is " Manta ul eancunts: eae = beau CRE anu. Na SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 ** EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESHARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN ’’—SMITHSON (PUBLICATION 2320) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1914 CBe Lord Galtimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U.S. A. ADVERTISEMENT The present series, entitled “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec- tions,” is intended to embrace the principal publications issued directly by the Smithsonian Institution in octavo form; and is designed to contain reports on the present state of our knowledge of particular branches of science, instructions for collecting and digesting facts and materials for research, lists and synopses of species of the organic and inorganic world, reports of explorations, aids to bibliographical investigations, etc., generally prepared at the express request of the Institution. The “ Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” in quarto form, embraces the records of extended original investigations and researches, resulting in what are believed to be new truths, and constituting positive additions to the sum of human knowledge. In both of these series each article bears a distinct number, and is also separately paged unless the entire volume relates to ore subject. The date of the publication of each article is that given on its special title-page, and not that of the volume in which it is placed. In many cases papers have been published and largely distributed, several months before their combination into volumes. CHAS. D/ WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. J (iii) Io. CONTENTS . HinspaLe, Guy. Atmospheric air in relation to tuberculosis. Published June 22, 1914. x+136 pp., 93 pls. (Publication Number 2254.) . Crark, AusTIN Hopart. Notes on some specimens of a species of Onychophore (Oroperipatus corradoi) new to the fauna of Panama. February 21, 1914. 2 pp. (Pub. No. 2261.) . GILMORE, CHARLES, W. A new Ceratopsian dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Montana, with note on Hypacrosaurus. March 21, 1914. lopp.,2 pls. (Pub. No. 2262.) . Prrtier, H. On the relationship of the genus Aulacocarpus, with description of a new Panamanian species. March 18, 1914 4-pp. (Pub. No: 2264.) . GOLDMAN, E. A. Descriptions of five new mammals from Pan- ama. March 14,1914. 7 pp. (Pub. No. 2266.) . FowLe, FREDERICK E. Smithsonian Physical Tables. Sixth revised edition. November 10, 1914. xxxvi+355 pp. (Pub. No. 2269.) . HELLER, Epmunp. New subspecies of mammals from Equa- torial Africa... June 24, 1914. 12 pp. (Pub. No. 2272.) . Explorations and field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1913. November 27, 1914. 88 pp. (Pub. No. 2275.) . McInpoo, N. E. The olfactory sense of insects. November 21, “1994. 63" pp. (Pub, No: 2315.) FEewkEs, J. WALTER. Archeology of the Lower Mimbres Valley, New Mexico. December 18, 1914. 53 pp., 8 pls. (Pub. No. 2316.) (v) od SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 63, NUMBER 1] Hodgkins Fund ATMOSPHERIC AIR IN RELATION TO TUBERCULOSIS (WitH 93 PLates) BY GUY HINSDALE, A. M., M. D. Hort Sprincs, VIRGINIA. Secretary of the American Climatological Association; Ex-President Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Tuberculosis; Fellow of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia; Associate Professor of Climatology, Medico-Chirurgical College; Member of the American Neurological Asso- ciation; Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, Great Britain; Corresponding Member of the International Anti-Tuberculosis Association, etc. wPesc0000e® (Pusiication 2254) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1914 TBe Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U.S. A. ADVERTISEMENT The accompanying paper, by Dr. Guy Hinsdale, on “ Atmospheric Air in Relation to Tuberculosis,” is one of nearly a hundred essays entered in competition for a prize of $1,500 offered by the Smith- sonian Institution for the best treatise ‘‘ On the Relation of Atmos- pheric Air to Tuberculosis,” to be presented in connection with the International Congress on Tuberculosis held in Washington, Sep- tember 21 to October 12, 1908. The essays were submitted to a Committee of Award, consisting of Dr. William H. Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, Chairman ; Prof. William M. Davis, of Harvard University ; Dr. George M. Sternberg, Surgeon-General, U. S. A., Ret’d; Dr. Simon Flexner, Director of Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York; Dr. Hermann M. Biggs, of New York, General Medical Officer, Department of Health, New York City ; Dr. George Dock, Medical Department, Washington Univer- sity, St. Louis; and Dr. John S. Fulton, of Baltimore, Secretary General of the Congress on Tuberculosis. Upon the recommenda- tion of the committee, the prize was divided equally between Dr. Guy Hinsdale, of Hot Springs, Virginia, and Dr. S. Adolphus Knopf, of New York City. At the request of the Institution, Dr. Hinsdale has revised his essay so as to indicate some of the advances made in the study of the subject during the past five years. Cuartes D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. WASHINGTON, DECEMBER, IQ13. iii 2» bt ‘ is ~ i i 7 - a <2 m_ ° * * > i * : 1 i ut c : i PP | 3 u , : ’ ; . > 5 + . . . : . : i i - o 7 * | % . a 1 . y 7 : / : ‘ Ne = ‘ yi n ’ . Gjpees i 7 + Roe fs Ue ii a. - * ‘ Fi M j ; co t i Aen Us | . . ' teeny #, ‘ ih TERMS OF COMPETITION SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION HODGKINS FUND PRIZE In October, 1891, Thomas George Hodgkins, Esquire, of Setauket, New York, made a donation to the Smithsonian Institution, the in- come from a part of which was to be devoted to “the increase and diffusion of more exact knowledge in regard to the nature and prop- erties of atmospheric air in connection with the welfare of man.” In furtherance of the donor’s wishes, the Smithsonian Institution has from time to time offered prizes, awarded medals, made grants for investigations, and issued publications. In connection with the approaching International Congress on Tuberculosis, which will be held in Washington, September 21 to October 12, 1908, a prize of $1,500 is offered for the best treatise “On the Relation of Atmospheric Air to Tuberculosis.” Memoirs having relation to the cause, spread, prevention, or cure of tuberculo- sis are included within the general terms of the subject. Any memoir read before the International Congress on Tuberculo- sis, or sent to the Smithsonian Institution or to the Secretary-General of the Congress before its close, namely, October 12, 1908, will be considered in the competition. The memoirs may be written in English, French, German, Spanish or Italian. They should be submitted either in manuscript or type- written copy, or if in type, printed as manuscript. If written in German, they should be in Latin script. They will be examined and the prize awarded by a Committee appointed by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in conjunction with the officers of the International Congress on Tuberculosis. Such memoirs must not have been published prior to the Congress. The Smithsonian Institution reserves the right to publish the treatise to which the prize is awarded. No condition as to the length of the treatises is established, it being expected that the practical results of important investigations will be set forth as convincingly and tersely as the subject will permit. The right is reserved to award no prize if in the judgment of the Committee no contribution is offered of sufficient merit to warrant such action. CHarites D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. WasuincTon, D. C., Fepruary 3, 1908. PREFACE The rapid progress in the antituberculosis movement throughout the world in the last five years has made it necessary to make some changes in the present essay as originally presented to the Smith- sonian Institution in 1908. Much that then seemed novel appears almost commonplace now. An extraordinary amount of research has been carried out with reference to the atmospheric air during these later years. The whole theory of ventilation has been stated in new terms; the presence of ozone in the atmosphere, a subject that has always appealed to the popular fancy since its discovery, has been restudied and its physiologic action assigned a value differ- ent from that commonly ascribed to it; the properties of strong sunlight and Alpine air have been marshalled for the combat with surgical tuberculosis, particularly in children. Physiologists in Europe and America have lately made most in- teresting studies.of the blood at the higher altitudes and their obser- vations are constantly throwing new light on the entire subject of aerotherapy, replacing old impressions and beliefs with a scientific basis on which we may confidently build. There never was a time when the outdoor life and the accessories for the atmospheric treatment of all tuberculous persons were so well systematized and placed in harmony with the other hygienic measures adopted for their cure. What the result has been we have endeavored to show and what the future holds for us we are eagerly awaiting. May the Smithsonian Institution, through its Hodgkins Fund, continue to stimulate inquiry and disseminate the fruits of the worldwide efforts to the better understanding of the great problems that yet remain unsolved. ; Guy HINSDALE. Hor Springs, VA., DECEMBER, 1913. Vil TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER : » PAGE MUNI CLeChL@ IMRT ET eee Reet ere Ee ei tnis, cherereveus csibante wise ews Difficulty of estimating the value of atmospheric air, aside from other agents in treating tubercular disease; prevention of tuberculosis; sanatoria; pioneers in the treatment of tubercu- losis in America’; the Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium. II. Value of Forests: Micro-organisms, Atmospheric Impurities...... General benefit of forests; qualities of forest air and soil; car- bon dioxide; oxygen; ozone; use of forest reservations for sana- toria; micro-organisms in the respiratory passages ; composition of expired air; atmospheric impurities, coal and smoke, carbonic acid, sulphur dioxide, ammonia; oxygen for tuberculous patients. IIT. Influence of Sea Air; Inland Seas and Lakes. as Sea voyages; marine climate of evans Prete Siete: deat: ing sanatoria; seaside sanatoria for children; seacoast and fogs; fogs on the Pacific coast; radiation fogs; fogs in the moun- tains; sea air for surgical tuberculosis; air of inland seas and lakes. IV. Influence of Compressed and Rarefied Air; High and Low Atmos- PEK CHaReSStne MeN ittETIC Cue nn Nersiede a neieueteet enters sicis «160. = Discovery of the advantages of Colorado and California cli- mate for consumptives ; works of S. E. Solly, Charles Theodore Williams on Colorado; Jourdanet on Mexico; Paul Bert on diminished barometric pressure, etc.; insolation; diathermancy of the air; Alpine resorts; surgical tuberculosis treatment in Switzerland; cases of high altitude treatment; effect of cold beneficial; expansion of the thorax at the higher altitude; choice of cases for treatment at altitudes. V. Influence of Increased Atmospheric Pressure, Condensed Air...... The effect of barometric changes on the spirits; artificially compressed air, C. T. Williams, Von Vivenot; pneumatic cabinet; Prof. Bier’s treatment of surgicai tuberculosis by arti- ficial hyperemia. Wi» Artincial’ Pressure: Breathing Exercises ............-.+--+-+2000s Pulmonary gymnastics; exercise at lowered air pressures; atmospheric compression of the affected lung, Murphy’s Method, artificial pneumothorax; song cure. VII. Fresh Air Schools for the Tuberculous; Ventilation. . ; Waldschule or fresh air schools for Pinereulone: ehildnens Providence fresh air school; defects of school buildings; hy- gienic safeguards in schools; rebreathed air; open air chapels and theatres; ventilation of dwellings. 1X 61 98 103 x TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE VIII. Exercise in Tuberculosis; Graduated Labor . is Effect of exercise on the opsonic index of Sates eeeene from pulmonary tuberculosis; work of Dr. Paterson, Mr. In- man and Sir Almroth Wright. IX. Accessories for Fresh Air Treatment of Tuberculosis ............ Tents; pavilion tents; tent houses; shacks; disused trolley cars; balconies; day camps; sleeping porches; pavilions; hospi- tal roof wards; detached cottages; sleeping canopies. XE COnCIUSIONS: aise is cies sre Hard. save letcten ovate Be lol opel oe lane teletay = litte alee tate et Reaene eee telah 120 Hodgkins Fund MIMOSPEERIGC ALRYIN RELATION TO TUBERCULOSIS By GUY HINSDALE, A.M., M. D., Hor Sprines, Va. (WitTH 93 PLATES) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION We are compelled to acknowledge at the outset the difficulty or impossibility of analyzing the relationship of atmospheric air to tuberculosis so as to isolate the influence of all other factors. It would be totally useless and impossible to consider air independent of sunlight, heat, rainfall, the configuration of the earth’s surface ; racial characteristics, social environment, including dwellings, cloth- ing, food, and drink. | As a resultant of all these and many other factors in the tubercu- losis problem, we obtain the figures of mortality which are pub- lished from time to time by various cities, states, and nations. The problem seems incapable of solution. One might as well survey an oak that has grown for centuries and set out to determine the rela- tive value of the atmospheric air, the sunlight, the rainfall, and the various constituents of the soil and its environment in producing the sturdy, deeply rooted, and wide-spreading tree which has seen ages come and go. The world-wide efforts now made to determine the nature of this infection and especially its bacteriologic and pathologic character are accompanied by a general effort to limit its spread. We are encouraged to believe that future generations will be provided with a practical and efficient method of destroying this insatiate monster. Undoubtedly we have begun at the right end, but we only began within the memory of nearly all of us, only thirty-two years ago, when the true cause of the disease was first isolated and revealed to the human eye. Previously we were as the blind leading the blind, groping about in search of special climates, special foods or medicines, meeting with more or less success in so far as the dietetic, hygienic, out-of- door plan of treatment was carried out. These curative measures succeeded then, as they succeed now, but preventive measures SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 63, No. 1 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 worthy the name were entirely unknown. The enemy once revealed in its hiding place, and various facts in its life history determined, the logical result was a gradual—very gradual—dawn which prom- ised better things. Now the world has seen a great light and- we wonder how intelligent men could have dwelt in those caverns of ignorance and even refused to come out for years while the men in the laboratory beckoned with signs which then seemed so uncer- tain but now so clear. As late as 1890 the medical mind did not grasp the necessity for preventive measures. As one asleep it heard voices but was slow to waken; it starts and rubs its eyes and looks about, waiting for some word or message that will bring it to its senses. It was in 1891 that the first society for the prevention of tuber- culosis was organized. This was started in France by M. Armain- gaud, of Bordeaux. The second was the Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Tuberculosis organized in Philadelphia in 1892. These were the pioneers in Europe and America. They devoted their energies to a campaign with three cardinal features: (1) the education of the public in reference to the nature of the disease and its means of prevention; (2) the passage of suitable laws regarding notification, the restriction of expectoration, disin- fection, etc.; and (3) the care of consumptives and the establish- ment of sanatoria by public or private means in suitable localities. The wonderful growth of this movement for preventive measures is now seen in the establishment of 1,228 societies for the prevention of tuberculosis in America alone, and in the erection of 527 sanatoria in this country (1913).’ The State of Pennsylvania alone has appro- priated in one Act of Legislature $2,000,000 for this purpose and one citizen of the state, Mr. Henry Phipps, has given an equal amount for the scientific study as well as the practical treatment of this disease in all its bearings.’ ‘The State of New York leads all other states in the number of new organi- zations and institutions established during the last two years. The total number of beds for consumptives in the United States now exceeds 33,000. *The Pennsylvania legislature appropriated $1,000,000 in 1907, $2,000,000 in 1909, $2,624,808 in 1911, and $2,659,660 in 1913 for tuberculosis work alone. This is under the direction of Dr. Samuel G. Dixon, the Commissioner of Health. There are at the present time two State Sanatoria in Pennsylvania in operation. Mont Alto, Franklin Co. No. of patients under treatment........9.-s2esseenen 057 Elevation: .....02.:¢0.0590 eee eee 1,650 ft. ge ee BMP TIVIIOD BODMPALLIOM VAM OR HT tpt Pie. | | , daith OF PENNSYLVANIA SHMENT OF HEALTH : DIZON M, B.,. COMMISGIONER ; a CoC aL RK A) SAK MANN! CORREA RAR SA Sh QORQQQON x aaah a KAA ellen ee SS 5 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS a JINDIANA $ poke WESTMORELAND SHINGTON § WA *, SOMERSET = > ize oe Ox £6 =t x oe 25 ue Ge £2 oD ae a 4m 0 9 eo ow icone FR Deoth ty exclusive of Mont Alto would be 1 MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PULMONARY TUBERCI PL. 1; 63, NO. VOL. DNWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA 1G. DIXON, M. D., COMMISSIONER EPARTMENT OF HEALTH x? OD OK KK KKK OS KKK KG) OOK 5 KIO OX KOLO RR KX, oS SE 2." ar N 2 B c ea kee oc ry < th wl nN > D Ww £ x = o Le > es 2 ° a € a oO 3 o = wn . © z w ° i= 6 [ = ° 3 B26 2% 8 Sz = =¢ z oY 7% — 5 < ” Os w \ z 6505 = \ . Dee VARS 7 F ana Srolpos Ui 0-20 by ON CARA SVS AD ROD aT | ‘my aN NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 3 The late Dr. Henry I. Bowditch, of Boston, was one of the first physicians in America to recognize the value of constant out-door life in the treatment of tuberculosis and was accustomed to send such patients on easy journeys by carriage so that they might have the benefit of as much out-door air as possible, becoming gradually inured to the elements. The late Dr. Alfred L. Loomis, of New York, was one of the first to systematically send tuberculous patients to the Adirondack forest that they might have the benefit of the purest and most invigorating air obtainable and, like the physicians of ancient Rome who sent consumptive patients to the pine forests of Libya, he believed that the terebinthinate exhalations from the standing pines exerted a most beneficial influence on pulmonary affections. Dr. Loomis’s results were so gratifying that he encouraged Dr. Edward L. Trudeau to care for such patients in the Adirondack Mountains throughout the year, and Dr. Trudeau, with his help, founded in 1884 the first sanatorium for tuberculosis in America.’ This Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium, now in its thirtieth year, has been the inspiration of sanatoria for tuberculosis throughout the country. Its success in restoring so many patients to health and usefulness is not wholly estimated in figures. It has established Cresson, Cambria Co. No. of patients under treatment....... Bp nce ln ont 337 HBT eryeltel O mk pests yeas evc merce aed et stenereteiehsNeloy sieie’ ereveres sales a0 2,550 it. Hamburg, Berks Co. In the course of construction and will be completed some time in IQT4. KEP aC ley meiner erat Iolani alco) sicters eves, eia-eiece a iake 480 FLV Omeaeenee re rcraehonte ore recere nie es ae onan iio one eeete Sinvace 550 ft. These institutions care for both incipient and far advanced cases. The interior arrangement of the sanatoria at Cresson and Hamburg is such that they can be used for the different classes of cases as demand may necessitate. There is a Waiting list of those desiring admission to these institutions at all times. The State maintains 115 Tuberculosis Dispensaries, which are located throughout the 67 counties in the commonwealth. There are 220 physicians and 120 visiting nurses employed in these dispensaries. By the courtesy of Dr. Samuel G. Dixon, Commissioner of Health, we are able to show in a map the distribution of tuberculosis in the counties of Penn- sylvania (pl. 1). This shows, as in an earlier map by the author, that the dis- ease is least prevalent in the higher, forest covered regions of the State. A. L. Loomis, M.D. Evergreen Forests as a therapeutic agent in pul- monary phthisis (Trans. Amer. Climatological Ass., Vol. 4, 1887). See page 134. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 a practical method of cure and has done much to correct the earlier unfounded and mischievous notions that prevailed as to what was necessary for the cure of tuberculosis. Taking this institution as an example, let us see what bearing it may have on our general subject, the relation of the atmospheric air to tuberculosis : (a) It is in the midst of an evergreen forest of over 10,000 square miles; (b) the atmosphere is pure, or at least as pure as may be ob- tained on the continent; (c) the air is moderately moist; (d) the rainfall averages 35 inches; (e) the air is moderately rarified, ow- ing to (f) an elevation of 1,750 feet; (g) owing to its northern situation, (latitude 44°) and its elevation (1,750 feet) (h) the climate is cold in winter and (i) subject to rather sudden changes with an annual range of 59° C. or 138° F. CHAPTER II. VALUE OF FORESTS, MICRO-ORGANISMS, ATMOSPHERIC IMPURITIES. GENERAL BENEFIT OF FORESTS It has come to be an axiom in phthisiology that the air of an evergreen forest is eminently suitable for a patient with tuberculo- sis.’ As we have previously mentioned, the pine forests of Libya were used two thousand years ago for the cure of “ ulcerated lungs.” At that period the pines abounded and gave the locality a reputation as a health resort for affections of the lungs. But the ravages of time, aided by fire and sword, not to speak of domestic needs, have obliterated all vestiges of these ancient forests. The successful institutions located in the Hartz Mountains, the Black Forest of Germany, in the Forest of Ardennes, the State Forest Reserve of Pennsylvania, and the Adirondack Forest in New York owe much of their success to the abundant use of the purest air both day and night. European Governments have long recognized the great value of ‘The following quotation from Pliny shows that it was generally agreed in his day that the forests and especially those which abound in pitch and balsam are the most beneficial to consumptives or those who do not gather strength after long illness, and that they are of more value than the voyage to Egypt: “Sylvas, eas duntaxat quae picis resinaeque gratia redantur, utilissimas esse phthisicis, aut qui longa aegritudine non recolligant vires, satis constat ; et illum coeli aera plus ita quam navigationem Aegyptian proficere, plus quam lactis herbidos per montium aestiva potus.”’—C. Plinii, Hist. Nat. lib. xxiv, Cap. 6. dJapues uwq.jo Asaynog ANVWY3D ‘LSSYH¥O4 MOVIE N3GVE SHI NI NSaISV1d “1 n . bye fog « @ “Id “b “ON €9 “10A SNOIL031109 SNOANVIISO0SIW NVINOSHLIWS 4apuesg Woqly “dQ AG Psysl dns YGEAVOJONd SISOTINOYAEINL AO 3AYND AHL NI 1S3Y0O4 Yld SHL 4O HIV AHL “(1454 009‘2) SYHSLAUW 008 NOILVAS1S “ANVWHAD ‘LSAHO4S MOV1d NA3GVd SHL NI N3ISV1E “LS NWNIYOLVNVS SNOILO3J1100 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 5 their forests and have protected them by strictly enforcing intelligent laws so that they may be forever preserved and improved. The his- tory of forestry in the United States and Canada has been that of ruthless, unrestrained, wholesale destruction of nearly all our standing pine, and heavier spruce. In recent years, however, we have seen the establishment of Government reserves, State reserves, and State laws for their protection; the organization of the American Forestry Association, the American Forest Congress, the Society for the Preservation of the Adirondack Forest; the Schools of For- estry at Yale, Harvard University and Mont Alto, Penna. All these remedial measures have come very late, but will undoubtedly exert a strong influence for good.’ Aside from the general beneficial influence of forests, universally recognized by climatologists, these natural parks have proved the means of restoring thousands of persons suffering from tuberculosis and diseases of the respiratory system. QUALITIES OF FOREST AIR AND SOIL The qualities of forest air and forest soil have been studied by E. Ebermayer * who shows that, like that of the sea and mountains, forest air is freer from injurious gases, dust particles, and bacteria. It was shown that the vegetable components of the forest soil contain less nutritive matter (albuminoid, potash, and phosphates and _ni- trates) for bacterial growth; that the temperature and moisture conditions are less favorable; that the sour humus of the forest soil is antagonistic to pathogenic bacteria; finally that, so far, no pathogenic microbes have ever been found in forest soil; hence this soil may be called hygienically pure. The soil is protected from high winds by forest growth and under- growth; the upper soil strata are slow to dry out and wind sweeping over them carries few micro-organisms into the air. As may be expected, fewer microbes are found in forest air than outside their limits. Serafini and Arata have proved this experimentally.2 They "The chief forester of the United States has in 1913 under his care in 160 forest reservations a total of 165,000,000 acres of forest land. The present Chief Forester has done excellent work in the prevention of serious forest fires. *E. Ebermayer: (1) Hygienic significance of forest air and forest soil. (2) Experiments regarding the significance of humus as a soil constituent; and influence of forest, different soils, and soil-covers on composition of air in the soil. Wollny, 18900 (Hygeia, August 15, 1801). *Serafini and Arata: Intorno all ’azione dei boschi sui mikro organismi transportati dai venti. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 exposed plates in the forest air and on its outskirts and tabulated their countings of bacteria for forty successive days from May 6. They made three classes—molds, liquefying and non-liquefying bacteria. They found that, with one exception, one or two of these classes were always less numerous in the forest than on its outskirts and generally from twenty-three to twenty-eight times less. Serafini makes the point that bacteria coming from the outside are reduced in number by a sort of filtration process. Thus we see that the air of forests is comparatively free from endogenous and exogenous bac- teria—none of them in any case being pathogenic.’ CARBON DIOXIDE IN FORESTS Puchner shows that the air in the forest contains generally more carbonic acid gas than in the open, due to the decomposition of litter.” But this difference must be almost inappreciable. As we know, the law of diffusion of gases renders it impossible for varia- tions in the relative proportion of the atmospheric constituents to be more than transitory. Diffusion is greatly favored by the winds which sweep through the tree tops, especially where they are not too crowded. The fact that so many sanatoria for tuberculosis are located in or near forests makes it very important to dwell a little longer on the constituents of the air in these localities. We know that forests, as well as all other forms of vegetal growth, take up large quantities of carbonic acid, retaining the carbon and rejecting the oxygen, and the question naturally arises, does it sensibly change the relative quality of either constituent so that the composition of the air is slightly different in the woods? Prof. Mark W. Harrington, lately chief of the United States Weather Bureau, undertook to answer that question, both with reference to carbonic acid, oxygen, and ozone, with some interesting results.’ Repeated observations show that each constituent is curiously uniform in quantity in the free air. It has been thought that carbonic acid is quite variable but the introduction of better methods of observation shows that, except in confined places where the gas is produced, the variations are very *See B. E. Fernow: Forest Influences, U. S. Dep. Agriculture, Forestry Division Bulletin No. 7, pp. 171-173. *H. Puchner: Investigations of the Carbonic Acid Contents of the Atmos- phere. *M. W. Harrington: Review of Forest Meteorological Observations, U. S. Dep. Agriculture, Forestry Division Bulletin No. 7, p. %05. tent ANVWUY3D ‘1S3YHO4 HOVI1E SSINOIOO-HOVYGHON ‘WNINOLVNVS S*HSHLIVM ‘YG ¢ “Id ‘1 "ON ‘89 “10A SNOILO31109 SNO3NVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 5 DR. WALTHER’S SANATORIUM, NORDRACH-COLONIE, BLACK FOREST, GERMANY VIEW FROM THE ADIRONDACK COTTAGE SANITARIUM "In the foreground are the pines and my only business in life is to sit and look at them”’ Courtesy of Journal of The Outdoor Life NOE AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE Th small. A little study shows that the carbonic acid gas taken up by a forest is a very small quantity compared with that which passes the forest in the same time with the moving air. Grandeau” esti- mated the annual product of carbon by a forest of beeches, spruces, or pines as about 2,700 pounds per acre. This corresponds to 9,900 pounds of carbonic acid gas or 69,300 cubic feet. Now, if the aver- age motion of the air is five miles an hour, a low estimate, and the layer of air from which the gas is taken be estimated at one hundred feet thick, there would pass over an acre 550 million cubic feet in one hour. This air must contain about three parts in ten thousand of carbonic acid gas and the total amount of the latter per hour is 165,000 cubic feet. But this is two and two-thirds, or more than twice as much as that taken up by the trees in the entire season, so that the air could provide in thirty minutes for the wants of the trees for the entire season. Prof. Harrington shows that the ratio of carbonic acid used to that furnished is only one part in 8,600. OXYGEN IN FORESTS Again, the additions of oxygen to the air would form a still smaller percentage of the oxygen already present, for this gas makes up 20.938 per cent of the air against a thirtieth of one per cent ob- tainable from this source. OZONE IN FORESTS The occurrence of ozone in the air of forests, especially coniferous forests, has been credited, since its discovery by Schoenbein in 1840, with affording remarkable health-giving qualities. This opinion has become firmly fixed in the minds of the public and, to a large extent, has been accepted by the medical profession as an evidence of high oxidizing power at once corrective of decaying vegetation and exhil- arating and curative to mankind. Popular belief usually has some basis for its existence; indeed, meteorologists made regular estima- tions of ozone in the atmosphere by testing with sensitized papers and the results were published in connection with statistics of health resorts.” The Schonbein test is based on the power of ozone to free iodine from a solution of potassium iodide in contact with starch, when a violet color is developed in the sensitized paper. Unfortunately the *See Belgique Horticole, Vol. 35, 1885, p. 227. 2See Transactions American Climatological Association, Vol. 5, p. 118. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 discovery of important sources of error has destroyed the value of observations made in this manner. Other substances in the air have been found to act as reducing agents; secondly, the color after having appeared may be altered or destroyed by substances, such as sulphurous acid and many organic substances. Again, the test acts only in a moist atmosphere and, besides that, varies in intensity according to the amount of the wind, so that, in a way, it is a measure of humidity and of wind. A more recent test, mentioned by Huggard as more sensitive, depends upon the use of what is known as tetra-paper, but is also considered uncertain. The full name of this reagent is tetramethyl- paraphenylendiamin paper. Notwithstanding the unsatisfactory na- ture of these tests, the conclusion seems to be accepted that ozone is more abundant in May and June and least abundant in December and January; more abundant in the forests and the seashore and in mid-ocean and least abundant in towns where it commonly cannot be detected. The following quotation is from page 332 et seq. of Vol. 1, Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry : Very little is known respecting the proportion of ozone in the atmosphere, or of the circumstances which influence its production. The ozonometric methods hitherto devised are incapable of affording accurate quantitative estimations. Air over marshes or in places infested by malaria contains little or no ozone. No ozone can be detected in towns or in inhabited houses. Houzeau determines the relative amount of ozone in the air by exposing strips of red litmus paper dipped to half their length in a 1 per cent solution of potassium iodide. The paper in contact with ozone acquires a blue color from the action of the liberated potash upon the red litmus. The iodised litmus paper is preferable to iodised starch paper (Sch6nbein’s test-paper) which exhibits a blue coloration with any reagent which liberates iodine, é. g., nitrous acid, chlorine, etc. From observations made with iodised litmus paper Houzeau concludes that ozone exists in the air normally, but the inten- sity with which it acts at any given point of the atmosphere is very variable. Country air contains at most zsy559 of its weight or -gy559 of its volume of ozone. The frequency of the ozone manifestations varies with the seasons, being greatest in the spring, strong in summer, weaker in autumn, and weakest in winter. The maximum of ozone is found in May and June, and the mini- mum in December and January. In general, ozone is more frequently ob- served on rainy days than in fine weather. Strong atmospheric disturbances, as thunder storms, gales, and hurricanes, are frequently accompanied by great manifestations of ozone. According to Houzeau, atmospheric electricity appears to be the most active cause of the formation of atmospheric ozone. It has been found that the air immediately above the tree tops and at the margin of the forest is richer in ozone than that of the interior, where a portion of it is utilized by the decaying vegetation. Ozone certainly aids in purifying the air by oxidizing animal or SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS a Ww > uw =| 7 t wi no Ww > O° ao < wo foc, Ww od wl = So o oO a a < = N x t = Ir oO oO z Ww a < a Ww ae - z z ul wn < = a = a = 2 a Oo ke < z < no seuseg 007 Auuey ‘ug so Asazinog 4aXMv1 WAITIVM LY SISOTNOYAEGNL YOS WNIHYOLVYNVS S3LVLS GNV1SI 3GOHY dd ‘Lb ‘ON ‘89 *10A SNOILO31100 SNOANVTISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS nt NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 9 vegetable matter in process of decay and by uniting with the gases produced by their decomposition. It can, therefore, be found in con- siderable amounts where the air is particularly pure. This amount rarely exceeds one part in 10,000. “ There is somewhat more ozone on mountains than on plains and most of all near the sea. Water is said by Carius to absorb 0.8 of its volume of ozone.” * This statement by Mr. Russell seems to us extraordinary in view of the minute quantity contained in the atmosphere and apparently needs confirmation, especially in view of Russell’s next statement that a great excess of ozone is destructive to life, and oxygen con- taining one two-hundred and fortieth part of ozone is rapidly fatal, and further, that even the ordinary quantity has bad effects in exacerbating bronchitis and bronchial colds, and some other affec- tions of the lungs. Ozone is not found in the streets of large towns or usually in inhabited rooms, but in very large, well ventilated rooms it is some- times, though rarely, detected. According to Russell it may be formed on the slow oxidation of phosphorus and of essential oils in the presence of moisture. When produced by electric discharges its pungency of odor is said to make it easily perceptible when pres- ent only to the extent of one volume in 2,500,000 volumes of air and the smell may sometimes be noticed on the sea beach. Since the discovery of ozone by Schdnbein, not much has been learned about the actual origin of this allotropic form of oxygen. Its presence in and near forests and living plants has undoubtedly supported the popular view that the air of the forests is particularly healthful and that living plants in our apartments are likewise bene- ficial.’ The existence of hydrogen peroxide in air was first established by Meissner in 1863, but we have no knowledge of the proportion in which it is present. All information as to its relative distribution is obtained from determinations of its amount in rain water and snow. The proportion seems to vary, like that of ozone, with the seasons of the year and with the temperature of the air. It is not improbable that the amount of hydrogen peroxide in air is greater than that of ozone, and it is possible that many so-called ozone manifestations are in reality due to peroxide of hydrogen. Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry. *Francis A. R. Russell: The Atmosphere in Relation to Human Life and Health, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 39 (Publication No. 1072), 148 p., Washington, 1806. *See J. M. Anders: House Plants as Sanitary Agents, Lippincott & Co., 1887. IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 A recent paper by Sawyer, Beckwith and Skolfield” of the Hygi- enic Laboratory of the California State Board of Health, is one of the latest researches which discredit the claim made for ozone as a purifier of air. During recent years circulars have been issued in great numbers by manufacturers of apparatus stating that ozone is a “necessity” for the destruction of infectious germs and bac- terial life, for the sterilization of air in operating rooms for the purification of air in homes of persons suffering from contagious diseases and for giving to offices and homes the invigorating air of the country, seashore and mountains.” How false these claims are can readily be seen from the systematic work of these investigators, the details of which we cannot give here but to which the reader is referred. Among their conclusions are the following: During these tests certain physiologic effects of the “ozone” were noticed by the experimenters after they had been working around the machines. The immediate effect of inhaling the diluted gas was a feeling of dryness or tickling in the nasopharynx, and sometimes the irritation was felt in the chest. If the exposure was prolonged, watering of the eyes, and occasionally a slight headache, resulted. The smell of the “ozone” and its irritation was much more noticeable to persons who came suddenly under its influence than to those who were continuously exposed. 1. The gaseous products of the two well-known ozone machines examined are irritating to the respiratory tract and, in considerable concentration, they will produce edema of the lungs and death in guinea-pigs. 2. A concentration of the gaseous products sufficiently high to kill typhoid bacilli, staphylococci and streptococci, dried on glass rods, in the course of several hours, will kill guinea-pigs in a shorter time. Therefore these products have no value as bactericides in breathable air. 3. Because the products of the ozone machines are irritating to the mucous membranes and are probably injurious in other ways, the machines should not be allowed in schools, offices or other places in which people remain for considerable periods of time. 4. The ozone machines produce gases which mask disagreeable odors of moderate strength. In this way the machines can conceal faults in ventilation while not correcting them. Because the ozone machine covers unhygienic conditions in the air and.at the same time produces new injurious substances, it cannot properly be classed as a hygienic device. Another paper even more elaborate than this was published at the same time by Edwin O. Jordan, Ph. D., and A. J. Carlson, Ph. D., *The Alleged Purification of Air by the Ozone Machine. Journ. Amer. Med) “Ass., Sept. 27, 19013; p. 1073: *See Amer. Journ. Physiologic Therapeutics, Nov.-Dec., 1911. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE sit of Chicago.’ This investigation was carried on at the suggestion of and under a grant from the Journal of the American Medical Asso- ciation. Their experiments were carried out (1) to determine the germicidal action of ozone on pure cultures under the conditions commonly used in testing disinfectants, and (2) to determine the effect of ozone on the ordinary air bacteria. They found, after a long series of experiments detailed in full in their paper, that no surely germicidal action on certain species of bacteria could be demonstrated by the usual disinfection tests with amounts of gaseous ozone ranging from 3 to 4.6 parts per million. The alleged effect of ozone on the ordinary air bacteria, if it occurs at all, is slight and irregular even when amounts of ozone far beyond the limit of phy- siologic tolerance are employed.” The toxication of strong concen- trations of ozone through injury to the lungs was marked. Even in moderate amounts it produced an irritation of the sensory nerve endings of the throat and a headache due to irritation, corrosion and consequent hyperemia of the frontal sinuses. Consequently the use of this poisonous gas as a therapeutic agent is either valueless or injurious. USE OF FOREST RESERVATIONS FOR SANATORIA We cannot leave the subjects of forests and forest air without strongly advocating the use of forests and especially State and Governmental forest reserves for institutions, hospitals, and cdmps for the tuberculous. The State of Pennsylvania has large forestry reservations, amounting at present to 1,000 square miles in 23 coun- ties, and maintains a State School of Forestry, where young men are in training for its forest service. Acting under liberal forest laws, Dr. J. T. Rothrock, then State Forestry Commissioner, in 1903, an- nounced that citizens of Pennsylvania are entitled to the privilege of using the forestry reservation of the state under proper restric- tions as a residence while regaining health and recommended it espe- cially to those in need of fresh air treatment of tuberculosis. In the spring of that year Dr. Rothrock, with State aid, started the construction of a few small cabins for the use of such patients and called it the South Mountain Camp Sanatorium.’ This is situated 2Qzone: Its Bactericidal Physiologic and Deodorizing Action. (Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., Sept. 27, 1913, Vol. 61, pp. 1007-1012). ? This is corroborated by the recent article by Konrich, Zur Verwendung der Ozone in der Liiftung. (Zeitschr. Hyg., 1913, Vol. 73, 443.) ® Charities and Commonwealth, Dec. 1, 1906. Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., 1907. Journal of the Outdoor Life, Jan., 1907, and Feb., 1908. 3 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, in the southern tier of counties where the state owns 55,000 acres. The altitude of the camp is 1,650 to 1,700 feet. It is now the site of the great State Sanatorium known as Mont Alto with a capacity of over 1,000 patients. At first the patients were obliged to provide and to prepare their own food, but the legislature afterward appropriated enough to enable the management to furnish food, and the results were better than before. Only patients in the incipient stages were admitted, and of the 141 so cared for (up to the year 1908) about 75 per cent were either much improved or cured. The charge to the patients was one dollar per week for all supplies and services, excepting washing and the care of their cabins and their persons. The large forestry reserve allows of an indefinite extension of this method of dealing with the disease, and the small expense seems to point to it as a way to provide for the large class of patients who must be cared for in the incipient stages if the disease is to be checked and its victims restored to society as safe and potent factors in industrial progress. Dr. Rothrock, who has just closed twenty years of distin- guished service to the state in the forestry commission, believes that the forest reservations furnish an answer to the further prob- iem of how to care for the consumptive whose disease is arrested, but whose financial condition demands that he must still be cared for until able to return to his home. Pennsylvania has nearly a million acres of forest reservation, much of which needs replanting with young trees. To do this requires a large number of men, and the task of raising and transplanting trees is mostly light outdoor labor, well suited to the convalescent consumptive. In addition, there are various forms of woodcraft, such as basket making and the manu- facture of small rustic articles that could easily be carried on under healthful conditions in the forests. The example of Pennsylvania suggests the propriety of other states taking similar steps and pro- viding for the large number of consumptives who need care in an inexpensive and at the same time effective manner. The United States Government should establish without delay large forest reserves in the Eastern, Middle, and Southern States. The White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Southern Appa- lachians should be placed under a system of Federal protection. It is encouraging to note that by a recent decision (November, 1913) of the Courts of New Hampshire the way is opened for the condem- nation of mountain land in that State and indemnity has been awarded private owners for land so taken. NOLL AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 13 The United States has 165,000,000 acres of national forests and France and Germany combined, 14,500,000 acres. The site of a model sanatorium for tuberculosis has the purest air or air nearly devoid of floating matter. It is only on very high mountain tops or in mid ocean, or in the Polar ice fields that we can have air free from suspended matter. The good results obtained in the higher Alpine sanatoria and in long sea voyages, in given cases of tuberculosis, are attributable in some degree to this absence of irritating or polluted atmosphere. In the more northern sanatoria, of which the Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium is a type, the long winter in which snow covers the ground for possibly five months, is always recognized as the best season for patients. The gain in health acquired during one winter equals that of two sum- mers. The added freedom which the snow covering provides against dust and other atmospheric impurities may have its hygienic influ- ence for the cure of tuberculosis. MICRO-ORGANISMS IN RESPIRATORY PASSAGES It is interesting to learn something of the fate of micro-organisms when inhaled by a person in health or by those whose respiratory passages are already suffering from irritation or disease. It has been calculated that upward of 14,000 organisms pass into the nasal cavi- ties in one hour’s quiet respiration in the ordinary London atmos- phere.” Tyndall showed by his experiments with a ray of light in a dark chamber that expired air, or more exactly the last portion of the air of expiration is optically pure. In other words, respiration has freed the inhaled air from the particles of suspended matter with which it is laden. These experiments coincide with those of Gunning of Amsterdam in 1882 and those of Strauss and Dubreuil in 1887. Grancher has made many experiments with the expired air of phthisical patients and has never found in it the tubercle bacillus or its spores. Charrin, Karth, Cadéac, and Mallet have had corre- sponding results. These germs are probably all arrested before reaching the trachea ; they halt in the upper air passages. The interior of the great majority of normal nasal cavities is perfectly aseptic. On the other hand the vestibules of the nares, the vibrisse lining them and all crusts formed there are generally swarming with bacteria. All germs are arrested here and the ciliated epithelium rapidly ejects them. 2On Researches by Drs. St. Clair Thomson and R. T. Hewlet. Lancet, January 11, 1806. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 By experiments on the mucous membrane of the dorsal wall of the pharynx, Thomson and Hewlet found that a particle of wet cork was conveyed at the rate of 25 mm. or one inch per minute. Wurtz and Lermoyez have published researches on the action of nasal mucus upon the anthrax bacillus and they hold that it exerts a bactericidal influence on all or nearly all pathogenic agents in dif- ferent degrees of intensity. Thomson and Hewlet corroborate this to the extent of saying that the nasal mucus “is possessed of the important property of exerting an inhibitory action on the growth of micro-organisms.” Their experiments upon each other were very ingenious and highly interesting. They were able to demonstrate that in ordinary air of the laboratory under the conditions observed, 29 moulds and nine bacterial colonies developed ; whereas after passing through the nose the air contained only two moulds and no bacteria. On another occasion they found in nine liters of laboratory air, six moulds and four bacterial colonies, while the same quantity of air after passing through the nose exhibited one mould and no bac- teria. Thus they show that practically all, or nearly all, the micro- organisms of the air are arrested before reaching the naso-pharynx ; probably a majority are stopped by the vibrissz at the very entrance to the nose and those which do penetrate as far as the mucous membrane are rapidly eliminated. They state that the nasal mucus is an unfavorable soil for the growth of organisms and in this it is aided by the ciliated epithelium and lacrymal secretion. COMPOSITION OF EXPIRED AIR Dr. D. H. Bergey in 1893-4 made some experiments in the Labor- atory of Hygiene of the University of Pennsylvania under the pro- visions of the Hodgkins Fund of the Smithsonian Institution which are pertinent to this subject." These were conducted to ascertain whether the condensed moisture of air expired by men in ordinary, quiet respiration, contains any particulate organic matters, such as micro-organisins, epithelial scales, etc. The expired breath was con- ducted through melted gelatin contained in a half liter Erlenmayer flask, for twenty to thirty minutes. The gelatin was then hardened ‘J. S. Billings, S. Weir Mitchell, and D. H. Bergey: The Composition of Expired Air and Its Effects on Animal Life. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. 29 (Publication 989), Washington, 1895. This investigation seemed to disprove the renowned experiments of Brown-Séquard and D’Ar- sonval in I887. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 15 by rolling the flask in a shallow basin of ice-water, thus distributing the culture in a thin layer over the bottom and sides of the flask. These cultures were kept under observation for 20 to 30 days. About 150 cc. of gelatin was used for each experiment. The glass tube (b) of the apparatus used, which served for the entrance of the expired air, was inserted far enough to just impinge on the fluid culture medium in the flask, so that the air produced a slight agita- tion of the fluid in passing through the apparatus. The tube of entrance (b) is provided with a bulb-shaped enlargement which serves to retain any saliva that may flow into the tube. The tube (c) is closed with cotton so as to prevent the entrance of micro- organisms from this side of the apparatus, and a similar cotton plug is inserted in b when the apparatus is not in use. * Apparatus for Determining the Presence of Bacteria in Expired Breath. It was found that the organisms developed in the cultures were all of the same character—a small yellow bacillus, common in labora- tory air. When special precautions were taken to sterilize the appa- ratus with dry heat for an hour previous to introducing the gelatin, besides the subsequent sterilization of the gelatin, the results were negative—no growths developed. If, after standing in the working room for several days, it was found that the culture medium was sterile, the expired breath was then conducted through the apparatus and the culture was kept under observation (for the specified time in the table) at the room temperature. The nature of the organisms that developed in the first two experiments, and the absence of any growth in the others, make it probable that they developed from spores that survived the fractional sterilization of the culture me- dium. It is improbable that they were carried in the expired breath. Dr. Bergey also made a careful examination of the fluid condensed from the expired air with high powers, both in hanging drops and in six dried and stained preparations, but nothing resembling bacteria or epithelium was found. The conclusion was reached that there is no evidence of a special 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 toxicity of the expired air. Billings, Mitchell, and Bergey say, in the monograph referred to, that the injurious effects of such air ob- served appeared to be due entirely to the diminution of oxygen, or the increase of carbonic acid, or to a combination of these two fac- tors. They consider that the principal, though not the only, causes of discomfort to people in crowded rooms are excessive temperature and unpleasant odors. We shall see, further on, that later studies show that the relative proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid are not per se such impor- tant factors. Dr. Milton J. Rosenau, professor of preventive medicine and hygiene in Harvard Medical School, said in his recent address* on “Ether Day” at the Massachusetts General Hospital: One of the fallacies that has fallen is the relation of the air to the spread of infection. The virus of most communicable diseases was believed to be in the expired breath, or exhaled as emanations of some sort from the body. These emanations were said to be carried long distances—miles—on the wind. The easiest, and therefore the most natural way, to account for the spread of epidemic diseases was to consider them as air-borne. Nowadays the sani- tarian pays little heed to infection in the air except in droplet infection, and the radius of danger in the fine spray from the mouth and nose in coughing, sneezing and talking is limited to a few feet or yards at most. The more the air is studied the more it is acquitted as a vehicle for the spread of the communicable diseases. It was a great surprise when bacteriologists demonstrated that the expired breath ordinarily contains no bacteria. Most micro-organisms, even if wafted into the air soon die on account of the dryness, and especially if exposed to sunshine. The relation of the air to infection is nowhere better illustrated than in the practice of surgery. At first Lister and his followers attempted to disinfect the air in contact with the wound by carbolic sprays. Now the surgeon pays no heed to the air of a clean operating room, but ties a piece of gauze over his mouth and nose, and also over his hair, to prevent infective agents from falling into the wound from these sources. How complicated this entire subject is we can readily see from the review * made by Dr. Henry Sewall, of Denver, of recent experimen- tal studies by Zuntz, Haldane, Rosenau and Amoss, Heymann, Paul, Ercklentz and Fligge, Leonard Hill and others. This review de- serves to be read carefully. It sums up our latest knowledge and leads to some surprising conclusions. After describing the Black Hole of Calcutta, in which one hundred and forty-six Europeans *Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, November 6, 1913. *On What do the Hygiene and Therapeutic Virtues of the Open Air De- pend? by Henry Sewall, Ph.D.,M.D. (Journ. Amer, Med. Ass., Jan. 20, IQI2). NOw a AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 7, were confined on the night of June, 1756, and only twenty-three survived, he shows that numberless observations have all led to the one conclusion that prolonged confinement in close air tends to lower vitality and increase the incidence of certain infections, especially pul- monary tuberculosis. However, it was found many years ago that animals and men can tolerate without distress an increase of car- bon dioxide in the air far beyond any concentration which it is likely to acquire under the worst conditions of crowding, provided the oxygen tension is maintained at a high level. Zuntz and Haldane and his associates show that the normal excitement of the respiratory nerve-center depends on the accumulation within it of carbon diox- ide, a waste product, which it is a prime object of respiration to remove. Sewall refers to Brown-Séquard and D’Arsonval’s work and, as bearing on it, the very recent work of Rosenau and Amoss.’ These workers condensed the vapor of human expiration and in- jected the liquid into guinea-pigs. No symptoms followed this pro- cedure. But after an appropriate interval of some weeks a little of the blood-serum from the person supplying the moisture was injected into the same animals. The outcome was an unmistakable anaphylactic reaction. According to current beliefs the result showed that the expired air must have contained proteid matter which sensi- tized the pigs toward proteids in the blood of persons from whom the first proteid was derived. The authors offer, as yet, no opinion as to whether the proteid in the expired air possesses hygienic significance. Prof. Sewall finds a suggestive analogy in the physiologic rela- tions of carbon dioxide which it is one of the chief objects of respiration to remove. Added to air in sufficient percentage it is deadly to animals, yet so far from its being useless in the body, Hal- dane and Priestley found that it must form four to five per cent of the alveolar air for the maintenance of normal respiratory move- ment, and a considerable lowering of its tension in the body would be followed by speedy death. Boycott and Haldane note that the subjective sense of invigoration and well-being excited by cold weather is associated with a high tension of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air.” After summarizing the experiments of Heyman, Paul, * Organic Matter in the Expired Breath (Journal of Medical Research, 1911, Mole 25,. 35). ? Haldane and Priestley: The Regulation of the Lung Ventilation (Journal of Physiology, 1905, Vol. 27, p. 225). Boycott and Haldane: The Effects of Low Atmospheric Pressure on Respi- 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 -and Ercklentz in Fliigge’s laboratory’ which seem to show that, in people both well and sick, chemical changes in the character of the air in inhabited rooms exercise no deleterious effect on the health of the dwellers Dr. Sewall reviews Leonard Hill’s work which shows that the motion of the air in the experimental chamber by means of electric fans almost entirely annulled the sense of discomfort.’ He then cites the astonishing experiments of F. G. Benedict and R. D. Milner * who kept a subject for twenty-four hours in a cham- ber, the air of which held an average carbon dioxide content of 220 parts per 10,000 or over seventy times the normal, together with a re- duction of oxygen to less than 19 per cent. The humidity was kept down and the temperature held uniform. The subject of the experi- ment suffered no discomfort. Boycott and Haldane, referred to above, express the opinion that “the alveolar carbon dioxide tends to a lower level in warm weather ” and that this diminution in the alveolar carbon dioxide is associated with a feeling of warmth of a rather unpleasant kind rather than with any absolute point on the thermometer ; they hold that the rise in the carbon dioxide tension is associated with the general exhilaration and stimulation produced by cold air. And now comes Leonard Hill, the physiologist, of London, who with his staff at the London Hospital conducted several noteworthy experiments which he described before the Institution of Heating and Ventilating Engineers in March, 1911.’ In view of the fact that ration (Journal of Physiology, 1908, Vol. 37, p. 359). See also Preventive Medicine and Hygiene, by Milton J. Rosenau, M. D., Chapter 4, D. Appleton & Co., 1913. Prof. Rosenau’s work contains the latest word on the bacteria and poisonous gases in the air, ventilation, etc. Thomas R. Crowder, M.D.: A Study of the Ventilation of Sleeping Cars (Archives of Internal Medicine, January, 1911, and January, 1913). This elaborate investigation is illustrated» by numerous diagrams showing the carbon dioxide content in the air from the aisles, the upper and lower berths and smoking rooms, * Zeitschrift f. Hygien. u. Infectionskr., 1905, Vol. 59. *Leonard Hill: The Relative Influence of Heat and Chemical Impurity of Close Air (Journal of Physiology, 1910, Vol. 41, p. 3). See also Leonard Hill, Martin Flack, James McIntosh, R. A. Rowlands. H. B. Walker: The Influence of the Atmosphere on our Health and Com- fort in Confined and Crowded Places, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 60, No. 23, p. 96 (Publication 2170), 1913. “Experiments on the Metabolism of Matter and Energy in the Human Body, Bulletin 175, U. S. Dep. Agriculture Office Experiment Station, 1907. *Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., April 8, 1911. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—-HINSDALE 19 the London health authorities insist that in factories the percentage of carbon dioxide must not rise above the usual amount allowed, say ten parts in ten thousand, he remarks that the regulations do not prescribe any limitations of the wet-bulb temperature adding that while carbon dioxide does not do any harm whatever a wet-bulb temperature of 75° F. is very bad and ought not to be tolerated in any factory. All the current teaching of the hygiene of ventilation runs on the subject of chemical purity of the air; but according to Prof. Hill the essential thing in ventilation is heat, not chemical purity. It does not matter if there is 1 per cent more carbon dioxide and 1 per cent less of oxygen. In the worst ventilated rooms there is not I.per cent less oxygen. The only effect of an excess of car- bon dioxide is to make one breathe a little more deeply. A much higher amount has to be attained to have any toxic effect. As to organic impurities derived from respiration there is no physiologic evidence of their toxicity or that they are of any importance ex- cept as an indicator of the number of bacteria in air. The way to keep air best from the physiologic point of view is shown by the following experiment performed by Hill at the London Hospital: Into a small chamber which holds about three cubic meters he put eight students and sealed them up air tight. They entered joking and lively and at the end of 44 minutes the wet bulb temperature had risen to 83° F. They had ceased to laugh and joke and the dry bulb stood at 87° F. They were wet with sweat and their faces were congested. The carbon dioxide had risen to 5.26 per cent and the oxygen had fallen to 15.1 per cent. Hill then put on three elec- tric fans and merely whirled the air about just as it was. The effect was like magic ; the students at once felt perfectly comfortable, but as soon as the fans stopped they felt as bad as ever and they cried out for the fans. These and other experiments related, accord- ing to Hill, show that all the discomfort from breathing air in a con- fined space is due to heat and moisture and not to carbon dioxide. Even after five repetitions of the experiment there were no after- effects, such as headache. The obvious inference is that the air must be kept in motion to avoid bad effects. The open air treat- ment of disease is not altogether a matter of fresh air, but the constant cooling of the body by the circulation of air which makes us eat more and promotes activity. This leads to the general strengthening of the body because the blood is not only circulated by the heart but by every muscle in the body. There cannot be efficient circulation without constant movement 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 and activity. If there is constant cooling by ventilation, then a per- son is kept more active and the general health is improved. As Dr. M. J. Rosenau said in his recent address: Thus our entire conception of ventilation has changed, owing to the fact that we now do not believe that fresh air is particularly necessary in order to furnish us with more oxygen or to remove the slight excess of carbon dioxide. It is plain that it is heat stagnation that makes us feel so uncom- fortable in a poorly ventilated room rather than any change in the chemical composition of the air. It has been made perfectly clear from the work of Fliigge that one of the chief functions of fresh air is to help our heat-regu- lating mechanism maintain the normal temperature of the body. It is necessary to have some 2,000 to 3,000 cubic feet of air an hour to maintain our thermic equilibrium—just the amount that was formerly stated to be necessary to dilute the carbon dioxide and supply fresh oxygen. The prac- tice of ventilation, therefore, has not altered so much as has our reason for attaching importance to clean, cool, moving air, which has completely changed.” The foregoing résumé is perhaps not complete without mentioning the recent work of Prof. Yandell Henderson, of Yale University, who has brought forward his “ Acapnia” theory (acapnia meaning diminished carbon dioxide in the blood). He says: We have really at the present time no adequate scientific explanation for the health-stimulating properties of fresh air and the health-destroying influ- ence of bad ventilation. ... The subject needs investigating along new lines rather than a rehearsal of old data. Dr. Crowder’s recent experiments * also furnish additional evidence against the theory that efficient ventilation consists in the chemical purity of the air, in its freedom from “a toxic organic substance.” Even were a poisonous protein substance present in the expired air —a fact no experimenter has yet been able to demonstrate—the human organism under every-day conditions is apparently well able to adjust itself to the reinhalation of this hypothetic substance, since a considerable quantity of the expired air is always taken back into the lungs.’ ; We consider that experiments like these demonstrate most valu- able and practical truths and that is our excuse for introducing them so particularly in this place. When we consider that the aver- age man exhales from 9,000 to 10,800 liters of air in twenty-four * Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, Nov. 6, 1913. * Trans. Fifteenth International Congress on Hygiene and Demography, Vol. 7; p. 622: ®* Crowder, Thomas R.: The Reinspiration of Expired Air (Arch. Int. Med., October, 1913, p. 420). * Editorial in Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., Nov. 29, 1913. See also page 108. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 21 hours’ it. would indeed be a terrible situation if it were true that the expired breath could convey pathogenic or other bacilli. The millions of bacilli which we take into the air passages are arrested in the air passages and for the most part mercifully destroyed by the secretion.” In any event we have the assurance that the expired air is free from micro-organisms. With reference to tuberculosis this means that if healthy persons are exposed only to the expired air of tuberculous subjects no infection can occur. Only through bacilli contained in the sputum or in tiny drops of moisture coughed by the patient is the disease communicated ; and it is further probable that, as in the case of other infectious organisms, when once re- ceived into the nose and mouth and upper air passages, they quickly lose their activity or are soon extruded. (See page 13 et seq.) ATMOSPHERIC IMPURITIES In view of these facts it would scarcely seem necessary to state that for the treatment of all respiratory diseases and especially for the treatment of infections such as tuberculosis, which invades the larynx and the lungs, or for the treatment of patients whose throats and lungs owing to other infections, such as tonsillitis, pneumonia, or influenza, may be specially susceptible, no city air can be considered favorable. It is our duty to provide as nearly as possi- ble air with a very low bacterial content such as may be obtained in forests or in the neighborhood of the seashore. COAL AND SMOKE Aside from the presence of bacteria in the air of cities and towns there are other impurities which are of great disadvantage to tubercu- lous patients. The prevalent use of soft, or bituminous coal in Great Britain and America, especially in manufacturing centers, undoubt- edly shortens human life and hastens many a consumptive to his end. Volumes have been written on this subject and most valuable contri- butions have been made by Dr. J. B. Cohen, of Leeds, Mr. Francis A. R. Russell, Henry de Varigny and others, published in connection with the Hodgkins Fund.’ ? About 380 cubic feet which is equal to a volume 7% feet (220 cm.) in height, width, and thickness. ?1It has been calculated that in a town like London or Manchester, a man breathes in during ten hours 37,500,000 spores and germs. F. A. R. Russell. ®See Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 39, 1806 (Publications I07I, 1072, 1073). See also “ The Influence of Smoke on Acute and Chronic Lung Infections,” by Wm. Charles White, M.D., and Paul Shuey, Pittsburg. Trans. Amer. Climatological Association, 1913. 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Dr. William Charles White and Paul Shuey, of Pittsburgh, have recently made a study of the influence of smoke on acute and chronic lung infections, selecting pneumonia and tuberculosis as a cause of death in Pittsburgh, St. Louis, Portland, Oregon, St. Paul, Cincin- nati, Chicago, Philadelphia, New York, New Orleans, Richmond, Cleveland, San Francisco, Indianapolis, Minneapolis, Memphis, Bos- ton, Mobile, and Los Angeles. They plotted the number of smoky days per year, 1907 to 1912, with the smokiest cities first and so on to the least in the order indicated above. The mortality for white population and total population and other data are noted on the ac- companying chart. This study is in some respects unsatisfactory, because of the difficulty of getting data as to smoky days. The con- clusion was that if we except Portland and St. Paul there is a general tendency of the tuberculosis death rate to rise as the number of smoky days in the city decreases. On the other hand, it will be seen that there is a general tendency for the number of deaths from pneumonia to fall as the number of smoky days in the city decreases. In this instance, also, Portland, St. Paul, and Boston must be ex- cepted. All this needs confirmation. It is a matter of common knowledge that coal miners are liable to a disease called fibrosis, anthracosis, or miners’ consumption, in which the lungs receive and retain coal dust, which penetrates every nook and cranny of the lungs and adds one more element of danger to a most hazardous occupation. But we have it on the authority of Sir Frederick Treves that he had seen the lungs of many persons, who had lived in London, which were black from their surface to their innermost recesses. Such a condition, in his opinion, not only made it more difficult to resist disease, but started disease, and it was entirely due to dirt and soot inhaled. The black fog of London owes its color to coal smoke, which gives it its filthy, choking constituents, and kills people by thousands. Experiments showed that during a bad fog six tons of soot were deposited to the square mile.’ *Some six hundred years ago, the citizens of London petitioned King Ed- ward I to prohibit the use of “sea coal.” He replied by making its use punishable by death. This stringent measure was repealed, however, but there was again considerable complaint in Queen Elizabeth’s reign, and the nuisance created by coal smoke seems to have been definitely recognized at this period. Since this time there has been continual agitation, together with much legislation, both abroad and in this country. In the seventeenth century, King Charles II adopted repressive measures in London, and in the present century anti-smoke crusades have been frequent. In fact, the smoke problem will undoubtedly continue to demand attention until it is either ean AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 23 NO. NANO MONOID NOMONONONMOWO HO HAHOWOGO HONDO OOO? WO DADOM OOO PT TOMAUG——OO! POOOOd COMO — FIMMAUG——OO ueak uad skep hyous ‘pajou oie sod uonejndod puv juswayyjes jo easy yore 10} pajou ose skep Ayous Jo Joquinu oyy, “Z161-Z061 ‘sat u9e}4 ‘(QUI] poop) soyes-yyeap ye}oTL, “(eur AAeoy) reak SIy UL SIso[MoJaqny, pue eluoumMosug IO} COO‘OI Jod sojei-yjyeoqd $0 +0 O-2 28 0-0! O€! |- 4-91 ed! 8-02 BSE OLE 291! bLbl | ce8 \skep Kyows os 9+! vS2 0:02 Le 0-92 9-8! €02 vil Ov! Er) +9 z:02 aoe sad a\doag 29 66 16 ep 60! 0392 zlz QZ +6 €9 EE) 6S 46 ape payesodi05u} ze! iz e862 +0E S6él 00€ ze2 822 eel ++ 89 SZ 6S! fpuawiajy428 yo T 1 a T i. LI 0 CEE 2 E Ca 2 Uk. 8 I Tf tes 01 2) a “t +1 Vay 91 : é 4 8! o oz : . * a 22 ‘i at . +2 A os sasessesceslgz ‘ 2 suet 2 loi6s Z | 21110! 168 Lle2inoesz |anoes Zz [anores Z| 4 eslAOle SZ [AMG SL [ealOGSZ | 2inolr6sd jai noi6Sz | anoié 9 4 |aiOi6 BL ANOI6 BZ fanaa d jainoree z Wo6szd 7b? oe 2€ ve 9€ Be or 2¢| oy 0 2 + 9 8 ol zi v1 91 gt ol 02 Oo os 09 ajaduyso7| aiqoy | uoqsog | siydway | sijodeauui) sijodeuerpujjossiouesyueg puejana|)4 pPuoWYyriy BUE|AOMAN| 440, MON iydjapeyiud] oBeayD |iyeuuiouin] ineq as JOPYBIHOd} s!N074S | Yeungsyaid wad suze 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 The Lancet undertook by means of a system of gauges of its own design to estimate the annual deposit in London of all adventitious matter from the atmosphere. In the city proper it was calculated to be nearly five hundred tons to the square mile or about four and a half pounds per acre each day. Were it mere dirt it would not be so serious, but it is charged with gases and fluids of a deleterious char- acter such as sulphates, chlorides, ammonia, and carbon that is more or less oily and tarry. One of the experts employed by the Meteoro- logical Council in connection with the County Council of London, found that the sulphur contents of the coal ranged from one to two per cent and that from half a million to a million tons of sulphuric acid were diffused in the air every year. The loss to property from this erosive influence he estimated at about five and a half million pounds sterling. The effect upon health was a more elusive question, but stress was laid on the rise in death rate during foggy weather in which coal smoke plays a prominent part. Owing to the activity of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society, under the presidency of Sir William Richmond, atmospheric conditions are greatly improved, and it is claimed that there is a steady diminution in the number and density of the black fogs. In an article on London as a Health Resort and as a Sanitary City, by S. D. Clippingdale, M. D., Trans. Royal Society of Medicine, Feb- ruary, 1914, there is an interesting historical account of London air and fog, with a bibliography. CARBON DIOXIDE Parallel conditions are observed in cities like Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, and Glasgow, and in less degree in cities like Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago, Cleveland, and St. Louis, during periods of comparatively calm, and of heavy and humid atmosphere. Egbert’ states that “it has been calculated that for every ton of coal burnt in London something like three tons of carbon dioxide are pro- duced,” and as the city’s coal consumption is over 30,000 tons per diem, its atmosphere must receive the enormous daily contamina- tion of about 300 tons of soot and 90,000 tons of carbonic acid every day! How important, then, the adoption of practical means to abate the smoke nuisance! Engineers assure us that such means entirely solved by the abolishment of the use of solid fuel or by the installa- tion of devices and methods which shall prevent the formation of smoke in furnaces, regardless of the nature of the fuel. *Seneca Egbert: A Manual of Hygiene and Sanitation, Philadelphia, 1900. Dp. 74. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 25 are perfectly feasible and economical. It does not need an engineer to assure us that they are hygienic. Prof. Charles Baskerville, of the College of the City of New York, has vigorously attacked the problem of smoke and other air impuri- ties. He shows’ that the sticky properties of soot are due to the tar contained in it. This tar adheres so tenaciously to everything that it is not easily removed by rain. In large manufacturing districts, par- ticularly in those where bituminous coal is used as fuel, vegetation is blackened, the leaves of trees are covered and the stomata are filled up, thus inhibiting the natural processes of transpiration and assimilation. In addition, the soot is frequently acid and the deposi- tion of acid along with soot is probably one of the principal causes of the early withering which is characteristic of the many forms of town vegetation. SULPHUR DIOXIDE Aside from the solid material which pollutes the atmosphere of cities, there are correspondingly enormous quantities of noxious gases which are equally injurious to persons with tubercular disease or other diseases of the respiratory tract. Mention has already been made of the vast amounts of carbonic acid gas generated by fur- naces, not to speak of the quantities exhaled by human beings. The production of this carbon dioxide by the combustion of coal offers a definite measure of the production of sulphur dioxide. These two gases have the same origin and the measure of one is the measure of the other. Recent studies by Prof. Theodore W. Schaefer, who has made many observations of the air of Kansas City during fogs, tend to show that the presence of sulphur dioxide has an unfavorable ~ effect on persons suffering from bronchitis, pharyngitis, pneumonia, and asthma. In January, 1902, the heavy fogs occurring ins oe: Louis, Missouri, caused serious injury to the throat and lungs of prominent singers and in an action brought against the city and its chief smoke inspector, it was alleged that owing to the additional presence of smoke, suffocating gases, and acid, the health of the complainant was injured. In a mandamus proceeding it was asked that the authorities be compelled to abate the smoke nuisance. Prof. Schaefer has used the data mentioned previously as to the output of carbonic acid in London and states that he finds that at least 2,700 tons of sulphur dioxide are generated daily in that city and pass into surrounding atmosphere. This gas, after uniting with 1 Medical Record, New York, November 23, 30, 1912. 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 the oxygen and aqueous vapor of the air, is converted into sulphuric acid.* The presence of sulphur in coal, or in iron pyrites contained in coal, is responsible for this acid product and Prof. Schaefer believes that sulphur dioxide, being a very heavy gas, with a specific gravity of 2.25, is alone capable of creating a fog, or is at once shown when it is brought. in contact with the atmosphere, from which it absorbs aqueous vapor, causing dense, heavy fumes. The dust or carbon particles, coming in contact with this acid vapor, enhance its grav- ity materially. Prof. Baskerville some time ago made a number of determinations of the sulphur dioxide content of the air of New York city. Stations were established throughout greater New York city, including high office buildings, parks, subways, stations, and railroad tunnels; and very variable results, as might be expected, were obtained. The determinations may, in part, be thus summarized: Locality SO2 in parts in a million Elevated portion of city, near a high stack 3.14 Various parks 0.84 (maximum; others negative) Railroad tunnels 8.54—31.50 Subway None Downtown region 1.05—5.60 Localities near a railroad 1.12—8.40 In 1907, the residents of Staten Island, as well as some on Long Island, complained of the noxious nature of the air wafted over from various plants in New Jersey. This induced the Department of Health of the City of New York to investigate the air and vegetation in the vicinity of the Borough of Richmond, Staten Island, and some of the results obtained are given below by permission of the Department. Substance Impurity Air Trace of sulphuric acid Air 0.0066 per cent. SOs by weight Air Trace of sulphuric acid Grass (three samples) Sulphuric acid present Grass 0.24 per cent SOs Grass 0.70 per cent SOs Leaves ; 0.19 per cent SO: Leaves 0.28 per cent SO: Soil 0.0015 per cent SOs 1 Theodore W. Schaefer: The Contamination of the Air of our Cities with Sulphur Dioxide, the Cause of Respiratory Disease. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, July 25, 1907. << NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 27 These results do not really give us anything definite, as the com- parative factor is absent. Fog usually collects in the lower portions of a city, especially in depressed localities known as hollows, where it remains until dis- persed by air currents. The well-known increase of mortality in cities during the continued presence of heavy fog with these addi- tional contaminations have been recorded and commented upon for years. The heavy, suffocating, poisonous quality of sulphur dioxide is well known and has been the subject of several investigations. In general, it may be said that the chief symptoms of poisoning with sulphurous acid are those of irritation of the mucous membranes. Even in five parts in 10,000 it acts as an irritant, causing sneez- ing, coughing and lacrymation, bronchial irritation and catarrh (Cushny). It is also credited with causing pneumonia and Prof. Schaefer notes its power to produce asthma.’ Undoubtedly it would aggravate pulmonary and laryngeal tuberculosis and either delay or prevent a cure under the conditions described. AMMONIA IN THE AIR This gas is constantly present in the atmosphere, but in very minute quantities. Fifty years ago Boussingault and, later, Schloes- ing made careful investigations of this impurity of the atmosphere and devised ingenious methods of estimating its amount in air and rain water. It usually exists only in combination with carbonic or nitric acid; very little is free. Water absorbs it freely and it has been estimated that in France the annual rainfall brings to the earth in the form of nitrogen nearly 5 kilograms per acre. The presence of ammonia indicates organic putrefaction. Its amount does not usually exceed a very few parts per million. It is usually perceptible, as we all know, in and about stables. As far as any relation to tuberculosis is concerned, ammoniacal air has for us only a remote interest. At one time it was strongly advo- cated as a cure for pulmonary consumption and perhaps some his- toric details may be of interest here. Dr. Thomas Beddoes, of London, published in 1803, ‘ Considera- tions on a Modified Atmosphere in Consumption Cases,” and strongly advocated residence in a cow stable for such cases. One of his patients was Mrs. Finch, a daughter of Dr. Joseph Priestley, * This accords with the conclusions of W. C. White and Paul Shuey, Joc. cit. The relation of Sea Fog to Tuberculosis is considered in the next chapter, page 52. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 famous for his epoch-making discovery of Oxygen. The patient, from the description given, had a well-marked case of pulmonary tuberculosis in the second or third stage. She was placed in a stable 14 by 20 feet and 9 feet high, and her bed was in a small recess a tew inches above the ground of the stable, where two or three cows were kept. The temperature was maintained at 60° to 70° F. Mrs. Finch remained in this cow house nearly all the time from the autumn of 1799 until the spring of 1800. In a letter, dated August 15, 1800, the patient wrote, “I am happy in being able to say that my chest continues perfectly well; and from the difference of my feelings now, and some years back, I am more than ever a friend of the cows. I avoid colds and night air; and by rides in the country am anxious to brace myself against winter and the necessity of a sea voyage.” OXYGEN FOR TUBERCULOUS PATIENTS Shortly after the discovery of oxygen, physicians were stimulated to try the effect of various gases in the treatment of phthisis. Four- croy and Beddoes both observed the effects of the inhalation of oxygen and found that it accelerated the pulse and respiration, and, as they believed, increased inflammatory action so that they con- cluded that its effect was prejudicial. Beddoes held that in phthisis there is an excess of oxygen in the system and consequently, that free air was injurious to the patient. He says in the essay quoted previously :* “ As it seemed to me hopeless to propose residence in a cow house, I advised that the patient should live during the winter in a room fitted up so as to ensure the command of a steady tempera- ture. This advice was followed. Double doors and double windows were added to the bed room. The fire place was bricked up round the flue of a cast iron stove for giving out heated air.” What a con- trast to the fresh air cure of the present day! But the doctor per- sisted in his plan of treatment until the patient died. The amount of oxygen present in the atmosphere, 20.938 per cent, is precisely adapted to the needs of animal life and the same propor- tion of oxygen is preserved in the atmosphere everywhere, without regard to altitude.’ It has been found that animals die if the ratio of oxygen is artificially decreased by as much as twenty-five per *Thomas Beddoes: Observations on the Medical and Domestic Manage- ment of the Consumptive. American edition, Troy, 1803, p. 42. * Analyses by Gay-Lussac of Air Collected at 7,000 meters; and observa- tions by Dumas and Boussingault. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 29 cent ; but Paul Bert * also showed that too much oxygen was equally prejudicial to life and, indeed, poisonous, animals dying in a super- oxygenated atmosphere as soon as their blood contains one-third more than the normal ratio of oxygen, because in such an atmos- phere the hemoglobin of the red blood corpuscles is saturated with oxygen—a fact which never occurs under normal conditions—and a proportion of this gas then dissolves in the serum of the blood Here lies the danger, for the tissues cannot withstand the presence of free, uncombined oxygen and death follows. The question imme- diately arises: Why do the tissues require combined oxygen and why does free oxygen kill them? No one knows. Henry de Varigny, who deals with this subject with reference to zrobic and anzrobic organisms deals with this curious fact and acknowledges our limited knowledge on this point. He states, however, that while a certain increase in the ratio of oxygen results in death, lesser increases of a temporary character may be beneficial. Every poison kills, doubt- less, but there are doses which not only do not kill, but even confer benefit and improve health. Lorrain Smith has shown that oxygen at the tension of the atmos- phere stimulates the lung-cells to active absorption; at a higher tension it acts as an irritant, or pathologic stimulant, and produces inflammation.” As far as the respiratory processes are concerned the respiration of pure oxygen takes place without disturbing them for even in an atmosphere of pure oxygen animals breathe as though they were respiring normal atmospheric air.’ Sir Humphrey Davy believed that when pure oxygen was inspired there is no more chemical change induced than occurs when atmos- pheric air is breathed; in other words, let the vital actions be a constant quantity, the addition of oxygen to the inspired air does not materially increase vital transformation. Fifty years ago there was great confusion in the minds of otherwise intelligent observers and false reasoning led them into grave errors. Those who, like Beddoes, believed that there was too much oxygen in the system held that the inhalation of air containing carbonic acid was the proper plan of treatment and this theory of hyper-oxidation was revived Paul Bert: La Pression Barometrique, 1878. See also monograph by F. G. Benedict quoted on page 31. *Lorrain Smith, in Journal of Physiology, 1899, Vol. 24, p. 19. ®? An American Text Book of Physiology, Vol. 1. 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 by Baron von Liebig, who recommended that in phthisis the respira- tory action should be lessened.’ The Boston Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington has undertaken a most painstaking series of investiga- tions bearing on this subject. They include an examination of the comparative oxygen-content of uncontaminated outdoor air under all conditions as to wind direction and strength, temperature, cloud formation, barometer, and weather. In addition, samples of air were collected on the Atlantic Ocean, on the top of Pike’s Peak, in the crowded streets of Boston, and in the New York and Boston sub- ways. The results of the analyses of uncontaminated outdoor air showed no material fluctuation in oxygen percentage in observations extending over many months and in spite of all possible alterations in weather and vegetative conditions. The average figures are 0.031 per cent of carbon dioxide and 20.938 per cent oxygen. The ocean air and that from Pike’s Peak gave essentially similar results. The extraordinary rapidity with which the local variations in the composition of the air are equalized is accentuated by the observa- tions on street air in the heart of the city, where the contaminating factors might be expected to be of sufficient magnitude to affect perceptibly the analytic data. Only the slightest trace of oxygen deficit is shown, with a minute corresponding carbon-dioxide incre- ment. Observations such as these tend to demonstrate the extent of the diffusion of gases and the establishment of equilibrium by air- currents. Most unexpected are the figures in regard to the extremely small extent to which the air was vitiated in the modern “tube” or sub- way, even during “rush” hours. There was, on the average, a fall of 0.03 per cent in oxygen accompanied by a rise of 0.032 per cent in the carbon dioxide. Professor Benedict points out that while the measurement of carbon dioxide has been taken as an index of good or bad ventilation, the fact that the proportion of oxygen is actually lowered by an increase in the carbon dioxide has never before been clearly demonstrated. Asa result of this, the determina- tion of the content of carbon dioxide in the air, which can be made with ease and accuracy, suffices to establish the approximate percent- age of oxygen. For every 0.01 per cent increase in the atmospheric carbon dioxide one may safely assume a corresponding decrease in the percentage of oxygen. Aside from minor fluctuations ex- *See Edward Smith: Consumption, Its Early and Remediable Stages. Blanchard and Lea, Philadelphia, 186s. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE oil plained above, it may now truly be said that “the air is a physical mixture with the definiteness of composition of a chemical com- pound.” * ‘ Since the introduction* into medical practice of oxygen com- pressed in cylinders its use has been tried in tuberculous cases, but no satisfactory results have been obtained and its use is discontinued, except, so far as we know, in the hands of charlatans. The inhalation of oxygen gas may not per se exert any curative action on a tuberculous lung, but that fact should not lead us to the conclusion that the voluntary respiration of an increased quantity of air is not beneficial. It is stated that the air in the central parts of the lungs is richer in carbonic acid than that found in the larger tubes and hence deep inspiration followed by deep expiration causes a larger amount of the air richer in carbonic acid, to be exhaled. From this the conclusion is drawn that increased chemical change will result, for if the carbon dioxide be removed from the air cells its place will be filled by quantities of the same gas which will escape from the blood. Furthermore, the removal of carbon dioxide from the blood facilitates and makes possible those metabolic changes which with a supply of suitable food improve nutrition. Nowadays we often speak of oxygen as synonymous with atmos- pheric air and in this sense we give it a prominent place in pulmonary therapeutics. We are tempted to reproduce the placard of an old boot-maker and chiropodist of fifty years ago which read: The best medicine! Two miles of oxygen three times a day. This is not only the best, but cheap and pleasant to take. It suits all ages and con- stitutions. It is patented by Infinite Wisdom, sealed with a signet divine. It cures cold feet, hot heads, pale faces, feeble lungs and bad tempers. If two or three take it together it has a still more striking effect. It has often been known to reconcile enemies, settle matrimonial quarrels and bring reluctant parties to a state of double blessedness. This medicine never fails. Spurious compounds are found in large towns; but get into the country lanes, among green fields, or on the mountain top, and you have it in perfec- tion as prepared in the great laboratory of nature. Before taking this medicine . . . should be consulted on the understanding that corns, bunions, or bad nails, prevent its proper effects. 2See the recent monograph by Benedict, F. G.: The Composition of the Atmosphere with Special Reference to Its Oxygen Content, Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington, Publication 166, 1912. Review in Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., Jan. 25, 1013. 3 ?'The late Dr. Andrew H. Smith, of New York, was the first in the United States to use Oxygen in medical practice, 1860. “ Oxygen gas as a Remedy in Disease,” A. H. Smith, 1870. 4 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 The old London boot-maker had more wisdom than most of the doctors of his time. CHAPTER III. INFLUENCE OF SEA AIR; INLAND SEAS AND LAKES. SEA VOYAGES The value of sea air in tuberculosis has been discussed pro and con for ages and, like the tide, there is an ebb and flow of sentiment regarding its value in the treatment of tuberculosis. Undoubtedly there is, at present, a stronger belief in the efficacy of sea air in the various forms of tuberculosis than at any previous time. This is especially true as regards tuberculosis of the bones, the tuberculosis of children and in the important class of cases termed fibroid phthisis. Aretaeus, about 250 B. C., recommended sea voyages for the cure of consumption, and 300 years later Celsus advocated voyages from Italy to Egypt, if the patient were strong enough. Celsus was a layman whose learning was truly encyclopedic, but only his medical writings have survived. When the Roman sufferer from tubercu- losis was not able to make the sea voyage to Egypt he was sometimes advised to pass a large portion of his time sailing on the Tiber.’ At Kreuznach, Ems, and other continental resorts, salt inhalations are given to patients with scrofulous and chronic bronchial affec- tions. Instead of trusting to sea breezes the patients are taken to halls where saline particles are present in a higher precentage than they can ever be at the sea side. They inhale the salt-laden air and make use of pulverization apparatus. Hours are spent in the open air near the “ evaporating fences ” so as to inhale salt air at interior stations. At Ems this treatment is carried out in pneumatic cham- bers capable of holding ten people in compressed atmosphere for about 134 hours. Sea air is of acknowledged purity as to micro-organisms, dust and adventitious gases. As previously remarked, there is at sea a maxi- mum of ozone and a minimum of all foreign deleterious substances. (See page 9.) Without considering, as yet, the amount of watery vapor in the air of the ocean and other features of ocean air such as its movement and temperature, we recognize some physical contents such as a minute quantity of sodium chloride, iodine and bromine as characteristic of sea air when contrasted with air from any other *“Opus est, si vires patiuntur, longa navigatione, coeli mutatione, sic ut densius quam id est, ex quo discedit aeger, petatur; ideoque aptissime Alexandriam ex Italia itur.” Celsus, De Med. lib. m1, Cap. 22. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 8 STORM AT BLACKPOOL ENGLAND. SHOWING HOW SALINE PARTICLES ENTER THE ATMOSPHERE Photographs by Courtesy of Dr. Leonard Malloy NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 33 locality. The wind carries aloft fine particles derived from the crests of the waves and this saline matter from sea water and foam is constantly present near the surface and is carried for miles inland.’ It is well known that plants near the seashore have a perceptible coating of saline matter which modifies their growth. As far as the present subject is concerned we have to deal with the influence on the tuberculous processes exerted by a marine cli- mate. This can be obtained by undertaking sea voyages or by a residence on islands, or on the seaboard. Ocean voyages were formerly strongly advocated as a means of cure in tuberculosis and were given an extended trial especially by English physicians. The constant commercial intercourse between England and her possessions all over the world made the practice easy and the results have been carefully weighed. Before the days of steam the typical ocean voyage from London to China or India involved vastly different conditions, as to time, route and accommo- dations. Some features will always be the same. Seasickness, the confined air of cabins, storm and wet will remain to harrass and ter- rify the traveler. But the clipper ships of the past are now, for the most part, doing duty as coal barges and the steam “ tramp” and ocean liner carry the cargoes of the world. After ruling out the tramps, cattle ships, and the coasting schoon- ers, we have left a few sailing vessels still engaged in the East India trade and the fast liners. Modern systems of ventilation and cold storage have corrected some of the great disadvantages of the past and the presence of competent surgeons on board all the larger passenger steamers make the trip comparatively safe for a tubercu- lous patient if the necessity arises for him to make the voyage. But as a strictly therapeutic measure such trips are not to be recom- mended and in this we are supported by nearly all good authorities.’ 2Two illustrations from a storm at Blackpool, England, are supplied by the courtesy of Dr. Leonard Molloy. *Huggard, A., Handbook of Climatic Treatment, London, 1906, says: * Sea voyages were formerly in great repute for persons with phthisis; but it is now recognized that, except in certain well-defined instances they generally do harm. Only slight or mild cases without fever and without active symp- toms, are likely to benefit. The patients most suitable for a sea voyage are those in whom the disease has become partly or entirely arrested.” Dr. Burney yet doubts whether phthisis at any stage is benefited by ocean travel. Prof. Charteris, of Glasgow, approves of a sea voyage in the early stage of phthisis in a young person, but after that stage all experience testifies that degeneration proceeds more rapidly on sea than on shore and the patient, if he reaches land, only does this to find a grave far away from the surround- ings of friends and home. 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Dr. W. E. Fisher, for many years surgeon to the Pacific Mail Steamship Co., while observing that patients affected with chronic diseases, such as phthisis, dyspepsia, etc., are not so liable to seasick- ness as others, states that a large percentage of tuberculous patients stand the sea voyage badly. Dr. Fisher’s experience relates to the trip from New York to San Francisco by way of Panama. During the first part of the voyage until the Bahama Islands are reached, the invalid experiences bracing weather. From that point to the Isthmus and thence up the coast during the long voyage of three weeks or more, a distance of nearly three thousand miles, the tem- perature averages 90° in the shade and on many days rises as high as 95° or 96° F. This occurs during the winter months and is the direct cause of deaths on the voyage or shortly after arrival on the California coast. Dr. R. W. Felkin, of Edinburgh, says: “ Fifteen years ago I used to advocate sea voyages in my lectures on Climatology in Edin- burgh, with great confidence; now I am more cautious. I do not send phthisical patients to sea as I once did. The risk of spreading infection is, to my thinking, too serious to be incurred. I well remember once sending two sisters to Australia; the elder suffered from phthisis; the younger was healthy. The elder certainly did gain some temporary benefit, but the younger sister and also a cabin companion became infected, and all three girls were in their graves within a year of their return to this country. I am sure that occupy- ing a joint cabin as they did caused the mischief.” Dr. F. Parkes Weber, of London, takes a more hopeful view.” He says that sea voyages are often useful in the milder and quiescent forms of pulmonary tuberculosis, provided the patient’s general con- dition be such as otherwise to fit him for life on shipboard. ‘“ Long voyages are to be preferred to all other methods of treatment in the case of male patients who have a taste for the sea, who are strong physically, or who possessed an originally strong constitution and were infected by ‘chance’ or when weakened by overwork, worry, improper hygienic conditions, or acute diseases.” In pulmonary tuberculosis complicated by syphilis, or syphilitic phthisis, as it was formerly designated, a marine climate seems to be particularly suitable.* *Journal of Balneology and Climatology, January, 1906. *F. Parkes Weber: System of Physiologic Therapeutics, Vol. 3, p. 87, Philadelphia, 1go1. *See Roland G. Curtin, Trans. Amer. Climatological Ass., Vol. 4, p. 31. No. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 35 The vicissitudes of sea-travel, the narrow cabins and the difficulty of obtaining a suitable diet, even such common requisites as milk and eggs, should be enough to condemn this plan. Tuberculosis patients ought not to travel more than is absolutely necessary. Imagine the bacteriological condition of a consumptive’s stateroom, for instance, at the end of a month’s voyage! What sea-captain or steward would ever put such a cabin into a sanitary condition for the next pas- senger? The author has some experience of life at sea under both sail and steam, although he has never taken very prolonged voyages. Taking into account the character of the food supply and the necessity of at least sleeping in small cabins and probably spending days in them, with uncertain medical attention; and, besides this, the dangers of various kinds that pertain to seaports, the author feels bound to con- demn sea voyages for the tuberculous in any stage. “Non mutant morbum qui transeunt mare.” MARINE CLIMATE OF ISLANDS It is far better for the tuberculous patient to remain on terra firma than to traverse the sea. Whatever is of value in the sea air can be obtained in islands such as Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Isle of Wight, Nantucket, the Isles of Shoals, Newfoundland, Long Island, the Bahamas, the Canaries, the Philippines, Samoa, and many other islands. Just as in the case of sea voyages, there are concomitant influ- ences, many of which are notoriously unfavorable, that in themselves over-balance any possible advantage from sea air. Take, for in- stance, the problem as it presents itself in Ireland or the Isle of Man. Among the various countries of the world Ireland stood fourth in the order of mortality from tuberculosis, being exceeded by Hun- gary, Austria, and Servia. During the last thirty-five years the mortality in Great Britain has been reduced one-half among females and one-third among males but, until 1907, there had been no such fall in Ireland. Sir John Byers, of Belfast, in his address* entitled “ Why is Tuberculosis so Common in Ireland?” characterized its prevalence in that country as “ appalling.’ Among the nine causes which are assigned for this condition of affairs attention is first directed to the damp climate. An investigation of places with rather worse con- ?The Lancet, January 25, 1908. See also Alfred E. Boyd, M. B.: Tubercu- losis and Pauperism in Ireland, British Journ. Tuberculosis, July, 1908, p. 159. 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 ditions of climate led Sir John to say on this point: “I cannot, therefore, admit that there is much in the dampness of the atmos- phere as a cause of tuberculosis in Ireland.” Sir William Osler takes precisely the same ground and pointed out at the opening of the Tuberculosis Exhibit in Dublin, that Cornwall, with a much damper atmosphere than that of Ireland, was so free from the disease that consumptives were sent there. In Cardiff, Wales, with a damp climate and with the ground water in many places near the surface in the gravel and with the lower part of the town on a stiff marine clay, very retentive of moisture, the tuberculosis death rate for 1906 was only 1.20 per 1,000. On the other hand in Belfast, with a smaller rainfall (34.57 inches as against 42.43 inches) the mortality was more than twice as much, or 2.77 per 1,000. The figures for 1906 were: Death rate trom Rainfall tuberculosis inches per 1000 Manchester, notoriously damp, foggy and smoky.... ae 1.82 TSIViED POO lees eaters ee eis ererer eee ae eR chals oatcie ee ere Ecrene 1.82 TOM Orissed Se rote cate ete ea ore eateries aeciarete amoral nee 1.42 Car ditieaWialesw ee. c seine see eee eet rene arcvereie xetsiode 42.81 1.20 Bolte ney Ein cl an clietereycaveyarereteeheostercrsuie erstcierene fe earekstor are 42.43 I.II Beliastelrelandi trosyceteie siersciote coasts isretaterct sie scot clei 34.57 277, GOEL AA ecapiicisteyov above ietainre Blake Geers severe ersispatecace necator ots as 4.53 Dubliny ireland tekecictes ctr cs stereos tunel et avec! 27973 2.91 North Dublinslirelandiac ewes .comrmcciacti ace hoes Spee 4.70 After taking up in turn dampness of soil, emigration as a cause for tuberculosis, the asserted susceptibility of the Irish to tuberculo- sis, poverty and social position, food and drink and industries, and after weighing them carefully they were all discarded as insufficient causes of this mortality. The prime cause was declared to be want of Sanitary Reform and the prevalent domestic or home treatment of the advanced cases of pulmonary tuberculosis. Since 1907 an encouraging decline in the mortality from tuber- culosis has been noted. Whereas the rate for both sexes throughout Ireland was 273.6 per 100,000 in 1907 it had dropped by gradual stages to 215.2in 1912. Sir William Thompson, the General Register for Ireland, justly attributes this well marked decrease during the past six years to the exertion of Her Excellency, the Countess of Aberdeen.’ *Trans. National Association for the Prevention of Consumption and Other Forms of Tuberculosis, 5th Annual Conference, London, August 4 and 5, 1913. See also Sir John Moore, Interstate Medical Journ., April, 1914. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 37 Sir William shows that this decrease indicates 17,000 fewer people suffering from tuberculosis in Ireland in 1912 than there were in 1907. This corresponds to a decrease of nearly one-fifth of the total number of cases of tuberculosis. He seems hopeful that within the next few years the death-rate from tuberculosis in Ireland will not be above the average in other countries. Undoubtedly hygienic and philanthropic measures are entitled to the credit for this marked improvement and it gives us pleasure to note in this connection the remarkable work of Her Excellency, the Countess of Aberdeen. This noble woman founded in 1907 the Women’s National Health Association of Ireland and a vigorous campaign was started which soon roused the whole country to a sense of responsibility in matters of public health and, in particular, to measures necessary for the prevention and cure of tuberculosis. The influence of this organization rapidly spread and within eight- een months no less than seventy branches had been opened through- out Ireland, for the most part opened in person by their excellencies, - the Lord Lieutenant and Countess of Aberdeen, and now it has 150 branches and 18,000 members. While undertaking the reduction of infant mortality, the improve- ment in the milk supply and better school hygiene, the association made a systematic attack on the prevalence of tuberculosis. This included home treatment and its strong ally, the tuberculosis dis- pensary, on a plan similar to that originated by Sir Robert Philip, of Edinburgh ; it included sanatorium treatment ; and it provided special treatment for advanced cases of tuberculosis. In this phase of the work the association had the benefit of £145,623. through the pro- visions of the National Insurance Act. Charitable Americans also contributed handsomely toward the erection of sanatoria now com- prising one thousand beds, the maintenance of dispensaries and of depots for the supply of pasteurized milk.’ It is interesting to note that the Association also lent its support to the formation of an “ Irish Goat Society,” believing that the best way to meet the scarcity of milk experienced in many parts of Ire- land is to encourage the keeping of a good breed of milking goats. Then, too, through the administration of the Laborer’s Acts nearly fifty thousand cottages with garden plots ranging up to one acre have been built for rural laborers by rural sanitary authorities at an outlay of over £8,000,000. We have cited this remarkable campaign of the anti-tuberculosis The late Mr. R. J. Collier and Mr. Nathan Straus. 38 “SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 movement in Ireland to show how close are its relation to the broader field of general hygiene and sanitation and to show that such work pays; and furthermore what great service one person of noble birth, by her foresight, solicitous care and untiring devotion, can initiate and carry out. As Prof. Thompson says: There is no doubt that it will rank as one of the greatest philanthropic efforts of our time. Take the Isle of Man. This island in the Irish Sea has a popula- tion of over ten thousand and for six hundred years has been singu- larly free from the admixture of English, Irish, or Scotch blood. The island has a more equable climate than any other part of the British Isles. The mean annual temperature is 49° F. There is com- parative absence of frost, fog, or snow. But careful records since 1880 show that the Manx tuberculosis death rate is about double that on the mainland.’ 1880-82 1883-1897 Tislemotaiatigea orate morse 31.63 25.70 per 10,000 1887 1893 EnsdamedsanclevVialesmeme = acme ers ce 15.08 13.07 per 10,000 1888 1894 14.28 12.17 per 10,000 1889 1895 14.35 12.43 per 10,000 1890 1896 15.06 11.39 per 10,000 The: Bahamas and Bermuda in the Atlantic Ocean have a sub- tropical marine climate that experience shows to be far too relaxing and enervating for tuberculous patients. The Philippines and all other tropical islands are likewise entirely unsuited for tuberculous patients for the same reasons.’ Newfound- land, with a harsh, damp, colder air, is equally bad. Dr. Newsholme, of Brighton, President of the Epidemiological Section of the Royal Society of Medicine, in an elaborate inquiry into the principal causes of the reduction of the death rate from phthisis in different countries, came to the conclusion that the one ™ Charles A. Davies, M. D.: Tuberculosis in the Isle of Man (Tuberculosis, London, Oct., 1900). , ? According to Dr. Issac W. Brewer, U. S. A., “ Notes on the Vital Sta- tistics of the Philippine Census of 1903,” American Medicine, Oct., 1906, the death rate from tuberculosis is one-third that in the United States. NO: I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 39 common factor present in all cases where a fall was noted was the segregation of the patients in hospitals or sanatoria. In each country where the institutional has replaced the domestic relief of destitu- tion there has been a reduction of the death rate from phthisis which is roughly proportional to the change. As to the cause, then, of the spread of tuberculosis, we shall find that it probably always lies in ignorance, indifference and other moral or sociologic causes, and, in many of the cases cited, not to climatic or atmospheric conditions. Our opinion of sea air is fortunately not confined to that of the high seas or even that of islands. The sea air sweeps the mainland and, as we know, modifies the climate of all adjacent portions of the Continent. The great source of atmospheric moisture is found ulti- mately in the oceans. The invisible watery vapor and the visible clouds are carried inland and deposit their water over the Continent. The monsoons which are most highly developed in India and other parts of Asia, prevail also in Texas and on the Pacific coast of the United States. These seasonal winds are of great importance from a climatic standpoint and hence should be taken into account in ref- erence to the climatic treatment of tuberculosis." During the sum- mer and autumn in India these seasonal winds sweep inland from the sea and deluge the country with rain. This amounts, in the Khasi Hills, 200 miles north of the Bay of Bengal, to between 500 and 600 inches a year and reaches its maximum at points about 1,400 meters, 4,600 feet, above sea level. Fortunately in the United States these seasonal winds, while pres- ent, are not so dominant as climatic factors. Weare more concerned in the present study with the diurnal winds of the seashore. The sea breeze which tempers the heat of our coasts is a distinctly beneficial feature of the shore and not only tends to moderate the heat of the summer day, but sweeps inland for fifty or a hundred miles the pure ocean air and provides all the desirable features of a marine climate. ARCTIC CLIMATE Passing still farther north we have the Arctic climate. It is marine or insular and cold. Arctic voyages have been proposed for the treatment of tuberculosis and, as adjuncts to the voyage, a sum- mer sojourn in the northern fjords-of Greenland. A trip of this *See William Gordon: The Influence of Strong, Rainbearing Winds on the Prevalence of Phthisis, H. K. Lewis, London, 1910, Observations in Devonshire. 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 kind has been seriously planned by Dr. Frederick Sohon, of Wash- ington, D. C., but has never yet been carried out.’ _ It is a significant fact that Arctic explorers from Dr. Elisha Kent Kane down, including General A. W. Greely, Admiral Peary, Mr. W. S. Champ, Mr. Herbert L. Bridgman, the late Dr. Nicholas Senn, and others comment on the healthfulness of the Polar climate. Dr. Sohon made two voyages with Commander Peary, in 1896 and in 1902, and states his opinion that in summer the Arctic regions are en- tirely suitable for, and beneficial to, the tuberculous, and that the un- equaled natural advantages for a cure can be practically utilized. Few understand the fascination which the Polar regions undoubtedly exert on all who enter that charmed circle. The expressions used by Arctic explorers seem so extravagant to the average mind. The late Professor Senn says: “ Nature there lends such efforts toward prophylaxis, as to leave no need for therapeutics.” * The air of the Arctic regions is free from dust and germs. It is not, in itself, responsible for any disease which may be carried into Arctic settlements by ships’ crews, or by means of the migration of animals or birds. Colds and catarrhal conditions are conspicu- ously absent. There is no pneumonia. The only “Arctic Fever ” is that which explorers are almost sure to contract on their first visit and which has an annual periodicity. It is not a self-limited disease, as Admiral Peary can testify after nearly fourteen con- secutive summers in the Polar regions. Another feature of the atmosphere in the Arctic is absolute clearness and abundance of sunshine. Dr. Sohon, in 1902, exposed dishes of agar and introduced into culture tubes pebbles, bits of vegetation and water from the ground and from pools at Comman- der Peary’s winter quarters. Of six dishes exposed for from one- half to two hours, two were sterile and four gathered only a com- mon white mould (P. glaucum). Only the hay bacillus was obtained from the pebbles. Water yielded the hay bacillus, B. liquefaciens, B. fluorescens and an unclassified non-pathogenic saprophytic rod or- ganism. 1Frederick Sohon, M. D.: Personal Observations on the Advantages of Cer- tain Arctic Localities in the Treatment of Tuberculosis (American Medicine, April 23, 1904). Idem. The Therapeutic Merits of the Arctic Climate Meteorological Data of a Summer Cruise (Journal American Medical Association, February 3, 1906). Nicholas Senn: Medical Affairs in the Heart of the Arctics (Journal American Medical Association, 1905, Vol. 45, pp. 1564, 1647). Ol NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE Al The atmosphere has a bracing quality and is always credited with developing a prodigious appetite. It is pointed out that a taste is developed for the kind of food the tuberculous patient needs, viz., fatty food and meat. The craving for this kind of food is usually accompanied by a corresponding adaptability to digest it and, in healthy subjects, flesh is always gained. Dr. Sohon says that in both of his trips to Greenland he has exceeded his usual maximum weight, gaining the first time thirty pounds in two months, and the second time nineteen pounds in six weeks. In the latter voyage even the crew made an average gain of ten pounds in weight. A large share of the beneficial influence of any atmospheric change is that which conduces to a good appetite and digestion. In this respect the summer Arctic voyage may fairly claim pre- eminence. With qualities such as these it is natural that, for a por- tion of the year at least, the merits of the Arctic climate in the treat- ment of tuberculosis should at least be considered. An atmospheric feature is its great penetrability for light and especially for the actinic and ultra-violet rays. Tanning of the skin always occurs and sunburn is not uncommon. During summer the sun never sets and, though not very high in the heavens, its generous rays must exert a very beneficial influence on any morbid process, especially of a tubercular type. Arctic plants develop rap- idly from seed to flower and seed again in surprising manner and the wild animals seem to be the largest and most vigorous of their kind. In judging of the weather to be encountered in the Arctic regions, we are too much inclined to recall the harrowing accounts of the ill-fated expeditions of the past; but in the Northern fjords of Greenland, some miles from the coast, or in the protected inland bays, the atmospheric conditions of summer are quite agreeable and are especially suitable for the open air treatment. The fluctuations of temperature are very moderate. The average minimum temperature between July 28 and September 6, between 69° and 78° north latitude on these Greenland Fjords, was about 38 F.; the average maximum was 49° to 50°. Temperatures as high as 56° were recorded at North Star Bay and about 52° at Etah. The humidity averaged low. The records were made at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m., and, owing to the constant daylight, are much more representative estimates of relative humidity than in the case of records of relative humidity at those same hours in temperate lati- tudes. 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Maximum Minimum Average Humidity Humidity 8a. m. Sipsm. Sia.m. 1eipoam- 8 a.m. 8 p. m. INfae MOS Saoctacsedsaa ilee 95 62 50 81.3 74.1 Denver se eee eet OO 90 4I 13 GOsIwe 37.1 North Starmebayarrercscl 2 71 56 390 63.1 54. Etah; (Greenland... .22.. 81 70 4o 35 57.6 52.4 The relative humidity was much lower while at anchor in the harbors of Northern Greenland than while en route through the Strait of Belle Isle and off Labrador and in Davis Strait and Smith’s Sound. We have given some attention to this subject on account of the very enthusiastic claims made on behalf of the atmosphere of the Arctic regions during summer treatment of tuberculosis. Although the plans for sending a ship with tuberculous passengers on this voyage failed to be carried out owing to inability to get the neces- sary permission from the Danish Government to land at the north- ern ports of Greenland, it is possible that at some future time the attempt will again be made. The fact that Icelanders and Greenlanders may contract tubercu- losis in numbers and may die from it is not to be overlooked; but the filth of winter quarters in the far North and the foul air of these huts is responsible for much of the illness of the native inhabi- tants. The Eskimo survives the dangers of the winter because he leads a totally different life in summer. It is difficult for those who have never been to the Polar regions to realize what a change is wrought by the advent of constant sunlight. This unique feature of the summer climate contributes to health and energy. The at- mosphere, free from all germs and dust, bracing in its quality, is a strong stimulant to bodily functions as gain in weight testifies. As a practical measure for the treatment of tuberculosis Arctic voyages have not yet been proved to be beneficial, although there is some presumptive evidence in their favor and, in view of the abund- ance of proof that the disease can be successfully combated at numberless places on the continent, such expeditions will scarcely meet with favor. FLOATING SANATORIA In 1896, Mr. M. O. Motschoutkovsky * advocated floating sanatoria for patients with incipient tuberculosis. These specially fitted ves- sels were to be shifted from port to port according to the season so as to get the most favorable climatic conditions. ?The Lancet, April 4, 1906, p. 939. VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 9 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS OPEN AIR CLASS ON FERRY BOAT ““ SOUTHFIELD,’? EAST RIVER, NEW YORK CITY. SLEEPING HOUR Courtesy of Dr. J. W. Brannan OPEN AIR SCHOOL FOR TUBERCULOUS CHILDREN. FERRY BOAT ““SOUTHFIELD,” BELLEVUE HOSPITAL. SEE PAGE 43 NOD 71 AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE A3 The vicissitudes of sea-travel, the narrow cabins and the difficulty of obtaining a suitable diet, even such common requisites as milk and eggs, ought to be enough to condemn this plan. Tuberculous patients ought not to travel more than is absolutely necessary. Old ferry boats have been recently utilized in New York as class- rooms for tuberculous scholars. The ferry boat “ Southfield” has been equipped for this work through the Miss Spence’s School Society under the direction and courtesy of Bellevue Hospital in cooperation with Dr. John Winters Brannan and Dr. J. Alexander Miller. There are three classes on the “ Southfield”; two for pulmonary cases of about thirty-six children; these classes being part of the regular Bellevue Clinic work and entirely supported by Bellevue. The third class is for tuberculous cripples with about twenty children. The cost of nurses and special equipment for this class together with incidental expenses is borne by the Spence School Society. The teachers for all three classes are supplied by the New York Board of Education so that they are a part of the regular school system." Owing to the fact that these old ferry boats seem to answer a useful purpose and in view of the reported use by the Italian Gov- ernment of three discarded men-of-war as floating sanatoria in the treatment of tuberculous patients, a request was made to the Navy Department of the United States for similar ships by the Fourth International Congress on School Hygiene at Buffalo, N. Y., August 29, 1913, in a resolution, a portion of which is as follows: Wuereas, It has been demonstrated in New York and other cities that discarded vessels lend themselves admirably to transformation into all-year- round hospitals and sanatoria for consumptive adults, sanatoria for children afflicted with joint and other types of tuberculosis, and into open air schools for tuberculous, anemic, and nervous children; Resolved, That the fourth International Congress on School Hygiene peti- tions the United States Government to place at the disposal of the various States of the Union as many of the discarded battleships and cruisers as possi- ble to be anchored according to their size in the rivers or at the seashore and to be utilized by the respective communities for open air schools, preven- toria, sanatorium schools for children, or hospital sanatoria for adults. The Secretary of the Navy, however, for the following very good reasons, declined. 1See Buffalo Medical Journal, 1907-8, Vol. 63, 41. 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 I am of the opinion that battleships are not suitable for floating sanatoria. This opinion is based on the following reasons. The cost of maintaining a battleship in proper sanitary and structural condition is very high. Battleships, particularly the older types, have very limited deck space, and this is so cut up by hatches, turrets, davits, cranes and winches that there are few spaces large enough for a cot. The cost of removing these obstruc- tions would be equivalent to that of building more suitable floating hospitals. The ventilation in the enclosed spaces of these vessels is so poor that it often has an unfavorable effect on those chosen especially for their health and vigor. Its effect on those already diseased could not be favorable. The openings are very small and admit but little sunlight; it is necessary to use artificial light for a large part of the day. To correct these conditions would involve great expense, even if it were possible of accomplishment. The passages are narrow, the ladders steep and the hatches small, making transportation of the sick very difficult. Very respectfully, JosEPHUS DANIELS, Secretary of the Navy. Under the title ‘‘ Una nave-scula-sanatorio per fanciulli predis- posti”’ Federico di Donato has urged this plan in Italy but up to the present the Italian Government has not assented. The remark has been made that: “If the right sort of ship could be sent to the right place in the right kind of weather with the right sort of patients, a great deal of good might result.” SEASIDE SANATORIA. FOR CHILDREN In the United States notable attempts have been made to utilize sea air in treating tubercular disease in children. Individual cases have been treated by sea air, but on a larger scale we should mention the experience of two institutions. In 1872, Dr. William H. Bennett, of Philadelphia, established the Children’s Seashore House at Atlantic City, New Jersey. This in- stitution is open during the entire year, and in 1912 more than 3,500 mothers and children were cared for. Among the first patients ad- mitted to the Institution at its inception were the hospital children suffering from tubercular diseases of the bones, glands, and joints. The wonderful improvement wrought in such cases by the sea air led to a steadily increasing demand for their admission, and now throughout the year seventy beds are set apart for their care and treatment. The most notable and most recent attempt in the United States to treat cases of tuberculosis of the bones, joints and lymph nodes is at the Sea Breeze Hospital at Coney Island on the Atlantic HOWVad 3HL NO NSYCGTIHO SNOTNOYSENL “MYOA MAN ‘GNV1SI ASNOO ‘SLV9 VAS ‘IWLIGSOH 3Z4335ua VAS Se TEE a mE TEE: 5 eer. tan hati te ; ~ SNOILOAI109 SNOANV1IS0SIN NVINOSHLIWS OL ‘1d ‘Lt “ON ‘£9 “10A SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 11 TREATMENT OF POTT’S DISEASE OF THE SPINE ON A BRADFORD FRAME. SEA BREEZE HOSPITAL, SEA GATE, NEW YORK. PATIENTS REMAIN FOR MONTHS, NIGHT AND DAY, ON THESE FRAMES, BUT ARE REMOVED TWICE DAILY FOR BATHING AND POWDERING Courtesy of Dr. J W. Brannan \SVITERESAIS SS TTT ATTY Rr TINT = a ee ee ee SVS Ty Ss v4 SEA BREEZE HOSPITAL, SEA GATE, CONEY ISLAND, NEW YORK. MORE CITY CHILDREN ARE STARVED FOR SLEEP THAN FOR FOOD. VIEW AT 6 A. M. IN SPRING. CHILDREN SLEEPING TEN HOURS ON PORCH ALL NIGHT. CANVAS OVERHEAD ROLLED BACK. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 45 Ocean, ten miles from New York City. This was undertaken by the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. Ten tents were erected on the beach and were opened to children between the ages of two and fourteen on June 6, 1904. These tents had a capacity of fifty patients. In the autumn permanent buildings were occupied and have since been used. While the main reliance has been on fresh sea air and good food, the very best surgical aid has been employed, and for all major operations the chil- dren were temporarily removed to hospitals in New York City. This co-operative arrangement is a great advantage to the seashore institution, as the distance is not great and avoids the necessity of enlarging the surgical staff and at the same time provides the highest surgical skill. To avoid mistakes most of the cases admitted are seen by at least one other surgeon besides the attending surgeon. While pulmonary cases are refused the staff admits severe, desperate, and even hopeless cases. In a recent report by two of the members of the staff” there are histories of forty-two cases and illustrations of the methods of treatment ; but the noteworthy feature of the report is the prominence given to residence at.the seashore as the chief means of cure. The conclusions from seventy-six histories which form a basis of the re- port are as follows: (1) The seashore is the best place for treating children with tuberculous adenitis. The children make a better recovery here than elsewhere. Those with adenoids and enlarged tonsils should be submitted to an operation as a start of the cure. Sea air does not permit us to dispense with this. (2) The seashore is probably the best place for children with tuberculous joints, provided they can have there the same skilled orthopedic care as else- where. Their disease runs a somewhat milder and probably a shorter course, and the functional results are better than those obtained elsewhere. (3) Our results have been largely due to the careful attention (including feeding and nursing) which has been given the children. (4) Our results justify pushing the work. (5) A hospital such as this does better work than a public hospital under control of the municipality. (6) Many cases of co-called bone tuberculosis are in reality syphilis. We do not know whether there is anything “specific” about the seashore, ‘Leonard W. Ely and B. H. Whitbeck, Medical Record, March 7, 1908. See also Charlton Wallace, Medical Record, July 22, 1905; John Winters Brannan, Trans. American Climatological Association, 1905, p. 107; John Winters Brannan, Trans. National Association for the Study and Preven- tion of Tuberculosis, 1906. Roland Hammond: Heliotherapy as an Adjunct in the Treatment of Bone Disease, Amer. Journ. Orthopedic Surgery, May and October, 1913. 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS. COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 or whether children simply thrive better and so overcome more quickly their disease.” As to treatment other than diet and fresh air, little need be said. We use plaster when we can in preference to braces. In Pott’s disease we use first the Bradford frame, then plaster jackets; in hip joints, the short Lorenz spica. In knee-joint disease after the acute stages, we also use plaster-of- Paris. Patients with large cold abscesses are transferred to the Manhattan hospitals, where their abscesses are opened, wiped out, and sewn up again with proper asceptic precautions. On January 2tst of the present year, 1914, the author revisited Sea Breeze Hospital, Coney Island, New York, in order to see what is being accomplished. Six cases of hip disease were being treated by partial exposure of the body to the sun. The patients were in bed on the balcony with the usual extension apparatus in place. General exposure, beginning with the feet and gradually involving the entire body, is not adopted at Sea Breeze, as a rule, and only the area of abdomen, hip and thigh adjacent to the diseased joint was exposed to the air and sun. Continued cloudy and unfavorable weather had prevented much progress in the newer patients who were then undergoing treatment; others who had been cured of serious tuberculous disease by the open-air method had recently been discharged. The fresh-air system is, however, well carried out, but not upon the naked body as in Switzerland and France. The temperature on the open balcony next to the wooden wall of the building was 62° F. at noon in the sun. It was the first bright day after weeks of storm and cloud. It is probable that the very encouraging experience of the last two years will lead to the adoption of Rollier’s method in all its details as modified by the less favorable climatic conditions of this part of the Atlantic seaboard.’ Results at Sea Breeze Hospital in the treatment of tuberculosis of the bones, joints and glands have been so good that the city of New York has acquired a new location with 1,000 feet of beach front on what is known as Rockaway Point, ten miles beyond Coney Island. The plot runs back about 600 feet to Jamaica Bay and cost the city, after condemnation proceedings, $1,250,000. The plans include an arrangement of grounds and buildings which will involve a total 2 Charlton Wallace, M. D.: Surgical Tuberculosis and Its Treatment (Jour- nal of the Outdoor Life, March, 1913). This author, who is Orthopedic Surgeon to St. Charles’ Hospital, Long Island, and the East Side Free School for Crippled Children, New York, says: The author is not in a position to produce scientific proof that sea air is better than country air, but he does believe such to be the case, although there are some individual patients who do better in the country than at the seashore. * Heliotherapy is used at the Crawford Allen Hospital, Rhode Island. Less ee NWO. Z AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—-HINSDALE Ag, outlay of $2,500,000 and there will be accommodation for 1,000 patients in the eight pavilions. Contracts for two of these pavilions have been let and will be paid for by a fund raised by the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. The new hospital will be turned over to the city of New York and will be con- ducted by Bellevue and Allied Hospitals. The plans include an immense playground running back to Jamaica Bay for the use of the public. Credit is due to Dr. John Winters Brannan, of New York, presi- dent of Bellevue and Allied Hospitals, for much of the great work which has so far taken about nine years to accomplish and for which America will be justly proud. Encouraged by the success at Sea Breeze, another hospital for surgical tuberculosis in children was started six years ago at Port Jefferson, on the north shore of Long Island, opposite the Sound. The situation is said to be ideal. It accommodates two hundred children and is a handsome fireproof structure. It is called St. Charles’ Hospital; it is under the active care of the “ Daughters of Wisdom,” a Roman Catholic Society. The children, according to Dr. Wallace, receive every physical, mental, spiritual and indus- trial care necessary to produce good moral men and women. It is an active orthopedic hospital admitting any deserving case and keeping him there until the lesions are healed. Patients in advanced stages of bone tuberculosis are received as well as those with pul- monary complication. Under the good hygienic surroundings at St. Charles’ Hospital, the children have shown great improvement in every way. Dr. Wallace adds: “ The removal of the diseased bone with the knife is no longer attempted, because such a procedure not only takes away the root from which the bone grows, but also fails to eradicate the affected area. Reliance must therefore be placed on other than cutting methods for local treatment of the affected parts.” Immobilization by plaster-of-Paris, properly applied and fresh air on the shore of Long Island Sound, conjoined with every other hygienic aid possible, constitute the line of treatment. The New York Hospital for Ruptured and Crippled has lately removed to a new site on a hill near the East River, where the outdoor treatment for the tuberculous cripple is carried out as well as it can be in a large city. In England it has long been customary to send scrofulous children and those with surgical tuberculosis to the eastern and southeast coast. At Margate the Royal Sea-Bathing Hospital, founded by 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Lettsom and Latham in 1791, is the oldest institution of the kind in Great Britain, and retains its pre-eminence. There are similar insti- tutions at Brighton, Bournemouth, Folkestone, and Ventnor, Isle of Wight (see plate 12). The impression prevails at present in England that sea air is the best for these cases. The bracing air suits them perfectly and children with tuberculous bones, joints, or glands can stand a much colder and fresher air than children with pulmonary disease. Sea air improves the general health and keeps nutrition at the highest level. Italy and France, however, take the lead in seashore sanatoria exclusively devoted to tuberculous children. They have been in existénce on the Italian shore at Viareggio since 1856, and on the French coast since 1860, and are conducted on a very exten- sive and systematic scale. The first sanatorium at Berck-sur-Mer was established in 1860 by the city of Paris, and is almost exclusively for children suffering from tuberculous disease of the joints, bones and glands, and has at present considerably over one thousand beds and accommodates children from the poorest quarters of Paris.* Two private hospitals for similar cases are located at Berck- Plage. One was founded by Baron Rothschild and is maintained by his widow and contains 600 beds. Four-fifths of the cases are surgical; one-fifth, medical.” The other is in Cazin Perrochaud and accommodates 200. At Pol-sur-Mer there is a similar institution maintained by the city of Lille, which is designed to have goo beds. At Cannes there is an excellent private institution, the Villa Santa Maria, for the “ cure helio-marine des tuberculoses chirurgi- cales ” under the direction of D. A. Pascal. Besides these institutions for surgical tuberculosis there are others which are intended mainly for pulmonary tuberculosis. These are located at Hendaye, Ormesson, Villiers-sur-Marne and Noisy le Grand. There are now fifteen sanatoria on the French coast open throughout the year and, in addition, a number open for only a part of the year, containing in all over four thousand beds. In 1904 there were twenty-three Italian hospitals distributed along the Medi- terranean and Adriatic shores of Italy, with over ten thousand beds. 1See article by the author on “ The Treatment of Surgical Tuberculosis,” etc. Interstate Medical Journal, St. Louis, March, 1914. * See article by Douglas C. McMurtrie, Boston Medical and Surgical Jour- nal yany 2.1613: ®* See article by John W. Brannan, loc. cit. ssoy ‘Vv ‘Ll ‘4g 40 Asaynog NOILGdWASNOO HOS IVLIGSOH IVNOILVN 1VAOH SHI AO ALIS “ONVISNA “LHDIM 4O 41SI ‘YONLNSA Sa eee eee EET Oe eee Tae ae oe eee te See kes a - ; , a Ie ae Se ea a+ - ao ee ig EE a a ae Wilt cee Zi "1d ‘1 "ON ‘g9 “10A SNOILO31109 SNOANV11S90SIN NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 13 7 WEST GALLERIES, MARITIME HOSPITAL FOR TUBERCULOSIS, BERCK-PLAGE, FRANCE. 300 BEDS SOUTH GALLERIES, MARITIME HOSPITAL FOR TUBERCULOSIS, BERCK-PLAGE, FRANCE. 216 BEDS NO. 1 AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 49 These hospitals are said to be closed in winter. (Brannan.) Every other country in Europe, with the exception of Turkey and Greece, has one or more seashore sanatoria for tuberculous children, so that there are as many as seventy-five such hospitals on the shores of Europe. The Argentine Republic has two seashore sanatoria, one established twenty-three years ago with three hundred beds and a new one with five hundred beds. The plan of treatment at all these institutions is very simple and ought to have been carried out on this side of the Atlantic long ago. The brilliant experience at Sea Breeze, Coney Island, is simply due to a repetition of the methods adopted for decades in France and England. The régime at all these sanatoria is about the same. The patients are kept out of doors all day on the beach or on verandas, which are covered but are open on the front and sides. Four meals a day with unlimited milk are provided. All through the winter the children occupy themselves on the grounds or on the beach ; those confined to bed are on the open porches enjoying the sunshine and the sea air, the best tonics in the world, and developing a ruddy color and better general circulation than they have ever known. Their warm hands in the coldest winter weather is the wonder of all who visit them. At night the windows are wide open and the air has practically the same temperature as at any point on the coast, varying from 12° to 40° F. If the snow drifts in at night, as some- times happens, nobody seems to be the worse. The windows are, however, closed for a half hour morning and evening while the chil- dren are being washed and dressed. The surgeons at Berck-Plage, although engaged in active ortho- pedic work, are all firmly convinced that residence at the seashore, with the greater part of the twenty-four hours spent in the open air, does more for the children than could be accomplished even in the best appointed hospitals in the cities." One of the surgeons at Mar- gate, after fifteen years of constant work in the wards, states his opinion that the knife plays a very secondary part to climatic and general influences. For an institution of this kind to attain the highest efficiency one thing seems plain; the patients must be admitted at a very early age, not from six years old and upwards, but as early as two years of age. In this respect the French and American sanatoria have the advantage of the English. The point has been made that at six years *Each year during the early part of August vacation clinics are held, which are attended by large numbers of French and foreign physicians. 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 of age a child with tuberculous disease is often past cure. Much can be done with a tuberculosis case if “ caught young.” After serious operations, the surgeons at the seaside sanatoria note that progress is much more rapid when patients can live in the open air and the practical point has been discovered that subsequent dress- ings of a much more simple character are permissible under the open air régime. For instance, in Metropolitan hospitals the practice of packing and draining wounds has untold terrors for the unfortunate patients. Dr. Charlton Wallace found that at “ Sea Breeze” tuber- culous sinuses heal more rapidly and permanently when all packing and drainage are omitted and only a sterile absorbent dressing 1s applied. As the general instability of these patients is such as to eause them almost to collapse at the thought of having their wounds probed and packed, it led him to believe that they would gain strength and local resistance if they were not nervously upset at the time of each dressing. In the beginning, in order to ascertain whether there would be fuil drainage, comparisons were made of the amount of discharge, with and without the full dressing, and as there was no diminution he concluded that packing or tubing was not essential to drainage. Not only was the danger of infection less, no infected wound being observed, but he found that no sinus healed which still contained pus. This certainly simplifies the treatment of surgical wounds and the credit is given to the favorable atmospheric conditions. At Sea Breeze the children receive from one to two hours instruc- tion daily, the teachers being furnished by the Brooklyn Board of Education. It has been noted that the educational training given at this Sea Breeze Hospital has a most happy effect on the morals of the patients and at this early age much more can be accomplished in combating vice and ignorance, which constitute the greatest ob- stacles in dealing with the tuberculosis problem. (For open air schools for tuberculosjs children, Waldschule, etc., see pp. 103-107). In estimating the value of sea air in non-pulmonary tuberculosis in children, we naturally look to France for some data based on the enormous experience now extending over a period of nearly fifty years. During the last twenty years in France alone 60,000 children have been treated in these sanatoria and Dr. Brannan is authority for the following statement: Cures, 59 per cent. Decidedly improved..25 per cent Totalvof favorablesnesultsnseetec sae cee 84 per cent Guresun Potts wDiseasetecricsses eee 32 per cent Cures in glandular tuberculosis ........... 74 per cent 63, NO. 3 PL. 14 VOL. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLAN EOUS COLLECTIONS SQA re er ae ee ee SeEERORVSERROUEPENTENE if inte a RC Revke ee tc een wa Bat E HOSPITAL, BERCK-PLAGE, D TO THE SUN VIEW OF THE SOUTH GALLERIES OF THE MARIN HELIOTHERAPY. SED ALL DAY NAKE FRANCE. THE CHILDREN ARE EXPO OPEN AIR SCHOOL SEA BREEZE HOSPITAL, SEA GATE, NEW YORK. Courtesy of Dr. J. W. Brannan SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS | VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 15 es HELIOTHERAPY. SEA BREEZE HOSPITAL, SEA GATE, NEW YORK, MARCH 18, 19138. CURED CASE OF TUBERCULOSIS OF THE KNEE. NO SINUS. Courtesy of Dr. Brannan HELIOTHERAPY AT SEA BREEZE HOSPITAL, SEA GATE, NEW YORK, CCTOBER, 1912. CHILDREN ON THE BEACH. CURED CASES OF TUBERCULOSIS OF THE WRIST AND ANKLE. THERE WERE OPEN SINUSES IN EACH CASE. NOTE AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—-HINSDALE SI These results of the treatment of surgical tuberculosis at seashore sanatoria are much more favorable than in the case of pulmonary tuberculosis, in adults, in corresponding localities (see pp. 71-73). Nevertheless; the Department of Public Charities of the City of New York has just built and equipped at an expense of $3,500,000, a new hospital for adults having pulmonary tuberculosis in the sec- ond or third stage. The site selected is on the highest point of Staten Island in New York Bay, 400 feet above tide and only five miles from *See R. Russell, M.D.: Glandular Tabes, or the Use of Sea Water in Diseases of the Glands. London, 1750. Ebenezer Gilchrist, M.D.: The Use of Sea Voyages in Medicine. Lon- don, 1771. Albert L. Gihon, M.D., U. S. N.: The Therapy of Ocean Climate (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1889, p. 50). M. Charteris, M.D.: Ocean Climate (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1890, p. 278). Wm. Ewart, M.D., F. R. C. P.: The Present Position of the Treatment of Tuberculosis by Marine Climates (Journ. Balneology and Climatology, July, 1907). W. S. Wilson: The Ocean as a Health Resort, London, 1880. J. V. Shoemaker, M. D.: Ocean Travel for Health and Disease (The Lancet, July 23, 30, 1892). Hughes Bennett, M. D.: Life at Sea Medically Considered (Medical Times and Gazette, Vol. 1, 1884, p. 244). Thomas B. Peacock, M.D.: Beneficial Influence of Sea Voyages in Some Forms of Disease (Medical Times and Gazette, Vol. 2, 1873, p. 687). John L. Adams: Report of 17 cases of Surgical Tuberculosis in Children (Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1906, Vol. 154, p. 17). A. Crosbee Dixey, M. R. C. P.: Edinb. Lancet, Vol. 2, 1888, p. 264. Boardman Reed: Effects of Sea Air Upon Diseases of the Respiratory Organs (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., Vol. 1, 1884, p. 51). D’Espine, of Geneva. International Congress on Tuberculosis, Paris, Octo- ber, 1905. Armaingaud, of Bordeaux: International Congress on Tuberculosis, Paris, 1905. Guy Hinsdale, M.D.: Treatment of Surgical Tuberculosis at the French Marine Hospitals and Alpine Sanatoria (Interstate Medical Journal, St. Louis, March, 1014). Trans. Congrés de L’Association Internationale de Thalassotherapie, Cannes, April, 1914. See also Willy Meyer: Open-Air and Hyperdermic Treatment as Pow- erful Aids in the Management of Complicated Surgical Tuberculosis in Adults (Trans. Sixth International Congress on Tuberculosis, Washington, 1908, Vol. 2, twenty illustrations). See also “Open Air Treatment of Tuberculosis,” by the late Dr. DeForest Willard, ibid., page 257. Also Trans. Amer. Orthopedic Ass.. 1808. Shacks, bungalows, sleeping tents, sanatoria and day camps are discussed. 52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 63 the ocean. This new addition to New York’s equipment has one thousand beds and is called the “ Sea View Hospital.” At the Second Annual Meeting of the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis held in Washington in 1906, the following resolution was offered by Dr. John W. Brannan and unanimously adopted: WueErEAS, Recent experience in Europe and in this country has shown that out-door life in pure air has the same curative effect in surgical tuberculosis as in tuberculosis of the lungs, therefore, be it Resolved, That in the opinion of members of this Association hospitals and sanatoria should be established outside of cities either in the country or on the seashore for the treatment from its incipiency, of tuberculosis of bones, joints, and glands in children. SEACOAST AND FOGS Marine climates naturally include the strictly ocean climate and that of the seacoast. In the former sea air comes from every point of the compass. It is always moist and it is the most equable air that blows; it is of infinite variety from the dead calm of the doldrums to the fierce gales of the North Atlantic. The atmosphere of the seacoast is naturally modified at times by continental influences. Indeed the characteristic “ sea breeze” which springs up in the morning and subsides toward sun-down is brought about by the ascent of heated air back of the coast. The hotter the interior and the more rapidly this air ascends the stronger is the sea breeze which rushes shoreward from the ocean and penetrates for fifty or a hundred miles the adjoining country. But under other conditions land breezes occur and bring to the shore the Continental atmosphere of a totally different type. These atmospheric conflicts between sea and land involve most interesting meteorological problems; they tend to lessen the equability of the purely marine or oceanic climate. Freezing weather is the product of the Continent and the descent of cold waves from the interior ; it brings to our northern seacoast frost and snow for a time, and never trespassing far upon the high seas. The seacoast has thus a mixture of two climates, but the sea air predominates and is never absent very long. There are well-known places in America and in the British Islands where the sea breeze greatly predominates ; Nova Scotia, Cape Cod, and Cape May in the United States; Land’s End and the Cornish Coast in England are cases in point. In such exposed situations the air is generally poorly adapted to the tuberculous patient. The air SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63. NO. 1, PL. 16 we SEA BREEZE HOSPITAL, SEA GATE, NEW YORK. TREATMENT OF POTT’S DISEASE OF THE SPINE WITH PLASTER JACKETS AND HELIOTHERAPY Courtesy of Dr. J. W. Brannan Pia alia, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, FIG 1. HELIOTHERAPY FOR SURGICAL TUBERCULOSIS. DR. ROLLIER’S SANATORIUM, LEYSIN, SWITZERLAND. DORSAL EXPOSURE FIG. 2. HELIOTHERAPY FOR SURGICAL TUBERCULOSIS. DR. ROLLIER’S SANATORIUM. From the author’s articie in Interstate Medical Journal, March, 1914 NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 53 is said to be “ too strong ” and certainly for an all-the-year-round resi- dence the capes and headlands are too much at the mercy of high winds which render out-door life disagreeable. About Cape Cod, Nantucket, and Martha’s Vineyard there is a peculiar liability to fog which is as unwelcome to the consumptive as it is to the mariner. The author has had experience with the fogs in these waters and considers it one of the great drawbacks to an otherwise agreeable climate. The summer and early autumn fogs of the eastern Maine coast and of the Bay of Fundy and Nova Scotia are worse in their chilly and penetrating qualities. The towns of Massachusetts on or near the seacoast seem to have somewhat more tuberculosis than those of the interior. DEATHS FROM PULMONARY ‘TUBERCULOSIS IN MASSACHUSETTS PER 100,000 POPULATION Five Maritime Towns Five Inland Towns 1905 1908-1912 1905 1908-1912 IBOSEGMI-M eo cteeiae 224 155 Pittsieldm Sermo ee 168 98 Salenie ised icicle she 154 III Springteld. “ics... 125 890 New Bedford ...... 164 124 Chicopecsascaseece- 125 109 Newburyport ...... 181 131 Holyoke™cs 2.25. 154 131 plvamnotithece-t eee 162 90 North Adams ..... 81 98 AWE TAGE Suistckoienes 177 122 AVETAGE . ba,syeiric aes 131 105 Mr. Hiram F. Mills, of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, has lately published a most painstaking analysis of the mortality from tuberculosis in all the towns and cities of that state. He shows that there are sixty cities and towns bordering on the sea having a total population of about one-third of the entire state, or 1,293,625, in which the average death-rate per 100,000 for the five years, 1908-1912, was 135. During this period the rate for the entire state was 131. Omitting Boston, which has peculiar conditions, from both calculations the rate was 111 for the remaining 59 mari- time towns and cities against 124 for the remainder of the State. This throws the balance in favor of the seaboard. It should be noted that all the small and sparsely settled towns have low rates in almost regular gradation when compared with more and more populated districts. Boston has had a noteworthy decrease in its tuberculosis death rate as shown by the following figures representing the rate for the last five years, namely, 271, 283, 254, 176, 182, or a decrease of one- third in five years. There are sixteen small towns having an aggre- * Address to the State Inspectors of Massachusetts, November 3, 1913. 6 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 gate population of 5,540, in which there have been no deaths in all of the five years. The map shows several inland towns with a large death rate ow- ing to the presence of tuberculosis hospitals, asylums, and other insti- tutions. These are marked with an H (not readily seen in the reduced map) and include Rutland, Sharon, Lakeville, Bridgewater, North Reading, Medfield, Westborough, Westfield, Taunton, Dan- vers, and Monson. As Mr. Mills says: Forty years ago the death rate from consumption in Massachusetts was three times as great as it is now; thirteen years ago it had been reduced one-half in © the previous forty years ; to-day it has been reduced one-half in the past twenty years. There is no other State in the Union, in which records have been kept, where the reduction has been so much. From 1885 to 1909 it was more than twice as great as in England, Scotland, Ireland, The Netherlands, Bel- gium, Switzerland and Italy. The reduction is Prussia was 90 per cent of that in Massachusetts and that in Austria only 57 per cent. The registration system in Massachusetts is of the highest grade and in no other State or country of the world has such effective work been done and so much accom- plished in reducing the death rate from tuberculosis as in that Commonwealth. FOGS ON THE PACIFIC COAST It is this element of fog which renders so much of the Pacific coast of the United States unsuitable for tuberculous patients. The morning fogs are conspicuous features of the climate and are acknowledged sources of danger to tuberculous cases. They pene- trate as far as Los Angeles and Pasadena in the south, some eighteen miles from the coast; they are common in San Francisco, and are carried by ocean atmospheric currents through the Golden Gate, sweeping the bay and up the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. There are portions of the California coast, as for example in the neighborhood of Santa Barbara, where the mountains are near the shore; and beyond the mountains are deserts and necessarily an exceedingly dry atmosphere. The night air from the mountains brings with it a dry Continental quality ; the morning breezes bring a more humid air and possibly fog. In such localities fog is quickly scattered by the sun’s heat and never penetrates very far-inland. A suitable residence for tuberculous patients on the Pacific coast, as every native knows, is not found on the shore line but at some eleva- tion above the sea fairly well up on the hillsides or in well-situated valleys, like the Montecito Valley, where the dryer air of the interior ta ii man ea a iii MAW Th n dab 2 ; a a oy ; oer Mey eens hee eee ett ; Mae its aise pe SES, Reseda od lard i Lk ee Sain, Woes Siow SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS STATE BOARD OF HEALTH MAP OF THE STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. DEATHS FROM CONSUMPTION SCALE OF MILES pa Mn Ai oh dt ea eed os nt VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 18 eRe WS oe re =u We % NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 55 checks the advent of fog and where the early morning hours are as bright and dry as the afternoons.’ RADIATION FOGS Fogs are born of the sea and of the land. The sea fog is obviously purer and less injurious than the smoke-laden fog of cities. Where are fogs and fogs; “dry” fogs and “wet” fogs; the fogs of the coast and the fogs of mountain valleys and river courses ; but rarely of the plains. Radiation fogs are different from sea fogs; in dry weather, on a cold still night when the lowest stratum of air is rap- idly cooled by contact with the cold radiating earth, the watery vapor is precipitated as minute globules. The colder the ground or the deeper and colder the water on which fog rests, the more persist- ent is the fog; but as the sun warms the watery particles and over- comes the heat lost by radiation, the fog lifts and floats upward. It is bound to lift as its specific gravity diminishes. Slopes of hills, especially their southern sides, some hundreds of feet above the low- land or seashore, are thus comparatively free from these fogs and are much drier and warmer than lower places in the neighborhood. Such locations are far preferable to those of lower altitude. (Rus- sell.) ‘FOGS IN THE MOUNTAINS And here we see how local geographic conditions modify the whole aspect of the question. On the North Atlantic Coast of the United States there are no mountain ranges; one cannot get away from the fogs if he would; while on the Pacific Coast, the mountains and their foot hills are comparatively near and one can be in full view of the seashore and yet be above the fog line. At Santa Barbara, one of the favorite California resorts for tuber- culous patients, fogs occur frequently from May until October, but are comparatively rare at other times. Dr. William H. Flint, who practiced there for thirteen years, says that the fogs creep in from the sea in the late afternoon, in the evening, or in the early morn- ing, disappearing at an uncertain hour the following forenoon. Occa- sionally fogs will persist all day and for a number of days consecu- tively. In May and June, 1903, a foggy period continued for seventeen days.” 21See A. G. McAdie: The Sun as a Fog Producer, Monthly Weather Review, Washington, 1913 (778-779). 2Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1904, p. 20. 56 © SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 The late Dr. C. H. Alden, Asst. Surgeon General, U. S. A., who passed his later years, and died of tuberculosis, in Pasadena, Cali- fornia, says: The climate of Southern California is not a dry one, as. some suppose. As this region lies along the coast, and its most frequented portions are nowhere very distant from the water, the climate cannot be dry. The humidity lessens as one goes inland, but is always considerable, except in the uninhabited desert. The fogs which, in the absence of much rain, are a large factor in sustaining vegetation, penetrate many miles from the sea and add to the humidity. The fact that the humidity is not favorable for pulmonary tuberculosis which is at all advanced is evidently not appreciated as it should be. [Italics, author’s.] Even as far as Redlands, over fifty miles from the coast, according to General Alden, who lived there for two winters, “ fogs come up from the sea during the spring, but they are shorn of most of their moisture.” Nevertheless, Redlands, from its comparative dryness, is a favorite place in winter for patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and they no doubt do better there than at Los Angeles, Pasadena, or at resorts directly on the coast. General Alden’s conclusion is that while the mild temperatures and continuous sunshine of this region are favorable for the aged and the feeble from many causes, need- ing an out-door life, the warmth and moisture are unfavorable for cases of pulmonary tuberculosis that are at all advanced. In June, 1902, the author traveled through the mountains and vis- ited the principal resorts throughout California. The sea air with its frequent accompaniment of fog seemed to him too strong or fresh for tuberculous patients. North of Santa Barbara or Monterey the sea air is certainly cold and harsh during most of the year and, wherever it penetrates, tuberculous patients feel worse. This is par- ticularly true of the neighborhood of San Francisco. From the summit of Mt. Tamalpais, elevation 2,375 feet, on almost any sum- mer afternoon fog can be seen driving in from the Pacific and spreading over San Francisco Bay. As the sun descends the tem- perature of the air drops, so that saturation is reached. Fog results. Now on the southern California coast the cold, ocean atmospheric currents contain much less actual moisture than the warm, clear air on shore and the resultant mixture will now contain less water than the warm air did before and hence it is claimed with reason that notwithstanding the dripping roofs and wet pavements, there is less absolute moisture in the air than before the fog appeared. We did not find the California fog either so cold or chilling as we have observed it on the extreme eastern coast of Maine; nor is it so ,ches6 pue pjoo Bujssew s;} pools Ayjysou6 aut aeauy Bujjajms ‘snojwazsXhw pue oj}sefew ‘Keads Kmous e u! pajey puim ‘Buoy ‘eas 94} eplseq lwp Polwues e U| paxueg | neaung wayzeeM S$aie}S PEzUN BY} JO J91YD BY} JO Ksownog ‘“eIPYOW "D ‘VW "Old Aq ydeiuboyoud AVG OOSIONVYS NVS DNIMOOT1YSAO ‘SIVdIWWVL LNQOW JO LINWNS AHL WOUS “SSAVM 904 Se = 61 “Id ‘| “ON ‘E89 “10A SNOIL031109 SNOANV1ISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS neoing 4aYyZeAM S2a}2}S PazU 94} 40 J9!14YD 94z Jo AsaqNOD ‘aIPYOW “D “W ‘404g Aq ydeuBoxouY SAA TIVA YSAO 904 ONINYOW SNOILO311090 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS No. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 57 depressing and relaxing as the heavy misty weather observed in central and western Virginia mountain valleys during the rains of early summer and autumn, certainly not so depressing as the relax- ing moisture of the tropics. The California fogs have been likened to the Scotch mist. They never deter the fishermen from curing their fish on their racks along the seashore. Raisins and other fruit are dried in the open fields and residents claim that during the rainiest weather nothing molds or rots. (P. C. Remondino.) Mr. Ford A. Carpenter, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, has published an interesting book, in which he gives a lucid description of the fogs of the Pacific Coast." He shows that on that coast the maximum fog is reached in San Francisco, with moderately high averages north to the Canadian boundary and decreasing in frequency and duration with the latitude, San Diego having the least on the coast. He says that daylight fogs are practically unknown in San Diego. A “day with fog” is one on which there is one hour or more of fog dense enough to obscure objects one thousand feet distant. At San Diego the hours of greatest frequency were between eleven at night and six in the morning. Mr. Carpenter notes the beneficial effect of California fogs and says that it is impossible to measure accurately the amount of moisture conveyed by fog. There is no doubt that over a region covered by vegetation exposing a natural condensing surface, such as eucalyptus, palm, iceplant, etc., not less than a ton of water to the acre is thus distributed during the preva- lence of every dense fog. It also checks evaporation. “Tt is not fog in the generally accepted meaning, for this ‘ light veil’ is neither cold nor excessively moisture-laden. Neither is it high, for its altitude is less than a thousand feet. To one who has spent a few weeks of spring, summer or fall in southern California, the picturesque description of the musical Spanish el velo is quickly recognized as both expressive and truthful.” “El velo de la luz”: “the veil that hides the light.” “Velo qui cubre la luz del so”: “The veil which shades (covers) the light of the Sun.” “ El velo ~ de la maiiana”: “The veil of the morning.” There is probably no place on the entire coast line of the United States that offers so many climatic advantages for tuberculous patient as San Diego and its attractive neighbor, Coronado. It is a mistake to believe that because there is fog, the humidity is necessarily high during its presence. The United States Weather * The climate and weather of San Diego, California. San Diego, 1913. See Review in Journ. Royal Meteorological Society, Jan., 1914. 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Bureau has taken pains to determine the relative humidity during fogs observed during ten years at Chicago on Lake Michigan. Ob- servations were made on 118 foggy days by Dr. Frankenfield, whose results are given as follows: Relative humidity 90 per cent (or more) in 75 per cent of days. Relative humidity 80 to 90 per cent in 13 per cent of days. Relative humidity below 80 per cent in 12 per cent of days. The observer noted dense fog on one occasion when the relative humidity was as low as 52 per cent; on another, when it was 58 per cent. The Pacific coast, as a whole, is much foggier than the Atlantic coast, because the winds on the Atlantic are mostly off-shore and consequently carry less moisture than the westerly on-shore winds of the Pacific. In the interior of the United States, especially the western half, the average number of foggy days per year is less than ten each year; in the Lake region the number rises to fifteen or twenty per annum. In isolated localities, local conditions increase this number greatly. At Colorado Springs genuine fogs occur, sometimes very dense and lasting all day, but they are uncommon and scarcely worth mentioning were not their existence so often denied. (Ely.) In the Adirondack Mountains fogs and mists are not uncommon along the rivers and on the lake shores in the early morning in the summer and autumn. They are examples of the radiation fogs already referred to and, like dew and frost, they are associated with clear weather. The presence of a light fog over an Adirondack lake in the early morning foretells a bright, sunny, warm day. Fogs are not at all unusual in the Alleghany and Blue Ridge Mountains. They follow river courses and settle in low valleys. The humidity attendant on the melting of snow or during the rains of early summer or autumn is not so readily exchanged for dryer air in the long narrow valleys as at the seaboard. In many localities the high ridges on either side shut out the direct rays of sunlight for several hours; while at the seaboard there are no such natural barriers. At some of the higher elevations in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Pennsylvania, fog is noted during the summer and aufumn. One observer, himself a tuberculous patient, recorded at Mount Pocono, in Monroe County, Pa., elevation 2,000 feet, fifteen days with fog part of the day, usually early morning, and seven with fog all day, neoung sayyeeA S93e3§ PAU 24} 40 4914D 94} 40 AsaynoD “eIPYOW 'D “W “404d Aq ydeu6ojzoud AVG OOSIONVYS NVS “ONILSAIT DOS 1% “Id ‘tL “ON ‘€9 “10A SNOILO31109 SNOANYVTISOSIW NVINOSHLIWS uewWa|/q PUueU;pusy Aq ydeuboyoug wos VINYO4ITVO ‘NOSTIM LNNOW 4O LINWNS WOY¥4S DOJ 4O vas sd’ sk ON) 3895 S1OA SNOILO31100 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIW SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 238 FIG 1. RUTLAND, MASSACHUSETTS STATE HOSPITAL FOR CONSUMPTIVES DAY CAMP FOR TUBERCULOUS PATIENTS, HOLYOKE, MASS. uojiy °d ‘oO ‘4q 40 Asaznog MYOA MAN ‘SMOVGNOUIGY ‘GIOV1id 3XV1 NO dWvo Vv ‘44I7043a0NN 6% “Id ‘L “ON ‘89 “10A SNOILO31109 SNOANYTIZOSIN NVINOSHLIWS NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 59 between June 1 and December 1. But this patient adds the signth- cant remark: “ However, it seems ridiculous for me to find fault with Mount Pocono when I did so well there. My cough and expec- toration decreased considerably; I gained five pounds and grew somewhat stronger.” At Rutland, Massachusetts, the site of the Massachusetts State Sanatorium, there were 24 days with fog for the year ending Novem- ber 30, 1907. Nevertheless, out of 4,334 cases of pulmonary tubercu- losis treated since its opening, 43.39 per cent of cases were arrested or apparently cured, and in addition, 47.38 per cent were improved.’ From what has been said, it is, therefore, not surprising that claims are made that there is a noticeable difference in the character of fogs on the New England Coast.* Dr. Bowditch has described the fogs on the Maine Coast as sometimes “ dry fogs.” “ The light vapory mist which drives in frequently from the sea has no definite sense of moisture as it strikes the face, and in the midst of it the air frequently feels dry. In the vicinity of Mount Desert, the presence of the mountains has, doubtless, an effect upon the quality of the atmosphere, and would partly account for what is often spoken of—the effect of sea and mountain air combined. Its peculiar dry- ness, even though on the coast, has been often so marked that I have frequently thought that certain phthisical patients, who need a dry bracing atmosphere, might improve there, although I have never quite dared to recommend it for such cases.” SEA AIR FOR SURGICAL TUBERCULOSIS Halsted, of Baltimore, however, has recorded a favorable result in a case of tuberculous glands of the neck, treated simply by an out- door life on the Maine coast. The patient was a young lady of seventeen, whose cervical glands were actively inflamed and softened, the overlying skin having rapidly reddened and thinned during a treatment of six hours a day out of doors at a seashore further south. No operation was done, but she was sent to the Maine coast and lived out-of-doors day and night for four months. At the end of this period no one could tell, from the appearances, which side had been affected, and Halsted remarked that, to surgeons whose daily bread not long ago was tuberculous glands of the neck, such a *Journal of the Outdoor Life, February, 1908, p. 15. *Eleventh Annual Report, 1907. * Vincent Y. Bowditch, Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1897, p. 25. 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 resolution foretells a revolution in treatment.’ That revolution is, fortunately, to-day un fait accompli. Some of the European sanatoria of the best grade are in situations not altogether free from fogs and mists. This is true of Falkenstein, elevation 1,378 feet (420 m.), whose atmosphere is a little misty and foggy. AIR OF INLAND SEAS AND LAKES The region of the Great Lakes lying between the United States and Canada has been studiously avoided in selecting a site for any of the large sanatoria.for tuberculosis. It is a matter of common observation that nasal, pharyngeal, and bronchial catarrhs are exceed- ingly common in adjacent districts. The lake winds are damp and are partly frozen during several months in the year, giving to the surrounding country a harsh climate. The lower lake region is also the favorite track of storms or cyclonic atmospheric movements which sweep the lakes and the St. Lawrence valley on their way to the seaboard. As these areas of low atmospheric pressure advance they are attended by increas- ing cloudiness in front and are usually followed by colder air from the Northwest, the fall in temperature being sufficient at times to constitute a cold wave.” The winter storms on the Great Lakes are quite as violent as any on the seacoast, and on Lake Superior and Lake Huron floating ice may be seen in May and sometimes, in Lake Superior, as late as June. Lakes Michigan, Erie and Ontario are more southerly, but their shores are low and the skies are notably cloudy. The author has experience of the cold fogs of Lake Superior in July and August, and was impressed with their penetrating quality. A sum- mer spent on both the northern and southern shores of Lake Supe- rior was wonderfully exhilarating ; the air has a purity and stimulus such as one might expect from millions of miles of forest round- about. But not a single place on that vast shore can be recommended as a residence for a tuberculous patient. The vicissitudes of the weather are such that the approved methods of cure could not well be carried out. > Trans. Nat’l Ass. for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, 1906. 2 To constitute a cold wave, so called, there must be a fall of twenty degrees or more in twenty-four hours, free of diurnal range and extending over an area of at least 50,000 square miles, the temperature somewhere in the area going as low as 30° F. sauseg 39a] Awsey aq yo Asaynog SISOINOYSENL HOS WNIYOLVNVS S3LVLS AHL SO SLNAILVd “GNV1S!I SGOHY S3YAVT WNTIVM QZ "Id ‘1 "ON ‘£9 “10A SNOILO31109 SNOJANV11S0SIN NVINOSHLIWS =) 54 ea > haar =a er NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE OI In the location of the state sanatorium for tuberculous patients in Minnesota, an interior and northerly location was wisely chosen, 150 miles south of Lake Superior, at Lake Pokegama, near the head- waters of the Mississippi. The Wisconsin State Sanatorium has been located on Lake Neba- gamon, thirty miles from Lake Superior. _ Such small lakes as Lake Pokegama in Minnesota; the Muskoka Lakes in Ontario, where the Canadian National Sanitarium Associa- tion has established two sanatoria for consumptives ; and the Saranac Lakes in the Adirondack Mountains, have no such power to modify the qualities of the atmosphere. Whatever influences are attributa- ble to these smaller bodies of water are small, compared with that of the forest and mountains. Undoubtedly a small lake is a desir- able feature in connection with a sanatorium, as it provides sources of amusement throughout the year and adds greatly to the beauty of the landscape. The writer spent six summers at Lake Placid in the Adirondack Mountains at an elevation of 1,860 feet. This is some- what more protected than the Saranac Lakes, St. Regis Lake or Long Lake, and, in his opinion, is quite as well suited as a residence for tuberculous patients as any other locality in the Adirondacks. The State of New York has built its large State Sanatorium at Ray Brook only four miles distant from Lake Placid. The State of Rhode Island has chosen Wallum Lake for its new Sanatorium, views of which are here given.’ CHAPTER IV. INFLUENCE OF COMPRESSED AND RAREFIED AIR; HIGH AND LOW ATMOSPHERIC PRES- SURE; ALTITUDE No phase of the tuberculosis question has been so vigorously debated as the influence of altitude; no feature of the subject is so far from satisfactory solution. The battles between the Highlanders and the Lowlanders of Scotland seem to have been revived in the attempts to settle this question. Instead of the claymore and battle- axe, we have an array of statistics in serried columns marshalled by the leaders of the opposing forces. This history of the conflict would make as large a record as the Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion. And the end is not yet in sight. After trying for years to cure consumption by means of an “ equa- ble climate ” obtained at home by housing the patient behind double *The large German Sanatorium Grabosee is located on the shores of Lake Grabow. 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 windows, or by sending him to the islands of the sea, such as Madeira and the West Indies, the medical profession began to be 1m- pressed with the good results reported from the Rocky Mountains and the plains of the Western states and territories. In the rush to the California gold fields in 1849 and in the rapid emigration from Eastern states to Colorado, Utah, California, over- land in the “ prairie schooner ” and on horseback during subsequent years, the Western country became known for wonderful health- giving qualities. It was not long before Colorado became widely heralded as a health resort for consumptives. English physicians sent their patients to Colorado instead of sending them to Australia, Algiers, or to the Riviera and the results obtained were remarkable. The late Dr. S. E. Solly, who practiced in Colorado for thirty-three years, was sent from London on account of the higher altitude and better air of Colorado, and was one of a large number of English residents who have made their home in that state on account of pulmonary tuberculosis. In 1876, the late Dr. Charles Theodore Williams, of London, published his report to the International Medical Congress and in 1894 issued his work on Aero-Therapeutics, in which are detailed the histories of 202 consumptives who were sent to Colorado at an altitude of 5,000 or 6,000 feet. They represented a residence of 350 years at this elevation and the results were exceedingly satisfactory. Jourdanet, a French physician practicing in Mexico, published two works, one in 1861 and one in 1875, which undertook to explain the influence of barometric pressure and, incidentally, why, on the plain of Anahuac, 6,000 feet in elevation, there is an entire absence of pulmonary phthisis.’ Jourdanet aided the great French physiologist, Paul Bert, in estab- lishing costly apparatus for investigating the physiological action of compressed and rarefied air and Paul Bert’s classic work is an accepted authority on this subject. Later studies by Mosso and Marcet* should be noted, but it is impossible here to give more than passing notice. They show that a diminution of the barometric pressure increases the respiration rate and the volume of air respired, but if allowances are made for the increase of volume of the air at the lower pressure, the actual volume respired is less. Conversely, 1D. Jourdanet: Influence de la Pression de |’Air, Paris, 1875. Herrera and Lope: La Vie Sur Hauts Plateaux, Hodgkins Prize Memoir, 1808. 2An American Text-Book of Physiology, Phila., 1901, Vol. 1, p. 434. Angello Mosso: Man in the High Alps (Der Mensch auf den Hochalpen, Leipsig, 1899), Translation by E. L. Kiesow, 18608. ie uae NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—-HINSDALE 63 an increase of pressure lowers the rate and the volume of air respired. The effects of the respiration of rarefied air and com- pressed air on the circulation and on the composition of the blood are very marked and are of a complex character owing to the addi- tional influences of the abnormal pressure on the peripheral circula- tion. Not only is the circulation affected but, in the case of residence at high altitudes, the proportion of red blood corpuscles and of hemo- globin is notably increased. This increase in the red blood count at the higher altitudes, while not so great or so permanent as was at first supposed, is an established clinical fact and adds undonbted strength to the claim that altitude per se is a characteristic of the favorable climate for tuberculous patients. DIMINISHED ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The influence of diminished atmospheric pressure on the blood has been studied by Paul Bert in 1882,’ Zuntz,’ P. Regnard, Viault,* Egger, Woolff,’ Koeppe,’ Solly,’ by W. A. Campbell and Gardiner and Hoagland,’ by L. S. Peters” and by F. Laquer.” One of the *Paul Bert, Joc. cit., studied the blood of animals at La Paz, in Mexico, at an altitude of 12,140 feet (3,700 meters) and found that they had an oxygen-carrying capacity far in excess of that exhibited by the animals on the lower plains. ?Zuntz: Experiments on the Pic du Midi, Elevation 9,000 feet. He empha- sized the possibility of an altered distribution of corpuscles. *Regnard, P.: La Cure d’Altitude, 2eime Ed. Paris, 1808. *Viault: Experiments at Merococha, Peru, elevation 14,275 feet. 1890. He noted that his blood contained 7 to 8 million red corpuscles per cubic milli- meter. °Egeer: The Blood Changes in High Mountains. Verhandlungen d. xii, Congr. Inner. Med., 1893. ® Woolff: Verhandlungen d. xii. Congr. Inner Med. 1893, pp. 262-276. *Koeppe, xii. Congress fiir Inner. Med., 1893; Arch. Anat. Physiol., 1895, . pp. 154-184. ®S. E. Solly: Blood Changes Induced by Altitude. Trans. American Climatological Association, 1899, p. 144; also 1900, p. 204. S. E. Solly, Therapeutic Gazette, February, 1806. °Campbell and Hoagland: Trans. American Climatological Association, IQOI, p. 107. ” For the effect of altitude, 6,000 feet, on blood pressure in tuberculous patients, see article by L. S. Peters, Silver City, New Mexico, in Archives of Internal Medicine, August, 1908 and October, 1913. The latter report covers 600 cases and shows that altitude tends to raise blood pressure rather than lower it both in consumptives and in normal persons living at high altitudes. 2B, Laquer: Hohenclima und Blutneubildung, Deutsches Archiv fiir klin. Med. Leipzig, 1913, cx, Nos. 3 and 4, p. 189. 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 most thorough original studies is by. Drs. Ossian, Schaumann and Emil Rosenquist, of Helsingfors, Finland.” Turban, also, has made a study of this subject.’ Much of the earlier work has been proved incosrect as instru- mental and laboratory technic has been improved. Hematologic work has made rapid strides and several important correcting factors have been introduced. Attention has been called to the more rapid evaporation of blood samples at high altitudes where the climate is always dry and errors from this source are considerable. Not only that, but the human organism itself loses water more readily than at lower levels and so do animals used for experimental purposes. How much value should be given to these corrections we do not know, but there is evidently a revision downwards noticeable in nearly all the later studies of the blood count at high altitudes. Prof. Burker, of Tiibingen, and his colleagues show at best only a comparatively small increase amounting to only four to eleven and a half per cent at an altitude of six thousand feet.* These observers made comparative observations at Tubingen (altitude 1,030 feet or 314 meters), and at the Sanatorium Schatzalp (altitude 6,150 feet or 1,874 meters, about 300 meters above Davos). Biirker’s findings, which appear to result from an exceptionally careful personal investigation with every precaution to avoid experimental error, show that altitude does exert an unquestionable influence on the blood in the direc- tion of an increase in both the number of erythrocytes and the content of hemoglobin. The increase is an absolute one, not merely relative. The red cells increased from 4 to 11.5 per cent, the hemoglobin from 7 to Io per cent. These figures, it will be noted, are smaller than those usually given for the effect of moderate altitudes, yet they represent substantial and unde- niable gains quite in harmony with other previous observations. The responses of the different persons in Biirker’s Alpine expedition varied in degree; but the qualitative examination of the blood established the fact that no hemoglobin derivative other than oxyhemoglobin was concerned in * Ossian, Schaumann and Rosenquist: Ueber die Natur d. Blutverander- ungen in Hohen Klima, Zeitschr, f. klin. Med., 1898, Band xxxv, Heft 1-4, pp. 126-170 and 315-349. ? Turban, Mtinch. Med. Wochenschr., 1890, p. 792. ®See Editorial Altitude and the Blood Corpuscles, Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., February 3, 1912, p. 344; September 21, 1912 and November 1, 1913. Biirker, K.; Jooss, E.; Moll, E., and Neumann, E.: Die physiologischen Wirkungen des Hohenklimas: II. Die Wirkung auf das Blut, gepriift durch tagliche Erythrozytenzahlungen und tagliche qualitative und quantitative Hamoglobinbestimmlungen im Blute von vier Versuchspersonen wahrend eines Monats, Ztschr. f. Biol., 1913, Vol. 61, 379. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—-HINSDALE 65 the increment at altitudes. In agreement with most observers the adjustment of the blood to the new atmospheric conditions in ascending to higher levels occurs promptly; there is a rapid increase in the factors involved at the start followed by a more gradual continuation of the effect; but on returning toward the sea-level the blood does not resume its “low altitude” composi- tion so promptly. There may be a prolonged delay in the adjustment and return to normal figures,’ Cohnheim’ regards evaporation as the cause of the concentration of blood under these conditions and that this is not due to a lack of oxygen. These studies in hematology have an important bearing on the course of tuberculosis at high altitudes, and constitute a very live question at the present day. Professor Cohnheim and Dr. Weber®* have recently reported the results of examination of the blood of twenty-three persons who have been engaged for long periods in the operations of the railway ascending the Jungfrau peak in the Alps. Most of them spent considerable portions of their time at alti- tudes from 2,300 meters (7,546 feet, Eigergletscher Station) upward to 3,450 meters (11,319 feet, Jungfraujoch Station). The importance of these observations lies in the fact that they furnish data regarding persons who have had prolonged experience in the higher altitudes so that the incidents of temporary residence and change of scene may be regarded as equalized or eliminated. They supplement the earlier records from the South American plateaus by results obtained with approved and up-to-date procedures. The new statistics agree in exhibiting values both for red blood-corpuscles and hemoglobin distinctly higher than the “normals” of sea level. Cohnheim maintains that the high figures thus obtained on a large scale from subjects accustomed to live at high atmospheric levels leave no alternative except to assume a new formation of corpuscles under such conditions. Where contrary conclusions have been reached—and there are many such—it is not unlikely that the period of residence was too brief to permit the stimulating effects of altitude to manifest themselves in any conspicuous way. The renewed assumption of an increased functioning of the hemopoietic organs at high altitudes has further been supported by observations conducted on Monte Rosa in the Alps relating to the regeneration of blood after severe anemias. In the international laboratory built on the Col d’Olen at an altitude of 2,900 meters (9,515 feet) and dedicated to the memory of Angelo Mosso, Laquer*® has found that dogs deprived by hemorrhage of half their blood- supply regenerate it in about sixteen days. Under precisely comparable experimental conditions twenty-seven days are required at lower levels for the restoration of the same blood loss. Laquer believes that the lower partial pressure of the oxygen is the effective stimulating factor in this more pro- * Editorial in Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., Nov. I, I913, g. v. *For a recent review of this subject see Cohnheim, O.: Physiologie des Alpinismus, II. Ergebn, d. Physiol., 1912, xii, 628; also Anglo-American Expedition to Pike’s Peak, Journal Amer. Med. Ass., Aug. 10, 1912, p. 449. *Cohnheim, O., and Weber: Die Blutbildung im Hochgebirge, Deutsch. Arch. f. klin. Med., 1913, cx, 225. 7 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 nounced regeneration so strikingly shown at great heights. How long this latest explanation will withstand the attacks of the increasing number of Alpine physiologists remains to be seen.’ The latest observations show that arterial blood contains con- siderably more oxygen at high altitudes than at sea level. The pulmonary alveoli have a special power of extracting or secreting oxygen and this power is increased in high altitudes, this increase not disappearing until a considerable time after descent to sea level. W.R. Huggard, of London, an unbiassed and judicial observer, says: ‘“ The diminished frequency of tuberculosis with altitude may, I think, be taken as established.” * Hirsch * held the same opinion and based his statement on statistics from various places. Thirteen years ago, Dr. Solly endeavored to show this statistically and arranged three tables which we append. TABLE I CoMPARATIVE RESULTS IN SANATORIA IN H1iGH AND Low CLIMATES COMBINED FIRST AND SECOND-STAGE CASES ONLY (Taken from Dr. Walters, pp. 52 and 53) 1876-1886 | Altitude eee of oes | Per Cent LOWLAND CLIMATES | Goerbersdorf (Manasse)....... | 1,840 ft. ONS ies ale2O4 =| 36 Falkenstein (Dettweiler)......| 1,375 ft. 15022) | 746 73 ‘ Reiboldsgriin (Driver)........ 2,300 ft. 2,000 1,400 70 7 | | ———— — MOtalt sj cctaeciers cake itoshe ner eackers ale 101037: wl Ad0) WwAtreracemact HIGHLAND CLIMATES | | Key sin ((3erni€r) ese. ee eete 4,150 ft. | ee | 34 92 DavostGburbat) ace osoee ee eS LS aut 302 269 89 AFOSa: (Jacobi) ec. ates setae OOOO! At: 2590 | 21205) 82 TT otalionccsare te cere c eae leral cake trevenceee 508 || 515 | Average, 86 The total average of benefited in low climates was 71 per cent! cc 6é “cc “ce “c high “cc “cc 86 “ce 1 Without Goerbersdorf. The Goerbersdorf reports up to 1884 areso much lower in the percent of benefited to the others—owing, perhaps, to some different method of estimating results, or, perhaps, to their being taken so many years ago, when the material was worse and the treatment perhaps not as efficient—that probably it would bring out the truth better to omit them. * Editorial in Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., July 26, 1913. 7W. R. Huggard: A Handbook of Climatic Treatment, London, 1906, p. 124. ® Hirsch: Geographical and Historical Pathology, New Sydenham Society Translation, 1886, Vol. 3, p. 440. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 67 TABLE II CoMPARATIVE RESULTS IN OpeN Resorts IN Low ANpD HicH CLIMATES ALL STAGES (Taken from Handbook of Climatology, Solly, pp. 132 and 133) Number of} Number Cases Benefited Per Cent LOWLAND CLIMATES Dera unaass oie ct Eee ict dotnet cieveis "154 100 65 Island Climates . PTA Se ee cree eos 568 205 52 GoastaClitmatesnacertnmeeed cess wees Glee eiaelts 2,328 1,369 50 Arlanda Glitmatesiy.c on at cciseiece Gcicnncce eroievchelet= 136 77 57 Pesce ahaa tele py tay te chauavedecureys stella Gat OO 1,841 |Average, 58 HIGHLAND CLIMATES PRtsS EMA WV OS) ser ct orcs antlee wisest aig awe sal O27 1,551 77 Goloradomercr i eie totes deters tess hats wees 571 420 73 Snopes epee en Nae Rpaeste tts inne k ia vctaafwnyel u; 25 500 1971 |Average, 76 The tosal average of benefited 1 in lowland climates was 57 per cent Sm hishlands 9s Sa. 7Oypenmicent The first table, Table I, deals with the comparative results in sana- toria in high and low climates, first and second stage cases combined being alone taken, and the different variety of forms of improvement being grouped under the head of benefited. Of the lowland sanatoria the lowest elevation above sea-level was 1,840 feet, and the highest 3,300 feet. Of the highland climates the lowest elevation was 4,150 feet, and the highest, 6,000 feet.. The total average percentage of benefited in low climates was 71, and in high climates 86. Table II gives comparative results in open resorts in low and high climates. The total average of benefited in lowland climates was 57 per cent, in highland climates 76 per cent. TABEE Ii COMPARATIVE RESULTS IN HicH AND Low CLIMATES IN OPEN AND CLOSED RESORTS Per Cent Sanatoriums Benehied Open Resorts LOWLAND CLIMATES Ey cet (AN Kilebs) iu fines one ween 69 Goerbersdorf eee na seek 76 Adirondacks (PEE CEBD se oe IAVCT ACC ieee ents sree sereisls 74 |Average percent of benefited, 58 HIGHLAND CLIMATES Davos Ghunban)lsascsacace oes ss Arosa (Jacobi)... pear AVieErae Cocco eon ce tenes 84 |Average percent of benefited, 76 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Table III shows the comparative results in high and low climates in open and closed resorts. The cases, however, could not be ob- tained in first and second stage cases alone, but only of all stages combined. In lowland climates the closed sanatoria show 74 per cent benefited, and the open resorts 58 per cent benefited. In highland climates the closed sanatoria show 84 per cent benefited and the open resorts 76 per cent, exhibiting the relative superiority of sanatorium over open resort treatment in the two classes of climates, respec- tively. Doubtless the sanatorium cases were on the whole in better condition upon first coming under treatment than those in the open resorts and, therefore, the superiority of sanatorium treatment over open methods is probably not as great as it appears here ; but, never- theless, even if the material were exactly the same, the sanatoria would show a greater percentage of benefited over the open resorts. Table III also proves that climate exercises a beneficial influence over patients in closed sanatoriums as well as in open resorts. In all stages combined the percentage of benefited in sanatoria in low climates was 74 per cent, while in high climates it was 84 per cent. In the first and second stage cases combined (see in Table I), the difference in favor of mountain sanatoria is still greater—low- land sanatoria 71 per cent ; highland sanatoria 86 per cent.’ The following is the classification of the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis adopted in May, 1913. The data given in the table on page 69 are given in terms generally used up to that time. CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSEQUENT OBSERVATIONS Apparently Cured: All constitutional symptoms and expectoration with bacilli absent for a period of two years under ordinary conditions of life. Arrested: All constitutional symptoms and expectoration with bacilli absent for a period of six months; the physical signs to be those of a healed lesion. Apparently Arrested: All constitutional symptoms and expectoration with bacilli absent for a period of three months; the physical signs to be those of a healed lesion. Quiescent: Absence of all constitutional symptoms; expectoration and bacilli may or may not be present; physical signs stationary or retrogressive; the foregoing conditions to have existed for at least two months. Improved: Constitutional symptoms lessened or entirely absent; physical signs improved or unchanged; cough and expectoration with bacilli usu- ally present. Unimproved: All essential symptoms and signs unabated or increased. Died. +Dr. S. E. Solly, in the Philadelphia Medical Journal, December 1, 1900. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE ‘ 69 It is practically impossible to draw accurate conclusions from data furnished by different institutions, under such wide variations as to the character of the patients and varying standards as to what constitutes an apparent cure or arrested disease. A glance at the chart or table shows that good results are obtained at all eleva- oS > a {3 2 ~ | > S So on S 2 Sanatoria te ee 9° a Stage = Ware ||.@ oe a & ° a 9 | a | 24 a S a o Mia A a ~Y A a feet per | per | per | per | per cent | cent | cent | cent | cent Sharon, Mass. 250| 56 18 33 OW eres 1891-1911} All Barlow, Los Angeles, Cal. 3001 3 | 4 40 ‘| 35 13 1907 All 35500 10 39.5) | 27-65), 22) | 190357 : 16 16 42.8} 9 1.7 | 1912 \ Chiefly ad 31-14 14-7 B2eON Pe OeG) en Ox5 ns LOLS) i} Wallum Lake, R. I. (State) | 650} 8.5 | 32.9 | 33:6 | 23-7] 1 Previous to 1912 All 6.7 | 27-4 | 38-3 | 24.9 | 2.5 | 1912 | | Muskoka, Canada 700| 5.54| 20-8 | 45-41| 24.56) 3.67) 1902-12 | All Pottenger, Monrovia, Cal. 1000) 68 | 21 TOE sllfercrsiessccillelsiererers 1909 Incipient (Private) 25 eSO 17 4 4 to Second 8 33 36 8 15 1912 Third Otisville, N. Y. (State) 1200| 12 A723) 27.47) \eLOs5i|) L=3) |) 193 All Rutland, Mass. (State) 1165) 26.1 | 35.6 | 20.5] 9 |-.-«-- 1906 Early New Jersey State (Glen goo | 12 29 42 16 I 1912 All Gardner) White Haven, Pa. (Free Aso) Boscss Merete | SOaOtse7 Nl, 3eSuil TOOLT—13 All Hospital) Adirondack Cott. Sanitarium, 1750) ASesales bese lacie TiS |etetatarede 1885-1911, Incipient Saranac Lake, N. Y. B28))| 4822) |leateisr= 43 Aiea \etraters stots) ate Moderately and | far advanced Ray Brook, Adirondacks, N. Y.|1635|) 34.4 | 31-6 | 17-3 | 14 -9 | 1912 All (State) New Mexico Cottage Sanita- 6000) 83 | 7a | eicteterete||loie oielet=)| pieieielel= 1904-13 Incipient rium, Silver City (600 cases, 19% Private) 50 33 8 6 Bey ||Eseeeterersteretes Moderately ad- vanced, 19% 13 30 25 26 Zi \isacooonaec Far advanced 62% U.S. Public Health Service|6231| 11.7 | 15 29.1 | 9-5 | 34-5 | 1899-1912} All anatorium, Fort Stanton, | N. M. (For Sailors) U. S. Army Hospital, Fort|6400| 2.02) 2.87| 69.25) 19.59) 6.25| 1911 | All Bayard, N. M. 4-78| 11.40| 52.38] 23.80| 7-64| 1912 | All tions. The best results are claimed in incipient cases by the Potten- ger (Private) Sanatorium, Monrovia, California, 1,000 feet, and New Mexico Cottage Sanatorium, Silver City, New Mexico, 6,000 feet. INSOLATION. DIATHERMANCY OF AIR. ALPINE RESORTS Associated with diminished atmospheric pressure are other impor- tant and inseparable atmospheric qualities which contribute largely 70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 to the resultant influence on man’s welfare in the higher altitudes. These other qualities have a special influence on pulmonary tubercu- losis and should be recognized in estimating the effect on patients of this class. We have, first, greater insolation. The part played by the earth’s atmosphere in arresting the sun’s rays is very important and second orily to the influence of the atmosphere of the sun itself in arresting the radiation of light and heat from the sun. Slight changes in the sun’s atmosphere would speedily alter the terrestrial climate. On the earth’s surface at sea level the energy of light of the sun and that of the heat rays are considerably less than at the higher altitudes and recent measurements are of great interest and practical value. Dr. Julius Hann, the great meteorologist of Vienna, has noted that on the lower plains thirty to forty per cent of the total amount of the sun’s heat was absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere, whereas at the summit of Mt. Blanc, at 15,730 feet (4,810 meters) elevation, nearly one-half of the absorbing mass of the air is lost and the amount of the sun’s heat absorbed was not more than 6 per cent. One can readily understand that when the resistance is removed the light rays are more effective than at sea level. The late Prof. S. P. Langley showed by delicate measurements at this height that the blue end of the spectrum grows to many times its intensity at sea level." This marked diathermancy of the atmosphere goes hand in hand with altitude. The increased facility with which the solar rays are transmitted through an attenuated air accounts for the tan and sunburn so readily acquired on mountain tops and this quality is, in the author’s opinion, of value in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. Owing to the increased diathermancy of the atmosphere at ele- vated stations there is a remarkable difference between the atmos- pheric temperature in the sun and in the shade. At the higher Alpine resorts for tuberculous patients, such as Davos (5,200 feet), St. Moritz (6,000 feet), Arosa (6,100 feet), and Leysin (4,757 feet), the excessive heat in the sun compared with shade temperatures in winter favors the outdoor life during the “invalid’s day.” It also, incidentally, impresses all newly arrived visitors as a marvellous cli- matic feature. At St. Moritz, now a fashionable winter resort, ladies find parasols almost a necessity while friends are skating, and those *S. P. Langley: Researches on Solar Heat and Its Absorption by the Earth’s Atmosphere. Papers of the U. S. Weather Bureau, No. 15, Wash- ington, 1884, p. 242. NO 1 AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE Fi who indulge in this Alpine pastime revel in summer clothing. Al- though the climate is a cold one it is characterized by great diurnal ranges of temperature, freedom from dust, winds and fogs, and emi- nently suitable for the climatic cure. As the snow lies on the ground at these resorts for from three to five months, sleighing, skating, skiing and tobogganing are popular and some of these sports are allowable in suitable cases of tuberculo- sis. In March or April the snow melts and the roads become slushy and muddy, so that the air becomes very damp, and patients are accustomed to make temporary visits to lower stations, such as Wiesen (4,760 feet), Seewis (2,985 feet), Thusis (2,448 feet), Gais in Appenzell (2,820 feet), or Ragaz (1,709 feet), returning later to the higher stations.’ SURGICAL TUBERCULOSIS TREATMENT IN SWITZERLAND No chapter on high altitude treatment would be complete at the present time without noting the brilliant success of Dr. A. Rollier in the treatment of surgical tuberculosis at Leysin, in the Vaudois Alps, Switzerland. This station has an altitude of about 4,500 feet above sea level. The hospital buildings face the south and are pro- tected by mountain ranges from the cold winds of the north and west. Rollier states that even in midwinter, with snow on the ground, the temperature on the sunny balconies is often as high as 95° to 120° F. Owing to the purity of the atmosphere and the absence of moisture there is little loss of the luminous and caloric radiation of the sun. Rollier established his first hospital for the treatment of tuberculosis of the bones and joints in 1903, but it is only during the last two or three years that his method has attracted so much attention, though Bernard, of Samaden, had prac- ticed it in the pure mountain air of Graubunden in the Engadine; and probably this influenced Rollier to select an elevated site for his hospitals. These are three in number and are located at 1,250, 1,350 and 1,500 meters, or 3,800, 4,100 and 4,500 feet. The exposure of See Walter B. Platt, M.D.: The Climate of St. Moritz, Upper Engadine, Switzerland (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., Vol. 4, p. 137). Arnold C. Klebs: St. Moritz, Engadine (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1906, Vol; 22, p.-15). 2 See description by John Winters Brannan, M. D., Medical Record, June 7, 1913. Also Rollier, Paris Médical, January 7, 1911, and February, 1913. The author is indebted to Dr. Brannan for his data and to Dr. Rollier for the illustrations and descriptions of his method. 72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 the patient to the sun is the essential feature and after three to ten days of acclimatization indoors he begins with five minute exposures of the feet, five times a day. This is steadily increased as pigmenta- tion appears until finally the entire surface of the body is exposed from sunrise to sunset. The head is, however, protected with white caps and shaded glasses. With the development of the pigmentation the cure progresses until recovery is complete. Dr. Rollier has sent us photographs of a boy who had 32 foci of tuberculosis, even the lungs being involved. This boy was considered cured after fifteen months of treatment. See plate 26. In another case there were multiple lesions, including a badly dis- organized and anchylosed elbow with seven sinuses and a history of three resections of the joint and forearm. This boy also made a good recovery with complete return of function, full flexion and full extension. See plate 27. Dr. Brannan adds that he has seen many such cures at “ See Breeze” and has kindly furnished photo- graphs of some of these patients. See plate 16. According to Rollier the pigmentation is the important element in the cure, inasmuch as it affords to the skin a remarkable resist- ance, favors the cicatrization of wounds and confers a local immunity to microbic infections. On days when there is no sunshine recourse is had to radiotherapy for the adults and the Bier treatment (local lowering of atmospheric pressure) for the children; at all times, whether the sun shines or not, the skin has its bath of air and light. Two hundred beds in Rollier’s sanatoria are reserved for children. Dr. Rollier presented to the XVII International Medical Congress at London in 1913, a résumé of his method of heliotherapy and refers to eighteen separate communications to medical literature, in which he and his associates have described the method. Among other things we notice that he reports the number of adults having external tuberculosis treated by him as greater than that of children, 522 to 477. The prognosis for the former is as favorable as for the latter and the duration of treatment is never much longer. In Rollier’s paper, referred to, all his cases for the past eleven years are tabu- lated and out of 1,129 patients, 951 are reported cured. Of the total number only three underwent the operation of resection. These were cases of gonorrheal arthritis ; one was adult of over fifty years. Two cases of tuberculosis of the foot were treated by amputation ; both were adults of over sixty years. Rollier uses fixation by means of plaster, especially in Pott’s Dis- ease, but in all cases insists strenuously that the tuberculous joint “SNOYODIA *SAHYOS N3dO 4O LHDIS LY SYVOS G3a1VaH ‘SYNOD G3SHSIISVLISA 113M WNIYOLVNVS S.Y3IT10¥ “Yd LY AdVYSHLOITSH 4O YV3SA JNO Y3SLSV ‘GVE AYBA NOILIGNOO IWHANSD + SISOTNOYSENL ANOP GNV YVINGNVID ‘ONNI 4O 1004 28 SHSM BYSHL ‘GIIHO AWVS AHL 4O SM3IA OML SNOILO31109 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 27 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SAME CHILD. HE WAS ADMITTED TO DR. ROLLIER’S SANATORIUM, LEYSIN, AT THE AGE OF FIVE, WITH NUMEROUS TUBERCULOUS FOCI IN THE BONE AND PERIOSTEUM AND ABOUT THE RIGHT EYE. THERE WAS TUBERCULOSIS OF THE ELBOW AND RIGHT FOREARM. THREE PREVIOUS OPERATIONS. SEVEN FISTULOUS OPENINGS IN THE ELBOW; SEVEN IN THE FACE. JOINTS IMMOVABLE; GENERAL CONDITION BAD. THE TWO LOWER VIEWS SHOW THAT AT THE END OF ONE YEAR THE OPEN SORE HAD HEALED. CHILD VIGOROUS. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 73 or other site of the disease must not be covered over by any unre- movable apparatus so as to interfere with the full exposure to the sunlight. Rollier’s last paper goes very fully into the technic of heliotherapy and the reader is referred to this and to the fully illus- trated paper in “ Paris Médical,” February, 1913, in which there are forty-five remarkable photographs covering the most interesting fea- tures of this work. It is at present attracting great attention and American physicians can find in the recent review of Rollier’s work by Dr. Henry Dietrich, of Los Angeles, California, an excellent summary of its theory and practice.’ Rollier,? in his address before the Gesellschaft deutscher Natur- forscher and Aerzte in Mtinster in 1912, says: It is in surgical tuberculosis that we have seen the best results from helio- therapy, and we have made the treatment of it our life work. As a result of my experience in the use of the light-cure in higher altitudes, based on an experience of nine years, I maintain to-day that the cure of surgical tubercu- losis in all its forms, in all stages, as well as at every age of life, can be accomplished. The closed surgical tuberculosis always heals, if one will only be patient, and above all if one understands how to keep it closed. To transform a closed tuberculosis into an open one means to increase the gravity of the case a hundredfold. A diminution of the vitality of the tissues is the inevitable consequences: 2 =. To regard a surgical tuberculosis as a local disease which can be cured by local treatment alone is a ruinous error. On the contrary, *Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., December 20, 1913, p. 2232. * References: Rollier (Verhandl. d. Gesellsch. f. Kinderheilk. d. 84 Ver- samml. d. Gesellsch. deutsch. Naturforsch. u. Aerzte in Miinster), 1912. A report of 650 cases in which 355 patients were adults and 295 children. There were 450 cases of closed surgical tuberculosis and 200 cases of open surgical tuberculosis. In the cases of closed surgical tuberculosis 393 patients were cured, 41 improved, 11 remained stationary, and 5 died. Of the patients with open surgical tuberculosis, 137 were cured, 29 improved, 14 remained sta- tionary, and 20 died. Rollier and Rosselet: Sur le role du pigment épidermique et de la chloro- phylle (Bulletin de la Soc. des sciences nat. 1908). Rollier and Hallopeau: Sur les cures solaires directes des tuberculoses dans les stations d’altitude. Communication a l’Académie de Médecine, Paris (Bul- letin de PA. d. Méd., 1908, page 422). Rollier and Borel: Héliothérapie de la tuberculose primaire de la conjonc- tive (Rev. méd, de la Suisse romande, 20 avril 1912). Witmer, T. and Franzoni, A.: Deutsch. Zeitschrift fiir Chirurgie, No. 114. P. F. Armand-Delille: L’Heliotherapie, Masson et Cie, Paris, 1914. P. Vignard and P. Jouffray: La Cure Solaire des Tuberculoses Chirurgi- cales, Masson et Cie, Paris. 74. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 it is a general affection which requires general treatment. Of all infectious diseases it is the one in which the individual resistance plays a deciding part. Our first effort, therefore, is directed to improve general conditions and thus to bring about a healing of the local focus by treatment of the entire system. A rational local treatment is necessary as well, provided it is not tog one- sided. In cases of spondylitis, or Pott’s disease, the children wear jackets having a large fenestrum cut anteriorly, as the vertebrz in children are not much further removed from the surface of the abdomen than from that of the back. After healing is verified by X-ray a celluloid corset is worn. One or two years are required for the cure. Plate 29 shows a girl thus cured of pronounced Pott’s disease with gib- bosity, and paraplegia and muscular atrophy. There was complete healing after fifteen months of the solar cure which the illustration well shows. CASES OF HIGH ALTITUDE TREATMENT As illustrations of the good effect of high altitude treatment, two cases from the practice of the late Dr. Charles Theodore Williams, of London, may be cited. They were both cured at St. Moritz (6,000 feet). Miss C., aged 18, was first seen by Dr. Williams, July 20, 1887. She had lost a sister from tuberculosis and she had a history of cough and expectoration for five months and wasting and night sweats for two months ; total loss of appetite and aspect very pallid. Slight dulness, crepitation in first interspace to the right. Ordered to St. Moritz for the winter. In the spring the patient spent six weeks in Wiesen, elevation 4,760 feet. She entirely. lost her cough and expectoration, gained twenty-four pounds in weight and became well bronzed, looking the picture of health. Her chest increased enormously in circumference dnd measured, on full expiration, five inches more at the level of the second rib than before she left England. She stated that she had burst all her clothes. Careful examination at the end of eleven months, when these later notes were taken, showed great development of the thorax and hyper-reso- nance everywhere, but no abnormal physical signs. After more than three years in England the chest measurement had somewhat de- creased. Another patient, Miss R., aged 21, was seen in November, 1870, with a history of cough with expectoration, loss of flesh, night sweats, pain in the left chest and evening pyrexia of a month’s dura- "Y3IT10Y¥ “Yd 4O OINIIO “S1vis IVHANSD GNV SYNLVINOSOW 4O NOlLvuYOlSaY 3L31d -WOO “ALINYOIJAG 4O NOILOSYYOO SHINOW Naaisdid YSLSV LNAalLVd SWVS SHL "NISAST ‘YSIT10¥" “AdVYSHLOIISH AO ‘YQ 4O OINITO “AHdOYLVY YVINOSNW ANV VIDA IdvVuVd ‘S$ “Sls ‘ALINNYOIS3G GAONNONOYd HLIM 3SVASIG S:L 10d *} “Sls 82 “Id ‘1 “ON “£9 “10A SNOILO31109 SNOANY11S0SIN NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 29 FIG. 1. HELIOTHERAPY AND IMMOBILIZATION IN PLASTER FOR SURGICAL TUBERCULOSIS. BAL- CONY OF DR. ROLLIER’S SANATORIUM, LE CHALET,’’ LEYSIN, SWITZERLAND. THE JACKETS HAVE LARGE OPENINGS TO ALLOW ACCESS OF SUNLIGHT TO THE DISEASED SPINES. SOME PATIENTS IN DORSAL POSITION ; OTHERS IN VENTRAL POSITION. - She P FIG. 2. CHILDREN WHO CAME TO DR. ROLLIER VERY SICK NOW INDULGE IN WINTER SPORTS. NO CLOTHING BUT CAPS AND LOIN CLOTHS. NOTE THE MUSCULATURE OF THE CHILDREN FORMERLY SUBJECTS OF COXALGIA, ARTHRITIS, PERITONITIS AND ADENITIS. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 75 tion. Dullness and deficient breath sounds were detected close to the left scapula. After three years of unsuccessful treatment in Eng- land, during which time two winters were spent at Hyéres, on the Mediterranean, losing ground and growing thinner and showing evi- dence of commencing disease in the opposite lung, she was sent for the winter to St. Moritz. She returned the following May vigorous and well bronzed, having taken plenty of exercise, skating, walking, and tobogganing. She had lost all cough and had gained much strength. The chest measurement showed an increase of one inch. The whole thorax was found hyper-resonant and no physical signs of consolidation could be detected. After eleven years of residence subsequently in England, she was free from chest symptoms. In this case, notwithstanding the improvement following two winters spent at Hyéres, at sea level, the disease was not arrested and increased the following year. But during one winter’s residence at St. Moritz, elevation 6,000 feet (diminished atmospheric pressure and out-door life with winter sports), there was complete arrest of the disease, as the experience of eleven years with absence of phy- sical signs testifies. There is a wealth of clinical material to show the advantages of high altitude treatment at the well-known European and Ameri- can resorts. Sir Hermann Weber, of London, and his son, Dr. F. Parkes Weber, have had a long and favorable experience in the treat- ment of pulmonary tuberculosis in high altitudes and they support Dr. C. T. Williams in a higher estimate of treatment of this disease at high elevations as contrasted with results at the sea level. Twenty-five years ago Sir Hermann Weber stated that out of 106 tuberculous patients sent to high altitudes, 38 were cured, either permanently or temporarily, 16 were stationary or but slightly im- proved and 1o deteriorated. More than half of the cases in the first stage were cured. The American statistics of Drs. Samuel A. Fisk," W. A. Jayne,’ S. E. Solly,* Charles Denison and S. G. Bonney, all of Colorado, 1 Fisk, Samuel A.: Concerning Colorado (Medical News, Sept. 16, 1899) ; Climate of Colorado (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1888, p. I1). ? Jayne, W. A.: Climate of Colorado and Its Effects (Trans. Amer. Cli- mat. Ass., 1888). ® Solly, S. E.: Invalids Suited for Colorado Springs (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1888, p. 34). 76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 are certainly convincing as to the effect of high altitude treatment in the cure of pulmonary tuberculosis.’ Solly said in 1888, “ Taking the medical spatiston throughout the world, it is unquestionable that a large majority of those who have made a study of the subject believe that where a change is made, a change to an elevated country is the most likely to benefit a consumptive.” Solly lived for thirty-three years in Colorado after having re- moved, as a tuberculous invalid, from England. Every one of the physicians mentioned above went to Denver or Colorado Springs as a tuberculous patient, recovered his health there, acquired a repu- tation and successful practice during fifteen to thirty years of resi- dence and the majority are alive to-day (1913). Those who died succumbed to other affections. According to Solly, 76 per cent of all patients, good, bad and indifferent, and 89 per cent of those in the first stage that undergo climatic treatment in Colorado are benefited. Would such patients as we have mentioned have derived equal and as lasting benefit at Alpine Stations, such as Davos or St. Moritz, which have a corre- sponding altitude and an equal barometric pressure? Judging from recorded clinical experience, we believe that they probably would have done equally well. We can never know absolutely. Would they have done equally well at sea-level or at very moderate altitude? None of the physician-patients whose names are quoted would admit, it. | Dr. Solly, with his inimitable humor once remarked, “If I were living in London to-day, I’d be dead.” In all human probability most, if not all of them, are fair examples of the curative power of the Colorado climate. Of late there have been dissenting voices, challenging some of the cardinal principles involved in the altitude treatment of tuberculosis. Not only altitude, with its concomitant rarefied atmosphere, but even sunlight itself which lightens the heart of every invalid, have both been denied the value so generally assigned them in tuberculo- 2 Charles Theodore Williams: Aerotherapeutics, or the Treatment of Lung Diseases by Climate. The Lumleian Lectures, 1893; Macmillan, 1894, pp. III-179. Charles Denison: Dryness and Elevation the Most Important Elements in the Climatic Treatment of Phthisis (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., Vol. 1, 1884, p. 22). NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 77 therapy. These discordant notes find utterances among those who have been compelled to treat the poorer class of consumptives in our cities at the seaboard and who have obtained some excellent results. Stress is laid on the beneficial influence, for example, of cold.’ The fact that patients improve more in winter than in summer is cited to prove that “cold air in itself seems to cure in a manner which nothing else can accomplish. * * * Sunshine is not essential— excellent results may be obtained in climates where the sun is rarely seen. Mere outdoor living seems to be the essential element, and yet there does not seem to be any doubt that quicker results are ob- tained in the cold season than in the summer.” EFFECT OF COLD AIR There is truth in the proposition that cold air is better for the consumptive than heated air. It is usually purer and is unquestion- ably more stimulating to the vital forces. Warm sleeping rooms are positively bad because of deficient ventilation. Warmth debilitates and opens the way to bacterial invasion. Hot weather is relaxing, while moderate cold, or greater cold with proper safeguards, acts as a tonic and fortifies the well and sick alike against disease. The good effect of cold air in tuberculosis is commonly noted by physicians and patients. The following extract from a letter from a tuberculous patient, dated Saranac Lake, New York, February 19, 1908, is interesting: I have not felt the cold up here this winter as I feared I might, although the mercury has nearly disappeared on one or two memorable nights. 46° below zero is the coldest I have seen it but it was reported 50° below in the village. I am quite used to the cold now as I sit out on the porch all day and have not missed a day yet; but there is one redeeming feature about the cold up here and that is that zero weather does not seem nearly so cold as 20° above in Philadelphia. I really do not begin to feel it until it gets to 20° below, although it is usually too cold to use my hands even in milder weather. J. D. This patient was 22 years old, had been at Saranac fifteen months and is reported perfectly well and weighs 180 pounds. He is ap- parently cured. He remains well, Nov., 1913. * Editorial, American Medicine, Philadelphia, January 20, 1900. See A. D. Blackader, M. D.: The Advantages of a Cold, Dry Climate in the Treatment of Some Forms of Disease (N. Y. Med. Journ., Aug. 3, 1912). re pee ge ER ema 78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 The minimum temperature at Saranac Lake for 1912 was —32° F. on January 25, and the maximum was 88° F. on July 10. The mean temperature was 40.98° F. The total precipitation was 43.19 inches, with a total snowfall of 124.24 inches. Clear days, 153; partly cloudy, 77; cloudy, 136. The extract here reproduced from a letter dated Saranac Lake, July, 1886, is interesting. It was addressed to the author. Yk. 7 iar Mies S12 mame ’ Co fa Maiiiiak fet S fund lar Pitas A eprnact iki fe ae ae The best and clearest statement of seasonal influence on body weight of consumptives that we know of was made by Dr. N. B. Burns, of the North Reading State Sanatorium, Massachusetts. His observations are based on one thousand patients during three years. Fully forty per cent of the cases admitted to this sanatorium were of the far advanced and progressive type. It was noted that August, September and October show that the largest percentage of patients gaining, while the three months immediately preceding show the opposite. Dr. Burns also charted the aggregate gain in pounds of the male patients treated at North Reading, December, 1911 to 1912, inclusive. There was a rise in January and February, 1912, to 850 pounds for 76 patients which was maintained well through March and April. AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—-HINSDALE 79 NO. SS Be ee Ea a Sl a ee | a | e'2j¢6 [res zieols's| +c leules |} 2[zS| 92 RUWOLLWL siyauyy II 0 02h | o'th | z'Ly [LO [6S |S'49 | DNINIVY) SINGIN] | - ~~ INaD Yad yer Ya ‘a ‘W ‘SNUNG “a N 3NO 379VL SLLASNHOVSSVW ‘WNIYOLVNVS S3LVLS DNIGVSY HLYON TABLE FZ GENERAL Weront CHART. _LAsT WARD. ORTH JCEADING STATE OANATORIUIC \ DRAWN BY 80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 RL CaCO eee See | Nev. | Dec. 22 F.Jd.BOUVE ee | Ocr._| es | [lp = |e | be \ | hue | Ave. | Serr. | Peas Dee] ‘ | bee et kt Tt tN COE 1 | Le | SeP eee Alpriz wlWe| Fen. | It ene ] TP RS LT CT Q;/O oo m Sais SWRIve = = <700 F600 WSOO O a3 plan D ali OnGeS: ae i | | Le Y TABLE #3 DRAWN BY F.J BOUVE GENERAL béercHt CHART. LAST WARD. DVoRTH FREADING wITATE SANATORIVI NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 81 Ht aoa IPE Bo ie Pretec’ # eee et ee Tl 9 g ees ao SNISOTON ON [Mar |e | der | Ave | Seer | Oor | Nev. | Deck Aleriz Fee. San LHe laso _|200 sSasisoO 82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 There was a subsequent sharp decline in May, the index dropping 250 points. This fall continued without interruption in June, to cul- minate July 11, at the low point for 1912. The conclusion of this study was: Phthisical patients are apt to lose rapidly in weight and general condition in May, June, and the first two weeks in July, which season constitutes an unfavorable and critical period. Phthisical patients make an extraordinary recovery in weight and general condition in the month of August, which is a surprisingly favorable time of the year. August, September, January and February are the most propitious months for obtaining successful results in treating pulmonary tuber- culosis. Forced feeding in the unfavorable season séems to have availed very little in limited number of cases studied at North Reading. We have already referred to the beneficial influences of the Arctic summer climate (see pages 39-42), and we attributed much of it to the perpetual sunshine; consequently we cannot agree to the illogical statement that sunshine is not essential. We believe that the “Fireside Cure” has no place in the treatment of tuberculosis and we must admit that whereas only a few years ago the cold air fiend, who slept with windows wide open in the coldest winter, was considered a crank, he now has been proved to be the only sensible one among us.’ EXPANSION OF THORAX AT HIGH ALTITUDES Without dwelling further at this time on the effect of cold air compared with warm air on tuberculous disease (see pp. 28, 40, 71), we must note some of the undeniable effects of diminished atmospheric pressure on physical development and especially on the thorax and pulmonary tissue. One striking change is the expansion of the thorax in various directions and a corresponding increase in the mobility of the tho- racic walls. We have previously referred to one case in which the circumference increased five inches during a residence at St. Moritz, elevation 6,100 feet. (See page 74.) Changes of from one to three inches are more commonly noted even at much more moderate elevations. These changes are conveniently recorded by means of * American Medicine, loc. cit. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 83 the instrument known as the cyrtometer which gives accurate trac- ings for recording the progress of the patient.’ Inasmuch as tuberculous patients in whom the disease is actively progressing show a shrinking of the perimeter pari passu with the advance of the disease, and those who are recovering show an in- creasing circumference, it is a fair inference that the physiologic increase in thoracic measurements due to residence in the higher alti- tudes is an advantage in the prevention and treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Man is not adapted to live permanently at altitudes above 13,000 to 16,000 feet (4,000-5,000 meters), but at somewhat lower elevations as, for instance, at 10,000 feet we have some thriv- ing cities such as Leadville and Cripple Creek in Colorado, and Quito in Equador, elevations 10,000 and 9,350 feet (3,000 and 2,850 meters). The altitude of the permanent habitations in the Ortler Alps is about 5,450 feet (1,640 meters), and that of the highest health stations from 5,000 to 7,000 feet (Arosa). It is a well-known fact that the Indians of the Andes, the Swiss guides, the Tyrolese hunters and other mountain dwellers have a large thorax with corre- spondingly deep inspiratory power and remarkable endurance.” The increased respiration and the quickening of the circulation promote health and vigor in mountain races and comparisons between the highlanders and those in deep and flat valleys are always in favor of the former. All observers have remarked on the immunity from disease, and especially scrofulous and tuberculous disease, charac- teristic of mountain races, provided they live in the open, avoid over- crowding, have sufficient and suitable food and observe ordinary hygienic methods of life. Failure in this respect provides an opening for tuberculosis which, as we well know, is the scourge of the North American Indian and his relatives in Mexico and South America. Even in Quito, that city of remarkable equability, where it is perpetual spring, tuberculosis has effected an entrance, and enters largely into the mortality lists.” In Bogota, South America, in La-Paz, Mexico (elevation 11,000 feet, 3,360 meters) and in other densely populated towns in these countries, the later records show increasing numbers of cases of tuberculosis. This fact, however, See Minor, Charles L.: The Cyrtometer: A Neglected Instrument of Pulmonary Diagnosis and Prognosis (Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1903, Pp. 22) *“ Mexican Indians, though of medium height, have unusually large and wide chests, quite out of proportion to their size.” Jourdanet. *Jacoby: Thése de Paris, 1888. Quoted by Huggard. 8 84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 should not afford the slightest ground for controverting the general proposition that life at altitudes of from 3,000 to 6,000 feet favors immunity from tuberculosis and the cure of the disease in suitable cases. CHOICE OF CASES FOR HIGH ALTITUDE The question then arises, what are suitable cases for altitude treat- ment? What kind of patients may be sent to stations of lower barometric pressure? In choosing a location, the late Dr. F. I. Knight, of Boston, for- mulated some opinions based on his long experience.’ He limited the age of those resorting to altitudes to fifty years. In temperament he preferred the phlegmatic to the nervous, with an irritable heart, frequent pulse, and inability to resist cold; and with the latter we must be careful not to include those who show nervous irritability from disease, not temperament, as they are generally benefited in high places. As regards disease, he first considered cases of early infection of the apices of the lungs with little constitutional disturb- ance, and, although these generally do well under most conditions, yet considerable experience assured him that more recover in high altitudes than elsewhere. It is best to begin with low altitude in patients with more advanced disease showing some consolidation but no excavation; also when both apices or much of one lung is involved and the pulse and tem- perature are both over 100. Hemorrhagic cases, early cases with hemoptysis and without much fever are benefited by high altitudes. Patients with advanced dis- ease, those with cavities or severe hectic symptoms should not be sent to high altitudes. A small, quiet cavity is not a counter-indica- tion; hectic symptoms are counter-indications. This accords with the latest report from the U. S. Public Health Service Sanatorium at Fort Stanton, New Mexico, altitude 6,231 feet. Dr. F. C. Smith reports 56 deaths from pulmonary hemor- rhage in a total of 524 patients since the hospital was opened in 1899. His conclusion is that pulmonary hemorrhage is not more frequent at high altitude than at sea level, but the results are perhaps more often serious, especially in those with impaired circulation.’ *Trans. Amer. Climat. Ass., 1888, p. 50. * Public Health Reports, U. S. Public Health Service, No. 51, by F. C. Smith, Passed Ass’t Surgeon, Washington, 1910. See also Report No. 93, Washington, I912. SHSHLO GNV SH30ISSO HOINAP Ad G3SN SHALYVND 4O SL3S YALNAO NI MOY “ADYVHO NI Y3A0ISSO 4O SYALYVNO “HOYOd HLIM ‘LHDIY LV 3SNOH ‘OOIXSW MAN ‘NOLNVLS 1LYO4S ‘WAINYOLYNVS HLIVSH O118Nd SS1ViS GALINA LV AN30S MONS horror : ee SBF i : SNOILO31100 SNOANV1IZOSIN NVINOSHLIWS of “Id ‘tL “ON ‘89 “10A S3SIOMSXa DONIHLVSYE ONINVL SLN3AILVd ‘TWvO MOIS LNVINGWY “OOIXSW MAN ‘NOLNVLS LHYO4 ‘SOIANSS HLIVWSH O1198Nd SALVLS GSLINA SHL JO WNIHYOLVNVS SISOTNOYSENL aes ‘opine eae Cae LE “Id “Lk "ON “89 “OA SNOILO311I09 SNOANVTIFSOSIW NVINOSHLIWS NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 85 Patients in an acute condition should not be sent. Cases of fibroid phthisis, in Dr. Knight’s opinion, are not suitable. Convalescents from pneumonia or pleurisy are usually well suited for elevated regions. Advanced cases of tubercular laryngitis, if good local treat- ment and freedom from dust can be obtained, may do no worse in elevated regions than elsewhere. In cases complicated by cardiac dilatation we cannot advise alti- tude; but a cardiac murmur resulting from a long-past attack of endocarditis with no sign of enlargement or deranged circulation should not prevent. Nervous derangements of the heart are usually counter-indications. The observations made at the United States Public Health Sana- torium at Fort Stanton, New Mexico, by Surgeon F. C. Smith, of the service are commended as a valuable contribution to the Relation of Climate to the Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis. This sana- torium is open to sailors in the merchant marine and they are trans- ferred from the twenty-two marine hospitals on the coasts and rivers to this admirable inland sanatorium. It was found that the results have been nearly three times as good in the cases which left the home stations, 7. e., the local marine hospitals, without fever as in those who had a temperature of 38° C. (100.4° F.) or more within two weeks of departure. The deaths in those leaving afe- brile were to those leaving with fever as 22 to 59; the arrests, as 19 to 714; the apparent cures, as 10 to 3. Dr. Smith holds that the case that should be sent to a distant climate immediately upon diag- nosis is exceptional and he also adds that neglect to make an early diagnosis does not warrant precipitate haste in sending the vic- tim away when it is finally established. The psychologic moment for a climatic change is when there is a comparative quiescence of the lung process under treatment at home, when nutrition is 1m- proved and further improvement is slow (Francine). Climatic change, however, must sometimes be made, as we will see later on, when the hoped for stage of quiescence does not occur. Before allowing patients with pulmonary diseases to go long dis- tances or to make any great change to higher altitudes, some caution should be given. In the first place, patients should not make any physical exertion for two or three weeks after arrival. The air may be stimulating, there may be sights to see and many dangerous invitations given, but it is absolutely necessary that the patient should be ad- justed to the new atmospheric conditions. Acclimatization is neces- sary to comfort and safety. In the old days it was accomplished by the slow ride in the stage-coach over the plains. We cannot go back to the 86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 old methods, and therefore we must exercise greater caution. No fe- brile case should be sent on these journeys or to any elevated resort. Hemorrhage is not a counter-indication to a change of altitude, and it is not any more liable to occur at five to six thousand feet than at sea-level. However, no advanced case of pulmonary tuberculosis should be sent away. Financial considerations are highly important. Expenses are usually underestimated, and the want of sufficient means, the need to economize as regards the necessities, not to speak of the luxuries, of life, is a dreadful handicap, and should bar out many a case that succumbs for want of the very comforts he had left behind. It would be far better for such patients if they should enter some special hospital or sanitarium for consumption, such as are found in most of our Eastern States. No one should be sent away without definite and satisfactory knowledge of the place to which he is sent, and without a letter of introduction to some favorably known practitioner containing a state- ment of the main points in the case. In matters of climate, as in many other fields, it is the man behind the climate who will help the patient, save him from errors and in- discretions, advise him and direct him as to local surroundings, and enable him so to live that his disease shall be arrested. Some localities favorable for tuberculous patients have already been mentioned. Taking the country as a whole we naturally look to the elevated, sparsely settled regions of Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, Montana, Nevada, Utah, Arizona and California. The slopes of the Rocky Mountains and the Great Basin are justly en- titled to first choice, provided always that other safeguards than climate are to had for the protection, the comfort and nutriment of the patient. Texas, especially the central and higher western por- tion, must be included in this great area. Life in Texas was for- merly rather too rough and food and accommodations were too primitive for fastidious people, but now at places like San Antonio and El Paso, these defects have been remedied. The winter climate of Texas is very agreeable, except when the Texas norther descends and holds everything in an icy clasp. However, this is not alto- gether a disadvantage, if not too severe. Florida suits some cases of phthisis. The interior of the state is sandy and the winter and spring climate is excellent. The culti- vation of orange groves and other agricultural features of the state have given many a patient a profitable occupation that he would never have found elsewhere. NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 87 Thomasville, in Georgia, sixteen miles from the Florida line, and Aiken and Camden, in South Carolina, have long had a reputa- tion for the relief of pulmonary affections. Asheville, North Caro- lina, is more elevated (2,300 feet) and has an excellent “ all the year round” climate. Special attention is given to tuberculous patients at this resort, and this is something that cannot be said of all the good places. In Pennsylvania, suitable places are found in the Pocono Mountains, at White Haven, Kane, Cresson, Mont Alto and Hamburg. In New Jersey, there are Lakewood, Brown’s Mills, Haddonfield, Vineland, and, for special cases, such as chronic fibroid phthisis, we may advise Atlantic City. In New York, there are the Adirondacks, especially the vicinity of Saranac ; Loomis, in Sullivan County, where there is an excellent sanatorium. In New England, there are institutions at Rutland and Sharon, Massachusetts; Wallum Lake, Rhode Island; Walling- ford, Connecticut. But, as we have said before, the choice of a place, whether near home or at a distant point involves all the ques- tions of diagnosis, of temperament, of financial resources, all of which the physician must weigh as conscientiously as though his own life depended on it. Of late, English physicians have been making more extended use of the higher Alpine resorts. Among these, Davos Platz, altitude 5.200 feet; St. Moritz, 6,000 feet; Arosa, 6,100 feet; and Leysin, 4,712 feet, are usually chosen. Their chief characteristics are an atmosphere of dry, still, cold, rarefied air; absence of fog, few clouds and very little wind. There is, therefore, strong sunlight with a grateful warmth in the sun’s rays. In selecting cases for treatment by change of climate, we must exercise as much discrimination as in applying any other remedial measure. Indeed, more caution should be used, for the patient will pass out of observation and in most cases the advice given involves the most vital consequences. CHAPTER V. INFLUENCE OF INCREASED ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE; CONDENSED AIR ; Celsus, in treating of pulmonary tuberculosis in the first century A. D., advocated a change of climate and to “seek a denser air than one lives in.’’* A few places in California and in Asia Minor are below sea-level. *De Medicina, Paris edition, Delahay, 1855. 88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 But the consequent increased atmospheric pressure in these localities is not in itself worthy of note. Such desolate regions as the Dead Sea, the Mojave Desert, Death Valley, and Salton Lake, California, are entirely unsuited for the tuberculous, and, for obvious reasons, all subterranean pressures are out of the question. Divers and caisson workers become anemic and hence artificial pressures in- creased beyond the normal at sea level are injurious. Even the natural variations in atmospheric pressure at any given station may be sufficient to have some appreciable influence, per se, on the course of pulmonary tuberculosis. Changes of pressure of 20 mm. (.7874 inches) occasionally take place, but they are com- parable to a gradual change of level amounting to only 200 meters (656 feet), and it has been assumed that no appreciable physiologic effects can be attributed to these gradual alterations, at least as far as tubercular diseases are concerned. Hann* and Thomas’ state ‘that in experiments with pneumatic chambers, pressure changes amounting to 300 mm. (11.8 inches) a day have been produced without causing any notable injurious effects upon the sick persons concerned in these experiments. EFFECT OF BAROMETRIC CHANGES ON THE SPIRITS As the barometric pressure in any given place falls the cloudiness usually increases, the temperature rises, the wind increases, and precipitation is liable to occur; as the pressure rises the skies clear, the temperature falls and the winds shift to the west or northwest. The spirits and general morale of all patients usually improve with a rising barometer unless prolonged wind storms accompany such a change. Whatever improvement accompanies a rising barometer is due to the stimulus of cold or the return of sunshine and dryer air, Dr. Charles C. Browning, of Los Angeles, has studied the effect of some atmospheric conditions on tuberculous patients.’ In his first report it appeared that unseasonable or very sudden changes in temperature influenced temperature of patients, while equal or greater changes occurring slowly did not. Of hemorrhages occur- ring in groups about four times the number occurred when there ‘Julius Hann: Handbook of Climatology, Macmillan, 1903, p. 7I. * Thomas, in Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Klimatologie, Erlangen, 1872. * Trans. American Climatological Ass., 1908; idem, 1913, p. 180. No. I DATE 10 30:00 90 80 70 Oo 90 80 70 60 50 Barometer. Thermometer 100 90 | 80 70 } 60 50 40 30 20 99 98 97 90 Pulse g0 Humidity Temp. Afebrile 101 100 99 98 110 100 Pulse an 80 Hemorrhages Deaths Temp. Febrile AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE AUGUST 1912 1J213)4]5 16/7/88 /9 Jilofi j12) 13 114] 15 | 16 | 17] 18 | 19 |20 21 |22)/23)24|25|26|27| 28/29 |30/31 je ie | | | | jae SX | eee | ee | is — | +— ai —t 1 [ | pels easiest || t—J =! | =} = i= [ aa | = A ee : o;a o;a oO ogo] BD OO) CO | O;|m |e ++ + + |++) + ae iter + + Relation of pulmonary hemorrhages and deaths from tuberculosis to barometric pressure, temperature and humidity. Courtesy of Dr. C. C. Browning, Los Angeles, Cal. gO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 SEPTEMBER 1912. ' DATE 11/2/3/4/5/6/7/8/9 }1o} tM [12113 [14] 15 | 16} 17 | 18 | 19 |20] 21 |22)23 24/25 | 26/27 |28/\29 |30 30) | | al 20 pe | io a 30-00 [ 90 80 al 70 } 60 | ie | 29-50 100 see Barometer Thermometer Humidity 60 == Temp. alae Sfp = A A Napkin = 7 = ALF S Afebrile 97 Pulse go S a - - 102 —t le eet Ol jail + — e™P-100 99 98 110 oo Pulse 100 90 Febrile 0 Hemorrhages fa = om Deaths ct + + + Fate liste zt ++ + salar + Relation of pulmonary hemorrhages and deaths from tuberculosis to barometric pressure, temperature and humidity. Courtesy of Dr. C. C. Browning, Los Angeles, Cal. q NO. -I . AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE gl OCTOBER 1912. DATE 1121/3 1/4/5/6/7/6]9 | lost | 12) 13) 14) 15} 16 | 17) 16) 19 | 20;21 22/23] 24/25|26|27|28|29|30 |31 30-00 f- > \-— Barometer 90 ! x 29-60 Thermometer) 70 Humidity eo ] 99 Temp- 9g s = = Afebrile 97 90 Pulse 95 4 —¥ "— W— — — —. ---¥a- O 101 | Temp.!00 99 Febrile 98 110 = Pulse 100 90 80 Hemorrhages ma nDoOwea| oO oOo a A Oo @ es oO oO :. + Deaths oa Sct + Fe aR + i++ tar ae ++ Relation of pulmonary hemorrhages and deaths from tuberculosis to barometric pressure, temperature and humidity. Courtesy of Dr. C. C. Browning, Los Angeles, Cal. g2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS . VOL. 63 JANUARY 1!913 Humidity Deaths Relation of pulmonary hemorrhages and deaths from tuberculosis to barometric pressure, temperature and humidity. Courtesy of Dr. C. C. Browning, Los Angeles, Cal. NO. 1 DATE 30 20 _ 10 30-00 Barometer 90 80 70 60 50 29°40 70 60 Thermometer 50 40 100 90 80 70 60 50 +0 Humidity 99 Temp. 98 Afebrile 97 90 Pulse 60 70 101 Temp. 100 99 Febrile 98 110 Pulse 100 90 80 Hemorrhages Deaths AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE FEBRUARY 1913. 93 1/2)3|4/5 10] tb} 12)13 | 14) 15} 16 | 17} 16] 19 | 20) 21) 22/23 | 24\25|26|\27/28 he| | ra eal et | 1. see | thc =| | [NI] i [ iE Sy oe Se I Bea es | | | i= sai | 2 o mi a + + ++ + [etitt] +10, Seer tet italien ce Fd Relation of pulmonary hemorrhages and deaths from tuberculosis to barometric pressure, temperature and humidity. Courtesy of Dr. C. C. Browning, Los Angeles, Cal. 94 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 MARCH 1913. DATE 1/2/13 /4/5/6/7/8 /9 [iofn | 12] 13} 14/|15 | 16| 17/18 |19 |20]21 |22 |23/24/25 [26/27 |28|29/30|31 30 Z| 20 10 —4+—} Barometer< 30-90 90 | : 082 WAH SSS 90) } 80 4 ~ 70 hermometer 60 | | 50 = 40 { ze 3 90 - 80 + a Ti 70 { 60} /) Humidity 50 +0 = in | 30}— Sf aii t 20 | | | | + 10 es Temp. + T St Afebrile 97 Je) Pulse BOF To, rae eet =i Seal store (cei oe - a (Dh BY a fe Sg oO | | 101 pI sr +——+ t la 100 95 { : . Febrile 98 T T 110 } ; 100 0 Temp. Pulse 80 Hemorrhages oS = Deaths ate ba fe +/+] oF ctalicts + reais a (ei) ; |oO |e o;o/a + + Relation of pulmonary hemorrhages and deaths from tuberculosis to barometric pressure, temperature and humidity. Courtesy of Dr. C. C. Browning, Los Angeles, Cal. a cece ats | = NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 95 was a barometric pressure change exceeding .3 of an inch within twenty-four hours than when the change was less. ‘The hemor- rhages appeared to be more frequent if there had been a change in the opposite direction—a sudden fall. The cases observed were all in the advanced stage. The conditions which appear to influence groups of hemorrhages and deaths are barometric pressure, humidity and cloudiness, each in turn appearing to be the most prominent . . lJ > . = oO o o > = = o a: K > oO =? J a - F. It may as well be stated that the government records of humidity are quite misleading when we use them to judge of the climate of any given place. The observations are made at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m., but in the invalid’s day, made up of the intervening hours, the rela- tive humidity reaches a much lower mark than the records show. I often observe a relative humidity in Virginia of 25 or 30 per cent at 2 p. m., and 95 or 98 per cent at night or in the early morning, especially when dew falls after a bright, invigorating day. I think that people, whether sick or well, adjust themselves to these natural changes of humidity if properly clothed and constantly in the open air ; but when subject to rapid changes in humidity, as in going back and forth from the excessively dry air of a house in winter to the damp air outside, the demands upon the mucous membranes are very great and such frequent and violent changes certainly do harm to susceptible people. Such rapid variations or alterations of the humidity of the inspired air I think are as bad as would be rapid alternations of altitude involving variations of several thousand feet. Some patients, however, seem to do better with a humidity greater than that chosen for others. If we have a low relative humidity *See W. Jarvis Barlow, M.D.: Climate in the Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis (Journ. Amer. Medical Association, October 28, 1911). NO. I AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 133 and at the same time a moderately low temperature the general effect is tonic and it is beneficial in conditions of irritability of the respiratory mucous membrane; but if the temperature is very low this may be rather irritating. We find atmospheric conditions like this from Minnesota to the Rockies and through Manitoba and Alberta. The combination of high relative humidity and low temperature certainly favors catarrh and we have such conditions all winter long in the region of the Great Lakes and in New York and New England. Probably the best combination is a low humidity and a moderately cool temperature ; the average tuberculous patient makes his best gains after August first and in subsequent cold, dry weather when such conditions. prevail. But of course there are exceptions and some do better with a high relative humidity and a warm tem- perature ; these are not numerous and probably include more of the patients in later stages when expectoration is profuse and vitality is low. The old idea about equability of temperature, at least between the temperature of midday and midnight, is not of great importance ;* all mountainous stations show great variations in this respect. Some variability tends to stimulate the vital activities, but in older people and those who are feeble great variability is a disadvantage. As far as altitude is concerned it probably has not, per se, any great influence; certainly to my mind not so much as we used to think. However, altitude is incidentally associated with mountain life or life on the plains, with more sun, less moisture, and scattered population. We should not forget that surgical tuberculosis is al- ways favorably influenced by a seashore residence suitably chosen. I never shall forget the wonderful impression made on visiting the Sea Breeze Hospital for Tuberculous Children on Long Island, New York. Constant outdoor life in all weather works miraculous cures after the most formidable operations for bone tuberculosis and in many cases renders them wholly unnecessary in patients whose physical condition on admission was most unpromising. All the great French and Italian sanatoria for tuberculous children are located on the seashore. Among the numberless histories of the climatic cure I will give - only one and I think I may safely let it stand as a good example by which to let the argument rest. The history is that of a physician whom we all love and respect. It was published, together with twenty other carefully recorded histories, by that prince of clinicians, 134 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 the late Dr. Alfred L. Loomis, in the Medical Record and formed a part of a paper read before the Medical Society of the State of New York in 1879, a paper which we commend to your attention. Dr. Loomis says: At the age of twenty-five this patient, being of good family history, began to lose his health in the winter of 1872. His symptoms were rapidly becoming urgent; he was examined by several physicians. Extensive consolidation at the left apex was found, extending posteriorly nearly to the angle of the scapula; on the right side nothing was discovered save slight pleuritic ad- hesions at the apex. He was ordered south, but returned in the spring in no way benefited. On the contrary, night-sweating had set in, and his fever was higher. In the latter part of May he started for the Adirondacks, the ride in the stage being accomplished on an improvised bed. His condition at this time was most unpromising; he had daily fever, night sweats, profuse and purulent expectoration, had lost his appetite and was obliged constantly to have recourse to stimulants. Weight about 134 pounds. He began to improve at once, his appetite returned, all his symptoms decreased in severity, and after a stay of more than three months he returned to New York weighing 146 pounds, with only slight morning cough, presenting the appear- ance of a man in good health. A few days after his arrival in New York he had a chill, all his old symptoms returned and he was advised to leave for St. Paul, Minnesota, where he spent the entire winter. He did badly there; was sick the greater portion of the winter. In the spring of 1873 he again went to the Adirondacks. At this time he was in a most debilitated state, was anemic, emaciated, had daily hectic fever, constant cough, and pro- fuse purulent expectoration. The marked improvement did not commence at once as it did the previous summer, and the first of September found him in a wretched condition. I then examined him for the first time and found complete consolidation of the left lung over the scapula and suprascapular space, with pleuritic thickenings and adhesions over the infraclavicular space. On coughing, bronchial rales of large and small size were heard over the consolidated portion of the lung. Over the right infraclavicular region the respiratory murmur was feeble, and on full inspiration pleuritic friction sounds were heard. I advised him to remain at St. Regis Lake during the winter, and although he was repeatedly warned that such a step would prove fatal, he followed my advice. From this time he began slowly to improve. Since that time he has lived in this region. At the present time his weight is 158 pounds, gain of 22 pounds since he first went to the Adirondacks in 1873, and ten pounds more than was his weight in health. He has slight morning cough and expectora- tion, his pulse is from 72 to 85 and he presents the appearance of a person in good health. In his lungs evidences still remain of the disease he has so many years combated. Although he has made three attempts to live in New York, at intervals of two years, each time his removal from the mountains has been followed within ten days by a chill, and a return of pneumonic symptoms—symptoms so Ominous that he has become convinced that it will be necessary for him to remain in the Adirondack region for some time to come. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 6 ity Wa bt hta te t ‘ih Pe « if en e ° “ ee, FIG. 1. LOOMIS SANATORIUM, SULLIVAN COUNTY, NEW YORK FIG. 2. LOOMIS SANATORIUM, SULLIVAN COUNTY, NEW YORK. PORCH OF OLD INFIRMARY SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 91 FIG. 1. PARTIAL VIEW OF PENNSYLVANIA’S STATE SANATORIUM FOR TUBERCULOSIS, NUMBER 1, MONT ALTO, FRANKLIN COUNTY FIG. 2. PENNSYLVANIA’S STATE SANATORIUM FOR TUBERCULOSIS, NUMBER 3, HAMBURG, BERKS COUNTY SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL PARTIAL VIEW OF PENNSYLVANIA’S STATE SANATORIUM FOR TUBERCULOSIS, NUMBER 2, CRESSON, CAMBRIA COUNTY This property, formerly 2 popular summer resort hotel, was presented to the State by Wir. Andrew Carnegie for sanatorium purposes SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 1, PL. 98 THE WALSH WINDOW TENT. ALTHOUGH LYING IN THE BEDROOM THE SLEEPER HAS FREE ACCESS TO THE OUTER AIR * a er 5 NO. AIR AND TUBERCULOSIS—HINSDALE 135 We all know the after history of this patient. Thank God, he is still living, still working, and there are thousands living to-day who owe their lives to the example which he has set them. He seized the principles of climatic treatment and adapted it to the individual. I recently sent the following question to the deans of medical colleges in Boston, Chicago, New Orleans, Los Angeles, and Mon- treal. I knew nothing of the views of these men on this subject except one; of course we all know that every one from California has decided views on climate. The question was: What would you do for yourself climatically if you were told for the first time that you had incipient pulmonary tuberculosis ? Here are the answers: I would strike for the wild pine woods of northern Michigan or Wisconsin and stay there.—-A. R. Edwards, Chicago. In answer to your question I may say that if I had incipient tuberculosis I should either go to Saranac or St. Agathe in Canada and employ the open air treatment.—F. J. Shepherd, McGill University, Montreal. In answer to your question of December 26, I would say that I would treat myself as I do patients on whom I make the diagnosis of incipient pul- monary tuberculosis, that is, refer them to a local man who specializes in this disease, and ask him to look them over and refer them for climatic treatment in accordance with his knowledge of climatic conditions suitable to the indi- vidual case. Were I to start out to select a climate for myself, I would be - much more influenced by the physician under whose care I would come in the new place than by the actual climate, and would probably select either Saranac Lake or Asheville, N. C., as I know and have confidence in physicians in each place. Were they to decide that I was better suited to some other climate, I would move on under their advice. If it were possible, I believe that I would undoubtedly leave Boston, had I incipient tuberculosis. Very truly yours, Henry A, CHRISTIAN, Boston. If I had to answer your question categorically I would say that I would ask the advice of one or two men living in my own community as to what I should do for myself climatically if I were told for the first time that I had incipient pulmonary tuberculosis. The practice among the profession in New Orleans is to send patients to St. Tammany Parish, in Louisiana, where the growth of piney woods is thick and ozone plentiful. When the particular case justifies, the patient is sent to the plains of Arizona or New Mexico, and, rarely, to El Paso, Texas. A few patients go to Colorado.—Isadore Dyer, Tulane University, New Or- leans, La. Perhaps I can best answer this personally by telling you what I did when I was told this very thing fifteen years ago. Having contracted tuberculosis in New York city I sought a better climate for an outdoor life, spending the first summer in the Adirondack Mountains and in November of that year 136 _ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. ‘63 going to California, where I lived for one year in the foothill region near the coast at an elevation of 1,000 feet, free from responsibility and work. After the first year I never had any return of my pulmonary tuberculosis. I believe a change of*climate is more a question of finances: than anything else. If one has not the necessary means to have what is right in a different climate his chances for a cure are much better with home treatment, but when a better climate can conveniently be added to other measures of treat- ment for pulmonary tuberculosis it should be advised—W. Jarvis Barlow, Univ. of Southern California, Los Angeles, Cal. Note.—For the bibliography of tuberculosis in its various relations the reader is referred to the Index Catalogue of the Surgeon-General’s Library, U. S. Army, Volume 18, Second Series, Washington, 1913. This bibliography em- braces 412 pages in double columns, an invaluable contribution to the history and literature of this subject. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 63, NUMBER 2 Notes on Some Specimens of a Species of Onychophore (Oroperipatus corradoi) New to the Fauna of Panama BY AUSTIN HOBART CLARK (PUBLICATION 2261 ) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FEBRUARY 21, 1914 The Lord Baltimore Drees BALTIMORE, MD., U.S. A. NOS TON SOME "SPECIMENS -OF A SPECIES OF ONY CHOPHORE \(OROPERIPATUS -CORRADOT) NEW TO THE FAUNA OF. PANAMA By AUSTIN HOBART CLARK Through Professor T. D. A. Cockerell I have recently received four specimens of a species of Peripatus collected at Ancon, Canal Zone, by Mr. J. Zetek, which represent*a genus, as well as a species, not previously definitely known as an inhabitant of the region. These specimens are now in the collection of the United States National Museum. OROPERIPATUS CORRADOI (Camerano) Peripatus corradoi 1898. CAMERANO, Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. comp. di Torino, vol. 13, No. 316, p. 2.—1808. CAMERANO, Atti R. Acc. Sei. di Torino (2), vol. 33, pp. 308-310, figs. A and B; p. 591.—1905. Bouvier, Ann. des. sci. nat. (9), vol. 2, p. 120, p!. 3, fig. 15; pl. 4, figs. 20, 30; text igs Op ise Lop. 2o> 42) p: 3c); 63, p: 1243/64 and 65, p: 125 (the complete synonymy is given). Oroperipatus corradoi 1913. A. H. Crarx, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vel. 26, p. 16. Locality——Ancon, Panama Canal Zone. Material—F our specimens, two males and two females. Notes.—One of the females is 34 mm. long and 4 mm. broad, and possesses twenty-seven pairs of ambulatory legs; the other is 34 mm. long and 3.5 mm. broad, with twenty-nine pairs of ambulatory legs. Of the males one is 19 mm. long and 2.3 mm. broad, with twenty- four pairs of ambulatory legs, and the other is 19 mm. long and 2.5 mm. broad, with twenty-five pairs of ambulatory legs. All the specimens are dorsally dark brown in color, with a narrow median line of darker, and ventrally light brown. The dorsal folds in the two females are all of approximately the same width, but in the males there is a more or less distinct alterna- tion of broader and narrower folds; there are no incomplete folds. Some of the primary papille of the back are very much more developed than the others, and lighter in color, and these enlarged light colored papillae show a more or less regular arrangement which, however, is very much less evident in the females than in the males. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 63, No. 2. bo SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 There is a regular line of these papillz on either side of the median dorsal dark line, which gradually becomes irregular and disappears somewhat before the middle of the body. There are two scalloped rows, one along each of the outer margins of the dorsal surface of the body, consisting of a series of arcs of which the convexity 1s above each of the ambulatory legs; beyond these in the males there are similar lines with the arcs alternating with those in the inner rows, their convexity being between the legs, and reaching down to the level of the leg bases. Between the median and lateral lines the enlarged papillae are arfanged in a sinuous and more or less irregular line, with scattered ones on either side of it; but toward the posterior part of the body they become less and less numerous, and more and more irregular in their position. All of the legs are provided with feet. The creeping pads consist each of four arcs of nearly equal width, of which the fourth is about as long as the second. The urinary tubercle which, in reference to the short diameter of the third arc is approximately central in position, divides the third are into two parts, of which the posterior is much smaller than the anterior, and is entirely separated from the tubercle, which is broadly united with the anterior portion. The conditions in these specimens is well represented in Bouvier’s figure. Remarks.—These individuals appear to agree with the specimens of Oroperipatus corradoi from Guayaquil as described by Bouvier. Range.—Oroperipatus corradot is now known from Quito, Balzar and Guayaquil, Ecuador, and from Ancon, Panama Canal Zone. List of the Species of Onychophores Known from the Isthmus of Panama Oroperipatus corradoi (Camerano). Oropertpatus eiseni (Wheeler )’. Macroperipatus geayi (Bouvier). Epiperipatus brasiliensis (Bouvier). Epiperipatus edwardsu (Blanchard). * This species has not actually been taken on the isthmus, but as it ranges from Tepic, Mexico, south to the Rio Purus, Brazil, it probably occurs there. ee SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 63, NUMBER 3 A New Ceratopsian Dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Montana, with Note on Hypacrosaurus (Witn Two Ptates) BY CHARLES W. GILMORE - Assistant Curator of Fossil Reptiles, U. S. National Museum (PuBLicaTIon 2262) CITY OF WASHINGTON . PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION MARCH 21, 1914 The Lord Baltimore Press eat i BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. ‘ i ‘ ‘ t ‘ uF 10 mM ‘ t ' i ” A NEW CERATOPSIAN DINOSAUR FROM THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF MONTANA, WITH NOTE ON dYPACROSAURUS* By CHARLES W. GILMORE ASSISTANT CURATOR OF FOSSIL REPTILES, U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. (Witrn Two Plates) INTRODUCTION The fossil remains upon which the present communication is based were collected by the writer during the summer of 1913 while working under the auspices of the U. S. Geological Survey on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation in northwestern Montana. The partial skeletons of five individuals were found and these supple- ment one another to such an extent that nearly all parts of the skele- ton are represented. The skull presents some anatomical features not heretofore known in the Ceratopsia and the new genus and spe- cies Brachyceratops montanensis is here proposed. This new form is the smallest known representative among the Ceratopsian dinosaurs and in several respects strikingly different from any of its allied contemporaries. The present paper is preliminary. Upon the completion of the preparatory work now in progress a more detailed account of the skeletal anatomy and a discussion of its affinities will be given. BRACHYCERATOPS MONTANENSIS, new genus and species Type—Cat. No. 7951 U. S. Nat. Mus. A considerable portion of a disarticulated skull (7. ¢., nasals, prefrontals, postfrontals, postorbitals, premaxillaries, maxillaries, alisphenoid), with which is provisionally associated a fragmentary part of the frill and a right dentary and a predentary. Type locality—N. E. % Sec. 16, T 37 N, R 8 W, Milk River, Blackfeet Indian Reservation, Teton County, Montana. Paratypes.—Cat. No. 7952, U. S. Nat. Mus. Rostral and portions of the premaxillaries; Cat. No. 7953 U. S. Nat. Mus. Sacrum, * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 63, No. 3 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 NX complete pelvis and articulated caudal series of 45 vertebrz con- tinuing to the tip of the tail; Cat. No. 7957, U. S. Nat. Mus. Two tarsals of the distal row, four articulated metatarsals, a portion of the fifth, and eleven phalanges. Localities —Same as the type. Horizon.—F rom the upper part of an Upper Cretaceous formation soon to be described by the U. S. Geological Survey, which includes the equivalent of the Judith River formation and some older beds. The fossiliferous horizon is also the equivalent of the upper part of the Belly River formation, as described in neighboring areas of Canada. . Generic and specific characters——Typically of small size. Skull with facial portion much abbreviated, and deep vertically. Supra- orbital horn cores small. Nasal horn core outgrowth from nasals, large, slightly recurved, laterally compressed, and divided longitudi- nally by median suture. Frill with comparatively sharp median crest, fenestrae apparently of small size, and entirely within the median element. Supratemporal fosse opening widely behind. Bor- der of frill scalloped, but without separate marginal ossifications. Dentition as compared with Triceratops greatly reduced. Description of skull—The description to follow is devoted en- tirely to a consideration of the skull, since it shows characters of sufficient importance to readily distinguish it from all the other known members of the Ceratopsian group, which in the greater num- ber of instances have also been established upon cranial material. When found, the skull was entirely disarticulated, but the excel- lent state of preservation of the bone and the absence of distortion by crushing rendered the assembling of the scattered elements a comparatively easy matter. This specimen is of the utmost impor- tance in the evidence it gives for the proper interpretation of the cranial elements, and especially the positive information it affords relating to those parts of the Ceratopsian cranium now somewhat in controversy. : In the above diagnosis of the genus and species, it is stated to be typically of small size. While this statement is true so far as applied to the known specimens, it should also be stated that to some extent the small size of these specimens may be due to the immaturity of the individuals. The open sutures of the skull, sacrum, and vertebre all testify to the youth of the animals. Viewing the skull in profile (pl. 1), one is especially impressed by the great abbreviation of the facial portion, when compared with the NO. 3 NEW CERATOPSIAN DINOSAUR—GILMORE 3 Ceratopsians of the Lance formation. It is to this shortening that the generic name refers. The narial opening, as in other known Judith River and Belly River forms, is situated well forward and under the nasal horn, whereas in the later and more. highly special- ized Triceratops this orifice is entirely posterior to that horn. The distance between the nasal and supraorbital horns, as seen in the upper outline, is exceedingly short, due largely to the shortened nasal bones and the great fore and aft development of the basal portion of the nasal horn and also to the forward position over the orbits of the small brow horns. The exact pitch of the frill portion in relation to the anterior part of the skull cannot be positively determined, though in the drawing it has been placed in accordance with the evidence of articulated skulls. This specimen brings to light an entirely new phase of nasal horn development and one which, so far as our previous knowledge goes, appears to be unique among dinosaurs. Reference is made here to the longitudinal separation of the horn core into two halves by the nasal suture. This also indicates the nasal horn to be an outgrowth from the nasal bones instead of having originated from a separate center of ossification, as is the case in the more specialized Tricera- tops. It appears quite probable there are some of the described Belly River species that will also show a similar mode-of nasal horn development when juvenile specimens are found. The nasals are especially deep and massive, due to the develop- ment on their superior surfaces of the nasal horn cores. Posteriorly they present a pointed process with a beveled underlapping surface for contact with the prefrontals (the frontals and lachrymals of authors). Laterally they send down a deep extension to meet the premaxillary, and anteriorly the arched ventral borders of the nasal bones form the upper half of the boundary of the narial ori- fice. Anteriorly they send out vertically flattened processes (see /, fig. 1) between which-are received the ascending processes of the premaxille. This nasal process appears to end about 32 mm. in ad- vance of the forward line of the horn core, so that the upper outline of the beak is formed largely by the premaxillaries. The horn has a broad fore and aft extent at its base, but tapers rapidly to a bluntly pointed horn of moderate height. Transversely it is much com- pressed at the base, though inclined to expand somewhat toward the summit. The horn as a whole is directed somewhat forward, but the curve of the posterior side is such as to give the impression 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 that its upper part is slightly recurved. The surfaces of the upper half are roughened and grooved by vascular impressions. On the tip of the left half of the nasal horn is a small, flattened oval bony ossicle, which rests in a shallow depression or pit on the apex of the horn as shown at os, figure 1. This ossicle is a distinct element from the underlying bone and may represent the incipient horn of later Ceratopsians where it is known to be developed from a center of ossification distinct from the nasal bones. Fic. 1—Nasals and nasal horn cores of Brachyceratops montanensis. Type: Cat. No. 7951 U. S. Nat. Mus., % Nat. size. A, side view; B, front view; c, surface for contact with the premaxillaries; f, surface for articulation of pre- frontal; 70, anterior nasal opening; os, ossicle on top of horn core; /p, anterior process of nasal; po, orifice for superior processes of premaxillaries; s, suture separating two halves of nasal horn. The maxillaries are of triangular outline with alveoli for twenty teeth in the functional row. As compared with Triceratops this is a greatly reduced number, Triceratops having forty alveoli in the maxillary. In this specimen all of the functional teeth have fallen out, but two or more germ teeth are still retained and these give some idea of their character. NO: 3 NEW CERATOPSIAN DINOSAUR—GILMORE qn The true extent of the postfrontals in the Ceratopsian skull is here correctly determined for the first time. Authorities have heretofore considered the postfrontal as extending from the median line out- ward and including all of that portion of the skull here designated as postfrontal and postorbital (see pl. 2). In this specimen a longi- tudinal suture just internal to the base of the supraorbital horn core separates it into two distinct elements. The inner portion all paleontologists agree in calling the postfrontal, the outer appears without question to represent the postorbital. Von Huene,’ in 1912, ina skull of Triceratops prorsus regarded that portion forming the posterior boundary of the orbit as representing the whole of the post- orbital, but the writer now questions the correctness of this determi- a nation in the genus Triceratops, in so far as regarding it as repre- senting the entire postorbital. =e o a Le Pea be =n to In Brachyceratops the postfrontal is a somewhat irregularly trian- gular bone, longer than wide, which unites by suture on the median ; line witheits fellow of the opposite side. Anteriorly the combined postfrontals terminate in a pointed pro- jection that is interposed between the deeply emarginate posterior borders of the prefrontals. Posteriorly and on either side of the } postfrontal foramen these bones articulate by suture with the median element of the frill. A toothed external border unites with the post- orbital. Beginning between the horn cores the median upper sur- faces of the postfrontals are angularly depressed, gradually deepen- ing and widening transversely as they approach the fontenelle much as in Styracosaurus albertensis Lambe, see B, plate II, The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 27, 1913. The postorbital gives rise to the small supraorbital horn core and forms nearly one-half of the orbital border. Posterior to this horn which is situated on the extreme anterior end, the bone flares out into a wide expanded portion, much deflected externally, with a curved posterior border, the inner half of which forms a portion of the outer boundary of the supratemporal fossa, the outer half having an underlapping sutural edge for articulation with the squa- mosal. The straight inferior edge meets the jugal which is missing in this specimen. The thickened anterior border shows a sutural edge for union with the missing supraorbital bone. On the median inferior surface is a shallow pit which receives the outer end of the alisphenoid, as it does in Stegosaurus and Camptosaurus. > ote A *\Neues Jahrbuch, 1912, fig. 3, p. I5I. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Immediately above the orbit on the anterior part of the postorbital there rises a low horn core, the upper extremity being obtusely rounded from a lateral aspect, see po. plate 1, but sharply pointed when viewed from the front. The external surface of this horn is plane, the internal strongly convex, with the antero-posterior diameter greatly exceeding the transverse, the total height of the horn above the orbit being 35 mm. These horn cores appear to be outgrowths from the postorbital bones unless they include a posterior supraorbital element such as has recently been found in the skull of Stegosaurus. However that may be, there is-no trace of such a division in the postorbitals of this specimen. This again raises the question of the proper designation of these horns which have been called successively postfrontal and supraorbital horn cores. If an outgrowth from the postorbital bone, as the present specimen appears to indicate, the term postorbital horn core would be a more appropri- ate designation. The prefrontals (the frontals and lachrymals of authors) are deeply emarginate anteriorly and receive between them the pointed posterior ends of the nasals. The prefrontal is a quadrangular plate of bone diagonally placed filling the interspace between the postfrontal and nasal bones. Its thickened posterior end contributes to the inner part of the anterior boundary of the orbit. Near the posterior termination a narrow vertical sutural surface (so, pl. 2) on the external side was for the articulation of the small supraorbital bone that is missing. This ele- ment would have completed the thickened projecting orbital border immediately in front of the eye and which forms such a conspicuous feature of the Ceratopsian skull. On the upper posterior end of the prefrontal a pointed peg-like projection is received in a correspond- ing pit in the anterior border of the postfrontal, thus strengthening the union of these two bones. The prefrontal is just barely in con- tact with the postorbital at the base of the postorbital horn core. The relationships of the pre- and postfrontals in Brachyceratops is an unusual one, for in most dinosaurian crania the frontal is inter- posed between them, and so far as the writer is aware the above condition is only found in Stegosaurus among the dinosauria and in ‘some of the Permian reptilia. Von Huene has shown, and the writer believes correctly too, that the frontal in Triceratops has been en- tirely excluded from the dorsal surface of the skull. The frill is represented by the median elements from two individu- als. Both have portions missing, but the better preserved one is NO. 3 NEW CERATOPSIAN DINOSAUR—GILMORE 7 provisionally associated with the type as shown in plates 1 and 2. This association, however, is only provisional in so far as it applies to the recognition of the proper individual, for it can be said without question that all the bones found belong to the same kind of an animal. The dermo-supraoccipital or interparietal, for surely it cannot be the parietal as Hay* and von Huene’ have clearly shown, is united by suture with the anterior portion of the skull at the postfrontal foramen. The median part of the interparietal is sharply ridged, ex- cepting the posterior extremity, where it flattens out into a thinner portion with an emarginate median border. Between the fenestrz the median bar, in cross section, is triangular. The superior surface of this ridge forward of its narrowest part between the fenestrz presents three low longitudinal swellings arranged one in front of the other. Proximally the median portion is greatly compressed transversely into a short neck, forward of which it again widens into a much depressed end that articulates laterally with the postfrontals and with them forms the upper boundaries of the postfrontal fora- men, see fo, plate 2. Between these two lateral portions the median surface is deeply concave and slopes downward to a heavy truncated border that in all probability was suturally united with the parietals. In Brachyceratops at least, the parietal was entirely excluded from the dorsal aspect, and it is presumed that similar conditions obtained in Triceratops, although von Huene was inclined to regard a small portion of the median part of the frill posterior to the postfrontal foramen in that genus as being parietal. The bone surrounding the frill fenestra is very thin, but toward the lateral free edges and posteriorly it becomes thickened. Proxi- mally it remains thin where it forms the floor of the supratemporal fossa but thickens toward the sutural border for the squamosal. The exact shape and extent of the frill fenestrae cannot be accurately determined from the available specimens, but it is readily apparent that they were of comparatively small size. The surfaces of the frill are relatively smooth and without the ramifying system of vascular grooves of the later Ceratopsians. There were no epoccipital bones on the margins of the frill, but on either side of the median emargi- nation a series of prominences give to the periphery much the same peculiar scalloped effect found in the Triceratops frill with its sepa- rate ossifications. * Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. vol. 36, 1900, p. 97. “Neues Jahrbuch, 1912, pp. 150-156, figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Laterally the median portion unites with the squamosal by a straight sutural edge that is directed forward and inward toward the center of the skull. A triangular outward projection with an upper striated surface at the anterior termination of the squamosal suture represents a surface that was overlapped by the articulated squamos- als (s.s., plate 1). A low, sharp, diagonally directed ridge apparently indicates the posterior extent of the overlap of the squamosal. The squamosals are missing, but those as in other primitive Ceratopsians appear to have been short and broad. The rostral is missing from the type, but is present in a slightly smaller individual (Cat. No. 7952, U. S. Nat. Mus.). (See fig. 2.) In general aspect it resembles the rostral of Triceratops, but with a b a Fic. 2—Rostral of Brachyceratops montanensis. Paratype: Cat. No. 7952 U. S. Nat. Mus., % nat. size. a, side view; b, posterior view; s, superior process; p, posterior processes. less curved anterior border. Externally the surfaces are pitted and grooved and in life were doubtless covered by a horny sheath. The predentary except for its much smaller size is indistinguish- able from that of Triceratops. It is to be distinguished from the predentary of Monoclonius dawsoni Lambe by the upward turned apex of the anterior end. The dentary is stout, gradually narrowing vertically toward the front, the anterior end being especially depressed and unusually broad transversely, this end being nearly at right angles to the pos- terior portion. Near the posterior end on the external surface a stout coronoid process is developed, extending well above the dental border. It is compressed transversely but widens antero-posteriorly with a hooked forward process as in other primitive Ceratopsians. Beginning at the base of this process, a low, broad ridge extends NO. 3 NEW CERATOPSIAN DINOSAUR—GILMORE g forward at about mid-height along the outer side of the dentary. Above and below this ridge the outer surface retreats obliquely in- ward. Viewed from above, the dental border is straight but is obliquely placed in relation to the lower portion, that is, it passes from the inner posterior margin to the outer anterior margin of the jaw. Beneath the coronoid process there is a deep mandibular fossa which extends forward about one-third the length of the dentary. On the inner side there is the usual row of foramina, leading into the dental cham- ber. The exact number of alveoli cannot be determined at this time, although the tooth series is relatively shorter than in either Ceratops or Triceratops. Fic. 3—Dentary of Brachyceratops montanensis. Type: Cat. No. 7951 U. S. Nat. Mus., % nat. size. c, coronoid process; m, mental foramen; sp, a ’ surface for predentary. At this time little can be said regarding the affinities of Brachy- ceratops, though it would appear most nearly allied to Monoclonius, as shown by its small size, the small brow horns of similar shape, large nasal horn and crenulated margin of the frill without separate marginal ossifications. It is readily distinguished, however, from all known Ceratopsians by the longitudinal suture of the nasal horn, the small fenestre wholly within the median frill element, and the greatly abbreviated facial portion of the skull. It is also apparent that there are other distinguishing features in the skeleton which is to be described later. The striking resemblance of the fragment of a skull figured by Hatcher as Monoclonius crassus* to the homologous parts of the 1Monog. U. S. Geol. Survey, Vol. 49, 1907, p. 74, fig. 76. 1O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 present specimen leads the writer to suggest its possible identification with the present genus: Hatcher regarded it as belonging to a smaller and distinct individual from the type of that species and he also ob- serves: “I describe and figure this element in this connection not out of regard for any certain additional characters it may furnish distinctive of the present genus and species [Monoclonius crassus] but rather for the information which it affords relative to the homol- ogies of certain cranial elements in the Ceratopsia as a group.” The great similarity of the horn-cores with those of Brachyceratops lends much color to the above suggestion. MEASUREMENTS is Greatest length of skull? abouts. eet ere cee 2 a Sa aes 565 Greatest breadth ‘of ‘skull sestimatedi + -oscm cmon eaiemeeaerirer 400 Expanse of frontal region at base of brow horn cores ...............++-: 90 Greatest width .of nasallsy (0a. emai eee ec ele ce ee era nacre ates 58 Length of interparietal along: median’ line 2-50 sc ee ace eee 315 Height of nasal horn core above border of narial orifice.............-.. 125 Greatest «widthoof postirontallsse. orice soe ee iri eee eerie 80 Greatest length of combined post- and prefrontals...................... 126 NOTE ON HYPACROSAURUS I wish to announce the discovery in northwestern Montana, in beds equivalent to the upper part of the Belly River formation, of the Trachodont reptile Hypacrosaurus.’ A considerable portion of the skeleton (Cat. No. 7948, U. S. Nat. Mus.) of one individual was recovered, and at this time (the specimen not being entirely prepared) I am unable to distinguish it specifically from the type and only known species, H. altispinus Brown, from the Edmonton Cretaceous of Canada. Barnum Brown: A New Trachodont Dinosaur Hypacrosaurus, from the Edmonton Cretaceous of Alberta. (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 32, 1913, Pp. 395-406. ) EXPEANATION OF PLATE Lateral view of the skull of Brachyceratops montanensis. Type: Cat. No. 7951 U. S. Nat. Mus., 14 nat. size. d, dentary; f, fenestra in frill; if, infra- orbital foramen; in.p, interparietal; 7, jugal; /, lachrymal; ma, maxillary; n, nasal; nh, nasal horn cores; no, anterior narial opening; o, orbit; os, ossicle on top of nasal horn core; pd, predentary ; pf, prefrontal; pms, premaxillary ; po, postorbital; po.h, postorbital horn core; r, rostral; s, suture separating halves of nasal horn; sq, squamosal; so, sutural border on prefrontal for small supraorbital; s.s, sutural surfaces for squamosal; st.f, supratemporal fossa. EXPLANATION OF PEATE 2 Superior view of the skull of Brachyccratops montanensis. Type: Cat. No. 7951 U. S. Nat. Mus., % nat. size. f, fenestra in frill; fo, postfrontal fora- men; i.p, interparietal; n, nasal; mh, nasal horn cores; pf, prefrontal; po, postorbital; poh, postorbital horn core; p.tf, postfrontal; s, suture repre- senting halves of the nasal horn core; so, sutural border for missing supra- orbital bone; sg, squamosal; s.tf, supratemporal fossa. t ‘1d ‘8 "ON ‘9 “0A SISNANVLNOW SdOLVYSOAHOVUS JO 11NXS SO MFIA WHSALVI aaa SISNANVLNOW SdOLVYSOAHOVYS JO 11NMS JO M3FIA YOIYAdNS Z “1d ‘€ ‘ON ‘9 “10A SNOIL931109 SNOANV11IZS90SIN NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 63, NUMBER 4 ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE GENUS AULACOCARPUS, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW PANAMANIAN SPECIES BY Heer liiER (PusticaTion 2264) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION MARCH 18, 1914 The Lord Baftimore Qrese BALTIMORE, MD., U.S. A, ON THE RELATIONSHIP. OF THE-GENUS AULACOCAR- PUS, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW PANA- MANIAN SPECIES Bye PIT PER The genus Aulacocarpus, as originally regarded * by its founder, Dr. O. Berg, included two species, A. Sellowianus Berg, from Brazil, and A. crassifolius (Benth.) Berg, from Colombia. The latter was first described as Campomuanesia crassifolia Benth.,’ upon material collected by the botanists of the Sulphur voyage on Gorgona Island, off the Pacific coast of Colombia, between Buenaventura and Tumaco. The Flora of the British West Indies by Grisebach contains * the de- scription of a new species, A. quadrangularis, from Antigua and Guadeloupe Islands; and subsequently the same author added his 4. Wrighti, originally collected in Eastern Cuba.’ Thus, in 1866 Aulacocarpus had been increased to four species,” but the flower of none of these had ever been described. Taking into consideration the general distribution of the Myrtaceae, it was but logical, in the absence of more complete information, to find a place for this genus among the Myrtoideae, which are widely dis- persed in America. According to Berg, its affinities were with Cam- pomanesia, a supposition which was strengthened by the original inclusion in this genus of one of the species of Aulacocarpus. On the other hand, Niedenzu, taking as a basis the embryonic characters, places it among the Eugeniinae. During his exploration of the forests of Eastern Panama, in 1911, the writer had the good fortune to discover.a new representative of Aulacocarpus in the shape of a medium-sized tree, from which her- barium specimens were obtained, the flowers being preserved in alco- hol. The description of these shows that, contrary to every expecta- tion, Aulacocarpus is not a true Myrtoid, but must be placed among 1Linnaea 27:345. 1856. Martius, Fl. Bras. 14°: 380. 1857. ? Bot. Voy. Sulphur 97. pl. 37. 1844. ® Page 230. “Cat, Pl. ‘Cub. oo: 1866. * Niedenzu, however, ignores Grisebach’s Antillean species (Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3": 83. 1808). SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, No. 4 2 + SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 the Leptospermoideae, also represented in South America by the Chilean genus Tepualia. This will be made clear by the following amended and completed description : AULACOCARPUS Berg. Receptacle forming a crater-like cup above the ovary. Sepals 5, short, obtuse or acute. Petals 5, unguiculate, apiculate. Stamens 10, inserted on the margin of the receptacle, 5 opposite to, 5 alternate with the sepals, curved outward beyond the corolla, the basifixed 2-celled anthers hanging around the receptacle ; anther cells longitu- dinally dehiscent. Ovary 5-celled, each cell with 5 (or 4) ovules; style simple, truncate. Drupe depressed-globose, horny or sublignose, 5 to 1-celled, each cell with 1 seed. Seed albuminose, covered with a thick, suberose testa. Cotyledons plano-convex, thick ; radicle basal, very short. Trees with very hard wood; leaves opposite, exstipulate, thick, obscurely veined; flowers single or few in a cluster, pseudo- axillary. | Species 5, Tropical American. On account of its fundamental characters, viz. : exalbuminose seed, short basal radicle, ovate-depressed seeds, indehiscent woody drupe, 5-celled ovary, and 10 stamens, with basifixed anthers, Aulacocarpus would take perhaps an intermediary position between the Calotham- ninae and the Chamaelauciae. The genus does not naturally fit into any of the present divisions of the Leptospermoideae, although there can be no doubt as to its belonging to this subfamily. The collection and study of new materials of the 4 species of Aulacocarpus already described is highly desirable and it is not un- likely that a better knowledge of the genus will result in a reduction of the number of species. My own specimens do not agree with any existing description, and so | have presumed to describe them under a new name. AULACOCARPUS COMPLETENS, sp. nov. A tree up to about 18 meters high and 35 to 40 cm. in diameter at the base. Crown elongate; trunk continuous. Bark smooth, grayish. iéntirely glabrous. Leaves opposite, large, coriaceous, short-petiolate. Stipules none. Petioles thick, 4 to 5 mm. long. Leaf blades 14 to 25 cm. long, 5 to 11 cm, broad, ovate-elliptic (broader toward the base), cordate to NO. 4 THE GENUS AULACOCARPUS—PITTIER 3 truncate at the base, narrowly acuminate at tip, light green above, paler and sometimes brownish beneath. Costa impressed above, very prominent beneath; primary veins numerous, almost straight and parallel, slightly prominent above and underneath. Flowers single or aggregate at nodes on old wood (never on the year’s growth). Pedicels slender, 12 to 15 mm. long, bearing at the middle one pair of small bractlets, these clasping, ovate-acute, per- sistent, about 2 mm. long. Receptacle funnel-shaped or obconic, growing much above the ovary. Sepals 5, coriaceous, thick, ovate- triangular and acute at the tip, caducous, about 6 mm. long and 4 mm. broad at the base. Petals 5, reflexed, pink, irregularly and broadly ovate, apiculate, with a short, broad claw and a pair of rounded basal winglets ; margin irregularly denticulate or sublacerate ; length it mm., breadth g mm. Stamens 10, inserted on margin of recepta- cle and alternately opposite to sepals and petals; filaments about 10 Floral details of Aulococarpus completens: a, petal; b, stamen; b*, anther, ventral side; 6°, anther, dorsal side; c, cross-section of ovary. Enlarged 4 times. mm. Jong, bending outwards; anthers 6 to 6.5 mm. long, golden yellow, basifixed, introrse, with a large ovate, glandular, porelike structure at about the middle of the ventral side, and four small giands near the tip; cells longitudinally dehiscent. Ovary 5-celled, each cell with 5 or 4 ovules; style glabrous, terete, truncate, about 7.5 mm. long. Fruit dry, 4 to 1-celled, globose-depressed in the first case, with the cells showing outside, globose and crowned with the cuplike re- ceptacular overgrowth when 1-celled ; pericarp thick, hard, greenish outside at maturity; cells 1-seeded. Seeds large, ovoid and slightly compressed laterally, their length 11 mm., the longest diameter 9 mm. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 PanaMA: Hills back of Puerto Obaldia, San Blas Coast; flowers and fruit, August 30, 1911 ; Pittier 4310 (type, U. S. Nat. Herb. Nos. 479435-7)- This remarkable species differs from A. crassifolius (Benth.) Berg in its larger leaves, these almost always deeply emarginate at the base, and in having the lobes of the calyx long, acute, triangu- lar, and caducous. Further, our species is a relatively large tree, while the latter, compared in its habit with Calycolpus glaber, is barely more than a shrub. The wood is very hard and known under the name “ gasparillo.” SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 63, NUMBER 5 DESCRIPTIONS OF FIVE NEW MAMMALS FROM PANAMA BY E A. GOLDMAN (Pusication 2266) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION MARCH 14, 1914 TBhe Lord Baltimore (Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. DESCRIPTIONS OF FIVE NEW MAMMALS FROM PANAMA By E. A. GOLDMAN Additional determinations of mammals obtained by the writer, while assigned to the Smithsonian Biological Survey of the Panama Canal Zone, reveal five hitherto unrecognized forms which are de- scribed below. For the loan of types and other material for comparison I am indebted to Dr. J. A. Allen of the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, and to Mr. Samuel Henshaw of the Mu- seum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. CHIRONECTES PANAMENSIS, new species Type from Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), eastern Panama. No. 179164, skin and skull, male, old adult, U.S. National Museum (Bio- logical Survey Collection) ; collected by E. A. Goldman, March 23, 1912. Original number 21562. General characters——Similar to C. minimus of Guiana in size and color, but differing in cranial details, especially the longer braincase and much longer, evenly tapering, and posteriorly pointed nasals. Color—Color pattern about as in C. minimus, but light facial areas apparently less distinct ; dark brown or black of forearms ex- tending down over the thinly haired first phalanges of three median digits, the terminal phalanges white or light flesh color as in mini- mus; hairy base of tail dark all round. Skull—Similar to that of C. minimus, but braincase more elon- gated, the well-developed lambdoid crest projecting posteriorly over foramen magnum; nasals longer, encroaching farther on frontal platform, the ends pointed instead of truncate, and the sides not con- stricted near middle; ascending branches of premaxillae reaching farther posteriorly along sides of nasals; fronto-parietal suture con- vex posteriorly ; inner sides of parietals longer; sagittal crest well developed. Measurements.—Type: Total length, 651 mm.; tail vertebrae, 386; hind foot, 72. Skull (type): Greatest length, 74.2; condylo- basal length, 72.3; zygomatic breadth, 43.8; length of nasals, 33; SMITHSONIANSMISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 63, No. 5. 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS ‘COLLECTIONS VOL, 63 greatest breadth of nasals, 11; interorbital breadth, 14.1; postorbital breadth, 8.5 ; palatal length, 45.6; upper molariform tooth row, 26.4 ; upper premolar series, 11.6. Remarks —While the water opossum of Middle America and Co- lombia is very similar in size and color to C. minimus of north- eastern South America it differs in numerous cranial details from that animal as figured by Burmeister." The nasals are conspicuously longer and very different in form. The sagittal crest develops in both sexes early in life. In a specimen from Rio Frio, Cauca River, Colombia, the tail is black to the tip. Specimens examined.—Total number, 11, as follows: Panama: Cana (type), I. Costa Rica: San Jose, 1; exact localities unknown, 3. Nicaragua: Matagalpa, 1. Colombia: Bagado, 1; Barbacoas, 1; Guanchito, 1; Porto Frio, Galica “River 1 :sPalmina, i. LONCHOPHYLLA CONCAVA, new species Type from Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), eastern Panama. No. 179621, skin and skull, male adult, U. S. National Museum (Bio- logical Survey Collection), collected by E. A. Goldman, May 20, 1912. Original number 21701. General characters—Similar in size to L. mordax, but color darker; cranial and dental characters different, the second upper premolar notably narrower, and in the reduced development of the internal lobe more like that of the much larger species, L. hesperia. Color.—About as in Glossophaga soricina; general color of upper parts near warm sepia (Ridgway, Color Standards and Nomencla- ture, 1912), the under parts and basal color of fur of upper parts somewhat paler. Skull.—Broader and more massive than that of L. mordax, the braincase larger and more fully inflated; interpterygoid fossa broader; coronoid process lower, the upper outline more broadly rounded; angle of mandible longer ; incisors slightly larger; second upper premolar much less extended transversely owing to reduction in size of inner lobe; molar crowns more quadrate, less triangular in outline. Compared with that of L. hesperia the skull is much smaller and relatively shorter and broader, the braincase relatively larger but flatter above ; coronoid process with less broadly rounded * Fauna Brasiliens, pp. 72-73, pl. 11, figs. 3-4, 1856. NO. 5 NEW MAMMALS FROM PANAMA—GOLDMAN 3 upper outline; dentition similar, but relatively heavier, the premolar series less widely spaced; third upper molar nearly as large as sec- ond (decidedly smaller in hesperia). Measurements—Type (measured in flesh) : Total length, 68 mm. ; tail vertebrae, 10; tibia, 12.7; hind foot, 11; forearm, 33.9. Skull (type): Greatest length, 23.4; condylobasal length, 22.4; interor- bital breadth, 4.6; breadth of braincase, 9.3; mastoid breadth, 9.8; depth of braincase at middle, 6.9; palatal length, 12.3; length of mandible, 16,8; maxillary tooth row, 8. Remarks.—In the general form of the skull this species is in all essential respects like L. mordax and L. robusta and unlike L. hes- peria in which the skull is relatively much narrower and more elongated. The narrowness and Chaeronycteris-like appearance of the skull of L. hesperia has been pointed out by Mr. Gerrit S. Miller, Jr The greater relative as well as actual length of the rostrum in hesperia leaves the third upper molar implanted well in front of the maxillary processes of the zygoma as in the genus Chaeronyc- teris instead of in the same horizontal plane with these processes as in mordax and robusta. In the narrowness of the second upper premolar, however, L. concava approaches hesperia, the conspicu- ous inner lobe present in mordax and robusta being reduced to a slight swelling bearing a small cusp. The coronoid process in con- cava is somewhat intermediate in shape between the high angular form seen in mordax and the low, broadly rounded upper outline of hesperia. A ‘small bat, Lionycteris spurrelli, from northwestern Colombia, has recently been described by Mr. Oldfield Thomas and made the type of a new genus characterized by the narrowness of the upper premolars. L. concava may possibly require comparison with the Colombian species which is based on an immature individual. But, allowing for immaturity, the cranial dimensions given are so differ- ent (greatest length, 18.7 in spurrelli, 23.4 in concava) that the spe- cific identity of the two seems very improbable. Specimens examined.—One, the type. LUTRA REPANDA, new species Type from Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), eastern Panama. No. 179974, skin and skull, male adult, U. S. National Museum (Bio- logical Survey Collection), collected by E. A. Goldman, May 30, 1912. Original number 21758. *Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 42, No. 1882, p. 24, March 6, 1912. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 General characters—-A small form with low, flat skull closely allied to L. colombiana, but differing in dental and slight cranial characters, especially the lesser transverse extent of the large upper molariform teeth. Differing from L. latidens in much smaller size as well as cranial details. Color.—Entire upper parts warm sepia or mars brown (Ridgway, 1912); under parts grayish brown, palest on throat, pectoral and inguinal regions; lips and inner sides of forelegs soiled whitish. Skull—Similar in size to that of L. colombiana; rostrum and interorbital space narrower; lachrymal eminence more prominent, projecting as a distant process on anterior border of orbit; jugal less extended vertically but bearing a postorbital process as in colom- biana; palate reaching farther posteriorly beyond molars; upper carnassial narrower, with inner lobe less produced posteriorly, leav- ing a gap which is absent in colombiana; upper molar narrower, the postero-external cusp set inward, giving the crown a less evenly rec- tangular outline. Contrasted with that of L. latidens the skull is very much smaller, with flatter frontal region. Measurements——Type: Total length, 1085 mm.; tail vertebrae, 500; hind foot, 119. An adult female from Gatun, Canal Zone: 1095; 463; 111. Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 109.1; zygo- matic breadth, 72; interorbital breadth, 23.1; postorbital breadth, 16.8; mastoid breadth, 69.9; palatal length, 49.8; maxillary tooth row, 36.1; alveolar length of tipper carnassial, 12.4; alveolar breadth of upper carnassial, 10. Remarks——The otter of. Panama, like other Middle American forms of Lutra, has the nose pad haired to near the upper border of the nostrils; the soles of the feet are entirely naked; the tufts of hair under the toes and the granular tubercles present on the soles of the hind feet in L. canadensis are absent. The frontal region is flatter in skulls of L. repanda than in the skull of the type of L. colombiana, but the more swollen condition of the latter may be due to the presence of the parasites that frequent the frontal sinuses in Mustelidae. Specimens examined.—Two, from localities as follows: Panama: Cana (type), I. Canal Zone: Gatun, I. FELIS PIRRENSIS, new species Type from Cana (altitude 2,000 feet), eastern Panama, No. 179162, skin and skull, female adult, U. S: National Museum (Bio- logical Survey Collection) ; collected by E. A. Goldman, March 22, Ig12. Original number 21559. NO. 5 NEW MAMMALS FROM PANAMA—GOLDMAN 5 General characters—aA large, long-tailed tiger-cat, probably a member of the F. pardinoides group. Pelage rather long and soft; fur of nape not reversed; skull large with narrowly spreading zygo- mata and fully inflated audital bullae. — Color.—Ground color of upper parts ochraceous tawny (Ridgway, 1912), nearly uniform from nape to base of tail, but becoming somewhat paler on head and paling through cinnamon buff to pink- ish buff along lower part of sides; general upper surface heavily lined and spotted with black, the spots on sides more or less com- pletely encircling tawny areas, or forming rosettes; back of neck with a narrow median black line and two broader parallel lines, one on each side; shoulders marked by heavy diagonal stripes extending from near a rounded solid black median spot downward and for- ward on each side; posterior part of back with two narrow central lines extending to near base of tail; under parts white, heavily spotted with black across abdomen, and with black bars, one across throat and one across neck ; outer sides of- forearms and hind legs cinnamon buffy, spotted with black; feet buffy grayish interrupted by small black markings; ears deep black, with white submarginal spots and buffy edges ; tail with about 12 broad, irregular, but nearly complete black rings, the narrow interspaces buffy above and white below. Skull.—Large and rather elongated, the vault of braincase highest near fronto-parietal suture ; frontal region broad ; zygomata slightly spreading posteriorly, the squamosal arms not strongly bowed out- ward; palate narrow ; audital bullae large and much inflated anteri- orly. Measurements—tType: Total length, 963 mm. ; tail vertebrae, 440; hind foot, 131.5. Skull (type): Greatest length, 99.6; condylobasal length, 95.6; zygomatic breadth, 62.8; interorbital breadth, 18.5; length of nasals (median line), 17.6; greatest breadth of nasals, 13; intertemporal breadth of braincase, 34 ; breadth between tips of post- orbital processes, 51.5; length of palate, 38.5; length of upper in- cisive tooth row, 12.2; alveolar length (outer side) of upper car- nassial, 11.6. Remarks.—This tiger cat is provisionally referred to the little known F. pardinoides group. In size it seems nearer to the F. wiedii group, but it lacks the reversed pelage of nape commonly ascribed to that group. Moreover, the skull is more elongated than in the available Mexican and Brazilian specimens used for comparison and assumed to represent the F. wiedii group. It may be similar 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 to F. pardinoides oncilla Thomas, from Volcan de Irazu, Costa Rica, but the type of the latter without skull is described as a much smaller animal with clay colored under parts. No comparison with the forms of Felis pajeros seems necessary. Specimens examined.—One, the type. AOTUS ZONALIS, new species Type from Gatun (altitude 100 feet), Canal Zone, Panama, No. 171231, skin and skull, female adult, U. S. National Museum (Bio- logical Survey Collection) ; collected by E. A. Goldman, April 29, 1911. Original number 21101. General characters—Resembling A. griseimembra, but general color more buffy, less grayish ; skull broader and differing in numer- ous details ; dentition heavier. Color.—General shade of upper parts, limbs and upper base of tail near wood brown (Ridgway, 1912) with a buffy suffusion, this color more or less heavily overlaid with russet and black along median line of back; head marked with narrow black lateral lines converging to a point on back of neck, and a black median frontal line extending from between eyes to crown; white spots above and below eyes; sides of neck grayish in some specimens; under parts light ochraceous-buff ; feet blackish; proximal third of under side of tail usually stained with chestnut, the distal two-thirds black all round. Skull.—Similar in general size to that of A. griseimembra, but broader, the greater breadth most noticeable in the braincase ; inter- orbital region more depressed, materially altering the facial angle; frontals less extended posteriorly between parietals ; parietals joined by a longer suture owing to lesser posterior development of frontals ; supraoccipital reaching farther upward in a wedge-shaped extension between parietals ; zygomatic portion of jugal heavier ; audital bullae less inflated in front of meatus; mandible broader and heavier, the angle more everted; molariform teeth heavier. Measurements—Type: Total’ length, 683 mm.; tail vertebrae, 400; hind foot, 90. Average of two adult female topotypes: 637 (620-654) ; 357 (325-390) ; 85.5 (83-88). An adult male from Boca de Cupe: 670; 360; 90. Skull (type): Greatest length, 60.9; condylobasal length, 47.2; zygomatic breadth, 37.5; breadth between outer sides of orbits, 43.3; postorbital breadth, 31.5; mastoid breadth, 33.8; interorbital breadth, 5.2; palatal length, 17.5; maxil- lary tooth row, 18.3. NO. 5 NEW MAMMALS FROM PANAMA—GOLDMAN 7 Remarks.—This species, the only known nocturnal monkey. of Panama, closely resembles A. griseimembra of the Santa Marta region of Colombia in external appearance, the principal difference being a more general buffy suffusion of the body and limbs. The skull, however, differs in many important respects and the larger molariform teeth of the Panama animal would alone serve as a dis- tinguishing character. Specimens examined.—Total number, 10, from localities as fol- lows: Canal Zone: Gatun (type locality), 4. Panama: Cana, 3; Boca de Cupe, 3. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 63, NUMBER 6 SMITHSONIAN PHYSICAL TABLES SIXTH REVISED EDITION PREPARED BY EREDERICM EE. FOWELE AID, SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY (PUBLICATION 2269) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1914 ran nr). POLGE am ORR 1 yen = hs ADVERTISEMENT. In connection with the system of meteorological observations established by the Smithsonian Institution about 1850, a series of meteorological tables was compiled by Dr. Arnold Guyot, at the request of Secretary Henry, and the first edition was published in 1852. Though primarily designed for meteorological observers reporting to the Smithsonian Institution, the tables were so widely used by physicists that it seemed desirable to recast the work entirely. It was decided to publish three sets of tables, each representative of the latest knowledge in its field, and independent of one another, but forming a homogeneous series. The first of the new series, Meteorological Tables, was published in 1893, the second, Geographical Tables, in 1894, and the third, Physical Tables, in 1896. In 1909 yet another volume was added, so that the series now comprises : Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, Smithsonian Geographical Tables, Smithsonian Physical Tables, and Smithsonian Mathematical Tables. The fourteen years which had elapsed in rgro since the publication of the first edition of the Physical Tables, prepared by Professor Thomas Gray, had brought such changes in the material upon which the tables must be based that it became necessary to make a radical revision for the 5th revised edition issued in 1910. That revision has been still further continued for the present sixth edition. CHARLES D, WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Fune, 1914. PREFACE TO THE (Stu REVISED EE piaier The present Smithsonian Physical Tables are the outcome of a radical revision of the set of tables compiled by Professor Thomas Gray in 1896. Recent data and many new tables have been added for which the references to the sources have been made more complete ; and several mathematical tables have been added, — some of them especially computed for this work. The inclusion of these mathematical tables seems warranted by the demand for them. In order to pre- serve a uniform change of argument and to facilitate comparison, many of the numbers given in some tables have been obtained by interpolation in the data actually given in the papers quoted. Our gratitude is expressed for many suggestions and for help in the improve- ment of the present edition: to the U. S. Bureau of Standards for the revision of the electrical, magnetic, and metrological tables and other suggestions ; to the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for the revision of the magnetic and geodetic tables ; to the U. S. Geological Survey for various data; to Mr. Van Orstrand for several of the mathematical tables; to Mr. Wead for the data on the musical ‘ scales; to Mr. Sosman for the new physical-chemistry data; to Messrs. Abbot, Becker, Lanza, Rosa, and Wood; to the U. S. Bureau of Forestry and to others. We are also under obligation to the authors and publishers of Landolt-Bornstein- Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen (1905) and B. O. Peirce’s Mathe- matical Tables for the use of certain tables. It is hardly possible that any series of tables involving so much transcribing, interpolation, and calculation should be entirely free from errors, and the Smith- sonian Institution will be grateful, not only for notice of whatever errors may be found, but also for suggestions as to other changes which may seem advisable for later editions. F. E. Fow te. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, June, 1910 PREFACE TO THE 6TH REVISED EDITION The revision commenced for the fifth edition has been continued ; a large pro- _ portion of the tables have been rechecked, typographical errors corrected, later data inserted and many new tables are added, including among others a new set of wire tables from advance sheets courteously given by the Bureau of Standards, new mathematical tables computed by Mr. Van Orstrand and those on Rontgen rays and radioactivity. The number of tables has been increased from 335 to over 400. We express our gratitude to the Bureau of Standards, to the Geophysical Laboratory, the Geological Survey, and to those who have helped through sug- gested improvements, new data, or by calling our attention to errors in the earlier editions. F. E. Fow .e. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, October, 1913. TABER OF CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction on units of measurement and conversion factors. . xvii Units of measurement: general discussion . : 3 : : 7 xvii Dimension formulz for dynamic units . , : : : : : xix 3 " ‘* heat units : : 2 2 3 , : XXV es of electric and magnetic units: general discussion : _ Xxvii ¥ formule in electrostatic system . : ; : : . XXViii ad “ electromagnetic system. ; : : : XXX Practical units of electricity, legalization of . : 3 : : ; XXXV TABLE 1. Formule for conversion factors: (a) Fundamental units 2 (4) Derived units : = 2 I. Geometric and dynamic units 2 II. Heat units . 3 III. Magnetic and elegizic units 3 _ 2. Tables for converting U. S. weights and measures : | (e) Customary io menie’ 2 i uc pe Oe, 5 (2) Metric to customary : 6 3. Equivalents of metric and British ciel etnies aed measures : (1) Metric to imperial : 3 7 (2) Multiples, metric to pe 2 : 7 z ; Eee (3) Imperial to metric , : : ‘ ‘ : aS (4) Multiples, imperial to metric 7 ; : 3 4. (FG 4. Volume of a glass vessel from weight of its Saas of water ormercury 11 5. Derivatives and integrals . : : : ° . ° . « 2 6. Series ; : ; : : ; . . : ay 34 7. Mathematical oe : ; : ‘ - Ex 8. Reciprocals, squares, cubes and square ae of ted mupere ROSE g. Logarithms, 1000-2000 _—Sst—= : ° , : : : : = ‘24 1o. Logarithms 7 : : : : 2 , 3 ; : an 2o 11. Antilogarithms . : ; , ; 2 - : ; : . 28 12. Antilogarithms, .gooo-1.0000_— lg. : . : 21-30 13. Circular (trigonometric) functions, aeranene C; 1) : : ; ter 14. 3 © ¢ argument (radians) . ; a ae 15. Logarithmic factorials, n!l;n==1to100 . ; , : : < 4o 16. Hyperbolic functions . ; : : . ° : : 7 an 40 17. Factorials, 1-20 . : ; s : ; , s , z « 47 vi 18, 19. 20. 21. 22. aR. 24. 25. 26. 2 28. 29. 30. Si. 32: 33° 34: 35: CONTENTS. Exponential functions . : : 2 : . Values of e”” and e~ and their logarithms ae —35) ae “ ‘cc Min and e4 be ce 6c Vr —Vv9r — a “ “eo4 ande?# es OC . 5 ; : . “6 Bt and e-% and &“ a for fractional values of x Probability of errors of observations : probability integral 66 be “cc “ce 6s 6c ce Values of 0.6745 66 6c I Seas ee I) ce 6c | I “ F é 0.8453 Nae) : : . I 0.8453 ae . : . . : . Least-squares formulz Inverse of probability integral. Ditesion : : Logarithms of the gamma function I'(7) for values of x ‘beencen 1 and 2 Values for the first seven zonal harmonics from 6=o0° to 6=go° Value for f (1 — sin?Osin’p) +4d® for different values of 6 ; also the cor- responding logarithms : : Moments of inertia, radii of gyration, commenaine eign Strength of materials: (¢) metals : (0) stones (¢) brick . (2) concretes fu ne timber tests 66 66 “cc ee 6 Moduli of rigidity Variation of the moduli of iidity with ‘the refi bernuire Young’s modulus . . Compressibility of the more important solid penene . Hardness Relative hardness of the cteraents Poisson’s ratio Elastic moduli of crystals, formal st Po ce ee a eee numerical results Compressibility of O, air, N, H at different pressures abe thnperanires 66 6é ethylene 66 6c 6c 6e ‘cc ce 6c 66 ce 6 6e “cc 6c ss * carbon dioxide at “ s ‘ ie “ gases, values ofa . A : : : 48 54 55 CONTENTS. vii Compressibility of air and oxygen between 18° and 22°C a7 Relation between pressure, temperature and volume of sulphur iomie 78 6c 6c 66 “ “cc 6c “ec ammonia 78 Compressibility of liquids 79 oe “* solids : 80 Specific gravities corresponding to the Baume stale 81 Reduction of weighings in air to vacuo 82 SI GeNSities!. fag 7 .f oh Zi aqueous solutions of salts . - 145 Capillarity and surface tension: liquids in contact with air, water or mercury . : : : : ° : : - 146 Capillarity and surface tension : liquids at solidifying point 146 : i . thickness of soap films . : 146 Vapor pressures . . 2 , : : ; : 147 ss a of ethyl seo : : : : : : - 149 141. 142. 143. 144. 145; 146. 147- 148. 149- 150. 151. 2E2. Ke 154. 155: 156. 157- 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 152. CONTENTS. ix Vapor pressures of methyl alcohol : 3 : : ° - 149 ss 4 and temperatures: (@) carbon disulphide. atk (2) chlorobenzine » 150 (¢) bromobenzine » 150 (d@) aniline . : - 150 (e) methyl saligylate . ee () beomedaeine nc “Ose (g) mercury » 151 Vapor pressure of solutions of salts in water : ,, T52 Pressure of saturated aqueous vapor at low Leootire over ice TS “cc ‘6 “é “cc oe ce sc ‘“é 6c water ‘ 154 $s ¢ “¢ Gr Oo; torco~ C ate ‘“c “ “ “ 66 50: to 374° G rec Weight in grains of aqueous vapor in a cubic foot of saturated air . 156 “ce 6c grams 66 sé 6c 66 be «6 meter of 66 6c i 156 Hygrometry, vapor pressure in the atmosphere . - 157 _ dew-points ESS Relative humidity ; 7 - 160 Values of 0.378¢ in the uGdespherte pressure Seqdation I = B—0.378e 161 Table for facilitating the calculation of 4/760 - 162 Logarithms of 4/760 for values of % between 80 and 800 - 162 Values of 1+ 0.00367 ¢: (2) for values of ¢ between o° and 10° C, by tenths . - 164 CA ed eo ee go® - 1990° C, by tens «| LG (¢) Logarithms for ¢ ‘“ — 49° “ -+-399° C, by units - 166 (d) s hath sas RAOOM Vengo 4 Gy by tense: - 168 Determination of heights by the barometer . 169 Barometric pressures corresponding to different temecraiures of the boiling-point of water : (2) Common measure. ; 2 awezO (4) Metric measure . nym International Primary wave-length staadundh Red Cd. ine 3 a iy a Secondary “ standards Fe, arc lines . “ ‘* water and salt solutions : : : 207 ag os is ‘‘ organic liquids. : : ° : “207 228. sr 4 Dagasesyy . : 3 : : : e “1207 229. Diffusivities : ; : ; : ¢ ; 3 : : . 208 230. Heat of combustion . 2 : : : ; . 209 231. Heat values and analyses of various fel ‘@ coals . : ; +250 (6) peats . : : Ee ZLO (¢) liquid fuels ‘ 210 232. Chemical and physical properties of explosives . ; : ; «, 20 233. Heatof combination . 2 : : 4 : : : ° pone 234. Latent heat of vaporization : : : : : : : - 214 235. - oe fusion’. 3 : : . : : : . 216 236. Melting-points of the chemical Pemerte : : ‘ : : - 217 237. Boiling-points “ “ s : ‘ : : : . 218 238. Densities, melting and boiling points, inorganic compounds ‘ - 219 239. Effect of pressure on melting points . . 7 : : : . 220 240. wap. S « “ freezing point of water : : ° . 22 241. Melting points of various mixtures of metals. : : . 222 242. 66 “cc 66 6é “cc 66 F s 4 3 . 222 243. Low-melting-point alloys. : : , : 222 244. Densities, melting-points, boiling-points oho Brean epauae ce (a) Paraffin series . : 7 : ° é : : 5223 (6) Olefine series. : : : : : : . “| 223 (c) Acetylene series : : ° ; : : : i 224 (2) Monatomic alcohols . . . ath ot A : » 224 (e) Alcoholic ethers : . : . . : . 224 (7) Ethylethers . : 7 : : : : ; . 224 (g) Miscellaneous . : ‘ : : . : ° e225 245. Transformation and melting-points, minerals and eutectics . 7 : . ‘ . 320 | 361. “ cobaltiat woo 1G.) = : : : : . 32 362. oe i SIG Web I oe ead : ° : : oom 363. ‘es rs “ magnetite : : : : : ; a 364. : “ Lowmoor wrought iron . : ° : “32m 365. i “‘ Vicker’s tool steel . : : : . 327 366. Ff ee “ Hadfield’s manganese steel . : : eget 367. Saturation values for different steels . : : ; : : «gam 368. Magnetic properties of iron in very weak fields . : . . 322 369. Dissipation of energy in cyclic magnetization of magnetic aibecaneese 322 S70. sf EN te Wee i “ cable transformers . 322 371. Demagnetizing factors for rods . . : ; : 2 : . 328 B72. s ‘¢ Shuddemagen’s values’. : 2 328 373- Dissipation of energy in cyclic magnetization of various Papsemees - 324 374. aE ale re a Ke “ transformer steels . 325 375. Magneto-optic rotation, formule: Verdet’s constant . : . - 326 376. e ee es in solids : : : : ; : “27 377 es * liquids : : : : - 326 378. rs “ solutions of salts and acidea in water . » 329 a CONTENTS. XV 379: Magneto-optic rotation, gases . ; : ; : : : * 330 380. Verdet’s and Kundt’s constants . : : ° : ° : » 330 381. Values of Kerr’s constant . : : ° ; ‘ ° : 1331 382. Dispersion of Kerr’s effect. Ingersoll’s values . : ° : 23e8r 383. q Spree a sf Foote’s 3 : : : : 330 384. Magnetic susceptibility : : : : 7 : : » 332 385. Variation of the resistance of bismuth in magnetic field : ‘ aa 386. 6c “cc “ce “cc oe nickel ce 6c 66 . 2 333 387. " ee “4 “* various metals in a magnetic cere 338 388. Transverse galvanomagnetic and thermomagnetic effects . : Poe 389. Variation of the Hall constant with the temperature . : : 334 390. Rontgen rays (x-rays) ionization dueto . : : : : 335 391. ‘“* Secondary Rontgen rays a : : : : 335 392- a ee ct Cathodic rays. 2 : : : » 335 393. - S absorption coefficients . : : : - 336 394. X-—R spectra and atomic numbers 3 : : : A : » 336 395. Radioactivity: production of phosphorescence . : : é 337 396. as et ‘“‘ a-particles . : A 7 ‘ 337 397- a heating effects . : s : : : : 1337) 398. s various constants 5 ‘ ; : : . - 338 399: as stopping powers forarays . , : , : - 340 400. 6 6 ‘ 6c B “ i , _ < - 340 401. st a ee Ye a a : : 5 : » 340 402. cs ions produced by the a, f, and y rays . : : 34k 403. Ls radium emanation; units’ . : : : : « 34% 404. ‘ vapor pressure of Ra emanation . : ; é 2 348 405. 5 spectra : : : ° : : * 341 406. Miscellaneous constants, niolecullae AoTne, etc. : ; : 242 407. Periodic system of the elements . : . : : ; : o3az Definitions of units. : : : : : . ° : 1345 Index . ° ° e . ° ° . ° e e e « 349 INTRODUCTION. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT AND CONVERSION FORMUL. Units. — The quantitative measure of anything is a number which expresses the ratio of the magnitude of the thing to the magnitude of some other thing of the same kind. In order that the number expressing the measure may be intelligi- ble, the magnitude of the thing used for comparison must be known. This leads to the conventional choice of certain magnitudes as units of measurement, and any other magnitude is then simply expressed by a number which tells how many magnitudes equal to the unit of the same kind of magnitude it contains. For example, the distance between two places may be stated as a certain number of miles or of yards or of feet. In the first case, the mile is assumed as a known distance ; in the second, the yard, and in the third, the foot. What is sought for in the statement is to convey an idea of the distance by describing it in terms of distances which are either familiar or easily referred to for comparison. Similarly quantities of matter are referred to as so many tons or pounds or grains and so forth, and intervals of time as a number of hours or minutes or seconds. Gen- erally in ordinary affairs such statements appeal to experience ; but, whether this be so or not, the statement must involve some magnitude as a fundamental quan- tity, and this must be of such a character that, if it is not known, it can be readily referred to. We become familiar with the length of a mile by walking over dis- tances expressed in miles, with the length of a yard or a foot by examining a yard or a foot measure and comparing it with something easily referred to, — say our own height, the length of our foot or step, —and similarly for quantities of other kinds. This leads us to be able to form a mental picture of such magnitudes when the numbers expressing them are stated, and hence to follow intelligently descriptions of the results of scientific work. The possession of copies of the units enables us by proper comparisons to find the magnitude-numbers express- ing physical quantities for ourselves. ‘The numbers descriptive of any quan- tity must depend on the intrinsic magnitude of the unit in terms of which it is described. ‘Thus a mile is 1760 yards, or 5280 feet, and hence when a mile is taken as the unit the magnitude-number for the distance is 1, when a yard is taken as the unit the magnitude-number is 1760, and when a foot is taken it is 5280. Thus, to obtain the magnitude-number for a quantity in terms of a new unit when it is already known in terms of another we have to multiply the old magnitude- number by the ratio of the intrinsic values of the old and new units; that is, by the number of the new units required to make one of the old. xviii INTRODUCTION. Fundamental Units of Length and Mass. — It is desirable that as few different kinds of unit quantities as possible should be introduced into our measure- ments, and since it has been found possible and convenient to express a large number of physical quantities in terms of length or mass or time units and com- binations of these, they have been very generally adopted as fundamental units. Two systems of such units are used in this country for scientific measurements, namely, the customary, and the French or metric, systems. Tables of conversion factors are given in the book for facilitating comparisons between quantities ex- pressed in terms of one system with similar quantities expressed in the other. In the customary system the standard unit of length is the yard and is now defined as 3600/3937 meter. The unit of mass is the avoirdupois pound and is defined as 1/2.20462 kilogram. The British yard is defined as the “ straight line or distance (at 62° F.) between the transverse lines in the two gold plugs in the bronze bar deposited in the office of the exchequer.” The British standard of mass is the pound avoirdupois and is the mass of a piece of platinum marked “P. S. 1844, 1 lb.,” preserved in the exchequer office. In the metric system the standard of length is the meter and is defined as the distance between two lines at o° Centrigrade on a platinum iridium bar deposited at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. This bar is known as the International Prototype Meter, and its length was derived from the “métre des Archives,” which was made by Borda. Copies of the International Prototype Meter are possessed by the various governments, and are called “ National Prototypes.” Borda, Delambre, Laplace, and others, acting as a committee of the French Academy, recommended that the standard unit of length should be the ten mil- lionth part of the length, from the equator to the pole, of the meridian passing through Paris. In 1795 the French Republic passed a decree making this the legal standard of length, and an arc of the meridian extending from Dunkirk to 3arcelona was measured by Delambre and Mechain for the purpose of realizing the standard. From the results of that measurement the meter bar was made by Borda. The meter is not now defined in terms of the meridian length, and hence subsequent measurements of the length of the meridian have not affected the length of the meter. The metric standard of mass is the kilogram and is defined as the mass of a piece of platinum-iridium deposited at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. ‘This standard is known as the International Prototype Kilogram. Its mass is equal to that of the older standard, the ‘‘kilogramme des Archives,” made by Borda and intended to have the same mass as a cubic decimeter of dis- tilled water at the temperature of 4° C. Copies of the International Prototype Kilogram are possessed by the various governments, and as in the case of the meter standards are called National Prototypes. INTRODUCTION, xix Comparisons of the French and customary standards are given in tabular form in Table 2; and similarly Table 3, differing slightly, compares the British and French systems. In the metric system the decimal subdivision is used, and thus we have the decimeter, the centimeter, and the millimeter as subdivisions, and the dekameter, hektometer, and kilometer as multiples. The centimeter is most commonly used in scientific work. Time.— The unit of time in both the systems here referred to is the mean solar second, or the 86,4ooth part of the mean solar day. The unit of time is thus founded on the average time required for the earth to make one revolution on its axis relatively to the sun as a fixed point of reference. Derived Units. — Units of quantities depending on powers greater than unity of the fundamental length, mass, and time units, or on combinations of different powers of these units, are called ‘‘derived units.”” Thus, the unit of area and of volume are respectively the area of a square whose side is the unit of length and the volume of a cube whose edge is the unit of length. Suppose that the area of a surface is expressed in terms of the foot as fundamental unit, and we wish to find the area-number when the yard is taken as fundamental unit. The yard is 3 times as long as the foot, and therefore the area of a square whose side is a yard is 3 X 3 times as great as that whose side is a foot. Thus, the surface will only make one ninth as many units of area when the yard is the unit of length as it will make when the foot is that unit. To transform, then, from the foot as old unit to the yard as new unit, we have to multiply the old area-number by 1/9, or by the ratio of the magnitude of the old to that of the new unit of area. This is the same rule as that given above, but it is usually more convenient to express the transformations in terms of the fundamental units directly. In the above cage, since on the method of measurement here adopted an area-number is the product of a length-number by a length-number the ratio of two units is the square of the ratio of the intrinsic values of the two units of length. Hence, if 7 be the ratio of the magnitude of the old to that of the new unit of length, the ratio of the cor- responding units of area is 7’. Similarly the ratio of two units of volume will be #, and so on for other quantities. —a Dimensional Formule. — It is convenient to adopt symbols for the ratios of length units, mass units, and time units, and adhere to their use throughout ; and in what follows, the small letters, Z, , ¢, will be used for these ratios. These letters will always represent simple numbers, but the magnitude of the number will depend on the relative magnitudes of the units the ratios of which they repre- sent. When the values of the numbers represented by 7, m, ¢ are known, and the powers of /, m, and ¢ involved in any particular unit are also known, the factor for transformation is at once obtained. Thus, in the above example, the value of 7 was 1/3 and the power of / involved in the expression for area is /2; hence, the factor for transforming from square feet to square yards is 1/9. These factors xXx INTRODUCTION. have been called by Prof. James Thomson “change ratios,” which seems an appropriate term. The term “conversion factor” is perhaps more generally known, and has been used throughout this book. Conversion Factor. — In order to determine the symbolic expression for the conversion factor for any physical quantity, it is sufficient to determine the degree to which the quantities length, mass, and time are involved in the quantity. Thus, a velocity is expressed by the ratio of the number representing a length to that representing an interval of time, or L/T, an acceleration by a velocity-number divided by an interval of time-number, or L/T?, and so on, and the correspond- ing ratios of units must therefore enter to precisely the same degree. The fac- tors would thus be for the above cases, //¢and ///7._ Equations of the form above given for velocity and acceleration which show the dimensions of the quantity in terms of the fundamental units are called “ dimensional equations.” Thus B= Mae is the dimensional equation for energy, and ML*T~? is the dimensional formula for energy. In general, if we have an equation for a physical quantity O = 'ChaMer: where C is a constant and LMT represents length, mass, and time in terms of one set of units, and we wish to transform to another set of units in terms of which the length, mass, and time are L,M,T,, we have to find the value of L at We in accordance with the convention adopted above will be 7m 7¢, or the ratios of the magnitudes of the old to those of the new units. Thus L, =L4 M,=Mm, T,=Tz~, and if Q, be the new quantity-number Q, = CL;*M/T; ee Mom Te —— OF iz or the conversion factor is /*m't, a quantity of precisely the same form as the dimension formula L*M°T’. We now proceed to form the dimensional and conversion factor formulz for the more commonly occurring derived units. 1. Area. — The unit of area is the square the side of which is measured by the unit of length. The area of a surface is therefore expressed as Si =/Cr where C is a constant depending on the shape of the boundary of the surface and La linear dimension. For example, if the surface be square and L be the length of a side C is unity. If the boundary be a circle and L be a diameter C=7/4, and so on. The dimensional formula is thus L*, and the conversion factor 7’. 2. Volume. — The unit of volume is the volume of a cube the edge of which is measured by the unit of length. The volume of a body is therefore expressed as — INTRODUCTION. XXi V= CLs where as before C is a constant depending on the shape of the boundary. The dimensional formula is L’ and the conversion factor 2°. 3. Density. — The density of a substance is the quantity of matter in the unit of volume. The dimension formula is therefore M/V or ae and conversion factor me. Lxample.— The density of a body is 150 in pounds per cubic foot: required the density in grains per cubic inch. Here m is the number of grains in a pound= 7000, and Z is the number of inehes ima toob——12;.°. #2" —-.7000/12°—— 4.051. Hence the density is 150 K 4.051 = 607.6 in grains per cubic inch. Nore. — The specific gravity of a body is the ratio of its density to the density of a standard substance. The dimension formula and conversion factor are therefore both unity. 4. Velocity. — The velocity of a body at any instant is given by the equation C= or velocity is the ratio of a length-number to a time-number. The di- ad av’ mension formula is LT~}, and the conversion factor 7/7}. Lxample. — A train has a velocity of 60 miles an hour: what is its velocity in feet per second ? fo 5280.2. 44 __ Perey — 6250) and\i— 34000; . — 2 _— =-'=1.467. Hence the velo- city =60 X 1.467 = 88.0 in feet per second. 5. Angle. — An angle is measured by the ratio of the length of an arc to the length of the radius of the arc. The dimension formula and the conversion factor are therefore both unity. 6. Angular Velocity. — Angular velocity is the ratio of the magnitude of the angle described in an interval of time to the length of the interval. The dimen- sion formula is therefore T~1, and the conversion factor is ¢—}. 7. Linear Acceleration. — Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity or — oy The dimension formula is therefore VT—! or LT’, and the conversion factor is /¢~*, Lxample.— A body acquires velocity at a uniform rate, and at the end of one minute is moving at the rate of 20 kilometers per hour: what is the acceleration in centimeters per second per second? Since the velocity gained was 20 kilometers per hour in one minute, the accel- eration was 1200 kilometers per hour per hour. Here 7/=100 000 and ¢= 3600; .. /f?=100 000/36007—=.00771, and there- fore acceleration =.00771 X 1200==9.26 centimeters per second. 8. Angular Acceleration. — Angular acceleration is rate of change of angu- XXxil INTRODUCTION. Jar velocity. The dimensional formula is thus See or T-*, and the conversion factor 7~, g. Solid Angle. — A solid angle is measured by the ratio of the surface of the portion of a sphere enclosed by the conical surface forming the angle to the square of radius of the spherical surface, the centre of the sphere being at the 3 t . area vertex of the cone. The dimensional formula is therefore = or 1, and hence the conversion factor is also 1. ro. Curvature. — Curvature is measured by the rate of change of direction of the curve with reference to distance measured along the curve as independent angle or L“?, and the conversion ength variable. ‘The dimension formula is therefore i factor is 7. 11. Tortuosity. — Tortuosity is measured by the rate of rotation of the tan- gent plane round the tangent to the curve of reference when length along the angle curve is independent variable. The dimension formula is therefore 1eneEE eng L~}, and the conversion factor is 7~. 12. Specific Curvature of a Surface. — This was defined by Gauss to be: at any point of the surface, the ratio of the solid angle enclosed by a surface formed by moving a normal to the surface round the periphery of a small area containing the point, to the magnitude of the area. The dimensional formula is solid angle eae , and the conversion factor is thus 7”. surface therefore 13. Momentum. — This is quantity of motion in the Newtonian sense, and is, at any instant, measured by the product of the mass-number and the velocity- number for the body. Thus the dimension formula is MV or MLT™—}, and the conversion factor m/f—. Lxample. — A mass of 10 pounds is moving with a velocity of 30 feet per sec- ond: what is its momentum when the centimeter, the gram, and the second are fundamental units ? Here == 453.59, 2==30.48, and f==15 2) mit ==)453.50 5130-40, coeme The momentum is thus 13825 K 10 X 30 = 4147500. 14. Moment of Momentum. — The moment of momentum of a body with reference to a point is the product of its momentum-number and the number expressing the distance of its line of motion from the point. The dimensional formula is thus ML?T—1, and hence the conversion factor is m/f". 15. Moment of Inertia. —The moment of inertia of a body round any axis is expressed by the formula Sm, where m is the mass of any particle of the body J INTRODUCTION. XXill and ¢ its distance from the axis. The dimension formula for the sum is clearly the same as for each element, and hence is ML”. The conversion factor is there- fore ml’. 16. Angular Momentum. — The angular momentum of a body round any axis is the product of the numbers expressing the moment of inertia and the angular velocity of the body. The dimensional formula and the conversion fac- tor are therefore the same as for moment of momentum given above. 17. Force. — A force is measured by the rate of change of momentum it is capable of producing. The dimension formule for force and “time rate of change of momentum” are therefore the same, and are expressed by the ratio of momentum-number to time-number or MLT~*. The conversion factor is thus mit*. Note. — When mass is expressed in pounds, length in feet, and time in seconds, the unit force is called the poundal. When grams, centimeters, and seconds are the corresponding units the unit of force is called the dyne. Example. Find the number of dynes in 25 poundals. Pleres7i—) 453-50,12 = 30.40, andi7—— UB: .*, mit 7 = 453250 X 30.48 =— 13825 nearly. The number of dynes is thus 13825 & 25 = 345625 approximately. 18. Moment of a Couple, Torque, or Twisting Motive. — These are dif- ferent names for a quantity which can be expressed as the product of two numbers representing a force and a length. The dimension formula is therefore FL or ML?T-?, and the conversion factor is m/*t~*. 19. Intensity of a Stress. — The intensity of a stress is the ratio of the num- ber expressing the total stress to the number expressing the area over which the stress is distributed. The dimensional formula is thus FL~? or ML~?T-, and the conversion factor is m/—1¢~*. 20. Intensity of Attraction, or ‘‘ Force at a Point.’ — This is the force of attraction per unit mass on a body placed at the point, and the dimensional for- mula is therefore FM or LT~%, the same as acceleration. ‘The conversion fac- tors for acceleration therefore apply. 21. Absolute Force of a Centre of Attraction, or ‘‘ Strength of a Cen- tre.” — This is the intensity of force at unit distance from the centre, and is there- fore the force per unit mass at any point multiplied by the square of the distance from the centre. The dimensional formula thus becomes FL?M™ or L?T~*. The conversion factor is therefore /°¢~. 22. Modulus of Elasticity. — A modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress intensity to percentage strain. The dimension of percentage strain is a length divided by a length, and is therefore unity. Hence, the dimensional formula of a modulus of elasticity is the same as that of stress intensity, or MLT~%, and the conversion factor is thus also m/—'¢-*, XXIV INTRODUCTION. 23. Work and Energy. — When the point of application of a force, acting on a body, moves in the direction of the force, work is done by the force, and the amount is measured by the product of the force and displacement numbers. The dimensional formula is therefore FL or ML?T~. The work done by the force either produces a change in the velocity of the body or a change of shape or configuration of the body, or both. In the first case it produces a change of kinetic energy, in the second a change of potential energy. The dimension formulze of energy and work, representing quantities of the same kind, are identical, and the conversion factor for both is m/?¢-*. 24. Resilience. — This is the work done per unit volume of a body in distort- ing it to the elastic limit or in producing rupture. The dimension formula is there- fore ML*?T?L~ o1 ML“!T-%, and the conversion factor m/—7-*. 25. Power, or Activity. — Power — or, as it is now very commonly called, ac- tivity — is defined as the time rate of doing work, or if W represent work and P power Pi 2 . The dimensional formula is therefore WT— or ML?T-, and the con- version factor #/°t~*, or for problems in gravitation units more conveniently /7-}, where / stands for the force factor. Examples. (a) Find the number of gram centimeters in one foot pound. Here the units of force are the attraction of the earth on the pound* and the gram of matter, and the conversion factor is 7, where / is 453.59 and /is 30.48. Hence the number is 453.59 X 30.48 = 13825. (6) Find the number of foot poundals in 1 000 ooo centimeter dynes. Here a == 2/453.59, /==1/30.48, ‘and! ¢==1 3 ©. w/t = 1/453,50 g04en and 10°#/* "= 10°/ 453.59 X 30:487= 2.373. (c) If gravity produces an acceleration of 32.2 feet per second per second, how many watts are required to make one horse-power ? One horse-power is 550 foot pounds per second, or 550 X 32.2 = 17710 foot poundals per second. One watt is 10’ ergs per second, that is, 10’ dyne centi- meters per second. The conversion factor is m/*t*, where m= 453.59, /= 30.48, and ¢=1, and the result has to be divided by 10", the number of dyne centime- ters per second in the watt. Hence, 17710 m/t*/10' = 17710 K 453.59 X 30.487/10' = 746.3. (¢z) How many gram centimeters per second correspond to 33000 foot pounds per minute ? The conversion factor suitable for this case is 777, where fis 453.59, 7 is 30.48, and ¢ is 60. Hence, 33000 /f* = 33000 X 453.59 X 30.48/60 = 7 604 000 nearly. * It is important to remember that in problems like that here given the term “ pound” or “gram” refers to force and not to mass. INTRODUCTION. XXV HEAT UNITS. 1. If heat be measured in dynamical units its dimensions are the same as those of energy, namely ML?I-?. The most common measurements, however, are made in thermal units, that is, in terms of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of water one degree of temperature at some stated temperature. This method of measurement involves the unit of mass and some unit of temperature ; and hence, if we denote temperature-numbers by © and their conversion factors by @, the dimensional formula and conversion factor for quan- tity of heat will be M® and m9 respectively. The relative amount of heat com- pared with water as standard substance required to raise unit mass of different substances one degree in temperature is called their specific heat, and is a simple number. Unit volume is sometimes used instead of unit mass in the measurement of heat, the units being then called thermometric units. ‘The dimensional formula is in that case changed by the substitution of volume for mass, and becomes L*9, and hence the conversion factor is to be calculated from the formula 7°60. For other physical quantities involving heat we have: — 2. Coefficient of Expansion. — The coefficient of expansion of a substance is equal to the ratio of the change of length per unit length (linear), or change of volume per unit volume (voluminal) to the change of temperature. These ratios are simple numbers, and the change of temperature is inversely as the mag- nitude of the unit of temperature. Hence the dimensional and conversion-factor formule are 7 and @}. 3. Conductivity, or Specific Conductance. — This is the quantity of heat transmitted per unit of time per unit of surface per unit of temperature gradient. The equation for conductivity is therefore, with H as quantity of heat, Se a Se Lu al d the di ional f ] Se hich gives #717“ for conversion factor an e dimensional formula 574. pp which giv Sm ore t In thermometric units the formula becomes L?T-!, which properly represents diffusivity. In dynamical units H becomes ML?T~’, and the formula changes to MLT-*@-, The conversion factors obtained from these are /?¢! and mit*G” respectively. xxvi INTRODUCTION. 4. Thermal Capacity. — This is the product of the number for mass and the specific heat, and hence the dimensional formula and conversion factor are simply M and m. 5. Latent Heat. — Latent heat is the ratio of the number representing the quantity of heat required to change the state of a body to the number represent- ing the quantity of matter in the body. The dimensional formula is therefore M®@/M or ©, and hence the conversion factor is simply the ratio of the tempera- ture units or 6. In dynamical units the factor is 7°¢~*.* 6. Joule’s Equivalent. — Joule’s dynamical equivalent is connected with quantity of heat by the equation MiL71-7= JH or J Mo. This gives for the dimensional formula of J the expression L°T~*@~. The conver- sion factor is thus represented by 7?¢-*6-. When heat is measured in dynamical units J is a simple number. 7. Entropy. — The entropy of a body is directly proportional to the quantity of heat it contains and inversely proportional to its temperature. The dimen- sional formula is thus M@/® or M, and the conversion factor is #. When heat is measured in dynamical units the factor is m/*¢~°671. Examples. (a) Find the relation between the British thermal unit, the calorie, and the therm. Neglecting the variation of the specific heat of water with temperature, or de- fining all the units for the same temperature of the standard substance, we have the following definitions. The British thermal unit is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water 1° F. The ca/orie is the quan- tity of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogramme of water 1° C. The ¢herm is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gramme of water 1° C. Hence:— (1) To find the number of calories in one British thermal unit, we have m—=.45389 and 0=8; .. mO=.45359 X 5/9 =.25199. (2) To find the number of therms in one calorie, == 1000 and 6=1; 7) 70 = LOO. It follows at once that the number of therms in one British thermal unit is 1000 X .25199 = 251.99. (2) What is the relation between the foot grain second Fahrenheit-degree and the centimetre gramme second Centigrade-degree units of conductivity? The number of the latter units in one of the former is given by the for- * It will be noticed that when © is given the dimension formula L?T-? the formulz in thermal and dynamical units are always identical. The thermometric units practically suppress mass. INTRODUCTION. XXVii mula mZ—#-16°, where = .064799, 7= 30.48, and ¢==1, and is therefore— 3 5004 799/30-48 = 2.126 107°. (c) Find the relation between the units stated in (4) for emissivity. In this case the conversion formula is m/~*t, where m/ and ¢ have the same value as before. Hence the number of the latter units in the former is 0.064 799/30.487= 6.975 X 10”. (dz) Find the number of centimeter gram second units in the inch grain hour unit of emissivity. Here the formula is m/~*¢, where m=0.064799, 7= 2-54, and ¢= 3600. Therefore the required number is 0.064 799/2.547 X 3600 = 2.790 X 10°”. (e) If Joule’s equivalent be 776 foot pounds per pound of water per degree Fahrenheit, what will be its value in gravitation units when the metre, the kilogramme, and the degree Centigrade are units? E07 yee OF 10, where / = .3048 and feo ts 770. Xo BOLO XS eS! == 425.7. The conversion factor in this case is (f) If Joule’s equivalent be 24832 foot poundals when the degree Fahren- heit is unit of’ temperature, what will be its value when kilogram meter second and degree-Centigrade units are used ¢ The conversion factor is 7470", where / = .3048, ¢ = 1, and 7'=1.8; M24832 x 02 0 = 24832 X .3048" X 1.8 = 4152.5. In gravitation units this would give 4152.5/9.81 = 423.3. ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC UNITS. There are two systems of these units, the electrostatic and the electromagnetic systems, which differ from each other because of the different fundamental suppo- sitions on which they are based. In the electrostatic system the repulsive force between two quantities of static electricity is made the basis. This connects force, quantity of electricity, and length by the equation f=a or .where f is force, @ a quantity depending on the units employed and on the nature of the medium, g and g, quantities of electricity, and./ the distance between g and g, The magnitude of the force f for any particular values of g,g, and 7 depends on a property of the medium across which the force takes place called its inductive capacity. The in- ductive capacity of air has generally been assumed as unity, and the inductive capacity of other media expressed as a number representing the ratio of the induc- tive capacity of the medium to that of air. These numbers are known as the spe- cific inductive capacities of the media. According to the ordinary assumption, then, of air as the standard medium, we obtain unit quantity of electricity when in the above equation g=g,, and f, a, and Z/are each unity. A formal definition is given below. In the electromagnetic system the repulsion between two magnetic poles or XXVIli INTRODUCTION. quantities of magnetism is taken as the basis. In this system the quantities force, quantity of magnetism, and length are connected by an equation of the form f= a rh where 7 and m, are in this case quantities of magnetism, and the other symbols have the same meaning as before. In this case it has been usual to assume the magnetic inductive capacity of air to be unity, and to express the magnetic induc- tive capacity of other media as a simple number representing the ratio of the in- ductive capacity of the medium to that of air. These numbers, by analogy with specific inductive capacity for electricity, might be called specific inductive capac- ities for magnetism. ‘They are usually called permeabilities. (Vide Thomson, ‘Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism,” p. 484.) In this case, also, like that for electricity, the unit quantity of magnetism is obtained by making # = m,, and J, @, and Z each unity. In both these cases the intrinsic inductive capacity of the standard medium is suppressed, and hence also that of all other media. Whether this be done or not, direct experiment has to be resorted to for the determination of the absolute val- ues of the units and the relations of the units in the one system to those in the other. The character of this relation can be directly inferred from the dimen- sional formule of the different quantities, but these can give no information as to the relative absolute values of the units in the two systems. Prof. Riicker has suggested (Phil. Mag. vol. 27) the advisability of at least indicating the exist- ence of the suppressed properties by putting symbols for them in the dimensional formule. ‘This has the advantage of showing how the magnitudes of the different units would be affected by a change in the standard medium, or by making the standard medium different for the two systems. In accordance with this idea, the symbols K and P have been introduced into the formulz given below to represent inductive capacity in the electrostatic and the electromagnetic systems respectively. In the conversion formule £ and / are the ordinary specific inductive capacities and permeabilities of the media when air is taken as the standard, or generally those with reference to the first medium taken as standard. The ordinary for- mulz may be obtained by putting K and P equal to unity. ELECTROSTATIC UNITS. 1. Quantity of Electricity. — The unit quantity of electricity is defined as that quantity which if concentrated at a point and placed at unit distance from an equal and similarly concentrated quantity repels it, or is repelled by it, with unit force. The medium or dielectric is usually taken as air, and the other units in ac cordance with the centimeter gram second system. In this case we have the force of repulsion proportional directly to the square of the quantity of electricity and inversely to the square of the distance between the quantities and to the inductive capacity. The dimensional formula is there- fore the same as that for [force X length? X inductive capacity]! or M?L!'T—'K}, and the conversion factor is it1A3, ee INTRODUCTION. XXIx 2. Electric Surface Density and Electric Displacement. — The density of an electric distribution at any point on a surface is measured by the quantity per unit of area, and the electric displacement at any point in a dielectric is mea- sured by the quantity displaced per unit of area. These quantities have therefore the same dimensional formula, namely, the ratio of the formule for quantity of electricity and for area or M'LTK}, and the conversion factor mt—¢42!, 3. Electric Force at a Point, or Intensity of Electric Field. — This is measured by the ratio of the magnitude of the force on a quantity of electricity at a point to the magnitude of the quantity of electricity. The dimensional formula is therefore the ratio of the formule for force and electric quantity, or MLT M!L!T—'K} which gives the conversion factor m'Z—¢—1k-4. = MES Ka 4. Electric Potential and Electromotive Force. — Change of potential is proportional to the work done per unit of electricity in producing the change. The dimensional formula is therefore the ratio of the formule for work and elec- tric quantity, or Mint M?L'T“K} which gives the conversion factor m/'t1£-4, = MILIT“K-, 5. Capacity of a Conductor. — The capacity of an insulated conductor is proportional to the ratio of the numbers representing the quantity of electricity in a charge and the potential of the charge. The dimensional formula is thus the ratio of the two formule for electric quantity and potential, or M?L?T 1K? which gives Z& for conversion factor. When K is taken as unity, as in the ordinary units, the capacity of an insulated conductor is simply a length. SK, 6. Specific Inductive Capacity. — This is the ratio of the inductive capac- ity of the substance to that of a standard substance, and hence the dimensional formula is K/K or 1.* 7. Electric Current. — Current is quantity flowing past a point per unit of time. The dimensional formula is thus the ratio of the formulz for electric quan- tity and for time, or M?LIT 1K? = LK and the conversion factor m/i¢-Z}. * According to the ordinary definition referred to air as standard medium, the specific inductive capacity of a substance is K, or is identical in dimensions with what is here taken as inductive ca- pacity. Hence in that case the conversion factor must be taken as 1 on the electrostatic and as ¢# on the electromagnetic system. XXX INTRODUCTION. | 8. Conductivity, or Specific * Conductance. — This, like the corresponding term for heat, is quantity per unit area per unit potential gradient per unit of time. The dimensional formula is therefore M?L'T-!K? ae electric quantity —__ = = TK, OF ils, ML?T7K > area X potential gradient X time L2——____T L The conversion factor is 772. 9. Specific * Resistance. — This is the reciprocal of conductivity as above defined, and hence the dimensional formula and conversion factor are respec- tively TK— and zk. 10. Conductance. — The conductance of any part of an electric circuit, not containing a source of electromotive force, is the ratio of the numbers represent- ing the current flowing through it and the difference of potential between its ends. The dimensional formula is thus the ratio of the formulz for current and poten- tial, or ML'TK! MLiTK> from which we get the conversion factor /#72. sare ir. Resistance.—This is the reciprocal of conductance, and therefore the dimensional formula and the conversion factor are respectively L “TK ™ and UR. EXAMPLES OF CONVERSION IN ELECTROSTATIC UNITS. (a) Find the factor for converting quantity of electricity expressed in foot grain second units to the same expressed in c. g. s. units. By (1) the formula is m'Z!2~7#', in which in this case 7 = 0.0648, 7= 30.48, = 1, and £=1; .*. the factor is 0.0648? & 30.48? = 4.2836. (8) Find the factor required to convert electric potential from millimeter milli- gram second units to c. g. s. units. By (4) the formula is m/'s*£~, and in this case m= 0.001, 70.1, = 1, and i= 1+ i othe factor == 0.001" < O:1——0,0%. (c) Find the factor required to convert from foot grain second and specific in- | ductive capacity 6 units to c. g. s. units. By (5) the formula is 2&, and in this case 7= 30.48 and —6; .*. the factor | — 30.49 X 6 == 182.00. | * The term “specific,” as used here and in 9, refers conductance and resistance to that between, the ends of a bar of unit section and unit length, and hence is different from the same term in specific heat, specific inductivity, capacity, etc., which refer to a standard substance. INTRODUCTION. XXx1 ELECTROMAGNETIC UNITS. As stated above, these units bear the same relation to unit quantity of magne- tism that the electric units do to quantity of electricity. Thus, when inductive capacity is suppressed, the dimensional formula for magnetic quantity on this sys- tem is the same as that for electric quantity on the electrostatic system. All quan- tities in this system which only differ from corresponding quantities defined above by the substitution of magnetic for electric quantity may have their dimensional formule derived from those of the corresponding quantity by substituting P for K. 1. Magnetic Pole, or Quantity of Magnetism. — Two unit quantities of magnetism concentrated at points unit distance apart repel each other with unit force. The dimensional formula is thus the same as for [force X length’ X in- ductive capacity]! or M*L'T-'P!, and the conversion factor is m'‘Ji¢~12. 2. Density of Surface Distribution of Magnetism. — This is measured by quantity of magnetism per unit area, and the dimension formula is therefore the ratio of the expressions for magnetic quantity and for area, or M!'L TP}, which gives the conversion factor m*J~'¢1p}. 3. Magnetic Force at a Point, or Intensity of Magnetic Field. — The number for this is the ratio of the numbers representing the magnitudes of the force on a magnetic pole placed at the point and the magnitude of the magnetic pole. The dimensional formula is therefore the ratio of the expressions for force and magnetic quantity, or ME? M?L?T—1p2 and the conversion factor m'Z—77-1p-, = MLITIPS, 4. Magnetic Potential. — The magnetic potential at a point is measured by the work which is required to bring unit quantity of positive magnetism from zero potential to the point. The dimensional formula is thus the ratio of the formula for work and magnetic quantity, or MES MiL?T-'P} which gives the conversion factor 7*Z'¢-1p-}, == MILIT-1P3, 5. Magnetic Moment. — This is the product of the numbers for pole strength and length of a magnet. ‘The dimensional formula is therefore the pro- duct of the formulae for magnetic quantity and length, or M'L'T~'P}, and the con- version factor m'J't—l'. 6. Intensity of Magnetization. — The intensity cf magnetization of any por- tion of a magnetized body is the ratio of the numbers representing the magni- XXXil INTRODUCTION. tude of the magnetic moment of that portion and its volume. The dimensional formula is therefore the ratio of the formulz for magnetic moment and volume, or MLIT—p! L$ The conversion factor is therefore m7“¢—1}, = M*L?T—"P?. 7. Magnetic Permeability,* or Specific Magnetic Inductive Capacity. — This is the analogue in magnetism to specific inductive capacity in electricity. It is the ratio of the magnetic induction in the substance to the magnetic induc- tion in the field which produces the magnetization, and therefore its dimensional formula and conversion factor are unity. 8. Magnetic Susceptibility. — This is the ratio of the numbers which repre- sent the values of the intensity of magnetization produced and the intensity of the magnetic field producing it. The dimensional formula is therefore the ratio of the formule for intensity of magnetization and magnetic field or M?L?T—'P} ML=T=1pa o iE The conversion factor is therefore , and both the dimensional formula and con- version factor are unity in the ordinary system. 9g. Current Strength. — A current of strength ¢ flowing round a circle of radius ~ produces a magnetic field at the centre of intensity 2mc/r. The dimen- sional formula is therefore the product of the formulze for magnetic field intensity and length, or M?L?T~'P-, which gives the conversion factor mtg. 1o. Current Density, or Strength of Current at a Point. — This is the ratio of the numbers for current strength and area. The dimensional formula and the conversion factor are therefore M!L-'T—!P> and m'*7-'¢-1p-44. 11. Quantity of Electricity. — This is the product of the numbers for cur- rent and time. The dimensional formula is therefore M?L?T—1P & T= M?!L?P+, and the conversion factor m/#-}. 12. Electric Potential, or Electromotive Force. — As in the electrostatic system, this is the ratio of the numbers for work and quantity of electricity. The dimensional formula is therefore VE ae MLip and the conversion factor m7!t—%4t. = MLIT—P}, * Permeability, as ordinarily taken with the standard medium as unity, has the same dimension formula and conversion factor as that which is here taken as magnetic inductive capacity. Hence for ordinary transformations the conversion factor should be taken as1 in the electromagnetic and J-*¢2 in the electrostatic systems. INTRODUCTION. XXXiii 13. Electrostatic Capacity. — This is the ratio of the numbers for quantity of electricity and difference of potential. The dimensional formula is therefore M?L?P—3 and the conversion factor 717767}. — ites 14. Resistance of a Conductor. — The resistance of a conductor or elec- trode is the ratio of the numbers for difference of potential between its ends and the constant current it is capable of producing. The dimensional formula is therefore the ratio of those for potential and current or MiLIT-2P! The conversion factor thus becomes /¢—'f, and in the ordinary system resistance has the same conversion factor as velocity. =e 15. Conductance. — This is the reciprocal of resistance, and hence the dimen- sional formula and conversion factor are respectively L"'TP™ and 7‘¢. 16. Conductivity, or Specific Conductance. — This is quantity of electric- ity transmitted per unit of area per unit of potential gradient per unit of time. The dimensional formula is therefore derived from those of the quantities men- tioned as follows :— M?L}P-+ MIL'T=P} pee L — [TP The conversion factor is therefore 7/7". 17. Specific Resistance. — This is the reciprocal of conductivity as defined in 16, and hence the dimensional formula and conversion factor are respectively mele and 727: 18. Coefficient of Self-Induction, or Inductance, or Electro-kinetic In- ertia. — These are for any circuit the electromotive force produced in it by unit rate of variation of the current through it. The dimensional formula is therefore the product of the formulz for electromotive force and time divided by that for current or M?L'TP} Tapa X T= LP. The conversion factor is therefore , and in the ordinary system is the same as that for length. 19. Coefficient of Mutual Induction. — The mutual induction of two cir- cuits is the electromotive force produced in one per unit rate of variation of the current in the other. The dimensional formula and the conversion factor are therefore the same as those for self-induction. XXXIV INTRODUCTION. 20. Electro-kinetic Momentum.— The number for this is the product of the numbers for current and for electro-kinetic inertia. The dimensional formula is therefore the product of the formule for these quantities, or M?L?T-’P x LP = M'L'T-'P}, and the conversion factor is mZ'z-lg0, 21. Electromotive Force at a Point.— The number for this quantity is the ratio of the numbers for electric potential or electromotive force as given in 12, and for length. The dimensional formula is therefore M?L*T~*P?, and the conversion factor m*/'t~*p'. 22. Vector Potential. — This is time integral of electromotive force at a point, or the electro-kinetic momentum at a point. The dimensional formula may therefore be derived from 21 by multiplying by T, or from 20 by dividing by L. It is therefore M'L'T~’P!, and the conversion factor m'Z'¢~'p'. 23. Thermoelectric Height. — This is measured by the ratio of the num- bers for electromotive force and for temperature. The dimensional formula is therefore the ratio of the formulz for these two quantities, or M*L'T-*P!0-, and the conversion factor mJi¢-*p}6-1. 24. Specific Heat of Electricity. — This quantity is measured in the same way as 23, and hence has the same formule. 25. Coefficient of Peltier Effect. — This is measured by the ratio of the numbers for quantity of heat and for quantity of electricity. The dimensional formula is therefore M® MUP = ML P!0, and the conversion factor m/~'p40. EXAMPLES OF CONVERSION IN ELECTROMAGNETIC UNITS. (a) Find the factor required to convert intensity of magnetic field from foot grain minute units to c. g. s. units. By (3) the formula is m*Z—'¢~ig-}, and in this case # = 0.0648, 7 = 30.48, ¢= 60, and —1; .*. the factors = 0.0648! X 30.48? K 60 '= 0.00076847. Similarly to convert from foot grain second units to c. g. s. units the factor is 0.0648! X 30.48? = 0.046 108. (2) How many c. g.s. units of magnetic moment make one foot grain second unit of the same quantity ? By (5) the formula is 7*Zi-1g', and the values for this problem are 7 = 0,0648, d= 30.48, ¢== 1, andf=1; .. the number = 0.0648! X 30.48 = 1305.6. (c) If the intensity of magnetization of a steel bar be 700 inc. g. s. units, what 7) will it be in millimeter milligram second units? INTRODUCTION. XXXV By (6) the formula is m'/¢~%p}, and in this case # = 1000, /= 10, ¢= 1, and Y= 1 >... the intensity — 700 X 1000! X 10! == 70000. (2) Find the factor required to convert current strength from c. g. s. units to earth quadrant 10" gram and second units. By (9) the formula is m7!¢~'g~, and the values of these quantities are here m = 1o/ — ton 2 — tT, and p = 1; . the factor == 10% X 10-f= 10, (e) Find the factor required to convert resistance expressed in c. g. s. units into the same expressed in earth-quadrant 10" gram and second units. By (14) the formula is /¢'f, and for this case /= 107, ¢=1, and p= 1; Eeetne factor —= 10. °. (/) Find the factor required to convert electromotive force from earth-quadrant 10" gram and second units to c. g. s. units. By (12) the formula is m!/4¢~*p!, and for this case # = 10-4, 7= 10°, ‘= 1, and: — 1);\-.°. the factor — 10°. PRACTICALLY UNITS: In practical electrical measurements the units adopted are either multiples or submultiples of the units founded on the centimeter, the gram, and the second as fundamental units, and air is taken as the standard medium, for which K and P are assumed unity. The following, quoted from the report to the Honorable the Secretary of State, under date of November 6th, 1893, by the delegates repre- senting the United States, gives the ordinary units with their names and values as defined by the International Congress at Chicago in 1893 : — ““ Resolved, That the several governments represented by the delegates of this International Congress of Electricians be, and they are hereby, recommended to formally adopt as legal units of electrical measure the following: As a unit of re- sistance, the zz¢ernational ohm, which is based upon the ohm equal to 10° units of resistance of the C. G. S. system of electro-magnetic units, and is represented by the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross- sectional area and of the length of 106.3 centimeters. * As a unit of current, the zvternational ampere, which is one tenth of the unit of current of the C. G. S. system of electro-magnetic units, and which is represented sufficiently well for practical use by the unvarying current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, and in accordance with accom- panying specifications,* deposits silver at the rate of o.oo1118 of a gram per second. * “Tn the following specification the term ‘silver voltameter’ means the arrangement of appara- tus by means of which an electric current is passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver voltameter measures the total electrical quantity which has passed during the time of the experiment, and by noting this time the time average of the current, or, if the current has been kept constant, the current itself can be deduced. “In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about one ampére, the following arrangements should be adopted : — XXXVI INTRODUCTION. “As a unit of electromotive force, the zternational volt, which is the electro- motive force that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one interna- tional ohm, will produce a current of one international ampére, and which is rep- resented sufficiently well for practical use by }$$9 of the electromotive force between the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark’s cell, at a tem- perature of 15° C., and prepared in the manner described in the accompanying specification.* “As a unit of quantity, the zzternational coulomb, which is the quantity of elec- tricity transferred by a current of one international ampére in one second. “As a unit of capacity, the ternational farad, which is the capacity of a con- denser charged to a potential of one international volt by one international cou- lomb of electricity.T “As a unit of work, the joule, which is equal to ro’ units of work in the c. g. s. system, and which is represented sufficiently well for practical use by the energy expended in one second by an international ampere in an international ohm. “As a unit of power, the waft, which is equal to 10" units of power in the c. g.s, system, and which is represented sufficiently well for practical use by the work done at the rate of one joule per second. “As the unit of induction, the Aenry, which is the induction in a circuit when the electromotive force induced in this circuit is one international volt, while the inducing current varies at the rate of one ampere per second. “The Chamber also voted that it was not wise to adopt or recommend a stand- ard of light at the present time.” By an Act of Congress approved July 12th, 1894, the units recommended by the Chicago Congress were adopted in this country with only some unimportant verbal changes in the definitions. By an Order in Council of date August 23d, 1894, the British Board of Trade adopted the ohm, the ampere, and the volt, substantially as recommended by the Chicago Congress. The other units were not legalized in Great Britain. They are, however, in general use in that country and all over the world. “The kathode on which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum bowl not less than 10 centimeters in diameter and from 4 to 5 centimeters in depth. ‘‘The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 square centimeters in area and 2 or 3 millimeters in thickness. “This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the solution by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at opposite corners. To prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed on the anode from falling on to the kathode, the anode should be wrapped round with pure filter paper, secured at the back with sealing wax. “The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver nitrate, containing about 15 parts by weight of the nitrate to 85 parts of water. “The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current passes. To prevent these changes having too great an effect on the current, some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be inserted in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of the circuit should not be less than Io ohms.” * A committee, consisting of Messrs. Helmholtz, Ayrton, and Carhart, was appointed to pre- pare specifications for the Clark’s cell, but no report was made, on account of Helmholtz’s death. + The one millionth part of the farad is more commonly used in practical measurements, and is called the microfarad. Pavol AIk «EAB LES 2 TABLE 1. FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS. To change a quantity from one system of units to another : substitute in the correspond- ing conversion factor from the following table the ratio of the magnitudes of the o/d units to the zew and multiply the old quantity by the resulting number. For example: to reduce velocity in miles per hour to feet per second, the conversion factor is /¢~1; -=5280/1, ¢=3600/1, therefore the factor=5280/3600=1.467. (a) FUNDAMENTAL UNITS. Name of Unit. Symbol. | Conversion Factor. Length. Mass. Time. Temperature. Electric Inductive Capacity. Magnetic Inductive Capacity. (6) DERIVED UNITS. L. Geometric and Dynamic Units. Name of Unit. Conversion Factor. Area. Volume. Angle. Solid Angle. Curvature. Tortuosity. Specific curvature of a surface. Angular velocity. Angular acceleration. Linear velocity. Linear acceleration. Density. Moment of inertia. Intensity of attraction, or ‘‘ force at a point.” Absolute force of a centre of attraction, or “ ee of a centre.” Momentum. Moment of momentum, or angular momentum. Force. Moment of a couple, or torque. Intensity of stress. Modulus of elasticity. Work and energy. Resilience. Power or activity. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 1. FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS. IT. Heat Units. Name of Unit. Quantity of heat (thermal units). ‘“« (thermometric units). . “« (dynamical units). Coefficient of thermal expansion. Conductivity (thermal units). “ (thermometric units), or diffusivity. fs (dynamical units). Thermal capacity. Latent heat (thermal units). a “(dynamical units). Joule’s equivalent. Entropy (heat measured in thermal units). (ce « “* dynamical units). ITT, Magnetic and Electric Units. Conversion factor for electrostatic system. Name of Unit. Magnetic pole, or quantity of mag- netism. Density of surface distribution of magnetism. Intensity of magnetic field. Magnetic potential. Magnetic moment. m 14 Rk Intensity of magnetisation. m} 1-% k-4 Magnetic permeability. I Magnetic susceptibility and ee p2 72 #2 netic inductive capacity. Quantity of electricity. mb [2 ¢-) Re Electric surface density and electric WP AB displacement. Intensity of electric field. mh Tk Electric potential and e. m. f. mt th Capacity of a condenser. Lk Inductive capacity. k Specific inductive capacity. I Electric current. mi [3 ¢-* Ri m* Lt ko m> F3 f3 m [* ¢- Bi m* 13 ¢-? Rt SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Conversion Factor. m @ 1*6 m l*¢t-* 6 Bile a 73 ‘me Wb ta Om m 6 pfs 77t-6 Mm m l*t-7 6 Conversion factor for electromag- netic system. WEL t pk m* [+ ¢} mi 2 fr pun ms 18 1% ph m 1-4 ¢~* ph I 2p mu D3 po mi 1 ¢-? p me L3 t* pi Fa 7? —1 f? ee I m* 1} bt Dit TABLE 1. FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS. IIT. Magnetic and Electric Units. Name of Unit. Conductivity. Specific resistance. Conductance. Resistance. Coefficient of self induction and coefficient of mutual induction. Electrokinetic momentum. Electromotive force at a point. Vector potential. Thermoelectric height and specific heat of electricity. Coefficient of Peltier effect. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Conversion factor for electrostatic system. tik ¢# lik tt em fF ft? A m: 1 kt mi f+ tk mt [+ k m* It t1 k-* m [tk é Conversion factor for electromag- netic system. i tpn 2 ED btn Lip lp m* J? 71 pt m* 1 ¢? pi Ul tap m* 73 t-* p G4 m [+ 76 TABLE 2. TABLES FOR CONVERTING U. S. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.* (1) CUSTOMARY TO METRIC. a RR BSE ESSE HS TE PET RES SS SL ISR es Sg LINEAR. CAPACITY. Fluid 3 Miles crane to ae Liquid oO milliliters quarts to ‘ ; to : kilometers. OEE malliliters: liters. Gallons to Inches Feet to Yards to liters. to qe aetaral millimeters. eters meters 3.70 29.57 | 0.94633 | 3-78533| 7.39 59.15 1.89267 7.57006 | 11.09 $8.72 2.83900 | 11.35600 | 14.79 118.29 3-78533 | 15-14133 18.48 147.87 4.73107 | 15.92666 22.18 177.44 5.67800 | 22.71199 25.88 207.01 6.62433 | 26.49733 29.57 236.58 7.57000 | 30.28266 33-27 206.16 8.51700 | 34.06799 | 25.4001 | 0.304801 | 0.914402 | 1.60935 || 50.8001 | 0.609601 | 1.828804] 3.21869 76.2002 | 0.914402 | 2.743205 | 4.82804 101.6002 | 1.219202 | 3.657607 | 6.43739 127.0003 } 1.524003 | 4.572009 | 8.04674 152.4003 | 1.828804 | 5.486411} 9.65608 177.8004 | 2.133604 | 6.400813 | 11.26543 203.2004 | 2.438405 | 7.315215 | 12.87478 || 228.6005 | 2.743205 | 8.229616 | 14.48412 COI Aub | O ON AAW DH | SQUARE. WEIGHT. aaa ee Square Square . Avoirdu- inches to Square feet yards to Acres to Grains to es pois pounds Troy square cen- eer square hectares. milligrams. ee ee to kilo- yeu to | timeters. *| meters. 8 : grams. Stams. 64.7989 | 28.3495 | 0.45359 | 31-10348 129.5978 | 50.0991 | 0.90718 | 62.20696 194.3968 | 85.0486 | 1.36078 | 93.31044| 259.1957 | 113.3981 | 1.81437 |124.41392 323-9946 | 141.7476 | 2.26796 |155.51740 388.7935 | 170.0972 | 2.72155 |186.62088 | 453-5924 | 198.4467 | 3-17515 |217-72437 | 518.3913 | 226.7962 | 3.62874 |248.82785 | 583.1903 | 255.1457 | 4.08233 |279.93133) 6.452 9.290 0.836 0.4047 12.903 18.531 1.672 0.8094 19.355 27.871 2.508 1.2141 25.507 37.161 3.345 1.6187 32.258 46.452 4.181 2.0234 38.710 55-742 5.017 2.4281 45-161 65.032 5.853 2.8328 51.613 74.323 6.689 322715 58.065 83.613 7.525 3.6422 0 ON ier) Sie) | I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 iz 7 CUBIC: Cubic . Cubic ' inches to Cable eet yards to | Bushels to 1 Gunter’s chain 20.1168 meters. | bi = | 1 i . eigen) msteray | SAPS hectollters I sq. statute mile == 259.000 _ hectares. 7 1 fathom 1.829 meters. 16.387 | 0.02832 0.765 | 0.35239 I nautical mile 1853.25 meters. | 32.774 0.05663 1.529 | 0.70479 1 foot 0.304801 meter. 16 082 .2 3 8 : soot | oodios | 2354 | ros718 | avoir. pound = 453.5924277 grams. 81.936 0.14159 3.823 1.76196 15432.35039 grains = 1.000 kilogram. 98.323 0.16990 4.587 | 2.11436 114.710 0.19822 5-352 2.4667 5 131.097 0.22654 6.116 | 2.81914 147.484 0.25485 6.881 3.17154 [oo ausens | According to an executive order dated April 15, 1893, the United States yard is defined as 3600/3937 meter, and the avoirdupois pound as 1/2.20462 kilogram. 1 meter (international prototype) = 1553164.13 times the wave-length of the red Cd. line. Benoit, Fabry and Perot. C. R. 144, 1907 differs only in the decimal portion from the measure of Michelson and Benoit 14 years earlier. The length of the nautical mile given above and adopted by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey many years ago, is defined as that of a minute of arc of a great circle of a sphere whose surface equals that of the earth (Clarke’s Sphe- roid of 1866). * Quoted from sheets issued by the United States Bureau of Standards. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 2 (continued). TABLES FOR CONVERTING U.S. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. (2) METRIC TO CUSTOMARY. LINEAR. Meters to inches. 78.7400 118.1100 157.4800 196.8500 230: 2200 275-5900 aa Square centimeters to square inches. [ 0.1550 0.3100 0.4650 0.6200 0-77 50 0.9300 1.0550 1.2400 1.3959 39-3700 HEE Meters to feet. 3.28083 6.56167 9.84250 13-12333 10.40417 ) 68500 2.96583 26. 24667 29- 52750 Meters to yards, 1.093611 2 .187222 3.280833 4: 374444 5.408056 6. srt), 7.655278 & 738889 9.842500 Pe sounee ae Square meters to square feet. 10.704 21.528 32. 292 43: BP 53.819 64.583 75-347 86.111 96.875 Square meters to square yards. 1.196 2.392 3.588 4.784 5.980 7-176 8.372 9.568 10.764 ; = er Sy T Helimerrmc. Lon nae dl Cubic meters to cubic Cubic centimeters to cubic inches. Cubic decimeters to cubic inches. 35-314 70.269 105-943 141.258 176.572 211.887 247.201 282.516 317.830 OOIAUARWHH Kilometers | to miles. 1.24274 1.86411 2.48548 3 7068 3 72822 4.34959 4.97096 5-59233 Hectares to acres. 2.471 4.942 7-413 9.884 12.355 14.826 17.297 19.768 22.239 Cubic meters to cubic 0.62137 WO ON DUfWN He O ON DAMNfPWNH OOIAUAWNH | Millili- ters or timeters to fluid Milli- grams to grains. 0.01543 0.03086 0.04630 0.06173 0.07716 0.09259 0.10803 0.12346 0.13889 Quintals to pounds av. 220.46 440.92 661.39 881.85 1102.31 1322.77 1543-24 1763.70 1984.16 By the concurrent action of the principal governments of the world an International Bureau of Weights and Under the direction of the International Committee, two ingots were From one of these These standards of Measures has been established near Paris. cast of pure platinum-iridium in the proportion of g parts of the former to of the latter metal. a certain number of kilograms were prepared, from the other a definite number of meter bars. and certain ones were selected as International proto- weight and length were intercompared, without preference, type standards. National prototype standards. Bureau of Standards in Washington, D. The metric system was legalized in the United States in 1866. a es Le Nome Centi- cubic cen-| liters to fluid ounces. Liters to gallons. WEIGHT. Kilo- ee to 15432.36 30864.71 46297.07 61729.43 77161.78 92594-14 108026.49 123458.85 138891.21 Hecto- grams to ounces Deca- liters Hecto- | Here Gene 2.8378 5.6756 8.5135 11.3513 14.1891 17.0269 19.8647 22.7026 25-5404 a | Kilo- grams to pounds avoirdupois.|avoirdupois. 3:5274 7.0548 10.5822 14.1096 17.6370 21.1644 24.6918 28.2192 31.7466 WEIGHT. Milliers or tonnes to pounds av. 2204.6 4409.2 6613-9 8818.5 11023.1 13227.7 15432-4 17637.0 19841.6 The others were distributed by lot, in September, 1889, to the different governments, Those apportioned to the United States were received in 1890, and are kept at the 1.02311 13-22773 15-43236 17.63698 19.84160 Kilograms to ounces Troy. 32.1507 64.3015 96.4522 128.6030 160.7537 192.9045 225.0552 257-2059 289.3567 and are called The International Standard Meter is derived from the Métre des Archives, and its length is defined by the distance between two lines at 0° Centigrade, on a platinum-iridium bar deposited at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The International Standard Kilogram is a mass of platinum-iridium deposited at the same place, and its weight in vacuo is the same as that of the Kilogram des Archives. The liter is equal to the quantity of pure water at 4° C, 760 mm. Hg. pressure which weighs 1 kilogram = 1.000027 cu.dm. (Trav. et Mem. Bureau Intern. des P. et M. 14, 1910, Benoit.) SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 3. EQUIVALENTS OF METRIC AND BRITISH IMPERIAL WEICHTS AND MEASURES.* (1) METRIC TO IMPERIAL. LINEAR MEASURE. MEASURE OF CAPACITY. I millimeter (mm.) — . aay 72 (.001 m.) a eaaaan ; ec (mil.) (-cox t = 0.0610 cub, in. I centimeter (.0l m.) = 0.39370 si , yn 3 I decimeter (.1 m) = octet I centiliter (.o1 liter) ; peer 39-370113 “ MGeciliters (splitter)... ==) 0.076) pints IMETER (m.) . . .= 4 3.280843 ft. I LITER (1,000 cub. 1.09361425 yds. centimeters or I — 10.93614 $6 cub. decimeter) I dekaliter (1oliters) . 2.200 gallons. 109.361425 & 1 hectoliter (1oo“ ) . 2.75 bushels. 1 kiloliter (1,000 “ ) . 3.437 quarters. 1 dekameter ! 1.75980 pints. (Io m.) 1 hectometer t (100 m.) 1 kilometer } (1,000 m.) I myriameter (10,000 m.) I micron 6.21372 miles. APOTHECARIES’ MEASURE. 0,0OOoI mm. ath ches 0.62137 mile. meter (I 0.28157 fluid drachm. gram w’t) 15.43236 grains weight. I cub, millimeter = 0.01693 minim. I cubic 7 0.03520 fluid ounce. SQUARE MEASURE. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. msqecentimeter:.| . . 0.1550 sq. in. ( I sq. decimeter 3 I milligram (mgr.) . . = 0.01543 grain. (100 sq. centm.) eS SCS Seite I centigram (.01 gram.) = 0.15432 “ I sq. mneter or le 10.7639 sq. ft. Idecigram (1 “ ) = 1.54324 grains. are (100 sq. dem.) 1.1960 sq. yds. IGRAM. . . . . « ==15-43236 “ I ARE (100 sq. m.) = 119.60 sq. yds. 1 dekagram (10 gram.) = 5.64383 drams. I hectare (100 ares ; I hectogram (100 “ ) == 3.52739 oz. Or 10,000 sq. m.) Ie tes 2.2046223 Ib- 15432-3504 grains. I myriagram (10 kilog.) ==22.04622 lbs. I quintal (100 “ ) = 1.96841 cwt. I millier or tonne t CUBIC MEASURE, (1,000 kilog.) I KILOGRAM (1,000% ) = . = 0.9842 ton. I cub. centimeter (c.c.) (1,000 cubic > = 0.0610 cub. in. TROY WEIGHT. millimeters) I eub. decimeter (c.d.) (1,000 cubic centimeters) I CUB. METER ant : 0.03215 oz. Troy. =i). 2 A es 0.64301 pennyweight. Brees 15.43236 grains. 35-3148 cub. ft. 1.307954 cub. yds. if or stere (1,000 c.d.) APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT. 0.77162 scruple. 0.25721 drachm. 15.43236 grains. Note.—The Meter is the length, at the temperature of o° C., of the platinum-iridium bar deposited at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sévres, near Paris, France. The present legal equivalent of the meter is 39.370113 inches, as above stated. The Kitocram is the mass ofa platinum-iridium weight deposited at the same place, The Lirer contains one kilogram weight of distilled water at its maximum density (4° C.), the barometer being at 760 millimeters, *In accordance with the schedule adopted under the Weights and Measures (metric system) Act, 1897. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 8 TABLE 3. EQUIVALENTS OF METRIC AND BRITISH IMPERIAL WEICHTS AND MEASURES. (2) METRIC TO IMPERIAL. LINEAR MEASURE. MEASURE OF CAPACITY. Millimeters Kilo- Liters Dekaliters | Hectoliters| Kiloliters to meters to to to to to inches. ° : miles. pints. gallons. bushels. quarters. 1.75980] 2.19975 | 2-74969| 3.43712 3-51961 | 4.39951 | 5.49938 | 6.87423 5-27941 6.59926 | 8.24908 | 10.31135 7.03921 8.79902 | 10.99877 | 13-74846 8.79902 | 10.99877 | 13-74846 | 17.18558 0.03937011 . 0.62137 0.0787 4023 3 1.24274 0.118 11034 ; 1.86412 0.15748045 | 13- 2.48549 0.1968 5056 4042 3.10086 10.55882 | 13.19852 | 16.49815 | 20.62269 12.31862 | 15.39828 | 19.24785 | 24.05981 14.07842 | 17.59803 | 21.99754 | 27.49692 15.83823 | 19.79778 | 24-74723 | 30-93404 0.23622068 : 3.72823 | 0.27559079 | 22. 4.34960 0.31496090 | 26.24674 4.97097 0.35433102 | 29. 5.59235 WO CON O MWPWN WO OND UMNPWNH SQUARE MEASURE. WEIGHT (Avorrpupots). Square Square Square Milli- Kilo- Quintals centimeters | metersto | meters to | Hectares grams Kilograms grams to to square square square to acres. to to grains. to hundred- inches. feet. yards. grains. pounds, weights. 0.01543 | 15432.356| 2.20462] 1.96841 0.03086 | 30864.713| 4.40924] 3-93683 0.04630 | 46297.069| 6.61387] 5.90524 0.06173 | 61729.426| 8.81849| 7.87365 0.07716 | 77161.782 | 11.02311 | 9.84206 0.15500 10.76393 | 1.19599 0.31000 21.52786 | 2.39198 0.46500 32.29179 | 3.58798 0.62000 | 43.05572 | 4.78397 9.77500 | 5351965 | 5-97996 0.93000 | 64.58357 | 7-17595 1.05500 | 75-34750 | 8.37194 1.24000 | 86.11143 | 9.56794 1.39501 | 96.87530 | 10.76393 0.09259 | 92594.138 | 13.22773 | 11.81048 0.10803 | 108026.495 | 15.43236 | 13-77889 0.12346 | 123458.851 | 17.63698 | 15.74730 0.13889 | 138891.208 | 19.84160 | 17.71572 O OND NFWHNH I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 APoTHE- APpOTHE- CUBIC MEASURE. CARIES’ Pes, Troy WEIGHT. CARIES’ MEASURE. one: WEIGHT. Cubic Cubic Cubic Cub. cen- eave decimeters metersto | meters to | timeters Milliers or Grams Grams . : : ‘ tonnes to to ounces to penny- to cubic cubic cubic to fluid : inches. feet. yards, | drachms. tons. Troy. weights. | scruples. | | 0.98421 | 0.03215 0.64301 | 0.77162 1.96841 0.06430 1.28603 | 1.54324 2.95262 | 0.09645 1.92904 | 2.31485 3.93683 | 0.12860 2.57200 | 3.08647 4.92103 | 0.16075 3.21507 | 3.85809 61.02390 | 35.31476] 1.30795 | 0.28157 122.04781 | 70.62952| 2.61591 | 0.56314 183.07171 | 105.94428 | 3.92386 | 0.84471 244.09561 | 141.25904| 5.23182 | 1.12627 305-11952 | 176.57379 | 6.53977 | 1.40784 5.90524 | 0.19290 3.85809 | 4.62971 6.88944 | 0.22506 | 4.50110 | 5.40132 7.87305 0.25721 5-14412 | 6.17294 8.85786 | 0.28936 5-78713 | 6.94456 366.14342 | 211.88855 | 7.84772 | 1.68941 427.16732 | 247.20331 | 9.15568 | 1.97098 488.19123 | 282.5807 | 10.46363 | 2.25255 §49.21513 | 317.83283 | 11.77159 | 2.53412 O OND MPWNH WO OND MNPWHNH SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 3. EQUIVALENTS OF BRITISH IMPERIAL AND METRIC WEICHTS AND MEASURES. (3) IMPERIAL TO METRIC. LINEAR MEASURE. j 25-400 milli- meters. 0.30480 meter. 0.914399“ 5.0292 meters. ZO UTOS lie 201.168 ss 1.6093 kilo- ; meters. inch _ foot (12 in.) YARD (3 ft.) pole (54 yd.) chain (22 yd. or } 100 links) a furlong (220 yd.) — —~ mile (1,760 yd.) . = SQUARE MEASURE. 6.4516 sq. cen- squareinch . . = ; timeters. sq- ft. (144 sq. in.) meters. 0.836126 sq. SQ. YARD (9 sq. ft.) = \ meters. : perch (30; sq. yd.) = } ee a as 10.117 ares. rood (40 perches) = == 0.40468 hectare. ACRE (4840 sq. yd.) sq. mile (640 acres) = 9 259.00 hectares. CUBIC MEASURE. cub. inch = 16.387 cub. centimeters. cub. foot (1728) __ ( 0.028317 cub. me- cub. in.) (i. ter, or 28.317 cub. decimeters. eon (27 } 0.7645 5 cub. meter. APOTHECARIES’ MEASURE. 1 gallon (8 pints i ad : 160 fluid ounces) § 45459031 Lice: I fluid ounce, f 3 (8 drachms) 1 fluid drachm, f 3 ! =|} (60 minims) a 1 minim, m (0.91146 | __ } grain weight) f Aga j 28.4123 cubic aa centimeters. 3.5515 cubic centimeters. 0.05919 cubic centimeters. Notr.—The Apothecaries’ gallon is of the same capacity as the Imperial gallon. 9.2903 sq. deci-| 1 Troy OUNCE eae grains avoir.) I pennyweight (24 | __ grains) ; i? MEASURE OF CAPACITY. rgill . . . . . .== 1.42 deciliters. I pint (4 gills). . .—= 0.568 liter. I quart (2 pints) . .= 1.136 __ liters. I GALLON (4 quarts) = 4.5459631 “ I peck (2 galls.) » = 9.092 2) = (x —1) —4 (4 — 1)? +3 (&# — 138 — (2>x>0) aw x—I I x— I I x— I festa (ent teats. Ge )Hx—tatt+ ee —jpttt.... (x? <1) ae Mn nd eer ne? Bi rep a (OE ae) oe Pee alctster pl ae (<0) tx —12) = x? x! xt i (e* +e aaies ete eG hie eS ae eS (x2< aw) Bein A 2A ATR ge 9 + (#< au TS Ne sue meee a | ; a ™ _ cos! x = es 7 ; a+é 5 (@?<1) 7 I I I —- —cot.-ly =x — — #8 + — 7 — - Bree Bee 2 3 5 7 Ce G21) (x2?1) (x?>1) (x?<1) (x small) (x large) (<2) . ee (—C 274625 287496 300763 314432 328509 343000 357911 373248 389017 405224 421875 438976 450533 474552 493039 512000 531441 551368 571787 592704 614125 636056 658503 631472 704969 729000 LSoone 778088 804357 830584 857375 8847 36 912673 941192 970299 1000000 1030301 1061208 1092727 1124864 1157625 IIQIo16 1225043 1259712 1295029 1331000 1367631 1404928 1442897 1481544 1520875 1560896 1601613 1643032 1685159 V2 8.0623 8.1240 8.1854 8.2462 8.3066 8.3666 8.4261 8.4353 8.5440 8.6023 8.6603 8.7178 8.77 50 8.8318 $.8852 8.9443 9.0000 9.0554 9.1104 9.1652 9-2195 9.2736 9-3274 9.3808 9.4340 9.4868 9.5394 9.5917 9.6437 9.6954 9.7468 9.7980 9.8489 9.8995 9.9499 10.0000 10.0499 10.0995 10.1489 10.1980 10.2470 10.2956 10.3441 10.3923 10.4403 10.4881 10.5357 10.5830 10.6301 10.6771 10.7238 10.7703 10.8167 10.8628 10.9087 16 TABLE 8 (continued). VALUES OF RECIPROCALS, SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, OF NATURAL NUMBERS. 1000./ \2 fl V2 8.33333 1728000 | 10.9545 I), 7142 5359375 | 13-2288 8.20446 1771501 | 11.0000 | i 5451770 | 13-2065 8.19672 5 1815848 | 11.0454 | 4 5545233 | 13-3041 5.13008 1860867 | 11.0905 | i 5039752 | 13.3417 8.00452 1906624 | 11.1355 | . 5735339 | 13-379! 8.00000 1953125 | 11.1803 : 5832000 | 13-4164 7.93051 2000376 | 11.2250 : 5929741 | 13-4536 7.87402 2048383 | 11.2694 : 6028568 | 13.4907 7.81250 34 | 2097152 | 11.3137 : 5 6128487 | 13-5277 7.75194 2146689 | 11.3578 4 5 | 6229504 | 13.5647 7.69231 2197000 | 11.4018 5.40541 6331625 | 13.6015 7-63359 2248091 | 11.4455 5-37034 6434856 | 13.6382 7-57 576 | 2299968 | 11.4891 5-347 59 6539203 | 13-6748 7.51880 2352637 | 11.5326 5-31915 6644672 | 13.7113 7.40269 2406104 | 11.5758 5.29101 6751269 | 13.7477 7.40741 5 2460375 | 11.6190 5.26316 6859000 | 13.7840 7-35294 | 18 2515450 | 11.6619 5.23500 6967871 | 13.8203 7-29927 2571353 | 11-7047 5.20833 7077888 | 13.8564 7.24638 2628072 | 11.7473 5.18135 7189057 | 13.8924 7.19424 21 | 2685619 | 11.7898 5.15404 7301384 | 13.9284 7.14286 2744000 | 11.8322 5.12821 7414875 | 13.9642 7.09220 31 | 2803221 | 11.8743 5.10204 7529536 | 14.0000 7.04225 2863288 | 11.9164 5.07614 7645373 | 14.0357 6.99301 2924207 | 11.9583 5.05051 7762392 | 14.0712 6.94444 2985984 | 12.0000 5.02513 7880599 | 14.1067 6.89655 5 | 3048625 | 12.0416 5.00000 8000000 | 14.1421 6.84932 3112136 | 12.0830 4.97512 8120601 | 14.1774 6.80272 3176523 | 12.1244 4.95050 8242408 | 14.2127 6.7 5076 4 | 3241792 | 12.1655 4.92611 8365427 | 14.2478 6.71141 | 222 3307949 | 12.2006 4.90196 8489664 | 14.2829 6.66667 3375000 | 12.2474 4.87805 8615125 | 14.3178 6.62252 5 3442951 | 12.2882 4.85437 8741816 | 14.3527 6.57895 3511808 | 12.3288 4.83092 8869743 | 14.3875 6.53595 3581577 | 12.3693 4.80769 Sqg8o12 | 14.4222 6.49351 3052204 | 12.4097 4.78469 9129329 | 14.4568 6.45161 | 24025 | 3723875 | 12.4499 4.76190 9261000 | 14.4914 6.41026 3796416 | 12.4900 4-73934 9393931 | 14.5258 6.36943 3869893 | 12.5300 4.71698 9528128 | 14.5602 6.32911 | 24 3944312 | 12.5698 4-69484 9663597 | 14.5945 6.28931 | 252 4019679 | 12.6095 4.67290 9800344 | 14.6287 6.25000 4096000 | 12.6491 4.65116 9938375 | 14.6629 6.21118 4173281 | 12.6836 4.62963 10077696 | 14.6969 6.17284 | 2 4251528 | 12.7279 4.60829 10218313 | 14-7309 6.13497 4330747 | 12.7671 4.58716 10360232 | 14.7648 6.097 56 4410944 | 12.8062 4.50621 10503459 | 14.7986 6.06061 4492125 | 12.8452 4.54545 10648000 | 14.8324 6.02410 4574296 | 12.8841 4.52489 10793861 | 14.8661 5.95802 4657463 | 12.9228 4.50450 10941048 | 14.8997 5-95238 4 | 4741632 | 12.9615 4.48430 11089567 | 14.9332 |I 5-91716 4826809 | 13.0000 4.46429 11239424 | 14.9666 5-88235 4913000 | 13.0384 4.44444 11390625 | 15.0000 5:384795 5000211 | 13.0767 4.42478 11543176 | 15-0333 5.91395 34 | 5088448 | 13.1149 4.40529 11697083 | 15.0605 5-78035 5177717 | 13-1529 4.38596 I 1852352 15.0997 5-74713 5268024 | 13.1909 4.36681 12008959 | 15.1327 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 8 (continued). 17 VALUES OF RECIPROCALS, SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE ROOTS, OF NATURAL NUMBERS. tooo. 4.34783 4.32900 4.31034 4.29185 4.27350 4.25532 4.23729 4.21941 4.20168 4.18410 | 4.16667 4.14938 4.1322 4.11523 4.098 36 4.08163 4.006504 4.04858 4.03226 4.01606 4.00000 3-98 406 3-96825 3:95257 3:93701 3-921 57 3-90625 3.89105 3.87597 3.86100 3.84615 3.83142 3.81679 3.80228 3.78788 3-77358 3-75940 3-74532 3-73134 3:71747 3-79370 3.69004 3-67647 3.66300 3-64964 3.63636 3.62319 3-61011 3:59712 3.58423 3-57143 355872 3.54610 3:53357 3-52113 n2 52900 53361 53824 54289 54750 55225 55696 50169 50644 57121 57600 58081 58564 59049 59530 60025 60516 61009 61504 62001 62500 63001 63504 64009 64516 65025 65530 66049 66564 67081 67600 68121 68644 69169 69696 70225 70750 71259 71824 72361 72900 73441 73984 74529 75076 75625 76176 76729 77284 77841 78400 78961 79524 80089 80656 | SMITHSONIAN TABLES. ns 12167000 12326391 12487168 12649337 12512904 12977875 13144256 13312053 13451272 13051919 13824000 13997 521 14172488 14348907 14520754 14706125 14886936 15009223 Bees 15435249 15625000 15813251 16003008 16194277 16387064 16581375 16777216 16974593 17173512 17373979 17576000 17779581 17984728 18191447 18399744 18609625 18821096 19034163 192488 32 19465109 19683000 19902511 20123048 20346417 20570824 2079687 5 21024576 21253933 21484952 21717639 21952000 22158041 22425768 22665187 22906304 \% 15.1658 | 15.1987 | 15.2315 | 15-2043 15.2971 V5S207 15.3623 15.3945 15.4272 15.4590 | 15.4919 | 15.5242 15-5503 15.5885 15.6205 15-6525 15.6844 15-7162 15-7480 15-7797 15.8114 15.8430 15.8745 15.9060 ES Si4 15.9687 16.0000 16.0312 16.0624 16.0935 16.1245 16.1555 16.1864 16.2173 16.2481 16.2788 16.3095 16.3401 16.3707 16.4012 16.4317 16.4621 16.4924 16.5227 16.5529 16.5831 16.6132 16.6433 16.6733 16.7033 16.7332 16.7631 16.7929 16.8226 16.8523 1000.1 n 3-50877 3-49650 3-48432 3.47222 3-40021 3.44828 3.43643 3.42466 3-41297 3-40136 3.38983 3-37838 3.36700 3-35570 3-34448 3-33333 3.32226 3.31126 5-3 008S 3-28947 3-27869 3-26797 O:257895 3-2467 5 3.23625 3.22581 oats 3-20513 3-19489 3.18471 3.17460 3.16456 37E5457 3-14405 3.13480 3.12500 3.11526 3:10559 3.09598 3.08642 3.07692 3.06748 3.05810 3.04878 3:93951 3.03030 3.02115 3.01205 3.00300 2.99401 2.98507 2.97619 2.967 36 2.95858 2.9498 5 n2 8122 81796 82369 $2944 83521 84100 84681 85264 85849 80436 87025 87616 88209 88804 89401 90000 go6or 91204 g1809 92416 93025 93630 94249 94864 95481 96100 96721 97344 97969 98596 99225 99856 100489 TOL124 101761 102400 103041 103684 104329 104976 105625 106276 106929 107584 108241 108900 109561 Iro22 110889 III556 112225 112896 113569 114244 114921 n® 23149125 23393650 23639903 23857872 24137 569 24389000 24642171 | 24897088 250537575) 25412154 25072375 25934330 26198073 26463592 267 30899 27000000 27270901 27543008 27818127 28094464 28372625 28652616 28934443 29218112 29503629 29791000 30080231 30371328 30664297 30959144 31255875 31554490 31855013 32157432 | 32401759 32768000 33076161 33386248 | 33698267 3401222 34328125 34645976 34965783 35287552 35611259 35937000 36264601 - 36594368 36926037 37259704 37595375 37933050 38272753 38614472 38958219 16.8819 |f | 17.6352 \z 16.9115 16.9411 16.9706 17.0000 17.0294 17.0587 17.0880 17.1172 17.1464 17.1756 17.2047 W7E2337, 17.2627 17.2916 17.3205 73494: 17.3781 17.4069 17-4350 17.4642 17-4929 17.5214 TESS 17-5754 17.6068 17.6635 17.6918 17.7200 17.7482 17.7764 17.9045 17.8326 17.8606 17.888 5 17.9165 17-9444 17.9722 18.0000 18.0278 18.0555 18.0831 18.1108 18.1384 18.1659 18.1934 18.2209 18.2483 18.2757 18.3030 18.3303 18.3576 18.3848 18.4120 ee 18 VALUES OF 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 35! 352 S55) 354 355 350 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 37! 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 1000.1 2.94118 2-93255 2.92395 2:QU545 2.90098 2.89855 2.59017 2.88184 2.87350 2.86533 2.85714 2.84900 2.84091 2.83286 2.82486 2.81690 2.80899 2.80112 2.79339 2.78552 2.77778 2.77008 2.76243 2.75452 2.74725 21/3973 2.73224 2.72480 2:17.39 2.71003 2.63158 2.62467 2.61780 2.61097 2.60417 2.59740 2.59067 2.58398 2297132 2.57009 2.56410 2.55754 2.55102 2.54453 2.53807 nz 115600 116281 116964 117649 118336 119025 119716 120409 I21104 121801 122500 123201 123904 124609 125316 126025 126736 127449 128164 128881 129600 130321 131044 131769 132496 13322 133956 134659 135424 130161 136900 137641 138384 139129 139876 140625 141376 142129 142884 143041 144400 145161 145924 146689 147450 148225 148996 149769 50544 151321 152100 152881 153664 154449 155230 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. n3 393040900 39651821 40001688 40353007 40707 584 41063625 41421736 41751923 42144192 42508549 42875000 43243551 43614208 43986977 44361864 447 3887 5 45118016 45499293 45052712 40268279 46656000 47045881 47437928 47832147 48228544 48627125 49027896 49430863 49830032 50243409 50653000 51004811 51478848 51895117 5231 3624 52734375 53157376 53582633 540101 52 54439939 5487 2000 55306341 55742968 56181887 56623104 57066625 57512456 57960603 58411072 58863869 59319000 50776471 60236288 60698457 61162984 V2 18.4391 18.4662 18.4932 18.5203 18.5472 18.5742 18.6011 18.6279 18.6548 18.6515 18.7083 18.7350 18.7617 18.7583 18.8149 18.8414 18.8680 18.8944 18.9209 18.947 3 18.9737 19.0000 19.0263 19.0526 19.0788 19.1050 19.1311 19.1572 19.1833 19.2094 19:23 5- 19.2614 19.287 3 19.3132 19-3391 19.3649 19.3907 19.4105 19.4422 19.4679 19.4936 19.5192 19.5448 19.5704 19.5959 19.6214 19.6469 19.6723 19.6977 19.7231 19.7484 19.7737 19-7990 19.8242 19.8494 wl 395 396 397 395 399 400 4o1 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 43! 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 445 449 TABLE 8 (continued ). RECIPROCALS, SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE ROOTS OF NATURAL NUMBERS. l 1000.; 2.53165 2.52525 2.51589 2.51256 2.50027 2.50000 2.49377 2.487 50 2.48139 2-47 525 2.46914 2.46305 2.45700 2.45098 2.44499 2.43902 2.43309 2.42718 2.42131 2.41540 2.40904 2.40385 2.39505 250254 2.38063 2.38095 231930 2.36967 2.36407 2.35549 2.35294 2.34742 2.34192 2.33045 2.33100 2.32558 2.32019 2.31481 22500] 2.30415 tN Nin i) N NNN HN oO ~ QO w 2.24719 2.24215 2.23714 2.23214 2.22717 n2 156025 150816 157609 158404 159201 160000 160801 161604 162409 163216 164025 164836 165649 166464 167281 168100 168921 169744 170509 171396 172225 173056 17 3889 174724 175501 176400 177241 178084 178929 179776 180625 181476 182329 183184 184041 184900 185761 186624 187489 188356 189225 190096 190969 191844 192721 193600 194481 195364 196249 197136 198025 198916 199809 200704 201601 n? 61629875 62099136 62570773 63044792 63521199 . 64000000 64481201 64964808 65450527 65939204 66430125 66923416 67419143 67917312 68417929 68921000 69426531 69934528 70444997 79957944 71473375 71991296 72511713 73034632 73500059 74088000 74018461 75151448 75686967 76225024 76765625 77 308776 77554483 75402752 78953599 79507000 80062991 80621568 81182737 81746504 82312875 82881856 83453453 84027672 84604519 85184000 85766121 86350888 86938307 87528384 88121125 88716536 89314623 89915392 90515849 19.8746 yz 19.8997 19.9249 19.9499 19.9750 20.0000 20.0250 20.0499 20.0749 20.0998 20.1246 20.1494 20.1742 20.1990 20.2237 20.2485 20.2731 20.2978 20.3224 20.3470 20.3715 20.3961 20.4206 20.4450 20.4695 20.4939 20.5183 20.5426 20.5670 20.5913 20.6155 20.6398 20.6640 20.6882 20.7123 20.7364 20.7605 20.7846 20.8087 20.8327 20.8 567 20.8806 20.9045 20.9284 20.9523 20.9762 21.0000 21.0238 21.0476 21.0713 21.0950 21.1187 21.1424 21.1660 21.1896 TABLE 8 (continued). 19 VALUES OF RECIPROCALS, SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE ROOTS OF NATURAL NUMBERS. ni n8 yz tooo, | 3 202500 | 9QII25000 | 21.2132 | 1.98020 | 255025 | 128787625 203401 | 91733851 | 21.2308 1.97628 | 256036 | 129554216 204304 | 92345408 | 21.2603 | 1.97239 | 257049 | 130323543 205209 | 92959677 | 21.2835 1.96850 | 258064 | 131096512 200116 | 93570004 | 21.3073 1.96464 | 259081 | 131872229 207025 | 94196375 | 21.3307 1.96078 | 260100 | 132651000 2 207930 | 94818816 | 21.3542 | 1.95695 | 261121 | 133432831 18818 | 208849 | 95443993 | 21-3776 1.95312 | 262144 | 134217728 18341 | 209764 | 96071912 | 21.4009 1.94932 | 263169 | 135005697 17805 | 210081 | 96702579 | 21.4243 1.94553 | 264196 | 135796744 17391 | 211600 | 97336000 | 21.4476 1.94175 | 265225 | 136590875 16920 | 212521 | 97972181 | 21.4709 1.93795 | 266256 | 137388096 16450 | 213444 | 98611128 | 21.4942 1.93424 | 267289 | 138188413 15983 | 214309 | 99252847 | 21.5174 1.93050 | 268324 138991532 15517 | 215296 | 99897344 | 21-5407 1.92678 | 269361 | 1397938359 15054 | 216225 | 100544625 | 21.5639 |} 1.92308 | 270400 | 140608000 14592 | 217156 | 101194696 | 21.5870 21 | 1.91939 | 271441 | 141420761 14133 | 218089 | 101847563 | 21.6102 22 | 1.91571 | 272484 | 142236648 13675 | 219024 | 102503232 | 21.6333 23 | 1.91205 | 273529 | 143055067 2.13220 103161709 | 21.6564 24 | 1.90840 | 274576 | 143877824 103823000 | 21.6795 | 1.90476 | 275625 | 144703125 104487111 | 21.7025 | 1.90114 | 276676 | 145531576 105154048 | 21.7256 1.89753 | 277729 | 146303183 105823817 | 21.7486 | 1.89394 | 278784 | 147197952 106496424 | 21.7715 1.89036 | 279841 | 148035859 107171875 | 21.7945 1.88679 | 280900 | 148877000 107850176 | 21.8174 1.88324 | 281961 | 149721291 108531333 | 21.8403 1.87970 | 283024 | 150568768 109215352 | 21.8632 1.87617 | 284089 | 151419437 109902239 | 21.8801 1.87266 | 285156 | 152273304 Ow nw wn NwKHNN N “NM > NNN NN Perm YH SUSU D ADAM AN in 0 lon PHP ae \O (nA te OUn G2 os OVO tN N N tN tN bo ww N NNN NN NN Q Ww p nS N Q to bo So NNN N NNN N WH 2.12766 2.12314 2.11864 2.11416 2.10970 mR NnHN dy NNN NN ODOOU00o 2.10526 2.10084 2.09044 2.09205 2.08768 2.08333 110592000 | 21.9089 1.86916 | 286225 | 153130375 | 23-1301 2.07900 111284641 | 21.9317 1.86567 | 287296 | 1539906056 | 23.1517 2.07469 I1rg80168 | 21.9545 1.86220 | 288369 | 154854153 | 23-1733 2.07039 89 | 112678587 | 21.9773 1.85874 | 289444 | 155720872 | 23.1948 2.00612 113379904 | 22.0000 1.85529 | 290521 | 156590819 | 23.2164 No NN PEGA QWRNHBV RN RN WN LS Oe et oe) 2.06186 114084125 | 22.022 1.85185 | 291600 | 157464000 | 23.2379 2.05761 114791250 | 22.0454 ! 1.84843 | 292681 | 158340421 | 23.2594 2.05339 115501303 | 22.0081 1.84502 | 293764 | 159220088 2.04918 116214272 : 1.84162 | 294849 | 160103007 2.04499 | 2 116930169 : 1.83824 | 295936 | 160989184 2.04082 | 2 117649000 : 1.83486 | 297025 | 161878625 2.03666 118370771 : 1.83150 | 298116 | 162771336 2.03252 | 242 119095488 : 1.82815 | 299209 | 163667323 2.02840 119823157 : , 1.82482 | 300304 | 164566592 2.02429 120553794 : 1.82149 | 301401 | 165469149 1.81818 | 302500 | 166375000 1.81488 | 303601 | 167284151 L.81159 | 304704 | 168196608 1.80832 | 305809 | 169112377 1.80505 | 306916 | 170031464 2.02020 121287375 2.01613 | 2 122023930 2.01207 122763473 2.00803 4 | 123505992 2.00401 124251499 2.00000 125000000 1.99601 125751501 1.99203 2 126506008 1.98807 127263527 1.98413 128024064 NRHN HN NNN HN 1.80180 | 308025 | 170953875 1.79856 | 309136 | 171879616 1.79533 | 310249 | 172808693 1.79211 | 311364 | 173741112 1.78891 | 312481 | 174676879 NHNHHNN NN NNN SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 20 TABLE 8 (continued). VALUES OF RECIPROCALS, SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE ROOTS OF NATURAL NUMBERS. 1000.4 n ns 1000.1 n2 ns \2 560 | 1.78571 | 313600 | 175616000 : 1.62602 | 378225 | 232608375 | 24.7992 561 | 1.78253 | 314721 | 176558481 .68 1.62338 | 379456 | 233744596 | 24.8193 562 | 1.77936 | 315844 | 177504328 ; 1.62075 | 380689 | 234885113 | 24.8395 563 | 1.77620 | 316969 | 178453547 ! 1.61812 | 381924 | 236029032 | 24.8596 |f 564 | 1.77305 | 318096 | 179406144 748 1.61551 | 383161 | 237176659 | 24.8797 || 565 | 1.76991 | 319225 | 180362125 : 1.61290 | 384400 | 238328000 | 24.8998 566 | 1.76678 | 320356 | 181321496 : 1.61031 | 385641 | 239483061 | 24.9199 507 | 1.76367 | 321489 | 182284263 8 1.60772 | 386884 | 240641848 | 24.9399 508 | 1.76056 | 322624 | 183250432 8 1.60514 | 388129 | 241804367 | 24.9600 569 | 1.75747 | 323761 | 184220009 : 1.60256 | 389376 | 242970624 | 24.9800 570 | 1.75439 | 324900 | 185193000 : 1.60000 | 390625 | 244140625 | 25.0000 571 | 1.75131 | 326041 | 186169411 7 1.59744 | 391876 | 245314376 | 25.0200 572 | 1.74825 | 327184 187 149248 : 1.59490 | 393129 | 246491883 | 25.0400 573 | 1-74520 | 328329 | 188132517 | 23. 1.59236 | 394384 | 247673152 | 25.0599 574 | 1.74216 | 329476 | 189119224 : 1.58983 | 395041 | 248855189 | 25.0799 575 | 1.73913 | 330625 | 190109375 : 1.58730 | 396900 | 250047000 | 25.0998 576 | 1.73611 | 331770 | 191102976 -0000 1.58479 | 398161 | 251239501 | 25.1197 577 | 1-73310 | 332929 | 192100033 : 1.58228 | 399424 | 252435968 | 25.1396 578 | 1-73010 | 334084 | 193100552 | 24. 1.57978 | 400689 | 253636137 | 25.1595 579 | 1-72702 | 335247 |) 194104539 y 1.57729 | 401956 | 254840104 | 25.1794 580 | 1.72414 | 336400 | 195112000 : | 1.57480 | 403225 | 256047875 | 25.1992 581 | 1.72117 337 501 190122941 : 1.57233 404490 257259456 25.2190 582 1.71821 338724 197137308 : 7 | 1.56986 | 405769 | 258474853 | 25.2359 583 | 1.71527 | 339889 | 1981552587 1.56740 | 407044 | 259694072 | 25.2587 584 | 1.71233 | 341050 | 199176704 | 24.1661 1.56495 | 408321 | 260917119 | 25.2784 585 | 1.70940 | 342225 | 200201625 | 24.1868 1.56250 | 409600 | 262144000 | 25.2982 586 | 1.70648 | 343390 | 201230056 | 24.2074 1.56006 | 410881 | 263374721 | 25.3180 587 | 1-70358 | 344569 | 202262003 | 24.2281 42 | 1.55763 | 412164 | 264609288 | 25.3377 588 | 1.70068 | 345744 | 203297472 | 24.2487 1.55521 | 413449 | 265847707 | 25.3574 589 | 1.69779 | 340921 | 204336469 | 24.2693 1.55280 | 414736 | 267089984 | 25.3772 590 | 1.69492 | 348100 | 205379000 | 24.2899 1.55039 | 416025 | 268336125 | 25.3969 591 | 1.69205 | 349281 | 200425071 | 24.3105 1.54799 | 417316 | 269586136 | 25.4165 592 | 1.68919 | 350464 | 207474688 | 24.3311 47 | 1.54560 | 418609 | 270840023 | 25.4362 593 | 1.68034 | 351649 | 208527857 | 24.3516 1.54321 | 419904 | 272097792 | 25.4558 594 | 1.68350 | 352536 | 209584554 | 24.3721 1.54083 | 421201 | 273350449 | 25.4755 595 | 1.68067 | 354025 | 210644875 | 24.3926 1.53846 | 422500 | 274625000 | 25.4951 596 | 1.67785 | 355216 | 211708736 | 24.4131 1.53010 | 423801 275894451 25.5147 1.67504 | 356409 | 212776173 | 24.4336 1.53374 | 425104 277167808 25-5343 1.67224 | 357604 | 213547192 | 24.4540 1.53139 | 426409 | 278445077 | 25.5539 1.66945 | 358801 | 214921799 | 24.4745 1.52905 | 427716 | 279726264 | 25.5734 1.66667 | 360000 | 216000000 | 24.4949 1.52672 | 429025 | 281011375 | 25.5930 1.66389 | 361201 | 217081801 | 24.5153 1.52439 | 430336 | 282300416 | 25.6125 1.66113 | 362404 | 218167208 | 24.5357 1.52207 | 431649 | 283593393 | 25.6320 1.65837 | 363609 | 219256227 | 24.5561 1.51976 | 432964 | 284890312 1.65563 | 364816 | 220348864 | 24.5764 1.51745 | 434281 | 286191179 1.65289 | 366025 | 221445125 | 24.5967 1.51515 | 435600 | 287496000 1.65017 | 367236 | 222545016 | 24.6171 1.51286 | 436921 | 285804781 1.64745 | 368449 | 223645543 | 24-6374 1.51057 | 438244 | 290117528 1.64474 | 369664 | 224755712 | 24.6577 1.50830 | 439569 | 291434247 1.64204 | 370881 | 225866529 | 24.6779 1.50602 | 440896 | 292754944 1.63934 | 372100 | 226981000 | 24.6982 1.50376 | 442225 | 294079625 1.63666 | 373321 | 228099131 | 24.7184 1.50150 | 443550 | 295408296 1.63399 | 374544 | 229220928 | 24.7386 1.49925 | 444559 | 296740963 1.63132 | 375769 | 230346397 | 24-7588 1.49701 | 446224 | 298077632 614 | 1.62866 | 376996 | 231475544 | 24-7790 || 669 | 1.49477 | 447561 | 299418309 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 8 (continued). 21 VALUES OF RECIPROCALS, SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE ROOTS OF NATURAL NUMBERS. 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 1 1000.; 1.49254 1.49031 1.48810 1.48585 1.48308 1.48148 1.47929 1.47710 1.47493 1.47275 1.47059 1.46843 1.46628 1.46413 1.46199 1.45985 1.45773 1.45560 1.45349 1.45138 1.44928 1.44718 1.44509 1.44300 | 1.44092 1.43885 1.43678 1.43472 1.43266 1.43062 1.42857 1.42653 1.42450 1.42248 1.42045 1.41844 1.41643 1.41443 1.41243 1.41044 1.40845 1.40647 1.40449 1.40252 1.40050 1.39860 1.39665 1.39470 1.39276 1.39082 1.38889 1.38696 1.38504 1.38313 1.38122 n2 4.48900 450241 451554 452929 454276 455625 450976 458329 459084 401041 462400 463761 405124 460489 467856 469225 470590 471969 473344 474721 476100 477481 478864 480249 451636 483025 484416 485809 457204 488601 490000 491401 492804 494209 495616 497025 498436 4993849 501264 502681 504100 505521 506944 508 369 509796 511225 512650 514089 Se Saa4 510961 518400 519841 521284 522729 524176 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. n3 300763000 302111711 303464448 304821217 306182024 307 546875 30891 5776 310288733 311665752 313040839 Ses 315821241 317214568 318611987 ' 320013504 321419125 322828856 324242703 32506067 2 327082769 328509000 32993937! 331373888 332812557 334255354 335702375 337153530 33860887 3 340368 392 341532099 343000000 344472101 345948408 347428927 34891 3664 350402625 351895816 353393743 354894912 350400829 357911000 359425431 300944128 362467097 363994344 365525875 367061696 368601813 370146232 371694959 373248000 374805361 376367048 377933067 379503424 \2 25.8844 25-9037 25.9230 25.9422 25-9015 25.9808 26.0000 26.0192 26.0384 26.0576 26.0768 26.0960 260.1151 26.1343 26.1534 26.1725 26.1916 26.2107 26.2298 26.2488 26.2679 26.2869 26.7208 26.7395 26.7582 26.7769 26.7955 26.8142 | 26.8328 26.8514 26.8701 26.8887 26.9072 m2 525625 527076 525529 529954 531441 532900 534361 535824 537289 538756 54022 541696 543169 544044 540121 547600 549081 550504 552049 553530 §55025 550516 558009 559504 501001 562500 564001 565504 567009 505516 §70025 | 571536 573049 574564 576081 577600 579121 | 580644 582169 583696 97 592900 504441 595984 597529 599076 600625 602176 603729 605284 606841 n> 381078125 3826057176 384240583 385825352 387420459 389017000 390617891 392223168 393832537 395440904 397065375 398085256 400315553 401947272 403583419 405224000 400869021 408518488 410172407 411830784 413493625 415160936 416832723 418505992 420189749 421875000 423564751 425259008 420957777 428661064 43036887 5 432081216 433798093 435519512 437245479 438976000 440711081 4424507 28 444194947 445943744 447697125 449455096 451217663 452984832 4547 50609 456533000 458314011 460099648 461889917 463084824 465484375 467288576 469097433 470910952 472729139 yz 26.9258 20.9444 20.9629 26.981 5 27.0000 27.0185 27.0370 27-0555 | 27.0740 27.0924 27.1109 27.1293 27-1477 27.1662 27.1846 27.2029 27.2213 27-250), 27-2580 27-2764 27-2947 27.3130 ZU OES 27.3490 27-3079 27.3861 27-4044 27-7489 27.7669 | 27-7849 22 TABLE 8 (continued). | VALUES OF RECIPROCALS, SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE ROOTS OF NATURAL NUMBERS. n n3 n2 3 V2 608400 | 474552000 92 : 697225 | 582182875 | 28.8964 609961 | 476379541 .94 : 698896 | 584277056 | 28.9137 611524 | 478211768 : | 8 : 700569 | 586376253 | 28.9310 613089 | 480048687 9821 || 8 ; 702244 | 588450472 | 28.9482 614656 | 481890304 : : 703921 | 590589719 | 28.9655 616225 | 483736625 : | : 705600 | 592704000 | 28.9828 617796 | 485557650 : | 8 : 707281 | 594523321 | 29.0000 619369 | 487443403 | 28. : 708964 | 596947688 | 29.0172 620944 | 489303872 : : 710049 | 599077107 | 29.0345 622521 | 491169069 7 . 712336 | 601211584 | 29.0517 OO WwW et — oe ony Coretacett ta 624100 | 493039000 | 28.1069 ; 714025 | 603351125 | 29.0689 625681 | 494913671 | 28.1247 | : 715716 | 605495730 | 29.0861 627264 | 490793088 | 28.1425 || 8 : 717409 | 607645423 | 29.1033 628849 | 498677257 | 28.1603 : 719104 | 609800192 | 29.1204 630436 | 500566184 | 28.1780 ||| 8 : 720801 | 611960049 | 29.1376 Bee ee whe eye sterner 632025 | 502459875 | 28.1957 : 722500 | 614125000 | 29.1548 633616 | 504358336 | 28.2135 . 724201 | 616295051 | 29.1719 635209 | 506261573 | 28.2312 : 725904 | 618470208 | 29.1890 636804 | 508169592 | 28.2489 ; 727609 | 620650477 | 29.2062 638401 | 510082399 | 28.2666 5 729316 | 622835864 | 29.2233 — OS b 640000 | 512000000 | 28.2843 : 731025 | 625026375 | 29.2404 641601 | 513922401 | 28.3019 z 732730 | 627222016 | 29.2575 643204 | 515549608 | 28.3196 | 5 734449 | 629422793 | 29.2746 644809 | 517781627 | 28.3373 . 730164 | 631628712 | 29.2916 646416 | 519718464 | 28.3549 . 737881 | 633839779 | 29.3087 648025 | 521660125 | 28.3725 ; 739600 | 636056000 | 29.3258 649636 | 523606616 | 28.3901 | ; 741321 | 638277381 | 29.3428 651249 | 525557943 | 28-4077 |} 743044 | 640503928 | 29.3598 652864 | 527514112 | 28.4253 . 744769 | 642735647 | 29.3769 654481 | 529475129 | 28.4429 746496 | 644972544 | 29.3939 656100 | 531441000 | 28.4605 : 748225 | 647214625 | 29.4109 657721 | 533411731 | 28.4781 . 749956 | 649461896 | 29.4279 659344 | 535387328 | 28.4956 751689 | 651714363 | 29.4449 660969 | 537367797 | 28.5132 753424 | 653972032 | 29.4618 662596 | 539353144 | 28.5307 . 755161 | 656234909 | 29.4788 664225 | 541343375 | 28.5482 : 756900 | 658503000 | 29.4958 665856 | 543338496 | 28.5657 : 7 58641 660776311 | 29.5127 667489 | 545338513 | 28.5832 |Il : 760384 | 663054548 29.5296 669124 | 547343432 | 28.6007 : 762129 | 665338617 | 29.5466 670761 | 549353259 | 28.6182 : 763876 | 667627624 | 29.5635 672400 | 551368000 | 28.6356 : 765625 | 669921875 | 29.5804 674041 | 553387661 | 28.6531 | 8 : 767376 | 672221376 | 29.5973 675684 | 555412248 | 28.6705 || ; 769129 | 674526133 | 29.6142 677329 | 557441767 | 28.6880 ||| 8 : 770884 | 676836152 | 29.6311 678976 | 559476224 | 28.7054 : 772641 | 679151439 | 29.6479 Pen len tila ian! Nb Oe athe hetstiy sake t | het ~~ = a naa ere ee Le NNNNN NN NN LO Le ile Millen Willen Millan SRC erate tie whee 680625 | 561515625 | 28.7228 || j 774400 | 681472000 | 29.6648 682276 | 563559976 | 28.7402 || : 776161 | 683797841 | 29.6816 683929 | 565609283 | 28.7576 : 777924 | 686128968 | 29.6985 685584 | 567663552 | 28-7750 || 883 | 1. 779689 | 688465387 | 29.7153 687241 | 569722789 | 28.7924 é 781456 | 690807104 | 29.7321 688900 | 571787000 | 28.8097 : 783225 | 693154125 | 29.7489 690561 | 573856191 | 28.8271 : 784996 | 695506456 | 29.7658 692224 | 575930368 | 28.8444 | : 786769 | 697864103 | 29.7825 693889 | 578009537 | 28.8617 . 788544 | 700227072 | 29.7993 695556 | 580093704 | 28.8791 : 790321 | 702595369 | 29.5161 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 1000.1 .12360 ‘2238 -12108 .11982 11857 SEL 732 -11607 11483 -11359 11235 JITIII 10988 10865 10742 -10619 -10497 .10375 10254 .10132 -IOOII 1.09890 1.09769 1.09649 1.09529 1.09409 1.09290 1.09170 1.09051 1.08932 1.08814 1.08696 1.08578 1.08460 1.08342 1.0822 1.08108 1.07991 1.07875 1.07759 1.07643 1.07 527 1.07411 1.07296 1.07151 1.07066 1.06952 1.06838 1.06724 1.06610 1.06496 1.06383 1.06270 1.06157 1.06045 1.05932 n2 792100 793981 795064 797449 799236 801025 802816 804609 806404 808201 810000 811801 813604 815409 817216 819025 8208 36 822649 824464 §26281 828100 829921 831744 833569 835396 837225 839050 840889 842724 844561 846400 848241 850084 851929 853776 855625 857476 859329 861184 863041 864900 866761 868624 870489 872356 874225 876096 877969 879844 881721 883600 885481 887 364 889249 891136 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. n> 704969000 797347971 7097 32288 712121957 714516954 716917375 719323130 721734273 724150792 726572699 7 29000000 731432701 733870808 730314327 738703264 741217625 743677416 746142643 748613312 751089429 753571000 750058031 758550528 761048497 763551944 76606087 5 76857 5296 TOO 28S 77 3020632 776151559 778688000 781229961 783777448 786330467 788889024 791453125 794022776 796597983 7991787 52 801765089 804357000 806954491 809557 568 812166237 814780504 817400375 820025856 822656953 825293672 827930019 830584000 833237621 835896888 835501807 841232384 TABLE 8 (continued). VALUES OF RECIPROCALS, SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE ROOTS OF NATURAL NUMBERS. \2 8664 8331 8998 .g166 9333 .9 500 .9666 9.9833 30.0000 30-0167 30-0333 30.0500 30.0066 30.0832 30.0998 30.1164 30.1330 30-1496 30.1662 30.1828 go 1995 30-2159 30.2324 30.2490 30.2655 30.2820 30.2985 30.3150 30-3315 30.3480 30-3645 30.3809 30-3974 30.4138 30.4302 30-4467 30.4631 30-4795 30-4959 30.5123 30.5287 30-5450 30-5614 30.5778 30 5OaE 30.6105 30.6268 30.6431 30-6594 30-67 57 30.6920 30.7083 30.7240 bb wb bb WOODOO0O OOOOMO Reh N te 8329 .5496 | 1000.1 n> ne 23 \2# 1.05820 1.05708 TSS oL 1.05485 LO53/4 1.05263 1.05152 1.05042 1.04932 1.04522 1.04712 1.04603 1.04493 1.04354 1.04275 1.04167 1.04058 1.03950 1.03842 L038 794 1.03627 1.03520 1.03413 1.03306 1.03199 1.03093 1.02987 1.02881 1.02775 1.02669 1.02564 1.02459 1.02354 1.02249 1.02145 1.02041 1.01937 1.01833 1.01729 1.01626 1.01523 1.01420 1.01317 1.01215 I.O1112 1.01010 1.00905 1.00806 1.00705 1.00604 1.00503 1.00402 1.00301 1.00200 1.00100 893025 894916 8963809 898704 goo6ol 902500 904401 906304 908209 g1o116 912025 913936 915549 917764 gIgO8I 921600 923521 925444 927 369 929296 93122 933156 935059 937024 938901 940900 942841 944754 940729 948676 950625 952570 954529 956484 955441 960400 962361 964324 966289 968256 970225 972196 974169 976144 978121 980100 982081 990025 992016 994009 996004 998001 843908625 840590530 849278123 851971392 854670349 85737 5000 860085351 862801 408 865523177 868250664 870983875 873722816 876467493 879217912 881974079 8847 36000 887 503681 890277128 893050347 895841344 898632125 901428696 904231063 9907939232 909853209 912673000 QI 5498011 918330048 921167317 924010424 926859375 929714176 932574833 935441352 935313739 941192000 944076141 940966168 949862087 952763904 955671625 955585256 961 504803 964430272 967 301669 970299000 973242271 976191488 979146657 982107784 985074875 988047936 99102697 3 994011992 997002999 30-7409 39-7571 39-77 34 30.7896 30.8058 30.8221 30.8383 30-5545 30.8707 30.8869 30.9031 30.9192 39-9354 30-9516 30-9077 30-9839 31.0000 31.0161 31.0322 31.0483 31.0644 31.0805 31.0966 1127 1288 .1448 1609 -1769 1929 31.3050 31.3209 |] 31.3369 31.3528 31.3688 31.3847 31.4006 31.4166 31-4325 31.4484 31.4643 31.4502 31.4960 31.5119 31.5278 31-5436 31-5595 31.5753 31.5911 31.6070 24 TABLE 9. LOGARITHMS. SMITHSONIAN J ABLES, SMITHSONIAN TABLES, TABLE 9 (continued). LOGARITHMS. 25 26 TABLE 10. LOGARITHMS. NH NHWW WQwwapAA NNNNN = NNN N KW WW Od WWwwWwoIwW fhAAHA PUM O AON COO I I I I I tt NRKHKHN ee NNNNN S = = ee NHKNN NNNWW WWWWW WWNWWHW WwHowpAR AHRAAHP AUN UMWAAA NNN © WWwWWWH HPARAHR HADAHR AUN UANUNADRA AQONN NNOCOC WOO PHHAAHR AHAUH UNUUN DANANANAN DAOAynnny NOOMO wv [oe en le Be | NNNNN SMITHSONIAN TABLES. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 10 (continued). LOGARITHMS. — a SS ee ln an el I I I I I o0000 OFOrOr sar CNL i ilo IL] OFOrororo — ot see NN NwndnN NNNNN NNNNN NNNNN NNNNN NNONNN | wo}: alien tile tile tile) NHNONNN WwWwww Ko Oo Ga Wan WwWWWwH |e NN N wh NNN NN NNNNN NwKHNN NNNNN NN NHWYW WWWWw Wwwww WWWWwW WNwWwWww WHwif fAHAHL | a) NNNNN NNNNN 28 TABLE 11. | ANTILOGARITHMS. | | OoOO000°0 a) ee ee oo0oo0o0°0 oe st et o0o00°0 Oe to NdwoHH eR ooo0o°o oe a NNNNN oO I ° I ° I Oo I ° I NNN Ne NNN HN WL oo0o0°0 = = Se et NNNNN NNNNN -OO000 Ne ARR NN NN | NNNNN NNHNN (een len en | N NHN N PAWOWW WWWWW WWwWWW WNNHNN WWW WWNNN et NNNNN SMITHSONIAN TABLES, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 11 (continued). ANTILOGARITHMS. te 2.e. Ss are, 51. G TA? Beno 3170 3177 3184 =. 3192 3199 3206 §=— 3214 3.221 3228 3243 3251 3258 3206 3273, 3281 «= 3289 3296 3304 3319 3327 3334 3342 3350 3357 3365 3373 3381 3396 3404 3412 3420 3428 3436 ©=— 3443-3451 3.459 3475 3483 3491 3499 3508 3516 = 3524 3532 3540 3556 3565 3573 3581 3589 3597 3606 3614 3622 3039 3048 3056 = 3064 3673 3081 = 3690 3698 3707 3724 3733 374 3750 3758 3767 3776 3784 3793 3811 3819 3828 = 3837 3846 3855 «= 3864 3873 3882 3899 3908 3917 3926 3936 3945 3954 3903 3972 3990 3999 4009 4018 4027 4036 4046 4055 4064 4083 4093 4102 41III 4I2I 4130 4140 4150 4159 4178 4188 4198 4207 4217 4227 4236 4246 4256 4276 4285 4295 4305 4315 4325 4335 4345 4355 4375 4385 4395 4406 4416 4426 4436 44460 4457 4477 4487 4498 4508 4519 4529 4539 4550 4560 4581 4592 4603 4613 4624 4034 4645 4656 4667 40388 4699 4710 4721 4732 4742 4753 4764 4775 4797 4808 4819 4831 4842 4853 4864 4875 4887 4909 4920 4932 4943 4955 4906 4977 4989 5000 5023 5035 5047 5058 s070 5082 5093 5105 S117 5140 5152 5164 5176 5188 5200 5212 5224 5236 5260 5272 5284 5297 5309 5321 $333 5340 5358 5383 5395 5408 5420 5433 5445 5458 5479 5483 5503 5521 5534 5546 5559 5572 = 5585. 5598 5010 5636 5649 5662 5675 5689 5702 5715 5725 5741 768 5781 5794 5808 5821 5834 5848 5861 5875 5902 5916 5929 ©5943. «55957 5970 = 984. 5998 bo12 6039 6053 6067 6081 6095 6109 6124 6138 6152 6180 6194 6209 6223 6237 6252 6266 6281 6295 6324 6339 635 6368 6383 6397 6412 6427 6442 6471 6,80 Gee 6516 eae ee 6561 6577 6592 6622 6637 6653 6068 6683 6699 6714 6730 6745 6776 6792 6808 6823 6839 6855 6871 6887 6902 6934 6950 6966 6982 6998 7015 7031 7047 7063 7a90) 7II2 7129) || 7hAk 7IGE.7I78' -7I94 721% 7228 7261 7278 7295 7311 7328 7345 7362 7379 7396 7430 7447 7464 7482 7499 7516 7534 7551 7508 7603 7621 7638 7656 7674 7691 7709 7727 7745 7780 7798 7816 7834 7852 7870 7889 7907 7925 7962 7980 7998 8017 8035 8054 8072 8091 8110 8147 8166 8185 8204 8222 8241 8260 8279 8299 8337 8356 8375 8395 8414 8433 8453 8472 8492 8531 8551 8570 8590 8610 8630 8650 8670 8690 8730 8750 8770 8790 8810 8831 8851 8872 8892 8933 8954 8974 8995 9016 9036 9057 9078 9099 QI4I 9162 9183 9204 9226 9247 92638 9290 9311 9354 9376 9397 9419 9441 9462 9484 9506 9528 9572 9594 9016 9638 9661 9653 9705 9727 9750 9795 9817 9840 9863 9886 99038 9931 9954 9977 NN NNN Nw NNN NR HNH & nile Mian in| ein le en le ee me | —~ NNN NN NvwNNN NR NHN WN NNN N NNNHNN WWNNN UWbhpRD HL RHEL AWWW WWWWoo WWW WW NO NHN N NSNNNAD ADANDADA UMUMUMN NUUMns AAAHRL SPHAAHR WWWWW WWWWW WHoww hd DOO NOM Mmm mbH hAAAH HWW W WwWWwW wmmon oni NNN™NI™N Worm woo 29 OO ODO MM MHOMON YNNNNE DANDDAD AoduuN UunMnNn UFFHHR APPAAHA la 30 TaBLe 12. ANTILOGARITHMS. 7956 | 7958 | 7 7974 6 | 7978 7993 Soll 8030 | One oO “I Gi Ge 16 nm = a) stn OV AmAmmnmm Oo Y Wy Wy bl 2 Or Noo re OS Ur dan OVI AMAMMNM Oo WW WW NHN tet OST Gn Go Am O HMO» tv ty Ga +e Un OV OSI Un on) ty Ww lo ty to Mele aie to \O mt Os Ww ly ty ty j& WNW ty to mow DANMMH AMAaAnmnmnm Go nmm AAMRMNM ADRADMAM DAADMMNM “J 1 Go IunGa ty abn eB —_ Tin Go Go Ga Gd Ga Go ‘Oo 1 Ga Ga de Un iiun ON @w Oo Ga Ga Gs Go NIN MO O de Go Gd Gs Gd moO ® Veit 00 Ga be de Ut fn oO hm i ieee Re 5 CSIR Re) Raley DMAMAMMN to HAR WAMmMmM chm chim afin dom fm ty by Ga Ga dem whim fim nfm nfm oho SO “I Un Go ohm be en (1 bem ohm dm ob as8 Seas 4 f OI Un Gs et 8 HG in DRAAHN AAMNN NAHM A “1 Go et PAMDW mnOo oe nn Ut “SI at Go et Ny by Gs Ga Go 1AAmmM tyes tn ‘Sp PO 0 oO i tidiune HD Or-m bo ohm he Ct rt Cartan Cae tre \ DRDRAMAMW tri tata ee Tis Go ot Or ee tivitiuitn WOO Go trata tiuian I nO oe Om “ISI Cri tata it 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 ty lo Ga \OVON DPADMYM ARADMMM OV OV OV OV ry In Gl Q to 1 ‘Sy Gobo to OA DADNANMMN ~JS7S) SJ ~P %p op Op PD ON of NN WW kW e 9AAS 0 Bo “I Un Ga he fm Od Go 6 OU yd et Ooo 3 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 12 (continued). 21 ANTILOGARITHMS. | SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 32 TABLE 13. CIRCULAR (TRIGONOMETRIC) FUNCTIONS. (Taken from B. O. Peirce’s ‘‘ Short Table of Integrals,’? Ginn & Co.) SINES. COSINES. TANGENTS. | COTANGENTS. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. .0000 0 I.0000 0.0000] .0000 2 re) go°o0’ | 1.5708 0.0029 | 10 || .0029 7.4637 | 1.0000 .0000 | .0029 7.4637 | 343-77. —-2.5363 50 | 1.5679 0.0058 | 20 || .0058 .7648}| 1.0000 .0000| .0058 =.7648 | 171.89 2352 40 | 1.5650 0.0087 30 || .0087 .9408 | 1.0000 .0000 | .0087 .g409 | 114.59 0591 30 | 1.5621 0.0116} 40 || .o116 8.0658} .9999 .0000 | .o116 8.0058 | 85.940 1.9342 20 | 1.5592 0.0145 50 || 0145 .1627} .9999 .0000].0145 .1627| 68.750 .8373 10 | 1.5563 0.0175 | 1°00’ || .0175 8.2419 | .9998 9.9999 | .0175 8.2419] 57.290 1.7581 0.0204 IO |] .0204 .3088] .9998 .9999 | .0204 3089] 49.104 6911 0.0233 20 |] .0233 .3668 |) .9997 .9999 | .0233 .3669] 42.964 .6331 0.0262 30 || 0262 .4179| .9997 -9999 | .0262 .4181 | 38.188 .5819 0.0291 40 || 0291 .4637] .9996 .9998| .o2z91 .4638| 34.368 .5362 0.0320} 50 || .0320 .5050] .9995 .9998 | .0320 .5053] 31.242 .4947 0.0349 | 2°00! || .0349 8.5428 | .9994 9.9997 | -0349 8.5431 | 28.636 0.0378 | 10 || .0378 .5776 | .9993 -9997 | 0378-5779 | 26.432 .4221 0.0407 20 || .0407 .6097| .9992 -9996] .0407 .6101 | 24.542 .3899 0.0436 | 30 |) 0436 .6397 | 9990 .9996 | 0437-6401) 22.904 —.3509 0.0465 40 || .0465 .6677]| .9989 .9995| .0466 .6682} 21.470 .3318 0.0495 50 || 0494 .6940} .9988 .9995| 0495 .6945] 20.206 .3055 0.0524 | 3°00’ || .0523 8.7188 | .9986 9.9994 | .0524 8.7194] 19.081 010553 10 | .0552 .7423 | .9985 — -9993 Bee 742 18.075 .2571 0.0532 20 || 0581 .7645 | '.9983 .9993] .0582 .7652] 17.169 .2348 0.0611 30 || 0610 .7857] .998f .9992]| .0612 .7865| 16.350 .2135 0.0640| 40 || .0640 .8059| .9980 .gggI | .0641 .8067| 15.605 .1933 0.0669 50 || 0669 .8251 | .9978 .9990| .0670 .8261 |] 14.924 .1739 0.0698 | 4°00’ || .0698 8.8436] .9976 9.9989 | .0699 8.8446) 14.301 1.1554 0.0727 Io || .0727. .8613} .9974 .9989 | .0729 ~=.862 137270 ea .O 0.0756} 20 || .0756 .8783] .9971 .9988 | .0758 .8795] 13-197 .1205 0.0785 | 30 || .0785 .8946] .9969 .9987 | .0787 .8960] 12.706 «1040 0.0814} 40 || .0814 .9104] .9967 .9986| .0816 .g118| 12.251 .0882 0.0844 50 || 0843 .9256] .9964 .9985 | .0846 .9272| 11.826 .0728 0.0873 | 5°00’ || 0872 8.9403] .9962 9.9983 | .0875 8.9420] 11.430 1.0580 0.0902 IO || 0901 .9545| -9959 .9982 | .0904 .9563] II.059 .0437 0.0931 20 || -0929 (9082 20057, 1.9980 |/-0934" 9701) |), 10:7 12.0299 0.0960} 30 || -0958 .9816| .9954 .9980| .0963 .9836] 10.38 5 ol 64 0.0989 40 || 0987 .9945] -995I .9979 | 0992 .9906|] 10.075 .0034 0.1018 50 || .1016 9.0070} .9948 .9977 | .1022 9.0093 9.7882 0.9907 0.1047 | 6°00 || .1045 9.0192] .9945 9.9976 | .1051 9.0216 9.5144 0.9784 0.1076 IO || .1074 .0311 | .9942 .9975| .1080 .0336 9.2553 -9664 f/0.1105] 20 |] .§103 .0426] .9939 .9973| .IIIO .0453 9.0098 .9547 0.1134 | 30 |] -1132 .0539} .9936 .9972] -1139 .0567| 8.7769 .9433 0.1104 40 || .I IOI .0048] .9932 .9971 | .1169 .0678 8.5555 -9322 0.1193 50 || 1190 .0755] -9929 .9969].1198 .0786 8.3450 .9214 0.1222 | 7°00’ || .1219 9.0859] .9925 9.9968 | .1228 9.0891 8.1443 0.9109 0.1251 10 || .1248 .0961| .9922 .9966|.1257 .0995 7.9530 .9005 0.1280 20 || .1276 .1060|] .9918 .9964 | .1287 .1096 7.7704 .8904 0.1309 | 30 |] 1305 <1157] .9914 .9963] .13I17 .1194 7.5958 .8806 0.1338 | 40 || .1334 .1252| .9g1r .gg6r | .1346 «1297 7.4287 .8700 0.1307 50 || 1303 -1345| .9907 .9959 | .1376 .1385 7.2087 .8615 0.1396 | 8°00’ || .1392 9.1436 .9903 9.9958 | -1405 9.1478 7.1154 0.8522 0.1425 IO || .1421 .1525]| .9899 .9956]| .1435 .1569 6.9682 .8431 0.1454 | 20 || .1449 .1612| .9894 9954 .1465 .1658| 6.8269 .8342 0.1484 | 30 || .1478 .1697| .9890 .9952| .1495 .1745 6.6912 .8255 0.1513} 40 || .1507 .1781 | .9886 .9950|.1524 «1831 6.5606 .8169 0.1542} 50 || .1536 .1863] .9881 .9948 | .1554 -1915| 6.4348 .8085 1564 1584 9.1997 6.3138 0.8003 Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. | Nat. Log. a f n ON Ne) _ to Co ° oO’ COTAN- TANGENTS. COSINES. SINES. GENTS. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 14°00’ 10@ 20 30 40 50 15°00’ 10 20 30 40 50 16°00’ 10 1564 1593 1622 -1650 1679 1708 .1736 1705 “1794 1822 -I8SI 1880 .1908 O37, 1965 -1994. .2022 .2051 2079 2108 .2136 -2104 2193 .2221 .2250 2278 .2306 -2334 -2363 .2391 2419 -2447 .2476 .2504 12532 2500 -2588 .2016 .2644 2672 .2700 2728 -2750 2784 2812 .2840 2868 2896 -2924 -2952 -2979 +3007 -3035 .3062 .3090 TABLE 13 (continued). CIRCULAR (TRIGONOMETRIC) FUNCTIONS. COSINES. TANGENTS. COTANGENTS. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. 9.9946 9944 9942 -9940 9938 “9930 9-9934 9931 9929 9927 9924 -9922 9.9919 ‘9917 9914 QQO12 9909 -9907 9.9904 -Q9QOL -9899 -9896 9893 .9890 9.9887 .9884 9881 9878 -9875 .987 2 9.9869 .9866 9803 9859 9856 9853 9.9849 .9846 9843 -9839 -98 36 98 32 9.9828 9825 9821 9817 9814 9810 9.9806 9555 -9802 9546 .9798 9537 9794 9528 .9790 9520 .9786 .QOSII 9.9782 1584 -1614 1644 1673 1703 1733 31763 “1793 1823 1853 1883 .IQ14 -1944 1974 .2004 -2035 2005 .2095 2126 .2156 2186 2217 .2247 .2278 +2309 -2339 .2370 .2401 2432 .2462 2493, 2524 2555 2580 -2617 2648 .2679 2711 .2742 -2773 .2805 2836 .2867 .2899 .2931 2962 =2004 .3026 2g 3121 +3153 3185 +3217 “249 9.1997 -2078 2158 2230 .2313 2389 9.2463 2530 2609 .2080 2750 2819 9.2887 -2953 +3020 -308 5 3149 3212 9-3275 +3336 +3397 +3458 “3517 +3576 9-3634 3091 -3748 «3804. -3859 3914 9.3968 4021 -407 4 -4127 4178 4230 9.4281 4331 4381 -4430 -4479 4527 9-4575 .4622 .4669 .4716 4762 -4808 9.4853 4898 4943 -4987 5031 5075 9.5118 6.3138 0.8003 | 6.1970 .7922 6.0844 .7842 5.9758 .7764 5.9708 .7087 5.7094 .7611 5.6713 0.7537 | 5.5764 -7.404 | 5.4845 -7391 | Bigy SD ueeos > DO Sena 5° 2257) melo 5:1446 0.7113 5.0058 .7047 | 4.9894 .6980 4.9152 .6915 4.8430 a3 4.7729 .6788 4.7046 0.6725 | 4.6382 .6064 4.5730 .6603 4.5107 .6542 4.4494 .6483 4.3897 -6424 4.3315 0.6366 42747 .6309 4.2193 6252 | 4.1653 .6196 4-1126 .6141 | 4.0611 .6086 4.0108 0.6032 | 3:9617 — -5979 | 3-9136 5926 | 3.8667 .5873 | 3.8208 .5822 3-779 5770 3.7321 0.5719 3.6891 .5069 3.6470 .5619 36059-5570 | 3.5656 .5521 | 35261-5473 3-4874 0.5425 | 3-4495 -5378 3-4124 -5331 3-3759 +5254 3.3402 -5238 3.3052 -5192 3:2709 0.5147 3:2371 1.5102 3.2041 5057 31716 .5013_ 3-1397 .4969 3.1084 .4925 3.0777 0.4882 1.4137 1.4108 1.4079 1.4050 1.4021 1.3992 1.3963 ng034 1.3904 1.3875 1.3546 1.3517 1.3788 13/59 1.3730 1.3701 1.3072 1.3643 1.3614 1.3584 23955 1.3520 1.3497 1.3468 1.3439 1.3410 1.3381 1.3352 1.3323 |} 173294 1.3265 1.3235 1.3206 Tei 1.3148 1.3119 ee oe 1.3003 1.2074 1.2045 1.2915 1.2886 1.2857 1.2828 1.2799 1.2770 1.2741 1.2712 1.2683 1.2654 1.2625 1.2595 1.2566 COSINES SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. SINES. COTAN- GENTS. Nat. Log. TANGENTS 34 TABLE 13 (continued). CIRCULAR (TRIGONOMETRIC) FUNCTIONS.. SINES. COSINES. TANGENTS. | COTANGENTS. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. 0.3142 | 18°00’ | .3090 9.4900 | .9511 9.9782 | .3249 9.5118 | 3.0777 0.4882 | 72°00’ | 1.2566 0.3171 10 | .3118 .4939| .9502 .9778 | .3281 .5161 | 3.0475 .4839 SOM 2sa7 0.3200 20 | .3145 -4977 | 9492 9774 | .3314 -5203| 3.0178 .4797 40 | 1.2508 0.322 30 | 3173-5015 | 9483 -9770 | 3346 .5245 | 2.9887 .4755 30 | 1.2479 0.3258 40 | .3201 .5052) .9474 9765 | .3378 .5287 | 2.9600 4713 20 | 1.2450 0.3287 50 | .3228 .5090 | .9465 .9761 | -341I .5329 | 2.9319 4671 10 | 1.2421 0.3316 | 19°00! | .3256 9.5126 | 9455 9.9757 | -3443 9.5370 | 2.9042 0.4630 | 71°00! | 1.2392 0.3345 10 | .3283 .5163 | 9446 .9752 | .3476 5411 | 2.8770 .4589 50 | 1.2363 0.3374 20 | .3311 .5199 | 9436 .9748| .3508 .5451 | 2.8502 .4549 40 | 1.2334 0.3403 30 | 3338 -5235 | -9426 .9743 | -3541 -5491 | 2.8239 _.4509 30 | 1.2305 0.3432 40 | .3305 .5270| -9417 -9739| -3574 -5531 | 2.7980 .4469 20 | 1.2275 0.3462 50 | .3393 -5306 | .9407 -9734 | 3007-5571 | 2.7725 .4429 10 | 1.2246 0.3491 | 20°00’ | .3420 9.5341 | 9397 9.9730 | .3640 9.5611 | 2.7475 0.4389 | 70°00’ | 1.2217 0.3520 10 | .3448 5375 | 9387-9725 | -3673 .5650| 2.7228 .4350 50 | 1.2188 0.3549 20 | .3475 -5409 | 9377-9721 | -3700 5689 | 2.6985 4311 40 | 1.2159 0.3578 30 | 3502 -5443 | 9367-9716 | .3739 5727 | 2.6746 .4273 30 | 1.2130 0.3607 40 | .3529 -5477 | -9350 -9711 3772 -5766 2.6511 .4234 20 | 1.2101 0.3636 50 | -3557 +5510 | 9346 .9706 | .3805 .5804 | 2.6279 .4196 10 | 1.2072 0.3665 | 21°00’ | .3584 9.5543 | 9336 9.9702 | .3839 9.5842 | 2.6051 0.4158 | 69°00’ | 1.2043 0.3694 10 | 3611 .5576| -9325 9697 | .3872 5879 | 2.5826 .4121 50 | 1.2014 0.3723 20 | .3638 .5609 | .9315 9092 | .3906 5917 | 2.5605 .4083 40 | 1.1985 0.3752 30 | .3665 .5641 | -9304 = .9687 | .3939 = --5954 | 2.5386 .4046 30 0.3782 40 | .3692 .5673 | -9293 -9682 | .3973 --.5091 | 2.5172 .4009 20 0.3811 50 | .3719 ©.5704 | .9283 _ -9677 | .4006 © .6028 | 2.4960 .3972 10 0.3840 | 22°00’ | .3746 9.5736 | 9272 9.9672 | .4040 9.6064 | 2.4751 0.3936 | 68°00’ 0.3869 10 | -3773 +5767 | -9261 .9667 | .4074 6100] 2.4545 .3900 50 0.3898 20 | .3800 .5798| .9250 .9661 | .4108 6136 | 2.4342 .3864 40 0.3927 30 -3827 5828 | .9239 .9656| .4142 .6172| 2.4142 .3828 30 0.3956 40 | .38 54 58 59 9228 .9651 | .4176 .6208 | 2.3945 .3792 20 0.3985 50 | 3881 5889 | .9216 .9646 | .4210 ©6243 | 2.3750 -3757 10 I I I I I I I I I 0.4014 | 23°00 | .3907 9.5919 | .9205 9.9640 | .4245 9.6279 | 2.3559 0.3721 | 67°00! | I 0.4043 10 | .3934 -5948| .9194 .9635| .4279 .6314 | 2.3309 .3686f 50 | 1 0.4072 20 | 3901 .5978 | .9182 .9629 | .4314 .6348.| 2.3183 .3652 Aomiet 0.4102 30 | -3987 .6007 | .9171 9624 | .4348 + .6383 | 2.2998 ~—.3617 BZOun| el 0.4131 40 | .4014 .6036| .9159 .9618 | .4383 6417 | 2.2817 3583 20 | I 0.4160 50 | .4041 .6065 | .9147 .9613| 4417 6452 | 2.2637 354 I 0.4189 | 24°00’ | .4067 9.6093 | .9135 9-9607 | .4452 9.6486 | 2.2460 0.3514 | 66°00’ | I 0.4218 Io | .4094 .6121 | .9124 .9602 | .4487 6520 | 2.2286 3480 50 | 1.1490 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 0.4247 20 | .4120 .6149] .Q112 .9596| .4522 .6553 | 2.2113 .3447 40 0.4276 30 | 4147. .6177 | .9100 .9590| .4557 6587 | 2.1943 3413 30 0.4305 | 40 | 4173 -6205| .9088 .9584 | .4592 6620 | 2.1775 .3380| 20 0.4334 50 | -4200 .6232] .9075 .9579| .4628 .6654 | 2.1609 .3346 10 0.4363 | 25°00’ | -4226 9.6259 | .9063 9.9573 | .4663 9.6687 | 2.1445 0.3313 | 65°00’ 0.4392 10 | .4253 .6286| .9051 .9567 | .4699 ©6720 | 2.1283 .3280 50 0.4422 20 | 4279 6313 | .9038 .9561 | .4734 ©.6752 | 2.1123 -3248 40 0.4451 30 | .4305 -6340]| .9026 .9555| .4770 .6785 | 2.0965 .3215 30 0.4480 40 | .433f .6366] .g013 .9549| .4806 6817 | 2.0809 3183 20 0.4509 50 | .4358 .6392 | .gool .9543| .4841 .6850| 2.0655 .3150 10 0.4538 | 26°00! | .4384 9.6418 | .8988 9.9537 | .4877 9.6882 | 2.0503 0.3118 | 64°00! 0.4567 10 | .4410 .6444 | 8075 .9530]| .4913 .6914 | 2.0353 -3086 50 0.4596 20 | .4436 .6470 | .8962 .9524]| .4950 .6946| 2.0204 .3054 40 0.4625 30 | 4462 .6495 | .8949 9518 | .4986 6977 | 2.0057 .3023 30 0.4654 40 | .4488 .6521 | 8936 .9512] .5022 .7009| 1.9912 .299I 20 0.4683 50 | -4514 .6546 | .8923 .9505| .5059 .7040 | 1.9768 2960 10 9.6570 | 8910 9.9499 | .5095 9.7072 | 1.9626 0.2928 | 63°00! | 1.0996 Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. \ 77 SER Tn eS ak <2) COTAN- A COSINES. SINES. GENTS. TANGENTS. SMITHSONIAN TABLES: 33°00! 10 20 30 40 50 3 4°00! 10 20 30 40 50 35°00’ 10 20 30 40 50 36°00! -4874 -4899 -4924 “4950 -4975 5000 ©5025 -5050 -5075 -5100 5125 5150 “5175 -5200 ~5225 5250 +5275 “5299 -5324 -5348 5373 -5398 5422 -5446 -5471 5495 “5519 5544 5508 -5592 .5016 .5640 5064 5688 5712 5736 5760 5783 5807 5931 +5854 -5878 9.7692 SINES. Log. -4540 9.6570 .4506 -4592 .6620 4017 .6644 .4643 .6608 -4609 -4695 9.6716 -4720 -4746 5 -4772 6787 .4797. .6810 -4823 6595 6692 -6740 6763 -6833 .4848 9.6856 6878 Nat. COSINES. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 13 (continued). CIRCULAR (TRIGONOMETRIC) FUNCTIONS. COSINES. Nat. .8910 .8897 8854 8870 8857 8843 8829 8816 8802 8788 8774 .8760 8746 8732 8718 .8704 8689 .8675 .8660 .8646 8631 8616 8601 8587 8572 8557 8542 8526 OS5ir .8496 .8480 8465 8450 8434 8418 8403 8387 8371 8355 8339 8323 .8307 .8290 8274 8258 8241 822 8208 8192 8175 8158 S14 8124 8107 .8090 9-9499 9492 9480 9479 9473 -9400 9.9459 9453 9446 9439 +9432 9425 9.9418 O411 9404 -9397 “9390 9383 9-9375 9308 -9361 9353 9346 9338 9.9331 9323 9315 9308 -9 300 9292 9.9284 -9276 9268 .9260 9252 9244 9.9236 9228 .9219 9211 9203 9194 9.9186 9177 .Q169 9160 .QISI 9142 9-9134 QI 25 .QI16 9107 9098 9089 9.9080 TANGENTS. Log. COTANGENTS. Nat. Log. 3oF 9.7072 7103 7134 7105 7190 -7226 257, 7287 7317 7348 7378 .7408 9.7438 -7467 -7497 7526 7556 7585 9.7614 -7944 7673 7701 7730 7759 9.7788 7816 -7845 -7873 7902 7930 9-795 -7986 -SO14 .8042 .8070 8097 9.8125 8153 8180 .8208 8235 1.9626 0.2928 1.9486 .2897 1.9347 .2866 1.9210 .2835 1.9074 .2804 1.8940 .2774 1.8807 0.2743 1.8676 2713 1.8546 .2683 1.8418 .2652 1.8291 .2622 1.8165 .2592 1.8040 0.2562 E79E7 22533 1.7796 2503 1.7675 .2474 1.7550 .2444 1.7437 +2415 1.7321 0.2386 1.7205 .2356 2327 2299 2270 .2241 0.2212 2184 62155 2127, 2098 2070 2042 2014 1986 -1958 -1930 1903 1.5399 0.1875 1.5301 .1847 1.5204 .1820 1.5108 .1792 1.5013 .1765 1.4919 .1737 1.4826 0.1710 1.4733 -1683 1.4641 .1656 1.4550 .1629 1.4460 .1602 1.4379 -1575 1.4281 0.1548 1.4193 .1521 1.4106 .1494 1.4019 .1467 1.3934 +1441 1.3848 .1414 1.3764 0.1387 Nat. Log. SINES. Nat. Log. TANGENTS. SINES. Nat. 5878 5901 5925 -5945 5972 5995 .6018 6041 6065 -6088 O11 6134 .6157 .6180 .6202 6225 .6248 .6271 6293 6316 -6338 6301 6383 .6406 .6428 6450 .6472 -6494 6517 -6539 6561 6583 .6604 .6626 .6648 .6670 6691 .6713 6734 .67 56 ‘6777 6799 .6820 6841 .6862 6884 -6905 .6926 -6947 .6967 .6988 -7009 -7030 -7050 Log. 9.7692 -7710 7727 7744 7778 9-7795 7811 7828 7844 7861 :7877 9.7893 -7910 7926 7941 “19571 7973 9.7989 .8004 8020 8035 8050 80606 9.8081 8096 SLI 8125 8140 8155 9.8169 8184 8198 8213 8227 8241 9.8255 8269 8283 8297 8311 8324 9.8338 8351 8365 8378 8391 8405 9.8418 8431 8444 8457 8469 8482 9.8495 8090 8073 8050 .8039 8021 8004 .7986 7909 7951 7934 7910 7898 -7880 -7862 7844 -7826 7808 7790 777% 7753 7735 -7716 7698 7679 -7660 -7642 7623 .7604 7585 .7566 7547 7528 -7509 7490 -7470 ‘7451 7431 7412 -7 392 1373 7353 ‘7333 7314 7294 7274 7254 7234 7214 7193 7173 7153 7133 7112 .7092 .7071 -7701 | TABLE 18 (continued). CIRCULAR (TRIGONOMETRIC) FUNCTIONS. COSINES. Nat. 9.9080 9070 -QO6I 9052 9042 9033 9:9923 .QOl4 O04 8995 898 5 8975 9:8965 8955 8945 5935 8925 SQI5 9.8905 8895 88384 8874 .8864 8853 9.8343 88 32 8821 8810 8520 8507 9.8495 | 9435 TANGENTS. Nat. Log. 9.8613 8639 8666 8692 7205 .7310 7355 .7400 7445 .8718 7490 8745 ‘7530 9.8771 7581 .8797 7627. 8824 7673-8850 7720 ~=.8876 .7766 8902 7813 9.8928 -7860 7997 7954 .8002 .8050 8098 8146 8195 8243 8292 8342 8391 8441 8491 8541 8591 8642 .8693 8744 8796 .8847 8899 8952 .9004 ‘9057 -QIIO 9163 -9217 9271 9325, .9380 8950 -9006 -9032 -9058 9.9084 .QIIO -O135 -QIOI 9187 9212 9.9238 9204 9289 9305 9341 9306 9-9392 -9417 9443 .9468 9494 9519 9-9544 9579 9595 9021 .9646 9671 9.9697 .97 22 9747 9772 9798 9823 9.9848 -9874 -9899 9924 9949 -9975 0.0000 9490 9545 .Q601 9657 :97 13 9770 .9827 .9884 9942 1.0000 | 1.3432 8954 | COTANGENTS. Nat. Log. 1.3764 0.1387 680 -1361 uae 1308 1282 1255 0.1229 1203 «1170 -I150 L124 -1098 0.1072 -1046 .1020 0994 .0968 0942 0.0916 .0890 .0865 0839 0813 0785 0.0762 .0736 .O7 11 .008 5 .0659 .0634 0.0608 0583 5557 0532 05006 .0481 0.0456 .0430 0405 0379 0354 0329 0.0303 .0278 0253 .0228 .0202 .0177 0.0152 .0126 O10 .0076 1.3 1.3597 1.3514 1.3351 1.3270 1.3190 Teg Le 1.3032 1.2954 1.2876 1.2799 1.2723 1.2647 1.2572 1.2497 1.2423 1.2349 1.2276 1.2203 1.2131 1.2059 1.1988 1.1918 1.1847 1.1778 1.1708 1.1640 1.1571 1.1504 1.1436 1.1369 1.1303 L287, I.1171 1.1106 1.1041 1-0977 1.0913 1.0850 1.0786 1.0724 1.0661 1.0599 1.0538 1.0477 1.0416 1.0355 1.0295 1.0235 1.0176 1.0117 .OO5I 1.0058 .0025 1.0000 0.0000 Nat. COSINES. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Nat Log. SINES. Nat. Nat. Log. TANGENTS. TABLE 14. 37 CIRCULAR (TRIGONOMETRIC) FUNCTIONS. COSINES. TANGENTS. COTANGENTS. RADIANS. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. |\DEGREES. 0.00000 — 1.00000 0.00000 | — oo —~ a) er) 01000 ~=7.99999 | 0.99995 9.99998 | 0.01000 8.00001 | 99.997 _—-1.99999 02000 8.30100 | .99980 —.9g99I .02000 ~—..30109 | 49.993 69891 03000 =. .47700 | .99955 = -99980 | .03001 = 47725 | 33-323 052275 03999 60194 | .99920 =.99965 | -04002 60229 | 24.987 39771 | d 0.04998 8.69879 | 0.99875 9.99946 | 0.05004 8.6993 3 | 19-983 1.30067 .06 | .05996 ‘77789 99820 -99922 .00007 -77867 16.647 22133 006994 ~=-84474 | .99755 99894 .O7011 84581 | 14.262 -15419 07991 .90263 | .g9680 .g9861 | .08017 .go4o2 | 12.473 09595 08988 .95366 | .99595 -99824 | .09024 .95542 | 11.081 04458 0.09983 8.99928 | 0.99500 9.99782 | 0.10033 9.00145 | 9.9666 0.99855 -10978 9.04052 | .99396 = 99737 | T1045 = .04315 | 9.0542 .9 5655 -IIQ71 07814 | .99281 .99687 | .12058 .08127 | 8.2933 91873 12963 .11272 | .99156 .99632| 13074 .11640| 7.6489 .88360 13954 14471 99022. §=.99573,] -14092 .14898 | 7.0961 85102 0.14944 9.17446 0.98877 9.99510 | 0.15114 9.17937 | 6.6166 0.82063 eREQS2) | | .20227) |) .98723)' .99442) |) «T6136 20785 | 6:1966' “.7o205 16918 —-.22836 | 98558 99369 | -17106 = 23466 | 5.8256 76534 -17903 -25292 98384 .99293 | «18197 .20000 | 5.4954 .74000 18886 .27614 | .98200 .gg2II | .19232 .28402 | 5.1997 «71598 | | .19867 9.29813 | 0.98007 9.99126 | 0.20271 9.30688 | 4.9332 0.69312 20846 -31902 EQ7OORW GOORIN IN «203d, 9.32867) |) 4.6017) | .670133 21823 -33891 | -97590 .98940 | .22362 .34951 | 4.4719 .65049 22798 .35789 | .97367 .98841 | .23414 .36048 2 .63052 .23770 .37003 | .97134 + .98737 | .24472 .38866 : 61134 24740 9.39341 | 0.96891 9.98628 | 0.25534 9.40712 4 0.59288 25708 .41007 | .96639 .98515 | .26002 .42491 | 3. 57509 -26673 .42607 | .96377 .98397 | .27676 44210 i 55790 -27630 = .4 4147 96106 ~—-.98275 .28755 45872 : 54128 28595 45629 | .95824 .98148 | .29841 -47482 f 52518 0.29552 9.47059 | 0.95534 9.98016 | 0.30934 9.49043 | 3- 0.50957 -30506 = -48438 | .95233. 97879 | -32033. -—--50559 | 3- 49441 -31457, 49771 | 94924 ~—- 97737 | -33139 — -52034 | 3- -47966 -32404 .51060] .94604 .97591 | 34252 -53469 ‘9 46531 -33349 —--52308 | -94275 = 97440 | -35374 ~—--54868 | 2. 45132 0.34290 9.53516 | 0.93937 9.97284 | 0.36503 9.56233 | 2.7 0.43767 -35227 -54688 | .93590 = 97123 | -37640 = --57505 | 2. 42435 -30162 = .55825 | .93233. +©=-.96957 | 1.38786 58868 : 41132 37092 ~=—.50928 | .92806 =. .96786. |_-~—«.3909041:~Ss 601 42 : 39858 38019 .58000 | .92491 .96610 | .41105 .61390 , 38610 0.38942 9.59042 | 0.92106 9.96429 | 0.42279 9.62613 : 0.37387 39861 60055 | .91712 .96243| .43463 .63812 .300 30188 .40776 .61041 | .91309 .96051 | .44657 .64989 2. 35011 .41687 .62000 | .90897 ~=.95855 | -45802 .66145 ; 233055 42504 62935 | -90475 95053] -47078 = -67282 | 2. -32718 0.43497 9.63845 | 0.90045 9.95446 | 0.48306 9.68400 ; 0.31600 -44395 64733 | -89605 ~—-.95233. | -49545 69500 | 2. -30500 45289 65599 | 89157-95015. | -50797 «70583 | I. -29417 .46178 .66443| .88699 .94792 | .52061 71051 .92 28349 47063 + «©.67208 | 1.88233 ~=.94563 | -53339 -72704 ‘ 27290 0.47943 9.68072 | 0.87758 9.94329 | 0.54630 9.73743 | I. 0.26257 SINES. Nat. Log. RADIANS. 0.50 | 0.47943 9.68072 Si 48818 68858 .52 | .49688 .69625 =530| SO 553975 54 -51414 .71108 0.52269 ©9.71824 a530LON 72525 “57 | -53963—--73210 .58 54802 .73880 59 | 55036 74536 0.60 0.56464 9.75177 1617}; -57287 «75805 62 | .58104 .76420 63 | .58914 .77022 64 | .59720 ~=.77612 0.60519 9.78189 t (61302) 787154 .67 .62099 ~—-.79308 63 | .62879 79851 69 | .63654 80382 0.70 | 0.64422 9.80903 ay 65183 S144 72 .65938 S1Ql4 73 .60087 82404 74 | .67429 .82885 0.75 | 0.68164 9.83355 70 .68892 83817 a 69614 .84269 78 \-70328| 84713 479 | 271035 285147 0.80 | 0.71736 9.85573 81 | .72429 «859901 82 73115 .80400 83 -73793 .86802 34 | .74464 87195 085 | 0.75128 9.87580 86 | .75784 87958 87 | .76433 — .88328 88 -77074 .88091 89 77707 89046 0.78333 9.89304 gt | .78950 89735 92 -79500 .90070 93 | .80162 .90397 .94 | .80756 .90717 0.95 | 0.81342 9.91031 96 | 81919 .91339 -97 | -82489 —.9 1639 .98 | .83050 = .g 193.4 2901 |p -03003" | .92222 0.84147 9.92504 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. COSINES. Nat. 0.87758 87274 .86782 86281 85771 0.85252 .84726 84190 83646 83094 0.82534 81965 81385 80803 .80210 0.79608 -78999 78382 77757 77125 0.76484 -75830 75151 -74517 73547 0.73169 -72484 71791 .7 1091 70385 0.69671 .68950 .68222 .67 488 .66746 0.65998 -65244 -64483 -63715 -62941 0.62161 61375 60582 -59783 -58979 0.58168 57352 56530 -55702 -54869 0.54030 Log. Nat. 9.94329 | 0.54630 94089 | 55936 -93843 | .57256 ‘93591 | .58592 -93334 | -59943 9.93071 | 0.61311 .g280r | .62095 -92526 | .64097 92245 | .65517 ‘91957 | 66956 9.91663 | 0.68414 91303 | .69892 91056 | .71391 -90743 | -729II 90423 | -74454 9.90096 89762 | .77610 89422 -79225 89074 | .80366 88719 | .82534 9.88357 | 0.84229 87988 | .85953 87611 | .87707 87226 | .89492 86833 | .91309 °* 9.86433 | 0.93160 86024 | .95045 .85607 | .96967 85182 | .98926 84748 | 1.0092 9.84305 | 1.0296 83853 | .0505 -83393 | -0717 82922 | .0934 82443 | .1156 9.81953 | 1.1383 81454 | .1616 80944 | .1853 80424 .2097 -79894 | .2346 9-:79352 | 1.2602 -78799 | .2864 -78234 | -3133 77658 | .3409 -77070 | .3092 9.76469 | 1.3984 75855 | 4254 -75228 | .4592 -74587 | -4910 ‘73933 | +5237 9-73264 | 1.5574 TABLE 14 (continued). CIRCULAR (TRIGONOMETRIC) FUNCTIONS. TANGENTS. Log. Nat. COTANGENTS. Log. DEGREES. 9:73743 74769 -7 5782 -70784 77774 9-787 54 79723 80684 81635 82579 9.83514 34443 85364 -86280 87189 9.88093 88992 89386 -90777 91663 9.92546 -93426 94303 -95175 -Q0051 9.96923 97793 -93062 9.99531 0.00400 0.01268 .02138 .03008 03879 04752 0.05627 00504 .07 384 08266 09153 0.10043 -10937 011835 -12739 13648 0.14563 -15454 -16412 17 347 -18289 0.19240 1.8305 -7978 -7465 -70607 6683 _ .6310 “5950 -5001 5203 4935 .4617 4308 .4007 3715 3431 1.3154 2885 .2622 .2366 2116 _ = .1872 -1634 .1402 1174 0952 1.07 34 .0521 0313 1.0109 0.99084 0.97121 +95197 -93309 “91455 89635 0.87848 0.79355 77738 -70146 74578 -7 3034 0.71511 .70010 68531 .67071 65631 0.64209 0.26257 -25231 24218 .23216 -22226 0.21246 -20277 -19316 18365 17421 0.16486 15557 .14636 13720 -12811 0.11907 -11008 -IOII4 09223 08337 0.07454 .06574 .05097 .04522 -03949 0.03077 .02207 01338 -00469 9.99600 9.94373 -93496 92616 -91734 -90847 9.89957 89003 88165 87261 86352 9.85437 84516 83588 82053 .OI71I 9.80760 0.84147 84683 85211 857 30 .86240 0.86742 87236 87720 85196 88063 0.89121 89570 -QOOLO 90441 90863 0.91276 -91080 92075 92401 92537 0.93204 .93502 939 Io -94249 94578 bbb bb 0.94898 Bb 209 sO5 510 95802 .96084. ° I 3 4 5 6 i 8 9 ate et ioe saline NNN HN ND 0.96356 .96018 .9687 2 O7115 97 345 0.97 572 97786 -97991 98185 98370 0.98545 98710 98365 .QgOIO 99146 0.99271 99387 99492 99588 -9967 4 0.99749 CIRCULAR (TRIGONOMETRIC) FUNCTIONS. 9.92504 -92780 93049 93313 93575 9.93823 -94069 -94310 94545 94774 9.94998 -95216 95429 -95037 -95539 9.96036 96228 -96414 96596 96772 9.96943 -Q7 110 97271 97428 97579 9.97726 97868 -98005 -98137 98265 9.98388 .98 506 -98620 -987 29 98833 9.98933 -99028 -Q9II9 .99205 99286 9.99363 99430 -99504 995608 99627 9.99682 99733 99779 99821 .99858 9.99891 SMITHSONIAN TABLES, TABLE 14 (continued). COSINES. Nat. 0.54030 53186 52337 51452 .50022 0.497 $7 .48857 48012 47133 -40249 0.45360 -44466 .43508 .42066 -417 59 0.40849 “39934 “39005 38092 -37 166 0.36236 SNS 34365 -33424 -32480 0.31532 30582 .29028 28672 27712 gorse 25705 -24818 23848 22875 .219O1 20924 19945 18964 17981 -16997 -I16010 15023 14033 13042 0.12050 11057 .10063 .09067 .0807 I 0.07074 Log. 9.73264 -72580 -718S81 -71165 70434 9.69686 68920 68135 -67 332 .66510 9.65667 -64803 -63917 .63008 6207 5 9.61118 601 34 S525 -58084 57015 9 55o4 -54750 53611 52406 51101 9.49875 -48546 -47170 -45745 ~44207 9.42732 -41137 -39476 37744 -35937 9.34046 32064 29983 -27793 25482 23036 .20440 -17674 -14716 11536 9.08100 .04364 .00271 8.95747 -go692 8.84965 TANGENTS. 0.19240 -20200 21109 .22148 -23137 24138 »25150 20175 .27212 .25204 0.29331 +30413 -31512 -32628 -33763 0.34918 -36093 -37291 38512 -397 57 0.41030 42330 .43060 45022 40418 0.47850 49322 -50835 p20 -53998 0.55056 57309 0.91583 95369 -99508 1.04074 09166 1.14926 COTANGENTS. Nat. 0.64209 -62506 .61420 -60051 58699 0.57362 -56040 54734 53441 52162 0.50897 -49044 -48404 47175 -45959 0.44753 43558 -42373 -41199 .40034 0.38878 +3773! -36593 -35463 -34341 0.33227 32121 31021 .29928 28842 0.27762 .20687 25019 24556 -23498 .22446 .21398 20354 -19315 -18279 .17248 -16220 “15195 14173 13155 12139 SAG -IOII4 09105 .08097 0.07091 Log. 9.80760 -79800 -78831 77952 70863 9.7 5862 -74850 73825 72788 71730 9.70669 -69 587 -68488 -67372 66237 9.65082 -63907 -62709 .61488 60243 9.58970 .57070 “50340 -54978 -53582 9.52150 50678 -49165 .47005 .40002 9-44344 42031 -408 56 39016 “37 104 9-35113 -33030 30865 .28589 -20196 9.23673 -21004 -18170 15147 .11908 9.08417 04631 00492 8.95926 -903834 8.85074 39 40 TABLES 14 (continued) AND 15. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS AND FACTORIALS. TABLE 14 (continued). — Circular (Trigonometric) Functions. COSINES. TANGENTS. COTANGENTS. RADIANS. Nat. Log Nat. Log. Nat. Log. DEGREES. 0.99749 9.99891 | 0.07074 8.84965 I4.IOI 1.14926 | 0.07091 85°57’ 99315 99920 .06076 = -.78361 16.428 .21559 .06087 86 31 99871 .99944.| 05077 — «70505 19.670 .29379| 05084 87 05 99917-99964 -04079 61050 24.498 .38914 .04082 87 40 99953-99979 03079 —-.48843 32.461 .51136 03081 88 14 = Wun oO 0.99978 9.99991 | 0.02079 8.31796 48.078 1.68195 | 0.02080 88°49’ 0.99994 9-99997 .01080 8.03327 92.621 1.96671 .O1080 89 23 1.00000 0.00000 .00080 6.90109 | 1255.8 3.09891 .00080 89 57 0.99996 9.99998 | -.00920 7.96396n | 108.65 2.03603 | -.00920 90 32 0.99982 9.99992 | -.01920 8.28336n 52.067 1.71656] ~.01921 gi 06 0.99957 9.99981 | -0.02920 8.46535n 34-233 1.53444 | -0.02921 91°40’ go°=1.570 7963 radians. TABLE 15.— Logarithmic Factorials. Logarithms of the products 1.2.3. ......#, # from I to 100. See Table 17 for Factorials 1 to 20. See Table 31 for log. Tf (z+ 1), values of 2 between 1 and 2. log (7!) log (7!) | ‘ log (x!) , log (7!) 0.000000 0.301030 0.778151 1.380211 2.079181 26.605619 66.190645 III.275425 28.036983 || 67.906648 113.161916 29.454141 69.630924 I15.054011 30.946539 71.303318 116.951638 32.423060 73.103081 118.854728 a) oh z oo SS RIYA | Ss 33-91 5022 74.851869 120.763213 35-420172 76.607744 2 | 122.677027 | 30.938686 78.371172 124.596105 | 38.470165 $0.142024 4 | 126.520384 40.01 4233 81.920175 128.449803 2.857332 3-702431 4.605521 5.559763 6.559763 7-6011 56 41.570535 83.705505 130.384301 8.680337 43-1387 37 85-497896 132.323521 9.794280 44.718520 87.297237 134.268303 10.940408 46.309585 89.103417 130.217693 1 2.116500 47.91 1645 90.916330 138.171936 ~} b a CO ONO UhwWdE ar w GNarcn rcs _ iS) ane BO 3.320620 49.524429 92.735874 140.1 30977 14.551069 51.147678 94.561949 142.094765 1 5.806341 52.781147 96.394458 144.063248 17-085095 54-424 599 98.233307 146.036376 18.386125 56.077812 | 100.078405 148.014099 19.708344 57-740570 101.929663 149.996371 21.050767 59-412068 103.786996 151.983142 22.412494 61.093909 | 105.650319 153-974308 23-792706 62.784105 | 107.519550 155-970004 25.190646 64.48307 5 109.394612 157.970004 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 0.00000 —oo .01000 8.00001 02000 = .30106 03000 .47719 .04001_ =.60218 0.05002 8.69915 .06004 .77841 .07006 §= .845.45 08009 = .90355 O9OI2 =—-.95453 .IOOI7 9.00072 .1I1022 .04227 .12029 .08022 “13037, .14046 .15056 .16068 .17082 .18097 9.40245 .41986 -43063 45252 .40847 9.48362 -495 30 51254 52037 53991 B357 19) 955290 -36783 — .56564 -37850 —.57807 38921 = .59019 .39996 ~—- .60202 0.41075 9.61358 42158 .62488 43246 .63594 44337 64677 45434 65738 0.46534 9.66777 47640 — .67797 : .48750 .68797 | - 49865 .69779 | -50984 -70744 0.52110 9.71692 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. .00005 .00020 00045 ,00080 00125 .00180 00245 .00320 00405 .00500 .00006 .007 21 .00846 .00982 .O1127 01283 01448 .01624 01810 .02007 02213 02430 .02057 02894 03141 03399 .03067 .03946 04235 CORDS .04544 05164 05495 058306 .06188 .06550 .06923 -07 307 .07702 .08 107 08523 08950 .09388 .09837 102970 .10768 -11250 -11743 12247 1.12763 TABLE 16. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. .00002 .00009 .00020 .00035 0.00054 .00078 .00106 .001 39 .00176 0.00217 .00262 .00312 .00366 00424 0.00487 .00 5,54. .00625 .00700 00779 0.00863 00951 .O1043 01139 01239 0.01343 01452 .O1 504 .O1O8I .O18o01 0.01926 02054 .02187 .02323 02463 0.02607 02755 .02907 03003 03222 0.03385 03552 .03723 03897 0407 5 04256 04441 .04630 .04822 05018 0.05217 tanh. u 0.00000 -O1000 -02000 .02999 03998 0.04996 05993 .00989 07983 .08976 -09967 .10956 -11943 -12927 -13909 .14889 .15865 16835 .17808 -18775 -19738 20097 21652 22003 23550 0.24492 -25430 .26362 27201 28213 .29131 30044 9.37995 -38347 39693 -40532 .41 304 0.42190 43008 43820 44624 45422 0.46212 —o 7-99999 8.30097 -47699 60183 8.69861 727763 84439 90216 ‘95307 8.99856 9.03905 -07710 LNG T -14330 9.17285 20044 .22629 .25062 -27357 420529 “31599 “33949 -35416 37198 9.38902 -40534 -42099 -436001 .45046 9.46436 -47775 -49067 -50314 51518 9.52682 53809 -54899 -55956 50980 9.57973 58936 59971 .60780 61663 9.62521 63355 .64167 64957 65726 9.66475 100.003 50.007 33-343 25-013 20.017 16.687 14.309 12.527 II.141 10.0333 O27 5 8.3733 2.00001 1.69903 1.52301 1.39517 1.30139 22237 15501 .09784 04693 1.00144 0.96035 .92290 88549 85670 0.82715 -79950 77371 -74938 72643 0.70471 .68410 66451 -64554 .62802 0.61098 -59466 57901 -56399 54954 0.53564 5222 50933 .49686 .48482 0.47318 46191 45101 44044 -43020 0.42027 41064 .40129 .39220 -38337 0.37479 -36645 35833 -35043 -34274 0.33525 NNNN WN N Oui BOW NN NNNNN Nv MN WwW + 42 TABLE 16 (continued). HYBERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Nat. Log. Nat. Log. 0.52110 9.71692 | 1.12763 0.05217 | 0.46212 9.66475 0.33525 53240 .72624 -13289 05419 | .46995 .67205 -32795 73540 | -13827 -05625 -47779 .67916 32084 74442 | .14377 -05834 | -48538 — -68608 -31392 75330 | -14938 .06046 | .49299 — -69284 .30716 9.76204 | 1.15510 0.06262 | 0.50052 9.69942 0.30058 -77005 .16094 .06481 .50798 .70584 .29416 7 7OTA || -16090. ', 007034 50530)" 47 EZETa 28789 78751 17297. .06920))|))052207 une 7io22 : -28178 79576 | .17916 .07157 | -52990 .72419 | - 27581 9.80390 | 1.18547 0.07389 | 0.53705 9.73001 | I. .26999 81194 | .19189 .07624 | .54413 -73570] - .26430 81987 | .19844 «07861 ||| .55003. -74025 01 25875 82770 | .20510 .08102| .55805 .74667 | - 25333 83543 | .21189 .08346| .56490 .75197 | - 24803 9.84308 | 1.21879 0.08593 | 0.57167 9.75715 | I. 24.28 5 85063 22582 .08843 | .57836 .76220| . .23780 85809 .23297. .09095 | -58498 .76714| .- 23286 86548 | .24025 .09351 | -59152 -77197 | - 22803 87278 | .24765 .09609 | .59798 .77669| . 2233) 9.88000 | 1.25517 0.09870 | 0.60437 9.78130 | I. 0.21870 88715 | .26282 .10134 | .61068 .78581 : 21419 89423 | .27059 10401 61691 .79022] . -20978 -90123 | .27849 .10670 | .62307 .79453 | - -20547 .go817 | .28652 .10942 | .62915 .79875 | - 20125 9.91504 | 1.29468 0.11216 | 0.63515 9.80288 | I. 0.19712 .92185 | .30297. .11493 | -64108 .80691 : -19 309 .92859 | .31139 -11773 | -64693 + «81086 . -18914 £03527) |, -.31994 . T2055, 05271 61472" | 18528 .94190 | .32862 .12340 | 1.65841 81850] . -18150 0.88811 9.94846 | 1.33743 0.12627 | 0.66404 9.82219 | I. 0.17781 90152 .95498 | .34638 =-12917 | .66959 «= 82581 4 17419 .Q1503 --90144| .35547 -13209 | .67507 82935] . 17065 92863 96784 | .30468 =.13503 | .68048 , 83281 : .16719 04233-97420] .37404 .13800 | .68581 .83620/ . -16380 0.95612 9.98051 .38353 0.14099 | 0.69107 9.83952 | I. 0.16048 97000 98677 | .39316 .14400 | .69626 .84277 | . nig 7i23 98398 .99299 | 40293-14704 | .70137. 84505 | - -15405 99806 .99916 | 41284 -15009 | .70642 84900 | . -15094 1.01224 0.00528 | .42289 15317] .71139 .85211 | - -14789 1.02652 0.01137 | 1.43309 0.15627 | 0.71630 9.85509 | I. 0.14491 04090 .O1741 | .44342 .15939 | -72113 -85801 | . 14199 02341 45390 «16254 | .72590 86088 | . 13912 ,02937 | .40453. .16570 | .73059 86368 | 368 13632 03530 | .47530 .16888 | .73522 .86642] - 13358 0.04119 | 1.48623 0.17208 | 0.73978 9.86910 | I. 0.13090 04704 | -40720° 17530 | -74428 9.87173 ||| - 12827 05286 | .so8sr 17855 .74870 ~—-«.87431 ‘| .12569 05864 | .51988 18181 75307 ~—-«.87683 ARIUT) 06439 | .53141 «18509 | .75736 .87930 .12070 I.17§20 0.07011 | 1.54308 0.18839 | 0.76159 9.88172 0.11828 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 16 (continued). 43 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Nat. Log. Nat. ‘ Nat. Log. .17520 0.070II | 1.54308 o. 0.76159 9.88172 | I. 0.11828 .19069 .07580 | .55491_ «. -76576 88409] . 11591 -20630 .08146 | .56689 . 76987 .88642 | .298 11358 22203 .08708 | .57904 . .77391 88869 | .292 AII31 23788 .09268]} .59134 . 77789 ~=.89092 | . .10908 25386 0.09825 | 1.60379 0. 0.78181 9.89310 | I. 0.10690 20990) -10379 || . <51716)|) .9526589)) 978054). 02105 .16709 .50066 | .3212E .52130 | -95359 .97930| - .02064 -20046 .50521 | -35305 -52544 | -95449 97977 | - -02023 -23415 — .§0976 | .38522 .52959 | -95537 98017 | .01983 .26816 0.51430 | 3.41773 0.53374 0.95624 9.98057 0.01943 30250 ©.51884 | .45058 .53789 | .95709 -9809 5 01905 33718» .52336 |. 48376. .54205'|] 95792) 7.08133 .01867 37218 = .52791 oh 33 a 5402 95873 .98170 .01830 40752 .53244 | -55123 -55038 | .95953 — .98206 01794 1.95 | 3.44321 0.53696 | 3.58548 0.55455 | 0.96032 9.98242 0.01758 96 | .47923 .54148 | .62009 .55872 | .96109 .98276 .01724 97 | .51561 .54600] .65507 «562 96185 .98311 .01689 298 II) 355234: 1 JS5O5T 69041. .96259 -98344 : .01656 SOOM e5OO42) = 55502 al, .72O0L wae .96331 .98377 01623 2.00 | 3.62686 0.55953 | 3.76220 0.57544 | 0.96403 9.98409 0.01591 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Nat. 3.62686 66466 -70283 .74138 .78029 3.81958 *'85926 89932 93977 .gSo61 4.02186 .06350 -10555 .14801 19089 -23419 27791 .32205 .36663 41165 4.45711 -50301 54936 -59617 64344 4.69117 -7 3937 78804 83720 88684 4.93696 .987 58 5.03870 .09032 14245 5.19510 24827 .30196 35018 .41093 5.46623 52207 .57847 -63542 69294 5-7 5103 .50969 86893 .92876 .98918 6.05020 0.55953 -50403 56853 57393 -57753 0.58202 58650 59099 59547 -59995 0.60443 .60890 .61337 -61784 62231 0.62677 .63123 -63569 64015 .64460 0.64905 -65350 65795 .66240 .66684 0.67128 67572 68016 68459 .68903 0.69346 -69789 -70232 .7067 5 GG) 0.71559 .7 2002 72444 72885 73327 0.73769 -74210 -74652 -75093 75534 0.75975 70415 -70856 .77296 77737 0.78177 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 16 (continued). HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Nat. 3.76220 -79865 83549 87271 .Q1032 3-94832 98671 4.02550 .00470 10430 4.14431 .18474 22558 2668 5 30855 4.35067 39323 43023 -47967 52350 4.56791 .61271 65797 -70379 .74989 4.79657 84372 891 36 93948 .98810 5.03722 08684 .13697 .18762 .23878 5.29047 -34269 39544 -44873 .50250 5.55695 61189 .66739 72346 -78010 5.83732 89512 95352 6.01250 .07 209 6.13229 Log. 0.57544 57963 58382 58802 .§9221 0.59641 .60061 .60482 .60903 61324 0.61745 .62167 .62589 63011 63433 0.63856 .64278 .64701 65125 .65545 0.65972 .66396 -66820 .67244 .67668 0.68093 68518 68943 69368 -69794 0.70219 -70645 -71071 ‘71497 -71923 0.72349 72770 73293 -73630 -74056 0.74484 ‘74911 -75338 -75766 76194 0.76621 +77049 -77477 -77906 -78334 0.78762 tanh. u Nat. 0.96403 96473 90541 .g6609 -9067 5 0.96740 -90803 96865 -.96926 96986 0.97045 97 103 97159 97215 97269 0.97 323 97375 97426 97477 97526 0.97 574 .97622 -97668 ‘97714 97759 0.97803 .97846 .97888 97929 97970 0.98010 .98049 .98087 .g8124 .QS161 0.98197 98233 98267 .98301 98335 0.98367 .98400 .98431 .98462 98492 0.98522 98551 -98579 .98607 198635 0.98661 Log. 9.98409 -98440 .98471 .98502 98531 9.98560 -98589 .98617 -98644 .9867 1 9.98697 98723 98748 -98773 98795 9.98821 98845 .98868 .988g90 .98gI2 9.98934 -98955 .9897 5 98990 -99016 9-99035 99054 -99°73 .99091 .99 10g 9-99127 99144 .QQIOI 99178 99194 9299210 99226 99241 99256 99271 9.99285 -99299 -99313 -99327 -99340 9.99353 99366 99379 99391 99403 9:99415 0.01591 .01 500 .O1 529 .01498 01469 0.01440 OI4IT 01383 01350 -01 329 0.01303 -01277 01252 .O122 01202 0.01179 -O1155 O11 32 .OLIIO -01088 0.01066 01045 .01025 -O1004 00984 0.00965 .00946 .00927 .00909 00891 0.0087 3 .00856 .00839 00822 .00806 0.00790 .00774 007 59 .007 44 007 29 0.00715 00701 .00687 .00673 .00660 0.00647 .00634 00621 .00609 -00597 0.00585 45 46 TABLE 16 (continued). HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. 6.05020 0.78177 | 6.13229 0. : 9.99415 -11183~— «78617 “1Q310)" : 99426 17407 «79057 | -25453 . 99438 -23092 79497 | 31053 . 99449 -30040 .79937 | -37927__- ‘ -99460 6.36451 0.80377 | 6.44259 0. y 9.99470 -42926 80816 | .50656 . . -99481 49464 81256] .57118 . : -99491 -56068 .81695 | .63646 . : 99501 62738 .82134 | .70240 . : .QQ511 6.69473 0.82573 | 6.76901 o. 2 | 0.98903 9.99521 -76276 ~=.83c12 | .83629 ~=—.8 348 98924 .99530 83146 8 3451 90426. -98946 99540 9008 5 8 B8G0) | .O7202) | li. .98966 =—.99 549 97092 84329 | 7.04228. 98987 = .99558 7:04169 0.84768 | 7.11234 0.85201 | 0.99007 9.99566 -EL3Z07 | 85206) || Y-16312) 85637 al) £99026)" "2905715 -18536 .85645 | .25461 .86061 | .99045 .99583 25827 86083 | .32683 .86492 | .99064 .9gQ592 33190 ~©=.86522 | .39978 + ~=—«.86922 | .99083 = .gg600 7.40626 0.86960 | 7.47347 0.87352 | 0.9910I 9.99608 | TI. 0.00392 48137 87398 -54791 99118 .gg615 | . 00385 55722 87536 62310 .882 99136 .99623] - .00377 .63383 .88274 | .69905 . = 067s] ea for the probable error of the arithmetic mean. 0.1947 | 0.1508 | 0.1231 0500 | .0465 | .0435 .0287 0275 0265 .020I | .0196 | .O190 0155 | .o152]} .0148 0.0126 | 0.0124 | 0.0122 .o106 | .o105 | .0103 .0092 .009I .0089 .0081 .0080 | .0079 .0072 | .0071 .007 1 TaBLeE 27.—LEAST SQUARES. Values of the factor 0.84531/ pele, n(n—1) for the probable error of a single observation. =u This factor occurs in the approximate equation x = Sian n\w—T 0.2440 | 0.1890 | 0.1543 | 0.1304 | 0.1130 | 0.0996 .0627 | .0583 | .0546 | .0513,| .0483 | .0457 .0360 | .0345 | .0332 | .0319 | .0307 | .0297 0252)|) .0245 | .0238°|') .0232))|' .0225))) N.o220 .0194 | .0190 | .o186 | .o182 | .0178 | .0174 0.0158 | 0.0155 | 0.0152 | 0.0150 | 0.0147 | 0.0145 -O133 |/~-O131 ||| 0129) ||| 20127) || .0125)) s.oreg OLN | \.O1EZ || |-0112) | \-Orrn)||\.O109) | sores O10! 0100 | .0099 | .00o98 | .0097 | .0096 .0090 | .0089 | .0089 | .0088 | .0087 | .0086 TABLE 28.—LEAST SQUARES. Values of 0.8453 ee! ny n—1 1 This factor occurs in the approximate equation ies 2 SASS eae for the probable error of the arithmetical mean. w—rI 0.1993 | 0.1220 | 0.0845 | 0.0630 | 0.0493 0188 | .0167 | .o1si | .0136 | .o124 .0078 | .0073 | .0069 | .0065 | .0061 £0045 | .0043 |] .0041 | .0040 | .0038 0030 | .0029 | .0028 | .0027 | .0027 0.0022 | 0.0022 | 0.0021 | 0.0020 | 0.0020 0017 | .0017 | .0o16 | .co16 | .0016 OOD4! || FOOT) ||) LOOIs "|| 0013" cor .oo1t | .oort | .oo11 | .oorr | .oor0 .0009 | .0009 | .0009 | .0009 | .0009 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 29. 59 LEAST SQUARES. Observation equations : ayZ1 + byz2 +... 142q = Mj, weight py agZ1 + beze +... Iezq = Me. weight pe anzZy + Daze =faet a cet n2q = My, weight Pa. Auxiliary equations : [paa] =pia? +peaz +... pnaZ. [pab] = piaiby aF P2agbe 1p 80 0 Pnanbn. [paM] = p1aiMj + peagM2 + . . . pnanMn. Normal equations : [paa]z, + eh .. . [pal]zq = [paM] [pab]z; + [pbb]z,. +... [pbl]zq =[pbM] [pla]z: + [plb]z2 ay .. [pl]Jzq = [pIM]. Solution of normal equations in the form, 2 ee + B,[pbM] =tearskatl L,[pIM] Zz = Ag|paM] + Be[pbM] +... L»[plM] 2q = An[paM] + Bn[pbM] + . . . Ln{pIM], weight of z; = pz1 = (Ai)—'; probable error of z} =——— V/ Pz r weight of zo = pzz = (Bz)—!; probable error of zp =——__ V Pz, weight of zq = pa (In); probable error of zq=—— VPzq wherein r = probable error ss observation of weight unity Bye - (q unknowns.) = oe Arithmetical mean, n observations: S v2 2NE ISSEY (approx.) —=probable error of ob- r =0.6745 ere n—I /nn—t i servation of weight unity. — 0.8453 Dv Yo = 0.674 = ——>=—— (approx.) = probable error ‘ Vn a nVn—I of mean. Weighted mean, n observations: = Zpv? a p v? r= 067454] aa Foia = =0.6745 Gaia p Probable error (R) of a function (Z) of several observed quantities zj, ze, . . . whose probable errors are respectively, ry, ra, . . = f (z, Za, . oe) ee Reghst Ga) re Z=mytzwt... Ree eee Ze AZ Azar t cin, « R? =A? 1? + Ber . Examples : 2 2 Z = Zz Zo. R? =z, 1, + ze ty | SMITHSONIAN TaBLes, 60 TABLE SO. DIFFUSION. 2 q * =I — — —7 Inverse * values of v/e =1— 7 a e—V aq. log « =log (2g) +log./4é. ¢ expressed in seconds. = log 6+ log,/Aé. ¢ expressed in days. = log y + log ./&z. “ “ years, & = coefficient of diffusion.t ¢ = initial concentration. v = concentration at distance x, time 4 log 2g log 6 6 logy +00 -- co +o co 0.56143 | 3- 3.02970 | 1070.78 || 4.31098 HL ZLO | 3s 2.98545 | 967.04 || .26674 .48699 | 3. 95525 | 902.90 -23054 -46306 | 2. 93132 | 853-73 212601 0.44276 | 2. 2.91102 | 814.74 |] 4.19231 42486 | 2. 89311 | 781.83 .17440 .40865 | 2. 87691 | 753.20 || .15820 39372 | 2- 86198 | 727.75 -14327 -37979 | 2: .84804 | 704.76 || .12933 0.36664 | 2. 2.83490 | 683.75 || 4.11619 35414 | 2. 82240 | 664.36 || .10369 34218 | 2. 81044 | 646.31 -09173 33067 | 2. -79893 | 629.40 .08022 31954 | 2. .78780 | 613.47 || -06909 0.30874 | 2. 2.77699 | 598.40 || 4.05828 20S 20g ele -70047 | 584.08 .04776 28793 | I. 75619 | 570.41 .03748 27786 | I. -74612 557-34 .02741 .26798 | 1.853 73024 | 544.80 01753 0.25825 | I. 2.72651 | 532.73 || 4.00780 -24866 | 1.772 .71692 | 521.10 || 3.99821 -23919 | I. 70745 | 509.86 || .98874 .22983 | 1.69 .69808 | 498.98 || .97937 22055 | I. .68880 | 488.43 || .97010 0.21134 | I. 2.67960 | 478.19 || 3.96089 -20220 | I. -67046 | 468.23 || .95175 *LQ3T2 |) Te 66137 | 458.53 || -94266 .18407 | 1.52 65232 | 449.08 93361 -17505 | I. 64331 | 439-85 || .92460 0.16606 | I. 2.63431 | 430.84 |] 3.91560 15708 | I. 62533 | 422.02 .go662 -14810 | I. 61636 | 413.39 || .890765 13912 | I. .60738 | 404.93 || .88867 13014 | I. 59840 | 390.64 87969 0.12114 | I. 2.58939 | 388.50 || 3.87068 STZ .58037 | 380.51 86166 -10305 | I. 57131 | 372.66 || .85260 09396 | 1.22 .§6222 | 364.93 84351 108482 | I. -55308 | 357-34 || -83437 0.07563 | I. 2.54389 | 349.86 || 3.82518 .06639 | I. 53464 | 342-49 || .81593 05708 | I. 52533 | 335-22 || -80662 .04770 | I. -51595 | 328.06 79724 03824 | I. .50050 | 320.99 78779 0.02870 | I. 2.49696 | 314.02 || 3.77825 01907 | I. 48733 | 307-13 || -76862 .00934 | 1.02 .47760 | °300.33 || .75889 9-99951 | ©. -46776 | 293.60 || .74905 98956 | o. 45782 | 286.96 || .73911 9.97949 | 0. 2.44775 | 280.38 || 3.72904 * Kelvin, Mathematical and Physical Papers, vol. III. p. 428; Becker, Am. Jour. of Sci. vol. III. 1897, p. 280. + For direct values see table 23. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, TABLE 30 (continued). 61 DIFFUSION. log 2¢ 29 log § log y 9.97949 | 0.95387 || 2.44775 3+72904 96929 | -93174 || -43755 71884 95896 | .90983 42722 ; 70851 94848 | 88813 41674 : 69803 93784 | .80665 40010 : 68739 9.92704 | 0.84536 || 2.39530 . 3-67659 .91607 | .82426 || .38432 | 242.2 66561 -90490 | 80335 || .37316 65445 89354 | -78260 36180 : -64309 88197 | .76203 35023 : 63152 9.87018 | 0.74161 || 2.33843 : 3-61973 85815 | -72135 || .32640 : .60770 84587 | .70124 31412 , 59541 83332 | .68126 || .30157 ; 58286 82048 | .66143 || .28874 4. 57003 9-807 34 0.64172 |] 2.27560 ‘ 3.55089 79388 | .62213 || .26214 5 54343 -78008 | .60266 || .24833 : 52962 -76590 | .58331 23416 : 251545 75133 | -56407 || -21959 . .50085 9:73634 | 0.54493 || 2.20459 3-48588 -72089 52588 eISQI5 ’ -47044 70495 | 50094 || .1732I | 149. -45450 68849 | .48808 15075 3: 43804 -67146 | .46931 13972 : .42101 9.65381 | 0.45062 || 2.12207 ; 3.40336 -63550 | -43202 || .10376 : -38505 -61646 | .41348 .08471 aby -30600 .59662 | .39502 06487 ! 34616 -57590 | .37662 || .04416 ; 32545 9.55423 | 0.35829 || 2.02249 ; 3.30378 “53150 | -34001 || 1.99975 94 28104 50758 | .32180 || .97584 k -25713 48235 | .30363 || -95061 : .23190 45504 | -28552 || -.92389 : .20518 9.42725 | 0.26745 || 1.89551 : 3.17680 39695 | .24943 || -86521 : 14650 -30445 | -23145 83271 : .11400 32940 | .21350 -79766 i .07895 -29135 | -19559 || -75901 . 3.04090 9.24972 | 0.17771 |] 1.71797 23 2.99926 20374 | .15986 || .67200 : 95329 15239 | .14203 .62065 : -QOT94 09423 | .12423 56249 : 84378 9.02714 | .10645 || -49539 : .77068 8.94783 | 0.08868 || 1.41609 | 26. 2.69738 85082 | .07093 31907 5 .60036 72580 | .05319 || .19406 d 47535 -54965 | .03545 01791 : 29920 24859 | .01773 || 9.71684 5; 1.99813 —ao 0.00000 —o 0.00000 —o SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 62 TABLE 31. CAMMA FUNCTION.* eo Value of log Hf eta" dx +10. 0 oo Values of the logarithms + 10 of the ‘‘ Second Eulerian Integral ’’ (Gamma function) e-*z"—ldx or log I(n)+10 for values of x between 1 and 2. When z se values not lying between 1 and 2 the value of the function can be readily calculated from the equation I'(#z+1) = xI(7z) = n(z—1) . . « (u—v)I(x—7). 9.99 ——— 75287 51279 27964 05334 9-9883379 62089 41455 21469 02123 9-9783407 65313 47534 30962 14689 9.9699007 83910 69390 55440 42054 9.9629225 16946 05212 594015 83350 9-957 3211 63592 54487 45891 37798 9-9539203 23100 10485 10353 04698 9-949951 5 94800 90549 86756 $3417 9.9480528 78084 76081 74515 73382 * Legendre’s “Exercises de Calcul Intégral,’’ tome ii. SMITHSON!AN TABLES. x “4 . ae i = ae ely TABLE 31 (continued). 6 3 CAMMA FUNCTION. 0 9-9472677 | 72 72 72459 72397 aa 3 72 < ds 2 Vf 2432 2 72539 2 l 2 rd 2 72824 73°97 ¥ nee 3 73630 es 74848 9-947 5449 | 7 9 76292 | 76473 77237 27 2 / 82 78502 79426 29912 S09 32 82015 2 2 3457 83758 84995 2 2 38 | 86977 9.9488374 | 88733 208 | 90587 92139 | 9253 2 : 94166 | 94583 96289 2 98963 500822 2 2 5 03723 95733 25 7 28 33 08860 9-9511020 2122 14372 16680 2 20254 22710 | 2 5 26504 29107 | 297 3 2442 | 33120 35867 | 3 372 3 | 40097 | BO48 |), 51230 | 52 eiae 2 | 55127 52505 53 63174 66491 2 8 71571 75028 27 | 80317 9.9583912 2 I 4 | 89409 93141 9502 692 98843 Bee 25 | 08618 12622 2 18730 22869 | 23912 | 2 28 29178 9.963345! 2 39959 44364 F 2 Puede 55 2509 OY A841, 083 2 | 74274 79070 | 802 3 86361 ee 252 98770 11498 24542 37900 51571 9.97 57126 “<< ae 65551 Ae eenNen = 79839 ened 2960 | 94433 800356 2 327 | 09331 15374 ~ 22 24530 9.9830693 | 32242 3 40028 46311 2642 232 | 55825 62226 | 6383 702 51917 78436 3 5002 88302 94938 2 5 04950 9.911732 | 1342 2 piaae 28815 322 2 39202 po 3 2 50744 aoe 2 2774 | 74570 81779 2 92678 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 64 WO ON On PWhH =O ZONAL SPHERICAL HARMONICS.* P, -+ 1.0000 9995 -9952 9959 9927 + 0.9886 9836 9777 9709 9633 + 0.9548 9454 9352 9241 QI 22 + 0.8995 .8860 8718 8568 8410 + 0.8245 8074 -7895 7710 7518 + 0.7321 LG, .6908 6694 6474 + 0.6250 .6021 5788 -5551 5310 + 0.5065 .4818 -4567 4314 -4059 + 0.3802 “3544 3284 -3023 .2762 + 0.2500 2238 -1977 1716 1456 + 0.1198 TABLE 32. — 0.4102 4022 -3877 3071 -3409 — 0.30096 2738 -2343 1918 1470 — 0.1006 Tar OOS5 — .0064 + .0398 + .0846 + 0.1271 .1667 -2028 +2350 .2026 + 0.2854 * Calculated by Mr. C. E. Van Orstrand for this publication. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 32 (continued). 6 5 ZONAL SPHERICAL HARMONICS. — 0.2545 2235 -IQIO : : 1571 5878 O18 : 398 1223 + 0:5736 : : ; — 0.0868 "5592 : . . — .0509 5446 : é ; — .o150 +5299 : . : + .0206 5150 : : . + .0557 + 0.5000 |—0.1250 : : -++ 0.0898 4848 1474 ; : .1229 4695 -1694 . 2 “1545 4540 -190) -1844 4384 ZULU . ; 2123 + 0.4226 |—0.2321 ; ; ++ 0.2381 4007 2518 ; ; 2015 3907 2710 5 : 2824 3746 -2895 : : -3005 3594 3074 : : 3158 + 0.3420 |—0.3245 : ; + 0.3281 3256 3410 -402 : 3373 -3090 +3568 , : 3434 -2924 3718 : : +3463 .2750 -3860 , ; 3461 + 0.2588 |—0.3995 : : + 0.3427 f — 0.2730 -2419 4122 6 : -3362 : 2850 2250 4241 ; ; 3267 : 2921 .2079 4352 : . -3143 : 2942 1908 -4454 : : -2990 : 2913 + 0.1736 |—0.4548 : : + 0.2810 : — 0.2835 1564 4633 : .2606 2708 1392 4709 : ‘ .2378 5 .2530 1219 4777 ; : 2129 : .2321 1045 .4836 : : 1861 : 2007 + 0.0872 |—0.4886 ; ; + 0.1577 : — 0.1778 .0698 -4927 : : 1278 : .1460 0523 : Z 36. .0969 : HI, 0349 ; : ; 0651 0755 0175 -4995 ; ; 0327 0381 + 0.0000 |—0.5000 E ; + 0.0000 — 0.0000 SMITHSONIAN TABLES, 66 TABLE 33. ELLIPTIC INTEGRALS. Z +} Values of ir 2(1—sin? 6 sin? ¢)~* dd. 0 This table gives the values of the integrals between o and m /2 of the function (1—sin?6 sin?g)*? d> for different val- ues of the modulus corresponding to each degree of 8 between o and go. 7 deb 7 , T db T f SS 7(1—sin*Osin2$)*dp f gE Ea SNE z( 1—sin?@sin%}) ap 0 (1—sin? @ sin? $3 0 6 (1—sin7@ sin? ) 0 Number. Number. Log. Number. Log. Number. Log. O° 1.5708 |0.196120 | 1.5708 | 0.196120 1.8541 | 0.268127 | 1.3506 | 0.130541 5709 | 196153 | 5707 196087 8691 271644 | 3418 | 127690 5713 196252 | 5703 195988 8848 275267 | 3329 124788 5719 196418 5697 195822 gorl 279001 3238 121836 5727 196649 5089 195591 g180 282848 | 3147 118836 GQ FfHwnrROoO ° .5738 |0.196947 | 1.5678 | 0.195293 1.9356 |0.28681r | 1.3055 | 0.115790 5751 | 197312 | 5665 | 194930 9539 | 290895 | 2963 | 112698 5767 | 197743 | 5649 | 194500 9729 | 295101 | 2870 | 109563 5785 | 19824r | §632 | 194004 9927 | 299435 | 2776 | 106386 5805 198806 5011 193442 2.0133 303901 2081 103169 [e} Oo Oo ONO = .5828 |0.199438 | 1.5589 | 0.192815 2.0347 | 0.308504 | 1.2587 | 0.099915 5854 200137 | 5564 192121 os71 313247 | 2492 096626 5982 200904 191362 0504 318138 2307 093303 59013 201740 190537 1047 323182 | 2301 089950 5940 202643 6 189646 1300 | 328384 | 2206 | 086569 oO # .5981 | 0.203615 0.188690 2.1565 | 0.333753 | 1.2111 | 0.083164 6020 204657 187668 1842 339295 2015 079738 6061 205768 186581 2132 | 345020 | 1920 | 076293 6105 200948 185428 2435 | 350936 | 1826 | 072834 6151 208200 2 184210 2754 357053 1732 069364 SO CONaun AWNDH Oo tO .6200 | 0.209522 0.182928 2.3088 | 0.363384 | 1.1638 | 0.065889 6252 210916 181580 3439 | 369940 | 1545 | 062412 6307 212382 180168 3509 376736 | 1453 | 058937 6365 213921 178691 4198 383787 1362 055472 6426 215533 177150 4610 391112 1272 052020 ° i} Q fPwnd# 6490 | 0.217219 0.175545 2.5046 |.0.398730 | 1.1184 | 0.048589 6557 173876 5507 | 406665 | 1096 | 045183 6627 172144 5098 | 414943 | Io1r | 041812 6701 170348 6521 423596 0927 038481 6777 3 168489 7081 432660 | 0844 035200 Oo ON O a °o ° 6858 | 0. 0.166567 2.7681 | 0.442176 [1.0764 | 0.031976 6941 22 164583 8327 452196 | 0686 | 028819 7028 162537 9026 462782 oor! 025740 7119 160429 9786 | 474008 | 0538 | 022749 7214 158261 3.0617 485967 | 0468 019858 ° Qo WOON AGT fWNH -7312 |0. 0.156031 3.1534 | 0.498777 | 1.0401 | 0.017081 7415 153742 2553 | 512591 | 0338 | 014432 7522 151393 3099 527613 | 0278 O11927 7633 148985 5004 | 544120 | 0223 | 009584 7748 146519 6519 562514 o172 007422 Oo » PwWHHO 7868 | 0.252068 0.143995 3.8317 | 0.583396 | 1.0127 | 0.005465 7992 255085 141414 4.0528 607751 0086 003740 8122 | 258197 138778 3387 | 637355 | 0053 | 002278 8256 | 261406 136086 7427 | 676027 | 0026 | oorI2I 8396 | 264716 133240 5-4349 | 735192 | 0008 | 000326 i» a oO 1.8541 | 0.268127 0.130541 oo © 1.0000 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 34. 67 MOMENTS OF INERTIA, RADII OF GYRATION, AND WEIGHTS. In each case the axis is supposed to traverse the centre of gravity of the body. The axis is Body. Sphere of radius ~ Spheroid of revolution, po- lar axis 2a, equatorial di- ameter 27 Ellipsoid, axes 2a, 24, 2c Spherical shell, external ra- dius 7, internal 7’ Ditto, insensibly thin, ra- dius 7, thickness dy Circular cylinder, length 2a, radius + Elliptic cylinder, length 2a, transverse axes 26, 2¢ Hollow circular cylinder, length 2a, external ra- dius 7, internal rv’ Ditto, insensibly thin, thick- ness dr Circular cylinder, length 2a, radius 7 Elliptic cylinder, length 2a, transverse axes 2a, 26 Hollow circular cylinder, length 2a, external ra- dius 7, internal 7’ Ditto, insensibly thin, thick- ness dr Rectangular prism, dimen- sions 2a, 20, 2¢ Rhombic prism, length 2a, diagonals 2é, 2¢ 1| Ditto SMITHSONIAN TABLES, Axis. Diameter Polar axis Axis 2a Diameter Diameter Longitudinal axis 2a Longitudinal axis 2a Longitudinal axis 2a Longitudinal axis 2a Transverse diameter Transverse axis 2d Transverse diameter Transverse diameter Axis 2a Axis 2a Diagonal 24 (Taken from Rankine.) one of symmetry. The mass of a unit of volume is w. Weight. 4mrwy3 3 4nrwart 3 4mwabe 3 4mzw (73—r’8) 3 4nwredr 2mrwar2 2mwabe 2mwa (72—y!2) 4nrwardr 2rwar? 2mwabe 2mwa(r2—r!2) 4nwardr Swadbe 4wabe 4wabe Moment of Inertia Io. Sarzw75 15 8rwart 15 4mwabc(b2-+-¢2) 15 8rw(7r5—r!5) 15 8rwrtdr 3 mrwar* mwabc(b2-¢2) 2 mwa(rt—r'4) 4nrwaredr mwar?(372-+ 4a) 6 muwabc(3c?-+-4a?) 6 Twa 6 meva(er8-4a%r dr +4a2%(r2—r2) j 3(A— 74) 8wabc(b2+-c?) 3 2wabc(b?+-c?) 3 2wabc(c?+-2a?) 3 Square of Ra- dius of Gyra- tion pz. 2r2 Q2 72 4 3 a a Aa 3 y2tyl2 gt 4 3 v2 Qt eg 3 24.2 6 TaBLe 35. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 68 The strength of most materials varies so that the following figures serve only as a rough indication of the strength of a particular sample. TABLE 35 (a). — Metals. TABLE 35 (b). — Stones.* Name of Metal. Aluminum wire Brass wire Bronze wire, phosphor, hard- drawn Bronze drawn Bronze: Cu, 58.54 parts ; Zn, 38.70; Al, 0.21; with 2.55 parts of the alloy, Sn, 29.03, wrought iron, 58.06, ferro- manganese, 12.91 Copper wire, hard-drawn Gold wire Iron, cast “wire, hard-drawn ce “annealed Lead, cast or drawn Palladium * Platinum * wire Silver * wire Steel “ wire, maximum “ Specially treated nickel- steel, approx. comp. 0.40 C; 3.25 Ni; treatment secret “ piano diam. “ piano wire, 0.051 in. diam. Tin, cast or drawn Zinc, cast “drawn wire, silicon, hard- wire, 0.033 in. Tensile strength in pounds per sq. in. 30000-40000 50000-1 50000 I I[O000—1I 40000 95000-11 5000 60000-7 5000 60000-70000 20000 I 3000-33000 80000-1 20000 50000-60000 2600-3300 39000 50000 42000 80000-330000 460000 250000 357000-390000 32 5000-3 37000 4000-5000 7000-1 3000 22000-30000 Size of test Material. ; piece. Marble Tufa Brownstone Sandstone Granite Limestone 4 in. cubes Resistance to crushing in pds. per sq. in. 7600-20700 7700-11600 7300-23600 2400-29300 9700-34000 6000-25000 * Data furnished by the U. S. Geological Survey. TABLE 365 (c). — Brick.* Resistance to crushing in pds. per sq. in. Kind of Brick. Tested flatwise. Soft burned Medium burned Hard burned Vitrified Sand-lime 1800-4000 4000-6000 6000-8 500 8500-25000 1500-4000 tensile strength of between I1 pounds per square inch. According to Boys, quartz fibres have a 6000 and 167000 * Authority of Wertheim. Coarse Aggregate. Sandstone Cinders Limestone Conglomerate Trap Tested on edge. 1600-3000 3000-4500 4500-6500 6500-20000 Brick piers laid up in 1 part Portland cement, 3 of sand, have from 20 to 40 per cent the crushing strength of the brick. * Data furnished by the U. S. Geological Survey. TABLE 365 (d). — Concretes.* Proportions by volume. Cement: sand: aggregate. to “ Resistance to Size of test piece. n per sq. in. 2 in. cube Pr “ 1550-3860 790-2050 1200-2840 1080-38 30 820-2960 * Data furnished by the U. S. Geological Survey. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. crushing in pds. TABLE 36. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Average Results of Timber Tests. The test pieces were SMALL and SELECTED. Endwise compression tests of some of the first lot, made when green and containing over 4o per cent moisture, showed a diminishing in strength of 50 to 75 per cent. See also Table 37. A particular sample may vary greatly from these data, which can indicate only in a general way the relative values of a kind of timber. Note that the data below are from selected samples and therefore probably high. The upper lot are from the U.S. Forestry circular No. 15; the lower from the tests made for the roth U. S. Census. NAME OF SPECIES. Long-leaf pine Cuban pine Short-leaf pine Loblolly pine White pine Red pine Spruce pine Bald cypress White cedar Douglass spruce White oak Overcup oak Post oak Cow oak Red oak Texan oak Yellow oak Water oak Willow oak Spanish oak Shagbark hickory Mockernut hickory Water hickory Bitternut hickory Nutmeg hickory Pecan hickory Pignut hickory White elm Cedar elm White ash Green ash Sweet gum Poplar Basswood Ironwood Sugar maple White maple Box elder Black walnut Sycamore $ Hemlock Red fir Tamarack Red cedar Cottonwood Beech SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TRANSVERSE TESTS. COMPRESSION. Modulus | Modulus of : - | Alon of rupture.| elasticity. il te Bra i ey Brain. a Ib./sq. in. | lbs./sq. in. s-/sq. in.| Ibs./sq. in. Ibs./sq. in. 12,600 | 2,070,000 8,000 1260 835 13,600 | 2,370,000 8,700 1200 770 10,100 | 1,680,000 6,500 1050 770 11,300 | 2,050,000 7,400 1150 800 7,900 | 1,390,000 5,400 700 400 9,100 | 1,620,000 6,700 1000 500 10,000 | 1,640,000 7,300 1200 800 7,900 | 1,290,000 | 6,000 800 500 6,300 910,000 5,200 700 400 7,900 | 1,680,000 5,700 Soo 500 13,100 | 2,090,000 8,500 2200 1000 11,300 | 1,620,000 | 7,300 1900 1000 12,300 | 2,030,000 7,100 3000 1100 II,500 | 1,610,000 | 7,400 1900 goo 11,400 | 1,970,000 5200 2300 1100 13,100 | 1,860,000 8,100 2000 goo 10,800 | 1,740,000 7,300 1800 1100 12,400 | 2,000,000 7,300 2000 1100 10,400 | 1,750,000 7,200 1600 goo 12,000 | 1,930,000 7,700 1800 goo 16,000 | 2,390,000 9,500 2700 1100 15,200 | 2,320,000 | 10,100 3100 II0O 12,500 | 2,080,000 8,400 2400 1000 15,000 | 2,280,000 | 9,600 2200 1000 12,500 | 1,940,000 8,800 2700 1100 15,300 | 2,530,000 9,100 2800 1200 18,700 | 2,730,000 | 10,900 3200 1200 10,300 | 1,540,000 6, 500 1200 800 13,500 | 1,700,000 8,000 2100 1300 10,800 | 1,640,000 200 1900 1100 11,600 | 2,050,000 | 8,000 1700 1000 9,500 | 1,700,000 7,100 1400 9,400 | 1,330,000 5,000 8,340 | 1,172,000 5,190 880 7,540 | 1,158,000 5,275 2000 16,500 | 2,250,000 | 8,800 3600 14,640 | 1,800,000 6,850 2580 7,580 873,000 4,580 1580 11,900 | 1,560,000 8,000 2680 7,000 790,000 6,400 2700 9,480 | 1,138,000 5,400 1100 13,270 | 1,870,000 7,780 1750 13,150 | 1,917,000 7,400 1480 11,800 938,000 6,300 2000 10,440 | 1,450,000 5,000 1100 16,200 | 1,730,000 6,770 2840 SHEAR- ING. 69 79 TABLE 37. UNIT STRESSES FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBER EXPRESSED IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. Recommended by the Committee on Wooden Bridges and Trestles, American Railway Engineering Association, 1909. BENDING. SHEARING. Extreme fibre Modulus of . Longitudinal KIND OF TIMBER. stress. elasticity. Parallel to grain-| shear in beams. Average| Safe |Average| Safe ultimate.| stress. /ultimate.| stress. Average Safe ultimate.| stress. Average. Douglass fir 6100 1,510,000 690 170 270 | II0 Long-leaf pine 6500 1,610,000 720 180 300 | 120 Short-leaf pine 5600 1,480,000 710 170 330 White pine 4400 1,130,000 400 100 180 Spruce 4800 1,310,000 600 150 170 Norway pine 4200 1,190,000 590 130 250 Tamarack 4600 1,220,000 670 170 260 Western hemlock 5500 1,480,000 630 160 270* Redwood 5000 800,000 300 80 3ald cypress 4800 1,150,000 500 120 Red cedar 4200 860,000 _ - White oak 5700 1,150,000 840 210 COMPRESSION. Perpendicular KIND OF TIMBER. to grain. Parallel to grain. Formulas for safe stress in long columns over 15 diameters.t Ratio of length of stringer to depth. Elastic] Safe |Average| Safe limit. | stress. | ultimate.) stress. For columns under 15 diams. Safe stress Douglass fir 630 | 310 | 3600 1200(1-L/ 60. Long-leaf pine 520 | 260 | 3800 1300(1-L/ 60. Short-leaf pine 340 | 170 | 3400 1100(1-L/ 60. White pine 7Aore)! || 141 3° 3000 ' 1000(1-L /60. Spruce 370 | 180 | 3200 1100(1-L/ 60. Norway pine - 150 | 2600%* 800(1-L / 60. ( ( Tamarack = 220 | 3200% 1000(1-L,/ 60. Western hemlock | 440 | 220 | 3500 1200(1-L/60. Redwood 400 | 150 | 3300 goo(1-L/ 60. Bald cypress 340 | 170 | 3900 1100(1-L/ 60. Red cedar 470 | 230 | 2800 goo(1-L/ 60. White oak 920 | 450 | 3500 1300(1-L /60. Pee C Cee eees’ These unit stresses are for a green condition of the timber and are to be used without increasing the live- load stresses for impact. * Partially air-dry. oe + L=length in inches. D= least side in inches. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 38-39. 71 ELASTIC MODULI. TABLE 38. — Rigidity Modulus. If to the four consecutive faces of a cube a tangential stress is applied, opposite in direction on adjacent sides, the modulus of rigidity is obtained by dividing the numerical value of the tangential stress per unit area (kg. per sq. mm.) by the number representing the change of angles on the __ non-stressed faces, measured in radians. Rigidity | Refer- Gupstance: Rigidity | Refer- Substance. Modulus.| ence. Modulus. | ence. Aluminum. . . a) et ome eSO TAN || @uartztibrem ene ce +s |) 2O0o % CARH S SE Gasol ol) Bese) 5 : URN cine Sho e:ii1 J2300 EXASSMMM ye chs) sys still! i55O LOW || SilVeneet wri eel 6 ser le2G60 s PRTC en 4 2: 6° coal PG TIS II S 3) ig HO ORB, Ones ge noel UaneZelsy “« cast, 60 Cu-++-12Sn .] 3700 ss Meni eee ess | 2 500 Bismuth, slowly cooled . .| 1240 “ bard-drawn).) = =. | 2016 Bronze, cast, 88 Cu-++12Sn. | 4060 Steeliwrmie. ered ciiceniael ie! |e 0200 Gadmium, cast +. 3 . «| 2450 SD CAS MED emmed ep cal hel ASO ISoppeicast « =) «1. + - i) a4760 CO ICAStENCOATSE/ OTs la ae th O70 ne A 4213 GG Oe) Bills rapa: oll, yee 4450 aI CASE RNs Mcieae lie Sta e L7GO 4004 Wud Mea ted Valiente 1543 2850 MAING Mee Posie so) oh ae oe | $3000 3950 PM NSe See er bc) Phe ich y= me Aluminum Nickel-steel, 53% ni. “ Lead, drawn . “ annealed Bronze Cadmium . Delta metal Iron, drawn “annealed “ 20% “ Palladium, annealed Phosphor-bronze Platinum, drawn Kc annealed as . . . drawn Silver, drawn “ annealed Steel wire, drawn nun CaSturs as “ annealed << soft: Steel, cast, drawn “drawn “annealed “drawn I Bessemer . Gold, drawn puddle . “annealed mild. “drawn very soft Copper, drawn half soft annealed hard sé drawn | Bismuth | Zinc, drawn Tin, drawn ss drawn . é «s electr. h’d dn MO RBRO OFANWO HNWW NWW OHO ODNWW QURWW ND Brass, drawn . ‘cast ce ‘drawn. I Glass sf ais I sc . . . German silver .. . | Carbon . “ 6c h’d d’n fs & lls, we Marbles . Nickel Granites A ce BON eate) ic oc Basic intrusives . “hard drawn. . - Rocks: See Nagaoka, TE Otel Omani 5 Philos. Mag. 1900. 1 Slotte, Acta Soc. Fenn. 26, 1899; 29, 190d. 10 Baumeister, Wied. Ann. 18, 1883. 2 Meyer, Wied. Ann. 59, 1896. 11 Searle, Philos. Mag. (5) 49, 1900. 3 Wertheim, Ann. chim. phys. (3) 12, 1844. 12 Cantone, Wied. Beibl. 14, 1890. 4 Pscheidl, Wien. Ber. II, 79, 1879. 13 Mercadier, C. R. 113, 1801. 5 Voigt, Wied. Ann. 48, 1893. 14 Katzenelsohn, Diss. Berlin, 1887. 6 Amagat, C. R. 108, 1889. 15 Wertheim, Pogg. Ann. 78, 1849. 7 Kohlrausch, Loomis, Pogg. Ann. 141, 1871. 16 Pisati, Nuovo Cimento, 5, 34, 1879. 8 Thomas, Drude Ann. I, 1900. References 17-19, see Table 47. 9 Gray, etc., Proc. Roy. Soc. 67, 1900. Compiled partly from Landolt-Bérnstein’s Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 41-44. P hes COMPRESSIBILITY, HARDNESS, CONTRACTION OF ELEMENTS. TABLE 41.— Compressibility of the More Important Solid Elements. Arranged in order of the increasing atomic weights. The numbers give the mean elastic change of volume for one megabar (0.987 atm.) between 100 and 500 megabars, multiplied by 10°. Iodine Czsium Platinum Gold Mercury ‘Thallium Lead Bismuth Selenium 11.8 Bromine 51.8 Rubidium 40. Molybdium 0.26 Palladium 0.35 Silver 0.84 Cadmium 19 Tin 1.6 Antimony 212 Potassium Calcium Chromium Manganese Tron Nickel Copper Zinc Arsenic Lithium Carbon Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Red phosphorus — 9.0 Sulphur 1255 Chlorine 95: dd nw ¢ mn oOo Stull, Zeitschr. Phys. Chem 61, 1907. TABLE 42.— Hardness. | Iridosmium | Iron Kaolin Loess (0°) Magnetite Marble Meerschaum Mica Opal | Orthoclase Palladium Phosphorbronze Platinum Brass Calimine Calcite Copper | Corundum | Diamond | Dolomite | Feldspar || Flint | Fluorite | Galena | Garnet Glass Sulphur Stibnite Serpentine Silver Steel Tale Tin Topaz Tourmaline Wax (0°) Wood’s metal Agate Alabaster Alum Aluminum Amber Andalusite Anthracite Antimony Apatite Aragonite Arsenic Asbestos Asphalt Oo | > 1 n ty Cn | Ct ONOn Cass Gs um | Now !o4 oo Ww Cub ps wat tn > | Can OFS Ce age NOD oo rn Gn: Augite Barite Beryl Bell-metal Bismuth | Graphite | Gypsum | Hornblende Gold RBCEN ET ae p> Hematite Plat-iridium Pyrite Quartz Rock-salt ADHERE ADH Wimnw DN DY RW AINEVAL OOWHWNE tN un Ses COON | Ross’ metal Boric acid Iridium Silver chloride From Landolt-Bornstein-Meyerhoffer Tables: Auerbachs, Winklemann, Handb. der Phys. 1891. TABLE 43. — Relative Hardness of the Elements, PP NNO UMmuntroond PPD 000 OWN = ga TABLE 44. — Ratio, p, of Transverse Contraction to Longitudinal Extension under Tensile Stress. (Poisson's Ratio.) | | | Rydberg, Zeitschr. Phys Chem 33, 1900 | | 0.35 0.39 | 0.39 | 0.38 0.42 | From data from Physikalisch-Technischen Reichsanstalt, 1907. p for: marbles, 0.27; granites, 0.24; basic-intrusives, 0.26; glass, 0.23. Adams-Coker, 1906. —_—o TaBLes. 74 : TABLE 45. ~ ELASTICITY OF CRYSTALS.* The formulz were deduced from experiments made on rectangular prismatic bars cut from the crystal. These bars | were subjected to cross bending and twisting and the corresponding Elastic Moduli deduced. The symbols i a B y, 4, By y; and a» By y. represent the direction cosines of the length, the greater and the less transverse j dimensions of the prism with reference to the principal axis of the crystal. E is the modulus for extension or i compression, and T is the modulus for torsional rigidity. ‘The moduli are in grams per square centimeter. Barite. Tow aaa 16.130! + 18.518! + 10.42! + 2(38.79B8 7? + 15.21y°a? + 8.88a°B”) 10 = = 69.52a4 + 117.668! + 116.4674 + 2(20.16B?y? + 85.20y7a? + 127.35a°B?) Beryl (Emerald). LO yies pian so 4 RAO eta 24 { where ¢¢;¢2 are the angles which “po OT: AGO ICOSSP S13 32b Sinaicassh the length, breadth, and thickness 1010 of the specimen make with the Pp = 15.00 — 3.675 cos*¢2 — 17.536 cos* cos? 1 principal axis of the crystal. Fluorspar. rol? Fr 13.05 — 6.26 (at + B+ 74) 1010 7 9 9 9 999 Sa 58.04 — 50.08 (B’y” + y?a?-+ ap?) Pyrite. 1010 oe 5.08 — 2.24 (at + Bt+ +4) 1010 \ Tata eed es 18.60 — 17.95 (By? + 7a? + a?B?) Rock salt. FE = 33-48 — 9.06 (at + BE + ') 1010 Rami ata iicons TP 15458 — 77.28 (By? + ya? +08") Sylvine. TO apo to — 48.2 (at+ B+ 4) Told x c A rae 306.0 — 192.8 (By? + 72a? + a2p?) Topaz. 10 “Fe =4.341at + 3.4608' + 3.7717! + 2 (3.87989? + 2.856y2a2 + 2.3908?) 10 a = 14.88at + 16.548 + 16.4574 + 30.8987y? + 40.8977a2 + 43.5176? 10 “Fr 12-734 (I — 72)? + 16.693 (1 — 7°)7? + 9.7057 — 8.46087 (3a? — 8°) 10 = = 19.665 + 9.06072? + 22.984y7712 — 16.920 [(yBr+ By1) (301 — B81) — B2y2)] =H * These formule are taken from Voigt’s papers (Wied. Ann. vols. 31, 34, and 35). SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 46. 75 ELASTICITY OF CRYSTALS. Some particular values of the Elastic Moduli are here given. Under E are given moduli for extension or compression in the directions indicated by the subscripts and explained in the notes, and under T the moduli for torsional rigidities round the axes similarly indicated. Moduli in grams per sq. cm. (a) ISOMETRIC SYSTEM.* Substance. E E E, ie Authority. a 6 Fluorspar. . . | 1473 X 108 || 1008 K 108 gio X 108 345 X 10° | Voigt.t Eniter et) a.) 3530 x 10") | 2530. TO") | 23TO De Tom |). 107.5 X 108 « Rock salt . . 419 X 10° 349 X 108 303 X 10° 129 X 10° € aS tae s||| 403, >< 10° 339 X 108 — _— Koch. SvLVINek nes sei || 4OD >< 10% — “ 620 X 10°| 540 X 10°| 959 X 108] 376 X 10°| 702 X 108] 740 X 10°| Voigt. Topaz 2304 X 10° | 2890 X 10° | 2652 X 10°| 2670 X 108 | 2893 X 10° | 3180 X 108 Substance. o= = 9 2 Authority. 283 X 10° 293 X 108 121 X 108 1330 X 108 T35GD~ 10° 1104 X 108 In the MonocLinic System, Coromilas (Zeit. fiir Kryst. vol. 1) gives Gypsum § Emax = 887 X 108 at 21.9° to the principal axis. U Enia = 313 X 108 at 75.4° us “ce “ Mica Emax = 2213 X 108 in the principal axis. Enin = 1554 X 10° at 45° to the principal axis. In the HEXAGONAL SysTEM, Voigt gives measurements on a beryl crystal (emerald). The subscripts indicate inclination in degrees of the axis of stress to the principal axis of the crystal. Eo = 2165 X 108, E43;==1796 X 108, Ego = 2312 X 108, To = 667 X 108, T= 883 X 10%. The smallest cross dimension of the prism experimented on (see Table 82), was in the principal axis for this last case. In the RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM, Voigt has measured quartz. The subscripts have the same meaning as in the hexagonal system. Eo = 1030 X 108, E_45—=1305 X 108, Ej45= 850 X 108, Ego = 785 X 10°, To—= 508 X 10°, To9== 348 X 10%. Baumgarten {| gives for calcite } Eo = sor X 10%, E_45= 441 X108, E443=772 X10%, Eoo=790 X 10°, * In this system the subscript a indicates that compression or extension takes place along the crystalline axis, and distortion round the axis. The subscripts 4 and c correspond to directions equally inclined to two and normal to the third and equally inclined to all three axes respectively. + Voigt, ‘‘ Wied. Ann.” 31, p. 474, Pp. 701, 18873 34, P- 981, 1888; 36, p. 642, 1888. ¥ Koch, ‘‘ Wied. Ann.” 18, p. 325, 1882. § Beckenkamp, “‘Zeit. fiir Kryst.’’ vol. ro. || The subscripts 1, 2, 3 indicate that the three principal axes are the axes of stress; 4, 5, 6 that the axes of stress are in the three principal planes at angles of 45° to the corresponding axes. |] Baumgarten, ‘‘ Pogg. Ann.” 152, p. 369, 1879. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 76 TABLES 47-49. COMPRESSIBILITY OF GASES. TABLE 47.—Relative Volumes at Various Pressures and Temperatures, the volume at 0°C and at 1 atmo- sphere being taken as 1000000. Nitrogen. Hydrogen. 99°-3 | 200°.5 7507 5286 se 3462 3006 2680 2444 2244 2095 Amagat: C. R. 111, p. 871, 1890; Ann. chim. phys. (6) 29, pp. 68 and 505, 1893- TABLE 48. — Ethylene, pu at o° C and 1 atm. =I. Amagat, C. R. 111, p. 871, 1890; 116, p. 946, 1893. TABLE 49. — Ethylene. P Relative values of Av at — Pressure in meters of mercury. 40°.0 50°.0 609.0 70°.0 30 2410 2865 60 1535 2310 90 1325 5 1930 120 1540 1950 Be 1785 2125 180 2035 2340 210 2285 2565 240 2540 2510 270 2790 3060 300 3040 3300 320 3200 3470 Amagat, Ann. chim. phys. (5) 22, p. 353, 1881. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Pressure in metres of mercury. TaB_Les 50-52. COMPRESSIBILITY OF GASES. TABLE 60, — Carbon Dioxide. Relative values of sv at — 60°.0 2730 2330 1650 1275 1360 1520 1705 1890 2070 2260 2440 70°.0 2870 2525 1975 1550 1525 1045 1810 1990 2166 2340 2525 if Amagat, C. R. 111, p. Relative values of Jv ; gv at o° C. and 1 atm. = 1. 0.623 0.963 716 1.748 TABLE 51.—Compressibility of Gases. 871, 1890; Ann. chim. phys, (5) 22, p. 353, 1881; (6) 29, pp. 68 and 405, 1893. p.v. (3 atm.). |} aU p.v.) a Density. Povo (1 atm.). || 7 mel ee z t=O 2 = sgn 1.00038 — .00076 Lheze — .00094 || 32. 0.99974 + .00052 10.7 + .00053 2.015 (16°) 1.00015 — .00030 14.9 —.00056 || 28.005 1.00026 — .00052 13.8 — .00081 || 28.000 1.00279 — .00558 15-0 — .00668 || 44.268 1.00327 — .00654 11.0 — .00747 44.285 1.00026 — .00046 11.4 - - 1.00632 - - - - Rayleigh, Zeitschr. Phys. Chem. 52, p. 705, 1905. Pressures in metres of mercury, fv, relative. 72.16 | SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Amagat, C. R. 1879. 84.22 26840 101.47 27041 101.06 25639 84.19 25745 | Density. Very small pressure. 32. 2.0173 28.016 28.003 44.014 43-996 TABLE 52. —Compressibility of Air and Oxygen between 18° and 22° C. 214-54 4 29585 214.52 26536 78 TaBLes 53-54. RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND AMMONIA.,* TABLE 63.—Sulphur Dioxide. Original volume rooooo under one atmosphere of pressure and the temperature of the experi- ments as indicated at the top of the different columns. Pressure in Atmos th Ses i edb Sth eth 1 Corresponding Volume for Ex- Pressure in Atmospheres for periments at Temperature — Experiments at Temperature — Volume. 58°.0 99°.6 183°.2 9.60 10.35 11.85 13.05 14.70 16.70 20.15 23.00 26.40 30.15 35-20 39.60 Pete se tet alireel| TABLE 54.— Ammonia. Original volume rooooo under one atmosphere of pressure and the temperature of the experiments as indicated at the top of the different columns. 99°-6 Pressure in 7635 6305 4645 3560 2875 2440 2080 1795 1490 1250 975 Cees TU Uitte Corresponding Volume for Ex- Pressure in Atmospheres for Experiments periments at Temperature — at Temperature — Volume. 183°.6 * From the experiments of Roth, ‘‘ Wied. Ann.” vol. 11, 1880. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. oe In absolute units (referred to megadynes) the coefficient is Substance. Acetone “ “ “ Benzole “ “cc “cc Carbon bisulphide ity “ “ce “ec Chloroform Collodium Ethyl alcohol « “ Glycerine Mercury Methyl alcohol 0.00 0.00 0.00 99:5 5-95 17.9 15.4 78 0.00 0.00 0.00 49.2 oO. 20. 40. 60. 100. 100. 14.8 28. 28. 65. 65. 100. 100, 185. 185. 310. 310. oO. 20. 40. oO. oO. 20. 40, O. Oo. 20. 40. oO. Te 15.2 61.5 99.0 20.5 14.8 oO. ° 14.7 Pressures. I-500 500-1000 1000-1 500 8.94-30.5 8 8 1-4 1-4 1-500 500-1000 1000-1500 1000-1 500 8-9 19-34 150-200 150-400 150-200 150-400 150-200 150-400 150-200 150-400 150-200 150-400 I-50 I-50 I-50 100-200 300-400 300-400 300-400 500-600 700-800 700-800 700-800 900-1000 8.5-34.2 8.7-37.2 12.6-34.4 12.8-34.5 8.50-37.1 TABLE 55. COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. If V1 is the volume under pressure /; atmospheres at ¢°C, and V2 is volume at pressure #2 and the same temperature, then the compressibility coefficient may be defined at that temperature as: Be B. 108 82 De 47 3-92 3:90 104 For references see page 80, ey eens: Vy ps1 Bi. 1.0137 5 a “aig Substance. a Pressures. ~~ vo ° 1 ||Methyl alcohol 100. | 8.68-37.3 “ “ 6 18. Io 8 “ \\Nitric acid 20.3 I-32 3 \Oils: Almond v7 - 2 Olive 20. - Paraffin 14. - 4 Petroleum | 16.5 - « Rock 19.4 - I Rape-seed | 20.3 ~ ce Turpentin 19.7 ~ “ j/Toluene 10. - “ce oc 100. = 5 ||Xylene 10. = “ “cc 100, me “ Paraffins: CgHy4 | 23. o-I “ C7Hiy¢6 6 “cc 3 CsHi18 “ce “ “cc CoHa29 6“ 6c 6 CioH22} “ a 7 CyoH26} “ « oy CisHo0] “ “ “cc CygH34 “cc 6“ « 1 Water O. I-25 “ce “ Io. “cc xe a 20. ss a - Oo. 25-50 ee “cc 10, oc “ “ 20, 6c ss se oO I-100 I fs 10. ss “cc “ 20. “ 6 “ oO. “ “c “ ne 6c sf ie oO. 100-200 “ “ Io. ‘“ “ “cc 20. “ “ “ “ O. “ “cc bee “cc ‘: i oO. I-500 “ “ 20.4 “ “ “ 48.85 “ 3 “ oO. 500-1000 5 0, | 1000-1500 6“ “a 20.4 6 “ “ 48.85 “ 8 0. |1500-2000 6 « ©. | 2000-2500 9 s 0. | 2500-3000 IO Ab Dp Gp CP Hise s : . I 10 2r It Harmonic Series] ; : (78) 3.36 ( a) 5.52 Cycle of fifths ; 18 | 4.08 | 5.22 | 6,12 Cycle of fourths ; .94 | 3.84 | 4.98 | 5.88 Mean tone ; .IT | 3.86 | 5.03 | 5-79 Equal 7 step : E 5.14 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 104 = 9M,78030 (1 +-0.005302 sin.2 ® — 0.000007 sin.?2®) TABLE 81. ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY. For Sea Level and Different Latitudes. Latitude PD 9g cm. per sec per sec. Log. g g feet per sec. per sec. 978.030 .069 .186 +253 +332 978.376 +422 +471 +523 ‘577 978.634 -693 754 818 884 978.952 979.022 -094 -168 +244 979-321 -400 .481 -562 -646 979-730 .815 .9o2 -989 980.077 g8o. 166 +255 1345 435 525 980.616 -706 *797 887 -977 2.9903 522 9903695 9904214 -9904512 -9904863 .9905058 -9905262 -9905480 -9905710 *9905959 -9906203 9906465 +9906736 +990701I9 -9907313 -9907614 -9997925 9908244 9908572 -9908909 -9909250 -ggog6or +9909960 9910319 -ggto6gt .9gt 1064 -QQII44I -991 1827 +99 12212 -9912602 -991 2996 -9913391 -9913789 -9914188 -9914587 9914989 -9915388 -9915791 -9916190 9916588 32.0875 0888 -0927 +0949 -0974 32-0989 +1004 «1020 - 1037 21055 32.1074 -1093 1113 1134 «1156 32.1178 +1201 «1224 -1249 1274 32.1299 +1325 +1351 +1378 -1406 32.1433 «1461 -1490 +1518 +1547 32.1576 +1605 +1635 -1664 -1694 32.1724 +1753 +1783 +1813 #1842 Latitude Calculated from Helmert’s formula : g cm. per sec. per sec. 981.066 +155 +244 331 418 981.503 +588 .672 +754 -835 981.914 -992 982.068 142 .215 982.285 +354 +420 485 «546 982.606 663 718 770 -820 982.866 -QII +952 -990 983.026 983.058 .088 115 -138 159 983-176 +190 +201 +209 216 Log. g 2.9916982 9917376 -9917770 +9918156 -9915540 2.9918916 -99192g92 9919664 +9920027 9920335 2.9920735 -9921080 9921415 9921743 9922066 2.9922375 -9922680 +9922972 +9923259 +9923529 2.9923794 -9924046 -9924289 9924519 +9924740 2.9924943 -9925142 +9925323 +9925491 -9925650 2.9925791 *9925924 -9926043 9926145 -9926238 2.99263 12 +9926375 9926423 -9926459 +9926489 g feet per sec. per sec. 32.1871 -IQOI -1930 -1959 +1987 32.2015 +2043 +2070 +2097 +2124 32.2150 2175 2200 2224 +2248 32.2273 -2294 +2316 +2337 -2357 32.2377 +2395 2413 +2430 +2447 32.2462 2477 -2490 -2503 2514 32.2525 +2535 2544 +2551 +2558 32.2564 2568 2572 2574 :2577 To reduce log. g (cm. per sec. per sec.) to log. g (ft. per sec. per sec.) add log. 0.03280833 = 8.5159842 — 10. CORRECTION FOR ALTITUDE. — 0.0003086 cm. per meter when altitude is in meters. — 0.000003086 ft. per foot when altitude is in feet. Altitude. Correction. Altitude. Correction. 0.000617 ft./sec.? -000926 -001234 -OO1543 .001852 -002 160 -002469 .002777 0.0617 cm./sec.? 200 ft. +0926 300 +1234 400 +1543 500 -1852 600 -2160 70O «2469 800 22777 goo SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 82. 105 GRAVITY. In this table the results of a number of the more recent gravity determinations are brought together. They serve to show the degree of accuracy which may be assumed for the numbers in ‘l'able 81. In general, gravity is a little lower than the calculated value for stations far inland and slightly higher on the coast line. : cm. Gravity, —> Set Refer- ence, Latitude. Elevation ,» 5S. —. | in meters. Observed: Reduced to sea level. BIMEADOLC Wanbsy, oll aiel foc ary c re Georgetown, Ascension . . . .| —7 2 978.25 Green Mountain, Ascension. . .]| —7 : 978.23 WoandayrAngolaiy 9... = . «. || —8 : 978.16 Carolinewislandsi) 93.4 «4. « |— 10 : 978.37 Bridgetown, Barbadoes . .. . 13 : 978.18 Jamestown, St. Helena . . . .|—15 3 978.67 Longwood, ‘ 2 ae st ofl als : 978.59 Pakaoao, Sandwich Islands. . . 20 3.2 978.85 Lahaina, ss a Ree ae 20 3 : 978.56 Haiki, ss a eee 20 5. 978.93 Honolulu, s SOR ont ait 21 : 978.97 SiGeorges, Bermuda |. 4) 4) . 32 é 979.77 sidney, Australia . . . . . .|—33 : 979.69 CapesNowint le. ey 05 a ee cs .62 979-62 Molkiowapaniaa sae en 35 ; 979.95 Auckland, New Zealand . . . .|—36 .68 979.69 Mount Hamilton, Cal. (Lick Obs.) : 979-91 “ce ; “ “ec 6c i 979.92 SanyMrancisco, Cals) wy i se ; 979-98 oe ¢ ‘ SV oeeas Sits 30,02 980.04 Washington oD. @ ra. als ; 980.11 WenvertColowuase ceiite ot ; 979.98 MOTI MB abiays Js “amiss is ret Sele ; 980.14 HM benshHuLe weak eee rien vane , 980.20 Me Shenysgleaeim ecu reuae eve ce 30. 980.15 Hoboken, N. J. . 8 980.27 Salt Lake City, Urahte tein ss ; 980.05 Chicago, Ill. , : 980.37 Rampalunay spain). <3 = : 980.42 Montreal, Canada Geneva, Switzerland 6c “cs Berne, s Zurich, § Paris, France . Kew, England Berlin, Germany . : Port Simpson, B.C. . Burroughs Bay, Alaska Wrangell, Sitka, « St. Paul’s Island, “ Juneau, s Pyramid Harbor, “ VYakutat Bay, PPAF ARH A WDMOUOO ODHUNUA DADOUAUAUA HHDH NWWWWNNNWNND PUD ONIOR 1 Smith: “United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1884,” App. 14. 2 Preston: “ United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1890,” App. 12. 3 Preston: Ibid. 1888, App. 14. 4 Mendenhall: Ibid. 1891, App. 15. 5 Defforges : “Comptes Rendus,” vol. 118, p. 231. 6 Pierce: “U.S. C. and G. S. Rep. 1883,’’ App. 19. a’ 7 Cebrian and Los Arcos: “ Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Commission Perma- nente de l’Association Géodesique International,” 1893. 8 Pierce: “U.S. C. and G. S. Report 1876, App. 15, and 1881, App. 17.” 9 Messerschmidt: Same reference as 7. * For references 1-4, values are derived by comparative experiments with invariable pendulums, the value for Washington taken as 980.111. For the latter see Appendix 5 of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1901, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 106 TABLE 83. SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF THE VALUE OF GRAVITY (g) AT STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES AND ALASKA.* Station. Calais, Me.. : Boston, Mass. Cambridge, Mass. Worcester, Mass. New York, N. Y. Princeton, N. J. . Philadelphia, Pa. IithacasiNemyeno a: Baltimore, Md. . Washington, C. & G, ny Washington, Smithsonian . Charlottesville, Va. Deer Park, Md. . Charleston, S. C. Cleveland, Ohio. Key West, Fla. . Atlanta, Ga. 5 Cincinnati, Ohio Terre Haute, Ind. Chicago, Ill. ; ; Madison, Wis. (Univ. ‘of Wis) . New Orleans, La. 3 . St. Louis, Mo. . Little Rock, Ark. Kansas City, Mo. ; Galveston, Tex. . : Austin, Texas (University) Austin, Texas (Capitol) Bilsworth! Kane: i Laredo, Tex. Wallace, Kans. Colorado Springs, Col. Denver, Col. : Pike’s Peak, Col. Gunnison, Col. Grand Junction, Col. . Green River, Utah Grand Canyon, Wyo. . : Norris Geyser Basin, Wyo. Lower Geyser Basin, Wyo. Pleasant Valley Jct., Utah. Salt Lake City, Utah . Ft. Egbert, Eagle, Alaska . Latitude, Elevation. ; 9g Longitude. observed. cm./sec.2 980.630 980.395 980.397 980.323 980.266 980.177 980.195 980.299 980.096 980.111 o fs Cm aeD Meters. 45 11 67 16 54 38 21 71 03 50 22 71 07 45 14 71 48 28 73 57 43 74 39 28 75 It 40 76 29 00 76 37 30 77 00 32 77 Ol 32 980.113 78 30 16 979-937 5° 979-934 03 6 | 979-545 38 2 980.240 25 978.969 18 2 979-523 20 980.003 49 980.071 36 03 32 980.277 24 00 980.364 04 2 979-323 12 980.000 16 2 979-720 35 979.989 47 979-271 44 979.282 44 979-287 13 979-925 31 979.081 35 979-7 54 49 02 979.489 50 55 979.608 02 02 978.953 56 02 979-341 33 56 979.632 09 56 979-035 29 44 979.89 42 02 979.949 48 08 979.93! 00 46 979-511 53 46 979.802 I2 24 982.182 * All the values in this table depend on relative determination of gravity and an adopted value for gravity at Wash- ington (Coast and Geodetic Survey Office) of 980.111. 1900 of the relative value of gravity at Potsdam and at Washington. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. This adopted value was the result of the determination in See footnote on previous page. TABLES 84-85. 107 LENCTH OF THE SECONDS PENDULUM. TABLE 84. — Length of Seconds Pendulum at Sea Level for Different Latitudes.* Length a . __| Length a + ength in in centi Log. peed Log. : in centi- Log. meters. meters, Length in inches, 99-0950 1.996052 | 39.0131 | 1.591218 : 1.997398 | 39.1348 .0989 6069 0152 1234 -447 7592 1524 1108 6121 .0200 1287 7 7774 1687 BIGO2) | 0200 .0274 1372 : 7939 1835 .1562 6320 .0378 1485 : 8079 .1962 99.1884 | I. eee 39.0506 | 1.591627 b I gon 39.2067 .2259 6625 0652 1790 6045 8279 2143 2672 6806 0816 1972 ; 8331 2190 3116 7000 .0990 2166 z 8349 2206 +3571 7199 | «1169 2364 * Calculated from force of gravity table by the formula? = yg /m?. For each 100 feet of elevation subtract 0.000596 centimeters, or 0,000235 inches, or .ooco196 feet. TABLE 85. — Length of the Seconds Pendulum.* Date of |Number i Correspond- of obser-| Range of latitude included by Length of pendulum in meters. ing length Refer- vation the stations. for latitude ¢. of pendulum | ence. stations. for lat. 45° determi- nation. F rom +67°0 5 to aoa 50’ 0.990631-++.005637 sin? 0.993450 174° 53’ “ —51°21" | 0.990743-+.005400sin®p | 0.993976 ese dens. —60° 45’ 0.990880-F.005340sin*p 0.993550 +79" 50° “ —12" 59’ | 0.990977-+.0051428in*p | 0.993548 179) 50° y ee 0.991026--.005072 sin’ p 0.993562 oF” OF & 167204" | 0.990555+-005679sSin*@ | 0.993395 179° SU & —51°35’ | 0.991017-+.005087sin® | 0.993560 eae Bae an ceria 0.990941-++-.0051 42 sin’ 0.993512 +79° 50” “ —51°35’ | 0.990970-+.005185sin’p | 0.993554T +79° 50’ “ —62° 56’ 0.99101 1-+-.005105 sin? p 0.993563 1884 +79° 50’ “ —62°56’ 0.990918-+-.005262 sin” 0.993549 me OO CON OUARWN & =“ Combining the above results . . . . . 0.990910-+.005290sin*p 0.993555 _ nN 1 Laplace: “ Traité de Mécanique Céleste,” T. 2, livre 3, chap. 5, sect. 42. 2 Mathieu: “Sur les expériences du pendule;’ Additions, pp. 314-341, p. 332. 3 Biot et Arago: “ Recueil d’Observations géodésiques, etc.” Paris, 1821, p. 575. 4 Sabine: “An Account of Experiments to determine the Figure of the Earth, etc., by Sir Edward Sabine.” London, 1825, p. 352. 5 Saigey: “‘ Comparaison des Observations du pendule a diverses latitudes; faites par MM. Biot, Kater, Sabine, de Freycinet, et Duperry;” in “ Bulletin des Sciences Mathé- matiques, etc.,” T. 1, pp. 31-43, and 171-184. Paris, 1827. 6 Pontécoulant: “ Théorie analytique du Systéme du monde,” Paris, 1829, T. 2, p. 466. 7 Airy: ‘Figure of the Earth;” in “ Encyc. Met.’’ 2d Div. vol. 3, p. 230. 8 Poisson: “ Traité de Mécanique,” aed P. 3773 “Connaissance des Temps, pp. 32-33; and Puissant: “ Traité de géodésie,” T. 2, p. 464. 9 Unferdinger : “ Das Pendel als geodatisches Instrument ; ”? in Grunert’s “Archiv,” 1869, 16, 4 Fa Fischer: “ Die Gestalt der Erde und die Pendelmessungen ;” in “ Ast. Nach.” 1876, col. 87. 11 Helmert: “Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der hoheren Geo- || dasie, von Dr. F. R. Helmert,” II. Theil. Leipzig, 1884, p. 241. 12 Harkness. | in “Connaissance des Temps 1816.” ” 1834, _ * The data here given with regard to the different determinations which have been made of the length of the seconds pendulum are quoted from Harkness (Solar Parallax and its Related Constants, Washington, 1891). + Calculated from a logarithmic expression given by Unferdinger. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 108 TABLES 86-87. MISCELLANEOUS GEODETIC DATA.* TABLE 86. Length of the seconds pendulum at sea level =/=39.012540+0.208268 sin’ ¢ inches. =}3-251045+0.017356 sin’ ¢ feet. =0.9909910-+0.005290 sin’ meters. Acceleration produced by gravity per second per second mean solar time. - . =g=32.086528-+0.171293 sin’ ¢ feet. =977.9886-+ 5.2210 sin? @ centimeters. 6378388 +18 meters ; 3963-225 miles. Polar semi-diameter =4=6356584 meters; 3949-790 miles. Reciprocal of flattening= —~ =295.0 3963-339 miles. 6350909 meters ; 3949-992 miles. 297.0+0.5 Equatorial radius =a=6378206 meters ; 2 Square of eccentricity =e“ =0.006768658 “pr0say gS 2744019 faSt 0.0067237 +0.0000120. | Difference between geographical and geocentric latitude= ¢—¢’= 688.2242” sin 2 @—1.1482” sin 4+0.0026” sin 6g. Mean density of the Earth=5.5247+0.0013 (Burgess Phys. Rev. 1902). Continental surface density of the Earth=2.67 Hatkiess: Mean density outer ten miles of earth’s crust=2.40 Moments of inertia of the Earth; the principal moments being taken as 4, ZB, and C, and C the greater: C-A __ ea I : Guinge oo ome 306.259” C—A=0.001064767 Ea?; A=B=0.325029 La’; C =0.326094 Ea?; where £ is the mass of the Earth and a its equatorial semidiameter. TABLE 87. — Length of Degrees on the Earth’s Surface. Miles per degree Km. per degree Miles per degree Km. per degree At Lat. of Long. of Lat. of Long. of Lat. of Long. of Lat. of Long. of Lat. 69.17 68.70 LId.g2 110.57 S5e il 30:77; 69.17 64.00 PLI33 68.13 68.72 109.64 110.60 60 34-67 69.23 55.50 I1I.42 65.03 68.79 104.65 110.70 65 29.32 69.28 47.18 III.50 59.90 68.88 96.49 110.85 70 23.73 69.32 38.19 111.57 53-06 68.99 85.40 II1.03 75 17.96 69.36 28.90 111.62 49.00 69.05 75.85 I11.13 || 80 12.05 69.39 19.39 111.67 44.55 69.11 71.70 111.23 90 0.00 69.41 0.00 III.70 For more complete table see ‘‘ Smithsonian Geographical Tables.’’ SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 88. 109g MISCELLANEOUS ASTRONOMICAL DATA. | Length of sidereal year 365.2563578 mean solar days ; | = 305 days 6 hours 9 minutes 9.314 seconds. | Length of tropical year= 365.242199870—0.0000062124 “—™55° mean solar days; ¥ t—1850 | = 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes (16260-03675 =a ) seconds. Length of sidereal month t—1800 =27.321661162—0.00000026240 GCSE days; t—18 =27 days 7 hours 43 minutes (: 1.524— 0.022671 a seconds. Length of synodical month t—1800 = 29.530588435—0.00000030606 ao days; t—18 =29 days 12 hours 44 minutes Co ico) seconds, Length of sidereal day =86164.09965 mean solar seconds. N. B.— The factor containing ¢ in the above equations (the year at which the values of the quantities are required) may in all ordinary cases be neglected. Mean distance from earth to sun = 92900000 miles = 149500000 kilometers. Eccentricity of the earth’s orbit =e = t?—1900\2 0.0167 5104 — 0.0000004180 (¢— 1900) —0.0000001 26 a Tae Solar parallax = 8.7997” 0.003 (Weinberg, A. N. 165, 1904) ; 8.807 ++ 0.0027 (Hinks, Eros, 7); 8.799 (Samson, Jupiter satellites ; Harvard observations). Lunar parallax = 3422.68”. Mean distance from earth to moon = 60.2669 terrestrial radii; = 238854 miles; = 384393 kilometers. Lunar inequality of the earth—= Z = 6.454”. Parallactic inequality of the moon = Q = 124.80”. ieee Mean motion of moon’s node in 365.25 days = ¢ = — 19° 21’ 19.6191” + 0,14136” ( Too ) Eccentricity and inclination of the moon’s orbit = ¢, = 0.05490807. Delaunay’s 7 = sin 4+ 7= 0.044886793. T= 5° 08! 43.3546 Constant of nutation = 9.2’. Constant of aberration = 20.4962 -- 0.006 (Weinberg, I. c.).* Time taken by light to traverse the mean radius of the earth’s orbit = 498.82 + 0.1 seconds (Weinberg) ; = 498.64 (Samson). Velocity of light = 186330 miles per second (Weinberg) ; = 299870 -| 0.03 kilometers per second. General precession = 50.2564” + 0.000222 (t— 1900). Obliquity of the ecliptic = 23° 27’ 8.26” — 0.4684 (¢— 1900). Gravitation constant = 666.07 X 10-1 cm8 /gr. sec? -L 0.16 X 10-2), 4 * Recent work of Doolittle’s and others indicates a value not less than 20. 51, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. IIO TaBLES 89-91.—ASTRONOMICAL DATA. Table 89.—Planetary Data. Mean distance Sidereal Equatorial ean Body. Reciprocals | ‘from the sun. period. diameter, | Inclination | density, | Gravity | of masses. Kane Mean days Rant of orbit. H,O=r | at surface. Sun 1 _ _— 1391067 | Mercury | 6000000. 58 x 108 87.97 4842 Venus 408000. 108 “ : 12394 Earth* 329390. 149 “ 5 12756 Mars 3093500. 220) : 7320 Jupiter 1047.35 77 Ole 4 145250 Saturn 3501.6 TAZ0nS : 123040 Uranus 22869. 2869 “ 45590 Neptune 19700. 4495 “ 60188.71 56040 Moon T 81.45 38 x 27.32 3473 * Earth and moon. f+ Relative to earth. Inclination of axes: Sun 7°.25; Earth 239.45; Mars 24°.6; Jupiter 3°.1; Saturn 26°.8; Neptune 27°.z. Others doubtful. Table 90. — Equation of Time. The equation of time when + is to be added to the apparent solar time to give mean time. When the place is not on a standard meridian (75’th, etc.) its difference in longitude in time from that meridian must be subtracted when east, added when west to get standard time (75’th meridian time, etc.). The equation varies from year to year cyclically, and the figure following the -+- sign gives a rough idea of this variation. _ S. ee = SS B= Se 35 HARHAF 0 Of NY ACO 2 8 54 49 28 8 | Ulta Now _ Table 91. — Miscellaneous Astronomical Data. Apex of Solar Motion: From proper motions, R. A.isi9 = 17 51, Dec.3g19 = + 31.4 (Weersma, Gron. Publ. 21.) From radial velocities, R. A.1900 = 17%54”, Dec.1900 = + 25.1 (Campbell, Lick. Bull. 196.) Velocity = 19.5 Km. per sec. (Campbell.) Nearest star so far as known: a Centauri, parallax =0.759” (Gron. Publ. 24) distance = 4.3 light years. Stars of both greatest proper motion and greatest radial velocity so far as known :* Cordova, V243; proper motion = 8.70” in position angle 130° radial velocity + 242 Km. per sec. (Camp- bell, Stellar Motions, 1913). Parallax = 0.319” (Gron. Publ. 24, also proper motion). Distance = 10.2 light years. Average velocities with regard to center of gravity of the stellar system, according to Camp- bell (Stellar Motion, 1913) : Type B Stars: 6.6 Km. persec. Type G Stars: 15.0 Km. per sec. “ A “ec 10.9 be “ec “ “ KR “cc 16.8 6 “c “ “cc F “ce 14.4 «“ “ ce “ce M “ 17.1 “ ee “ Sun’s magnitude = — 26.5, sending the earth 90,000,000,000 times as much light as the star Aldebaran. Ratio of total radiation of sun to that of moon about 100,000 to I ane “ce “ «ce light “ “ « “cc “ “ “ 400,000 to I ang ey. * Lalande, 1966, R.A.jo19 1%3™.9, Decsjo1, 61°.4/ in 1913 was found to have a radial velocity (of approach) of 326 Km. per sec. (Mount Wilson Solar Observatory.) SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 92, TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. Secular Change of Declination. UL Changes in the magnetic declination between 1810, the date of the earliest available observa- tions, and 1910, for one or more places in each state and territory. State. Ala. Alas. Ariz. Ark. Cal. Cal. Colo. Conn. Del. Dee, Fla. Ga. Haw. Idaho Ill. Ind. Ta. Kans. Ky. La. Me. Md. Mass. Mass. Mich. Minn. * Tables have been compiled from United States Magnetic Tables and Station. Montgomery Sitka Kodiak Unalaska St. Michael Holbrook Prescott Little Rock Los Angeles San José Redding Pueblo Glenwood Sp. Hartford Dover Washington Jacksonville Pensacola Tampa Macon Honolulu Pocatello Boise Bloomington Indianapolis Des Moines Emporia Ness City Lexington Princeton Alexandria Eastport Portiand Baltimore Boston Pittsfield Marquette Lansing Northome Mankato 1810 8.6E 12.1E 15.0E 15.6E 5.1W 1.6W 0.5E 5.1E 7.7E 6.4E 5.9E 6.3E 5.0E 1820 8.8E 12.6E 1I5.5E 16.1E 5.6W 1.9W 0.3E 5-1E 7.8E 6.2E 5.9E 6.5E 5-IE 10.2E 4.5E 7.0E 8.7E 14.4W 9.6W r.1W 7.8W 6.1W O27, 4.2E 10.4E I1.3E the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1908. SmItHSONIAN TaBLEs. 1830 9.0E 13.2E 16.0E | 16.6E | 6.1W 2.3W 0.0 4.0E 7.7E 5-9E 5.7E 6.6E 5.0E 10.4E 4.4E 7.0E 8.8E 15.2W | 10.3 W | 1.4W 8.4W 6.7W 6.7E 4.1E 10.7E Ir.6E 1840 9.0E 13.6E 16.4E 17.0E 6.8W 2.8W 0.5W 4.6E 7.5E 5-5E 5-4E 6.5E 4.7E 10.5E 4.1E 6.8E 8.8E 16.0W Ir.oW r.oW 9.1W | 7.4W 6.5E 3.8E 10.8E 11.7E |\16.8E 1I7.4E | 1850 | 1860 ° SAE S20 — (|28.7E 26.1E 20.4E 13.6E |13.7E 13.3E |13.5E 8.8E | 8.6E | 14.0E |14.2E ji7.1E | |13.8E | \13.7E \r4.4E \117.3E 1870 4.5E 29.0E 25.6E 20.1E 8.2E 17.8E 13.8E | 16.2E 8.2W | 4.0W 13.8E 16.1E 7-5W | 3-4W I.0oW 4.2E 7.2E 5.0 5.0E I.7W S37 6.8E 4.5E 4.5E |! 9.4E 17.7E 18.4E 5.0E 3.8E 9.4E 17.4E 18.0E 6.3E 4.4E 10.2E I1.5E 12.4E 3.1E 6.1E 10.4E Il.6E 12.4E 3.6E 6550] 8.7E 17.0W Ir.6W 2.4W 9.8W 8.4E 17.7W 12.3W 3.1W \10.5W 8.1W 6.0E 3.3E 10.7E 8.7W 5.4E 2.8E 10.4E II.6E |11.3E |16.3E | \12.8W | 18.1E 13.8E 8.7W 4.7W 2.4W 3.1E 6.2E 3.9E 3.9E 9.5E 17.8E 18.6E 5.4E | 3.2E 9.7E II.2E | 12.2E 2.5E 5.6E 8.0E 18.2W 3.8W I1.0oW 9.3W | 4.6E 2.1E 10.0E 1880 3.0E |20.3E 125.1E 19.6E 24.7E 13.7E 13.6E 7.6E 'T4.6E I7.5E 18.2E 13.5E 16.1E 9.4W 5.3W 3.0W 2.4E 5.6E 3.3E 3.2E 9.8E 17.9E 18.7E 4.7E 2.6E 9.1E 10.7E |I1.9E I.9E 5.0E 7.4E 18.6W 13.4W 4.4W II.5W 10.0W 3.8E 1.3E 9.3E 10.9E 10.4E |24.7E \18.3E It5.7E | 1890 | 1900 | ° | 3.2E | 2.8E 29.5E |29.7E |24.4B | 18.3E | \22.1E ° 19.0E 23.1E 13.4E |13.5E | 13.5E |13.7E | 7.0E | 6.6E. 14.6E |14.0E | 17.5E [17.8E 18.6E |\12.90E 15.6E | 10.4W | 6.4W | 13.0E 9.8W | 5.9W | 4.2W | 1.3E 4.5E 2.3E 2.1E | 3.6W 1.8E 5.0E 2.8E 2.6E 10.1E 17.7E 18.6E 4.1E 2.0 |\10.4E 17.8E | iT8.8E | 3.6E 1.4E 7.0E 9.8E |IT.1E 0.7E 3.8E 8.4E 10.1E I1.4E I.2E 4.3E 6.6E 19.0W 14.4W 5.6W 12.6W | 6.9E 18.7W | 13.9W | 5.0W 12.0W | 10.4W |rr.0W | 3-0E | 2.3E 0.5E | 0.0E 8.6E | 8.0E 9.5E | 9.0E |18.5E \1I0.1E I9IO ° 2.0E 30.2E 24.1E 17.5E 21.4E 13.9E 14.3E 6.90E 15.5E 19.3E 13.3E 16.1E 11.0W 7.0W 4.7W I.2E 4.4E 2.0E 2.0E 10.6E 18.4E 19.4E 3.4E I.IE 8.1E 11.4E 0.5E 3.7E 6.8E 19.4W 14.8W 6.1W 13.1W I1.5W 2.0E 0.4E 8.1E 9.1E Magnetic Charts for 1905, published by II2 State. TABLE 92 (continued). TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM (continued). Secular Change of Declination (continued). Station. Jackson Sedalia Forsyth Helena Hastings Alliance Elko Hawthorne Hanover Trenton Santa Rosa Laguna Albany Elmira Newbern Salisbury “| Jamestown Dickinson Columbus | Okmulgee Enid Sumpter Detroit Philadelphia Altoona San Juan Newport Columbia Huron Rapid City Chattanooga Huntington Houston San Antonio Pecos Floydada Salt Lake Rutland Richmond Lynchburg Wilson Creek Seattle Charleston Madison Douglas Green River SMITHSONIAN TABLES: 6.8W 0.8E 1.9E I9.1E 2.3E 1860 1870 | 1880 | 1890 TABLES 93-94, i TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM (continued). TABLE 93.— Dip or Inclination. This table gives for the epoch January 1, 1905, the values of the magnetic dip, I, corresponding to the longitudes west of Greenwich in the heading and the north latitudes in the first column. 105° | 110° TABLE 94. — Secular Change of Dip. Values of magnetic dip for places designated by the north latitudes and longitudes west of Greenwich in the first two columns for January Ist of the years in the heading. The degrees are given in the third column and minutes in the succeeding columns. Bas eee 1855 | 1860 | 1865 | 1870/ 1875 | 1880 | 1885 | 1890 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 | 1910 , Li 80 35 48 60 110 6r 86 96 83 | 60+ 6 57 63 78 100 60 | 6 77 90 gr | 96 27 34 14 24 26 50 45 28 38 59 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 114 TABLES 95-96. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM (continued). TABLE 95.— Horizontal Intensity. This table gives for the epoch January 1, 1905, the horizontal intensity, H, expressed in C.G.S. units, corresponding to the longitudes in the heading and the latitudes in the first column. TABLE 96. —Secular Change of Horizontal Intensity. Values of horizontal intensity in C. G. S. units for places designated by the latitude and longi- tude in the first two columns for January 1 of the years in the heading. Latitude. NNO TOL SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 97-98, ! 115 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM (continued). TABLE 97, — Total Intensity. This table gives for the epoch January 1, 1905, the values of total intensity, F, expressed in C.G.S. units corresponding to the longitudes in the heading and the latitudes in the first column. TABLE 98. — Secular Change of Total Intensity. Values of total intensity in C. G. S. units for places designated by the latitudes and longitudes in the first two columns for January I of the years in the heading. (Computed from Tables 92 and 94.) Longi- tude. 1855 SOM |se5 50) |e 4935 5000 | . 5285 6089 | . .6206 | .62 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 116 TABLE 99. AGONIC LINE. The line of no declination appears to be still mov- ing westward in the United States, but the line of no annual change is only a short distance to the west of it, so that it is probable that the extreme westerly position will soon be reached. Longitudes of the agonic line for the years — | a » oOo oOM > WON DAW fWN AH SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLe 100. II 7 RECENT VALUES OF THE MACNETIC ELEMENTS AT MACNETIC OBSERVATORIES. (Compiled by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Magnetic Elements. Latitude. | Longitude. f Intensity (C.G.S. units). | Declination: (Inclination: |= ss aaa | i Total. | | nen nee be oF Onaey Pawlowsk 59 41IN | 30 29E : FOS 77 Noe : “4975 | Sitka 57 03N | 135 20W 4H | 74 32.2N | . , .§349 | Katharinenburg 57 03N | 60 38E 2 70 52.2N | . : 5378 Rude Skov 55 5IN| 12 27E 8. 68 45.0N | . : 4794 Eskdalemuir 55 19Ni 1) 3.02) ; 69 37.1N | . 4534 | -4837 | | Stonyhurst 53 51N 2 28W : 68 41.4N | . : .4787 Wilhelmshaven 53 32N | 809K : 67 30.5N | .1812 | . -4737 | Potsdam 52 23N] 13 04E : 66 20.4N | . : .468 5 | Seddin 5217N]} 13 01E ‘ 6617.4N]. : .4685 | Irkutsk 52 16N | 104 16E : 70 25.0N | . ‘ .5970 | De Bilt 52 o6N 5 11E : 66 46.5N | . .432I | .4702 | Valencia 51 56N | ro 15sW ; 68 12.1N |. : .4817 | Clausthal 51 48N | 10 20E 6:6 0 Seon lees nn eel to Bochum 51 29N 7 14E Syomelte eerou || eeicet ovations Kew 51 23N o 19W c 66 57.2N | . . 4726 Greenwich 51 28N | 000 ‘ 66 52.1N | . : .4716 Uccle 50 48N 4 21E 66 00.1N | . ‘ .4677 | Hermsdorf 50 460N | 16 14E Met a vee od |Iittrcurertotea| imteiter ( Beuthen 50 2IN] 18 55E ancl: cent etch iit |e te Falmouth 50 ogN 5 05W : 66 26.6N | . : 4704 Prague 5SOO5N | 14 25E eer digi Aa echco Ol ald at Cracow 5004N |] 19 58E : 64 15.5N St. Helier (Jersey) | 49 12N 205W : 65 34.5N pens Val Joyeux 48 49N 201K : 64 41.6N | . : .4619 Munich 48 o9N | 11 37E : 63 08.4N | . : -4568 Kremsmiinster 48 03N | 14 08E Seepane Biel O’Gyalla (Pesth) 47 53N | 18 12E pioie Bene Odessa 46 20N | 30 46E : 62 26.9N | . .4693 Pola 44 52N] 13 51E : 60 03.6N | . .4446 Agincourt (Toronto)} 43 47N | 79 16W : 74 38.5N | . 6142 Perpignan 42 42N 2 53 surikele ete Tiflis 41 43N P 44 48E : 56 02.8N | . 4557 | Capodimonte 40 52N] 14 15E eee) ||P SOMmae ZN 006 Ebro (Tortosa) 40 49N 0 31E 13 18.6W | 57 54.8N | . 4378 Coimbra 40 12N 8 25W 16 27.4W | 58 46.4N | . 4438 | Mount Weather 39 O4N | 77 53W 3130: 2.We | iteerentore Nine Baldwin 38 47N | 95 10W 8 33.0E | 68 47.8N | . -6003 Cheltenham 38 44N | 76 soW 5 41.4W | 70 35.4N | . 5966 Athens 37 SON | 23 42E 4 53.0W | 5211.7N]. .4262 San Fernando 3628N | 612W 15 05.2W | 54 31.5N een Tokio 35 4IN | 139 45E 4 58.2W | 49 07.3N | . 4585 Tucson 32 15N | 110 5S0.W 13 25.8E | 59 19.6N | . 5372 Zi-ka-wei 31 12N | 121 26E 2 33-6W | 45 36.6N | . .4726 Dehra Dun 30 I9N | 78 03E 231.9E | 43 54.8N | . .4617 Helwan 29 52N | 31 20E 2 25.4W | 40 43.7N | . .3967 Barrackpore 22 46N | 88 22E OG) 30 42.2N) | .4341 Hongkong 22 18N | 114 10F 0 00.4E | 30 58.8N | . 4328 Honolulu 21 19N | 158 04 W 9 29.7E | 39 47.2N/. : 3795 Toungoo 18 s6N | 96 27E 0 24.9E | 2302.1N]. : 4216 Alibag 18 38N | 72 52E O) Field, |) 2) Cony |) 4034 Vieques 18 o9N | 65 26W 2 20.6W | 49 52.0N | .2 : .4478 Antipolo 14 30N | 121 10F 0 40.9E | 1618.2N } . : 3981 Kodaikanal 10 14N | 77 28E 055.0W |] 345.2N]. 3757 Batavia-Butenzorg 6 11S | 106 49E 0 49.5E | 31 09.2S | .3668 | . 4286 St. Paul de Loanda | 8 48S | 13 13E 16 12.3W | 35 32.28 | . .2473 | Samoa (Apia) 13 48S | 171 46W 9 41.9E | 29 21.78 | . .4086 Tananarive 18 55S | 47 32E 9 29.7 W | 5405.75 | . .4319 Mauritius 2006S | 57 33E 9 18.5W | 53 30.65 | . -3920 | : SiS Gesv eLSeS7ezonie . +2553 | Rio de Janeiro 22559 | 43 11W (0) HOON || 6 S 6 co ab /c SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 118 TABLE 101. PRESSURE OF COLUMNS OF MERCURY AND WATER. British and metric measures. METRIC MEASURE. BRITISH MEASURE. Correct at o° C. for mercury and at 4° C. for water. Pressure sq- cm. 13-5956 27.1912 40.7868 54-3824 67.9780 81.5736 95-1692 108.7648 122.3604 135-9560 Casot Pressure H,0. sq. cm. 1 I 2 2 3 4 2 6 7 8 9 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. in grams per In grams per Pressure in pounds per sq. inch. 0.193376 0.3867 52 0.580128 0-77 3504 0.966880 1.160256 1.353032 1.547008 1.740384 1.933760 Pressure in pounds per sq. inch. 0.0142234 0.0284468 0.0426702 0.05689 36 0.0711170 0.08 53404 0.099 5638 0.1137872 0.1280106 0.1422340 Inches of Hg. Inches of 20. 1 Pressure in grams per in Sq- cm. 34-533 69.066 103.598 138.131 172.664 207.197 241.730 276.262 310.795 345-328 Pressure Z in grams per in sq: cm. 2.54 5.08 7.62 10.16 12.70 15.24 17.78 20.32 22.86 25-40 Pressure pounds per sq- inch. 0.491174 0.982348 1.473522 1.964696 2.455870 2.947044 3.438218 929892 4.420506 4.911740 Pressure pounds per sq: inch. 0.036127 0.072255 0.108382 0.144510 0.180637 0.216764 0.252892 0.289019 0.325147 0.361274 TABLE 102. IIg REDUCTION OF BAROMETRIC HEICHT TO STANDARD TEMPERATURE.* Corrections for brass scale and Corrections for brass scale and Corrections for glass scale and English measure. metric measure, metric measure. Height of a Height of a Height of a. barometer in in inches for barometer in in mm. for barometer in in mm. for inches. temp. F. mm, temp. C. mm. temp. C. 0.00135 400 0.0651 50 0.0086 00145 410 .0668 100 .O172 .OOT 54. 420 0684 150 0258 .001 58 43 .0700 200 0345 .00163 440 0716 250 0431 .00167 450 .0732 300 0517 .00172 460 0749 350 .0003 00176 470 0705 480 0781 400 0.0689 0.00181 490 .0797 450 0775 00185 500 0861 00190 500 0.0813 520 .0895 : .00194 510 .08 30 540 .0930 22.0 00199 520 .0846 560 .0965 22.5 .00203 530 0862 580 0999 23.0 00208 540 .0878 2355 00212 550 .0894 600 0.1034 500 OOII 610 1051 24.0 0.00217 57 .0927 620 -1068 24.5 .00221 580 0943 630 1085 25.0 .00226 590 0959 640 1103 25.5 00231 650 1120 26.0 .00236 600 0.097 5 660 8 ey 26.5 .00240 610 .0992 27.0 00245 620 .1008 670 0.1154 27.5 .00249 630 -1024 680 1172 640 -1040 690 1189 28.0 0.00254 650 1056 700 .1206 28.5 .00258 660 1073 710 1223 29.0 00263 670 1089 720 1240 29.2 00265 680 1105 730 1258 29.4 .00267 690 iia 29.6 .00268 740 0.1275 29.8 .00270 700 0.1137 750 1292 30.0 .00272 710 1154 760 .1309 720 1170 77 327, 30.2 0.00274 730 1186 780 1344 30-4 .00276 740 .1202 790 .1361 30.6 .00277 750 .1218 800 .1378 30.8 00279 760 eas 31.0 .00281 770 1251 850 0.1464 B12 00283 780 .1267 goo 1551 31-4 00285 790 1283 950 -1639 31.6 .00287 800 1299 1000 1723 * The height of the barometer is affected by the relative thermal expansion of the mercury and the glass, in the case of instruments graduated on the glass tube, and by the relative expansion of the mercury and the metallic inclosing case, usually of brass, in the case of instruments graduated on the brasscase. This relative expansion is practically proportional to the first power of the tem- perature. The above tables of values of the coefficient of relative expansion will be found to give corrections almost identical with those given in the International Meteorological Tables. The numbers tabulated under a are the values of a in the equation Hy = Ay’ —a(t/ —?t) where His the height at the standard temperature, #/’ the observed height at the temperature /’, and a (¢’—7) the correction for temperature. Thestandard temperature is 0° C. for the metric system and 28°.5 F. for the English system. The English barometer is correct for the temperature of melting ice ata temperature of approximately 28°.5 F., because of the fact that the brass scale is graduated so as to be standard at 62° F., while mercury has the standard density at 32° F. ExaMPLE.—A barometer having a brass scale gave H = 765 mm. at 25° C.; required, the cor- responding reading ato° C. Here the value of a isthe mean of .1235 and .1251, or .1243;.°. a(d/—2) = .1243 K 25 =3.11. Hence Ap = 765 — 3.11 = 761.89 N. B.—Although a is here given to three and sometimes to four significant figures, it is seldom worth while to use more than the nearest two-figure number. In fact, all barometers have not the same values for a,and when great accuracy is wanted the proper coefficieuts have to be deters mined by experiment. SmitHsonian TABLES. I20 TABLE 103. CORRECTION OF BAROMETER TO STANDARD CRAVITY. Altitude term. Correction is to be subtracted. Observed height of barometer in millimeters. Correction in millime- ters for elevation above sea level in first column and height of barometer in top line. 15000 14500 14000 13500 13000 12500 12000 II 500 1.315 : cl . I 1000 1.255 2 A 8 10500 1.196 | 1.07 ‘ 83 10000 TelG Om kO225 |e . 9500 1.076] . : : go0o 1.016 z 8500 957 | - 8000 897 | - 7500 837 | -75 7000 HMI \| © 6500 718 6000 658 5500 -598 5000 4500 4000 ; 3500 Corrections in hundredths 3000 of an inch for elevation above = sea level in last column and 2500 height of barometer in bottom 2000 1500 1000 500 Height above sea level in Observed height of barometer in inches. feet. GmMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLe 104, I2I REDUCTION OF BAROMETER TO STANDARD CRAVITY.* Reduction to Latitude 45°. — English Scale. N. B. From latitude 0° to 44° the correction is to be subtracted. From latitude go° to 46° the correction is to be added. Height of the barometer in inches. Latitude, 19 24 25 26 Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch, Inch. | Inch. | Inch. 0.051 | 0.053 | 0.056 | 0.059 0.064 | 0.067 | 0.069 0.050 | 0.052 | 0.055 | 0.058 0.063 | 0.066 | 0.068 049| .052] .055] .057] . .062} .065} .068 049} .052] .054] .057] . .062| .065}| .067 049] .O51| -054] .056] . .061| .064]| .067 048] .O51| .053] .056] . 061 | .063| .066 0.048 | 0.050 0.055 0.060 | 0.063 | 0.065 .047| .049| . where # is a constant depending on the units employed, zw the mass of unit volume of the air, a the area of the surface and v the velocity of the wind.* Engineers generally use the table of values of P given by Smeaton in 1759. This table was calculated from the formula P= .00492 v? and gives the pressure in pounds per square foot when v is expressed in miles per hour. The corresponding formula when v is expressed in feet per second is P= .00228 v. Later determinations do not agree well together, but give on the average somewhat lower values for the coefficient. The value of w depends, of course, on the temperature and the baro- metric pressure. Langley’s experiments give 4w—.00166 at ordinary barometric pressure and 10° C. temperature. For planes inclined at an angle a less than go° to the direction of the wind the pressure may be expressed as Pie gy. Table 108, founded on the experiments of Langley, gives the value of F@ for different values of a. The word asfect, in the headings, is used by him to define the position of the plane relative to the direction of motion. The numerical value of the aspect is the ratio of the linear dimension transverse to the direction of motion to the linear dimension, a vertical plane through which is parallel to the direction of motion. TABLE 108. — Values of F, in Equation P,—F,Po. Plane 30 in. X 4.8 in. Plane 12 in. X 12 in. Plane 6 in. X 24 in. Aspect 6 (nearly). Aspect 1. Aspect }. * The following pressures in pounds per square inch show roughly the influence of the shape and size of the resist- ing surface (Dines’ results). The wind velocity was 20.9 miles per hour. The flat plates were 3 in. thick. Square; sidesi4iins |...) seuenacl- Gene unel Gl ue tesa) eelate: Oun-idiam-gociconejat backer. my. mrmenaemL-AO (OigecinGrksy 6 6 585 Go ooo Geo aa fetes IGE Goniinile “S Gisio 6 6 6 0 o 4 0 Oe RectanglesiGains by) x aemnenn sme) canine ie) Ee aenexE7O «sharp 30° cone atback . . . . . » « « ¥.54 SPER ephNE SEY G5 6 6.6 6 Hdd 6 a g Gy & ficonesinifront) pein. es hone + « 0.60 G@irclessame/area! Scie 4) 2 a) 60d 6s 1S 2x55) 0 ‘stin) Robinsonicup)on! 84s insofaan- rods) son eexeOS Rectangle,/24)insby/6..) ) 6) el el eee) fee e5Q) Same with backito wind). Wer. ey lefts re renOuzs Square; sidesizGins) es) es enti @ ye X52 oglins cuploniosin. of sin. rod y. s! Sey cet) le). sel) Reena ey Plate; 6:in.idiam!-42-thick) 2) <5 ate ese le 145) Oamespwithibackitoiwind! | s-uc. ie ilar tli eaten OLOn Ditto, curved side to wind. . . . « .. . + 0.92 23in,cupong}in. of fin. rod . . + « + « « 2.60 Sphere, (6 in. diam. | altel ci ci diac c tans be Went0.67) me Sames withiback toi ilecpW mtcun cin ciiye nits iN ite nneX-On SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 109. I 25 AERODYNAMICS. On the basis of the results given in Table 108 Langley states the following condition for the soaring of an aeroplane 76.2 centimeters long and 12.2 centimeters broad, weighing 500 grams, — that is, a plane one square foot in area, weighing 1.1 pounds. It is supposed to soar in a horizontal direction, with aspect 6. TABLE 109. — Data for the Soaring of Planes 76.2 x 12.2 cms. weighing 500 Grams, Aspect 6. Weight of planes of like form, capable of soaring at speed wv with the ex- Inclination penditure of one horse to the hori- power. zontal a. Work expended per minute Soaring speed w. (activity). Meters per Feet per Kilogram Foot sec. sec, meters. pounds. Kilograms, Pounds. 24 174 95.0 209 20. 55:5 ee 65 474 34:8 77 86 623 20.5 58 175 1268 13.0 29 330 2434 6.8 15 In general, if p= Neigh Soaring speed v= \/ ae cos a Activity per unit of weight =v tan a The following data for curved surfaces are due to Wellner (Zeits. fiir Luftschifffahrt, x., Oct. 1893). Let the surface be so curved that its intersection with a vertical plane parallel to the line of motion is a parabola whose height is about ;; the subtending chord, and let the surface be bounded by an elliptic outline symmetrical with the line of motion. Also, let the angle of incli- nation of the chord of the surface be a, and the angle between the direction of resultant air pressure and the normal to the direction of motion be 8. Then 8 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 1199 (continued). VISCOSITY OF SOLUTIONS. Density. Slotte. Sprung. Slotte. Sprung. Wagner. “ Sprung. TABLE 1 49 (continued). * 133 VISCOSITY OF SOLUTIONS. Percentage by weight of salt in solution. Density. Authority. 18.31 1.148 7 : : Wagner. 29.60 1.323 33. < 49.31 1.506 11.45 1.147 18.80 1.251 22.08 1.306 aN Ron NOoOn OO _ OD COL2 0 OE NOOO N Oo @ases Ont & ond GQ hwo (NH4)2SOq “ Bos SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 134 TABLE 119 (continued). VISCOSITY OF SOLUTIONS. Percentage by weight . : of salt in | Density.] Authority. solution. (NH4)eCrO4 10.52 1.063 : Slotte. ef 19.75 1.120 a 28.04 1.173 aD IDG Os NI GQ Gm (NH4)oCreO7 6.85 1.039 “ 13.00 1.078 ss 19.93 1.126 Wom NiCle 11.45 1.109 ss 22.69 1.226 : 30-40 | 1.337 Ni(NOs)e 16.49 1.136 sf 30.01 1.278 se 40.95 1.388 NiSO, 10.62 1.092 ae 18.19 1.198 ‘s 25-35 1.314 Pb(NOs)2 17.93 1.179 es 32.22 1.362 = Q Cn fp OS N Cu noe NAN vo £OW WOonm ne Sr(NOs)e 10.29 1.088 aS 21.19 1.124 e 32.61 1.307 WO ZnClg 15.33 1.146 oe 23.49 1.22 . 33:78 | 1-343 = CONT oO Qui NW Aw Pe Oo on Wwno Zn(NOs)o 15.95 I.115 ‘ 30.2319, 1:220 44-50 | 1.437 m 2 CO OOS DN Co 7eh2 1.106 16.64 1.195 23-09 1.281 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 120. 135 SPECIFIC VISCOSITY.* Normal solution. + normal, 4 normal, 4 normal. Dissolved salt. Authority. viscosity. Specific viscosity viscosity Specifie viscosity. Density Specific Acids:: €lgOg |. | 1; , 003 | I. f Reyher. UC Serco en ene ; Oust. } : “ HC1O3 . HNOg3: HeSO4 Aluminium sulphate Barium chloride . «s nitrate Calcium chloride ce nitrate . Cadmium chloride . s nitrate “ sulphate . Cobalt chloride . “ nitrate “sulphate . Copper chloride . 6 nitrate =e sulphate Lead nitrate Lithium chloride “ sulphate . Magnesium chloride . nitrate . ey sulphate Manganese chloride « nitrate . sulphate Nickel chloride . SO MIELALe oh avs “sulphate . Potassium chloride . oe chromate nitrate sulphate Sodium chloride. oe bromide. se chlorate & nitrate Silver nitrate . Strontium chloride . ce nitrate Zinc chloride . “ nitrate “sulphate. * In the case of solutions of salts it has been found (véde Arrhennius, Zeits. fiir Phys. Chem. vol. 1, p. 285) that the specific viscosity can, in many cases, be nearly expressed by the equation “= 4”, where p is the specific viscosity for a normal solution referred to the solvent at the same temperature, and 7 the number of gramme molecules in the solution under consideration, The same rule may of course be applied to solutions stated in percentages instead of gramme molecules. The table here given has been compiled from the results of Reyher (Zeits. fiir Phys. Chem. vol. 2, Pp. 749) and of Wagner (Zeits. fiir Phys, Chem. vol. 5, p. 31) and illustrates this rule. The numbers are all for 25° C. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 136 / -‘TaBLes 121-122, TaBLE 121.—VISCOSITY OF GASES AND VAPORS. The values of u given in the table are 10° times the coefficients of viscosity in C. G. S. units. Substance. Oiseau . Substance. Acetone : : ; : ; Chloroform . i 95-9 Air : ° ° - | -21.4 : 2 oes : : 102.9 6 0.0 ‘ see ae : : 189.0 15-0 : Ether ; : : 638.9 99.1 : . : : : 73-2 182.4 ; . : Z : 79-3 ; : ; - | 302.0 7 Ethyl iodide. : 216.0 Alcohol: Methyl . ; 606.8 : 3 Helium. : s 189.1 SS Ethyl. . : 78.4 42. “s : ; 196.9 Propyl, norm. 97-4 : . : 234.8 Isopropyl : 82.8 : : 269.9 Butyl, norm. . | 116.9 : ; 81.9 Isobutyl . | eLOS <4 : 5 88.9 Wert-butyl ~~ 82.9 ; : ; 105.9 Ammonia : . 0.0 7 . : 121.5 ate : . : 20.0 : . E 139.2 Argon . . : : 0.0 : : . 459.* e : ; : 5 14.7 ; ; : 532-* 17.9 : : : 582.* 99.7 : : ; 627.* . ; ° nto Se ; . : : 671.* Benzole. , c : 19.0 : Methane . 2 120.1 Sa. aie : : =) |): 10:0 : Methyl iodide . 232. Carbon bisulphide ; 16.9 ; “chloride 105.2 Sidioxide” 7; . | 20.7 ; & 213.9 Ks : : 15.0 y Nitrogen . : 156.3 ; : 99-1 ; ‘ : : 3 170.7 182.4 : cs ‘ ; ; 189.4 302.0 : Oxygen . : : 195.7 monoxide : 0.0 : : 215.9 © ; : 20.0 : Water vapor . 90.4 Chlorine : ‘ : 0.0 s s ; 096.7 ies : ° ; 20.0 E ° 132.0 1 Puluj, Wien. Ber. 69, (2), 1874. 6 Schumann, Wied. Ann. 23, 1884. 2 Breitenbach, Ann. Phys. 5, rgor. 7 Obermayer, Wien. Ber. 71, (2a), 1875. 3 Steudel, Wied. Ann. 16, 1882. 8 Koch, Wied. Ann. 14, 1881, 19, 1883. 4 Graham, Philos. Trans. Lond. 1846, III. 9 Meyer-Schumann, Wied. Ann. 13, 1881. 5 Schultze, Ann. Phys. (4), 5, 6, 1901. * The values here given were calculated from Koch’s table (Wied. Ann. vol. 19, p. 869) by the formula « = 489 [1-++ 746 (¢—270)]. TaBLe 122.— VISCOSITY OF AIR. 20.2°C. Holman, Phil. Mag. 1886 1.810 X 10—* | Markowski, ditto. 1904 1.83510" Fischer, Phys. Rev. 1909 1.807 Tanzler, Ver. D. Phys. G. 1906 1.836 Grindlay, Gibson, Pr. Roy. Soc. Tomlinson, Phil. Trans. 1886 1.811 1908 1.809 1.812 Rankine, ditto. 1910 1.814 1.812 Rapp, unpublished 1.810 Hogg, Am. Acad. Proc. 1905 1.808 Breitenbach, Wied. Ann. 1899 11.833 Gilchrist 1.812 Schultze, Ann. der Phys. 1901 1.837 The viscosity of air at 20.2° may be taken as 1.812 X 10—* within a probable error of less than 0.2 per cent. Its variation with the temperature may be obtained from Holman’s formula = 1715.50 X 10—7 (1 +.:0.00275¢ — 0.0000003427). See Phys. Rev. 1913, p. 124, where full refer- ences may be obtained. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 123. COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF GASES. Temperature Coefficients. 137 If wr=the viscosity at 7 C, uo= the vicosity at 0°, a= the coefficient of expansion, f, y, and Me yi y n = coefficients independent of ¢, then (I) pfe=Mo(t--as). (II) =yo(1+8?). (III) G +373 (vin =p Ff Argon : “ec Benzole : ; : .00: Carbon dioxide s . .003701 .003701 003665 004158 “ “ec monoxide Ether . Ethylene = us : : 003665 “ chloride 003900 Helium : - “ = 66 = Hydrogen .00366 Mercury Nitrogen Nitrous oxide Oxygen 003665 .003065 .003719 1 Holman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 12, 1876; 21, 1885; Philos. Mag. (5) 3, 1877; 21, 1886. 2 Breitenbach, Wied. Ann. 5, 1901. 3 Schultze, Ann. Phys. (4) 5, 1got. 4 Rayleigh, Proc. Roy. Soc. 62, 1897; 66, 1900; 67, 1900. * See Table 122 for viscosity of air. (Sutherland.) nu=0.815; C=150.2 n=0.8227, C=169.9 #=0.8119 7=0.00185 C= 239.7 7 =0.000889 B=0.00345; 70.941 B=0.00209; 70.738 n=0.94 C= 225.9 B=0.00350; 20.958 B=0.00381 ; 209772 2—O0.081 5 €C—72-2 n=0,6852; C=80.3 n=0.6771 GF ile OOO G—— 7.262 2z—=1.6 B=0.00269 ; 7=0.738 B=0.00345; 72==0.929 WO Or O— 20.2 (Meyer, Obermayer, Puluj, Breitenbach.) (Meyer, Obermayer.) =po(1-+at)3 (1-2). (Schumann.) 14.7-99-7 99-7-183.7 18.7—100 12.8-100 —21.5-53.5 17-5~53-5 0-30.5 —21.5-53-5 15-6-157.3 O-15.0 15.3-99.6 99-0-184.6 273-380 = 2 5753-5 —21.5-100.3 5 Schumann, Wied. Ann. 23, 1884. 6 Breitenbach, Ann. Phys. 5, 1901. 7 Obermayer, Wien. Ber. 73 (2A), 1876. 8 Puluj, Wien. Ber. 78 (2), 1878. 9 Schultze, Ann Phys. (4) 6, 1901. 10 Koch, Wied. Ann. 19, 1883. Compiled from Landolt-Bérnstein-Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. BN O11 Ww ff NOC - = ~ NOR NWWL - rs > 128 TABLE 124. d DIFFUSION OF AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION INTO PURE WATER. If & is the coefficient of diffusion, dS the amount of the substance which passes in the time a, at the place x, nee oee g sq. cm. of a diffusion tration dc / dx, then dS = 2B ee under the influence of a drop of concen- Boh ax & depends on the temperature and the concentration. ¢ gives the gram-molecules per liter. The unit of time is a day. Substance. Refer ence Bromine . 5 Chlorine . Copper sulphate Glycerine ; : Sata acid . Iodine s Nitric acid ; ; Potassium chloride . se hydrate . Silver nitrate . Sodium chloride Urea Acetic acid Barium chloride Glycerine Sodium actetate “chloride Urea ; Acetic acid . Ammonia ° Formic acid . Glycerine ; : || Hydrochloric acid . Magnesium sulphate Potassium bromide. e hydrate . Sodium chloride “ ee a= ; : 14.3 “ hydrate. 12. cs iodide : 10. Sugar . ; 12> Sulphuric acid : 12. Zinc sulphate . : 14.8 Acetic acid . eal e2sO) | nee Calcium chloride . 10. Cadmium sulphate . 19.04 Hydrochloric acid . 12: Sodium iodide : Io. Sulphuric acid ., Tis Zinc acetate . : 18.05 | sf s . ; 0.04 Acetic acid. 3:0) (02 Potassium carbonate 10. hydrate . 12 Weetie acid 4.0| 12. Potassium chloride . 10. BAND IOO AMANO DNO ADNDNWN ADS QWNN QW NUWFHAPWNHNNNNANWN 1 Euler, Wied. Ann. 63, 1897. 2 Thovert, C. R. 133, 1901; 134, 1902. 3 Heimbrodt, Diss. Leipzig, 1903. 4 Scheffer, Chem. Ber. 15, 1882; 16, 1883; Zeitschr. Phys. Chem. 2, 1888. | Calcium chloride | Magnesium sulphate “cc oe | Silver nitrate . | Sodium chloride Substance. “cc oe . “cc “cc “ ee Copper sulphate Glycerine rT% oe Hydrochloric acid . “ce a oe oe “ “ Potassium hydrate . “ “ec “ nitrate . “ “ “ sulphate ee “c 6 iT “ ce 2.36 1.90 1.60 1.34 1.32 0.005 : 1.30 5 Kawalki, Wied. Ann. 52, 1894; 59, 1896. 6 Arrhenius, Zeitschr. Phys. Chem. fo, 1892. 7 Abegg, Zeitschr. Phys. Chem. 11, 1893. 8 Schuhmeister, Wien. Ber. 79 (2), 1879. 9 Seitz, Wied. Ann. 64, 1808. Compiled from Landolt-Bérnstein-Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 125, 139 DIFFUSION OF VAPORS. Coefficients of diffusion of vapors in C. G. S. units. The coefficients are for the temperatures given in the table and a pressure of 76 centimeters of mercury.* kt for vapor | kz for vapor | kz for vapor Temp. C. diffusing into | diffusing into | diffusing tne c hydrogen. air. carbon dioxide. Acids: Formic 0.0 0.5131 0.1315 0.0879 : : 65.4 0.7873 0.2035 0.1343 ui ‘ ‘ 4 : 84.9 0.8830 0.2244 0.1519 Acetic ‘ : 0.0 0.4040 0.1061 0.0713 ; : , 65-5 0.6211 0.1578 0.1048 os : 98.5 0.7481 0.1965 0.1321 Isovaleric . : 0.0 0.2118 0.0555 0.0375 ‘ 98.0 0.3934 0.103 0.0696 Alcohols: Methyl : 0.0 0.5001 0.1325 0.0880 6 : 25.6 0.601 5 0.1620 0.1046 s 49.6 0.6738 0.1809 0.1234 Ethyl 0.0 0.3806 0.0994 0.0093 s A 40.4 0.5030 0.1372 0.0898 i 66.9 0.5430 0.1475 0.1026 Propyl . 0.0 0.3153 0.0803 0.0577 s ; 66.9 0.4832 0.1237 0.0901 if F 83.5 0.5434 0.1379 0.0976 Butyl 0.0 0.2716 0.0681 0.0476 ee : : 99.0 0.5045 0.1265 0.0834 Amyl 0.0 0.2351 0.0589 0.0422 S ; 99.1 0.4362 0.1094. 0.0784 Hexyl 0.0 0.1998 0.0499 0.0351 “ : 99.0 3712 0.0927 0.0051 Benzene . . 0.0 0.2940 0.07 51 0.0527 cs ; ; : 19.9 0.3409 0.0877 0.0609 “ > . . 0.3993 O.IOII 0.0715 Carbon disulphide : 0.3690 0.0883 0.0629 : se 3 0.4255 0.1015 0.0726 Gi i : g 0.4626 0.1120 0.0789 Esters: Methyl acetate ! 0.3277 0.0840 0.0557 ss « ; : 0.3928 0.1013 0.0079 Ethyl ; ; : 0.2373 0.0630 0.0450 o cS ; ; 0.3729 0.0970 0.0666 Methyl! butyrate. 5 0.2422 0.0640 0.0438 © o ; : 0.4308 0.1139 0.0809 Ethyl - : : : 0.2238 0.0573 0.0406 ss s ‘ : 0.4112 0.1064 0.07 56 “« valerate : 0.2050 0.0505 0.0366 a S : : 0.3784 0.0932 0.0076 0.2960 0.0775 0.0552 0.3410 0.0893 0.0036 0.6870 0.1980 0.1310 1.0000 0.2827 O.1SII 1.1794 0.3451 0.2384 * Taken from Winkelmann’s papers (Wied. Ann. vols, 22, 23, and 26). The coefficients for 0° were calculated by Winkelmann on the assumption that the rate of diffusion is proportional to the absolute temperature. According to the investigations of Loschmidt and of Obermeyer the coefficient of diffusion of a gas, or vapor, at o° C. and a pressure of 76 centimetres of mercury may be calculated from the observed coefficient at another temperature and pressure by the formula 4, =p (2 Ze where 7 is temperature absolute and # the pressure of the gas. The exponent z is found to be about 1.75 for the permanent gases and about 2 for condensible gases. The following are examples: Air—CO,, ~=1.968; CO.—N,O, ~=2.05; CO,—H, #=1.742; CO—O, x=1.785; H—O, n=1.755; O—N, ~=1.792. Winkelmann’s results, as given in the above table, seem to give about 2 for vapors diffusing into air, hydrogen or carbon dioxide. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 140 TaBLes 126-127. DIFFUSION OF GASES, VAPORS, AND METALS. TABLE 126. — Coefficients of Diffusion for Various Gases and Vapors.* Gas or Vapor diffusing. Gas or Vapor diffused into. ean: Coefficient of Diffusion. Authority. 0.661 Schulze. 0.1775 Obermayer. 0.1423 Loschmidt. 0.1360 Waitz. 0.1405 Loschmidt. 0.1314 Obermayer. 0.5437 “ 0.1405 ss 0.0983 Loschmidt. 0.1802 i 0.0995 Stefan. 0.1314 Obermayer. o.101 & 0.6422 Loschmidt. 0.1802 s 0.1872 Obermayer. 0.0827 Stefan. 0.3054 “f 0.6340 Obermayer. 0.5384 “ 0.6488 0.4593 0.4863 0.6254 0.5347 0.6788 0.1787 0.1357 0.7217 Loschmidt. 0.1710 Obermayer. 0.4828 Loschmidt. 0.2390 Guglilemo. 0.2475 ° ee 0.8710 cs Air’ 4: iieu tefearcui nur onno dies Hydrogen ‘¢ aCe ee yc Oxygen Carbon dioxide ... - Air Carbon monoxide Hydrogen Methane . Nitrous oxide 5 a Go Oxygen Carbon disulphide . . . IME ala or OL Carbon monoxide . . Carbon dioxide os £ Sa Ethylene . shire Ware Hydrogen Oxygen OVS Be cae sae INST Ys: Beer oe ois ice: Bess to ee Hydrogen IBhyaldoyweeh G Sh co 6 OO AMR oe Gg fo 6 ss By Ban neta Carbon dioxide “ monoxide Ethane Ethylene . Methane . Nitrous oxide . Oxygen Nitrogen Caner ea Orrin Gg o 6 8 6 6 6 Carbon dioxide cs aeons sate Hydrogen ..- .« oes) lel meee Nitrogen . Sulphur dioxide . . . . Hydrogen WWialteru celtet voll deh miele ANT ele CO0000D0D00DDDOOOOCOOCOCOAOADAOOODO0000 “ “ce manwoodoad — = Hydrogen * Compiled for the most part from a similar table in Landolt & Bornstein’s Phys, Chem. Tab. TABLE 127. — Diffusion of Metals into Metals. dv d*v__where x is the distance in direction of diffusion; v, the degree of concentration of at = “ 72’ the diffusing metal; ¢, the time; 4, the diffusion constant = the quantity of metal in grams diffusing through a sq. cm. in a day when unit difference of concentra- tion (gr. per cu. cm.) is maintained between two sides of a layer one cm. thick. erie Dissolving | Tempera- tee oe Dissolving Tope Diffusing Metal. Metal. eee : Diffusing Metal. AGEL Ace Lead . 555 Platinum . ead. 492 SoM) 2, 492 Wead@eun. (icinge-nane 555 251 3 Rhodium. ead . 550 Sin eae Mercury Lead.) « Biss 2 JENS OG Bismuth Sodium mutt ietaj ars F Potassium ss 3 Gold From Roberts-Austen, Philosophical Transactions, 187A, p. 383, 1896. * These values are from Guthrie. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 128. I4!I SOLUBILITY OF INORCANIC SALTS IN WATER; VARIATION WITH THE TEMPERATURE. The numbers give the number of grams of the axhydrous salt soluble in 1000 grams of water at the given temperatures. Temperature Centigrade. 40° 50° 60° BeNOs sce ss Alo(SO4)3 ane ots oe 521 INGKG ISOs. oD. 8 2 Alo(NH4)2(SO4)q BoOstrsi sas 0% BaClg See eMe cle ot!) s 436 Ba(NOs)o atte) te CaCle CoCl, CsCle: CsNO3 . CsoSO4 . Cu(NOs3)2 . CuSO, FeCle. FeoCle FeSO, KB ree: KeCOg KCl): KCIO3 . KeCrO,4 . K2Cr207 Compiled from Landolt-Bornstein-Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 142 TABLES 128 (concluded) -1 30. SOLUBILITY OF SALTS AND CASES IN WATER. TABLE 128 (concluded) — Solubility of Inorganic Salts in Water ; Variation with the Temperature. The numbers give the number of grams of the azhydrous salt soluble in 1000 grams of water at the given temperatures. Temperature Centigrade. 50° 60° 1450 (1044) (7aq) RbeSO4 . SrCly . SnlI, Sr(NOs)o ° ° Th(SO4)2 - « (gaq) Bs - (4aq) alClinge sacar TINOg TSO, Yb2(SO4)3 Zn(NOs)e ZnSO4 TABLE 129. — Solubility of a Few Organic Salts in Water; Variation with the Temperature. 50° 60° 7o° Fip(COz)g . . ss 321) 445} 635 He(CH2.COea),. . . 244} 358| SII Martane acid’), wae 1950 | 2180 | 2440 Racemic con ao arrehige 595| 783] 999 K(HCOg) . . . . - 14550 KH(C4H404) SaEh Neate 9 18 24 32 | TABLE 130.—Solubility of Gases in Water; Variation with the Temperature, The table gives the weight in grams of the gas which will be absorbed in 1000 grams of water when the partial pressure of the gas plus the vapor pressure of the liquid at the given tempera- ture equals 760 mm. Compiled from Landolt-Bérnstein-Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 131. 143 CHANCE.OF SOLUBILITY PRODUCED BY UNIFORM PRESSURE.* CdSO,48/3H20 at 25° ZnSO4.7H20 at 25° Mannite at 24.05° NaCl at 24.05° Pressure in atmos- pheres. gs. CdSO, per Percentage change. gs. ZnSO, per 100 gs. H,O. Percentage change. Conc. of satd. soln. gs. monnite per 100 gs. H,O. Percentage change. Conc. of satd. soln. gs. NaCl. per too gs. H,O Percentage change. a = 3 nan oO = oc un ay 3 3 5 3 Oo Conc. of satd. soln. Wm a Go “NI iS) 9° a ON bs unr 2 ° * E. Cohen and L. R. Sinnige, Z. physik. Chem. 67, p. 432, 19093 69, p- 102, 1909. E. Cohen, K. Inouye and C. Euwen, 7dzd. 75, p. 257, 1911. These authors give a ented résumé of earlier work along this line,’ 7 SMITHSONIAN TABLES, 144 TABLE 132. ABSORPTION OF CASES BY LIQUIDS.* ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS, a;, FOR GASES IN WATER. Temperature Centigrade. os oe . arbon arbon : itrous dioxide. monoxide. Hydrogen. RECO oxide, CO, CO N,O 1.797 0.0354 0.02110 0.02399 1.048 1.450 0315 .02022 02134 : 0.8778 1.185 .0282 01944 01918 F 0.7377 1.002 0254 01875 01742 : 0.6294 0.901 .0232 .01809 01599 F 0.5443 C.772 .0214 .01745 01481 - = .0200 .O1690 01370 0.506 0177 01644 .O1195 - O161 .01608 .01074 0.244 .OI41 .01600 .OIOII Temperature 2 Hydrogen Sulphur Centigrade. Os Chloe. Ebylene: Methane: gulphice: dioxide. ate 4 H.S SO, 0.02471 3.036 0.2563 | 0.05473 4.371 79.79 .02179 2.808 e253 .04889 3-965 67.48 01953 2.585 -1837 04367 3-586 56.65 -O1795 2.388 1615 -03903 3.233 47-28 .O1704 2.156 1488 03499 2.905 39.37 - 1.950 = 02542 2.604 32.79 ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS, a;, FOR GASES IN ALCOHOL, C,.H;OH. Temperature Centigrade. Nitrous {Hydrogen} Sulphur oxide. sulphide. | dioxide. Ethylene.| Methane.| Hydrogen. | Nitrogen. CoH, = si N.O HS 0.1263 4.190 17.89 RUA ne 3.838 14.78 “1228 )\\ 3-525 11.99 2A |e 3.215 9.54 1204 | . 3.015 7.41 1196 | . 2.819 5.62 * This table contains the volumes of different gases, supposed measured at o° C. and 76 centimeters’ pressure, which unit volume of the liquid named will absorb at atmospheric pressure and the temperature stated in the first column. The numbers tabulated are commonly called the absorption coefficients for the gases in water, or in alcohol, at the temperature ¢ and under one atmosphere of pressure. The table has been compiled from data published by Bohr & Bock, Bunsen, Carius, Dittmar, Hamberg, Henrick, Pagliano & Emo, Raoult, Schénfeld, Setschenow, and Winkler. The numbers are in many cases averages from several of these authorities. Nore. — The effect of increase of pressure is generally to increase the absorption coefficient. The following is approximately the magnitude of the effect in the case of ammonia in alcohol at a temperature of 23° C.: { P =45 cms. 50 cms. 55 cms. 60 cms. 65 cms. 03 = 69 74 79 84 88 According to Setschenow the effect of varying the pressure from 45 to 85 centimeters in the case of carbonic acid in water is very small. @MITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 133-135. 145 CAPILLARITY.—~SURFACE TENSION OF LIQUIDS.* 0281 SrCle 3114 2 Surface uO tension in dynes Authority. per cen- timeter. < 0567 3575 1576 ss 0400 TABLE 133.— Water and Alcohol in Contact with Air. TABLE 135, — Sar eone of Salts in ater. ; Surface . Surface t Surface t . : Tension ee wrface tension] J tension {[. |] Sattin | yenany| Temp- (EOHSR centimeter. centimeter. Ber ee ee come: timeter. Ethyl Ethyl BaClo .2820 81.8 Water. aicohol. alcohol. Water. tim 0497 77.5 anne CaCle 3511 95-0 {6.523% a 2773 i oe HCl 1190 Abe) ||" 2250 i .0887 72s |p 222 s eae T2Sq\e 21.7, KCl -1699 7 2al 2S it -IOII 2. 21. i eA 208 Mel oy 70.7 | 20.4 oom 1694 < 0362 NaCl 1932 me -1074 e .0360 NH,Cl1 | 1.0758 TABLE 134. — Miscellaneous Liquids in Contact with Air. ae eee NaeCOs |} 1.1329 “ 0005 0283 1263 0466 Aceton Acetic acid. . Amyl alcohol . Benzole . Sis Butyricacid . . Carbon disulphide Chloroform Ether . Glycerine Hexane . “a Ramsay-Shields. Average of various. “c KNOs ec oR OC Quincke. Average of various. “ NaNOgs CuSO, De dWwnd bh NWN Hall. Schiff. nS Mercunvany ei. Methyl alcohol Olive oil. Petroleum . . Propy] alcohol in SNF N NWN LK SN DHO Grn OR HW OOO Average of various. 6c 6“ Magie. 5 3981 2830 1.1039 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I KeCOg |1 “ec i I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I “cc AOR OOONNON|A HROAN DONW Pe OIRO SICOINT ICON MIWd HON O SIO OnNININI ONNI Turpentine . nN Average of various. * This determination of the capillary constants of liquids has been the subject of many careful experiments, but the results of the different experimenters, and even of the same observer when the method of measurement is changed, do not agree well together. The values here quoted can only be taken as approximations to the actual values for the liquids in a state of purity in contact with pure air. In the case of water the values given by Lord Rayleigh from the _ wave length of ripples (Phil. Mag. 1890) and by Hall from direct measurement of the tension of a flat film (Phil. Mag. 1893) have been preferred, and the temperature correction has been taken as 0.141 dyne per degree centigrade. The values for alcohol were derived from the experiments of Hall above referred to and the experiments on the effect of temperature made by Timberg (Wied. Ann. vol. 30). The authority for a few of the other values given is quoted, but they are for the most part average values derived om a large number of results published by different experimenters. t From Volkmann (Wied. Ann. vol. 17, p. 353). | SMITHSONIAN TaBLEs. 146 TABLES 136-138. TENSION OF LIQUIDS. TABLE 136. —Surface Tension of Liquids.* Surface tension in dynes per cen- timeter of liquid in contact with — Air. Water. | Mercury. Water . : : : 75.0 0.0 (392) Mercury : oO : : : 513.0 392.0 Bisulphide of carbon : : 30.5 41.7 (387) Chloroform . , ; (31.8) 26.8 (415) Ethyl alcohol ; : (24.1) - 364 Olive oil ; 5 ; 34.6 18.6 317 Turpentine . ; . 28.8 11.5 241 Petroleum. A ; : : 29.7 (28.9) 271 Hydrochloric acid 5 : ; ; (72.9) = (392) Hyposulphite of soda solution : ; 69.9 ~ 429 TABLE 137.—Surface Tension of Liquids at Solidifying Point.{ 7 Tempera- Tone EE Surface Rares of Surface Aaipann tension in solidifi- tension 7 Near dynes per ¢ yhes per Cent.° centimeter. Ks centimeter. Substance. Substance. Platinum. - | 2000 Antimony . : 432 249 Goldy e : . | 1200 Borax . : : - | 1000 216 ZINGy fe : 360 Carbonate of soda 1000 210 aU 65 : 230 Chloride of sodium - 116 Mercury . | 40 Water . : : : ° 87.9t Lead . : 330 Selenium . ; 217 71.8 Silver . : - | 1000 Sulphur ; . : III 42.1 Bismuth : 205 Phosphorus . : 43 42.0 Potassium 5 WWiaan iy : : 68 34.1 Sodium go TABLE 138. — Tension of Soap Films. Elaborate measurements of the thickness of soap films have been made by Reinold and Rucker.|| They find that a film of oleate of soda solution containing 1 of soap to 70 of water, and having 3 per cent of KNOz3 added to increase electrical conductivity, breaks at a thickness varying between 7.2 and 14.5 micro-millimeters, the average being 12.1 micro- millimeters. The film becomes black and apparently of nearly uniform thickness round the point where fracture begins. Outside the black patch there is the usual display of colors, and the thickness at these parts may be estimated from the colors of thin plates and the refractive index of the solution (vde Newton’s rings, Table 222). When the percentage of KNOs is diminished, the thickness of the black patch increases. For example, KNO3 = I 0.5 0.0 Thickness = 12.4 13.5 14.5 22.1 micro-mm. A similar variation was found in the other soaps. It was also found that diminishing the proportion of soap in the solution, there being no KNOs dissolved, increased the thickness of the film. I part soap to 30 of water gave thickness 21.6 micro-mm. I part soap to 4o of water gave thickness 22.1 micro-mm. I part soap to 60 of water gave thickness 27.7 micro-mm. I part soap to 80 of water gave thickness 29.3 micro-mm. * This table of tensions at the surface separating the liquid named in the first column and air, water or mercury as stated at the head of the last three columns, is from Quincke’s experiments (Pogg. Ann. vol. 139, and Phil. Mag. 1871). The numbers given are the equivalent in dynes per centimeter of those obtained by Worthington from Quincke’s results (Phil. Mag. vol. 20, 1885) with the exception of those in brackets, which were not corrected by Ayertiingtons they are probably somewhat too high, for the reason stated by Worthington. The temperature was about 20° C. t Quincke, ‘‘ Pogg. Ann.” vol. 135, p. 661. | + It will be observed that the value here given on the authority of Quincke is much higher than his subsequent measurements, as quoted above, give. tH ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.” 1877, and “ Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.’ 1881, 1883, and 1893. Note. — Quincke points out that substances may be divided into groups in each of which the ratio of the surface tension to the density is nearly constant. Thus, if this ratio for mercury be taken as unit, the ratio for the bromides and iodides is about a half: that of the nitrates, chlorides, sugars, and fats, as well as the metals, lead, bismuth, and antimony, about 1; that of water, the carbonates, sulphates, and probably phosphates, and the metals platinum, goid, silver, cadmium, tin, and copper, 23 that of zinc, iron, and palladium, 3; and that of sodium, 6, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLe 139. 147 VAPOR PRESSURES. The vapor pressures here tabulated have been taken, with one exception, from Regnault’s results, The vapor pressure of Pictet's fluid is given on his own authority. The pressures are in centimeters of mercury. Tem- 3 Chloro- | Ethyl Ethyl Ethyl Metis) Turpen ak LO Fewoh ° f alcohol. ether. bromides h tine. C,H;Br CyHe 6.16 7:94 10.13 12.79 16.00 19.85 24.41 29.80 36.11 43-46 51-97 61.75 72-95 85.71 100.16 116.45 134-75 155.21 177-99 203.25 Zo Tey 261.91 296.63 332-51 372-72 416.41 463-74 514.88 569.97 629.16 692.59 760.40 832.69 909-59 GMITHSONIAN TABLES. Ammonia. 1300.70 1514.24 1758.25 2034.02 2344-13 2690.66 307 5-38 3499.56 3964-69 4471.66 5020.73 5611.90 6244.73 6918.44 7631.40 747-79 870.10 1007.02 1159-53 1328.73 1515.83 1721.98 1948.21 2196.51 2467.55 2763.00 3084.31 3433-09 3810.92 4219.57 4660.82 TABLE 139 (continued). VAPOR PRESSURES. Pictet’s fluid. | Sulphur 64SO.+]| dioxide. 44CO, by| SOz weight Ethyl chloride. C,H;Cl Ethyl iodide. Methyl chloride. Methylic ether. C,H,O Nitrous oxide. N,O SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Hydrogen sulphide. 374-93 443.35 519.65 608.46 706.60 $20.63 949.08 1089.63 1244-79 1415.15 1601.24 1803.53 2002.43 2258.25 2495-43 2781.48 3069.07 3374-02 3096.15 4035.32 TABLES 140-141. 149 VAPOR PRESSURE. TABLE 140. — Vapor Pressure of Ethyl Alcohol.* Vapor pressure in millimeters of mercury at 0° C. From the formula log g = a + éa*+ cB’ Ramsay and Young obtain the following numbers.t o° | 10° | 20° | 30° | 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° | 90° Vapor pressure in millimeters of mercury at 0° C. 811.81} 1186.5 14764. |181865. TABLE 141.— Vapor Pressure of Methyl Alcohol. Vapor pressure in millimeters of mercury at 0° C. 29.97] 31.6 33-6 ; : : 42.6 57-0 60.3 : s : 75-5 99.2 | 104.7 ; 3 3 129.3 NO in NON 167.1 175-7 A. : } 214.1 271.9 | 285.0 : ; ‘ 342.5 427.7 446.6 ; : ‘ 529-5 650.0 | 676.5 : A : 791.1 * This table has been compiled from results published by Ramsay and Young (Jour. Chem. Soc. vol. 47, and Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1886). t In this formula 2@=5.0720301; log = 2.64061313 log ¢ =0.6050854; log a=0.003377538; log B= 1.99682424 (c is negative), + Taken from a paper by Dittmar and Fawsitt (Trans. Roy. Soc, Edin. vol. 33). SMITHSONIAN TaBLes. 150 TABLE 142. VAPOR PRESSURE.* Carbon Disulphide, Chlorohenzene, Bromobenzene, and Aniline. = el el*l*l*l@l°|*l°|* (a) CARBON DISULPHIDE. 133.85 146.45 | 153-10 | 160.00 | 167.15 | 174.60 | 182.25 | 190.20 IO | 198.45 | 207.00 | 215.80 | 224.95 | 234.40 | 244.15 | 254.25 | 264.65 | 275.40 | 286.55 20 | 298.05 | 309.90 | 322.10 334-70 | 347-70 361.10 | 374.95 | 389.20 | 403.90 | 419.00 30 | 434-60 | 450.65 | 467.15 | 484.15 | 501-65 | 519.65 | 538.15 | 557-15 | 576.75 | 596.85 638.70 682.90 | 705.90 | 729.50 | 753-75 | 778.60 | 804.10 | 830.25 (b) CHLOROBENZENE. 8.65 9.14 9.66 | 10.21 10.79 | 11.40 | 12.04 | 12.71 13:42) | 14s7 30) | 04.95 || 15-77 || 1663)! 17-53))| 18-47) 1) 0-415 1) 20:48 |) 21.56) ||) 22.6onlmeoaia7 AO) | 25-10") 126:38) | 27-72: |" “20:02 30:58 || 132-10) 1335601 135-454) 9 37-COullaoscS 50 |} 40.75 | 42-69} 44-72 | 4684] 49.05] 51.35 | 53:74 | 56.22 | 58.79 | 61.45 60 | 64.20] 67.06 | 70.03 | 73:11 | 76.30\| 79:60 | 83.02] 86:56 | 90:22)! 194/00 97-90 | IOI.95 | 106.10 | 110.41 | 114.85 | 119.45 | 124.20 | 129.10 | 134.15 | 139.40 80 | 144.80 | 150.30 | 156.05 | 161.95 | 168.co | 174.25 | 181.70 | 187.30 | 194.10 | 201.15 90 | 208.35 | 215.80 | 223.45 | 231.30 | 239.35 | 247.70 | 256.20 | 265.00 | 274.00 | 283.25 100 | 292.75 | 302.50 | 312.50 | 322.80 | 333.35 344-15 | 355-25 366.65 | 378.30 | 390.25 IIO | 402.55 | 415-10 | 427.95 | 441.15 | 454-65 468.50 | 482.65 | 497.20 | 512.05 | 527.25 120 | 542.80 | 558.70 | 575.05 | 591.70 | 608.75 | 626.15 | 643.95 | 662.15 | 680.75 | 699.65 130 | 718.95 | 738.65 | 758.80 a = = - - = = (c) BROMOBENZENE. - - ~ 12.40 19: 56/1 aLOs52))|) 203501) 820.52) A 22.con| eee aT eoAt oS 28.68 | 30.06 | 31.50] 33.00] 34.56] 36.18 | 37.86] 39.60 45.24 | 47.28 | 49.40 | 51.60] 53.08] 56.25] 58.71 | 61.26 69.48 | 7242] 75.46| 78.60 | 81.84 | 85.20] 88.68 | 92.28 103.80 | 107.88 | 112.08 | 116.40 | 120.86 | 125.46 | 130.20 | 135.08 150.57 | 156.03 | 161.64 ; 167.40 | 173.32 | 179.41 eck 192.10 212.44 | 219.58 | 226.90 | 234.40 | 242.10 | 250.00 | 258.10 | 266.40 292.60 | 301.75 | 311.15 | 320.80 | 330.70 | 340.80 | 351.15 | 361.80 395-10 | 406.70 | 418.60 | 430.75 | 443-20 | 455-90 | 468.90 | 482.20 523.90 | 538.40 | 553-20 | 568.35 | 583.85 | 599-65 | 615.75 | 632.25 701.65 | 719.95 | 738-55 (a) ANILINE. 21.83 | 22.900] 24.00] 25.14] 26.32] 27.54 | 28.80 90 | 30.10] 31.44] 32.83] 34-27 | 35-76] 37-30 | 38-90] 40.56] 42.28] 44.06 100 | 45.90 | 47.80] 49.78 | 51.84 | 53-98 | 56.20] 58.50} 60.88 | 63.34 | 65.88 110 | 68.50 | 71.22 | 74.04] 76.96] 79.98 | 83.10] 86.32 | 89.66] 93.12 | 96.70 120 | 100.40 | 104.22 | 108.17 | 112.25 | 116.46 | 120.80 | 125.28 | 129.91 | 134.69 | 139.62 130 | 144.70 | 149.94 | 155.34 | 160.90 | 166.62 | 172.50 | 178.56 | 184.80 | 191.22 | 197.82 140 | 204.60 | 211.58 | 218.76 | 226.14 | 233.72 | 241.50 | 249.50 | 257.72 | 266.16 | 274.82 150 | 283.70 | 292.80 | 302.15 | 311.75 | 321-60 | 331-70 | 342.05 | 352.65 | 363.50 | 374.60 160 | 386.00 | 397.65 | 409.60 | 421.80 | 434.30 | 447.10 | 460.20 | 473.60 | 487.25 | 501.25 170 | 515.60 | 530.20 | 545.20 | 560.45 | 576.10 | 592.05 | 608.35 | 625.05 | 642.05 | 650.45 180 3 | 732.65 | 751-90 | 771.50 = = = * These tables of vapor pressures are quoted from results published by Ramsay and Young (Jour. Chem. Soc. ~ vol. 47). The tables are intended to give a series suitable for hot-jacket purposes. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, Taste 142 (continued). 151 VAPOR PRESSURE. Methyl Salicylate, Bromonaphthaline, and Mercury. res ef dd ee METHYL SALICYLATE. 2.97 | 318 | 3-40 5:44] 574] 6.05 9.06 | 9-52] 9.95 14.47 | 15-15] 15.85 271.90 | 279.75 | 287.80 359-05 | 368.85 | 378.90 : 136.50 | 139.81 467.25 479. 35 | 491.70 600.25 | 615.05 | 630.15 761.90 | 779.85 | 798.10 (f) BROMONAPHTHALINE. 22-55 | 23:53 | 24:55 34-21 | 35-63 | 37-10 50.96 | 52.97 | 55-05 74-38 | 77-15 | 80.00 106.10 | 109.80 | 113.60 148.03 | 152.88 | 157.85 202.49 | 208.72 | 215.10 (g) MERCURY. 172.67 La 79 216.50 | 221.33 268.87 | 274.63 331.08 | 337-89 404.43 | 412.44 490.40 | 499-74 590.48 | 601.33 706.40 | 718.94 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 152 ; TaBLE 143. VAPOR PRESSURE OF SOLUTIONS OF SALTS IN WATER.* The first column gives the chemical formula of the salt. The headings of the other columns give the number of gram-molecules of the salt in a liter of water. The numbers in these columns give the lowering of the vapor pressure produced by the salt at the temperature of boiling water under 76 centimeters barometric pressure. ° a Substance. Al2(SO4)3 AICls . 3a(SOs)e Ba(OH)2 Ba(NOs)2 = Noe — Ba(C103)2 . BaCle . ° BaBre . Ca(SOs)e Ca(NOs)2 = = DOA WH AYN OO Oh ODO MW Qu CO _ CaCle : CaBre . CdSO4 Cdle CdBre . CdCle . : Cd(NOsz)o - Cd(ClO3)e - CoSO4 . CoCle . SI CeIn om OO Go N Co(NOs)2 FeSO, H3BOs Hs3PO4 H3AsO4 ° Ni bvybn © on = = REY 0 OW Ww o RO NAROO HeSO4 KHePO4 KNOs3. KC1O3 KBrO3 rN an n Pow A nN N FRO NTO CIES COrw © Nw N KHSOg, KNOg KC104 Cl: KHCOg DARD MO BAHN NN HNN Gea: KC3 0, K2WO, KOs KOH . An WENN NON NwWwW KoCrO4 LiNOs iG) ib LizSO, Wo N me NUNN mo OWww COON CNS OS Rw NHK LIHSO, ore Li,SiF lg ei@Ey LigCrO4 * Compiled from a table by Tammann, “‘ Mém. Ac. St. Petersb.”’ : “ Zei DiTeot ie ge, aes y ; é etersb.’? 35, No. 9, 1887. See also Referate, “‘ Zeit. f. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 143 (continued). T5 3 VAPOR PRESSURE OF SOLUTIONS OF SALTS IN WATER. Substance. MgSO4 MgCle . . Mg(NOs)2 . Mgbre : MgH2(SO4)2 MnSO4 MnCl, . NaHoPO, . NaHSO4 . NaNOgs to 9 ° t b N Y t NaClOg (NaPOs)¢ NaOH NaNOg NaHPO, bv Y ° = = Sea ticee ee NAW Nov nik © = NO = NaHCO, NaSQ4 NaCl . NaBbrO3 NabBr . een a an! Nv NNNN De OO NNN NN Nail Nag P,O7 NaeC Og NagC204 Na.WO4 BO On aie eae NNN OWNOD OOnOH Nas3PO4 (NaPOs)s3 NH4NO 3 . (NH4)eSiFl¢ NH,4Cl NH,HSO, . (NH4)2SOg. NHgbr NH, . NiSO4 Wo G2 G2 DO Wo wn Oo (onwe) iv oe NO eH NNN ND NiCle . Ni(NOs)2 Pb(NOs)e Sr(SOs)o Sr(NOs)e SrClo . SrBre . ZnSO4 ZnCle . Zn(NOs)2 NW yas mw o NQ ° Ca Ww Ww (oe) _ ao o SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 154 TABLES 144-146. PRESSURE OF SATURATED AQUEOUS VAPOR. TABLE 144. — At Low Temperature. Over Ice. Temperatures Centigrade. Taken from Landolt-Bérnstein, Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen, 1912. TABLE 145.— At Low Temperature. Over Water. 1 mn. mm. mm, mm. 1.979 | 1.826] 1.684 | 1.551 4.255 | 3-952 | 3-669 | 3.404 4.926 | 5.294 | 5-685 | 6.101 Taken from Pandulebocistcun Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen, 1912. TABLE 146.—0° to 50° C.. Hydrogen Scale. Values interpolated between those given by Scheel and Heuse for every degree between 0° and 50° C. Annalen der Physik. (4), aus P- 731, I9I0. ° PHIM AONE SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 146-147 (continued). 155 PRESSURE OF SATURATED AQUEOUS VAPOR. TABLE 146 (continued). —0° to 50° C. Hydrogen Scale. 9 mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. 25.820 25.972 26.279 26.434 26.590 27.381 27-542 27.866 28.029 28.193 29.025 29.194 29-535 29.707 29.879 30-754 30.932 31.291 31.471 31.653 32-572 32-759 33-135 33-324 33.514 34-483 34-679 35.074 35-273 35-473 36.488 36.604 37-109 37-318 37-529 38.595 38.812 39-249 39-469 | 39-689 40.809 | 41.036 41.493 | 41-723 | 41-955 43-130 43-368 43.847 44.089 44-332 45°55 45-80 46.30 46.56 46.82 48.12 48.38 48.90 49-17 49-44 50.79 51.06 51.60 51.88 52.16 53-58 53-87 54-45 54-75 55-05 56.53 56.83 57-43 57-74 58.05 59-60 59-92 60.56 60.88 61.20 62.82 63-15 63.81 64.14 64.48 66.18 66.53 67.23 67.58 67.93 69.71 79.07 79.79 71.16 71.53 73-38 73-76 74-52 74-90 75-28 77-23 77.62 78.42 78.82 79-22 81.25 81.66 82.48 82.90 83.32 85-45 85-88 86.74 87-17 87.6 89.82 90.27 Q1.17 g1.62 g2.08 TABLE 147. 50° to374° C. Hydrogen Scale. 7 8 9 mm. mm. mm, mm. mm. mm. mm. 97-24 102.13 107.24 112.56 118.11 129.90 136.16 142.68 150.52 163.85 171.47 179-40 187.64 205.07 234.29 223.86 244.11 254.82 265.91 277-41 289.32 314-42 327-64 341.32 370.11 385-25 400.90 417.08 433-79 468.91 487-33 | 506.36 540.27 567-19 588.77 611.04 634.01 682.11 707.29 733-24 787-57 815.9 845.1 875.1 906.1 970.6 1004.3 | 1038.8 ILII.1 1148.7 1187.4 1227.1 1267.9 1352.8 1397-0 | 1442.4 1536.6 1585.7 1636.0 1687.5 1740.5 1850.3 1907.3 | 1965.8 2086.9 2149.8 2214.0 2280.0 2347-5 2487.3 2559-7 | 2633.8 2787.1 2866.4 2947-7 3030.5 3115-3 3290.8 3381.3 | 3474.0 3665.3 3764.1 3864.9 3968. 4073. 4290. 4402. 4517- 4752 4874 4998 5124 5253 5518 5655 5794 6081 6229 6379 6533 6689 7010 7175 7343 7688 7866 8046 8230 8417 8802 8999 g200 612 982 10038 10256 10479 10934 11168 11406 9 3 11893 12343 12397 12654 12916 13453 13728 14007 14578 14871 15167 15469 15774 16401 16721 17046 17710 18049 18394 18743 19098 19823 20193 20570 21336. 21728 22125 22528 22936 23770 24195 24626 25506 25956 26412 26873 27341 28294 28780 29272 30276 30788 31308 31833 32364 33448 34001 34561 35700 36280 36868 37463 38065 39291 39915 40547 41832 42487 43150 43820 44498 45879 46580 47290 48738 49474 50219 50972 51734 53288 54079 54878 56500 57330 58170 59010 59860 61610 62490 63390 65200 66120 67060 68000 68950 70890 71870 72860 74880 75900 76940 77980 79040 81180 82270 83370 85610 86750 87900 89050 go220 92600 93820 95040 97510 98770 100040 101320 102610 105250 106580 107930 110670 112050 113450 114870 116300 119210 120680 122160 125170 126690 128230 129790 131370 134560 136180 137820 141150 142850 144500 146300 148100 151700 153500 | 155300 159100 161000 163000 164900 Taken from Landolt-Bérnstein Tables and based upon the following data: 50-70, Nernst, Verh. d. D. Phys. Ges. 12, Pp. 565, 1910; 70-100°, Regnault, computed by Broch, 1881, improved by Wiebe, ZS. fur Instrum. 13, p. 329, 1893, also Tafeln fiir die Spannkraft des Wasserdampfes, Braunschweig, 1903 ; 100-374°, Holborn, Henning, Baumann, Annalen der Physik, 26, p. 833, 1908, 31, P: 945) 1910. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 156 TABLES 148-149. TABLE 148. — Weight in Grains of the Aqueous Vapor contained in a Cubic Foot of Saturated Air.* * See ‘‘ Smithsonian Meteorological Tables,” pp 132-133. TABLE 149. — Weight in Grams of the Aqueous Vapor contained in a Cubic Meter of Saturated Air. 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.892 | 0.810 | 0.737 2.154 | 1.978 | 1.811 | 1.658 4.835 | 4-468 | 4.130 4.835 | 5.176 | 5.538 9:33.07) (99:93 9) sLOrb 74 17.118 | 18.143 | 19.222 30-039 | 31-704 | 33-449 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. PRESSURE OF AQUEOUS VAPOR IN THE ATMOSPHERE. TABLE 150. 15/7 [his table gives the vapor pressure corresponding to various values of the difference ¢— 7, between the readings of dry and wet bulb thermometers and the temperature 7, of the wet bulb thermometer. given by two-degree steps in the top line, and 4, by degrees in the first column. degrees and Regnault’s vapor pressures in millimeters of mercury are used throughout the table. The table was calculated for barometric pressure B equal to 76 centimeters, and a correction is given for each centimeter at the top of the columns.* Ventilating velocity of wet thermometer about 3 meters per second. | — | | J eae 2 4 | 6 Corrections for B per centi- | .or3 026 +040 meter. t —10 | 1.96} 0.96 —9 ZAI LeEA. |) O.T4. —8 22383 (sel-33) |) 0:33 aul 285)5) || Uab ys) CBS —6 2.76 1.76 | 0.76 =o SOD) |e 2-OL)|! 1.00 —4 B20 2284) 1.2 0.27 -3 3:57 | 2:57 | 1.56] 0.56 —2 3.88 | 2.88 | 1.87 | 0.87 —I AL22 se 31225 Dee |e ke O 4.60] 3.60] 2.59] 1.59 I AOyA|| SOY || ey || Key 2 5-30 | 4.29] 3-29 2.28 3 5-69] 4.68] 3.68] 2.67 4 6.10] 5.09] 4.09] 3.03 5 Chie) || ad) ZEee |) Eto 6 | 7-00} 5.99] 4.98} 3:97 7 | 7-49) 648} 5.47] 4-45 8 8.02] 7.01] 5.99] 4.98 9 | 857] 7-56] 654] 5:53 10 O77 o1Oy|) 704 |) 6:02 Ir | 9.79] 8.77] 7.76] 6.74 9-44 | 8.43] 7-41 14 | 11.91 | 10.89} 9.87] 8.85 15 | 12.70 | 11.68 | 10.66] 9.64 16 | 13-54 | 12.52 | 11.50 | 10.47 17 | 14.42 | 13.40 | 12.37 | 11.35 18 | 15-36 | 14.34 | 13-31 | 12.2 Ig | 16.35 | 15.33 | 14-30 | 13-27 20 | 17.39 | 16.37 | 15.34 | 14.31 21 | 18.50} 17.47 | 16.45 | 15-42 22 | 19.66 | 18.63 | 17.60 | 16.57 23 | 20.89 | 19.86 | 18.83 | 17.80 2 22.18 | 21.15 | 20.12 | 19.09 25 | 23.55 | 22.52 | 21.49 20.45 26 | 24.99 | 23.96 | 22.92 | 21.89 27 | 26.51 | 25.48 | 24.44 | 23-40 28 | 28.10 | 27.07 | 26.03 | 24.99 29 | 29.78 | 28.75 | 27.71 | 26.67 30 | 31.55 | 30.51 | 29.47 | 28.43 Be oo-4! | 32-37 | 31-33 || 30-29 Bm 35-30) || 34-32 | 33-28: || 32-2 33 | 37-41 | 30.37 | 35-33 | 34-29 34 | 39-57 | 38.53 | 37-48 | 36-44 Sg bo The differences ¢— f, are Temperatures in Centigrade 1.06 0.05 0.48 0.94 1.42 1.94 2.49 3.08 3-69 4.36 5:05 5:79 6.58 7.41 8.28 9.21 10.20 11.23 12.33 13.48 14.71 15-09 17.36 18.79 20.30 21.89 23-50 25.32 27.18 29.13 31.18 33°32 14 16 092 106 Example. 0.41 0.93 1.48 2.07 2.68 3-34 4:77 9-17 10.21 11.31 12.46 13.68 14.96 16. 17,78 19.27 20.85 22.52 24.29 260.14 28.09 30.14 32.28 0.46 1.06 1.66 2.32 3.01 3:71 4-54 5:37 6.2 7:17 8.15 9.18 10.28 11.43 12.66 13-94 15.30 16.73 18.24 19.82 21.49 23.25 25.10 27.05 29.10 31.24 2—t, = 7.2 ?,;—= 10.0 B=74.5 Tabular number=6.12 —6 X .101= 5.51 Correction for B=1.5 X.048..= Hence we get Z...= 5.58 0.05 0.64 1.30 1.99 2.69 Si 4-35 5-22 6.15 713 8.15 10.40 11.63 12.91 14.27 15-70 17.21 18.79 20.46 PAPA MAA 24.07 26.01 28.06 30.20 -07 0.28 0.97 1.67 2.50 3-33 4.20 5-13 6.11 ale 8.22 9-37 10.60 11.88 13.24 14.67 16.18 17.76 19.43 21.18 23.03 24.97 27.02 29.16 * The table was calculated from the formula p= fp; — 0.00066 B (¢—t,) (1 U.S. Chief Signal Officer, 1886, App. 24). -++0.00115 7) (Ferrel, Annual Report + When Bis less than 76 the correction is to be added, and when B is greater than 76 it is to be subtracted. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 158 TasLe 151. DEW- The first column of this table gives the temperatures of the wet-bulb thermometer, and the top line the difference the table. The dew-points were computed for a barometric pressure of 76 centimeters. When the barometer differs and the resulting number added to or subtracted from the tabular number according as the barometer is below or t-4=1| 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 6 | 7 Dew-points corresponding to the difference of temperature given in the above line and the .04 — 13.2 12.0 10.7 9.5 8.3 14.4 15-4 16.4 17.5 18.5 .005 19.5 20.5 21.6 22.6 23.6 Ny ° fe] wn Ny yd FON a tae NN OO vy mee NN 8 Hee mm wg noUdS (es) WwWwWwWw WWW bv OM Qn Wn =a OM SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Il aa 179) 16.0 > NX NNN NN Om Out OnnaAnt GROWS a Ww WwWWWoo WWWW nh CIA Wy aoo 3° on ANaWUN ae _— —_— GIS. I NONO OOM Oy COUNU Ouriak BEOROKORS ARO SH\.ONWNb = (ua nN 16.3 OI DAL . bNNNN WRHRHKHHOHOOUONO - WWWW dd Wn row O10 34.1 37:2 38. wet-bulb thermometer reading given in first column. 28.5 20. 30:7 31-7 013 33.8 34:9 36.0 37:0 38.0 26.0 27.1 28.2 29-3 30.4 31-5 .o16 33-6 34-6 35-7 30.8 37:9 com °o RO, OYUN p DY “I O20 0 Db Cw = oan fox — et — = 0 OID, Uw SS Oe co 21.1 -035 222 23-4 24.5 25-7 26.8 .022 27.9 29.0 30.1 31.2 o2-5 .O19 33:4 34:4 35°5 36. 37-6 TABLE 151 (continued), 159 POINTS. between the dry and the wet bulb, when the dew-point has the values given at corresponding points in the body of from 76 centimeters the corresponding numbers in the lines marked 57/58 are to be multiplied by the difference, above 76. See examples, Thermometer ventilated at about 3 meters per sec. t—t,—9 10 | 11 12 13 14 | 15 Dew-points corresponding to the difference of temperature given in the above line and the wet-bulb thermometer reading given in first column. | | | | EXAMPLES. (1) Given B= 72, 4;=10, —4,=5. Then tabular number for 4; = 10 and <—7,=5 is 5.2 Also 76—72=4 and 87/8B= .06. .". Correction = 0.06 X 4= a . me ad Hence the dew-point is. - 5 ° we Ad (2) Given B=71.5, 4; =7,/—4,=8. Then, as above, tabulated number = ° aad 87 /SB = +2 — 16 2 Correction=0.15 X 4.5=. 5 ® . » 67 Dew-point = - ‘ : an p oe FN, OW ECONO CGS BORN _ = a 6 DO TNW _ .16 9 8 : 8 10 4 9 — = ot PANG , me COU _ NO. in O “N NHN N 0 Gn Ob ON a 160 TABLE 152. RELATIVE HUMIDITY.* This table gives the humidity of the air, for temperature ¢ and dew-point @ in Centigrade degrees, expressed in percentages of the saturation value for the temperature #. . D = i . D es a t d K Depression of ew-point (d) Depression of ew-point (d) the dew-point. |~———- -— | the dew-point. | -_——_——_—_——_ t +10] +20 © wove 9 monn oo AAR NRO CAL NO? 4 6 8 O ae 4 6 8 0 32 4 6 8 oF 4 6 38 O 3 4 6 8 O 2 4 6 8 O 3. 3 3 3 B 4. 4 4 4 4 5: 5 5: gi 5 6. 6 6. 6. 6. ai a ve 7. Wr 8. * Abridged from Table 45 of “‘ Smithsonian Meteorological Tables.” SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 153. 161 VALUES OF 0.378e.* B — 0.3782 760 for the calculation of the density of air containing aqueous vapor at pressure ¢ ; 8g is the density This table gives the humidity term 0.378¢, which occurs in the equation 5 = 89 7607 50 of dry air at normal temperature and barometric pressure, 2 the observed barometric pressure, An h and 4 = B —o0.378e, the pressure corrected for humidity. For values of rbo See Table 154. 7 Temperatures are in degrees Centigrade, and pressures in millimeters of mercury. Dew Point. o * e e Vapor : Vapor Pressure 3 oc Pressure (water). i (water). e Vapor Pressure (ice). 4-579 31-555 4.921 33-416 5-286 3 35-372 5-675 37-427 6.088 : 39-586 0.034 .O61 105 173 +292 6.528 41.853 6.997 . 44.23 7-494 . 40.73 8.023 ; 49.35 8.584 52.09 9-179 54-97 9.810 : 57-938 10.479 3 61.13 11.187 : 64.43 11.936 67.89 0.484 WO ON OM HPWNHRO 12.728 ; 71.50 13-565 : 75.28 14.450 5 15-393 16.367 17.406 18.503 19.661 20.883 22.178 23.546 24.987 26.505 28.103 29.785 31-555 * This table is quoted from ‘‘ Smithsonian Meteorological Tables,” p. 225. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 162 TABLES 154-155. RELATIVE DENSITY OF MOIST AIR FOR DIFFERENT PRESSURES AND HUMIDITIES. TABLE 154. — Values of aa0 from hk =1tohk=—9, for the Computation of Different Values of the Ratio of Actual to Normal Barometric Pressure. This gives the density of moist air at pressure / in terms of the density of the same air at normal atmosphere pressure. When air contains moisture, as is usually the case with the atmosphere, we have the following equation for pressure term: 4 —B—o.378e, where e is the vapor pressure, and B the corrected barometric pressure. When the neces- sary psychrometric observations are made the value of ¢ may be taken from Table 150, and then 0.378e from Table 153, or the dew-point may be found and the value of 0.378 taken from Table 153. h ExAMPLES OF USE OF THE TABLE. 760 To find the value of A when 4 = 754-3 Joo 4 = 700 gives 92105 it 0.00131 58 «(065789 2 0026316 005263 3 0039474 3 +000395 754-3 +992497 4 0.0052632 SS .006578 k 2 ortoue To find the value of es when 4 = 5.73 kh=5 gives .0065789 on 0.0092105 .7 “* —,e009210 8 -0105263 193 «€ 0000395 9 -O118421 5-73 0075394 —_— TABLE 155. — Values of the logarithms of #65 for values of A between 80 and 340. Values from 8 to So may be got by subtracting 1 from the characteristic, and from 0.8 to 8 by subtracting 2 from the characteristic, and so on. CENT ee ———————— Values of log La | 760 0 1 2 | 3 4 5 6 7 8 T.03300 | 1.03826 | 1.04347 | 1.04861 | 1.05368 | 1.05871 T.02228 | 1.02767 1.06367 Tee .07343| .07823| .08297| .08767| .09231| .og691| .10146| .10596| .I104I] -11482 T.11919 | 1.12351 | 1.12779 | 1-13202 | 1.13622 | 1.14038 | 1.14449 | 1.14857 | 1.15261 | 1.15661 16058 | .16451| .16840| .17226| .17609| .17988| 18364} .18737| -19107]| -19473 19837 | .20197| .20555| .20909| .21261| .21611| .21956| .22299| .22640 .22978 23313 -23646 .23076| .24304| .24629| .24952 25273 25591 | -25907| .26220 26531 | .20841| .27147| -27452| -27755| .28055| .28354| .28650] .28945| .29237 T.29528 | T.29816 | T.30103 | 1.30388 | 1.30671 | T.30952 | 1.31231 | I-31 509 | 1.31784 | 1.32058 32331 | 32601] .32870| -33137| -33403] -33667| -33929] -34190| -34450] -34707 30961 | .37204 -39334| -39565 .41585| .41804 1.43725 | 1-43933 -45764| -45963 .47712| .47902 -49576| .49758 .51364| -51539 I.5 3081 | 1.53249 -54732| -54894 -56323| -56479 .57858 | «58008 -59340 | -59486 1.60774 | 1.60914 62161 | .62298 .63506| .63638 .64810| .64939 .66077 | .66201 -34904| .35218] .35471| -35723| -35974| -36222| .36470| .36716 -37446| .37686| .37926| .38164} .38400| .38636] .38870|] .39128 .39794| .40022| .40249| .40474| .40699| .40922| .41144] .41365 .42238 | 1.42454 | 1.42668 | 1.42882 | 1.43004 | 1.43305 | 1-43516 44141 | .44347| -44552| -44757| -44960| .45162| .45364| .45565 46161 | .46358| .46554| -46749] -46943| -47137| -47329| -47521 .48091 | .48280} .48467| .48654] .48840] .49025] .49210| .49393 .49940| .50120| .50300] .50479| .50658| .50835| .51012| .51188 .51886 | 1.52059 | 1.52231 | 1.52402 | 1.52573 | 1.52743 | 1.52912 -53416| .53583] -53749| -53914| -54079) -54243| -54407| -54570 -55055| -55216| .§5376| .55535| -55604| .55852| 56010) .56167 -56634| .56789] .56044| -57097| -57250] -57403] -57555| -57797 .§8158| .58308| .58457| .58605] .58753| -5890I| .59048| .59194 T.59775 | 1-59919 | 1.60063 | 1.60206 | 1.60349 | 1.60491 | 1.60632 .61055| .61195! .61334| .61473| .61611| .61750| .61887| .62025 .62569| .62704| .62839| .62973| .63107] .63240| .63373 .63770| .63901| .64032| .64163| .64293] 64423} .64553| .64682 .65194| .65321| .65448| .65574| .65701| .65526| .65952 eI fe is} ° no rs} = in ~ “I _ Or = bt | _ Un ‘Oo On Go on x SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 155 (continued). I 63 DENSITY OF AIR. Values of logarithms of a for values of between 350 and 800. Values of log ae 760 2 | 3 | 4 5 350 | 1.66325 | 1.66449 | 1.66573 | 1.66696 | 1.66819 | 1.66941 | 1.67064 | 1.67185 | 1.67307 | 1.67428 -67669| .67790| .67909| .68029] .68148| .68267| .68385| .68503]| .68621 .68856| .68973| .69090] .69206] .69322} .69437| .69553| .69668| .69783 -JOOIL| .70125| .70239| .70352| .70465| .70577| -.70090] .70802| .70914 71136] .71247| .71358] .71468| .71578| .71688| .71798]| .71907| .72016 1.72233 | 1.72341 | 1.72449 | 1.72557 | 1.72064 1.72771 1.72878 | 1.72985 | 1.73091 -73303| -73408| -73514| -73619| .73723| -73828) -73932| -74030| .74140 -74347 | -74450] -74553| -74655| -74755| -74860| .74961| .75063| .75164 -75306| .75407| .75567| .75663| .75768] .75867| .75967| .76066| .76165 -76362 | .76461| .76559| .76657| .76755] .70852| .76949| .77046| .77143 1.77336 1.77432 1.77528 | 1.77624 1.77720 1.77815 1.77910 1.78005 | 1.78100 -78289 | .78383] .78477| .78570 -78664 -78757| -78850| .78943]| -79036 ‘79221 | .79313| -79405| -79496| .79588| .79679| .79770| .79861| .79952 .80133 | .80223] .80313| .80403| .80493| .80582| .80672] .80761| .80850 81027] .81115| .81203| .81291| .81379| .81467| .81554] .81642|] .81729 1.81902 | 1.81989 | 1.82075 | 1.82162 | 1.82248 | 1.82334 | 1.82419 | 1.82505 | 1.82590 82761 | .82846| .82930| .83015] .83c99| .83184] .83268| .83352] .83435 .83602| .83686| .83769| .83852] .83935| -84017]| .84100| .84182| .84264 84428] 84510] .84591| .84673] .84754 84835 84916 84997 85076 85238 | .85319| -85309] 85479) -85558] .85633| .85717| .85797| .85876 1.86034 | 1.86113 | 1.86191 | 1.86270 | 1.86348 | 1.86426 | 1.86504 | 1.86582 | 1.86660 86815| .86892| .86969| .87047| .87123| .87200| .87277| .87353| .87430 87582| .87658| .87734| .87810| .87 87961 | .88036] .88111] .88186 88336] .85411| .88456] .88560] .88 88708 | .88752| .88856] .88930 .89077| .89151| .89224| .89297] . 89443] .89516| .89589| .89661 1.89806 | 1.89878 | 1.89950 | T.go022 | T. 1.90166 | 1.90238 | 1.90309 | 1.90380 90523] .90594| .go665] .90735]| -908 -90877] .90947]} .g1017|] .g1088 .91228| .g1298| .91367 ‘91437 | - -91576| .91645|] .g1715| .91784 .91922| .gI990| .g2059|] .g2128] . 6| .92264|] .92333| -92401| .92469 -92604| .92672| .92740| .g2807| . 92942} .93009| .93076| .93143 1.93210 | 1.93277 | 1.93343 | 1-93410 | 1.93476 | 1-93543 | 1-93609 | 1.93675 | 1.93741 | 1.93807 -93373 | -93939| -94004] .94070) .94135| -94201| .94266| .94331| .94396] .94461 94526] .94591| -94656| .94720| .94755| .94849| 94913] .94978| -95042| .95106 95170] .95233] -95297| -95361| -95424| .95488| .95551|) -95614| .95677| .95741 95804} .95866] .95929] -95992| .96055] .96117| .g0180| .96242] .96304| .96366 1.96428 | 1.96490 | 1.96552 | 1.96614 1.96676 1.967 38 | 1.96799 | 1.96861 | 1.96922 | 1.96983 97044] .97106| .97167] .97228| .97288) .97349| -97410| -97471| .97531| .97592 97652 .97712| .97772| -97832]| .97892 97951 -98012] .98072| .98132| .98191 ‘98251 98310} .98370] .98429| .98488| .98547|- .g8606| .98665| .98724| .98783 -98542 | .98900) .98959} .99018 | .99076| -99134| 99193] -99251| -99309| -99367 1.99425 | 1.99483 | 1.99540 | 1.99598 | 1.99656 | 1.99713 | 1.99771 | 1.99828 | 1.99886 | 1.99942 0.00000 | 0.00057 | 0.00114 | 0.00171 | 0.00228 | 0.00285 | 0.00342 | 0.00398 | 0.00455 | 0.00511 00568 | .00624| .00680| .00737| .00793} .00849| .00g05]| .00961| .01017| .01072 -01128| .01184] .01239| .01295| .01350| .01406| .o1461| .o1516| .o1571| .01626 -O1681 | .01736| .01791| .01846] .o1Q0I| .01955| .02010] .02064| .o2119| .02173 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 164 . TaBLe 156. VOLUME OF GASES. Values of 1 + .00367 ¢. The quantity 1 + .00367 ¢ gives for a gas the volume at f° when the pressure is kept constant, or the pressure at 7° when the volume is kept constant, in terms of the volume or the pressure at 0°. (a) This part of the table gives the values of 1-+.00367¢ for values of ¢ between 0° and 10° C. by tenths of a degree. (b) This part gives the values of 1.00367 ¢ for values of ¢ between — 90° and + 1990° C. by 10° steps. These two parts serve to give any intermediate value to one tenth of a degree by a sim- ple computation as follows :—In the (4) table find the number corresponding to the nearest lower temperature, and to this number add the decimal part of the number in the (a) table which corresponds to the difference between the nearest temperature in the (4) table and the actual temperature. For example, let the temperature be 682°.2: We have for 680 in table (4) the number .- ' 5 + 3-49560 And for 2.2 in table (a) the decimal . ; , . _ .00807 Hence the number for 682.2 is . ; . : 5 + 3.50367 (¢) This part gives the logarithms of 1-+ .00367¢ for values of ¢ between — 49° and + 399° C. by degrees. (d) This part gives the logarithms of 1 + .00367 ¢ for values of ¢ between 400° and 1990° C. by 10° steps. (a) Values of 1+ .00367¢ for Values of ¢ between 0° and 10° C. by Tenths of a Degree. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 1.00037 1.00073 1.00110 1.00147 00404 00440 00477 00514 .0077 1 .00807 .00844 .0088 I .O1138 -O1174 OI2I1 01248 01505 .O1541 01578 O1615 1.01872 01908 01945 1.01982 02239 02275 02312 02349 .02606 02642 .02679 02716 02973 .03009 03046 03083 -03340 .03376 -03413 -03450 Oo I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.6 . 0.8 1.00220 : .00294 1.00330 .00587 : .00661 .00697 .009 54 : 01028 01064 01321 : .01 395 01431 .01088 P 01762 01798 1.02055 : .02129 02165 .02422 : 02496 02532 02789 : .02863 02899 .03156 : 03290 03266 03523 . -03597 .03633 WOON AW punto GMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 156 (continued). 16 5 VOLUME OF GASES. (b) Values of 1+ .00367¢ for Values of ¢ between —90° and + 1990° C. by 10° Steps. 00 10 20 30 40 1.00000 0.96330 0.92660 0.88990 0.85320 1.00000 1.03670 1.07340 I.II10IO 1.14680 1.36700 1.40370 1.44040 1.47710 1.51380 1.73400 1.77070 1.80740 1.84410 1.88080 2.10100 2.13770 2.17440 2.21110 2.24780 2.40800 2.50470 2.54140 2.57810 2.61480 2.83500 2.87170 2.90840 2.94510 2.98180 320200 3.23870 3-27 540 3-31210 3-34880 3.56900 3.60570 364240 3.67910 3-71 580 3.93600 3:97270 4.00940 4.04610 4.08280 4.30300 | 4.33970 | 4.37040 | 4.41310 | 4.44980 4.67000 4.70670 4.74340 4.78010 4.81680 5:03700 5.07370 5.11040 5.14710 5.18380 5.40400 | 5.44070 | 5.47740 | 5.51410 | 5.55080 5-77100 5:80770 5.84440 5.58110 5.91780 6.13800 6.17470 6.21140 6.24810 6.28480 6.50500 6.54170 6.57840 6.61510 6.65180 6.87200 6.90870 6.94540 6.98210 7.01880 7.23900 7.27570 7.31240 7.34910 7.38580 7.60600 7.64270 7.67940 7.71610 7.75280 7.97 300 8.00970 8.04640 8.08310 8.11980 8.34000 8.37670 8.41340 8.45010 8.48680 60 70 80 90 0.77980 0.74310 0.70640 0.66970 1.22020 1.25690 1.29360 1.33030 1.58720 1.62390 1.66060 1.697 30 1.95420 1.99090 2.02760 2.06430 2.32120 2.35790 2.39460 2.43130 2.68820 2.72490 2.76160 2.79830 3.05520 3.09190 3.12860 3.16530 3-42220 | 3.45890 | 3.49560 | 3.53230 3-78920 3.82590 3.86260 3.89930 4.15020 4.19290 4.22960 4.26630 4.52320 | 4.55990 | 4.59660 | 4.63330 4.89020 4.92690 4.96360 5.00030 5-25720 | §.29390 | 5.33060 | 5-36730 5:62420 5.66090 5.69760 5-7 3430 5-99120 6.02790 6.06460 6.10130 6.35820 6.39490 6.43160 6.46830 6.72520 6.76190 6.79860 6.83530 7.09220 7.12890 7.16560 7.20230 7-45920 | 7.49590 | 7.53260 | 7.56930 7.82620 7.86290 7.89960 7.93630 8.19320 8.22990 8.26660 8.30330 8.56020 8.59690 8.63360 8.67030 GMITHSONIAN TABLES. 166 TABLE 156 (continued). VOLUME OF (c) Logarithms of 1+ .00367 ¢ for Values Mean diff. per degree. I 931051 1.929179 1.927299 1.925410 1.923513 -949341 947 546 945744 -943934 ‘942117 1805 .966592 .965169 +9634 38 -901701 ‘959957 1733 983762 982104 -980440 978769 -977092 1067 0.000000 998403 996801 995192 993577 1605 0.000000 0.001591 0.003176 0.004755 0.006329 1582 015053 .O17 188 018717 020241 .021760 1526 030762 .032244 033721 035193 030661 1474 .045302 046796 .04822 .049648 051068 1426 059488 .06087 5 062259 063637 005012 1381 0.07 3168 0.074513 0.07 5853 0.077190 0.078522 1335 .086431 087735 .089036 .090332 091624 1299 .099 301 -100507 -101829 -1030388 -104344 1259 -I11800 -113030 -114257 -115481 -116701 1226 -123950 125146 -126339 -127529 128716 IIQL 0.135768 0.136933 .1 38094 139252 .140408 1158 -147274 .248405 -149539 150667 .151793 1129 158483 -159588 -160691 -161790 162887 1101 169410 170488 171563 172635 173705 1074 .180068 -I81120 -182169 183216 -184260 1048 0.190472 0.191498 192523 193545 .194564 1023 -200032 -201635 2026 203034 -204630 1000 210559 .211540 : 2134904 -214468 -220205 : 223135 .224087 +232507 -233499 -239049 : 52 / 241798 .242710 -248145 : -2499 -250837 251731 -257054 : 22 -259692 -260567 -265784 : 2 -208 370 -269228 -274343 . 2 .270877 -277719 282735 2 282 .28 5222 0.286048 -290969 -2917 292 -293409 -294219 -299049 : ) : 301445 -302240 30608 2 : : 309334 310115 ‘314773 -315544 . -317083 -317850 322426 0.323184 0.323941 0.324696 0.325450 -329947 -330692 -331435 -332178 -332919 -337339 .338072 .338803 339533 .340262 -344008 -345329 -346048 -346766 -347482 -351758 -352466 353174 -353880 -354585 358791 0.359488 0.360184 0.360879 0.361573 365713 -306399 307084 367768 368451 +37 2525 °373201 -373875 374549 S7ip22t -379233 379898 380562 391 22 381887 -385439 -386494 -387148 .387801 -388453 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. CASES. TABLE 156 (continued). of t between — 49° and + 399° C. by Degrees. 1.921608 940292 -958205 -97 5409 QONO57 0.007897 023273 039123 052482 .066382 0.079847 092914 -105595 -I17917 129899 141559 152915 163981 174772 .185301 195581 -205624 -215439 225038 -234429 0.243621 -252623 .201 441 -270085 -278559 .28687 2 -295028 -303034 310895 .318616 0.326203 -333659 -340989 348198 -355289 0.362266 -3691 32 -375892 382548 389104 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 1.919695 938460 956447 973719 -990330 0.009459 .024781 039581 1053893 .067748 0.081174 .094198 106843 +1191 30 .131079 0.142708 154034 -164072 -175836 .186340 0.196596 -20061 5 .216409 225986 3295557 0.244529 253512 .262313 270940 279308 287694 -295835 -303827 311673 319381 0.326954 -334397 341715 348912 “sp DUo! 0.362957 369813 376562 -383208 -3897 54 1.917773 930619 -954681 .97 2022 .988697 0.011016 .026284 041034 055298 -069109 0.082495 095486 -108088 120340 .132256 0.143854 55151 -166161 176898 .187377 0.197608 ..207605 -217376 .226932 .236283 0.245436 -254400 .203184 -271793 .280234 288515 .296640 -304618 .312450 320144 0.327704 -335135 .342441 -349624 -356693 0.363648 -370493 -377232 -383868 +390403 1.915843 934771 -952909 .970319 987058 0.012567 .027782 042481 -056699 .070466 0.083811 096765 109329 121547 -133430 0.144997 156264 .167246 177958 -ISS411 0.198619 208 592 .218341 .227876 .237 207 0.246341 255287 -204052 .272044 .281070 .289326 -2907445 -305407 313226 .320906 0.328453 -335871 -343164 -350337 -357394 0.364337 371171 “377900 384525 391052 1.913904 932915 951129 -908609 -985413 0.014113 .029274 Ota .055096 .07 1819 0.085123 .098031 110506 122750 134601 0.146137 157375 168330 179014 -1894.43 0.199626 209577 -219304 228819 .238129 47244 oat). Oe ete 0 NN NN 0.329201 .336606 -343887 351048 -358093 0.365025 -371849 -378567 385183 -391699 Mean diff. per degree. 1926 1845 168 TABLE 156 (continued). VOLUME OF GASES. (d) Logarithms of 1+ .00367¢ for Values of ¢ between 400° and 1990° C. by 10° Steps. 00 10 20 30 40 0.392345 0.398756 | 0.405073 | 0.411300 | 0.417439 0.452553 0.458139 0.463654 0.469100 0.474479 505421 510371 515204 520103 524889 552547 -556990 -561388 505742 -570052 -595055 599086 -603079 .607037 -610958 633771 -637460 -641117 -644744 648341 0.669317 0.672717 0.676090 0.679437 0.682759 -702172 705325 708455 711563 -714648 -732715 -735055 -738575 741475 744356 -701251 -704004 -766740 -709459 -772160 788027 -790616 -793190 795748 798292 0.813247 0.81 5691 0.818120 0.820536 0.822939 837083 839396 -841697 843986 846263 8596079 561875 .864060 866234 868398 881156 883247 885327 887 398 889459 .go1622 903616 905602 -907578 909545 50 60 70 80 90 0.423492 0.429462 0.435351 0.441161 0.446894 0.479791 0.485040 0.490225 0.495350 0.500415 -529623 534305 538938 -543522 -548055 574321 578545 5927 34 586380 590987 -614845 .618696 622515 -626299 .630051 651908 655446 -658955 662437 665890 0.68605 5 0.689327 0.692574 0.695797 0.698996 »717712 -720755 -723776 -720776 -7297 56 747218 -7 50061 752886 755692 -758480 -774845 777514 -780166 782802 785422 .800820 803334 805834 808319 .810790 0.825329 0.827705 0.830069 0.832420 0.834758 848528 850781 853023 855253 857471 870550 872692 874824 876945 879056 891510 893551 895583 897605 899618 -OT1504 913454 915395 917327 Q19251 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLe 157. 169 DETERMINATION OF HEICHTS BY THE BAROMETER. Formula of Babinet: Z = C a = 3 C (in feet) = 52494 [: ae soon 2 | English measures. goo C (in meters) = 16000 E + | metric measures. 1000 In which Z = difference of height of two stations in feet or meters. By, B = barometric readings at the lower and upper stations respectively, corrected for all sources of instrumental error. %, ¢ = air temperatures at the lower and upper stations respectively. Values of C. ENGLISH MEASURES. METRIC MEASURES. 2 (4) +2). c Log C 2 (% +2). c Fahr. Feet. Cent. Meters. 10° 49928 4.69834 15360 4.18639 15 50511 70339 15488 19000 15616 19357 20 51094 4:70837 15744 -19712 25 51677 -71330 15872 20063 30 52261 4.71818 16000 4.20412 35 52844 -72300 16128 .20758 16256 21101 40 53428 4-72777 16384 21442 45 54011 73248 16512 .21780 50 5459 4.73715 16640 22115 55 5517 -74177 16768 .22448 16896 .22778 55761 4.74633 17024 .23106 56344 75085 17152 -23431 56927 4-75532 17280 -23754 57511 -75975 17408 2407 5 17536 -24393 58094 4-76413 17664 .24709 58677 .76847 17792 25022 59260 4:77276 17920 4-25334 59844 -77702 18048 .256043 18176 -25950 60427 4.78123 18304 .26255 Values only approximate. Not good for great altitudes. A more accurate formula with corresponding tables may be found in Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, 3 revised ed. 1906- SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 170 TABLE 158. BAROMETRIC Barometric pressures corresponding to different This table is useful when a boiling-point apparatus is used (a) Common Measure.* * Pressures in inches of mercury. The values at the lower temperatures are perhaps $% too low. Table (b) is based on more recent data (1913). SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 158 (continued). 171 PRESSURES. temperatures of the boiling-point of water. in place of the barometer for the determination of heights. (b) Metric Measure.* * Pressure in millimeters of mercury. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. i772 TABLES 159-162. STANDARD WAVE-LENCTHS. TABLE 159. — Absolute Wave-length of Red Cadmium Line in Air, 760mm. Pressure, 15° C. 6438.4722 Michelson, Travaux et Mém. du Bur. intern. des Poids et Mesures, 11, 1895. 6438.4700 Michelson, corrected by Benoit, Fabry, Perot, C. R. 144, 1082, 1907. 6438.4096 (accepted primary standard) Benoit, Fabry, Perot, C. R. 144, 1082, 1907. TABLE 160. —International Secondary Standards. Iron Arc Lines. Adopted as secondary standards at the International Union for Coéperation in Solar Research (transactions, 1910). Means of measures of Fabry-Buisson (1), Pfund (2), and Eversheim (3). Re- ferred to primary standard = Cd. line, A = 6438.4696 Angstroms (serving to define an Angstrém). 760 mm., 15°C. Iron rods, 7 mm. diam, length of arc, 6 mm.; 6 amp. for A greater than 4000 Angstroms, 4 amp. for lesser wave-lengths; continuous current, + pole above the —, 220 volts; source of light, 2 mm. at arc’s center. Lines adopted in 1910. Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. 4282.408 4547853 4789.657 508 3.344 5405-780 Steer 6230.734 4315-089 4592.05 4878.22 5110.41 5 5434-527 5655.836 6265.145 4375-934 4602.947 4903.325 5167.492 5455-614 5763-013 | 6318.028 4427.314 4647-439 4919.007 5192.363 5497-522 | 6027.059 | 6335-341 4406.550 4691.417 5001.881 5232-957 5 500.784 6065.492 6393-612 4494.572 4707.288 §012.073 52006.569 5509.633 6137-701 6430.859 4531-155 47 36.786 5049.827 5371-495 5586.772 6191.568 | 6494.993 TABLE 161. — International Secondary Standards. Iron Arc Lines. Adopted in 1913. (4) Means of measures of Fabry-Buisson, Pfund, Burns and Eversheim. Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. | Wave-length. 3370-789 3753-615 3906.482 4233-615 | 6750.250 3399-337 3640.392 3805.346 | 3907-937 4118.5 52 5709-396 | 5857.7 2 Ni 3.485.345 3676.313 3843.261 3935-818 4134-085 6546.250 | 5892.852 Ni 3513.521 3677.629 3850.820 3977-746 4147.676 6592.928 3550.881 3724.380 3805.527 4021.872 4191.443 6078.004 (1) Astrophysical Journal, 28, p. 169, 1908; (2) Ditto, 28, p. 197, 1908; (3) Annalen der Physik, 30, p. 815, 1909. See also Eversheim, 7dzd. 36, p. 1071, 1911; Buisson et Fabry, zdzd. 38, p. 245, 19123 (4) Astrophysical Journal, 39, p. 93, 1914. TABLE 162.—Some of the Stronger Lines of Some of the Elements. Barium , Helium . Magnesium Sodium . Cesium . cS aa Bie ee Sirens ‘s Hydrogen eer Strontium sep we Mercury . | 5 s : “ Calcium . Cadmium oe Potassium. Gc oes ae oar, Cea ake Thallium. Smee mre ’ Lithium . Rubidium . SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 163. a STANDARD SOLAR WAVE-LENGTHS. ROWLAND’S VALUES. ° Wave-lengths are in Angstrém units (10 mm.), in air at 20° C and 76 cm. of mercury pressure. The intensities run from 1, just clearly visible on the map, to 1000 for the H and K lines; below I in order of faintness to 0000 as the lines are more and more difficult to see. This table contains only the lines above 5. N indicates a line not clearly defined, probably an undissolved multiple line; s, a faded appear- ing line; d,a double. In the “substance” column, where two or more elements are given, the line is compound; the order in which they are given indicates the portion of the line due to each element ; when the solar line is too strong to be due wholly to the element given, it is represented, —Fe, for example; when commas separate the elements instead of a dash, the metallic lines coin- cide with the same part of the solar line, Fe, Cr, for example. Capital letters next the wave-length numbers are the ordinary designations of the lines. A indi- cates atmospheric lines, (wv), due to water vapor, (O), due to Oxygen. Wave- Sub- Inten- length, stance. sity. Wave- length. Substance. Wave-length, 3037-510S 3372-947 i-P 2 i 3533-345 3047-7258 3380.722 i 3536-709 3953-5305 s § 3414.91 1 3541-237 3054.429 3423.848 : 3542.232 3057-5528 ’ 3433-715 3555-079 3059.21 2s 3440.762s ; O 3559-67 2s 3067.369s 3441-1558 3505-5358 307 3.091 i 3442.118 6 3500. 522 3078.769s : 3444.020S 3570.273s 3088.14 5s Ti ; 3446.406 i 5 3572-014 3134.230s 3449.583 2 Il 3572-712 3188.656 Hy ? 3453-039 i ? il 3578.832 3230.703s 3.458.601 3581.349S 3239.170 3461.801 i 3554.800 3242.125 3462.950 3585-105 3243-189 3466.01 5s 3585-479 3247.088s 3475-5948 3585-559 3250.021 3476.849s : 3587.130 3267.834s 3483-923 2 I 3587.370 3271.129 3485-493 3588.084 3271.791 3490.7 338 3593-636 3274.096s 3493-114 3594-784 3277.482 3497.982s S 3597-354 3286.898 3500.996s ? || 3605.479s 3295.951S 3510.466 i 3006.838s 3302.510s 3512.785 3609.008s 331 5.807 3513.965s 361 2.882 3318.160s 351 5.206 i 3017.9348 3320.391 3519.904 3018.919s 3336.520 3521.410s 3619.539 3349-597 3524-677 i 3621.612s 33601.327 3526.183 3622.147s 3365.908 3526.988 3031.605s 3366.311 3529-964 3640.5 358 3369.713 3533-156 3642.820 ~ NI Zi, °F BADD AN vu NNR O Ze a to NOW AAMO ALO AN CAO AN CON AD ™N vu NQ oo at Da An a ~wv Corrections to reduce Rowland’s wave-lengths to standards of Table 160 (the accepted standards, 1913). ‘Temperature 15° C, pressure 760 mm. * The differences ‘‘(Fabry-Buisson-arc-iron) —(Rowland-solar-iron)” lines were plotted, a smooth curve drawn, and the following values obtained : Wave-length 3000. 3100. 3200, 3300. 3400. 3500. 3600. 3700, Correction —.106, —.115 —.124 —.137 —.148 —.154 —.155 —.140 H. A. Rowland, “A preliminary table of solar-spectrum wave-lengths,’”’ Astrophysical Journal, 1-6, 18951897. ‘SMITHSONIAN TABLES, I 74. ' TABLE 163 (continued). STANDARD SOLAR WAVE-LENGTHS. ROWLAND’S VALUES. Inten- sity. Inten- siet Wave-length. | Substance. Wave-length. | Substance. Wave-length. | Substance. 3647-988s Fe 3826.027s 20 ||| 4045.975s He 3051-247 Fe,- 3827.980 8 || 4055-701s Mn 3051.614 ine 3829.501S { IO |i| 4057.668 3676.457. | Fe, Cr 6 |i 3831.837 6 |I| 40603.759s 3080.069s Fe 9_ || 3832.450s 15 || 4068.137 3684.258s Fe 74? | 3834.364 10 ||| 4071.908s 3085-339 Ti | rod? |} 3838.435s 25 |] 4077.885s 3086.141 3840. 580s 8 ||| 4102.000H8 3087.610s 3841.195 IO || 4121.477s 3089.614 3845-606 8d? || 4128.251 3701.234 3850.118 10 |i 4132.235 3705-7088 3856.524s 8 || 4137.156 3700.175 3857.805 ; 6d? || 4140.089 3709-3898 3858-442 4144-038 3716.591S 3860.05 5s 4167.438 3720.084s 3865.674 4187.204 3722.6928 3872.639 4191.595 3724.526 3878.1 52 4202.198s 3732-5458 3878.720 4226.904sg 3733-4698 3886.4 348 4233-772 3735-0148 3887.196 4230.112 3737-2818 3894.211 4250.287s 3738-466 6 |] 3895.803 42.50.9458 3743-508 3899-850 4254.5058 3745-7178 3903.090 4260.640s 3746.058s 3904.023 4271.934s 3748.408s 3905-660s 4274.958s 3749-631s 3900.628 4308.081sG 37 53-732 3920-410 4325-9398 37 58.3758 € 5_ |] 3923-054 ? i! 4340.634Hy 3759-447 3928.07 5s 4376.1078 3760.196 3930.450 4383-720s 3761.464 3933-523 4404.9278 3763-9458 3933-52 58K 4415.293s 3765.689 3934-108 4442.510 3767.3418 3944-160s Al 4447.592s 3775-717 3956.819 4494.7 38s | 3783.674s | 3957-1778 4528.798 3788.046s | 3961.674s | 4534-139 3795-1478 3968.350 4.549.808 3799-6558 3968.62 5sH 4554.211S 3799-6938 3968.886 6 4572.156s 3805.486s 3969.413 4603.126 3806.865 | 397 4.904 4629.52Is 3807.293 3977-891s 4679.0278 3807.681 3986.903s 4703.177S 3814.698 4005.408 7_ || 4714.599s | 3815.987S 4030.918s 47 36.963 | 3820.586sL 4033-2248 ? | 4754.225s 3824.591 4034.644s 4753.61 3s AO CONAD a vu = AAOON © N A. vw wt oo _ Oa AON ANIO NANNANAWDAAWDAAAC “wv v oo AM ODAABAN AMO AN OHDONUN _ Ne Corrections to reduce Rowland’s wave-lengths to standards of Table 160 (the accepted standards, 1913). Temperature 15° C, pressure 760 mm. : Wave-length 3600. 3700. 3800. 3900. 4000. 4100. 4200. 4300. 4400. 4500. 4600, 4700. 4800. Correction —.155 —.140 —.141 —.144 — 148 — 152 —.156 —.161 — 167 —.172 —.176 —.179 —.179. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Wave-length. 4861.527S8F 4890.948s 4891.683 AQ19.1748 4920.05 5 4957-7858 5050.003s 5167.497sb4 5171.778s 5172.8 56sby 5153-7918bi 233.1228 Bree 38s 5269.7 23sE §283.802s 5324-37 3S 5328.230 5340.1 21 5341-213 5367.669s 5370-166s 5383-578s 5397-3448 5405-989s §424.290s 5429.911 5447.1308 5529.641s 5569.848 5573-075 536.991 5598.985s 5615.877s 5088.436s 57 11.3138 5763.218s 5857-6748 5862. 582s 5890.186s D2 §896.155 Dy 5901.682s 5914.430s 5919.860s 5930.406s Substance. Inten- sity. Ww Wh _ al Ny eae OOD ANACO AMAO ~wv Qu ~ o ~ ao caag eae Nw AI NAIDOO NONADAADAN ANDDAADAAAAAN Aon .6108.334s TABLE 163 (continued). STANDARD SOLAR WAVE-LENCTHS. Wave-length. 5048.765s 598 5.040s 6003.239s 6008.78 5s 6013.715s 6016.861s 6022.016s 6024.281s 6065.709s 6102.392s 6102.937s 6122.434s 6136.829s 61 37.915 6141.938s 6155-350 6162.390s 6169.249s 6169.778s 6170.730 61.91.3938 6191.779S 6200.527S 6213.644s 6219.494S 6230.943s 6246.535s 6252.773S 6256.572s 6301.718 6318.239 6335-554 6337.048 6358.898 6393.820s 6400. 217s 6411.865s 6421.570s 64 39.2938 6450.03 38 6494.004s 6495-213 6546.479s ROWLAND’S VALUES. _ _ 6563.045sC || 6876.958s i|| 6909.676s || 6924.4278 NANDAONN CNIQAN DON AN DKOADAAHAO DAON Qunnn OO DAO ANN QAQDADAAD Wave-length. 6593.10Is 6867.457sB 6868.3 36 6868. ae {s 6869.142s 6869.353S 6870.1 16 6870.249 6871.180s 6871.532S 6872.486s 687 3.080s 6874.037S 6874.599s 6875. 830s 6877.852s 63879.288s 6880.172s 6884.076s 6886.000s 6886.990s 6889.192s 6890.1 51s 6892.618s 6893.560s 6896.289s 6897.208s 6900.199s 6901.117S8 6904.362s 6905.271s 6908.78 3s 6913.448s 691 4.3378 6918.370s 6919.250S 6923-5538 7191-755 7206.692 Sub- stance. Fe se ee eee CSCS COOO@OSCSSOOSSSSCOSCOOCOSCO OS ~~ Y / SOS SSS OSS OSS SWS OS SS SSS SS SOS OSS SASS WS WSS OOS OSS SSS a aa a a ee ee ee ey a ee a a aS > 1Cle'S ClOlOSi@ieie\ ~ IPRS EPSPS ESS P EES EPS EPS ESP SPE EEE PPEE iy Inten- sity. Corrections to reduce Rowland’s wave-lengths to standards of Table 160 (the accepted standards, 1913). Temperature 15° C, pressure 760 mm. : Wave-length 4800. 4900. 5000. 5100. 5200. 5300. 5400. 5500. 5600. 5700. 5800. Correction —.179 —.176 —.173 —.170 —.166 —.172 —.212 —.217 —=—.218 —.213 —.209 Wave-length 5800. 5900, 6000. 6100. 6200. 6300. 6400. 6500. 6600. 6700. 6800. Correction —.209 —.209 —.213 —.214 —,213 —.210 —.209 —.2I0. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 176 TABLE 164. TERTIARY STANDARD WAVE-LENCTHS. IRON ARC LINES. For arc conditions see Table 160, p.172. For lines of group class 5 for best results the slit should be at right angles to the arc at its middle point and the current should be reversed several times during the exposure. Inten- Sity. Inten- sity. Inten- sity. Wave-lengths. | Class. Wave-lengths. | Class. Wave-lengths. | Class. *2781.840 *2806.98 5, *2831.559 *28 58.341 *2901.382 *2926.584 *2986.460 *3000.453 * 3053-070 *3100.838 *3154.202 *3217.389 43257-0093 3307-238 *3347.932 *3389.748 *3476.705 73506.502 3553-741 5079-227 *3617.789 5079.743 *3659.521 5 5098.702 *3705.567 5123-729 *3749.487 5127.306 *3820.430 5150.546 33959-913 5151.917 3922.917 5194-950 * 3956.682 5202.341 *40009.718 5216.279 *4062.451 5227.191 14132.063 5242.495 1417 5.639 527.350 14202.031 5328.043 14250.791 5328.537 4337-052 4309-777 4415.128 4.443.198 4461.658 4489.746 4528.620 4019.297 4786.811 487 1.331 4890.769 4924.773 4939-085 4973-113 4994-133 5041.076 5041.760 5051.641 5332-909 a4 5341-032 a4 5305.404 al 5405.780 5434-528 5473-913 5497-521 5501-471 5506.784 £5535-419 5503-612 5975'35% 6027.059 6065.495 6136.624 6157-734 6165.370 6173-345 6200.323 6213.441 6219.290 6252.567 6254.269 6265.145 6297.802 6335-342 6430.559 6494.992 Lo] AOnmnwWFPAHAHAHAHAWUNPWWONA COCO TTToToCorooroooroep pap PP PP On NPN AnMNPAWAUNAW NW HWAHARADNUNN FN COW AniriniwWhofRWWR ROW NWWN OHWRNWAW HOU * Measures of Burns. t Means of St. John and Burns. + Means of St. John and Goos. Others are means of measures by all three. References: St. John and Ware, Astrophysical Journal, 36, 1912; 38, 1913; Burns, Z. f. wissen. Photog. 12, p. 207, 1913, J. de Phys. 1913, and unpub- lished data; Goos, Astrophysical Journal, 35, 1912}; 37, 1913. The lines in the table have been selected from the many given in these references with a view to equal distribution and where possible of classes 2 and 4. For class and pressure shifts see Gale and Adams, Astrophysical Journal, 35, p. 10, 1912. Class a: “This involves the well-known flame lines (de Watteville, Phil. Trans. A 204, p. 139. 1904), ie. the lines relatively strengthened in low-temperature sources, such as the flame of the arc, the low-current arc, and the electric furnace. (Astrophysical Journal, 24, p. 185, 1906, 30, p. 86, 1909, 34, P- 37, IOI, 35, p- 185, 1912.) The lines of this group in the yellow-green show small but definite pressure displacements, the mean being 0.0036 Angstrém per atmosphere in the arc.’ Class 6: “To this group many lines belong; in fact all the lines of moderate displacement under pressure are assigned to it for the present. These are bright and symmetrically widened under pressure, and show mean pressure displacements of 0.009 Angstr6m per atmosphere for the lines in the region A 5975-6678 according to Gale and Adams. Group contains lines showing much larger displacements. The numbers in the class column have the following meaning: 1, sym- metrically reversed; 2, unsymmetrically reversed ; 3, remain bright and fairly narrow under pres- sure; 4, remain bright and symmetrical under pressure but become wide and diffuse; 5, remain bright and are widened very unsymmetrically toward the red under pressure.” For further measures in International units see Kayser, Bericht iiber den gegenwartigen Stand der Wellenliangenmessungen, International Union for Codperation in Solar Research, 1913. For further spectroscopic data see Kayser’s Handbuch der Spectroscopie. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 165. 17 WAVE-LENGTHS OF FRAUNHOFER LINES. For convenience of reference the values of the wave-lengths corresponding to the Fraunhofer lines usually designated by the letters in the column headed “index letters,” are here tabulated separately. The values are in ten millionths of a millimeter, on the supposition that the D line value is 5896.155. The table is for the most part taken from Rowland’s table of standard wave- lengths. Wave-length in ; Wave-length in . Index Letter. Line due to — Index Letter. Line due to— centimeter Gok, centimeters X 103. 7621.28* Fe 4308.081 7594-06* Ca 4.307.907 7164.725 Ca 4226.904 6870.182 T H 4102,000 6563-045 Ca 3968.625 6278.303 ¢ Ca 3933-825 5896.155 Fe 3820.586 5890.186 Fe 3727-778 5875-985 Fe 3581.349 5270.558 Fe 3441-155 5270.438 Fe 3361.327 5269.723 Fe 3286.898 5183-791 Ca 3181.387 5172.856 Ca 3179-453 5169.220 3100.787 | 5 169.069 3100.430 5167.678 3100.046 5167.497 3047.725 4861.527 3020.76 4383-721 2904.53 4340-634 2947-99 4325-939 * The two lines here given for A are stated by Rowland to be: the first, a line “ beginning at the head of A, out- side edge ;” the second, a “single line beginning at the tail of A.”’ + The principal line in the head of B. + Chief line in the a group. : See Table 163, Rowland’s Solar Wave-lengths (foot of page) for correction to reduce these values to standard system of wave-lengths, Table 160. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. [75 TABLES 166-168. TABLE 166.— Photometric Standards. No primary photometric standard has been generally adopted by the various governments. In Germany the Herner lamp is most used; in England the Pentane lamp and sperm candles are used; in France the Carcel lamp is preferred; in America the Pentane and Hefner lamps are used to some extent, but candles are more largely employed in gas photometry. For the photometry of electric lamps, and generally in accurate photometric work, electric lamps, standardized at a national standardizing institution, are commonly employed. The “ International candle” is the name recently employed to designate the value of the candle as maintained by codperative effort between the national laboratories of England, France, and America; and the value of various photometric units in terms of this international candle is given in the following table (taken from Circular No. 15 of the Bureau of Standards). 1 International Candle =1 Pentane Candle. 1 International Candle = 1 Bougie Decimale. 1 International Candle = 1 American Candle. 1 International Candle = 1.11 Hefner Unit. 1 International Candle = 0.104 Carcel Unit. Therefore 1 Hefner Unit = 0.90 International Candle. The values of the flame standards most commonly used are as follows: 1. Standard Pentane Lamp, burning pentane . . . . . . 10.0 candles. 2. Standard Hefner Lamp, burning amyl acetate. . . . . 0.9 candles. 3. Standard Carcel Lamp, burning colzaoil. . . . . . . 9.6 candles. 4. Standard English Sperm Candle, approximately . . . . 1.0 candles. Slight differences in candle power are found in different lamps, even when made’ as accurately as possible to the same specifications. Hence these so-called primary standards should be them: selves standardized. ; TABLE 167. — Intrinsic Brightness of Various Light Sources. National Electric Barrows. Ives & Luckiesh. Lamp Association. C. P. per Sq. In. C. P. per Sq. In. C. P. per Sq. C. P. per Sq. In. of surface of surface Mm. of sur- of surface of light. of light. face of light. of light. | Sun at Zenith . 5 ; A C 600,000 - - 600,000 Crater, carbonarce . fs . : 200,000 84,000 130. 200,000 Open carbon arc . . *| I0,000-50,000 = = 10,;000—50,000 | Flaming are. . 3 ; : 5,000 - - 5,000 | Magnetite arc . . : : : = 4,000 6.2 = Nernst Glower a ‘ . 800-1,000 (115v.6 amp. d.c.) 3,010 s (1.5 W.p.c.) 2,200 ‘Tungsten incandescent, 1. 15 w. p.c: = a - 1,000 Tungsten incandescent, 1.25 W. p.c: 1,000 1,000 : 875 Tantalum incandescent, 2.0 w. p. 75° 580 y 750 Graphitized carbon wlamends 2.5 WisPs\ Cols 3 625 750 625 Carbon incandescent, 3-1 Ww. p. a 480 485 S 480 Carbon incandescent, 3.5 w.p.c. . 375 400 r 375 Carbon incandescent, 4.0W.p.c. . 300 325 - Inclosed carbon arc (d. c.) : . 100-500 = 100-500 Inclosed carbon arc (a. c.) A = 75-200 Acetylene flame (x ft. burner) . . - 53-0 ‘ 75-100 Acetylene flame (34 ft. burner) . 33-0 = Welsbach mantle. ; 31-9 R 20-50 Welsbach (mesh) . : 56.0 : = Cooper Hewitt mercury YEROr Jamp : 14.9 : 17 | Kerosene flame . g:0 4 3-8 Candle flame . 5 ° i - 3-4 Gas flame (fish tail) - : . 2.7 H 3-8 Frosted incandescent lamp. . - 2-5 Moore carbon-dioxide tube lamp. - 0.3-1.75 Taken from Data, 1911. TABLE 168. — Visibility of White Lights. Candle Power. Range. 1 sea-mile = 1855 meters “ ce 1 Paterson and Dudding. 2 Deutsche Seewarte. ae falling on 1 a cm. at 1m. froma candle is about 4 ergs per sec. (Rayleigh, about 8 according to Anes strom SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 169. 179 EFFICIENCY OF VARIOUS ELECTRIC LIGHTS. Total cost per 100,000 Lumen-hours at ro cts. per Kw-hour. Kw-hours Terminal for 100,000 Watts. Lumen- hours. Regenerative d.-c., series arc Regenerative d.-c., multiple arc Magnetite d.-c., series arc Flame arc, d.-c., inclined electrodes Mercury arc, d.-c., multiple Flame arc, d.-c., inclined electrodes Flame arc, d.-c., vertical electrodes Luminous arc, d.-c., multiple Open arc, d.-c., series Magnetite arc, d.-c., series Flame arc, a.-c., vertical electrodes Flame arc, a.-c., inclined electrodes Open arc, d.-c., series Tungsten series Flame arc, a.-c., inclined electrodes Inclosed are, d.-c., Series 39315 1.459 Luminous arc, d.-c., multiple 2,870 1.547 Tungsten, multiple : 475 1.55 Nernst, a.-c., 3-glower ; 2,160 1.88 Nernst, d.-c., 3-glower : 2,160 1.90 Inclosed arc, a.-c., series 3 2,410 2.05 Inclosed are, a.-c., series 4 2,020 2.193 Tantalum, d.-c., multiple 199 2.31 Tantalum, a.-c., multiple 199 2M 2.504 Carbon, 3.1 w. p. c., multiple 166 29-9 3.24 Carbon, 3.5 w. p. C., Series 626 33-6 3.47 Carbon, 3.5 w. p. c., multiple 166 387 3.50 Inclosed arc, d.-c., multiple 15535 35-8 3.66 Inclosed arc, d.-c., multiple 1,030 37-4 3.84 Inclosed arc, a.-c., multiple 1,124 i 38.3 3:94 Inclosed arc, a.-c., multiple : 285 688 41.4 4.265 Paper by Prof. J. M. Bryant and Mr. H. G. Hake, Engineering Experiment Station, University of Illinois. 0.339 0.527 0.729 8,640 4,400 : 0.89 6,140 : 0.966 6,140 : 0.966 75370 . 0.988 5,025 : 1.079 2,870 13 59340 . 275 59340 . 275 2,920 1.305 626 1.384 3,910 1.405 DAKAAG SRO AMIS OMN NOANVDIOIDOANSO OMO Quin = ° ON OV er CCaCe 00N0 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 180 TABLES 170-172. SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO RADIATION. (Compiled from Nutting, Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.) Radiation is easily visible to most eyes from 0.330u in the violet to 0.770m in the red. At low intensities approaching threshold values (red vision) the maximum of spectral sensibility lies in the green at about 0.510 for 90% of all persons. At higher intensities with the establish- ment of cone vision the maximum shifts towards the yellow at least as far as 0.560. TABLE 170. — Variation of the Sensitiveness of the Eye with the Wave-length at Low Intensities (near Threshold Values). Konig. +530 +550 +570 +590 -610 Mean sensitiveness | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.23 | 0.49 | 0.81 0.81 | 0.49 | 0.22 | 0.077 | 0.026 TABLE 171. — Variation of Sensitiveness to Radiation of Greater Intensities. The sensibility is approximately proportional to the intensity over a wide range. The ratio of optical- to radiation-intensity increases more rapidly for the red than for the blue or green (Purkinje phenomenon). The intensity is given for the spectrum at 0.535 (green). Intensity (metre-candles) = .00024 | .00225 ; 2.30 Ratio to preceding step = 6 4 Wave-length, A. Sensitiveness. 0.430" : : : : .IT4 .450 : ; : : 223 .470 : : . 5 51 .490 i 3 : : (.83) 505 : : ; .99 .520 : : : : -99 535 : : : . .gI “555 : : : 2 62 -575 : ; . . (.39) .590 ; ; ; : .27 .605 : : : : AL 3 625 : : : : 098 .650 : s ; : .025 .670 : : ; .007 A, Maximum sensitiveness] . : : . 513 : A =] .670] .605 | .575 | -505 | -470 | .430 ite|] The sensibility to small differences in inten- [pin m. c. =]0.060\0.0056|0.0029|0.00017|0.00012|0.00012/0. sity is independent of the intensity (Fech- ? I 61: I Kénig’s data, measures from one normal none law). About 0.016 for moderate person only. intensities. Greater for extreme values. seed a. peer It is independent of wave-length, extremes 1,000,000 - - - .036 excepted (K6nig’s law). 200,000 = vile Ei - | 027 || Sensibility to slight differences in wave- eas =f = ee length has two pronounced maxima (one 20,000 Ser in the yellow, one in the green) and two 10,000 = ou slight maxima (extreme blue, extreme 5,000 - -O1 red). Peal: : os | ots || The visual sensation as a function of the 500 |. : : ‘ , i .019 time approaches aconstant value with the 200, {{\- 2022 | - : . : +022 lapse of time. With blue light there sone seems to be a pronounced maximum at 1048 0.07 sec., with red a slight one at 0.12 sec- .059 onds, with green the sensation rises stead- 73 ily tas final value. nee lower intensi- ; ties these max. occur later. ae An intensity of 500 metre-candles is about = ee on a horizontal plane on a cloudy A ay. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 173-176.—SOLAR ENERCY. 181 TABLE 173.—The Solar Constant. Solar constant (amount of energy falling at normal incidence on one square centimeter per minute on body at earth’s mean distance) = 1.932 calories = mean 696 determinations 1902—12. Apparently subject to variations, usually within the range of 7 per cent, and occurring irregularly in periods of a week or ten days. Computed effective temperature of the sun: from form of black-body curves, 6000° to 7000° Absolute ; from Amax. = 2930 and max. = 0.470m, 6230° ; from total radiation, J = 76.8x10-!? x T4, 5830°. TABLE 174. — Solar spectrum energy (arbitrary units) and its transmission by the earth’s atmosphere. Values computed from em= €oa™, where em is the intensity of solar energy after transmission through a mass of air m; m is unity when the sun is in the zenith, and approximately =sec. zenith distance for other positions (see table 180) ; e975 = the energy which would have been ob- served had there been no absorbing atmosphere; a is the fractional amount observed when the sun is in the zenith, Transmission coef- Intensity Solar Energy. sais = ficients, a. Mount Wilson. Washington. nearer earth. po) e v S Oo Transmission coefficients are for period when there was apparently no volcanic dust in the air. * Possibly too high because of increased humidity towards noon. TABLE 175. — The intensity of Solar Radiation in different sections of the spectrum, ultra-violet, visual infra-red. Calories. Wave-length. Mount Whitney. Mount Wilson. Washington. TABLE 176. — Distribution of brightness (Radiation) over the Solar Disk. (These observations extend over only a small portion of a sun-spot cycle.) Mh Me Me Me Ke Me KM Me Me Me D.323 | 0.386 | 0.433 |0.456 | 0.481| 0.501 | 0.534 | 0.604 | 0.670 | 0.699 | 0.866 | 1.031 338 51x | 489 | 463 | 399 | 333 | 307 | 174 312 483 | 463 | 440 | 382 | 320 | 295 | 169 289 456 | 437 | 417 | 365 | 308 | 284 | 163 430 | 414 | 396 | 348 | 295 | 273 | 159 394 380 366 326 281 258 152 358 | 347 | 337 | 304 | 262 | 243 | 145 324 | 323 312 | 284 | 247 | 229 138 290 | 286 | 281 | 259 | 227 | 212 | 130 255 254 | 254 | 237 | 210 | 195 122 a = 3 cS % 5 3 ZS oS o - & Taken from vols. II and III and unpublished data of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution. Schwartzchild and Villiger: Astrophysical Journal, 23, 1906. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 182 TaBLes 177-180. ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY AND SOLAR RADIATION. TABLE 177.—Transmission of Radiation Through Moist and Dry Air. This table gives the wave-length, A; a the transmission of radiation by dry air above Mount Wilson (altitude = 1730 m. barometer, 620 mm.) for a body in the zenith ; finally a correction fac- tor, ay, due to such a quantity of aqueous vapor in the air that if condensed it would form a layer 1 cm. thick, Except in the bands of selective absorption due to the air, a agrees very closely with what would be expected from purely molecular scattering. aw is very much smaller than would be correspondingly expected, due possibly to the formation of ions by the ultra-violet light from the sun. The transmission varies from day to day. However, values for clear days computed as fol- lows agree within a per cent or two of those observed when the altitude of the place is such that the effect due to dust may be neglected, e. g. for altitudes greater than rooo meters. If B= B the barometric pressure in mm., w, the amount of precipitable water in cm., then ap— aoe av. wis best determined spectroscopically (Astrophysical yous 35) Ps 149, 1912, 37, P- 359, 1913) other- 1 wise by formula derived from Hann, w= 2.3ew1o0 0, ey being the vapor pressure in cm. at the station, h, the altitude in meters. A (4) .360 | .384 | 413 | -452 | -503 | -535 a (.660) | .713 | -783 | .840 | .885 | .898 aw 950 | .960 | .965 | .967 | .977 | .980 Fowle, Astrophysical Journal, 38, 1913. TABLE 178.—Brightness of (radiation from) Sky at Mt. Wilson (1730 m.) and Flint Island (sea level). Zenith dist. of zone . 0-15°| 15-35°|35-50°|50-609| 60-70°| 70-80°| 80-go° ro8 X mean ratio sky/sun Mt. Wilson . . | 1500*| 400 | 520] 610 660 700 720 e ss Flint Island . pel dexrs | e225 |e er2Ss]\eerco 185 210 460 Ditto X area of zone Mt. Wilson . . | 51.0 | 58.8] 91.5 | 87-2 | 104.3 | 117.6 | 125.3 ee i ue Flint Island . ; 3.9 | 17-9 21.4 35-3 80.0 Altitude of sun . ; . . : Sun’s brightness, cal. per cm.? per min. Ditto on horizontal surface ; : : 4 Mean brightness on normal surface sky X 108/sun Total sky radiation on horizontal cal. per cm.? . per m. : 5 : : Total sun + sky, ditto * Includes allowance for bright region near sun. For the dates upon which the observation of the upper portion of table were taken, the mean ratios of total radiation sky/sun, for equal angular areas, at normal incidence, at the island and on the mountain, respectively, were 636 X 1o—8 and 210 X 10—8, on a horizontal surface, 305 X ro— 8 and 77 X 10-8; for the whole sky, at normal incidence, 0.57 and 0.20; on a horizontal surface 0.27 and o.o7. Annals of the Astro- physical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, vols. II and III, and unpublished researches (Abbot). TABLE 179.—Relative Distribution in Normal Spectrum of Sunlight and Sky-light at Mount Wilson. Zenith distance about 50°. Place in Spectrum Intensity Sunlight Intensity Sky-light Ratio at Mt. Wilson 102 | 143] 246] 316 Ratio computed by Rayleigh 102 | 164 | 258 | 328 Ratio observed by Rayleigh 102} 168 | 291 | 369 TABLE 180.— Air Masses. See Table 174 for definition. Besides values derived from the pure secant formula, the table contains those derived from various other more complex formula, taking into account the curva- ture of the earth, refraction, etc. The most recent is that of Bemporad. Zenith Dist. Secant Forbes Bouguer Laplace Bemporad The qaplace and Bemporad values, Lindholm, Nova Acta R. Soc. Upsal. 3, 1913; the others, Radau’s Actino- metric, 1577. : SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLes 181-182. 183 RELATIVE INTENSITY OF SOLAR RADIATION. TABLE 181.— Mean intensity J for 24 hours of solar radiation on a horizontal surface at the top of the atmosphere and the solar radiation 4, in terms of the solar radiation, 4), at earth’s mean distance from the sun. RELATIVE MEAN VERTICAL INTENSITY ( Motion of the sun in LATITUDE NORTH. longi- tude. 20° | 30° | 40° | 560° 0.220 |0.169 |o.117 |0.066 244 | .200 | .150 | .100 279 | .245 | .204 | .158 BW || -269 ||-235. [7-205 | - -I0I |0.082 283003 20m (0-320) ||. 3025n- : 255 | -259 334 lhe 349 | -345 | - ; 300 | .366 333 | - +352 | -351 | - -356 | .373 | -379 Seon PBGOnmearou ls .282 | .295 | -300 emi ee 285 | .256 | .220 | .180 | .139 | .140 .289 | . .225, | 2163 | 2135 |) 04.) C05 Basi (18 .164 | .114 | .063 .124 | .072 | .024 0.305 |0.301 [0.289 Jo. 0.241 |0.209 |0.173 |0.144 |0.133 |0.126 TABLE 182.— Mean Monthly and Yearly Temperatures. Mean temperatures of a few selected American stations, also of a station of very high, one of very low and one of very small, range of temperature. Feb. | Mar.} Apr. | May. .| July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. Hebron-Rama (Labr.) -7\—20.9 : .g|-+ 0.2 Winnipeg anes) : -6|—18.8 : -9/-+10.9) Montreal . : -g|— 9.1 ; .8/-+12.6 .3\-+13.6 .9\-+13-4 -3\-+13.6 -7|-+17-7 .4\— 5.3 .4|+18.8 Br atse7 + 7.6|-+ 8.0/+ 4.5|— 0.8 w1|+18.9|+17.6|+41. 6} +20.5|-+19.3\-+14.7\-+ 7.8 +21.8)+20. 6) 16.9/+ 31.1 elie? .2\-+21.6|+17.9|-+11.1 22.1|-+-21.2|-+16.6)-+- 10. 3} +24.9|-+23-7|+-19.9|+13.-4| + 4.5|-+ 3.6/— 0.3|— 5.8 .0|+26.0|/-+24.9|-+-20.8 433 +++++4+++4+++4++4++ Boston : . . .8/— 2.2 Chicago . : .8|— 2.9 Denver 5 ; 5 lt ov Washington ; . 7+ 2.1 Pikes Peak . : , -4|—15.6 St. Louis * ; 5 a Bi 1.7 San Francisco . ; -1|-+10.9 ; Yuma . ° : -3\+14.9 .o|-+-25.1 New Orleans 2 ; -1/-+14.5 i .6|-+23.7 Massaua. .6|-+-26.0 : o|-+31.1 4 Ft, Conger (Greenl’a) .0|—40. 1 : -3|—10.0 Pe Werchojansk .0|—45.3 : 5 ul 2.0 16 Batavia ~ - 3 25.4 26.4 Nee ee oe CON Ouik WN DNOWnOLFONOODO DIS 4 DSH AOMW HH +14.6|+14.8|-+15.8/-+-15.2) ess-2 132° eot 22.8) +++ | FE NR ONS N CONN +27.9|-+27-5|+-25-7|+21-0|-15. +34-8|+-34-7 +33.3/-+31 7 .o|+27.0!-+30.3 + 2.8 1.0|— 9.0|—22.7 -9|—33.4|—20.0 -F15.5|-10.1 -5|—15.0|—37-8|— 47. o\—16. 7 WNNHRN OBR DEAN OROHAHOAGA +25.7\-+25.9|-+26.3|-+-26.4/-+26.2|-+-25.6 +25.9 Nw | Lat., Long., Alt. respectively: (1) +58°.5, 63°.0 W, —; (2) + 49.9, 97.1 W, 3330.3 (3) +45-5, 73-6 W, 57m.; (4) + 42.3) 71-1 W, 38m.; ®) 4I. 9 87.6 W, 251m.; (6) +39.7, 105.0 W, 1613m.; O} +38.9, 77.0 W, 34m.; (8) 138.8, 105.0 W, 4308m.; (9) +38.6, 90.2 W, 173m.; (ro) +37.8, 122.5 W, 47m. ; (11) +32.7, 114.6 W, 43m. ; ye .0, 9O-1 Ww, 16m.}; (13) + 15.6, 37-5 E, 9m.; (14) +81.7, 64.7 W.,—; (15) + 67.6, 133.8 E, 140m.; (16) —6.2, 10) »7m. Taken from Hann’s Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, 2’nd edition, which see for further data. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 184 TaBLes 183-185. INDEX OF REFRACTION FOR GLASS. TABLE 183, — Glasses Made by Schott and Gen, Jena. The following constants are for glasses made by Schott and Gen, Jena: 7a, 0, 2p, 227, Ma, aTe the indices of refraction in air for A0.7682u4, C=0.65634, D=0.5893, F=0.4861, G’=0.4341. V=(up—I1)/(zrp—xc). Ultra-violet indices: Simon, Wied. Ann. 53, 1894. Infra-red: Rubens, Wied. Ann. 45, 1892. Table is revised from Landolt, Bornstein and Meyerhoffer, Kayser, Hand- buch der Spectroscopie, and Schott and Gen’s list No. 751, 1909. See also Hovestadt’s “‘ Jena Glass.” Catalogue Type = O 546 O 381 O 184 O 102 O 165 | S57 Higher Dis- | Light Silicate | Heavy Silicate | Heavy Silicate} Heaviest Sili- persion Crown. Flint. Flint. Flint. | cate Flint. Melting Number 1092 II51 451 469 500 163 v 60.7 51.8 27.6 22.2 Designation Zinc-Crown. Cd 0.2763u 1.56759 - - - Cd .2837 1.56372 - - - Cd .2980 1.55723 1.57093 1.65397 - Cd _ .3403 1.54369 1.55262 1.63320 1.71968 1.85487 Cd_.3610 1.53897 1.54664 1.613838 1.70536 1.83263 -4340)L 1.52788 1.53312 1.59355 1.67561 1.78800 1.94493 +4861 1.52299 1.52715 1.58515 1.66367 1.77091 1.91890 5893 1.51698 1.52002 1.57524 1.64985 1.75130 1.88995 +6563 1.51446 1.51712 1.57119 1.64440 1.74368 1.87893 -7682 1.51143 1.51368 1.56669 1.63820 1.73530 1.86702 -800K 1.5103 1.5131 1.5659 1.6373 1.7339 1.8650 1.200 1.5048 1.5069 1.5585 1.6277 1.7215 1.8481 1.600 1.5008 1.5024 1.5535 1.6217 1.7151 1.8396 2.000 1.4967 1.4973 1.5487 1.6171 1.7104 1.8316 2.400 - - 1.5440 1.6131 - 1.8286 a 2 on & o aa o > = ie) cS cs ~ = aS 4 — ° oc 5 v7 Percentage composition of the above glasses: O 546, SiOg, 65.4; K2O, 15.0; NagO, 5.0; BaO, 9.6; ZnO, 2.0; Mn2Osz, 0.1; AseOz, 0.4; 2VU3, 2.5. O 381, SiOg, 68.7; PbO, 13.3; NagO, 15.7; ZnO, 2.0; MnOxg, 0.1; AsgOs, 0.2. O 184, SiOg, 53.7; PbO, 36.0; KeO, 8.3; NagO, 1.0; Mn2Os, 0.06; As2Q0s, 0.3. O 102, SiOz, 40.0; PbO, 52.6; K20, 6.5; NazO, 0.5; MngQOs, 0.09; AseOs, 0.3. O 165, SiOg, 29.26; PbO, 67.5; K2O, 3.0; MneQOsg, 0.04; As2Os, 0.2. S57, SiOs, 21.9; PbO, 78.0; As2Os, 0.1. TABLE 184. — Jena Glasses. Specific No. and Type of Jena Glass. 2, for D| 2p— 1, Weight O 225 Light phosphate crown . . 1.5159 00737 O 802 Boro-silicate crown. . . . 1.4907 0765 UV 3199 Ultra-violet crown . 1.5035 0781 O 227 Barium-silicate crown . . 1.5399 0g09 O 114 Soft-silicate crown. . . 1.5151 ogI0 O 608 High-dispersion crown . 1.5149 0943 UV 3248 Ultra-violet flint. . : 1.5332 0964 O 381 High-dispersion crown . . 1.5262 1026 O 602 Baryt light flint . . a 4 1.5676 1072 S) 38o"Boratetilinty. 2). een 1.5686 1102 © 726 Extra lightflint . 2... . 1.5398 1142 O 154 Ordinary light flint . z 1.5710 1327 O 184 ss ss makes tarot ih og ce 3.5900 1438 ©'748 Baryt flint) = 1.) - ° 1.6235 1599 O 102 Heavy flint HOE G 2 1.6489 1919 O 4 ee aie oe habe 1-7174 2434 O 165 ware ctetel Wowie R.7541 2743 S 386 Heavy flint. . . : 1.9170 4289 S57 Heaviest flint . .. ; 1.9626 4882 Mean Temp. c Heavy silicate flint . . . 58.8° 1.204 4 Light silicate flint . 58.4 0.225 7 Barvt flint light . . 5 58.3 —o.008 5 Light phosphate crown . 58.1 —o.202 Pulfrich, Wied. Ann. 45, p. 609, 1892. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaB_Les 186-188. INDEX OF REFRACTION. 185 TABLE 186. — Index of Refraction of Rock Salt in Air. ACH)» . x A(#). 0.185409 : 0.88396 1.534011 E 1.516014 -204470 ; 972298 | 1.532532 ss 1.515553 -291 308 358702 441587 .450149 1.513028 1.513467 1.511062 1.508318 1.506804. 1.502035 1.494722 1.481816 1.471720 1.460547 1.454404 1.447494 1.441032 1.3735 1.340 .98220 1.532435 1.036758 1.531762 1.1786 1.530372 1.530374 Te 553137 1.528211 1.7 680 1.527440 1.527441 sofas 1.526554 2.35725 1.525863 < 1.525849 2.9466 1.524534 3-5359 1.523173 4.1252 1.521648 ‘ 1.521625 5.0092 1.518975 fees ee) - a “ 58902 58932 656304 lets) ECituer) 700548 -706529 -70824 .78576 88396 = nef lno) Ebel qe) [elae| baile Washo tee EGite.td) Mz 28 Noe an re na T33 ae ta kn — hr or =6 ae aa = waoteoe Ag? —A2 where seat 330165 Ao? =0.02547414 62= 5.680137 M,=0.01278685 &=0.000928 5837 ie 95 A12=0.0148 500 A =0.000000286086 37 = 3600. (P) Mz =0.005343924 TABLE 187.— Change of Index of Refraction for 1° C in Units of the 5th Decimal Place. 0.2024 | +3.134 i || 0.441m | —3.425 | Mi |) C line .210 =| +1.570 .508 | —3-517 | “ Deis .224 | —o.187 .643 |-—3-636 | “ F 298 | —2.727 Gq! WwW wW ~ 00 bOI NU COs L Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory P Paschen, Wied. Ann. 26, boo of the Smithsonian Institution, Vol. I, 1900. Pl Pulfrich, Wied. Ann. 45, 1892 M Martens, Ann. d. Phys. 6, rgor, 8, 1902. RN Rubens and Nichols, Wied. Pie 60, 1897. Mi Micheli, Ann. d. Phys. 7, 1902. TABLE 188. — Index of Refraction of Silvine (Potassium Chloride) in Air. 0.185409 1.82710 . 1.478311 P -200090 1.71870 1.47824 WwW -21946 1.64745 : 1.475890 P 257317 1.58125 “ 1.47589 W -281640 1.55830 3572 1.474751 E 308227 1.54136 5 1.473834 se 358702 1.52115 s 1.47394 W 394415 | 1.51219 5 1.473049 | P .467832 1.50044 *¢ 1.47 304 W .508606 | 1.49620 4. 1.471122 iB -58933 1.49044 Ee 4 1.47129 Ww .67082 1.48669 4 1.470013 ze 78576 1.483282 ie 1.47001 W 88398 1.481422 : 1.468804. P .98220 1.480084 a 1.46880 WwW n2=a?+ —_ iy ae Te Ant or=0? tote —". —- A2— Ag?" Ag?—A? us a Ag? =0.0255550 #2 3.866619 4M, —0.008344206 £=0.000513495 M3= 5569-715 Ay2=0.0119082 A=0.000000167 587 A3?== 3292.47 (P) Mz=0.00698 382 W Weller, see Paschen’s article. Other references as under Table 187, above. “GMITHSONIAN TABLES. 186 TABLES 189-192. INDEX OF REFRACTION. TABLE 189. — Index of Refraction of Fluorite in Air. A (pn) 1856 1.50940 ; 1.40855 -19881 1.49629 |e 4s 1.40559 21441 1.48462 4 1.40238 22645 1.47762 .0092 1.39898 -25713 1.46476 -39529 -32525 1.44987 39142 -34555 | 1.44697 -38719 39681 1.44214 37819 -45607 1.43713 36805 -58930 | 1.43393 35680 65618 1.43257 34444 6867 1 1.43200 33079 71836 1.43157 31612 .76040 1.43101 7 .8840 1.42982 1.1786 1.42787 1.3756 1.42090 1.4733 1.42641 References under Table 173. _ NNO me ee ee Da Mo : M, M. Vie 1 __ py2_— £4 or = 62 REE SS n az+ am e J™ or Tt aaa eam where a? = 2.03882 J = 0.000002916 M3 = 5114.65 M, = 0.0062183 62 = 6.09651 A,2 = 1260.56 Ay? = 0.007706 Mz = 0.0061 386 Av = 0.0940u € =0.0031999 A,? = 0.00884 Ar = 35-5 (P) TABLE 190. —Chango of Index of Refraction for 19°C in Units of the 5th Decimal Place. C line, —1.220; D, —1.206; F, —1.170; G, —1.142. (Pl) TABLE 191. —Index of Refraction of Iceland Spar (CaCO,) in Air. C Carvailo, J. de Phys. (3), 9, rgo0. Pl Pulfrich, Wied. Ann 45, 1892. M Martens, Ann. der Phys. (4) 6, 1901, 8, 1902. RA Rubens-Aschkinass, Wied. Ann. 67, 1899. P Paschen, Wied. Ann. 56, 1895. S_ Starke, Wied. Ann. 60, 1897. TABLE 192. —Index of Refraction of Nitroso-dimethyl-aniline. (Wood.) Nitroso-dimethyl-aniline has enormous dispersion in yellow and green, metallic absorption in violet. See Wood, Phil. Mag 1903. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLes 193-194, 187 INDEX OF REFRACTION. TABLE 193. — Index of Refraction of Quartz (Si0,). Index Index Ordinary | Extraordinary Ray. Ray. Index Index Ordinary | Extraordinary Ray. Nay Wave- length, ‘Tempera- Tempera- ture ° C. 0.185 | 1.67582 | 1.68999 18 : 54189 | 1.55091 193 | .65997 | -67343 i (686 | .54099 | — .54998 -198 | .65090 .66397 ; 53917 54511 .206 | .64038 .65300 : 5329 214 | .63041 ,64264 : 5216 219 | .62494 63698 : 5156 231 | .61399 .62560 : 5039 .257 | .59022 .60712 : 4944 274 | .58752 SOI d .4799 Rubens. -340 | -56748 | .57738 . -4679 -396 | .55815 | -56771 -4509 -410 | .55050 56600 : -417 .486 | .54968 55896 274 0.598 | 1.54424 | 1.55334 ; 1.167 Except Rubens’ values, — means from various authorities. TABLE 194. —Indices of Refraction for various Alums.* Index of refraction for the Fraunhofer lines. Aluminium Alums. RAI(SO4).+-12H,O.+ Na 1.43492 1.43653 NH,(CHs) | r. atisfoyie) | 45177 K 45226] . 45398 -45232| - 45417 -45437| - -45618 -45509| - 45693 -49226| . 49443 Chrome Alums. RCr(SO,4)o+12H.O.+ 1.47732 | 1.47836 | 1.48100 | 1.48434 1.48723 | 1.49280 -47738| .47865| .48137] .48459 -487 53| -49309 -47756| .47803) .48151| .48486 -48775| -49323 .48014| .48125| .48418] .48744 -49040] .49504 -51798|] .51923| .52280|] .52704 53082] .53508 Tron Alums. &Fe(SO,).4+-12H,0.t 1.806 | 7-11] 1.47639 | 1.47706 | 1.47837 | 1.48169 | 1.48580| 1.48670 | 1.48939 | 1.49605 1.916] 7-20] .47700| .47770| .47894| .48234] .48654| .48712| .49003| .49700 2.061 | 20-24] .47825| .47921| .48042| .48378| .48797| .48867] .49136| .49838 1.713 | 7-20] -47927| .48029| .48150| .48482] .48921| .48993] .49286] .49980 2.385 | 15-17] -51674] -51790| .51943| .52365) -52859] 52946] .53284| .54112 * According to the experiments of Soret (Arch. d. Sc. Phys. Nat. Genéve, 1884, 1888, and Comptes Rendus, 1885). + & stands for the different bases given in the first column. For other alums see reference on Landolt-Bornstein-Roth Tabellen, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 188 TasLe 195. INDEX OF REFRACTION. Various Monorefringent or Optically Isotropic Solids. | Line of Index of Spectrum. | Refraction. Authority. Substance. Agate (light color) Albite glass ; Ammonium chloride . Anorthite glass . Arsenite Barium nitrate Bell metal @ Q 1.5374 De Senarmont. 1.4890 Larsen, 1909. 1.6422 Grailich. 1.5755 Larsen, 1909. 1.755 DesCloiseaux. 1.5716 Fock. 1.0052 Beer. 23923 Blende Ramsay. 2.36923 2.40069 1.46245 | 1.46303 =~ Boric acid Bedson and Carleton Williams. 1.47024 1.51222 1.51484 1.52068 1.532 Kohlrausch. 1.5462 Mulheims. 2.414 2.428 2.46062 2.46986 2. Wes Borax (vitrified) BO HdOmddON Zr yUUD Camphor DesCloiseaux. — O oO oO 3 Diamond (colorless) . | | Diamond (brown) Schrauf. Ebonite Ayrton & Perry. 2 Ee ) 2.19 Fuchsin 2133 Means. 1.97 1.32 1.74 to t 1.90 1.480 Jamin. 1.§t4 Wollaston. Wright, 1909. 1.734 Wright, 1909. Pee Various. 1.406 a 1.450 1.531 Wollaston. 1.5593 Topsoe and 1.6574 ‘sti 1.6066 Christiansen. 2.1442 Gladstone & Dale. 1.619 Jamin. 1.528 Wollaston. 1.548 Jamin. 1.528 os 1.535 Wollaston. 1.593 Baden Powell. 2.612 2.680 2.729 2.93 2.253 2.001 Wernicke. 2.182 1.5150 Dussaud. 1.7155 DesCloiseaux. 1.5067 Fock. DO TOO roron Garnet (different varieties) Various. Gum arabic f 5 - oe “ Lime CaO . . Magnesium oxide Obsidian yp yp UUs Opal . Pitch . ; Potassium bromide Ks chlorstannate ce iodide Phosphorus Resins: Aloes . Canada balsam Colophony . Copal . Mastic . Peru balsam Selenium, vitreous Wood. . 7° s), 0, 0 ‘ala \@ lel fe" ee . oe re i We a bromide Silver ¢ chloride . iodide Sodium chlorate Spinel 3 Strontium nitrate SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 196. 189 INDEX OF REFRACTION. Uniaxial Crystals. Index of refraction. Line of spectrum. Authority. Substance. nae ; Ordinary | Extraordin- ray. ary ray. Alunite (alum stone) ; ; : TS 78 1.592 Levy & Lacroix. Ammonium arseniate ; : 7 1.577 1.524 De Senarmont. Anatase . : : ‘ : : 2.5354 2.4959 Schrauf. Apatite . . 3 : : : 1.6390 1.6345 “ Benzil 5 t j : i ; 1.6588 1.6784 DesCloiseaux. Heo te ae to t Various. Beryl . 1.870 Brucite : 3 . : : 1.560 1.581 Kohlrausch. Calomel . : ; ; : : 1.9732 2.6559 Dufet. Cinnabar . : : . : ‘ red 2.854 3-199 DesCloiseaux Corundum (ruby, sapphire, etc.) red oe te lee Dioptase . ; ; : : : green 1.667 1.723 ; 1.667 to | 1.506 to Dolomite . : , ; : : D } fee eed Emerald (pure) . ; : : : green | 1.584 1.578 DesCloiseaux. Gehlenite . : : : : . D 1.666 1.661 Wright, 1908. Greenockite - : : 2.506 2.529 Merwin, 1912. Ice at— 8° C. 1.309 Tene Meyer. Idocrase oes fg mee t 1.539 1.541 Kohlrausch. ney, Tes S Mallard. 1.541 1.537 Bowen, 1912. 1.564 Te S5 DesCloiseaux. 1.493 I.SOI De Senarmont. 2.6158 2.9029 Barwald. 3.084 2.881 Fizeau. 1.459 1.467 Baker. 1.587 1.336 Schrauf. 1.446 2.452 Dufet. 1.614 1.519 Martin. 1.997 2.093 Grubenman. 1.637 1.619 Heusser. 1.633 to | 1.616 to 1.650 1.625 2.356 2.378 Merwin, 1912. 1.92 1.97 De Senarmont. 1.924 1.968 Sanger. Various. DesCloiseaux. Ivory . ; Magnesite . : Nephelite . ; Potassium arseniate . oe “cs Rutil . Silver (red ore) Sodium arseniate eitratenr. «phosphate Strychnine sulphate . Tin stone . 2 : Tourmaline (colorless) if (different colors) Wurtzite : Zircon (hyacinth) oc “ Jeroféjew. Uy bodes uadury yoy 4 o Of SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 190 TABLE 197. BIAXIAL CRYSTALS. Tineiot Index of Refraction. Substance. spec- Authority. Interme- diate. Minimum. Maximum. Amphibole . a as 1.633 1.642 1.657 Lévy-Lacroix. Andalusite . é ; 1.632 1.638 1.643 Lévy-Lacroix. Anemousite . 1.5549 1.5587 1.5634 Wright roto. Anglesite 1.8771 1.8523 1.8936 Arzruni. | Anhydrite 1.5693 1.5752 1.6130 Miilheims. Anorthite 1.576 1.583 1.589 Bowen 1912 Antipyrin 1.5097 1.6935 1.7324 Liweh. Aragonite 1.5301 1.6816 1.6859 Rudberg. Axinite 1.6720 1.6779 1.6810 DesCloiseaux. Barite . 1.636 1.637 1.648 Various. Borax 1.4467 1.4694 1.4724 Dufet. Carnegeite : 1.509 — 1.514 Bowen 1912. Copper sulphate . 1.5140 1.5368 1.5433 Kohlrausch. Gypsum 2 1.5208 1.5228 1.5298 Miilheims. Hillebrandite : : 1.605 1.612 Wright 1908. Magnesium Carbonate 1.495 I.SOI 1.526 Genth, Penfield. Magnesium Sulphate 1.432 1.455 1.460 Means. Mica (muscovite) . 1.5601 1.5930 1.5977 Pulfrich. Olivine. : 1.661 1.678 1.697 DesCloiseaux. 1.5190 1.5237 1.5260 © 1.7202 1.7380 1.8197 Dufet. 1.3346 1.5056 1.5064 Schrauf. 1.4932 1.4946 1.4980 Topsoe & Christiansen. 1.640 1.674 1.679 Wright 1908. 1.5397 1.5067 1.5716 Calderon 1.9505 2.0383 2.2405 Schrauf. 1.6294 1.6308 1.6375 Miilheims. 1.638 to| 1.631 to} 1.637 to 1.613 1.616 1.623 1.620 1.632 1.634 Means. 1.4508 1.4501 1.4836 Topsoe & Christiansen. cd wo BeRelelelelelelelelelelelelelelelelelelfelelelelele Orthoclase : F Potassium bichromate . yi nitrate cs sulphate Spurrite ; Sugar (Cane) é Sulphur (rhombic) Topaz (Brazilian) Topaz (different kinds) Wallastonite Zinc sulphate Various. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLe 198. IgI INDEX OF REFRACTION. Indices of Refraction relative to Air for Solutions of Salts and Acids. Indices of refraction for spectrum lines. Authority. Substance. Density. | Temp. C. Ammonium chloride | 1.067 | 27°.05 | 1.37703} 1-37936) 1.38473 1.39336| Willigen. oa ae 025 | 29.75 | -34850} -35050] -35515 36243 (| Calcium chloride 398 | 25-65 | .44000] .44279] .44938 .46001 « s Pils || BPX) .390411| .39652] .40206 41078 % < rs LAS 25:0 37152] 37309] -37876 -38066 Hydrochloric acid 1.166 | 20.75 |1.40817|1.41109]1.41774 1.42816 ss INitnicracidesy 3) 359 | 18.75 | -39893| -40181| .40857 41961 fe Potash (caustic) . cATON | rao .40052| .40281] .40808 .41637 | Fraunhofer. Potassium chloride .|normal solution | .34057| .34278} -34719 — |Bender. “ce “ “ec double normal | .34982| .35179| -35645 triple normal | .35831| .36029| .360512 “ “cc 6c 1.42872 | Willigen. Schutt. “ce 21.6 |1.41071]1.41334 1.41936 18.07 -37 562] .37789| -38322 18.07 | .35751| -35959) -36442 18.07 | .34000] .34191| .34628 Soda (caustic) Sodium chloride . “ “oc “ “ec ce 22.8 1.38283] 1.38535] 1-39134 18.3 | -43444] -43609| .44168 18.3 .42227| .42466 -42967 18.3 | -36793] .37009| .37468 18.3 | .33663] .33862| .34285 Sodium nitrate Sulphurie acid oe “ee 1.40121| Willigen. 44883 ss 43094, “ 38158 a -34938) 1.41738 “ .38845) “ t/ Zinc chloride . “ce ee .6 | 1.39977] 1.40222] 1.40797 4 -37292| .37515| -38026 Ethyl alcohol. . .| 0.789 “ “ce 932 1.37094) Willigen. 36662 ‘s Fuchsin (nearly sat- WUEated)) sient: - 3759 |Kundt. Cyanin (saturated) . - ‘“ 3821 Nore. — Cyanin in chloroform also acts anomalously ; for example, Sieben gives for a 4.5 per cent. solution w4= 1.4593, Ma = 1.4695, wr(green) = 1.4514, we (blue) = 1.4554. For a 9.9 per cent. solution he gives w1= 1.4902, we (green) = 1.4497, be (blue) = 1.4597. (c) Sotutrons or PoTasstumM PERMANGANATE IN WATER.* Wave- Wave- Spec- | Index Index Index Index ec- | Index nd n Inde pent tram or or or or re oe pak : ie ' ae for x eG line. | 1 %sol. | 2 % sol. | 3 % sol. | 4 % sol. Sieeei line. | 1 % sol. | 2 % sol. | 3 % sol. | 4 % sol. 68:7 | B | 1.3328 | 1.3342 - — | 1.3368 | 1.3385 - = 656] C | .3335 | -3348 | 1-3365 - | +3374 | +3383 | 1.3386 | 1.3404 61.7| - | .3343 | -3305 | -3381 EGE 33000 (0 ts a +3408 59-4| - | -3354 | -3373 | -3393 - | -3381 | -3395 | -3398 | -3413 Boo) DY | 3353 |. -3372.| > - | 3397 | -3402 | .3414 | .342 56.8 - BO || ceeishy || cay - -3407 | .342I | .3426 | .3439 55:3 | - | -3366] .3395 | -3417 afi eras |e = +3452 52-7 | E | .3363 = = - | -3431 | -3442 | -3457 | -3408 52.2 - 23902) || 3377 |) 3300 - - ~ - - * According to Christiansen, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Substance. a Acetone Almond oil Analin * Aniseed oil “ “ Benzenef{ . “ Bitter almond oil Bromnaphtalin . Carbon disulphide ¢ “e “ Cassia oil . ‘ ‘ 6 Chinolin Chloroform oe Cinnamon oil Ether Ethyl alcohol. Glycerine. . . Methyl alcohol . Olive oil : Rock oil Turpentine oil . se “a Toluene | § * Weegmann gives tp = 1.59668 — .o00518 z. t+ Weegmann gives «p= 1.51474 — .000665 ¢. TABLE 199. INDEX OF REFRACTION. Indices of Refraction of Liquids relative to Air. Index of refraction for spectrum lines. 5170 -3404 1.4939 4913 3435 Knops gives t= 1.61500— .00056 #. Knops gives 4p = 1.51399 — 000644 2. Authority. Korten. Olds. Weegmann. Willigen. Baden Powell. Gladstone. “ Landolt. Walter. Ketteler. “ Gladstone. ° Dufet. Baden Powell. “ec ‘ Gladstone. Gladstone & Dale. Lorenz. Willigen. Gladstone & Dale. Kundt. Korten. “ “ec Gladstone & Dale. Landolt. Baden Powell. Olds. Fraunhofer. Willigen. Bruhl. Means. + Wiillner gives 4 ¢—= 1.63407 — .00078 ¢ ; f@#yp— 1.66908 — .00082 4; bm, = 1.69215 — .00085 ¢. § Dufet gives wp = 1.33397 — 1077 (125 ¢++ 20.6 2 — .000435 78 — .oorrs #4) between o° and 50°; and nearly the same variation with temperature was found by Ruhlmann, namely, “p= 1.33373 — 10—7 (20.14 22+ .000494 #4), SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 200. INDEX OF REFRACTION. Indices of Refraction of Gases and Vapors. 193 A formula was given by Biot and Arago expressing the dependence of the index of refraction of a gas on pressure and temperature. More recent experiments confirm the 2, is the index of refraction for temperature ¢, 9 for temperature zero, a the coefficient of expansion of the gas with temperature, and # the pressure of the gas in mi ir conclusions. llimeters of mercury. (a) Indices of refraction. The formula is 2,—1 = 61 1 + at 760 Spectrum x08 (n-1) Spectrum 108 (n-1) Wave- eek line. Air. line. Air. length. Ai O. N. H. ee | A 2905 M .2993 4861 -2951 .2734 3012 1406 B -2Q11 N -3003 5461 2936 2717 2998 .1397 Cc 2914 O 3015 5790 .2930 2710 _ .1393 D 2922 RP 302 6563 2919 26098 2982 .1387 E 2933 Q +3031 4360 .2971 2743 CO, 1418 i :2943 R +3043 -5462 | .2937 | -2704 | .4506 | .1397 G 2962 S 3053 6709 -2918 2683 4471 .1385 Hi 2978 TE 3064 6.709 2881 2643 4504 1361 K 2980 U 3075 8.678 .2888 -2650 -4579 1361 L 2987 First 4, Cuthbertsons ; the rest, Koch, 1909. (b) The following are compiled mostly from a table published by Briihl (Zeits. fiir Phys. Chem. vol. 7, pp- 25-27). The numbers are from the results of experiments by Biot and Arago, Dulong, Jamin, Ketteler, Lorenz, Mascart, Chappius, Rayleigh, and Riviére and Prytz. When the number given rests on the authority of one observer the name of that observer is given. The values are for 0° Centigrade and 760 mm. pressure. eee soem oreae c agaree ||| ceubstrore: |} Nipe et A ot ees Acetone . D I.001079-1.001100 || Hydrogen white | 1.000138-1.000143 Ammonia white | 1.000381-1.000385 ars D 1.000132 Burton. se D 1.00037 3-1.000379 || Hydrogen a) D 1.000644 Dulong. Argon. D 1.000281 Rayleigh. phide D 1.000623 Mascart. Benzol D 1.001700-1.001823 || Methane . . | white | 1.000443 Dulong. Bromine . ‘ D 1.001132 Mascart. & Bhs D 1.000444 Mascart. Carbon dioxide | white | 1.000449-1.000450 || Methyl alcohol. D I.000549-1.000623 se “ D 1.000448-1.000454 || Methyl ether D 1.000891 Mascart. Carbon disul- j white | 1.001500 Dulong. || Nitric oxide. white | 1.000303 Dulong. phide D 1.001 478—1.001 485 se u D 1.000297 Mascart. Carbon mon- } white | 1.000340 Dulong. || Nitrogen . white | 1.000295-1.000300 oxstals, white | 1.000335 Mascart. ‘ Sih D I.000296-1.000298 Chlorine . . | white | 1.000772 Dulong. || Nitrous oxide white | I.000503-1.000507 ce ete D 1.000773 Mascart. ‘ es D 1.000516 Mascart. Chloroform . D 1.0014360-1.001464 || Oxygen white | 1.000272-1.000280 Cyanogen white | 1.000834 Dulong. 6 D 1.00027 I—1.000272 “ : D 1.000784—1.000825 || Pentane wee D 1.001711 Mascart. Ethyl alcohol D 1.00087 1-1.000885 || Sulphur dioxide | white | 1.000665 Dulong. Ethyl ether . D 1.001 521—1.001 544 " a D 1.000686 Ketteler. Helium D 1.000036 Ramsay. || Water. white | 1.000261 Jamin. Hydrochloric white | 1.000449 Mascart. < D 1.000249-1.000259 acid . D 1.000447 “; SMiTHSONIAN TABLES. » where 194 TABLES 201-208. MEDIA FOR DETERMINATIONS OF REFRACTIVE INDICES WITH THE MICROSCOPE. TABLE 201. — Liquids, np (0.5894) = 1.74 to 1.87. In 100 parts of methylene iodide at 20° C. the number of parts of the various substances in- dicated in the following table can be dissolved, forming saturated solutions having the permanent refractive indices specified. When ready for use the liquids can be mixed by means of a dropper to give intermediate refractions. Commercial iodoform (CHI,) powder is not suitable, but crys- tals from a solution of the powder in ether may be used, or the crystalized product may be bought. A fragment of tin in the liquids containing the SnIy will prevent discoloration. TABLE 202. — Resin-like Substances, np (0.689) —1.68 to 2.10. Piperine, one of the least expensive of the alkaloids, can be obtained very pure in straw-colored crystals. When melted it dissolves the tri-iodides of arsenic and antimony very freely. The solutions are fluid at slightly above 100° and when cold, resin-like. A solution containing 3 parts antimony iodide to one part of arsenic iodide with varying proportions of piperine is easier to manipulate than one containing either iodide alone. The following table gives the necessary data concerning the composition and refractive indices for sodium light. In preparing, the constituents, in powder of about I mm. grain, should be weighed out and then fused over, not 7z,a low flame. Three-inch test tubes are suitable. Per cent Iodides. Index of refraction 1.683 | 1.700 | 1.725 | 1.756 | 1.794 | 1.840 | 1.897 | 1.968 | 2.050 TABLE 203. — Permanent Standard Resinous Media, np (0.589) — 1.546 to 1.682. Any proportions of piperine and rosin form a homogeneous fusion which cools to a transparent resinous mass. The following table shows the refractive indices of various mixtures. On account of the strong dispersion of piperine the refractive indices of minerals apparently matched with those of mixtures rich in this constituent are 0.005 to 0.01 too low. To correct this error a screen made of a thin film of 7 per cent antimony iodide and 93 per cent piperine should be used over the eye-piece. Any amber-colored rosin in lumps is suitable. Per cent Rosin. Index of refraction | 1.683 | 1.670 | 1.657 | 1.643 | 1.631 | 1.618 | 1.604 | 1.590 | 1.575 | 1.560 | 1.544 wil All taken from Merwin, Jour. Wash. Acad. of Sc. 3, p. 35, 1913. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLES 204-205. 195 OPTICAL CONSTANTS OF METALS. TABLE 204. Two constants are required to characterize a metal opticaily, the refractive index, 7, and the absorption index, 4, the latter of which has the following significance: the amplitude of a wave after travelling one wave-length, A! measured in the metal, is reduced in the ratio! 1 :e—27k or for f 2mdk ns a, ; : 2mdnk any distance d, 1:e——, , for the same wave-length measured in air this ratio becomes 1:€ —j,_, nk is sometimes called the extinction coefficient. Plane polarized light reflected from a polished metal surface is in general elliptically polarized because of the relative change in phase between the two rectangular components vibrating in and perpendicular to the plane of incidence. For a certain angle, 4 (principal incidence) the change is 90° and if the plane polarized incident beam has a certain azimuth y (Principal azimuth) circularly polarized light results. Approximately, (Drude, Annalen der Physik, 36, p. 546, 1889), a ai sin tan it k=tan 2y (1 — cot 2g) and n= +k) (1 +4 cot?g). For rougher approximations the factor in parentheses may be omitted. R computed per- centage reflection. TABLE 205. (The points have been so selected that a smooth curve drawn through them very closely indicates the characteristics of the metal.) Computed. Authority. Cobalt . , M inor. Ingersoll. Minor. 4c Ingersoll. “c a3 Forst.-Fréed, “cc “cc ae “ oe ac “ “cc Gold Iridium “ce “ce Nickel : ‘ miltooll i Drude. Ingersoll. “ Platinum : ; Forst.-Fréed. “ce ce “ec “ce Silver ; ‘ . | Minor, “cc “cr In gersoll, ‘ «e Forst.-Fréed. Minor. “ce “ “ce Ingersoll. Drude, Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 39, p. 481, 1890; 42, p. 186, 1891; 64, p. 159, 1898. Minor, Annalen der Physik, 10, p. 581, 1903. ‘lool, Physical Review, 31, p. 1, 1910. Ingersoll, Astrophysical Journal, 32, p. 265, 1gto; Forsterling and Fréedericksz, Annalen der Physik, 40, p. 201, 1913. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 196 TABLES 206-207. OPTICAL CONSTANTS OF METALS. TABLE 206. nw & Metal. A. 6 é . As be ; 0.579 | 1.54 | 4-67 Seat -400 | 2.94 | 2.31 .490 | 3.12 | 1.49 -589 | 2.93 | 0.45 -760 | 2.60 | 0.06 Si.* .589 | 4.18 | 0.09 1.25 | 3-67 | 0.08 Mb Al.* 0.589 Sb.* -589 bi. ft white Cd.* .589 Cr 579 Cb* +579 Aut 257 441 .589 I. crys. -589 es 579 Fe.§ .257 441 589 Pb.* -589 Mg.* 589 Mn.* 579 Hg. (liq.) | .326 441 -589 .668 -579 a2 .441 589 .668 275 441 -589 225 32530 10:05 Na. (liq.) | .589 | .004 | 2.61 Ta.* E570) 220m |e2eor Sn.* 589 | 1.48 | 5.25 W.* yO) || VS) || 2G7i ee -579 | 3-03 | 3.51 Zn.* 257 | 0.55 | 0.61 -44I | 0.93 | 3-19 589 | 1.93 | 4.66 .668 | 2.62 | 5.08 PRRBWW HW HH DDD A= wave-length, n=refraction index. k= absorption index, R = reflection. (1) Drude, see Table 205; (2) Kundt, prism used, Ann. der Physik und Chemie, 34, p. 477, 36, p. 824, 1889; (3) v. Wartenberg, Verh. deutsch. Physik. Ges. 12, p. 105, 1910; (4) Meier, Annales der Physik, 10, p. 581, 1903; (5) Wood, Phil. Mag. (6), 3, 607, 1902; (6) Ingersoll, see Table 205. * solid, t electrolytic, t prism, § deposited as film in vacuo. BHAHHAHAAWAAAAW HH HHAWHAHRHHRWW TNH TABLE 207. — Reflecting Power of Metals. Wave- length bb EO ENE een sie 000000 MON a _ NO Coblentz, Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 2, p. 457, 1906, 7, p. 197, 1911. The surfaces of some of the samples were not perfect so that the corresponding values have less weight. Tne methods for polishing the various metals are described in the original articles. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLes 208-210.—THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT. 197 According to Fresnel the amount of light reflected by the surface of a transparent medium ‘he __1§sin?(¢—~vr) , tan? (¢—7) i ea: : ; Bee =}4(4+ 2)= 5 GEA EtG: A is the amount polarized in the plane of inci- dence; & is that polarized perpendicular to this ; 7and » are the angles of incidence and refraction. TABLE 208. — Light reflected when i = 0° or Incident Light is Normal to Surface. 3(A + 8). nt. 2(A + 4). . 3(A + &). IL.11 14.06 18.37 22.89 25.00 0.00 1.4 | 2.78 0.01 Tes 4.00 0.06 1.6 5-33 0.23 ey) 6.72 0.83 1.8 8.16 1.70 1.9 9.63 Nut O wm wm SOHN’ TABLE 209. — Light reflected when » is near Unity or equals 1+ dn. 60 16 65 31.346 7° 73-979 75 222.85 1099.85 971.21 1035-53 17 330.64 16808.08 17009. 30 0 0 Angle of total polarization= 57° 10/.3, A = 16.99. * This column gives the degree of polarization. + Columns 5 and 6 furnish a means of determining A and B for other values of ”. They represent the change in these quantities for a change of 2 of 0.01. Taken from E. C. Pickering’s ‘‘ Applications of Fresnel’s Formula for the Reflection of Light.’ SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 198 TaBLes 211-212. REFLECTION OF METALS. TABLE 211. — Perpendicular Incidence and Reflection. The numbers give the per cents of the incident radiation reflected. Wave-length, np. Silver-backed Glass. Mercury-backed Glass. Mach’s Magnalium. 69Al+ 31Me, Brandes-Schiinemann Alloy. 32Cu-+34S2-+ 29Ni-+ 5 Fe. Ross’ Speculum Metal. 68.2Cu+ 31.857, Nickel, Electrolytically Deposited. Copper. ; Electrolytically Deposited. Steel, Untenipered, Copper. Commercially Pure, Platinum. Electrolytically Deposited, Gold, Electrolytically Deposited. Brass. ( Trowbridge), Silver. Chemically Deposited, | | | | | G2 G2 Go Inaeaeeee tm me CO ow Sone won (SUS eee lea Tipteers Oee lea al DiS Tite te eo eca teat ee bos [hae afer (|e) mMmmonDmnmmco Go nang ONYONHED et beet Pete sites te ieee Ueda Pipe ite We Oe We Neo ee eee eet Based upon the work of Hagen and Rubens, Ann. der Phys. (1) 352, 1900; (8) 1, 1902; (11) 873, 1903. Taken partly from Landolt-Bérnstein-Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. TABLE 212.— Percentage Diffuse Reflection from Miscellaneous Substances. Lamp-blacks. | Wave- length Pt. black electrol Green leaves. Lead oxide. Al. oxide. Zinc oxide. White Paper. carbonate Black velvet. Black felt Red brick. rs) wm oc in Conv Ne S/S) 00 *Not monochromatic (max.) means from Coblentz, J. Franklin Inst. rgr2. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 9, p. 283, 1912, contains many other materials. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 213-215. 199 TRANSMISSIBILITY FOR RADIATION OF JENA GLASSES. TABLE 213. Coefficients, a, in the formula 4 = Joa’, where Jp is the Intensity before, and @ after, transmission through the thickness ¢, expressed in centimeters. Deduced from observations by Miiller, Vogel, and Rubens as quoted in Hovestadt’s Jena Glass (English translation). Coefficient of transmission, a. Type of Glass. 400 M | 434M | 436 | 64556 | «477M | 503 KM] 580M | .677 u O 340, Ord. light flint 388 | . 614 | .569 | .680 | .834 | .880 | .880 | .878 | .939 O 102, H’vy silicate flint : -463 | .502 | .566 | .663 | .700 | .782 | .828 | .704 O 93, Ord. as ss - — | -714 | .807 | .899 | .871 | .903 | .943 Ojo) 0S fs 695 | .667 | .806 | .822 | 860 | 872 | .872 | .903 O 598, (Crown) - SSN AK NAL Ih ez Koad eshte |ltetero 2.0@| 2.3M@ | 25M] 2.7K S 204, Borate crown .9¢ : : : : tOON les .29 S 179, Med. phosp. cr. : : : : : ; : 18 O 1143, Dense, bor. sil.cr.| E A : .90' ||| 71 O 1092, Crown : : : . : : BO Zils 60 OPURT ee : e 5 ‘i : 75 O 451, Light flint ; é : : d 8 78 O 469, Heavy “ ‘ 4 Opsoowsenaien iS : - : 92 SOs ie Be E : : : 94 TABLE 214. Note: With the following data, ¢ must be expressed in millimeters; i. e. the figures as given give the transmissions for thickness of 1 mm. Wave-length in p. No. and Type of Glass. Visible Spectrum. Ultra-violet Spectrum, 644 4 |.578 1 |.546 &|.509 M |.480 1. |.436 mM |.405 M |.384 M|.361 M |.340M 1.332 |.309 mu]. F 3815 Dark neutral F 4512 Red filter F 2745 Copper ruby F 4313 Dark yellow F 4351 Yellow : : : A : : F 4937 Bright yellow : : : : : : 28) |" .22 F 4930 Green filter : . : F 3873 Blue filter ‘ i ; .69 | .59 | .36 | .10 F 3654 Cobalt glass, transparent for outer red : : COHN LeOm |: Ome |, On iL. O})0\0-0 F 3653 Blue, ultraviolet SUL) ROSE Onn Ory [10> UIT.G". (1.0 F 3728 Didymium, str’g bands a : F : : : 99 | .99 | .89 | .89 | .77 This and the following table are taken from Jenaer Glas fiir die Optik, Liste 751, 1909, TABLE 215. — Transmissibility of Jena Ultra-violet Glasses. No. and Type of Glass. | Thickness, | 0.397 | 0.383 m@ | 0.361 m@ | 0.346 | 0.325 UV 3199 Ultra-violet} 1 mm. fe ° 2mm. . : : . ; 0.57 1 dm. ; 7 : i . UV 3248 : 4 : : : 0.91 66 “cs 0238 “cc SMITHSONIAN TABLES. "200 TABLE 216. TRANSMISSIBILITY FOR RADIATION. Transmissibility of the Various Substances of Tables 166 to 175. Alum: Ordinary alum (crystal) absorbs the infra-red. Metallic reflection at 9.054 and 30 to 4ou. Rock-salt : Rubens and Trowbridge (Wied. Ann. 65, 1898) give the following transparencies for a1cm. thick plate in %: r 9 | IO 12 13 16 17 18 19 20.7 | 23.76 % 1 99.5 | 99-5 | 99-3 | 97-6 | 93-t 84.6 || Goa “| ‘SiON R27 5a 20:6 0.6 O. Pfliiger (Phys. Zt. 5. 1904) gives the following for the ultra-violet, same thickness: 280mm, 95-57% 5 231, 86%; 210, 77%; 186, 70%. Metallic reflection at 0.110m, 0.156, 51.2, and 87m. Sylvine: Transparency of a 1 cm. thick plate (Trowbridge, Wied. Ann. 60, 1897). II 12 13 14 | 15 16 17 | LOM LO | 20.7 23.7 15. Metallic reflection at 0.114m, 0.161, 61.1, 100. Fluorite: Very transparent for the ultra-violet nearly to 0.1m. : Rubens and Trowbridge give the following for a 1 cm. plate (Wied. Ann. 60, 1897) : r Su 9 10 II | 124 % 84.4 | 54:3 | 16.4 | 1.0 Metallic reflection at 24, 31.6, 40m. Iceland Spar: Merritt (Wied. Ann. 55, 1895) gives the following values of & in the formula leer (Gl yer) For the ordinary ray : TO2 ||) AUS yall eles ine 27 ial eeaTi nln GON e244 ez 8 0.0 0.0 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.74 | 1-92 | 3.00 | 1.92 rn 2.83 | 2.90 | 2.95 | 3.04 | 3.30 | B47) |gO2. J (3:00) 3:68 lil eaagis | 4.52 | 4.83u k 1922 4| 10:70 0 | ur-6O | 4-71 | 22.7 | 19.4 9.6 18.6 oO 6.6 14.3 6.1 For the extraordinary ray : 2.49 | 2.87 | 3.00 | 3.28 | 3.38 | 3.50 | 3-76 | 3.90 | 4.02 | 4.41 | 4.670 0.14 | 0.68 || ‘0:43 1 92.32 |, O89) |. 1-79) ||, 2.04. |) 1-17) O139" | 1-075) 2:40 h | 4or | 5.04 | 5.34 | 5:50H k 1225) 2g aed | 12.8 Quartz: Very transparent to the ultra-violet ; Pfliiger gets the following transmission values for a plate I cm. thick: at 0.222, 94.2%; 0.214, 92; 0.203, 83.6; 0.186, 67.2%. Merritt (Wied. Ann. 55, 1895) gives the following values for £ (see formula under Iceland Spar) : For the ordinary ray : r 2:72 || E2203 18 2:05 k 0.20 | 0.47 | 0.57 3:97 3.67 | 3.82 1.26 3-17 | 3-38 3.96 | 4.12 | 4.50m 0:31" || 0:20¥|| 0.15 Te Olen | an 25O40 || eo eANTen eo For the extraordinary ray : 2.89, |) 3ico? ||) =3:08) | 3:26.) 1 3:480)| e335 21m assole Oda pa! s 4-19 |4.36m O.1T | (0:33) 40.26 | 7 “, becomes opaque, metallic reflection at 8.50M, 9.02, 20.75-24.4u, then trans- parent again. The above are taken from Kayser’s ‘‘ Handbuch der Spectroscopie,’’ vol. iii. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, TABLES 217-218. 201 TRANSMISSIBILITY OF RADIATION. TABLE 217. — Color Screens. The following light-filters are quoted from Landolt’s “ Das optische Drehungsvermogen, etc.” 1898. Although only the potassium salt does not keep well it is perhaps safer to use freshly prepared solutions, Grammes of | Optical cen- Ya Water solutions of _Substance | tre of band, Transmission. 1n 100 c.cm, M& begins about 0.718p. Red Crystal-violet, 5BO 0.005 0.6659 ends siarp stologu. Potassium monochromate 10. Yellow Nickel-sulphate, NiSO4.7aq. 30. 0.5919 | 0.614-0.574m, i: Potassium monochromate 10. 5 Potassium permanganate 0.025 Green Copper chloride, CuCly.2aq. 60. 0.5330 | 0.540-0.505u . Potassium monochromate 10. Q gue Double-green, SF 0.02 0.488 5 J goer ark oo blue Copper-sulphate, CuSO4.5aq. | 15. WOAD4-0-45¢r blue ———— | Dark } Crystal-violet, 5BO 0.4482 | 0.478-0.410pm Copper sulphate, CuSO4.5aq. 15. TABLE 218. — Color Screens. The following list is condensed from Wood’s Physical Optics : Methyl violet, 4R’ (Berlin Anilin Fabrik) very dilute, and nitroso-dimethyl-aniline transmits 0.365. Methyl violet + chinin-sulphate (separate solutions), the violet solution made strong enough to blot out 0.4359, transmits 0.4047 and 0.4048, also faintly 0.3984. Cobalt glass + aesculin solution transmits 0.4359u. Guinea green B extra (Berlin) + chinin sulphate transmits 0.491 6m. Neptune green (Bayer, Elberfeld) + chrysoidine. Dilute the latter enough to just transmit 0.5790 and 0.5461; then add the Neptune green until the yellow lines disappear. Chrysoidine + eosine transmits 0.5790@. The former should be dilute and the eosine added until the green line disappears. Silver chemically deposited on a quartz plate is practically opaque except to the ultra-violet region 0.3160-0.3260 where 90% of the energy passes through. The film should be of such thickness that a window backed by a brilliantly lighted sky is barely visible. In the following those marked with a * are transparent to a more or less degree to the ultra-violet : * Cobalt chloride: solution in water, — absorbs 0.50-.534; addition of CaCl, widens the band to 0.47-.50. It is exceedingly transparent to the ultra-violet down to 0.20. If dissolved in methyl] alcohol + water, absorbs 0.50-.53 and everything below 0.35. In methyl alcohol alone 0.485— 0.555 and below 0.40u. Copper chloride: in ethyl alcohol absorbs above 0.585 and below 0.535 ; in alcohol + 50% water, above 0.595 and below 0.37. Neodymium salts are useful combined with other media, sharpening the edges of the absorption bands. In solution with bichromate of potash, transmits 0.535-.565 and above 0.60, the bands very sharp (a useful screen for photographing with a visually corrected objective). Praesodymium salts: three strong bands at 0.482, .468, .444. In strong solutions they fuse into a sharp band at 0.435-.485u. Absorption below 0.34. Picric acid absorbs 0. 36-.42u, depending on the concentration. Potassium chromate absorbs 0.40-.35, 0.30-.24, transmits 0.23. * Potassium permanganate: absorbs 0.555-.50, transmits all the ultra-violet. Chromium chloride: absorbs above 0.57, between 0.50 and .39, and below 0.33. These limits vary with the concentration. Aesculin: absorbs below 0.363, very useful for removing the ultra-violet. * Nitroso-dimethyl-aniline: very dilute aqueous solution absorbs 0.49-.37 and transmits all the ultra-violet. Very dense cobalt glass + dense ruby glass or a strong potassium bichromate solution cuts off everything below 0.70 and transmits freely the red. Iodine: saturated solution in CSe is opaque to the visible and transparent to the infra-red. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 202 TABLES 219, 219A. TRANSMISSIBILITY OF RADIATION. TABLE 219.— Color Screens. Jena Glasses. eo Maker’s No. Kind of Glass. Region Transmitted. Copper-ruby.. -.| 2728 |Deep red... |.||Only red'tolo.ou)-)07-)) 7. i S Red, yellow; in thin layers al Gold-ruby is (eras 4 59m REGU rmicime te taee te Bees Se! DNPAYeTS 288 Red, yellow, green to E,; in thin layer also blue 1.7 Uranium . . .| 454™|Bright yellow. . . } ‘“ i1| ) Bright yellow, fluo- . -| 455 } TeSCes. Nickel . . . .| 440” | Bright yellow-brown Red, yellow, cee ee a blue (very weakened) Chromium . .| 414™|Yellow-green . . .|Yellowish-green . . . .-. s 4334! |Greenish-yellow . .|Red, green; from 0.65-.5ou . Green copper. -| 431%|Green. . . . . .|Green, yellow, some red and blue . Chromium. . .| 432!|Yellow-green . . .| Yellowish-green, some red : Copperchromium| 43 Grass-oreen) Bec (GreCI sremn eee icant. liter mene Green-filter . . 7il | Dark green. . . .|Green (in thin sheets some blue) . 6 “ sé “ Silesia se Bog alae 5 a! bud Copper tau tet Blue, as CuSO4 . .|Green, blue, violet Blue-violet . . Blue, as cobalt glass |Blue, violet. . . . - . «© =. Me aes eye ies “i Blue, violet, blue-green (weak- i aa } ened), zo red Cobalt." 2 ae Blue’; . .- ~ -|\Blue, violet extremered a. Nickel cues Dark violet. . . .| Violet (G—H), extreme red ; Violet aie io “ , . . .| Violet (G-H), some weakened . Grayuminn scan Gray, no recog- } Sigs ord ener nizable color 0.1-8 All parts of the spectrum weakened] 9 7_, eS, See “ Uber Farbglaser fiir wissenschaftliche und technische Zwecke,” by Zsigmondy, Z. fiir In- strumentenkunde, 21, 1901 (from which the above table is taken), and “ Uber Jenenser Licht- filter,” by Grebe, same volume. (The following notes are quoted from Everett’s translation of the above in the English edition of Hovestadt’s “ Jena Glass.’’) Division of the spectrum into complementary colors: Ist by 2728 (deep red) and 2742 (blue, like copper sulphate). 2nd by 454™ (bright yellow) and 447™ (blue, like cobalt glass). 3rd by 433 (greenish-yellow) and 424™ (blue). Thicknesses necessary in above: 2728, 1.6-1.7 mm.; 2742, 5; 454", 16; 447™, 1.5-2.0; 433", 2.5-3.5; 424, 3 mm. Three-fold division into red, green and blue (with violet) : 2728, 1.7mm.; 414™, ro mm.; 447", 1.5 mm., or by 2728, 1.7mm.; 436, 2.6mm.; 447™, 1.8 mm. Grebe found the three following glasses specially suited for the additive methods of three-color projection: 2745, red; 438", green; 447™, blue violet ; corresponding closely to Young’s three elementary color sensations. Most of the Jena glasses can be supplied to order, but the absorption bands vary somewhat in different meltings. See also “Atlas of Absorption Spectra,” Uhler and Wood, Carnegie Institution Publications, 1907. TABLE 219a.— Water Vapor. Values of ain I=I, e 4, d inc. m. Ig; I, intensity before and after transmission. LOZ 200), ||| -2 . : : .260 | .300 0165 | .009 |. : : 0025 | .0O15 | .00035 .450 | .487 |. j : : 779 | 865 .0002 ; : F : 272 | .296 First 9; Kreusler, Drud. Ann. 6, rgo1,; next Ewan, Proc. R. Soc. 57, 1894, Aschkinass, Wied Ann. 55, 1895; last 3, Nichols, Phys. Rev. 1, I. See Rubens, Ladenburg. Verh. D. Phys. Ges. 1911, for extinction coefs., reflective power and index of refraction, 1 » to 18 he SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLES 220, 221.—ROTATION OF PLANE OF POLARIZED LICHT. 203 TABLE 220. —Tartaric Acid ; Camphor; Santonin; Santonio Acid; Cane Sugar. A few examples are here given showing the effect of wave-length on the rotation of the plane of polarization. The rotations are for a thickness of one decimeter of the solution. The examples are quoted from Landolt & Bérn- stein’s ‘‘Phys. Chem. Tab.’? The following symbols are used :— ~=number grams of the active substance in 100 grams of the solution. cae as solvent.) <* elie use io Gin Ss s active * “ cubic centimeter Right-handed rotation is marked ++, left-handed —. Wave-length | Tartaric acid,* CuH,Og, Camphor,* C,)H,,0, Santonin,t Cy;H,,03, Line of | according to dissolved in water. disselved in alcohol. dissolved in chloroform. spectrum. | Angstrém in 7J—50 to 95, g—50to95, 7g—75 to 96.5, cms. X 108, temp. = 24° C. temp. = 22.9° C. temp. = 20° C, 68.67 —140°%.1 + 0.2085 7 65.62 | + 2°.748 + 0.094469 | 38°.549—0.0852g | —149.3 + 0.15559 55.92 + 1.950 + 0.13030 7 51.945 — 0.0964 g — 202.7 + 0.3086 9 52-69 + 0.153 + 0.175149 74.331 — 0.1343 7 — 285.6 + 0.58209 - = - = — 302.38 + 0.6557 7 51.83 51.72 — 0.832 + 0.19147 9 79.348 — 0.1451 7 48.61 — 3.598 + 0.23977 99.601 — 0.1912 g — 365-55 + 0.8284 9 43-83 — 9.057 + 0.314379 | 149.696—0.23469 | :— 534.95 + 1.52409 CHAT TMA Santonin,t C,;H,0s, aaa Santonic acid,t Cane sugar,? 5H. dissolved in | dissolved in Aeealoed ae CyoH 011, alcohol. chloroform ahilororarnit dissolved in c = 4.046. | c= 3.1-30-5.| c= 27.192. _ water. temp. = temp.= | temp. = 20° C. p= io to 30. Santonin,t Cy;H,.0s3, x dissolved in alcohol. 1088 1053 1148 1323 1444 2011 2201 2381 2010 ROMOTHMIAW * Arndtsen, “‘ Ann. Chim. Phys.” (3) 54, 1858. + Narini, ‘‘ R. Acc. dei Lincei,” (3) 13, 1882. + Stefan, ‘‘ Sitzb. d. Wien. Akad.” 52, 1865. TABLE 221. —Sodium Chlorate; Quartz. Sodium chlorate (Guye, C. R. 108, 1889), Quartz (Soret & Sarasin, Arch. de Gen. 1882, or C. R. 95, 1882).* Temp. | Rotation Spec- Wave- Rotation ee Wave- Rotation c per mm. pi length. per mm. eae length. per mm. OG a elGe-O 76.04 | 12°.668 | Cdg 36.090 67.889 17.4 71.830 | 14.304 | N 35.818 65.073 20.6 68.671 | 15-746 | Cdio} 34-655 59-085 18.3 O 34.400 53-233 16.0 65.621 | 17.318 45.912 11.9 58.951 | 21-684 34.015 45-532 10.1 50.891 | 21.727 42.834 | 14.5 40.714 13-3 38.412 14.0 37-302 10.7 35.818 | 12.9 33-931 12.1 32.341 1.9 30.645 13.1 29.918 12.8 28.270 12.2 25.038 11.6 52-691 27.543 48.607 | 32-773 43.072 | 42.604 41.012 | 47.481 39-681 | 51.193 39-333 | 52-155 38.196 | 5 5-62 5 37.262 | 58.894 go Ame Ode * The paper is quoted from a paper by Ketteler in ‘‘ Wied. Ann.” vol. 21, p. 444. The wave-lengths are for the Fraunhofer lines, Angstrém’s values for the ultra violet sun, and Cornu’s values for the cadmium lines, SmiTHSONIAN TABLES. 204 etc., orders. TABLE 222, NEWTON’S RINGS. Newton’s Table of Colors. The following table gives the thickness in millionths of an inch, according to Newton, of a plate of air, water, and glass corresponding to the different colors in successive rings commonly called colors of the first, second, third, Color for re- | flected light. Very black — . |White . Black Beginning of black . Blue White . Yellow. Orange Red. Violet . Indigo . Blue Green . Yellow. Orange Bright red Scarlet. Purple . Indigo . Blue Green . values. I. | Red * II. | Violet . Blue. Green Yellow * Orange * Red. Purple . Blue. Blue* . Green Yellow * Color for transmitted light. Yellowish red . Black . Violet Juhi 5) 6 White Yellow Red Violet Blue Green Yellow Red Thickness in millionths of an inch for — | Water. Glass 29 COON MABWH oF mn Du Ww io N = 9° aN OF N NNO HOU OFS Pe 2 Oo LOW P= OOW =a ve <3 60 _— Nn on — = Ges) 4RQu NI un Color Color for re- | for trans- Thickness in millionths of an inch for — flected light. Yellow. Redo Bluish red Bluish green Green . Yellowish green Red. Greenish blue . Red . Greenish blue . Red. Greenish blue . Reddish white mitted light. Bluish green Red . Bluish green Red . yyy a Posi- Color. ape Red * Bluish red * . Rs 5 BRg 5 Green “ Yellow | green * | YGq5 Red * Ry 5 Gs 0 G40 G45 Green Green *. Red . Red * SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Thick- ness; 76.5 81.5 84.1 89.3 96.4 105.2 III.9 118.8 126.0 03325 Color. Green Green* Red . Red * Green Green*. Red . Red * Green Red . Posi- tion. G6 0 Ges R¢ 0 Rg 5 Gro G75 R70 Ri5 Gs o Rg o * The colors marked are the same as the corresponding colors in Newton’s table. The above table has been several times revised both as to the colors and the numerical Professors Reinold and Rucker, in their investigations on the measurement of the thickness of soap films, found it necessary to make new determinations. They give a shorter series of colors, as they found difficulty in distinguishing slight differences of shade, but divide each color into ten parts and tabulate the variation of thickness in terms of the tenth of acolor band. ‘The position in the band at which the thickness is given and the order of color are indicated by numerical subscripts. For example: Rj 5 indicates the red of the first order and the fifth tenth from the edge furthest from the red edge of the spectrum. The thicknesses are in millionths of a centimeter. Thick- ness. 41.0 147.9 154.3 162.7 170.5 178.7 186.9 193.6 200.4 2 Tas TABLE 223. 205 CONDUCTIVITY FOR HEAT. The coefficient 4 is the quantity of heat in small calories which is transmitted per second through a plate one centimeter thick per square centimeter of its surface when the difference of tempera- ture between the two faces of the plate is one degree Centigrade. The coefficient £ is found to vary with the absolute temperature of the plate, and is expressed approximately by the equation kt—=ho [1 +a (¢—7Z,)]. 4%, is the resistance at /., the lower temperature of the bracketed pairs in the table, 4; that at temperature ¢ and a is a constant. Substance. Aluminum Antimony Bismuth . | Brass (yellow) . ce (xed)) Cadmium | ' Constantin . 60Cu-+-4oNi. | Copper German silver . Iron (cast) “ (wrought) Lead | Mercury . ° . . . . . . . . . me en ae i me es es 4 Se ee Se See es 5° Magnesium. . {0-100 Manganin 84 Cu+4Ni+ 18 rainy). 4 INickelpeecnr: Palladium Platinum. Steel (hard). So (Soft) =: Silver . Tin Wood's fines ANCE -#5: 5 4 Concrete (cinder} § (stone) I Lorenz. 2 J+ D*. 5 Kohlrausch. 3 Norton 4 H. F. Weber. Substance. Authority. Carborundum . Slate . Soil dry . “wet z Diatomic earth Fire-brick Granite . Ere | Authority. from 002445 1 ee 001492 Lime . Magnesia Marbles, lime- stone, cal- cite, com- pact dolo- mite . Micaceous flagstone : along cleavage. across cleavage Paratines st 3 I Pasteboard. Plaster of Paris . 6“ bc “6 ne Onartzeene Sand (white dry) . Sandstoneand hard grit | ii teO7O® | ° from to Serpentine wall red) Slate: along cleav- | from age . } to across Bens from age. to Snow, compact layers Strawboard ... Vulcanite Beye 1 from (Cc orn- Seon om 0 0 MNDOOI DA A Vulcanized rubber (soft) Wax (bees) Wood, fir: parallel to axis. perpendicular to axis. . ote 6 H. L!& Dt 8 G. Forbes. 10 Stefan. 7 Hjeltstrom. 9R . Weber. 11 Lees-Chorlton, 12 Hutton-Blard ‘ C * Jaeger and Diesselhorst. t Herschel, Lebour, and Dunn (British Association Committee). SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 206 TABLE 224, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES AT HIGH TEMPERATURES. Material. Authority. Nickel Angell 1 Aluminum Angell! Hering Hering Graphite (Artificial) Hering Hansen 2 Amorphous Hansen 2 Carbon Hering Graphite brick Carborundum brick Magnesia brick Gas retort brick Building and terra cotta Silica brick Stoneware mixtures Porcelain (Sevres) Fire clay brick Limestone Wologdine be Granite Angell, Phys. Rev. 33, p. 421, 1911; Clement, Egy, Eng. Exp. Univers. of Ill., Bul. 36, 1909; Dewey, Progressive Age, 27, p. 772, 1909; Hering, Trans. Am. Inst. Elect. Eng. 1910; Poole, Phil. Mag. 24, p. 45, 1912; Wologdine, Bull. Soc. Encouragement, 111, p. 879,1909; Electroch. and Met. Ind. 7, pp. 383, 433, 1909; Woolson, Eng. News, 58, p. 166, 1907 ; heat transmission | by concretes. Actual values not given; Hansen, Trans. Amer. Electrochem. | Soc. 16, p. 329, 1909; Richards, Met. and Chem. Eng. 11, p. 575, 1913. "Temperature | Thermal Conductivity Centigrade Calories per sec. per Degrees. deg. C. per cm. cube. 300 126 400 SW) 600 088 700 .069 800 .068 1000 .064 1200 100 200 300 400 600 100 — 727 100-912 100 — 1245 100 — 197 100 — 268 100 — 370 100 — 541 100 — 837 100 — 390 100 - 546 100 — 720 100-914 30 — 2830 2800 — 3200 .002 maximum, | minimum. 90-110 55 45 180 - 220 44 34 350-450 35 26 500 — 700 31 :22 37 - 163 028 .003 170 — 330 .027 .004 240 — 523 .020 003 283 - 597 .O1l 004 100 — 360 .089 100-751 124 100 — 842 -129 300 — 700 .024 150 — 1200 .0032 to .027 50-1130 .0027 to .0072 100 — 1125 .0038 15-1100 .0018 to .0038 100 — 1000 .002 tO .0033 70 — 1000 .0029 to .0053 165-1055 .0039 to .0047 125 — 1220 0032 to .0054 40 -0046 to .0057 100 .0039 to .0049 350 0032 to .0035 100 0045 to .0050 200 .0043 to .0097 500 .0040 1 Taken from Angell’s curves. ? Values calculated from results expressed in other units. The max. and min. do not relate to variability in material, but to possible errors in the method. $'Taken from Poole’s curves. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 225-228. 207 CONDUCTIVITY FOR HEAT. TABLE 225. — Various Substances, TABLE 226. — Water and Salt Solutions. Substance. ke Substance. On Asbestos paper Blotting paper. . Carbon sey eees Portland cement . 00043 .OOOT 5 000405 .0007 I .0007 17 000043 .000033 .002000 000370 .000087 .OO0O12 OTT 0023 .000087 .00004 2 ».00223 .00 568 .00042 Water “ Corkiien Cotton wool Cotton pressed Chalk. : Ebonite . SIG) Wa cons Flannel (dry) Glass from to Home. . Haircloth Solutions in water. Se NN See en ein CuSOgies el: , -OO118 CGH oc TR Red |e .OOT16 NaCiras SG 1 .00267 Fle S Oke cereale ds ; .00126 & ne .00128 Sa so) ten pedte .001 30 ZS One cn aes ; ,OO118 - : .OOTTS Ice Leather, cow-hide se chamois . .OOO1 5 Linen . iy Res .0002I St] Sea cel rec 00009 5 Caen stone (build- ing limestone) 100433 Calc’s sandstone (freestone) ; NNO Of Nd TRUDI IMTUNIN POOR I I OO OT 1 NOUN wee 1 Bottomley. 4 Graetz. 2 H. F. Weber. 5 Chree. 00211 3 Wachsmuth. 6 Winkelmann. Nv 1 G. Forbes. 4 Neumann. 2H.,L,&D.* 5 Lees-Chorlton. 3 Various, TABLE 227. — Organic Liquids. TABLE 228. — Gases. kt Substance. Sases Substance, Authority. Saat at Pe ie at PNNWWNHH He ee | Authority, TIRE aida one een 568 ENT OTIS wie tls -389 Ammonia... 458 Carbon monoxide -499 so ClOXIde ae -307 Acetic acid . . ./9-15 Alcohols: amyl . | 9-15 ethyl .|9-15 methyl | 9-15 Benzole oe. 31 S Carbon disulphide | 9-15 Chloroform. . .| 9-15 EOE As) os. LO=15 Glycerine . . .|/9-15 Oils: olive . | - castor = petroleum .] 13 turpentine .| 13 Vaseline . ayer |e — Ethylene: -. 2). 395 Inloibimnts 5 6 6 3-39 Hydrogen. . . Bee Methane . : .647 Nitrogen . . . 524 Nitrous oxide . -350 OxySen\. amen. 503 1 H. F. Weber. 3, Wachsmuth. 1 Winkelmann. 2 Graetz. 4 Lees. 2 Schwarze. * Herschel, Lebour, and Dunn (British Association Committee). SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 208 TABLE 229. DIFFUSIVITIES. The diffusivity of a substance = h?=k/cp, where k is the conductivity for heat, c the spe- cific heat and p the density. (Kelvin.) The values are mostly for room temperatures, about 18° C. Material. Diffusivity. Material. Diffusivity. Aluminum \.) «ei =) ets ear) 10.020 Coal gts ie tamer simi seis, ts Antimony c een ene een .139 Concrete (cinder) . .. . . Bismuthisiee bes peer teun chia) eee .0678 “ (stone). . Brass (yellow))- v0 <1. Wenn -339 ef (light slag) Cadmiumy ie are salen .467 Cork (ground) : Copper (1% ye = se te) Beaeealenee oe bonite sensei. Goldidemeiecdtiasc. | ee eam eetekos Glass (ordinary) . Iron (wrought, also mild steel) | 0.173 Granite . hie Iron (cast, also 1% carbon steel) 121 Ice IEGEKGY) Sg “Ge @ Faempe eo GO. 0c 237 Limestone. . Magnesium. . . -- +: > 883 Marble (white) IMiercuiiy.:<) [pie fs. i. 2) tems 0327 JewENLNY GG Ley dp DN Oe On & INO el hese Nom YOU te Oey) par 152 Rock material (earth aver.) . Palladian teeices at neta ee neue .240 ss “(crustal rocks) . IBA go VG a fay holt 243 Sandstone . Rcd Reis Silvere cance emer rea sane | ls 7.07 Snowil(fresh)"2 0) ee eee SIvin ees ue ew (ete nemo O47 Soil (clay or sand, slightly damp) TAIN Hers ee Ie eae To yonder ier, 9s uate 402 Soil (very dry) . kes ae AUT AB se! vee s is gemete a -179 Watery 2) 4 Grete ars Asbestos (loose). . . . + + 0035 Wood (pine, cross grain) Brick (average fire). . . - - .007 4 60k (0 eo uawithwen oan) meme clo aiibuilding) x... .0050 Le eee eee eee eee ee eS — — ————— ee Taken from “An Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Heat Conduction,”’ Ingersoll and Zobel, 1913. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 230. 209 HEAT OF COMBUSTION. Heat of combustion of some common organic compounds. Products of combustion, CO, or SO, and water, which is assumed to be in a state of vapor. Substance, Acetylene . Alcohols : Amyl Ethyl Methyl Benzene Coals: Bituminous Anthracite Lignite . Coke Carbon disulphide Dynamite, 75% - Gas: Coal gas . Illuminating Methane . Naphthalene Gunpowder Oils: Lard ° ° Olive ° . . Petroleum, Am. crude « “refined . x Russian . Woods: Beech with 12.9% H20O Birch)“ @aksi <‘ 12:53, \¢ 13.3 sé Pinée 29) 12177 1 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Small calories per gram of substance. 11923 8958 7183 5397 9977 7400-8500 7800 6900 7000 3244 1290 5800-11000 5200-5500 13063 9618-9793 720-750 9200-9400 9328-9442 11094 11045 10800 4168 4207 3990 4422 Authority. Thomsen. 4 Favre and Silbermann. Stohmann, Kleber, and Langbein. Various. Average of various. Berthelot. Roux and Sarran. Mahler. Various. Favre and Silbermann. Various. “ rts Stohmann. Mahler. “ec “ec Gottlieb. 210 TABLE 231. HEAT VALUES AND ANALYSES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF FUEL. (a) Coals. Moisture | Hydrogen | Nitrogen Calories per gram per pound. . _., ( Low grade . ee ; High grade. Sub-bitu- § Low grade minous } High grade . Dn NO = }° Leal Low grade. High grade Semi-bitu- { Low grade . minous j High grade. Semi-anthracite. .,. § Low grade Anthracite } High grade _ Oo nN Bituminous ; _| Fixed : Carbon. 28.99 27.92 (c) Liquid Fuels. British Thermal Units Specific Gravity Fuel. Cc: per pound. at 15° Calories per gram. Petroleumether. . .. . .684-.694 12210-12220 21978-21996 CAEOMIS 5 6 § GO oo -710-.7 30 ILIOO-11400 19980-20520 Kerosene . .790-.800 11000-11200 19800-20160 Fuel oils, heavy petroleum or refinery residue. . . . .960-.970 10200-10500 18360-18900 Alcohol, fuel or denatured with 7-9 per cent water and denaturing material . . . .8196-.8202 6440-6470 11592-11646 Table compiled by U. S. Geological Survey. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 232. PIN E CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FIVE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF EXPLOSIVES. grams ped in own volume tion of surface in- Explosive. Specific gravity. pendulum. Rate of detonation. Cartridges 13 in. diam. of explosive. sion at a distance of coal dust mixture with by 1 kilogram of the explosive. grams; gaseous, solid, and liquid, Length of flame from 100 grams. respectively. Number of large calories developed after elimina Unit disruptive charge by ballistic Cartridge 1} in. transmitted explo- Products of combustion from 200 Ignition occurred in 4% firedamp & Duration of flame from 100 Pressure develo Meters per Millisec- WwW Un co (A) Forty-per-centnitro- | 1.22 glycerin dynamite (B) FFF black blasting | 1. : 469.4 powder (C) Permissible explo- | 1. ; 2 3008 sive; nitroglycerin class (D) Permissible explo- | 0.97 . 2 3438§ sive; ammonium nitrate class (E) Permissible explo- | 1.54 ; 2479 sive; hydrated class Chemical Analyses. (A) Moisture . . ere oP nO:G1 (D) Moisture Nitroslycerinisy was: sal) meee) 30.05 Ammonium nitrate Sodiuminitrate). = 5 4 = + 42:46 Sulphur ess. NV OOGMpUIDA citer: 5 ot cite 4k 350 Starch . Calcium'carbonate.. 5.) a). + 3.37. Wood pulp re : 2 Poisonous matter . . (B) Moisture AO GON BO Ost O Meike. ites 0.80 Manganese peroxide E Sodium nitrates. eu.) lone 7.O8S7, Sand : Chaxcoaligrmens s-) om oo . Meme Simljeir 9G Bo BS oO 6 oe uehele: (E) Moisture . . : Nitroglycerin (C) Moisture . . o 8 i) Gene 7-89 Ammonium nitrate Nitroglycerin. . . . . . . « 24.02 Sand. ; Sodium nitrate . 30.25 Coals. Wood pulp and crude fibre from Clayieh tise ‘ grains. > 9.20 eioni tts sulphate : Scanchermectt om catenin eres Zinc sulphate (7HO) . Calcium Carbonatemwecre! ta s 0.97 Potassium sulphate Marnesium) SF 3... 5 6 ORie * One pound of clay tamping used. + Two pounds of clay tamping used. + Rate of burning. § Cartridges 13 in. diam. || For 300 grammes. Compiled from U. S. Geological Survey Results, — “‘ Investigation of Explosives for use in Coal Mines, 1909.” SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 212 TaBLe 233. | HEAT OF | Heat of combination of elements and compounds expressed in units, such that when unit mass of the substance is units, which will be raised in temperature Combined Combined Combined Substance. with oxygen with chlorine ee with sulphur Heat forms — forms — wee forms — pe. Author- ity Calciumi. s , Carbon — Diamond . 5 CO, “ 6c i : Eo « —Graphite . . COs Chlorine . 3 : : Cl2O0 Copper =. ; : : Cu,O ce ‘ : ; ; CuO CuS to Go 3 HPN BDH OH COHN HHH RR RR QW WN CaCle CaS ae) ion) oOo “ Hydrogen* H2S ty lelaicelentrose) oO rtf “ec Tron . ; ; : ; FeO FeSH20 “cc Iodine ; ; 5 : ToOs - Lead ; : , : PbO PbS Magnesium. : : MgO MgsS Manganese ! ; .| MnOH,O MnS H202 Mercury . ; . -| HgeO - ee : 4 . : HgO Hgs Nitrogen* : . s N2O - Ke : ; i ; NO ~ ss : ; : 5 NOg Phosphorus (red). i P,O5 y (yellow). a “ “ Potassium A ; : K,O Silver Sodium ‘ : ; Sulphur . ; : : SO2 Tin : BC coh cae oe zo “ce cc Combined Combined Feat Combined Substance. with S+O, with N+ Os with C+ Os to form — to form — ERTS: to form— Author- ity Calcium . ; . “lt GasOy Ca(NOs)2 | 5080} CaCOs Copper. : ; ay eUS Ox. Cu(NOs3). | 1304 = Hydrogen C 2 leeds O" HNOs_ | 41500 i Tron . ; : : ~ | FeSOg Fe(NOs)2 | 2134 - Lead : : ; aa BbSiO% Pb(NOs)2 512; PbCOg Magnesium ; : -| MgSOg - - - Mercury : : ; - - - - Potassium : : -| KeSO4 KNO3 3061 KoCO3 Silver : ; ; .| AgeSO4 AgNOs 266] AgeCOs Sodium ° ° . ° NagSO4 NaNOgs 4834 NagCO3 ZANG : ‘ ; .| ZnSO4 ~ - OO ot AUTHORITIES. 1 Thomsen. 3 Favre and Silbermann. 5 Hess. 7 Andrews. 2 Berthelot. 4 Joule. 6 Average of seven different. 8 Woods. * Combustion at constant pressure. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. COMBINATION. TABLE 233 (continued). B13 caused to combine with oxygen or the negative radical, the numbers indicate the amount of water, in the same from 0° to 1° C, by the addition of that heat. Substance. Calcium “ “ Chlorine Copper “ Hydrogen : “ Iron . 6é Todine Lead . Magnesium Manganese Mercury Nitrogen . “ “cc Phosphorus (red) “ Potassium . Silver Sodium Sulphur Tin “ Zinc . “ Substance. Calcium Copper |). Hydrogen . Tron . : Lead . Magnesium Mercury Potassium . Silver Sodium Zine I Thomsen. 2 Berthelot. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, Carbon — Diamond : «« _—Graphite . - (yellow) . Heat units. CaOH,0 | 3734 12 8 ut ti ftw Oo > iy Th 1) ° * A Ley Wales tale tN = Jie a oe 2 & oO bo oo in Wa ee ed Bee Ber Heat units. 3150 105300 4210 13420 4324 753 7160 3820 o* | FeClo-+ H2O In dilute solutions. Heat Forms — units. CaCleH2O _ Il o un FeCls PbCle MgCle MnCl. Ue Pees este ela lets tient NX ‘oO 0 Tae ee f to pete (rae Noe) Oo n CO \O -_ ZnCle In dilute solutions. Heat Forms — : onms units. Ca(NOs)2 Cu(NOs3)2 HNO 5175 1310 24550 2134 475 Fe(NOs)s Pb(NOs)o Mg(NOs)2 | 8595 Hg(NOs)e2 335 KNOgs 2860 “AgNOsg 216 NaNOgs 4620 Zn(NOs)e 2035 2 e Qa AUTHORITIES. 3, Favre and Silbermann. 4 Joule. * Thomsen, 5 Hess. 6 Average of seven different. + Total heat from elements, Forms — 4690 | CaS + H2O Ss n Fe te ieee toate) 4 Eee UaCI See the Author- ity. eal oO a BRN YD 4 OR CORN KH HR RRR Re RR OW P BH HOW D See NI SiN Use ea es eee en a aN aN acy ean eat ceD) AP slMSaNy APSA GSN ati al Author- ity. gi ean a | © ao oO tpee ited eeligal hi i =f) 7 Andrews. 8 Woods. 214 TABLE 234. LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION. The temperature of vaporization in degrees Centigrade is indicated by 7; the latent heat in large calories per kilo- am or in small calories or therms per gram by 7; the total heat fromo° C, in the same units by H’. The pressure is that due to the vapor at the temperature 7. Substance. Formula. Authority. Acetic acid . Air Alcohol: Amyl . Ethyl : Benzene Bromine Carbon dioxide, solid . e liquid disulphide “ “ “cc Chloroform . Ether Iodine . Mercury Nitrogen Oxygen Sulphur dioxide “cc “ 6 «“ Turpentine . Water . “ SMITHSONIAN TABLES. CaH4O02 C;H120 CHO Ogier. Fenner-Richtmyer. Schall. Wirtz. Regnault. “ “ Wirtz. Ramsay and Young. “ “ec oe Regnault. “ “ Wirtz. Andrews. Favre. Cailletet and Mathias. “ “ a“ Mathias. “ce “ “cc Wirtz. Regnault. “ “cl Wirtz. “ Andrews. Regnault. “ Favre and Silbermann. Mean. Alt. Cailletet and Mathias. Ge ecu ae Brix. Andrews. Regnault. TABLE 234 (continued). PHA 5 LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION.* Substance, formula, and 7= total heat from fluid at 0° to vapor at 2°. temperature. 7= latent heat at 2°. Authority. Acetone, /= 140.5 + 0.36644 ¢ — 0.000516 72 Regnault. C3H¢O, Z= 139.9 + 0.23356 ¢ + 0.00055358 22 Winkelmann. — 3° to 147°. + = 139.9 — 0.27287 ¢ + 0.0001571 7 6s Benzol, CeHe, Z= 109.0 + 0.24429 ¢ — 0.000131 5 #2. Regnault, 7etOl 20sec. Carbon dioxide, On, r2= 118.485 (31 — ¢) — 0.4707 (31 — 22) Cailletet and — 25° to 31° Mathias. Carbon disulphide, 7= 90.0 + 0.14601 ¢ — 0.000412 Regnault. Z= 89.5 + 0.16993 ¢ — 0.0010161 72 + 0.000003424 | Winkelmann. r = 89.5 — 0.06530 ¢ — 0.0010976 #2 + 0.000003424 2 § 7= 52.0 + 0.14625 ¢— 0.000172 Regnault. = 51.9 + 0.17867 ¢ — 0,0009599 2? + 0.000003733 #2 =| Winkelmann. 7 = 51.9 — 0.01931 ¢ — 0.0010505 #2 + 0.0000037 33 2 c Chloroform, 7=67.0 + 0.13757 Regnault. CHCls, 7= 67.0 + 0.14716 ¢ — 0.0000937 2? Winkelmann. — 5° to 159°. 7 = 67.0 — 0.08519 ¢ — 0.0001 444 2? cc Nitrogen, N. r= 68.85 — 0.2736 T Nitrous oxide, a0; r>= 131.75 (36.4 — 2) — 0.928 (36.4 —2)? Cailletet and — 20° to 36°. Mathias. Oxygen, O. r = 60.67 — 0.2080 T Alt. Sulphur dioxide, r = 91.87 — 0.3842 ¢ — 0.000340 #2 Mathias. +7 = 94.210 (365 —7) 0-81249 | 30° — 100° 7 = 538.46 —0.6422 (¢ — 100) — 0.000833 (¢ — 100)?, Water, H,O. PemiBod Hennti 7 = 539.66— 0.718 (¢ — 100), 120°—180° “ * Quoted from Landolt & Boérnstein’s ‘‘ Phys. Chem. Tab.’ . SMITHSONIAN TABLES, 216 TABLE 235. LATENT HEAT OF FUSION. This table contains the latent heat of fusion of a number of solid substances in large calories per kilogram or small calories or therms per gram. It has been compiled principally from Landolt and Boérnstein’s tables. C indicates the composition, 7 the temperature Centigrade, and # the latent heat. Substance. Alloys: 30.5Pb-+ 69.5Sn . 36.9Pb + 63.1Sn . 63.7Pb+ 36.3Sn . 77-.8Pb+ 22.25n . Britannia metal, 9Sn-+ 1Pb Rose’s alloy, 24Pb+ Caan ae , 25-8P 14.795n Wood’s alloy 9 = 52.4Bi + 7Cd Aluminum . . ; . : Ammonia . Benzole Bromine Bismuth Cadmium : Calcium chloride Te 183 179 177-5 176.5 236 98.8 75:5 658. m5: 5.4 Sie3 268 320. Authority. Spring. “ec Ledebur. Mazzotto. oe Glaser. Massol. Mean. Regnault. Person. “ee Cd 7 CaClg+ 6H20 28.5 Cu 1083 2 Mean. Gruner. Copper : 7 Iron, Gray cast . = Wihite “ Slag. e ce Iodine 5 : ; 3 I Favre and Silbermann. Dickinson, Harper, H,0 ’ } Osborne.t “ oO : : ‘ , ; : Smith.t ““ (from sea-water) . : : i M0 13555 —8.7 Petterson. Lead . ; : : ; ; Pb 327 j Mean. Mercury . ; 7 : ; Hg — 39 : Person. Naphthalene . CroHs 79.87 Pickering. Nickel : . . fs Ni 1435 : Pionchon, Palladium . Pd 1545 : Violle. Phosphorus : FP 44.2 ; Petterson. Platinum . ; Pt 1755 z Violle. Potassium . ; : . K 62 Joannis. Potassium nitrate . KNOs 333-5 Person. Phenol : . : : : CsHegO 25.37 Petterson. Paraffin . . : A 6 - 52.40 Batelli. Silver : ; ° : Ag 961 Person. Sodium. . ; . : Na 97 Joannis. ‘cl nitrate”. 5 a. 305.8 oy a ‘7 Ssphosphate: @. gi fony oe a T2E.0 Spermaceti . ° : - Batelli. Sulphur. : f : : S : Person, | sink ae : ; . : : Sn 232 Mean. Wax (bees) : 2 : ; - 61.8 £ Zinc . ; : ¢ ; . Zn 419 se 36.1 s * Total heat from 0° C. t U. S. Bureau of Standards, 1913, in terms of rs° calorie. f p $ 1903, based on electrical measurements, assuming mechanical equivalent = 4.187, and in terms of the value of the international volt in use after rg1r. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 236. MELTING-POINTS OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. The metals in heavier type are often used as standards. The melting-points are reduced as far as possible to a common temperature scale which is the one used by the United States Bureau of Standards in certifying pyrometers. This scale is de- fined in terms of Wien’s law with C2 taken as 14500, and on which the melting-point of platinum is 1755° C (Nernst and Wartenburg, 1751; Waidner and Burgess, 1753; Holborn and Valentiner, 1770; see C, R. 148, p. 1177, 1909). Above 1100° C, the temperatures are expressed to the nearest 5° C. Temperatures above the platinum point may be uncertain by over 50° C. 217 Element. Aluminum Antimony Argon Arsenic Barium Beryllium Bismuth Boron Bromine Cadmium Cesium Calcium Chlorine Carbon Cerium Chromium Cobalt Copper Erbium Fluorine Gallium Germanium Gold Hydrogen Indium Iodine Tridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lead Lithium Magnesium Melting- point. 658-1 630-1 — 188 500 850 2000 < 2500 aac 321 26 805 ——OZ (> 3500) 645 >1520 1478 1083 + 3 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Remarks. Most samples give 657 or less (Burgess). “Kahlbaum” pu- rity. Ramsay-Travers. (Guntz.) Adjusted. Weintraub. Range : 320.9. Range: 320.7 26.37- 25.3 Adjusted. (Olszewski.) Sublimes. Burgess- Walten- berg Burgess- Walten- berg Mean, Holborn- Day, JDay- Clement. (Moissan - De- war.) Adjusted. (Thiel.) Range: 112-115. Mendenhall In- gersoll. Burgess- Walten- berg. (Ramsay). (Muthmann- Weiss.) (Kahlbaum. ) (Grube) in clay crucibles, 635. Element. Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Potassium Przsodymium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Samarium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulphur Tantalum. Tellurium Thallium Thorium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Zinc Zirconium Melting- point. Remarks. 1260 — 38.7 2535 $40 — 252 1452 1950 soot Zita About 2700 — 230? 1545 1 15 44.2 1755 + 20 62.3 940 I9IO 38:5 1900 ? I 300-1400 217 1420 g6r 1 97 113.5-119.5 2800 Burgess- Waltenberg Mendenhall-Forsythe (Muthmann- Weiss.) Day, Sosman, Bur- gess, Waltenberg. v. Bolton. (Fischer-Alt.) (Waidner - Burgess, unpublished.) ( Waidner-Burgess, Nernst - Warten- burg.) See Note. (Muthmann- Weiss.) (Mendenhall-Inger- soll.) (Muthmann- Weiss.) Saunders. Adjusted. Adjusted. Between Ca and Ba? Various forms. See Landolt-Bornstein. Adjusted from Waid- ner-Burgess =2910. Adjusted. v. Wartenburg. Burgess- Waltenberg. Mean, Waidner-bur- gess and Warten- burg. Moissan. Burgess- Waltenberg. Ramsay. Troost. 218 Element. Aluminum Antimony Argon Arsenic “é se Barium Bismuth Boron Bromine Cadmium Cesium Carbon “ Chlorine Chromium Copper ' Fluorine Helium Hydrogen Iodine Tron Krypton Lead Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury Neon Nitrogen Oxygen Ozone Phosphorus Potassium Rubidium Selenium Silver Sodium Sulphur Tellurium Thallium Tin Xenon Zinc TABLE 237. BOILING-POINTS OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. Boiling- point: Observer; Remarks. °o °o 1800. | Greenwood, Ch. News, 100, 1909. —_ 1440. “cc “cc c ce “ —186.1 | Ramsay-Travers, Z. Phys. Ch. 38, 1gor. - Gray, sublimes, Conechy. >360. | Black, sublimes, Engel, C. R. 96, 1883. - Yellow, sublimes. 449-450 280-310 - - Boils in vacuo, Guntz, 1903. 1420-1435 1430. | Barus, 1894; Greenwood, I. c. - Volatilizes without melting in electric arc. 59-63 61.1 | Thorpe, 1880; van der Plaats, 1856. = 778. Berthelot, 1902. 670. | Ruff-Johannsen. 3600. | Computed, Violle, C. R. 120, 1895. = Volatilizes without melting in electric oven, Moisson. —33-6 | Regnault, 1863. 2200. | Greenwood, Ch. News, 100, 1909. 2310. “ Ce = —187. | Moisson-Dewar, C. R. 136, 1903. si —267. | Computed, Tracers Ch. News, 86, 1902. —252.5-252.8 —252.6 Mean. > 200. 2450. Greenwood, I. c. —I5I.7 Ramsay, Ch. News, 87, 1903. 1525. Greenwood, l. c. 1400. | Ruff-Johannsen, Ch. Ber. 38, 1905. 1120. Greenwood, l. c. 1900. “ “ce 357- | Crafts; Regnault. a —239. Dewar, I90l. —195.7-194.4 | —195. | Mean. —182.5-182.9 | —182.7 a - —119. | Troost, C. R. 126, 1898. 287-290 288. 667-757 712. | Perman; Ruff-Johannsen. - 696. | Ruff-Johannsen. 664-694 690. - 1955. | Greenwood, l. c. 742-757 750. | Perman; Ruff-Johannsen. 444.7-445 444.7 | Mean. 1390. | Deville-Troost, C. R. 91, 1880. 1280. | v. Wartenberg, 25 Anorg. Ch. 56, 1908. 2270. | Greenwood, 1. c. —109.1 | Ramsay, Z. Phys. Ch. 44, 1903. 916-942 930. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 238. 219 DENSITIES AND MELTINGAND BOILINC POINTS. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS. “ su Density ||| Melting- 2 Boiling- | Pres- | “£ Substance. Chemical Formula. about 20°]! point & point sure | 2 Cc. 5 3 mm. ] 5 | .) HC104+ H20 1.81 Oneal ts - = ~ Chlorine dioxide ClO2 = —76. 3 OS) Wye || Be Chrome alum KCr(SO4)2-+ 12H2O 1.83 89. 16 - ~ - ue nitrate . Cro(NOs3)6+ 18H2O - 375 2 170. 760 | 2 Cobalt sulphate . CoSO4 3-53 97. 16 - - - | Cupric chloride . CuCl, 3.05 498. 9 - = - iCuprousay So) CugCle Be 421. — || 1000..L| 760 | 9 }) Cupric nitrate Cu(NOs)2+ 3H2O0 2.05 EEASSY |i 17, |e OOnly 2 Hydrobromic acid . HBr = —86.7 | 3 || —68.7 | “ = Hydrochloric “ HCl — |i—r11.3 | 17 || —83.1 | 755 | 17 Hydrofluoric “ HFI 99 203) ON =——-3Oa7 [08 Se I ory, Hydriodic sels HI - —51.3 | 17 || —35-7 | 760 | - Hydrogen peroxide H2O02 Te —2. | 18 80.2 | 47 | 20 | < phosphide . PH3 - —132.5 6 = - - | o sulphide . H.2S - —8s6. 3 ||| —62. - - | Iron chloride. FeCl3 2.80 301. = - ~ -) Pomemitratey :. Fe(NOs3)3-+9H2O 1.68 LGA | ~ - - “« sulphate FeSO4+7H20O 1.90 64. 16 _ - - Lead chloride ; PbCle 5:3 500. 9 || goo} 760} - | metaphosphate . Pb(POs)e - 800. 9 - - - | Magnesium chloride . MgCl, 2.18 708. 9 = = =i x nitrate Mg(NOsz)2+ 6H2O 1.46 go. 2 143 TOO en z e sulphate . MgSO4+ 5H2O 1.68 E504. sh) 16 - - | Manganese chloride MnClo+ 4H2O 2.01 75 | 19 106. 760 | 19 se nitrate . Mn(NOs3)e+ 6H2O 1.82 26. 2 129. a 2 6 sulphate MnSO4-+ 5H20 2.09 54. 16 - - - | Mercurous chloride Hg2Cle 7.10 450] - = - - ' Mercuric chloride . HgCle 5.42 282. = 305. - - 1, Friedel and Crafts; 2, Ordway; 3, Faraday; 4, Marchand; 5, Amat; 6, Olszweski; 7, Gibbs; 8, Baskerville; 9, Carnelly; 10, Carnelly and O’Shea; 11, Ruff; 13, Wroblewski and Olszewski; 14, Anscbiitz; 15, Roscoe; 16, Tilden; 17, Ladenburg; 18, Staedel; 19, Clarke, ‘‘ Const. of Nature’’; 20, Bruhl; 21, Schacherl; 22, Tamman; 23, Thorpe; 24, Ramsay; 25, Lorenz; 26, Morgan. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, TABLE 238 (continued). DENSITIES AND MELTING- AND BOILING-POINTS. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS. 220 Density about 20° C, Melting- Substance. Chemical Formula. pee ! Nickel carbonyl . ‘© nitrate | & NiC4O4 1.32 Ni(NOs)2+ 6H2,0 2.05 NiO 6.69 NiSO,+ 7H,O 1.98 HNOg3 1.52 N2O5 1.64 NO - N2O04 - N2Os = N2O = HPO, H3PO3 oxide . “ sulphate . Nitric acid : “anhydride UN) @palaleesic: - og “¢ peroxide .. Nitrous anhydride . ea BRO EO araley.o>' oh Vor MiG. s Phosphoric acid (ortho) . | Phosphorous acid . : Phosphorus trichloride ef oxychloride disulphide. pentasulphide sesquisulphide trisulphide Potassium carbonate . ss chlorate chromate . cyanide. perchlorate chloride MItrAte eee ae acid phosphate | acid sulphate. Silver chloride ; ene’ wumitrate:.. <0 Meme perchlorate . phosphate metaphosphate . sulphate . © Sodium chloride as hydroxide . nitrate . chlorate perchlorate carbonate . “cc lL oNolUaAwW I nH | Authority Lnoarint _ TeereNO mle Te Cont 1 KC1O3 KeCrO4 KCN KC104 KCl KNOg3 KHoPO, KHSO, AgCl AgNOs AgsPO4 AgPO3 AgeSO, NaCl NaOH NaNO3 NaClOg NaClO4 NaeCO3 NagCO3 4- 10H,O NasHPO4, + 12H,O NaPO3 LSU sie! DQ PBUBNYNNHHHNYNDN hob HW SF & lomdw HOMMNIDH Lb I S a TOON OIESNO N phosphate. metaphosphate . pyrophosphate . Na4P207 phosphite . (H2NaPOs)2 + 5H20 sulphate . . NapSO4 rf . . «| NaegSO4g-+ 10H2,O hyposulphite . NagS203 + 5H20 Sulphur dioxide. . . . SOg Sulphuric acid ook H2SO4 sf oY fon are, ae 12H2SO4+ H,O I Dea R a Rie tj Coie een Dana Oe am Omar PDO SAU UE 0? USI Bioeg Fisiet ce tat eat at “NI pile halle re Ee etd ie ees eA iBall esl Set eaten Ue SU bee Ww 1 _ ge nN “ 6 “ (pyro) Sulphur trioxide . c Tin, stannic chloride . “ stannous “ Zinc chloride . , ss sé e . ° «nitrate . «sulphate H2SO4 + H2O H2S207 SO3 SnCl4 SnCle ZnClo ZnCle ot 3H20 Zn(NOs)o a 6H20 ZnSO4+ 7H2O AS [lh eisey Te We tht 1, Mond, Langer, Quincke; 2, Ordway; 3, Tilden; 4, Erdmann; 5, R. Weber; 6, Olszewski; 7, Birhaus; 8, Ram- say; 9, Deville; 10, Wroblewski; 11, Day, Sosman, White; 12, Ramme; 13, Meyer; 14, Lemoine; 15, Carnelly ; 16, Mitscherlich ; 17, LeChatelier; 18, Carnelly, O’Shea; 19, Thorpe; 20, Amat; 21, Mendelejeff; 22, Marignac; 23, Besson; 24, Clarke, ‘‘ Const. of Nature’’; 25, Isambert; 26, Mylius; 27, Hevesy; 28, Retgers; 29, Griinauer; 30, Richards and others. * Under pressure 138 mm. mercury. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 239-240. TABLE 239. — Effect of Pressure on Melting-Point. 221 Highest ‘ : . (observed) Melting-point experimental dt/dp At.(o Substance. ; for Reference. at 1 kg/sq. cm. eum at 1 kg/sq. cm. 1000 ke/sq. cm. Hg — 38.85 12000 0.00511 5.1* I K 59-7 2800 0136 13.8 2 Na 97-4 2800 .008 2 8.2 2 Sn 231.9 2000 .00317 Bul, 3 Bi 270.9 2000 — 0.00344 — 3-44 3 | Cd 320.9 2000 0.00609 6.09 3 | Ww Pb 327.4 2000 .00777 aT * A t (observed) for 10000 kg/sq. cm. is 50.8°. Xeferences.—1. P. W. Bridgman, “ Proc. Am. Acad.” 47, pp. 391-96, 416-109, IQII. 2. G. Tammann, “ Kristallisieren und Schmelzen,” Leipzig, 1903, pp. 98-99. 3. J. Johnston and L. H. Adams, “Am. J. Sci.” 31, p. 516, 1911. A large number of organic substances, selected on account of their low melting-points, have so been investigated: by Tammann, /oc. c7t.; G. A. Hulett, “Z. Physik. Chem.” 28, p. 629, 1899; *, Korber, zbzd., 82, p. 45, 1913; E. A. Block, zdz¢., 82, p. 403, 1913. The results for water are riven in the following table. TABLE 240. — Effect of Pressure on the Freezing-Point of Water (Bridgman*). Pressuret: kg/sq: cm. Freezing-point. Phases in Equilibrium. 0.0 Ice I — liquid. — 5.8 Ke — 20.15 sf — 22.0 — 18.40 — 17.0 — 13.7 — 1.6 + 0.16 12.8 37-9 57-2 73-6 Ice I —ice III — liquid (triple point). Ice III — liquid. Ice III — ice V — liquid (triple point). Ice V — liquid. Ice V — ice VI — liquid (triple point). Ice VI — liquid. * P. W. Bridgman, “‘ Proc. Am. Acad.” p. 47, 441-558, 1912. +1 atm. = 1.033 kg/sq. cm. JMITHSONIAN TABLES. Dae Metals. 20% TABLES 241-243. TABLE 241. Melting-points, C°. 5 Percentage of metal in second column. 30% 40% 50% 60% 7°90 MELTINC-POINTS. — Melting-point of Mixtures. 807% 276 799 545 420 920 275 840 600 749 615 620 1015 635 59° 57° 57° 510 1290 520 185 520 285 270 890 1061 I1gO —I0 165 1240 99° 890 995 755 75° 262 880 599° 400 925 330 925 560 800 600 600 Irro 625 575 545 525 540 1200 59° 245 610 270 295 895 1058 1250 305) 188 1290 945 755 30 795 630 240 179 917 620 370 945 395 945 540 855 590 580 1145 620 555 520 450 57° 1235 645 285 700 262 313 995 1054 1320 5 205 1320 gio 725 goo 69¢ 55° 60 220 145 760 650 330 95° 440 950 580 915 580 560 1145 605 540 500 430 565 1290 690 325 760 258 327 925 190 126 600 795 290 955 49° 97° 610 970° 575 530 1220 599 520 505 395 549 1305 720 330 805 245 349 975 1039 1455 26 110 220 1380 830 630 820 630 450 22 185 168 480 775 250 985 525 1000 755 1025 570 510 1315 57° 470 545 35° 525 1230 73° 340 850 230 355 1000 1025 1530 4! 135 240 1410 580 780 610 420 55 200 205 410 840 200 1005 560 1040 939 1055 650 475 1425 560 405 680 310 510 1060 715 360 895 210 370 1025 1006 1610 58 162 280 1430 814 530 700 57° 375 95 a Oo 5 3 vo 90% 100 % % 215 232 I - 268 7 425 446 8 905 959 9 130 96 13 1020 1084 2 600 632 16 1010 632 17 1055 1084 18 675 1062 10 750 954 17 425 419 Ir 1500 1515 3 540 232 17 330 268 16 850 959 9 255 232 19 470 419 17 800 232 17 570 268 13 390 322 13 940 954 17 235 302 14 390 419 II 1060 1084 4 982 963 5 1685 1775 20 ae, 97:5 15 265 - 3 305 301 14 1440 1455 17 875 960 9 440 232 12 580 419 6 595 419 il 300 232 9 215 - 13 1 Means, Landolt-Bérnstein-Roth Tabellen. II Heycock and Neville, J. Chem. Soc. 71, 1897. 2 Friedrich-Leroux, Metal. 4, 1907. 12 il. Trans. 202A, 1, 1903. 3 Gwyer, Zs. Anorg. Ch. 57, 1908. 13 Kurnakow, Z. Anorg. Chem. 23, 439, 1900. 4 Means, L.-B.-R. Tabellen. 2 30, 86, 1902. 5 Roberts- Austen Chem: News, 87, 2, 1903. es ana «« 30, 109, 1902. 6 Shepherd J. ph. ch. 8, 1904. 10 Roland-Gosselin, Bul. Soc. d’Encour. 5) I, 1896. 7 Kapp, Diss., Konigsberg, rgor. 17 Gautier, (S) arses 8 ae and Gilson, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Nov. 18 Le Chatelier, ees oc (4) 10, 573, 1895 Heycock and Neville, Phil. Trans. 189A, 1897. 19 Reinders, Z. Anorg. Chem. 25, 113, 1896. “194A, 201, 1900. 20 Erhard and Schertel, Jahrb. Berg-u. Hiittenw. Sachsen. 1879, 17. oo TABLE 242. — Alloy of Lead, Tin, and Bismuth. Per cent. 10.7 23-1 66.2 50.0 33-0 Bismuth. 17.0 Solidification at 148° | 161° Charpy, Soc. d’Encours, Paris, rgor1. TABLE 243. — Low Melting-point Alloy. Per cent. 6.2 9.4 34.4 50.0 13.1 13.8 24.3 Bismuth Solidification at Drewitz, Diss. Rostock, 1902. All compiled from Landolt-Bérnstein-Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 244, 223 DENSITIES, MELTING-POINTS, AND BOILING-POINTS OF SOME ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. N.B.— The data in this table refer only to normal compounds. Den- | Melting- Substance. Formula sity. point Boiling-point. Authority. Methane* .. . —164. | 0.415 Olszewski, Young. i! Ethanet . ; oO 446 Ladenburg, ‘“ Propane . Young, Hainlen. Butane Butlerow, Young. Pentane . Thorpe, Young. Hexane . Schorlemmer. Heptane . Thorpe, Young. Octane £s Ss Nonane . Decane . Undecane Dodecane Tridecane . Tetradecane Pentadecane Hexadecane Heptadecane . Octadecane Nonadecane Ejicosane. Heneicosane Docosane Tricosane Tetracosane Heptacosane . Pentriacontane Dicetyl . Penta-tria-contane _ pROOCODOIVCINVONOOO Krafft. Ethylene .. .- . F : Wroblewski or Olszewski. Propylene . Ladenburg, Kriigel. Butylene. Sieben. Amylone Wagner or Saytzeff. Hexylene Wreden or Znatowicz. Heptylene . Morgan or Schorlemmer. Octylene. 122-123. | Moslinger. Nonylene 140.-142. | Beilstein, “Org. Chem.” Decylene 175. G L Undecylene 196.-197. Dodecylene 212-214. Tridecylene 233. Bernthsen. Tetradecylene . 127. Krafft. Pentadecylene . 247. Bernthsen. Hexadecylene . 155.t Krafft, Mendelejeff, etc. Octadecylene . 179.t Krafft. Eicosylene . 390.-400. | Beilstein, “Org. Chem.” Cerotene = Bernthsen. Melene A | Ww i Li Ny Own Ls) & 90! Cop * Liquid at —11.° C. and 180 atmospheres’ pressure (Cailletet). + iT “ Oo “c “ ‘c 6 ¢ Boiling-point under 1 5 mm. pressure, In vacuo. | SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 224 Substance. Acetylene . Allylene : Ethylacetylene . Propylacetylene . Butylacetylene . Oenanthylidene . Caprylidene Undecylidene. Dodecylidene Tetradecylidene . Hexadecylidene . Octadecylidene . Methyl alcohol Ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol Buty] alcohol . Amy] alcohol . Hexy] alcohol Heptyl alcohol Octyl alcohol . Nonyl alcohol Decyl] alcohol Dodecy] alcohol . Tetradecyl alcohol . Hexadecyl alcohol . Octadecyl alcohol Dimethy] ether . Diethyl ether. Dipropyl ether : Di-iso-propyl ether. Di-n-butyl ether. . Di-sec-butyl ether . Di-iso-butyl “ Di-iso-amyl “ Di-sec-hexyl “ Di-norm-octyl “ Ethyl- -methyl ether . propyl « : iso-propyl ether . norm-butyl ether iso-butyl ether iso-amyl ether norm-hexyl ether norm-heptyl ether norm-octy! ether TABLE 244 (continued). DENSITIES, MELTINC-POINTS, AND BOILINC-POINTS OF SOME ORCANIC COMPOUNDS. Chemical formula. (c) Acetylene Series: C,H CyHe C3H,4 C4He CsHg CeHi0 C7 Hie CgHi4 Cy He20 CyoHo29 Cy4H 26 Ci¢H30 CisH34 CH3;0H C,.H;0H C3H,;,OH C4sH »OH fl GLEE ,OH ‘CAEL ZOE C,;H,;;0H F(CeE OE CgH 90H - (Cin Hn OH iG HakOH . | Ci4HogOH . Ci6H33 0H CHO Temp. 0 —9. +65 ao Co: 771 810 .806 804 .802 20. 30. 0.812 .806 817 823 829 833 836 839 842 839 831 824 818 813 1999999990 24. 38. 50. Bo: Specific | Melting- gravity.| point. —8I. — 9- + 6.5 20. 30. —130.t Boiling- point. 2uNA—2- — 8s. + 18. 48.-5o. 68.-70. 100.-IOI. 133.134. 210.—21 5. 105.* 134.* 160.* 184.* 2njn0H 66. 78. 97: 1 138. 157- 176. 195. ZR: 231. 143.* 167.* 190.* 211,.* Authority. Villard. Bruylants, Kutsche- roff, and others. Bruylants, Taworski. Taworski. Beilstein, and oth- ers. Behal. Bruylants. Krafft. “ (ad) Monatomic alcohols: C,H a From Zander, “ Lieb. Ann.” vol. 224, p.85, and Krafft, ‘ Ber.” vol. 16, 1714, S 19,;2225 <5 23592300; and also Wroblew- ski and Olszewski, “ Monatshefte,” vol. 4, p. 338. (e) Alcoholic ethers: C,,H,,1,0. C,H.O C4Hy00 CsH 30 CsgH 30 C30H220 Cy2H260 CigH34O0 0.731 703 743 784 756 762 ‘799 805 — 23.6 — 117 | + 34.6 (f) Ethyl ethers: C,H C3HsO C5Hy20 C5H120 CeHi4O C7H 60 CsH,g0 CgH290 Cy9H 220 * Boiling-point under 15 mm. pressure. + Liquid at —11.° C. and 180 atmospheres’ pressure (Cailletet). SMITHSONIAN TABLES. ee es tesla 90.7 69. I4I. 12I. 122. 170.-175. 203.-208. 280.—282. iis 63.-64. 54 92. 78.80. 112. 134.-137. 165. 182.-184. Erlenmeyer, Kreich- baumer. Regnault, Olszewski. Zander and others. Lieben, Rossi, and others. Kessel. Reboul. Wurtz. Erlenmeyer and Wanklyn. Moslinger. Wurtz, Williamson. Chancel, Briihl. Markownikow. Lieben, Rossi. Wurtz. Williamson and others. Lieben, Janeczek. Cross. Moslinger. Substance. Acetic Acid Acetone . Aldehyde Aniline Beeswax . Benzoic Acid 3enzol Benzophenone . Butter Camphor . . Carbolic Acid . . Carbon bisulphide tetrachlor- Chlorbenzene z Chloroform . Cyanogen . . Ethyl bromide . » chloride. Pemretheir. » iodide Formic acid Gasolene. Glucose . Glycerine Iodoform ean eee Methyl chloride Methyl iodide . Napthalene . Nitrobenzol . Nitroglycerine . Olive oil . Oxalic acid . Paraffin wax, Bott. od hard Pyrogallol Spermaceti . Starch Sugar, cane. Stearine . Tartaric acid Tallow, beef ee mutton Toluene . Xylene (o o) “ TABLE 244 (concluded). DENSITIES, MELTINC-POINTS, AND BOILING-POINTS OF SOME ORCANIC COMPOUNDS. (g) Miscellaneous. Chemical formula. CH;COOH CH,COCHs C2H,O CsHsNHe C7H,02 Carle (CgHs5)2CO Cy0Hi¢O CgH;0H CS2 CCl,4 CegH;5Cl CHCls CoNe CyHsBr C2H;5Cl C4H,0O0 CoHsI HCOOH CHO(HCOH)4,CH20H C3HgO03 CHIs CH3Cl CHslI CoH, 9 C4H4 CgHs0oN Cs3H5N309 CoH2O4 os 2H20 CgH3(OH)s3 CeH1005 CyH2On (CigH3502)3C3Hs 4H 606 C.HsC H3 CeHa(CHs)2 “ Density and temperature. I.115 0.812 0.806 1.038 0.96-- 1.293 0.879 1.090 0.86-7 0.99 1.060 1.292 1.582 I.1II T2157 1.45 0.918 0.736 1.944 I 242 0.68 1.50 1.269 > ae 0.992 2.285 1.152 1.212 1.60 0.92 1.68 1.46 Melting- point, C. 16.7 —94-6 —I120. —8. 62. 121. 5-58 45. 30. 1706. 43- —II0. —30. —40. —65. 5 =o): 225 Boiling: Authority. point, C 118.5 50.1 +20.8 183.9 Young ’o9 240. 80.2 395-9 Young Holborn- Henning 200. 182. 46.2 76.7 132. 61.2 Holborn- Henning 300. 350-390 390-430 293. 160. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 226 TaBLe 245. TRANSFORMATION AND MELTING TEMPERATURES OF LIME-ALUMINA- SILICA COMPOUNDS AND EUTECTIC MIXTURES. The majority of these determinations are by G. A. Rankin. (Part unpublished.) Substance. % CaO Al,O; SiO. Transformation. Temp. Melting : ato Band reverse Melting ; vy to B and reverse B to a and reverse Dissociation into CapSiO, and liquid . . Dissociation into " CasSiOg and CaO. Dissociation into CaO and liguid IMIDE oe eB bn 6 : Melting Melting Melting Melting Melting spt ate ts. sees Dissociation into Ca2Si0O4+ Ca gAl2SiO; and liquid 1540° -|-2° 1200 2 2130 --10 675 +5 1420 +2 1475 +5 1900 +5 1535 5 1455 +S 1600 +5 1720 --I0 | 1816 -LIo | 1550 +2 1590 2 1335 +5 | EUTECTICS. 51.8 51.8 35: 35: 35: 41.8 CaSiOg CaSiOg CaeSiO4 48.2 48.2 65. 5 a él OS ss 5 0 ol OF CagSigO7 . 58.2 CagSiOs 26.4 | 73-6 62.2 47.8 oo 24.8 CagAlgO¢ . CasAlgOu4 CaAllO4 . CagAl10018 AlSiO5 CaAleSizOg . CagAl2SiO, . CagAleSiOg . 20.1 40.8 50.9 ona s | | | | se NBW NOW EUTECTICS. Melting %CaO AlOz Tempe | | Crystalline Phases. SiO, Crystalline Phases. | % CaO Al,O3 SiO. CaAleSigOg CagAleSiO7z CaSiOg CaAleSi2Og CagAleSiO7z Al,O3 CaeSiO4g CaAl,O4 CasAlgO14 CaSiO3,SiO2z Ca,SiO3 3Ca0,2SiOz Ca,SiO4 CaO. AlgSiO5,Si02 Al,SiO5,AleO3 CaAlgSigOg CaSiOg CaAlgSigO0g SiO, CaAlgSizOg SiO»g,CaSiOg CagAlSiO7z Ca2SiO4 Al,03 CaAleSigOg CaAleSigOg AlgSiO;,SiOg (eH |) aster? 1455+ 2065-{' 1610 1810 1299 1359 1165 ie QUINTUPLE POINTS. 1545 1547 Cag AlSiO7z CasgSiO7z CagSiO4 CagAl,SiO7z CagSiO4 CaAleO4 CaAleSigOg Al,O3 AlgSiOs 48.2 11.9 1335 1345 1552 1512 42. 9.7 | 1380 CagAly0Oig CagAleSiO7z CaAleO4 26.5 47-0) | nse CazAl2,SiO7z CaAlgO4 CagAl10O18 CaAleSieOg CagAl,SiO7z CagAlSiO; CagSig( 7 CaSiOg CagAleSiO7z CaSiOg The accuracy of the melting-points is 5 to 10 units. ( S| agAlpSiOz | . of Sc. xxxi, p. 341, IgII. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 1505 1385 1310 1316 CagAloOis E agAlgSiO7z Al,O3 3Ca0.2Si0g 2CaO.SiOg ; 55-5 44.5 24.3 QUADRUPLE POINTS, 44.5 1475 1475 Geophysical Laboratory. See also Day and Sosman, Am. J. TABLE 246. 227 LOWERING OF FREEZINC-POINTS BY SALTS IN SOLUTION. In the first column is given the number of gram-molecules (anhydrous) dissolved in 1000 grams of water; the second contains the molecular lowering of the freezing-point ; the freezing-point is therefore the product of these two columns. After the chemical formula is given the molecular weight, then a reference number. g. mol. 1000 g. H,O g. mol. = Somos g. mol. 1000 g H,O g- mol. y 1000 g. H,O 1000 g- H.O Molecular Lowering. Molecular Lowering. Molecular Lowering. Molecular Lowering. | 0.4978 .02°|| MgClo, 95.26: frids Pb(NOs)», 331-0: 5 0.0500 S112 .O 0.0100 0.000 362 .1000 ° ° .OOI 204 2000 .002805 :005570 :01737 501s Ba(NO,)., 261.5: 1 0.000383 001259 .002631 ||| LiNOs, 69.07: 9. ° i] Al,(SO4)3, 342-4: .500 1,000 me NOD FAN NY ° 0.0398 -1071 .4728 1.0164 1.5233 BaCl,, 208.3: 3, 6, 13. 0.00200 .00498 .0100 .0200 04805 .100 -200 -0500 .1500 «3000 : .6099 5.69 KCl, 74.60: 9, 17-19. 0.02910 005845 112 +3139 005422 008352 Cd(NO;)>, wa 5? 3 0.00298 .00689 01997 04873 0.0131 .0261 0543 -1086 217 CdSO,, 208.5: 1, 11. 0.000704 .500 : 476 586 ; 1.000 -750 ‘ 1.989 CdCl,, 183.3: J 3-209 0.00299 : .00690 2 0.00399 .0200 : .01000 OHNHNA ODO Hon Oona WwW CO ° MOMmMOD LWW Ga Ge ° Fe o aoe Nf nn On Been: 45 506 “goo 645 1.749 ai -I401 -3490 KNO,, tor.g: 6, 7. 0.0100 +0200 1.000 NaNO,, 85.09: 2, 6, 0.0100 .0250 .0500 .2000 500 5015 1.000 PN Mtn Vann” On COO Fe ° un .00268 5 O15 03120 -1473 .4129 7501 1.76 1.253 1.86 DOW HY NEO BREE WHO BHBwY Ww rROUN Cort oO K,SO,, 174.4: 3, 5,6, 10, 12. 0.00200 Ryle 00398 .00865 .0200 .0500 .1000 .200 -454 CuSO,, 159-7: 1, 4, 0.0002 000843 002279 .006670 01463 -IOSI .2074 -4043 8898 1.76 MgS0O,, 120.4: 1, 4, Ir. 0.00067 5 3.29 mm MOW DUIOW SSSI OsON MPN POOWIORRADRE NUN O RW" MODWMN Lala Coro >in .0541 0818 .214 -429 858 1.072 CuCl,, 134.5: 9. 0.0350 -1337 -3380 7149 CoCl,, 129.9: 0.0276 1094 .23609 4399 538 CaCl,, 111.0: 0.0100 05028 1006 5077 .946 2.432 3-469 3.829 0.0478 0221 .04949 .1081 2325 4293 -700 NH,Cl, 53.52: 6, 15. 0.0100 ‘60 -0200 0350 - 1000 «2000 -4000 -7000 LiCl, 42.48: 9, 15. 0.00992 0455 09952 -2474 5012 -7939 BaBr,, 297.3: 14 0.100 -150 -200 -500 AIBr;, 267.0: 9. OHWRKOARED AWOOHHOEUH Hush ED 0.0078 0559 .1Q7I 4355 1.0030 002381 3.10 153 NH,NO,, 80.11: 6, 8. 01263 2.72 331 0.0100 nGo .0580 2.65 612 .2104 2.23 Wh HORRHA KOO hNMN mn Ov O 0250 11 Kahlenberg, J. Phys. Ch. 5, rgor. 12 Abegg, Z. Phys. Ch. 20, 1896. 13 Jones-Getman, Am, Ch. J. 27, 1902. 14 Jones-Chambers, Am. Ch. J. 23, 1900. 15 Loomis, Wied. Ann. 60, 1897. 16 Roozeboom, Z. Phys. Ch. 4, 1889. 17 Raoult, Z. Phys. Ch. 27, 1808. 18 Roloff, Z. Phys. Ch. 18, 1895. x Hausrath, Ann. Phys. g, 1902. 2 Leblanc-Noyes, Z. Phys. Ch. 6, 1890. 3 Jones, Z. Phys. Ch. 11, 1893. 4 Raoult, Z. Phys. Ch. 2, 1888. 5 Arrhenius, Z. Phys. Ch. 2, 1888. 6 Loomis, Wied. Ann. 57, 1896. 7 Jones, Am. Chem. J. 27, 1902. 8 Jones-Caldwell, Am. Chem. J. 25, 1901. 9 Biltz, Z. Phys. Ch. 40, 1902. 19 Kistiakowsky, Z. Phys. Ch. 6, 1890. 10 Jones-Mackay, Am. Chem. J. 19, 1 20 Loomis, Wied. Ann. 51, 1894 Compiled from Foe a hatein Mayerhotfer: s Physikalisch- chemische Tabellen. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 228 LOWERING OF TABLE 246 (continued). 1000 g. Hy Molecular Lowering. g. mol. 1000 g. H,O Molecular Lowering. g. mol 1000 g. H,0 Molecular Lowering CdBr,, 272.3: 3, 14- 0.00324 00718 03627 .O719 1122 ° 220 .440 .800 0.0242 .O817 2255 -6003 || CaBr,, 200.0: 0.0871 1742 +3454 5226 0.0517 103 .207 517 KBr, 119.1: 0.0305 .1850 .6S0I 250 500 CdI., 366.1: 3, 0.00210 .00626 .02062 04857 .1360 9% 0.0651 .2782 6030 1.003 0.054 108 216 +327 NaOH, 40.06: 0.02002 05005 -IOOI -2000 MgBr,, 184.28: 1 PP POOWEH iso BW CODe- DNA CKO ‘Oo CuBry., 223.5: 9. _ ° Wing chs Ni 14. ° oo > Wun QW — = +O ° Ramin Cnet mad 21. i OV Qu GG Ga lanNwWw pe NOOO el GN 2ee ° pep Pywes WN RWNN OM AO Wm ON KI, 166.0: 9, 2. ° Ww Gwe Go Whun Nv O | SrI,, 341.3: 22. ° mW dh = Nun 15. ° PeEeo nnn aH L OFMu N | KOH, 56.16: 0.00352 .00770 .02002 05006 1001 I, 15) 23- 3.60° 3-59 3-44 3:43 3.42 -2003 .230 465 CH;0OH, 32.03: 0.0100 0301 .2018 1.046 3.41 6.200 C,H,;OH, 46.04: I, 12, 17, 0.000402 -004993 .O100 02892 0705 -1292 -2024 5252 1.0891 1.760 3-901 7.91 ate OE 18.76 0.0173 .0778 K,CO,, 138.30: 6 0.0100 .0200 -0500 .100 .200 24 3-424 3:50 3:57 » 25. 1.8° 1.82 L.SII 1.86 1.88 1.944 24-27 1.67° 1.67 1.81 1.707 1.85 1.829 1.832 1.834 1.826 1.83 1.92 2.02 22 1.81 1.80 1.79 Gal 4.93 4-71 4-54 4.39 Na,COg, 106.10: 6. 0.0100 -O200 0500 - 1000 +2000 Na.SOg, 126.2: 28 0.1044 -3397 -7080 Na,HPO,, 142.1: O.OIOO!L 02003 -05008 Gate 4.93 4.64 4.42 4.17 4.51° 3-74 3-38 22, 29. Na,SiO,, 122.5: 1 HCl, 36.46: 1-3, 6, 13, 18, 22. 0.00305 00695 .O100 -01703 -0500 -1025 -2000 «3000 .464 -516 1.003 1.032 1.500 2.000 2.115 3-000 3-953 4.065 4657 HNO,, 63. 05: 3, 13, 15. 0.02004 a5 50 -O5O15 3.50 .0510 -1004 -1059 2015 250 -500 1.000 2.000 3.000 H,PO,, 66.0: 29. 0.1260 -2542 5171 1.071 HPO, 820: 0.0745 -1241 .2482 1.00 H;PO,, 98.0: 6, 22. 0.0100 .0200 .0500 . 1000 -2000 ee EE EIEN NI On HEWWOWWH WL De MOULHNN& NON OMW ppp (a NIWO Om oO FREEZING-POINTS BY SALTS IN SOLUTION (continued). ; Molecular g mol. tooo g. H,O Lowering 0.472 -944 1.620 (COOH),, go.02: 4, ee 0.01002 02005 -1006 .2022 -366 .648 H,(OH);, 0.0200 .1008 2031 535 2.40 5-24 0.0100 .0201 IOI .2038 0.0198 .0470 1326 .4076 1.102 0.0201 2050 554 1.384 2077 .0201 .1305 .0100 .0200 .O461 100 -200 -400 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 1-20 See page 217. 21 Sherrill, Z. Phys. Ch. 43, 1903. 22 Chambers-Frazer, Am. Ch 23 Noyes-Whitney, Z. . J. 23, 1900. Phys. Ch. 15, 1894. 24 Loomis, Z. Phys. Ch. 32, 1900. 25 Abegg, 7A Phys. Ch. 15, 1894. 26 Nernst-Abegg, Z. Phys. Ch. 15, 1894. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Dextrose, 180.1: Levulose, 180.1: CHO, 342.2: 0.000 332 -OOI410 009978 0.00461 05019 g2.06 : 24, 25. 1.86° 186 1.85 1.91 1.98 2.13 | (C.H5)20, 74.08: 24 162 1.67 1.72 1.702 24, 30. 1.84° 1.85 1.87 1.894 1.921 24, 25. O70 1.871 2.01 2.32 3-04 I, 24, 26. 1.90° 1.87 1.86 1.88 1.88 | H,SO,, 98.08 : 13, 20, 31-33. pO 4-49 27 Pictet-Altschul, Z. Phys. Ch. 16, 1895. 28 Barth, Z. Phys. Ch. 9, 1892. 29 Petersen, Z. Phys. Ch. rr, 1893. 30 Roth, Z. Phys. Ch. 43, 1903. 31 Wildermann, Z. Phys. Ch. 15, 1894. 32 Jones-Carroll, Am. Ch. J. 28, rgo2. 33 Jones-Murray, Am. Ch. J. 30, 1903. TABLE 247, 229 RISE OF BOILING-POINT PRODUCED BY SALTS DISSOLVED IN WATER.* This table gives the number of grams of the salt which, when dissolved in 100 grams of water, will raise the boil- ing-point by the amount stated in the headings of the different columns. ‘The pressure is supposed to be 76 centimeters. Salt. Lo C52? 3° 4° 5° | ae | 10° | | 20° 25° BaCly + 2H20 . 15.0| 31.1] 47-3| 63-5| (71-6 gives 4°.5 rise of temp.) CaCl ; . 6.0] 15.5| 16.5| 21.0| 25.0) 32.0] 41-5| 55-5| 69.0 $4.5 Ca(NOs)2 + 2H20 12.0| 25.5] 39-5| 53-5| 68-5|1or.o| 152.5) 240.0] 331-5] 443-5 KOH : ; 4.7| 9-3) 136] 17-4] 20.5] 26.4] 34-5] 47-0] 57-5 67.3 KC2H302 6.0| 12.0] 18.0] 24.5] 31-0] 44.0] 63.5] 98.0] 134.0] 171.5 KCl 9.2|16.7| 23-4| 29.9] 36.2] 48.4] (57.4 gives a rise of 8°.5) KeCOg II.5 | 22.5] 32.0] 40.0 47-5| 60.5] 78.5] 103-5 ie 152-5 KCIOg 13.2|27.8| 44.6] 62.2 KI 15.0| 30.0] 45.0| 60.0] 74.0] 99.5] 134. ‘| 185.0 |(220 gives 18°.5) KNO3 15.2| 31.0] 47-5| 64.5] 82.0] 120.5] 158.5} 338.5 KoC4HyO5, + 4$H20 18.0| 36.0] 54.0] 72.0] 90.0]126.5| 182.0} 284.0 KNaC4gH4Og_ 17.3 | 34-5| 51-3] 68.1] 84.8) 119.0] 171.0] 272.5] 390.0] 510.0 KNaC4H4O¢ + 41120 25.0) 53-5| 84.0} 118.0) 157.0 | 266.0 | 554.0] 5510.0 1GiGhes 3.5| 7-0] 10.0] 12.5] 15.0] 20.0] 26.0] 35.0] 42.5 50.0 LiCl ++ 2H,0 6.5|13.0| 19.5] 26.0] 32.0] 44.0] 62.0] 92.0] 123.0) 160.5 MgClh+6H320 . . | 11.0] 22.0] 33.0] 44.0] 55-0] 77.0] 110.0} 170.0] 241.0) 334-5 MgSO, + eae . | 41.5 | 87.5 | 138.0] 196.0] 262.0 2.0 7-5 NaOH < Aes tRO.O) ets) | h4.3 17.0) 224) 30:0) se LO) | SLO 60.1 NaCl . : : el erOs Olena" ante -2) | 2a) 2565) 3355 (Gonaives 8°.8 rise) NaNO3 . , . | 9.0| 18.5] 28.0] 38.0] 48.0] 68.0] 99.5| 156.0| 222.0 Naa HeO2 se 3H? . |14.9| 30.0] 46.1| 62.5) 79.7} 118.1] 194.0} 480.0 | 6250.0 NagS203 SC. . | 14.0] 27.0] 39.0] 49.5] 59.0] 77.0) 104.0) 152.0} 214.5) 311.0 NagHPO, . . 17.2| 34-4] 51.4| 68.4] 85-3 NagC4HiO5 + 2H20 . 21.4| 44.4] 68.2] 93.9] 121.3| 183.0 | (237-3 gives 8°.4 rise) Na2S203 + 5H20_—.. | 23.8| 50.0] 78.6] 108.1] 139.3 | 216.0 | 400.0 | 1765.0 NagCO3 + 10H2,O _... | 34.1 | 86.7 | 177.6 | 369.4 | 1052.9 NaegBsO7 + bora . | 39. | 93.2 | 254-2 | 898.5 | (5555-5 gives 4°.5 rise) NH,4Cl : . | 6.5|12.8] 19.0] 24.7] 29.7| 39.6] 56.2| 88.5 NH,NO3 . : . | 10.0| 20.0] 30.0] 41.0] 52.0] 74.0| 108.0! 172.0 248.0| 337.0 NH4SO4 . : : ; : 2) 58.0| 71.8] 99.1] (115.3 gives 108.2) SrClzp + 6H20 . . |20.0| 40.0] 60.0] 81.0] 103.0] 150.0| 234.0] 524.0 Sr(NOs3)2_ . . . | 24.0] 45.0] 63.6] 81.4] 97.6 C4He06_- . |17.0| 34.4] 52.0] 70.0] 87.0] 123.0|177.0] 272.0] 374.0 484.0 CoH2O4 + 2H2O . | 19.0] 40.0| 62.0] 86.0] 112.0] 169.0 | 262.0] 540.0 | 1316.0 | 50000.0 CgHg07 + H20 . |29.0| 58.0| 87.0] 116.0] 145.0| 208.0 | 320.0] 553-0] 952.0 80° 120° | 140°} 160° | 180° | 200° | 240° : 137-5 314.0 K@EIa: 2 . | 92.5] 121.7] 152.6] 185.0} 219.8} 263.1] 312.5] 375-0] 444-4 oz NaOH : . | 93-5] 150.8] 230.0] 345.0] 526.3 | 800.0 | 1333.0 | 2353-0 6452.0 : 682.0 | 1370.0 | 2400.0 | 4099.0 8547-0| © 980.0 | 3774.0 ee gives ie} * Compiled from a paper by Gerlach, “‘ Zeit. f. Anal. Chem.” yol. 26. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 2 30 TABLE 248. FREEZING MIXTURES.* Column 1 gives the name of the principal refrigerating substance, A the proportion of that substance, B the propor- tion of a second substance named in the column, C the proportion of a third substance, D the temperature of the substances before mixture, £ the temperature of the mixture, / the lowering of temperature, G the temperature when all snow is melted, when snow is used, and # the amount of heat absorbed in heat units (small calories when A isgrams). Temperatures are in Centigrade degrees. : Q a q Substance. A NaCgH30g (cryst.) | 85 NH,4Cl. : «1 30 % Sun nb fp NaN O3 . . NagS203 (cryst.) Kae . Ne NS CaClg (cryst.) NH4NO3 ; - (N H4)2SO4 . . NH4NO3-25 INGHECI : : uy < CaCle . : 2 i a KNOg . : : NH,4Cl-25 NaeSO4 : " NaNOs. ; < eC f KoSOg4 . : ‘ Snow 100 = NagCOsg (cryst.) . se ss KNOs . ; : CaCle . NEVZCIy NH4NO3 NaNOsz. NaCl DNAIDN % O0OOnN RUN KENNY HNA FEO LORS mOowodnd wn ee Oo 1.26 1.38 2.52 4.32 7.92 “ 13.08 “ 0.35 6c -49 OL 70 81 1.23 2.40 4.92 Alcohol at 4° GOs solid Chloroform . : “ « Hither” =: Liquid SO2 H.SO,+ HO (66.1 % H2SOx) CaCle + 6H,O N i eee H20-.7 5 hoe 6 “cc Snow “ H,2O-1.20 Snow “ H20-1.31 Snow “ H20-3.61 Snow “ ee | a compiled from the results of Cailletet and Colardeau, Hammerl, Hanamann, Moritz, Pfanndler, Rudorf, and ollinger. + Lowest temperature obtained. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 249. 231 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES, PRESSURES, VOLUMES, AND DENSITIES OF GASES.* @ = Critical temperature. P = Critical pressure in atmospheres. # = Critical volume referred to volume at 0° and 76 centimeters pressure. d = Critical density in grams per cubic centimeter. 2 a, b, Van der Waals constants in (» + 5) ( — b) = -- ate Substance. Air - : ‘ Alcohol (C2H60) . ce (CH40) Ammonia Argon Benzol Bromine ‘ Carbon dioxide os monoxide. “disulphide Chloroform . Chlorine Ether Ethane . Ethylene Helium . Hydrogen. . cc chloride . “ sulphide Z Krypton Methane “ Neon . ; : Nitric oxide (NO) . Nitrogen : : a monoxide (N20) Oxygen . : Sui ahar dioxid Water (1) Olszewski, C. R. 98, 1884; 99, 1884; 100, 1885; Beibl. 14, 1890; Z. Phys. Ch. 16, 1893. (2) Ramsay-Young, Tr. Roy. Soc. 177, 1886. (3) Young, Phil. Mag. 1go0. (4) Dewar, Phil. Mag. 18, 1884 ; Ch. News, 84, 19ol. (5) Ramsay, Travers, Phil. Trans. 16, 17, 190I. (6) Nadejdine, Beibl. 9, 1885. (7) Wroblewski, Wied. Ann. 20, 1883; Siz: Wien. Ak. 91, 1885. (8) Hannay, Pr. Roy. Soc. 32, 1882. a X 105 b X 10% =| Observer 1560 3769 2992 1606 1348 537° 2020 1908 1683 3227 4450 2259) 2050 6016 6002 2848 2533 700 880 1726 1731 1926 1776 1557 1625 257 2407 1898 798 259 3726 1434 717 275 2197 2930 1157 1063 3496 3464 1074 886 BO ON 1 OWN RW ND 0.01584 0.01344 tb by CVO tei b&b CO oOo 2 OV 1160 1650 0.0048 1888 - i 1420 0.00587 2486 0.001874] 0.429 1362 (9) Sajotschewsky, Beibl. 3, 1879. (10) Knietsch, Lieb. Ann. 259, 18go. (11) Batelli, Mem. Torino (2), 41, 1890. 12) Cardozo, Arch. sc. phys. 30, 1910. i Kamerlingh-onnes, Comno. Phys. tab. Leiden, 1908, 1909, Proc. Amst. 11, 1908, C. R. 147, 1908. (14) Olszewski, Ann. Phys. 17, 1905. (15) Ansdell, Chem. News, 41, 1880. (16) Holborn, Baumann Ann. Phys. 31, 1910. (17) Cailletet, C. R. 102, 1886; 104, 1887. *Abridged for the most part from Landolt and Bérnstein’s “‘Phys. Chem. Tab.” SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 232 TABLE 250. LINEAR. EXPANSION OF THE ELEMENTS. In the heading of the columns ¢ is the temperature or range of temperature ; C is the coefficient of linear expansion ; 4j is the authority for C; 47 is the mean coefficient of expansion between o° and 100° C.; a and B are the coefficients in the equation /¢= 7 (1 + af + B?*), where Zp is the length at 0° C. and /,the length at 2° C.; Ag is the authority for a, B, and JZ. Substance. a X 104 B X 108 | Ay | | Aluminum “ “ Ws 23530 | .00707 Antimony: Parallel to cryst. axis . Perp. to axis Mean Arsenic Bismuth : Parallel to axis Perp. to axis Mean Cadmium Carbon: Diamond Gas carbon . Graphite Anthracite Cobalt Copper “é eet — 40 2 5 —19!1 to +16 Gold . ‘ f . 40 Indium . . . : 40 Iron: Softies. 5 ; : 40 Cast vee eet 40 é : : —191 to +16 Wrought . 0 : - | —18 to Ico Steel Lead Magnesium Nickel. 005254 .008 336 .0052 .007 4 annealed 003315 Osmium . Palladium Phosphorus Platinum . Potassium Rhodium Ruthenium Selenium . Silicon Silver 6 .002187 .001 324 _ Rese e eet OMe PRR REN Pee .004793 Sulphur : Cryst. mean . Tellurium Thallium ‘Din! ; Zinc. SSS eS eS 1 Fizeau. 4 Henning. 8 Holborn-Day. 1r Hagen. 2 Calvert, Johnson 5 Dittenberger. 9 Benoit. 12 Spring. and Lowe. 6 Matthiessen. 10 Pisati and De 13 Day and Sos- 3 Chatelier. 7 Andrews. Franchis. man. Matthiessen, ‘‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,” vol. 15. The Holborn-Day and Day and Sosman data are for temperatures from 20° to 10009 C. The Dittenberger, 0° to 600° C. The above table has been partly compiled from the results published by Fizeau, “Comptes Rendus,” vol. 68, and SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 251. 233 LINEAR EXPANSION OF MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. The coefficient of cubical expansion may of temperature, Substance. Brass: Cast Wire 71.sCu-27.7Zn-+ 0.35n-0.5Pb 71Cu+29Zn : Bronze: 3Cu+1Sn 40 0-100 16.6-100 16.6-350 16.6-957 40 o-So oc 97-6Cu+ 2.2Sn 0.2P Caoutchouc “ 16.7-25.3 4-29 25:37 304 0-100 oe Constantine Ebonite . Fluor spar: Cary : German silver Gold-platinum : 2Au+1Pt Gold-copper : 2Au+1Cu Glass: Tube . Plate : Crown (mean) “ Flint. Jena ther- mometer 6 16ul normal sgl sc “cc Gutta percha : leer: Iceland spar: Parallel to axis Perpendicular to axis Lead-tin (solder) datas Magnalium Marble Paraffin . | “ Platinum-iridium 1oPt+1Ir 8 Pfaff. g Deluc. 1 Smeaton. 2 Various. 3 Fizeau. 4 Matthiessen. 5 Daniell. 6 Benoit. 7 Kohlrausch. 12 Schott. 13 Hennin SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 10 Lavoisier and Laplace. 11 Pulfrich. be taken as three times the linear coefficient. 7 is the temperature or range C the coefficient of expansion, and A the authority. Substance. Platinum-silver : | 1Pt-+-2Ag || Porcelain ; “ Quartz: Parallel to axis “cc “ “ Bayeux Perpend.“ Quartz glass || Rock salt Speculum metal | Topaz: Parallel to lesser horizontal axis Parallel to greater horizontal axis Parallel to verti- cal axis Tourmaline: Parallel to longi- tudinal axis Parallel to hori- zontal axis Type metal Vulcanite Wedgwood ware Wood: Parallel to fibre: Chestnut . Elm. : Mahogany Maple Oak . Pine. Walnut j Across the fibre: Beech Chestnut . Elm . Mahogany Maple Oak. Pine. Walnut Wax: White . “ 14 Russner. 15 Mean. 16 Stadthagen. 17 Frohlich. 18 Rodwell. g. 19 Braun. 0-100 20-790 1000-1400 0.1523 0.0413) 0.0553/2 0.0797 .0521/2 0.1337 —.0026 0.4040 0.1933} 0.08 32| 0.08 36) 0.0472 0.0937 0.0773) 0.19 52| 0.6360: 0.0890 0.0951 0.0257|2 0.064924 | 0.0565 24 0.0361 24 0.0638|24 0.0492) 24 0.0541/24 0.0058 24 0.614 0.325 0.443 0.404 0.484 0.544 0.341 0.484 2.300 3-120 4.860 15.227 24 | 24 | 24 | PA 24 a4 24 24 | Deville and Troost. Scheel. Mayer. 23, Glatzel. 24 Villari. 25 Kopp. 20 21 22 234 TABLE 252. CUBICAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS. If wv and vz, are the volumes at f, and 4 respectively, then ve= 7 (1 + CA?Z), C being the coefficient of cubical expansion and A¢ the temperature interval. Where only a single temperature is stated C represents the true coefficient of cubical expansion at that temperature.* Substance. t or At Authority. Antimony << 3 .|2 > O-100 : Matthiessen Benylie @ 5 coe eee 0-100 : Pfaff Bismuth = icon. eerie o-100 , Matthiessen Copper ara aan nn O-100 : Diamond i awe ee 40 : Fizeau Emeralds ieee 40 .O168 ss Galenaei-ne cma ee a 0-100 : Pfaff Glass,common tube. . 0-100 : Regnault s¢ IMidel 5 gp o£ 0-100 ss Jena, borosilicate 5 QUIS eee 20-100 : Scheel - purejsilica.| . o-80 : Chappuis Golde: 8 rear: 0-100 : Matthiessen CG pie aye ust euet ha —20-—I : Brunner rons e- eeiten te 0-100 : Dulong and Petit Wadi Gia uassaiaa ae 0-100 : Matthiessen aratiinys aaa. meee. 20 : Russner Blatinuins gay ee) 0-100 12 Dulong and Petit Porcelain, Berlin. . . 20 : Chappuis and Harker Potassium chloride . . 0-100 i Playfair and Joule nitrate ae. 0-100 ‘ s “ sulphate. . 20 ‘ Tutton Quartz! 7%. ones O-100 ; Pfaff Rockisalt =r 0 a-mn-eent 50-60 212 Pulfrich Rubber sweeties eee 20 2 Russner Silweris: gc polos tse Grunts 0-100 ; Matthiessen Swit a 4 5 yo 6 ; E. Hazen Stearic acideny sme. : ; : Kopp Sulphur, native : : ss ATM eins, en-au ee dee te d Matthiessen Zinc “6 * For tables of cubical expansion complete to 1876, see Clark’s Constants of Nature, Smithsonian Collections, 289. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 253. CUBICAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS. If Y is the volume at o° then at ¢° the expansion formula is Vy; = Vo (1 + af + Bi? + ¥2°). The table gives values of a, B and vy and of C, the true coefficient of cubical expansion, at 20° for some liquids and solutions. A¢ is the temperature range of the observation and 4 the 235 authority. Liquid. Acetic acid Acetone | Alcohol: Amyl Ethyl, 30% by vol. 50% 99.3% ‘ 5oo atmo. Bees Bromine . Calcium chloride : 5.8% solution . 40.9% “ Carbon disulphide 500 atmos. eee 3000 “cc Carbon tetrachloride Chloroform Ether. Glycerine : Hydrochloric acid : 33.2% solution . Mercury . Olive oil . Pentane. . Potassium chloride: 24.3% solution . henol Petroleum : Density 0.8467 . Sodium chloride: 20.6% solution . Sodium sulphate : 24% solution Sulphuric acid : 10.9% solution . 100.0% . Turpentine . Water 11-40 0-30 0-30 —9-106 oa55 . Amagat: C. R. 105, p. 1120; 1887. . Zander: Lieb. Ann. 225, p. 109; 1884. . Pierre: a. Lieb. Ann. 56, p. 139; 1845. . Kopp: a. Lieb. Ann. 94, p. 257; 1855. b. Lieb. Ann. 93, p. 129; 1855. . Recknagel: Sitzber. bayr. Ak. p. 327, Abt.; 1866. . Drecker: Wied. Ann. 34, p. 952; . Emo: Ber. Chem. Ges. 16, 1857; 1883. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, b. Lieb. Ann. 80, p. 125; 1851- 1.0630 1.3240 8.9001 0.2928 0.7450 1.012 0.866 0.524 1.1342 1.17626 1.06218 0.07878 0.42383 1.13980 0.940 0.581 1.18384 I.10715 1.51324 0.4853 0.4460 0.18182 0.6821 1.4646 0.2695 0.8340 0.8994 0.3640 0.3599 0.2835 0.5755 0.9003 —0.06427 . Thorpe: Proc. Roy. Soc. 24, p. 283; 1876. 1847. . Scheel: a “ 1888. 1903. . Thorpe and Jones B 108 0.12636 3.8090 0.6573 10.790 1.85 2.20 1.3635 1.27776 1.87714 Nw eet ADDL WW 4.2742 0.8571 1.37065 No) = XN N Mm ial 0.89881 4.66473 2.35918 0.4895 I! ON WN OofMN n= m NOD Nn Cum 0.215 0.0078 1.1405 3:09319 2.080 0.10732 1.396 1.237 1.258 2.580 —0.432 1.9595 8.5053 —0.44998 6.7900 AUTHORITIES. 9. . Spring: Bull. Brux. (3) 3, p. 331; . Pinette: Lieb. Ann. 243, p. 32; 18 2. Frankenheim: Pogg. Ann. 72, p. 422; Marignac: Lieb. Ann., Supp. VIII, p. 335; 1872. 1882. 88. Jee ChemenSoc.03; P- 273; 1893. p mp © Wiss. Abh. Reichsanstalt, 4, p. 1; | 230 TABLE 254. COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL EXPANSION. Coefficients of Expansion of Gases. Pressures are given in centimeters of mercury. Coefficient at Constant Volume. Coefficient at Constant Pressure. Coeffi- | 8 Coeffi- | 8 Substance. beesnute meee * Substance. P peter cient z 100. 3 100. 2 Air ; ; : 6 -37666} 1 |i Air ; 0 : 76. peu 3 - ‘ . : 1.3 oC 772i (an : : 0 : 257- : : a : : ; 10.0 36630] ‘“ st) \Or—1GOmy : ok 2628 2 wu : : : 25.4 .30580| “ || Hydrogen o°100° 100.0 .36600] “ y ; : 2 75.2 36660] “ aa ; -| 200 Atm. | .332 9 s§102=1002, ; 100.1 30744 2 S60 ea : 5 || Zea & -295 fe € : : : 76.0 .30650| 3 sent ; 31 || Goo. 201 ss ss ; : ; 200.0 GOGOR iI Ns os : ij ecteloy .242 ss 4 a : . | 2000. .38560 | “ || Carbon dioxide . 70. 3710 3 io ; . . | 10000. -4100 “ « “ 0°-20° 51.8 ba 7A2On ee Argon . : 51.7 .3068 4 si On=402 51.8 Bye) Carbon dioxide 76.0 36856] 3 ee ‘Coo =1602 51.8 537 O7 Glee Sees : 1.8 SSO75Suln a sé © 0°20° 99.8 237/002 ae. ; 5.6 30641] “ s © 0°-100° 99.8 «37 4 LOlll vere “c “c E ; 74.9 37264 “ “ “ 0°—20° 137-7 37972 “ “ “ 0°—20° 51.8 -3698 5 2 6“ 6 0°—100° 7a) 37703 “ a “ 0°-40° 51.8 #2007211) se SC Os=7 Gen |eezonil. .1097 6 ef 0°=100- 51.8 *BO9SD, |): “ “ 64°-100° | 2621. 6574 ‘s ss sO: = 209 99.8 -37335 | “ || Carbon monoxide . 76. .3669 e6 “ 9°-100° 99.8 37262 | “ || Nitrous oxide ; 76. 3719 se © 0°-100° 100.0 37248 | 5 | Sulphur dioxide . 76. 3903 4 Carbon monoxide . 76. .30667 | 3 : 98. .3980 2 | Helium . 50.7 -3665 4 0°-119° 76. .4187 10 Hydrogen 162-1329 .0077 | .3328 6 |i Wat o°-141° 76. .4189 15°-132° 0250/3023) |) anery 4 0°=162° 70. .4071 « sf 12°-185° 47 3650 ¥ Deer Os=2000 76. .3938 S Fe! tse ef n ae 93 | .37002| 1 0°-247° 76. -3799 | “ ra: : , 11.2 36548 | “ ade : : 76.4 30504 | “ eters o°-100° 100.0 .36626 | 2 Thomson has given, Encyc. Brit. “ Heat,” Nitrogen 13°-132° 06 | .3021 6 || the following for the calculation of the ex- = DNS 53 | -3290 aan pansion, E. between 0° and 100° C. Expansion 5s ete 100.2 -36754 2 || is to be taken as the change of volume under : o°-100 a “30744 % | constant pressure: neces ePe02 Hydrogen, & = .3662(1 — .00049 7 /z) ° 32° \ ’ Oxygen 118-13 ae oe ae 6 AGE rs 3662(1 — Beet ik ‘ a ; “st oon é Oxygen, £= 3662 (1 — .0032 V/v), i ; : ; 19 36683 | 8 Nitrogen, “= 3662(1 —.0031 V/v), ue . 18.5 36690 |“ CO, £ = .3662(1 — .o164 V/v). a : : 5 75:9 23008) V/z is the ratio of the actual density of the Nitrous oxide : 70. .3676 3 ||| gas at o° C to what it would have at 0° C and Sulph’r dioxide SO, 76. 3845 “¢ i) 1 Atm. pressure. 1 Meleander, Wied. Beibl. 14, 1890; Wied. 5 Chappuis, Arch. sc. phys. (3), 18, 1892. Ann. 47, 1892. 6 Baly-Ramsay, Phil. Mag. (5), 38, 1894. 2 Chappuis, Trav. Mem. Bur. Intern. Wts. 7 Andrews, Proc. Roy. Soc. 24, 1876. Meas. 13, 1903. 8 Meleander, Acta Soc. Fenn. 19, 1891. 3 Regnault, Ann. chim. phys. (3)5, 1842. g Amagat, C. R. 111, 1890. 4 Keunen-Randall, Proc. R. Soc. 59, 1896. 10 Hirn, Théorie méc. chaleur, 1862. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLes 255-257. MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT. TABLE 255.—Summary. 237 Taken from J. S. Ames, L’équivalent mécanique de la chaleur, Rapports présentés au congrés international du physique, Paris, 1900. Method. Mechanical Joule. Mechanical Rowland Mechanical Reynolds-Morby . Electrical . Latimer-Clark = 1.4342v at 15°C. Et Ke Griffiths . International Ohm ( Latimer-Clark = 1.4340v. at 15° C., Elec. Chem. Equiv. Silver = 0,001118g Latimer-Clark = 1.4342v. at 15°C. Schuster-Gannon | Electrical Eit. Callendar-Barnes | Electrical Eit. TABLE 256.—Reduced to Gram-calory at 20° C. (Nitrogen thermometer). 4.169 X 107 ergs 4. ie X 107 ergs. - 181 4.181 SS 4.192 . 4.184 “ 4.189 “ 4.181 “ ALTO Om tae 4.178 Joule . Rowland Griffiths . 5 Schuster-Gannon Callendar-Barnes * Admitting an error of x part per rooo in the electrical scale. The mean of the last four then gives 1 small (20°C) calory=4.181 < 107 ergs. 1 small (15° C) calory = 4.185 X 107 ergs assuming sp. ht. of water at 20°=0.9990. TABLE 257 .—Conversion Factors for Units of Work. Joules 1 joule = I watt >< second 1 small 15° ory = cal- I erg= t kilog.-meter = 1 foot-poundal = 1 foot-pound = SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Watts X sec. Volt-amp. per sec. 107 g* 04214 .042142T Small 15° Calories. Kilo- gram- meters. 0.2389 X 1077 0.2389g* .O1007 .01007gT g* s Io’ 421400. 421400gT | .04214 Foot-poundals. 99-31 23:73 X 1077 23.738" I gt * g = 9.80 m. per sec. per sec. at latitude 45° » sea level. + g= 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec. Foot-pounds. 23:73 gt 99-32 gt 23-73 y¢ 19-7 gt 23:73 238 TABLE 258. SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. Element. Range * of Temperature, aes | Specific | heat. Element. ! . Aluminum ot Antimony. ee “ec i Arsenic, gray ae blacks. Barium 5 Bismuth “ fluid . Boron ; Bromine, solid . ss fluid . Cadmium . Cesium Calcium “ce Carbon, graphite “ diamond “ “ce Cerium ; Chlorine, liquid Chromium Gallium, liquid . be solid . Germanium Gold. ce indiean —250 Oo 100 250 500 10-100 0.1428 -2089 .2226 2382 -2739 .2122 .0489 0503 0520 .0822 .o861 .068 0284 0301 .0309 0302 0363 .307 .0843 107 0551 .0570 0594 .0O17 .0482 -157 .170 114 .160 .467 .0635 113 -459 .0448 2262 .0666 1039 Shur .1872 .086 1452 .204 .0822 1030 0924 .0942 09510 1259 0868 .0940 .080 079 0737 033 .0316 0570 Todine lridium “ Iron, cast . “wrought . oe ee hard-drawn Wantheann Lead Osmium Palladium. “ . “cc Phosphorus, red “yellow “ec Range * of Temperature, Oe: 9-98 —186-+18 18-100 20-100 15-100 1000-1200 500 o-18 20-100 —185--++20 0-100 15 100 300 to 310 “ce 360 18-100 16-256 —100 oO 50 100 190 See opposite page for References. See Table 260 for supplementary data. * Where one temperature alone is given, the “‘true’’ specific heat is given; otherwise, the ‘“‘mean” specific heat. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Element. Platinum oe Potassium Rhodium Ruthenium Selenium Silicon TABLE 258.—Specific Heat of the Chemical Elements (continued). Range * of Temperature, °C. —186-+18 0-100 roo 500 700 900 II0o I500 500 II0O 1500 ; —185-+20 10-97 0-100 —188-+18 —185-+20 —39.8 TABLES 258 (continued) -259, SPECIFIC HEAT. Refer- ence. Specific Heat. 26 24 34 35 0.02903 .0323 .0275 .0350 .0368 -0380 .0390 .0407 -0335 .0358 .0368 .I70 .0580 .OOIL .068 123 .1360 Element. monoclin. liquid , Tantalum Tellurium “ crys Thallium ' Thorium . Tin ee cast “ fluid “e «“ Range * of Temperature, °C. Specific Heat. 299 Refer- ence. —188-+18 0-54 0-52 119-147 —185-+20 . 1400 —188-+18 15-100 —185-+20 20-100 0-100 —196-—79 —76-+18 2I-109 250 II0o —185-+20 0.137 -1728 -1809 +235 033 oO. 30 Titanium . <7 0-100 —185-+20 0-100 1000 0-98 0-100 —192-+20 20-100 0-100 100 300 0-100 .1833 -2029 .0496 10544 +0559 05498 .05063 Sak 232 —186-—79 —79-+18 0-100 are 23 te 100 ; 500 os 17-507 ciecomte 800 fluid. 007-1100 Sodium . | —185-+20 Tungsten . Uranium . Vanadium Zinc. “ Zirconium 1 Bontschew. 22 Berthelot, Ann. d. chim. (5) 15, 1878. 2 Naccari, Atti Torino, 23, 1887-88. 23 Pettersson-Hedellius, J. Pract. Ch. 24, 1881. 3 Wigand, Ann. d. Phys. (4) 22, 1907. 24 Violle, C. R. 85, 1877; 87, 1878. 4 Nordmeyer-Bernouli, Verh. d. phys. Ges. 9, 1907; 10, 25 Regnault, Ann. d. chim. (2) 73, 18403 (3) 63, 186r. 26 27 28 1908. 5 Giebe, Verh. d. phys. Ges. 5, 1903. 6 Lorenz, Wied. Ann. 13, 1881. Behn, Wied. Ann. 66, 1898; Ann, d. Phys. (4) 1, rg00. Schmitz, Pr. Roy. Soc. 72, 1903. Nichol, Phil. Mag. (5) 12, r88r. 7 Stiicker, Wien. Ber. 114, 1905. 29 Hill, Verh. d. phys. Ges. 3, rgor. 8 Person, C. R. 23, 1846; Ann. d. chim. (3) 21, 1847; 30 Spring, Bull. de Belg. (3) 11, 1886; 29, 1895. 24, 1848. 31 Laemmel, Ann. d. Phys. (4) 16, 1905. g Moisson-Gautier, Ann. chim. phys. (7) 17, 1896. 32 Barnes-Cooke, Phys. Rev. 16, 1903. 1o Regnault, Ann. d. chim. (3) 26, 1849 ; 63, 1861. 33 Wiegand, Fort. d. Phys. 1906. 11 Andrews, Pog. Ann. 75, 1848. 34 Tilden, Pr. Roy. Soc. 66, 1900, 71, 1903; Phil. Trans. 12 Eckardt-Graefe, Z. Anorg. Ch. 23, 1900. (A) 194, 1900; 201, 1903. 13 Bunsen, Pogg. Ann. 141, 1870; Wied. Ann. 31, 1887. 35 White, Phys. Rev. 28, 1909. 14 Weber, Phil. Mag. (4) 49, 1875. 36 Dewar, Ch. News, g2, 1905. 15 Hillebrand, Pog. Ann. 158, 1876. 37 Kopp, Phil. Trans. London, 155, 1865. 16 Knietsch. 38 Nilson, C. R. 96, 1883. 17 Adler, Beibl. 27, 1903. 39 Nilson-Pettersson, Zt. phys. Ch. 1, 1887. 18 Pionchon, C. R. 102-103, 1886. 40 Mache, Wien. Ber. 106, 1897. 1g Tilden, Phil. Trans. (A) 201, 1903. 41 Bliimcke, Wied. Ann. 24, 1885. 20 Richards, Ch. News, 68, 1893. 42 Mixter-Dana, Lieb. Ann. 169, 1873. 21 Trowbridge, Science, 8, 1898. 43 Magnus, Ann. d. Phys. 31, rgro. * When one temperature alone is given, the ‘‘ true ”’ specific heat is given; otherwise, the ‘‘ mean ”’ specific heat. Compiled in part from Landolt-Boérnstein-Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. TABLE 259.—Specific Heat of Water and of Mercury. Specific Heat of Water. Specific Heat of Mercury. Barnes- Regnault. Barnes- Regnault. Temper- Specific ature,°C. Heat. Temper- ature,°C. Specific Heat. Temper- ature,°C. Temper- Barnes ature,°C. Barnes. | Rowland. 60 65 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 0.9988 -9994 I.0001 I.0014 1.0028 1.0043 0.03346 -03340 -03335 -03330 -03325 .03320 .03316 .03312 .03308 -03300 .032904 -03289 -03284 =o oO +5 10 15 20 25 30 I.0155 IT.00901 I.0050 1.0020 I.0000 0.9987 9978 9973 9971 9971 9973 9977 .9982 0.9994 1.0004 I.00I5 1.0042 1.0070 I.O101 I.0162 1.0223 1.0285 1.0348 1.0410 1.0476 90 100 IIo 120 130 140 I50 170 I90 0.03277 .032690 -03262 -03255 .03248 -03241 .0324 .0322 .0320 -0319 T.0094 1.0053 1.0023 1.0003 0.9990 9981 9976 -9974 -90974 -9976 -9980 9985 Barnes’s results: Phil. Trans. (A) 199, 1902; Phys. Rev. 15, 1902; 16, 1903. (H thermometer.) Bousfield, Phil. Trans. A 211, p. 199, 1911. arnes-Kegnault’s as revised by Peabody; Steam Tables. The mercury data from 0° C to 8o, Barnes-Cooke (H thermometer); from go° to 140, mean of Winklemann, Naccari and Milthaler (air thermometer); above 140°, mean of Naccari and Milthaler. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 240 Element. Aluminum Boron , | Bromine | Carbon, graph. —Ache. graph. —Diamond Copper Iodine . Lead IQIO. Temperature. —z240.6° —190.0 —190-—82 —76-—1 +16-+ 100 +16-+ 304 —19I1-—78 —192-—80 OL el —76-o —244.0 —186.0 marl Sapa —I91-—80 a lilae +18-+ 100 +16-+ 256 TABLES 260, 261. TABLE 260. — Additional Specific Heats of the Chemical Elements. Element. Temperature. Lithium —191-—8o —78-0 ee —188-—79 19= a 55 11 a2 30-53 —191-—80 —78-0 —I191-—83 —plilimO —190-—82 —76-2 o-+ 200° O--+ 300 Manganese Mercury, sol. ee Sodium Zinc Iron 1. Nernst, Lindemann, 1910, I9gIl. 2. Kosef, Ann. der Phys. 36, 1911. 3. Magnus, Ann. der Phys. 31, o-—+ 400 o-+ 500 o-+600 o-+700 o-+ 800 o-+900 o-+ 1000 o-+1100 4. Estreicher, Straniewski, 1912. 5. Harker — Proc. Phys. Soc., London, 10, p. 703, 1905. Fe =.o1C, .02Si, .03S, .o4P, trace Mn. TABLE 261. — Mean Specific Heats of Quartz, Silica Glass, and Platinum from zero, C., to the tem- perature named. The mean specific heats of quartz above 550° are here increased by the heat (2.3 calories) of the inversion at 575°. Interval. o-300° o-500° o-550° o0-600° 0-700° o-900° O-1100° 0-1 300° O-100° | Quartz. .1870 2169 2382 2441 .2520 °2555 -2608 2654 Silica Glass. 1845 2124 -2303 2433 2523 The results for Platinum follow the formula : Sp. Heat = .03174 + .000 0034 6 very closely. If the formula were strictly correct the true The accuracy is probably better than 2 per mille. Platinum. Obs.—calculated for Pt. .00000 +.00012 .03283 03363 03424 .03487 03551 .03620 -+.00005 -00000 —.00004 —.00003 specific heat at any temp. would be: .03174 +.000 006 86, which is probably true to 1% as it is. Determinations by W. P. White. Geographical Laboratory. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 262-263. 241 TABLE 262. — Specific Heat of Various Solids.* Tempe Specific Heat. | Authority.t Alloys: Bell metal hse s : : : : : 15-98 0.0858 Brass, red ° ° - : : ; 3 Oo 08991 SL yellow? |. . . . : : : : ° 08531 80 Cu+z2o0 Sn . 3 ; $ 4 : 3 14-98 .0862 88.7 Cu+11.3 Al. é 5 : eae ; 20-100 10432 German silver . 0-100 094604 Lipowitz alloy: 24. 97 Pb a Io. 13 ‘Cd iF so. 66 Bi +14.24Sn 5-50 +0345 se ce . : 100-150 0420 Rose’s alloy : 27. 5 Pb+48. 9 Bi+23. 6 Sn. 7 7 —77-20 0350 20-89 0552 Wood’s alloy: "25. 85 Pb + 6.99 Cd a 52. 43. Bi # S Z 5-50 -0352 s : z : . : 100-150 0426 Miscellaneous alloys: 17.5 Sb+29.9 pas, 7 Zn-+ 33. 9 Sn : 3 20-99 05657 37-1 Sb+62.9 7 ; 5 10-98 03880 39-9 Pb-++60.1 BE : : : : : - : 16-99 03165 se ee) : : . 144-358 03500 63.7 Pb+ 36. 3 Sn Se an eh go. 12-99 .04073 46.7 Pb+53.3 Sn . : é ; : : 10-99 04507 63.8 Bi+-36.2 Snyio 7s : é : : : 20-99 04001 46.9 Bi+53.1Sn . z : ; . : 2 20-99 04504 Gascoal_ . 5 = - : 20-1040 3145 Glass, normal thermometer 16". - - c : 19-100 1988 “French hard thermometer < 5 ; ; - 1869 “« crown : 5 : : 2 ; : : 10-50 -161 ame cinites. . : : : - : . ; 10-50 117 Ice : : : 5 ha . ; : ; . |—188- —252 .146 ie ; : . : ; : . s - . | —78-—188 285 < : : : s : ° . | —18-—78 463 India rubber (Para) : ; : : : ‘ ; ?-100 481 Paraffin : c , : : ; : . | —20-43 3768 or : . . : 7 : : : . | —19--+20 5251 : . ; < : 2 7 : . : 0-20 6939 ; : ; : 7 2 : : ° : 35-40 622 fluid . 7 - : : . : . 3 60-63 712 Vulcanite . : B ; 2 : : : : 20-100 gas TABLE 263.— Specific Heat of Various Liquids.* oes Temper- | Specific Ration a Temper- | Specific Author-| Liquid. ature °C.| Heat. | ity. Liquid: ature °C. Heat. | ity.T Alcohol, ethyl . : . | —20 | 0.5053 || Nitrobenzole 28 | 0.362 “ aa. 5 : oO 548 i} Napthalene, Cros 80-85 | .396 Se . . 40 : , 90-95 | -409 methyl . -| 5-IO |. | Oils: castor . : —- | .434 ; - | 15-20] . citron . : : 438 Anilin. - ; : 15 : olive . . 6 | 471 ss 3 - : : 30 : sesame : | .387 ss : : : ; 50 : turpentine . 411 Benzole, CgHg. - 3 IO : Petroleum . 5 ‘ GE ‘ : : . , 40 : || Toluol, CgeHg 3 364 s : : : : 65 2 om 3 : .490 Diphenylamine, CyHyN 53 5 sf . ° . | -534 “ ape, 7 65 .482 | | CaCl, sp. gr. 1.14. | .764 | Ethylether . ‘ : ° beriss < ee Glycerine 5 - =| 15-50 Nitrobenzole . 7 7 14 + * These specific heat tables are compiled partly from more extended tables in Landolt-Bornstein-Meyerhoffer’s Tables. + For references see Table 263, page 242. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 242 TABLES 268 (continued)-264. TABLE 263. —Specific Heat of Various Liquids. Tempera- Specific | Author- Liquid Tempera-| Specific Liquid. ture °C. | Heat. ity. ture °C. | Heat. CaCle, sp. gr. 1.20. oO 0.712 | DMG || KOH+ 30 H20. e 0.876 ce “e Speen | ipe2O : 3 £6) == TOON ste : 975 —20 d NaOH + 50 H2O0 2 .942 oO “« +100 “. : 983 5 || ares : NaCl-+ 10 H,O . j -791 CuSo4+50H2O .|} 12-15] . C= EX2OO) mois .978 “+200 “ .| 12-14] . Sea water, sp. gr. I 0043 17.5 980 “« +400 “ = ||| T3071 =i cs : ‘ -938 ZnSO«t 50 H2,O .| 20-52] . : 17.5 903 +200 “ .| 20-52] .952 A, Abbot. DMG, Dickinson, Mueller, and George. T, Tomlison. AM, A. M. Mayer. H-D, de Heen and Deruyts. S, Schiiz. B, Batelli. HM, H. Meyer. Th, Thomsen. D, Dewar. L, Lorenz. P, Person. W, Wachsmuth. E, Emo. Ln, Luginen. Pa, Pagliani. Wn, Winkelmann. G, Griffiths. M, Mazotto. R, Regnault. Z, Zouloff. G-T, Gee and Terry. Ma, Marignac. RW, R. W. Weber. TABLE 264. — Specific Heat of Minerals and Rocks. c Tempera- | Specific | Refer- Tempera- | Specific |Refer- Substance. ture °C, Heat. | ence. | Substance. ture ° C, Heat. | ence. Andalusite . , o-100 | 0.1684 Anhydrite, CaSOs : 0-100 | .1753 | Apatite . : -| 15-99 -1903 Asbestos : 2 . | 20-98 195 Augite . : . | 20-98 1931 Barite, BaSO, ; .| 10-98 .1128 Bexyle a. .| 15-99 -1979 Borax, NasBsO7 fused 16-98 .2382 Calcspar, CaCOg . : 0-50 .1877 Be adie . o-100 2005 rs v8 Seis : 0-300 -2204 Casiderite, SnOg . .| 16-98 0933 Corundum : ; 9-98 .1976 Cryolite, AlgF |g. 6NaF . 16-99 :2 522 Fluorite,CaFo . -| 15-99 2154 | Galena, PbS . : .| o-100 | .0466 Garnet . .| 16-100 | .1758 Hematite, FesOn é .| 15-99 1645 | Hornblende . ; .| 20-98 1952 | Hypersthene . . . | 20-98 1914 Labradorite : . | 20-98 1949 Magnetite . 18-45 156 Malachite, CuC Os H,0 15-99 1763 | Mica (Mg) 20-98 -2001 [feeesS a(S) ; 5 .| 20-98 .2080 \:Oligoclase «i, |< 45 4i|| 26-68 .2048 Orthoclase : =| e5=O9 .1877 Pyrites, copper : -| 15-99 1291 Pyrolusite, MnOg. .| 17-48 159 Quartz, SiO, ‘ .| 12-100 188 oe or. : oO SLOT, 350 2786 400-1200} .305 Rock-salt . -:.| 13-45 | 0.219 Serpentine. . .2586 Siderite c Spinel . ; alews: : .| 20-98 Topaz . : : 0-100 W ollastonite =| 19=51 Zinc blende, ZnS . o-100 Zircon . : 21-51 Rocks: Basalt, fine, black | 12-100 oe as ee 20-470 AOS SOM ee 750-880 | .626 880-1190 | .323 Dolomite . .| 20-98 .222 Gneiss : -| 17-99 -196 ss : ela 23 214 Granite. . | 12-100 192 Kaolin .| 20-98 224 Lava, Aetna .| 23-100 | .201 i -| 31-776 | .259 “Kilauea . 25-100 | .197 Limestone . >i, L5=100 .216 Marble : : 0-100 | .21 Quartz sand .| 20-98 .IQI Sandstone . : - 22 APN OV + WN OO OWMOMUUOMO D On ORNW 1 Lindner. 6 Kopp. 11 Bartoli. 2 Oeberg. 7 Joly. 12 Morano. 3 Ulrich. 8 Pionchon. 4 Regnault. 9 Roberts-Austen, Riicker. 5 Tilden. o R. Weber. CODON AND NWWWN AWWWNHNHUWP HPP RR RHPNHHPWWNHE HE Compiled from Landolt-Bérnstein-Meyerhoffer’s Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. ' TABLE 265. SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES AND VAPORS. ) aS Ge Mean Sp. Ht. Ratio of Substance. ae oC, SS Authority. nea Specie Authority. C/ex Acetone, CsH¢O . 26-110 | 0.3468 | Wiedemann. ‘A Pa 27-179 | 0.3740 ss es 129-233 | 0.4125 | Regnault. Air . |—30- +10] 0.2377 s 5-14 1.4025 | Lummer and s 0-100 | 0.2374 és Pringsheim. : O-200 | 0.2375 ss se 20-440 | 0.2306 | Holborn and e “ 20-630 | 0.2429 Austin. sf : : : 20-800 | 0.2430 “s Alcohol, C2H;0H 108-220 | 0.4534 | Regnault. 53 1.133 | Jaeger. a rates: = = - 100 1.134 | Stevens, “« C,H3;0H IOI-223 | 0.4580 | Regnault. 100 1.256 e Ammonia . 4 23-100 | 0.5202 | Wiedemann. ° 1.3172 | Wiillner. Sb ‘ 27-200 | 0.5350 se 100 1.2770 apie 24-216 | 0.5125 | Regnault. Argon . ‘ 20-90 | 0.1233 | Dittenberger. oO 1.667 | Niemeyer. Benzole, CgH¢ 34-115 | 0.2990 | Wiedemann. 20 1.403 Pagliani. ‘“ “ 35-180 0.3325 “ 60 1.403 “6 se 116-218 | 0.3754 | Regnault. 99-7 | 1.105 | Stevens Bromine 83-228 | 0.0555 < 20-388 | 1.293 | Strecker. ie : ; .| 19-388 | 0.0553 | Strecker. Carbon dioxide, COg .|—25--++7| 0.1543 | Regnault. 4-11 1.2995 | Lummer and sf “ al 25—1OON | 0.2025 a Pringsheim. se Ke “| 1-214 | 0.2169 “ “monoxide, CO.} 23-99 | 0.2425 | Wiedemann. ° 1.403 | Wiillner. “ “ cc 26-198 0.2426 “ 100 1.395 “ “disulphide, CS2| 86-190 | 0.1596 | Regnault. } 3-67 1.205 | Beyme. Chlorine : : . | 13-202 || 0.1241 —_—_; = 1.30 X 10+ 7° for Franz = 3:10 X / sec. cm? 30% ee Amax 7== 0.2910 for A in cm. h = Planck’s unit = elementary “Wirkungs quantum ” = =—=(Oi03 >< 1Om-) Er gsa Secs k=constant of entropy equation = 1.42 X 10—16 ergs. /degrees. TABLE 284.— Radiation in Gram-Calories per 24 Hours per sq. cm. from a Perfect Radiator at ¢° C to an absolutely Cold Space (—273° C). Computed from the Stefan-Boltzmann formula. ™~ Oo Q 1400 1430 1470 1650 1850 2070 2310 5960 313 X 10% 318 X I0# 921X108 eee WWNY NN ND Be ee NO MDL NO WOOL N TABLE 285. —Values of J, for Various Temperatures Centigrade. Ekholm, Met. Z. 1902, used C,= 8346 and C, = 14349, and for the unit of time the day. For 10°, the values for J, have been multiplied by 10, for the other temperatures by roo. ~ Ny | 8 oO oO a —30° C | —80° C 100° C} 30° C 0° C | —30° C | —80° C 2175} 1491 1954 | 1363 1754 | 1242 1574 | 1129 1413 | 1026 1270 | 931 1141 | 846 1028| 768 926] 6098 750 S29 623| 482 259] 209 102 5S 20 9 -_— = ON HOO ON Quaw pb F YN NNN NN tO COANARW NH MAnLW t ONOROFOVO SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 252 TABLES 286, 287. COOLING BY RADIATION AND CONVECTION. TABLE 286. — At Ordinary Pressures. TABLE 287. — At Different Pressures. According to McFarlane* the rate of loss of heat by a sphere Experiments made by J. P. Nicol in Tait’s Labo- placed in the centre of a spherical enclosure which has a ratory show the effect of pressure of the en- blackened surface, and is kept at a constant temperature of closed air on the rate of loss of heat. In this about 14° C, can be expressed by the equations case the air was dry and the enclosure kept at about 8° C. é@ = .000238 + 3.06 X 10-64 — 2.6 X 10-82, when the surface of the sphere is blackened, or Polished surface. Blackened surface. e@ = .000168 + 1.98 X 10-68% — 1.7 X 10—8/%, when the surface is that of polished copper. In these equa- et et tions, eis the amount of heat lost in c. g.s. units, that is, the quantity of heat, small calories, radiated per second per square centimeter of surface of the sphere, per degree differ- ence of temperature ¢, and ¢ is the difference of temperature between the sphere and the enclosure. The medium through 63.8 .00987 61.2 .01746 which the heat passed was moist air. The following table 57-1 .00862 50.2 01360 gives the results. 50.5 .007 36 41.6 .01078 .00628 34.4 -00860 00562 27.8 .00640 00438 20.5 00455 .00378 - = 00278 |. —- - -00210 > = PRESSURE 76 CMS. OF MERCURY. Differ- Value of e. ence of tempera- ae Polished surface. | Blackened surface. 000178 000252 PRESSURE 10.2 . OF MERCURY. .000186 .000266 67.8 00492 62.5 01298 61.1 00433 57-5 01158 55 00383 53-2 .01048 49.7 .00340 47-5 .00898 44.9 00302 43.0 .00791 40.8 .00268 28.5 00490 000193 -000201 .000289 .000207 .000298 .000212 .000306 -000217 -000313 PRESSURE 1 CM. OF MERCURY. .000220 .000319 00388 62.5 01182 -00355 57°5 01074 .00286 01003 .00219 .00726 .OO157 : .00639 .OO1 24 : .00569 - : 00446 - ; .00391 .000223 .000323 .00022 .000326 .000226 000328 000226 000328 * “ Proc. Roy. Soc.” 1872. + ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’’ Edinb. 1869. See also Compan, Annal. de chi. et phys. 26, p. 526. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, TABLES 288, 289. 253 COOLING BY RADIATION AND CONVECTION. TABLE 288. — Cooling of Platinum Wire in Copper Envelope. Bottomley gives for the radiation of a bright platinum wire to a copper envelope when the space between is at the highest vacuum attainable the following numbers : — t= 408° C., ef = 378.8 X 10-4, temperature of enclosure roo G; t= 505° C., ef= 726.1 X 10-4, as fs 17 Gs It was found at this degree of exhaustion that considerable relative change of the vacuum produced very small change of the radiating power. The curve of relation between degree of vacuum and radiation becomes asymp- totic for high exhaustions. The following table illustrates the variation of radiation with pressure of air in enclosure. Temp. of enclosure 16° C., ¢= 408° C. Temp. of enclosure 17° C., ¢= 505° C. Pressure in mm. et Pressure in mm. 740. 8137.0 X 10-# 0.094 1688.0 X 10-4 440. FOILOM 5: C53 T2155 (OM sh 140. 7375 Ones 034 1126.0 42. 7591.0 013 920.4 4. 6036.0 .0046 831.4 0.444 2653.0 00052 707.4 .070 1045.0 .00019 740.4 034 W273 Lowest reached Gu O12 539-2 but not measured ee 0051 430.4 .00007 378.8 TABLE 289. — Effect of Pressure on Loss of Heat at Different Temperatures. The temperature of the enclosure was about 15° C. The numbers give the total radiation in therms per square cen- timeter per second. Pressure in mm. Temp. of wire in C°. Note. — An interesting example (because of its practical importance in electric light- ing) of the effect of difference of surface condition on the radiation of heat is given on the authority of Mr. Evans and himself in Bottomley’s paper. The energy required to keep up acertain degree of incandescence in a lamp when the filament is dull black and when it is “flashed ” with coating of hard bright carbon, was found to be as follows : — Dull black filament, 57.9 watts. Bright “ ce 39.8 watts. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 254 TABLE 290. PROPERTIES OF STEAM. | Metric Measure. The temperature Centigrade and the absolute temperature in degrees Centigrade, together with other data for steam or water vapor stated in the headings of the columns, are here given. The quantities of heat are in therms or calo- ries according as the gram or the kilogram is taken as the unit of mass. pp v. H —(h+ Afv). | Absolute temp. Pressure in mm. of mercury. Pressure in grams per sq. centimeter Pressure in atmospheres. Total heat of evap- oration from 0° at Heat of liquid Heat of evapora- Outer latent or ex- ternal-work heat Total heat of Inner latent or in- ternal-work heat Liters per gram, or cubic meters per kilog. Ratio of inner la- tent heat to vol- ume of steam.t 210.66 150.23 108.51 5-231 563-7| 79-35 7-104 559:8| 58.72 9.532 555-9) 43-96 12.64 552:0| 33-27 16.59 548.2] 25.44 21.54 544-1] 19.64 27.70 575-1 | 35. 540.1] 15-31 35-26 Ww Ni eGR & wn OonN] Ow an Wut Om “NTIOH UH SEZ: 5360.1] 12.049 44.49 568.2 | 36. 532-1] 9.561 55-05 564.7 | 36. 528.10 77-053 69.02 561.1 | 37. 524.2] 6.171 84.94 557-0] 37- 520.2] 5.014 | 103.75 554-1 | 37- 516.2] (4.102 | 125.8 550.6] 38. 512-2) 3:3790| isto 547-1 | 30. 508.2! 2.800 | 181.5 8 | 543-6] 39. 6] 504.2] 2.334 | 216.0 540.0 | 39. 500.3] 1.957 | 255-7 536-5 496.3] 1.6496} 300.8 533-0 | 40. 492.3] 1.3978 | 352.2 529-4] 41. .0| 488.4] 1.1903] 410.3 525.8] 41. 484.4] 1.0184] 475.6 522.3] 41. 480.4] 0.8752] 549.0 518.7 | 42. 476.5] 0.7555| 630.7 515-1 | 42. 472.5| 0.6548| 721.6 511.6] 43. 468.6] 0.5698} 822.3 508.0 | 43.38 | 605.8 | 464.6] 0.4977] 933-5 504-4 | 43. 460.7} 0.4363 | 1055.7 500.8 | 44. 456.7] 0.3839] I1g0. 497-2 | 44. 452.8] 0.3388 | 1336. 493-5 | 44. 448.8| 0.3001 | 1496. 489.9 | 45. 444.8} 0.2665 1669. 486.3] 45- 440.9] 0.2375] 1856. 482.7 | 45. 436.9} 0.2122] 2050. 479.0 | 46. 433-0| 0.1901 | 2277. 475-3 | 46. 429.0] 0.1708) 2512. 471.7 | 46. 425.0! 0.1538 | 2763. 468.0] 46. 421.1] 0.1389} 3031. 464.3] 47. 417.1] 0.1257 | 3318. * Where A is the reciprocal of the mechanical equivalent of the thermal unit. ¢ —7—lk+ Apv)_ ____internal-work pressure __ Where » is taken in litres the pressure is given per square uv mechanical equivalent of heat . f decimetre, and where w is taken in cubic metres the pressure is given per square metre,—the mechanical equivalent being that of the therm and the kilogram-degree or calorie respectively. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 291. 255 PROPERTIES OF STEAM. British Measure. . ° The quantities given in the different columns of this table are sufficiently explained by the headings. The abbrevia- tion B. T. U. stands for british thermal units. With the exception of column 3, which was calculated for this table, the data are taken from a table given by Dwelshauvers-Dery (Trans. Am. Suc. Mech. Eng. vol, xi.). in pounds per pound of steam Neb eeles square inch. heat per pound of steam in Bleue External latent heat per pound of steam in Btu: heat per pound Heat of water Internal Jatent of steam in BAL: Total heat per pound in cubic per pound in in pounds per feet. Pressure Pressure square foot. Pressure in atmospheres. Temp. in degrees Fahr. Volume per Weight per cubic foot in pounds, Total latent Oo iS) G2 ase OO ONO UMSWDd Ee al N NHN HN NN RN We NoHNN ee es ORE ts NWWW NNNNN SO WONNnW N CHOWAN DA NUH bby NN b NNN ONIUwW NNN NN BROS Gngnsd NNN NN = FAW W WW dW Ny Sn E WA Wofonm Oh OnNMN S} b tn ba 0 ON NWO y t SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Pressure in peunds per square inch. oa wn i) ~) t mn Go 54 square foot. pounds per Pressure in 7200 7344 7458 7632 7776 7920 8064 $208 8352 8496 8640 8784 8928 9072 9216 9360 9504 9648 9792 9936 10080 10224 103608 IO5I2 10056 10800 10944 11088 11232 11376 11520 11664 11808 11952 12096 12240 11384 12528 12672 12816 12960 13104 13248 13392 13536 13680 13824 13968 14112 14256 Pressure in atmospheres. 735 TABLE 291 (continued). PROPERTIES OF STEAM. British Measure. s M ie é 3 : eeu is eos & eo ao Ses dle ae | bee | eee | 285 || gees Be | Biss Wy coca (ais ee ae Sreaceaes Bo | >ao | Bes | Dad | Hace 280.8 | 8.34 | 0.1198 | 251.0 | 839.0 282.1 | 8.19 L220 ||92152:2))| 038.0 283.3 | 8.04 1243 | 253-5 | 837-0 284.5 | 7-90 .1266 | 254.7 | 836.0 28G7/ a t757 © 1288 | 256.0 | 835.1 286.9 | 7.63 | 0.1310 | 257.1 | 834.2 288.1 7-50 1333) 2168-350 1633¢2 289.2 | 7.38 1355 | 250-5 | 832.3 2090.3 | 7.26 neyi7) || AGo? || “Satins 291.4 | 7-14 1400 1.8 | 830.6 292.5 | 7.03 | 0.1422 | 262.9 | 829.7 293.6 | 6.92 -1444 | 264.0 | 828.9 294.7 | 6.82 .1406 | 265.1 | 828.0 295.7 | 6.72 .1488 | 266.1 | 827.2 290.7 | 6.62 -I§%I | 267.2 | 826.4 2075851) 6.52) \|0.1533 |.'268.3)1 8215.6 298.8 | 6.43 1555 | 269.3 | 824.8 299.8 | 6.34 1577 | 270.4 | 824.0 300.8 | 6.25 1599 | 271.4 | 823.2 301.8 | 6.17 1621 | 272.4 | 822.4 302.7 | 6.09 | 0.1643 | 273.4 | 821.6 303.7 | 6.00 -1665 | 274.3 | 820.9 304.6 | 5.93 1687 | 275.3 | 820.1 305-5 583 1709 | 276.3 | 819.4 306.5 | 5- LB Ie 277-2 Oloa BO7-AB| h 5-70). | (0.17 53a) 270.21) O17-0 308.3 | 5-63 L775 270-1) wolye2 300.2 | 5-57 1797 | 280.0 | 816.5 310.1 | 5.50 1818 | 280.9 | 815.8 310.9 | 5-43 1840 | 281.8 | 815.1 11.8 37. | 0.1862 | 282.7 | 814.4 sas ae .1884 | 283.6 | 813.8 Biiehis |) G2 1906 | 284.5 | 813.0 314.4 | 5-19 1928 | 285.3 | 812.4 BE eal sls 1949 | 286.2 | 811.7 316.0 | 5.07 | 0.1971 | 287.0} 811.1 316.8 | 5.02 1993 | 287.9 | 810.4 317.6 | 4.96 2015 | 288.7 | 809.8 318.4 | 4.91 2036 | 289.5 | 809.2 319.2 | 4.86 2058 | 290.4 | 808.5 320.0 | 4.81 | 0.2080 | 291.2 | 807.9 320.8 | 4.76 2102 | 292.0 | 807.3 BZ TOR maul .2123 | 292.8 | 806.7 322.4 | 4.66 2145 | 293.6 | 806.1 323.1 | 4.62 2166 | 294.3 | 805.5 323-9 | 4.57 | 0.2188 | 298.1 | 804.9 324.6 | 4.53 2209 | 295.9 | 804.3 325.4 | 4.48 2231 | 296.7 | 803.7 326.1 4.44 -2252 1297.4 | 803.1 326.8 | 4.40 .2274 | 298.2 | 802.5 heat per pound of steam in By tu. External latent NN SN ION Om 77:35 77-94 78.03 78.12 78.21 78.29 78.45 78.53 78.61 78.68 78.76 78.83 78.90 78.97 79-04 79.11 79.18 79-25 79:32 79-39 79-46 79-53 79-59 79-65 79-71 79-77 79:83 79.89 79-95 80.01 80.07 80.13 80.19 80.25 80.30 80.35 80.40 80.45 80.50 80.56 $0.61 80.66 80.71 80.76 80.81 80.86 80.91 heat per pound of steam in Ep len Oe Total latent 891.9 891.3 889.5 888.9 888.4 887.8 887.2 886.7 886.1 885.6 885.0 884.5 884.0 883.4 ound of steam Pp in Baie Total heat per a ew DX eles Oona 1168.7 1169.1 1169.4 1169.8 1170.1 1170.5 1170.8 1171.2 LI Pliols 1171.8 1172.1 1172.4 1172.8 1173-1 1173-4 1173-7 1174.0 1174-3 1174.0 1174-9 1175-1 1175-4 1175-7 1176.0 1176.2 1176.5 1176.8 1177.0 1177-3 1177.6 1177-8 1178.0 1178.3 1178.6 1178.9 1179.0 1179-3 1179-5 1179.8 1180.0 1180.3 1180.5 1180.7 1180.9 1181.2 1181.4 1181.6 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 291 (continued). 257. PROPERTIES OF STEAM. British Measure. heat per pound pound of steam in B, T. U. of steam in Beta External latent heat per pound of steam in B. T. heat per pound of steam in Dewees Total heat per Pressure in pounds per square inch. Pressuie in pounds per square foot. Pressure in atmospheres. Temp. in degrees Fahr. Volume per pound in cubic feet. Weight per cubic foot in pounds. Heat of water per pound in Internal latent Total latent - 56° xO ON oOo Oo Ww Oo Oo Wd CONT o eo ~] _ 3 Cc _ Co ww WNHNHNN nagioestn by WOO = Un oO - o oo to bt N = Om oO = ANODD bHbKHHH WWW hd Cae m=O _ SOO 2 Qw Nee b or me N oO Ww 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 21 25 28 32 35 oc# NNN fw Ny oO co CO EN AR On NR NNN HN TARA £GGRS ON OH Rohn N bw stn O OS Ha OMmMOort © WWII WWWWNW WW WW QWnNHHNN SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 2914 (continued), PROPERTIES OF STEAM. British Measure. Pressure in pounds per square inch. Pressure in pounds per square foot. Pressure in atmospheres. “oF %O tn Qo 4 Mm N NwWNN WD NNN N bd NbwHwHNN Go Ga Go G2 G2 HAP FO Se~I WW OB An OF O cubic foot in Heat of water per pound in Internal latent heat per pound of steam in Volume per Weight per pounds. degrees Fahr, pound in Temp. in cubic feet. w Ww Munn ‘Oo oO ny no irene 2 G2 Go WW n Onn ow we Ww nr ORONO SCO N“N oe SMITHSONIAN TABLES. pound eS External latent be heat per of steam in S Bales Co oo NNN oO oo wn Oo heat per pound of steam in Bete Total latent mmoMme Bux DX ORONO SOs AOR Bras ound of steam Total heat per p in TABLE 291 (continued). 259 PROPERTIES OF STEAM. British Measure. heat per pound of steam in heat per pound of steam in heat per pound pounds per square inch. Pressure in pounds per square foot. Pressure in atmospheres. degrees Fahr. Volume per pound in cubic feet. Weight per cubic foot in Heat of water per pound in Internal latent External latent Total latent of steam in Total heat per pound of steam inchs pk We ae o - 2 Q a o - Ay SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 260 TABLE 292. RATIO OF THE ELECTROSTATIC TO THE ELECTROMAGNETIC UNIT OF ELECTRICITY =V. V Cm. per sec. 2.75-2.92 X 1010 2.71-2.88 2.86-3.00 2.950-3.018 2.98-3.00 3.001-3.029 3.016-3.031 2.999-3.009 3.003-3.008 3.005-3.015 2.995-3-010 2.990-2.995 2.99706-2.997 41 3:01 <1020 2.84 2.81 2.90 2.981 2.96 2.967 2.955 Determined by R. Kohlrausch and W. Weber. Maxwell. Thomson and King. McKichan. Rowland. Ayrton and Perry. Hockin. Shida. Stoletow. Exner. J. J. Thomson. Klemencic. Colley. Himstedt. Thomson, Ayrton and Perry. Rosa. J. J. Thomson and Searle. Pellat. Abraham. Hurmuzescu. Perot and Fabry. Webster. Lodge and Glaze- brook. Rosa and Dorsey. Reference. Pogg. Ann. 99; 1856. Phil. Trans. ; 1868. B. A. Report; 1869. Phil. Mag. 47; 1874. Phil. Mag. 28; 1889. Phil. Mag. 7; 1879. B. A. Report; 1879. Phil. Mag. 10; 1880. Jour. de Phys. ; 1881. Wien. Ber.; 1882. Phil. Trans. ; 1883. Wien. Ber. 83, 89, 93; 1881-6. Wied. Ann. 28; 1886. Wied. Ann. 29, 33, 35; 1887-8. Electr. Rev. 23; 1888-9. Phil. Mag. 28; 1889. Phil. Trans.; 1890. Jour. de Phys. 10; 1891. Ann. Chim. et Phys. 27; 1829. Ann. Chim. et Phys. 10; 1897. Ann. Chim. et Phys. 13; 1898. Phys. Rev. 6; 1898. Cam. Phil. Soc. 18; 1899. Bull. Bur. Standards 3; 1907. The last of the above determinations is the result of an extended series of measurements upon various forms of condensers, and is believed to be correct within 1/100 per cent. This, however, assumes that the International Ohm is 10? c.g.s. units. The value of Vis therefore subject to one-half the error of the International Ohm. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 293. MOTIVE FORCE OF STANDARD CELLS. Observer. Clark F. Kohlrausch Mascart F. and W. Kohlrausch Electromotive Force* of Electrochemical Equiv- alent of Silver. Method. { Electrodynamometer Sine Galvanometer Tangent Galvanometer Current Balance Tangent Galvanometer Clark |Weston Cell at | Cell at TE) GF ||20 1C: Volts. 1.4573 1.4562 Volts. Filter Paper Volta- meter. Mg. 1.1363 Porous Cup Volta- meter. = oa Volta- meter. 261 ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENTS OF CURRENTS AND OF THE ELECTRO- | References. Current Balance Sine Galvanometer Electromag. Balance Electrodynamometer Electrodynamometer Electrodynamometer Electrodynamometer Electrodynamometer Electrodynamometer Tangent Galvanometer Electrodynamometer Revision of 1904 work Current Balance With the above Current Balance With the above Current Balance Electrodynamometer Tangent Galvanometer Current Balance With the above Tangent Galvanometer Rayleigh and Sedgwick Gray Koepsel Potier and Pellat Kahle ¢ Patterson and Guthe Carhart and Guthe Callendar and King Pellat and Leduc Van Dijk and Kunst Guthe Van Dijk Ayrton, Mather and Smith Smith, Mather and Lowry Janet, Laporte and Jouaust ¢ Janet, Laporte and de la Gorce Guillet ¢ Pellat + Haga and Boerema Rosa, Dorsey and Miller Rosa, Vinal and McDaniel Haga and Boerema 1.11794 I.11740 I.11Q2 Oo CO IAMUEWH H I.11Q5 1.11823 1.01853 - 4 a I - SATS aU BS Teall wo HH ne 1.01819 - - 1.11827 1.01836 - - 1.11821 r.o1812 =e 1.01831 1.01825 1.01822 H _ H RSS TSU Wes RR SSE ete he DSL RSs tee eH om 1 ae al 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. May 3oth, 1872 (Values in B. A. volts chi sata (Og) 2 Pogg. Ann. vol. 149, p. 170 (anode wrapped in cloth). 3 J. de Phys. vol. 1, p. 109, vol. 3, p. 283. 17 4 Wied. Ann. vol. 27, p. 1, 1886. 18 5 Phil. Trans. A, vol. 175, p. 411, 1884. 19 6 Phil. Mag. vol. 22, p. 380, 1886 7 Ann. d. Phys. vol. 31, p. 250, 1887. 20 8 J. de Phys. vol. 9, p. 381, 1890. 21 9 Zs f Instr. vol. 17, p. 97, 143-4, vol. 18, p. 276. 22 10 Phys. Rev. vol. 7, p. 257. (Added Agso). 23 11 Phys. Rev. vol. 9, p. 288, 1890. 24 12 Phil. Trans. A, vol. 199, p. 81, 1902. 25 Taz ae 136, p. 1649. (Muslin and filter paper both 26 used. 14 Ann. d. Phys. vol. 14, p. 569, 1904. 15 Bull. B. S. vol. 2, p. 33, 1906. 16 Ann. d. Phys. vol. 19, p. 249, 1906. Phil. Trans. A, vol, 207, p. 463, 1908. Phil. Trans. A, vol. 207, p. 545, 1908. \ Bull. Int. Soc. Electr. vol. 8, p. 459, 1908. C. R. vol.) 153, Pp. 718, Iort. Bull. Int. Soc. Electr. vol. 8, p. 523, 1908. Bull. Int. Soc. Electr. vol. 8, p. 535, 1908. Bull. Int. Soc. Electr. vol. 8, p. 573, 1908. Proc. Ak. Wiss. Amster. vol. 13, p. 587. Bull. Bureau Standards, vol. 8, p. 269, 1912. Bull. Bulletin Standards, vol. 8, p. 367, 1912. Arch. Neer. Sci. IIIA, vol. 3, p. 324, 1913. * The values given in these columns are not strictly absolute volts since they were in most cases determined in terms of an absolute ampere and an international ohm. Hence they may be called “‘semi-absolute.’’ No absolute determina- tions of the ohm have been made in recent times, but some are in progress. + Other values usually given as Kahle’s results and officially used by the Reichsanstalt are voltameter determinations. To include them here would necessitate including many others similarly made. The value 1.1183 includes 5 filter paper determinations out of 26 observations. + These values have been corrected for the difference between the French ohm at this time and that in use elsewhere. (C. R. vol. 153, p. 718.) Measurements prior to Van Dijk (1906) and the subsequent filter paper voltameter determinations are now only of historical interest, but the large amount of work done in recent years makes these early determinations of especial inter- est. The errors due to the use of filter paper and other impurities (acid, alkali, colloidal matter, etc.) in the voltameter electrolyte make it impossible to apply corrections. The values for the cell are not readily comparable owing to varia- tions in the voltage of the cell itself and the unit of resistance. See Dorn, Wiss. Abhl. der Phys. Tech. Reich., vol. II, p. 257. Since 1911 the voltage adopted for the Weston Normal Cell at 20° C. is 1.0183 international volts in all the leading countries. The international volt is to be distinguished from the absolute volt since it is based on the definition of the mercury ohm and the silver voltameter, taking the electrochemical equivalent of silver to be 1.11800 mg per coulomb. The difference between the international volt and the absolute volt is negligible for practical purposes. The tempera- ture coefficient of the Weston Normal Cell (saturated type) is given in Table 294. The new value of the Weston cell was adopted in the United States on January 1, 1911. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 262 TABLE 294. COMPOSITION AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF VOLTAIC CELLS. The electromotive forces given in this table approximately represent what may be expected from a cell in good work- ing order, but with the exception of the standard Cells all of them are subject to considerable variation. —— S| (a) DousLe Fruip Cg tts. e,e aw Neue of Negative pole. Solution. Fores Solution. Sie ce pole. ead ee ee ee 2 -._| (1 part HoSO, to : Bunsen. .| Amalgamated zinc 12 parts H2O . Carbon | Fuming H2zNO3 _ . | 1.94 ae oO no oO 0 ON woop 00 90 OO OV ee er i i et i ee _ to _ Antimony Zinc Antimony Zinc Bismuth Antimony Cadmium Lead Zinc Antimony Cadmium Zinc Tin ae NP He DNP SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Substance. Antimony Zinc Tin Antimony Cadmium Zinc Antimony Tellurium Antimony Bismuth Antimony Iron Antimony Magnesium Antimony Lead Bismuth Bismuth Antimony Relative quantity A HO WON HKD —_ TOTO ees ee I = COR CO ef HO my Thermoelec- tric power in microvolts. > w Substance. Bismuth Antimony Bismuth Antimony Bismuth Antimony Bismuth Antimony Bismuth Tin Bismuth Selenium Bismuth Zinc Bismuth Arsenic Bismuth Bismuth sulphide Neutral point A Relative quantity. _ = O — CO mph _ m= ND _ Oo _ _ =x No NN m= ND wee eae eae es ew ees ieee eee> — = = 0.04, Tea 1.7 The thermoelectric powers of a number of alloys are given in this table, the authority being Ed. Becquerel. They are In reducing the results from copper as,a reference metal, Thermoelec- tric power in microvolts. | wn _ aS 270 TaBLes 300, 301. TABLE 300.— Thermoelectric Power against Platinum. One junction is supposed to be at o°C; + indicates that the current flows from the o° junction into the platinum. The rhodium and iridium were rolled, the other metals drawn.* Tempera- 90% Pt+ 9o%Pt+ | 90°%Pt+ ture, °C. 7 Zs 10%Pd. Yi 2 10%Rh. | 10%Ru. | 9° mn © ata -++200 +300 x On On ab NOON ADS +400 +500 +600 +700 +800 -++900 -++ 1000 -+-+-1100 -+(1300) + (1500) t4++++++ [ee CoC NaN ae Cw ORORO ++4++4++4+4++ ++++4+++++ WOPNOONALPWNAO AO DAOH OAH OAM QW b De QuriWw NWN HK NW Petra AP OO MHOMHW delete Meee teete ts eteateae MOM RO CAMWN + QAP ONNO HUN Un OS CRONOE CO ONG ety ce * Holborn and Day. TABLE 301.—Thermal E. M. F. of Pure Platinum Against Platinum-Rhodium Alloys, in Millivolts.* 20 p. ct. | 30 p. ct.t| 40 p. ct.t | roop. ct. 0.65 eretele 950 1.51 2.34 2.45 2.57 3:50 | 3:64] 3.76 4:74 | 4.93 | 5.08 6.06 6.31 6.55 7-49 7.80 8.14 9.01 | 9.37 | 9.87 10.67 TT OON | anna! 12.42 | 12.94 | 13.74 14.33 | 14.99 | 15.87 16:39) |) 172134 |" 1o-10 18.51 | 19.51 | 20.46 ZOG7alnn2ke73 ests NANA ESSN ON GOGAT SET ORGSTEN Be enor YwWww Pn * Carnegie Institution, Pub. 157, rgrt. ¢ Holborn and Wien, 1892. + Holborn and Day, mean value, 1899. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 302-304. 271 TABLE 302. — Peltier Effect. The coefficient of Peltier effect may be calculated from the constants A and B of Table 208, as there shown. Experimental results, expressed in slightly different units, are here given. The figures are for the heat production at a junction of copper and the metal named, in calories per ampere-hour. The current flowing from copper to the metal named, a positive sign indicates a warming of the junction. The temperature not being stated by either author, and Le Roux not giving the algebraic signs, these results are not of great value. Calories per ampere-hour. Jahn* Le Rouxt . | 13.02 * “Wied. Ann.” vol. 34, p. 767- t “Ann, de Chim. et de Phys.” (4) vol. ro, p. 201. + Becquerel’s antimony is 806 parts Sb + 406 parts Zn-+ 12x parts Bi. § Becquerel’s bismuth is ro parts Bi-++1 part Sb. . TABLE 303. — Peltier Effect, Fe-Constantan, Ni-Cu, 0 — 560° G. ‘Temperature. Fe-Constantan. . . ‘ d i ; : 12.5 in Gram. Cal.6xX—108 ING eee bei as? : : ‘ : : g per coulomb. TABLE 304. — Peltier Electromotive Force in Millivolts. Metal against Copper. Le Roux iJabn?.. sp ; i m +.37 Edlund. . : +.33 | +.50 | +.56 | +.70 | +1.02 Caswell. . - |+.70} -+.85 Le Roux, 1867; Jahn, 1888; Edlund, 1870-71 ; Caswell, Phys. Rey. 33, p. 381, 1911. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 272 1882 1883 1884 1887 1887 1882 18885 1890 1890 1891 1894 1895 1897 1899 1883 1884 1884 1884 1884 1885 1889 Observer, Lord Rayleigh Lord Rayleigh Mascart . Rowland. Kohlrausch Glazebrook Wuilleumeier . Duncan and Wilkes Jones 4 . . Jones . 5 Himstedt ; Ayrton and Jones . Guillet. : Wild Wiedemann H. F. Weber . H. F. Weber . Roiti Himstedt Lorenz . ° Dorn | IQII | Nat. Phys. Lab. TABLE 305. Rotating coil Lorenz method Induced current : Mean of several methods Damping of magnets Induced currents Mean effect of induced currents : Lorenz method Lorenz method Lorenz method 5 : Mean effect of induced current , Lorenz method Value of B. A, unit in ohms. ‘9861 I 98644 -98660 98665 £98686 £98634 (.98634) Mean effect of induced current, using a calibrated 1000-ohm coil Means Damping of magnet Earth inductor Induced current Rotating coil . : 0.98651 Mean effect of induced current, using German silver coils certified by makers Mean effect of induced current, using German silver coils certified by makers Lorenz method Damping of magnet zphase . : Value of Sie- mens unit, B. A. unit. VARIOUS DETERMINATIONS OF THE VALUE OF THE OHM. Value of ohm in cms. The legal value of the ohm is the resistance of a column of mercury of uniform cross-section, weighing 14.4521 gms., and having a length of 106.30 cms. This is known as the international ohm. Mercury ohms conforming to these specifications have been prepared in recent years at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, the National Physical Laboratory, and the Bureau of Standards. The wire standards of resistance at the above-named laboratories agree in value to within two parts in 100000. Hence there is a very close agreement in the values of precision resistances calibrated at these laboratories, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 306. 273 SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF METALLIC WIRES. This table is modified from the table compiled by Jenkin (1862) from Matthiessen’s results by taking the resistance of silver, gold, and copper from the observed metre gramme value and assuming the densities found by Matthiessen, namely, 10.468, 19.265, and 8.95. Substance. crease of temp. at 20° C. Resistance at 0° C. of a wire one cm. long, one sq. cm. in section. Resistance at 0° C. of a wire one metre long, one mm. in diam. Resistance at 0° C. of a wire one metre long, weighing one gram. Resistance at 0° C. of a wire one foot long, x00 in. in diam. Resistance at 0° C. of a wire one foot long, weighing one grain. Percentage increase of resistance for 1° C, in- Silver annealed . : ; 1.460 X 10%} 0.01859 “ hard drawn . : 1.585 0.02019 : 9.538 Copper annealed : : 1.584 0.02017 : 9.529 “ hard drawn . : 1.619 0.02062 : 9-741 Gold annealed . ; 7 2.088 0.02659 2 12.56 “ hard drawn 2 ; 2.125 0.02706 : 12.78 Aluminium annealed . : 2.906 0.03699 : 17.48 Zinc pressed. : : 5-613 0.07146 ; 33-76 Platinum annealed . : 9.035 0.1150 54-35 Iron . : . 9.693 0.1234 58.31 Nickel Canis 12.43 0.1583 74.78 Tin pressed ae 13.18 0.1678 79.29 ead . ° : 19.14 0.2437 : 115.1 Antimony pressed . 35-42 0.4510 213.1 Bismuth * : emit 3O:9) 1.667 787.5 Mercury < ds 94.07 1.198 565-9 Platinum-silver, 2 parts Ag, I part Pt, by weight aig Se ag German silver . . . 20.89 0.2660 125.7 10.84 0.1380 65.21 2.359 Gold-silver, 2 parts Au, 1 part Ag, by weight SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 274 TaBLe 307. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF METALS. The resistance is here given as the resistance in microhms per cm. cube when the specific re- sistance of mercury at 0° is taken as 94.1 microhms. Substance. Temperature, °C. Resistance. Authority. Aluminum. . . aD: —189. 0.64 Niccolai, 1907. 6 —I00. 15S “ce “cc oO. 2.62 +100. 3.86 400. 8.0 20. 2.828 See p. 284. Antimony. . . —190. 10.5 Eucken, Gelhoff. of oO. 38.6 Mean. i: liquid +860. 120. de la Rive. JATSENIC ash te) nie oO. 35: Matthiessen. Bismuth 18. 119.0 Jager, Diesselhorst. ss 100. 160.2 e ss Cadmium . . . | drawn —160. 2.72 Lees, 1908. s a6 18. 7-54 Jager, Diesselhorst. oe 100. 9.82 “ee “ liquid 318. 34-1 Mean. (Gzesiumyae eee —187. 5-25 Guntz, Broniewski. rs oO. 19. Mean. Calcium ~.°. = | 99.5 pure 20. 10.5 Moissan, Chavanne Chromium. . . : 2.6 Shukow. Cobalt <°.'. | || 99.8 pure ; 9-7 Reichardt, 1901. Copper. . - | annealed : 1.724 See p. 284. s hard-drawn 77, s sf electrolytic .144 Dewar, Fleming, « 2.92 Dickson. pure : 4.10 Niccolai, 1907. Gallium. . . ; 53: Guntz, Broniewski. Goldikar-mr 99.9 pure : 0.68 D, F, D, 1898. os 2.22 Mean. pure, drawn 5 2.42 J, D, 1900. 99.9 pure : 3-77 D, F, D, 1898. Indium... . : 8.37 Erhardt, 1881. ridiumy) es) en te : 1.92 Broniewski, Hack- 4 : 6.10 spill, 1g11. “ i 8.3 « “ Ibi a go pure, soft 5 .652 D, F, D, 1898. “ “ee Ts “ 5.32 “OE “ec 8.85 ss 17.8 “ 21.5 43-3 Niccolai, 1907. cast : 19.1 Kohlrausch. “ ; 104. “ ie nts 114. piano-wire : 11.8 Strouhal, Barus,’83. temp. glass, hard : 45-7 ss Cee “ yellow . 27. . eeiblue 7 20.5 os “ soft : 15.9 cold-pressed : 6.02 D, F, D, 1808. “ “ Se 14.1 ee “ 20.4 28.0 oe “cc 36.9 ee “ ie ‘ 94- Vincentini, Omodei. Lithium. . . : 1.34 Guntz, Broniewski. “ “cc “ SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 307 (continued). 275 SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF METALS. The resistance is here given as the resistance in microhms per cm. cube when the specific resistance of mercury at 0° C is taken as 94.1 microhms, Authority. Temperature, °C. Resistance. Substance. Lithium, continued oO. 8.55 Guntz, Broniewski. “ “ ; \ 99.3 12.7 “6 a “ < ¢ liquid 230. 45-2 Bernini, 1905. Manganese . 5.0-- Shukow. Magnesium . free from zn. —183. 1.00 Dewar, Fleming, + S < — 78. 2.97 Dickson, 1898. s s “ oO. 4-35 D, F, D, 1898. “ “ “ 98.5 5:99 ki “ a “6 pure 400. 11.9 Niccolai, 1907. solid —183.5 6.97 D, F, D, 1898. “cc —147.5 10.57 “ se 3 —102.9 15-04 4 — 50.3 2153 yi — 39.2 25.5 a — 36.1 80.6 liquid 0.0 94.07 . IO. 94.92 Strecker, 1885. “ 20. 95-74 e “ . 50. 98.50 Grimaldi, 1888. s 100. 103.25 Vincentini,Omodei, af 200. 114.27 1890. ee 350. 135-5 nee pure —182.5 1.44 Fleming, 1900. “cc ae 78.2 4.31 6 “ 3 oO. 6.93 * 94.9 II.1 400. 60.2 Niccolai, 1907. Osmium . Blau, 1905. Palladium Dewar, Fleming,’9 “cs Niccolai, 1907. Broniewski, Hack- spill, 1911. “ “cc Rubidium . . . | Solid —190. Hackspill, 1910. “ “ Oo. “ec “ ye liquid 40. 19.6 ss < SIkVeKian tele electrolytic —183. 0.390 D, F, D, 1898. Niccolai, 1907. Jager, Diesselhorst SIHciuMmees ice 6 Strontium Sonim.) “ Matthiessen, 1857. Guntz, Broniewski, 1909. “ec SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 307, 308. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF METALS. ; TABLE 307 (concluded). The resistance is here given as the resistance in microhms per cm. cube when the specific resistance of mercury at 0° C. is taken as 94.1 microhms. Temperature, Cc. Substance. State. Resistance. Authority. Tantalum . : : - | Pure - 14.6 Pirani. Tellurium . : . ; ‘ - 19.69 21.5 Matthiessen, 1852. Thallium . . ‘ . Pure ares 4.08 Dewar, Fleming, Dickson, 1898. ae vai’ “ce ce “ a Mealanes i ares Aree : , . : oe 98.5 24.7 Titanium : ' - 3-19 Shukow. ABN : : : ; —183. 3.40 D, F, D, 1898. “ . 2 é x ne 78. 8.8 ce oc “ce “ °. 13.0 sf 91.45 18.2 ss 176. 23.6 ss —183. 1.62 se Be 3-34 ee oO. 5.75 “6 “e 92.45 8.00 sf 191-5 10.37 ce “e 37-2 De la Rive, 1863. “ce “e “ce “ee TABLE 308.— Temperature Resistance Coefficients. If Ro is the resistance at the temperature to, and R¢ at the temperature t, then R¢ may over small ranges of temperature be approximately represented by the formula Rt = Ro (1 + at). Substance. Temperature. Substance. Temperature. 0.0062 0.0043 .0043 .0030 Aluminum 18-100° C. Nickel O-100° C. si Hh tose 5 Se Paar eu oY eg — eee sf 4 100 Siete 100 f : 500 Sinieirae 500 Bismuth . Cadmium Copper Gold t annealed oc “ Iron, pure “cs “e “cc — steel oe “cc Ieeadintinr. as Magnesium . “cc Mercury* Molybdenum “cc ae 1, Jager, Diesselhorst, Wiss. Abh. D., Phys. Tech. Reich. 3, p. 269, 1900; 2, Somerville, Phys. Rev. 31, p. 261, 1910, 33, p. 77, 1911; 3, Dewar, Fleming, 1893, 1896; Strouhal, Barus, 1883; 0-100 0-100 see p. 284-85 t= 1002 400 1000 18-100 to — 1002 500 1000 0-100 trees 100 500 1000 glass, h’d blue piano wire 18-100 0-100 to = Zine 100 500 600 0-15 to =! 25° 100 500 1000 Palladium Platinum Silver ’ “ Tantalum . Tin Tungsten oe “ ANG Lyne Advance ee cc “ Constantin sc Manganin . “é ee “ 5, Glazebrook Phil. Mag. 20, p. 343, 1885; 6, Pirani. 1000 0-100 0-100 0-100 to = 250 100 500 O-100 18-100 18-100 to = 500° 1000 0-100 toes 50 100 200 12 25 100 200 500 12 25 100 500 * Mercury, R = Ro (1 + .ooo8gt + ooooort?). SMITHSONIAN TABLES. .0037 0035 .0037 .0040 .0030 .0036 0044 0033 .0046 0045 0057 .0089 .0040 + .000020 —.000008 —.000007 +.000007 +..000008 +.000002 —.000033 —.000020 +.000027 +.000006 .000000 —.000042 —.000052 .000000 —.OO00I10 TABLE 309. 277 CONDUCTIVITY OF THREE-METAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. Conductivity in mhos or Metals and alloys. Gold-copper-silver . Nickel-copper-zinc . Brass oat 2 “hard drawn “annealed . German silver Aluminum bronze . Phosphor bronze Silicium bronze . Manganese-copper . Nickel-manganese-copper Nickelin Patent nickel . Rheotan Copper-manganese-iron sc “cc “cc Manganin . Constantan 1 Matthiessen. 2 Various. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 8 W. Siemens. 4 Feussner and Lindeck. ohms per cm. cube Composition by weight. Vee. 6.57 Zn by volume Various . 70.2 Cu ++ 29.8Zn « : Various 14.03 Ni+.30 Fe with trace of cobalt and manganese . {reapnt ei , 30Mn-+70Cu . 3 Ni+ 24Mn-+ 73Cu ( 18.46 Ni + 61.63 Cu + 19.67 Zn + 0.24 Fe + ! 0.19 Co + 0.18 Mn 0.42 Fe + 0.23 Zn + 25.1 Ni+74.41Cu+ { 0.13 Mn + trace of cobalt fo OT Oy 53h ae ‘ ee ae (037M : g9t1Cu+7.1Mn+1.9Fe . 70.6 Cu + 23.2 Mn- 6.2 Fe - | 69.7 Cu + 29.9 Ni + 0.3 Fe 84 Cu+ Ei 60 Cu-+ 4oNi. ; 6 Blood. 5 Van der Ven. = =C,=C, (1—at+oF). a X 108 & X 109 6 Feussner. 7 Jaeger-Diesselhorst. 278 TABLE 310. CONDUCTING POWER OF ALLOYS. This table shows the conducting power of alloys and the variation of the conducting power with temperature.* The 6 values of C, were obtained from the original results by assuming silver = ra ; mhos. The conductivity is taken as C,= C, (1—at+é??), and the range of temperature was from 0° to 100° C. The table is arranged in three groups to show (1) that certain metals when melted together produce a solution which has a conductivity equal to the mean of the conductivities of the components, (2) the behavior of those metals alloyed with others, and (3) the behavior of the other metals alloyed together. Itis pointed out that, with a few exceptions, the percentage variation between 0° and 100° can be calculated from the are. : : ; : formula P= P, pp where Z is the observed and / the calculated conducting power of the mixture at 100° C., and /, is the calculated mean variation of the metals mixed. Weight % | Volume % Variation per 100° C. G 4 a X 108 & X 109 of first named. Observed. |Calculated. SngPb . SnyCd . SnZn RbSne ZnC€de . SnCd, . CdPbe . Lead-silver (PbgoAg) . Lead-silver (PbAg) . Lead-silver (PbAgy) . Tin-gold (Sny2Au) . ea S(Snea) Tin-copper . “ “é Tin-silver . . “ce “ Zinc-copper oe “ “ “ 66 Nore. — Barus, in the “ Am. Jour. of Sci.” vol. 36, has pointed out that the temperature variation of platinum sae) . n : alloys containing less than 10% of the other metal can be nearly expressed by an equation y = 7— ™, where y is the temperature coefficient and + the specific resistance, 7 and 7 being constants. Ifa be the temperature coefficient at o° C. and s the corresponding specific resistance, s (a + 2) =. For platinum alloys Barus’s experiments gave #2 =— .o00194 and ” = .0378. For steel #z = —.000303 and ” = .0620. Matthiessen’s experiments reduced by Barus gave for Gold alloys 7 = — .000045, 7 = .00721. Silver ‘© #=—.ooo112, 2 = .00538. Copper ‘* 7 = — .000386, 77 =.00055. * From the experiments of Matthiessen and Vogt, ‘‘ Phil. Trans. R. S.’’ v. 154. + Hard-drawn. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 310 (continued)-311. 279 TABLE 310.—Conducting Power of Alloys. Weight % | Volume % Alloys. SS ee 4 a X 108 5X 10° of first named. Variation per 100° C. Observed. |Calculated. 21.87 23.22 7-41 7:53 Gold-coppert . . .]| 99.23 “ “ 7 . . 98.36 35.42 2650 4650 90.55 SI 81.66 10.16 749 Gold-silver + 87.95 1090 793 10.09 9.65 ie See were neo 7.5 79.86 13-61 1140 1160 10.21 9.59 cs SOEs aorta ote oo OAC SO 52.08 9.48 673 246 6.49 6.58 is Se Raye aw) atet |p OA.0O 52.08 9.51 721 495 6.71 6.42 rs oat 31.33 ee 13. 69 885 531 8.23 8.62 Co as 31.33 god 641 8.44 8.31 Gold-coppert . . -{ 34-83 864 570 8.07 8.18 s SBP aro. ioe 1.52 3320 7300 25.90 25.86 Platinum-silvert . - | 33-33 19.65 4.22 330 208 3.10 3.21 eee ties 9.51 5.05 11.38 774 656 7.08 7.25 . Seen ayes 5.00 2.51 19.96 1240 1150 11.29 11.88 Palladium-silver tf . .| 25.00 154 3.40 4.21 Copper-silvert . . .| 98.08 98.35 56.49 3450 7990 26.50 27-30 5 pe Pieces. 98 92: [ a O40 95:17 51-93 3250 6940 25-57 25-41 << seer. 70.74 77.64 44.06 3030 6070 24.29 21.92 SG 6 42.75 46.67 47.29 2870 5280 22.75 24.00 ss ee ales 7-14 8.2 50.65 2750 4360 23.17 25-57 < (cee tees 1.31 8740 26.51 29-77 Iron-goldt . . +. -| 13-59 7010 27.92 14.70 Se RT ero Vs)" 'e: a's 9.80 21.18 1.26 2970 1220 17-55 11.20 CRs SCE TM Te RAS spe 8 4.76 10.96 1.46 487 103 3.84 13-40 Iron-coppert .. - 0.40 13.44 14.03 Phosphorus-copper f . 2.50 “ “cs t P 0.95 Arsenic-coppert . - 5-40 a SOY Cee 2.80 * Annealed. + Hard-drawn. TABLE 311.— Allowable Carrying Capacity of Rubber-covered Copper Wires. (For inside wiring — Nat. Board Fire Underwriters’ Rules.) B+S Gage 00 0000 Amperes ie One| Leeland 33 | 46 54 | 65 | 76 | 90 | 107 | 127 | 150 | 210 500,000 circ. mills, 390 amp.; 1,000,000 c. m., 650 amp.; 2,000,000 c. m., 1,050 amp. For insulated al. wire, capacity =84% of cu. Preece gives as formula for fusion of bare wires I = adi, where d =diam. in inches, a for cu. is 10,244; al., 7585; pt., 5172; German silver, 5230; platinoid, 4750; Fe, 3148; Pb., 1379; alloy 2 pts. Pb., 1 of Sn., 1318. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 280 TABLE 312. RESISTANCE OF METALS AND The electrical resistance of some pure metals and of some alloys have been determined by Dewar and Fleming and increases as the temperature is lowered. The resistance seems to approach zero for the pure metals, but not for temperature tried. The following table gives the results of Dewar and Fleming.* When the temperature is raised above 0° C. the coefficient decreases for the pure metals, as is shown by the experi- experiments to be approximately true, namely, that the resistance of any pure metal is proportional to its absolute is greater the lower the temperature, because the total resistance is smaller. This rule, however, does not even zero Centigrade, as is shown in the tables of resistance of alloys. (Cf. Table 262.) Temperature = ne EEEEAEEEREEEREREREEEnE Metal or alloy. Aluminium, pure hard-drawn wire . : Copper, pure electrolytic and annealed . : 1457 Gold, soft wire ; : 2 : : 2081 Iron, pure soft wire : a ; : 9521 Nickel, pure (prepared by Mond’s process from compound of nickel and carbone . 13494 7470 monoxide) Platinum, annealed : ; 8752 6133 Silver, pure wire. 1647 1138 Tin, pure wire 10473 6681 German silver, commercial wire. E 34707 33664 Palladium-silver, 20 Pd-+80Ag . 14984 14482 Phosphor-bronze, commercial wire 1 hae 8588 8054 Platinoid, Martino’s platinoid with 1 to 2% tungsten ; 43823 43022 Platinum-iridium, 80 Pt-+2o0Ir_ . : ; 29902 29374 27504 Platinum-rhodium, 90 Pt-++ 10 Rh . ; 14586 3755 10778 Platinum-silver, 66.7 Ag + 33-3 Pt. 26915 26818 26311 ss from Edison-Swan incandescent ; 4046X 108 | 4092X 108 | 4189X 108 Carbon, from Edison-Swan incandescent an i 3834 X 103 | 3908 X 103 | 3955 X 108 | 4054 X 108 Carbon, adamantine, from Woodhouse and Rawson incandescent lamp t - | 6168 X 108 | 6300X 108 | 6363 X 108 | 6495 108 * “ Phil. Mag.” vol. 34, 1892. + This is given by Dewar and Fleming as 13777 for 96°.4, which appears from the other measurements too high. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 312 (continued). 281 ALLOYS AT LOW TEMPERATURES. by Cailletet and Bouty at very low temperatures. The results show that the coefficient of change with temperature the alloys. The resistance of carbon was found by Dewar and Fleming to increase continuously to the lowest ments or Miiller, Benoit, and others. Probably the simplest rule is that suggested by Clausius, and shown by these temperature. This gives the actual change of resistance per degree, a constant ; and hence the percentage of change approximately hold for alloys, some of which have a negative temperature coefficient at temperatures not far from ‘Temperature = — 100° | — 1829 — 197° | Mean value of temperature co- efficient between : : : : — 100° and Metal or alloy. Specific resistance in c. g. s. units. } +4 300° C,* Aluminum, pure hard-drawn wire . : Copper, pure electrolytic and annealed . Gold, soft wire : : ; , . Iron, pure soft wire : , ; ; 4010 Nickel, pure (prepared by Mond’s process from compound of nickel and carbon? . 6110 monoxide) Platinum, annealed : 5 3 5295 Silver, pure wire ; 962 472 Tin, pure wire . : . 5671 2553 German silver, commercial wire 33280 32512 Palladium-silver, 20 Pd-++ 80 Ag . : : 14256 13797 Phosphor-bronze, commercial wire . : 2 7883 7371 Platinoid, Martino’s platinoid with 1 to 2% 42385 41454 tungsten Platinum-iridium, 80 Pt-+20Ir . ; 26712 24440 Platinum-rhodium, 90 Pt-+10 Rh. , 9834 7134 Platinum-silver, 66.7 Ag + 33.3 Pt. : 26108 25537 Carbon, from Edison-Swan incandescent ipem 2 4218 X 108 | 4321 X10 Carbon, from Edison-Swan incandescent lamp he 4079X 108 | 4180 X 103 Carbon, adamantine, from Woodhouse and Rawson incandescent lamp » | 6533X 108 * This is a in the equation R = Ry (1 +2), as calculated from the equation a =“100— F100 , o SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 282 TaBLes 313, 314. TABLE 313. — Variation of Blectrical Resistance of Glass and Porcelain with Temperature. The following table gives the values of a, 4, and c in the equation log R=a-+ t+ ct, where & is the specific resistance expressed in ohms, that is, the resistance in ohms per centimeter of a rod one square centimeter in cross section.* Range of Kind of glass. Density. temp. Centigrade. Test-tube glass : : : : : 0°-250° Sees soa. : : : : . : 37-131 Bohemian glass : < f : : 0000394 60-174 Lime glass (Japanese manufacture) . . —.000021 10-85 ee ee st is ; 14.002 | —.025 | —.00006 35-95 Soda-lime glass (French flask) : 14.58 | —.049 .00007 5 45-120 Potash-soda lime glass. ‘ ; : 16.34 | —.0425] .0000364} 66-193 Arsenic enamel flint glass : ; 18.17 | —.055 .000088 | 105-135 Flint glass (Thomson’s electrometer jar) : : : 2 : . SG 18.021 | —.036 | —.0000091 | 100-200 10 | Porcelain (white evaporating dish) . 15.65 | —.042 .0000 5 68-290 CoMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE ABOVE SPECIMENS OF GLASS. Number of specimen = Silica. : : . ; 61.3 57-2 70.05 Potash . . : ; : 22.9 21.1 1.44 Soda. , : : . | Lime, etc.| Lime, etc.} 14.32 Lead oxide . oo ee geet by diff, || Mbyrditt: Juimes aa : ; ; : 15.8 16.7 Magnesia Arsenic oxide Alumina, iron oxide, etc. * T. Gray, ‘‘ Phil. Mag.?? 1880, and ‘* Proc. Roy. Soc.” 1882. TABLE 314.— Temperature Resistance Coefficients of Glass, Porcelain and Quartz dr/dt. Temperature. Glass . R Porcelain. . - ; i ; : ‘ ; —o0.12 Quartz. Somerville, Physical Review, 31, p. 261, 1910. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 315. 283 TABULAR COMPARISON OF WIRE GAGES. American American : ° ? (British) | Birmingham Gage | Wire Gage | Wire Gage a ware oie Wire sue on Standard | Wire Gage Gage | No. (B.& S.) | (B.&S. § Shc we 48€ | Wire Gage | (Stubs’) No. Mils. mm. Biulss mm. Mils. Mils. Mils. | 7-0 490.0 12.4 500 7-0 6-0 401.5 11.7 404 6-0 5-0 439.5 10.9 432 5-0 4-0 460. 11.7 393.8 10.0 400 454 4-0 | 3-0 410. 10.4 362.5 Q.2 372 425 3-0 2-0 365. 0.3 331.0 8.4 348 380 2-0 ° 325. 8.3 306.5 7.8 324 340 ° I 289. 7-3 283.0 ea 227. 300. 300. I 2 258. 6.5 262.5 6.7 210. 276. 284. 224 3 220. 5.8 243.7 6.2 212. 252. 250. 3 | 4 204. 5.2 225.3 So 207. 232. 238. 4 | 5 182. 4.6 207.0 i533 204. 212, 220. 5 | 6 162. 4.1 192.0 4.9 201. 192. 203. 6}, 7 144. 3-7 177.0 4.5 199. 176, 180. mt 8 128. 3.3 162.0 4.1 197. 160, ° 165. 8 9 114. 2.91 148.3 3.77 194. 144. 3 148. 9 Io 102. 2.50 135.0 3-43 Iol. 128. 134. Io II ol. 2.30 120.5 3.06 188. I16, 120. II 12 81. 2.05 105.5 2.68 185. 104. 109. 125 || 13 72. 1.83 OI.5 2.32 182. 92. 95. THe | 14 64. 1.63 80.0 2.03 180. 80. 83. 14 15 7s 1.45 72.0 1.83 178. 72. Vee 15 16 Sk. 1.29 62.5 1.59 175. 64. 65. 16 | 17 45. 1.15 54.0 1.37 172. 50. 58. 17 18 40. 1.02 47-5 1.21 168. 48. 49. 18 19 36. 0.91 41.0 1.04 164. 40. 42. 19 20 32. 81 34.8 0.88 161. 36. 35- 20 21 28.5 2 31.7 81 157. 32% 32. 21 22 25.3 -62 28.6 73 155. 28. 28. 22 23 22.6 57 25.8 -66 153 24 25. 23 24 20.1 51 23.0 58 ISI 22 22. 24 | 25 17.9 45 20.4 52 148 20 20. 25 | 26 15.9 -40 18.1 .46 146 18 18. 26 27 14.2 36 17.3 -439 143 16.4 16. 27, | 28 12.6 32 16.2 4II 139 14.8 14. 28 | 29 11.3 -29 15.0 381 134 13.6 13. 29 | 30 10.0 +25 14.0 356 127: 12.4 12. 30 31 8.9 +227 13.2 335 120. 11.6 Io. 31 32 8.0 -202 12.8 -325 115. 10.8 9. 32 33 7.1 -180 11.8 .300 112. 10.0 8. 33 34 6.3 -160 10.4 -264 IIo. 9.2 7 34 35 5.6 -143 9.5 -241 108. 8.4 Ss 250 36 5.0 -127 9.0 . -229 106. 7.6 4. 36 37 4-5 -113 8.5 216 103 6.8 37 38 4.0 -IOI 8.0 203 Io 6.0 38 | 390 3-5 .090 7-5 191 99 5.2 30 | 40 ur .080 7.0 178 07- 4.8 40 | 41 Fi 6.6 -168 05. 4.4 4r | 42 6.2 -157 92. 4.0 42 | 43 6.0 -152 88. 3.6 43 44 5.8 -147 85. 3.2 44 45 5.5 -140 81. 2.8 45 46 5.2 -132 70. 2.4 460 | 47 5.0 -127 77: 2.0 47 | 48 4.8 -122 75. 1.6 48 49 4.6 -117 72. Tez 49 | 50 4.4 <1I2 609. 1.0 50 * The Steel Wire Gage is the same gage which has been known by the various names: “ Washburn and Moen,” “ Roeb- ling,” “American Steel and Wire Co.’s.” Its abbreviation should be written “Stl. W. G.,” to distinguish it from “S. W. G.,” the usual abbreviation for the (British) Standard Wire Gage. ‘ s Taken from Circular No. 31. Copper Wire Tables, U.S. Bureau of Standards which contains more complete tables. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 284 TaBLes 316-322. WIRE TABLES. TABLE 316.—Introduction. Mass and Volume Resistivity of Copper and Aluminum. The following wire tables are abridged from those prepared by the Bureau of Standards at the request and with the codperation of the Standards Committee of the American Institute of Elec- trical Engineers (Circular No. 31 of the Bureau of Standards). The standard of copper resist- ance used is “The International Annealed Copper Standard” as adopted Sept. 5, 1913, by the International Electrotechnical Commission and takes the Resistivity at 20° C. of an annealed copper wire one meter long weighing one gram as equal to 0.15328 ohm. This standard corresponds to a conductivity of 58. X 10~5 cgs. units, and a density of 8.89, at 20° C. In the various units of mass and volume resistivity this may be stated as 0.15328 ohm (meter, gram) at 20° C. 875.20 ohms (mile, pound) at 20° C. 1.7241 microhm-cm. at 20° C. 0.67879 microhm-inch at 20° C. 10.371 ohms (mil, foot) at 20° C. The temperature coefficient for this particular resistivity is ag9 == 0.00393 OF a9 = 0.00427. However, the temperature coefficient is proportional to the conductivity, and hence the change of resistivity per degree C. is a constant, 0.000597 ohm (meter, gram). The “constant mass” tem- perature coefficient of any sample is ye 0.000597 -++ 0.000005 at ~Tesistivity in ohms (meter, gram) at t° C° The density is 8.89 grams per cubic centimeter at 20° C., which is equivalent to 0.3212 pounds per cubic inch. The values in the tables are for annealed copper of standard resistivity. The user of the tables must apply the proper correction for copper of other resistivity. Hard-drawn copper may be taken as about 2.7 per cent higher resistivity than annealed copper. The aluminum tables are based on a figure for the conductivity published by the U. S. Bureau of Standards, which is the result of many thousands of determinations by the Aluminum Company of America. A volume resistivity of 2.828 michrom-cm., and a density of 2.70 may be con- sidered to be good average values for commercial hard-drawn aluminum. These values give : Mass resistivity, in ohms (meter, gram) at 20°C. . . . . . 0.0764 sé ss “7"5 smile, pound) at. 20--€.-) us dey pen pagoe Mass per Gent conductivity . 5. .).1. 24. 5) © 21s - 200.99 Volume resistivity, in michrom-cm. at 20°C. . . . . . . 2,828 f ss insmicrohm-inch at'20°C. . .)). .°. | | L103 Volume pericent Conductivity... .1.). «)..° 3) «1» . « fO10% Density, in grams per cubic centimeter. . . . . + + « + 2.70 Density, in pounds per cubicinch . . . «© « © © « + + 0.0975 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TaBLeS 317,318. 285 WIRE TABLES. TABLE 317.— Temperature Coefficients of Copper for Different Initial Temperatures (Centigrade) and Different Conductivities, Ohms (meter, gram) at 20° C. Per cent conductivity. 0.161 34 05% 0.004 03 ; 0.003 73 .00; 0.003 60 «159 06 96% .004 08 r -003 77 i .003 64 .158 02 07% .004 13 7 .003 81 00; .003 67 sLS7 56 907-3% .004 14 a .003 82 Z .003 68 -156 40 98% .004 17 00; .003 85 00; .0C3 71 -154 82 09% .004 22 : .003 89 : .003 74 .153 28 100% .004 27 : .003 93 151 76 101% .004 31 : .00 397 Nore. — The fundamental relation between resistance and temperature is the following: Re=Rt,(1+ a, [t —t,]), where at, is the “temperature coefficient,” and t, is the “initial temperature” or “temperature of reference.” The values of a in the above table exhibit the fact that the temperature coefficient of copper is proportional to the conductivity. The table was calculated by means of the following formula, which holds for any per cent conductivity, n, within commercial ranges, and for centigrade temperatures. (m is considered to be expressed decimally: e.g., il per cent conductivity = 99 per cent, m = 0.99.) e I t; = : I ————.+(4,—2 (0.00393) * | : ) TABLE 318.— Reduction of Observations to Standard Temperature. (Copper.) Corrections to reduce Resistivity to 20° C. Factors to reduce Resistance to 20° C, Temper- : i ‘ Temper- ature C. |Ohm (meter,| Microhm— | Ohm (mile, | Microhm— For 96 per | For 98 per | For 100 per ature Ce cent con- cent con- cent con- ductivity. | ductivity. | ductivity. chsh abet steele Thesis oeeae +++ +++ 44+ 44+ Sen eee SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 286 TABLE 319. ENGLISH. WIRE TABLE, STANDARD ANNEALED COPPER. American Wire Gage (B. &S.). English Units. . Cross-Section at 20° C. Ohms per 1000 Feet.* Diameter in Mils. 0° C OG ° 6 oC oC Oo oc at 20° C. | Circular Mils. | Square Inches. (=e F) (= 680 F) (oro F) (rez F) 460.0 211 600. 0.1662 0.045 16 0.049 O1 0.054 79 0.059 61 409.6 167 800. 1318 05695 .061 80 .069 09 .075 16 304.8 133 100. 1045 071 81 077 93 .087 12 .094 78 324.9 105 500. .082 89 090 55 .098 27 1099 1195 289.3 : 005 73 -1142 1239 1385 -1507 257.6 : 052 13 1440 1563 1747 -1900 2209.4 : O41 34 1816 1970 .2203 .2396 204.3 ; .032 78 2289 12485 2778 .3022 181.9 : .026 00 .2887 -3133 -3502 3810 162.0 : .020 62 3640 3951 -4416 144.3 : 016 35 -4590 4982 5509 128.5 : O12 97 5788 6282 .7023 114.4 : .O10 28 7299 7921 8855 101.9 , 008 155 9203 .9989 DeKilyy 90.74 : .006 467 1.161 1.260 1.408 80.81 : 005 129 1.463 1.588 1.775 71.96 ‘ .004 067 1.845 2.003 2.239 64.08 : .003 225 2.327 2.525 2.823 57-07 : .002 558 2.934 3.184 3.560 50.82 i .002 028 3.700 4.016 4.489 45.26 ; .001 609 4.666 5.064 5-660 40.30 f .OOI 276 5-883 6.385 7.138 35.89 : .OOI O12 7.418 8.051 9.001 31.96 22. .000 802 3 9-355 10.15 11.35 28.45 : .000 636 3 11.80 12.80 14.31 25.35 ‘ 000 504 6 14.87 16.14 18.05 22.57 : .000 400 2 18.76 20.36 22.76 20.10 : .000 317 3 23.65 25.67 28.70 17.90 ! .000 251 7 29.82 32.37 36.18 15.94 . .000 199 6 37-61 40.81 45-63 14.20 : .000 158 3 47.42 51.47 57-53 12.64 ; 000 125 5 59.80 64.90 72.55 11.26 ; .000 099 53. | 75-40 81.83 91.48 10.03 : .000 07894 | 95.08 103.2 115.4 8.928 : .000 062 60 | 119.9 130.1 145-5 7.950 3 .000 049 64 | 151.2 164.1 183.4 7.080 ; .000 039 37 | 190.6 206.9 231.3 6.305 ! .000 031 22 | 240.4 260.9 201.7 5-615 .52 | .00002476 | 303.1 329.0 307.8 5.000 : .000 019 64 | 382.2 414.8 463.7 4.453 : .000 015 57 | 482.0 523-1 584.8 3.965 : .000 O12 35 | 607.8 659.6 737-4 8.531 : .000 009 793 | 766.4 831.8 929.8 3.145 : .000 007 766 | 966.5 1049. 1173: * Resistance at the stated temperatures of a wire whose length is rooo feet at 20° C. SM\THSONIAN TABLES. ENGLISH. TABLE 319 (continued). 28 7 WIRE TABLE, STANDARD ANNEALED COPPER (continued). American Wire Gage (B. &S.). English Units (continued). : Feet per Ohm.* Disnirtes Pounds Feet in Mils. per per ° ° 5 at 20° C,| 1000 Feet. Pound. (2° F) (cee F) qaixe F) 640.5 1.561 | 22 140. 20 400. 18 250. 507-9 1.968 | 17 560. 16 180. 14 470. 402.8 2.482 | 13 930. 12 830. II 480. 319.5 3.130 | 11 040. 10 180. g103. 2ina's 3-947 8758. 8070. 7219. 200.9 4.977 6946. 6400. 5725. N NO in Cn 159.3 6.276 5508. 5075: 4540. 126.4 7-914 4308. 4025. 3600. 100.2 9.980 3464. 3192. 2855. en mon One 79.46 12.58 2747. 2531. 2264. 63.02 15-37 2170. 2007. 1796. 49.98 20.01 1728. 1592. 1424. 39.63 Zee 28 1370. 1262. 1120. 31.43 31.82 1087. ore) 895.6 24.92 40.12 861.7 794.0 710.2 19.77 50-59 683.3 629.6 563.2 15.68 63.80 541.9 499-3 446.7 12.43 80.44 429.8 396.0 354.2 9.858 101.4 340.8 314.0 280.9 7.818 127.9 270.3 249.0 222.8 6.200 161.3 214.3 197-5 176.7 4.917 203.4 170.0 1560.6 140.1 3.899 250.5 134.8 124.2 III.1 3.092 323-4 106.9 98.50 88.11 2.452 407.8 84.78 78.11 69.87 1.945 514.2 67.23 61.95 55-41 1.542 648.4 53-32 49-13 43-94 1.223 817.7 42.28 38.96 34.85 0.9699 1031. 33-53 30.90 27.64 7092 1300. 26.59 24.50 21.92 .6100 1639. 21.09 19.43 17.38 4837 2007. 16.72 15.41 13.78 -3836 2607. 13.26 12.22 10.93 -3042 3287. 10.52 9.691 8.669 2413 4145. 8.341 7.685 6.87 5 1913 5227. 6.614 6.095 5-452 1517 6591. 5-245 4.833 4.323 .1203 8310. 4.160 3.833 3.429 095 42 | 10 480. 3-299 3-040 2.719 075 68 | 13 210. 2.616 2.411 2.156 .060 OI | 16 660. 2.075 1.912 1.710 047 59 | 21 O10. 1.645 1.516 1.356 .037 74 |26 500. 1.305 1.202 1.075 ; 029 93 | 33 410. 1.035 0.9534 0.8529 * Length at 20° C, of a wire whose resistance is 1 ohm at the stated temperatures, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 288 American Wire Gage (B. &S.). Diameter |_ TABLE 319 (continued). WIRE TABLE, STANDARD ANNEALED COPPER (continued). Ohms per Pound. English Units (continued). in Mils at 0° C. 20° C. (3208s) 000 II2I .000 1783 .000 2835 .000 4507 .000 7166 .OOI 140 .OoI 812 .002 881 .004 581 .007 284 O11 58 .018 42 .029 28 .046 56 074 04 1177 1872 2976 4733 7525 1.197 1.903 3.025 4.810 7-649 12.16 19.34 30:75 48.89 77:74 123.6 196.6 312.5 497.0 790.2 1256. 1998. SION 5051. $032. 12 770. 20 310. 32 290. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 0.000 070 51 20° C. (o8oa) 0.000 076 52 .000 1217 000 1935 .000 3076 .000 4891 .000 7778 .OOI 237 .0O01 966 .003 127 .004 972 .007 905 O12 57 O19 99 .031 78 050 53 .080 35 1278 .2032 .3230 5ouG; (SS ree} 105)) 0.000 085 54 000 1360 .000 2163 -000 3439 -000 5468 .000 8695 001 383 .002 198 -003 495 005 558 .008 838 .014 05 .022 34 035 53 -050 49 .089 83 1428 .2271 3611 5742 9130 1.452 2.308 3.670 5-836 9.280 14.76 23.46 37-31 59-32 94-32 150.0 238.5 379.2 602.9 958.7 1524. 2424. 3854. 6128. 9744. 15 490. 24 640. 39 170. ENGLISH. Pounds per Ohm. 20° 1G: (=68° F.) 13 070. 219. 5169. 3251. 2044. 1286. $08.6 508.5 319.8 201.1 126.5 79-55 50.03 31-47 19.79 12.45 7.827 4.922 3.096 1.947 1.22 0.7700 -4843 3046 IQS -1205 .075 76 .047 65 .029 97 018 85 O11 85 007 454 004 688 002 948 .OOI 854. -OOT 166 000 7333 .000 4612 .000 2901 .000 1824 .000 1147 000 072 15 .000 045 38 .000 028 54 289 MerRric. TABLE 320. WIRE TABLE, STANDARD ANNEALED COPPER. American Wire Gage (B. &S.) Metric Units. : Ohms per Kilometer.* Diameter Cross Section Gage in mm, in mm.? oO. at 205 1G. at 20° C. of C. 20° C 50° C 0000 11.68 107.2 0.1482 0.1608 0.1798 000 10.40 85.03 .1868 2028 2267 00 9.266 67.43 2350 -2557 2858 Oo 8.252 53-48 .2971 -322 3604 I 7.348 42.41 .3746 .4066 4545 2 6.544 33-63 4724 5127 5731 3 5.827 26.67 5956 6465 722 4 5-189 21.15 7511 8152 Q113 5 4.621 16.77 9471 1.028 1.149 6 4.115 13.30 1.194 1.296 1.449 7 3-665 10.55 1.506 1.634 1.82 8 3.264 8.306 1.899 2.001 2.304 9 2.906 6.634 2.395 2.599 2.905 Io 2.588 5.201 3.020 BO 3.663 | II 2.305 4.172 3-807 4.132 4.619 12 2.053 3-309 4.801 G2nT 5.82 | 13 1.828 2.624 6.054 6.571 7.345 | 14 1.628 2.081 7.634 8.285 9.262 15 1.450 1.65¢ 9.62 10.45 11.68 16 1.291 1.309 12.14 13.17 14.73 17 1.150 1.038 15.31 16.61 18.57 18 1.024 0.8231 19.30 20.95 23.42 19 0.9116 6527 24.34 26.42 29.53 20 S118 5176 30.69 33-31 37-24 21 -7230 4105 38.70 42.00 46.95 22 6438 23255 48.80 52.96 59-21 23 5733 .2582 61.54 66.79 74.66 24 5106 2047 77-60 84.21 94.14 2 -4547 1624 97.85 106,2 118.7 26 4049 .1288 123.4 133-9 149.7 27 .3606 1021 155.6 168.9 188.8 28 3211 .080 98 196.2 212.9 238.0 2 .2859 .064 22 247.4 268.5 300.1 30 .2546 050 93 311.9 338.6 378.5 31 .2268 040 39 303.4 426.9 477.2 2 .2019 032 03 490.0 539-3 601.8 33 .1798 025 40 625.5 678.8 758.8 34 1601 .020 14 788.7 856.0 956.9 35 1426 O15 97 994.5 1079. 1207. 36 .1270 .O12 67 1254. 1361. 1522 37 1131 O10 O05 15st. 1716. 1919 38 .1007 .007 967 | 1994. 2164. 2419 39 .089 69 .006 318 | 2514. 2720. 3051 40 .079 87 005 O10 | 3171. 3441. 3847 *Resistance at the stated temperatures of a wire whose length is 1 kilometer at 20° C. SMITHSONIAN TABLES» 290 TABLE 320 (continued). WIRE TABLE, STANDARD ANNEALED COPPER (continued). American Wire Gage (B. &S.) Metric Units (continued). * Diameter Kilograms Meters Be BSS UIE in mm. per per at 20° C. Kilometer. Gram. ; 20° C, 50° C. 11.68 953-2 0.001 049 : 219. 5563. 10.40 755-9 -OOI 323 : Ze 4412. 9.266 599-5 001 668 ; : 3499. 8.252 475-4 .002 103 ; 2. 2774. 7.348 377.0 .002 652 | 2669. : 2200. 6.544 299.0 .003 345 . . 1745- 5.827 27-1 .004 217 : : 1384. 5-189 188.0 005 318 : 227. 1097. 149.1 .006 706 : 2. 870.2 118.2 .008 457 : ; 690.1 93-78 -010 66 Z : 547-3 74:37 013 45 20. : 434.0 58.98 016 96 : : 344.2 46.77 021 38 : : 273.0 37-09 .026 96 : Bs 216.5 29.42 .034 00 208. : tie) 23-33 .042 87 5 2.2 136.1 18.50 .054 06 : 20. 108.0 14.67 .068 16 : : 85.62 11.63 085 95 2: i 67.90 * 9.226 1084 : 60.2 53:35 meaty .1367 : b 42.70 5-903 1723 : . 33.86 4.602 P2073 2: : 26.86 3-649 .2740 ; : 21.30 2.894 3455 20. : 16.89 2.295 “4357 : : 13-39 1.820 -5494 2 ; Loe 1.443 .6928 : : 424 1.145 .87 36 ; : 6.680 0.9078 1.102 .42 5.298 7199 1.389 i 4.201 5709 1.752 One 3:332 4527 .209 : 2.642 -3590 785 2.095 2847 512 : 1.662 fe 9 I. : 1.318 2 : 1.045 eS : 0.8288 .1791 2. 3: .2258 4. 5 -1420 7 1126 8.879 : : 6572 089 31 11.20 : 58 5212 .070 83 | 14.12 : 462 4133 05617 | 17.80 5 : 3278 044 54 | 22.45 ; : .2600 * Length at 20° C. of a wire whose resistance is 1 ohm at the stated temperatures. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. METRICc. MeETRIic. TABLE 320 (continued). 291 WIRE TABLE, STANDARD ANNEALED COPPER (continued). American Wire Gage (B. &S.). Metric Units (continued). Diameter Ohms per Kilogram. Grams per Ohm. in mm. 0.000 155 4 0.000 168 7 0.000 188 6 | 5 928 000. -000 247 2 .000 268 2 .000 299 9 | 3 728 000. 000 393 0 000 426 5 000 476 8 | 2 344 000, 000 624 9 .000 678 2 .000 758 2 | I 474 000. .000 993 6 001 078 -OOI 206 927 300. .OOI 580 .OOI 715 .OOI QI7 583 200. 002 512 .002 726 .003 048 306 800. 003 995 004 335 .004 846 230 700. .006 352 .006 893 007 706 145 100. O10 IO O10 96 O12 25 QI 230. 016 06 O17 43 019 48 57 390. 025 53 027 71 030 98 36 080. .040 60 .044 06 .049 26 22 690. .064 56 .070 07 .078 33 14 270. 1026 -II1I4 1245 8976. 1632 Lay 1980 56.45 -2595 -2817 -3149 3550- “4127 -4479 -5007 2233: 6562 e722 -7961 1404. 1.043 Tel32 1.266 883.1 1.659 1.801 2.013 555+4 2.638 2.863 3.201 349.3 4-194 4.552 5.089 219.7 6.670 7.238 8.092 138.2 10.60 11.51 12.87 86.88 16.86 18.30 20.46 54-64 26.81 29.10 32.53 34.30 42.63 46.27 ! 1.73 21.61 67-79 73-57 2.25 13.59 107.8 117.0 130.8 8.548 171.4 186.0 207.9 5.370 272.5 295.8 330.6 3.381 433-3 470.3 525-7 2.126 689.0 747.8 836.0 1337 1096. 1189. 1320. 0.8410 1742. 1891. 2114. 5289 2770. 3006. 3361. 3326 4404. 4780. 344. 2092 7003. 7601. 497. .1316 II140. 12090. 13510. .082 74 17710. 19220. 21480. 052 04 28150. 30560. 34160. 032 73 44770. 48590. $3 Io. .020 58 71180. 77260. 6360. O12 94 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 292 TaBLE 321.—~ALUMINUM WIRE TABLE. ENGLISH. Hard-Drawn Aluminum Wire at 20° C. (or, 68° F.). American Wire Gage (B. &S.). English Units. Cross Section. Ohms per 1000 Feet. | 1000 Feet. Feet per Ohm. per Ohm, Diameter in Mils. Circular Square Mils. Inches. 460. 212 000. | 0.166 0.0804 195. ; 410, 168 000. 1g? 101 154. : 9860. 305. 133 000. 105 128 22s 7820. B25; 106 000. .0829 161 : 6200. 289. 83 700. .0657 :203 : 4920. 258. 66 400. .0521 .256 f 3900. 229. 52 600. 0413 : . 3090. 204. 41 700. .0328 : ; : 2450. 182. 33 100. .0260 . . 1950. 162. 26 300. .0206 : 4. : 1540. 144. 20 800. .O164 : § : 1220, 16 500. 0130 : ; : 970. 13 100. .0103 : : 770, 10 400. .008 15 : : 7 610. 8230. .006 47 : : 454. 6530. .005 13 : : ‘ 384. 5180. .004 07 ; ; : 304. 4110. 003 23 ; s 241. 3260. 002 56 2580. .002 03 ] -360 152. 2050. -OO1 OI 1620. .OO1 28 ; 143 1290. .OOI OI 1020. .000 802 7 -0564 810. .000 636 : 0355 642. 000 505 . ” .022 509. 000 400 : .O1 40 NNN NNN NM Dun 404. .000 317 ‘ .008 82 320. 000 252 : -295 005 55 254. .000 200 : .234 .003 49 NNN 202. .000 158 4. 185 .002 19 160. .000 126 147 oo! 38 127 000 099 5 LL, .000 868 iS} NI tN IOl. -000 078 9 . .0924 .000 546 79.7 | .000 062 6 : .O7 33 000 343 63-2 | .000 049 6 O5s1 .000 216 50.1 | .000 039 4 ; 0461 .000 136 39.8 | .000 031 2 8. 0365 .000 085 4 31.5 | .000 024 8 ; .0290 -000 053 7 000 O19 6 : .0230 .000 033 § 19.8 | .000 o15 6 : -0182 .000 O21 2 000 O12 3 ; 0145 000 O13 4 Ono .000 009 79 : O15 .000 008 40 .000 007 77 ; OOO! .000 005 28 Ow LEU WY mon SMITHSONIAN TABLES. METRIC. TaBLe 322.—ALUMINUM WIRE TABLE. 293 Hard-Drawn Aluminum Wire at 20° C. American Wire Gage (B. &S.) Metric Units. Gage Diameter | Cross Section Ohms per Kilograms per Grams per Ohms per No. in mm. in mm.? Kilometer. Kilometer. Ohm. Meter. 0000 11.7 107. 0.264 289. I I00 000. 3790. 000 10.4 85.0 2383 230. 690 000. 3010. 00 9.3 67.4 -419 182. 434 000. 2380. | Oo 8.3 53-5 529 144. 273 000. 1890. | I Wea 42.4 667 I14. 172 000. 1500. 2 6.5 33-6 841 90.8 108 000. 1190. 3 5.8 26.7 1.06 72.0 67 900. 943. 4 GE 21.2 1.34 57.1 42 700. 748. 5 4.6 16.8 1.69 45-3 26 goo, 593: 6 4.1 1353 2.13 35-9 16 900. 470. 7 Be 10.5 2.68 28.5 10 600. B73: 8 3 8.37 3-38 22.6 6680. 296. 9 2.91 6.63 4.26 17.9 4200. 235. 10 2.59 5.26 5.38 14.2 2640. 1506. II 2.30 4.17 6.78 DL3 1660. 148. 12 2.05 3.31 8.55 8.93 1050. 117. 13 1.83 2.62 ae 7.08 657. 92.8 14 1.63 2.08 13.6 5-62 413. 73.6 15 1.45 1.65 Wal 4.46 260. 58.4 16 1.2 TEST 21.6 3-53 164. 46.3 17 1.15 1.04 27.38 2.80 103. 36.7 18 1.02 0.823 34.4 2.22 64.7 29.1 19 0.91 653 43-3 1.76 40.7 23.1 20 oI 518 54-6 1.40 25.6 18.3 21 be 411 68.9 I.11 16.1 14.5 22 64 326 86.9 0.879 10.1 TAG 23 acy .258 110. .697 6.36 9-13 | 138. 553 4.00 7.24 | 174. .438 2.52 5-74 | 220. 348 1.58 4.55 | 277. .276 0.995 3.61 349. .219 626 2.86 440. 173 +394 2.27 555: .138 .248 1.80 700. 109 156 1.43 883. 0865 .0979 103 IT IO. 0686 0616 0.899 1400. 0544 .0387 712 1770. 0431 .0244 505 2230. 0342 0153 .448 2820. .0271 .009 63 2355 3550. 0215 .006 06 »2U2 4480. oI71 .003 81 p223 Nal 5640. 0135 .002 40 77 SMITHSONIAN TABLES. “2904 TABLES 323, 324. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH. TABLE 323. — Steady Potential Difference in Volts required to produce a Spark in Air with Ball Electrodes. Spark Teo. ; R=. Points. 5 i P length. cm. lates. Based on the results of Baille, Bichat-Blondot, Freyburg, Liebig, Macfarlane, Orgler, Paschen, Quincke, de la Rue, Wolff. For spark lengths from 1 to 200 wave-lengths of sodium light, see Earhart, Phys. Rev. 15, p. 163; Hobbs, Phil. Mag. 10, p. 607, 1905. TABLE 324. — Alternating Current Potentials required to produce a Spark in Air with various Ball Elec- trodes. The potentials given are the maxima of the alternating waves used. Frequency, 33 cycles per second. Spark length. x an a RX =1 cm. R =1.92 0.08 3770 -10 4400 4380 “15 5990 5940 . 7510 7440 9045 8970 10480 10400 11980 11890 13360 13300 14770 14700 16140 16070 18700 18730 21350 21380 23820 24070 26190 26640 28380 29170 32400 34100 35850 38850 387 50 43400 40900 ~ 42950 a Based upon the results of Kawalski, Phil. Mag. 18, p. 699, 1909. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 325, 326. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH. 295 TABLE 325. — Potential Necessary to produce a Spark in Air between more widely Separated Electrodes. Spark length, cm. Alter- nating current. Dull points. 17610 30240 33800 37930 4232 45000 460710 49100 50310 Gu GAiim COSINE Steady potentials, Ball electrodes. R=2.5 cm. 17620 23050 31390 30810 44310 50000 65180 71200 75300 78600 81540 83800 Cup electrodes. Projection. 4-5 mm. 31400 56500 80400 1.5mm. 11280 17420 22950 31260 36700 44510 56530 68720 81140 92400 103800 114600 126500 135700 Spark length, cm. Alter- nating current. Dull points. 61000 67000 7 3000 82600 92000 101000 119000 140600 165700 190900 Steady potentials. Ball electrodes. This table for longer spark lengths contains the results of Voege, Ann. der Phys. 14, 1904, using alternating current and ‘‘dull point’? electrodes, and the results with steady potential found in the recent very careful work of C. Miik ler, Ann. d. Phys. 28, p. 585, 1909. (=) 11 cm. ———— a 220m. == The specially constructed elec- trodes for the columns headed “cup electrodes’’ had the form of a projecting knob 3 cm. in diame- ter and having a height of 4.5 mm. and 1.5 mm. respectively, attached to the plane face of the electrodes. These electrodes give a very satis- factory linear relation between the spark lengths and the voltage throughout the range studied. TABLE 326.— Effect of the Pressure of the Gas on the Dielectric Strength. Voltages are given for different spark lengths Z. Pressure. cm. Hg. This table is based upon the results of Orgler, 1899. Meyerhoffer). See this paper for work on other gases (or Landolt-Bornstein- For long spark lengths in various gases see Voege, Electrotechn. Z. 28, 1907. For dielectric strength of air and CO, in cylindrical air condensers, see Wien, Ann. d. Phys. 29, p. 679, 1909. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 296 TABLES 327, 328. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH. TABLE 327.— Dielectric Strength of Materials. Potential necessary for puncture expressed in kilovolts per centimeter thickness of the dielectric. Kilovolts per cm. Kilovolts per cm Substance. Substance. Substance. Kilovolts per cm Ebonite . . . .{ 300-1100 |] Oils: Thickness Papers : Empire cloth . .| 80-300 Castor 0.2 mm. Beeswaxed . . [=> \papenaa. « 450 ss tee) A Blotting . . . 150 Hib reiee meee eon 20 Cottonseed Pein ine Niarinllalaees aes 25 Fuller board . .| 200-300 Lard 0.2 Paraffined . . 500 GIES G6 6.6 Bll sise—itfole) “ 1.0 Varnished . . Granite (fused) . go Linseed, raw 0.2 Paraffine : Guttapercha. . .| 80-200 o We 1.0 Melted acu: 75 Impregnated jute . 20 H boiled 0.2 Melt point. Leatheroid . . .| 30-60 ss cP ETO Solid 43° 350 Linen, varnished .| 100-200 Icubricatine ty). esate st 47° 400 Liquid air .| 40-90 Neatsfoot 0.2 ‘ 529 230 Mica: Thickness. i 1.0 ss 70° 450 Madras o.1 mm. 1600 Olive 0.2 Presspaper. . .| 45-75 o TOs 300 4 1.0 | Rubber . . . .| 160-500 Bengal o1 “ 2200 Paraffin 0.2 Vaseline. . . .| 90-130 st 1cfo) « 700 es 1.0 Thickness. Canada or “ 1500 Sperm, mineral 0.2 Xylol o.2mm,| 140 ¢ iio) 500 e Sy ko «s ros 80 South America . 1500 “natural 0.2 Micanite’.) <9. 400 gs es 1.0 Turpentine 0.2 - 1.0 TABLE 328. — Potentials in Volts to Produce a Spark in Kerosene. Electrodes Balls of Diam. d. Spark length. mm. Determinations of the dielectric strength of the same substance by different observers do not agree well. Fora dis- cussion of the sources of error see Moscicki, Electrotechn. Z. 25, 1904. For more detailed information on the dependence of the sparking distance in oils as a function of the nature of the electrodes, see Edmondson, Phys. Review 6, p. 65, 1898. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, TABLES 329, 330. 297 TABLE 329. — Electrical Resistance of Straight Wires with Alternating Currents of Different Frequencies. This table gives the ratio of the resistance of straight copper wires with alternating currents of different frequencies to the value of the resistance with direct currents. Frequency 2 = Diameter of wire in millimeters. Values between 1.000 and 1.001 are indicated by *1.001. The change of resistance of wires other than copper (iron wires excepted) may be calculated from the above table, making use of the fact that the change of resistance is a function of the argument / = 2m7/ 27 where x radius of cross-section, 7 = frequency, \ conductivity. If a given wire be wound into a solenoid, its resistance, at a given frequency, will be greater than the values in the table, which apply to straight wires only. The resistance in this case is a com- plicated function of the pitch and radius of the winding, the frequency, and the diameter of the wire, and is found by experiment to be sometimes as much as twice the value for a straight wire. TABLE 330.— Electrical Resistance for High Frequencies. For which the high frequency resistance will be less than 1 per cent greater than direct current resistance. Constantan or Advance Wire. Manganin Platinum Copper Wave-length. Diameter. Diameter. Diameter. Diameter. Maximum Advance wire is practically identical electrically with constantan, while for high resistance Ger- man silver the values are nearly the same as for manganin. The column of the table under maxi- mum current gives the approximate current which may be carried by the various sizes without undue heating. The current capacity of the manganin is very nearly the same. From Austin, Jour. Wash. Acad. of Sci. 2, p. 190, I91T. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 298 TABLE 331. WIRELESS TELECRAPHY. Wave-Length in Meters, Frequency in periods per second, and Oscillation Constant LC in Microhenries and Microfarads. LC Meters. Meters. 0.00282 500,000 272,700 0.00341 | 491,800 270,300 0.00405 ||| 62 455,500 267,900 0.00476 | 476,200 265,500 2,143,000 0.00552 | 468,700 263,100 2,000,000 0.00633 461,500 260,900 1,87 5,000 0.00721 | 454,500 | 258,600 1,765,000 0.00813 447,500 | 250,400 1,667,000 0.00912 | 441,200 254,200 1,579,000 0.01016 | 434,800 252,100 1,500,000 0.0113 | 28,600 250,000 1,429,000 0.0124 422,500 247,900 1,364,000 0.0136 | 416,700 245,900 1,304,000 0.0149 | 411,000 243,900 1,250,000 0.0162 405,400 241,900 1,200,000 0.0176 | 400,000 240,000 1,154,000 0.0190 "FI 394,700 238,100 I, 111,000 0.0205 389,600 236,200 1,07 1,000 0.0221 384,600 234,400 1,034,000 0.0237) || 379,800 232,600 NN HHH HNN HN Wb © oN Soros 0o0o°o OCOVOrONOTO 1,000,000 0.0253 37 5,000 230,800 967,700 0.0270 370,400 | 229,000 937,500 0.0288 365,900 227,300 909, 100 0.0307 361,400 225,600 882,400 0.0326 357,100 : 223,900 859,100 0.0345 | 352,900 222,200 833,300 0.0365 348,800 220,600 810,800 0.0385 344,800 18,900 789,500 | 0.0406 340,900 769,200 0.0428 337,100 7 50,000 0.0450 333,300 214,300 731,700 0.0473 | 329,700 212,800 714,300 0.0496 326,100 211,300 697,700 0.0520 22,600 209,800 681,800 0.0545 319,100 208,300 666,700 0.0570 315,900 206,900 652,200 0.0596 96 312,500 205,500 638,300 0.0622 309,300 204,100 625,000 0.0649 306, 100 202,700 612,200 0.0676 303,000 201,300 600,000 0.0704 | 300,000 200,000 588,200 0.0732 | 297,000 198,700 576,900 0.0761 294,100 197,400 566,000 0.0791 291,300 196,100 555,000 0.0821 288,400 194,800 545,500 0.0851 285,700 193,600 535,700 0.0883 283,600 192,300 26,300 0.0915 280,400 191,100 517,200 0.0947 277,800 189,900 508, 500 0.0981 27 5,200 188,700 Prepared by Greenleaf W. Picard; copyright by Wireless Specialty Apparatus Company, New York. Computed on basis of 300,000 kilometers per second for the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 3314 (concluded). 299 WIRELESS TELECRAPHY. Wave-Length, Frequency and Oscillation Constant. | Meters. Meters. Meters. 1600 187,500 150,000 6000 1610 186,300 142,900 E 6100 1620 185,200 130,400 ; 6200 1630 184,100 130,400 ‘ 6300 1640 182,900 125,000 : 6400 1650 181,800 120,000 ‘ 6500 1660 180,700 115,400 : 6600 1670 179,600 II1,100 : 6700 1680 178,600 107,100 6800 1690 177,500 103,400 6900 1700 176,500 100,000 : 7000 1710 175,400 : 96,770 : 7100 1720 174,400 : 93,7 50 : 7200 1730 173,400 90,910 . 7300 1740 172,400 88,240 : 7400 1750 171,400 85,910 ; 7500 1760 170,500 83,330 : 7600 1770 169,400 81,080 8 7700 1780 168,500 78,950 : 7800 1790 167,600 76,920 : 7900 1800 166,700 75,000 , 8000 1810 165,700 73,170 : 8100 37,040 1820 164,800 71,430 ; 8200 36,590 1830 163,900 69,770 . 8300 36,140 1840 163,000 68,180 : 8400 35,710 1850 162,200 66,670 ‘ | 8500 35,290 1860 161,300 65,220 : 8600 34,880 1870 160,400 63,830 3 8700 34,480 1880 159,600 62,500 .49 ||| 8800 34,090 1890 158,700 61,220 : 8900 33,710 1900 157,900 60,000 z gooo 33,330 I9IO 157,100 58,820 : g100 2,970 1920 156,300 57,090 : 9200 2,610 1930 155,400 56,600 A 9300 32,260 1940 154,600 55,500 : 9400 31,910 1950 153,500 : 545550 . 9500 315599 1960 153,100 53,570 : 9600 31,250 1970 152,300 : 52,030 : 9700 30,930 1980 151,500 51,720 : g800 30,610 1990 150,800 50,850 8 9900 30,310 10000 30,000 NNN NHN HNN NND DN YN HDOMNOROG) WL OO HIT WALLY SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 300 TABLE 332. WIRELESS TELECRAPHY. Radiation Resistances for Various Wave-Lengths and Antenna Heights. The radiation theory of Hertz shows that the radiated energy of an oscillator may be repre- sented by E=constant (h?/A?) I?, where h is the length of the oscillator, A, the wave-length and I the current at its center. For a flat-top antenna E = 1600 (h?/ A?) I? watts; 1600 h?/A? is called the radiation resistance. (h = height to center of capacity of conducting system.) h= eer ‘ : , 120 Ft. | 160 Ft. | 200 Ft. | 300 Ft. | 450 Ft. | 600 Ft. | 1200 Ft. Length A 4 0 Ea | 6 5 9 Austin, Jour. Wash. Acad. of Sci. 1, p. 190, 1911. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 333. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS. ELECTROCHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS. The International Atomic Weights are quoted from the report of the International Committee on Atomic Weights (Journal American Chemical Society, 35, p- 1807, 1913). The Electrochemical equivalent of Silver is 0.0011180 gram. sec.—} amp.—1, (See definition of International Ampere, p. xxxiii.) The electrochemical equivalent for any other element is 301 atomic weight element _, .oor1180 1 1 —_____-__—__— X—__ gn. sec.—? amp.™. atomic weight silver valency The equivalent for iodine has been recently (1913) determined at the Bureau of Standards as 1.3150. The valencies given are only those commonly shown by the elements. Relative atomic wt. Relative Substance, Symbol. | atomic wt. Valency. Substance. Symbol. Valency. Aluminum Antimony Argon Arsenic Barium Bismuth Boron Bromine Cadmium Cesium Calcium Carbon Cerium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Columbium Copper Dysprosium Erbium Europium Fluorine Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Glucinum Gold Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Tron Krypton Lanthanum Lead Lithium Lutecium Magnesium Manganese SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Oxygen=16. a7. 120.2 39.88 74.96 137-37 208.0 1.0 79-92 112.40 132.81 40.07 12.00 140.25 35-46 52.0 58.97 93:5 63-57 162.5 167.7 152.0 19.0 157-3 69.9 72-5 9.1 197.2 3:99 163.5 1.008 114.8 126.92 193.1 354 2.92 139.0 207.10 6.94 174.0 24.32 54-93 cpestzo] COMI iCa EAC) SIC SY ~~ HOON w OPE nw Y Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Nickel [ation) Niton (Ra eman- Nitrogen Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Potassium Praseodymium Radium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Samarium Scandium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulphur ' Tantalum Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Hg Mo Nd Ne Ni Nt. N Os Oxygen =16. 200.6 96.0 144.3 20.2 58.68 222.4 14.01 190.9 PP OY Og San jo CS ite NW a nw CEO N acs oo a Sr a Nw fe mi a VOW OW 302 TABLES 334, 335. CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTIC SOLUTIONS. This subject has occupied the attention of a considerable number of eminent workers in molecular physics, and a few results are here tabulated. It has seemed better to confine the examples to the work of one experimenter, and the tables are quoted from a paper by F. Kohl- rausch,* who has been one of the most reliable and successful workers in this field. The study of electrolytic conductivity, especially in the case of very dilute solutions, has fur- nished material for generalizations, which may to some extent help in the formation of a sound theory of the mechanism of such conduction. If the solutions are made such that per unit volume of the solvent medium there are contained amounts of the salt proportional to its electro- chemical equivalent, some simple relations become apparent. The solutions used by Kohlrausch were therefore made by taking numbers of grams of the pure salts proportional to their elec- trochemical equivalent, and using a liter of water as the standard of quantity of the solvent. Tak- ing the electrochemical equivalent number as the chemical equivalent or atomic weight divided by the valence, and using this number of grams to the liter of water, we get what is called the normai or gram molecule per liter solution. In the table, # is used to represent the number of gram molecules to the liter of water in the solution for which the conductivities are tabulated. The conductivities were obtained by measuring the resistance of a cell filled with the solution by means of a Wheatstone bridge alternating current and telephone arrangement. The results are for 18° C., and relative to mercury at 0° C., the cell having been standardized by filling with mercury and measuring the resistance. They are supposed to be accurate to within one per cent of the true value. The tabular numbers were obtained from the measurements in the following manner : — Let A,,—= conductivity of the solution at 18° C. relative to mercury at 0° C. Ky, = conductivity of the solvent water at 18° C. relative to mercury at 0° C. Then A,, —X %, = 4,, = conductivity of the electrolyte in the solution measured. =F = = conductivity of the electrolyte in the solution per molecule, or the “ specific molecular conductivity.” TABLE 334. —Value of k,, for a few Electrolytes. This short table illustrates the apparent law that the conductivity in very dilute solutions is proportional to the amount of salt dissolved. KC,H;0, K,SO, 0.000001 0.939 1.275 0.00002 1.886 2.532 0.00006 2 5.610 7.524 0.0001 9-34 12.49 TABLE 335.—Electro-Chemical Equivalents and Normal Solutions. The following table of the electro-chemical equivalent numbers and the densities of approximately normal solutions of the salts quoted in Table 271 may be convenient. They represent grams per cubic centimeter of the solution at the temperature given. Salt dissolved. rah cae Density. | Salt dissolved. ones Hone Density. KG mm Goll ee 4 SO ees 1522 c 3 || Sees INE Clie ell en53-S5i ane 18.6 yNa: & fe 7ftters) Nalin eillaaSossOuly i. 18.4 . | 55-09 i Ges ye ealee4 2-4 Ou er: 18.4 | I 60.17 4BaCle . .]| 104.0 : 18.6 . | 80.58 el O8:0 15.0 7:9 165.9 : 18.6 < sa OORI7 LOT.17 ||: 18.6 . | 53-04 pull O5.08) [eae 18.7 5 ol, Kee = | 169.9 : - Be yea eSOs5E 4Ba(N Os) . 65.28 le — KOs ie 61.29 ; 18.3 KCjH302 3 98.18 , 18.6 63.13 49.06 * “ Wied. Ann.” vol. 26, pp. 161-226, 1885. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 336. 303 SPECIFIC MOLECULAR CONDUCTIVITY ».: MERCURY =10'. Salt dissolved. eet teil w 08181 NHs3 Salt dissolved. FK,SO, *- Kou. * Acids and alkaline salts show peculiar irregularities. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 304 TaBLes 337,338. LIMITING VALUES OF p. TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS. TABLE 337. — Limiting Values of p. This table shows limiting values of « = z .108 for infinite dilution for neutral salts, calculated from Table 271. 4BaCle 4KC103 4BaNoO¢ . 4CuSO,4 AgNOg3 4ZnSO4 If the quantities in Table 336 be represented by curves, it appears that the values of the specific molecular conductivities tend toward a limiting value as the solution is made more and more dilute. Although these values are of the same order of magnitude, they are not equal, but depend on the nature of both the ions forming the electrolyte. When the numbers in Table 337 are multiplied by Hittorf’s constant, or 0.00011, quan- tities ranging between 0.14 and 0.10 are obtained which represent the velocities in milli- metres per second of the ions when the electromotive force gradient is one volt per millimetre. Specific molecular ‘conductivities in general become less as the concentration is in- creased, which may be due to mutual interference. The decrease is not the same for different salts, but becomes much more rapid in salts of high valence. Salts having acid or alkaline reactions show marked differences. They have small specific molecular conductivity in very dilute solutions, but as the concentration is in- creased the conductivity rises, reaches a maximum and again falls off. Kohlrausch does not believe that this can be explained by impurities. H3PQO, in dilute solution seems to approach a monobasic acid, while HzSO4 shows two maxima, and like HsPO4 approaches in very weak solution to a monobasic acid. Kohlrausch concludes that the law of independent migration of the ions in media like water is sustained. TABLE 338. — Temperature Coefficients. The temperature coefficient in general diminishes with dilution, and for very dilute solutions appears to approach a common value. The following table gives the temperature coefficient for solutions containing 0.01 gram mole- cule of the salt. Salt. Salt. KCE fbi: Kl eee 4K2SO4 NHC]. . KNOg 3. 4NapSOu NaCl on ee ls NaNO3. . 4LieSO4 KOH LIC] 6-5, “since AgNOs. . $MgSO, . HCl HNO; . BaGl 5 $Ba(NOs)o | 0. $ZnSO3 4H2S04 4ZnCle Od KC1O3 @i fe ° 4CuSO4 $H2S04 4MgCle_ .| 0. KC2H302 .| o. - for # = .0OoI SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 339. 305 THE EQUIVALENT CONDUCTIVITY OF SALTS, ACIDS AND BASES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. In the following table the equivalent conductance is expressed in reciprocal ohms. The con- centration is expressed in milli-equivalents of solute per litre of solution at the temperature to which the conductance refers. (In the cases of potassium hydrogen sulphate and phosphoric acid the concentration is expressed in milli-formula-weights of solute, KHSO4 or HgPOg, per liter of solu- tion, and the values are correspondingly the modal, or ‘* formal,” conductances.) Except in the cases of the strong acids the conductance of the water was subtracted, and for sodium acetate, ammonium acetate and ammonium chloride the values have been corrected for the hydrolysis of the salts. The atomic weights used were those of the International Commission for 1905, referred to oxygen as 16.00. Temperatures are on the hydrogen gas scale. 3 gram equivalents. 1000 liter reciprocal ohms per centimeter cube _ gram equivalents per cubic centimeter Concentration in Equivalent conductance in Equivalent conductance at the following ° C temperatures. Substance. 18° 25° 50° 75° | 100° | 128° | 1569 | 218° | 281° Potassium chloride . 130.1 |(152.1)|(232.5)|(321-5)} 414 |(519)| 625 | 825 | 1005 Es si ; 2] 126.3)1464] - - | 393} - | 588] 779 | 930 122.4 | I4I.5 | 215.2 | 295.2] 377 | 470 | 500] 741 | 874 BI3.5 0 |= a ae a4e 498 | 638 | 723 112.0 | 129.0 | 194.5 | 264.6} 336 490 109.0] — = - | 362 105.6 349 102.0 330 93:5 301 ane 92.0 296 Silver nitrate. . . 115.8 367 sf = Saige 112.2 353 108.0 337 105.1 326 312 294 289 285 263 253 221 426 302 234 190 160 136 130 110 (415) 399 382 (338) 300 286 | 760 | 970 22 | 895 685 | 820 500 | 674 780 | 965 727 | 877 673 | 790 639 599 | 680 552 660 578 542 452 1080 260 143 110 88 75 > Deh, Sie Se ol isle wn - ~ (841) Sor 758 RRL O rae Nl i Bice DMR SUN Db Ee Mh aU Da Mh ars SWsoft WY el A Ws) De gen From the investigations of Noyes, Melcher, Cooper, Eastman and Kato; Journal of the American Chemical Society, 39, P- 335, 1900. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 306 TABLE 339 (continued). THE EQUIVALENT CONDUCTIVITY OF SALTS, ACIDS AND BASES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. Equivalent conductance at the following ° C temperatures. Substance. 25° 50° 75° | x00°| 128° | 156° | 218° | 281° 306° 600 | 840] 1120] 1300 536 715| 828 24 481] 618) 658} 61 412) 507} 503| 44 372| 449} 430 385 352 322 280 258 249 455 402 365 320 204 286 850 1085 | 1265 | 1380] 1424 $26 1048 | 1217 | 1332 | 1337 807 1016 | 1168 | 1226] 1162 762 946 | 1044 | 1046| 862 754 929 | 1006 826 1047 |(1230) (1380) TOI2 | 1166 1156 978 917 880} —- 454* 1176 | 1505 (2030) 536 | 563 637 451 | 533 448 | 502 Me be 435| 483 474* Potassium hydrogen 754 sulphate 477 bees 435 Barium nitrate. “é oe Potassium sulphat “ se 715 | 1065 | 1460] 1725 605| 806) 8 867 537 | 672 637 455] 545 466 415| 452] 448] 396 wm tn > | moo nnn HN pH DO HV.O NADA 0 0 Eas elie SRO Se ent en ie re a | in [e) Lal — usr OV O- G = ON a= Wwf Gatn WwW NOW Phosphoric acid . . 930 “ce ee e 489 274 142 108 (980) 22.2 Acetic acid . 13.0 8.00 835 814 a 73 847 Cee eae eee N nN Oo in Ala 722 593 poe | (908) (1141) Ammonium hydrox- 9 ; 22.e i 5.0 idestu el tmieuiee d : 13-0 7.17 | 4.82 * These values are at the concentration 80.0. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 340, | 307 THE EQUIVALENT CONDUCTIVITY OF SOME ADDITIONAL SALTS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION. Conditions similar to those of the preceding table except that the atomic weights for 1908 were used. Equivalent conductance at the following ° C temperature. Concen- tration. 180 250 1280 156° Substance. Potassium nitrate. . . 126.3 99 | 384 485 580 % 5) anh oes 122. 9 | 370.3 | 460.7 | 551 17.2 4 | 351-5 | 435.4 | 520.4 109.7 .4 | 326.1 | 402.9 | 476.1 104.5 -I | 308.5 | 379.5 127.0 419 538 119.9 .2 | 389.3 | 489.1 II1.1 354-1 | 438.8 IOI 312.2 | 383.8 94.6 : 288.9 | 353-2 88.4 265.1 | 321.9 112.7 369 | 474 346.5 | 438.4 314-6 | 394-5 276.8 | 343 255-5 | 315.1 See teks 234.4 | 288 Potassium ferrocyanide . : ! 527 “é 427.6 340 272.4 245 222. : 203.1 Barium ferrocyanide. . 521 * s ma ; 202.3 s s ee : : : ‘ 129.8 Calcium ferrocyanide . 512 “ “cc From the investigations of Noyes and Johnston, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 31, p. 287, 1909. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 208 TaBLes 341, 342. CONDUCTANCE OF iONS.—HYDROLYSIS OF AMMONIUM ACETATE. TABLE 341.— The Equivalent Conductance of the Separate Ions. TFe(CN)e . Engin: ORD. From Johnson, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 31, Pp. 1010, 1909. TABLE 342.— Hydrolysis of Ammonium Acetate and Ionization of Water. Hydrogen-ion concen- tration in pure water. Equivalents per liter. Percentage Ionization constant hydrolysis. of water. ‘Temperature. Ky X10!4 CyX 107 0.089 0.30 0.46 0.68 0.82 0.91 6.9 14.9 Noyes, Kato, Kanolt, Sosman, No. 63 Publ. Carnegie Inst., Washington. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 343, 344. 309 DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS. TABLE 343. — Dielectric Constant (Specific Inductive Capacity) of Gases. Atmospheric Pressure. Wave-lengths of the measuring current greater than 10000 cm. Dielectric constant referred to Gas. vom SS Sa Authority. Air=1 Vacuum=1 Air. .. . « + « + «| © | 1.000590 | 1.000000 | Boltzmann, 1875. ie » + + « + «| = | 1.000586 | 1.000000 | Klementit, 1885. Ammonia ... . . .| 20 | 1.00718 | 1.00659 | Badeker, rgot. 1.00290 | 1.00231 | Klementié. Carbon bisulphide ° ¥ : 100 | 1.00239 | 1.00180 | Badeker. 1.000946 | 1.000356 | Boltzmann. Carbon dioxide f 1.000985 | 1.000399 | Klementit, oo Carbon monoxide. © | 1.000690 | 1.000100 | Boltzmann. € a 5 © | 1.000695 | 1.000109 | Klemenéit. Ethylene . O | 1.0013 | 1.00072 | Boltzmann. cc : - | oO | 1.00146 | 1.00087 | Klementit. Hydrochloric acid 1.00258 | 1.00199 | Badeker. Hydrogen © | 1.000264 | 0.999674 | Boltzmann. - : “ © | 1.000264 | 0.999678 | Klemenéit. Methane . : © | 1.000944 | 1.000354 | Boltzmann. s : O | 1.000953 |} 1.000367 | Klementit. Nitrous oxide (N2O) oO 1.00116 1.00057 Boltzmann. <¢ yi soars © | 1.00099 | 1.00041 | Klementié. Sulphur dioxide © | 1.00993 | 1.00934 | Badeker. rs ag © | 1.00905 | 1.00846 | Klemendit. Water vapor, 4atmospheres | 145 | 1.00705 | 1.00646 | Badeker. TABLE 344. — Variation of the Dielectric Constant with the Temperature. For variation with the pressure see next table. If Dg=the dielectric constant at the temperature 6° C., Dy at the tempera- ture #° C., and a and B are quantities given in the following table, then Do = Di (1 — a(¢— 6) + B(¢t— 6)?]. The temperature coefficients are due to Badeker. Range of Gas. temp. ° C. Ammonia . . | 5.45 X 10-8 | 2.59 X 10-7 | 1o— 110 Sulphur dioxide | 6.19 X 10-8 | 1.86 X 10-7 | o—1II0 Water vapor . 1.4 X 104 ~ 145 The dielectric constant of air at atmospheric pressure but with varying tem- perature may also be calculated from the fact that D —1 is approximately pro- portional to the density. SMITHSONIAN TABLEs. 310 TABLES 345, 346. DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS (continued). TABLE 345.—Change of the Dielectric Constant of Gases with the Pressure, Temper- | Pressure} Dielectric ature,° C.| atmos. constant. Authority. 1.0108 Tangl, 1907. 1.0218 ss “ 1.0330 1.0439 1.0548 I.OIOI 1.0196 1.0294 1.0387 1.0482 1.0579 1.06074 1.0760 Mite ss 1.0845 Carbon dioxide. . 1.008 eS “s “ee 1.020 : S aie 1.060 Nitrous oxide, N2O 1.010 “ “ce “ 1.025 1.070 TABLE 346.— Dielectric Constants of Liquids. A wave-length greater than 10000 centimeters is denoted by ©. Wave- lengt cm. Wave- Dielectric Dielectric length, cm, | constant. Temp. OTe: ? | constant. Substance. Substance. Author- ity. Alcohol: Alcohol : Amyl. . . | frozen Methyl =: 45:3 3 © . a Oy E ° ° vo sc H & Z value of the magnetizing force re- uired for maximum permeability wire is noticeable in specimen 5. when the specimen is at q TABLE 353. — Permeability of Transformer Iron.$ This table contains the results of some experiments on transformers of the Westinghouse and Thomson-Houston types. Referring to the headings of the different columns, J7is the total magneto-motive force applied to the iron; M/ the magneto-motive force per centimetre length of the iron circuit ; & the total induction through the mag- netizing coil; B/a the induction per square centimetre of the mean section of the iron core; J7/B the magnetic reluctance of the iron circuit; B7//Ja the permeability of the iron, a being taken as the mean cross section of the iron circuit as it exists in the transformer, which is thus slightly greater than the actual cross section of the iron. (a) WestincHousez No. 8 TRANSFORMERS (ABOUT 2500 Watts Capacity). First specimen. Second specimen. 0.917 XI 1.25 X 105" 0.681 One 0.683 0.73 0-734 0.77 0.819 0.85 0.903 0.97 0.994 1.07 1.090 1.18 1.180 1.29 1.270 1.41 10430 | 1.360 1.53 IOQIO | 1.540 * “ Phil. Mag.*’ 4th series, vol. xlv. p. 151. + Ibid. sth series, vol. xix. F 73. + ‘* Magnetic Induction in Iron and Other Metals.” § T. Gray, from special experiments. SmitHsSonian TABLes. et 6 TABLE 353 (continued). PERMEABILITY OF TRANSFORMER IRON. (b) WestinGHousE No. 6 TRANSFORMERS (ABOUT :800 WaTTs CaPAciTy). First specimen. Second specimen. M Z B M a B 0.62 | 147X108 1.36X10-4 215X 0.93XI1 3140 1-23 AA 3980 | 0.91 “ 2 615 0.64 4490 1.85 | 697 0.86 826 0.72 4030 2.40 | 862 0.93 986 0.81 3590 3.08 | 949 1.05 1050 0.95 3060 3.70 | IOIO 1.19 1100 1.09 2670 4.31 | 1060 1.33 1140 1.23 2430 4.93 | 1090 1.47 1170 1.37 2180 5-55 | 1120 1.61 1190 10700 | I.51 1970 6.16 | 1150 1.74 - ~ - (¢) WESTINGHOUSE No. 4 TRANSFORMER (ABOUT 1200 Watts CaPAciTy). 147X102| 1470 | I. 2140 42 2.86X10-4 3730 ; 2:00 3780 406 4066 | o. 2940 ; 2.81 3790 3 3.02 3520 573 5730 | I. 2770 3-24 3280 3:45 3080 659 6590 | I. 2390 : 3.92 2710 4-39 2430 4.37 2190 . 5:35 1990 748 : 1810 : 5-52 1820 6.29 6.78 7.28 714 2070 1690 1570 1460 777 : 1610 TABLES 354-356. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON. G27 TABLE 354.— Magnetic Properties of Iron and Steel. Blecte: @uad Bane Electrical Sheets. lytic Cast Cast Tron. Steel. Steel. Tron. Oring: aoe 0.036 0.036 0.024 0.044 0.56 ai Chemical composi- 0.004 0.004 | 0.18 ; yp aan ae8 05 6 ait 0.008 0.40 0.2 tion in per cent 2 4 9 0.008 0.044 0.076 0.001 0.027 0.035 is 2.83 1.51 ral 11.4 Coercive force . . . [0.36] | [0.37] | (44-3) [4.6] [1.30] [0.77] : 11400 | 10600 | 10500 5100 Residual B+ + ++ §| [10800] | [11000] | (10500) [5350] | [9400] _| [9850] 0.040 0.009 0.068 0.006 : + 1850 | 3550 700 240 Maximum permeability } | [14400] | [t4800] | (170) [600] | [3270] | [6r30] 19200 | 18800 | 17400 10400 [18900] | [1g100] | (15400) [11000] | [18200] | [17550] ‘ 21620 | 21420 | 20600 16400 4nI for saturation —. [21630] | [21420] | (20200) [16800] | [20500] | [19260] B for H=150 E. Gumlich, Zs. fiir Electrochemie, 15, p. 599; 1909- Srackets indicate annealing at 800° C in vacuum, Parentheses indicate hardening by quenching from cherry-red. TABLE 355. — Cast Iron in Intense Fields. Soft Cast Iron. Hard Cast Iron. B I B I 9950 782 : 7860 614 10800 846 : 9700 752 13900 1070 10850 836 15750 1200 5 13050 983 17300 1280 14050 1044 18170 1300 15900 1138 31100 1465 : 16800 1176 32100 1475 . 26540 1245 32500 1483 : 28600 1226 336050 1472 30200 1226 B. O. Peirce, Proc. Am. Acad. 44, 1909. TABLE 356.— Corrections for Ring Specimens. In the case of ring specimens, the average magnetizing force is not the value at the mean radius, he ratio of the two being given in the table. “The flux density consequently is not uniform, and he measured hysteresis is less than it would be for a uniform distribution. This ratio is also given ‘or the case of constant permeability, the values being applicable for magnetizations in the neigh- yorhood of the maximum permeability. For higher magnetizations the flux density is more uni- form, for lower it is less, and the correction greater. Ratio of Ratio of Average H to Ratio of Hysteresis for Uniform Radial H at Mean Radius. Distribution to Actual Hysteresis. Widthtos SS Diameter Rectangular Circular Rectangular Circular of Ring. Cross-section. | Cross-section. | Cross-section. Cross-section. 1.0986 1.0718 1.112 1/3 1.0397 1.0294 1.045 1/4 1.0216 1.0162 1.024 1/5 1.0137 1.0102 I.015 1/6 1.0094 1.0070 1.010 1/7 1.0069 1.0052 1,008 1/8 1.0052 1.0040 1.006 1/10 1.0033 1.0025 1.003 1.0009 1.0007 I.OoI M. G. Lloyd, Bull. Bur. Standards, 5, p. 435; 1908. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 31 8 TABLE 357. COMPOSITION AND MACNETIC ' This table and Table 358 below are taken from a paper by Dr. Hopkinson * on the magnetic properties of iron and steel. which is stated in the paper to have been 240. The maximum magnetization is not tabulated; but as stated in the by 47. ‘‘ Coercive force’? is the magnetizing force required to reduce the magnetization to zero. The ‘ demag- previous magnetization in the opposite direction to the “ maximum induction’? stated in the table. The “energy which, however, was only found to agree roughly with the results of experiment. Chemical analysis. Description of | Specimens Total | Manga- Phos- Other Carbon.| nese. Sulphur. | Silicon. phorus.| substances. Wrought iron . : . | Annealed Malleable cast iron . : cs Gray cast iron . : ; - Bessemer steel . : : - Whitworth mild steel . | Annealed dé he Oil-hard- ened ce ae . | Annealed Ve ue Oil-hard- } ened oOo ON AnsfWNH Hadfield’s manganese steel Manganese steel : . | As forged es s : Annealed Oil-hard- } ened As forged Annealed Oil-hard- } ened Silicon steel . | As forged &s ss . | Annealed n és Oil-hard- i ened Chrome steel . _. | As forged ef ss Annealed Me Oil-hard- ; ened ss . | As forged <é . | Annealed te Oil-hard- : } ened As forged Annealed Hardened in cold in tepid water “ “ (French) . eee us Seis : Very hard Gray cast iron . : - Mottled cast iron Writely: ets Spiegeleisen * Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. vol. 176+ t Graphitic carbon. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 357 (continued). 3 19 PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL. The numbers in the columns headed “ magnetic properties”’ give the results for the highest magnetizing force used, paper, it may be obtained by subtracting the magnetizing force (240) from the maximum induction and then dividing netizing force ” is the magnetizing force which had to be applied in order to leave no residual magnetization after dissipated’? was calculated from the formula:— Energy dissipated = coercive force X maximum induction + 7 Magnetic properties. Description of specimen. Wrought iron . ; Malleable cast iron . Gray cast iron . Bessemer steel . \ Whitworth mild steel “ “ Hadfield’s manganese steel Manganese steel “cr “ “© (French) . “ Gray cast iron . Mottled cast iron Witter <.° * Spiegeleisen SMITHSONIAN TABLES. Annealed Annealed Ojil-hard- ened Annealed Oil-hard- } ened As forged Annealed Ojil-hard- } ened As forged Annealed Oil-hard- ened As forged Annealed Oil-hard- } ened As forged Annealed Oil-hard- ened As forged Annealed Oil-hard- ened As forged Annealed Hardened in cold in tepid water Oil hard- ened Very hard i- Residual 18251 12408 10783 18196 19840 18736 18796 16120 16120 310 4623 10575 4769 747 1985 733 15148 14701 14696 15778 14848 13960 14680 13233 12868 15718 16498 15610 14480 1213 914 10546 9342 385 induc- tion. 7248 7479 Energy dis- sipated per Coer- |Demag- cycle cive |netizive force. | force. 2.30 13356 8.50 34742 3:80 13037 2.96 17137 1.63 10289 6.73 40120 II.00 65786 8.26 423606 19.38 99401 34567 113963 41941 15474 45740 36485 59619 61439 42425 169455 85044 64842 167050 78568 80315 320 TaBLes 358-360. PERMEABILITY OF SOME OF THE SPECIMENS IN TABLE 357. TABLE 358. i le gives the induction and the permeability for different values of the magnetizing force of some of the speci- eS in’ Table ag The specimen Fabere sa to the same table. The numbers in this table have been taken from the curves given by Dr. Hopkinson, and may therefore be slightly in error; they are the mean values for rising and falling magnetizations. | : Sane Grou) Specimen 8 Specimen 9 (same as Specimen 3 Mesnen eee fi (annealed steel). 8 tempered). (cast iron). | ing force. eS eee ee ee Tables 359-363 give the results of some experiments by Du Bois,* on the magnetic properties of iron, nickel, and cobalt under strong magnetizing forces. ‘The experiments were made on ovoids of the metals 18 centimeters long and 0.6 centimeters diameter. The specimens were as follows: (1) Soft Swedish iron carefully annealed and having a density 7.82. (2) Hard English cast steel yellow tempered at 230° C.; density 7-78._ (3) Hard drawn best nickel containing 99 % Ni with some SiO, and traces of Fe and Cu; density 8.82. (4) Cast cobalt giving the following composition on analysis: Co = 93.1, Ni=5.8, Fe=0.8, Cu=o.2, Sixo.1, and C=0.3. The speci- men was very brittle and broke in the lathe, and hence contained a surfaced joint held together by clamps during the experiment. Referring to the columns, 7, 8, and have the same meaning as in the other tables, S is the magnetic moment per gram, and J the magnetic moment per cubic centimeter. | Hand S are taken from the curves published by Du Bois; the others have been calculated using the densities given. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOFT IRON AT O° AND 100° C. TABLE 359. Soft iron at 0° C. Soft iron at 100° C. | puitee B 1408 : 17720 1521 6. i 19190 1627 : 20660 1685 5 21590 1705 : 22040 1709 : ; 22300 MACNETIC PROPERTIES OF STEEL AT O° AND 100° C. TABLE 360. Steel at 0° C. Steel at 100° C. _ =e No HOO DVO W'S 8 MmNOO Fut * “Phil. Mag.’’ 5 series, vol. xxix. ¢ The results in this and the other tables for forces above 1200 were not obtained from the ovoids above referred to, but from a small piece of the metal provided with a polished mirror surface and placed, with its polished face nor- mal to the lines of force, between the poles of a powerful electromagnet. The induction was then inferred from the eae of the plane of a polarized ray of red light reflected normally from the surface. (See Kerr’s ‘‘ Constants,”! Pp. 331. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLES 361-367. Go ie) — MACNETIC PROPERTIES OF METALS. TABLE 361. — Cobalt at 100° C. TABLE 362.—Nickel at 100° C. S I B 100 | 35-0 | 309 3980 200 | 43.0 | 380 4966 | 24.8 300 | 40.0 | 406 5399 | 18.0 500 | 50.0 | 441 6043 | 12.1 700 | 51-5 | 454 | 6409 | 9.1 1000 | 53.0 | 468 6875 6.9 1500 | 50.0 ; 494 | 7707 | 51 2500 | 58.4 | 515 | 8973 3.6 4000 | 59.0 | 520 | 10540 2.6 6000 | 59.2 | 522 | 12561 2.1 gooo | 59-4 | 524 | 15555 1.7 12000 | 59.6 | 526 | 18606 1.5 At o° C. this specimen gave the fol- lowing results : 12300 | 67.5 | 595 | 19782 | 1.6 TABLE 363. — Magnetite. The following results are given by Du Bois * for a specimen of magnetite. 1000 1500 2500 4000 6000 gooo 9 2 At o° C. this specimen gave the fol- lowing results : 7900 | 154 | 1232 | 23380 | 3.0 = eS me Oi PW HAOKRO DOL AWNING CnO0 N Professor Ewing has investigated the effects of very intense fields on the induction in iron and other metals.t The results show that the intensity of magnetization does not increase much in iron after the field has reached an in- tensity of 1000 ¢. g. s. units, the increase of induction above this being almost the same as if the iron were not there, that is to say, @B/ dH is practically unity. For hard steels, and particularly manganese steels, much higher forces are required to produce saturation. Hadfield’s manganese steel seems to have nearly constant susceptibility up to a magnetizing force of 10,000. The following tables, taken from Ewing’s papers, illustrate the effects of strong fields on iron and steel. The results for nickel and cobalt do not differ greatly from those given above. TABLE 364. — Lowmoor TABLE 365. — Vicker’s TABLE 366. — Hadfield’s Wrought Iron. Tool Steel. Manganese Steel. 24130 28300 32250 35200 30810 39900 40730 | H Bessemer steel containing about 0.4 per cent carbon. . . | 17600 | 1770 Siemens-Marten steel] containing about 0.5 per cent carbon | 18000 | 1660 Crucible steel for making chisels, containing about 0.6 per CENCATWONG. <9 da csqgiey Gees] ouipeuiis) | oh houeewne) sptheie ls Finer quality of 3 containing about 0.8 per cent carbon. . | 18330 | 1580 Crucible steel containing I per cent carbon . . . . « «| 19620 } 1440 Whitworth’s fluid-compressed steel. . . . . - + + «| 18700 | 1590 19470 | 1480 * * Phil. Mag.”’ 5 series, vol. xxix, 1890. + ‘Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.’’ 1885 and 1889. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, B22 TABLES 368-370. Taste 368.-MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON IN VERY WEAK FIELDS. The effect of very small magnetizing forces has been studied by C. Baur* and by Lord _Rayleigh.t The following short table is taken from Baur’s paper, and is taken by him to indicate that the susceptibility is finite for zero values of H and for a finite range increases in simple proportion to H. He gives the formula £=15 + 100 H, or I= 15 H-+100 H?. The experiments were made on an annealed ring of round bar 1.013 cms. radius, the ring havin: a radius of 9-432 cms. Lord Rayleigh’s results for an iron wire not annealed give = 6.4-+5.1 H, or J=6.4 +5.1 H*. The forces were reduced as low as 0.00004 ¢. g. S., the relation of £ to H remaining constant. First experiment. Second experiment. TABLES 369, 370.—DISSIPATION OF ENERGY IN CYCLIC MAGNETIZATION OF MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES. When a piece of iron or other magnetic metal is made to pass through a closed cycle of magnetization dissipation of energy results. Let us suppose the iron to pass from zero magneti- zation to strong magnetization in one direction and then gradually back through zero to strong magnetization in the other direction and thence back to zero, and this operation to be repeated several times. The iron will be found to assume the same magnetization when the same magne- tizing force is reached from the same direction of change, but not when it is reached from the other direction. This has been long known, and is particularly well illustrated in the permanency of hard steel magnets. That this fact involves a dissipation of energy which can be calculated from the open loop formed by the curves giving the relation of magnetization to magnetizing force was pointed out by Warburg f in 1881, reference being made to experiments of Thomson, § where such curves are illustrated for magnetism, and to E. Cohn, || where similar curves are given for thermo- electricity. The results of a number of experiments and calculations of the energy dissipated are given by Warburg. The subject was investigated about the same time by Ewing, who pub- lished results somewhat later. ] Extensive investigations have since been made by a number of investigators. TABLE 369.— Soft Iron Wire. (From Ewing's 1885 paper.) Horse- TABLE 370. — Cable Transformers. Total Dissipation power induction | of energy | wasted per This table gives the results obtained by Alexander Siemens with one of Pers geicrn: a ch eles tee Siemens’ cable transformers. The transformer core consisted of goo j sec. soft iron wires 1 mm. diameter and 6 meters long.** The dissipation of energy in watts is for 100 complete cycles per second. 0.74 1.41 Total ob- P : Hysteresis Mean maxi- : Hysteresis y 218 [| |/mam induc: | Seed aise | Caleulated | “iosor | rosso DOE tion density ake in the inset watts| CneTey in en ar S in core. gy watts per sa S29 core in watts| per 112 lbs. a ths cu. cm. se per 112 lbs. ; per cycle. 10 7-43 8.84 9.2 10.30 0.2 11.89 122.0 13-53 167.2 15.30 209-5 17.10 246.1 * “Wied. Ann.”’ vol. xi. + ‘Phil. Mag.” vol. xxiii. ¢ “ Wied. Ann.” vol. xiii. p. 141. § “ Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.” vol. 175. || “‘ Wied. Ann.”’ vol. 6. 7 “ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1882, and ‘‘ Trans. Roy. Soc.” 1885. ** “ Proc. Inst. of Elect. Eng.’’ Lond., 1892. SMiTHSONIAN TABLES. mcs Sedic TABLES 371-372. 323 DEMAGNETIZING FACTORS FOR RODS. TABLE 371. /7= true intensity o. magnetizing field, H’ = intensity of applied field, 7—in- tensity of magnetization, H= A’’—/V/. Shuddemagen says: The demagnetizing factor is not a constant, falling for highest values of 7 to about 1/7 the value when unsaturated; for values of B =H-+4x/) less than 10000, V is approximately constant; using a solenoid wound on an insulating tube, or a tube of split brass, the reversal method gives values for V which are considerably lower than those given by the step-by-step method; if the solenoid is wound on a thick brass tube, the two methods prac- tically agree. Values of WV X 104. Cylinder, Bene Ballistic Step Method, 0 OEOSSSsSssseF mre a Ellipsoid. | Uniform | Magneto- | Dubois. Shuddemagen for Range of Diainetes ; Magneti- metric Practical Constancy. 7 pation Method (Mann), Diameter. 0.158 cm, | 0.3175 cm, r.ar3cm,| 1,905 cm, 2160 1960 1075 775 671 39 343 23 209 162 149 118 89 69 63 55 45 41 21 II : II C. R. Mann, Physical Review, 3, p. 359; 1896. H. DuBois, Wied. Ann. 7, p. 9423 1902. ’ ee C, L. B. Shuddemagen, Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 43, p. 185, 1907 (Bibliography). TABLE 372. Shuddemagen also gives the following, where 2 is determined by the step method and H=H'—£KB. Ratio of Values of KX 104, Length to Diameter, Diameter Diameter 0.3175 cm. 1,1 to 2.0cm, SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 324 TABLE 373. DISSIPATION OF ENERCY IN THE CYCLIC MACNETIZATION OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. C. P. Steinmetz concludes from his experiments * that the dissipation of energy due to hysteresis in magnetic metals can be expressed by the formula e—aé&1, where ¢ is the energy dissipated and a a constant. He also concludes that the dissipation is ‘the same for the same range of induction, no matter what the absolute value of the terminal inductions may be. His experiments show this to be nearly true when the induction does not exceed + 15000 c. g.s. units per sq. cm. It is possible that, if metallic induction only be taken, this may be true up to saturation ; but it is not likely to be found to hold for total inductions much above the satura- tion value of the metal. The law of variation of dissipation with induction range in the cycle, stated in the above formula, is also subject to verification. Values of Constant a. The following table gives the values of the constant @ as found by Steinmetz for a number of different specimens. The data are taken from his second paper. Number of specimen. Value of Kind of material. Description of specimen. BE Norway iron . ; : ; 00227 Wrought bar... : .00326 Commercial ferrotype plate ° 00548 Annealed : : .00458 Thin tin plate . : : : 2 Z eon6 Medium thickness tin plate ; : 00425 Soft galvanized wire 3 ; 00349 Annealed cast steel . ‘ ; : : ; .00848 Soft annealed cast steel . : : : 00457 Very soft annealed cast steel . . : : : 00318 Same as 8 tempered in cold water . 4 : 02792 Tool steel glass hard tempered in water : : 07476 «© tempered in oil : : : : : .02670 . sc) SS Ftannealedl. 01899 : ( Same as 12,13, and 14, after having been subjected 061 30 ; to an alternating m. m. f. of from 4000 to 6000 .02700 : : ampere turns for demagnetization : ; 01445 Cast iron . Gray cast iron . : : .O1 300 cs tS ie ie eS containing a % aluminium : : .01365 “ “ 7 6c “c “ “ + ‘i 01459 A square rod 6 sq. cms. section and 6.5 cms. ae 0 CON AnPW DN Magnetite . from the Tilly Foster mines, Brewsters, Putnam County, New York, stated to be a very pure sample Nickel . Soft wire . a Annealed wire, calculated by Steinmetz “from : Ewing’s experiments : : « Hardened, also from Ewing’s experiments Gobalt Rod containing about 2 % of iron, also calculated : from Ewing’s experiments by Steinmetz Consisted of thin needle-like chips obtained by milling grooves about 8 mm. wide across a pile of thin sheets clamped together. About 30 % by vol- ume of the specimen was iron. Ist experiment, continuous cyclic variation of m. m. f. 180 cycles per second . ; : 5 2d experiment, 114 cycles per second ( 3d . 79-91 cycles per second . Iron filings * “Trans. Am. Inst. Elect. Eng.” Jancaty and September, 1892. + See T. Gray, ‘‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’’ vol. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 374. 325 ENERGY LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER STEELS. Determined by the wattmeter method. Loss per cycle per cc = 44*+6nB!, where 5 = flux density in gausses and #2 = frequency in cycles per second. x shows the variation of hysteresis with B between 5000 and 10000 gausses, and y the same for eddy currents. Ergs per Gramme per Cycle. Watts per Pound at 60 Cy- cles and 10000 Gausses. i Thick- | tooo Gausses. | 5000 Gausses. Designation. ness. cm. Hyste- Hyste- Hyste- resis. resis. resis. rents at 60o~ Eddy Current Loss for Gage Eddy Cur- No. 29. + Unannealed A 0.0399 562 2.02 |0.00490 B .0326 384 : 1.89 | .00358 Cc 0422 350 : 1.79 | .00319 D .0381 353 1.94 | .00312 Annealed f .0476 246 : .0022 F .0280 220 F .00206 G 0394 193 / : : .00174 H* .0307 138.5 : .00127 0318 111.5 : -OO105 * .0282 130 : .0O122 .0346 125 : : 00118 .0338 116 : .OO110 0335 127 : .OOII5 .0340 105 Z 00099 .0437 107 : 00103 Silicon steels .0361 98 : .00094 0315 93 a .00089 0452 go : .00086 0338 78 ; .00077 0346 86 5 .00084 0310 79 : .00078 0305 62.3 : .00061 .0430 64.2 .00062 * German. , ' + English. t In order to make a fair comparison, the eddy current loss has been computed for a thickness of 0.0357 cm. (Gage No. 29), assuming the loss proportional to the thickness. Lloyd and Fisher, Bull. Bur. Standards, 5, p. 4533; 1909. Note. — For formula and tables for the calculation of mutual and self inductance see Bulletin Bureau of Standards, vol. 8, p. 1-237, 1912. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 326 TABLE 375. MAGNETO-OPTIC ROTATION. Faraday discovered that, when a piece of heavy glass is placed in magnetic field and a beam of plane polarized light passed through it in a direction parallel to the lines of magnetic force, the plane of polarization of the beam is rotated. This was subsequently found to be the case with a large number of substances, but the amount of the rotation was found to depend on the kind of matter and its physical condition, and on the strength of the magnetic field and the wave-length of the polarized light. Verdet’s experiments agree fairly well with the formula — dr\ r2 oc (r a) where c is a constant depending on the substance used, / the length of the path through the substance, 4 the intensity of the component of the magnetic field in the direction of the path of the beam, ~ the index of refraction, and A the wave-length of the light in air. If 4 be dif- ferent, at different parts of the path, 7H’ is to be taken as the integral of the variation of mag- netic potential between the two ends of the medium. Calling this difference of potential v, we may write @—= Av, where A is constant for the same substance, kept under the same physical conditions, when the one kind of light is used. The constant 4 has been called “ Verdet’s con- stant,” * and a number of values of it are given in Tables 376-380. For variation with tempera- ture the following formula is given by Bichat : — R = Ro (1 — 0.00104 ¢ — 0.000014 ¢?), which has been used to reduce some of the results given in the table to the temperature corre- sponding to a given measured density. For change of wave-length the following approximate formula, given by Verdet and Becquerel, may be used : — @, eH —1)A,! 6, H2(K I )a? ’ where p is index of refraction and A wave-length of light. A large number of measurements of what has been called molecular rotation have been made, particularly for organic substances. These numbers are not given in the table, but numbers proportional to molecular rotation may be derived from Verdet’s constant by multiplying in the ratio of the molecular weight to the density. The densities and chemical formule are given in the table. In the case of solutions, it has been usual to assume that the total rotation is simply the algebraic sum of the rotations which would be given by the solvent and dissolved substance, or substances, separately; and hence that determinations of the rotary power of the solvent medium and of the solution enable the rotary power of the dissolved substance to be calculated. Experiments by Quincke and others do not support this view, as very different results are obtained from different degrees of saturation and from different solvent media. No results thus calculated have been given in the table, but the qualitative result, as to the sign of the rotation produced by a salt, may be inferred from the table. For example, if a solution of a salt in water gives Verdet’s constant less than 0.0130 at 20° C., Verdet’s constant for the salt is negative. The table has been for the most part compiled from the experiments of Verdet,t H. Becque- rel,t Quincke, § Koepsel,|| Arons,{ Kundt,** Jahn,tt Schonrock,tt Gordon, §§ Rayleigh and Sidgewick,|||| Perkin, Bichat.*** As a basis for calculation, Verdet’s constant for carbon disulphide and the sodium line D has been taken as 0.0420 and for water as 0.0130 at 20° C. * The constancy of this quantity has been verified through a wide range of variation of magnetic field by H. E. J. G. Du Bois (Wied. Ann. vol. 35), p. 137, 1888. + “ Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.’’ [3] vol. 52, p. 129, 1858. + “ Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.” [5] vol. 12; ‘‘C. R.’’ vols. 90, p. 1407, 1880, and 100, p. 1374, 1885. § “Wied. Ann.’ vol. 24, p. 606, 1885. || ‘* Wied. Ann.” vol. 26, p. 456, 1885. ¥ ‘‘ Wied. Ann.” vol. 24, p. 161, 1885. ** “Wied. Ann.” vols. 23, p. 228, 1884, and 27, p. 191, 1886. +t ‘Wied. Ann.” vol. 43, p. 280, 1891. tt ‘‘Zeits. fiir Phys. Chem.” vol. 11, p. 753) 1893- § “Proc. Roy. Soc.’’ 36, p. 4, 1883. ||| ‘Phil. Trans. R. S.’? 176, p. 343, 1885- 49 ‘‘ Jour. Chem. Soc.’? *** “ Tour. de Phys.” vols. 8, p. 204, 1879, and 9, p. 204 and p. 275, 1880. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 376. 327 MAGNETO-OPTIC ROTATION. Solids. Verdet’s , ‘ Constant. Gs Authority. Minutes. Wave- Substance, Formula. length. BM PANDO GE ele S ists Sehi.e! | ¢ 0.58 0.0 Quincke. lender). sh 5. ie 8 ZnS 2° saad Becquerel. Wiamond hye. ) « C ss 0.0127 Weadborate)}. <) «4. PbBeO4 “ 0.0600 SEMIN ome eer Ue Se 0.687 0.4625 Sodium borate . . .| NaeBsO,z 0.589 0.0170 AACOCLING swe! leslie) ts Cu20 0.687 0.5908 “ LMT Gg Bg ho, Te CaFle 0.2534 | 0.05989 Meyer, Ann. der "3055 .02526 Physik, 30, 1909. “435 01717 4916 01329 589 .00897 1.00 .00300 2.50 00049 .00030 Glass, Jena: Medium phosphate crn. : 0.0161 DuBois, Wied. Ann. Heavy crown, O1143 . 0.0220 51, 1894. Light flint, O451 . 0.0317 Heavy flint O500 . 0.0608 “ . S16Rh) 0.0888 Zeiss, Ultraviolet. . . . Landau, Phys. ZS. “ ; 9, 1908. Quartz, along axis, i.e., SiOz .219¢ : Borel, Arch. sc. phys. plate cut 1 to axis ‘ : 16, 1903. Rockesaltess 1.) 2). : nD Meyer, as above. Sugar, cane: along CyoH22011 | 0.451 : Voigt, Phys. ZS. 9, axis ITA -540 2 1908. .626 axis) DPAL ES Sa 0.451 .540 626 : Siyvine@ie y cih ccs ergs 0.4358 : Meyer, as above. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 22 8 TABLE 377. MACNETO-OPTIC ROTATION. ‘Liquids : Verdet’s Constant for A= 0.589n. Density in | Verdet’s Substance. Chemical formula. | grams per | constant |Temp.C. Authority. Guic: in minutes. Acetone CsH,gO 0.7947 0.0113 20° Jahn. Acids: Acetic CyH4O2 1.0561 .O105 21 Perkin. <* Butyric C4HsgOg 0.9663 .O116 : : “ - : os Radium in equilibrium with products “ 2.75 X 1o—5 cu. mm. TABLE 397.— Heating Effect of Radium and its Emanation. (Rutherford and Robinson, Philosophical Magazine, 25, p- 312, 1913-) Heating effect in gram-calories per hour per gram radium. Radium . Emanation RadiumA .. Radium B + C Totals . - Other determinations: Hess, Wien. Ber. 121, p. 1, 1912, Radium (alone) 25.2 cal. per hour per gram. Meyer and Hess, Wien. Ber. 121, p. 603, 1912, Radium in equilibrium, 132.3 gram. cal. per,hour per gram. See also, Callendar, Phys. Soc. Proceed. 23, p. 1, 1910; Schweidler and Hess, Ion. 1, p. 161, 1909; Angstrém, Phys. ZS. 6, 685, 1905, etc. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 338 TABLE 398. RADIOACTIVITY. P= 1/2 period = time when body is one-half transformed. A= transformation constant (see previous page). The initial velocity of the a particle is deduced from the formula of Geiger V3—=aR where K=—range and assuming the velocity for RaC of range 7.06 cm. at 20° is 2.06 X 10? cm. per sec., i.e. vV = 1.077r 173. URANIUM-RADIUM GROUP. a rays. Transforma- tion Range. Constants. i 760mm Whole no. of ions produced. Initial Kinetic 15° Cc Velocity. Energy By ana c.m. pers. Ergs. particle. Uranium 1 8. 1.4X10—0 y ; 7 .65X10—6 Uranium 2 5 7X10—7y : : es Uranium X ; ; .0282 d Ure ¥ 5 . -460d Tonium ! ? 3-5X10—5 y € 75 Radium ; -000346 y : “79 Ra Emanation 3 180d 5 .92 Radium A i -231m 1.01 Radium B : .0258 m +y Radium C : -0355m . 1.31 Ra Cy : 495m Ra O, radio-lead : .042 y Ra E. i -139 d Ra F. Polonium .oo510d ACTINIUM GROUP. Actinium ? - none Radio-Act. .0355d a+B Actinium X .068 d a. Act. Emanation 178s a Actinium A : 3508 a. Actinium B .0193m slow B Actinium C -33 mM a Actinium D -147 mM B+y THORIUM GROUP. Thorium 1.3X10ly | 5.3Xro—!1 ; 1.50X109 | .69X10—5 Mesothorium 1 5-5Y 126 yr Mes phodum 2 6.2 hr -11zh aa adiothorium 2yrs 34 : 1.70 89 Thorium X nee d ee 3 a ee Kexeaies Th. Emanation 54 sec +0128 ; 1.90 riptaye Thorium A 0.14 Sec 4-958 : 1.97 rege) Thorium B 10.6h .0654h Thorium C, 60m .o118 m f 1.85 TOcue Thorium C, very short - 2.22 253) e Th. D 3.1m -224mM Potassium ? ? Rubidium ? ? SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 398 (continued).— RADIOACTIVITY. 339 u= coefficient of absorption for 8 rays in terms of cms. of aluminum, py, of the y rays in cms. of lead so that if Jo is the incident intensity, J that after passage through d cms., J = Joe-de. URANIUM-RADIUM GROUP. B rays. y rays. Absorption Velocity Absorption Coefficient = Light=1 Co-ef.= my, Remarks. I gram U emits 2.37 X 104 a particles per sec. Not separable from Ur 1. B rays show no groups of definite veloc- ities. Chemically allied to Th. Probably branch product. Exists in small quantity. Chemically properties of and non-separ- able from Thorium. Chemically properties of Ba. 1 gr. emits per sec. in equilib. 13.6 X 101° particles. Inert gas, density 111 H, boils —65° C, density solid 5-6, condenses low pres- sure —150° C. Like solid, has + charge, volatile in H, 400°, in O about 550°. 13, 80, 890 | .36 to .74 Volatile about 400° C. in H. Separated pure by recoil from Ra A. Bay 5S 80 to .98 : Volatile in H about 430°, in O about 1000°. 13 = Probably branch product. Separated by recoil from Ra C. 23351639 33> -39 Separated with Pb. not yet separable from it. Volatile below 1000°. 43 Wide range | Easy abs. _— _ — Separated with Bi. Probably changes to Pb. Volatile about 1000°. ACTINIUM GROUP. Probably branch product Ur. series. Chemically allied to Lanthanum. — Chemical properties analogous to Ra. — Inert gas, condenses between —120° and —150°. _ Analogous to Ra A. Volatile above 400°. “ Very soft _ GeRayB: s SST OOns — « ce Ra C. 28.5 .217 (Al) | (Obtained by recoil). THORIUM GROUP. Th. _ Volatile in electric arc. Colorless salts not spontaneously phosphorescent. Mes. Th. 1 ~ .37 to .66 Chemical property analogous to Ra from which non-separable. Mes. Th.2 | 20 to 38.5 — Rad. Th. _ — Chemically allied to Th., non-separable from it. hex About 330; . F Chemically analogous to Ra. Th, Em. _ Inert gas, condenses at low pressure between —120° and —150°. ThA +charged, collected on — electrode. Th. B z : Chemically analogous to Ra B. Volatile above 630° C. hey Chemically analogous to Ra C. Volatile above 730°. Th. Cy _ Th.C2 and Th.D are probably respectively B and a ray products from Th.C}. +3) +4, 93-5 : Got by recoil from Th.C. Probably transforms to Bi. Activity = 1/1000 of Ur. Ty SOO lOL Wits SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 340 TaBLes 399-401. RADIOACTIVITY. TABLE 399.—Stopping Powers of Various Substances for a Rays. s, the stopping power of a substance for the a rays is approximately proportional to the square root of the atomic weight, w. Substance He Air Oo C2He C2H4 Al N.O CO; CH3Br CS2 Fe Sees aeons | Oa 1:0) | 1205))| err 1.35 1.45 1.46 1.47 2.09 25TOu 2:20) | ywe. el]: pee) | TO |] Seoity, 1.440) 037 1.52 1.51 2.03 1.95 1.97 | Substance i Au Pb 4.45 | 4.27 3-70 | 3.78 Bragg, Philosophical Magazine, 11, p. 617, 1906. TABLE 400. — Absorption of 8 Rays by Various Substances. u, the coefficient of absorption for 8 rays is approximately proportional to the density, D. See Table 398 for u for Al. Substance . p/D ey aelane’ le ‘ : 0 3 | Atomic Wt. . 5 | Substance . p/D ieee Atomic Wt. Substance . p/D on Sup ac Atomic Wt. For the above data the B rays from Uranium were used. Crowther, Philosophical Magazine, 12, p. 379, 1906. TABLE 401. — Absorption of 7 Rays by Various Substances. Radium rays. Uranium rays. Th. D. |Meso.Th2| Range of ay = thickness #(cm) “(cm) eat, Substance. | Density. mu (cm)-! | 100%/D 13.59 .642 4.72 11.40 | .495 4-34 8.81 | .351 ON 8.35 | 325 7.62 304 7.24 281 7.07 228 2:85,/|) .Trd 2.77 III FO BNC UOT ee cd 21620) TOS Sie-ne 1.79 | .078 Paraffin . 86 | .042 In determining the above values the rays were first passed through one cm. of lead. Russell and Soddy, Philosophical Magazine, 21, p. 130, rgrr. SMITHSONIAN TABLES, TABLES 402-405. 341 RADIOACTIVITY. TABLE 402. — Total Number of Ions produced by the a, 8. and 7 Rays. The total number of ions per second due to the complete absorption in air of the B rays due to 1 gram of radium is 9 X10}4, to the y rays, 13 X10". The total number of ions due to the a rays from 1 gram of radium in equilibrium is 2.56 X10". If it be assumed that the ionization is proportional to the energy of the radiation, then the total energy emitted by radium in equilibrium is divided as follows: 92.1 parts to the a, 3.2 to the B, 47 to the y rays. (Rutherford, Moseley, Robinson.) TABLE 403. — Amount of Radium Emanation. Curie. At the Radiology Congress in Brussels in 1910, it was decided to call the amount of emanation in equilibrium with 1 gram of pure radium one Curie. [More convenient units are the millicurie (10~8Curie) and the microcurie (10o—°Curie)]. The rate of production of this emanation is 1.24 X10—® cu. cm. per second. The volume in equilibrium is 0.59 cu. mm. (760 cm., O°C.) assuming the emana- tion mon-atomic. The Mache unit is the quantity of Radium emanation without disintegration products which produces a saturation current of 1o—8 unit in a chamber of large dimensions. 1 curie = 2.5 X10” Mache units. The amount of the radium emanation in the air varies from place to place; the amount per cubic centimeter of air expressed in terms of the number of grams of radium with which it would be in equilibrium varies from 24X10—! to 350X10—™. TABLE 404.—Vapor Pressure of the Radium Emanation in cms. of Mercury. (Rutherford and Ramsay, Phil. Mag. 17, p. 723, 1909, Gray and Ramsay, Trans. Chem. Soc. 95, p. 1073, 1909.) Temperature C°. —127° —r1o1° —65° —56° —r1o0° +17° +49° +73° +100° +104° (crit) Vapor Pressure. 0.9 5 76 100 500 1000 2000 3000 4500 4745 TABLE 405. — References to Spectra of Radioactive Substances. Radium spectrum : Demarcay, C. R. 131, p. 258, 1900. Radium emanation spectrum: Rutherford and Royds, Phil. Mag. 16, p. 313, 1908; Watson, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 83, p. 50, 1909. Polonium spectrum : Curie and Debierne, Rad. 7, p. 38, 1910, C. R. 150, p. 386, 1910. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. 342 TABLE 406. MISCELLANEOUS CONSTANTS (ATOMIC, MOLECULAR, ETC.). € =4.774X10-10 e. s. u. (M) Th LO 1 Om4 en Oats =1,591X10—!9 coulombs Elementary electrical charge, charge on electron, 1/2 charge on a particle, Mass of an electron, m =—about 6X10—*8 grams. Radius of an electron, 1 =about 1X10—-}3 cm. Number of molecules per gram molecule, N =6.06X1078 gr—1 (M) Number of gas molecules per cc., 760™™, o°C, n ==2.70X10!9 (M) Kinetic energy of a molecule at o°C, Eo= 5-62X10—14 ergs. (M) Constant of molecular energy, Eo/T, € =2.06X10—!6 ergs /degrees (M) Constant of entropy equation (Boltzmann), =R/N | Le eh ; = poVo/ TN=(2 /3) 4 ka 1.37XI10 16 ‘ (M) Elementary “ Wirkungsquantum,” hy —6162>c1omavieraasce: (M) Mass of hydrogen atom, = 1.64X10—% gram. Radius of an atom, = about 10-8 cm. Gas constant, R = 22.412 /273.1 for 1 gram molecule of an ideal gas. Pressure in atmospheres, g = 980.6, vol. in liters, R =.08207 liter. Atm /grm. Sq. rt. of mean sq. molec. l| _veloc., cm. /sec. at o°C. X10—4 Mean free path cm. X 108 Molecular diameter cm. 108 (M) Millikan, Phys. Rev. 2, p. 109, 1913. The other values are mostly means. SMITHSONIAN TABLES. TABLE 407. 343 PERIODIC SYSTEM OF THE ELEMENTS. RO, 45] Oxides — 1) Hydrides SMITHSONIAN TABLES. APPENDIX. DEFINITIONS OF UNITS. ACTIVITY. Power or rate of doing work; unit, the watt. AMPERE. Unit of electrical current. The international ampere, ‘‘ which is one tenth of the unit of current of the C. G. S. system of electro-magnetic units, and which is represented sufficiently well for practical use by the unvarying current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, and in accordance with accompanying specifi- cations” (see pages xxxvi, 261), ‘‘deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a gram per second.” The ampere = I coulomb per second = 1 volt through 1 ohm = 107 E. M..U.. = 37% 10%) Ee S.)U.* k Amperes = volts/ohms = watts/volts = (watts /ohms)*. Amperes X volts = amperes? X ohms = watts. ANGSTROM. Unit of wave-length = 107!° meter. ATMOSPHERE. Unit of pressure. English normal = 14.7 pounds per sq. in= 29.929 in. = 760.18 mm. esas 2 ican = brench) | = 760 mm. of Hg. 0° C. = 29.922 in. = 14.70 lbs. per sq. in. BOUGIE DECIMALE. Photometric standard; see page 178. BRITISH THERMAL UNIT. Heat required to raise one pound of water at its temper- ature of maximum density, 19 F.= 252 gram-calories. CALORY. Small calory = gram-calory = therm = quantity of heat required to raise one gram of water at its maximum density, one degree Centigrade. Large calory = kilogram-calory = 1000 small calories = one kilogram of water raised one degree Centigrade at.the temperature of maximum density. For conversion factors see page 237. CANDLE. Photometric standard, see page 178. CARAT. The diamond carat standard in U. S.= 200 milligrams. Old standard = 205.3 milligrams = 3.168 grains. The gold carat: pure gold is 24 carats; a carat is 1/24 part. CARCEL. Photometric standard; see page 178. CIRCULAR AREA. The square of the diameter = 1.2733 X true area. True area = 0.785398 X circular area. COULOMB. Unit of quantity. The international coulomb is the quantity of electricity transferred by a current of one international ampere in one second.= 107! E, M. U. = 3 1085. 5. U: Coulombs = (volts-seconds)/ohms = amperes X seconds. CUBIT = 18 inches. DAY. Mean solar day.= 1440 minutes = 86400 seconds = 1.0027379 sidereal day. Sidereal day = 86164.10 mean solar seconds. DIGIT. 3/4 inch; 1/12 the apparent diameter of the sun or moon. DIOPTER. Unit of ‘‘power”’ of a lens. The number of diopters = the reciprocal of the focal length in meters. DYNE. C.G.S. unit of force = that force which acting for one second on one gram pro- duces a velocity of one centimeter per second. = weight in grams divided by the acceleration of gravity in cm. per sec. ELECTROCHEMICAL EQUIVALENT is the ratio of the mass in grams deposited in an electrolytic cell by an electrical current to the quantity of electricity. ENERGY. See Erg. ERG. C.G. S. unit of work and energy = one dyne acting through one centimeter. For conversion factors see page 237. FARAD. Unit of electrical capacity. The international farad is the capacity of a con- denser charged to a potential of one international volt by one international coulomb of electricity. = 10° E. M. U. = 9 X 10" E. S. U. The one-millionth part of a farad (microfarad) is more commonly used. Farads = coulombs/ volts. * EB. M.U.=C. G. S. electromagnetic units. E. S. U.=C. G. S. electrostatic units. 346 APPENDIX. FOOT-POUND. The work which will raise one pound one foot high. For conversion factors see page 237. FOOT-POUNDALS. The English unit of work = foot-pounds/g. For conversion factors see page 237. . The acceleration produced by gravity. GAUSS. A unit of intensity of magnetic field = 1 E. M. U.= 4 X 10-" E.S. U. GRAM. See page 6. GRAM-CENTIMETER. The gravitation unit of work = g. ergs. GRAM-MOLECULE, = x grams where x = molecular weight of substance. GRAVITATION CONSTANT = G in formula G "= = 666.07 X 10-" cm.°/gr. sec.? For further conversion factors see page 237. HEAT OF THE ELECTRIC CURRENT generated in a metallic circuit without self- induction is proportional to the quantity of electricity which has passed in coulombs multiplied by the fall of potential in volts, or is equal to (coulombs X volts) /4.181 in | small calories. The heat in small or gram-calories per second = (amperes? X ohms) /4.181 = volts?/ | (ohms X 4.181) = (volts X amperes) /4.181 = watts/4.18I. | HEAT. Absolute zero of heat = —273.13° C, -459.6° Fahrenheit, -218.5° Reaumur. | HEFNER UNIT. Photometric standard; see page 178. | HENRY. Unit of induction. It is ‘‘the induction ina circuit when the electromotive force | induced in this circuit is one international volt, while the inducing current varies at the rate of one ampere per second.’”’= 109 E. M. U.= 3 X 107! E. S. U. HORSE-POWER. The practical unit of power = 33,000 pounds raised one foot per min- ute. = 550ft. pds. per sec.= 0. 746 kilowatt = 746 watts. JOULE. Unit of work = 107 ergs. Joules = (volts? X seconds) /ohms = watts X seconds = amperes? X ohms X sec. For conversion factors see page 237. JOULE’S EQUIVALENT. The mechanical equivalent of heat = 4.185 X 107 ergs. See page 227. KILODYNE. 1000 dynes. About I gram. LITER. See page 6. LUMEN. Unit of flux of light-candles divided by solid angles. | MEGABAR. Unit of pressure = 0.987 atmospheres. | MEGADYNE. One million dynes. About one kilogram. METER. See page 6. : METER CANDLE. The intensity lumination due to standard candle distant one meter. MHO.. The unit of electrical conductivity. It is the reciprocal of the ohm. MICRO. A prefix indicating the millionth part. MICROFARAD. One millionth of a farad, the ordinary measure of electrostatic capacity. MICRON. (wu) = one millionth of a meter. MIL. One thousandth of an inch. MILE. See pages 5, 6. MILE, NAUTICAL or GEOGRAPHICAL = 6080.204 feet. MILLI-. A prefix denoting the thousandth part. MONTH. The anomalistic month = time of revolution of the moon from one perigee to another = 27.55460 days. The nodical month = draconitic month = time of revolution froma node to the same node again = 27.21222 days. The sidereal month = the time of revolution referred to the stars = 27.32166 days (mean value), but varies by about three hours on account of the eccentricity of the orbit and ‘‘perturbations.”’ The synodic month = the revolution from one new moon to another = 29.5306 days (mean value) = the ordinary month. It varies by about 13 hours. OHM. Unit of electrical resistance. The international ohm is based upon the ohm equal | to 109 units of resistance of the C. G. S. system of electromagnetic units, and “‘is repre- sented by the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mer- cury, at the temperature of melting ice, 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross section and of the length of 106.3 centimeters.”= 107 E. M. U.= 3 X Io NE, S. U- International ohm = 1.01367 B. A. ohms = 1.06292 Siemens’ ohms. B. A. ohm = 0.98651 international ohms. Siemens’ ohm = 0.94080 international ohms. See page 272. PENTANE CANDLE. Photometric standard. See page 178. PI = 7 = ratio of the circumference of a circle to the diameter = 3.14159265359. POUNDAL. The British unit of force. The force which will in one second impart a veloc- ity of one foot per second to a mass of one pound. RADIAN = 180°/m = 57.29578° = 57° 17’ 45’ = 206625”. SECOHM. A unit of self-induction = 1 second X I ohm. | APPENDIX. 347 THERM = small calory = quantity of heat required to warm one gram of water at its temperature of maximum density one degree Centigrade. THERMAL UNIT, BRITISH = the quantity of heat required to warm one pound of water at its temperature of maximum density one degree Fahrenheit = 252 gram-calories. VOLT. The unit of electromotive force (E. M. F.). The international volt is ‘‘the elec- tromotive force that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one inter- national ohm, will produce a current of one international ampere, and which is rep- resented sufficiently well for practical use by 1000/1434 of the electromotive force between the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark’s cell, at a temperature of 15° C and prepared in the manner described in the accompanying specification.” =10°8 FE. M. U.= 1/300 E. S. U. See pages xxxiv and 261. VOLT-AMPERE. Equivalent to Watt/ Power factor. WATT. The unit of electrical power = 107 units of power in the C. G. S. system. It is re- presented sufficiently well for practical use by the work done at the rate of one Joule per second. Watts = volts X amperes = amperes? X ohms = volts?/ohms (direct current or alter- nating current with no phase difference). For conversion factors see page 237. Watts X seconds = Joules. WEBER. A name formerly given to the coulomb. YEAR. See page 109. Anomalistic year = 365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, 48 seconds. Sidereal 3 OS ete One Ore 9.314 seconds. Ordinary “ec = 365 ac 5 a6 48 “é 46 + sé Tropical ‘* ‘same as the ordinary year. INDEX. For the definition of units, see Appendix. a rays, absorptive powers for See lame definition and properties Aberration constant. .. . Absorption coefficient: air. . . . a-rays sah B-rays y-rays ee X-rays ens Absorpton of gases by liquids ‘ Absorption of light: atmospheric cmeh ahs color screens .. . Jena glasses Ns various crystals ‘ Acceleration of gravity 2. 2 9. ee! Aerodynamic data: soaring data. .. . wind pressures . . . PNUDICHIAITEIS Oy eri ven ier, sh Gai nonaltcnirstewe ie Air: density aWaMet rete she Rohe leh act rede masses . transmissibility for, ‘of radiation VASCOSIE VOM one nlchiccny ia ls) Ne Air thermometer, comparisons. . Air: transmissibility of, for radiation Alcohol: density A vapor pressure he caihe s viscosity PER 605 5 Alloys: densities . e Z electrical conductivity obi resistance of . melting-points .... . specific heats ; Sekhar. thermal conductivity Rus ici thermoelectric powers . Alternating currents, resistance of wires for Altitudes, determination of by barometer Ol aew Stations «| ~@ « <« « « Aluminum, resistance. wire table, English low temp. f metric) ia). -: Alums: indices of refraction Sinks Antilogarithms . . . . .« ans Apex, solar motion . ‘ Aqueous solutions: boiling- -points z Gensitiesiy 3 Ya <=. fs alcohols Secu diffusion of . . electrolytic conductivities 302-308 Aqueous vapor: pressure. . saturated, weight of | transparency W. . = |. .» Astronomical data ... . 3 Atmosphere, aqueous vaporin . transmissibility for radiation | Ayyoyaatle mashes TA a 1h AeA a ol PREGIITC ROWELL ECS elem cel vty Neila)! Biel tejitat e B rays, absorption coefficients. . . Barometer: boiling temperature of water for va- rious heights. . . arts correction for capillarity hee latitude, inchy. metric sealevel . .. temperature - heights, determination of, by Batteries: composition, electromotive forces Baumé scale: conversion to densities . . Bismuth, resistance of, in magnetic field . e Back-body” radiation 5 sora. Boiling-points: chemical elements . . . inorganic compounds . . organiccompounds . . . PAGE. . 340 ae en SOs Mee LOD. 181, 182 eee 340 See GAO. ee 340) 335, 336 DLP TAR 181, 182 - 201 a EOD) . 200 104-107 eas Ee rod eno) ane LOe Aa ont) 181, 182 Sts aenea5 181, 182 . 98-100 sete AO - 128 ere 7, 277-280 273-280 C280) Tae See eeZO5 + 1209 + 2907 se LOO LOS . 284 sezO2 e203 ae eOH, . 26-28 . e LO . 229 Oe . 98-100 - 138 154-155 eel SO, . 182 I09, 110 157, 182 181, 182 eso ae SOL + 340 170-171 nes eee aes cee EEe OO) eS) 3 « £69 eee 202 ou + 9/333 eno eS: 219, 220 223-225 PAGE. Boiling-point, raising of, by salts in solution 4210 of water and barometric pressure . 170 Brick, crushing strength of he: or ey | siete aoe OO) Brightness of various lights ...... .4178 British weights and measures aL aispe uel 43) ne, TLD, y rays, absorption coefficients for . . - +» 340 Cadmium line, wave-length of red . . e672 Candle, energy from Peisawureiihisy Vswincal >) wach. tare Lae Candle power, standard F hier net Las Calibration curves, for thermo- elements eee SO) points, standard, for thermometer m 2A7, Capacity, specific inductive: crystals . . . . 314 gases . Ae rolstel) liquids signe SLO liquid gases . . . 312 SOUIGS Wty venus a. Sas Capillarity, correction to barometer for . . . 123 liquids - 145-146 liquids near solidifying point ae TAO) salt solutions in water . . . aS thickness of soap films . . . . . 146 Carcel unit . . Mai She. kien packed Meare Ly: Carrying capacity of wires ; en eae) Cells, voltaic: composition, E. M. F. - . 262-263 double-fluid Sates tisha sie ce . 263 secondary wasn) -alkel sere ie . 263 Single-Hitidgeie wl eas eee 202 Standard iwenmem ci ou erg, 201203 storage. . - SPM 20S Chemical, electro-, equivalents Cn SO equivalent of silver . 261, 301 Chemical elements: atomic weights Se ta Ok boiling-points Sane meH LG compressibility . a ers conductivity, thermal . . 205 densities . 83, OL electro-chemical equivalents 301 MA GneSSinci ane seen eae eS melting- -points . ait eR eLey resistance, electrical 274-276 specific heats + 238,240 thermal conductivities . . 205 expansion, linear . 232 Circular functions: argument (°’) . Naeie CESS (radians) ok on ape ai? Coals, heat of combustion of . ap Mee ec 20! Cobalt, magnetic propertics OL air | hae dy. Sak Color screens . °. eb OR Gb. %G 6. SOneaer Combination, heat of aAeT Ree ele wave Oita C ane ean Combustion, ‘heat of: coals st uu be sie eR LO explosives . . . eee eae fuels (iqnid)/ ye, ie) aero) DEALS ere < Pen tah neentre 2EO Compressibility: chemical elements BS eye: gases. 6 « + 6» 70-78, 164-168 liquids eDerice ACoumLY Sil oh ePe phe at stans7.OF SOUS Ere eaey cl ee At koe SO. Concretes: resistance to crushing . 6S Conductivity, electrical: see Resistance. ALOVS macs 277-279 alternating currents, effect of . 207 magnetic field, effect of . . . 333 electrolytic . . . . « 302-308 equivalent . . . 305-308 ionic (separate ions). . 308 specific molecular . . . 303 limiting values 304 temp’ture coef.. 304 glass and porc’l’n, temp’ture (Cols) Wish G0 b yor Oe Be a Ae Conductivity, thermal: gases . . . . . . . 207 RiGhUIS) eee renee 20 71 35° Conductivity, thermal: salt solutions + + «+ + 207 solids ne terete Weta seeOO solids, high temperature . 206 water ta Wis ee OL Contact differences of potential . . «. + 264-267 Convection, cooling by . - « + + + s 252-253 Conversion factors for work Tether Ge) ae Oo a eee Baumé to specific gravities . + + 81 Cooling by radiation, perfect radiator . . + + 251 and convection . . 252-253 Copper wire tables. - + > s+ * © * 284-291 English units . . + « + 286 métric units . . . + - - 289 Cosines, circular natural SP into enod logarithmic . . . « + + 3237 hyperbolic natural . « + + + + + 4I logarithmic . . =. + cat Cotangents, circular natural . » » + + + 3% 37 logarithmic Tey Gem o eno hyperbolicinatural’ 2) 3) +) <4 logarithmic’; ye) = » «42 Critical data for gases . . - - - + + + + 231 Crushing, resistance to: bricks . - + + + + 68 concretes ....- - 68 Stones ame ee Os timber, wood . . . - 69 Crystals: dielectric constant . . »- + + + © 314 fincas = og to ue ore oo Loh ete expansion, cubical thermal . . - 234 indices of refraction. . . . 188-190 transmissibility for radiatio wt a! (200 Cubical thermal expansion: gaseS . - + + + 236 liquids .. .- ~- 235 SOUAS Meets rn eO4. Curie unit of radioactivity ROME. Fitetads\ is” me SAE Current, absolute, measures . . + + + © = 201 Cutting tools, lubricants for Sy ore) ves (B20) Cyclic magnetization, energy lossesin . . 322-325 Declination, secular change of MACTIEtICN Wie nisl NLL Degrees, length of, on CArth Wignn ty ea oe teehee LOO, Demagnetizing factors for TOUS? atte te eh eekic #7525 Densities in air, reduction to vacuo. - « + = 82 Density: air: values of #7/60. . - + © © + 162 alcohol: aqueous ethyl Ac 98-909 methyl mene i . 100 alloys Ce eae Feit ahah Gee on et aqueous alcohol . . . + + + + 98-99 cane-sugar ...- - - « « 100 salt, acid, basic solutions . . 92 sulphuric acid . ea 2 LOO chemical elements ... - . 83,91 earth Cees Reuse uel eh en LOO PEC a OreG) Gl Ono .0. 0 0 oO oI inorganic compounds ... -: + « 219 ack GlG | Ge od vo 0 o o oO & BY mercury ene Bt sve, cous BOT metals) « « - MAU or Neue eetos Minerals}. (3) gi He oe ce eee organic compounds ran, + 223 water Cece Mal taclnet= eas Mae Re 94-96 WOOUS# en ees ee amCamtoe a entS 5 Dew points . . 5 ee oRLAS Dielectric constant: (specific inductive capacity) calibration, standards for . 313 Gemgaky iG ty Ao o oy o Sud! gases, atm. pressure . . . 309 pressure coef. . . 310 temperature coef. . 309 liquids seen 310-311 temperature coef. 5 Bue SOlIGS) Pee on REELS Dielectric strength: air: alternating potential . 204 steady potential - 294 kerosene ee 200 large spark-gaps . - 205 pressure effect By epen2O5 various materials 1 290 Difference of potential: cells: double fluid . . . . 263 secondary SNS oe Ke . 263 single fluid . . . . - . 262 standard 261, 263 storage esteem Ee eeZ03 contact: liquids-liquids in air . 264 metals in salt solutions . 267 salts with liquids . . 264 solids-solidsinair . . . 266 Peltion oe ce oha ake eluent aire thermo-electric . .. . 268-270 platinum couples 269 INDEX. Differential formule . . . « « « « Diffusion: aqueous solutions, water . gases and vapors: coefficients metals into metals . . . - VADPOLS ail eslu lowe ict te Diffusion integral. . . - Diffusivities, thermal . . Dip, magnetic . . - - + secular change Dispersion of Kerr Constant ] Dynamical equivalent of thermal unit orn ieere wu yor Oo a Pre) diel aie a ee tae Ch ate Dy fal * we . on Yee erie. (0; ene ene ace: Pmt eee ONO ace FOO O) Geanoa@ 5 5 5 bo oS ex, e—«, and their logarithms . log. ev, x, from 0 to 10 Ses ex? e—x2, and their logarithms . ei, €~ 4, and their logarithms. . . - eeee @ (6) @ \e 7s 8 ews, e- pA and their logarithms ... . exte—x E F SECO and their logarithms. . . +. -« + + ex—e—@ “ “ oo ae LT jecek cell vetmgtelmre Earth: data Soa anes densities.) 0) sone distance from sun . length of degrees. miscellaneous data . Elasticity: crystals . . + + + moduli of rigidity . . . eee) eb tehnenie BO 9 OO Gy O10 modulus, Young’s . one (vu ae ee OS C6 ove apie omere, elas 6. ei Electric lights, efficiency of Spent Electrical conductivity: pilose) dg od oe 277-279 alternating current, effect of 297 magnetic field, effect of - 333 Electrical resistance: see Conductivity. metals and alloys, low temp. 280 ohm, various determinations 272 specific: metallic wires 2p273) metals: 4 slenin cu eaza4. temperature coefficients . 270 temperature effect, glass . 282 Electricity, specific heat of . . - + ++ + 268 Electric units, dimensional formule. . . xxviii Electrochemical equivalents . . . .- 301, 261 silver A 301, 261 Electrolytic conductivity: ete 302-308 dilute solutions : Sy ngo2 equivalent : 305-308 ionic} | sicss.1) eh Ue OS specific molecular . . . . 303 limiting values 304 temp. coef . . 304 Electromagnetic system of units. . . . - Xxxi Electromagnetic /electrostatic units=v_. . 260 Electromotive force: cells: double fluid . . . 263 secondary . . 263 single fluid . 1202 standard . 261, 263 storage it es) Contacte snl a. 264-266 liquids-liquids in air . = 264 metals in salt solutions 267 Peltierms cous: lecneen eeeanemeu ee salts with liquid 264 solids-solids in air . 266 thermo-electric 268-270 (platinum) . 269 Elementary ‘‘Wirkungsquantum i 251, 342 Electrons, miscellaneous data. - +. + + + + 342 Elements: atomic weights . . - + > . 301 boiling-points . .-+.- + + . 218 compressibility . . . 4 AS conductivity, thermal s eeezO5, densities) @ 4c) is) semen omer a 83, 91 electrochemical equivalents ie. SBOE hardness’ = «*. = = : Y eT melting-points . . ates eer periodic system pL ch ce beh ie enema S) resistance, electrical 274-276 specific heats Eich! ietene eoONeIO spectra (prominent lines) . . + + 172 thermal conductivities . . + + + 205 expansion, linear. 232 cubical, gases . . 236 Elliptichintesrals yates teu >) +) | aroCnC 66 InME EG o 9 6 6 Oo = 9 0 5 ae Emission of perfect radiator . - - + + + + 251 Energy from candle . . . . «© « « « + - 178 Equation OMtinereeie) ace tsi tie es Ge se ee 6s ETO Equilibrium, radioactive . A ee Sai7 Equivalent, electro-chemical: elements fee SOL ionic 302 silver : 261, 301 Equivalent, mechanical, of heat . . . . « . 237 Energy, data relating to solar Sarees 181-183 Entropy equation constant Se eee eR ere nae Errors, probable . . - 56-59 Ethyl alcohol, specific gravity of aqueous eee nos Ettinghausen effect «3. -« : ne 184! Eutectic mixtures, melting-points 222, 220 Expansion, thermal: cubical, crystals Bae 0 334 ASCH eee ocr ei SO liquids Wiel exSS5 SOUASM unre ween eS S4. linear, elements . . » 332 various 1333 gas cease tiene. eco . 164 Explosives, composition, ‘etc. ena é Seis Exponential functions: e”, e—*, their idee < 48 log. e®,x=0-10. . 48 e2, e—x?, their logs 54 ex,e@ax “Mt 55 evte, (omar a their logs 55 KL oa , their logs . At et—e—x - “ “ J at diffusion integral . 60 gudermanians A hyperbolic sines 41 cosines ae rl cotangents . 4qI tangents a a logs. hyperbolic sines . 41 cosines . 4I cotangents 41 tangents . 4I probability integral 56, 57 Eye, sensitiveness of, to radiation - 180 | Fabry-Buisson, standard arc Fe wave-lengths . 172 Factorials m/ I-20. . wee Ay, gamma function, ‘n=1 to 2, PO?) logarithms, I-100 . ; ; 40 Fechner’s law . - 180 Field: earth's magnetic field, components of 411-1 17 magnetic, behavior of metals i in 315-325 resistance of metals in i SSS rotation of plane of polarization 326-331 thermo-, galvanometric effects . . . 334 Films, thin: thickness, colors, tension of 145-146 Fluorite: index of refraction ; eso Formule, conversion: dynamic units 5 ee electric in eS fundamental ee geometric... . ee eatzwer whe a pep es magnetic . . Q ces see INTRODUCTION. Fraunhofer lines, wave-lengths of pe Li Freezing mixtures s . 230 Freezing-points, lowering of, by salts in solution . 227 Frequency, oscillation constant, wireless tele- graphy. . Mit vcta eel rote ee ZOS Friction, coefficients of Rae eMrtia” vies aed wreeen Pee 2O Fuels, heats of combustion of SO cnt ae oO Functions: circular arguments (or) sees (radians) arene 37, ExXpOnertialiwelitcl ie) | lel uerant4o—Ou factorials intense ted On A702 Keine A 4G Boras oO di 6 youro Gy yPEKDOLIG WA sj yep ht) ce! Nel ery eel 40 Fundamental units A Aa oeto: phe Fusion, latent heatof . . : ae ero Fusion of wires, carrying capacity 50 fo 0 CH) Galvanometric effects of magnetic field. 334 Garasiiityn 4 “. 4 S686 So 5 0 oc RCH Gas constant . ick eres 42 Gases: absorption of, by liquids ones . 142,144 Blioyeyyaraoncs} 5) 5 sq ee lo co oto! compressipility;ofi ya 3) se sss 76-78 conductivity, thermal alors 207) Chiticalidataton in iin. . . INDEX. 35! 231 Gasesvidensiti€Si wei. 's) laden of 0) ve! fey 0 OK dielectric constants Se silent SOO; S10: CUEBUSION ee eiice UelhtedteD oo ‘ch a) i oy) of LAO SprMeNO? o 6 GO Oo OM Oo o eedetadah) expansion;thermale ss vs) s+ © 230 heat, conductivity for. «© . . « « « 207 indices of refraction Wace kee ce lee hen LOS magnetic susceptibility . . . . . .« 332 magneto-optic rotation . .. . . .« 330 refractivenndicesiof wee « « « «= »« £03 SOUNnG VelOCILy Of IINcieen ci lens) 1) Oe Sooo? Te Go 5 foo 6 om alan specific heats ae suey eLiiee es: yo. R243 thermal conductivity A'S 60) .0) 8, ao. (Dey thermaliexpansion® ‘.aucmci ten lane seein oO viscosity of . a een eae a SO. volume of (1--0. 003761) - » « 164-168 Gas thermometry ebay ich) a2 tof avste ofl Mere A Aaa (Garesmwiter valtel cl 01.0)! sma Galician ite aeCEcOS Geodetic data . . ace ee LOS: Geometric units, conversion factorsfor . . . 2 Glass: indices of refraction Sh ce ce se OO SiltcaMmSDECHICIUCATSie Niel kee (ls) el) of rer 240) transmissibility of Jena... . - 199 various . . . 201-202 electric resistance, temp. variation + ae 2ee Glass vessels, volumes of ..... «» ome Gravitation constant Sh iach ee earom kets) on oie ag LOD) Gravity, acceleration of : Sei chens LOA—TOO correction to barometer .. . . . 120 Gidermantanseeme ic ecient ueisiarsriten ys scr 4G (Chama mebil@iG G 5) odio 8 Go oS 67 Malikettecth on cys) hele usm Wins 334 Hardness ake ayie ome konids Harmonics, zonal. f tare Heat: combination, heat ‘of ; combustion: coals . . ey le a) e) newte, ele. : tN ° ey Ve oe o'-418 «6 canis os ajwia “wine * . 8 o 8 6) fe) sale) (my Jeatul 10; 6, Wil 70: explosives . 2II fuels liquid . 210 DeatSeee len 210 conductivity for: gases Bane 207 liquids . 207 salt solutions . 207 solids. - 205 solids, high temperature 206 Wher a ss op Gn so M07 diffusivities . oodles aceon to a 208 latent heat of fusion — Saou eae Wek eLO) vaporization « 214, 254-250 mechanical equivalent of . . .. . . 237 specific: elements 6 6 lon 6 8. On BEE) CABEEM B86 oo! o o “a & io Pele liquids eer SP oseuch er24ik musnaibay 6 oO 4c INIA Uses ten 230 blaiAG lo vas oO 6 6 1g woe maeeey 4 8 oOo 6 a 1 to Be solids Soret Poy ceghet Wey Wap eed VADOLSS fic, erviscemsdon fet we) wee e243 water GC th Of ct O98 Oa) 86 Zao) Heating effect, radium anes eueten Leen S377, “Heat, specific,” of electricity . . . . . . 268 Hefner photometric unit .. . eet ere TSZO) Heights determinations of by barometer weal fe, LOS Helium, — relation to radium 337 Horizontal intensity of earth’s field en 115 secular change’ II5 Eumuicityarelative sie uie: iwteinel i Musnen 100 Elumidityatertns O:S7Selc) ee iets) er ee) ye LOE Hydrogen thermometer PBOy ually Ltcmisialuclin ier eA A: Hyperbolic cosines, natural A Aeha tote et wean ome L logarithmic) | fy) isi ak Hyperbolic cotangents, natural . . . . . . 41 logarithmic ote Hyperbolic sines, natural . . . »- « « « « 41 logarithmic ED ciee seated: el goin AG tangents, natural . . . . « « « 40 loganithmich) velicsuuen = 40 Hysteresis: soft iron cable transformer . . . 322 wae: a ain So fo 6 a steel, transformer ae hee oereV eden eS: Various substances’ =» « « « »= 324 Iceland spar, refractive index of . . . «. « « 186 Ice-point on thermodynamic SCalelcm sole sbeen e247) Inclination (dip) of magnetic needle . . . . 113 secuar change of He Sis) Solas Index of refraction:alums . .. . a 187 crystals . . : 185- 190 fluorite . A . 186 gases and vapors ice els 3 52 INDEX. Index of refraction :class) les) -an be ay te ee ESA: Liquids: magneto-optic rotation . . seo Iceland spar Sy Pee Ay RAL OO potential differences with liquids” . 264 LiGQuids: 5 Wa" 2.1 e ek Meese LO Metals ie. ee07 metals. .. - 195-196 Salts = . 204 monorefringent solids bese Specific heats i Ss. 2) 2 saeElo declination|. 2) ne) Ee dips sop eas horizontal intensity oa eed inclination . . «30 HES intensity, horizontal 6 A OIREA totale yeas observatories . .. II7 Magneto-optic rotation . . fe ee 326-331 Masses of the earth and planets Pye eM Materials, strensthior) bricksi t's) en aos Concrete ean ier eS metals" Fy sien Lae eS) Stonésivn 2) %o08 68 timber wees 69- 70 woods Sheen 69-70 Mechanical equivalent of heat . .. . . . 237 Melting-points: chemical elements . . . . . 217 eutectics =)": se 7 o8220 inorganic compounds eon Mie Re LO, minerals. sy ive tev Oter meine 20) mixtures (alloys) anus i222 (low melting- points) . 222 organic compounds. .. . . 223 PIESSULEEMECE | | en Tem louie nee eee Meniscus, volume of mercury . : a er23 Mercury: density of i te ee RO electric resistance of a 6) ete MTT meniscus, volume)of jes) a nero ees pressure of colummnsiof 2) site ens Specific heat... a atmee239 vapor pressure . . eter Metals: diffusion of, into metals A stamens eA O indices of refraction . Fin Sheets Tos—- 196 optical constants . . .I95-196, 198 potential differences with solids me po iZOO) ; solutions . . 267 reflection of light by . 195-196,198 refractive indices . » « « £95—100 resistance, electrical specific . - « 273,284-293 5 toe) oulerneeeney sheet, weight of . EIR Ouse) transparency of 5 ninate og, LOS Metallic reflection. . . nome 195-196, 198 Methyl alcohol, density of aqueous eel ei@e seh 0's, hyperbolic Sky-light, comparison with sunlight . Soaring of planes, datafor. . . Solar constant of radiation distance from earth energy, dataof. . MOON) wees parallax radiation monthly chang SDEGCERUTAN | isla eines temperature Si yes te Orreree OnOrc) $c) Gtr 0 Ss (8) (@ Lene ee: © © ©) 10's vee ee ef el ence Jaa oe ee25r » 300 . 180 . 181 . 183 ey ecast 181, 182 fet OT 337-341 337-341 337-341 te Ou 196, 1908 - 197 - 198 OT 185-190 LOO a ens neo ee eo: - 192 195-196 . 188 . 186 LOT . 185 sp ee OD . 185 . 188 160 ne e250 2 oT ee am 2O4 Sere 202 ee 272 » 333 333 333 . 280 272 - 247 . 300 274-276 286-203 282, 285 oe enc dhe Re ond Silo . 185 SSeS 335-336 ~ 4330 . 203 > 320. 3330 = 332 . 328 wan Sea seo 326-330 seers a e227 a ee229 am femes 2 4 ie LOS 201-202 eR LOT a) e203 Rees 354 Solar wave-lengths, Rowland’s . Solids: compressibility . .. . densities . RECaronants dielectric constant 5 electrical resistance. . . hardness : : indices of refraction E magneto-optic rotation by thermal conductivity expansion 5 Solubility gases g ere pressure effect | ome salts . Solutions: boiling- point, raising by salts in boiling-points of aqueous conductivity, thermal . electrolytic densities of aqueous. diffusion of aqueous . 92-93, 98-100 freezing-points, lowering by salt of aqueous indices of refraction magneto-optic rotation of potential (contact) differences specific heats. . . surface tensions . viscosities . Sound, velocity of, in solids. Sparking potentials Specific gravity, see Density. heat of air elements gases liquids mercury . minerals and rocks platinum 5 quartz : silica glass . solids vapors water f “Specific heat of electricity” ‘ Specific inductive capacity: gases liquids solids molecular conductivities . resistance viscosity: gases and vapors liquids and oils solutions ; Spectra: elements, brighter lines . iron, Fabry-Buisson . R6ntgen ray . solar, Fraunhofer lines Rowland’s measures . Squares, least, tables Standard calibration temperature. Standard cells wave- -lengths: Fabry-Buisson primary . Rowland secondary tertiary . Standards, photometric . Stars);distancejofe nue) ole acme Stars, parallax Stars, velocities of liquids and gases é Steam tables: metric units . . fs common‘! , ae Steel: magnetic properties: hysteresis . 319, permeabilities Stefan-Boltzmann radiation formula Stellar velocities Aye Oe kane Stone: strengthof . . cats thermal conductivity err: Storage batteries Strength of materials: bricks concrete . metals . stones . timber, woods Sugar, densities aqueous solutions elle) “airevie! ve Sulphuric acid, densities aqueous solutions Sun: constant of radiation . disk; distribution of intensity distance fromearth . light; ratio to sky-light magnitude .. . motion ont ates) Moths . . . . INDEX. 73 Sun:'parallax’ 7) i: fe ien Wciieett onan be) eget ene eTOO 73, 80 radiation . ah fe Yer bis fo eh er bic T OM 83-87 Spo spiv ss Ao HG) oe on 6) oo erst aes 0 ors CEmperature! <) y-jete et cal anc u en meEEO 272-297 Surface tension ° sie) fel dete ade) 245 =140 oe eS Sylvine, refractive indices al) Vis on 1 Lote eae eaRLO 185-190 ms2'7, Mangents circular, natural 75) ee eee ees ens 205-206 logarithmich ity arcu eas 232-234 hyperbolic natural. yy) <0. Dec . 142 logarithmic: (3) iy eet mL Tayloris.deriess(..6. \.) eee ee Ge eS . 141 Telegraphy, wireless . . . ote el Pez 5300) . 229 Temperature, critical, for gases tame cha. zsit . 229 resistances for low AS eet ee oO. 2 OF resistance coefficients. . . 276-285 302-308 sunis! 7 Secrets Res a) Sea OW thermodynamic oy st Apes Gh aceetr24 7) . 138 Temperatures, mean monthly .... . . 183 7227 Tensile‘strengthsym. an ace E 68-70 . 227 Tension, surface , - 145-146 . IOL vapor, see Vapor pressure. Be es20 Terrestrial magnetism: agonic line . . . . . 116 264-267 declination, secular change III 241-242 dip ck ge ees . 145 secular change . . . 113 I3I-135 horizontal intensity . . . 114 . IOI secular change 114 [LO inclination’ - (0 <) news 294-296 secular change 113 observatories) 2). <3. su sbi e243 total intensity oe II5 238, 240 secular change II5 . 243 Thermal conductivities: gases af el shale alee 2Ol7) . 241 liquids) 2.) 4) fee eeee2 07, . 239 salt solutions . . . . 207 A242 solids, 205 . 240 solids, high temperature 200 . 240 MEWS OR 6 a 4 (a Ahiy/ . 240 Thermal diffusivities . . 5S me Oo Oe . 241 Thermal expansion: cubical: crystals of Me Rese se - 243 pases! = 4) vet | snaeees0 . 239 liquids | eMelet aemeso, . 268 solids)... «20 .y eens. 309-310 linear: elements . . . . 232 310-312 Various.) vue ween 2ss ok BTS Thermal unit, dynamical equivalent . . . . 227 303-304 Thermodynamic ice-point . . ons ten te eee Aly 273-276 Thermodynamic scale of temperature on mae 247 136-137 Thermo-electricity . 5 OLRON co 268-271 128-130 Peltier ‘effect cue! einen ZOO Mezi7s I3I-135 Thermo-elements, calibration curves . . . . 250 nay: Thermo-magnetic effects . . ee eso & 0 1h Thermometer: air-16, 0° to 300° Cpa peas Be 330 59, 100° to 200° cx ae e24s ez 7 high-temperature-50 . . . 246 ee eL7S hydrogen-16, 09 to 100° C. . . 244 - 47-49 16, 59, -5° to-35° C . 244 . 247 50;0° to;r00° Gea nea! 261- —263 Various’. fs: 6. ieee 240 - L72 platinum resistance . . . . . 247 or72 standard calibration points 247 ety Thermometer stem correction 2) Paiten its 248-249 ene Lapi2 Thomson thermo-electric effect . . on ee zOS pee Timber, strengthiof =; <= « «© «+ «= +) m00—-70 7 6 27S Time equationof . ... of o/c cane EO) 2 LO Time; sidereal;ssolar) ie. = <<) clad ale ete LOO -aLLO Tools; lubricants foreutting ns ene i tenmen 2G! . 110 Transformation points, minerals . . . 226 254 Transformer-iron, permeability of . . 315-316, 320 255 steels, energy losses in so) g22—325 322-325 Transmissibility to radiation: atmospheric . 181, 182 315-322 crystalsee perme 20Gi ee 251 glassy 2 joe) pele cOG GC 0 IO) Water cmos 5 68 Trigonometric functions: arguments (9) . a S32 205 (radians) . 37 263 . 68 United States weights and measures, conversion 68 to metric units . . . 68 Units of measurement: definitions, see APPENDIX. Ces conversion factors sia ae 69-70 discussion, see INTRODUCTION. LOO photometric ; yen eG . 100 ratio of electro-magnetic to static ete eee Oe : 18r Selo V, ratio of electro-magnetic to -static units . . 260 | : 109 Vacuo, reduction of densities . . .... . 82 eos weighings cote Sees 82 3 110 Vapor, aqueous: vapor pressure . .. . 154-155 fell pressure of, in atmosphere . . 157 INDEX. 355 Vapor, aqueous: relative humidity . . . . . 160 | Water: ionization of . 300 (saturated) weight of . . 156 solutions in: boiling- -points 5 . 228 Vaporization, latent heatof . . : wae 204 densities 92, 98-100 forsteam . . 254, 255 diffusion . 138 Wa DOLSMOCIISILIGS IEMs sini ch ovlert Wath is, Pete id ic JOL electrolytic conduction 302-308 diffusion of . Terme LL RO tA O solutions of alcohol, densities . 98-100 indices of refraction A LOS thermal conductivity . 207 pressures: alcohol, ethyl, methyl Ee LAO transparency of . ear eO2) aqueous . 154-155 vapor pressure . » 54-155 mercury hoe gee Si vapor, pressure of, in atmosphere ‘ LS i salt solutions . . ee (saturated) weights of . 156 various . yee TA7—TS5 transparency of . . > LSE specific NCACGM attire) che etunch acthckuar 24s viscosity: absolute, temp. var. , ~ 127 WASCOSIUY te] MicunisircwM cl cul (outage, SL 3O—03/7 specific, temp. var. » 127 Velocity of light ; . 109 Wave-lengths: cadmium red line . £72 sound; in gases and liquids © ae) ee LO? elements, brighter lines. . - 172 SOMGST <7) GNM eu st en ee LOL Fabry-Buisson iron arc lines . 172 stars jeg osu te is. te . I10 Fraunhofer lines . : = D7 sun CaM e Seize htc abi DLO) iron lines, Fabry-Buisson ; one Verdet’s constants: Verdet and Kundt’s . 330 primary standards . : ~ Le PASESHET ariecy su) Cnt eirS - 330 Rowland’s solar lines : ae Lis liquids . 5 - 328 secondary standards . 5 velo solids 7 2a. solar lines (Rowland) : i solutions, aqueous . ks - 329 tertiary standards ; ee 70) Viscosity: alcohol in water. . . ae 26 wireless telegraphy 5 298- —300 RASS ise os es. es 136-137 Weighings-reduction to vacuo . ae a OZ liquids 128-129 Weights and measures: British to metric | 9-10 vapors 138-137 metric to British . 7-8 water: temperature variation eke metric to U.S. me 6) specific: gases awh, nurs 136-137 U.S.to metric. 5 OS Urtten deg Su At erorns . 128 Weights of bodies. . SaMcdastrcid arenas 67 SOMONE eye ne et) DS I-13 5 Weights of sheet metal ae cere 89 WATOES) isn roo —137) Wind pressures ST At est ck min cue sain ein cic E24: water: temp. var. en ee/7: Wire gages é - . 283 Visibility of white lights . . Me Beas Wire tables, aluminum English é : 202 Voltaic cells: composition, E. M1 Ba. o1) le) 202-263) metric ; + 293 double-fluid . . eres . 263 copper English ; . 286 secondary . 5 . : . 263 xe metric ; . 289 single-fluid E202 Wires, carrying capacity of j 279 standard me 2OL 3203 Wireless telegraphy .... . , 298- 300 storage . : . 263 Woods:densitiesiof S95 26 , 85 Volts, legal (international) © XXXvVi, 2601 Strengthof = 2°. . ; 69-70 Volume of mercury meniscus mera Volumes: critical, for gases ee2 si XERTAV Se Wye » 335-336 gases. . ELOd glass vessels, determinations Bien fo D1 Yearly temperature means. . ... . . 183 Water: boiling-points for various pressures: Young’s modulus of elasticity. . . . . ee common measures. . 170 metric measures 7T Zero, thermodynamic ice-point . . . . . . 247 densities, temperature variation . . 95,96 Zonaljharmonics| esse eae ne eee ae ee LOA Che Uiversive Press CAMBRIDGE : MASSACHUSETTS Osea one SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 63, NUMBER 7 NEW SUBSPECIES OF MAMMALS FROM EQUATORIAL AFRICA BY EDMUND HELLER Naturalist, Smithsonian African Expedition (PuBLicaTION 2272) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JUNE 24, 1914 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. NEW SUBSPECIES OF MAMMALS FROM EQUATORIAL ARICA By EDMUND HELLER NATURALIST, SMITHSONIAN AFRICAN EXPEDITION Further study of the collection of mammals from British East Africa and Uganda now in the United States National Museum, secured by the Smithsonian African Expedition under the direction of Colonel Roosevelt and the Paul J. Rainey African Expedition, has brought to light the several new forms of carnivores and rodents described in the present paper. THOS Jackals and Coyotes The jackals and their American representatives the coyotes are separable from the true wolves, which are typical of the genus Canis, by several constant dental characters which seem to justify the recognition of the group under the generic name Thos first proposed by Oken in 1816 for the Indian jackal, Canis aureus. Oken placed four specific names under his group name Thos, the last of which, Canis vulgaris, he particularly mentions as being the Thos of the ancients and on this account it should stand as the type of the genus. Canis vulgaris is a synonym of C. aureus. Thos may be defined as a group of Canidae having long slender Vulpes-like canines, small outer incisors, small carnassials, upper molar teeth with well marked cingulums and the fourth lower premolar with, a minute extra cusp on its hinder border. The genus Canis or the wolves are distinguish- able by their much thicker and shorter canines; their greatly en- larged outer incisors which are more than twice the size of the inner ones, being somewhat hyena-like in this respect; large carnassial teeth; upper molars without a definite cingulum; and the fourth lower pre-molar without a third cusp on its posterior border. East equatorial Africa or rather Northeast Africa generally is supplied with more species of jackals than any other region. Three distinct species are found living together on the same plains over most of the territory of British East Africa. The most distinct of the three species in coloration is the black-backed or T. mesomelas which has the black of the back sharply marked off from the bright rufous of the sides. The Indian species, 7. aureus, which here reaches SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 63, No. 7 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 its southern limit in Africa, approaches mesomelas closely in shape of skull and the large size of its reddish ears but differs by the broken character of its black dorsal area which merges indefinitely into the color of the sides. The best marked species of the three in skull characters is the side-striped jackal or T. adustus which has a long slender snout and very long Vulpes-like canine teeth. In body coloration, however, it is not always easily distinguishable from the Indian but it may be recognized with certainty by its small dark colored ears and the presence of a more or less well marked white tail tip. An excellent series consisting of 68 specimens of skins with their skulls are in the National Museum from British East Africa representing the three species referred to above. A comparison of this material shows several well marked forms occupying definite geographical or faunal areas. The races of African jackals thus far described have come from South Africa or from Abyssinia and the Sudan and none of the names thus far proposed seem to be applicable in a restricted sense to the East African races which are described in the following pages. KEY TO THE RACES AND SPECIES OF JACKALS OCCURRING IN BRITISH EAST AFRICA A’ Black of back not sharply defined against light color of sides; foreleg marked by a black stripe in front; chin dark brown or blackish in marked contrast to the light color of the throat. B* Sides marked by a more or less definite black stripe owing to the middle area of the back being vermiculated by whitish; back of ears dark brown; tip of tail usually showing some white hairs; snout long, the nasals bones extending as far posteriorly as the maxillaries or beyond; bony palate extending as far posteriorly as the pos- terior.edge on the last molatewe. a cetseiriereerene Thos adustus C Underparts ochraceous-rufous, the hair basally dark gray; tail with a few white hairs at tip or none.......... T. adustus bweha C’ Underparts white or pale buff, the hair uniform to the roots; tail broadly stippedaby, swhite maencn. 2 eee eee T. adustus notatus B* Sides merging gradually into the dark color of the back; backs of the ears ochraceous; tail black tipped; snout short, the nasal bones not extending as far posteriorly as the maxillaries; bony palate not reaching as far posteriorly as last molar...... T. aureus Ct Coloration lighter and body size less than in the northern FACES 35 Sy Riad ate eats ceo al slele tes a otetetane seeder enor eer tae T. aureus bea A’ Black of back sharply defined against light color of sides and uniform throughout; foreleg not marked by a black stripe; chin whitish and uniform with the throat in color; tail tip black; snout short, the nasal bones not extending posteriorly to the maxillaries ; palate not reaching to end of tooth row ........... T. mesomelas INO39/7, MAMMALS FROM EQUATORIAL AFRICA—HELLER 3 B' Size larger; underparts ochraceous with dark hair bases T. mesomelas elgonae B® Size smaller; underparts white or light buff; the hair uniform to EIDE © OLS Mata croeustcoret one Cevereis aroratale eratats rceelisledevevs T. mesomelas memullani THOS ADUSTUS BWEHA, new subspecies Elgon Side-striped Jackal Type from Kisumu, British East Africa; adult male, number 182342, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by Edmund Heller, January 20, 1912; original number 2663. Characters —The Elgon side-striped jackal, Thos adustus bweha, resembles most closely the Abyssinian race kaffensis described by Neumann from the headwaters of the Sobat River in southwestern Abyssinia. It may be distinguished from that race by the much darker color of the legs and the reddish character of the dorsal hair basally. From notatus it differs by the darker underparts which are washed with ochraceous-rufous, and are dark haired basally through- out. The legs are a deep russet heavily black lined on their upper parts, the hind quarters being especially deep and rich in coloring. The back is heavily black-lined and merges into the black of the sides so that the side-striped effect is quite obscured or absent entirely. The tail is not conspicuously white-tipped as in notatus, this feature being reduced to a few scattered white hairs hidden among the black hairs of the tip. The tail is shorter and the foot averages smaller than that of notatus. The flesh measurements of the type were: head and body, 720 mm. ; tail, 310; hindfoot, 148; ear from notch, 90. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 152; greatest length, 160; zygomatic width, 82; interorbital width, 27; postorbital width, 30; nasals 13.4X58; length of upper cheek to front of canine, 68; width of mesopterygoid fossa, 14.5; length of palate, 80; length of incisive foramina, 10. The skull shows considerable age, the sagittal crest being a high knife-like ridge and the basisphenoidal sutures oblit- erated. This specimen is unfortunately somewhat abnormal having two pairs of upper carnassial teeth, the smaller pair being inside the larger. The collection contains three additional adult males from the type locality and two from the Uasin Gishu Plateau. The latter are more heavily lined with black than those from the Kavirondo country, but otherwise are quite indistinguishable from them. Two skins and four skulls are in the National Museum from Mashonaland, which represent the Zambesi race holubi. These are distinguishable from 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 bweha by their rufous-backed ears and their larger skulls and body size generally. The Swahili name for the jackal and the one commonly adopted by the interior tribes now in touch with European civilization is bweha. Distinctive names for the three species occurring together throughout the country do not appear to be in use among any of the tribes. THOS ADUSTUS NOTATUS, new subspecies Loita Side-striped Jackal Type from the Loita Plains, British East Africa ; young adult male, number 181486, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by Edmund Heller, April 16, 1911; original number 2033. Characters —Thos adustus notatus may be distinguished from all other races by its white underparts, the whole throat, chest and belly being white, the hair of the throat and chest being white to the roots but dark gray basally on the belly. From typical adustus of South Africa it may be further distinguished by its smaller size, the skull being decidedly smaller, by its drab instead of russet ears and the brighter rufous of the dorsal hair basally. It resembles adustus in the light color of its legs which are ochraceous-buff, the foreleg having a black stripe from the shoulder to the knee. The tail is conspicuously tipped by pure white as in adustus. It differs from bweha of the Kavirondo and Uasin Gishu region by its light under- parts, light colored legs, white tipped tail and distinctiveness of the black side stripe. The tail is considerably longer than in bweha but the general body size is the same. The flesh measurements of the type were: head and body, 715 mm. ; tail, 390; hindfoot, 165; ear from notch, 80. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 152; greatest length, 157 ; zygomatic breadth, 80; interorbital width, 26.5 ; postorbital width, 30.5; nasals, 14x58; length of upper cheek teeth to outer edge of canine, 70; length of upper carnasial, 13.9; width of mesopterygoid fossa, 14.8; length of palate, 79. Skull somewhat immature with distinct sutures and lacking a sagittal crest. Besides the type there is in the National Museum another adult male from the Loita Plains which resembles the type closely in color and an immature female from the same locality which shows a fulvous wash on the underparts, which may be a sexual color differ- ence rather than individual in character. The type has been com- pared with two adult male specimens from south of the Zambesi River representing typical adustus. LS ocectg tach par ene tn i ars Apa ne Nena eta NONE. MAMMALS FROM EQUATORIAL AFRICA—-HELLER 5 THOS AUREUS BEA, new subspecies Southern Golden Jackal Type from the Loita Plains, British East Africa; adult female, number 162904, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by Edmund Heller, July 4, 1909 ; original number, 200. Characters——Thos aureus bea may be distinguished from the more northern African races by its much smaller body size and lighter coloration generally, the ears and legs being of a decidedly lighter fulvous shade. Compared to variegatus, the Abyssinia race, the size is much less, the difference in skull length being 25 millimeters less. Typical aureus of India differs only racially from these North Africa jackals which have usually been treated as a race of anthus originally described from Senegal. In skull characters and coloration the African resembles the Indian and Asiatic races of aureus so closely that their relationship is better shown by placing them under the Indian jackal as subspecific forms. The present form is the most southern race and the only one to extend south of the equator. It doubtless reaches its extreme southern limit in central German East Africa but no specimens have yet been reported from that region. In a general way this jackal coincides, in its geographical range, with the striped hyena throughout Africa and Asia. The type is an adult female in fresh pelage, the back being heavily lined or overlaid by black from the nape to the tip of the tail which is wholly black and has the hair everywhere basally vinaceous.. The underparts are whitish or pale buff, the hair being uniform to the roots. The backs of the ears and the legs are bright ochraceous, the forelegs having a black stripe in front over the knee similar to the black stripe on adustus. Worn specimens often have the median area of the back lacking the black hair tips but the sides still retaining them, which produces a side-striped effect quite similar to the side- striped effect of adustus. Young and immature specimens lack the black lining of the back and are consequently much lighter colored than the adults. The flesh measurements of the type were: head and body, 640 mm.; tail, 275; hindfoot, 140; ear from notch, 99. Skull: condylo- incisive length, 140; greatest length, 150; zygomatic breadth, 77; interorbital breadth, 23.5; postorbital constriction, 26; nasals, 13.2 x 53; length of upper cheek teeth including canine, 65 ; length of upper carnassial, 15.5; length of palate, 71; width of mesopterygoid fossa, 14; length of incisive foramina, IT. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Five specimens are in the National Museum from the plains north of Mount Kenia which mark the eastern limits of the Laikipia Plateau. Two additional specimens from the Loita Plains, one from the Rift Valley near Mount Suswa and another from Lake Naivasha complete the series. THOS MESOMELAS ELGONAE, new subspecies Highland Black-backed Jackal Type from the Uasin Gishu Plateau, British East Africa, altitude 8,000 feet ; adult male, number 164699, U. S. Nat. Mus. ; collected by Edmund Heller, November 13, 1909; original number, 466. Characters —-Thos mesomelas elgonae resembles most closely the Athi or coast race memuillani but may be distinguished from it by its darker coloration, larger size and heavier coat. The underparts are darker than those of the desert race, being ochraceous-buff, the hair basally being quite grayish and the sides are duller ochraceous-rufous. The tail is tipped with black and the backs of the ears are tawny. From mesomelas of South Africa this race differs by its less rufous underparts and absence of rufous on the head. The type measured in the flesh: head and body, 600 mm. ; tail, 325; hindfoot, 150; ear from notch, 100. Skull: condylo-incisive, length, 141; greatest length, 145; zygomatic breadth, 84; interorbital width, 28.5; postorbital constriction, 30; nasals, 13x48; length of upper cheek teeth including canine, 62.5; length of palate, 70; width of mesopterygoid fossa, 14.3; length of upper carnassial, 16.5. A series of 10 specimens are in the collection from the type local- ity, which agree with the type in the character of their ventral colora- tion and long heavy coat. This is a highland race confined apparently to the upper elevations of the Nile watershed. THOS MESOMELAS MCMILLANI, new subspecies Athi Black-backed Jackal Type from Mtoto Andei station, British East Africa, altitude 2,500 feet; adult female, number 181483, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collécted by Edmund Heller, April 5, 1911; original number 2003. Characters—Thos mesomelas mcmillani differs from typical mesomelas of South Africa by its smaller body size and less rufous coloration. The underparts are especially light, the throat and belly being white or pale buff instead of rufous as in mesomelas and the hair of these parts is light to the roots rather than grayish basally. & ” : EY f INO 7. MAMMALS FROM EQUATORIAL AFRICA—-HELLER ey This race approaches in its light coloration closely schmidti of Somaliland but it differs from this form by the absence of rufous on the head and the white tipped tail. The tip of the tail is marked by a tuft of white hair, a feature not found in the series of 35 skins from the Loita Plains and the northern Guaso Nyiro districts, all of which have black tips. The type is in fresh pelage and has the black back well marked and sharply contrasted from the bright ochraceous-rufous sides and legs. The hair of the back basally is hair-brown of Ridgway. The backs of the large ears are ochraceous and the chin is white like the throat in color. The flesh measurements were: head and body, 690 mm. ; tail, 350; hindfoot, 140; ear from notch, 95. The skull shows considerable age and has a high, well developed sagittal crest. Condylo-incisive length, 137; greatest length, 146; zygomatic breadth, 82; interorbital width, 29.5; postorbital constriction, 31.5; nasals, 13.253; length of upper cheek teeth including canine, 62.5; length of palate, 67; width of mesopterygoid fossa, 15.5; length of upper carnassial, 15. The type is unique in the possession of the distinct white tail tip but a large series (35) of specimens from the Loita Plains, the northern Guaso Nyiro district, Athi Plains and Taveta, Kilimanjaro district, which are closely similar to the type in their white underparts, have the tail black tipped. This race is confined to the coast drainage and the lower parts of the Rift Valley and is the only jackal which is found in the low desert nyika country. Named for William N. McMillan to whom the Smithsonian African Expedition is indebted for his generous hospitality at Juja Farm and in Nairobi. HELIOSCIURUS RUFOBRACHIATUS SHINDI, new subspecies Taiti Red-legged Squirrel Type from the summit of Mount Umengo, Taita Hills, British East Africa, altitude, 6,000 feet; adult male, number 182768, U. S. Nat. Mus. ; collected by Edmund Heller, November 11, 1911 ; original number 4731. Characters—Most closely related to Heliosciurus rufobrachiatus undulatus of Kilimanjaro but differing by having paler underparts, buffy-ochraceous in tone without the rufous cast of that form. The dorsal surface is lighter with less black lining than in undulatus. The feet differ by being ochraceous and never as dark as the rufous of undulatus. There are no apparent differences in size or propor- tion of parts. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 The flesh measurements were: head and body, 225 mm.; tail, 283 ; hindfoot, 55; ear, 18. Skull; condylo-incisive length, 50; zygomatic breadth, 32; nasals, 188.2; interorbital width, 17; postorbital width, 16.5; length of upper tooth row, 11; diastema, 11.5. This squirrel is confined to the remnant of forest covering the extreme summit of the Taita Hills, where it is very rare. The type was the only individual seen during a fortnight’s stay on the summit of Umengo Mountain. It has been compared with the type of undulatus which was collected by Dr. L. W. Abbott on Mount Kilimanjaro and is now in the National Museum. Among the Wataita tribe this squirrel is known as “ shindi.” TATERA NIGRACAUDA PERCIVALI, new subspecies Lorian Black-tailed Gerbille Type from the Lorian Swamp, British East Africa, altitude 700 feet; adult female, number 183945, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by A. Blayney Percival; original number 792. Characters.—Tatera nigricauda percivali differs from the race iconica from the middle course of the Guaso Nyiro drainage by its duller or paler dorsal coloration, the reduction of black lining on the back and the smaller body size. The pelage throughout is much shorter and thinner, a condition brought about by the extremely arid and hot conditions of the Lorian desert which lies at an altitude of only 700 feet. Flesh measurements: head and body, 133 mm.; tail, 170; hind- foot, 35; ear, 21. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 35.5; zygomatic breadth, 20; interorbital breadth, 8; nasals, 4x 16.5; length of upper tooth row, 6.5; diastema, 10.8; length of incisive foramina, 7.8; mastoid breadth of skull, 18.2. The type is the only specimen in the National Museum. EPIMYS KAISERI TURNERI, new subspecies Kavirondo Bush Rat Type from Kisumu, British East Africa; adult female, number 183395, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by H. J. Allen Turner ; original number 5121. Characters —Nearest in coloration to Epimys kaiseri hindei of the Athi River drainage but decidedly darker, the dorsal surface russet rather than ochraceous, the underparts gray instead of buff, and the NO 7 MAMMALS FROM EQUATORIAL AFRICA—-HELLER 9 feet drab, not white as in the other East African races. From medica- tus of Mumias it differs decidedly by its shorter tail, the tail being considerably less than the head and body while in the former it is much greater. The skull differs from that of medicatus by its more arched dorsal profile, longer snout, smaller size and greater concavity to the antorbital plate on its outer margin. Flesh measurements of the type: head and body, 155 mm.; tail, 135; hindfoot, 27; ear, 22. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 35; zygomatic breadth, 19; interorbital breadth, 5.5; nasals, 4.8x16; length of upper tooth row, 6.5; diastema, 10; length of incisive fora- mina, 8.5. Ten specimens besides the type are in the collection from Kisumu where they were secured in the papyrus beds on the margin of Kavirondo Bay. This race appears to be confined to the papyrus beds of the Victoria Nyanza, the rising country immediately back of the lake being occupied by the long-tailed, light-colored medicatus. Named for H. J. Allen Turner of Nairobi to whom the writer is indebted for much assistance in collecting mammal specimens throughout the Kavirondo country. EPIMYS CONCHA ISMAILIAE, new subspecies Gondokoro Multimammate Mouse Type from Gondokoro, Uganda; adult male, number 165108, U. S. Nat. Mus. ; collected by J. Alden Loring, February 23, 1910; original number 9050. Characters-—This race is allied most closely to Epimys concha blainei of Chak-Chak, Bahr-el-Ghazal River, but may be distin- guished by its larger feet and longer tail. The coloration is quite as in blainei, the dorsal surface being wood-brown slightly darker on the midline and the underparts are white, the hair basally dark gray. The flesh measurements of the type were: head and body, 108 mm.; tail, 115; hindfoot, 24. Skull: Condylo-incisive length, 26:5; zygomatic breadth, 13.5; interorbital width, 4.1; Masdis.. 34 he length of upper tooth row, 4.7; diastema, 7.4; length of incisive foramina, 6.8. A series of 20 specimens are in the National Museum. Ten of these are from the type locality and the others are from Nimule and the stations just north of it on the Gondokoro Road which follows the east bank of the Nile. IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 EPIMYS KAISERI CENTRALIS, new subspecies Nile Bush Rat Type from Rhino Camp, Lado Enclave, British East Africa ; adult male, number 165035, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by J. Alden Loring, January I1, 1910; original number 8633. Characters—The coloration of this race resembles closely that of Epimys kaiseri norae of the northern Guaso Nyiro drainage of British East Africa but differs by its less buffy tone to the dorsal surface and by the much shorter tail and wider skull. Flesh measurements of the type were: head and body, 148 mm. ; tail, 162; hindfoot, 30. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 35 ; zygomatic breadth, 19; interorbital width, 5.8; nasals, 4.515; length of upper tooth row, 5.8; diastema, 10; length of incisive foramina, 9. A series of 38 specimens are in the National Museum from Rhino Camp, Lado Enclave. Others somewhat less typical in character are from Unyoro, Uganda, and from Nimule and Gondokoro in northern Uganda. MUS GRATUS SORICOIDES, new subspecies Taita Pygmy Mouse Type from Mount Mbololo, Taita Hills, British East Africa; adult male, number 183544, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by Edmund Heller, November 8, 1911; original number 4675. Characters —Like Mus gratus of Ruwenzori but underparts much more buffy or rather ochraceous in tone. Body size somewhat less, both the feet and skull being smaller but the tail is longer. The dorsal color is bister-brown lined by black medially and bordered on the lower sides by an indefinite band of bright fulvous. The under- parts are ochraceous, the hair basally gray. Feet buffy. This race is confined to the remnants of forest still left on the extreme summits of the Taita Hills at elevations of 5,000 or 6,000 feet. Two addi- tional specimens are in the collection from Mbolobo Mountain and one other from Umengo Mountain. Flesh measurements of the type: head and body, 60 mm. ; tail, 59; hindfoot, 13; ear, 11. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 17.3 ; zygomatic breadth, 9.3; interorbital breadth, 3.5; nasals, 2.38.2; length of upper tooth row, 3.3; diastema, 4.5; length of incisive foramina, 4.2. sof, 2 i= eS ARS a IN'O- 7 MAMMALS FROM EQUATORIAL AFRICA—-HELLER Il OENOMYS HYPOXANTHUS VALLICOLA, new subspecies Naivasha Rusty-nosed Rat Type from Lake Naivasha, British East Africa; adult female, number 162614, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by J. Alden Loring, July 15, 1909; original number 6640. Characters —This is a much lighter and smaller race than bac- chante of the Mau and Kikuyu escarpments bounding the Rift Valley to the west and the east of Naivasha. In coloration it approaches nearer editus of Ruwenzori but is less rufous or rusty and is some- what smaller in body size. The skull is shorter decidedly than that of editus but equals it in zygomatic width. Flesh measurements of the type: head and body, 160 mm.; tail, 184; hindfoot, 31. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 34; zygomatic breadth, 17; interorbital width, 5.5; nasals, 4.6 x 15; length of upper tooth row, 7; diastema, 10; length of incisive foramina, 7.8. Three other specimens from Naivasha are in the collection and they agree in coloration with the type. ARVICANTHIS ABYSSINICUS VIRESCENS, new subspecies Olivaceous Grass Rat Type from Voi, British East Africa; adult male, number 183922, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by Edmund Heller, November 15, 1911; original number 4775. Characters —Arvicanthis abyssinicus virescens resembles natrobae most closely from which it may be readily distinguished by its darker dorsal coloration, which is heavily lined by blackish hairs having a distinct greenish iridescence. The body size is considerably smaller and the skull shows relatively smaller bulla, and teeth, and narrower and more slender nasal bones. In the tone of its dark dorsal colora- tion it resembles nubilans of the Kavirondo region but it differs from this race by its white underparts and its much smaller body size. The flesh measurements were: head and body, 125 mm.; tail, 103; hind foot, 26; ear, 16.5. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 30 ; zygomatic breadth, 16.8; interorbital breadth, 4.8; nasals, 4.8 X12; length of upper tooth row, 6.2; width of first upper molar, 2; diastema, 8.8 ; length of incisive foramina, 6.2. The type is unique. It has been compared with a large series of topotypes of both nairobae and nubilans in the National Museum and is readily distinguishable from both of these races. 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 LEMNISCOMYS DORSALIS MEARNSI, new subspecies Kikuyu Single-striped Grass Rat Type from Fort Hall, British East Africa, altitude 6,200 feet; adult female, number 163616, U. S. Nat. Mus.; collected by J. Alden Loring, September 11, 1909; original number 7152. Characters—Lemniscomys dorsalis mearnsi is an intensely fer- ruginous form of dorsalis differing from the Taita race maculosus by richer coloring and larger size. The rump and hindlegs are bright ferruginous which, farther forward on the shoulders, becomes less intense and quite ochraceous in tone. The underparts are uniform white in sharp contrast to the bright ochraceous-rufous sides. The flesh measurements of the type are: head and body, 131 mm. ; tail, 140; hindfoot, 31; ear, 12. Skull: condylo-incisive length, 33; zygomatic breadth, 17; interorbital breadth, 5; masals, 4.4X13; length of upper tooth row, 6.5; diastema, 9.3; length of incisive foramina, 7. Two other specimens from Fort Hall complete the series of this race which represents altitudinal as well as inland limits of this coast species. ACOMYS IGNITIS MONTANUS, new subspecies Marsabit Spiny Mouse Type from the north slope of Mount Marsabit, British East A frica ; altitude 4,600 feet; adult female; number 182901 U. S. Nat. Mus. ; collected February 26, 1911, by A. Blayne Percival; original number, 309. . Characters—Resembling Acomys ignitus in general features as well as in quality of the pelage but coloration much grayer and duller and size larger. Dorsal coloration vinaceous-drab, the sides brighter or pure vinaceous but not sharply marked from the darker mid- dorsal region. Underparts and feet pure white, the hair white to the roots. Tail and eats drab-gray. Flesh measurements of the type: head and body, 90 mm.; tail, 92; hindfoot, 17; ear, 16.5. Skull wanting. Another topotype also with skull missing is in the collection. The race is a mountain form living at an elevation of 4,000 feet or more and is larger and duller colored than the low desert forms to which it is related all of which are con- fined to the lower desert levels below 2,500 feet in altitude. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 63, NUMBER § EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION aS (PuBLICATION 2275) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1914 if : The Lord Baltimore Press _ - = 4 BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63, NO. 8, FRONTISPIECE Looking north from foot of Kinney Lake toward Whitehorn Peak. On the right the cliff at the foot of Robson Peak. Miss Helen B. Walcott on beach in foreground. Robson Park, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1913. EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1913 INTRODUCTION There is here presented a general account of the exploration and field-work conducted by the Smithsonian Institution and its several branches. including the United States National Museum, in various parts of the world during the calendar year 1913. These explora- tions were made by means of allotments from the Smithsonian funds, from Congressional appropriations, and through the coopera- tion of other institutions and of individuals engaged or interested in geological, biological, or anthropological investigations. The Institution and its branches were thus represented in a large number of field parties whose researches have tended to increase the general knowledge in various subjects, and have added much valuable material to the collections of the National Museum. (wing to its limited funds, the Institution was unable to participate in several additional enterprises in which opportunities for representation were offered. In the preparation of the present account the direct statements of those who participated in the field-work have been employed, with one or two exceptions, while nearly all the photographs were made by the explorers themselves. Some of the work carried on in 1913 was in continuation of opera- tions begun in previous years and reported in part in accounts here- tofore published by the Institution.’ Three Government branches of the Institution are represented in this report: The National Museum, although having no specific funds for exploration work, avails itself as far as possible of all opportunities presented for making collections in the field; the Bureau of American Ethnology engages largely in field-work, which is covered in detail in the annual report of that bureau; and the ‘Expeditions Organized or Participated in by the Smithsonian Institution in 1910 and ro11. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. Vol. 59, No. 11, 1912. Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1912. Smith- sonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 60, No. 30, 1913. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 63, No 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 ne to Astrophysical Observatory at times conducts special expeditions both in the United States and abroad, in connection with its regular work of studying the physical properties of the sun and their effect on the earth. Both the National Museum and the National Zoological Park re- ceived during the year many donations and accessions presented or collected by collaborators in this country and abroad who have no official connection with either branch. The remaining branches under the Smithsonian Institution were not represented by any field parties, and therefore are not mentioned in this account. Fic. 1—Looking northeast toward the top of Robson Peak from Rainbow Brook, one-quarter mile south of Lake Kinney. Robson Park, British Colum- bia, Canada. Photograph taken while clouds and mist were drifting over the upper part of the peak. The summit of the peak is 8,800 feet above the camera. The view shows the southwest face of the peak. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1QT3. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES In continuation of his previous geological researches in the Cana- dian Rockies, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Institution, revisited during the field season of 1913, the Robson Peak district in British Columbia and Alberta, and the region about Field, British Columbia. At the latter place he received the members of the Inter- national Geological Congress. ad no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 Fic. 2.—Robson Peak from a ridge above and north of east end of Berg Lake, showing north side of peak. Robson Park, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1013. Fic. 3—Hunga Glacier from south slope of Mumm Peak, with Phillips and other mountains to the south. Robson Park, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1913. A SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 On this trip to Robson Peak, Dr. Walcott approached from the west side, in order to study the local geological section which he con- siders one of the finest in the world. From the west foot of Robson Peak, Whitehorn Peak rises on the north to a height of 7,850 feet above Lake Kinney (frontispiece), and on the east the cliffs of Robson rise tier above tier from the surface of the lake to the summit of the peak, a vertical distance of 9,800 feet. The base of this geo- Fic. 4.—Phillips Mountain, from Robson Pass, looking over the front of Hunga Glacier. Robson Park, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by C. D} Walcott, 1013: logical section is shown on the right of the frontispiece, and the upper half by figure 1, while figure 2 illustrates a profile of 7,500 feet of the section. From beneath the base of the mountain at Lake Kinney, the strata slope gently upward so that more than 4,000 feet in thickness of beds, which pass under Robson Peak, are exposed in ledges to the north and south. A considerable portion of this thickness 1s shown in the dark peak to the left of Whitehorn Peak in the frontispiece. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q1T3 on Owing to exceptionally good climatic conditions, the season ot 1913 proved unusually favorable for viewing Robson Peaks. ire- Fic. 5.—Brook entering Berg Lake, one mile southwest of Robson Pass. View taken about half a mile from the lake. Robson Park, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1913. quently in the early morning the details of the snow slopes on the summit of the peak were beautifully outlined. Toward evening, 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 however, the mists driven in from the warm currents of the Pacific, 300 miles away, shrouded the mountain from view (fig. 7). Fic. 6—Camp on the north side of Robson Pass. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1013. rom the slopes of Titkana Peak, west of the great Hunga Glacier (figs. 3 and 4), a wonderful view is obtained of the snow fields and falling glaciers east of Robson Peak. The glacial streams come “SLO sqOoTeAN Gy a) ‘ye ] slog OJUL prvMjsoM SMO PUR DIT oY} Yes WOTF Souoy [M TOLNV[L) VSUNFT JO JOOF FO opts JSOM JO MoOIA JILUIVIOUCT—B Is] {q yd YO. puvsry 00OjO 1, ROR IN “ o 1Q1 ATIONS, > XN LO}t > XE I a) Aq ydetsojoydg “epvue’) “BIQUIN|O") YSiitg ‘Ploy ATPIN “SUIeJUNOLUL oy} 1dAO “Cc ‘ > . c1OI 4jOOTe AMA “Cd ; ‘ 5 ; 2 Dae > 2 ; a : 3] MO =f Oli p4IeM seo SUIALIp st }STtu ou udyM JOSUNS Jd}fe JI5UP YY JUIPISAt AdAO pteMysom IyOO] dur) JJOOt N wot} WW tA Tf N \ MITHSONI: Ss — ae TR SEARS et ee —"— ooo'F ‘ppt, yunopy pure pide A\ JUNO WoaMyoq OSplI oy} JO adoys ay} UO sseq Ssosimg oAoge Arienh JIssof ayy Jo puo TION—Or “OMY VOL. 63 CTIONS 4 COLLI S YEOU LLA ‘C161 ‘HWoolTe MN tTPSKS) Aq ydeisojoyd ‘epeuey “eIquinjo) YsHug “ply IPIN “xXneA JUNOT, Q0UeISIP 94} UL pue ‘sTuUuUsd JUNOT ‘AOTC A asIOFZ SUIMSTY 94} YF9T VY} UQ “9Ae’'T p[etouyy pur ISURY JUOpIsatg I} ‘9dueysip dy} Ul oSULY IUIOPT UBA IU} ‘UrEUNOU! 91} JO IYSII ay} 0} ‘sseq ssading J0A0 Aarenb [issof oy} wory yO Suryoo, MatA—O6 “9IY MISCE SONIAN SMITH No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 Q) tumbling down the slopes (fig. 5) and often disappear beneath the glacier to reappear at its foot with the volume of a river (fig. 8). At Field, British Columbia, work was continued at the great Cam brian fossil quarry, where a large collection of specimens was secured. The conditions were such that it was necessary to do much heavy blasting to reach the finest fossils which occur in the lower layers of rock. Figure 10 shows the north end of the quarry below the sharp Fre. 11.—South end of fossil quarry, where many of the most beautiful specimens were secured from the lower three feet of beds. Near Field, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by C. D. Walcott, 1913. summit of Mount Wapta, and, in the distance, the President Range with Emerald Lake at its base. The south end of the quarry is illus- trated by figure 11 ; here the solid beds were blasted out to a depth of 22 TECK. Owing to the presence of a fault line, just north of the quarry, and the twist and compression of the rocks south of it, the available area for successful collecting is limited to about 200 feet. In other localities where the shale outcrops on the ridges in the vicinity, com- 1O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 03 Fic. 12—View of the west cliff of the valley of the Thousand Falls. On the trail from Lake Kinney to Berg Lake. Photograph by R. C. W. Lett, Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, 1013. no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI3 Del J Fic. 13—Summit of Mount Resplendent, with the mist driving over the three members of the Alpine Club of Canada. Photo sraplilabyn i) leedbatt. British Columbia, 1913. 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 03 pression and shearing have so changed the character of the rock that it is impossible to obtain fossils in a condition to be of service. The collections of 1913 contain a number of very important addi- tions to this ancient Cambrian fauna, and many fine additional ex- amples of species found in 1012. Fic t4.—Bowlder train on the surface of the west side of Hunga Glacier, overlooking the Robson Pass, British Columbia. The Secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution is standing beside the bowlder. Photograph by Miss Helen B. Walcott; 1913: GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE APPALACHIAN WALLEY EN MARYLAND Dr. R. S. Bassler, curator of paleontology in the U. S. National \useum, spent a month during the summer of 1913, in the Appalach- ian Valley of Maryland and the adjoining States, studying the Postpaleozoic geologic history of the region, as indicated by the present surface features. His studies, which were under the joint auspices of the U.S. National Museum and the Maryland Geological Survey, were in continuation of work carried on during the previous summer when the sedimentary rocks of the region were mapped in detail, the final object being the preparation of a report on the Lower No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 13 Paleozoic strata of Maryland, to complete a series of memoirs pub- lished by that State. Owing to the brevity of this account, only a few points in the physiographic history will be noted here. Since Carboniferous time western Maryland has been above the sea, and its rocks have accordingly been subjected to a long period of aerial erosion. During Jurassic time, the area remained stationary for so long a period that the surface of the land in the Appalachian province was reduced to a rolling plain. Later uplift raised this Fic. 15.—Jurassic (Schooley) peneplain, preserved in the Blue Ridge of Maryland. Photograph by Bassler. plain still higher above sea level, and in Maryland only remnants of the old surface are preserved in the flat skyline of the highest moun- tains. This ancient plain, or Schooley peneplain, as it is termed, 1s well preserved on the top of the Blue Ridge, as shown in figure 15. A second great period of erosion occurred in early Tertiary time, the effects of which were chiefly in the Appalachian Valley proper, where the erosion is indicated by a pronounced plain at an elevation of about 750 feet. This plain was formed only on the softer Paleozoic rocks, and, because of its prominence near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is known as the Harrisburg peneplain. Conococheague Creek trav- erses the Harrisburg peneplain in Maryland, and has dissected it 2 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 03 considerably, as shown in figure 16, but the even skyline of the ancient plain is still clearly evident. Other factors in the geologic history of Maryland are recorded in the well defined gravel terraces along the major streams of the area and in great alluvial fans of large and small bowlders, spreading out at the foot of the larger mountains and sometimes reaching a depth of 150 feet. All of these phenomena have been plotted and will forma part of the geologic map of the region. Fic. 16.—Dissected Early Tertiary (Harrisburg) peneplain, west of Hagers- town, Maryland. Photograph by Bassler. COLLECTING FOSSIL ECHINODERMS IN ILLINOIS The special field explorations maintained by Mr. Frank Springer, associate in paleontology in the U. S. National Museum, were con- tinued during the season of 1913 by his private collector, Frederick Braun. The purpose of these explorations is to obtain additional material for use in Mr. Springer’s monographs upon the fossil eri- noidea, now in course of preparation, but they also result in important accessions of excellent specimens for the completion of the exhibi- tion series in the hall of Invertebrate Paleontology in the National Museum. no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 15 The investigations of the past summer were confined to the Kas- kaskia rocks of Monroe and Randolph Counties, [Hlinois. They were systematically carried on in connection with the geological work for the State of Hlinois, in progress at the same time under the direc- tion of Professor Weller, in order to have the benefit of accurate determinations of the horizons from which the collections were made, with reference to the several subordinate formations into which the Fic. 17—Portion of a slab of fossil Crinoids from Illinois. Photograph by National Museum. Kaskaskia of that region is divided. In this way it was hoped to rectify some confusion as to the stratigraphic relation of a number of species described in the Geological Reports of Illinois and Towa. The operations were successful in this respect, and at the same time six large boxes of fine specimens were obtained. Among the spect- mens there are a number of slabs covered with Crinoids not hitherto found in that formation, in an excellent state of preservation. \ por- tion of one slab, containing 22 specimens of 9 different species, 1 s shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 17). This specimen and 10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 others of similar character, giving a complete representation of the Kaskaskia crinoidal fauna, are being prepared for installation in the exhibition hall of the National Museum. FURTHER EXPLORATION OF THE CUMBERLAND PLEISTOCENE CAVE, DEROSM In May, 1913, Mr. J. W. Gidley, assistant curator of fossil mam- mals in the U. S. National Museum, made a second visit to the Pleis- tocene cave deposit near Cumberland, Maryland, which proved even Fic. 18.—Near view of part of excavation made near Cumberland, Maryland, by U. S. National Museum party. Photograph by Armbruster. more successful than the one of the previous year, reported in the account of the Smithsonian explorations of 1912. Many new forms were added to the collection, and much better material was obtained of several species represented only by jaw fragments in the first collection. The collection now contains upward of 300 specimens, representing at least 40 distinct species of mam- mals, many of which are now extinct. Among the better preserved specimens are several nearly complete skulls and lower jaws. The more important animals represented are two species of bears, two species of a large extinct peccary, a wolverine, a badger, a martin, two porcupines, a woodchuck, and the American eland-like antelope. no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 17 Fic. 19—View from opposite side of railroad cut showing fossil deposits at bottom, near track, and traces of ancient opening at top of cliff. Photograph by Armbruster. is SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 These species are all new and, with the exception of the American eland, the dog, and one of the bears, which Mr. Gidley has already described,’ have not yet been named. Other species represented by more fragmentary material include the mastodon, tapir, horse, and beaver, besides several species of the smaller rodents, shrews, bats, and others. This strange assemblage of fossil remains occurs hopelessly inter- mingled and comparatively thickly scattered through a more or less unevenly hardened mass of cave clays and breccias, which com- pletely filled one or more small chambers of a limestone cave, the material together with the bones evidently having come to their final resting place through an ancient opening at the surface a hundred feet or more above their present location. The deposit 1s at present exposed at the bottom of a deep cut through which the Western Maryland Railroad has built its tracks. The railroad excavation first brought to light the ancient bone deposit and incidentally made access to the fossils comparatively easy. It 1s proposed to continue work on this important deposit during the next season. A FOSSIL HUNTING EXPEDITION IN MONTANA While engaged in Geological Survey work in northwestern Mon- tana in 1912, \Ir. Eugene Stebinger discovered a promising locality of vertebrate fossil remains. The following summer (1913), under the auspices of the U. S. Geological Survey, Mr. Charles W. Gilmore, assistant curator of fossil reptiles in the National Museum, headed an expedition for the purpose of obtaining, if possible, a representa- tive collection from this area, In July a camp was established on Milk River, some thirty-five miles north and west of Cut Bank, Montana, on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation. [our weeks were spent here in collecting, the work being confined entirely to the Upper Cretaceous (Belly River beds) as exposed in the bad-lands for ten miles along this stream. Later, in August, camp was moved some fifty miles south on the Two \Medi- cine River, and two weeks were spent working in the same geological formation. Taking into consideration the short time at the disposal of the party, the results of the expedition were most gratifying. Between * Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 60, No. 27, 1913. Proceedings U. S. National Museum, Vol. 49, No. 2014, 1913. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QT3 IQ 500 and 600 separate fossil bones were obtained, many of them of large size. The most notable discovery was a new Ceratopsian * or horned dinosaur, the smallest of its kind known. There were por- tions of five individuals of this animal recovered, representing nearly all parts of the skeleton, so that it will be possible to mount a com- posite skeleton for exhibition. In this connection, it is perhaps of interest to know that, although Ceratopsian fossils were first dis- Fic. 20.—Fossil beds as exposed on Milk River, Montana. The small Ceratopsian dinosaur was found in the breaks in the foreground. Photo- graph by Gilmore. covered in the Rocky Mountain region in 1855, and portions of a hundred or more skeletons have been collected, this is the first indi- vidual to be found having a complete articulated tail and hind foot. It thus contributes greatly to our knowledge of the skeletal anatomy of this interesting group of extinct reptiles. Another noteworthy find was a partial skeleton of one of the Trachodont or duck-billed dinosaurs. This animal was only recently ‘Mr. Gilmore’s description of this extinct reptile is to be found in the Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 63, No. 3, 1914. 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 wrest - AOE ADE OE IN Eg, Kat Re Fic. 21.—Fossil beds as exposed on Two Medicine River, Montana. Camp of fossil hunters in the foreground. Photograph by Gilmore. Fic. 22.—Fossil leg bone of a dinosaur shown as found in the ground, on Milk River, Montana. Photograph by Stebinger. no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 2i described from specimens obtained in Canada, and its discovery in Montana greatly extends its known geographical and geological range. The species was not before represented in the National Museum collections. Less perfect skeletons of carnivorous and armored dinosaurs, tur- tles, crocodiles, and ganoid fishes were also obtained. Altogether the material is a most welcome addition to the fossil vertebrate collection in the National Museum, which has been deficient in representatives of this highly interesting but little known fauna, LIFE ZONES IN THE ALPS During the summer of 1904, Messrs. G. S. Miller, Jr. and Leonhard Stejneger, of the National Museum, visited the Western Alps in an endeavor to ascertain the limits of the life zones which, in that part of Europe, might correspond to those of North America established chiefly through the efforts of the U. S. Biological Survey. That a system of such life zones exists in Europe has long been more or less vaguely stated by authors, but although a definite correlation was established by the gentlemen mentioned, certain points, especially the interrelation of the zones corresponding to the so-called Canadian and Hudsonian life zones in America, were greatly obscured by the long continued interference of man and animals with Nature, such as the grazing of cattle in the high Alps, deforestation, and, more recently, artificial reforestation. It was thought that the eastern Alps might show more primitive conditions, and in the spring of 1913, Mr. Stejneger took advantage of an opportunity to visit the mountain region between Switzerland and the head of the Adriatic, through a small grant from the Smith- sonian Institution. Unseasonable and rainy weather interfered greatly with the carrying out of his investigation. He arrived in the town of Bassano at the foot of the Venetian Alps on April 20, 1913, it being his plan to study the life zones of the Val Sugana and the pla- teau of the Sette Comuni from that point. This plateau descends ab- ruptly to the Venetian plain on the south, while to the east and north it is separated from the mass of the Eastern Alps by the Val Sugana, or the valley of the river Brenta, and on the west by the lower part of the valley of the Adige, or Etsch. It is intersected by the boundary line between Italy and Austrian Tirol. From April 21 to May 6, he made a series of excursions from Bassano, Levico, and Trento as successive headquarters, during 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 re Fic. 23—Mouth of Val Frenzela, at Valstagna, northern Italy. Photograph by Stejneger. Fic. 24.—Plateau of the Sette Comuni, northern Italy, looking east from Gallio. Monte Grappa in the background. The valley is the beginning of Val Frenzela. Photograph by Stejneger. no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 Z, which time he completely circled the territory, and crossed the plateau once on foot. In spite of the backwardness of the season, he was able to trace the boundaries of the Austral life zones in considerable detail, as well as to gather data which connect with the previous cor- relation of these zones in the Western Alps and with the correspond- ing zones in North America. It was found that the bottom of the entire Val Sugana belongs to the Upper Austral zone. ( ywing to the rainy and inclement weather the results were less satisfactory in the higher regions, though some important data corroborating previous conclusions were obtained. The time from May 7 to May 20 was spent in a study of the Etsch Valley in Tirol, from Trento to Schlanders, and of its tributary, the Eisak, from Bozen to its source on the Brenner Pass. The elaboration of the detailed observations will be incorporated with a general report on the biological reconnoissance of the Western Alps. To this preliminary statement are appended two illustrations show- ing the character of the country in w hich the observations were made. Figure 23 is a view of the mouth of Val Frenzela, the narrow valley through which the descent from the Sette Comuni was effected, near Valstagna, a small town a few miles north of Bassano. Figure 24 rep- -esents the plateau near the commune of € zallio, about 3,500 feet above fe sea, looking east toward Monte Grappa and showing the begin- ning of Val Frenzela. DR. ABBOTT’S EXPEDITION IN DUTCH EAST BORNEO AND CASHMERE In continuation of the exploring and collecting carried on through the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, by Mr. H. C. Raven, in Dutch East Borneo, it may be said that the work is going forward with ex- cellent results. Dr. W. L. Abbott is continuing his personal explorations in Cash- mere, which he undertook a year ago, and, although the \Iuseum has received no detailed report, some fine specimens of mammals have been added to the collections and many more are expected. In a letter received in January, 1913, Dr. Abbott says that in his last shipment the only really good specimen is a queer little silvery grey shrew about 74 millimeters long, quite different from anything he has before seen, of which there are four specimens from Skoro Loomba, east of Shigar. There is also a magnificent snow leopard with its complete skeleton. 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 62 Fic. 25.—View from Leh, looking toward the Khardery Pass up the valley to the right. Observe the cultivation in terraces, all irrigated. The elevation is 11,200 feet. The hills in the background are from 20,000 to 21,000 feet elevation. Photograph from Abbott. Fic. 26.—Shepherds with load-carrying sheep. Each animal carries from 12 to 30 pounds. They bring salt from Tibet to Ladak and carry back grain. Photograph from Abbott. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI3 25 During the three months’ trip which Dr. Abbott spent in Baltistan, in northwestern Cashmere, he secured about 289 skins which have been presented to the National Museum. After a sojourn in England, he expected to return to Cashmere in May, and march to Ladak. He also intended to visit Nubra, and go east along the frontier to the Dipsang Plains where he hoped to secure specimens of a certain vole from Kara Korum Pass, as well as the little Tibetan fox, known to the Cashmere furriers as the “King Fox.” At the time of the letter he anticipated a four months’ trip during the summer of 1913. This expedition, the results of which have been delayed in transit, was very successful. The small fox was obtained, also several wolves, lynxes, and many smaller mammals. The accompanying illustrations have been made from photographs sent by Dr. Abbott. MARINE INVERTEBRATES FROM THE “EASTERN SHORE,” VA. In July, 1913, Mr. John B. Henderson, Jr, a regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and Dr. Paul Bartsch, of the National Museum, made a short trip to Chincoteague, on the Atlantic shore of Aceomae County, Va., for the purpose of securing exhibition material of marine invertebrates and ascertaining the local marine fauna, particularly that of the mollusca. Owing to the inaccessi- bility of this strip of coast, generally known as the “ Eastern Shore,” collectors seem to have neglected it. At any event, there appear to be but few records and no critical lists published of the shallow water shells from any locality between Cape May, N. J.,and Beaufort, N.C. The chief objects of this trip were to determine of just what ele- ments the molluscan fauna consisted ; to see how many, if any, species of southern range lapped over from Hatteras, and what northern species still persisted in this faunal area. The collectors were for- tunate in their somewhat haphazard choice of a locality, for they en- countered at Chincoteague a greater variety of stations than can probably be found at any other point along this section of the coast. Here there are interior sounds of very considerable extent which are very shallow (4 to 12 ft.), more or less thickly sown with oyster beds and with patches of eel grass, the bottom ranging from hard sand, through varying degrees of hard clay, to soft mud. They found also the unusual feature of a bight or protected cove formed by the southward drift at the southern end of Assateague Island, protected from heavy wave action by a long, curved sand spit. This bight has a soft mud bottom, with a temperature possibly 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Fic. 27—-Medusa from Chincoteague, Virginia. Collected by Mr. Henderson and Dr. Bartsch. Photographed in alcohol by National Museum. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IOQ13 27 eight degrees less than that of the open sea. The mud brought up with the dredge seemed almost icy to the touch. This condition is probably produced by cold springs seeping through the floor of the bight. This colder water of the bight yielded to their dredge Voldia limatula, large and fine, and Nucula proxima, whereas just around the protective spit of sand, on the ocean side, they found dead Tere- bras of two species, some young Busycon perversa and a valve of Cardium robustum; a somewhat startling association of species. Then there was the open sea, which here presumably differs in no manner from other open sea stations along the 200 miles or more of this coast. The bottom drops off very gradually to the edge of the continental shelf, some 75 or 100 miles out. The open sea stations which they occupied were, as might be expected, very poor. The smooth, hard sand bottom seemed almost barren of life, and the softer patches that were explored contained only many dead shells, mostly small bivalves. The work in the open sea was scarcely a good test, although the collectors made probably 20 hauls reaching out from the shore some 4 or 5 miles, but the chart soundings indicated more promising areas of pebbly bottom a few miles beyond what they con- sidered the safety zone for a small motor boat. The inner waters of the sound were found to be unexpectedly rich in molluscan life, the species, for the most part, not having been taken previously outside or in the bight. Only two full working days were spent here, where the party was fortunate in securing an excellent boat and obliging skipper. The material has been identified with great care, and the results of the expedition will be published in the Proceedings of the U.S. National \luseum. EXPERIMENTS WITH CERIONS IN THE FLORIDA: KEYS In the second issue of the Smithsonian exploration pamphlet,’ at- tention was called to experiments with Cerions, conducted by Dr. Bartsch, under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution. The plant- ings of Bahama Cerions made upon the Florida Keys were visited in the latter part of April and early June by Dr. Bartsch, and a de- *Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 60, No. 30, 1913, pp. 58-62. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 tailed report of his findings 1s published in the annual report of the Director of the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington (Carnegie Year Book, 1913, pp. 217-219). The results of these experiments so far obtained may be summed up as follows: Fig. 28.— Peanut” shells on living vegetation, Key West, Florida. Photograph by Bartsch. After looking over the entire plantings, Dr. Bartsch is inclined to believe that, with the exception of the Tea Table and Indian Keys, the colonies are doing as well as might be expected. It is also quite possible that when the young in the various colonies attain a larger size, a good many more will be found in the various places, in fact, no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q13 29 a good many may be present in places where they were not discovered previously, for the nepionic shells are quite small and hard to find. Judging from the young collected, which were born on these Keys, the first generation will be like the parent generation unless decided Fic. 29.— Peanut” shells on living vegetation, Key West, Florida. Photograph by Bartsch. changes should take place in the later whorls, which have not as yet been developed. The largest specimens found have only seven post- nuclear whorls, leaving two to three whorls still to be developed, and these make up fully half of the length of the shell. If the present 2 S) O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Fic. 30.—‘* Peanut” shells on dead stump, Key West, Florida. Photograph by Bartsch. tendencies prevail in the adult shell, then it can be seen that the somaplasm has not at once responded to the change of environment. The reaction of the germ-plasm to the changed environment will await interpretation until the next generation presents itself. Dr. Bartsch likewise kept a record of the birds seen on the various Keys visited between Miami, Florida, and the Tortugas, and has pub- lished this also in the Carnegie Year Book for 1913, pp. 220-222, with the hope that it may prove useful to students of bird migration. no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 31 Fic. 31.—Detail view of “ Peanut” shells on dead stump, Key West, Florida. Photograph by Bartsch. BIRD, STUDIES IN ILLINOIS Mr. Robert Ridgway, curator of the division of birds, U. S. National Museum, has been working on the completion of National Museum Bulletin No. 50, Birds of North and Middle America, and has done some exploration work in the field in connection with this work. Recently he made a trip to the Little Wabash River, about 16 miles southwest of Olney, [llinois, in order to ascertain what species of birds were wintering in the dense thickets of the bottom lands, and to obtain evidence as to the presence there of a decided element of the Austroriparian or Lower Austral fauna and flora. 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 62 Mr. Ridgway’s residence in this locality during the winter has been of extreme interest ; it is the first time he has had an opportunity to make natural history observations since his first trip to this region forty-seven years ago. He was thus enabled to compare present conditions with those existing on the occasion of his first visit, and has secured some valuable information for incorporation in his ex- haustive monograph. FISHES- FROM THE REGION OF QUATERNARY LAKE LAHONTAN The Museum has received through the Bureau of Fisheries a col- lection of fishes from the various river and lake basins that were Fic. 32.—A breakfast catch of Tahoe Trout. Photograph by Snyder. at one time connected with the quaternary Lake Lahontan. Twenty- one species are represented, 15 of which are native fishes, including not only all that are now known to inhabit the basin, but also 5 that are as yet undescribed. The collection was made by John O. Snyder, of Stanford University, while engaged in an investigation of the region under the direction of the Bureau of Fisheries. Lake Lahontan, which in quaternary time was a large body of water, very irregular in shape, extended over a considerable part of SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI3 Fr 33.—Mountain meadow in the high Sierra, one of the sources of the Truckee River. Photograph by Snyder. Fic. 34.—Truckee River, outlet of Lake Tahoe, California. Photograph by Snyder. wy ~Y 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 the region now included in northern Nevada and eastern California. It was no doubt a magnificent lake, including as it did a number of large and beautiful islands, with the great snow-capped wall of the Sierra on one side and the endless shimmering desert on the other. Even now, though dwindled and shrunken through desiccation, its glory has not all departed. For although one may travel for days over the wind-driven sands of its parched floor, the great terraces and castellated crags of its ancient shores tower at times hundreds of feet on either side, and there still remain a number of small though Fic. 35—Humboldt River near the Palisades, Nevada. Photograph by Snyder. very beautiful lakes and several rivers of considerable size which were once tributaries of the greater lake. The waters of none of these reach the ocean but ultimately disappear through evaporation, or sink into the loose, dry sands of the desert. Lake Tahoe, near the crest of the Sierras, 6,247 feet above the sea, has 195 square miles of clear water which reaches a depth of 1,645 feet. Its outlet, the Truckee River, plunges down 2,300 feet in a distance of about 100 miles, finally bifurcating and entering Pyramid and Winnemucca Lakes. The former is 30 miles long and 12 wide, the water having a depth of over 350 feet. It embraces some pictur- No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, [O13 35 esque islands, two of which should be permanently reserved by the Government, for they shelter thousands of birds during the nesting Fic. 36.—The Needles, Pyramid Lake. Photograph by Paine. Fic. 37.—Tufa domes, Pyramid Lake. Photograph by Paine. season. Humboldt, Quinn, Walker, and Carson Rivers, and also Honey, Walker, and Carson Lakes are parts of this system. 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 These rivers and lakes are well supplied with fishes, exceedingly abundant in number, although representing but a few species. Of chief interest and value among these are the trout which appear to have found here the most advantageous conditions for growth and development. At least 2 native species occur, Salmo henshawt, the large cut-throat which occasionally reaches a weight of over 20 lbs., and S. regalis, the royal silver trout, much smaller than the former, but a most beautiful fish, remarkable for the brilliant silver of its sides and the unparalleled blue of its dorsal surface. Formerly the lakes and rivers of the region fairly swarmed with trout, and during the spawning season they often entered the rivers in such numbers that it was difficult for them to find room in the channels. Several species of suckers and large minnows occur in countless numbers. Frc. 38.—Bird Island, Pyramid Lake. Photograph by Paine. Of these Chasmistes cujus, the Kouiewee of the Piute Indians, in- habits only Pyramid and Winnemucca Lakes. It lives in their depths, and is never seen until in the spring, when great schools suddenly ap- pear at the mouth of the Truckee River, crowd up the channel and cover the bars, often pushing each other out of the water in their struggles to find room enough to deposit their eggs. Formerly this was an occasion of rejoicing among the Indians, for here were num- bers of large, fat fishes which only need be kicked out of the water and hung on the bushes to dry. The Piutes still continue to cure them in large quantities for winter food. A small white fish abounds in favorable places. Some of the minnows reach a foot in length, bite No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 37 a fly or small spoon, and occasionally contribute to the camper’s break fast. A study of the fish fauna of the basin bears out the conclusions of geologists regarding its long isolation. Nearly all of the species are distinct from those of neighboring systems, and some belong to groups of very restricted distribution. An account of the fishes, their habits and distribution will appear in a future bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries. CACTUSES AND DESERT PLANTS FROM THE WEST INDIES AND SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES Dr. J. N. Rose, associate in botany, U. S. National Museum (at present connected with the Carnegie Institution of Washington Fic. 39.—St. John’s Harbour, British West Indies. The high point on the right is Rat Island, used as the Government Leper Asylum. Part of the town of St. John’s is shown, the seat of government of the Leeward Islands under British control. Photograph by Russell. in the preparation of a monograph of the Cactaceae of America), accompanied by Messrs. William R. Fitch and Paul G. Russell, spent over ten weeks in travel and field-work in the West Indies in the spring of 1913. As this was an unusual opportunity to obtain very valuable material needed for the collections of the National Museum and for use in making exchanges, the Museum detailed Mr. Russell 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 for the trip. This expedition formed a part of the larger scheme of studying in the field the desert plants of both North and South Amer- ica, which had been organized by Dr. N. L. Britton, Director of the New York Botanical Garden, and Doctor Rose, in connection abiesusiaeiba ee EDEL ISI | oo sponta PO a coe Soe oo Toe 2 \ A , ee Peed en Fic. 40.—A Cereus (C. lepidotus Salm-Dyck) common on these islands. Near St. John’s, Antigua. Photograph by Russell. with their Cactus Investigation for the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Doctor Britton also took a party to the West Indies. Both parties started from New York City January 25. Doctor Britton and his assistants explored St. Thomas, St. Jan and others of the Virgin Islands, Porto Rico, and Curacao. His collection con- sisted of more than 3,000 species, comprising two sets, one of which has been sent to the National \luseum as an exchange. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 39 A specimen of the Century plant (4gave obducta Trelease) show- alk. Near English Harbour, Antigua. Photo- Fic. 41. ing an immature flowering st graph by Russell. 40 SMITHSONIAN ' MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Fie. 42.—Specimens of the Melon-cactus (Cactus iniortus Mill.) and Cen- tury plant (Agave obducta Trelease) on promontory near English Harbour, Antigua. English Harbour was once a fortified British stronghold. Admiral Nelson here fitted up part of his fleet for the Battle of Trafalgar. Photograph by Russell. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 41 At the same time, Doctor Rose’s party visited St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Kitts, Antigua, and Santo Domingo. Knowing that the Museum greatly needed duplicates for exchange purposes, general collecting was done whenever possible. Dr. Rose’s collection consisted of more than 1,200 species and about 7,000 specimens. Of these, one set has been mounted for the Museum and has become a part of the study series of the herbarium. A second set was sent to the New York Botanical Garden, while other sets have been sent to the Bureau of Science at Manila, and to the Royal Botanical Garden and Mu- seum at Berlin, for use by Dr. I. Urban in the preparation of his Flora of Santo Domingo. While especial attention was given to collecting the Cactus flora, a large general botanical collection was made. In this there are some new species, one in particular being a very remarkable Annona from the desert plain at Azua, Santo Domingo. _ In addition to the herbarium material, 12 boxes and crates of living plants, chiefly Cacti, were sent from the West Indies by Doctor Rose, and two boxes of living plants were sent to Lady Katharine A. Hanbury’s garden at La Mortola, Italy, in exchange for specimens and courtesies shown to Doctor Rose when in Europe in 1912. Many packages of seeds, bulbs, cuttings, etc., were obtained for exchange purposes of the Museum or for study by the various work- ers in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. PLANTS FROM SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES In September and October, Doctor Rose, accompanied by Wim. R. Fitch, made extensive botanical collections in southeastern Colorado, New Mexico, and western and southern Texas. While the trip was made primarily for the purpose of collecting and studying the Cacti of this region, many other flowering plants were obtained, a full set of which has been mounted and placed in the National Herbarium. THE FLORA OF WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA During the latter part of August and early September, 1913, Mr. Paul C. Standley, of the Division of Plants, U. S. National Museum, and Mr. H. C. Bollman, of the Smithsonian Institution, spent four weeks camping in the mountains of western North Carolina, near Montreat, Buncombe County. Although undertaken primarily as a vacation trip, advantage was taken of the opportunity for study of the flora of this most interesting region. Over seven hundred speci- 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 mens of plants were secured, besides small lots of some of the com- mon and easily collected animals. Special attention was devoted to the mosses, hepatics, and lichens, in which the region abounds, and a representative collection of each of these groups was secured. Lists of the species of cryptogams have been prepared for publication. —Mountain brook near Montreat, Carolina. Photograph by Standley. FIG. 143: North The mountains of North Carolina are of great interest botanically, since they support a varied flora, many of whose components are not found elsewhere. Western North Carolina was visited by some of the earliest American botanists who collected here the types of many of the typically mountain plants. Although numerous botanists have explored the region, many of its divisions are still unexplored and yield rich returns to the collector. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 43 About Montreat the mountains are covered with an almost virgin chestnut forest, traversed by numerous small, swift streams of clear, cold water, bordered with hemlocks. There 1s an abundant under- growth of rhododendron and laurel, two of the handsomest of North American shrubs, which attain their greatest perfection in the south- ern Appalachians. The herbaceous vegetation consists of many Fic. 44—Chestnut forest near Montreat, North Carolina. Photograph by Standley. species, some of them of limited distribution. A small sphagnum bog, in particular, yielded a large number of rare plants. The most interesting excursion made during the month’s camp was to the summit of Mount Mitchell, the highest peak in eastern North America—6,710 feet. By trail, it is distant about sixteen miles from Montreat. The trail at first follows a logging railroad which is being extended into the mountains, then strikes through the heavy AA SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 spruce and balsam forest covering the higher slopes. This primeval forest, which resembles in its general appearance those of the Rocky Mountains, unfortunately seems destined to disappear in the near future ; indeed, it has already been removed from a large area, and desolation left in its stead. It is deeply to be regretted that as Mount Mitchell is made more accessible by the railroad its chief beauty will be destroyed. A single night was spent on the summit of the mountain. A cabin was built here and maintained by the State some years ago, but it is now abandoned and has fallen into decay. At the summit of Mount Frc. 45.—Artificial fountain near Black Mountain, North Carolina. It is fed from a reservoir on a neighboring mountain. Photograph by Standley. Mitchell is a monument which marks the grave of the man whose name it bears, who lost his life while engaged in exploring its slopes. From this point at sunrise a wonderful view is obtained of the vast mass of mountains which cover the adjacent region, their valleys filled with a sea of clouds above which the higher peaks rise like rugged islands. A small collection of plants was made upon the peak, a locality whose flora is little known. The flora, strangely enough, 1s not par- ticularly interesting, for it includes but few species. The vegetation is remarkable chiefly for the large number of introduced plants it includes. These have doubtless been transported by the visitors who ascend the mountain each year. In spite of the altitude of Mount no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 4 tn Mitchell, it yields none of the boreal plants which make the floras of the mountains of New England so interesting. The lower mountains of North Carolina, and some of the other high peaks, are much more interesting botanically than this, the loftiest of them all. ANCIENT MICA MINES OF NORTH CAROLINA In April, 1913, W. H. Holmes, head curator of the department of anthropology, visited the mica mines of western North Carolina, making such observations as seemed necessary for a reasonable com- prehension of the nature and extent of the ancient operations. Fic. 46.—Section of an aboriginal mica mine: A, General schistose for- mation: B, Mica-bearing vein; C, Old digging partly filled up; D, Ancient dumps. Mica was in very general use among the Indian tribes east of the Great Plains and was mined by them at many points in the Appalach- ian highlands from Georgia to the St. Lawrence River. From these sources it passed by trade or otherwise to remote parts of the country and is found especially in burial mounds, stone graves, and ordinary burials throughout the Mississippi Valley. The crystals of mica are of diversified shapes and sizes, reaching in some cases upwards of two feet in dimensions. They separate readily into sheets of very attractive appearance, which are transparent or translucent, displaying various silvery and amber hues. Mica crystals occur dis- tributed through narrow veins of quartz and feldspar which extend at various angles through the inclosing schistose formations. Although probably serving few practical purposes the sheets were highly prized by the aborigines for the manufacture of personal or- 4 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 naments and for sacrificial and mortuary purposes. It is stated on good authority also that they were used as mirrors. Mr. Holmes visited a number of mines in the vicinity of Spruce- tree and Bandana, Yancey County, and near Bakersville in Mitchell County. The most important workings in the first mentioned locality are known as the Sink Hole mines, near Bandana. Although these mines have been operated extensively in recent years, sufficient traces of the old work remain to convey a fair notion of the nature and extent of the prehistoric mining. There are two main groups of pit- tings, each approximately 1,000 feet in length and 20 to 60 feet in eee fi HU kg ANY | Fic. 47.—Stone picks used in excavating and freeing the crystals of Mica. width. The original depth in many cases was upwards of 40 feet, but recent operations of white miners have served to change their appearance, and to fill up the deeper excavations. The pittings are surrounded by a somewhat uneven ridge of detritus derived from the excavations, which has been added to in places by the modern miners, and has been dug into of late years to recover the mica rejected and thrown out by the aborigines. An important site of the ancient operations now known as the Clarissa mine, three miles east of Bakersville, Mitchell County, was also visited. This is probably the best preserved and most striking of the aboriginal workings in this general region, and serves to illustrate the importance of the mica industry in prehistoric times. Entering a no. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q13 47 low ridge at an oblique angle, the excavation reaches a depth of nearly roo feet. The outer margin is buried beneath heavy bodies of ancient dump material which now supports numerous chestnut trees, the trunks of which are four or five feet in diameter. The modern operators of the mine who have worked the vein at the upper end to the depth of 300 feet have filled the old trenches deserted by the aborigines. So far as could be determined, the implements used in excavating the decomposed schists and breaking up the vein material, thus free- ing the mica crystals, were rude picks and hammers of stone, a few examples of which were found. Drawings of these are shown in figure 47. Mr. Holmes extended his reconnoissance into South Carolina, where an ancient mound of large dimensions, situated twelve miles below Columbia on the Congaree River, was examined. A plan of the mound was made, and an examination of an ancient burial site on the edge of the mound yielded numerous relics of pottery and stone. Near Waynesboro, Georgia, a number of ancient village sites and certain outcrops of flint, where the aborigines had obtained the material for their implements, were examined. Later, in the spring, Mr. Holmes visited St. Louis, Missouri, with the view of studying the very interesting collections owned in that city, and accompanied by Mr. Gerard Fowke spent a day at Mill Creek, Illinois, making collections on the ancient quarry and shop sites of that locality. He later extended his excursion to Davenport, Madison, Milwaukee, Chicago, and Columbus, for the purpose of making studies in the mu- seums of those cities. ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPLORATION IN PERU Dr. AleS Hrdliéka, of the National Museum, has made a second report * concerning his field-work in Peru during the past year, in connection with the Panama-California Exposition at San Diego, for which a very important exhibit in physical anthropology is being prepared. The investigations extended over several hundred miles of the Peruvian coast and over hitherto unexplored regions in the western Cordilleras. The objects of this trip, which occupied the first four months of 1913, were to determine the anthropological relations * Anthropological Work in Peru in 1913, with Notes on the Pathology of the Ancient Peruvians. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 61, No. 18, 1914. 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 of the ancient Peruvians of the mountains with those of the coast, and to extend the investigations which Dr. Hrdli¢ka has carried on for many years, regarding Indian and especially pre-Columbian pathology. The expedition was a very strenuous one, but proved remarkably successful. Over 100 ancient cemeteries and many ruins, a large Fic. 48.—The picturesque town of Huarochiri, in the western Cordillera of central Peru. Photograph by Hrdlicka. percentage of which were previously unknown to science, were ex- amined and over 30 boxes of skulls and other material for future study were collected for the U.S. National Museum and the Museum at San: Diego. Dr. Hrdliéka reports that skeletal material, which formerly abounded in Peru and is essential to scientific research, is fast dis- appearing, and in a few years can not be gathered without the ex- penditure of much time and money. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 49 The results of the expedition will prove of unusual value to an- thropology. While some of the links in the chain of evidence are still missing, it can now be said with certainty that the Peruvian coast from Chiclayo, in the north, to Yauca, in the south—a distance of over 600 miles—was peopled predominantly before the advent of the whites by one and the same physical type of Indian. These Indians were of medium height, with short and broad skulls, and Fic. 49--The ruins of the Incaic Temple of the Sun, at Pachacamac, Peru. Photograph by Hrdlicka. moderately to strongly developed muscles according to the locality. The most important fact ascertained in this connection was that both the Chimu and Nascas, two of the foremost cultural groups of ancient Peru, were identical and, as regards physical characteristics, insepar- able parts of this coast people. According to their location, the people of old Peru were either fishermen or farmers. They seem to have been organized into numer- ous political groups, which developed smaller or greater cultural dif- ferences according to environment and other influences. 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL: 63 Frc. 50—Ancient cemetery in Peru; a typical example of the waste of pottery and bones by the despoiling peons. Photograph by Hrdlicka. fic. 51—Cache, by the explorer, of ancient pottery left behind by vandals after despoliation of a cemetery south of Huacho, Peru. Photograph by Hrdlicka. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QT3 5! Some of their smaller dwellings were made of reeds, while larger structures were built of small uncut stones, sun-dried brick, or blocks of adobe. Their knowledge of weaving, pottery-making, and decora- tion was surprising. They wove from native cotton and llama wool, and their designs indicate changes brought about by time and other influences. The native dress consisted principally of a poncho shirt, a loin cloth, and sandals, with occasionally a simple head-gear. The pre-Columbian Peruvians of the coast knew the uses of gold, Fic. 52—Indian hut and inhabitants, with a ruin-covered hill known at Llaxwa, in the rear, located in the Sierras, south-east of Nasca, Peru. Photo- graph by Hrdlicéka. silver, and copper, and worked these metals to some extent, especially copper or “ bronze ” in the manufacture of weapons. Their common weapons were a metal or stone mace, a wooden club, a copper axe and knife, the sling, and in some regions the bow and arrow. Their imple- ments were the whorl, weaving sticks, looms, cactus-spine or bone needle, bone needle-holders, sharpened sticks, copper knives and axes, hoes and fishing paraphernalia, including nets, sinkers, reed-bundle boats or balsas, and peculiar rafts which were paddled. Throughout the whole territory along the coast the people de- formed the heads of their infants by applying pressure to the fore- zZ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 cn head probably by means of pads and bandages, which process flat- tened the back of the head as well. They did not practice filing, cut- ting, or chipping the teeth, or other mutilations which would leave marks on the skeletons. These natives seem to have been free from general bodily ailments before the advent of the white men; on the other hand they suffered from several peculiar local diseases affecting the hip-bone, the head, and the ear. Fic. 53.—A party of vandals in an old cemetery on the railroad from Ancon to Huacho, Peru. Photograph by Hrdlicka. The people of the mountains possessed a good average develop- ment of the body and of the skull, and were even freer than the coast people from disease. Wounds were, however, common, and in some of the districts serious wounds of the head were frequently followed by the operation known as trepaning, and although this was often crudely done, it was successful in many cases. This practice was prob- ably carried on even after the coming of the Spaniards. The results of the expedition failed to strengthen the theories of any great antiquity of man in Peru, tending rather to prove the con- No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q13 wn ) trary. Aside from the cemeteries or burial caves of the common coast or mountain people, and their archeological remains, there was no sign of human occupation of these regions. Not a trace suggesting any- thing older than the well-represented pre-Columbian Indian was found anywhere; and neither the coast nor the mountain population, so far as studied, can be regarded as very ancient in the regions they inhabited. No signs indicated that any group occupied any of the sites for even as long as 20 centuries; nor does it seem that any of these people developed their culture, except in some particulars, in these places. ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN WESTERN NEW MEXICO Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist-in-charge of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology, in the early autum of 1913 made a reconnoissance of Fic. 54—Character of masonry shown in one of the house-groups of the compound. Note the failure of the builders to “break” the joints and the consequent weakening of an otherwise excellent wall. The face of the stones is pecked to smoothness and all the stones are artificially squared. Photograph by Nusbaum. a group of ruins on a mesa rising from the southwestern margin of the Cebollita valley, about 20 miles south of Grant, Valencia County, New Mexico, and only a few yards from the great lava flow that has spread over the valley to the westward for many miles. While no very definite information regarding the origin of this ruined pueblo 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Fic. 55.—Stone outer wall of a defensive structure near the mesa rim. This wall is about 132 feet long in the clear, and is pierced only by small loop- holes. Photograph by Nusbaum. Fic. 36.—Skeleton, with burial accompaniments, found in a small cist. Photograph by Nusbaum. ‘uneqsnN Aq ydersojoyg ‘padqisosop sums falyd dy} poayenzis o1e YSIYM JO BUWINS oY} UO }VY} St AOT]VA IY} SSOIIV VSOUI TOMO] IY, “OOXe MoN ‘AapeA vyTJOGaDd ssosoe preMyjnos MarA—ZS ‘org Wn WwW SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q13 NO. VOL. 63 MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS SMITHSONIAN SO ‘uuneqsun Aq Yydersojoygd “pleMy Mos sulyoo] ‘doj-esout oy} Jo a0oy AyxDO1 aq} UT ‘UOIssoIdap eanyeu ve ATTY Ajqeqoid ‘1OATISOI Ta][eUIG—gS “OT No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 57 has yet been obtained, there is reason to suppose that it was occupied by ancestors of the Tanyi, or Calabash, clan of the Acoma tribe, and is possibly the one known to them as Kowina. These ruins consist of a number of house-groups forming a com- pound, built on an almost impregnable height, and designed for de- Fic. 59.—Small cliff-house on the northern side of Cebollita valley. Photograph by Nus- baum. fence; not only the groups but the individual houses have the form of fortifications, while the vulnerable point of the mesa rim is pro- tected by means of a rude breastwork of stones. The outer wall, which protects the whole mesa, is built of excep- tionally fine masonry, probably the finest work to be found in ancient 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 pueblo ruins of the Southwest. The building stones have been dressed to shape, matched for size, and their faces finished by pecking, with such labor as to confirm the belief that this ancient village was designed for permanent occupancy. Altogether the work proves of great interest, and it 1s suprising to note the one failing, on the part of these early builders : they seem to have been unaware of the necessity of breaking the vertical joints in the courses of masonry, thus causing many weak points in the otherwise excellent walls. Among the special features of interest which Mr. Hodge dis- covered were a burial cist where skeletons, pottery, and the remains of a mat were found; three small cliff lodges situated in the sides of the cliffs; several ceremonial rooms or kivas associated with the ruined houses, and the remains of the early reservoirs of the in- habitants. A full report on the exploration of this interesting pueblo will be made by Mr. Hodge in a later publication. ANTIQUITIES OF THE WEST INDIES Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, ethnologist in the Bureau of American Ethnology, spent January, February, March, and part of April, 1913, in the West Indies, studying the prehistoric antiquities of the Lesser Antilles, and gathering material for a proposed monograph on the aborigines of these islands. He examined numerous local collections, and visited many village sites, prehistoric mounds, shellheaps, and bowlders bearing incised pictographs. The most extensive excavations during these months were made at Erin Bay, Trinidad, in a shellheap of considerable size, where he found a valuable collection of animal heads made of terra cotta and stone, and other objects illustrating the early culture of that island. From Trinidad he went to Barbados, where he found evidences of the former existence of cave people living in a shell age or one in which stone was replaced by shell. Excavations were later made at a village site of the Black Caribs at Banana Bay, Balliceaux, a small island near St. Vincent, and a small collection was gathered from it. He obtained many drawings of specimens in a rich collection from St. Kitts and Nevis, owned by Mr. Connell, and examined the shell- heaps at Salt River, Christianstadt, St. Croix, and at Indian River, Barbados. The collection of prehistoric objects obtained from St. Croix, Danish West Indies, was ample to prove that the early culture of the inhabitants of this island was more closely related to the culture No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q13 59 of Porto Rico than to that of St. Vincent. The material obtained in this field-work will be embodied in a report which Dr. I'ewkes has in preparation on the magnificent collection of West Indian prehis- toric objects owned by George G. Heye, Esq., of New York. The exploration was done in cooperation with the Heye Museum. Field-work in the West Indian islands was supplemented by a visit to those museums in Europe where extensive Antillean collec- tions exist. August, September, and October were devoted to study- ing prehistoric West Indian objects in Berlin, Bremen, Copenhagen, Vienna, and Leipzig. While in the first mentioned city he employed Mr. W. von den Steinen to make drawings of the originals of the Guesde Collection and many other objects from Hayti, Porto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles. In the Bremen Museum a stone collar was found to have its knob modified into a reptilean head, an unique feature that would seem to shed light on the meaning of these objects. The Museum at Copen- hagen has a rare ceremonial celt connecting petaloid stone axes with stone heads. These field-studies and examinations of museum specimens have led Dr. Fewkes to the conclusion that in prehistoric times there ex- isted in the Antilles a race of sedentary people having a form of culture extending from Trinidad to Porto Rico. This culture differed in minor details, in the various islands, as the style of stone imple- ments, pottery, and other objects of material culture in all these islands shows. It was preceded by a life in caves which survived in western Cuba and the western peninsula of Hayti down to the time of the discovery by Columbus. The Caribs, who came comparatively late, brought a different culture that overlaid and, in a measure, ab- sorbed the preceding culture in the Lesser Antilles. In other words, evidences were found of at least three distinct types of culture in the Lesser Antilles: cave, agricultural, and Carib. The second or agri- cultural type was found to have the subdivisions localized in the fol- lowing groups of islands: Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Porto Rico; St. Kitts, including Nevis; the volcanic chain of islands from Guade- loupe to Grenada ; Barbados ; and Trinidad. As with all other sciences, the highest form of research in culture history is comparative. It is universally conceded that the race in- habiting the New World, when discovered, had not advanced in autochthonous development beyond the neolithic age, whereas in Asia, Europe, and Africa a neolithic age was supplemented by one in which metals had replaced stone for implements. In the Old World 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 623 this polished stone epoch had been preceded by a paleolithic stone age not represented, so far as is known, in America. The ethnology and archeology of our Indians therefore form only a chapter, and that a brief one, or a segment of a much more extended racial evolution, as illustrated in Asia, Europe, and Africa. It is profitable to compare the neolithic stone ages in the New World and the Old in order to appreciate rightly the position of the American Indian in the advance of human history, and his relation to the dawn of human history. In order to carry on comparative studies of the stone age of aboriginal America and the corresponding age in the Old World, Dr. Fewkes spent six months in field and museum work in Europe and Africa. He visited the prehistoric mounds, dolmens, and megalithic monuments at Stendal and Stéckheim in Altmark, a short distance from Berlin, and examined the finely installed collections from these localities in local museums. He also visited the island of Rugen, in the North Sea, where there are many prehistoric mounds, Huns’ graves, workshops, and megalithic and other remains of the neolithic inhabit- ants. The many antiquities from this island in the museum at Stral- sund furnished considerable data for a comparative study of arti- facts from this part of Europe with similar objects from North America. Dr. Fewkes believes that the time is past when the great ruins in our Southwest should be left to destruction by the elements, after smaller objects have been extracted from them. In order to protect these ruins he has inaugurated, under the direction of the Smith- sonian Institution, at Casa Grande, Spruce-tree House, and Cliff Palace, a scientific method of excavation and repair. In order to improve his methods by becoming better acquainted with excavation and repair work adopted by the ablest European archeologists, he visited Egypt, Greece, and Italy (Pompeii). He found in some cases that whereas repair work in the Old World is often neglected and cannot be called very scientific, and some of the excavated ruins have been left in very bad condition for future students, the majority are being carefully protected after excavation, ina manner well worth study by those who aspire to the most ad- vanced standards. The best archeological repair work in Egypt may be seen on the Temple of Amen Ra at Karnak, and the mortuary temples, the Ramesseum, Medinet-Habu, and the Seteum, from which were ob- tained valuable suggestions. The admirable repair of the hypo-style No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q13 61 hall of the Temple of Amen Ra, by M. Le Grain, is the most 1m- portant ever attempted on an ancient building. Part of his time in Egypt was devoted to comparative problems, and he was also able to give some attention, all too limited, to evi- dences of convergence and parallelism in the neolithic or predynastic culture of the Nile Valley with that of the Gila. He investigated more especially remarkable lines of similarity in artificial methods of water supply, in both regions, and the influence of cooperation of predynastic villages in building great irrigation canals, on the de- velopment of a higher social organization. He had always in mind the collection of material bearing on interrelationship of climatic conditions and early culture in the Nile Valley. AMONG THE EAST CHEROKEE INDIANS OF NORTH CAROLINA Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist in the Bureau of American Ethnology, spent the summer of 1913, June 18 to October 4, inclusive, with the East Cherokee Indians in the mountains of western North Carolina, among whom he had made his first field studies in 1887. These Indians, numbering some 1,900, live upon a small reservation in Swain and Jackson Counties with several outlying settlements farther to the west. They are a part of the historic Cherokee Nation formerly holding the whole mountain region of the southern Alleghe- nies until removed by military force in 1838 to the Indian Territory, where they now number about 30,000 of pure or mixed blood. ‘Those in North Carolina are the descendants of some hundreds who made their escape from the troops and were finally, through the good offices of their friend, Col. Wm. H. Thomas, allowed to remain and settle upon lands purchased for them with their share of the fund originally appropriated for their removal to the west. There are still living among them several who remember the removal. Constituting from the beginning the most conservative and pure- blooded element of the tribe, protected by their mountain barriers from outside influences and never having been subjected to the shock of forced removal to a distant and strange environment, these East Cherokees remain to-day the conservators of the ancient traditions, and exemplars of the aboriginal life once common in varying degree to all the tribes of the Gulf States. Until 1881, when the first school was established, they continued virtually unchanged. Since then, schools, railroads, and lumber industries have made rapid advance, which, with the passing of the older generation, must before many years bring to a close the [Indian period. on 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 On this occasion, Mr. Mooney made headquarters in the largest and most conservative settlement, locally known as Raven Town or Big Cove, some 12 miles from the agency, over a very rough moun- tain road impassable for vehicles during a part of the year. Here, shut in by the highest peaks east of the Mississippi, some 500 Indians dwell in fairly comfortable two-room log cabins perched high up on Fic. 60.—Cherokee potter; Katalsta, daughter of Yanagtiski, ‘‘ Drowning Bear,” Head chief of the East Cherokee about 1838. Photograph by Mooney. the slopes of the mountains, always near a convenient spring. They till their fields of corn and beans, which extend sometimes even up to the crest of the ridge. Some have oxen, and a few have horses, but the great majority cultivate their fields by hand, and travel always on foot. While many are nominally Christians, and most of the younger people can speak English, they still. as a community, adhere to their No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 63 ancient rites of the Green Corn dance, the “ going to water ” at every new moon, the fishing and hunting charms, the medicine man, and the native ball game. Many of the women are expert in basket making, in a variety of patterns, but the pottery art, which flourished a few years ago, is now virtually extinct. The blow-gun, formerly used for shooting small game, is now almost a thing of the past, together with the head turban and the moccasin. Although the outer life and semblance are thus altered, the pos- session of a native alphabet or syllabary, invented by a mixed blood of the tribe nearly a century ago, has enabled their priests and doctors to preserve their ancient ritual prayers and formulas without change and apparently almost without diminution from the remote past. By good fortune some twenty-five years ago Mr. Mooney was en- abled to obtain some hundreds of these Cherokee manuscript for- mulas, the secret possession of their leading priests. Many others have been obtained on later visits, in addition to much miscellaneous ethnologic material, until the collection now numbers approximately 600 formulas, perhaps the equivalent of as many printed quarto pages, covering every occasion of Indian life, war, love, hunting, fish- ing, agriculture, medicine, games and ceremonials. This collection of aboriginal American literature is unique and without parallel. Asa revelation of primitive psychology it is invaluable. The antiquity of the formulas is sufficiently indicated by the abundance of archaic forms and references, many of which cannot now be explained even by the priests, who simply say, “ This is the way it was given to us.” Many of these formulas are highly poetic. The explanation of those originally obtained, almost one-half the whole collection, was procured from the principal recognized priests of that time, all of whom are now dead. At the same time, all the words of the formulas were glossarized, and all the plants mentioned in the medical prescriptions collected, and labeled with their Indian names, and later identified botanically by experts of the Smithsonian Institution. Other formulas have been translated and explained during subsequent visits. During the last summer the number was considerably enlarged by the best known teachers. All those then un- translated were translated and glossarized, and the additional plants named therein collected. The whole body was then revised from the beginning, so that nearly every formula has now had the interpreta- tion of at least three recognized authorities. There is still a paucity in certain classes as compared with others, notably in the formulas re- lating to war and to the ball play, as compared with those relating 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 to medicine and love. This deficiency may be supplied by future gatherings, but for the formulas already translated, 1t may be con- fidently affirmed that no important additional light is now procurable. \Vhile the formulas constitute the largest body of aboriginal Amer- ican literature extant, the plant collection constitutes probably the largest ethno-botanic collection from any one tribe, comprising some 700 species with Cherokee names and uses, nearly all of which have been scientifically identified by expert botanists. This collection represents the combined plant knowledge of the principal doctors in the tribe. ()pportunity was also afforded for special studies and observations, particularly of the ceremonial “ going to water,” and augury with the beads to forecast the health prospect and life-span of each member of the family, before partaking of the first corn of the new crop. CEREMONIAL DANCES OF THE CREEKS IN OKLAHOMA In July and August, Dr. John R. Swanton of the Bureau of Ethnol- ogy visited the territory of the old Creek Nation in Oklahoma, Fic. 6r—The “ Feather” dance, Fish Pond square ground. Photograph by Swanton. to attend several of the ceremonial dances or busks about which he had collected much information in previous years. He witnessed four of these ceremonials ; that of the Eufaula Creeks near Eufaula, MeIntosh County, those of the Hilibi and Fish Pond Creeks near Hanna, in Hughes County, and that of the Tukaba‘tci near Yeager. Notes were taken on all of them and a number of photographs were obtained of the first three. Considerable supplementary information No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQ13 65 Fic. 62—The women’s dance, Fish Pond square ground. Photograph by Swanton. Fic. 63.—‘‘ Feather” dance, Hilibi square ground. Photograph by Swanton. 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 was secured from the older men regarding the busk ceremonial and other ancient usages. When the ceremonies were over Dr. Swanton visited the Indians in Seminole County, who still speak Hitchiti, a language formerly current throughout southern Georgia, and recorded several texts. He also secured the codperation of a Hitchiti Indian, able to write in the missionary alphabet, to obtain other texts after his departure. CEREMONIES AND RITUALS OF THE OSAGE During the year 1913, Mr. Francis LaFlesche of the Bureau of American Ethnology secured the songs and rituals of five different Osage ceremonies. Two of these are practically complete ; the others are fragmentary, but enough information was obtained to give a fair idea as to their significance. These rites are: Wa-do-ka We-ko, Scalp Ceremony ; Wa-zhivi-ga-o, Bird Ceremony for boys; Wa-wa- thon, Peace Ceremony ; Zhin-ga-zhin-ga Zha-zhe Tha-dse, Naming of a Child; and We-xthe-xthe, Tattooing Ceremony. Owing to the superstitious hold these rites still have upon the people, together with the fact that every initiated person obtained his knowledge at a great expense, it was almost impossible to procure complete texts of any of the ceremonies. The Tattooing Ceremony is of peculiar interest. It was more dif- ficult to secure information concerning it than of any other ceremony. In earlier times only the warrior who had won war honors was en- titled to have the ceremony performed and have the war symbols tattooed upon his body. If his means permitted it, they might also be placed upon any number of his relatives. These war symbols were his marks of distinction as a man of valor, for the strength and life of the tribe depended upon the prowess of the warriors. In those days there were but few who were entitled to have the ceremony per- formed, because war honors were not easily won and few were wealthy enough to afford the expense of the ceremonies. When, during the last century, wars between the various tribes ceased, the real significance of the rite vanished, but the superstitious belief that the symbolic figures meant long life to the individual so tattooed, re- mained prominently in the minds of the people. About the time that the right of the honored warrior to the exclu- sive use of the Tattooing Ceremonies came to an end, a new condi- tion arose which materially changed the character of the rite. From the sales of lands to the United States the Osage tribe acquired a wealth by which a greater number of its members were enabled to No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 67 have performed the tattooing, as well as other ceremonies. It was then that this ancient rite became the means by which any individual could publicly display his affection toward a relative. Fic 64.—An Osage Indian with tattooing. Figure 64 shows designs tattooed upon the body of a man. Those on a woman are more elaborate and cover the upper part of her body, breast and back, and the lower part of her legs. Figure 65 shows 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 three implements used in tattooing. Each of these is made of wood about the length of a pencil. To the lower end are attached needles arranged in a straight row, and to the upper end are fastened four small rattles made of the large wing quills of the pelican. This Fic. 65.—Three implements used in Osage tattooing. Photograph by DeLancey Gill. bird is referred to in one of the dream rituals as, \Lom-thin-the-don- ts'a-ge, He-who-becomes-very-old-while-yet-going. In certain pas- sages of the ritual it is intimated that these implements were origt- nally made of the wing bone of this bird and were used for doctoring as well as for tattooing. No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 69 The coloring matter employed in tattooing is made of charcoal mixed with kettle black and water. The charcoal is made from certain trees that serve as symbols of long life in the war ceremonies. Tail feathers of the pileated woodpecker are used for putting on the ink and drawing the lines. On November 17, 1910, Wa-ce-ton-zhin-ga, one of the prominent men of the Pa-ci-u-gthin band (Hill-top Dwellers) died. It was learned that he had a Wa-xo-be-ton-ga, a Great Wa-x0-be. This is a white pelican, the bird which is supposed to have revealed, through a dream, the mysteries of tattooing and to have supplied the implements. On February 16, 1911, Wa-ce-ton-zhin-ga’s widow after much persuasion reluctantly consented to part with this sacred object (the Great Wa-x6-be), together with its buffalo hair and rush mat cases. It was thus secured by the writer, and now has a place in the United States National Museum. AS SUIDYS OE SIOUX MUSIC The field-work of Miss Frances Densmore during the season of 1913 was concentrated on the southern portion of the Standing Rock Fic. 66.—Indians dancing the Grass Dance at Bull Head. Photograph by Miss Densmore. reservation, which lies in the State of South Dakota. Many acquaint- ances had been made on a previous visit to the locality, and the earlier knowledge gained of the Indians opened the way for intensive work along the lines which had been selected, 7. ¢., songs of war, songs con- nected with the use of medicinal herbs, and songs of tribal social 7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 organizations. As in previous years, the songs were recorded phono- graphically, about 130 songs being secured in this manner for the Bureau of American Ethnology. In connection with this work Miss Densmore collected about 120 specimens, illustrating the old arts and industries as well as the customs of war and the practice of medicine. Twenty herbs said to have medicinal properties were secured from medicine men who use them in treating the sick. These herbs were identified at the Department of Agriculture in Washington, and a number of them were found to be in use among physicians of the white race. Fic. 67.—Indian equipment for boiling meat without a kettle. Pho- tograph by Miss Densmore. During the celebration of July Fourth, at Bull Head, many old dances were given. Figure 66 shows the Indians at this celebration of the Grass Dance. A demonstration of the manner of boiling meat without a kettle was also given, Miss Densmore witnessing the process and afterward purchasing the entire equipment, shown in figure 67. This was of interest in connection with the subjects under investigation, as it was a method used in old times by Indians on the war path or buffalo hunt. The paunch of a freshly killed animal was suspended between three stakes, water was placed in it, and brought to the boiling point by means of heated stones. Meat was a No. 8 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I913 7a thoroughly cooked in this manner. A portion of the meat thus pre- pared was secured in connection with the apparatus. Many of the war songs were illustrated by native drawings. Figure 68 shows a man known as Jaw, an old warrior with a wide reputation Fic. 68.—Jaw, an old Sioux warrior, whose horse-stealing expeditions are illustrated by his own drawings in the background. Photograph by Miss Densmore. for stealing horses. Behind him is one of his drawings depicting such an expedition. A medicine man with his drum is shown in figure 69. This man was named White Paw Bear, and proved a valuable informant to Miss JZ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Densmore. He was a close friend of the famous chieftain Sitting Bull. lic. 60.—White Paw Bear, a medicine man with his drum. Photograph by Miss Densmore. Miss Densmore attended a large feast given in her honor by Red Fox, the Sioux chief who adopted her two years previously in place of his daughter. This adoption was ratified later by the tribe. oO NO. SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1913 Te ~Y STRANGE RITES OF THE TEWA INDIANS Mrs. M. C. Stevenson continued her comparative study among the Tewa Indians of the Rio Grande valley, in behalf of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 1 aor 7 Plate between eyes and beneath antenne as seat of olfactory organs ...... 8 Momtimecavity a5 Scab Of OlfactOGysOEBans 22. .\deen. s,s lo. cea woe ke neler 8 EipipiatyMeasnscalsOrmolhaGt@OimyaOne@amse yy.) eay-cce) 1 els cle sels a1. see lens de 9 Retire seseal ol Oka ClOny TOLPANS, eh siet pa cere cotta toe acs ain aale seeoewees, oO Antenne as seat of olfactory organs Gab Without expenttnentstes acd qaeceisc es ciate fe argent nem ee enon i CON MUV iit Rec pET ARIAL See percne ease oe eos fa Siege aha sith aoe reeds en aur daw ele sheer of al eA Various structures on antenne as olfactory (OE SHATING, SUR peepee ee icr Pres ac 2 Caudal styles (“abdominal antenne”’) as seat of olfactory organs........ 35 Organs on bases of wings and on legs as olfactory organs ............... 26 Olfactory organs on the appendages and sternum of spiders.............- 49 Simin sO aut nor Svexperiments: 2h. .scalre ceases las > vas vet lee walhaee 51 Ne ReTatTIG CCCs Merten ee rete tt cae ck Neeru at ut SOE ake So San eel 56 INTRODUCTION Since no one has ever collected the views of the various writers on the sense of smell in insects, the literature that bears directly on this subject is here briefly discussed for the use of students on this subject. Abstracts and translations of this literature have been made by the writer and his wife, Emma Pabst McIndoo, and the dis- cussion is from these abstracts and translations. Minor details may have been incorrectly stated in some cases, but it is believed that each view as a whole is given correctly. The views of a few authors have been cited from others, because the original works were not access- ible. After a short discussion of the sense of smell in general, the SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 63, No. 9 Zz SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 names of the various writers and their views are grouped under heads according to the seat of the olfactory organs which these writers favor. A few writers fail to advocate any particular view but they criticize certain ones. Such writers are placed under the head which they criticize. This discussion was originally written as the second part of the author’s (1914a) paper on “ The Olfactory Sense of the Honey Bee.” On account of the great length of this paper it was necessary to omit the discussion. Since the first part of the paper was published a few more references have been collected and the author (1914b) has written a second paper on the same subject concerning the Hymenop- tera. Several letters have also been received requesting that a com- plete discussion be published. Another reason for publishing this discussion is to reveal the chaos which now exists on this subject, so that students may hereafter replace such chaos by facts. The author is grateful in various ways to Dr. E. F. Phillips, in charge of bee culture investigations, and to Miss Mabel Colcord, librarian of the Bureau of Entomology, for invaluable aid in securing references. SENSE OF SMELL IN GENERAL Aristotle is the earliest author whose writings on the sense of smell in insects are available. He says: As for insects, both winged and wingless, they can detect the presence of scented objects afar off, as for instance bees and cnipes detect the presence of honey at a distance; and they do so recognizing it by smell. Many insects are killed by the odor of brimstone; ants, if the apertures to their dwellings be smeared with powdered origanum and brimstone, quit their nests; and most insects may be banished with burnt hart’s horn, or by burning of gum styrax. Virgil was a beekeeper as well asa poet. The ancients used roasted or burnt crabs in the treatment of certain bee diseases, but Virgil warned beekeepers that the odors arising from such materials are injurious to bees. He also reports that certain strongly scented plants were rubbed on the tree where a swarm of bees was collecting, so that these odors might prevent them from going farther. Pliny states that the odors of origanum, of common lime, and of sulphur kill ants. Gnats hunt for acids and do not approach things which are sweet. Varro (1735) infers that bees can distinguish odors, and that they are sensitive to perfumes which come from odoriferous objects ; in this respect their preferences differ greatly. NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 3 Atliani (1744) asserts that bees smell anything with a foul odor or anything smeared with odors, and that they cannot tolerate an offen- sive smell, nor do they like sweet, delicious odors. Rosel and Klemann (1747) remark that it is clearly understood that certain butterflies have a very acute sense of smell and that one sex certainly perceives the odor of the other from a distance. Romanes (1877) is certain that moths smell, although they may detect the odor from ammonia through their whole system. The Peckhams (1887) in their experiments on wasps used two essential oils—peppermint and wintergreen—maple syrup, and warm and cold chicken bones. They say: We conclude from these experiments that wasps have a strong sense of smell, but that they pay little attention to odors, however powerful, which do not denote the presence of something which they can utilize as food. From the foregoing it is evident that the belief in a sense of smell in insects is general and that some insects are able to distinguish between various odors. From the time of Aristotle to the present no one has ever denied that insects can smell, yet no one has ascer- tained the relative sensitiveness for any particular species. SPLRACEES As SHAD Oh -OLFACTORY ORGANS Sulzer in 1761, according to Lubbock (1899), was the first to suggest that the spiracles are the seat of the olfactory organs. Later, however, he abandoned this view and adopted the antennal theory in 1776. Dumeril (1797) asserts that all insects possess a more or less acute sense of smell. He was the first to advocate strongly the view that insects, like all other animals that live in the air, have their olfactory organ located at the entrance of the respiratory system. The air charged with odoriferous particles passes into the trachee through the spiracles and here these particles stimulate multitudes of nerves and thus the sensation of smell is produced. He thought that the tracheal walls consist of a membrane which is clothed with olfactory nerves, against which the odoriferous particles from foreign bodies strike. Later the same author (1823) remarks that the perception of odors is then, like all the other sensations, physical—a kind of touch in which the bodies, should that be their nature, impinge upon the olfactory nerves. Dubois (1890) held the same opinion, saying that the first excitation is a mechanical one, like that which occurs in the sensation of touch. Hermbstadt (1811) asserts the opinion 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 now generally prevalent, that taste and smell are chemical senses, while sight, hearing and touch are purely mechanical. Baster (1798), cited from Perris (1850), believes that olfactory stimuli are received by the trachez, either at their apertures or throughout their whole extent. Lehmann (1799), according to Lacordaire (1838), was the first who actually performed experiments to determine the location of the olfactory apparatus. He made a round aperture, surrounded by wax, in a glass bottle, in the center of which was a paper diaphragm. The antenne or entire head of an insect was then inserted into this aperture. He next introduced into the bottle strongly odoriferous substances, such as burnt feathers, burning sulphur, etc. None of the insects subjected to this test reacted, but when the same substances were placed near the remaining part of the insect, the specimen made violent movements which showed the effect these substances had upon it. He concluded, therefore, that the head is not the seat of olfac- tion and that it must lie in the trachee near their external openings. As the antenne are covered with hard chitin, while the tracheal walls are clothed with very thin, chitinous membranes, critics contend that such strong irritating odors mechanically irritate the tracheze and that these odors cannot so affect the antennee on account of the hard chitin. Cuvier (1805) thinks that since all other air-breathing animals have the organs of smell located at the entrance of the respiratory organs, we should find it at the entrance of the trachez in insects, as Baster suggested. He added that the internal membrane of the trachee, being moist, appears properly to fulfill this office, and that ‘in the insects in which the trachee form numerous vesicles these trachee appear to be excellently suited for the seat of smell. The antennze do not seem to fulfill any of these required conditions. Straus-Durckheim (1828) believed that the seat of olfaction is located at the entrance of the trachez because he discovered, in the environs of the spiracles, nerves which are large enough to belong to a special sense organ. Lacordaire (1838), after discussing the experiments of Huber and Lehmann, says that from all the preceding we can conclude that we know nothing positive about the seat of smell and that the hypothesis which locates it in the respiratory organs is yet the most rational of all. Brullé (1840), after briefly discussing the sense of smell in articu- late animals, remarks that the organ of smell is not known in these ec ae) aia ant ak Scealll NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 5 animals, unless it is to be assigned to the apertures of the respiratory organs. . Of the foregoing six authors who advocate the theory that the spiracles are the seat of olfaction, Lehmann is the only one who ex- perimented on the subject. The others seem to think that an analogv with higher animals is sufficient proof. [ehmann’s experiments indi- cate that the seat of smell is not located in the head and assumes that the trachez are the only other place in which these organs could be located. No one has found any nerves or any kind of sense organ, which suggest an olfactory function, in the walls of the tracheze or in the spiracles of the bee. This theory has been long since abandoned. STRUCTURE NEAR SPIRACLES AS SEAT OF OLFACTORY ORGANS Joseph (1877) postulated three conditions necessary for an olfac- tory apparatus: (1) It must come in contact with moving air; (2) it must be continually moistened, and (3) the olfactory substance must be in the form of a gas. If one of these three conditions is lacking, olfaction is impossible. According to these conditions no one has sought the seat of smell in any place other than at the entrance of the trachez, and the assumption that insects smell with their antennze or buccal organs is completely inadmissible. In spite of the fact that their antenne had been removed and in spite of their clumsy flying, a number of Necrophorus vespillo (carrion beetles) found a carcass wrapped in paper at a distance of 20 feet. The same result was obtained with the flesh-fly (Musca) Sarcophaga carnaria and with other insects. A-short distance from the spiracles, toward the median line of the thorax and abdomen, he reports finding a peculiar structure which he called the “ regio olfactoria.” This olfactory re- gion is completely covered by a delicate membrane perforated by pores, the largest of which are for gland exits and the smallest for hairs. Beneath this membrane lies a peculiar layer of cells. Thus, not favoring the view that the spiracles are the seat of smell, and in order to comply with the above three conditions, Joseph as- sumed the existence of an organ near the spiracles which communi- cates with the air cavities of the trachee. Of course, being connected with the tracheze and being continually moistened by the glands, it is easy to see that the necessary conditions would be fulfilled. No drawing of this organ is given and no such structure 1s found in the honey bee. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 GLANDS OF HEAD AND THORAX AS SEAT OF OLFACTORY ; ORGANS Ramdohr (1811) states that many species of insects, and among them the bee, have a well-marked sense of smell. He failed to find olfactory organs in the spiracles, but conceived the idea that odors come into the mouth through the lumen of the proboscis. He found behind the mouth a tube which is divided into three branches, the smallest of which runs along the cesophagus above the first thoracic ganglion and soon divides into two smaller tubes which pass into the thorax and seem to connect with the large tracheze coming from the first spiracle. The other two branches pass at right angles into the sides of the head, where they expand into four small sacs which differ from air tubes in having walls that are soft, thick and trans- parent. A thick tissue of the finest tracheze covers these various tubes. Ramdohr also mentioned nerves running to his supposedly olfactory organ. He was led to believe that air carrying odors passes through the lumen of the proboscis into these small sacs and, as their walls are soft and perforated with minute air tubules, that they act as an organ of smell. Referring to Snodgrass (1910) and judging from the foregoing description, Ramdohr probably mistook the thoracic salivary gland for the branch accompanying the cesophagus, and the salivary glands in the posterior part of the head for the other two branches. (ESOPHAGUS AS SEAT OF OLPACTORY ORGANS Treviranus (1816) infers that the smelling organs in various fami- lies of insects are located in the throat. In all the insects discussed the cesophagus is dilated, as in the bee, in front of the stomach into a large sac-like reservoir, which he thought is perhaps for the purpose of drawing air into the throat. He believed that in the presence of strong-smelling substances the antennz do not produce noticeable movements. He further stated that the olfactory apparatus of higher animals and the antennz and palpi of insects are as different in structure as organs can ever be. In order to smell, higher animals must inhale the odoriferous particles. On the contrary, the antenne and palpr do not conform with this general rule; in most insects these appendages are not coated with a mucous skin and the interior is carefully guarded against the entrance of odoriferous air. Tre- viranus therefore infers that the sac-like reservoir “ honey stomach ” in the bee, is for the purpose of drawing odorous air into the cesophagus. Fes) LO NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO N “INTERNAL SUPERIOR SURFACE” AS SEAT OF OLFACTORY ORGANS After discussing the various views concerning the location of the organs of smell, Burmeister (18360) concludes as follows: Thus insects, according to my opinion, would smell with the internal superior surface, if I may so call it, which is provided all over with ramifications and nets of nerves, since this is always kept moist by the blood distributed through the body and by transpired chyle, the same as is surmised of the superior Mol- lusca. l‘urther, the same authority wrote. Various authors consider the antenne as olfactory organs, but with what right? A hard, horny organ, displaying no nerve upon its surface, can not possibly be the instrument of smell, for we always find in the olfactory organ a soft, moist, mucous membrane, furnished with numerous nerves. What Burmeister means by “internal superior surface” is not clear. DIFFERENT PARTS AS SEAT OF QOLFACTORY ORGANS Schelver (1798), cited from Lacordaire (1838), and Comparetti (1800), according to Perris (1850), place the seat of smell in differ- ent parts for different families, as follows: The club of the antennz in lamellicorns, the proboscis in the Lepidoptera, and certain frontal cells, which have never been seen since by any one else, in the Orthoptera. FOLDED SKIN BENEATH ANTENN AS SEAT OF OLFACTORY ORGANS Rosenthal (1811), cited by Burmeister (1836), “described a folded skin at the forehead, beneath the antennz, to which two fine nerves passed, and which he considers the organ of smell in the flies Musca domestica and (Musca) Calliphora vomitoria; and he ob- served, after the destruction of the part, a deficiency of the function which had previously strongly exhibited itself.” The honey bee has no such structure as that described by Rosenthal. RHINARIUM AS SEAT OF OLFACTORY ORGANS Kirby and Spence (1826) regard the rhinarium as the location of the organs of smell. The rhinarium or nostril-piece is the foremost portion of the clypeus just above the labrum; it consists of circular pulpy cushions, covered by a membrane transversely marked with fine striz. These fleshy cushions, like the upper surface of the tongue, are beset with minute black tubercles carrying bristles. No such structure as the rhinarium exists in the bee. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 PLATE BETWEEN EYES AND BENEATH ANTENNZ AS SEAT OF OLFACTORY ORGANS Paasch (1873) claims that no nerves coming from the brain lead to the trachee and that the olfactory organ need not necessarily be connected with the breathing apparatus. He reasons that its location should correspond with that found in higher animals. He found a peculiar plate situated between the eyes and beneath the antennz and extending to the base of the proboscis. This plate possesses a groove whose edges are beset with stiff bristles, and many tracheal branches ; it also has nerve connections. This he regards as the olfactory organ. This plate does not exist in the honey bee. MOUTH, CAVITY AS SEAT -OF OLEACTORY, ORGANS After having cut off the antennz of some queen bees, Huber (1807) was rather inclined to regard these appendages as the olfac- tory organ, but later (1814) after many experiments he concluded that the organ of smell resides in the mouth itself or in the parts depending upon it. The following is a brief summary of his later work concerning the olfactory sense: Not only do bees have an acute sense of smell, but they possess the memory of sensations. For example, in the fall we placed some honey in a window and the bees came to it in great number. The honey was removed and the shutter of the window was closed all winter. The following spring, when we opened the shutter, bees returned to the same window, although there was then no honey at this place. They remembered that it had been there previously and an interval of several weeks had not effaced the ac- quired impression. Bees not eating appear more responsive to odors, while those eating honey are reluctant to move when odors are brought near them. To ascertain how different odors affect bees he used mineral acids and volatile alkalies presented on a pencil brush to the opening of the mouth; these did not affect them. Musk placed in front of the hives did not irritate the bees much. Assafcetida mixed with honey was put at the entrance of hives; the bees ate the honey and were not annoyed by this odor which is obnoxious to us. Bees are greatly affected by the odors from camphor and the poison from bee stings. To locate the region of the body in which the olfactory organ is found, Huber brought a pencil brush, which had been dipped into turpentine oil, near the abdomen, thorax and head. He saw a re- sponse only when it was in the region of the head and decided that the organ of smell is located only in the head. He next placed an ex- NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 9 tremely fine pencil brush wet with the same oil near the eyes, antenne, proboscis and mouth cavity. The only response observed was when the brush came near the mouth cavity. He obtained the same result, only more pronounced, when oil of origanum was used. The mouths of several bees were filled with flour paste and when this was dry they were released. Honey, turpentine and oil of cloves, either in fixed or volatile alkalies, did not produce any response. EEPPHARYNX AS’ SEAT OF OLFACTORY: ORGANS Wolff (1875) found many peculiar hairlike organs on the epi- pharynx of the honey bee; each organ consists of a small cone with a pit in the summit bearing a small hair. He regarded these cones as having an olfactory function and believed that the mandibular glands pour a liquid upon the surface of the epipharynx which keeps these cones moist and capable of absorbing odoriferous particles. He explained the inhalation of these particles into the preoral cavity as brought about through the contraction of the air sacs situated near the mouth. Harting (1879), in discussing Wolff’s olfactory organs, inferred that Wolff tried to homologize the epipharynx with the nose of higher animals whereas there is not the slightest reason for such an homology. To determine whether the mouth cavity and the epipharynx are the seat of the olfactory organs, the author repeated Huber’s experi- ment of filling the mouth cavity with flour paste. With the aid of a small pencil brush the mouth cavities of 20 worker bees were thus filled. When the paste had become perfectly dry, the bees were put into observation cases. They seemed otherwise entirely normal, but lived only 7% days as an average, whereas unmutilated workers in the same cases lived 9 days and 3 hours. When tested with the oils of peppermint, thyme and wintergreen, their average reaction time was 2.68 seconds. The average for the same odors with normal workers was 2.64 seconds. It would seem that neither the buccal cavity nor the epipharynx has anything to do with olfaction. PALPI AS SEAT OF OLFACTORY ORGANS Lyonnet (1745) thinks that the palpi should be considered as the organs of smell rather than those of taste. Bonnsdorf (1792) and Knoch (1798), according to Perris (1850), regarded the palpi as olfactory organs, but Knoch believes that the maxillary palpi only are for smell, while the labial palpi are for taste. IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 According to Marcel de Serres (1811), even if insects have their olfactory organs located at the entrance of the respiratory organs, the view that the palpi serve as organs of smell does not contradict the former view, because the palpi communicate both internally and externally with the air. This view resembles Duponchel’s theory (1840), except that the latter author considers the antennz of certain water insects as having a respiratory function. Duponchel thought that the antennze were provided with minute perforations through which the air passed. Newport (1838) performed many experiments with certain insects (Sylphe) and he concludes that they find their food by smell but he did not think that the olfactory organs are found either in the antennze or spiracles. He says: Hence, I think it must appear * * * from the motion of the palpi and the avidity with which the insect darted upon the food when held in front of it, it seems but fair to conclude that the sense of smelling must certainly reside in the head. We may include Newport with those who believe that the palpi are the seat of olfaction. Driesch (1839) favors the opinion that the seat of the olfactory organ is located in the palpzi. Perris (1850) found that after the amputation of the palpi insects showed none or only a very little sensibility to odors. In the articu- lates the sense of smell resides in the antennz and in the palpi; but the antennz are destined to perceive odors from both afar and near, while the palpi perceive odors from afar only. As far as the palpi are concerned he thinks that the seat-of smell lies in their last joint. Cornalia (1856) also shared this view. Plateau (1885) performed many experiments by cutting off the palpi. He ascertained that the amputation of both maxillary and labial palpi did not destroy the olfactory sense. Wasmann (1889) favors the view that the group of delicate peg- like papilla on the tips of the palpi probably function as olfactory organs. To ascertain whether the palpi of the honey bee bear the organs of smell, the author cut off the labial palpi and maxille of 19 workers at their bases. When put into observation cases these bees appeared normal in all other respects, but certainly were not completely normal, for they lived only 24 hours onan average. When tested with the oils of peppermint, thyme and wintergreen, honey and comb, pollen and leaves and stems of pennyroyal their average reaction time was 4 Lata NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO II seconds, whereas for the same odors with unmutilated bees the aver- age was 3.4 seconds. Since these appendages carry several porelike organs, we may either attribute the 0.6 second difference in reaction time to the view that these appendages really aid in receiving odor stimuli, or to the injury caused by the operation, or to both of these views combined. Breithaupt (1886) describes some porelike sense organs on the base of the proboscis of the bee. To determine whether these have an olfactory use, the author cut off the proboscides of 22 workers. These bees seemed normal in most respects, but lived only 7 hours on an average. When tested with the oils of peppermint, thyme and wintergreen the average reaction time was 2.9 seconds, while for the same odors with unmutilated bees the average was 2.6 seconds. We can probably attribute this difference of 0.3 second to the abnormality of the mutilated bees. Janet (1911) describes a sense organ in the mandible of the honey bee which he thinks may have an olfactory function. To ascertain this experimentally, the mandibles of 20 workers were amputated close to the base by the author. These bees appeared completely normal, although they lived only 7 days on an average. When tested with the oils of peppermint, thyme and wintergreen, honey and comb, pollen, and leaves and stems of pennyroyal, they gave an average reaction time of 4.8 seconds, while the average for the same odors with unmutilated bees was 3.4 seconds. We may attribute this slight difference in reaction time either to the injury caused by the amputa- tion, or to the view that the mandibles help to perceive odors, or to both. ANTENNZ AS SEAT OF OLFACTORY ORGANS (1) WITHOUT EXPERIMENTS Reaumur (1734) was the first to suggest that the olfactory organs of insects lie in their antenne. Lesser (1745) says that the sense of smell of some insects is more acute than that of man. He gives as two proofs of this, (1) that they find their food with this sense, (2) that they scent food farther than man does. He says that the antennz are “noses” and that they enable their owners to smell odors near or far away. Baster (1770) remarks that no one doubts that insects can smell, for flies, purely through ol faction, find their way to tainted meat. He also states that water insects can smell. Baster states that no insects, whether living in the air, under water, or in the earth, have the seat of smell in the antenne. 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Sulzer (1776) contends that insects have an acute sense of smell and spoke of bees coming for honey when it is placed in a spoon under a window. He believes that the olfactory apparatus is located in the antenne. : Fabricius (1778) infers that the seat of smell belongs to the antenne. Bonnet (1781) asserts that diverse insects have the sense of smell exquisitely developed, but that we do not know where the seat of this sense lies. He suggests the antennz as a possible location. In discussing the probable uses of the antenne, Olivier (1789) re- garded them as olfactory in function. Latreille (1804) regards the fact that many male insects have the antenne better developed than the females of the same species as evidence that these appendages are the seat of olfaction. The greater number of insects that live in animal matter, in decayed vegetables, or in stagnant water generally have the antennz better developed than those that live elsewhere. A more perfect olfaction would be neces- sary to these insects, and the organization of the antenne seems to be adapted for this purpose. After discussing Marsham’s account of ichneumon flies, Samouelle (1819) states, “From these remarks may we not infer that the antennze may be the organ of smelling? ”’. De Blainville (1822) and Robineau-Desvoidy (1828), cited from Perris (1850), state that the antennz are olfactory organs. After briefly discussing the various views concerning the seat of olfaction, Carus (1838) confesses that the opinion of Rosenthal, combined with that of Reaumur, appears to him to be the best. Hence he believes that the seat of olfaction lies in the folded skin beneath the antennz as well as on the surface of the antenne. Since the antennze of the male are often better developed than those of the female, Percheron (1841) states that the antenne of the male aid the eyes in searching for the female. He infers that the antennz are used for smelling. Goureau (1841) thinks that the antennze may be organs of olfac- tion besides being organs of touch and hearing. Pierret (i841) also favors the view that the seat of olfaction lies in the antenne. Robineau-Desvoidy (1842) speaks of an olfactory apparatus as nothing less than an ordinary organ of touch which is capable of receiving invisible stimuli. By analogy he thinks that the antennze must be the organs of smell. NO. Q OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 13 Slater (1848) firmly believes that the antennz are olfactory organs. He says that the antennze seem to be the real organs for this sense or for a sense closely allied to it. According to Dufour (1850) both the organs of audition and olfac- tion are found on the antenne. The distal joints, which have a spongy texture, are the ones that bear the sense of smell, for here the odoriferous atoms can fall upon this special texture and the impulse can be transmitted to the cerebral ganglion. Claparede (1858) asserts that absolutely nothing warrants us in locating in the antennz the sense of hearing rather than that of olfaction or any other function, but he favors the view that the organs of smell are there. Donhoff (1861) from various experiments contends that bees learn the location of honey and of the queen through the antenne. He placed a stick near the antennz of a bee and these appendages re- mained quiet. When a stick wet with honey was similarly placed, the bee at once extended these appendages in the direction of the stick. When one places a foul-smelling substance like tobacco juice. near the antenne, the bee moves away. When one places a stick wet with honey or tobacco juice near a bee with amputated antennz the insect shows no response of any kind. He thinks that the olfactory organ was removed by cutting off the tip of the antennz. Noll (1869) asserts that butterflies have a fine sense of smell as shown by the way in which they find prepared food when placed in a box covered with screen wire and having only a slit through which these insects may enter. This is shown by the way in which the males are able to find the females. He regards the antennz as the olfactory organs, at least for the male. Wonfor (1874) says: That it is the sense of smell which directs the blow-fly to the deposition of the larve is shown by the fact that she has laid them on stapelias, a carrion- odoured hothouse plant, and on silk with which tainted meat had been covered. Notwithstanding the view of Hicks he considers one of the functions of the antenne as that of smell. Fabre (1882) remarks that it is incontestable that insects have a very highly developed sense of smell. Carrion beetles run from all sides to the place where a dead mole lies. [f we admit that the seat of smell lies in the antennz he contends that it is difficult to compre- hend how such an appendage of hard chitinous rings, articulated end to end, is able to fulfill the office of a nose. The organization of a true nose and that of the antennz have nothing in common. Henneguy (1904) state that the organ of olfaction is probably located in the antennz and the buccal palpi. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 (2) WITH EXPERIMENTS Dugés (1838) was the first to experiment with the antenne of insects. He cut off the antenne of two male (Bombyx) Eudia pavonia minor and then these insects were unable to find a female that they had preyiously been able to locate while their antennze were intact. Also, after having extirpated the antennz of many blow-flies, (Musca) (Calliphora vomitoria), and a large viviparous fly, Sarcoph- aga carnaria, he ascertained that they were unable to find putrid meat as before. He felt satisfied that olfaction resides in the antenne. Lefebvre (1838) was the first observer to experiment with a bee. He placed a long needle, whose end had been plunged into ether, near a piece of sugar which a bee was eating. The bee moved its antenne towards the needle and then passed them several times between the legs. He brought this needle near the legs and spiracles, and since he noticed no response from these parts, he concluded that the anten- ne are olfactory organs. Asa control he used a needle without ether in the same manner. Next he mutilated the antennz of several wasps (Vespa). All their organs for perceiving odor stimuli seemed to be at the extremity of these appendages. Kkuster (1844) declares that bees have a very acute sense of smell. He reports some that found a store of honey ; even a week after they had carried away all the honey they still continued to come to the same place in search of more food. Since vertebrates carry their olfactory organs on the front of their head, under and between the eyes, he tried by analogy to locate the corresponding organs of the bee on the antenne. Perris (1850) repeated Dugés’ experiment by holding many speci- mens of different families and genera over the mouths of vials con- taining alcohol, turpentine, or ether. At times he obtained the same results as did Dugés, at other times none at all, using. the same indi- viduals after intervals of one-half hour ; but more often the antennz or palpi exhibited more or less violent movement. He also repeated the experiments of Huber on various insects by stopping up their buccal cavities with wax, paste and gum. When they were set free he did not notice any signs of inconvenience. By such experiments he failed to locate the seat of the organs of smell in or near the mouth as Huber did. After having placed a brush dipped in turpentine, ether or wild thyme near the spiracles he concluded that odor-stimuli are not received by the respiratory apparatus. In his summary Perris says: (1) By amputating the extremity of the antenne the olfactory sense is not destroyed but it is weakened, NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO I cm and by cutting them off at the base the sense of smell is totally or par- tially destroyed; (2) covering the antenne with a layer of india rubber renders these organs insensitive ; (3) sometimes a little sensi- bility is shown when the palpi are amputated. Thus in the articulates the organs of smell reside in the antenna and in the palpi, but the antennze recognize odors from afar and from near by, while the palpi recognize only distant odors. In the plumose, flabellate or pectinate antenne olfactory organs are present in all the branched parts. In the simple and setaceous or filiform antenne the organs of smell are principally in the last joints and diminish toward the base. In antenne terminated with a club the organs of smell are exclusively in the club. He believes that the organs of smell are present in the last joint of the palpi. Cornalia (1856) says that the manner in which insects move the antennz shows that these appendages serve for searching when the odor is scattered. He observed a male Bombyx mori that was trying to enter a small box in which a female was enclosed. After he had cut off the antenne of this male-it approached the box with uncer- tainty and sometimes did not go to the box at all. The same result was obtained by covering the antennz. His view is similar to that of Perris in that the seat of olfaction lies in both the antennz and palpi. Garnier (1860) is certain that articulated animals perceive odors. Bees that go foraging for a long distance quickly recognize their hives without the aid of their acute vision. An organ of olfaction, wherever one may observe it, is an expansion of very fine skin, abund- antly supplied with vessels and nerves, and moistened with a viscid fluid which permits the intimate contact of the odor. He does not state where the olfactory apparatus lies in insects, but he denies that the antenne performs such a function, because when the knobs of the antennze or the entire antennze of individuals of the Genus Necroph- agus were detached, the insects returned immediately to the body of a mole from which they had been temporarily removed. Balbiani (1866) put unmutilated female butterflies in one box and in a second box he placed males of the same species. Some of the latter had their antennz cut off. As soon as the box containing the females was placed under that of the males, the unmutilated males moved their antennze, vibrated their wings and quickly moved their legs, while the mutilated ones remained perfectly quiet. In this ex- periment he says that sight and hearing were excluded and thinks that olfaction brought about by the antenne is entirely responsible for these responses of the males. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Forel (1874, 1885) says that myricids (ants) appear to have the sense of touch highly developed in the antennz, while in the antennz of Tapinoma (ants) the sense of smell is better developed. If indi- viduals of either genus are deprived of their antennze they cannot guide themselves and are not able to distinguish companions from enemies or even to discover food placed at their sides. While de- prived of the anterior part of the head and of the entire abdomen they preserve all their faculties. The same author (1878a) claims that the moving-back and forth of the wings enables insects to scent certain substances by meanis of their antennz. Olfaction may cause certain flying insects to proceed in a given direction. Forel (1878b) used three wasps that had previously fasted. The first was left intact, both antennz of the second were cut off, and the anterior part of the head up to the compound eyes of the third was cut off. After a short rest a needle dipped in honey was brought near the first insect. It at once directed both antennz toward the needle with rapid: movements and followed the needle when it was slowly moved away. Exactly the same thing took place in the wasp with the anterior part of the head cut off, and thus with the nerve endings of the mouth, the pharynx, and Wolff’s olfactory organs lacking. It was quite different with the one with the removed antenne. It re- mained near the needle motionless, did not react to honey at all, and did not follow the needle. Forel (1908, p. 92) cites some of his experiments performed in 1878. He found the putrid bodies of a hedgehog and-a rat infested by a swarm of carrion-feeding beetles belonging to several genera. He collected more than 40 specimens from the carcasses and removed their antenne. Then he placed them all at one place in the grass and moved the dead bodies a distance of 28 paces from the beetles and concealed them in a tangle of weeds. Examination the next day re- vealed the fact that not one of the mutilated beetles had found the carcasses, and repeated experiments gave the same results. No beetle without its antennze was ever found on the dead animals, although at each examination new individuals of the several species were present. On the supposition that the mutilation itself might make the beetles abnormal to such an extent that they did not care to eat, Forel next cut off all the feet on one side of the body from a dozen beetles with their antenne intact and changed the location of the dead bodies again. The next day five of this lot were found on the carcasses. Trouvelot (1877) performed various experiments on the antennz of many butterflies, several promethea silkworm moths, and some NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 17 ants. From these experiments he concludes that the antennz are the organs of smell, but he thinks that the sense of smell in insects is very different from that sense in the human species. He regards it as a kind of feeling or smelling at a great distance by some process now entirely unknown. Layard (1878) relates the experiments of a certain French natural- ist who immersed a long-snouted weevil in wax so that it was covered all over except the tip of the antennz. When tested with oil of turpentine it became violently excited and endeavored to escape. Another had only the tips of its antennz coated with wax, and neither turpentine nor any other strong-smelling substance affected it. From this he infers that the organ of smell is present in the tips of the antennz of weevils. Slater (1878) says: That wasps have an acute scent and seek their prey or their food by its means, will be generally admitted * * *. When a wasp is flying it keeps its antenne advanced and extended, so as to be in the most favourable position for receiv- ing an impression from odoriferous substances. Chatin (1880) states that when one brings a needle wet with ether, creosote, essence of wild thyme, or clove oil near the head of a bee it moves its antenne, vibrates them vigorously, and directs them away from the odorous substance; if one repeats the same experiments near the spiracles no such movements are manifested. Also, when the antennz are cut off no responses occur. Lubbock (1882) experimented with a large female ant. He placed a feather of a pen almost against the antennz of this ant without it moving in the least. Next he dipped the pen in essence of musk and repeated the experiment. The antennz were at once retracted. With a second ant he used essence of lavender and observed the same results. Many more of his experiments indicate that ants have a highly developed sense of smell. Porter (1883) experimented on a butterfly with a piece of gum camphor on the end of a broom straw. He says: Whenever I put the camphor end near to its head and mouth parts, it would begin to struggle with all its might to get away from the fumes of the camphor; thus showing not only that it disliked the smell of camphor, but also that it did not smell with its antenne. After experiments have shown the same thing of other insects. This butterfly was affected little, if at all, by the extirpation of its antennze while some humble bees become very sick after the loss of their antennz ; they, however, recovered after awhile. Some other humble bees are not affected at all by such an operation. 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 = oO Graber (1885) severely criticizes the view that the antennz are the seat of the olfactory sense. He experimented on many species with various odors, and makes the following claims: (1) Ants (Formica rufa) and flies (Lucilia caesar L.) without antennez still possess the sense of smell; this fact shows that the perception of odors is not accomplished by the antennz alone. (2) In Silpha thoracica deprived of antennz, the odor of the essence of rosemary is mani- festly perceived, while assafcetida does not affect the insects at all. Thus the antennz are those parts of the body which are most sensible to odors. (3) From the comparative experiments on the excitability of the antenne, the palpi, and the cerci (caudal styles) in Gryllotalpa eryllotalpa L. (vulgaris), the palpi are more sensible to odors than the antenne. (4) The palpi of Lucanus are sometimes the most easily excited, at other times the antennz, according to the odors employed. From similar experiments on Periplaneta, some intact, others several days after they were operated on, it seems that the reception of odor stimuli is accomplished by the cerci. Graber is inclined to the view that insects do not have any special olfactory organ, and that when the odoriferous emanations are intense they may be perceived by the surfaces of the body that are covered with thin chitin and provided with terminal excitable nerves. Plateau (1886) used four Blatta (cockroaches), two with their maxillary and labial palpi cut off and their antennz left intact and the other two with the antennz cut off and the palpi left intact. These four insects were put into a large circular dish 8 inches in diameter. This vessel contained a bed of fine sand and in the center there was a round pasteboard box 2 inches in diameter and 2 inches high. Food was put into this box, and these insects were observed each day for a month. Each day he saw one or two Blatta eating the food, and in every instance these were the insects with unmutilated antenne, and he concluded that the antennz are the olfactory organs in Blatta. Graber (1887) repeated Plateau’s experiments by using many cock- roaches and declares that it is sufficiently proved that cockroaches deprived of their antenne smell little or none at all, and that the antennz in these insects actually function as olfactory organs. He also says that for cockroaches (and some other insects) it is shown that the olfactory sense lies in the antennz but this is not the case in all insects. Dubois (1895) touched the scent glands situated at the tip end of the abdomen of a female moth with a glass rod and then brought this rod, which had no odor perceptible to him, near a male of the same NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 19 species that had its antennze cut off. The male at once vibrated its wings and started toward the rod. Fielde (1t901a), who has made a special study of ants, claims in her various papers that ants have a keen sense of smell. The same author (190Ib) asserts that, The power of perceiving the individual track lies in the tenth segment of the antenne. When deprived of this segment the ant is no longer able to find her way in with the pup, but wanders about helpless and bewildered. Ants deprived of nearly all of the eleventh and twelfth segments continued to carry the pupz through the runs of the maze, though with diminished physical vigor. The ant could pick up her scent so long as a tenth segment was intact, and no longer. Miss Fielde clipped the antennze with sharp scissors and 15 days after the operation about 40 per cent of the ants recovered from the effect of the shock. Before their recovery the ants were listless and abnormally irritable; and they attacked with self-destructive violence any moving thing that touched them. One antenne performs all the functions of a pair. * * * Every Stenamma fulvum piceum has an odor manifest in all parts of her animate body, and discerned by herself and by other ants through the eleventh seg- ment of the antenne. The commingled odors of all the ants in the nest constitute what she calls the “ aura ” of the nest. It is diffused in air or ether from the animate occupants of the nest, and it is discerned by the ant through the twelfth, the distal, segment of the antenne. When deprived of the distal segment the ants were not alarmed when introduced into the nest of aliens; they did not flee, nor did they endeavor to hide; thus their behavior is strikingly different from that of unmutilated ants. Also she found (1907) that queens de- prived of their antennz did not behave normally. So long as the eighth and ninth segments of the antennz are uninjured, the ant may continue to lift and care for the eggs, larve, or pup, but after the removal of these segments she loses all interest in the young and performs no further work in the nursery. * * * Marked ants of two hostile colonies, when clipped across the tenth segments, associated freely and amicably with one another during several days in the care of the pupe belonging to one of the two colonies. A paper by the same author (1903a) summarizes the foregoing and adds observations on some of the segments not heretofore mentioned. The following perceive these particular odors: The eleventh or distal segment, the nest odor; the tenth, the colony odor; the ninth, the - individual track ; the eighth and seventh, the inert young; the sixth 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 and fifth, the odor of enemies. Miss Fielde (1903b) claims that feuds between the same species living in different communities are caused by a difference of odor. Also, (1904) fear and hostility are excited by a strange ant odor. She (1905) decides that ants have a specific and progressive odor; the former is received by organs near the proximal end of the funiculus, while the latter is received among ants by organs in the penultimate joint of the funiculus. Piéron (1906), basing his conclusion on the interpretations of Fielde and others, remarks that recognition in ants by odor is well established, and that sections of the antenne have shown that the organs of smell are those of recognition. Wheeler (1910) believes that the olfactory organs of ants are located in the antennz, but he refutes Miss Fielde’s theory that each segment of the antenna perceives a particular odor. He asserts: She says: “The organ discerning the nest-aura, and probably other local odors, lies in the final joint of the antenna, and such odors are discerned through the air; the progressive odor or the incurred odor is discerned by contact, through the penultimate joint; the scent of the track by the ante- penultimate joint, through the air; the odor of the inert young, and probably that of the queen also, by contact, through the two joints above, or proximal to those last mentioned, while the next abuve these also discerns the specific odor by contact.” This statement not only lacks confirmation by other observers, but seems to be the only one which implies that the olfactory organs of an animal may exhibit regional differentiations. This has not even been claimed for dogs, which nevertheless possess extremely delicate powers of odor discrimination and association. This would be no serious objection, however, if we were able to discover the slightest support for Miss Fielde’s hypothesis in the struc- ture of the antennz. We do, indeed, find in the funiculi a variety of sensille, as has been shown in Chapter IV, but none of these is confined to a single joint or to two joints. Miss Fielde, moreover, completely ignores the tactile organs - of the antenne and makes this surprising statement : “During five years of fairly constant study of ants I have seen no evidence that their antennz are the organs of any other sense than the chemical sense.” Many of her interpretations of the behavior of ants with mutilated antennz are open to the obvious objection that she tacitly denies the existence of per- ception where there is no visible response or where the animal inhibits certain of its activities. If we add to this objection the very limitations of the method, i. e., the necessity of removing all the joints distal to the one whose function is being tested, and the consideration that the hypothesis is not needed to explain the facts, it will be seen that we are not sufficiently justified in re- garding the ants’ antenna as an organ made up of a series of specialized “noses.” Barrows (1907) says: I have found that Drosophila ampelophila (the vinegar fly) has a large saclike pit, which contains sense cones, situated in the end of the terminal (third) segment of the antenne. citi Pes sar NO. Q OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS McINDOO 21 Gum on the antennz did not prove satisfactory for abolishing sense of odors, nor could they be burnt off without considerable injury to the fly. He etherized some flies and cut the joint off with fine scissors and declares that the ether did not affect the results of the experi- ments with odors. It, therefore, seems certain that the sense of smell is absent, or at least greatly reduced in flies that have lost the terminal joints of the antenne. He thinks that these flies when normal find their food wholly by smell. When one antenna is lost and the other antenna is stimulated by food odor, circus movements are carried out in. such a way as to prove that the fly orients normally by an unequal stimulation on the antenne. Kellogg (1907) informs us that the female silkworm moth pro- trudes a paired scent organ from the hindmost abdominal segment. A male moth with antennz intact and with eyes blackened finds a female immediately and with just as much precision as when his eyes are not blackened. A male with the antennz extirpated and eyes not blackened does not find the female unless by accident. Males with antennz intact become greatly excited when a female is brought within several inches of them. If the excised scent glands are laid near the female from which they were taken, the males always neglect the near-by live female and go directly to the scent glands and try to copulate with them. A male with its left antenna removed, when within 3 or 4 inches of a female with protruded scent glands, becomes greatly excited and moves in circles around her to the right. A male with right antenne off circles to the left. Sherman (1909) discusses the sense of smell in insects without even giving any references or without performing any experiments. He says: “ The organs of smell are the antenne.’” Insects that feed upon decaying matter find their food almost entirely by smell. When their antenne are removed they are unable to find their food even though it is quite near and in full view. ‘‘ This indicates that the sense of sight is defective and that of smell very acute.” To ascertain if the antennz of honey bees, ants and hornets carry the olfactory organs, the author performed the following experi- ments. Worker bees with one antenna pulled off are much less pug- nacious than are those with the antennz intact, and they “ pay less attention ” to each other. They appear otherwise normal, except that their ability to communicate is considerably decreased. In observa- tion cases they live only 634 days while workers with unmutilated antenne live 9% days under the same conditions. When tested with the three essential oils—peppermint, thyme and wintergreen— ZZ, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 their reaction time was 4.6 seconds, which is exactly double the reaction time when workers with unmutilated antennz are used. Bees with one antenna pulled off and with 2 to 8 joints of the other one cut off never “‘ pay any attention ” to each other and very seldom are seen fighting, but are just as apt to fight a hive-mate as a stranger. The greater the number of joints severed, the less number of days they live and the more abnormal are they. On an average they live only 5 days and 11 hours. When tested with the three essential oils the following reaction times were obtained: : Seconds Seconds 2 joints missing.... 15 6 joints missing.... 27 do) ts rf De ee Ad Ti Mics So ay ee OS ic ten es Shee sO Sree e ae OS Bees with both antennz pulled off live only 19 hours in observation cases and are completely abnormal in behavior. They always fail to respond to odors. When both antennz are cut off at the bases, the bees live only 2 hours. They are also entirely abnormal and fail to respond to odors. Bees with their antennee covered with either shellac or celloidin do not live long and are quite abnormal. Bees with the antenne cov- ered with vaseline soon remove this substance and then behave normally again. Bees having the antennz covered with liquid glue are abnormal until they remove the glue with their antenna cleaners. To prevent this removal the tarsi of the front legs including the antenna cleaners were burnt off with a red-hot needle. One-fourth of the bees so mutilated died within 12 hours, but the remainder appeared quite normal in every other way. On the second day the entire flagellum of each antenna was covered with liquid glue. These workers were quite abnormal and most of them did not live long. However, after gluing the flagella of many bees, 21 were finally obtained that were fairly normal and their reaction time to the three essential oils was 2.9 seconds, while the reaction time of the same odors for unmutilated bees was 2.6 seconds. These 21 workers lived only 24 hours on an average. The odor from the glue did not affect these results. Both antennz of 95 workers were burnt off with a red-hot needle. These workers were quite abnormal and lived only 17 hours. Seven of them recovered sufficiently from the operation to respond to odors ; while the others failed to respond. The reaction time of the 7 workers used to the three essential oils was 4 seconds. Since the effect of the shock caused by mutilating the antennze may have produced the abnormality in all the bees experimented with, 30 workers were immersed in water for 15 minutes. When removed NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 23 they appeared entirely lifeless and the antennz were pulled off at once. They revived and lived thereafter only 19 hours. When tested with odors they failed to respond and like all the other bees made completely abnormal, they scarcely moved when touched with a pencil. Since bees whose antennz are mutilated after they become adults are abnormal, the antennz of 400 worker pupz were cut off. Several days later these workers emerged normally from their cells, but lived thereafter only 5 days. The funiculi of 12 workers of Formica were cut off. These ants were then returned to a Fielde nest. They were slightly hostile to each other and to their unmutilated sisters. They failed to eat food and to catch flies, but their unmutilated sisters continually ate food and soon caught flies. The funiculi of 50 more workers of Formica were cut off. When returned to their cage, these ants were quite irritable and invariably attacked one another, and as a result several were killed. The funiculi of 2 soldiers, ro large workers and 7 small workers of Camponotus were cut off. When returned to their nest these ants attacked one another for three hours, then they became very inactive and responded to odors only slowly. The next day they were still quite inactive and “ paid no attention ” to anything, except when they came in contact with each other, they still fought one another. When tested with odors they failed to respond. At no time did they eat or drink. The funiculi of 30 winged virgin temales of Formica were cut off. When placed in experimental cases they were quite abnormal. Five of them failed to respond to odors and scarcely moved when touched with a pencil. These ants were discarded from the experiments. When tested with the three essential oils, the other 25 gave a reaction time of 4.38 seconds, while the reaction time for unmutilated sister females was 2.12 seconds. Confined in a Fielde nest, these mutilated ants lived only 19 hours. The funiculi of 30 winged virgin females of Formica were covered with liquid glue. These ants were completely abnormal and five of them failed to respond to odors. When tested with the three essen- tial oils the other 25 gave a reaction time of 5.78 seconds. They lived 6 days on an average. The flagella of 25 Vespula maculata were cut off. In behavior these mutilated hornets were abnormal and lived only 1 day and 13 hours in observation cases. When tested with the three essential oils some of them responded promptly; some responded slowly, and a few failed to respond at all. All of those which failed to respond to 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 odors scarcely moved when touched with a pencil. These were dis- carded and the flagella of the others were cut off. The 25 used in these experiments gave a reaction time of 3.09 seconds which is 0.66 second greater than the same reaction time for normal hornets. In conclusion under this head it is seen that about four-fifths of the writers cited advocate the view that the antenne are the seat of the organs of olfaction. Most of these observers have not said whether the mutilated insects that they used were normal. The inac- tivity or state of rest of many of these speciments indicates abnor- mality. In regard to Miss Fielde’s ants, only 40 per cent recovered from the effect of the shock and in all probability all of these were more or less abnormal. When the antennz of ants, hornets and bees are mutilated in the slightest degree, as ascertained by the author, the insects are more or less abnormal. The results obtained by using any insect with mutilated antennz are, therefore, in all probability more or less erroneous. Judging from the author’s experiments there is no reason to assume the presence of the olfactory organs in the antennz, because the differences in reaction times between the reac- tion times of the mutilated insects and those of unmutilated ones may be attributed to the abnormality of the insects which is probably always caused by the operations. At most it can be claimed only that the antennz may assist in the receiving of odor stimuli. Since the organs in the antennz of ants, hornets and bees,.and probably all insects, fail to receive most, if not all, odor stimuli, the true olfactory organs must be looked for elsewhere. VARIOUS STRUCTURES ON THE ANTENNZ AS OLFACTORY ORGANS Before entering into a discussion of the antennal organs of insects, a brief description illustrated with drawings of the antennz of the honey bee and their organs will first be given. The antenna of the bee consists of two portions: the proximal part, called the scape, and the distal portion, the flagellum. Each portion is more or less cylindrical in shape. The scape consists of a single long, slender joint, while the flagellum consists of 11 short joints in the wofker and queen and of 12 in the drone. When an antenna is examined under the microscope with a strong transmitted light its surface is seen to be covered with small bright spots and also various kinds of hairs. In order not to overlook any of these peculiar structures, several pairs of these appendages from young bees just emerged from their cells were removed and perma- Ne ee NO. Q OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—-McINDOO 25 Fic. Antennal organs of the honey bee copied from Schenk. A, an antennal joint of a drone, showing a few of the many pore plates (PorPl) and a group of Forel’s flasks (# Fl), x 150; B, pore plates and Forel’s flasks from a drone’s antenna, x 600; C, pore plates (PorPl), pegs (Pg), and tactile hairs (7 Hr) from a worker’s antenna, X 600; D, internal anatomy of a pore plate and of a tactile hair; E, the same of a peg; F, the same-of a tactile hair ; G, the same of a Forel’s flask; H, the internal anatomy of a pit peg. D-H, x 600. 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 nently mounted. In these antennz there is no dark pigment to obscure any of the antennal organs. To illustrate these various structures modified copies of Schenk’s drawings (1903) are given (fig. 1). Figure 1, A, shows the small bright spots (PorPl) on the drone antenna magnified 150 times. This drawing also shows still smaller bright spots (FF) which are difficult to find. Formerly the larger bright spots were termed “ pits” but later they were called “ pore plates,” “ pore canals,” and “ sensilla placodea,” while the smaller spots bear the names “ Forel’s flasks”” and “ sensilla ampullacea.” In this discussion the former will be known as pore plates and the latter as Forel’s fasks. Figure 1, B, represents these organs of the drone bee enlarged 600 diameters. Figure 1, C, shows the pore plates (PorPl) and two kinds of hairs from the antenna of a worker, en- larged 600 diameters. The stouter of these hairs (Pg) bear the names, “ pegs,” “ clubs,’ and “sensilla basiconica,’ and the more slender ones (THr) “ hairlike structures ”’ and “ sensilla trichodea.” In this discussion the stout hairs are designated pegs and the slender ones tactile hairs. A fifth antennal organ whose external opening is not drawn by Schenk has the same superficial appear- ance as Forel’s flasks and probably cannot be distinguished from them externally. These structures have been termed “ pit pegs,” “ champagne-cork organs,” and “sensilla cceloconica.” They are here designated pit pegs. Figure 1, D-H, show the internal anatomy of the five antennal sense organs. Figure 1, D, shows the structure of a pore plate and of atactile hair. The chitin (Ch) is solid black, the sense fibers (SF ) and sense cell ganglion (SCG) are represented by fine broken lines. Since the sense fibers in Schenk’s drawing are defective and are not attached to the plate (Pl) as the writer has observed them many times in his sections, and as Schenk represents them in Vespa, they are here drawn as they really exist. The plate is a hard and compara- tively thick chitinous disc completely covering the pore canal (PorCl). However, at its margin there is a deep groove (Gv) entirely sur- rounding the plate. To stimulate the sense fibers attached to the plate the odors must first pass through this hard chitinous plate. Figure 1, E, shows a peg with its sense fibers running half-way to the tip of the hair. At its base the chitin is relatively thick while at the tip itis thin. If this structure is an olfactory organ, the odors must first pass through the thin chitin at the tip of the peg to stimulate the sense fibers. Figure 1, F, is a tactile hair. Figure 1, G and H, represent a Forel’s flask and a pit peg respectively. Both of these NO. Q OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 27 are nothing less than hairs inside of pits, and the only difference between them is the shape of the flask. If they are olfactory organs, odors must enter the small apertures and pass through the thin chitin at the tip of the hairs inside the pits, to stimulate the sense fibers. In drones, the antennal organs are found on only the distal nine joints of the flagellum and in workers and in queens on the distal eight joints. According to Schenk, the pore plates are present on all of these joints, and while they are abundant on both the dorsal and ventral sides of the male antenne, in the female antennz nearly all of them occur on the dorsal side. On both antennz of a male there are about 31,000 and on those of a female only about 4,000; however, those of the female are considerably larger. Pegs are entirely absent from the drone antennz, while they are abundant on those of workers and of queens. Asa rule they are at the distal end of the joint on the dorsal side. The male antenne are always devoid of tactile hairs whereas those of the female have many. Forel’s flasks and pit pegs are moderately numerous in both sexes, but slightly less abundant in the female antenne. Some of these antennal organs, or at least modifications of them are present in the antennz of all species of insects with probably one or two exceptions. In butterflies and moths pore plates are entirely absent and pegs are almost wanting. However, the place of the pegs seems to be taken by end rods, which are very similar in structure but are more club-shaped. Butterflies and moths also have bristle- like tactile hairs. Pore plates, pegs, Forel’s flasks, pit pegs and end rods have all been considered as olfactory organs by various authors, who, in trying to prove their views, assert that odors can pass through the hard chitin of these organs so that the nerve fibers inside may be stimulated. While these authors declare that this is possible in insects, they ac- knowledge that it would be impossible in the higher animals. Erichson (1847), according to Hicks (1859c), first observed the pore plates and hairs on the antennz of insects. He considered the pore plates as olfactory organs for two reasons: (1) He thought that the numerous hairs on the antennz protect and keep these plates moist, so that odors can pass through them, and (2) they are more numerous in those insects whose smell is acute. Burmeister (1848) describes the pits found on the antenne of lamellicorn beetles. These are a variety of the pit pegs, and he at- tributes an olfactory function to them. Vogt (1851), according to Wonfor (1874), discovered that the antennz are covered with minute pores which are apparently filled 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 with fine hairs. He thinks that these structures perform a function combining those of smell and touch. Bergmann and Leuckart (1852) say that when one brings a drop of ether on the tip of a needle near the head of an insect it moves and strokes its antenne. They speak of many pits on the antenne ; from the base of these pits arise small papilla which they regard as olfactory organs. Leydig (1860, 1886) made a thorough investigation of the pore plates discovered by Erichson. He found these pore plates not only in the antennz of most insects but also discovered that they are modi- fied into peculiar, peglike organs in the remaining insects, and in the crustaceans and myriapods. Leydig regarded these organs of ques- tionable function as olfactory. In 1860 he thought that the palpi have a function similar to that of the antenne. Lespés (1858) compares the pore plates to the ears of higher ani- mals and denies their olfactory office. Hicks (1859b and c) thinks that the pore plates are cavities filled with fluid, closed in from the outer air by a delicate membrane to which a nerve is attached. He regards the pore plates as auditory organs and says: If we assign an olfactory function to these organs, one difficulty presents itself, viz: that for the odorous particles to affect the nerve they must reach it through a membrane and a stratum of fluid. Landois (1868) experimented with the stag beetle (Lucanus cervus). He does not doubt that this beetle can smell, for if exposed to the fumes of sulphuric acid, or ammonia or to tobacco smoke it ‘draws in its antennz quickly. If the ends of the antennz are removed it still draws in the remainder of these appendages with the same rapidity as when the antennz are intact. He found two kinds of sense hairs on the antennz of this insect and pits filled with small hairs. He thinks, however, that olfaction is performed by none of these organs. Grimm (1869) describes three kinds of hairs and a pitlike organ on the antennz of beetles but does not regard any of these as an olfactory apparatus. He put a beetle with entire antenne into a box which had a glass cover and an opening at the bottom covered with thin cloth. After this beetle had become quiet he put a piece of dung to the opening. The beetle at once came to the opening and tried to tear the cloth. Later he cut off its antenne and repeated the experi- ment, and the beetle came to the opening as before. By repeating these experiments many times he concluded that the antenne of t Doman Nm ie NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 29 beetles do not function as smelling organs. Also he infers, like Leydig, that there may be some olfactory rods or pegs on the palpi of this beetle. Gegenbaur (1870) briefly discusses the antennal organs described by Erichson, Burmeister and Leydig but fails to express his own opinion concerning their function. Lowne (1870) believes that the olfactory apparatus of the blow- fly is located in the third antennal joint. This joint is remarkably dilated and is covered with minute openings which communicate with little sacs in the interior. Miller (1871) found stiff hairs and pore plates on the flagella of the antenne of a female bee, but only pore plates on those of the male bee. He thinks that the pore plates are olfactory organs and that male bees have a better olfactory sense than the females for the following reasons: (1) A male bee has one more joint in the flagel- lum; (2) all of these joints are longer, and (3) wider, and (4) the pore plates are so close together that they crowd out the stiff hairs. Claus (1872) thinks that many insects have a well developed olfac- tory sense and that the surface of the antennz is the seat of the sense of smell, basing this conclusion upon the work of Erichson and that of Leydig. Chadima (1873), after examining the hairlike structures on the antenne and palpi of crustaceans, insects and myriapods, which Leydig (1860) regarded as most probably olfactory organs, says that the smelling organs of arthropods have not yet been found. He states that none of these hairs is perforated at its tip. He thinks investiga- tors will have more success in solving this problem if they look on the olfactory sense as being connected with the breathing apparatus. Forel (1874) counted five different kinds of organs on the antenne of ants—(1) olfactory knobs or pegs, (2) tactile hairs, (3) pore plates, (4) Forel’s flasks and (5) pit pegs. Forel (1902) judging from the works of Hicks, Leydig, Hauser, Krapelin and himself re- marks that all the reputed olfactory structures of the antenne are modified pore canals bearing hairs. They come under three chief forms—pore plates, olfactory knobs, and olfactory hairs. At times the last two can hardly be distinguished from one another. Chitin, even if very thin, always covers the end of the nerve. Forel’s flasks and pit pegs have no relation to smell because they are lacking in the insects with acute smell (wasps) and are present in great abundance in insects (bees) with poor sense of smell. The same author (1908, pp. 95 and 96) still regards the pit pegs and Forel’s flasks as a 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 physiological enigma. They are generally absent, but are present in ants and aphidids, are quite abundant in the domestic bee, are present but not abundant in bumble bees, and are absent in wasps; neverthe- less, he thinks they have nothing to do with olfaction. In dragonflies and cicadas the antennz are rudimentary and the sense of smell is poor. The organs of smell of insects are in general situated in the antenne, especially in their swollen or perfoliate parts where the antennal nerve ramifies. “ These ‘horns,’ these ‘ ears’ form, there- fore, a famous nose in spite of Wolff and Graber.” Thus Forel believes that the antennz are the olfactory organs, yet he does not state what particular antennal organs receive the olfactory stimuli. Berte (1877) states that none of the antennal organs in fleas is for olfaction. Lubbock (1877) discusses the antennal organs but does not venture to suggest their functions. According to Vom Rath (1888), Lubbock (1883) found the same structures on the antennz as did Forel (1874), although the details are somewhat different. Neither Forel nor Lubbock ventures to ascribe an olfactory function to any one of the five antennal organs, but by their many experiments, particularly on ants, both are thoroughly convinced that the antennz carry the olfactory apparatus. Graber (1878) describes a pitlike sense organ in the antenne of flies. This was long before described by Leydig as an olfactory apparatus, but Graber regards it as an auditory organ. Mayer (1878, 1879) regards the pitlike organs or pore plates as being most probably olfactory in function. Reichenbach (1879) thinks that the small pits filled with hairlike structures are the olfactory organs in insects. Hauser (1880) studied the behavior of various insects before and after the removal of the antenne. When the antenne were cut off many individuals soon became sick and died, although some of them lived thereafter for many days. In insects with their antennz dipped in melted paraffin, the behavior was similar to that of those with the antenne amputated. He placed 12 individuals (beetles) Philon- thus eneus R. one at a time in an inverted beaker whose bottom was removed. He slowly placed a clean glass rod in front of the head and the insect gave no response. He then repeated the operation with a glass rod dipped in carbolic acid. When this was 4 inches away the insect was much affected, it lifted and moved its head in different directions and made quick forward movements with its antenne. When the glass rod was brought nearer it moved away quickly and NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 31 drew its antenne through its mouth. The reaction to turpentine and acetic acid was more violent. Next he cut off the antennz. On the second day after the operation he repeated the experiments, but the insects failed to respond to any one of these three strong odors. After the operation the beetles ate with a greater appetite and some of them lived more than two months thereafter. From these experiments he concludes that the beetles lost the olfactory sense by the removal of the antenne. ‘ Experiments with species of several other genera gave the same results but those with beetles of the genera Carabus, Melolontha, and Silpha were less satisfactory. These never completely failed to re- spond to strong-smelling substances. If they are exposed for a long time to the odors the insects deprived of their antennz become restless and walk away from the glass rod, yet all the movements are less energetic. The entire reaction is indefinite and weakened. Experi- ments with Hemiptera gave a still less favorable result. After the loss of the antennz these insects reacted almost as well as they did with their -antennz intact. Hauser performed the following experiments to ascertain the value of the antennz in the search for food. He placed beetles (Silpha) in a large box whose bottom was covered with moss. In one corner of the box he put a small glass with a small opening, the glass containing foul meat. As long as the insects possessed their antenne they regularly found the meat in the glass after some time, while after the removal of the antenne they never came in contact with it. Similar experiments were performed with flies of three genera. A vessel containing spoiled meat was placed on a table by an open window. Soon several flies came to the meat. Then he closed the window and cut off the antennz at the third joint. Thereafter not one of these flies came in contact with this meat. Hauser next ascertained the value of the antenne to the male in finding the females. Male and female beetles and butterflies were placed in large boxes. As long as they were normal in every respect they mated freely, but when the antennz were cut off they copulated only occasionally. Hauser, who worked extensively and thoroughly on the antennze of insects of all orders, found many differences in the various orders but among different Hymenoptera the differences in distribution and structure of the antennal organs are comparatively slight. Accord- ing to him, V espa (a wasp) possesses about three times as many pegs as does the honey bee, and for this reason l’espa has better olfactory 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 perception. Formica (an ant) has far more pegs than pore plates, contrary to the rule in hymenopterous insects. In conclusion Hauser asserts that in almost all insects the olfactory organ consists of (1) a large nerve arising from the cephalic ganglion which runs out into the antenna, (2) a recipient end apparatus which represents rod cells modified from hypodermal cells with which the fibers of those nerves are connected, (3) a supporting and accessory appara- tus which is formed by the pore plates and pegs filled with a serous fluid. When both pore plates and pegs are present they both function in smelling according to their number; when one of these organs is absent then the other one functions entirely as an olfactory receptor. Krapelin (1883), according to Schenk (1903), considers the pore plates and pegs as smelling organs and translating from Vom Rath (1888) Krapelin thinks that the olfactory organ is also located in the palpi. Schiemenz (1883) regards the pegs as touch organs, while the pore plates and Forel’s flasks probably serve as olfactory organs. Sazepin (1884) worked chiefly on the antennz of myriapods, but he also spent some time in working out the anatomy of the antennz of Vespa. By comparing the anatomy of the myriapods’ antennze and with that of Vespa he found that as a whole there is a great sim- ilarity, but while the olfactory pegs in Vespa are closed at their tip, they are open in what he calls the olfactory pegs in myriapods. Witlaczil (1885) worked on the antenne of certain:bugs. Since their antennal pits, called olfactory pits by Hauser, are covered by a membrane he thinks that they can scarcely be called olfactory organs. : Vom Rath (1887, 1888), like most authors on this subject, regards the olfactory sense as located in the sense pegs of the antenne and probably also in the pore plates. By making a comparative study of all the antennal organs in arthropods, Vom Rath (1895) found a great similarity in the structure of each set of organs. The sense pegs are not by any means confined solely to the antennz but are found on all the mouth parts, in the mouth cavity, and even over the entire body. It is possible that many pegs serve for the reception of the stimuli of weak odors from a distant object and others for the olfactory perception of those nearer. It may be that the pegs of each kind, and also the pore plates, are especially responsive to certain kinds of odors. He believes that the pegs on the palpi possess an olfactory function and possibly for odors close at hand. More- over, these pegs elsewhere may have the same function. NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 33 Ruland (1888), who made a thorough comparative anatomical study of insect antennz, contends that only such hair structures as those which are perforated at the tips can be sensitive to chemical stimuli. Pegs are found in all orders of insects and, since myriapods and crustaceans possess similar structures, these organs may be con- sidered as the chief form of olfactory organs in the arthropods. Ruland regards the pit pegs and Forel’s flasks found in most insects as simple pit pegs, while the compound pits, as seen in the antennz of flies and butterflies, he calls compound pit pegs. He believes that all three sets of these organs are organs for the reception of stimuli from certain olfactory substances. To determine whether all of the hair structures are perforated at their tips, he put the antennz into boiling caustic potash. After such treatment he observed that they were all open at the end. In the investigations made by the author it was learned that caustic potash within a short time not only de- stroys all of the internal tissue but it soon dissolves thin chitin. A\l who have studied these structures before and since 1888 assert that these hairlike organs are tipped with very thin chitin through which the odorous particles must pass. In the observations made by the author these structures in the antenne of the honey bee have not shown a single hair which is open in the slightest degree at the tip and it is probable that in Ruland’s treatment the caustic potash dissolved the thin chitin at the tip. Nagel (1892, 1894, 1909, the views set forth in the first reference being cited by various authors,) states that, in his opinion, the anten- ne are generally the olfactory crgans of insects—not, however, with- out exception. That insects, after amputation of the antennz, seem incapable of perceiving odors is not sufficient proof that the antenne are olfactory organs. He declares (1894) that organs with thick chitinous walls cannot function in smelling, but he thinks that the olfactory pegs, being tipped with thin chitin, are capable of receiving olfactory stimuli. He asserts that these olfactory pegs are found on other parts of the body besides the antenne. He (1909) does not doubt that in many insects the palpi may assist in smelling. In the antennz of a May beetle there are four different kinds of pitlike organs (varieties of pit pegs), all of which may be olfactory in func- tion. In the Hymenoptera the antennz are the only seat for their highly developed olfactory sense. In some Hymenoptera both pore plates and pegs, while in others only the pore plates, function in smell- ing. In ants the pegs and knee-shaped bristles probably serve this purpose ; in Lepidoptera the pit pegs function for smelling when the 3 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 insect flies, the end rods serving such a purpose while the insect is resting ; in Diptera the pit pegs, similar to those of butterflies, are the olfactory organs. Nagel repeated most of Hauser’s experiments and seems to be convinced that the antennz are almost always, if not always, the seat of the organs of olfaction. When one or more of these organs are absent the next best, histologically considered, must perform the olfactory work; and when all the antennal organs are wanting, as in Ephemera vulgata, a pseudoneuropteron, he imagines that the insect cannot smell. Dahlgren and Kepner (1908) regard the knob-shaped, pitlike an- tennal organs of Necrophorus as the olfactory organs. They found glandlike cells beneath the hypodermis which they believe to be asso- ciated with these pits and perhaps aid in receiving odor stimuli. Nearly all of the foregoing observers have overlooked the sense organ found in the second antennal joint of insects. This is called Johnston’s organ. In /’espa the upper end, or the nerve rod, of the organ penetrates the articulating chitin between the second and third joints and comes to the surface. From its structure an olfactory sense might be attributed to it. According to Child (1894a and b), ~ who experimented extensively with mosquitoes, this organ serves as a combined touch and auditory apparatus and has nothing to do with olfaction. Lubbock (1899) says: Forel and I have shown that in the bee the sense of smell is by no means very highly developed. Yet their antenna is one of those most highly organized. It possesses—besides 200 cones [pegs], which may probably serve for smell— as many as 20,000 pits [pore plates] ; and it would certainly seem unlikely that an organization so exceptionally rich should solely serve for a sense so slightly developed. l'rom this fact and his numerous experiments Lubbock regards the antenne as the seat of the organs of olfaetion, yet he does not commit himself as to the particular antennal organs which receive the odor stimuli. Borner (1902) states that only a few of the hair structures on the antennz of Collembola may be regarded as olfactory organs. Schenk (1903) claims that the fact that the males of Apidz (bees) do not possess any pegs does not argue against the view that these structures are olfactory organs for (1) the pit pegs, which certainly have an olfactory function, are common to the antenne of males, queens and workers, and (2) in hunting for the females the olfactory sense appears to be of second place to sight. In the summary of his observations on Lepidoptera Schenk asserts that the pit pegs function NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 35 as smelling organs, because they are more highly developed and more advantageously distributed on the antennz in the males so that they may be of the greatest use in scenting the females. The end pegs also aid in olfaction, particularly when the insect is resting. He does not think that the pore plates in Hymenoptera have an olfactory use, and he regards this view as based on insufficient data. Olfaction in the Vespide (wasps) is accomplished by the pegs, because the pit pegs are almost absent, while in the bees the pegs and pit pegs both are olfactory in use; but since the male bees do not have these pegs, the sense of smell is entirely performed by the pit pegs. Rohler (1905) made a special study of the antennal organs in a grasshopper, (7ryvalis) Acridella nasuta L. On the antenne he found only three kinds of organs, viz: bristles, pegs and pit pegs. Of these three he regards only the pit pegs as olfactory in function, and the females have only about two-thirds as many of them as have the males. This additional number of pit pegs greatly aids the males in finding the females. Cottreau (1905) discusses the sense of smell of insects in a pop- ular way, without performing any experiments or citing any refer- ences. He says that the olfactory organs are the pits and papille, distributed abundantly on the antennz and without doubt in certain regions on the mouth parts. In discussing olfaction and antennal sense organs of insects Berlese (1900) seems to infer that there can be no doubt that the antennz are really the seat of the smelling organs. In a comprehensive study of the morphology of the chitinous sense organs of Dytiscus marginalis, a water beetle, Hochreuther (1912) finds seven different kinds of organs. Of these seven only the hollow pit pegs (hohle Grubenkegel) are probably olfactory in function. They not only occur on the antennz and mouth parts, but a few are found on the thorax and perhaps a few on the coxe of the first two pairs of legs. ExUDAL STYLES (CABDOMINAL ANTENNA”) AS SEAT (OF OLFACTORY ORGANS Packard (1870) discovered that the caudal styles of the female Chrysopila (a fly) possess a peculiar sense organ. On the posterior edge of the upper side of each style there is a single, large, round sac with quite regular edges. Its diameter is equal to one-third of the length of the style. Dense, fine hairs project inward from its edge, and the bottom of this shallow pit is a clear, transparent membrane devoid of hairs. Since this same insect possesses no antennal organs 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Packard believes that this structure is an olfactory apparatus. He calls this a “ simple nose,”’ while in the caudal styles of the cockroach there is a ‘‘ compound nose.” ORGANS ON BASES OF WINGS AND ON LEGS AS OLFACTORY ORGANS While examining the organs on the halteres of flies, Hicks (1857) discovered on the bases of the wings peculiar structures which he called vesicles, arranged in a single row extending some little distance up the vein on both sides of the wing, but principally on the upper side. By examining insects of other orders he ascertained that these organs are not confined to the Diptera. He believes that they are found in all insects, and they were present in all specimens ex- amined by him. They exist on both sides of the wing, but chiefly on the upper side of the base on the subcostal vein and in the Hemiptera on the costal vein. Those on the hind wing are generally larger in size and greater in number. In Moths they are very apparent, being greatest in the Noctue [Noctuide] and Bombycide. There are about 100 vesicles on the upper surface of the posterior wing, and half that number beneath, besides some few on the nervures [veins]. In the butterfly they are smaller, but arranged in more definite groups, about three in number. In Coleoptera and Neuroptera they are arranged in long rows along the subcostal nerve; they are more apparent in Coleoptera than in Neuroptera. In the Hymenoptera, for instance the bee, they are found in a rounded group of about forty on each side. Are they organs of smell, as suggested by Mr. Purkiss? As the olfactory organ has never yet been decided on, it seems to me not improbable that they be the organs of that sense; for, first, it is not likely that they should be the organ of hearing, as they are in constant motion, and situated near the source of the hum of the wings, so that other sounds would be drowned, 2ndly, it is not necessary that the power of smell should be in the head. It is situated in the commencement of the air passages in the upper animals probably because the current of air or water passing the olfactory nerves is there most powerful; but in the spiracle-breathing insects the greatest currents are in the neighbor- hood of the wing, and near the greatest thoracic spiracle. The motion of the halteres also permits a greater exposure to odors floating in the air. He claims that the organs on the halteres and on the base of the wings are similar in structure and probably have the same function, that of smell. He was able to trace a nerve to each group of organs, the one going to the hind wing being the larger. Hicks (1859a) presented a second paper concerning these organs in which he asserts: I may here repeat that each of these structures consists of very thin and transparent, hemispherical or more nearly spherical projections from the tie ’. Ne Ne eet ile Saal singe enti ae NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 37 cuticular surface, beneath which the wall of the nervure is deficient, so as to allow a free communication with its interior; these organs are arranged in rows on the halteres and in variously shaped groups in the wings. He examined one or more species of about two dozen genera representing all of the insect orders. He observed these organs in the honey bee, in Vespa, and in‘all other species examined by him except Corysus [Corizus], the bedbug (Cime.x lectularius), an apter- ous beetle, and the flea (Pulex irritans). Usually these structures consist of two groups on the upper, and one scattered group on the under side of the subcostal vein, amounting in Ophion to from 200 to 300 above, and perhaps 100 beneath, with a smaller group at the end of the vein. In the Diptera these vesicles are found both on the wings and halteres. In the Coleoptera they are highly developed and occur in numerous groups on the subcostal vein, mostly at the widest part, but are also scattered along it to the joint of the wing. In Carabus (a beetle) they are found on veins other than the subcostal. In many beetles the vesicle is overarched by a hair, which probably protects the organ. He could distinguish no differences in the sexes except that the vesicles were slightly larger in the females, due to their greater size. These organs are most perfectly developed in the Diptera, slightly less perfectly developed in the Coleoptera, rather less so in the Lepidoptera, only slightly developed in the Neuroptera, scarcely at all in the Orthoptera, and only a trace of them exists in the Hemiptera. He gives several drawings, but they represent only the superficial appearances. Hicks (1860) discovered these same vesicles on the trochanter and femur, chiefly on the former, in all the insects he examined. In Formica rufa (an ant) these structures are numerous and exist both on the trochanter and femur. A few small groups of these vesicles are also present on the proximal end of the tibia in this ant. In the honey bee these organs are not so abundant on the legs but are located at the same places as on the ant. The vesicles on the legs, like those on the wings, consist of a thin, delicate membrane stretching over, and closing in from the air, a tubular aperture in the chitin- layer of the part. This aperture may be circular or oval, the tube varying in length according to the thickness of the integument, curved as in the Hornet, or forming a globular cavity as in Silpha. The delicate membrane which covers over this aperture is generally level, sometimes leaving a ridge or a minute papilla in its center. Hicks gives drawings showing the disposition of these vesicles or pores on the wings and legs of many of the species examined. He saw nerves running to all of these organs and gives a very good idea 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 concerning their structure, although since our modern technique of making stained sections was entirely unknown in his time we should not expect his drawings to represent the finer anatomy of these pores. He used the following technique: After cutting off the wing and washing it well in water or spirits of wine, and draining off the major part by blotting paper, I immerse it in spirits of turpentine for a week or two, after which it is placed in Canada balsam between glass in the normal way, taking care not to heat it, as that renders the nerve too transparent. In those parts which are too dark for observation, I have been enabled to render them colorless by Chlorine. In regard to smell in insects and the function of the pores on the legs Hicks says: The delicacy with which odours are perceived by many insects argues an olfactory apparatus of considerable perfection; and it seems to me not impos- sible that these latter named organs [those on the legs] may be in some way connected with the sense of smell, or perhaps with some sense not to be found in the Vertebrata. To summarize Hicks’ three papers, he discovered these pores on the halteres and on the bases of the wings of all Diptera examined ; on the bases of all four wings of the four-winged tribes; on the trochanter and femur of all insects, and occasionally on the tibia. He examined many species representing various insect orders and found these pores even on the lower insects, such as the earwig. In -such wingless insects as the worker and soldier ants, he infers that these pores are much more abundant on the legs than they are on these appendages in the winged insects. Hicks suggested an olfactory function for all of these pores, whether on the legs or wings, but he performed no experiments of any kind. Weinland (1890) and several others have made a special study of the halteres or balancers of flies and the sense organs on the bases of these appendages. Weinland distinguishes four kinds of structures on the halteres, all of which are similar in most respects and differ only in minor details. Their internal anatomy is similar to that of Hicks’ vesicles. Of these four structures Weinland calls only one of them Hicks’ papilla, and neither he nor anyone else except Hicks and Bolles Lee (1885) has ever attributed an olfactory sense to any of the structures on the balancers. Guenther (1901) studied the nerve endings found in butterfly wings. He spent a short time on the anatomy of Hicks’ vesicles but failed to recognize them as the ones which Hicks first described in 1857. (Guenther calls them sense domes (Sinneskuppeln). He de- scribes the external appearance of them as being light spots whose np tempore Maa acca gee ae NP a A AE IIE “ NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 39 thin chitin is arched in the shape of a dome. Each light spot is sur- rounded by a dark, chitinous ring.. The internal anatomy consists of a sense cell, sense fiber, and a flasklike cavity with its chitinous ~ cone. All of these parts are almost identical to those in Hymenoptera described by the author but Guenther failed to see the sense fiber join the aperture at the bottom of the flask. Thus his drawing shows a thin chitinous arch or dome which completely closes the external end of the flask, the sense fiber running up against this chitinous dome. If he had prepared more sections and used light colored stains such as safrain and not dark stains like hamatoxylins, he could certainly have seen the sense fiber join the aperture in the dome. Guenther tries to liken these pores to the membrane canals of Vom Rath. A similar dome-shaped membrane was found in the antennz of lamelli- corn beetles by Hauser, Krapelin, Vom Rath, and others, but these bear a little hair at their center. Hauser attributes an olfactory function to such structures, but Guenther shares the opinion with Vom Rath and Graber that they have an auditory role. Janet (1904) found porelike sense organs in large numbers in all the ants that he examined. These pores are either widely separated or, more frequently, united into groups. They occur on the labial palpi and on the tongue, and there are some on the pharynx, besides many on the legs. Janet recognizes those on the legs as the same vesicles or organs that Hicks describes in 1860. Ina wasp (Vespa) and an ant (Formica) their disposition is almost identical with that in the honey bee. Janet’s drawings of the superficial aspects of these pores are very similar to those of the author but on account of the small size of the specimens he seems to have had trouble in under- standing their internal anatomy. According to him, all the pores, whether on the mouth parts or legs, have a similar structure, and they resemble the structure of the olfactory pores found in the honey bee; however, there are a few slight differences. He calls the chitinous cone an umbel, which is always separated from the surrounding chitin by a chamber. This chamber communicates with the exterior by means of the pore. The sense fiber, or his manubrium, runs into the umbel, and he thinks that it spreads out over the inner surface of the umbel and does not open into the chamber. Thus the umbel forms a thin layer of chitin which separates the end of the sense fiber from the external air. The role of these organs is evidently to permit the end of the nerve to become distributed on a surface relatively large and separated from the air only by a thin layer of permeable chitin. Janet fails to give drawings that show the sense fibers run- 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS ' VOL. 63 ning all the way to the umbel and apparently has not seen the way in which the nerves actually end in the umbels. Janet (1907) describes and gives a drawing of one of these same organs that he found near the articulation of the wing of a queen ant. Its morphology is the same as described above. Thus in ants, according to Janet, we see that Hicks’ vesicles are not only found on the legs, but also near the wing articulations and probably also on the mouth parts. According to their anatomy, as Janet describes it, these organs function as some kind of a chemical sense and in fact are as suitable to perceive olfactory stimuli as are the antennal organs, if not more suitable. Wesché (1904) remarks that a certain bot-fly has a_ highly developed sense of smell, equal to that of many mammals. This fly has large antennz containing sense organs that are larger than those in some other flies ; some of these organs are known to function as a keen olfactory sense. I think that where the antennze are not particularly sensitive, the palpi have this structure to compensate. We thus see that the palpi, like the antenne, can bear organs of three senses—touch, taste, and smell; but I do not think that any one palpus has more than two of these senses developed at the same time. : Besides making such broad statements concerning the senses of insects, the same writer describes and gives drawings of some sense organs that he thinks entirely new. Some of these he found on the legs, which are without doubt Hicks’ vesicles. He observed these organs in J’espa and in many Diptera and his description of their superficial appearance fits what has been seen by the author. Wesché remarks that these organs are possibly auditory or for some unknown sense ; however, he says nothing about their internal anatomy or any literature relating to them. Freiling (1909) spent a short time studying the anatomy of Hicks’ vesicles as found in the wings of butterflies. While Guenther found these sense domes (Sinneskuppeln) in great numbers, irregularly scattered on the veins near the base of butterfly wings, Freiling re- gards them as regularly distributed in the same location. The super- ficial appearance, as he has drawn it, is similar to that of the bee. He shows a large bipolar sense cell with its sense fiber running to the apparent opening in these organs but he thinks that the sense fiber ends [clublike] just beneath the apparent aperture. He worked three weeks trying to get good sections of these organs and succeeded in getting only one specimen from which he obtained fairly good sec- tions. Freiling gives only one drawing each of the external and the 3034.08 “NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 41 internal structure of these organs, and the latter is drawn diagram- matically. In this he fails to show the chitinous cone, and the end of the sense fiber is represented as separated from the exterior by the thir layer, forming the dome. On this incorrect interpretation of the anatomy, he, like Guenther, speculates on their probable func- tion and concludes that these sense domes may serve as some kind of a barometric device or as an apparatus for measuring the force of the air against the wing. Berlese (1909, pp. 678-684) calls all the dome-shaped organs of insects “ sensilli campaniformi o papilliformi.” The campaniform type is found on the mandibles, antenne, legs and wings. Their domes never project above the general surface of the surrounding chitin. The papilliform type occurs only on the halteres. Here the domes project above the surface of the chitin. In schematic draw- ings he shows how the domes may have been derived from a portion of the chitin originally not arched. Berlese regards the function of these organs as unknown. While studying the morphology of the chordotonal organs in the honey bee and ants, Schon (1911) found two rows of small cones on the proximal end of each tibia. A sense cell lies just beneath each cone and the peripheral end of the sense fiber runs into the cone. These sense cells connect with the chordotonal organ located in the middle and distal end of the tibia. Schon has certainly mistaken Hicks’ vesicles for cones, because the external appearance of these vesicles often resembles ~ones when observed without the cylindrical tibia being properly rotated. These organs always lie near the edge _of the tibia, and when one looks down upon them their apertures look like cones, but when the tibia is rotated slightly, so that they lie on the median line of the tibia, the optical illusion becomes evident. Hochreuther (1912) describes and gives drawings of the dome- shaped organs (kuppelf6rmigen Organe) in a manner somewhat similar to that of Janet. Each organ is located at the bottom of a chitinous flask, the mouth of which communicates with the exterior. Instead of the peripheral end of the sense fiber coming into direct contact with the air in the flask, it apparently stops just beneath the chitinous dome. No true chitinous cone is present, but his terminal strand (Terminalstrang) resembles it somewhat in general appear- ance. He finds a few of these dome-shaped organs on the epicranium near the margin of the eyes, 11 on the first and second joints of the antenne, a few on the dorsal side of the labrum, very few on the dorsal side of the mandibles, several on the maxillz, about 18 on the first four joints of the first legs, about Io on the first three joints of 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 the second legs, and a few on the trochanter of the third legs. He evidently has not examined the wings. Thus according to Hoch- reuther these organs are rather widely distributed. Since the per- Trohanter’ Abdomer Fic. 2—Diagram of ventral view of a worker bee, showing the location of the different groups of olfactory pores as indicated by the numbers. ipheral ends of the sense fibers do not come into contact with the outside air, but connect with the tops of the domes, he suggests that they receive some kind of mechanical stimuli, although he performed no experiments to determine their function. NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO , was The following results were obtained by the author. The disposi- tion of Hicks’ vesicles (called olfactory pores by the author) is best understood by referring to the numbers in figures 2, 3 and 4 of the Fig. 3—Diagram of dorsal view of a worker bee, showing the location of the different groups of olfactory pores as indicated by the numbers. honey bee. Groups I to 5 lie on the bases of the wings as indicated by the numbers 1 to 5. Groups 6 to 18 lie on the legs. Group 19 to ar lie on the sting of the worker and queen (fig. A)n wliheysame organs are found on the mouth parts of all the hymenopterous insects 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 examined, but they have not yet been thoroughly studied. The anten- nz of the honey bee and probably the antennz of all Hymenoptera do not carry any of the organs first described by Hicks. The olfactory pores in other hymenopterous insects are similar in position to those of the honey bee. Among the 29 species examined, these pores vary much in the number of groups and in the number of pores contained in the individual groups. As a rule, the lower the insect the fewer the groups and more isolated are the pores. Cimbex, regarded as the lowest hymenopteron, has the least number of groups of all the species examined, but it stands fourth in regard to the number of isolated pores. Its total number of pores is larger /; S17 Flo / 4 ee Wy) iia WWiG7 WL Nyy WWW, aa) hig. 4—Diagram of lateral view of a worker bee’s sting and its accessory parts, showing the location of the olfactory pores as indicated by the numbers. than that of many of the higher forms. Among ants the variations are also great. For the legs of ants the number of pores varies from 211 to 356 and for the winged ants the total number varies from 463 to 1,090. The smallest specimen among the ants and the second smallest one of all the Hymenoptera examined is a female with 463 pores as the lowest number. The drone honey bee with 2,608 pores has the highest number. The smallest specimen examined is a wasp with 688 pores. The following table including 6 of the 29 species examined will illustrate the variations in the number of olfactory pores as found on the three pairs of legs and the two pairs of wings. The letters “ F,” ““M,” “Hi” and“ .G™” stand for front, middle hina and grand, in the order named. The “ Total’? means all the pores found on all 6 legs, and the ‘‘ G. total” means all the pores found on all 6 legs and all 4 wings combined. sree er” me liter preteen prone De = 2 ybeedes 45 Pe | -poze'gz + Jeots gz |"**"|gogz Oval eres OLVines v 992 ee loZ6|°** "|g jovgi'**"\9 jetzz\"” | Sale Ge) loop 3 5 -lo19 Q [101/41 |g |15 6g |4 \gg jovi g jog lobr lo jog \66 |S |SZ |iz1 8 96 gzi |g |Z8 196 |g |Z42 611 | [iy | | bata ANG a7 Nese 74 tee eee a | Z eZ, o | ol/wo | o lwo) so} Oo |mo lee o\selsele (eo 3818 [eee wm So| Pato Sel" ae] we | Fe Bs. 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Those of an ant vary more in size than do those of the hornet or honey bee. The pores on the wings are always much smaller than are those on the legs and they vary less in size. In proportion to the sizes of an ant and of a worker honey bee, the pores of the ant are much larger. Under the microscope with transmitted light the olfactory pores appear as bright spots. At the first glance they resemble hair sockets (fig. 5, PorApHr) from which the hairs have been pulled, but after For B SK tet hl a) z ce - KX A ae ZEA VEN ES Sa) JONG : Nao Ne \ L d \ ps | hi \ rec o ye wereld fo tT Baan ate / i) , BON I he Fic. 5.—Group 6 of the olfactory pores from the hind leg of a worker bee, showing the external appearance, x 700. a Ue bcs RT A rS y Wy SV Nea a closer examination a striking difference is usually seen. Each bright spot is surrounded by a dark line, the pore wall (figs. 5 and 6, PorW). Outside this line the chitin (fig. 5, PorB) may be light or dark in color, but inside the line the chitin (figs. 5 and 6, ChL) is almost transparent, and at the center there is an opening, the pore aperture (figs. 5 and 6, PorAp). ; The olfactory pores consist of inverted flasks in the chitin and of spindlelike sense cells lying beneath the mouths of the flasks (fig. 6). About two-thirds of the space at the bottom of the flask is occupied by a hollow chitinous cone (fig. 6, Con) which is not separated from NO. Q OLFACTOR¥Y SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO a7, the surrounding chitin, but only stains less deeply. In a typical olfactory pore the neck (NkF1) of the flask is wide and the mouth (MF) is flaring. The sense fiber (SI) of the sense cell (SC) pierces the bottom of the cone and enters the round, oblong, or slitlike pore aperture:(PorAp). The nerve fiber (NI) soon runs to a nerve. It is thus seen that the cytoplasm (Cyt) in the peripheral end of the sense fiber comes in direct contact with the air containing odorous particles and that odors do not have to pass through a hard membrane in order to stimulate the sense cells as is claimed for the antennal organs. To determine the function of these pores the wings, legs and stings of many worker honey bees were mutilated. The behavior of the mutilated bees was carefully studied, and they were tested with odors Fic. 6.—Cross section of a typical olfactory pore with its sense cell (SC) from the tibia of the hind leg of a worker bee, x 700. in the same manner as were unmutilated ones. The stings of 100 workers were pulled out. These bees lived 30 hours on an average. Twenty of them were tested with odors. They responded only slightly more slowly than unmutilated bees. The wings of 28 work- ers were pulled off. When tested with odors, these bees responded one-eighth as rapidly as normal bees. The bases of the wings of 20 workers were covered with liquid glue. When tested, these bees responded also one-eighth as rapidly as unmutilated ones. The pores on the legs of 20 workers were covered with a mixture of beeswax and vaseline. When tested, these bees responded two-fifths as rapidly as unmutilated workers. The wings were pulled off and the pores on the legs of 20 workers were covered with the beeswax- vaseline mixture. When tested with odors, these workers responded one-twelfth as rapidly as unmutilated workers. All of the workers with mutilated wings and legs lived just as long in the observation cases as did unmutilated workers, and they were absolutely normal 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 in all respects except that they reacted to odors more slowly. Con- trols proved that the odors themselves from the glue and beeswax- vaseline mixture did not affect the reaction times. : The preceding experiments were repeated by using ants and hornets with mutilated wings and legs. When tested with the odors from the oil of peppermint, oil of thyme, oil of wintergreen, honey and comb, leaves and stems of pennyroyal, and formic acid from other ants, four dealated females of Formica gave a reaction time of 2.89 seconds. The reaction time for winged females of the same ‘species is 2.45 seconds. The niches from which wings of these four females arises were examined. In seven of the eight niches, pores were seen. All four wings of each of 25 virgin females of Formica were pulled off. When tested with the above six odors, these ants gave a reaction time of 2.85 seconds. After an examination it was found that 62 per cent of the detached wings had broken off just beyond the groups of pores, thus the pores on only 38 per cent of the wings were lost. When the wings are shed naturally only 21 per cent of the pores are lost, while 79 per cent are not prevented from functioning, be- cause the wings devoid of pores always break off at a weak place in the chitin just distal to the groups of pores. Furthermore, sec- tions through the stubs of the wings of dealated females show that the sense cells are normal. The wings of 7 males of Formica were pulled off. When tested with the six odors, these ants gave a reaction time of 3.50 seconds, while the reaction time for the same ants before the wings were pulled off is 2.63 seconds. They were normal in all respects other than their slowness in responding to odors. Only 8 per cent of the pores belonging to the wings were left intact while 92 per cent were pulled off with the wings. The bases of the wings of 25 winged females of Formica were covered with liquid glue and the pores on the legs were covered with the beeswax-vaseline mixture. Confined singly these ants were not able to remove the glue, but they did remove much of the vaseline and smeared some of it over their spiracles, which certainly accounts for their short lives. When tested, they gave a reaction time of 5.21 seconds, which is slightly more than twice the reaction time for their unmutilated sister females. ‘ - When tested, 25 dealated females of Camponotus gave a reaction time of 3.25 seconds. Their wing niches were filled with liquid glue thus covering the pores on the stubs of the wings, and the pores NO. QO OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 49 on the legs were covered with the beeswax-vaseline mixture. These females now appeared normal in all respects other than their slowness in responding to odors. When tested, they gave a reaction time of 7.94 seconds, which is more than twice the reaction time obtained before using the glue and vaseline. The wings of 25 males of Camponotus were pulled off. These ants appeared normal in all respects except their slowness in respond- ing to odors. When tested, they gave a reaction time of 3.49 seconds, which is one and a fourth times the reaction time of unmutilated males. Only 12 per cent of the pores on the wings were left intact. The wings of 21 workers of Vespula maculata were pulled off. - These hornets appeared normal in all respects other than their slow- ness in responding to odors. When tested with the three essential oils, they gave a reaction time of 6.35 seconds, which is almost three times the reaction time for sister hornets with wings intact. Only 22 per cent of the pores on the wings were left intact. OLFACTORY ORGANS ON THE APPENDAGES AND STERNUM OF SPIDERS In 1878 Bertkau noticed some slitlike cuticular organs on the .legs of spiders. Since that date five other observers, including the present writer, have studied these structures. They are called lyri- form organs on account of their shape. The author (1911) made a special study of the morphology and physiology of the lyriform organs of spiders. He used in his studies 39 species representing 27 of the 38 families. These organs in spiders exist both as isolated slits and as groups containing several slits, and their position is relatively constant. The groups are located at the distal end of each joint of the legs, pedipalpi, chelicera (mouth parts), pedicle, and spinnerets. They exist on both sides of the fore- going appendages and as a rule each joint of the legs and pedipalps possesses the following number of groups: Coxa 1, trochanter 3, femur 2, patella 3, tibia 3, metatarsus 1, and occasionally the tarsus 1; each cheliceron usually has 4, each pedicle 2, and only occasionally is a group present on one of the spinnerets. The isolated slits not only occur irregularly scattered on the joints of all the above-named appendages, but also on the remaining mouth parts, on the sternum, and a few on the ventral side of the abdomen. Thus it is seen that the disposition of the lyriform organs is similar to that of Hicks’ vesicles ; however, the vesicles are situated at the proximal instead of the distal ends of the joints and less seldom exist as isolated struct- 4 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 ures irregularly distributed, as are the isolated slits. A few of Hicks’ vesicles exist on the mouth parts but none is found on the sternum and abdomen, except those in the sting, which might be compared in position to the lyriform organs on the spinnerets of spiders. Since spiders have no wings, possibly all the slits on the mouth parts, sternum, pedicle, and the ones on the abdomen exclusive of those on the spinnerets, replace all the pores that exist on the wings of insects. A great difference in the number of groups and isolated slits was found in the different species. The spiders that hunt for their food and use no webs in capturing their prey, without exception have the most slits, while those that live in caves and catch their food entirely by means of webs have the least number. The common cobweb spider (Theridium tepidariorum) catches its prey wholly by webs; it does not live in caves and may be considered as intermediate be- tween hunting spiders with highly developed lyriform organs and cave spiders with degenerated lyriform organs. By counting all the slits on the surface of this cobweb spider, we find that an average spider possesses 1,770 slits, whereas considering an average worker bee, we have already seen that it possesses 2,270 pores. As stated by the other observers, lyriform organs have now been found in 7 of the 9 orders belonging to the Arachnida. A lyriform organ is composed usually of several single slits which lie side by side and more or less parallel with each other. This group of slits is generally surrounded by a border, produced by a difference in pigmentation, which gives the lyre shape to the organ. Inside the border the pigmentation is usually much lighter than out-_ side; hence a group appears as a light spot, while the superficial appearance of a slit reminds one of a long, slightly bent spindle that has an aperture either at the center or nearer one end than the other. A cross section of a slit shows that the aperture passes entirely through the cuticula and unites with the sense fiber of a large spin- dlelike sense cell lying at the base of the thick hypodermis. Thus across section of a slit with its sense fiber may be likened to a greatly flattened funnel. The innervation of a lyriform organ is identical with that of a group of olfactory pores, except that in the former the sense fibers unite with the base of the apertures, whereas in the latter the sense fibers connect with the top of the apertures. So far as the writer knows, structures similar to lyriform organs and Hicks’ pores have never been looked for in crustaceans. It 1s very probable, however, that this class of arthropods possesses some kind of organs that take the place of lyriform organs and Hicks’ pores. et eal ee gic seth, foc ili nh tl (i aE NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—-McINDOO 51 While experimenting with odors, it was found that spiders possess a true olfactory sense. Many individuals of two species representing two widely separated genera were used. They responded not only to five different essential oils, which are sometimes regarded as irritants, but also to both fresh and decayed buttercup flowers, de- cayed snails, squash bugs, and Phalangids. The usual reaction is to move away from the odor, but they also quickly moved their pedipalpi, chelicera and legs, and very often rubbed their legs and other appendages. The average reaction time of a ground spider (Lycosa lepida) to oils of peppermint, thyme and wintergreen was g seconds and for a jumping spider (Phidippus purpuratus) 4.6 seconds, while for the worker bee the same average is only 2.6 seconds. The differences in reaction time may be explained by the fact that Lycosa is rather sluggish, Phidippus is very active, while the bee is extremely lively. However, as a worker bee possesses 500 pores more than a spider and since it responds about twice as quickly it would appear that its sense of smell is more highly developed. All the lyriform organs (single slits not included) on the legs, pedipalpi, chelicera, mouth parts, and sternum were carefully var- nished with yellow vaseline. The following day they were tested with the five oils—peppermint, thyme, wintergreen, clove and bergamot. Thus it was ascertained that they responded nine times more slowly after varnishing than before. Hindle and Merriman (1912) proved experimentally that Haller’s organ is olfactory in function and that it is a means by which ticks are able to recognize their hosts. In Hemaphysalis punctata this organ consists of a minute cavity, containing sensory hairs, and is associated with a specially modified region of the hypodermis. In ticks (Acarina) it is always located on the external dorsal surface of the tarsus of the first pair of legs. Hansen (1893) found a few scattered lyriform organs in acarinids which may also aid in re- ceiving odor stimult. SUMMARY OF AUTHOR’S EXPERIMENTS ' The following table is a tabulated summary of the author's experi- ments with spiders and Hymenoptera to determine the location of the olfactory organs. The odors used for the spiders are those from the essential oils of peppermint, thyme, wintergreen, clove, and bergamot. The “ three odors” used for the Hymenoptera are those from oil of peppermint, oil of thyme, and oil of wintergreen. The 52 Summary of author's experiments with spiders and Hymenoptera to determine TABLE II the location of the olfactory organs Average reac- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 mA | tion time. No. of |Average length | indji- | of life in cap- Species. | Experiment. | for for | vid- tivity. | | three six uals | odors. | odors. | tested. | = | Sec. Sec Days. | Hrs 2 Phidippus. . Sanat Normalanbe=|- 257..." 50s. 20 | havior. | g . Pedipalpi pulled off. Normal . fpaeSie Zee ane ale in behavior. | | 2 ee . Pedipalpiand maxillz pulled . acon | acu | off. Normal in behavior. S+?Lycosa....|Unmutilated. Normalinbe-|......| 7.0) 15 havior. | Cuiaoetas ..Lyriform organs covered. OT ON ans with vaseline. Normal in behavior. 2? Formica.. . Unmutilated. Winged, nor-| 2.12 | 2.45) 25 14 10 “| mal in behavior. | 2 “ .. Funiculi cut off. Mouor nal 4538 |. 25 O 19 in behavior. g : .Funiculi glued. Abnormal 5.78 25 6. O in behavior. 2 .|Déalated. Normal in be-| 2.50] 2.89) 4 | 142 Oo | havior. 2 . Wings pulled off. Normal 2.32 | 2.85) 25 10 0 etn behavior. Q as ..|Bases of wings glued and] 4.73 | 5-21) 25 2 0 _ legs covered with vaseline. Normal in behavior. o «<......./Unmutilated. “Winged, nor- 2.21 2203 |e ily, Usied mal in behavior. below. o etter ./| Wings pulled off. Normal 3.00 | 3.50) 7 5 O | in behavior. | ?Camponotus..|Déalated. Normal in be-| 2.32 | 3.25) 25 Several | havior. mon ths. ¢ .|Glue in wing niches and legs) 5.70 | 7.94, 22 Sev eral | covered with vaseline. months. | Normal in behavior. 3 .|Winged. Normal in be-| 2.29 | 2.74]. 25 23 9 havior. o “ .| Wings pulled off. Normal 2.91 | 3.49) 25 7 2 in behavior. ®MajorCampo-|Unmutilated. Normalinbe- 2.32 | 3.22 25 26 8 notus havior. ?Minor Cam- Unmutilated. Normalinbe- 2.27 | 3.09 25 26 8 ponotus havior. ®Vespula .... . Unmutilated. Winged, nor- 2.43 25 9 7 mal in behavior. y y .|Flagella cut off. Abnormal! 309)... - 25 I 13 in behavior. g .. Wings pulled off. Normal 6.35 21 4 8 | in behavior. | Ny Ager | E i a dee: He te. ies NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 53 TABLE II—Continued Summary of author’s experiments with spiders and Hymenoptera to determine the location of the olfactory organs | Average reac- | tion time. | E _| No. of |Average length | Aide NOE life in cap- Species. Experiment. | for for vid- tivity. three six uals odors. | odors. tested. | Sec. | Sec. Days. | Hrs. SApis........./Unmutilated. Winged, nor- ZIOAM IN se AON sy, 9 3 mal in behavior. | ee ee Niaxilceandlabialypalpreut) 3.3 | 4.0] 19 I 0 off. Abnormal in behavior. | Behe! .|Proboscis cut off. Abnormal 2.9 22 Only iay in behavior. | eee iW Nanaibles cut oft. Abnor-|.3.5 | 4.8 |-20 7 0 mal in behavior. eee lout paste ingmouth. Alb=|) 2268/......) 20) | 7 \)e12 normal in behavior. | ee ae we WVineSiClitiOle beyond pores.) 3.0) |......| 17 9 23 Normal in behavior. | | | ot Horns “ .........|Wings pulled off and pores) 36.90 40.00 20 Ov eS on legs covered with vas- | eline. Normal in behavior.| | | | ’ “six odors” used for the ants and hornets are those from oil of peppermint, oil of thyme, oil of wintergreen, honey and comb, leaves and stems of pennyroyal, and formic acid. The “six odors” used for the honey bees are the same as those used for ants and hornets, except pollen was employed instead of formic acid. The preceding table shows the following: (1) When the pedi- palpi (slightly comparable to the antennz of insects). of spiders are pulled off, the arachnids are normal in behavior and the reaction time is practically the same as when unmutilated individuals are 54 SMITHSONIAN - MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 used. (2) But when the antennz of Hymenoptera are mutilated in the slightest degree, the insects are abnormal, and the reaction times are slower than when unmutilated individuals are used, although it is quite possible that the slower reaction times are caused by the abnormal behavior of the insects rather than due to the theory that some of the olfactory organs are prevented from functioning. (3) When the maxillz of spiders are pulled off, no abnormal behavior results, but the reverse is true for the honey bee. In both cases the reaction time is slightly slower. (4) When the mouth parts of honey bees are mutilated, the insects are abnormal and the reaction times are slightly increased, which may be due to the abnormality of the insects, or to the view that the pores on these appendages are prevented from functioning, or to both of these conditions combined. (5) When the wings are pulled off artificially, most of the pores on these appendages are lost and the reaction times are considerably increased. (6) When the pores on the wings are covered with glue the reaction times are much increased. (7) When most of the pores on the legs are covered with vaseline, the reaction times are greatly increased. (8) When either spiders or Hymenoptera are so muti- lated that most of the olfactory pores are prevented from function- ing, the reaction times are increased many times, and the mutilated individuals used are absolutely normal in all respects other than their ability to smell. DISCUSSION The following criticisms concerning the physiological experiments performed with the antennze of various insects may be offered. Most of the previous observers have studied the behavior of the insects investigated in captivity for only a short time, while the remainder have paid no attention at all to the behavior of their unmutilated insects. They cut off either a few joints of both antenne, or these entire appendages, or varnished them with paraffin, rubber, etc. When a few joints are severed the sense of smell is apparently weak- ened. This is true for bees also as ascertained by the author. When both antennz are amputated or varnished the insects, as a rule, fail to respond to substances which normally affect the olfactory sense. They generally fail to respond to odors held near them and fail to find food in captivity, and do not return to putrid meat and dead bodies when removed from such food. Males so mutilated do not, as a rule, seek females and show no responses when females are placed near them. Such experiments were seriously criticised until Hauser in 1880 presented his apparently conclusive results. Many NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 5 cn of the insects on which he experimented with the antennae amputated became sick and soon died. Most of them failed to respond when the antennze were mutilated, although Carabus, Melolontha, and Silpha responded slightly, while all the Hemiptera that he used re- sponded almost as well with their antennz off as they did with them intact. Only 40 per cent of the ants from which Miss Fielde cut the antennz recovered from the effect of the shock. Not one of these observers has studied the behavior of the species under obser- vation sufficiently to know exactly how long they live in captivity with their antennz either intact or mutilated. No one, except Miss Fielde, has kept a record of the death of the mutilated and normal insects accurate enough so that one might know what percentage died from the operation. To cut off some other appendage or even the lower part of the head, as Forel did, is not a fair test, because such operations seldom expose sense cells and never any nerve equal in size to that of the antennz, unless one pulls off the wings. When the wings are pulled off the large nerve is severed between the masses of sense celis and thorax, and the sense cells are not exposed to the air, as they are when antennez are cut off. Even if the antenne are cut through the scape, the large masses of sense cells belonging to Johnston’s organs are severed. When the lower part of the head or the tarsi are cut off, as Forel did, no nerves are exposed to the air except ends of small nerves. From the foregoing it is only reason- able to assume that when the antennz of any insect are injured in the least degree, the insect is no longer normal and if it fails to respond to odors placed near it, this negative response may be caused by the injury. The following criticisms based on a consideration of the morph- ology of the antennz may also be offered. In the honey bee the pore plates can scarcely be considered as olfactory organs, because the drone has almost eight times as many as the queen, and responds to the odors presented in slightly more than one-half the time. It 1s true that those of the queen are considerably larger, but even on this basis the reaction times are not comparable. The pegs may be entirely eliminated as olfactory organs, because they are absent in the drone, but are abundant in the worker and the queen. Drones, queens and workers have about the same number of Forel’s flasks and pit legs. Schenk’s view that the pegs receive odor stimuli in the queens and workers, while Forel’s flasks and the pit pegs function in this way in the drones is inconsistent, because if the latter two structures function for such a purpose in the drones why should 50 _ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 they not also in the females? Since these two structures are few in number and many times smaller than the pegs, we cannot compare them physiologically. Thus it is seen that not one of these antennal organs of the honey bee offers a solution for the ratios obtained with the use of the various odors. If the reaction time of each caste of the honey bee is compared with the total number of olfactory pores a consistent inverse ratio is obtained. A drone has 2,600 pores and responds in 2.9 seconds; a worker possesses 2,200 pores and re- sponds in 3.4 seconds and a queen has 1,800 pores and responds in 4.9 seconds. Pore plates are not the olfactory apparatus in all insects, because they are entirely absent in the Lepidoptera. The pegs cannot be the olfactory organs in all insects, for they are absent in many male bees and almost wanting in Lepidoptera, although possibly the end rods in butterflies and moths are homologous. According to Vom Rath, pegs are found not only on the antennze and mouth parts but also all over the body, and Nagel found them elsewhere than on the antenne. If the pegs are the olfactory organs and if insects with amputated antennz are normal, then why do not such insects respond positively at least slightly to odors instead of negatively, as most observers claim? It is certain that spiders can smell, yet they have no antennz nor any organs that may be compared to the antennal organs of insects. Hence, this is another argument against the antenne as being organs of smell. All insects either have antennal organs like those described for the bee, or modifications of them, yet no two authors who have studied them have agreed concerning their func- tion. Such chaos can be replaced by facts, only when the behavior of the insects investigated is thoroughly studied and when experi- ments are performed in ways other than on the antennz alone. Then it will be realized that the antennz can no longer be regarded even as a possible seat of the sense of smell in insects. In conclusion, it seems that the organs called the olfactory pores by the author are the true olfactory apparatus in Hymenoptera and possibly in all insects and that the antennz play no part in receiving odor stimuli. LIGERALURE, CLi ep The authors marked with an * were not accessible to the writer, and their views are cited from the writings of others. AELIANT. 1744. De Animalibus, que Apibus inimica sunt. Natura Animalium, Londini, t. 1, Lib. I, Cap. 58) p. 60. ponent relent * e ae NO. 9 OLFACTORY SENSE OF INSECTS—McINDOO 57 AristoTLe. The works of Aristotle, translated into English. vol. 4, Historia Animalium by Thompson, Oxford, 1910. Book 4, 8, p. 534a. BarsiAni, E. G. 1866. Note sur les antennes servant aux insectes pour la recherche des sexes. Ann. Soc. Ent. France, t. 6, (4), Bul., p. xxxviii. Barrows, W. M. 1907. 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WALTER FEWKES (PusLicaTion 2316) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1914 The Lord Galtimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. ARCHEOLOGY OF THE LOWER MIMBRES VALLEY, NEW MEXICO By J. WALTER FEWKES (With Ercut Prates) INTRODUCTION Evidences of the existence of a prehistoric population in the Lower Mimbres Valley, New Mexico, have been accumulating for many years, but there is little definite knowledge of its culture and kinship. It is taken for granted, by some writers, that the ancient people of this valley lived in habitations resembling the well-known terraced dwell- ings called pueblos, many of which are still inhabited along the Rio Grande; but this theory presupposes that there was a close like- ness in the prehistoric architectural remains of northern and southern New Mexico. It may be said that while there were many likenesses in their culture, the prehistoric inhabitants of these two regions pos- sessed striking differences, notably in their architecture, their mortu- ary customs, and the symbolic ornamentation of their pottery. As the former inhabitants of the Mimbres Valley have left no known descendants of pure blood, and as there is a scarcity of his- torical records, we must rely on a study of archeological remains to extend our knowledge of the subject. Much data of this kind has already been lost, for while from time to time numerous instructive relics of this ancient culture have been found, most of these objects have been treated as “ curios” and given away to be carried out of the country, and thus lost to science. Some of these relics belong to a type that it is difficult to duplicate. For instance, it is particularly to be regretted that the numerous votive offerings to water gods, including fossil bones, found when the “ sacred spring ” at Faywood near the Mimbres was cleaned out, have not been studied and described by some competent archeologist. The arrowheads, lance- points, and “ cloud-blowers”’ from this spring are particularly fine examples, the most important objects of the collection being now in the cabinet of Mrs. A. R. Graham of Chicago.’ *In a letter to Professor W. H. Holmes, published in his paper, “ Flint Implements and Fossil Remains from a Sulphur Spring at Afton, Indian Terri- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL: 63, No. 10 Ny SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 The valley of the Mimbres has never been regarded as favorable to archeological studies, but has practically been overlooked, possibly because of the more attractive fields in the regions to the north and west, so that only very meager accounts have been published.’ The present article, which is a preliminary report on an archeologi- cal excursion into this valley in May and June, 1914, is an effort to add to existing knowledge of the archeology of the valley. During this reconnaissance the author obtained by excavation and purchase a collection of prehistoric objects which have added desirable exhibi- tion material to the collections in the U. S. National Museum. HISTORICAL The recorded history of the inhabitants of the Mimbres is brief. One of the earliest descriptions of the valley, in English, is found in Bartlett’s ‘“ Personal Narrative,’ published in 1854. In his account of a trip to the copper mines at the present Santa Rita, Bartlett records seeing a herd of about twenty black-tailed deer, turkeys and other game birds, antelopes, bears, and fine trout in the streams. He tory,’ Mr. A. R. Graham gives an instructive account of cleaning cut the Faywood Hot Springs where he found the following relics: (1) parts of skulls and bones of several human beings; (2) over fifty spearheads and arrowheads of every shape and style of workmanship, the spearheads being valuable for their size and symmetry; (3) nine large warclubs made of stone; (4) a large variety of teeth of animals as well as large bones of extinct animals; (5) the most interesting relics are ten stone pipes from four to seven inches in length; (6) flint hatchet and a stone hammer, together with stones worn flat from use; beads made of vegetable seed and bird bones; part of two Indian bows with which was found a quiver in which was quite a bunch of long, coarse black hair that was soon lost after being dried—Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 4, pp. 126, 127. *The Santa Rita mines early attracted the conquistadors looking for gold, and were worked in ancient times by the Spaniards, the ores obtained finding an outlet along a road down the valley to the city of Chihuahua. The pre- historic people also mined native Mimbres copper, and probably obtained from these mines and from those in Cook’s Range, the native copper from which were made the hawk-bells sometimes found in Arizona and New Mexico. From these localities also were derived fragments of float copper often found in Southwestern ruins and commonly ascribed to localities in Mexico. From here came also a form of primitive stone mauls used in early days of the working of the mines. * The National Museum had nothing from the Lower Mimbres before this addition, although it has a few specimens, without zoic designs, from Fort Bayard, in the Upper Mimbres. The latter are figured by Dr. Hough, Bull. 87, U. S. National Museum. ae Sh aes eel Ae eee NO. I0 ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—-FEWKES 3 says very little, however, about antiquities, although he passed through a region where there are still several mounds indicating ruins. Bartlett writes (op. cit., vol. I, p. 218) : On April 29, hearing that there were traces of an ancient Indian settlement about half a mile distant, Dr. Webb ‘went over to examine it, while we were getting ready to move. He found a good deal of broken pottery, all of fine texture. Some of it bore traces of red, black, and brown colors. He also found a stone mortar about eight inches in diameter. I have since understood that this was the seat of one of the earliest Spanish missions ; but it was aban- doned more than a century ago, and no traces remain but a few heaps of crumbling adobes, which mark the site of its dwellings. This ruin was situated near the Rio Grande, twenty-three miles from Mule Spring, on the road to the Mimbres. Bartlett does not tell us how he learned that this was an early mission site, but from the . pottery it is evident that it was an “ ancient Indian settlement.” After having examined the configuration of the country through which Bartlett passed, and having compared it with statements in his description, the present writer thinks that Bartlett camped on May 1, 1853, near the Oldtown ruin and that the place then bore the name Pachetehu. This camp was nineteen [eighteen?| miles from Cow Spring and thirteen miles from the copper mines. . Bartlett records that he found, near his camp, “ several old Indian encampments with their wigwams standing and about them frag- ments of pottery.” Although not very definite, these references might apply either to the Oldtown ruin and some others a few miles up the river, or to more modern Apache dwellings. Mr. F. S. Dellenbaugh claims that Coronado, in 1540, passed through the valley of the Mimbres on his way to Cibola, and that this place was somewhere in this region, instead of at Zuni, as taught by Bandelier and others. The present writer recognizes that the ques- tion of the route of Coronado is one for historical experts to answer, but believes that new facts regarding the ruins in the Mimbres may have a bearing upon this question and are desirable. While it can no longer be said in opposition to Dellenbaugh’s theory that there are no ruins in the valley between Deming and the Mexican border, we have not yet been able to discover whether the ruins here described were or were not inhabited in 1540. The fragmentary notice of the ruins in the Upper Mimbres and Silver City region by Bandelier is one of the best thus far published, although he denies the existence of ruins now known in the great 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 stretch of desert from Deming to the Mexican boundary. Regarding the ruins on the Upper Mimbres, Bandelier writes : * Toward this center of drainage the aboriginal villages on the Rio Mimbres have gravitated as far south nearly as the flow of water is now permanent. They are very abundant on both sides of the stream, wherever the high over- hanging plateaux have left any habitable and tillable space ; they do not seem to extend east as far as Cook’s Range, but have penetrated into the Sierra Mim- bres farther north, as far as twenty miles from the river eastward. .... The total number of ruins scattered as far north as Hincks’ Ranch on a stretch of about thirty miles along the Mimbres in the valley proper, I estimate at about SHOMDNG: Goe-c I have not seen a village whose population I should estimate at over one hundred, and the majority contained ten. They were built of rubble in mud or adobe mortar, the walls usually thin, with overwings, and a fireplace in the corner, formed by a recess bulging out of a wall. Toward the lower end of the permanent water course, the ruins are said to be somewhat extensive. Professor U. Francis Duff, in an article on the “ Ruins of the Mimbres Valley,” * adds a number of new sites to those mentioned above and contributes important additions to our knowledge of the prehistoric culture of the valley. Dr. Walter Hough, who compiled from Bauldeliee and Duff, and made use of unpublished information furnished by Professor De Lashmutt and others, enumerates twenty-seven ruins in the Silver City and Mimbres region to which he assigns the numbers 147-174. Many more ruins * might have been included in this list, but it is not the author’s purpose, at this time, to mention individual pueblo sites but rather to call attention to the evidences of ruins in the Lower Mimbres Valley as an introduction to the study of pottery there col- lected. The ruin from which the majority of the bowls here con- sidered were obtained does not appear to have been mentioned -by Bandelier, Duff, or Hough. The last-mentioned author makes the following reference to figures on the pottery from the Mimbres region: “ The decoration is mainly geometric. From the Mimbres he [Professor De Lashmutt] has seeti a realistic design resembling a grasshopper, and from Fort Bayard another representing a four-legged creature. Mrs. Owen has a + Archeological Institute of America, American Series, vol. 4, Final Report, Part 2, pp. 356, 357. > American Antiquarian, vol. 24, p. 397, 1902. > Bandelier (op. cit., p. 357) speaks of sixty ruins in a small section thirty miles along the river. / NO. 10 ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 5 specimen from Fort Bayard bearing what is described as a ‘fish design.” * Dr. Hough likewise points out that pottery from some sites [ruins] is also different from that of any other [Pueblo] region and is affiliated, in some respects, with that of the Casas Grandes, in Chihuahua which lies in the low foot-hills of Sierra Madre. This is especially true in reference to fragments of yellow ware found here [the Florida Mountains] which in both form and color of decoration is mani- festly like that of Casas Grandes.” The latest and thus far the most important contribution to our knowledge of the prehistoric people of the Mimbres we owe to Mr. C. L. Webster, who has published several articles on the antiquities of the Upper Mimbres, in “‘ The Archzological Bulletin.” He has made known several new village sites along the valley and has mentioned, for the first time, details regarding Mimbres ruins and the objects found itt them. Practically nothing has thus far been recorded on the antiquities of the region immediately about Deming, nor of those south of that important railroad center to the Mexican border. In an article on “ Some Burial Customs Practiced by the Ancient People of the Southwest,’* Mr. Webster describes and figures a human burial on the Lower Mimbres not far from the “ Military Post,” situated near Oldtown. It was found in the plain some dis- tance from any indications of prehistoric settlement. He says: An exploration of it [a burial] revealed that originally a circular excavation, perhaps three feet in diameter and slightly more in depth, had been made in the ground; and aiterwards the body placed at the bottom of this excavation in a sitting posture with the knees somewhat drawn up and arms to the side, and then a very large earthen olla, of a reddish color, was set over it, bottom side up, thus protecting it from the earth which was afterwards thrown in, filling up the excavation. Mr. Webster shows that the Mimbres aborigines did not always bury their dead in a contracted or seated posture. He speaks also of intramural or house burials in the valley of Rio Sapillo, a tributary of the Upper Gila, not far from the source of the Mimbres. In this region he dug down in one of the central rooms of a ruin about three feet below the surface, where he says (p. 73): Near the bottom of this excavation hard red clay was encountered, which on opening up proved to contain the well-preserved skeleton of an adult person * Bull. 35, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 83. See also an article subsequently pub- lished on the Culture of the Ancient Pueblos of the Upper Gila River Region, Bull. 87, 1913, U. S. National Museum, in which several bowls with geometrical designs from Fort Bayard are figured. * Bandelier found that Mimbres pottery resembles that of several regions, including Casas Grandes. * The Archeological Bulletin, vol. 3, No. 3, p. 70. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 which had been placed at length on its back with arms at its side. Over the face of this one [human burial] had been placed a rather large shallow dish, through the bottom of which a hole about the size of a five cent piece, or a little larger, had been carefully drilled. This hole was so located as to occupy a position between the eyes when placed over the face. This body was resting on a bed of red clay like that which had covered it.’ Near the first body was a second body which had been buried in exactly the same way, and had a similar perforated dish over its face. Under this first or upper tier of bodies a second tier of bodies was discovered which had been buried exactly the same way as the upper tier—each one resting separate and alone, though near together, each one tightly enveloped in stiff red clay. All the vessels placed over the faces showed the action of fire, and it was plain to be seen they had once been used in cooking. .... The method prac- tised here was to first spread down a layer of red plastic clay, then lay the body upon it, place the perforated dish over the face and finally plaster all with a covering of the same clay. This same method was followed in every case observed. SITES OF RUINS IN THE LOWER MIMBRES VALLEY The portion of the Sierra Madre plateau called Lower Mimbres, or Antelope Valley, extends from where the Mimbres sinks below the surface at Oldtown to Lake Palomas in Mexico, twenty-five miles south of Deming. According to some writers this region has no pre- historic ruins, but several of the beautiful specimens described and figured in the present article came from this valley, and there are. doubtless many others, equally instructive, still awaiting the spade of the archeologist. The purest form of the Mimbres prehistoric culture is found in the lower or southern part of this plain, but it extends into the hills far up the Mimbres almost to its source. The plateau on which the prehistoric Mimbres culture developed is geographically well marked, and distinguished from other regions of the Southwest geographically and biologically, facts reflected in human culture. The cultural gateway is open to migrations from the south rather than from the east, north, or west. The evidences drawn from the poor preservation of the walls of the ruins, and the paucity of historical references to them, instead of indicating absence of a prehistoric population suggest the existence of a very ancient culture that had been replaced by wandering Apache tribes years before the advent of the Spaniards. Chronologically the prehistoric people belongs to an older epoch than the Pueblo, and its culture resembles that which antedated the true Pueblos.’ * During the author’s stay in Deming he was much indebted to Dr. S. D. Swope for many kindnesses, among which was an opportunity to study his valuable collection, now in the high school of that city. He was also greatly ' | | 7 ford ren Oe Cry st alee ta! A ot re NO. 10 ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 7 The ruins here considered do not belong to the same type as those of the Lower Gila and Salt, although they may be contemporaneous with them, and may have been inhabited at the same time as those on ‘the Casas Grandes River in northern Chihuahua. Not regarded as belonging to the same series of ruins as those on the Upper Gila and Salt rivers, they are not designated numerically with them. Although the indications of an ancient prehistoric occupancy of the Mimbres are so numerous, they are so indistinct and have been so little studied that any attempt here to include all of them would be premature. Remains of human occupancy occur in the plain about Deming, and can be traced northward along the river east and west into the mountains, and south into Mexico. The author has observed many evidences of former settlements along the Upper Mimbres which have not yet been recorded. The indications are, as a rule, inconspicuous, appearing on the surface of the ground in the form of rows of stones or bases of house walls, fragments of pottery, and broken stone implements, such as metates and manos. ‘These sites are commonly called “ Indian graves,” skeletons often having been excavated from the enclosures outlined by former house walls. There are also evidences of prehistoric ditches at certain points along the Mimbres, showing that the ancients irrigated their small farms. No attempt is made here to consider all the ruins of the Mimbres or of the Antelope plain in the immediate neighborhood of Deming, but only those that have been visited, mainly ruins from which the objects here described were obtained. Although few of the walls of the ancient buildings rise high above ground, they can be readily traced in several places. From remains that were examined it appears that the walls were sometimes built of stone laid in mortar and plastered on the inside, or of adobe strength- ened at the base with stones and supported by logs, a few of which have been found in place upright. No differentiation of sacred and secular rooms was noticed, and no room could be identified as belong- ing to the type called kiva. The floors of the rooms were made of “ caleche,” hardened by having been tramped down; the fireplace was. placed in one corner, on the floor, and the entrance to the room was probably at one side. To all intents and purposes these dwellings were probably not unlike those fragile wattle-walled structures found aided by Mr. E. D. Osborn and several other citizens, and takes this opportunity to thank all who rendered assistance in his studies. The photographs repro- duced in the present paper were made by Mr. Osborn. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 very generally throughout the prehistoric Southwest, and supposed to antedate the communal dwellings or pueblos of northern New Mexico. The two aboriginal sites in the Mimbres Valley that have yielded the majority of the specimens here figured and described are the Old- town ruin and the Osborn ruin, a small village site twelve miles south of Deming and four miles west of the Florida Mountains. There are some differences in general appearance and variations in the minor archeological objects from these two localities, but it is supposed that specimens from both indicate a closely related, if not identical, cul- ture area. About a year ago Mr. E. D. Osborn, of Deming, who had com- menced excavation in these ruins, obtained from them a considerable collection of pottery and other objects. His letters on the subject and his photographs of the pottery, sent to the Bureau of American Ethnology, first led the author to visit southern New Mexico to inves- tigate the archeology of the Mimbres. VILLAGE SITE NEAR OSBORN RANCH * A few extracts from Mr. Osborn’s letters regarding this site form a fitting introduction to a description of the sites and the objects from them: At the present time [December 8, 1913] the nearest permanent water to this place [site of the cemetery] is either the Palomas Lake in Mexico, twenty-five miles south, or thirty miles north, where the Mimbres River sinks into the earth. .. . . This supposed Pueblo site is situated upon a low sandy ridge which at this point makes a right-angle bend, one part running south and the other west from the angle. The top and sides of the ridge, also the “ flat” -enclosed between the areas of the ridge, to the extent of about an acre, is lit- tered all over with fragments, charcoal and debris containing bones to the depth of from one to three feet. There are also a great many broken metates and grinding stones. .... In digging on top of this ridge, near the angle, we occasionally found what appeared to have been adobe wall foundations, but not sufficiently large to determine the size or shape of any building. In digging on the ridge a few stone implements were found, including one fine stone axe, stone paint pots and mortars, and a few arrowheads, also two bone awls and a few shell beads and bracelets, the last all broken. The only article of wood was the stump of a large cedar post full of knots, badly decayed; it had been burned off two or three inches below the surface of the ground. The cemetery was found on the inner slope of the angle facing the southwest. .... Ina * Specimens were also found by Mr. Osborn at the Byron Ranch ruin, at the Black Mountain site, and elsewhere. * This is the ruin called Osborn ruin in subsequent descriptions. NO. IG ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 9 large proportion of cases the body was placed upon its back, feet drawn up against the body, knees higher than the head; sometimes the head was face up and sometimes it was pressed forward so the top of the head was uppermost. In other interments the body was extended its full length with face up. A large majority of the skulls had a bowl* inverted over them, though I judge twenty per cent were without any bowl. ... . In a great many instances after the body had been placed in the grave with bowl over the head, a little soil was filled in, and about one foot of adobe mud was added and tramped down then filled up with soil. This adobe mud is almost like rock, making it difficult to dig up the bowl without smashing it... .. No article of any kind except the bowl over the head was found in any grave. In one case a bow! was found with a skull under it and under that skull was another bowl and another skull. Few evidences of upright walls of buildings are found at or near this site. The surface of the ground in places rises into low mounds devoid of bushes, which grow sparingly in the immediate neighbor- hood, but no trees of any considerable size were noticed in the vicinity. Before work began at this place the only signs of former occupancy by aborigines, besides walls, were a few broken fragments of ancient pottery, metates, or a burnt stump protruding here and there from the ground. None of the house walls projected very high above the surface of the grqund. Excavations in the floors of rooms at this point yielded so many human skeletons that the place was com- monly referred to as a cemetery, but all indications support the con- clusion that it was probably a village site with intramural interments. The human burials here found had knees flexed or drawn to the breast in the “ contracted ” position, sometimes with the face turned eastward. The skeletons were sometimes found in shallow graves, but often were buried deeply below the surface. Almost without exception the crania had bowls fitted over them like caps. The graves as a rule are limited to soft ground, the bowls resting on undisturbed sand devoid of human remains. In some instances there appears to have been a hardened crust of clay above the remains, possibly all that is left of the floor of a dwelling. The indications are that here, as elsewhere, the dead were buried under the floors of dwellings, as is commonly the case throughout the Mimbres Valley. While there is not enough of the walls above ground to show the former extent *On some of the skulls excavated at Sikyatki, Arizona, in 1895, the author found concave disks of kaolin perforated in the center. One of these disks is represented in Fig. 356, p. 720, 17th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. In an article on “ Urn Burial in the United States” (Amer. Anthrop., vol. 6, No. 5), Mr. Clarence B. Moore, quoting his own observations and those of many others, records burials in which an inverted mortar, bowl, basket, or other object was placed over the skull of the dead, and shows the wide distribution of the custom. IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 62 of the dwellings, the indications are that they were extensive and have been broken down and washed away. OLDTOWN RUIN Near where the Mimbres leaves the hills and, after spreading out, is lost in the sand, there was formerly a “ station,’ on the mail route, called Mimbres, but now known as Oldtown. Since the founding of Deming, the railroad center, the stage route has been abandoned and Mimbres (Oldtown) has so declined in population that nothing remains of this settlement except a ranch-house, a school-house, and a number of deserted adobe dwellings. Oldtown lies on the border of what must formerly have been a lake and later became a morass or cienega, but is now a level plain lined on one side with trees and covered with grass, affording excellent pasturage. From this point the water of the Mimbres River is lost, and its bed is but a dry channel or arroyo which meanders through the plain, filled with water only part of the year. In the dry months the river sinks below the surface of the plain near Oldtown reappear- ing at times where the subsoil comes to the surface, and at last forms Palomas Lake in northern Mexico. In June, when the author visited Oldtown, the dry bed of the Mimbres throughout its course could be readily traced by a line of green vegetation along the whole length of the plain from the Old- town site to the Florida Mountains.’ The locality of emergence of the Mimbres from the hills or where its waters sink below the surface is characteristic. The place is sur- rounded by low hills forming on the south a precipitous cliff, eighty feet high, which the prehistoric inhabitants chose as a site of one of their villages; from the character and abundance of pottery found, there is every reason to suppose this was an important village. The Oldtown ruin is one of the most extensive seen by the author during his reconnoissance in the Deming Valley, although not so large as some of those in the Upper Mimbres, or on Whiskey Creek, near Central. Although it is quite difficult to determine the details of the general plan, the outlines of former rectangular rooms are indi- cated by stone walls that may be fairly well traced. There seem to have been several clusters of rooms arranged in rows, separated by square or rectangular plazas, unconnected, often with circular depres- sions between them. ; *A beautiful view of the valley can be obtained from the top of Black Mountain, above the small ruin at its base, that will be mentioned presently. a S NO. IO ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES If There is considerable evidence of “ pottery hunting ” by amateurs in the mounds of Oldtown, and it is said that several highly decor- ated food bowls adorned with zoic figures have been taken from the rooms. It appears that the ancient inhabitants here, as elsewhere, practised house burial and that they deposited their dead in the contracted position, placing bowls over the crania (fig. 1).* The author excavated several buried skeletons from a rectangular area situated about the middle of the Oldtown ruin, surrounded on three sides by walls. The majority of the dead were accompanied (age ye O37, Fig. 1—Urn burial. (Schematic. ) with shell beads and a few turquoise ornaments, and on one was found a number of shell tinklers made of the spires of seashells. One of the skeletons excavated by Mr. Osborn appeared to have been en- closed in a stone cist with a flat slab of stone covering the skull. The remains of a corner post supporting the building stood upright on this slab. In another case a skull was found broken into fragments by the large stone that had covered it. Several skeletons had no bowls * The drawings of pottery designs in this article were made by Mrs. M. W. Gill; the stone and other objects were drawn by Mr. R. Weber. * A significant feature in the Mimbres form of “ urn burial” is the invariable puncturing of the bowl inverted over the head. The ancient Peruvians in some instances appear to have “killed” their mortuary bowls, and life figures depicted on Peruvian pottery are sometimes arranged in pairs as in the Mimbres. TZ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 over the heads, an exceptional feature in Mimbres burials; and in some instances the bowl had been placed over the face. In the case of numerous infant interments the bowl covered the whole skeleton. RUIN ON BYRON RANCH This ruin lies not far from the present course of the Mimbres near the Little Florida Mountains. The place has long been known as an aboriginal village site and considered one of the most important in the valley. The remains of buildings cover a considerable area. They have a rudely quadrangular form, showing here and there depressions and lines of stones, evidently indicating foundations of rooms, slightly protruding from the ground. Although this ruin has been extensively dug over by those in search of relics, no system- atic excavations seem to have been attempted. It is said that valu- able specimens have been obtained here, and fragments of pottery, arrowheads, and broken stone implements are still picked up on the surface. The important discovery of burial customs of the ancient Mim- brenos was made by Mr. Duff at this ruin. He excavated below the floor of one of the rooms and found a human cranium on which was inverted a food bowl pierced in the middle, the first example of this custom noted in the Mimbres region. RUIN NEAR DEMING About seven miles northwest of Deming, in a field on the north side of the Southern Pacific Railroad, there is a small tract of land Fic. 2—Paint mortar. Diam. 2%”. showing aboriginal artifacts strewn over the surface, affording good evidence of prehistoric occupation. There are no house walls visible at this place, and only a few fragments of food bowls, but in the course of an hour’s search several small mortars (fig. 2), paint grinders and other objects were procured at this place.’ * Although not placed in the proper locality on his map, this ruin seems to be one of_the “ pueblos” (Nos. 162-164) mentioned by Dr. Hough. at a NO. IO ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 13 PREHISTORIC SITE NEAR BLACK MOUNTAIN Walls. and outlines of rooms indicated by rows of stones mark remains of a prehistoric settlement at the base of Black Mountain, eight or nine miles northwest from Deming. Here occur many frag- ments of pottery, broken metates, and manos, and other indications of occupation by man. On top of Black Mountain there are rude cairns or rings of stones apparently placed there by human hands. The fragments of pottery taken from the ruin at the base of Black Mountain are very different from those from Oldtown and other typical Mimbres ruins. Its color on the outside is red, with a white interior surface decorated with black geometric designs, the border is flaring often with exceptional exterior decoration. These bowls have broken encircling lines—a feature yet to be found in other Mimbres pottery—and none of the few pieces yet obtained from the ruin near Black Mountain has animal pictures. The whole appear- ance of this pottery recalls old Gila ware and suggests an intrusion from without the Mimbres region, possibly from the north and west. The circles of stones on the top of Black Mountain have many points of resemblance to similar structures on hilltops near Swarts’ Ranch on the Upper Mimbres, described by Mr. Webster, as_ fol- lows:* : The tops of nearly all the mountains of this valley, and particularly those here mapped, are occupied by hundreds of rock mounds, breastworks, pits, ete. The region shown in plate 3, and which represents an area about one mile in length and three-fourths mile in width, exhibits 240 of these structures. ... . These rock mounds are composed of more or less rounded rocks gathered from the region, and generally weighing from four to eight pounds each; although many are smaller: and again others weigh from twenty-five to fifty pounds or more each. These sti uctures are generally circular: although at times they are ovate, and again assume an oblong or linear marginal outline. They vary considerably in size, although usually being only from three to four feet in diameter : the linear ones being from six to eight feet or more in length. Some of the larger circular mounds assume a diameter of seven to eight feet. The height of these mounds varies considerably ; but as a rule assume a height rang- ing from one to one and a half feet. The distance apart of these structures is variable; being as a general thing from five to fifteen feet; but not infrequently they are only two to four feet apart: at other times, however, they may be observed to be from sixty to ninety feet or more distant from each other. * Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Southwestern New Mexico, Part 2, Ruin, Ancient Work Shop, Rock Mounds, ete., at Swarts’ Ranch. (The Archeological Bulletin, vol. 4, No. 1, p. 14, 1913.) T4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 Mr. Webster discovered on a rocky ridge near Swarts’ ruin, some- what higher on the Mimbres than Brockman’s Mill, seven similar earthen pits of much interest, which remind the author of subter- ranean or half-sunken dwellings. They are saucer-shaped or linear depressions, averaging about two feet in depth; when circular they are from five to fifteen feet in diameter the linear form in one instance being fifty feet long. Some of these have elevated margins, others with scarcely any marginal ridge. The western margin in one instance has a “ wall of rounded stones.” j There are similar saucer-shaped depressions near Brockman’s Mills and elsewhere in the Mimbres, almost identical with “ pit dwell- ings” found by Dr. Hough near Los Lentes. These saucer-like depressions, often supposed to have been the pits from which adobe was dug, were also places of burial, the dead being presumably interred under or on the floors; the original exeavation being a dwelling that was afterwards used as a burial place for the dead. Their form suggests the circular kiva of the Pueblos and has’ been so interpreted by some persons. RUINS ON THE MIMBRES RIVER FROM OLDTOWN TO BROCKMAN’S MILLS On low terraces elevated somewhat above the banks of the river, between Oldtown and Brockman’s Mills, there are several village sites, especially on the western side.’ The most important of these is situated about four miles north of Oldtown. The ruin at the Allison Ranch, situated at the Point of Rocks where the cliffs come down to the river banks, is large and there are many pictographs nearby. The ruins at Brockman’s Mills on the opposite or eastern side of the river lie near the ranch-house. Many rooms, some of which seem to have walls well plastered, can be seen just behind the corral. North of the ruin is a hill with low lines of walls like trin- cheras. On some of the stones composing these walls and on neigh- boring scattered boulders, there are well-made pictographs.” PICTOGRAPHS Pictographs occur at several localities along the Mimbres. As these have a general likeness to each other and differ from those of other regions, they are supposed to be characteristic of the prehistoric *For a description of ruins at Swarts’ and Brockman’s Mills see C. L. Webster, Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Southwestern New Mexico. (The Archeological Bulletin, vol. 3, No. 4.) *It is said that a Spanish bell in the Chamber of Commerce at Deming, was dug up on this ranch near the ruin. This bell might indicate an old mission at this place. we? iy DP tae Sb ie ea FEWKES ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY NO. IO Fic. 3.—Pictographs. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 people. They are generally pecked on the sides of boulders or on the face of the cliffs in the neighborhood of prehistoric sites of dwell- ings. Although there is only a remote likeness between these picto- graphs and figures on pottery, several animal forms are common to the two. The most important group of pictographs (fig. 3) seen by the author are situated about nine miles from Deming in the western foot-hills of Cook’s Peak.” Some of the pictographs recall decora- tions on bowls from Pajarito Park. Another large collection of Mimbres pictographs, visited by the author, is found at Rock Canyon, three or four miles above Oldtown, at a point where the cliffs approach the western bank of the river. On the river terrace not far above this collection of pictures, also on the right bank of the river, lies the extensive ruin of a prehistoric settle- ment, the walls of which project slightly above the surface. This ruin has been dug into at several points revealing several fine pieces of pottery, fragments of metates, and other implements, which are said to have been found in the rooms. A mile down the valley overlooking the river there is another cluster of pictures at a ruin called “ Indian graveyard,” probably because human skeletons have been dug out of the floors of rooms. MORTARS IN ROCK IN PLACE One of the characteristic features of the Mimbres ruins, but not peculiar to them, are mortars or circular depressions worn in the horizontal surface of rock in place. They are commonly supposed to have been used as mortars for pounding corn, and vary in size from two inches to a foot in diameter, being generally a foot deep. We find them occurring alone or in clusters. Good examples of such depressions are found near the Byron ruin, in the neighborhood of the ruins along Whiskey Creek, at Oldtown, and elsewhere. There is a fine cluster of these mortars nine miles from Deming, near the pictographs in the Cook’s Range. Similar mortars have been repeatedly described and often figured. Mr. Webster has given the most complete account of this type of mortars in a description of the ancient ruins near Cook’s Peak.’ On the surface of the southwestern + The author visited these rocks in company with Dr. Swope, who has known - of them for many years. * Archeological and Ethnological. Researches in Southwestern New Mexico, Part 4. (The Archeological Bulletin, vol. 5, No. 2, p. 21.) NO. I0 ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 7, point of a low hill to the north of an ancient ruin at Cook’s Peak, according to this observer, occurs a feature which the writer had nowhere else seen, save on the east side of the same mountain. I refer to the great number of mortars which occur in this sandstone back a few feet to the north of the ruins, and which were made and long used by the ancient pueblo-dwellers. There exists at this one place fifty-three of these mortars, nearly all of them occurring in an area of surface not more than seventy-five or eighty feet in diameter. .... Nearly all the mortars are circular or sub-circular in outline, symmetrical and smooth inside, and the upper edge or margin usually rounded by the pestle. In a few cases, however, these mortars have an oblong or subovate outline, somewhat like some forms of metates found among the ruins. These mortars often contract to a point at the bottom, when circular in mar- ginal outline, although at times are longer than broad, as just stated, and in this case have a more flattened bottom. They vary from two to eleven inches in diameter, the smallest forms being those apparently only just begun, and are few in number. The deepest mortar observed was seventeen inches, though the great majority of them would vary perhaps from four to ten inches in depth. Often the rock was smooth and polished around the margin of the mortars, and [their distances apart] vary from a few inches to several feet from each other. At times these mortars would be located on the top of a large block of sand- stone which might happen to occupy this area; these boulders sometimes being four to five feet in diameter and perhaps four feet in height. It was plain to be seen that this ancient mill-site was long used by these peculiar people, but just why so many quite similar mortars should have been made here and used by these people is a matter of conjecture. It seems certain that a sufficiently large number of people could not have been congregated here, under ordinary conditions, to warrant the forming of so many mortars for the purpose of grinding food. The present writer accepts the theory that these rock depressions were used in pounding corn or other seeds, but their great number in localities where ruins are insignificant or wanting is suggestive. We constantly find arable land near them, indicating that communal grinding may have been practised, and suggesting a large population living in their immediate neighborhood, which may have left no other sign of their presence. MINOR ANTIQUITIES The artifacts picked up on the surface near ruins or excavated from village sites resemble so closely those from other regions of the Southwest that taken alone these do not necessarily indicate special *Mr. Webster describes “ancient pueblos ” on the western side of this group of mountains as well as on the eastern slope of Cook’s Range. Certain cave lodges, or walled caves, in a wild canyon on the east side of Cook’s Peak are supposed by him to be the recent work of Apaches. 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 culture areas. A few of the more common forms from the Mimbres are here figured for comparison, but, with the exception of the pot- tery, there is little individuality shown in the majority of these objects. Among other objects may be mentioned stone implements, mortars, idols, bone implements, shell ornaments, and pottery. STONE IMPLEMENTS The stone axes are not very different from those of the Rio Grande and the Gila, but it is to be noticed that they are not so numerous as in , Fic. 4.—Stone axe. Fic. 5.—Arrow polisher. Length 3%”, 3, y Length 8%”, breadth 2%”. the latter region, and are probably inferior in workmanship, fine specimens indeed being rare. The majority of the axes (fig. 4) are single grooved, but a few have two grooves. In Dr. Swope’s col- lection, now in the Deming High School, there is a fairly good double-bladed axe. Miss Alnutt, of Deming, has a remarkable collection of arrow- points gathered from many localities in the valley, and also a few fine spearpoints, conical pipes, and other objects taken from the sacred spring at Faywood Hot Spring. A beautiful arrow polisher found near Deming is shown in figure 5, = NO. ALO ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 19 The pipes from the Mimbres take the form of tubular cloud- blowers, specimens of which are shown in figure 6. Apparently these pipes were sometimes thrown into sacred springs, but others have been picked up on the surface of village sites or a few feet below the surface. Fic. 6.—Cloud blowers. Faywood Hot Springs. (Swope collection.) 14 nat. size. Lateral and top views of one of the characteristic forms of small stone mortars with a handled projection on one side is shown 1m figure 7. This specimen is in the Swope collection in the Deming Fic. 7—Handled mortar. (Swope collection.) Length 1034”. High School. In the same collection there are also two beautiful tubular pipes, or cloud-blowers, from the same spring. The stone mortars from Mimbres ruins vary in size. Many are simply spherical stones with a depression on one side; others are larger but still spherical, or ovate; while others have square or 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 rectangular forms. The most remarkable feature in these is the presence of a handle on one side, which occasionally is duplicated, and in one instance four knobs or legs project from the periphery. These projections appear to characterize the mortars of the Mimbres, although they are not confined to them, as the form occurs in other regions of New Mexico and in California. One of the most instruct- ive of these small spherical paint mortars, now owned by Mr. E. D. Osborn, has ridges cut in high relief on the outside. Metates and manos, some broken, others whole, are numerous and can be picked up on almost every prehistoric site. While some of these metates are deeply worn, showing long usage, others have margins but slightly raised above the surface. The majority of metates found on the sites of habitations have no legs, but a typical Mexican metate with three knobs in the form of legs was presented to the National Museum by the Rev. E. S. Morgan, of Deming. Metates are sometimes found in graves with skeletons, presumably those of women. Several ancient metates are now in use as house- hold implements in Mexican dwellings. If the size of the population were to be gauged by the number of mortars and manos found, certainly the abundance of these imple- ments would show that many people once inhabited the plain through which flows the Mimbres River. Narrow, flat stone slabs have an incised margin on one end. ‘Their use is problematical. The fre- quency of stone balls suggests games, but these may have been used as weapons; or again, they were possibly used in foot races, as by the Hopi of to-day. . COPPER OBJECTS Native metallic copper was formerly abundant at the Santa Rita mines, and there is every probability that the material out of which some of the aboriginal. copper bells were made was found here, and that these mines were the source of float copper found in Arizona ruins. Although no copper implements were found by the author in the Mimbres ruins, he has been told that objects of copper apparently made by the aborigines have been found in some of the graves.’ * Elaborate metal objects of early historical times have been found at various places in the Mimbres. The best of these is a fragment of an elaborately decorated stirrup, now owned by Mr. Pryor of the Nan Ranch. A copper church bell was found near his house, and other metal objects belonging to the historic epoch are reported from various ruins in the valley. NO. 10 ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 21 STONE IDOLS The author saw several stone idols that were reported to have been obtained from ruins in the Mimbres Valley. These idols represent frogs (fig. 8), bears, mountain lions, and other quadrupeds, and have much the same form as those from ancient ruins in Arizona.’ SS S Fic. 8.—Frog fetish. Black Mountain Ruin. (Swope collection.) Length 31%”. On the backs of several of these stone idols are incised figures, like arrowheads tied to Zuni fetishes, or possibly rain-cloud figures. In one instance they were made on an elevated ridge, which unfortu- nately was broken. The author has also seen several small amulets, Fic. 10.—Fetish. Byron Ranch. (Swope collection.) Length 634”. perforated apparently for suspension. The stone idols here figured (figs. 8, 9, 10) were presented to the Deming High School by Dr. Swope. * Similar stone idols from the San Pedro Valley and other localities, in Arizona and New Mexico. have mortar-like depressions on their backs. No ho SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 SHELL BRACELETS AND CARVED SHELLS Two or three shell bracelets were excavated from Mimbres ruins, and there were also found carved shells and tinklers not unlike those of northern New Mexico ruins. Some of these when excavated were found near the head and are supposed to have been earrings. Five shell rings were still on the bones of the forearm of a child when found. One of the shell bracelets owned by Mr. Osborn was cracked but was pierced on each side of the break, indicating where it had been mended ; another had figures incised on its surface, and a third had the edges notched, imparting to it a zigzag shape, like that of a serpent. Many shell beads, spires of shells used for tinklers, and other shell objects, all made of génera peculiar to the Pacific Ocean, were found during the excavations. POTTERY FORMS AND COLORS The comparatively large number of vases, food bowls, and other forms of decorated smooth ware in collections from the Mimbres is Fic. 11—Braided handle. Fic. 12.—Small bowl. 4 nat. size. Diam. 314”. largely due to their use in mortuary customs, and the fact that almost without exception they were found placed over the skulls of the dead. Although the largest number of vessels are food bowls, there are also cups with twisted handles (fig. 11), bowls (fig. 12), vases, dippers, and other ceramic forms found in pueblo ruins.’ Coarse, undecorated vessels showing coils, indentations, superficial protuberances, and other rude decorations like those so well known in Southwestern ruins, are well represented. Some of these were * One of the exceptional forms of pottery has a flat rectangular base, the four sides being formed by bending up segments of a circular disk (fig. 18). NO. 10 ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 23 used as cooking vessels, as shown by the soot still adhering to their outer surface. While the majority of bowls were broken in frag- ments when found, a few were simply pierced through the bottom; one or two were unbroken or simply notched at the edge. The colors of Mimbres ware are uniform and often striking. There are good specimens of black and white ware; also red, black, and yellow with brown decorations are numerous. Some of the best pieces are colored a light orange. Many of the fragments are made of the finest paste identical in color and finish with ware from Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, which furnishes the best prehistoric pottery from the Southwest. No effigy jar, or animal formed vase, however, exists in any collections from the Mimbres examined by the author. Ruins in the Lower Mimbres have thus far yielded a larger variety and a finer type of pottery than ruins on the banks of the river among the hills, which is in part due to the extent of excavations. The Old- town potters developed a kind of pottery with characteristic orna- mentation found both in ruins in the plain to the south and along the narrow valley of the Mimbres to the north. The Mimbres pottery, like all other ancient ware from the South- west, frequently shows evidences of having been mended. Holes were drilled near the breaks and fibers formerly united the parts thus holding the bowl together even though broken. As one goes south, following the course of the river, the character of the pottery changes very slightly, but if anything is a little better. The food bowls generally have a rounded base, but one specimen is flat on the bottom. The edges of the bowls from the ruin at Black Mountain are curved outward, an exceptional feature in ancient Pueblo vessels but common in modern forms. PICTURES ON MIMBRES POTTERY The great value of the ceramic collection obtained from the Mimbres is the large number of figures representing men, animals, and characteristic geometrical designs, often highly conventional- ized, depicted on their interiors. These figures sometimes cover a greater part of the inner surface, are often duplicated, and are com- monly surrounded by geometrical designs or simple lines parallel with the outer rim of the vessel. It is important to notice the graceful way in which geometrical figures with which the ancient potters decorated their bowls are made to grade into the bodies of animals, as when animal figures become highly conventionalized into geomet- rical designs. Although these decorations are, as a rule, inferior to 24. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 those of the Hopi ruin, Sikyatki, the figures of animals are more numerous, varied, and realistic. The ancients represented on their food bowls men engaged in various occupations, such as hunting or ceremonial dances, and in that way have bequeathed to us a knowledge of their dress, their way of arranging their hair, weapons, and other objects adopted on such occasions. They have figured many animals accompanied by con- ventional figures which have an intimate relation to their cults and their social organization. Although limited in amount and imperfect in its teaching this material is most instructive. Fic. 13.—Hunters. Oldtown Ruin. (Osborn collection.) GROUP OF HUNTERS An instructive group of human figures is drawn on a deep red and white food bowl (fig. 13), which measures ten inches in diameter. It is evident that this design represents three hunters following the trail of a horned animal, probably a deer. This trail is represented on the surface of the bowl by a row of triangles, while the footprints of the hunters extend along its side. It may be noted that although there are three hunters, the trails of two only are represented, and that the hunters are barefoot. They have perhaps lost the trail and | NO; LO ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 2 mn are looking the opposite way, while the animal has turned back on his path. The footprints of the deer in advance of the hunters are tor- tuous, showing want of decision on the part of the animal. The three hunters are dressed alike, wearing the close-fitting jacket prob- ably made of strips of skin woven together like that found by Dr. Hough ina sacrificial cave at the head of the Tulerosa, New Mexico. Each carries a bow and arrow in his right hand, and in his left a stick which the leader uses as a cane ; the second hunter holds it by one end before him, and the third raises it aloft. These objects are supposed to represent either weapons or certain problematic wooden staffs with feathers attached, like divining rods, by which the hunters are in a magical way directed in their search. The first hunter “ feels” for the lost trail by means of this rod. An examination of the pictures of the arrows these hunters carry shows that each has a triangular appendage at the end representing feathers, and small objects, also feathers, tied to its very extremity. The hair of the third hunter appears to be a single coil hanging down the back, but in the other two it is tied in a cue at the back of the head. The eyes are drawn like the eyes on Egyptian paintings, that is, the eye as it appears in a front view is shown on the side of the head. The right shoulders of all are thrown out of position, in this feature recalling primitive perspective. The information conveyed by this prehistoric picture conforms with what is known from his- torical sources that the Mimbres Valley formerly abounded in ante- lopes, and we have here a representation of an aboriginal hunt. FIGURE OF A WOMAN A black and white bowl (pl. 1, fig. 1) is twelve and one-half inches in diameter and six inches deep. Upon this bow] is drawn a figure of a human being, probably a woman or a girl, seen from the front. Although portions of the figure are not very legible, such details as can be made out show a person wearing a blanket that extends almost to the knees leaving arms and legs bare, the lower limbs being covered. The head is square, as if masked, with hair tied at each lower corner. Although these appendages may be meant to represent ear-pendants, it is more likely that they are whorls of hair, as is still customary in Pueblo ceremonies in personations of certain maidens. Across the forehead are alternating black and white square figures arranged in two series, recalling corn or rain-cloud symbols. The neck is adorned by several strands of necklaces, the outermost of which, almost effaced, suggests rectangular ornaments. The garment worn by the 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 figure is evidently the ceremonial * blanket of a Pueblo woman, for no man wears this kind of garment. It has a white border and from its middle there hangs a number of parallel lines representing cords or a fringe, evidently the ends of a sash by which the blanket was formerly tied about the waist. It is instructive to notice that we find similar parallel lines represented in a picture of a girl from Sikyatki* where the blanket has the same rectangular form as in the prehistoric Mim- bres picture. There can be no question that in this case it represents a garment bound with a girdle, or that the picture was intended for that of a girl ora woman. We have in this picture evidence that the same method of arranging the hair was used in the Mimbres Valley as in northern New Mexico. The leg wrappings suggest those used by Pueblo women, especially the Hopi, whose leggings are made of long strips of buckskin attached to the moccasins and wound around the lower limbs. PRIEST SMOKING The third human figure, found on a black and white bowl from a Mimbres ruin, is duplicated by another of the same general character depicted on the opposite side of the bowl. These figures (fig. 14) are evidently naked men with bands of white across the faces. The eyes are represented in the Egyptian fashion. In one hand each figure holds a tube, evidently a cloud-blower or a pipe, with feathers attached to one extremity, and in the other hand each carries a tri- angular object resembling a Hopi rattle or tinkler. The posture of these figures suggest sitting or squatting, but the objects in the extended left hand would indicate dancing. The figure is identified as a man performing a ceremonial smoke which accompanies cere- monial rites. MAN WITH CURVED STICK One of the most instructive food bowls found at Oldtown, now owned by Mr. Osborn, has on it a picture of two hunters, one on each side of an animal (fig. 15). One of these hunters carries in his hand a stick crooked at the end, its form suggesting a throwing stick.’ Both hunters have laid aside their quivers, bows, and arrows, which are shown behind them. The picture of an animal between them has been so mutilated by “ killing ” or breaking the bowl that it is impos- * Called also a “ wedding blanket” since it is presented to a girl on marriage by her husband’s family. *17th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., pl. 120, fig. a. * The hand of the hunter pictured on a bowl already described (fig. 13), also carried a curved stick. NO. IO ARCITEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 2 N Fic. 14.—Priest smoking. Osborn Ruin. Fic. 15—Man with curved stick. Oldtown Ruin. (Osborn collection.) Diam. 514”. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 sible to identify it. From the end of this crook to the body of the animal there extend two parallel lines of dots indicating the pathway of a discharged weapon. Near the body of the animal these rows of dots take a new direction, as if the weapon had bounded away or changed its course. The rows of dots are supposed to represent lines of meal by which Pueblos are accustomed to symbolically indicate trails or “ roads.” There is, of course, some doubt as to the correct identification of the crooked staff as a throwing stick, for as yet no throwing stick has been found in the Mimbres ruins. The resemblance of the crooked stick to those on certain Hopi altars and its resemblance to emblems of weapons carried by warrior societies is noteworthy. Crooked sticks of this character have been found in caves in the region north of the Mimbres.’ We find a survival of a similar crook used as sacred paraphernalia in several of the Hopi ceremonies, where they play an important rdle. As the author has pointed out, crooked sticks or gnelas (fig. 16) identified as ancient weapons surround the sand picture of the Ante- lope altar in the Snake Dance at Walpi, and in Snake altars of other Hopi pueblos, but it is in the Winter Solstice Ceremony, or the Soya- luna, at the East Mesa of the Hopi, that we find special prominence given to this warrior emblem. During this elaborate festival every Walpi and Sitcomovi kiva regards one of these gnelas as especially efficacious for the warriors, and it is installed in a prominent place on the kiva floor, as indicated in the author’s account of that ceremony. The following explanation of these crooks was given him by the priests: These crooks or gnelas have been called warrior prayer sticks, and are symbols of ancient weapons. In many folk tales it is stated that warriors overcame their foes by the use of gnelas which would indicate that they had something to do with ancient war implements. Their association with arrows on the Antelope altars adds weight to this conclusion. The picture from Oldtown ruin of the hunter who has laid aside the quiver, bow, and arrow, and is using a similar gnela,’ corroborates this interpretation. Not all crooked sticks used by the Hopi are prayer sticks, or weap- ons, for sometimes in Hopi ceremonials a number of small shells are * Bull. 87, U. S. National Museum. * The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi. Amer. Anthrop., Ist ser., vol. 11, Nos. 3, 4, pp. 65-87, 101-115. * An ancient crook found in a cave near Silver City is figured by Dr. Hough. Bull. 87, U. S. National Museum. NO. IO ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 29 tied to the extremity of a crooked stick forming a kind of rattle. In the Flute Ceremony a crooked stick is said to be used to draw down the clouds when the rain they contain is much desired. Figure 16 is a representation of one of the crooks which was specially made for use in the Soyalufia at Walpi, in 1900. Similar crooks were set upright in a low mound of sand on the floors of all the kivas. Extending from the base of the crook to the ladder there Zs Fic. 16.—Hopi curved stick. Length 8”. was sprinkled a line of meal called the road (of blessings), over which was stretched a feathered string attached to the end of the crook. Midway in the length of the crook was attached a packet of prayer meal wrapped in cornhusk and a feather of the hawk, a bird dear to warriors, and other objects, which indicated a prayer offering. At the termination of ceremonies in which these crooks are made and blessed as prayer emblems by the Hopi they are deposited in shrines as recorded. 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 The crook (gnela) is used as a prayer emblem of warriors because it has the form of an ancient weapon, and while it assumes modifica- tions in different Hopi ceremonies it apparently has one and the same intent, as in Soyalufia. This crook is sometimes interpreted as sym-_ bolically representing an old man with head bent over by age, but this interpretation is probably secondary to that suggested above, as so often happens in the interpretations given by primitive priests. The true interpretation of the crooked prayer stick was pointed out by the author in his article on “ Minor Hopi Festivals,” ’ as follows: This crook is believed by the author to be a diminutive representation of an implement akin to a throwing stick, the object of which is to increase the Fic. 17.—Human figure running. Oldtown Ruin. (Osborn collection.) Diam. 714”. velocity of a shaft thrown in thé air. Its prototype is repeatedly used in Hopi rites, and it occurs among Hopi paraphernalia always apparently with the same or nearly the same meaning. In figure 17 1s represented a person running with outstretched banded arms, holding in the left hand a bow, and in the other a straight stick. The head is circular with cross lines, a round, dotted eye, and two triangular ears. Another representation shows a human figure with a bow and arrow before the hands, accompanied by three animals, the middle one being a bird and the two lateral, quadrupeds. * Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 4, p. 502. NO. 10 ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 31 By far the most unusual group of human forms consists of two figures, one male, the other female, depicted on another bowl. The action in which these two are engaged is evident. The female figure has dependent breasts and wears a girdle. One hand is raised and brought to the face and the other carries a triangular object. The female figure has three parallel marks on the cheek, like the Hopi war-god. Behind the woman are several curved lines depicting unidentified objects. The figure shown on one bowl (fig. 18) has several marked fea- tures, but the author is unable to suggest any theory of identification. It seems to be a seated figure with a human head, arms, and legs, the toes and fingers being like hands and feet. The forearm is drawn on the shoulder in the same way as in the one of the hunters (fig. 12). Fic, 18—Unidentified animal and bowl of unusual form. Oldtown Ruin. (Osborn collection. ) The eye, nose, and mouth are also human, but the body is more like that of an animal. The appendages back of the head are similar to those interpreted as feathers on the heads of certain animal designs: On the theory that this is a seated human figure it is interesting to speculate on the meaning of the curved object represented on the sur- face of the bowl, extending from one hand to the foot. This object has the general form of a rabbit stick or boomerang, still used by the Hopi in rabbit hunting.’ * Rabbits are abundant in the Mimbres Valley and several well-drawn pictures of this animal are found on the pottery. 3 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 63 The well-drawn figure painted on a bowl (pl. 1, fig. 2) from Oldtown ruin represents a man with knees extended and arms raised as if dancing. This picture has characteristic markings on the face, but otherwise is not distinctive. QUADRUPEDS Wolf —Although there are not sufficiently characteristic features represented in the next figure (pl. 2, fig. 1)’ to identify it satisfac- torily, the form of the head, tail, mouth, and ears suggests a wolf.’ The square design” covering one side of the body seems to the Fic. 19.—Antelope. (Osborn collection.) Diam. 10”. author not to belong to the animal itself, for an Indian who could represent an animal as faithfully as those here pictured would not place on it such markings unless for a purpose. It resembles the small blankets sometimes worn by pet dogs or horses among white people, which is a lame explanation, as dog and horse blankets were "This picture resembles that of a wolf depicted on the east wall of the warrior chamber at Walpi. See Amer. Anthrop. n. s., vol. 4, pl. 22. * Pictures of the mountain licn by Pueblo artists, at least among the Hopi, have the tail turned over the back. The animal on the Mimbres bowl having. no horns is not a horned deer or antelope. *The decoration of the bodies of animals with rectangular figures is a common feature in Mimbres pottery, as will be seen in pictures of birds soon to be considered. NO. 10 ARCHEOLOGY OF MIMBRES VALLEY—FEWKES 33 unknown among Indians. The only theory the author has formed regarding this geometrical figure is that it is a variant of the Sikyatki habit of accompanying a figure of an animal with a repre- sentation of his shrine. This bowl is of black and white ware and is eleven inches in diameter by five and one-half inches deep. Antelope-—There are two’ figures of an animal with branching horns, supposed to be an antelope, an animal formerly common in Mimbres Valley. In one of these (fig. 19) the head is held downward as if the animal were feeding; in the other (fig. 20) the neck is Fic. 20.—Antelope. Osborn Ruin. Diam. 10”. extended.