slightly less than their distance from eye, greater than their distance from lip and greater than width of upper eyelid; interorbital space somewhat wider than upper eyelid; lores concave; tympanum very distinct, its diameter slightly less than one-half the diameter of the eye, and distant from the latter by nearly twice its own diameter; first finger longer than 437 438 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 second; toes fully webbed; fifth metatarsal and toe externally mar- gined with a dermal flap 2 mm. wide; digits terminated by well- developed knobs; subarticular tubercles well developed; inner meta- tarsal tubercle long and narrow, rather weak; no outer metatarsal tubercle; a distinct tarsal fold; heel of extended hind leg reaches between eye and nostril; heels not overlapping; skin loose, smooth, with numerous minute, pointed tubercles on sacrum and on the upper aspect of tibia, particularly towards the heel; a few blunt tubercles on the posterior part of upper eyelid; on the sides indications of blunt tubercles; a strong cutaneous fold from posterior corner of eye to above and behind tympanum; a distinct fold across the poste- rior part of the interorbital space. Color (in alcohol) above very dark chocolate brown, with faint indications of darker blotches which form obscure cross-bars on the hind legs; hind aspect of femur blackish with whitish marblings; underside pale, with dense brownish vermiculations on the legs and coarser and paler ones on abdomen, becoming very faint and indistinct on chest and throat; underside of hind feet and tarsus dark chocolate brown, with pale subarticular tubercles, tarsal fold and terminal digital knobs; a blackish band from nostril to eye and blackish blotches on upper and lower lips. Dimensions. mm Total length’ from snout to’ vents s.c2. feck che eke 113) SHOUCTIO “Eye. ck aa patcnes nce Oe eee eee 21. Snout to posterior border of tympanum............... 44. INDSttil SRG KEV C piece cal ectvetec/ad ale aod eee aie Distances hetween nostrils: jacs.c. ooh ca cee eee 10.5 Interocbital swidthy sec. tact akec ck sass Rae eee 10.5 Width ot wpper eyelid: 2.7.c.s0ces ce eeenenn te tee 8.5 Diameter: OL eye isilsees calcos wen eak actrne eee oo eta TD, Diameter of tympani is.:fsonee homesick Cae ee ae a5 Wadthéor head iat tympanumecs .. ssencete ie eee 45. POLE eS sale Te catia neces vane eet Eee 56. PUADIA gee ore ene axe are CaN eI oer che SEE 56. Remarks.—A large series of old, adolescent, and young specimens from Mindanao, Basilan, Mindoro, and Luzon bear out the charac- ters assigned to this new form. The younger specimens have a narrower head, longer and more pointed snout, and narrower inter- orbital space. It is therefore necessary, when comparing them with related species, always to select specimens of exactly the correspond- ing age. It is well to remember that the same size does not neces- sarily indicate the same age. No. 1874 NEW FROG FROM THE PHILIPPINES—STEJ NEGER 439 Rana magna is most nearly related to Rana macrodon, which was originally described from Java, and has since been found in many of the other Malayan islands as well as on the mainland. It is a smaller species, however, and if we compare Philippine adult speci- mens with specimens of the same size from Java and Sumatra, the difference is indeed striking, because the latter, being so much younger, have a correspondingly longer snout and narrower inter- orbital space; but the differences are less striking if we compare the very largest western specimens with the oldest Philippine specimens— for instance, the type—though they are numerous enough and obvi- ous enough to demonstrate the distinctness of the latter. ‘The most important difference and the one which can be traced through all stages is that in the size and location of the vomerine teeth series. In Fk. macrodon these originate close to the inner anterior border of the choane and extend very obliquely backwards, while in R. magna they are separated from the choanz by a space almost as wide as the latter; their position is less oblique, sometimes almost trans- verse, and the series are also appreciably shorter. In addition, the tympanum is considerably smaller, apparently never exceeding one- half the diameter of the eye. The nostrils are also located more apart than in R. macrodon, besides many minor and less easily appreciated differences. A NEW GENUS OF FOSSIL CETACEANS FROM SANTA CRUZ TERRITORY, PATAGONIA; AND DESCRIP- TION OF A MANDIBLE AND VERTEBRE OF PROSQUALODON By FREDERICK W. TRUE Heap Curator oF Biotocy, U. S$. Nationa, MusrEuM Wit THREE PLATES Some months ago Prof. W. B. Scott, of Princeton University, placed in my hands for study two specimens of fossil cetaceans from Patagonia, one of which proves to belong to an undescribed genus; the other represents the genus Prosqualodon, and affords new information regarding the mandible, teeth, and vertebre. The first of these specimens (No. 15459) comprises two large and two small fragments of a skull of a fossil toothed whale, collected by the late J. B. Hatcher, April 24, 1899, in the Patagonian Beds at Darwin Station, Santa Cruz Territory, Patagonia. Upon examina- tion it proves to be an undescribed form, allied to Jia, but much larger. In order to bring it to the attention of cetologists I propose to describe it under the name of PROINIA PATAGONICA, new genus and species The specimen consists only of the cranium, from which the ros- trum has been broken off immediately in front of the blowholes. It has been strongly compressed vertically, so that the basioccipital and supraoccipital are nearly in the same plane. The blowholes have also been forced backward and upward. All the under parts of the skull anterior to the basioccipital, together with the earbones, jugals, and the right zygomatic process are lacking. “The remaining parts are in a good state of preservation, but the surface and contours have been considerably modified by excessive chiseling. The skull resembles Jnia more closely than it does any other recent or fossil form with which I am acquainted, but is much larger. The most salient points of resemblance are the strongly elevated vertex, consisting of the large, rectangular anterior median pro- cesses of the frontal; the relatively narrow orbital plates of the frontal; the anterior position of the orbit; the quite large temporal 441 442 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 fossee, bounded above by strong ridges, and internally by the convex surfaces of the parietals and squamosals. The similarity to /nia in the foregoing characters is close enough to make it quite certain that the form is really allied to that genus, but the skull presents differences of sufficient importance, in my opinion, to justify its separation under a distinct generic name. These differences are as follows: The free margins of the orbital plates of the frontal, instead of being nearly parallel, as in Jmia, diverge strongly anteriorly. The greater part of the surface of the plates is, furthermore, nearly horizontal, but is strongly curved down- ward anteriorly, and the external free margin is not bent upward. The temporal fossze appear not to have extended to or beyond the line of the occipital condyles, as they do in Inia, and the region of the exoccipitals is broad and flat, rather than narrow and concave, as in Inia. ‘The zygomatic process is oval and convex externally, as in many of the Delphinide, rather than rectangular and concave externally, as in Jia. The most anterior portion of the skull which has been preserved consists of the orbital plates of the frontal. These are smooth superiorly, and might be considered to consist of the maxillary and frontal plates consolidated, but the smoothness is, I think, due in part to excessive chiseling, and the structure, as shown in section at the broken edges, seems to support this view. The greater part of the surface is flat, but posteriorly it becomes concave, and anteriorly convex and curved downward. The plates diverge strongly, and the right one is broken off a little in front of the postorbital process. This process is short and rather blunt, and is directed downward. Its form is, therefore, quite unlike that of Inia. The orbit, which is situated well forward, appears to have been relatively quite large. The free margin of the orbit is thin. The median processes of the frontal at the vertex are very large and strongly elevated, and are squared and smooth superiorly. They resemble the nasals of the Right whales. The external sur- faces are vertical. The nasals and premaxille are lacking. The shape of the maxillary plates can not be determined, but was probably the same as in Jiia, the postero-internal angle being bent up so as to rest against the vertical sides of the median frontal processes. The position of the blowholes has been altered by vertical com- pression, so that they stand above the level of the orbital plates of the frontal. ‘They are small, relatively, and are separated from each other by a wide interval, which appears to indicate that the superior portion of the septum has been broken off. Anteriorly, the end of the large elliptical mass of the mesethmoid is seen. NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 443 On the under surface of the frontal plates the most conspicuous feature is the optic canal, which is deep proximally, and runs at an angle of 45° with the longitudinal axis of the skull. It dies away distally, before reaching the free margin of the orbit. The larger fragment of the skull consists of the occipital, squa- mosal, and parietal bones. The basioccipital? is somewhat fractured, and the inferior surface has been abraded and more or less altered by chiseling. It is broad and nearly flat medially, and appears not to have had the transverse ridge which is so noticeable in Inia. The lateral free margins are thick. Nearly all of the median portion of the supraoccipital is lacking, but the general surface appears to have been nearly plane, with the lateral margins nearly parallel and the anterior margin forming an obtuse angle. The occipital crest is low and broad, with sloping sides, rather than thin and erect, as in Jnia. It appears not to have been greatly thickened anteriorly, as it is in Inia. Posteriorly it dies away altogether, so that there is no barrier between the squamosal and occipital. This conformation is due to the small extension of the temporal fossz posteriorly, as compared with /nia and many of the Delphinide. The exoccipitals are oblong, broad, nearly flat, and but little inclined backward. They resemble the same parts in Balenoptera and other whalebone whales, rather than in Jnia. The occipital condyles are rather narrow, and do not project much from the surface of the occipital bone. The squamous portion of the temporal is oblong and slightly con- cave below, and is separated from the zygomatic process by a very shallow groove. The latter process is short and convex externally, and appears to have been moderately acute anteriorly, but the apex is broken off on the left side, while on the right the whole process is lacking. The free margin of the zygomatic process is thin, and the postgenoid is well developed, thin, and directed downward. The interval between it and the exoccipital is small relatively. The tem- poral fossa gets its great breadth chiefly from the breadth and in- clined position of the parietal bone, and very little from the lateral extension of the zygomatic process, the root of which is very short. The glenoid surface is broad and only moderately concave, and is rendered uneven by several low, rounded, transverse ridges. The inferior mastoid surface is broad and concave. The periotic region, unlike that of Inia, is quite smooth, but the position of the various vacuities and foramina cannot be determined. *I am not sure that a portion of the basisphenoid is not attached to this. 444 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 Dimensions of the type-skull of Proinia patagonica mm. Breadth between'sthexorbits) (Gest) ean acres tact atte re eine creer teers 292 Length from posterior margin of the frontal in the median line to anterior end. of *the timesefhmoid...5. Wass ake ee ob ioe oc tec nee ee eee 121 Lerigth of the tnasal. process.of ‘the’ tromtalin,. - ww «. Gace iach cee = eee 52 Breadthvofuthestwo nasal processes cr aericis. creche ote etcetera reraree 86 Greatest breadth of the orbital process of the frontal.................08- 57 east ibreadthy between the ablowlrolessepeeeme eo teen cee ce nice ener 30 Greatest breadth across zygomatic processes (eSt.)..........+2-ceeceee- 350: Length from surface of occipital condyles to anterior end of basi- OCCIDICA] Beene Sisleacc ate ee ee Selo ce note aie Bie nie SORE Ra OER eee gl Breadth vacross occipital icondyles.7 2-5 -ccteo cok icin ce eiontenioe eee aioe ete 112 Least distance between condyles:./.) soe aces cee sco nee ince ie ieee > Greatéstybreadth ot right icondyle 27.0.1, oe oae coe: os cee Ries eee an Fleightyor the, Sattie..¢a3:.s.iececwone weevoeeh Gi raeisiee Oe CEE ee 67 Greatest) breadth ‘of Sbasioccipitalis ee on eee eee ce ee cee 159 Distance from occipital condyle to post-glenoid process of zygomatic...... 122 Breadth sbetween-exoccipitals a@est poe enm sateen ner cee e acn ee oenenoe 250 engthvor zygomatichprocess «(apexplackine) @seseeaeEeene ee eine ene 80 Breadth otwelenoidmsurtace: sc eiee eee nek Cee er ce Bee 277 Breadth of temporal ossac. css stoners 6 oe attia sac oe ere ee ae go: ength of temporal fossa MCest.)4ocore os ohio ise ee oe late eee 218 Distance from superior margin of occipital condyles to vertex........... 140 Least distance sbetween, temporal fossa (est.) .. o« cans cicn eo cie te ees 113: CERVICAL VERTEBRA This skull is accompanied by a cervical vertebra (fig. 76), col- lected at San Julian by Mr. Hatcher two days before the former. There seems little room for doubt that this vertebra belongs to the same species as the skull. The neural canal has almost the same width as that of the foramen magnum. The vertebra resembles the third cervical of Inia in general ap- pearance, but differs from it in size and thickness, and in various details. ‘The centrum is somewhat more than one-half as long as broad ; the neural canal is as broad as the centrum and is about one- half as high as it is broad, while in Jia it is much higher than broad’ and much less broad than the centrum. ‘The neural spine is some- what broken, but was evidently very small when complete. On ac- count of the length of the centrum and of the top of the neural arch, the anterior and posterior zygapophyses are widely separated, instead. of overlapping, as they do in Inia. The zygapophyses themselves are oval, or nearly circular, and quite flat. The anterior pair are directed upward and inward, and the posterior downward and out- ward. ‘The transverse process is very broad, and is pierced by the NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 445 vertebrarterial foramen, which is elliptical and very large, and was complete originally. The base of the portion of the process below the foramen is thick and nearly horizontal, while the terminal portion is expanded and rather thin, and is nearly vertical, but a little in- clined forward below. The portion above the foramen is slender and nearly cylindrical. The process as a whole resembles that of Inia, but in that genus the vertebrarterial foramen is incomplete. The centrum of the vertebra of Proinia has a median ridge supe- riorly and inferiorly, while the sides opposite the vertebraterial foramina are deeply concave. The anterior epiphysis is slightly con- vex and the posterior one a little concave. Both are anchylosed to the centrum and are thin, The dimensions of the vertebra are as follows: Length of centrum, 31 mm.; breadth of centrum, 51; depth of centrum, 46; greatest breadth of vertebra across trans- verse processes, 108 (?) ; greatest height from inferior margin of centrum to tip of neural spine, 85; height of neural canal, 30; Fic. 76.—Third cervical vertebra of breadth of the same, 51; length Proinia patagonica, new species. of neural arch in the median line Anterior surface. One-half nat. size. above, 18; distance between tips of anterior and posterior zyga- pophyses on either side, 50; length of anterior zygapophysis, 15; breadth of the same, 14; length of posterior zygapophysis, 19; breadth of the same, 15; height of vertebrarterial foramen, 24; breadth of the same, 17. Without more complete material, it appears to me unwise to attempt many generalizations as to the origin and relationships of the form here described. It is much larger than Jnia, and that it is quite distinct will, I think, be conceded; as also that it is rather closely related to the latter genus, warranting its assignment to the family Iniidz. Iam unable to see that it throws any considerable light on the origin of this family, although it is in some respects less special- ized than Juia. As compared with the latter, generalized characters are observable in the thin walls, large size, and only moderately an- terior position of the orbit; the larger extension of the frontals at the vertex; short postorbital process; moderately large temporal fosse, and perhaps the flat basioccipital and the meniscoid zygomatic pro- cesses ; also in the length of the cervical vertebre. 446 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 If Professor Abel’s views' regarding the origin of the Iniidz be correct, Proima should show a much closer approximation to Squalo- don than does Inia. I do not see that such is the case. The only characters which might be construed as showing a leaning toward Squalodon are, perhaps, the shape of the zygomatic processes and of the median processes of the frontals, and the rather flat basiocci- pital region. Squalodon is in many respects a specialized form, and, in my opinion, hardly to be considered as belonging on the main stem of development. Of known forms, I should prefer to take the point of departure from Agorophius, but Proinia appears to show no closer resemblance to that genus than it does to Squalodon. It has to be considered also, as is indicated below, that Proinia occurs with Prosqualodon, a near relative of Squalodon, in the Pata- gonian beds. It can hardly be supposed that Proinia has been de- rived from this form, which appears to be contemporary. The squalodont type and the inioid type appear to have been thoroughly differentiated and well established in the early Miocene, and we must look back further for the progenitors of the latter, as we certainly must for those of the former. OTHER ACCOMPANYING VERTEBRA A series of five thoracic vertebra and a caudal vertebra, No. 15439, collected at Darwin Station by Mr. Hatcher, April 22, 1899, might from a superficial examination be considered as possibly belonging with the skull and cervical vertebra of Proinia. It is my opinion, however, that they are rather too small, and they do not exhibit any tangible inioid characters. Most of the epiphyses are detached, showing that the individual was comparatively young; two of them, which are very thin, have been preserved separately. The anterior metapophyses are much elevated above the centra, horizontal, flat- tened, and continued backward on the sides of the neural arch as a sharp ridge. The neural spines were broad antero-posteriorly, and, except in the caudal, appear to have been strongly inclined backward. The transverse processes are preserved on one or both sides of two of the thoracics. In one case they are flat, broad antero-posteriorly, linear, and not expanded at the extremity. In another thoracic they appear to have been somewhat expanded at the extremity, at least anteriorly. All the vertebree have sharp, thin median inferior carinz on the centra. The latter are shorter than broad, and somewhat pentagonal *Mém. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, 3, 1905, pp. 41 and 123. NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 447 in outline anteriorly and posteriorly, but the upper margin is more or less rounded. The two sides of the centra below the transverse processes are quite concave, but without distinct channels. The foregoing combination of characters appears to me to indicate a relation to some of the North American forms which have been assigned to the nominal genus Priscodelphinus, such as P. hawkinsi, harlani, etc. The dimensions of the vertebre are as follows: Dimensions of five thoracic vertebrae, No. 15439 | | (eres wesc eS, + 5 : | | mM, mM, | Mmm, MM. mM. enethvor Cenmtriitt a: 4). 2 wea ates ccc. her 4 39 40° | 40: | 40 | 45 Height of anterior face of centrum......... | 45 Aste lan Aran ita een | 49 Breadth of anterior face of centrum........ 52 52. |) 54 54 55 Height of posterior face of centrum........| 42.5) 46 |...... Asim eA Breadth of posterior face of centrum....... eSOnS 52h 54 54. 57 Height to anterior extremity of metapoph- | | ysis TE Eo eek Shs ae eax 7 i es ke ges) 74(?) Projection of metapophyses anteriorly be- | | | youd margin of neural arch.............. Nestea tei 2oteyas een ey. Drees aes: Breadth of neural arch at base, antero-pos- | HERIOT ive ree Mince cxeies cr iheletanl a oleiste eke eles 29 29 30 21 2 Breadth of neural canal anteriorly......... 25 |e ee 2On | aot. 16 Breadth of neural canal posteriorly......... 26 2d 20 23.5| 18 Antero-posterior breadth of neural spine | in a horizontal line immediately above | | | ZN LFA O DLV SE Sty Wen cueyaie a sien ea hay store Casret icin ks | ASS 1 MA lye kena sees 34 Breadth of transverse process at base........ | 34 33 35 32 35 Breadth of transverse process at extremity...| 28(?)| 26 | .....|...... |eim eae | PROSQUALODON AUSTRALIS Lydekker Prosqualodon australis LypEKKER, Anal. Mus. de la Plata, Pal. Argentina, vol. 2, art. 2, p. 8, pl. 4, Apr., 18904; Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1899, p. 919, ieSacle2: The material turned over to me for study by Professor Scott in- cludes portions of the skeleton of this species, comprising (1) a por- tion of the right half of a mandible with two teeth in position; (2) a portion of a left ramus; (3) eight separate teeth; (4) a nearly per- fect atlas and two thoracic vertebre; (5) two pieces of ribs; (6) a tympanic bone; (7) a periotic bone. ‘These were collected from the Patagonian beds at San Julian, April 22, 1899, by J. B. Hatcher. A detailed comparison of these remains with Doctor Lydekker’s figures and description leaves no doubt in my mind that they repre- sent Prosqualodon australis. ‘The right ramus of the mandible is nearly complete posteriorly, the coronoid process being perfect and 448 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 the condyle nearly so, while only a small portion of the angle is lack- ing. ‘The jaw contains five alveoli, in two of which—the penultimate one and the next but one anterior to it—the teeth are still in posi- tion. ‘The fragment of the left ramus is very imperfect, only a small portion of the inferior border being complete and no alveoli present. Of the separate teeth, one appears to be a right lower molar, and probably belongs between the two which are in place in the mandi- ble; three others are single-rooted teeth from the anterior end of the mandible on the right side, and the remaining four appear to belong to the upper jaw. Of the latter, two are single-rooted, one has indi- cations of three roots, and is probably a premolar, and the last is a short tooth with two fused roots—possibly a last molar. MANDIBLE The dimensions of the jaw, compared with those of the same part in the type specimen, as indicated by Doctor Lydekker’s figures, are as follows: Dimensions of two mandibles of Prosqualodon australis ery Type of en Pe eine Total length of the fragment containing 5 posterior mm. mm. BILVEOLUS cae rican aslo eater nica he eet a eietmer teens 445 420 (?) Distance from condyle to posterior alveolus......... 290 297 Height of jaw at ‘coromoid process...) tiny. visi si QUT hl 20 chee eee Distance from highest part of coronoid process to inferior marcinof condyle. ).2,.5.m. -eaeisseei alee 204 225 (?) Depth of jaw at postertor alveolus: .. 2.0.2. sce soo 95 78 Length of last four alveoli taken together.......... 124 | 120 Length of penultimate tooth at alveolus............ 30 30 Breadth of penultimate tooth at alveolus........... LBL fo Uraiseeieteree sence Least distance externally between crown and alve- OLS LOL spent timatestooLhenweeeerie reesei 17 9 Meneth ofierownirat base arrose iciclawcks oiseieyeicietereierarer 21 21 Whicknessofacrown) at basesejacie sani cee lectern: TA Me terete | 1Angle defective. 2 Border defective below (?). The correspondence in size and proportions between the two speci- mens is evidently very close, the chief difference, apparently, being that the teeth protrude more from the alveoli in the San Julian jaw. In the latter specimen the apex of the coronoid process is obtuse and is directed backward. The superior margin of the jaw near the apex of this process is 15 mm. broad and is inclined outward. An- teriorly it becomes more everted, narrower, and more rounded, but broadens out again as it approaches the posterior alveolus, and is NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 449 nearly horizontal. The internal surface below the apex of the coro- noid process is concave. The condyle is oval, small, and projects outward strongly. Orig- inally it was about 50 mm. deep and 35 mm. broad. The orifice of the inferior dental canal is situated about 180 mm. anterior to the condyle and appears to have been relatively small. Opposite the penultimate tooth the jaw is 33 mm. broad. The alveoli are shallow, the penultimate one being about 19 mm. deep. The septa between the molars are not more than one or two millimeters thick, but appear to have reached the level of the superior margin of the jaw when complete. The teeth themselves were very close to each other, if not actually in contact. TEETH All the teeth are closed at the roots, and, with one exception, have a large part of the crown worn away, indicating (as do the vertebre) that the individual was adult or old. The dimensions of the several teeth preserved are given below. ‘The separate teeth are referred to by the numbers of the figures on plate XLIV. Dimensions of teeth of Prosqualodon australis Upper Upper . Lower single- | molari- single- Lower molariform teeth. | Jooted teeth. form rooted teeth. teeth. ima, | ce iE ee ee | a Sie se o |u | 6a /2£5)/ 82) 2 | 2. | rig. | Fig.| Fig.| Fig.| Fis. | Fig. | Fi 25 5S As P= ag B.| Fal g- g.- aaa 1g. g- 0y|3590)] & y aoa 5- 5 7- 3. 4. I. 2: ~s aw | Uuo;] & x | n 5 jw 3 | o uv aoa ° ot By Iss) 8) | eee ea | | | y | | © " 4] | » shotal@lenigithvrrs case. Pee Son |eiie =|) O27) OMA FAC 7243) 8271-97 2 Length of root....... we AS sollaco a) se | GC! OR Ih Gre || ey ih td I ey Greatest antero-pos- terior diameter of | TOOL cectasipersccs cits Bon 29). \230)| 200) 25 teT Sc e20) |a225 e26) | 27 7 | a7 Greatest transverse | diameter of-root,.. 3) r14) 18) || 191), 15 | 10") 15 | 18) 18" | 20) 15 || 16.) 17 Antero-posterior di- | | ameter of crown at ; DASE ree cas adc Saco) 22 Wecbell 2ailloooalidocl| 1S) |} atid Aa I] ads) Transverse diameter of crown at base...|....| TAS Weep oral WL oy heres