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SMITHSONIAN
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

C82 00000'

‘““BVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARGHES,
AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN ’’—SMITHSON

(PUBLICATION 2419)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1916
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BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.

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ADVERTISEMENT

The present series, entitled “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions,” is intended to embrace all the octavo publications of the Insti-
tution, except the Annual Report. Its scope is not limited, and the
volumes thus far issued relate to nearly every branch of science.
Among these various subjects zoology, bibliography, geology,
mineralogy, and anthropology have predominated.

The Institution also publishes a quarto series entitled “ Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.” It consists of memoirs based
on extended original investigations, which have resulted in important
additions to knowledge.

CHARTS, DAW WeCO mie
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

(iii)

“MI

10.

Il.

12.

13

14:

CON TENS

. CrarK, AusTIN H. The present distribution of the Ony-

chophora, a group of terrestrial invertebrates. Published
January 4, 1915. 25 pp. (Publication number 2319.)

. Reese, A. M. The development of the lungs of the alligator.

MIZE 2. TOMS, — Ie {Oy Cola (eblop saKon 223510), )

_ AnestrOm, ANDERS. A study of the radiation of the atmos-

pherem September 1Ol5. I5opp, (Pub, nos 23542)

. Aspot, C. G., Fow eg, F. E., and Atpricu, L. B. New evidence

on the intensity of solar radiation outside the atmosphere.

June 19,1915. 55 pp. (Pub. no. 2361.)

. WuHerRY, Epcar T. The microspectroscope in mineralogy.

El TOwrons LO pps (Eubyno. 2362:)

. Explorations and field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in

LOMe ly s2n TOs sO5 pp. pl. Ceub..no0:2263°)

. MacKENzIz, KENNETH K. Two new sedges from the south-

western Umiteds states. April @, 1915. 3 pp. (Rub: no:
2304.)

. Maxon, Witt1aAm R. Report upon a collection of ferns from

western South America. May 3, 1915. 12 pp. (Pub. no.
2360. )

. Asgot, C.G. Arequipa pyrheliometry. February 29, 1916. 24

jos (PD. iO, ARoy7.))

CiarK, Austin H. A phylogenetic study of the recent crinoids,
with special reference to the question of specialization through
the partial or complete suppression of structural characters.
August 19, 1915. 67 pp. (Pub. no. 2369.)

Parson, A. L. A magneton theory of the structure of the atom.
November 29, 1915. 80pp.,2pls. (Pub. no. 2371.)

Mixxer, Gerrit S., Jr. The jaw of the Piltdown man. Novem-
benz Mom ae pps 5 pls, CPub, no. 2370))

Mearns, Epcar A. Descriptions of seven new subspecies and
one new species of African birds (Plantain-Eater, Courser,
and Rail). November 26, 1915. 9 pp. (Pub. no. 2378.)

McInpoo, N. E. The sense organs on the mouth-parts of the
honey bee. January 12, 1916. 55 pp. (Pub. no. 2381.)

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* SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 1

The Present Distribution of the Onychophora,
a Group of Terrestrial Invertebrates

BY
AUSTIN H. CLARK _

(PusLicaTion 2319)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JANUARY 4, 1915

Te Bord Baltimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.

iAP PRESENG DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA;
A GROUP OF TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES.

Bye we om NS Ee CEA RIG

CONTENTS
ITSO on a 5 DOG Sn ioe SoS en ONCE IE RO Rate a pearance I
Mie ony chophoressapparently, an ancient type: o.4..>..++.0c5.4.seseee os 2
The physical and ecological distribution of the onychophores............. 2
sie tiermalsdisthibutron or the omychoplhores........s20..s. 05s ose os 3
General features of the distribution of the onychophores................. 3
Mi erdistibunons Ghetiemeenipatids: ac. scloc.4 uses soda aie oe nee eee 5
Explanation of the distribution of the Peripatide........5.5...-.-..2.s6- 5
The distribution of the American species of the Peripatide............... 13
aieKdistiubutionvon the, Penipatopsidee. ..% 22.00... ose oe. oess cases eceee se 17

The distribution of the species, genera and higher groups of the ony-

SHO MNORES MIIINEG Chal Larimer eter ola s one cigs sai N pwele scd/o ci a tee ec tes 20

PREFACE

A close study of the geographical distribution of almost any class
of animals emphasizes certain features which are obscured, or some-
times entirely masked, in the geographical distribution of other types,
and it is therefore essential, if we would lay a firm foundation for
zoogeographical generalizations, that the details of the distribution
of all types should be carefully examined.

Not only do the different classes of animals vary in the details of
their relationships to the present land masses and their subdivisions,
but great diversity is often found between families of the same order,
and even between genera of the same family. Particularly is this
true of nocturnal as contrasted with related diurnal types.

As a group the onychophores have been strangely neglected by
zodlogists. Owing to their retiring habits they are difficult to find,
and few collectors have devoted their attention particularly to them.
Thus the majority of the species are known from very few specimens,
which often were collected more or less accidentally. For instance
the original examples upon which the Rev. Lansdown Guilding based
the name Peripatus juliformis, creating for the new form the class
Polypoda in the phylum Mollusca, were collected by him in St. Vin-
cent in 1825; only once since have specimens of this species been

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 1

2 - SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

found—by Mr. H. H. Smith in 1894—though many naturalists, my-
self among the number, have searched for them.

It is of course impossible to approach a discussion of the distribu- -
tion of the onychophores in the same way in which one would ap-
proach a discussion of the distribution of better known types, for the
number of genera and species yet remaining to be discovered is un-
doubtedly large in proportion to the number of the genera and species
which have already been described, while we do not know with any
degree of accuracy the range of even a single form.

In many of the zodgeographically most important regions of ihe
world no onychophores have as yet been found, though in some of
them they certainly exist. Unidentified species, which were not pre-
served, have been met with in the Philippines and in Fiji, but none
have been reported from New Caledonia, Samoa, the Solomon
Islands, Halmahera, Celebes, Borneo, the Sunda Islands east of
Sumatra, or Madagascar, where almost certainly they occur, or in
southeastern Asia outside of the Malay Peninsula, though there
should be representatives of the group in Ceylon and southern India
as well as in Burma and Siam and the adjacent lands. Excepting for
those in the Cape Colony and Natal we know practically nothing of
the African types.

_ A discussion of the distribution of the onychophores therefore must
take the form of a simple exposition of the generally accepted facts
in zodgeography and paleogeography, and an exposition of the
evidence for or against these facts presented by the species of the
group as we know them now.

THE ONYCHOPHORES APPARENTLY AN ANCIENT TYPE

Although we have no palzontological evidence upon which to base
our statement, it would appear that the onychophores represent a
very ancient type for, like most ancient types, (1) they are strictly
nocturnal, (2) they are all built upon the same plan with very little
deviation from the mean, and (3) they indicate land connections
which we know to have been very ancient.

THE PHYSICAL AND ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE
ONYCHOPHORES
So far as we know, the onychophores are confined within a re-
latively narrow and circumscribed physical range; that is, they re-
quire a fairly uniform temperature within very moderate extremes,
and a uniformly high humidity.

NO. I DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 3)

This means that many barriers have operated as a check to their
dispersal which are readily passed by the great majority of the other
terrestrial types, both invertebrate and vertebrate, and suggests that
the facts presented by the distribution of the onychophores possesses
exceptional value.

Although existing within very narrow physical limits, the onycho-
phores are in certain ways more independent of their immediate sur-
roundings than the great majority of invertebrates, for they are
predacious, and apparently feed upon any organisms small enough
for them to overcome. This renders them quite independent of the
distribution of the plant species, which determines the distribution
of many insects, and which in turn is governed to a large extent by
the underlying geology of the regions in which the plants occur.

THE THERMAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORES

The mean annual temperature of the portions of the world in-
habited by the onychophores varies from 50° to 80° F. (10.00° to
26.67° C.), though certain forms occur locally in average, tempera-
tures slightly in excess of both of the extremes given. So far as we
are able to calculate from the estimated temperatures of their habitats,
most of the species occur between the limits of 60° and 70° F. (15.56°
and 21.11° C.), which appears to be the optimum temperature range
for the group, suggesting that it was between these temperatures that
these animals originated.

A critical study of the recent crinoids shows that their optimum
temperature is between 55° and 65° F. (12.78° and 18.33° C.), and I
have suggested that it was probably within this temperature range
that the post-palzozoic crinoid fauna, at least, attained its greatest
development.’

Combining the data deduced from the study of these two groups,
the one marine, the other terrestrial, we find a coincidence of the
optimum conditions for both between 60° and 65° F’. (15.56° and
MOs33 CO.)

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE
ONYCHOPHORES
The most striking feature of the geographical distribution of the
onychophores as we know it today is the restriction of all the species

1Une étude philosophique de la relation entre les crinoides actuels et la
température de leur habitat. Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique ( Fonda-
tion Albert Ier, Prince de Monaco), No. 294, 20 Juin, 1914.

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

to the region south of the Tropic of Cancer, and of the great majority
of them to the southern hemisphere; only in the West Indies and in ~
Central America do we find an appreciable number north of the
equator.

Another very striking feature is the geographical distinctness of
the systematic units. Nowhere, so far as we know, do species of the
Peripatide and of the Peripatopsidee occur together. The two sub-
families of the Peripatide are separated by the entire breadth of the
Indian Ocean.

In the subfamily Peripatine, Mesoperipatus is separated from
Oroperipatus, Macroperipatus, Epiperipatus, Plicatoperipatus and
Peripatus by the expanse of the Atlantic Ocean; Plicatoperipatus is
isolated on the island of Jamaica where, however, Peripatus is also
found ; Oroperipatus occurs almost exclusively west of the watershed
between the Pacific and the Atlantic in Central and South America ;
Peripatus, however, also occurs within its territory ; Macroperipatus
and Epiperipatus, both generally distributed over tropical America
east of the Andes, occur over practically the same area, though the
former is absent from Tobago and Grenada where the latter occurs ;
Peripatus is found with them over a small area in northern Venezuela.
Peripatus alone occurs in the Antilles, except on Jamaica, where
Plicatoperipatus also is found, and on Cuba, Grenada, Tobago and
Trinidad, from which islands it is absent.

The two subfamilies of the Peripatopside are entirely separate in
the Australian region, one (Peripatopsinze) being confined to New
Guinea and the adjacent islands, the other ( Peripatoidinz) occurring
in Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand, though both exist together
in South Africa ; in each subfamily the genera found in South Africa
represent a systematic type markedly different from that found
further to the east. The subfamily Peripatoidine is represented in
Chile.

We are thus able to recognize among the onychophores traces of
a zonal distribution such as is suggested by many other types, best
marked in the east, the Peripatidz being equatorial (the Malay Pen-
insula and Sumatra, central Africa and tropical South and Central
America), the Peripatopsinze intermediate (New Britain, New
Guinea and Ceram, Natal, and the adjacent portions of Cape Colony),
and the Peripatoidinz austral (Australia, Tasmania and New Zea-
land, Natal and the Cape Colony, and Chile).

NO eel DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 5

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERIPATIDAE

The distribution of the species of Peripatidz indicates that, so far
as the onychophores are concerned, Sumatra and the Malay -Pen-
insula, central Africa and tropical America collectively form a
zoogeographical unit.

This agrees with what we conclude from the distribution of other
types, most of which, however, fall into two groups, an Afro-Amer-
ican and an Afro-Malayan. .

No onychophores have as yet been reported from southern India.
On the basis of what we know of other forms we would expect in
this region a genus or genera more closely related to African than to
Malayan types.

Of the genera inhabiting the zodgeographic area under considera-
tion Eoperipatus (belonging to the subfamily Eoperipatine) of
Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula shows the highest degree of
specialization, and is rather abruptly differentiated from the remain-
ing three genera, which collectively form a distinct systematic unit
(the Peripatinz) .

Mesoperipatus of central Africa is considerably less specialized
than Eoperipatus, though more specialized than Peripatus of eastern
South and Central America, which in its turn is more specialized than
the very primitive and worm-like Oroperipatus of South and Central
America west of the crest of the Andes.

EXPLANATION OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERIPATID

In order that the facts brought out by the geographical distribution
of the genera and species of the Peripatide may be understood, it is
necessary first to give a brief sketch of the processes by which the
geographical differentiation of animals is brought about.

The physical and economic conditions under which any new animal
type arises are naturally the optimum conditions for the perpetuation ©
of that type in its original form, and the generative center, or the
center of distribution, of the type will be the locality where the
optimum conditions represent the average or mean ofa long range of
imperceptibly varying conditions, representing all of the conditions
under which it is possible for the type to exist, and therefore per-
mitting of progressive deviation from the original type through
gradual adaptation for a maximum distance in a maximum number of
directions.

Any animal type once evolved will extend itself immediately in
every direction as far as the natural barriers to its further dispersal

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

will permit ; but in proportion as it departs from the region where the
optimum conditions represent the mean of a wide range of conditions,
it will become less and less capable of producing subtypes, for not
only is the range of conditions under which it is capable of existing
constantly narrowing, at the natural barriers becoming reduced to the
vanishing point, but also the time taken in its migration represents so
much time lost from its virile and adaptable type youth, and a corre-
sponding advance toward a more or less inert and inflexible type
maturity.

On the borders of the range of any type, where the range of the
conditions under which it is possible for it to exist is very small, there
will be found a great number of localities where the type is able to
maintain itself, each of these localities differing slightly from all the
others, thermally or economically, or otherwise. Such thermal or
economic differentiation is of course also geographical. There will
thus result a large number of allied forms which, however, cover
collectively a small economic and physical range.

An animal type intruding into a new and favorable area will at
once, through the opportunities of existence offered its less efficient
individuals, tend toward an excess of individual variation, which may
become extreme, until through the pressure of its own increasing
numbers, and the constantly increasing severity of its internal com-
petition, it begins to weed out the numerous less efficient varieties,
and to narrow them down to a very. few, or even to one only, which
exist each within very restricted structural limits.

Thus the existence in any area of a great number of closely allied
forms indicates either (1) the existence of a very restricted physical
or ecological range in which the type can maintain an existence, in
which case the corresponding organic varieties will be evidenced as
geographical forms (in the strictest sense of the term), or (2) a
region newly colonized, in which case a large number of more or less
closely related types will be found intermingled, or but partially
localized.

The migratory birds offer, in the light of the preceding statements,
an instructive study in primary and secondary colonization.

In the summer the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere
(and to a much less extent the southern) support many bird types
which are divided into a large number of local races, each local race
being a direct adaptation to a local enviroment which represents
economically or physically a very narrow ecological range, the sum
total of these narrow ecological ranges being the total range under

NO. I DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK ii,

which the type as a whole can maintain itself, a total range which is
always duplicated within the tropics.

Bird types which exist only in a great number of local forms cannot
be assumed to be living under optimum conditions for the type as a
whole. Such bird types, living always within tropical conditions, are
probably all of ultimately tropical origin, their progenitors having
gradually extended their range outward from the tropics with the
annual outward extension of the tropical conditions, and eventually
having colonized, though in the summer only, the temperate regions.

To a type with a highly developed power of migration, such as
many birds, the temperate regions in the summer represent the
border of a tropical habitat, and thus we should expect to find such a
type occurring in the temperate regions in summer obeying the laws
of peripheral distribution of animal types in general.

In the winter these migratory birds, in order to remain within the
economic range necessary for their existence, of necessity withdraw
within the tropics (where, as non-breeders, they are perfectly well
able to exist) there to remain until, with the advent of summer, the
tropical conditions are again extended.

But in the tropics the sum total of the range of each type is dupli-
cated, and conditions are such that there is no closely circumscribed
local and ecological differentiation comparable to that which occurs in
the temperate regions.

Therefore there is no compelling reason for the various races to
maintain their summer segregation, and a number of these races may
be found living together.

Many of these bird types have breeding representatives in the
tropics, especially on isolated islands where the factors which, after
the summer colonization of the temperate regions, caused their extir-
pation as breeding residents from their original tropical home, have
not operated ; the non-breeding individuals of many others appear to
prefer always to remain within the tropics.

These bird types within the tropics are secondary colonists, re-
turned to their original area of optimum conditions, where they are
able to exist as adults in a great number of closely related forms, but
where nidification, unless of a newly acquired highly specialized type,
or in especially protected localities, has now, thanks to the develop-
ment of certain enemies, become impossible.

In any area in which the optimum conditions for a given animal
type are represented by the mean of the conditions under which that
type is able to maintain itself, the progressive development of that

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

type, after its first appearance, whether by original generation or
introduction from outside, will (as in part suggested by the be-
havior of introduced species) be marked first by individual variation,
soon leading to more or less fixed varieties, and finally to the evolution
of new species and even new genera, each of which was originally the
exponent of conditions more or less different from those under which
the type originally appeared.

Now in most large genera we find among the component species one
which in its characters occupies the mean between the extremes shown
by the other forms, and which typically covers the entire economic,
physical, and geographical range of the genus, unless the species on
the borders of the generic range are isolated by barriers.

Obviously this is the species best adapted to the conditions of the
present day and, if conditions should remain indefinitely as they are
now, such a species would gradually succeed, by the mere force of
numbers and greater procreative power, which have already enabled
it to overrun all the other forms, in exterminating all of the other
species of the genus which it was able to reach.

As families and orders are constructively the same as genera, we
typically find in them a highly dominant genus, subfamily, or family,
which stands in the same relation to them that the dominant species
does to the genus.

And among the higher groups the same thing is repeated ; thus, for
example, we find among the mammals the rodents, among the birds
the finches, among the fishes the perches, among the flies the muscoid
types, etc., each group including species almost all of which are of
small average size, yet never excessively small, representing the
dominant types which appear to be on the road to supplanting all the
other types through a development from their immediate stock of
virile competing forms, and which, were conditions to remain in-
definitely as they are at the present epoch, would eventually come to
form the entire world fauna.

An appreciation of the normal existence of such a dominant type
in each large and widely distributed group is essential for the compre-
hension of the fact that, given a number of closely related genera
occupying a large area, but separated from each other by barriers, the
genus occupying the center of distribution will be the most special-
ized, while that at the periphery will be the least specialized.

Let us suppose a genus recently arisen, occurring uniformly over
a very wide area in the center of which the conditions grade very
slowly from the optimum to impassible physico-economic barriers in
each direction, while at the periphery the conditions grade very

NO. I DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 9

rapidly from those capable of supporting the type to impassible
physico-economic barriers. :

It is evident that the individuals at the periphery of the area of dis-
tribution, living within a very narrow physico-economic radius, would
have to restrict themselves within a very small structural compass,
while those at the center of the area of distribution, existing in a very
wide economic and physical radius, could wander very far away from
the optimum structural condition without meeting prohibitive ob-
stacles.

At the periphery of the range the physico-economic belt capable of
supporting the type is so narrow that it serves only as the habitat of
a single type, a type which will therefore maintain itself near the
original type of the organism. Here additional types cannot arise
in any one locality, though slightly different types will be found in
adjacent localities each one of which differs slightly in its physical and
economic characters from the others, but all of which are included
within the narrow mean.

At the center of the area of distribution the physico-economic belt
is very broad, and it grades imperceptibly away from the mean in
either direction. Thus here the original type, instead of being pre-
served intact as at the periphery, will eventually be supplanted by a
type of subsequent origin, and this latter type will be the one which of
all the derivative types is capable of covering the maximum number of
economic units.

The appearance of such a type, which is represented by the dom-
inant type seen in each genus, family, and higher group, is inevitable ;
for the original type, occupying the mean of the conditions at the
center of distribution, will gradually colonize all possible conditions
departing from the mean in every direction, this being rendered easy
by the very gradual changes from the optimum, and the very wide
separation of the impassible physico-economic barriers. The colonists
will be more or less modified to suit their new surroundings and, if
the physico-economic belt be broad enough, will divide themselves
into new types and subtypes. Eventually a type is certain to appear
which will alone be capable of occupying all of the regions occupied
by the organism as a whole, and which therefore will gradually sup-
plant and finally exterminate all the other types; and this type will
not be a primitive type, such as that which is maintained intact at the
periphery of the area of distribution, but a much more specialized
type; for though the mean of the conditions which it covers is the
same as the physico-economic range in which the peripheral types

Ie) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

live, it is economically much more specialized in its inherent ability
to exist over a very wide range. Though much more specialized than
the original type, this new dominant type will also be much less spec-
ialized than many of the types which it supplants, which will have
possessed a very high degree of specialization in order to meet very
highly specialized conditions.

The sum of the effect of this organic progress may be expressed by
the statement that any animal type, once evolved, will extend itself
immediately in every direction as far as the natural barriers to its
dispersal; a more specialized form (a dominant type) of the same ~
animal, better fitted for the conditions under which it lives, will sooner
or later be evolved somewhere in the central, or most favorable,
portion of the territory inhabited by the original type; this new type
will at once extend itself as did the original type ; but in. the meantime
there may have arisen certain barriers which the second type cannot
cross and beyond which, therefore, the first type is secure. Up to
these barriers—high mountains, deserts, newly formed arms of the
sea, or whatever they may be—the second type will gradually sup-
plant the first, as a result of its better economic equipment and more
perfect physical resistence, and the advantages which this better
equipment and resistence give it in the struggle for existence. Thus
we shall eventually find a specialized type beyond the limits of which
occurs a more generalized type of the same organism. The sub-
sequent evolution of additional types, which will most frequently
occur at or near the so-called center of distribution as a natural result
of the greater facility for adaptation due to the greater distance apart
of the physico-economic barriers and the consequently greater radius
of each type, will result in the gradual formation of a dispersal figure
which would be ideally represented by a series of concentric circles,
each of the circles representing a barrier, the small central circle en-
closing the most perfected type and the peripheral band the most gen-
eralized, the intervening areas including intermediate types increasing
in specialization toward the center.

The distribution of the Peripatidz represents a sector of such an
ideal dispersal figure ; the center of distribution for the family is the
Malayan region, where the most specialized type occurs ; just west of
this is the great barrier of the Indian Ocean ; in central Africa we find
a less specialized type which probably reached its present habitat
long before the type now occurring in the Malayan region was
evolved, and which has been protected from the encroachment of that
type by the submergence of the land over which it originally migrated.

INOS LI DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK II

In the case of the onychophores the assumption that the Malayan
region is the center of distribution is somewhat arbitrary, though the
correctness of this supposition is strongly indicated by the fact that
the phylogenetic lines converge there. Under the very nearly uni-
form conditions which prevailed in the distant past there was no such
thing as a center of distribution; new forms arose anywhere, and
immediately spread everywhere; but as the surface of the earth be-
came differentiated into warm and cold regions and the mountain
ranges attained progressively to greater and greater heights, it
happened that, speaking broadly, the Malayan region as a whole re-
mained the region of least diurnal and seasonal variability, and of the
most delicately graded temperature differences, and therefore, as the
region of the most nearly permanent conditions and of the most
eradual differentiation in its physical and economic features, the
region of maximum physical and economic radius, and of least inter-
rupted progressive phylogenetical advance.

Among the other groups of terrestrial organisms there are few,
if any, for which the Malayan region represents the sole center of
distribution as it may almost be said to do in the case of the ony-
chophores. Though in most cases, broadly speaking, the Malayan
region may reasonably be regarded as the chief, and possibly ultimate,
center of distribution, there are commonly additional centers of dis-
tribution each of which partakes more or less of the character of the
primary Malayan center.

As has already been explained, it is characteristic of types which
have newly entered upon very favorable territory to vary very greatly,

and eventually to give rise to a large number of local forms, which, if
not subjected to the competition of more efficient intruders, may be
supposed, under fixed conditions, to persist for a very considerable
length of time, and which will be diversified in direct proportion to
the breadth of the physical and economic radius of the area. Such
specific abundance therefore indicates not the center of distribution
for any given type, but the periphery. Thus the great number of
species in the genus Oroperipatus occurring west of the crest of the
Andes indicates that this region, a region of small physical and
economic radius, represents the extreme western limit, and the maxti-
mum distance from the generative center, of the area inhabited by the
Peripatidz, while similar conditions in the genus Peripatus indicate
that their territory is only slightly less far removed from that center.

The explanation of the distribution of the species of the family
Peripatidz, viewed in the light of what we know in regard to the dis-
tribution of other animal types, appears to be as follows:

[2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Occurring originally as a uniform or slightly varying organism
over a land including the Malayan region (but not the Australian),
central Africa, and northern South and Central America, the original
prototype of the family became differentiated, taking on the aspect in
which we see it today, by the following processes:

The increasing height of the Andes, besides enabling the species
living in that region to maintain themselves in the most suitable
temperatures, isolated at a very early epoch such individuals as were
living west of their crest, rendering them secure from invasion by
types of later origin economically more specialized, and fitted to oc-
cupy a habitat with a slightly higher average temperature.

A new type, an immigrant from the east, better equipped econom-
ically than the original type and with a slightly higher optimum
temperature, reached Africa, northern South and Central America,
overrunning and extirpating the original type from all the territory
east of the crest of the Andes and later in a few places even invading
the mountainous region itself. This type subsequently became locally
differentiated, through the same processes by which it itself was
originally evolved, into five subtypes, the three newer, more special-
ized and more efficient, extirpating the original immigrant (their
immediate ancestor) wherever they were able to reach it.

But before the differentiation of this type into subtypes, though
subsequent to the extension of its range westward as far as the
Cordillera, Africa became separated from the Malayan region and,
at about the same time, also from South and Central America, this
latter process involving the submergence, or disruption from other
causes, of the Antillean region, resulting in the formation of the West
India archipelago.

So far as we know at present no representative of the original
immigrant type remains in Africa, though it is quite possible that
some eventually will be found there. Its single known derivative in
this region, Mesoperipatus, though very different, approaches the
Malayan type more closely than do any of the American types.

This may be due to either of two causes ; southern India and Ceylon
maintained a connection with Africa after their separation from the
Malayan region, and it is possible that this more efficient type reached
this region in or near its present form from the Malayan region just
before the separation of the two, subsequently spreading to Africa,
but being prevented from extending its range to America by the for-
mation of the Atlantic Ocean ; or, which is far more likely, these three
types may be all of local development, the African approaching more

NO. I DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 13

closely to the Malayan on account of a greater similarity of the condi-
tions under which it was perfected.

In the Malayan region, subsequent to the separation from Africa,
evolution gradually produced, through the processes which have al-
ready been given in detail, a more specialized type, Eoperipatus,
which represents the dominant type under present conditions. It is
possible that this represents the only type in the region, for it is the
only type we know; but it is probable that subordinate types will
eventually be discovered.’

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE
PERIPATID AS

The details of the distribution of the American species of the Peri-
patidee deserve special consideration. In South and Central America
we find the very primitive Oroperipatus almost entirely confined to
the territory west of the watershed of the Andes, only three species
(Oroperipatus bimbergi, O. multipodes and O. eiseni) occurring in
the mountainous regions east of the divide, while the remaining
territory, including the West India islands, is occupied by the less
primitive Peripatus, two species of which, in Colombia and Panama,

have gained a foothold in the area otherwise occupied solely by
Oropertpatus.

While the species of Oroperipatus exhibit great uniformity, this
is not by any means true of the species of Peripatus, which fall into
four well marked subgenera; one of these subgenera (Plicato-
peripatus) is, so far as we know, confined to the island of Jamaica;
another (Macroperipatus) occurs from Rio de Janeiro northward to
Vera Cruz, including the island of Trinidad; the third (Epiperi-
patus), with almost the same continental range, though not known
either so far north or so far south, extends to Trinidad, Tobago, and
Grenada; while the fourth (Peripatus), found in a small area be-
tween Caracas and La Guayra and Mérida in Venezuela, near Bogota
in Colombia, in northern Panama, and in Costa Rica, is eminently
characteristic of the Antillean region, being found on Jamaica, Haiti,
and Puerto Rico, and on the Lesser Antilles from St. Thomas to and
including St. Vincent.

It is worthy of especial mention that, whereas Oroperipatus, the
most primitive type, is chiefly developed in, and very largely con-
fined to, the cool regions of the high mountains, where very uniform

* Since this was written the related genus Typhloperipatus has been described
from the adjacent portion of Tibet.

14, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

conditions of temperature and of humidity prevail, and Peripatus
finds its optimum conditions in somewhat warmer regions, the two
most specialized types, Macroperipatus and Epiperipatus, are chiefly
characteristic of territory which is very warm, and more or less var-
iable both in temperature and in humidity. In other words, increasing
warmth of habitat is correlated with increased specialization of the
organism, and increased differentiation into subtypes, suggesting that
the original temperature under which the onychophores arose was.
more comparable to the average temperature of the habitat of the
American genus occurring in the coolest situations than to that of the
habitat of any of the others.

In the light of the preceding, and considered in connection with
what we know of the distribution of other animal types, the explana-
tion of the present distribution of this family in America appears to
be as follows:

During the time tropical America was inhabited only by the primi-
tive Oroperipatus type, before the intrusion of the Peripatus type
from the east, the Cordillera had attained a height sufficient to pre-
vent the intrusion into that region of the newer and more specialized
forms originally developed under, and specialized for, an average
temperature somewhat higher than the optimum for the primitive
Oroperipatus.

This new intrusive type, economically more efficient than the type
with which it came into competition, and better suited in every way to
meet existing conditions, extirpated the latter as far westward as the
crest of the Andes; and so complete was this extirpation that only
three species of Oroperipatus are known to occur on the Atlantic side
of the divide, Oroperipatus bimbergi, from Amagatal and Guaduas,
Colombia; Oroperipatus multipodes, from Rio Amago, Colombia ;
and Oroperipatus eisem, from the Rio Purus, Brazil, though undoubt-
edly many more will be discovered in the future. Indeed the intrusive
type proved virile enough to enter the region west of the divide in
Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica, for we find Peripatus (Peripatus )
bouviert at Boca del Monte, near Bogota, Colombia, and Peripatus
(Pertpatus) ruber at Rancho Redondo, Costa Rica, as well as at Lino,
near Bouquete, in the Province of Chiriqui, Panama.

At this epoch, when the Cordillera and the country to the west was
inhabited by the Oroperipatus type, and the country to the east by the
Peripatus type, South (and Central) America became separated from
Africa by the formation of the Atlantic Ocean, the accompanying
geological changes involving the disintegration of the Antillean
region, through submergence or otherwise, into the West India

NO. I DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK T5

archipelago, exclusive, however, in the south, of Trinidad, Tobago
and Grenada, which still remained united to the mainland.

These fundamental changes in the geological structure of tropical
America induced corresponding alterations in the environment of all
the terrestrial organisms, and it was possibly as a result of these
alterations in environmental conditions that the two subgenera
Macroperipatus and E piperipatus, both more specialized and econom-
ically more efficient than the parent type, were given off from
Peripatus.

The effect of the economically more efficient Macroperipatus and
Epiperipatus upon the parent type, Peripatus, was the same as had
been the effect of Peripatus upon Oroperipatus; Peripatus disap-
peared from every situation which they were able to reach.

Thus Peripatus disappeared almost completely from continental
South and Central America, persisting only in the mountains of
western Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Costa Rica, from which
territory we know the following species—Peripatus (Peripatus)
sedgwicki, Caracas, San Esteban, La Moka, Las Trincheras, and La
Guayra, Venezuela ; Peripatus (Peripatus) brélemannt, Tovar, Raxto
Casselo, and Puerto Cabello, Venezuela; Peripatus (Peripatus)
bouviert, Boca del Monte, near Bogota, Colombia; and Peripatus
(Peripatus) ruber, Rancho Redondo, Costa Rica, and Lino, near
Bouquete, in the Province of Chiriqui, Panama. But the very process
which caused Peripatus to disappear almost completely from the
mainland of South America resulted in making it the characteristic
type in the Antilles from Jamaica and Haiti eastward and southward
to and including St. Vincent, for, thanks to the water barrier,
Macroperipatus and Epiperipatus were not able to reach these islands,
though they could, and did, reach Trinidad, Tobago, and Grenada,
which at this time were a part of the mainland.

It is possible that the origin of Macroperipatus was subsequent to
that of Epiperipatus, so that it was prevented from reaching Tobago
and Grenada by the separation of those islands from the mainland
after the intrusion of Epiperipatus. :

The subgenus Plicatoperipatus appears to be, so far as we are able
to see at present, of local origin in the island of Jamaica; it is quite
possible, however, that it occurs in Haiti also.

The occurrence of Epiperipatus upon Grenada, Tobago, and Trini-
dad, and.of Macroperipatus upon Trinidad, the very close relationship
between the species of Epiperipatus upon Tobago and Trinidad,’ and

* Piccole Note su degli Onychophora. Zool. Anzeiger, Bd. 42, Nr. 6, S. 253-
255. 18 Juli 1913.

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the absence of Peripatus from these islands, may be thus accounted
for.
Grenada lies not upon the ridge supporting Trinidad and Tobago,
but upon the ridge supporting St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and the islands
beyond. There is no evidence that it ever was connected with Trini-
dad or with Tobago. Certain elements in the fauna of Grenada, such
as Epiperipatus among the onychophores, and very many types among
the other groups of organisms, recall the fauna of Tobago and Trini-
dad, and separate Grenada sharply from the islands to the north. |
believe that the island of Grenada, including the Grenadines to the
northward as far as Bequia, first became separated from St. Vincent
by the formation of a deep channel between them, and at a consider-
ably later epoch, after the fauna of Grenada had become further
modified by additions direct from South America (and not by way of
Trinidad and Tobago), it became separated from South America, to
which it had been joined in the general region of Margarita Island.

The fauna of Barbados (including, so far as we know, no ony-
chophores) is the fauna of an oceanic island purely, being composed
entirely of representatives of the most widely ranging and most easily
transported of the organisms of the adjacent islands. Barbados has
been entirely submerged since it formed a part of the ancient Antil-
lean land.

No onychophores have ever been found in Cuba, though they have
been diligently sought for there by a number of competent naturalists.
If any are ever discovered it will be interesting to see whether they
will belong to the subgenus Peripatus, like those on the other islands,
or to Epiperipatus, like those on Grenada and Tobago, or to both
Epiperipatus and Macroperipatus, like those on Trinidad.

The uniformity of the onychophores throughout the West India
archipelago, both in the Greater Antilles and in the Lesser, is of much
interest in indicating the original and fundamental unity of the
entire group of islands. They do not indicate a zodgeographical
division into a Greater and a Lesser Antillean fauna for the reason
that their genera are uniformly distributed both in South and Central
America, so that the same faunal elements would enter either group
of islands in the event of a continental connection.

The close faunal affinity between the Antilles and the mountain
region of western Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Costa Rica
indicated by the species of the subgenus Peripatus is not a true faunal
affinity. It merely shows that in the Antilles and in the mountain
region Peripatus has in exactly the same way been protected by bar-
riers which have prevented the intrusion of the more efficient com-

NO. I DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 17

peting forms which everywhere else have succeeded in extirpating it,
in one case by barriers of water, in the other by barriers of mountain
ranges.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERIPATOPSID/

The family Peripatopside includes fewer, but far more diverse,
types than the singularly homogeneous Peripatide. It ranges from
New Britain, New Guinea, and Ceram (in the Moluccas) to Aus-
tralia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, and thence to southeastern and
southern Africa, and to Chile.

The subfamily Peripatopsinz inhabits New Britain, New Guinea,
and Ceram, and also Cape Colony and Natal. At first sight this distri-
bution appears to be quite anomalous, but in reality it agrees perfectly
with what we know of the distribution of a number of other organ-
isms, confirming the evidence presented in other groups of a past
land connection between the Moluccas, New Guinea, and New Britain,
and southeastern Africa.

The Peripatopsinz and the Eoperipatine are not at present known
to occur together anywhere in the east, being separated by a line
passing west of the Moluccas.

This line, which separates the Peripatide from the Peripatopside
as well as the Eoperipatinze from the Peripatoidine, is the equivalent
of the famous Wallace’s line, for it separates the Australasian from
the Indo-Malayan types.

Unfortunately we cannot as yet, on the basis of the onychophores,
say what the exact location of this line is; we only know4that the
genus characteristic of New Britain and New Guinea (Paraperipatus)
occurs also on Ceram, and therefore the line must pass somewhere to
the westward of Ceram, between Ceram and Sumatra, where the
easternmost representative of the Peripatide occurs.

The distribution both of the Peripatide and of the Peripatopsinz
confirms the presence in the distant past of a land mass extending
from the Malayan region westward and southwestward to central and
southern Africa; and it is reasonable to suppose that the same land
mass, though possibly at different epochs, served for the migration of
both types, one passing over the more northern portion, the other
over the more southern. The Peripatide passed over Africa into
America, but the more specialized Peripatopsine, possibly later
arrivals, went no farther than Africa.

In the Peripatidee the most specialized type is that in the Indo-
Malayan region, but in the Peripatopsine we find the most specialized

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

types in South Africa and the least specialized types in New Britain,
New Guinea, and Ceram. This would appear to indicate that the
headquarters of the group was originally somewhere between New
Guinea and South Africa, and that New Guinea and the adjacent
islands became very early detached and separated by a water barrier
so that the endemic onychophores were protected from the intrusion
of later and more efficient types, exactly as were the species of the
genus Oroperipatus west of the Andes. If this view is correct,
Madagascar should support a more specialized type of this subfamily
than either South Africa or New Guinea and the adjacent islands.

We do not know any onychophores from the Cape York peninsula
in Australia ; it is probable that such forms as occur there belong to
the Peripatopsine, and are related to the forms in New Guinea and
the adjacent islands.

The distribution of the subfamily Peripatoidine is very interesting ;
this subfamily occurs in New Zealand, Tasmania, southern and
western Australia, South Africa, and southern South America.

The forms occurring in Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania
collectively make up a very closely knit faunal unit, indicating the
fundamental faunal homogeneity of these areas ; Tasmania, however,
lacks the less specialized component of the fauna of Australia and
New Zealand, a fact which may or may not be significant. It is most
probable that this type will eventually be found there.

There are two possible explanations for this distribution ; (1) the
species of this subfamily may have been extirpated from all the more
desirable localities by more efficient and more aggressive species of
the other groups, or (2) the subfamily may have attained its present
distribution through following a more southern route.

The first of these alternatives seems untenable, for if it were so
we should expect to find species of Peripatoidine north as well as
south of the species of the other groups, and also occurring in isolated
situations, such as mountain tops, where the other species could not
penetrate. But nothing of the kind occurs. Moreover the species of
the Peripatoidine are very highly specialized, so much so that if they
came into competition with the species of the other families they
probably would, other things being equal, prove themselves dominant.

Therefore we must tentatively accept the second alternative,
namely, that the Peripatoidine attained their present distribution
through originally having been widely spread over a, southern land
which at one time or another included within its boundaries New
Zealand, Tasmania and southern South America, as well as South

ENOL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 19

Africa. This hypothesis, moreover, accords with what we know of
the distribution of many other southern types.

As the American species of Peripatoidinze are far more specialized
than the American species of Peripatidee, we may assume that the
connection between southern South America and the Australian
region persisted to a much later date than that by which the Peri-
patide arrived from Africa.

Although, judging from what we know of the other elements of
the faunas of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, it 1s easy to
understand how the Peripatoidinz entered southern South America
from the Australian region, it is not so easy to understand how they
entered South Africa, unless we are willing to assume that there has
been a connection between South Africa and Antarctica by way of the
Crozet and Kerguelen Banks, which was more or less contemporane-
ous with that between southern South America and Antarctica.

The African genus Opisthopatus is very closely allied to the Amer-
ican Metaperipatus, the alliance being much more close than in the
case of the African and American genera of the Peripatide. These
two genera are less specialized than are the other genera of the
Peripatopside, and the explanation at once suggests itself that, be-
sides. being later arrivals in America than the genera of the Peri-
patide, they, like Oroperipatus, indicate the extreme limits of the area
over which their group (the Peripatoidinz) was at one time dominant,
and exist at present in localities with a physico-economically very re-
stricted radius which approaches the physico-economical conditions of
the original habitat of their subfamily more closely than does the
habitat of any of the more specialized Australian genera, so that they
have had but little incentive to change in order to meet new conditions.

If this were so, it would suggest of itself that the Peripatoidine
in the past had their headquarters in the extreme south, in contrast to
the primarily tropical Peripatide. .

The sharp separation in the distribution of the Peripatoidine and
the Peripatopsine in the East Indian and Australian regions suggests
a long and complete separation of the land of which the Moluccas,
New Guinea, and New Britain (and southeastern Africa) were once
an integral part, from Australia (including Tasmania and New Zea-
land, but possibly excepting the Torres Strait region), this separation
long antedating the separation of Australia from Antarctica, but
being subsequent to the isolation of the Malayan region from the
Moluccas and the islands farther east.

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES, GENERA AND HIGHER
GROUPS OF THE ONYCHOPHORES IN DETAIL

Order OnycHorHorA: Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; Ceram; New Guinea;
New Britain; Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand; central and southern
Africa; Central and South America from Tepic, Mexico, southward to Chile,
including the West Indies.

Family Prrrpatopsip@ Bouvier, 1904: New Britain, New Guinea and
Ceram, Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand; Natal and Cape Colony;
Chile.

Subfamily PeripatoipIN= Evans, 1901: Southern Queensland, New
South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia; Tasmania and New
Zealand; Natal and the adjoining portion of Cape Colony; Chile.

Section I: Southeastern (southern Queensland, New South Wales
-~ and Victoria) and Western Australia, Tasmania and New Zea-
land.

Genus Peripatoides Pocock, 1894: Southern Queensland, New
South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia, Tasmania
and New Zealand.

Viviparous species; Peripatoides.

Peripatoides orientalis (Fletcher): Wollongong, Blue
Mountains, Moss Vale District, Tamworth, Cassilis
(banks of Mounmoun Creek), Burrawang, Colo Vale
(near Mattagong), Moree, Illawarra, and Dunoon (near
Richmond River), New South Wales; ?Cardwell,
?Brisbane, ?Wide Bay, Queensland; ?Cunningham’s
Gap, Northern Territory of South Australia.

Pertpatoides occidentalis (Fletcher) : Bridgetown, Island
of Perth, Western Australia.

Peripatoides gilesti Spencer: Lion Mill and Armadale,
near Perth; Mundaring Weir, Darling Ranges; and
Kimberley, Western Australia.

Peripatoides nove-zealandie (Hutton): Wellington,
Dunedin, Nelson, Porirua, Stephen’s Island and Oropi-
bush (near Taranga), Otago, Woodville, and Jararua,
New Zealand.

Peripatoides suteri (Dendy): Stratford and Taranaki,
north New Zealand.

Oviparous species; Ooperipatus.

Peripatoides leuckarti (Sanger): Northwest of Sydney,
New South Wales; Macedon, Sassafras Gully, Fern-
tree Gully, and Gembrook, Victoria.

Peripatoides spenceri Cockerell: Mt. Wellington, district
of Lake St. Clair, Tasmania.

Peripatoides viridimaculatus (Dendy): End of Lake Te
Anau, Clinton Valley, south New Zealand; ?near Te
Aroha, north New Zealand.

Oviparous species; Symperipatus.

NO@zeE DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 21

Order ONycHoPHORA—Continued.
Family PertpAtopsip#® Bouvier, 1904—Continued.
Subfamily Peripatoipinz Evans, 1901—Continued.
Section I—Continued.
Genus Peripatoides Pocock, 1894—Continued.
Peripatoides oviparus (Dendy): Warburton (on the
upper Yarra), Brown Hill (near Ballarat), Macedon,
Valhalla, Mt. Baw Baw, Pyalong, Warragul (Gipps-
land), Victoria; Mt. Kosciusko (Wilson’s Valley, at an
altitude of 5,000 feet, and also at an altitude of 5,700
feet), and between Exeter and Bundanoon (Moss Vale
district), New South Wales; Cooran, Cardwell and
Brisbane, Queensland; Cunningham’s Gap, northern
territory of South Australia.
Section II: Natal, and the adjoining portion of Cape Colony;
Chile.
Genus Opisthopatus Purcell, 1899: Natal, and the adjoining
portions of Cape Colony.
Opisthopatus cinctipes Purcell: Vicinity of Dunbrody,
Uitenhage Division, Cape Colony; Doornek, Zuurberg
Range, Alexandria Division, Richmond and Durban,
Natal.
Genus Metaperipatus A. H. Clark, 1913: Chile.
Metaperipatus blainvillet (Blanchard): Chiloé Island;
near Villa Rica; near Corral; Enero, in the Cordillera
Pelada, province of Valdivia; Contulmo, Cordillera of
Nahuelbuta, which separates the provinces of Malleco
and Arauco; valley of Buchoco, between Lake Lanalhue
and the sea, south of Cafiete, 10 kilometers from
Contulmo; all the localities are in southern Chile.
Metaperipatus umbrinus (Johow): Near Zapallar, on the
coast of Aconcagua province, in 32° 33’ 20” S. lat.
Subfamily Perrpatopsinz Evans, 1901: New Britain, New Guinea and
Ceram; Natal and Cape Colony.
Section I: Cape Colony and Natal.
Genus Peripatopsis Pocock, 1894: Cape Colony and Natal.
Peripatopsis sedgwicki Purcell: Plettenberg Bay (Knysa),
Port Elizabeth and Grahamstown, Cape Colony.
Peripatopsis moseleyi (Wood-Mason) : Vicinity of King
William’s Town, East London, Katberg Forest (50
miles northwest of King William’s Town), Pirie Bush
(near King William’s Town), Dias, and vicinity of
Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony; Pietermaritzberg and
vicinity, Eastcourt and vicinity, Richmond, Aslockton
(Dronkvlei, near Umzimkulu River, Ixopo District),
and Riet Vlei (in the west of Umvoti District), Natal.
Peripatopsis clavigera Purcell: Knysa, eastern part of
Cape Colony.

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Order ONYcHoPHORA—Continued.

Family PeripATopsip# Bouvier, 1904—Continued.

Subfamily Peripatorsin2Z Evans, 1901I—Continued.
Section I—Continued.

Genus Peripatopsis Pocock, 1894—Continued.

Peripatopsis leonina Purcell: Lions Hill, and the shores
of Table Bay.

Peripatopsis balfouri (Sedgwick): Vicinity of Cape
Town; Table Mountain; Platteklip and Newlands
ravines, Table Mountain; ravines near Camp’s Bay and
Hout Bay; Simons Town, St. James, on the shore of
False Bay; Cedar Mountains; Clanwilliam, at Bosch-
kloof waterfall; Constancia (Plettenberg Bay), Cape

Colony.

” Peripatopsis capensis (Grube): Vicinity of Cape Town,
Constancia, Mowbray, Table Mountain, Platteklip, St.
James (False Bay), Wynberg, Newlands, Randebosch,
Frenchhoek (division of Paarl), Caledon, Houw Hoek,
Hottentots Holland Mountains (division of Caledon),.
and Swellendam, Cape Colony.

Section III: New Britain, New Guinea and Ceram.
Genus Paraperipatus Willey, 1808: New Britain, New Guinea.
and Ceram.
Paraperipatus nove-britannie (Willey): New Britain.
Paraperipatus schultzei Heymons: German New Guinea,
on a mountain in the interior at an altitude of 1,570
meters. A
Paraperipatus schultzei var. ferrugineus Heymons: Ger-
man New Guinea, on a mountain in the interior at an
altitude of 1,570 meters.
Paraperipatus lorensi Horst: South Dutch New Guinea,
in the Wichmann mountains, at an altitude of 10,000
feet.
Paraperipatus papuensis Sedgwick: North Dutch New
Guinea, in the Arfak mountains at Sarayu, at an altitude
of 3,500 feet. e
Paraperipatus ceramensis (Muir and Kershaw): Peroé
(Piru), western Ceram.

Family PEripATIpm Evans, 1902: Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; French
Congo; tropical America from Tepic, Mexico, southward to Sorata,
Bolivia, and eastward, on the Atlantic coast ranging from Rio de
‘Janeiro to and throughout the West Indies.

Subfamily Eoprrrpatin A. H. Clark: Sumatra and the Malay Penin-
sula.

Genus Eoperipatus Evans, 1901: Sumatra and the Malay Penin-
sula.
Eoperipatus weldont Evans: Malay Peninsula; Mt. Bukit
Besar, on the border between Nawngchick and Jalor, 1,000
meters; Larut, 1,220 meters.

a

NO. I DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 23

Order ONYCHOPHORA—Continued.
Family Peripatip® Evans, 1902—Continued.
Subfamily Eoreripatin.©® A. H. Clark—Continued.

Genus Eoperipatus Evans, 1901—Continued.

Eoperipatus horsti Evans: Malay Peninsula; Kuala Aring,
state of Kelantan.

Eoperipatus sumatranus (Sedgwick) : East coast of Sumatra.

Genus Typhloperipatus Kemp, 1913: Extreme southeastern corner’
of Tibet.

Typhloperipatus williamsoni Kemp: Near Rotung, on the
banks of the Dihang River (in Tibet, very near the northern
corner of Assam) ; 1,200 to 2,500 feet.

Subfamily PrripaTIN® Evans, 1902 (emended A. H. Clark, 1913):
tropical America; French Congo.

Genus Mesoperipatus Evans, 1901: French Congo.

Mesoperipatus thollom (Bouvier): Ngomo, Ogdoué, French
* Congo.

Genus Peripatus Guilding, 1825: Tropical America, except in a
few localities in the mountains of Colombia, Panama and Costa
Rica east of the Atlantic-Pacific watershed, from Vera Cruz,
Mexico, and Guatemala on the north to Rio de Janeiro on the
south, including the West India islands.

Subgenus Macroperipatus A. H. Clark, 1913: Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, French and British Guiana, and Trinidad, westward
to Panama, and northward to Vera Cruz, Mexico.

Macroperipatus ohausi (Bouvier): Near Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.

Macroperipatus geayi (Bouvier): French Guiana; La
Chorrera, Panama.

Macroperipatus guianensis (Evans): Demerara, British
Guiana.

Macroperipatus torquatus (von Kennel): Trinidad.

Macroperipatus perrieri (Bouvier): Vera Cruz, Mexico.

Subgenus Epiperipatus A. H. Clark, 1913: Santarem, Brazil,
French, Dutch and British Guiana, Trinidad, Tobago and
Grenada, westward to Central America, ranging northward
to Guatemala.

Epiperipatus brasiliensis (Bouvier): Santarem, Brazil,
Mérida, Venezuela and San Pablo, Panama.

Epiperipatus simont (Bouvier): Island of Marajo, at the
mouth of the Amazons; Caracas, Venezuela.

Epiperipatus edwardsti (Blanchard): French and Dutch
Guiana, and possibly Trinidad, westward to Panama
and Darien.

Epiperipatus imthurmi (Sclater): British, French and
Dutch Guiana.

Epiperipatus evansi (Bouvier): Demerara, British
Guiana.

Epiperipatus trinidadensis (Stuhlmann): Trinidad.

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Order OnycHoPHOoRA—Continued.
Family Pertpatip# Evans, 1902—Continued.
Subfamily Perrpatin#® Evans, 1902 (emended A. H. Clark, 1913)—
Continued.

Genus Peripatus Guilding, 1825—Continued.

Subgenus Epiperipatus A. H. Clark, 1913—Continued.

Epiperipatus trinidadensis var. broadwayi A. H. Clark:
Tobago.

Epiperipatus barbouri (Brues) : Grenada.

Epiperipatus isthmicola (Bouvier) : Costa Rica.

Epiperipatus biolleyi (Bouvier): Costa Rica; ?British
Honduras.

Epiperipatus biolleyi var. betheli Cockerell: Puerto
Barrios, Guatemala.

Epiperipatus nicaraguensis (Bouvier) : Nicaragua.

- Subgenus Plicatoperipatus A. H. Clark, 1913: Jamaica.

Plicatoperipatus jamaicensis (Grabham and Cockerell) :
Jamaica.

Subgenus Peripatus Guilding, 1825: West India islands of
Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Vieques, St. Thomas, Antigua,
Guadeloupe, Dominica and St. Vincent; mountains of
western Venezuela westward to Colombia, northward to
Panama and Costa Rica.

Peripatus swainsone Cockerell: Jamaica.

Peripatus haitiensis Brues: Near Furcy, Haiti.

Peripatus manni Brues: Furcy, Haiti.

Peripatus juanensis Bouvier: Puerto Rico and Vieques.

Peripatus danicus Bouvier: St. Thomas.

Peripatus antiguensis Bouvier: Antigua.

Peripatus bavayi Bouvier: Guadeloupe.

Peripatus dominice Pollard: Dominica.

Peripatus juliformis Guilding: St. Vincent.

Peripatus brélemanni Bouvier: Tovar, Raxto Casselo and
Puerto Cabello, Venezuela.

Peripatus sedgwicki Bouvier: Caracas, San Esteban, La
Moka, Las Trincheras and La Guayra, Venezuela.

Peripatus bouvieri Fuhrmann: Boca del Monte, near
Bogota, Colombia. :

Peripatus ruber Fuhrmann: Rancho Redondo, Costa
Rica; Lino, near Bouquete province of Chiriqui,
Panama, 4,100-4,500 feet elevation.

Genus Oroperipatus Cockerell, 1908: Excepting for localities in
Colombia and western Brazil, restricted to the Pacific watershed
of tropical America, from Tepic, Mexico, southward to Sorata,
Bolivia.

Oroperipatus eisent (Wheeler): Tepic, Mexico, south to the
Rio Purus, Brazil.

Oroperipatus soratanus (Bouvier): Sorata, Bolivia.

Oroperipatus intermedius (Bouvier): Sorata, Bolivia.

NO. I DISTRIBUTION OF THE ONYCHOPHORA—CLARK 25

Order ONycHoPHORA—Continued.
Family PeripatTip@ Evans, 1902—Continued.
Subfamily PrertPaTiInz Evans, 1902 (emended A. H. Clark, 1913)—
Continued.
Genus‘ Oroperipatus Cockerell, 1908—Continued.
Oroperipatus balzant (Camerano): States of Coroico and
Chulumani, Bolivia. :
Oroperipatus corradoi (Camerano): Quito, Balzar and
Guayaquil, Equador ; Ancon, Panama Canal Zone.
Oroperipatus belli (Bouvier): Duran (Guayas River),
Equador.
Oroperipatus quitensis (Schmarda): High regions of
Equador.
Oroperipatus cameranot (Bouvier): Cuenca and Sigsig,
Equador.
Oroperipatus lankesteri (Bouvier): Paramba, near Quito,
Equador.
Oroperipatus ecuadoriensis (Bouvier): Bulim, northwestern
Equador.
Oroperipatus tuberculatus (Bouvier): Popayan, Colombia.
Oroperipatus multipodes (Fuhrmann): Rio Amago, Colom-
bia. :
Oroperipatus bimbergi (Fuhrmann): Amagatal (900-1,800
meters) and Guaduas (800 meters), Colombia.
Oroperipatus goudoti (Bouvier): Mexico.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 2

ie EV ELEMENT OF THE LUNGS. OF
Pee ALIGATOR

(WitH Nive PLATEs)

BY

Aca Mes EESE:
West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.

(PuBLICATION 2356)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MARCH 3, 1915

¥

— The Lord Baltimore Presa
. _ BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.

itp EV EbOrMENT OF THE, LUNGS OF THE
AEG ATOR

By A. MO REESE
WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY, MORGANTOWN, W. VA.

(Witu NINE PLatEs)

As in the chick, the primordia of the lungs in the alligator are
budded off from the ventral side of the pharynx just caudad to the
region of the gill clefts. They are first seen in embryos of about
thirty somites, slightly younger than the one shown, in outline, in
figure 1. (The figures are arranged consecutively on plates at end of
paper. )

Figure 7 represents a wax reconstruction of the respiratory tract
of an embryo of the stage shown in figure 1. Four gill clefts and
about thirty-five somites are present in this embryo; but the buds
of the appendages are not yet visible. The allantois is evident, just
anterior to the tail, but the yolk stalk was torn away and hence is
not shown in the figure.

In the embryo from which this reconstruction was made the
right bronchial bud was considerably thicker than the left, but ex-
tended only about half as far caudad. It is frequently the case that
one bronchial bud pushes caudad faster than the other. The planes
of the sections are indicated by the numbers 2 to 6, in figure 7.

Figure 2 represents a section through the pharynx, in the region
of the last gill cleft, c, of the stage under discussion. As seen in
the figure, the epithelium of the cleft is here continuous with that
of the pharynx, though there is no opening at this point. This
section is at the anterior end of the deep, median depression, g, in
the floor of the pharynx which extends from this point caudad for
a considerable distance, and is called by Lillie the laryngo-tracheal
groove. This groove is deep, and is so narrow that its cavity is a
mere vertical slit; it is open throughout its length to the trachea
above. At its posterior end the groove suddenly becomes less deep
and widens out, as shown in figures 3 and 7. The plane, 2, of this
section is in the region of the extreme anterior end of the recon-
struction, figure 7. The lining of all these cavities consists, at this
stage, of a compact, stratified epithelium, six or more cells deep.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 2

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The structures surrounding those under discussion are shown,
but need no description. :

Figure 3 shows a section at the point of separation of the trachea,
t, from the pharynx or cesophagus, @.

Figure 4, six sections caudad to figure 3, shows the trachea
primordium, ¢, distinct from the cesophagus, w. The latter has here
a circular outline, while the former is much wider from side to side.

Figure 5 is a few sections caudad to figure 4, and shows the
trachea at its point of division into the two bronchial primordia, D.
The cesophagus, w, has the same appearance as in the preceding
figure.

Figure 6 is a few sections caudad to figure 5, and represents the
two bronchi, b, as widely separated from the cesophagus and from
each other. As noted above, the right bronchus is of considerably
greater diameter than the left, but, as shown in figure 7, it does
not extend so far caudad. The epithelium is of the same character
as in the more anterior sections.

The entodermal bronchial primordia are surrounded by a rounded
mass of pulmonary mesoblast, m, that bulges laterally into the
crescentic pleural ccelom, pl, on each side.

Figure 8 represents a reconstruction on paper of the pulmonary
tract of a slightly later stage. The pharynx, p, shows the same
deep groove in the post-pharyngeal region that was noted in the
preceding stage. It rather suddenly divides into the dorsal
cesophagus, @, and the ventral trachea, t. The cesophagus gradually
enlarges as it passes caudad; the trachea, which now extends
through a number of sections, diminishes slightly in caliber to its
point of division into the two bronchi, b, b’. Each bronchus is rather
irregular in shape, but gradually increases in diameter to form an
enlargement near its posterior end. In the embryo here repre-
sented the right bronchus, b, was of greater caliber but of less
length than the left, b’. At the point of separation from the trachea
the bronchi lie at a considerable distance ventrad to the cesophagus,
but as they pass caudad they gradually approach the horizontal
plane of the cesophagus until they lie practically on each side of it.
The histological structures are about the same as in the preceding
stage so that no sections of this stage need be figured.

Figure 9 represents, in outline, an embryo of the next stage to
be described. The appendages are here well developed and the
face is beginning to assume form.

Figure 10 is a camera sketch of a wax reconstruction of the
entodermal respiratory tract of the embryo shown in figure 9. The

NO. 2 LUNGS OF THE ALLIGATOR—REESE S

extreme right of the figure is in the posterior region of the pharynx,
where the trachea begins to separate from the cesophagus. As may
be seen in cross sections, the pharynx is here of a crescentic outline,
convex dorsally, and hence is much smaller in cross section than it
seems in the figure under discussion. Projecting caudad and ventrad
from the horns of the crescent (figures 10, 11 and 12) are one or
more hollow, cylindrical bodies, perhaps the so-called epithelial
vestiges. The largest and most posterior of these, on the right side
is shown at e in figure 10. It is quite a conspicuous projection,
somewhat swollen near its distal end, lying laterad and somewhat
ventrad to the base of the trachea; its mate of the left side is not
shown in figure 10. The other epithelial vestiges are smaller and
are not represented in this figure; they may be discussed in a later
paper. The trachea, ¢, after separating from the cesophagus, @,
extends caudad for some distance before it divides into the two
bronchi, b, b’. Its anterior region lies parallel to and fairly close to
the cesophagus, but at its point of divergence into the bronchi it
bends ventrad, so that the bronchi lie at a considerable distance
below the cesophagus.

At this stage each endothelial lung rudiment consists of three
main lobes, [ to [, which project dorsad, on each side. of the
cesophagus, at the region where the latter enlarges and passes
ventrad into the stomach, s. The mesoderm of the lungs is not
lobulated. | :

Figures 11 to 18 represent transverse section through the respira-
tory tract in the planes shown on figure Io.

Figure 11 passes through the posterior region of the pharynx, p,
where it still retains a somewhat crescentic outline, at the point of
origin of the trachea, or glottis, gl. The epithelium is here com-
paratively thin and the cavity of the pharynx comparatively
spacious. Around the glottis a condensation of mesoblast, Ja,
represents the beginning of the larynx. Dorsad and laterad to the
pharynx a cylindrical mass is the thymus, ty, while one of the
epithelial vestiges is shown at e. The spinal cord, notochord, etc.,
may be recognized in this section, but need not be discussed here.

Figure 12 is through the point of separation of the trachea and
cesophagus. The deep depression from the floor of the pharynx is
here widening to form a tube, ¢, the trachea. The pharynx, f, is
still of crescentic outline and its cavity is much reduced in extent.
The thymus anlage, ty, appears the same as in the preceding figure,
while the epithelial vestige, e, here shown is on the right instead of
the left side. )

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Figure 13 is through the region just caudad to the point of
separation of trachea, ¢, and cesophagus, w. The former is here a
cylindrical tube with a lumen of considerable diameter, while the
latter is still crescentic in cross section and has no lumen at all.
This solid region of the cesophagus extends through a considerable
number of sections, and the fusion of the dorsal and ventral walls
is so complete that, even under high power, no indication of the
line of fusion is visible. At one side of the trachea is still seen the
epithelial vestige, e.

Figure 14 represents a section through the middle region of the
trachea, t, which has here about the same external diameter as in
the preceding figure; but, owing to the thicker walls, its lumen is
narrower than in the more anterior section. This section is just
caudad to the solid region of the cesophagus, w, and shows the
reappearance of the lumen as a small, circular opening at each lateral
end of the now dumbbell-shaped cesophagus. A very small, irreg-
ular space is seen above and below the nearly solid cesophagus, as
though it had shrunk away from the surrounding tissue.

Figure 15 shows a section passing through the embryo at the
point of division of the trachea into the two bronchi, b. At this
point the triangular, combined areas of the two bronchi are con-
siderably greater than that of the trachea.

The mesoblast immediately surrounding the bronchi is consider-
ably denser than the general mesoblast of this region. A similar,
but less marked, condensation of the mesoblast is seen around the
trachea anterior to this region. The cesophagus, @, is here cylin-
drical and exhibits a large lumen.

Figure 16 represents a section through the bronchi, b, just
cephalad to the region where they expand to form the first lung
lobule, /’, figure 10. The bronchi here are much larger in diameter
than the oesophagus, w, and each is surrounded by a narrow zone of
dense mesoblast. In cross section the bronchi are circular, and
their walls and that of the cesophagus are composed of a compact
epithelium of three or four layers of cells. At this point the
cesophagus and two bronchi lie at the angles of a nearly equilateral
triangle.

Figure 17 passes through the second pulmonary lobe, I, figure 10.
That the section does not seem to quite fit the reconstruction is due
partly to the angle at which the reconstruction was drawn and
partly to a slight falling ventrad of the lungs and trachea, owing to
the softening of the wax. The cesophagus, a, is here considerably
larger than in the preceding section, is compressed laterally, and lies

NO. 2 LUNGS OF THE ALLIGATOR—REESE 5

immediately between the lungs on either side. The irregular out-
lines of the lungs and the variation in the thickness of their walls
are due, of course, to the plane of the section. The surrounding
zone of dense mesoblast is narrower than in the preceding section.

Figure 18 passes through the third and most posterior lobe, ,
figure 10, of the lung. At this point the cesophagus, @, bends
sharply ventrad and rapidly enlarges to form the stomach, s. On
the right the lung is so cut as to exhibit two cavities, almost at
their point of union: a small, dorsal lobule, and a larger, ventral
one; on the left the two lobules are cut caudad to their junction,
and the upper one is cut through its extreme caudal wall so that
its cavity does not appear in the section. The walls are of the same
character as in the preceding section, and the dense layer of sur-
rounding mesoblast is even narrower than in the more anterior
section.

In this section a small mass of Wolffian tubules, Wt, is seen on
each side of the aorta and dorsal to the lungs; while both in this
and in the preceding two sections the dorsal region of the liver is
seen in the lower part of the section, Ji.

Figure 19 represents a reconstruction, on paper, of the endo-
dermal lung of the right side (together with the trachea and
cesophagus), of a later stage than the preceding. While the endo-
dermal lung here shows this comparatively complicated series of
iobules, the surrounding mesoderm (not shown in figure 19) is still
smooth in outline and free from lobules as might be expected from
the smooth, unlobulated condition of the adult lung. The extreme
right of the figure begins just anterior to the lung and shows the
cesophagus, a, and trachea, ¢, the latter being now of much smaller
diameter than the former ; in the preceding stage they were of about
the same caliber. In relation to the size of the lungs the trachea is
now of much smaller diameter than before; it is of considerably
greater length, though only its posterior part is shown in the figure.
The point of division into the two bronchi is at the plane of the line
21, but only one bronchus is shown in the figure. The point of
emergence of the bronchus into the lung is in the plane of line 22.
At the left of the figure the cesophagus, @, is of much greater caliber
than at the more anterior end, but the difference is not so great as
is apparent in figure 19, because at the anterior end the long axis
of the cross section is horizontal, while at the posterior end it is
nearly vertical. Projecting cephalad are seen seven or eight larger
lobules of various sizes and shapes, some of which bear secondary
lobules ; projecting caudad are only five or six lobules, most of which

6 ' SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

are smaller than those of the anterior end. Some of the very small
secondary lobules are not shown in this figure.

Figure 20 represents a transverse section through line 20 of figure
19; only the respiratory tract and immediately surrounding
structures are shown. In the center of the figure is seen the very
large cesophagus, @, below which is the relatively narrow trachea,
t; the epithelium of the former consists of only two or three layers
of cells; that of the trachea consists of about four or five layers.
Surrounding both tubes is a fairly thick layer of condensed meso-
blast ; that surrounding the cesophageal epithelium consists of more
or less elongated or spindle-shaped cells; that around the tracheal
epithelium consists of closely arranged spherical cells. Projecting
dorsad and laterad from the undifferentiated mesoblast that sur-
rounds the cesophagus and trachea are two rounded masses, the
mesodermal lung primordia, m. The mass on the left of the figure
is the one shown in figure 19; it is larger than the one on the right
and exhibits two lobules of the entodermal lung primordia, /, while
on the right only the anterior end of a single entodermal lobule is
shown. The entoderm of these lobules usually consists of a single
layer of rounded cells, but immediately surrounding this entoderm
is a thin, dense layer of somewhat flattened mesoderm cells. With
the low power, under which the figures are drawn, the entodermal
and mesodermal cells cannot be distinguished from each other. In
the mesoderm surrounding the layers just described may be seen
many small dark areas, c; these are the anlagen of the pulmonary
blood vessels.

Figure 21 shows a section through the point of division of the
trachea into the two bronchi, b (line 21 of figure 19); each
bronchus is of as great diameter as the trachea of the preceding
figure. The cesophagus, w, has the same general appearance as in
the preceding figure, but has increased somewhat in cross section.
The mesodermal lung primordia, m, are here much larger than in
the preceding section and that on the left is again larger than the
one on the right; neither shows any division into lobes. On the
left are seen three large and several smaller entodermal primordia,
’*, while on the right two large and one small entodermal cavities,
P, are seen.

Figure 22 represents a section through line 22 of figure 19; it
passes through the point of emergence of the bronchi, b, into the
lungs. On the left the bronchus is seen opening into the most ven-
trally located entodermal cavity, /’. On the right the section is just
cephalad to the corresponding opening. The cesophagus, @, 1s

NO. 2 LUNGS OF THE ALLIGATOR—REESE I

somewhat larger in cross section than in the preceding figure, and
the lungs have a greater area than in any other section; they extend
from the level of the lower side of the cesophagus to nearly the
level of the ventral side of the notochord, m. Each lung shows
several small and two large entodermal cavities; the mesoderm is
still without lobules, and is continuous mesially and ventrally with
the mesoderm that surrounds the cesophagus. The entire lung of
the right side is not shown in the figure; it has the same general
outline as that of the left side.

The wall of the cesophagus at this stage is seen, under higher
power, to consist of a thin lining epithelium and a dense layer of
surrounding mesoblast, the latter being, on an average, about four
times as thick as the former. The epithelium, ep, consists of one or
two layers of cubical cells; the basal cells are usually the larger.
The surrounding mesoblastic layer, ml, consists of flattened cells
that are evidently turning into fibers, and lie with their long axes
parallel to the epithelial layer.

The walls of the trachea and bronchi consist di the same two
layers, but the epithelium is much thicker than that of the cesoph-
agus, and consists of three or four layers of cells, the basal cells
being again much larger than those nearer the lumen.

The mesoblastic layer is of about the same thickness as that of
the cesophagus but consists of closely packed spherical cells instead
of the elongated cells seen in the former place.

The lung cavities are lined by a thin epithelium which consists,
in most places, of a single layer of cuboidal cells; in many places,
however, are seen cresentic thickenings which consist in their
thickest part, of four or five layers of cells. These crescents are
usually seen in the bottoms of the smaller diverticula from the main
lung cavities. Surrounding the epithelial lining is a thin, indistinct
layer of slightly condensed mesoblast, scarcely discernible under
the low power used in drawing this series of figures.

Figure 23 shows the conditions that are to be seen at a plane
about half way between the openings of the bronchi andthe pos-
terior ends of the lungs, line 23, figure 19. The cesophagus, @, is
very large in this region and might, perhaps, be called the stomach,
since, ventrad to it, is seen the liver, li. In the upper part of the
figure are seen two masses of Wolffian tubules, Wt, attached to the
mesentery on either side of the dorsal aorta, a.

The two lungs are of somewhat smaller area than in the preceding
section and that on the right shows an indication of a division into
a mesodermal lobe at ’. Part of the lung on the right side is not

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

included in this figure. The main entodermal cavity on the right
side is very irregular in outline and is surrounded by several smaller
lobules which are not indicated in the reconstruction.

Figure 24 represents a hasty reconstruction of the mesodermal
lung on the right side of an embryo of about seven centimeters
length. The lung, m, it will be seen, is without division into lobes
and is very deep dorso-ventrally, in proportion to its length. The
bronchus, 0, enters it slightly caudad to its middle region. The
point of division of the trachea, ¢, into the two main bronchi 1s in
the plane of figure 25. The cesophagus, @, is of large diameter, but
its apparently unusual size is partly due to its being laterally com-
pressed.

Figure 25 represents a section through the body of this embryo
at the point of division of the trachea, ¢, into the two bronchi, line
25 in figure 24. The skeleton, aa, ce, r, is now well outlined in
cartilage, and the lungs are approaching their adult condition. The
lung on the right side of the figure is somewhat larger than that on
the left and exhibits six or eight large endodermal cavities, J, I’,
etc., and numerous smaller ones.

Just ventrad to the cesophagus is the trachea, t, with thick walls
in which several condensations indicate the formation of the tracheal
cartilages, as noted below. Surrounding the trachea are several
large pulmonary blood vessels, bv.

Figure 26, through line 26 of figure 24, represents a section
through the region where the bronchi, b, enter the lungs. On the
right the bronchus is shown opening directly into the endodermal
diverticulum, /’. Ventrad to the cesophagus, @, and bronchi are
several large blood vessels, bu, five of which are grouped in a dense
mass of mesoblast.

At this stage there has been but little change, histologically, from
what was noted in connection with figure 22, though the poor fixa-
tion of the material at hand makes it difficult to determine minute
details. In the cesophagus the epithelium is about as before, but
the surrounding, dense layer of mesoblast now exhibits a faint
division into a granular layer, next the epithelium and a more
fibrous layer outside of this; the former may represent the sub-
mucosa; the latter, the muscular layer, though this point has not
been worked out. In the trachea and bronchi the epithelium is
thinner than in the preceding stage and consists of only one or two
layers of cells. In the surrounding condensed layer of mesoblast
may be seen a number of small, darkly stained areas, ca; these,
under a higher magnification, are seen to consist of a closely-packed

NO. 2 LUNGS OF THE ALLIGATOR—REESE 9

mass of cells, and doubtless represent the anlagen of the carti-
laginous rings, as noted above. The lung cavities, /—l’, have about
the same appearance as described in connection with figure 22,
though the epithelium is, perhaps, somewhat thinner, and the
crescents are not quite so marked. No attempt has been made to
show these details with the low power used in this figure.

Figure 27 represents a ventral view of the body of an alligator
of about 15 cm. length, dissected to show the respiratory organs
and the neighboring structures.

The trachea, ¢, is seen lying against the ventral wall of the large
cesophagus, a; its numerous cartilaginous rings are easily seen. At
the anterior end of the trunchus, tr, the trachea disappears beneath
(dorsad to) the thyroid gland, tg, and its division into the two
bronchi cannot be seen in this figure. The lungs, J, are elongated
bodies, lying on each side of and mostly anterior to the heart. Their
medial borders are covered by the auricles, aw, and the thymus
glands, ty, while the posterior end of each lies beneath (dorsad to)
the corresponding lobe of the liver, 1. The alveolar appearance of
the lungs is easily seen with the naked eye. A thymus gland, ty,
is seen on either side of the posterior region of the trachea ; it con-
sists of a lobulated mass posteriorly and of an anteriorly directed
cylindrical portion extending forwards into the neck. The heart
and liver need not be described here. In the cut surface of the neck
may ‘be seen the spinal cord, sp, and the notochord, nu, surrounded
by the now cartilaginous vertebral column. The yolk or umbilical
stalk, u, is shown, somewhat diagrammatically, just caudad to the
opened body cavity.

Figure 28 represents, in outline, the respiratory organs of an
alligator of about 75 cm. length; this animal was probably two years
‘old and its lungs should have reached approximately their adult
condition.

Extending from the glottis, gl, at the base of the tongue, to, is
the fairly wide trachea, t; between the lungs it divides symmetrically
into the two bronchi, b, which enter their respective lungs a little
cephalad to the middle region of these organs. The pulmonary
veins, pv, are shown at the posterior edge of the bronchi; the
corresponding arteries are not shown in this figure.

The internal structure of the adult lung has been described by
Miller (3) and others and need not be noted here.

The thyroid gland, tg, is shown against the trachea just cephalad
to the origin of the bronchi.

10) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The material upon which the foregoing work was done was col-
lected by the author in central Florida with the aid of a grant from
the Smithsonian Institution.

The embryos were removed from the eggs, in the field, and fixed
in various ways. They were sectioned chiefly in the transverse and
sagittal planes and were stained, in most cases, with borax carmine
and Lyon’s blue.

REFERENCES

1. Herrwic, O.: Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentallen Ent-
wicklungslehre der Wirbelthiere. Bd. 2; Jena, 1906.

. Litum, F. R.: The Development of the Chick. New York, 1908.

3. Muitier, W. S.: The Structure of the Lung. Journ. Morph., Vol. 8, p.
171, 1893.

4. Reese, A. M.: Development of the Digestive Canal of the American
Alligator. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 56, No. 11, pp. I-25, 1910.

5. Weber, A., and Buvicnier, A.: Les premiéres phases du développement
du poumon chez les embryon de poulet. Comptes rendu hébt. des
séances de la société de Biologie. Vol. 55, pp. 1057-1058. Paris, 1903.

PEAS RUNG

a, aorta. m, mesoblastic lung primordium.

aa, anterior appendage. ml, mesoblastic layer.

au, auricle. n, notochord.

b, b’, bronchi. @, esophagus.

bu, blood vessel. p, pharynx.

c, last gill cleft. pl, pleural ccelom.

ca, cartilage rings of trachea and pv, pulmonary veins.
bronchi. r, rib.

ce, centrum. s, stomach.

co, ceelom. sp, spinal cord.

e, epithelial vestige. t, trachea.

ep, epithelium. tg, thyroid gland.

g, laryngo-tracheal groove. to, tongue.

gl, glottis. tr, trunchus arteriosus.

h, heart. ty, thymus gland.

j’/—1,7 lung or lung diverticula. u, umbilical cord.

la, larynx. v, ventricle.

li, liver. Wt, Wolffian tubules.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

Fic. 1—An outline of an alligator embryo at the beginning of the formation
of the lungs.

Fics. 2 to 6.—Transverse section through an embryo of the stage shown in
figure 1. The planes of these sections are shown in the reconstruction,
figure 7.

NO. 2 LUNGS OF THE ALLIGATOR—REESE Wil

Fic. 7.—A wax reconstruction of the respiratory tract of the embryo shown
in figure I. i

Fic. 8.—A reconstruction, on paper, of the respiratory tract of an embryo of
slightly later development than the one shown in figure 1.

Fic. 9.—An outline of an embryo somewhat older than the one represented in
figure 8.

Fic. 10—A camera sketch of a wax reconstruction of the entodermal re-
spiratory tract of the stage shown in figure 9. The extreme right of the
figure is in the region of the pharynx, where the trachea begins to separate
from the cesophagus.

Fics. 11 to 18.—Transverse sections through the respiratory tract in the planes
shown on figure Io. :

Fic. 19—A reconstruction, on paper, of the entodermal lung of the right side
(together with the trachea and cesophagus) of a later stage than the one
represented in figures Io to 18.

Fics. 20 to 23.—Transverse sections through the embryo represented in figure
19, in the planes of lines 20 to 23 of that figure.

Fic. 24.—A reconstruction, on paper, of the mesodermal lung on the right
side of an embryo of about 7 cm. length.

Fics. 25, 26.—Transverse sections through the embryo represented in figure
24, in the planes of lines 25 and 206.

Fic. 27.—A ventral view of a dissected embryo of about 15 cm. length, show-
ing the respiratory and other organs.

Fic. 28.—An outline of the respiratory organs of an alligator of about 75 cm.
length.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 2, PL. 1

DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

SMITHSONIAN MISOELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 2, PL. 2

DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

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10

DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

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DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 2, PL. 5

DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 2 FL. 6

DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 66, NO. 2 FL. 7

DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 2, PL. 8

= DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

; 28

DEVELOPMENT OF LUNGS OF ALLIGATOR

VOL. 65, NO. 2, PL. 9

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 3

~ ‘Hodgkins Fund

A SIUDY OF THE RADIATION OF THE
ATMOSPHERE

BASED UPON OBSERVATIONS OF THE NOCTURNAL
RADIATION DURING EXPEDITIONS TO
ALGERIA AND TO CALIFORNIA

BY
ANDERS ANGSTROM

(PuBLication 2354)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1915

The Lord Baltimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.

PREFACE

The prosecution of the researches described in the following pages
has been rendered possible by several grants from the Hodgkins
Fund of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for which I here
desire to express my deep gratitude.

I also stand indebted to various gentlemen for friendly help and
encouragement.

In the first place, I wish to express my sincere thanks to my
esteemed friend, Dr. C. G. Abbot, Director of the Astrophysical
Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, for the great interest
he has shown in my researches. His aid and suggestions have ever
been a source of stimulation and encouragement, while his criticisms
of my work have never failed to be of the greatest assistance to me.

Other scholars, to whom it is largely due that the observations
upon which this study is based have been so far brought to a success-
ful termination that I have been able to draw from them certain con-
clusions of a general character, are Dr. E. H. Kennard, of Cornell
University ; Professor F. P. Brackett, Professor R. D. Williams, and
Mr. W. Brewster, of Pomona College, California. To all these gentle-
men I wish to express my sense.of gratitude and my earnest thanks
for the valuable assistance they have afforded me in my investiga-
tions during the expedition to California.

Ultimately, the value of the observations of nocturnal radiation
here published will be greatly enhanced by the fact that the tempera-
ture, pressure, and humidity of the atmosphere, up to great eleva-
tions, were obtained experimentally by balloon observations made
during the expedition from points at or near my observing stations.
These observations, made by the United States Weather Bureau
in cooperation with the Smithsonian Institution, are given in
Appendix I.

It is also of advantage that observations of the solar constant of
radiation, the atmospheric transparency for solar radiation, and the
total quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere (as obtained by
Fowle’s spectroscopic method) were made at Mount Wilson during
the stay of the expedition. A summary of these results forms Ap-
pendix IT.

ili

IV PREFACE

In the present discussion the results of the balloon flights and
spectrobolometric work are not incorporated. A more detailed study
of the atmospheric radiation, in which these valuable data would be
indispensable, may be undertaken more profitably after a determina-
tion shall have been made of the individual atmospheric transmission
coefficients throughout the spectrum of long wave rays as depending
on humidity. This study is now in progress by Fowle and others,
and the results of it doubtless will soon be available.

Anpers ANGSTROM.
UpsaLA, SWEDEN,
December, 1914.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
SUITTITTO AIRY A een cu Pye ro ce mees is eI seen eer cccie oayh ate poless iefapee = wiaialauaiaibus le aesea & I

I. Program and history oiinedexpeditionssAansss 4s) of. -cscs. ssn. 3
ANP RIStO hi CalnSu evade citstoreete see eee coal cys, oleieters ie eeteisgeeiwienei eo ee ele ase 12
III. (a) Theory of the radiation of the atmosphere.................... 18
(b) Distribution of water vapor and temperature in the atmosphere 24

TAN eee Co) am na'S CTV TALS oye csemsicyeuste counts Sarai a ichare a teres ov orcroe sos cer bienereisisysnciaas 28
((1n))) TETRTRORRS cls Stees asec Beare CeCe ee NN RE RRC Cy Ei a Ce er 31

We Observations of nocturnal radiation... .. 222 o.25,..0+.5-0: ich Geis 33
im O)SSVERIOMS ee IBARVOMI. bgocanacnodccsoucacddunuououooUdeD 33

2. Results of the California expedition....... Ee A Lake 37

(a) Influence of temperature upon atmospheric radiation.. 37
(b) Observations on the summits of Mount San Antonio,
Mount San Gorgonio, and Mount Whitney, and at Lone
Pine Canyon. Application in regard to the radiation of
_a perfectly dry atmosphere and to the radiation of the

(EID DER GUA, codbecans cov acnasgcosD ooo UUUDNOODOoOAODOUG 42
(ce) Observations at Indio and at*“Lone Pine......:....... 50
(d) The effective radiation to the sky as a function of time. 52
Ge) Manflinentee rot ucloitdisi tata etesee ecco arelccs sieves otece ee Ose 54
Nieeadiarionstondtrenent paktsrObstite:skaym neem ee etscee cet reese 57
VII. Radiation between the sky and the earth in the daytime............ 70
VIII. Applications to some meteorological problems..................... 76
(a) Nocturnal radiation at various -altitudes...................... 76

(b) Influence of haze and atmospheric dust upon the nocturnal
TEPaIG DIAN SWOT hy tanch pe Stans ti Oe Osa Le Ca a Eien car eer 80
(@)e Radiation trommlarse water sunsaces.o ste. cece se eey oe ese 83
Goneludinesmemarics 445 saseen oes ewo ce seams ae Wig ates eee 87

APPENDIX
I. Free-air data in Southern California, July and August, 1913. By
the Aerial Section, U. S. Weather Bureau. Wm. R.

Blatt Canes setrnesiaraccnerrs byes attics gein cco aeaie reve 107
II. Summary of spectrobolometric work on Mount Wilson during Mr.

Angstrom’s investigations. By C-G. Abbot........... 148
III. Some pyrheliometric observations on Mount WW lobateye Bye AG IK.

Angstrom gual 12, lela IermenrG!, oo oosn seed ouose sas oouNe 150

yal
rei
Co ge
ay

OP enc one
Oe cakes ft

oP
ene arene
aA SOE OTT ae ea

i

Me hae
Denne

ine
vnte

a

~

fhodgkins Fund

A STUDY OF THE RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

BASED UPON OBSERVATIONS OF THE NOCTURNAL RADIA-
TION DURING EXPEDITIONS TO ALGERIA
AND TO CALIFORNIA

By ANDERS ANGSTROM

SUMMARY

The main results and conclusions that will be found in this paper
are the following. They relate to the radiation emitted by the atmos-
phere to a radiating surface at a lower altitude, and to the loss of
heat of a surface by radiation toward space and toward the atmos-
phere at higher altitudes.

I. The variations of the total temperature radiation of the atmos-
phere are at low altitudes (less than 4,500 m.) principally
caused by variations in temperature and humidity.

Il. The total radiation received from the atmosphere is very nearly
proportional to the fourth power of the temperature at
the place of observation.

III. The radiation is dependent on the humidity in such a way that
an increase in the water-vapor content of the atmosphere
will increase its radiation. The dependence of the radi-
ation on the water content has been expressed by an

. exponential law.

IV. An increase in the water-vapor pressure will cause a decrease
in the effective radiation from the earth to every point of
the sky. The fractional decrease is much larger for large
zenith angles than for small ones.

VY. The total radiation which would be received from a perfectly
cal.

cm. min.
temperature of 20°C. at the place of observation.

VI. The radiation of the upper, dry. atmosphere would be about
50 per cent of that of a black body at the Se ature of
the place of observation.

dry atmosphere would be about 0.28 with a

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 3.

2

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

VII. There is no evidence of maxima or minima of atmospheric

radiation during the night that cannot be explained by
the influence of temperature and humidity conditions.

VIII. There are indications that the radiation during the daytime is

subject to the same laws that hold for the radiation during
the night-time.

IX. An increase in altitude causes a decrease or an increase in the

X. The

Doe ie

value of the effective radiation of a blackened body
toward the sky, dependent upon the value of the tempera-
ture gradient and of the humidity gradient of the atmos-
phere. At about 3,000 meters altitude of the radiating
body the effective radiation generally has a maximum.
An increase of the humidity or a decrease of the tempera-
ture gradient of the atmosphere tends to shift this maxi-
mum to higher altitudes.

effect of clouds is very variable. Low and dense cloud
banks cut down the outgoing effective radiation of a
blackened surface to about 0.015 calorie per cm.’ per
minute ; in the case of high and thin clouds the radiation
is reduced by only 10 to 20 per cent.

effect of haze upon the effective radiation to the sky is
almost inappreciable when no clouds or real fog are
formed. Observations in Algeria in 1912 and in Cali-
fornia in 1913 show that the great atmospheric disturb-
ance caused by the eruption of Mount Katmai in Alaska,
in the former year, can only have reduced the nocturnal
radiation by less than 3.0 per cent.

XII. Conclusions are drawn in regard to the radiation from large

water surfaces, and the probability is indicated that this
radiation is almost constant at different temperatures, and
consequently in different latitudes also.

CHAPTER I
PROGRAM AND HISTORY OF THE EXPEDITIONS

It is appropriate to begin this paper with a survey of the external
conditions under which the work upon which the study is based was
done. Most of the observations here given and discussed were
carried out during two expeditions, one to Algeria in 1912, the other
to California in 1913. An account of these expeditions will give an
idea of the geographical and meteorological conditions under which
the observations are made, and it will at the same time indicate the
program of the field work, a program that was suggested by the
facts referred to in the historical survey of previous work and by
the ideas advanced in the chapter on the theory of atmospheric
radiation.

In 1912 I was invited to join the expedition of the Astrophysical
Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, led by its Director, Dr.
C. G. Abbot, whose purpose it was to study simultaneously at Algeria
and California the supposed variations of the radiation of the sun.
In May of that year I met Dr. Abbot at Bassour, a little Arab village
situated about 100 miles from Algiers, in the border region between
the Atlas Mountains and the desert, lying at 1,100 meters above sea
level. This place had been selected by Dr. Abbot for the purpose
of his observations on the sun, and on the top of a hill, rising 60
meters above the village, his instruments were mounted under ideal
conditions. The same place was found to be an excellent station
for the author’s observations of the nocturnal radiation. A little
house was built of boards by Dr. Abbot and myself on the top of the
hill. This house, about 2 meters in all three dimensions, was at the
same time the living room and the observatory. The apparatus used
for the nocturnal observations was of a type which will be described
ina later chapter. Its principal parts consist of an actinometer, to be
exposed to a sky with a free horizon, a galvanometer, and a milliam-
meter. At Bassour the actinometer was mounted on the roof of
the little observatory, observations of the galvanometer and the
ammeter being taken inside. The horizon was found to be almost
-entirely free. In the north some peaks of the Atlas Mountains rose
to not more than half a degree over the horizon, and in the south-
east some few sandy hills screened off with their flat wave-like tops
a very narrow band of the sky.

Humidity, mm. Hg.

ALE
isiuitcttentesscc|

o ‘Ayipruny “¥ ‘uonerpery
‘C161 “eliasyy “Inosseq ‘uoNeIper [euInjoON—vI ‘DI
: si eae “Ain

cm.3

Radiation,

Humidity, mm. Hg.

‘raquiaydas

‘o ‘Ayipruny =“ ‘uonepey
‘Z1O1 ‘eltos[y ‘Inosseq ‘UOT}VeIpes [VUINJIOON— Al OL

NI

ysnsny

2

Radiation

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

I was led by several circumstances to think that the nocturnal
radiation to the sky would be found to be a function of the water-
vapor content of the atmosphere and, as a consequence, observations
were made with wet and dry thermometers simultaneously with the
measurements of the radiation. In order not to introduce unneces-
sary influences that might modify this expected effect, it was con-
sidered important always to observe under a perfectly clear sky. It
was found that a few scattered clouds, far from the zenith, seldom
seemed to have any appreciable influence upon the radiation, but, in
order not to introduce conditions of the effect of which one could
not be quite sure, all the observations made at Bassour and used in
this paper were made under a perfectly cloud-free sky. The climatic
conditions were favorable for this program, and observations were
taken almost every night under a clear sky. Observations were also
made of the radiation to different parts of the sky, this study being
considered as of special interest in connection with the general
problem.

It was my purpose also to make an investigation of the influence
of altitude upon the radiation to the sky, and in fact some prelimi-
nary measurements were carried out with a view to the investigation
of that problem. Thus I made observations one night in the valley
of Mouzaia les Mines, situated at the foot of the peak of Mouzaia
among the Atlas Mountains, about 15 miles from Bassour. The
height of the valley above sea level is 540 meters. Simultaneously
Dr. Abbot observed at Bassour (1,160 m.) on this particular night,
as well as during the following one, when I took measurements on
the top of Mouzaia (1,610 m.). The result of these observations
will be found among the investigations of the California expedition,
one of the purposes of which was to consider more closely the
problem of the influence of altitude upon the radiation of the atmos-
phere. For assistance with the practical arrangements in connection
with the expedition to Mouzaia my hearty thanks are due to M. de
Tonnac and M. Raymond, property owners.

As the most important result of the observations in Algeria it
was found that the water vapor exerted a very marked influence
upon the nocturnal radiation to the sky; a change in the water-vapor
pressure from 12 to 4 mm., causing an increase in the nocturnal
radiation amounting to about 35 per cent, other conditions being
equal. From the observations it was possible to arrive at a logically
founded mathematical expression for this influence.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 7

A further investigation of the problem seemed, however, neces-
sary. My special attention was directed to the influence of altitude
and the influence of the temperature conditions of the instrument
and of the atmosphere upon the radiation to the sky. For this
purpose the climatic and geographic conditions of California were
recommended as being suitable by Dr. Abbot.

There is probably no country in the world where such great dif-
ferences in altitude are found so near one another as in Cah-
fornia. Not far from Yosemite Valley, in the mountain range of
Sierra Nevada, the highest peak in the United States, Mount Whit-
ney, raises its ragged top to 4,420 meters, and from there one can
look down into the lowest country in the world, the so-called
Death Valley—z2oo0 meters below sea level. And further south, near
the Mexican frontier, there is the desert of the Salton Sea, of which
the lowest parts are below sea level; a desert guarded by mountain
ranges whose highest peaks attain about 3,500 meters in altitude.
In the summer the sky is almost always clear ;a month and more may
pass without a cloud being visible. It was evident that the geographi-
cal as well as the meteorological conditions of the country were very
favorable for the investigations I contemplated.

On the advice of Dr. Abbot, I therefore drew up a detailed plan
for an expedition to California, which was submitted to the Smith-
sonian Institution, together with an application for a grant from
the Hodgkins Fund. The application was granted by the Institution,
to whose distinguished secretary, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, I am much
indebted for his great interest in the undertaking. The program for
the expedition was as follows:

1. Preliminary observations at the top of Mount San Antonio
(3,000 m.) and at Claremont (125 m.) simultaneously (3 nights).

2. Simultaneous observations at the top of Mount San Gorgonio
(3,500 m.) and at Indio in the Salton Sea Desert (0 m.), (3 nights).
~ 3. Expedition to Mount Whitney. Here the observations were to
be extended to three stations at different altitudes, where simultane-
ous measurements should be made every clear night during a period
of about two weeks. The stations proposed were: Lone Pine, at
the foot of the mountain, at 1,200 m. altitude; the summit of Mount
Whitney (4,420 m.); and an intermediate station on one of the
lower ridges that project on the eastern side of the mountain. Dur-
ing this part of the expedition, as well as during the preliminary
ones, the observations were to be made once an hour during the
entire night, from 8 o’clock in the evening to 4 o’clock in the morn-

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

ing. It was proposed also to make pyrheliometric observations dur-
ing the days on the top of Mount Whitney. These latter measure-
ments, which are taken as a basis for determinations of the solar
constant are given in an appendix written by Dr. Kennard and
myself.’ ;

The Mount Whitney part of the expedition was regarded as by
far the most important, both on account of the higher altitude of the
station, and because of the conveniences presented by the position
on the top of the mountain, which made it possible to observe there
during a considerable interval of time. Mount Whitney is too well
known through the expedition of Langley (in 1881) and of Abbot
(in 1909 and 1910) to need any description here. In the year 1909,
the Smithsonian Institution erected—on the suggestion of Directors
Campbell and Abbot—a small stone house on the summit as a shelter
for future observers. Permission was given me by the Smithsonian
Institution to use this shelter for the purposes of the expedition.

As the observations were to be made simultaneously in different
places, several observers were needed. At this time (in the begin-
ning of the year 1913) I was engaged in some investigations at the
physical laboratory of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., and from
there I was enabled to secure the services of wane sbpieaGl IDse, 12,..al.
Kennard, as a companion and an able assistant in the work of the
expedition. Further, Prof. F. P. Brackett, Director of the Astro-
nomical Observatory of Pomona College, Claremont, California, ;
promised his assistance, as also did Professor Williams and Mr.
Brewster from the same college.

On the 8th of July, 1913, the author and Dr. Kennard arrived
at Claremont, California, where Messrs. Brackett, Williams, and
Brewster joined us. Through the kindness of Prof. Brackett the
excellent little observatory of Pomona College was placed at my
disposal as headquarters, and here the assistants were instructed,
and the instruments—galvanometers, actinometers and ammeters—
were tested.

On the 12th of July the first preliminary expedition was made,
when the author and Mr. Brewster climbed to the summit of
Mount San Antonio, the highest peak of the Sierra Madre Range
(3,000 m.) and observed there during the two following nights.
At the same time Prof. Brackett and Dr. Kennard observed at
Claremont at the foot of the mountain, but unfortunately at the

* This paper has also appeared in the Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 4,
May, 1914.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 9

lower station the sky was cloudy almost the entire time, which con-
dition, however, furnished an opportunity to demonstrate the effect
of dense homogeneous cloud banks upon the nocturnal radiation.

The first simultaneous observations at different altitudes, favored
by a clear sky at both stations, were obtained during a subsequent
expedition, also of a preliminary nature, when the author and
Mr. Brewster, proceeded to Indio in the Salton Sea Desert, and
Prof. Brackett, Prof. Williams, and Dr. Kennard succeeded in climb-
ing Mount San Gorgonio (3,500 m.), the highest peak of the San
Bernardino range. Indio was chosen because of its low altitude
(o m.) and because of its meteorological conditions, the sky being
almost always clear in this part of the desert. The horizon was
almost perfectly free, the San Bernardino and San Jacinto moun-
tains rising only to about 10° above the horizon. The temperature
at the lower station, which is situated in one of the hottest regions of
America, reached, in the middle of the day, a point between 40° and
46° C.; in the night-time it fell slowly from about 30° in the evening
to about 20° in the morning. Here some interesting observations
were obtained, showing the influence of temperature upon radiation
to the sky. At the same time, the other party made observations on
the top of Mount San Gorgonio (3,500 m.) situated about 40 miles
farther north. The party climbed to the top in a heavy snow-
storm, and during the two following, perfectly clear, nights, observa-
tions were taken, the temperature at the top being about o° C. Thus
simultaneous observations were obtained on two ‘places differing
in altitude by 3,500 meters.

The expedition to Mount Whitney, for which preparations were
made immediately after the return of the parties to Claremont, was
regarded as the most important part of the field work. On the pro-
posal of Director Abbot, the U. S. Weather Bureau had resolved to
cooperate with my expedition in this part of the undertaking. Under
the direction of Mr. Gregg and Mr. Hathaway of that Bureau, the
upper air was to be explored by means of captive balloons, carrying
self-recording meteorological instruments. In this way the tempera-
ture and the humidity would be ascertained up to about 1,500 meters
above the point from which the balloons were sent up. The ascents
were to be made from Lone Pine (by Mr. Hathaway) and from
the summit of Mount Whitney (by Mr. Gregg). The latter ascents
are probably the first that have been carried on by means of captive
balloons at altitudes exceeding 4,000 meters.

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

On July 29 the party, accompanied by Mr. Gregg and Mr. Hatha-
way of the Weather Bureau, left Los Angeles for Lone Pine, Inyo
County, California. After arrival there in the morning a suitable
place was found for the lower station, and final arrangements were
made for the guide and pack train for the mountain party. The
disposition of the observers was to be Angstrém and Kennard at the
upper station, Brewster and an assistant at the intermediate station,
where observations were to be made only in the mornings and even-
ings, and, finally, Williams and Brackett at the lower station.

On Thursday, July 31, the mountain party set out from Lone Pine
with Elder, the Mexican guide, a cook, a pack train of seven mules,
and a light cart to convey the party up the incline to the foot of
Lone Pine Canyon, whence the ascent would have to be made on foot
or in the saddle. After some prospecting on the way, the inter-
mediate station was located on a crag overlooking the canyon from a
precipitous height of several hundred feet. Here Brewster was
stationed and was later joined by a Mexican helper. Leaving Brew-
ster, the party climbed that night to Elder’s camp, at an elevation
of nearly 3,000 meters. In spite of a storm which began with rain in
the night and changed to snow, increasing in severity the next day, the
summit was reached early in the afternoon. A thrilling electric
storm raged for some time. Every point of rock and the tips of the
nails and hair emitted electric discharges. But the little stone-and-
iron building of the Smithsonian Institution furnished shelter. That
the climbing of the mountain, with many instruments and a large
pack train, succeeded without an accident, is largely due to the
excellent work of Mr. G. F. Marsh, of Lone Pine, who had worked
for weeks with a gang of 20 men to open up the trail, so that the
ascent might be possible for men and pack animals carrying pro-
visions, instruments, and fuel. Even so, in its upper reaches the
trail passes over long slopes of ice and snow and clings to the face
of naked and rugged steeps, where a false step would be fatal.

On the top of the mountain, a short distance from the house, 1s
a little flat-roofed stone shelter about six feet square and eight feet
high. In and upon this shed most of the instruments were set up.

On the whole, the weather upon the mountain was very favorable
for the work of the expedition. Observations were made on seven
nights out of a possible ten. Besides the hourly records of nocturnal
radiation, the solar radiation was. measured at suitable intervals
throughout the day, and complete records were kept of the tempera-
ture, humidity, and pressure of the air at the summit. Strong winds

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM II

interfered with the balloon ascents, but several of them were suc-
cessful. During three nights records were obtained up to 400 to
1,000 meters above the station.

The observations at the lower stations have also proved to be very
satisfactory. In the section on the experimental work the observa-
tions will be discussed in detail.

(Glebe da Xe lul
HISTORICAL SURVEY *

Insolation from the sun, on the one hand, and, on the other, radia-
tion out to space, are the two principal factors that determine the
temperature conditions of the earth, inclusive of the atmospheric
envelope. If we do not consider the whole system, but only a volume:
element within the atmosphere (for instance, a part of the earth’s
surface) this element will gain heat: (I) through direct radiation
from the sun; (Il) from the portion of the solar radiation that is
diffused by the atmosphere; (II1) through the temperature radiation
of the atmosphere. The element will lose heat through temperature
radiation out to space, and it will lose or gain heat through convection
and conduction. In addition to these processes, there will often occur
the heat transference due to the change of state of water: evapo-
ration, condensation, melting, and freezing. The temperature radi-
ation from the element to space, diminished by the temperature
radiation to it from the atmosphere, is often termed “ nocturnal
radiation,” a name that is suggested by the fact that it has generally
been observed at night, when the diffused skylight causes no compli-
cation. In this paper it will often be termed “ effective radiation.”
The effective radiation out to the sky together with the processes of
convection and conduction evidently under constant conditions must
balance the incoming radiation from sun and sky. The problem of
the radiation from earth to space is therefore comparable in impor-
tance to the insolation problem in determining the climatic conditions
at a certain place.

The first observations relating to the problem of the earth’s radia-
tion to space are due to the investigations of Wilson, Wells, Six,’
Pouillet, and Melloni, the observations having been made between
the years 1780 and 1850. These observers have investigated the

Large parts of this chapter as well as of chapters III, IV and V:1 have
appeared in the Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 37, No. 5, June, 1913.
* Edinburgh Phil. Trans., Vol. 1, p. 153.
* Ann. de chimie et de physique, tome 5, p. 183, 1817.
*Six, Posthumous Works, Canterbury, 1704.
° Pouillet, Elément de physique, p. 610, 1844.
° Ann. de chimie et de physique, ser. 3, tome 22, pp. 120, 467, 1848.
Ibid., ser. 3, tome 21, p. 145, 1848.
12

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 13

nocturnal cooling of bodies exposed to the sky, a cooling that is
evidently not only due to radiation but is also influenced by conduc-
tion and convection of heat through the surrounding medium.
Melloni, making experiments in a valley called La Lava, situated
between Naples and Palermo, found that a blackened thermometer
exposed on clear nights showed a considerably lower value (3.6° C.)
than an unblackened one under the same conditions. Melloni draws
from his experiments the conclusion that this cooling is for the most
part due to the radiation of heat to space. In fact, such a cooling
of exposed bodies below the temperature of their surroundings was
very early observed. Natives of India use it for making ice by ex-
posing flat plates of water, on which dry grass and branches are
floating, to the night-sky. The formation of ice, due to nocturnal
radiation, has been systematically studied by Christiansen.

So far the observations have been qualitative rather than quantita-
tive and the object of the observations not clearly defined. The first
attempt to measure the nocturnal radiation was made by Maurer,
the Swiss meteorologist. In the year 1886, Maurer published a
paper dealing with the cooling and radiation of the atmosphere.’
thermometrical observations of the atmosphere’s cooling he
fuces a value 8=0.007.10* (cm.? min.) for the radiation coefficient
he air and from this a value for the radiation of the whole atmos-

4 1. ft ; :
phere: 0.39 — at o°. This value is obtained on the assump-

tion that the atmosphere is homogeneous, having a height of 8.10°
cm. and by the employment of the formula

aS) — p-ah
ies =m eh

where S is the radiation, a the absorption coefficient and h=8.10’.
Maurer’s manner of proceeding in obtaining this value can scarcely
be regarded as quite free from objection, and in the theoretical part
of this paper I shall recur to that subject. But through his theory
Maurer was led to consider the problem of the nocturnal radiation
and to measure it. His instrument consisted of a circular copper
disk, fastened horizontally in a vertical cylinder with double walls,
between which was running water to keep the cylinder at a constant
temperature. The cover of the cylinder was provided with a cir-
cular diaphragm, which could be opened or shut. Opening and
shutting this diaphragm at certain intervals of time, Maurer could,

* Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 1887, p. 180.
2 Sitzber. der Ak. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1887, p. 925.

14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

from the temperature of the disk read on a thermometer, compute
the radiation. “He made his observations at Zurich during some
clear nights in June and found a nocturnal radiation amounting to
0.13 cal. By this method, as well as by the similar method used by
Pernter, certain corrections must be made for conduction and con-
vection, and certain hypotheses must be made in order to compute
the radiation to the whole sky from the radiation to a limited part of
it given by the instrument.

The observations of Pernter* were made simultaneously on the
top of Sonnblick (3,095 m.) and at Rauris (g00 m.). He observed
with an actinometer of the Violle type and found a radiation of 0.201
cal. (unless otherwise stated the radiation is always given as

eal -— in this paper) at the higher station and 0.151 at the lower
cm.” min.
one.

Generally the methods for determining the effective radiation out
to space have proceeded parallel—with a certain phase difference—
with the development of the methods of pyrheliometry. In the year
1897, Homén* published an important paper bearing the title “ Der
tagliche Warmeumsatz im Boden und die Warmestrahlung zwischen
Himmel und Erde.” His method was an application of a method
employed by K. Angstrom for measuring sun radiation. The prin-
cipal part of the instrument consists of two exactly equal copper
plates. In the plates are introduced the junctions of a thermocouple.
If now one of the plates is exposed to the radiation and the other
covered, there will be a temperature difference between the disks
growing with the time. If at a certain temperature difference, 4,
the conditions are interchanged between the disks, they after a
certain time, t, will get the same temperature. Then the intensity
of the radiation is given by the simple formula:

one
t
where W is the heat-capacity of the disks. By this method the
effects of conduction and convection are eliminated. The weak
point of the instrument, if applied to measurements of the nocturnal
radiation, lies in the employment of a screen, which must itself
radiate and cool, giving rise to a difference in the conditions of the
two disks. Homén draws from his observations on the radiation
between earth and sky the following conclusions:

* Sitzber. der Ak. der Wissensch. zu Wien, 1888, p. 1562.
*Homén, Der tagliche Warmeumsatz, etc., Leipzig, 1897.

NO, 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM I5

(1) If the sky is clear, there will always be a positive radiation
from earth to sky, even in the middle of the day.

(2) If the sky is cloudy, there will always, in the daytime, be a
radiation from sky to earth.

(3) In the night-time the radiation for a clear as well as for a
cloudy sky always has the direction from earth to sky.

Homén also made some measurements of the radiation to different
parts of the sky and found that this radiation decreases rapidly when
the zenith angle approaches the value 90°. His values of the noc-
turnal radiation vary between 0.13 and 0.22 for a clear sky.

When relatively large quantities of heat are to be measured under
circumstances where the conduction and convection are subject to
considerable variation, it is favorable if one can apply a zero method,
where the instrument is kept the whole time at the temperature of its
surroundings. As the first attempt to discover such a method may be
regarded the experiment of Christiansen, who measured the thick-
ness of ice formed on metal disks that were placed on a water-surface
and exposed to the sky. In 1899 K. Angstrom published a descrip-
tion of the compensation pyrheliometer and shortly afterward (1903)
a modified type of this instrument was used by Exner* in order to
measure the nocturnal radiation on the top of Sonnblick. In agree-
ment with former investigations made by Maurer and Homén, Exner
found the radiation to be relatively constant during the night. He
points out that there are tendencies to a slight maximum of radiation
in the morning, one to two hours before sunrise. To the method
of Exner it can be objected that the radiation is only measured for
a part of the sky. In order to obtain the radiation to the whole sky,
Exner applied a correction with regard to the distribution of
radiation to the different zones given by Homén. It will be shown
in a later part of this paper that such a procedure is not entirely
reliable.

In 1905 K. Angstrom’ gave a description of an instrument
specially constructed for measuring the nocturnal radiation. The
instrument is founded upon the principle of electric compensation,
and, as it has been used in the work here published, I shall in a
following chapter give a more detailed consideration of it. With this
instrument Angstrom measured the nocturnal radiation during sev-
eral nights at Upsala and found values varying between 0.13 and

+ Met. Zt., 1903, p. 409.
?Nova Acta Reg. Soc., Sc. Upsal., Ser. 4, Vol. 1, No. 2.

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

0.18 cal. for a clear sky. With this type of instrument Lo Surdo* has
made measurements at Naples. He observed the radiation during
a clear and especially favorable night and found a pronounced maxi-
mum about two hours before sunrise. Contrary to Homén he finds
a positive access of radiation from the sky even when the sky is
clear. The following table gives a brief survey of the results ob-
tained by different observers:

Observer | Date Place Temperature | Height} Mean Value
|
Maurer.... . June 13-18, 1887 |Zurich 15°-18° 500 |0.128
Pernter.....|Feb. 20, 1888 |Sonnblick —8° 3095 |0. 201
JEDI s 44 5) REID, ZO). 1888 |Rauris eur ews g0O jO.151
Homeén...../Aug., 1896 |Lojosee sigarsdts Hoos (OclH
LE SIMCTES 35.05 al 1oo2 (Sombie |) soo 00% 3106 |0.19
ISSIME Goo Boal WU os MOO |Sommlpilikk | seoose 3100 |o. 268 (max.)
K. Angstrom May-Nov., 1904 |Upsala 0°-10° 200 |0.155
Lo Surdo...|Sept. 5-6, 1908 |Naples 20°-30° 30 |0.182
A. Angstrom July 10-Sept. to, |Algeria 20° 1160 |0.174
IQI2 ~

If we apply the constant of Kurlbaum o=7.68.10™, to the law of
Stefan-Boltzmann for the radiation of a black surface, we shall find
that such a surface at 15° C. temperature ought to radiate 0.526 cal.
If the observed effective radiation does not amount to more, for in-
stance, than 0.15 cal., this must depend upon the fact that 0.376 cal.
is radiated to the surface from some other source of radiation. In
the case of the earth this other source of radiation is probably to a
large extent its own atmosphere, and in the following pages we shall
often for the sake of convenience discuss this incoming radiation
as if it were due to the atmosphere, ignoring the fact that a small
fraction of it is due to the stars and planetary bodies.

Then the source of variations in the effective radiation to the sky
is a double one. The variations depend upon the state of the radiat-
ing surface and also upon the state of the atmosphere. And the state
of the atmosphere is dependent upon its temperature, its composition,
density, the partial and total pressure of the components, and upon
the presence of clouds, smoke, and dust from various sources.

The present paper is an attempt to show how the effective radia-
tion, and consequently also what we have defined as the radiation
of the atmosphere, is dependent upon various conditions of the
atmosphere. It must be acknowledged that the conditions of the
atmosphere are generally known only at the place of observation.

*Nuovo Cimento, Ser. 5, Vol. 15, 1908.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 17,

But it has been shown by many elaborate investigations that, on
an average, we are able, with a certain amount of accuracy, to draw
conclusions about a large part of the atmosphere from observations
on a limited part of it.’ This will be further discussed in a chapter
on the distribution of water vapor and temperature conditions. The
discussion of the observations will therefore be founded upon mean
values, and will lead to a knowledge of average conditions.

CEIAR AR DED
A. THEORY OF THE RADIATION OF THE -ATMOSERM ERE:

The outgoing effective radiation of a blackened body in the night
must be regarded as the sum of several terms: (1) the radiation from —
the surface toward space (E,) given, for a “ black body,” by Stefan’s
radiation law; (2) the radiation from the atmosphere to the surface
(E.), to which must be added the sum of the radiations from sidereal
bodies (Es), a radiation source that is indicated by Poisson by the
term “ sidereal heat.” If J is the effective radiation, we shall evi-
dently have:

J=E,—Ea—Es
For the special case where the temperature of the surface is con-
stant and the same is assumed to be the case for the sidereal radiation, ~
we can write:
JBeik SJE,

K being a constant. Under these circumstances the variations in the
effective radiation are dependent upon the atmospheric radiation
only, and the problem is identical with the problem of the radiation
from a gaseous body, which in this case is a mixture of several
different components. As is well known from thorough investiga-
tions, a gaseous body has no continuous spectrum, but is charac-
terized by a selective radiation that is relatively strong at certain
points of the spectrum and often inappreciable at intermediate
points. The law for the distribution of energy is generally very
complicated and is different for different gases. The intensity is
further. dependent upon the thickness, density, and temperature of
the radiating layer.

Let us consider the intensity of the radiation for a special wave
length A, from a uniform gaseous layer of a thickness R and a tem-
perature T toward a small elementary surface dr. To begin with,
we will consider only the radiation that comes in from an elementary
radiation cone, perpendicular to dz, which at unit distance from dr
has a cross-section equal to dQ. One can easily deduce:

R
j= i €\e *Ar drdQdr
which gives for unit surface:
ty = dO Genk) Gin)
ay

18

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 19

where e, is the emission coefficient and a), the absorption coefficient
for the wave length X.
Evidently :
lim Jy = A dQ= Eda (2)
R= ay
where £) is the radiation from a black body for the wave length
dX at the temperature T: It follows from this that, in all cases where
one can assume a, to be independent of the temperature, « must’
be the same function of the temperature as E) multiplied by a con-
stant. That means that the radiation law of Planck must always
hold, as long as the absorption is constant:

i

€ = CA?

If now the gas has many selective absorption bands we may write
_ instead of (1):
J=3E)(1—e7 ak) da C2)

With the aid of (3) it is always possible to calculate the radiation
for any temperature, if the absorption coefficient, which is assumed
to be constant, is known.

If FR is taken so great that the product a,-R has a very large
value for all wave lengths, the expression (3) will become

icra — oh (4)
a, R=
which is Stefan’s radiation law for a black body.

If a, cannot be regarded as infinitely great for all wave lengths,
the radiation, J, will be a more complicated function of T expressed
by the general relation (3). The less the difference is between the
radiation from the gas and the radiation from a black body at the
same temperature, so much more accurately will the formula (4)
express the relation between radiation and temperature.

Dr. Trabert* draws from observations on the nocturnal cooling
of the atmosphere the conclusion that the radiation from unit mass
of air is simply proportional to the absolute temperature. If this
should be true, it can be explained only through a great variation
of a, for a variation in the temperature. Later Paschen’* and Very“
measured in the laboratory the radiation from air-layers at different

* Denkschriften der Wien. Akad., 50.
* Wied. Ann., 50, 1893.
* Very, Atmospheric Radiation, Washington, 1900.

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

temperatures and found a much more rapid increase with rising
temperature than that indicated by Trabert.

From (3) we shall deduce some general laws for the radiation
from gaseous layers. From such a layer the radiation will naturally
come in from all sides, R being different for different angles of
incidence. We may therefore write (3) in the form:

vr
JSS PCy ee ae) (5)
where y is always a positive quantity. Now we have:
i ee

dR Sy Na = MCG E ONS 4 YR

That is, we have the very evident result that the radiation of
a gaseous layer increases with its thickness (or density). For very
thick layers the increase is zero and the radiation constant.
By a second differentiation we get :
d?J

yr
dR? = — => (a -y)?e-Pr: yR

The second derivative is always negative, which shows that the
curve giving the relation between radiation and thickness is always
concave toward the R-axis.

We may now go a step further and imagine that on the top of
the first layer is a new layer, which radiates in a certain way different
from that of the first layer. A part of the radiation from the second
layer will pass the first layer without being absorbed. That part we
denote by H. Another fraction of the radiation will be absorbed, and
it will be absorbed exactly at the wave lengths where the first layer —
is itself radiating. The sum of the radiations from the two layers
can therefore be expressed by a generalization of (5)

ale r
J=H4SS[E,—(B,— Eye] (6)

where E’, is the radiation from the second layer at the wave length
rX. Ii this layer has the same or a lower temperature than the first
one, we evidently have:
de ESE

In that case the laws given above in regard to the derivatives of
J evidently hold, and we find here also that the less the thickness of
the layer is, so much more rapid is the increase of radiating power
with increase in thickness. This is true for a combination of several
layers under the condition that the temperature is constant or is a
decreasing function of the distance from the surface to which the

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 21

radiation is measured. We shall make use of that fact in the experi-
mental part of this paper, in order to calculate the maximum value
of the radiation of the atmosphere when the density of one of its
components approaches zero.
The relation
[ESE (r=e-%; * dQ

represents the general expression for the radiation within the radia-
tion cone dQ perpendicular to the unit of surface. Maurer bases his
computation of the atmosphere’s radiation upon the more simple
expression

fel Gae2)
Qa

where he puts R equal to the height of the reduced atmosphere and
a equal to the absorption coefficient of unit volume. This is evidently
an approximation that is open to criticism. In the first place it is
_ not permissible to regard R as the height of the reduced atmosphere,
and this for two reasons: first, because the radiation is chiefly due to.
the existence of water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
vapors, whose density decreases rapidly with increase in the altitude ;
and, secondly, because we have here to deal with a radiation that
enters from all sides, R being variable with the zenith angle. But even
if we assign to R a mean value with regard to these conditions,
Maurer’s formula will be true only for the case of one single emission
band and is, for more complicated cases, incapable of representing
the real conditions. I have referred to this case because it.shows
how extremely complicated are the conditions when all are taken into
consideration.

If, with Maurer, we regard the atmosphere as homogeneous and
of uniform temperature, having a certain height, h, we must, con-
sidering that R is a function of the zenith angle, write (1) in the
following form:

= S [da (1-2 cor) cos (3)
where the integration is to be taken over the hemisphere represent.
ing the space. Now we have

dQ=dédy sin ®
and therefore
T
h

I= 2 Pal? (j=25°* cose) Sin ® cos Pde (8)

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

This expression can easily be transformed into:

Ip=aBy (1-248 | _ aa) (9)
p

h
cos
proaches zero; when h=o, J) approaches the value 7), which is
equal to the radiation of a black body under the same conditions. We
have, in fact:

where p=a): and r=a When h=0, this expression ap-

(Game
Oph 3 p
: 5 CE : oi €
lim P| — d4= lm ——— =lim —_ =o
p=n Jp p=m I IT pam
Ppp

and in a similar way:

C2) ah
hat P| “de=1

p=0 Jp ¥

We shall now consider in what respects these relations are likely
to be true for the very complicated conditions prevailing in the
atmosphere. The atmosphere, considered in regard to its radiating
properties, consists of a low radiating layer up to about 10 km. made
up of water vapor and carbon dioxide, and a higher radiating layer
composed of carbon dioxide and ozone. These two layers naturally
merge into one another, but it is convenient here to suppose a clear
distinction, our surface of separation being at the altitude where the
water vapor ceases to have any appreciable influence upon the
radiation of the atmosphere.

The radiation of the lower layer is chiefly dependent upon the
amount of water vapor contained in it, the strong radiation of the
carbon dioxide being at wave lengths where the water vapor itself
must radiate almost in the same way as a black body. At any rate,
the variations of the radiation in that part of the atmosphere must
depend almost entirely on the variations in the water-vapor element,
the carbon-dioxide element being almost constant, as well in regard to
time, as to place and to altitude. The probable slight influence of vari-
ations in the amount of ozone contained in the upper strata of the
atmosphere, we may at present ignore. Including the constant
radiation of the carbon dioxide in the radiation of the upper layer,
we can apply the expression (5) and arrive at

vy .
J=H+23[F)— (A= Ey )e-a: Y*] (10)
where R can be put equal to the height of the reduced water-

—

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 23

vapor atmosphere, or, what is the same, the amount of water vapor
contained in a vertical cylinder of 1 cm.’ cross-section. Here a
has been considered as a constant. As has been shown by Miss von
Bahr, the law of Beer does not, however, hold for vapors, absorption
being variable with the total pressure to which the vapor is subjected.
As will be seen in the experimental part of the paper, this circum-
stance has probably introduced a slight deviation from the conditions
to be expected from the assumption of a constant value for a.

From (10) we draw a similar conclusion to the preceding: with
decreasing water-vapor content, the radiation of the atmosphere will
also decrease and this decrease will be more rapid at a low water-
vapor content than at a high one.

The simplest form in which (10) can be written is obtained from
the assumption that we can put:

DYN
(Gf 42>) IK
and

DN
23 (E,—E’)) e—2nR = Ce-4m Vm® = Ce—8P

where P is the height of the reduced water-vapor atmosphere. In
such a case we shall obtain for the radiation of the atmosphere:

B, = We Cen ee (11)
and for the effective radiation:
J=E'+Ce—8P (12)

We have heretofore supposed that the temperature of the radiating
layer is constant. If that is not the case, it will introduce a new
cause of variations. For every special wave length the radiation
law of Planck will hold, but the integration will generally give a
result different from the law of Stefan, dependent upon the different
intensities of the various wave lengths relative to those of a black
body. From the measurements of Rubens and Aschkinass on the
transmission it can be seen, as will be shown later, that the radiation
of the water vapor is very nearly proportional to the fourth power
of the temperature, and as an approximation one may write:

Heol Ge)
or for the simple case (11):
B= el * CK’ —e7 8 )

Use will be made of these considerations in the treatment of the
observations made.

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 05

B. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER VAPOR IN THE ATMOSPHERE*

In applying observations of the effective radiation toward the sky
to determine a relation between the radiation of the atmosphere and
its temperature and humidity, we are met by two great difficulties:
First, the measurement of the total quantity of water contained in
the atmosphere (I shall call this quantity hereafter the “ integral
water vapor ” of the atmosphere) ; second, the determination of the
effective atmospheric temperature.

There have been several elaborate investigations made of the water
component of the atmosphere, by humidity measurements from
balloons and on mountains, and indirectly by observations of the
absorption, resulting from the water vapor, in the sun’s radiation.
Hann * has given the following formula, applicable to mountains, by
which the water-vapor pressure at any altitude can be expressed as
a function of the water-vapor pressure e observed at the ground.
If e, is the observed water-vapor pressure in millimeters of mercury
at a certain place, and fi the altitude in meters above this place, the
vapor pressure e, at the height meters is

h
€,=€,e 2730 (1)
In the free air the decrease of the pressure with altitude is more

rapid, especially at high altitudes. From observations in balloons,
Siiring has given the formula: *

I 1
e, =e,e7 2608 (+ 35 (2)

If the atmosphere has the same temperature all through, the water
element contained in a unit volume will be proportional to the vapor
pressure. It is easy to see from the expression of Hann or of String
that in such a case the integral water vapor will be proportional to the
vapor pressure at the earth’s surface. Through integration we shall
get from Hann’s formula:

F=2.73f, + 10° (3)
and from String’s formula:
F=2.13f, + 10° (4)

where f, is the water content in grams per cm.* at the earth’s surface.

+See the concluding part of the preface. The discussion here given is for
the purpose of indicating how far observations of humidity and temperature
at the earth’s surface may take the place of detailed information obtainable
only by balloon flights in the study of atmospheric radiation.

* Hann, Meteorologie, pp. 224-226.

§ Arrhenius, Lehrbuch der Kosmischen Physik, p. 624.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 25

When one wishes to compute the integral water vapor from the
pressure, the fall of temperature will cause a complication. From
(1) we get, instead of (3):

Ta fa=T foe
where 7; denotes the absolute temperature at the altitude / meters.
T, is a function of the altitude. This function differs from time to
time and can be known only by balloon observations, but for present
purposes we may use an approximate formula for T;. We may write,
T; is equal to T, when h=o and Ty is equal to 0° at h= a. Also,

h
2730

we must have =o at h=o. Accordingly (as the.temperature
1

influence in the formula is not great) it may suffice to assume that
T on an average can be expressed by an exponential function of the
form:

Ty=T,e7 (6)

where a is to be determined by assuming that for h=o - is

equal to the observed fall of temperature at the surface of the
earth. For a fall of temperature of 0.7 degree per 100 m. one finds
a=0.03. Introducing (3) into (1) we obtain the slightly different
result for the integral water vapor:

i= 2iOAD a = TOs
and in a similar way from Sutring’s formula:

EO 20a a:

Hann’s formula, which holds for mountain regions, indicates that
here the element of water vapor contained in the atmosphere above
a certain place is the absolute humidity at that place multiplied by
a constant, the constant being independent of the altitude. This
is not the case for the free air, if String’s formula may be taken as
a true expression of the conditions here prevailing. It is true that at
a certain place we shall have F=cf,, c¢ being a constant, but this
constant will differ at different altitudes. At an altitude of 4,400 m.,
we shall have

F=1.8- 4,400 (free air)

Fowle has made an interesting study of the absorption pro-
duced by water vapor in the sun’s energy spectrum at Mount Wil-
son. He also finds that the amount of water vapor contained in

SUASERODasNu 37), Nc. Sods 350:

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the air is proportional to f, under average conditions. Individual
observations deviate, however, greatly from the computed value,
which is to be expected in view of the variety of atmospheric con-
ditions.

Briefly it may be said that the observations agree in showing that
on an average the integral water vapor above a certain place is pro-
portional to the absolute humidity at that place. The factor of pro- _
portionality is, however, in general a function of the altitude.

The application of these results to the present question means that
we can replace the water content of the whole atmosphere (P) by
the absolute humidity at the place of observation multiplied by
a constant, the latter being a quantity it is possible to observe.

For the general case we thus obtain

E,=3(1—e-%) +H
or for the simplest possible case
Be Ke O emit

More difficult is the problem of assigning a mean value for the
temperature of the radiating atmosphere. It is evident that this
temperature is lower than the temperature at the place of observa-
tion, and it is evident that it must be a function of the radiating
power of the atmosphere. The most logical way to solve the problem
would be to write T as a function of the altitude and apply Planck’s
law to every single wave length. The radiation of the atmosphere
would thus be obtained as a function of the humidity and the tem-
perature ; but even after many approximations the expression would
be very complicated and difficult to test. The practical side of the
question is to find out through observations how the radiation
depends upon the temperature at the place of observation. Suppose
this temperature to be 7,. We may consider a number of layers
parallel with the surface of the earth, whose temperatures are
T,, T., T3, etc. Suppose, that these layers radiate as the same function
el,2 ot the temperatune, leet us write: | 2,7 1, st — ee
T,=qT,. Then the radiation of all the layers will be:

J=cT,*- [am*+ Bnt+yq*....]
at another temperature ¢, the radiation will be:

t=ct,*+ [am,*+ Bn+yq,". . ; |

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 27

The condition that the whole layer shall radiate proportionally to
this function cT,*, is evidently that we have:
MW= MN N=N7; =O... -

that is: The temperature at every altitude ought to be proportional -
to the temperature at the zero surface. This is approximately true
for the atmosphere. In the above consideration of the question, the
emissive powers, a, B, y...., are assumed to be independent of
temperature.

The discussion explains how it is to be expected that from the
temperature at the earth’s surface we can hope to draw conclusions

about the temperature radiation of the whole atmosphere.
vy

(Gave dha Rey
A. INSTRUMENTS

For the following observations I used one or more nocturnal com-
pensation instruments, pyrgeometers of the type described by K.
Angstrém in a paper in 1905.’ Without going into details, for which
I refer to the original paper, it may be of advantage to give here a
short description of the instrument.

Founded on the same principle of electric compensation used in
the Angstrom pyrheliometer, the instrument has the general form
indicated in figure 2. There are four thin manganine strips (/), of
which two are blackened with platinum black, the other two gilded.
On the backs of the metal strips are fastened the two contact points of
a thermojunction, connected with a sensitive galvanometer G. If
the strips are shaded by a screen of uniform temperature, the thermo-
junctions will have the same temperature, and we may read a certain
zero position on the galvanometer. If the screen is removed and
the strips are exposed to the sky, a radiation will take place, which
is stronger for the black strips than for the bright ones, and there
will be a deflection on the galvanometer due to the temperature
difference between the strips. In order to regain the zero position
of the galvanometer, we may restore the heat lost through radiation
by sending an electric current through the black strips. Theoretical
considerations, as well as experiments made, show that the radiation
is proportional to the square of the current used, that is,

S/o
where k is a constant that depends upon the dimensions, resistance, |
and radiating power of the strips. As the radiating power from
the strips is difficult to compute, the constant k is determined from
experiment with a known radiation. The strips are exposed to
radiate to a black hemisphere of known temperature 7,, and the
constant is determined by the relation:

ke =o] ie)
where T is the temperature of the strips. The advantage of this

construction over the form used for instance by Exner and Homén,
where the effects of conduction and convection are also eliminated,

*Nova Acta Reg. Soc., Sc. Upsal., Ser. 4, Vol. 1, No. 2.
28

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 29
lies in the possibility of measuring the radiation to the whole sky

and not only to a part of it, which is the case when one of the strips
must be shaded. It must always be regarded as a dangerous approxi-

(Na

>

WELLL (MELA
———

|
CLLR LLL LLL,

Fic. 2—-The Pyrgeometer.

mation to compute the radiation to the whole sky from the radiation
to a fraction of it, assuming a certain standard distribution of radia-
tion to the different zones of the sky. The method of adding up

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

different portions is too inconvenient and fails when the radiation is
rapidly changing.

On the other hand, the value k is here dependent on the accuracy
with which the radiation constant o is determined. Further, since
the emissive power of the strips, which is different for different wave
lengths, enters into the constant k, this constant can be applied only
for cases where the radiation is approximately of the same wave
length as in the experiment from which k is computed. In the night-
time this may be considered the case, the emissive power being the
same for all heat waves longer than about 2p. But the instrument
cannot, without further adjustment, be used for determining the
radiation during the day, when the diffused radiation from the sky
of short wave length enters as an important factor.

The constants of my three instruments, of which No. 17 and No. 18
were used at Bassour and California, and No. 22 in California, have
been determined at the Physical Institute of Upsala on two occasions,
before the expeditions by Dr. Lindholm of that Institute and after
the expeditions by myself. The two determinations of the constants
differ from one another only within the limits of probable error.

No. Before After Mean
17 10.4. 10.4. 10.4
18 ven 10.7 10.9
22 11.6 11.8 wy

For the computations from the Algeria values the first values of the
constants (for 17 and 18) have been used, for the California observa-
tions a mean value between them both. For the determination of the
constants, Kurlbaum’s value for o has been used

COs Or:

not so much because this value is at present the most probable per-
haps, as in order that observations with these instruments may be
directly comparable with those of older ones. At any rate the rela-
tive values of the radiation must still be looked upon as the most
important question. .

The galvanometers that I have used were of the d’Arsonval type.
They were perfectly aperiodic, and had a resistance of about 25 O and
a sensitiveness of about 2- 10°8 amp. per mm. at meter distance. They
generally showed a deflection of between 30 and 70 mm., when the
strips were exposed to a clear sky. The galvanometers and the
pyrgeometers were made by G. Rose, Upsala.

In the use of the compensation instrument one has to be careful
that the instrument has had time to take the temperature of the

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 2h

surroundings before measurements are made. If the instrument is
brought from a room out into the open air, one can be perfectly safe
after ten minutes exposure. When measurements are made on the
tops of mountains or at other places where the wind is liable to be
strong, I have found it advantageous to place the galvanometer as
near the ground as possible. By reading in a reclining posture one
can very well employ the instrument box itself for the galvanometer
support. Some heavy stones placed upon, at the sides, and at the
back of the box will keep the whole arrangement as steady as in
a good laboratory, even when the wind is blowing hard.

For the measurements of the current used for compensation
milliammeters from Siemens and Halske were employed.

The measurements of the humidity, as well as of the temperature,
were carried out with aid of sling psychrometers made by Green
of Brooklyn. The thermometers were tested for zero, and agreed
perfectly with one another. '

In order to compute the humidity from the readings of the wet
and dry thermometers I have used the tables given by Fowle in the
Fifth Revised Edition of the “ Smithsonian Physical Tables ” 1910.’

B. ERRORS

The systematic error to which the constants of all the electric
-pyrgeometers are subject has already been discussed. There are
however some sources of accidental errors in the observations, and
I shall mention them briefly. The observer at the galvanometer will
sometimes find—especially if there are strong and sudden wind gusts
blowing upon the instrument—that the galvanometer does not keep
quite steady at zero, but swings out from the zero position, to which
it has been brought by compensation, and returns to it after some
seconds. The reason for this is probably that the two strips are
not quite at the temperature of the surroundings. From measure-
ments on the reflection of gold, it appears that the bright strip must
radiate about 3 per cent of the radiation of a black body, consequently
it will remain at a temperature slightly lower than that of the sur-
roundings, which will sometimes cause a slight disturbance due to
convection, the convection being not perfectly equal for the two strips.
Another cause of the same effect is the fact that the strips are covered

* These tables are calculated from the formula
p = pi— 0.00066B (t—t) (1+ 0.00115h:)
(Ferrel, Annual Report, U. S. Chief Signal Officer, 1886, App., 24).

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

by a diaphragm to about I mm. from the edges. On this part of its
length the black strip will be heated but will not radiate, and the edges
will therefore be slightly above the temperature of the surroundings.
As I have made a detailed study of these edge-effects in the case of the
pyrheliometer, where I found that they affected the result only to
about 1 per cent, I will not dwell upon them here. In the case of the
pyrgeometer, the influence will result only in an unsteadiness of the
zero, due to convection currents. The two mentioned effects will
probably affect the result to not more than about +2 per cent, even
under unfavorable conditions. .

Much larger are the accidental errors in the measurements of
the humidity. The ventilated psychrometer, used in these measure-
ments, has been subjected to several investigations and critical dis-
cussions and it is therefore unnecessary to go into details. It will
be enough to state that the results are probably correct to within
5 per cent for temperatures above zero, and to within about ro per
cent for temperatures below 0°.

* Met. Zeit., 8, 1914, p. 360.

ChE Ra
1. OBSERVATIONS AT BASSOUR

The observations given in tables I and II were made at Bassour,
Algeria, during the period July 10-September 10, 1912, at a height
of 1,160 m. above sea level. In regard to the general meteorological
and geographical conditions reference may be made to the introduc-
tory chapter. Every observation was taken under a perfectly cloud-
less sky, which in general appeared perfectly uniform. In regard to
the uniformity of the sky, I may refer to chapter VI, where some
observations are given that can be regarded as a test of the uni-
formity of the conditions.

TABLE |
Date Time B Temperature At p R
July to.. 7:40 664.4 19.1 oc 3.86 0.191
II.. 7:40 663.6 24.1 et 9.42 0.150
2a 7:45 662.9 25.4 aie 6.60 Oni
18). 8 :30 663.1 ZOn1 ih) [P raeese 0.166
19.. 8:10 662.6 DEB 6.3 8.54 0.163
20.. &:00 661.9 21.5 6.4 7.08 0.166
DD 9:30 664.0 W7E2 0.6 5-66 0.211
BR. 9 335 663.5 20.0 5.6 7.80 0.169
24... 8:25 yao: 19.5 5.7 8.36 0.159
Die 8:35 664.9 18.8 —0.5 8.25 0.138
Zope. 8:35 665.1 18.0 1.8 9.16 0.130
30: 10:25 666.7 Pia) Boch GEsica 0.187
2g 8335 664.7 22.6 Re akc ae 0.169
Aug. T.: 9:45 662.3 23.8 BZN AO 0,201
Dr Pr aie vert 8:55 662.9 20.3 Dich || patil 0.171
ane 9:05 Ser 24.2 rare Hee oeOO 0.173
AB ove 8:50 663.5 21.2 B82 6.60 0.175
Bo ES 663.2 21.4 Bay) 9.88 0.162
6. 8:50 Bae 23.6 Be3 5-80 Onr73
10.. 8:50 665.7 25.0 3.3 9.98 0.178
Hels Aecaetstonstae 8:20 666.9 22.8 200) 10.20 0.158
Tie Q :00 662.7 19.5 ay 8.86 0.171
DA 10:00 662.6 18.6 0.0 11.90 0.147
TS eat 8 :30 665.4 20.6 Si oh 8.61 0.179
20.. 10:10 667.7 18.9 1.7 13.24 0.145
Pie 8:00 669.8 20.8 4.6 Gis | O.20n
PP. o 8:40 667.9 17.9 2.7 7.44 Omn73
DB erst fairs 9 :00 665.7. 20.8 0.5 3.84 0.192
Daten ae 8:45 663.4 22.0 Bee 5.46 0.175
DO Wrrerie Das Sled Wat ae cas 21.5 Regs 3.80 0.217
2 ee 9:05 eats 21.5 ai 8.48 0.188
2Q9.. 8:50 665.1 24.4 ache 8.36 0.190
BOR ieiu se Be Q:15 665.6 20.3 4.4 7.10 0.157
Sep oe eh Sas 664.3 13.8 Awe 10.40 0.138
Abe 8:05 666.7 II.1 te 4.98 0.169
Bee 9:50 664.0 20.8 2.1 4.57 0,205
6.. 9 :30 661.5 20.0 2 3.09 0,220
See Q :00 666.7 15.7 —1.0 6.80 0.177

ios)
ies)

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

In table I are given: The date, the time of day, the barometric
pressure B, the temperature of the air, the humidity (in mm. Hg.)
p, and the effective radiation R. The temperature fall between the
time of observation in the evening and the time of sunrise is indi-
cated by At.

TABLE II
p 3.50-4.50 4.50-5.50 5.50-6.50
t p R t p R t p R
19-1 | 3.86 | 0.191} 22.0 | 5.46 | 0.175) 17.2 | 5.66 | 0.211
22.6 | 4.14 | 0.169) 11.1 | 4.908 | 0.169) 23.6 | 5.89 | 0.173
23.8 | 4.40 | 0.201] 20.8 | 4.57 | 0.205) 20.8 | 6.45 | 0.201
20.8 | 3.84 | 0.192 3 ‘tee aes
Pio Wy Zito) | OgZiry/
20.0 | 3.90 | 0.220
INSETS Goremeders 21.3 | 4.00 | 0.198] 18.0 | 5.00 | 0.183] 20.5 | 6.00 | 0.195
p 6.50-7.50 7.50-8.50 8.50-9.50
t p R t p R t p R
25.4 | 6.60 | 0.171} 20.0 .80 | 0.169] 24-1 |'9.42 | 0.156
| 21.5, | 7-08 |0.166| 19.5 | 8:36) |-0.159| 20.1) 0832) tome
21.0 | 7.14 | 0.187| 18.8 | 8.25 | 0.138] 23.3 | 8.54 | 0.163
21.2 | 6.60) |"0..075)) 20.3) 167.54. | (0-070) 18/0") On LON Ome
[7.9 | 7.44 | 05173) 21.5 | 8-48 |. 188) 24-2866) oni
20.3 | 7.10 | 0.157) 24.4 | 8.36 | 0.190] 19.5 | 8.86 | 0.171
P2578) OLSON OU) & co on 5 | 20@ | Sau | O76
Means........; 20.4 | 6.98 | 0.173] 20.7'| 8.13 | 0.169] 21.4 | 8:98 | 0.164
p Q.50-10.50 II.Q0-13.24
t p R t p Rk
21.4 | 9.88 | 0.162] 18.6 | 11.90] 0.147
25.0 | 9.98 | 0.178] 18.9 | 13.24] 0.145 |
BP ISAO GAO) |) OnUSel) o 56 ol aocd ll eee 6 |
1A |T©QA0) || OWI} oooc
Means........| 20.8 |10.12 | 0.159] 18.8 | 12.57] 0.146

From figures 1a and 1b, where the radiation (crosses) and the
humidity (circles) aré given as functions of time, it is already evi-

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 35

dent that there must be a very close relationship between the two
functions. In the figures the humidity values are plotted in the
opposite direction to the radiation values. Plotting in this way we
find that the maxima in the one curve correspond to the maxima in
the other and minima to minima, which shows that low humidity and
high effective radiation correspond and vice versa.

The observations of table I are now arranged in table IT in such
a way that all the radiation values that correspond to a water-vapor
pressure falling between two given limits, are combined with one
another in a special column. The mean values of humidity and
- radiation are calculated and plotted in a curve aa, figure 3, which
gives the probable relation between water-vapor pressure and radia-
tion. Tables I and II show that the temperature of the air, and con-
sequently also that of the radiating surface, were almost constant
for the different series and ought not, therefore, to have had any
influence upon the form of the curve. —

The smooth curve of figure 3 gives the relation between effective
radiation and humidity. If we wish to know instead the relation
between what we have defined as the radiation of the atmosphere
and the humidity, we must subtract the value of the effective radia-
tion from that of the radiation of a black body at a temperature of
20°. The curve indicates the fact, that an increase in the water con-
tent of the atmosphere increases tts radiation and that this increase
will be slower with increasing vapor pressure. It has been pointed
out in the theoretical part that this is to be expected from the condi-
tions of the atmosphere and from the laws of radiation. The relation
between effective radiation and humidity can further be expressed
by an exponential formula of the form:

R=0.109+0.134 > e°*
or
R= OOO + 01134 + LOl P=

For the radiation of the atmosphere we get
j= OA 5A Osea Ane ye

That the radiation of the atmosphere, as a function of the water-
vapor pressure, can be given in this simple form is naturally due
to the fact that several of the radiation terms given through the
general expression (3), chapter III, have already reached their limit-
ing values for relatively low values of the water-vapor density. These
terms, therefore, appear practically as constants and are in the
empirical expression included’in the constant term.

So te
CCL an

aL
EE Eeeee

it9) =

Radiation, =

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 27,

It is therefore evident that our formula can satisfy the conditions
only between the limits within which the observations are made,
and that in particular an extrapolation below 4 mm. water-vapor pres-
sure is not admissible without further investigations. These condi-
tions will be more closely considered in connection with the observa-
tions made on Mount Whitney, where the absolute humidity reached
very low values.

For the case where p approaches very high values, the formula
seems to indicate that the radiation approaches a value of about 0.11
cal., which may show that the water vapor, even in very thick layers,
is almost perfectly transparent for certain wave lengths. This is
probably only approximately true, and the apparent transparency
would probably vanish totally if we could produce vapor layers great
enough in density or thickness. In a subsequent chapter I shall dis-
cuss some observations that indicate that this is the case, and also that
the formula given above must prove inadmissible for very great
densities.

2. RESULTS OF THE CALIFORNIA EXPEDITION

The observations were taken simultaneously at different altitudes:
(a) At Claremont (125 m.) and on the top of Mount San Antonio
(3,000 m.); (b) at Indio in the Salton Sea Desert (0 m.) and on
the top of Mount San Gorgonio (3,500 m.); and (c) at Lone Pine
(1,150 m.), at Lone Pine Canvon (2,500 m.) and on the summit of
Mount Whitney (4,420 m.).

A, INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE UPON ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION

Among the observations taken by this expedition I will first dis-
- cuss some observations at Indio and. Lone Pine separately, because
they indicate in a very marked and evident way the effect upon the
radiation of a very important variable, the temperature. The Indio
observations of the effective radiation are given in table III and are
graphically plotted in figures 17 and 18, where the radiation and the
temperature during the night are plotted as functions of time. As
will be seen from the tables, the humidity varied very little during
these two nights. .

As long as the temperature during the night is constant or almost
constant, which is the case in mountain regions and at places near
the sea, the effective radiation to the sky will not vary much, a fact
that has been pointed out by several observers: Pernter, Exner,
Homén, and others. But as soon as we have to deal with climatic
conditions favorable for large temperature variations, the effective

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

radiation to the sky must be subject to considerable changes also.
Such conditions are generally characteristic of inland climates and
are very marked in desert regions, where the humidity is low and the
balancing influence of the neighborhood of the sea is absent. Indio
is situated in a desert region. In the middle of the day the tempera-
ture reached a maximum value of 43° C. on the 23d and 46° C. on
the 24th of July. In the evenings at about 8 o'clock the temperature
was down to 30° C., falling continuously to values of 21° and 19° C.,
respectively, in the mornings at 4:30, when the observations ceased.
From the curves it is obvious that there is a close relation between
the radiation and the temperature. Every variation in the tempera-
ture conditions is accompanied by a similar change in the radiation.
In fact a decrease in the temperature of the surrounding air causes
a decrease in the effective radiation to the sky. This is even more
obvious from the observations taken at Lone Pine on August 5 and
August 10, when very irregular temperature variations took place
during the nights. The humidity conditions appeared almost con-
stant. From the curves (figs. 19 to 21) can be seen how a change in
the one function is almost invariably attended by a change in the other.

In regard to the radiating surfaces of the instrument, one is pretty
safe in assuming that the total radiation is proportional to the fourth
power of the temperature, an assumption that is based upon the con-
stancy of the reflective power of gold and of the absorption power of
platinum-black soot within the critical interval. The radiation of
these surfaces ought, therefore, to follow the Stefan-Boltzmann law
of radiation. For the radiation of the atmosphere we thus get:

ia; = Est —k;

Knowing Es: and R:, of which the first quantity is given by the
radiation law of Stefan, to which I have here applied the constant
of Kurlbaum (o=7.68- 10-™), and the second quantity is the effec-
tive radiation measured, I can calculate the radiation of the atmos-
phere. We are led to try whether this radiation can be given as a
function of temperature by an expression

Fat = Cre (1)
similar in form to the Stefan-Boltzmann formula, and in which a
is an exponent to be determined from the observations.. From (1)
we obtain:
log Eaz=log C+a log T
Now the observations of every night give us a series of correspond-
ing values of &,, and 7. For the test of the formula (1) I have

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 39

chosen the observations at Indio during the nights of July 23 and
24, and at Lone Pine on August 5 and August 11. I have preferred
these nights to the others because of the constancy of the humidity
and the relatively great temperature difference between evening and
morning values. By means of the formula connecting radiation and
humidity obtained from the Algerian values at constant temperature,
a small correction may be applied to these Californian observations,
in order to reduce them to constant humidity. The logarithms of
the radiation values thus obtained are calculated and also the loga-
rithms of the corresponding temperatures, tables III and 1V. If log
Eat is plotted along the y-axis, log T along the x-axis, it ought to be
possible to join the points thus obtained by a straight line, if the for-
dy

. —con-
dx

mula (2) is satisfied. The slope of this straight line (

stant=a) ought in such a case to give us the value of a.

I have applied this procedure to the observations mentioned and
found that within the investigated interval the logarithms of radia-
tion and of temperature are connected to one another by a linear
relation. Figure 4 gives the logarithm lines corresponding to the
Indio observations. The deviations from the straight lines are some-
what larger for the Lone Pine values, but the discrepancies seem not
to be systematic in their direction and I therefore think that one may
regard the formula (1) as satisfied within the limits of the variation
that can be expected as a result of the many atmospheric disturb-
ances. The following table gives the values of a obtained from the
observations on the four nights selected:

Place Date a Weight
Indio July 23 3.60 4
Indio July 24 4.27 4
Lone Pine August 5 4.4 I
Lone Pine August II 4.4 1

Weighted mean: a = 4.03.

The table shows that the value of a is subject to considerable varia-
tions, which is a natural consequence of the great variations from the
average conditions, to which the atmosphere is subject. In the fol-
lowing pages, when I have used the value 4.0 as an average value for
a, in order to reduce the various observations to a constant tempera-
ture (20° C.), this procedure is held to be justified by the preceding
discussion, as well as by the fact that, in applying this method of
reduction, we obtain an almost constant value for the radiation
during the night, if we, reduce it to a constant humidity. For
all other values of a, we shall get a systematic increase or de-

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

Taste I1l—Radiation and Temperature

Indio, July 23, 1913

273+t=T Log T Eat Log Eat
302.5 2.4807 0.447 0.6503—1
301.1 2.4787 0.435 0.6385—1
208.2 2.4745 0.421 0.6243—1
207.7 2.4738 0.410 0.6222—1
296.6 2.4722 0.423 0.6263—1
296.3 2.4717 0.415 0.6180—1
205.2 2.4701 0.409 0.6117—1
294.0 2.4683 0.402 0.6042—1
Indio, July 24, 1913
302.5 2.4807 | 0.461 0.6637—1
300.5 2.4778 0.446 0.6493--1
298.0 2.4742 0.435 0.6385—1
296.9 2.4726 0.424 0.6274—1
296.0 2.4713 0.418 0.6212—1
296.0 2.4713 0.418 | 0.6212—I
204.2 2.4686 0.405 0.6075—1I
204.2 2.4686 0.405 0.6075—I
293.6 2.4678 0.405 - 0.6075—1
292.5 2, 4661 0.407 0.6096—1

Taste 1V—Radiation and Temperature

Lone Pine, Aug. 5, 1913
273+t=T Log T Eat Log Eat
297.6 A NGA) — 0.3901 0.5922—-I
296.0 2.4713 0.374 0.5729—I1
290.1 2.4624 0.336 0.5263—1
204.4 2.4689 0.374 0.5729—I
288.6 2.4603 0.336 0.5263—1
285.4 2.4555 0.333 0.5224—1
287.8 2.4591 0.335 0.5250—1
287.4 2.4585 0.343 OF 5353-—2
287.4 2.4585 0.351 0.5453—1
Lone Pine, Aug. II, 1913
203.5 2.4676 0.376 0.5752—I1
297.6 2.4736 0.393 0.5944—1
296.2 2.4716 0.388 0.5888—1I
203.7 2.4679 0.367 0.5647—1
291.9 2.4652 0.343 0.5353—I1
287.3 2.4583 0.337 0.5276—1
285.0 2.4548 0.324 0.5105—I
284.8 2.4545 0.323 0.5092—I
282.8 2.4515 0.313 0.4955—1
283.0 2.4518 0.334 0.5237—1
281.9 2.4501 0.319 0.5038—1

VOL. 65

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM Al

crease in the radiation with the time owing to the fact that the
temperature is always falling from evening to morning.

It is of interest to find that the value of a, thus determined, is in
close agreement with the value deduced by Bigelow * from thermo-
dynamic considerations of the heat processes to which the atmos-

Sap eanan
eee
ae

2.4700 Log T.

Fic. 4——Atmospheric radiation and temperature. Indio, Cal., 1913.
Log Ear=Const.-+ a log T.

phere is subject. Bigelow finds a to be equal to 3.82 and almost
constant at various altitudes.

In regard to the connection that probably exists between the
effective temperature of the air and the temperature at the earth’s
surface, I may refer to the theoretical treatment given in chapter III.

* Boletin de la Oficina Meteorolégica Argentina, Octubre, 1912, p: 15.

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

B. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SUMMITS OF MOUNT WHITNEY (4,420 M.),
OF MOUNT SAN ANTONIO (3,000 M.), OF MOUNT SAN GORGONIO
(3,500 M.), AND AT LONE PINE CANYON (2,500 M.).

These observations will be discussed further on in connection with
the observations made simultaneously at lower altitudes. Here they
will be considered separately in regard to the conditions of tempera-
ture and humidity prevailing at the high level stations. The problem
to be investigated is this: Is the effective radiation, or the radia-
tion of the atmosphere, at the high stations in any way different
from the radiation found at lower altitudes, under the same condi-
tions of temperature and humidity? Or is the average radiation of
the atmosphere, at the altitudes here considered, a constant function
of the temperature and the humidity? Will there not be other
variables introduced when we move from one place to another at
different altitudes? In the theoretical part I have pointed out some
facts that ought to be considered in this connection and I then arrived
at the conclusion that the effect on the radiation of temperature and
humidity ought to prevail over other influences in the lower layers
of the atmosphere.

The observations are given in tables 16to 19. The tables also give
the radiation of the atmosphere corresponding to each individual
observation, as well as this radiation reduced to a temperature of
20° C. by means of the relation:

Eat = nr)
[oe (7,
where a is assumed to have the same value as that obtained from our
observations at Indio and at Lone Pine. The observations given
in tables 16 to 19 are now arranged in tables V and VI in a way
exactly similar to that which I have employed for the Algerian obser-
vations, except that in tables_V and VI,.I deal with the radiation of .
the atmosphere toward the instrument, instead of the reverse, as in
table Il. The relation of the two functions has been explained above.
From the tables it is seen that the Mount Whitney values, reduced
in the way described, seem to fall to values a little lower than what
would correspond to the form of the Algerian curve, as given above
by: the formula Z, =0.453—0.134-e°*9?. The reason for this.
discrepancy may be partly that the exponent a is not quite the same
for thin as for thick radiating layers. This explanation is rendered
unlikely by the calculations of Bigelow and the observations of. Very
and Paschen on radiating layers of moist air. But there are other

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 43

TasLtE V—Mt. Whitney and Mt. San Gorgonio

p 0.5-1.0 I.5-2.0 2.0-2.5

p Ea p Ea p Ba
creer 0.300 1.80 0.288 2537 0.289
0.69 0.303 1.Q1 0.295 2.37 0.316
oF 0.298 ie Sv 0.289 2.46 0.338
0.54 0.207 1.88 0.274 2.46 0. 337
1.68 0.260 2.06 0.317
MeansSmen eae ac 10.02 0.299 1.70 0.339 2.06 0.334
1.76 0.317 2.21 0.205
7.02005 170 0.300 2e2i 0.267
1.73 0.314 2.00 0.281
p R 1.81 O,A12 |. BCo 0.262
1.81 0.302 BPD 0.326
ig 7 0.300 1.86 0.318 Dy, 0.319
Tp 7/ 0.303 1.86 0.309 2.44 0.324
1.02 0.325 1.90 0.304 2.44 0.327
TO? 0.322 1.90 0.303 2.42 0.315
1.12 0.316 1.83 0.308 2.42 0.315
WAY 0.311 1.83 0.303 2.46 0.308
1.47 0.393 1.93 0.298 2.46 0.314
1.47 0.260 1.93 0.285 2.30 0.315
1.32 0.323 1.52 0.335 -2.39 0.309
1.32 0.316 T.52 0.332 2.21 0.299
1.40 0: 316 SO ih Bln oreeen eae eral se Cakes

1.40 O32 egies tn ballet aco: :
1.14 O27 ORS oem, vile enw ’
\
NWieanSareac nae 27 0.3006 1.78 0.305 2.31 0.310
p 2,.5-3.0 3.0-3.5 3-5-4.0

p Ea p | Ba p Eas
2.95 0.300 3.07 0.351 3.80 0.277
2.66 0.282 B63 0.337 3.80 0.338
2.61 0.288 | 3.35 0.345 3.75 0.306
2.97 0.335 3.28 0.310 3.61 0.343
2.90 0.344 3.28 0. 304 3-79 0.345
2.59 0.311 3.18 0.329 3.81 0.320
2.59 0.308 3.15 0.350 3.70 0.302
2.74 0.313 3.30 0.271 3.59 0.344
2.74 0.302 3-23 0.327 3-59 0.330
2.87 0.326 lat rae 2550 0.356
2.87 0.317 S DgeEa Rat see oeere 2 aT 0.351
267, 0.332 CARES hal Shi ah DN 2 eee
2.67 0.317 Bean) Rae eee dis eas
Wleamisee vas. . vali 2s 7 O335s 3.24 0.325 3.68 0.328

44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS .COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

influences that are likely to produce a deviation of the same kind.
Among these we will consider :

(1) The influence of the temperature gradient. It is evident
that for a radiating atmosphere of low density, a larger part of the
radiation reaching the surface of the earth must come from farther
and therefore colder layers than for a dense atmosphere. From this
it follows that a decrease in the density of the atmosphere must
produce a decrease in its radiation in a twofold way: (A) in con-
sequence of the diminished radiating power of the unit volume; and,
(B) because of the simultaneous shifting of the effective radiating
layer to higher altitudes.

(2) We must consider that the radiation is determined by the
integral humidity, and that the water-vapor pressure comes into play
only in so far as it gives a measure of this quantity. At a certain
place we may obtain the integral humidity by multiplying the pressure
by a certain constant ; but this constant varies with the altitude. At
sea level this constant has a value equal to 2.3 against 1.8 at the alti-
tude of the summit of Mount Whitney ; these values can be obtained
from the formula of Siiring, which has been discussed in a previous
chapter.

This means that, in order to compare the integral humidities of
two different localities as indicated by their absolute humidities, we
should apply a reduction factor to the latter values. Thus, if the
absolute humidity on the top of Mount Whitney is the same as at
sea level (which naturally is unlikely to be the case at the same time),

the integral humidity at the former place will be only x of that at

the latter.

(3) The coefficient of absorption, and consequently also that of
the emission for a unit mass of water vapor, is a function of the total
pressure to which it is subjected. This important fact has been
revealed by the investigations of Eva von Bahr * who found that water
vapor at a pressure of 450 mm. absorbs only about 77 per cent of
what an identical quantity absorbs at 755 mm. pressure. The ab-
sorption coefficient will change in about the same proportion, and
consequently the effective amount of water vapor (if we may use
that term for the amount of water vapor that gives a constant radia-
tion) will not be proportional to its mass but will be a function of
the pressure, 7. e., a function also of the altitude. Miss v. Bahr’s

SEvaave escuats Uber. die Einwirkung des Druckes auf die Absorption
Ultraroter Strahlung durch Gase. Inaug. Diss., Upsala, 1908, p. 65.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM A5

measurements unfortunately do not proceed farther than to the
water-vapor band at 2.7 wand include therefore a part of the spectrum
that is comparatively unimportant for the “cold radiation” with
which we are dealing here. The maximum of radiation from a black
body at 285 degrees absolute temperature occurs at about 10 p, and

Taste VI—Mt. San Antonio and Lone Pine Canyon

p I.50-2.50 2.50-3-50 3.50-4.50
p Ea p 1B p 13m
DP] 0.310 2.54 0.363 R (6) 0.348
2.16 0.310 2.65 0.334 3.63 0.355
at (63) 0.309 3.24 0.340 3.91 0.357
DD 0.313 2.60 0.346 3.91 0.350
1.99 0.324 2 DR 0.357 3.53 0.361
| 2,30 0.312 ag Sete Aa 0.334
| 2622 0.321 4.07 0.345
2.46 0.335 $275) 0.334
Bee eee 4.00 0.333
IMICBIGs av esosocel| Aoi 0.317 2.85 0.348 3.85 0.346
p 4.50-5.50 5.50-6.50 6.50-7.50
p Ea p Ea p voPry
E 4.71 0.359 | 6.48 OnssSn ul | 7.34 0.359
G2 0.346 6.35 0.362 6.53 0.367
5.32 0.351 6.35 0.352
5.18 0.382 6.06 0.371 6.94 0.363
5.04 0.375 5.93 0.378
5.04 0.307 5.88 0.374 7.50-8.50
EA ey (a aS 2 0.375
6.09 0.391 p Ea
aa 5.98 0. 383
5.98 0.386 7.85 0.356
6.30 0.372 7.85 0. 366
bpp ae ae 7.63 0.376
Mitcamisiie seme oor) 5 500 0.368 6.08 0.373 7.78 0.306

therefore we cannot apply the numerical results of Miss v. Bahr to the
radiation of the atmosphere.

At any rate, the conclusion seems to be justified that if we take
the absolute humidity at the place of observation as a measure for
the radiating power of the integral water vapor, the result would be

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

liable to give too high values at the higher altitude as compared with
the lower one. This is actually the result of the observations. It
therefore appears to me that the observations lend support to the
view that the variations produced in the radiation of the lower atmos-
phere by a change of locality. or by other influences are due to
changes in the radiating power of the water vapor; changes that
we are able to define, within certain limits, from observations of
the temperature and the humidity at the surface of the earth.

I have now, without venturing to emphasize the absolute reliability
of the procedure, applied a correction to the observed vapor pres-
sure at different altitudes, in order that the pressure may give a
true measure of the integral radiating power of the water vapor.
Considering that at the altitude of Mount Whitney, the constant K
in Suring’s formula is 1.8, and that the total pressure there is only

44 cm., so that the absorption coefficient according to Miss v. Bahr’s
observations should be _ of the value corresponding to p=66 cm.
(Lone Pine, Bassour), and finally that the pressure ought to be
reduced to the temperature 20° C., I have used the reduction factor

1.8 16.5 273 Ge
BR Bi: AOR
for the humidity values taken at the summit of Mount Whitney
(4,420 m.) and also for Mount San Gorgonio (3,500 m).
A similar consideration gives the reduction factor

for the measurements at Mount San Antonio (3,000 m.) and at
Lone Pine Canyon (2,500 m.).

In this way the values plotted in figure 5 are obtained. We are
now able to draw a continuous curve through the points given by
the observations corresponding to various altitudes. With regard
to the considerations that I have brought forward in the theoretical
part, I have tried an expression of the form

iE oe ue

where

K =0.439, C=0.158, and y=0.069.
This gives a fairly good idea of the relation between the radiation of
the atmosphere at 20° C. and the humidity. The curve corresponding
to this equation is given by a dotted line in figure 5. The expression
adopted here does not fit the observations at high pressures so

te

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 47

well as the expression given in connection with the discussion of
the values obtained at Bassour, but it is better adapted to include in
a general relation all the observations at different altitudes. As may
be seen from the figure, the deviation from the curve is often consid-
erable for single groups of values, but this can easily be explained
as being due to deviations of the state of the atmosphere from its

Fic. 5.—Humidity and Radiation of the Atmosphere.

Circles represent observations at Indio. Double circles represent observa-
tions at Mount San Antonio and at Lone Pine Canyon. Crosses represent
observations at Lone Pine. Points represent observations at Mount San
Gorgonio and at Mount Whitney.

normal conditions and also to the fact that the mean value is often
calculated from a few observations.

It seems to me that the formi of this curve enables us to draw some
interesting conclusions about the radiation from the different con-
stituents of the atmosphere. It must be admitted that the shape of
the curve in the investigated interval does not allow of drawing any
safe conclusions for points outside this interval, and particularly,
as will be shown further on, the curve does not approach a limiting

48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

value of 0.439 cal. for very large values of p, as one would expect
from the expression that has been adopted. On the other hand, the
observations bring us very near the zero value of humidity and the
question arises, whether we may not be entitled to attempt an extra-
polation down to zero without causing too large an error in the limit-
ing value. We wish to answer the question : how does the atmosphere
radiate, if there is no water vapor in it? As I have pointed out
previously, the possibility of an extrapolation to zero is doubtful,
because in the non-homogeneous radiation of the water vapor there
are certainly terms corresponding to wave lengths, where even very
thin layers radiate almost to their full value. Consequently these
have scarcely any influence upon the variations of the radiation from
thicker layers. Will the curve that gives the relation between the
radiation and the radiating mass of water vapor for values of the
humidity lower than 0.4 show a rapid decline of which no indication
is apparent in the investigated interval 0.4—12 mm.? For compari-
son I may refer to a curve drawn from a calculation by N. Ekholm*
of the transmission of water vapor according to Langley and
Rubens and Aschkinass. The curve represents the radiation from
a black body at 15° temperature as transmitted through layers of
water vapor of variable thickness. The same curve evidently also
gives the radiation from the identical vapor layers, provided that
the law of Kirchhoff holds, and that the water vapor itself is at 15°.

As far as the result may be depended upon, it apparently shows
that laboratory measurements give no evidence whatever of a sudden
drop in the radiation curve for very thin radiating layers. It would
be rather interesting to investigate the radiation of the atmosphere
compared with the radiation of the water vapor and of the carbon
dioxide and possibly also that of the ozone contained in the upper
layers, with proper regard to the temperature conditions and to care-
ful laboratory measurements on the absorption and radiation of these
gases. A first attempt in this direction is made by Ekholm. How-
ever, it appears to me that he does not give due attention to the fact
that the magnitude of the effective radiation to space depends upon
the capacity of the atmosphere to radiate back to the earth, and
-only indirectly upon the absorption capacity of the atmosphere.
Quantitative calculations of the radiation processes within the atmos-
phere must necessarily take into consideration the temperature con-
ditions in various atmospheric layers. The laboratory measurements
upon which such a computation should be based are as yet very in-

* Met. Zt., 1902, pp. 489-505.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 49

complete and rather qualitative than quantitative, at least as regards
water vapor. I have reason to believe that the careful observations
of Fowle, of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian
Institution, will in the near future fill this gap.

From analogy with the absorbing qualities of water vapor, I think
one may conclude that an extrapolation of the radiation curve (fig. 5)
down to zero is liable to give an approximately correct result. The
extrapolation for the radiation of a perfectly dry atmosphere at 20° C.
gives a value of 0.281, which corresponds to a nocturnal radiation
of 0.283 at the same temperature. At o° C. the same quantities are
0.212 and 0.213 cal. and at —8° they have the values 0.190 and 0.191,
respectively. The latter value comes near the figure 0.201, obtained
by Pernter on the top of Sonnblick at —8° C. temperature.

These considerations have given a value of the radiation from a
perfectly dry atmosphere, and at the same time they lead to an ap-
proximate estimate of the radiation of the upper atmosphere, which
is probably chiefly due to carbon dioxide and a variable amount of
ozone. ‘The observations indicate a relatively high value for the
radiation of the upper layers—almost 50 per cent of the radiation
of a black body at the prevailing temperature of the place of observa-
tion. Hence the importance of the upper atmosphere for the heat-
economy of the earth is obvious. The effect at places near the earth’s
surface is of an indirect character, as only a small fraction of the
radiation from the upper strata reaches the earth’s surface. But the
importance of the upper layers for the protecting of the lower water-
vapor atmosphere—the troposphere—against loss of heat, is entirely
similar to the importance of the latter for the surface conditions of
the earth. If we could suddenly make the upper atmosphere dis-
appear, the effect would scarcely be appreciable at the earth’s surface
for the first moment. But the change would very soon make itself
felt through a considerable increase in the temperature gradient.
At places situated a few kilometers above the earth’s surface, as, for
instance, the summits of high mountains, the temperature would fall
to very low values. As a consequence the conduction and convection
of heat from the earth’s surface would be considerably increased.
Keeping these conditions in view, and in consideration of the high
value of the radiation of the upper atmosphere—the stratosphere—
indicated by the observations, I think it very probable that relatively
small changes in the amount of carbon dioxide or ozone in the atmos-
phere, may have considerable effect on the temperature conditions
of the earth. This hypothesis was first advanced by Arrhenius, that

50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the glacial period may have been produced by a temporary decrease
in theamount of carbon dioxide in the air. Even if this hypothesis
was at first founded upon assumptions for the absorption of carbon
dioxide which are not strictly correct, it is still an open question
whether an examination of the “ protecting ” influence of the higher
atmospheric layers upon lower ones may not show that a decrease
of the carbon dioxide will have important consequences, owing to the
resulting decrease in the radiation of the upper layers and the in-
creased temperature gradient at the earth’s surface. The problem
is identical with that of finding the position of the effective layer in
regard to the earth’s radiation out to space. I propose to investigate
this subject in a later paper, with the support of the laboratory
measurements which will then be available.

C. OBSERVATIONS AT INDIO AND LONE PINE

Knowing the influence of temperature upon the radiation of the
atmosphere, I can reduce the radiation values obtained at different
places to a certain temperature. The function giving the relation
between radiation and water-vapor content ought to be the same
for every locality. Reducing the observations at Bassour, at Lone
Pine, and at Indio (see tables VII and VIII) to 20° C., and plotting
the mean values, we obtain a diagram of the aspect shown in figure
5. The values from Algeria are given by the smooth curve. The
observations from Lone Pine (crosses) and the observations from
Indio (circles) deviate more or less from the Algerian curve. Con-
sidering, however, that they are founded upon a very limited number
of nights (Lone Pine 8, Indio 3), and that the mean deviation for
all points is very inconsiderable, the result must be regarded as very
satisfactory.

In regard to the general meteorological conditions at Lone Pine,
it must be said that this place proved to be far from ideal for this
kind of observation, the principal purpose here being, not to collect
meteorological data, but to test a general law. The rapid changes
in temperature and humidity during the nights must have had as a
result that the atmosphere was often under very unstable conditions,
widely differing from what may be regarded as the average. This
is obvious also from the balloon observations of the U. S. Weather
Bureau, made simultaneously with my observations during a couple
of evenings at Lone Pine. These observations, made up to about
2,000 meters above the place of ascent, showed that there were often
considerable deviations from the conditions defined by “the con-

Sli

°

RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

NO. 3

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52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65
stant temperature gradient ” and by Siiring’s formula for the water-
vapor pressure.

But the purpose of observations of the kind here described is a
double one. In the first place, to find the general law for the average
conditions, and in the second place to give an idea of the deviations
likely to occur from these average conditions.

Tasre VIII—I/ndio

p 8.0-9.0 9.0-10.0
p Ea p Ea
8.15 0.400 9.65 Gy S1O7/ a alll apieisicr
8.43 0.393 On37, O. 308) essere ee
8.81 0. 393 9.30 0.309
cere ieee 9.65 0.404
WIGEIMNS go oon0o6 enn 8.46 0.305 9.49 0.400
p 10.0-I1.0 | I1.0-12.0
p Ea p Ea
10.31 0.402 11.86 OF ABO SIS ee Cees
10.69 0.405 11.43 ORAS Se Ba eee
10.97 0.410 wi 03 0.438
10.82 0.396 AS 0.306
10.52 0.305 11.30 0.391
10.52 0.397 1550 OU204 5 he oo ne
10.47 0.402 II. 41 On FID | seaec
10.67 Ones aealbale aan RMR: wd saee et
10.77 0.440
10.64 GABON RED se tal Sette SN le WRN at a
IMI@ENMS 5 50 60 ce oc 10.64 0.412 11.43 OoAiA WN, ho aaa

D. THE EFFECTIVE RADIATION TO THE SKY AS A FUNCTION OF TIME

Exner * has made a comparison between the radiation values ob-
tained at different hours of the night on the top of Sonnblick. He
finds that there are indications of a maximum of radiation in the
morning before sunrise.

"Met. Zeitschrift (1903), 9, Pp. 409.

“(Z) aanjyesadwiay, pur “(y) uoneipey “(77) AUprumypZ yo uonrasosqg Wstn AUMYM IN—9 “OLA

00}

cl LL Ol 6

v € C }

54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

From the observations on the nights of August 3, 4, 5, and II on
the summit of Mount Whitney (during these nights the observa-
tions were carried on continuously from evening to morning), I
have computed the means of the radiation, the temperature, and the
humidity, corresponding to different hours. The result is given by
figure 6, where the curve RR corresponds to the radiation; the
curves HH and TT to the humidity and the temperature, respectively.
The radiation decreases slowly from 9 o’clock in the evening to about
2 o'clock in the morning. At about 2:30 the radiation is subjected
to a rapid increase; between 3 and 4 o'clock it keeps a somewhat
higher value than during the rest of the night. The temperature,
which shows a very continuous decrease from evening to morning,
evidently cannot be regarded as a cause for these conditions. An
examination of the humidity conditions shows however that the abso-
lute humidity is subjected to a very marked decrease, which is per-
fectly simultaneous with the named increase in the effective radiation.
Considering that the previous investigations, discussed in this paper,
show that low humidity and high radiation correspond to one another,
we must-conclude that the maximum of radiation occurring in the
morning before sunrise, is caused by a rapid decrease of the humidity
at that time. It seems very probable to me that the maximum obtained
by Exner from his observations on Sonnblick, may be explained in
the same way.

E. INFLUENCE OF CLOUDS

The influence of clouds upon the radiation processes within the
atmosphere is of very great importance for many meteorological
questions. At the same time the problem is an immensely difficult
one, because of the irregularities of the fundamental phenomenon
itself. Take the question of the influence of the conditions of the
atmosphere upon the amount of radiation reaching us from the sun.
When the sky is clear, we can probably calculate from a single obser-
vation, or a couple of observations, together with one or two known
facts, the whole access of radiation during the day to within perhaps
5 per cent. But as soon as clouds are present, we have to fall back
upon continuous observations, the occurrence and density of the
clouds, and the time of their appearance being subject to no known
general law that holds for such small intervals of time as we wish to
consider. Moreover the influence of clouds upon the solar radiation
is very great, the radiation being reduced to a very small fraction of
its former value by the interference of a cloud. Similar condi-
tions hold in regard to the effective radiation to the sky. As this

56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

radiation goes out in all directions, the influence of a single cloud
will be more continuous than is the case for the solar radiation. As
soon as the cloud comes over the horizon it will begin to affect the
radiation to the sky, its influence growing as it approaches the zenith.
This will be rendered clearer, and details will be afforded, by the
observations on the radiation to different parts of the sky, given in
a later chapter.

It is evident that, when the sky is cloudy, we can distinguish be-
tween three radiation sources for the atmospheric radiation: First,
the radiation from the parts of the atmosphere below the clouds;
secondly, the part of the radiation from the clouds themselves, which
is able to pass through the inferior layer, and, in the third place, the
radiation from the layers above the clouds, of which probably, for
an entirely overcast sky, only a very small fraction is able to penetrate
the cloud-sheet and the lower atmosphere.

Some measurements were taken in the case of an entirely overcast
sky. Figure 7 shows two curves drawn from observations at Clare-
mont. In the beginning the sky was perfectly clear, at the end it was
entirely covered by a low, dense cloud-sheet: cumulus or strato-
cumulus.

In general the following classification seems to be supported by the
observations:

Average radiation

Cleat Sey panei aie ss eek ee Le OE RAG 0.14-0.20
Sky entirely overcast by:

Cirizis, CUROSHTAIS ainGl SEPWUS..o40cc0ccnseencccoe 0.08-0.16

ANioronmmullis aincl aAlli@=SiFAHVISs oo aco bs coos cbse os OOOO

Ciomallnis ancl surai@=CinamwlliS, 56 so cc sc0o sc s0cbococoe 0.01-0.04.

Especially in the northern winter climate, the sky is very often over-
cast by more or less dense sheets of stratus clouds. They are very
often not dense enough to prevent the brighter stars being very easily
seen through them, and especially in the night it is therefore often
difficult to tell whether the sky is perfectly clear or not. Dr. Kennard
proposed to me that one should use the visibility of the stars (ist, 2d,
3d, and 4th magnitude, etc.) to define the sky, when it seemed to be
overcast or very hazy. This may be of advantage, especially when
observations are taken in the winter time or extended to hazy condi-
tions,

Ci WAde Eke: Vil
RADIATION TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SKY?’

In the foregoing chapters an account has been given of observa-
tions showing the influence of humidity and temperature conditions
upon the effective radiation to the sky. There the total radiation to
the sky was considered, independent of the fact that this radiation
takes place in different directions. The thing measured represented
an integral over the whole hemispherical space. About the different
terms constituting the sum this integral gives us no idea.

In the, historical survey I have referred to the interesting investi-
gations of Homén, and mentioned his observations of the nocturnal
radiation to different parts of the sky. Homeén observed, with a
somewhat modified Angstrom pyrheliometer, of type 1905, where
two metal disks were exposed to the sky alternately and their tem-
perature difference at certain moments read off. In order to measure
the radiation in various directions Homén used a screen arrangement,
which screened off certain concentric zones of the sky. The chief
objection to this method seems to me to be that the radiating power
of the soot will be introduced as a variable with the direction, and as
this quantity is not very well defined an error will probably be intro-
duced, which, however, can scarcely amount to more than about
2 per cent. Homeén found that the distribution of the radiation upon
the different zones of the sky was almost constant for different values
of the total radiation. As Homén’s measurements have since been
employed in extending, to represent the whole sky,’ observations of
the radiation toward a limited part of the sky, and as the question
itself seems to be of interest for the knowledge of atmospheric radia-
tion in its dependence upon other conditions, | have thought it valu-
able to investigate in what degree this distribution of radiation over
the sky is subject to variations. For this purpose the arrangement
shown schematically in figure 8 was found to be a satisfactory one.

To the electrical compensation instrument, which has been de-
scribed, can be attached a hemispherical screen, abcdef, whose radius
is 7.1cm. From this screen can be removed a spherical cap cd, which

*Large parts of this chapter were published in the Astrophysical Journal,
Vol. 39, No. 1, January, I9t4.
“Exner (1903), loc. cit.

57

58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS .COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

leaves a hole of 32° plane angle open to the sky. The screen is brightly
polished on the outside, but blackened on the inside, in order to avoid -
multiple reflections.

The instrument to which this arrangement was attached was
pointed to different parts of the sky, and the zenith angle was read
in a circular scale, as is shown in figure 8. The value of the radiation
within the solid angle csd (32°) was obtained in the usual way

Cees LUG

dene

ee |e

Fic. 8—Apparatus used for determining the radiation to
different parts of the sky.

by determining the compensation current through the black strip.
This arrangement has two obvious advantages over a bolometer
arranged in a similar way. In the first place, the instrument is very
steady and quite independent of air current, because both strips are
here exposed in exactly the same way. The readings must further be
quite independent of the position of the strips, it being possible to
turn the instrument over in different directions without change in
the sensitiveness. Everyone who is familiar with bolometric work
knows the difficulty that sometimes arises from the fact that the

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 59

sensitiveness of the bolometer changes with its position, the con-
ductivity of heat from the strips through the air being different for
vertical and horizontal positions. On the other hand, the sensitive-
“ness of my apparatus, used in this way, was not very great. When
the instrument was directed to points near the horizon the deflection
of the galvanometer seldom amounted to more than about 2 mm.,
and for zenith position the deflection was about 6 mm. The prob-
able error in every measurement is therefore about 5 per cent. In
spite of this disadvantage, a comparison between the values of the
total radiation observed and the total radiation computed from the
observations of the radiation to the different zones shows a fairly
close agreement.

If the dimensions of the strips can be regarded as negligible in
comparison with the radius of the screen, we may assume the effec-
tive solid angle to be equal to the solid angle under which the central
point of the instrument radiates to the hole. Now this is not exactly
the case, and in computing the total radiation from the radiation to
the limited parts of the sky, we must apply a correction with regard
to the position of the strips. The mean solid angle is obtained
through an easily effected but somewhat lengthy integration process
given in the foot-note.’ It is found to be 768.6°.

The correction term will make 1.5 per cent in the solid angle, a
quantity that is not negligible when we wish to calculate the total
radiation.

When the instrument is pointed in different directions, different
parts of the strips will radiate to slightly different regions of the
sky. In the process used for finding the distribution of radiation

*+Let us consider a circular hole of the radius p, radiating to a plane surface,
parallel with the hole and at the vertical distance R from it. We wish to find
the radiation T to a little elementary surface, dt, whose distance from the
perpendicular from the central point of the hole, is 7. Using cylindric coordi-
nates, and defining the element of the hole (do), through the relation:

do=pid¢dpr

t: dT=. R?pidgdp ;
eee ~ [R?-+-p7+/?—2p,1 cos ¢]?

dr

and for the radiation from the entire hole:

A fs @ (Zu a,dad@ ava
Jo Jo [t-+a?+62—2a,8 cos $]2

where we have put:
1

——— ; a

R

60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

from the single measurements this would introduce a complication
if the instrument were not always turned over so that the strips
were parallel to the earth’s surface. When this precaution is ob-
served, we may regard the influence of the dimensions of the strips
as negligible.

If a and B are not large, so that higher powers than the fourth may be
neglected, the integration gives:

T=ra? (I—a?—2B?) dr (1)

Fie. 9.

Now we proceed to consider the case, where the hole radiates to a strip
of negligible width ds and of the length 2 m. The line is symmetrical in
regard to the perpendicular from the central point of the hole. For the
central point of the line we put: /=n. Then we have:

dt=dm' ds
5. 2 __ m+n?
(a Pla Re

MOL a RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 61

The results of these measurements for various conditions are
given in table [X. Four series, representing different conditions

nue me PEACH

PEER EEE ia
Jc eee nena eee

GES SSRs 2 aCe iene

in regard to the prevailing humidity, were taken at Bassour, Algeria,
at a height of 1,160 m. above sea level. Two series were taken on

Introducing this in (1) and integrating between the limits 0 and m, we
obtain for the radiation to the whole strip:

2
ame + 2) |
f ra? | 1-2 ; ds (2)
L Te J
My instrument contained two radiating strips: For the one was: m—9.0;
n==2.0. For the other one: m=—9.0 and n=6.0. Further I had: R=—68.3;

As my unit of radiation, I will now define the radiation from a surface
equal to the surface of the strips within a solid angle whose cross- section
is a square, and each side of which subtends one degree. Introducing the
given values of a, m,n and R in (2), I then find that the mean radiation from
the two strips is 768.6 times my unit of radiation.

2m SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

top of Mount Whitney, 4,420 m. above sea level. In every instance
the sky was perfectly clear and appeared perfectly uniform. It will
be shown later on, that there is also strong experimental evidence
for the perfect uniformity of the sky.

In order to obtain from the observations a more detailed idea
of the effective radiation to different parts of the sky, I proceeded
in the following way: In a system of coordinates, where the
zenith angle is plotted along the +x-axis, the magnitude of the
radiation along the y-axis, every measurement with the instrument
corresponds to an integral extending over 32° and limited by the
4-axis and a certain curve—the distribution curve of radiation. If
the measurements are plotted as rectangular surfaces, whose widths
are 32° and whose heights are proportional to the magnitude of the
radiation, we obtain from the observations a system of rectangles like
those in figure 10. A curve drawn so that the integrals between the
limits corresponding to the sides of the rectangles are equal to the
areas of these rectangles will evidently be a curve representing the
radiation as a function of the zenith angle.

(Notrt.—Against this procedure it can be objected that the observations do
not really correspond to rectangular surfaces, the opening being circular and
not square. The consequence will be that the real distribution curve will cut
the rectangles in points lying nearer their central line than the section points
defined by the procedure described. In fact this will alter the form of the
curves very slightly; in drawing them the conditions just mentioned have
been taken into consideration.)

In figures I1A and 118 the curves are shown. They indicate the
fact—which has already been pointed out by Homen—that the effec-
tive radiation to a constant area of the sky decreases with an increase
in the zenith distance. My observations indicate very strongly that
the radiation approaches the zero value, when the zenith angle ap-
proaches 90°, which shows that the lower atmosphere, taken in very
thick layers, radiates like 2 black body. If there were no radiating
atmosphere at all, the distribution curve would be a straight line
parallel to the +-axis.

A comparison between the different curves shows, further, that
they differ in a very marked way from one another in regard to their
form. It is also evident that th.s difference in form is very closely
connected with the density conditions of the atmosphere and espe-
cially with its content of water vapor.

°

OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

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64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Together with the observations treated in the foregoing chapters,
the present result gives us support for the following conclusions:

1. An increase in the water-vapor pressure will cause a decrease
in the effective radiation to every point of the sky.

2. The fractional decrease is much larger for large zenith angles
than for small ones.

If we regard the atmosphere as a plane parallel layer, having
uniform density, p, and a temperature uniformly equal to the tem-
perature at the earth’s surface, the effective radiation of a certain
wave length, A, in different directions, may be expressed by

fn

Rabe « COC (1)

where C and y are constants and ¢ is the zenith angle. For another
density, p’, of the radiating atmosphere we have:
p!

Ty=Ce | e088 (2)
and from (1) and (2):

I. = 9 Leo] (3)

TES

If p is greater than p’, J, will always be less than J’,. It is evi-
dent from the relation (3) that the ratio between J, and J’) dimin-
ishes as the zenith angle approaches 90°. The general behavior of
the radiating atmosphere is therefore consistent with the case that
only a single wave length is radiated and absorbed. But the detailed
conditions are naturally very complicated through the lack of
homogeneity of the radiation. Especially for the curves correspond-
ing to high humidity the radiation falls off much quicker with the
approach to the horizon than is to be expected from the dependence
of the total radiation on the humidity. Especially is this the case
after we have reached a value of the zenith angle of about 60 or 70
degrees. In part this is due to the increasing influence of the radia-
tion of wave iengths whose radiation coefficients are small and can
be neglected for smaller air masses, but which for the very large air
masses that correspond to zenith angles not far from 90° must come
into play and produce a rapid decrease of the effective radiation
to points near the horizon. But here other influences are also. to be
considered. The observations of the total radiation, compared in
regard to the diffusing power of the atmosphere for visible rays,
show that the influence of diffusion can be neglected in comparison
with the other more fundamental influences, as far as the total radia-

SE a

cal.
cm.” min.

_ Radiation,

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 65

tion is concerned. But in regard to the radiation to points near the
horizon we must consider that the corresponding air masses become
very large and that effects of dust and haze and other sources of

‘lack of homogeneity in the air must be introduced in quite a marked

way.

Zenith distance.

Fig. 114.—Radiation to different parts of the sky. Bassour observations.

The curves in figures 11A and I1B represent the effective radiation
within the unit of the solid angle in different directions from a sur-
face perpendicular to the radiated beam. From these curves we can
compute the radiation from a horizontal surface, like the earth’s
surface, to the different zones of the sky. If the radiation within a
solid angle one degree square is R, the radiation (J) to the whole
zone, whose width is one degree, is expressed by:

J=R cos ¢ sin ¢- 360 (1)

cal.
cm.? min.

Radiation,

66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

where ¢ is the zenith angle. For the radiation E to the whole sky,
we consequently have:

nla
| 9

B=360|, Idp= 360), R cos ¢ sin ¢dd¢ (2)

}

"90 60 30 0 30 60 90

Zenith distance.

Fic. 11B.—Radiation to different parts of the sky. Curves I, Il: Mt. Whit-
ney, 1913. Water-vapor pressure; 3.6 and 1.5 mm. Hg. Curve dotted,
Bassour, 1912. Water-vapor pressure; 5 mm. Hg. Temperature of instru-
ment higher at Bassour. Compare table IX.

This integration can conveniently be effected in a mechanical way
by measuring the areas given by (1). The curves that represent the
radiation from a horizontal surface to different parts of the sky are
shown in figure 12. The whole areas included between the curves
and the +-axis must be proportional to the total radiation. In
measuring the areas we must take into consideration the fact that the

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 67

ordinates represent the radiation within a solid angle of 768.6° and
consequently ought to be divided by the same number. The total
radiation calculated in that way, is given in table [X, together with
the total radiation observed under the same conditions. The mean

CoO pan!
SS /ZANGe
E/N
Se
ieee &
BEEN
ft |
eee

Zenith distance.
Fic. 12—Radiation from horizontal surface to different parts of the sky.

cal.

Radiation,

difference between the two values is only 0.003, viz., less: than 2 per
cent. Considering the great difficulty of the observations upon which
the computed value is based, the agreement must be regarded as very
satisfactory. I therefore think we are justified in drawing there-
from the following conclusions :

68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

I. That there is proportionality between the radiation and the -
energy of the current, used for compensation, down to very low values
of both of them.

This is a very important point, as far as the utility of the instru-
ment is concerned. The truth of the statement is clear from the fact
that we can add up small portions observed and get a sum equal to
the total quantity observed.

II. That the way in which the distribution curves have been extra-
polated down to go° zenith angle must be nearly correct.

III. That the sky must have been very uniform during the time of
observation. If this had not been the case, it would not have been
possible to calculate the total radiation from observations upon a
single vertical circle.

From the diagrams it is to be concluded that the maximum of
radiation from a horizontal surface toward rings of equal angular

TABLE X
Observer 0°-22°30’ | 22°30’-45° | 45°-67°30' | 67°30’-90° p

FOMUCH he. enero nane gece 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.61

EADSSITEONEN Wo as oh an eo ses se 3 1-00 0.98 0.90 0.74 1.5
ANTEACSUROMN 2 cacod sounds ae: 1.00 0.98 0.88 0.67 3.6
ENGIBSISFOUN GF o5 sor code ab ed « 1.00 0.04 0.86 0.60 3.8
Angstrom Ae Ue Mn ee MOOS 0.92 0.75 0.41 5.0
ANMESETOMN 55 sac cocceacc08 0.97 0.QI 0.65 0,23 Felt

1Mt. Whitney (4,420 m.). 2 Bassour (1,160 m.).

width takes place in a direction that makes an angle of between 35°
and 45° with the zenith. An increase of the water-vapor density of
the atmosphere shifts this maximum nearer the zenith; with de-
creasing density the maximum approaches a limiting position of 45°,
which it would have if no absorbing and radiating ‘atmosphere
existed.

In table X, which is obtained by measuring the corresponding
areas in figure 12, the ratios are given between the values of the
radiation within various zones, obtained from the observations, and
the same values as calculated from the simple sine-cosine law, that is,
for the case where a horizontal surface radiates directly to a non-
absorbing space. Hereby the radiation is assumed to be unity for
zenith angle o°. Between 80° and 90° the radiation is only between
0.5 per cent and 2.0 per cent of the total radiation. The influence

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 69

of mountain regions that do not rise higher than about 10) OF 15
degrees above the horizon is therefore very small and can be neg-
lected. In valley regions the effective radiation must be less than on
a plane, owing to the shading influence of the mountains around.
The conditions will, however, be slightly complicated through the
superposed radiation from the surface of the mountains themselves,
a radiation that is dependent upon the temperature of the heights
and the properties of their surfaces (influence of snow).

CEA Pie, Vi0b

RADIATION BETWEEN THE SKY AND THE EARTH DURING THE
DAYTIME

I must include here some observations which, in spite of their pre-
liminary nature, yet may be of use in throwing a certain light upon
questions nearly connected with the problem especially in view.

In the daytime, the radiation exchange between the sky and the
earth is complicated by the diffuse sky radiation of short wave length
that is present in addition to the temperature radiation of the sky. If
this diffuse radiation is stronger than the effective temperature ra-
diation to the sky, a black body like the instrument will receive heat.
In the contrary case it will lose heat by radiation.

If one attempts to measure this positive (from sky to earth) or
negative radiation with the instrument used in the present investi-
gation, the sun itself being carefully screened off, such an attempt
meets with the difficulty arising from the introduction of a systematic
error. The bright metal strip has a smaller reflecting power for
the diffuse radiation of short wave length than for the longer heat
waves and we can no longer make use of the instrumental constant k,
which holds only for long waves such as we have to deal with in the
measurements of the nocturnal radiation. The reflecting power of
the strips being about 97 per cent for waves longer than 2, and
only about 70 per cent for waves of 0.5 » length (a mean value of the
wave length of the diffuse sky radiation), the introduction of the
constant k into daylight measurements will evidently give a value
of the sky radiation that is about 30 to 35 per cent too low.

On several occasions during the summer of 1912, I had the
opportunity of making skylight measurements as well with my own
instrument as with an instrument constructed on the same principle,
but modified for the purpose of making day observations. This
latter instrument is briefly described by Abbot and Fowle* in their
interesting paper, “ Volcanoes and Climate,’ where the effect of
the diffusing power of the atmosphere on the climate is fully dis-
cussed. Both the strips employed in this instrument are blackened.

* Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 60, No. 29, 1913. (Reprinted
in Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution,
Vol. 3.)

70

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 71

Instead of being side by side, the strips are here placed one above the
other beneath a thin horizontal plate of brass. When the instrument
was in use, a blackened screen was placed beneath it, so that the
lower strip was exchanging radiation only with this screen, which
subtended a hemisphere. The upper strip was exchanging radiation
with the whole sky. The radiation was calculated from the current
necessary to heat the upper strip to the same temperature as the
lower one.

Even in the use of this instrument in its original form, it is difficult
to avoid some systematic errors. One is due to the difficulty of pro-
tecting the screen with which the lower strip exchanges radiation,
from absorbing a small fraction of the incoming radiation and in this
way giving rise to a heating of the lower strip. And secondly the
convection is apt to be different, the effect of rising air currents being
greater for the upper strip than for the lower one. The error in-

Taste XI—Radiation of the Sky

|
Sept.5 Sept. 6 Sept. 7 Mean
Before sunrise......-....| —0.169 —0.205 —0.208 —0.194
IN@Ol SSA SAR eee ee +o0.062 | -+0.092 +0.047 +0.067
JANG SOMES Sosa soconcoch =——OoZ0s I) —O.225) —0.220 —o.218
Total sky radiation... SO 250) | SRO 2307 +o0.261 +0.273

troduced by these causes may possibly amount to Io or 15 per cent.
In this instrument as well as in the original Angstrém instrument,
the error, when we attempt to measure the sky radiation during the
day, tends to make this radiation appear weaker than it really is.
Table XI gives some results of observations with the last named
instrument, taken by Dr. Abbot and the author. My measurements
of the nocturnal radiation during the preceding and following nights
are given in the same place. The total diffuse sky radiation is calcu-
lated on the assumption that the effective temperature radiation dur-
ing the daytime is a mean of the morning and evening values deter-
mined by the nocturnal apparatus. The sky was perfectly uniform
during the observations but was overcast by a faint yellow-tinted
haze, ascribed by Abbot to the eruption of Mount Katmai in Alaska.
The energy of the direct solar beam at noon was, for all three days,
1.24 to 1.25 cal. The sun’s zenith angle at noon was 32°. From the
table it may be seen that there was always an access of radiation from
the sky, indicating that the diffuse radiation from the sky was always

72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

stronger than the outgoing effective temperature radiation. The
same was indicated by the nocturnal instrument, which, on two
different occasions, showed, in one case no appreciable radiation in
any direction, and in the other case a faint positive radiation from
the sky. If we correct for the reflection of the bright strip the two
instruments seem to be in general agreement with each other, show-
ing the radiation from the sky to be positive in the middle of the day,
under the conditions of the place. Lo Surdo found the same to be
the case at Naples, where he observed during some summer days.
On the other hand, Homén’s observations at Lojosee in Finland,
show that there the radiation during the daytime had the direction
from earth to sky, and that consequently the effective temperature
radiation was stronger (and very much stronger) than the incoming
diffused light. The observations of the two observers are naturally
in no way contradictory. The total radiation during the daytime is
a function of many variables, which may differ largely from place to
place. It is dependent on the effective temperature radiation to the
sky. This radiation is probably about the same in different lati-
tudes, a circumstance which will be discussed below; the effect of
the higher temperature in low latitudes being counterbalanced by
a high humidity. Thus we must seek the explanation in the behavior
of the other important term, the scattered skylight. The strength
of this light is dependent upon the diffusing power of the atmosphere:
the molecular scattering and the scattering by dust, smoke, and other
suspended particles in the air. Fora not too low transmission of the
air, the intensity of the skylight must increase with a decrease in the

transmission power, so that the skylight is intense when the solar
_ radiation is feeble, and vice versa.

There is nothing to indicate that the scattering power of the atmos-
phere is larger as a rule in low latitudes than at high ones, and I am
therefore inclined to think that we ought not to ascribe the high
intensity of the skylight in low latitudes to that cause. But the in-
tensity of skylight is affected by another important factor—the
height of the sun above the horizon. The nearer the sun approaches
the zenith, the more intense must be the light reaching us from the
diffusing atmosphere. The theory of scattered skylight, with due
consideration of the so-called “ self-illumination” of the sky, has
been treated in a very interesting and remarkable paper by L. V.
King.’ In his paper King gives curves and equations representing

*Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A, Vol. 212, pp. 375-433.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 73

the intensity of the scattered skylight as a function of the attenuation
of the solar radiation and of the zenith distance of the sun. The
theoretical result is not in exact agreement with the few observations
that have been made, for instance, by Abbot and Fowle, which may
be partly due to the difficulties in this kind of observation; but the
theoretical consideration proves that the intensity of the skylight
must be a decreasing function of the sun’s zenith distance. For the
same transmission coefficient of the atmosphere, the skylight must
therefore be stronger, on an average, in low latitudes than in high
ones.

Systematic observations on the intensity of skylight in its de-
pendence on other conditions are almost entirely lacking. This is one
of the most important problems in atmospheric optics, whose conse-
quences deeply affect the questions of climate and of the effects of
dust and haze and volcanic eruptions upon the temperature condi-
tions of the earth. The publications of Nichols, Dorno, and especially
‘those of Abbot and Fowle contain important contributions to the
problem. The outlines for further investigations of the subject seem
to me to be given by the theoretical considerations of King.

A question of special interest for the problem I have dealt with in
my investigation is this: Is the temperature radiation of the atmos-
phere during the day the same as during the night, when temperature
and humidity conditions are assumed to be the same, or will the at-
mosphere’ under the direct influence of the solar radiation assume
properties which will result in a deviation from the conditions pre-
vailing in the night-time as far as the radiation is concerned? This
question ought to be treated in a general way by methods allowing
us to eliminate the short wave radiation and to observe the tempera-
ture radiation during different times of the day. Here I will only
give a brief account of some observations made during the total
eclipse of the sun in 1914 and of conclusions to be drawn from them
in regard to the last named question. The observations were carried
out at Aviken, a place situated on the Swedish coast, on the central
line of the total eclipse, during the two nights preceding and one
night following the total eclipse and also during the eclipse itself.
As I myself was engaged in other observations I had availed myself
of the able assistance of Dr. G. Witt and of Mr. E. Welander of the
Institute of Engineering, Stockholm, for carrying out these observa-
tions.

In order to protect the instrument from the direct sunlight, a
screen arrangement was used, where the screen, through a simple

74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

mechanical device, could be made to follow the changes in the
position of the sun. The screen was blackened on the side turned
towards the instrument and covered with white paper on the other
side. The screen itself was to no appreciable degree heated by the
sun radiation.

In figure 13 the observations are plotted as ordinates in a dia-
gram where the time of the day is given by the abscisse. The more
the sunlight—and therefore also the scattered skylight—is cut off

Fic. 13.—Radiation observed during total eclipse August 20, 1914.

by the shadowing body of the moon, the more the effective radiation
to the sky naturally increases. From what has been said above it is
clear that we are right in comparing the radiation during the total
phase only, with the values obtained during the night. The feeble
radiation from the corona is perfectly negligible and causes no com-
plications. The mean radiation during the totality is found to be
0.160. At the same time the temperature of the surrounding air was
13.6°, the humidity as given by the Assmann psychrometer, 7.7 mm.
A comparison between the value of the effective radiation during the

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 75

eclipse and the value given by night observations under the same
temperature and humidity conditions, displays a very slight differ-
ence. I therefore think that one may conclude that the effective
temperature radiation during the day follows the same laws as hold
for the nocturnal radiation. More extensive investigations are how-
ever needed before this conclusion can be regarded as definite.

It is of interest to notice that during the whole time preceding
the eclipse, the instrument showed an outgoing radiation to the sky.
From the intensity of this radiation it can be concluded that, at least
before noon, the temperature radiation to the sky must have been
stronger than the diffuse radiation from it. The same was found
by Homen to be the case at Lojosee in Finland, as has been indicated
in the discussion above.

ClSUeUETshiee \WILME 2
APPLICATIONS TO SOME METEOROLOGICAL PROBLEMS
A. NOCTURNAL RADIATION AT VARIOUS ALTITUDES

The number of investigations contributing to our knowledge of
this special question is not large. When we have mentioned the
simultaneous observations of Pernter* at Rauris and on Sonnblick,
and the observations of Lo Surdo’* at Naples and Vesuvius we have
exhausted the previous work on this subject. The observations that
have been described above seem now to give a basis for forming a
general view upon the question of the influence of altitude upon the
effective radiation. In several cases observations have been carried
out simultaneously at different altitudes, but before we enter upon a
comparison between them, we shall treat the subject in a more general
way. As has been emphasized on several occasions, our observations
indicate that the atmospheric radiation in the lower layers of the
atmosphere is dependent chiefly on two variables: temperature and
humidity. Hence it is obvious that 1f we know the temperature and
the integral humidity as functions of the altitude, we can calculate
the radiation of the atmosphere at different altitudes, provided that
the relation between radiation, temperature, and humidity is also
known. It has been the object of my previous investigations to find
this relation; hence, if the temperature and humidity at the earth’s
surface are known, together with the temperature gradient and the
humidity gradient, I can from these data calculate the radiation at
different altitudes. The radiation of the atmosphere will evidently
always decrease with increasing altitude. But the effective radia-
tion, which is dependent also on the temperature of the radiating
surface, will behave very differently under different conditions. Ii
no radiating atmosphere existed, the effective radiation would de-
crease with a rise in altitude owing to the decreasing temperature.
If the temperature of the atmosphere were constant, the effective ra-
diation would always increase, when we moved to higher levels,
owing to the fact that the atmosphere (which is now assumed to
radiate) gets thinner the higher the altitude.

*Loc. cit. (Histor. Survey).
* Nuovo Cimento, 1900.

76

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM TG

In order to get a general idea of the conditions, I will assume that
Siring’s formula:
h I
€,=eo° parce 5 0)
holds for the distribution of the humidity, and that the temperature
gradient is constant up to an altitude of 5,000 m. I will consider
the following special cases:
I The temperature gradient is 0.8° per I0o meters.
Il ce (73 66 ce oO 6° (19 (v9 ce
The pressure of the aqueous vapor at the earth’s surface is: (a)
5 comedies (Qo) ie) inavan (Ce) is auton
The effective radiation FR, at different altitudes can then be calcu-
lated according to the formula :

Inte IS Oy) || wat zlOo ee UE || Cao”

where p can be obtained from Siiring’s formula, and where e; has
to be corrected for the conditions pointed out in chapter V, B, of
this paper. In table XII are given, (1) the temperature (7), (2)

Taste X11A—Radiation at Different Altitudes

Altitude t en! e,” One” p’ pl’ p’” R’ RY freee
(e) 25°)! 5.0 |10.0 |15.0 || 5.5 |11.0 | 16.6//0.205/0.164'0. 146
1000 17°|| 3.35] 6.7 |10.0 || 3.4 | 6.8 | Io. 1||0.208/0.171/0. 150
2000 Q9°|| 2.15] 4.3 | 6.45]| 2.05] 4.1 6.1//0.205,/0.177,0.167
3000 T°|| 1.35] 2.7 | 4.05]| 1.3 | 2.4 | 3.6\l0.195|0.178,0.165
4000 = Fl Os77/| 1485) BoB |) ©oF7 | 1.2 1.8|/0.182/0.175 0. 166
5000 —I5°|| 0.46] 0.91] 1.4 || 0.34) 0.67] 1.0]\0.166)0.161\0.158
Taste Xllp—Radiation at Different Altitudes

Altitude | t a e;,” ene p’ a” pi’ R! R”’ Rk’
Sri ened | [Seiad a i ae eae a
(0) 25°|| 5.0 |10.0 |I5.0 || 5.5 |11.0 | 16.6||0.205/0. 166.0. 146
1000 EO a 3635| On | LOsON |e 3535 |MOk7 el SLOnO}|O521210.170,0.155
2000 | 13°|) 2.15] 4.3 | 6.45]| 1.0 | 3.8 | 5.8||0.219|/0. 1902/0. 180
3000 || “7°|l 1.35] 2.7 | 4.05]/ 1.1 | 2.2 | 3.2/|0.215/0.197|0. 183
4000 1°|| 0.77] 1.55] 2.3 || 0.55] 1.0 | 1.6||0.208]/0.200/0. 190
5000 —5°|| 0.46] 0.91] 1.4 || 0.28] 0.55} 0.8//0.194]/0.190,0.185

the pressure of aqueous vapor (en), (3) the corrected pressure (p)
and, finally, the effective radiation (f°) at different altitudes. In
table XIIB the same quantities are given for a temperature gradient
of 0.6° per 100 meters. Figure 14 gives the curves, drawn from

For temperature gradient:

For temperature gradient:

Radiation.

Altitude.

Fic. 14.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 79

the computed data, for the effective radiation as a function of the alti-
tude. The curves bring out some interesting facts that deserve
special consideration.

For ordinary values of the humidity, the effective radiation has a
maximum at I to 4 km. altitude.

An increase of the humidity or a decrease of the temperature
gradient shifts this maximum to higher altitudes.

The. effective radiation gradient is consequently positive at low
altitudes and negative at high altitudes.

An examination of the observations, made simultaneously at dif-
ferent altitudes, must naturally give a result that is in general accord-
ance with these considerations, which are based upon the experi-
mental investigations.

Tapie XITIa

Date At Lone Pine L. P. Canyon Mt. Whitney
t H R t H R t H R
Aug. 2.. 0.61 || 18.3] 10.0/0.141 Pallet Ty —1.3] 3.2 |o,182
Bie 0.57 || 17.6). 8.0|0.166]) ....| ... |.....||—0.7] 2.7 jo. 182
ABS 0.48 || 15.8) 7.8)0.171|| 17.0] 5.0 |0.203/|+0.6) 2.4 |o.196
ESE 0.52 || 17.5} 6.3/0.191|| 17.3] 3.7 |0.212||+1.0| 2.1 |o.188
Se AT alba seers walt neeeatee | ec ea 15.1] 7.0 |O.177||—1.4) 3.5 |o.166
OR . 0.59 || 15.6) 7.7/0.154]} 12.4) 5.8 |0.164||—3.4| 3.0 |o.154
1a 6 sone || B87) FAO TIS ||| TPA Oot |©. Tesi, oc oo Se oul ec
Il. 0.58 || 15.9] 5.9/0.1890 soc, loon oollit=ZoSl) UoZ? Kno:
12. O70 ||| Av Al Fi. wets) Beettallsfeae 8 —1.4| 1.2 |0.103
General mean...| 0.58 |) 17.6] 7.3/0.175]| 14.6] 5.5 |o.185||—1.1| 2.4 |o.182
Mean of (x)....] 0.53 || 16. 7.3|0.172|| 15.6) 4.8 |0.193||—0.6| 2.5 |0.179
TasleE XIIIB
Date At Indio [o m.] salts eee
t H R t H R
Mili p22 eS er l.. A oN AO AO Mero mate NINE nie ee thy Snes
23X........| 0.69 || 24.7] 11.0|0.181]| 0.7 | 2.5 |o.208
DUS cra el 0.61 || 23.5) 9.6/0.172|| 2.1 | 1.6 jo.217
Mietiot (Cx) a8 0.05 lk 2401 TOL 30,1771 124) 2.8 |Or2Ts

In table XIIIa I have collected the data, gained simultaneously
at different altitudes during the Mount Whitney expedition. The
values represent mean values during entire nights. They confirm
the fact, already deduced from more general considerations, that

80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the effective radiation has a maximum at an altitude of between
1,000 and 4,000 meters. Between 2,500 and 4,400 meters the mean
gradient is generally negative; between 1,200 and 2,500 meters it
generally has a positive sign. From the general discussion and the
curves that represent ideal cases it is probable that the effective radia-
tion always decreases with an increase in altitude, when about 3,000
meters is exceeded. Up to that altitude we shall generally find an
increase of the effective radiation with the height. The latter condi-
tions are demonstrated by my simultaneous observations at Indio
and Mount San Gorgonio (table XIIIp), as well as by Pernter’s* _
observations at Rauris and on the top of Sonnblick.

B. INFLUENCE OF HAZE AND ATMOSPHERIC DUST UPON THE
NOCTURNAL RADIATION

From the observations made in Algeria, the conclusion was drawn *
that a slight haziness, indicated by a decrease in the transmission by
the atmosphere of visible rays (clouds not formed), had no appre-
ciable influence upon the radiation of the atmosphere. In fact it was
found from pyrheliometric measurements during the day that the
transmission of the atmosphere generally kept a high or low or
average value during periods of several days, the changes being slow
and continuous from one extreme to the other. The assumption
being made that the nights falling between days of a certain value of
transmission can be classified as showing the same character as the
days, it was found that the nocturnal mean radiation during nights
belonging to a period of high transmission only differed within the
limits of probable error from the mean value obtained during low
transmission periods.’

The observations at Bassour, Algeria, were taken at a time when
the volcanic dust from the eruption of Mt. Katmai at Alaska caused
a considerable decrease in the sun radiation transmitted to the sur-
face of the earth. Several observers, such as Hellmann, Abbot and
Fowle,’ Kimball,’ Jensen,’ and others, all agree as regards the prob-

Pernter, loc. cit.

“A. Angstrom: Studies in Nocturnal Radiation, I. Astroph. Journ., June,
1913.

* Abbot and Fowle: Volcanoes and Climate, 1. c., p. 13.

“Zeitschrift fiir Meteorologie, Januari, 1913.

* Volcanoes and Climate. Smithsonian Misc. Collections, Vol. 60, No. 20.

* Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, Vol. 3, Part 2.

"S. A» Mitt. d. Vereinigung von Freunden d. Astronomie und kosm.
Physik, 1913.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 81

able cause of this remarkable haziness. As regards the atmospheric
conditions at Bassour, I may quote the description given by Abbot
and Fowle in their interesting paper, Volcanoes and Climate: ‘‘ On
June 19 Mr. Abbot began to notice in Bassour streaks resembling
smoke lying along the horizon, as if there were a forest fire in the
neighborhood of the station. These streaks continued all summer,
and were very marked before sunrise and after sunset, covering
the sky towards the sun nearly to the zenith. After a few days
the sky became mottled, especially near the sun. The appearance
was like that of the so-called mackerel sky, although there were
absolutely no clouds. In the months of July, August, and so long
as the expedition remained in September, the sky was very hazy, and
it was found that the intensity of the radiation of the sun was greatly
decreased by uncommonly great haziness.”” Abbot and Dorno’* both
agree as to the average decrease per cent in the solar radiation caused
by the dust ; it was found to be about 20 per cent. “ In the ultra-violet
and visible spectrum the effect was almost uniform for all wave
lengths, but was somewhat less in the infra-red.”’ (Volcanoes and
Climate. )

It is of very great interest to consider, in connection with the
observations named, the effect of volcanic dust upon the nocturnal
radiation. Unfortunately the observations at Algeria were not begun
until after the haze had reached a considerable density, and therefore
we cannot compare observations taken at the same place before
and during the dust period. But the observations taken at Lone Pine
during the California expedition may furnish a reliable basis for
comparison, the two stations having almost exactly the same altitude.
If we therefore consider the curve giving the relation between radia-
tion and humidity at Lone Pine in comparison with the same curve
obtained at Bassour, both curves reduced to the same temperature,
we may from this draw some conclusions in regard to the effect of
the volcanic haze. These curves are given in figure 5, and we can
from the diagram read off the departures of the Lone Pine curve
from the curve taken at Bassour. These departures are given in
the following table, together with the mean departure, which is found
to be +0.003 or just about 2 per cent of the mean radiation. The
‘ Lone Pine values are, on an average, a little less than 2 per cent higher
than the values obtained at Bassour under identical conditions. If
we compare the radiation values at Indio with those at Bassour in
the same way, we shall find a departure of +4 per cent in favor of

* Met. Zt., 20, 1912.

82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the Indio values. One may conclude from this that the volcanic dust,
which causes a decrease of about 40 per cent (Dorno) in the ultra-
violet radiation and about 20 per cent in the visible affects the rays

EFFECTIVE RADIATION

p mm. . Lone Pine-Bassour

4 . — 0.004
i Aas ceeon test ere a tn ie ie renee Ce pat Movtod ong cee ener aneapie + 0.005
Iti carte Miners ea 3 Parra ae wea et on OI.o me + 0.012
EAE RO OCA OLOR RIC on rose een OS DID SOo + 0.015
Wal See NOD PA ee NEE na RSM ces eae dato + 0.009
OUI ero ie GENE On meeteee rom nae cto omene oe — 0.003
pee erin aes —o013

Meant hha lityaje' st baepatioen Res ation ae eae -++ 0.003

that constitute the nocturnal radiation less than 2 per cent. As
the nocturnal radiation has probably its maximum of energy in a
region of wave lengths at about 8 yn, this is a fact that in itself is
not very astonishing. Measurements in the sun’s energy spectrum
show that even for waves not longer than about 0.8 p, the trans-
mission of the atmosphere is very nearly equal to unity, the rays
being very slightly affected by changes in the scattering power of the
air. If we use the observations of Abbot or of Dorno in regard to the
weakening of the ultra-violet and visible light, and apply the law of
Rayleigh for the relation between scattering and wave length, we find
from these data, applied to the average wave lengths of the regions
concerned, that about 97 per cent of the radiation at 8 » must pass
undisturbed by the dust particles. There are several objections against
a quantitative application of the theory of Rayleigh to the conditions
here considered, but at least it shows that our result cannot be re-
garded as unexpected.

The fact that the nocturnal radiation has only decreased by about
2 per cent, when on the other hand the incoming solar radiation is
reduced to about 80 per cent of its former value, explains the inter-
esting relation between climate and volcanic eruptions pointed out
by Abbot and Fowle in their paper already referred to. That the
climatic effect is not larger, in spite of the great decrease in the inso-
lation, may be due to the large number of processes at work—so to
say—tending to balance or to weaken the consequences of a decrease
in the incoming radiation. It has been shown here that this decrease
is not to any appreciable amount counterbalanced by a decrease in the
outgoing radiation from the surface of earth. But there are other

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 83

means by which heat is carried away from the surface, evaporation,
and especially convection, being factors that are not negligible. It
is probable that if a part of the solar radiation is really absorbed by
the volcanic dust, this will tend to diminish the temperature gradient
between the sea level and the upper strata of the atmosphere, and
consequently cause a decrease in the vertical heat convection from
the lower stations. A second access of radiation is due to the scattered
skylight, and Abbot as well as Dorno point out that the sum of sky-
light and direct solar radiation was subjected to only a relatively small
change by the effect of the dust. One has naturally to expect that if
a part of the direct solar radiation is uniformly scattered by the atmos-
phere, a part of the scattered radiation will reach the surface of the
earth in the form of skylight, this part increasing with an increase
in the scattering power. Part of the scattered radiation is reflected
out to space. Similar conditions naturally hold for the nocturnal
radiation, and it is evident that the quantity measured by the instru-
ment will always be the outgoing heat radiation diminished by the
part of this radiation that is reflected back by the diffusing atmos-
phere upon the radiating surface.’

C. RADIATION FROM LARGE WATER SURFACES

The radiation from bodies with reflecting but not absorbing or
diffusing surfaces depends upon their reflecting power and their
temperature only. The emission of radiation in a direction that
makes an angle ¢ with the normal to the surface at the point con-
sidered, is determined by the relation:

Ep=g(1—Ko)

where «¢ is the radiation of a black surface in the direction ¢, and
Ry the reflected fraction of the light incident in the named direction.
For the total radiation emitted we have

Eg=Seg(1—Rg ) dO

where the integration is to be extended over the whole hemisphere.

In chapter VI, I have given an account of some observations that
show in what way the radiation from a black surface to the sky is
dependent on the direction. Asa very large part of the earth’s sur-
face is covered with water, and therefore slightly different from the
conditions defined by the “ black surface,’ I have thought it to be of
interest to give here a brief discussion of the case where we have,
instead of the black surface, a plane water surface radiating out to

Radiation.

84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

space. The problem is important for the knowledge of the loss of
heat from the oceans, and would probably be worth a special inves-
tigation in connection with an elaborate discussion of the quantity
of heat absorbed from the incoming sun and sky radiation by water
surfaces. Here I propose only to give a short preliminary survey
of the question, giving at the same time the general outlines of the
probable conditions.

Bae

eee Sage”

CEE

COANE
J ccbcoa mh ea

aR
CoPEE EEE)
Za

Zenith distance.

Fic. 15.—Radiation from water surface to sky. Lower curve for water
surface. Upper curve for perfect radiator. From Bassour observations
(p=5mm.). Ratio of areas 0.937.

In figure 12 I have given some curves representing the relative
radiation from a black surface in various directions toward rings of
equal angular width. ~ The total energy emitted is represented by the
areas of these curves. Now, if every ordinate is multiplied by the

- factor (1—Ry), where Ry can be obtained from Fresnel’s formule,

if we know the index of refraction, the area included by the new
curve will give us the radiation emitted by a water surface under the
same conditions of temperature and water-vapor pressure. In figure
15 such curves are given. I have here assumed the mean refrac-

cal.

em.? min

Radiation,

NO.-3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 85

tive index for the long waves here considered to be 1.33, a value
that is based upon measurements by Rubens and myself. The
upper curve is taken from figure 12, curve IV. This same curve
corresponds to a water-vapor pressure of 5mm. The ratio between
the areas is 0.937, i. e., the water surface radiates under the given
conditions 93.7 per cent of the radiation from a black body. A
change in the water-vapor pressure will affect this ratio only to a
small extent.

I will now assume that a black horizontal surface radiates to space,
and that the vertical distribution of the water vapor over the surface
satisfies the conditions for which our radiation formula holds (Chap-
ter III (2)). Then the radiation can be computed provided the tem-

Temperature.

Fic. 16.

perature is known. If the black surface is replaced by a water sur-
face the radiation will be only 94 per cent of its former value. The
latter radiation is given as a function of the temperature by figure
16, where I have applied the considerations made above to the in-
terval between — 10° C. and +20° C. From the figtire may be seen
how the radiation is kept almost constant through the increase with
rising temperature of the water-vapor content of the atmosphere.
There is only a slight decrease in the radiation with rising tem-
perature.

The ideal conditions here imagined are probably more or less in-
consistent with the actual state of things. In the first place, the air
immediately above the ocean is generally not saturated with water
vapor, the relative humidity being rarely more than about 9o per cent.
In the second place, it is not quite correct to assume that the average
distribution of the water vapor over the ocean is the same as the

86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

average distribution over land. This will give a deviation from the
assumed conditions and consequently a different absolute value to
the radiation, but it will probably only to a small extent change the
relative values and the general form of the curve.

Melloni* concludes his first memoir on the cooling of bodies ex-
posed to the sky, published about 70 years ago, with the following
remarkable statement, upon which he seems to lay a certain stress:
« .. . Uncorps exposé pendant la nuit a action d’un ciel également
pur et serein se refroidit toujours de la meme quantité quelle que soit
la température de lair.”

One may at first be inclined to attach very little importance to this
statement. It seems in fact to be in contradiction with the most
elementary laws of radiation. If we consider the temperature of the
radiating surface as the only variable upon which the radiation
depends, we would expect the cooling of the body below the tem-
perature of the surroundings to be proportional to the fourth power
of its absolute temperature. At 0° C. the cooling would for instance
be only about three fourths as much as at 20° C. |

Now the effect of temperature is generally a double one, as far as
the radiation process is concerned. With a rise in temperature there
generally follows an increase in the absolute humidity, which causes
an increase in the radiating power of the atmosphere. The increase
of the temperature radiation from the radiating surface is balanced
by a corresponding increase in the radiation of the atmosphere; and
the observed effective radiation is therefore only subjected to a small
variation. The observations, discussed in previous chapters, seem
now to indicate that the law of Melloni is approximately true with
the following modification :

The cooling of a body, exposed to radiate to a clear night sky, is
almost independent of the temperature of the surroundings, pro-
vided that the relative humidity keeps a constant value.

This conclusion, which can be drawn from the observations on the
influence of humidity and temperature on the effective radiation,
must be regarded as remarkable. It includes another consequence,
namely, that a high incoming radiation (sky and sun) and a there-
from resulting tendency to an increase of the temperature, is gen-
erally not counterbalanced by a corresponding increase in the
effective radiation from the surface of the earth to space. The vari-
ations of the incoming radiation are therefore, under constant tem-
perature conditions, almost entirely counterbalanced by variations in
convection, and evaporation (or other changes) of water.

* Melloni, Joc. cit. (chapter II).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this “ Study of the Radiation of the Atmosphere,” I have at-
tempted an investigation of the influence of various factors—
humidity, temperature, haze, clouds—upon the radiation of the atmos-
phere. The results of these investigations are briefly summarized at
the beginning of the paper.

It may be of advantage here to state in a few words in what
respects this study must be regarded as incomplete and in need
of further extended investigations. In the first place, it will be
noticed that my observations have been limited to a particular time of
year; the observations in Algeria and in California have all been
made during the periods July-August of the years 1912 and 1913.

Now the investigations, as yet unpublished, carried on at the
Physical Institute of Upsala, indicate that the amount of ozone
contained in the atmosphere is larger in winter time than in summer
time. Further, it has been shown by K. Angstrém’* that the ozone
has two strong absorption bands, the one at A=4.8 », the other at
X=9.1 to 10 p, of which the latter especially is situated in a region of
the spectrum where the radiation of a black body of the temperature
of the atmosphere ought to have its maximum of radiation. Then
it is obvious that the radiation of the atmosphere must be dependent
also upon the quantity of ozone present. Spectroscopic investiga-
tions indicate that in the summer time the ozone present in the air
is practically nil; it is therefore not liable to have introduced any
complications into the results discussed in this paper. But in the
winter the quantity of ozone is often considerable, and it is not im-
possible that the variations of the effective radiation in the winter
may be partly due to variations in the quantity of -ozone in the
upper air layers. The consequence of the higher radiating power
of the atmosphere, due to the presence of ozone, must be that the
effective radiation ought to be found to be less in the winter than
is to be expected from the observations discussed in this paper.

Another point where it is desirable that the observations of the
“nocturnal radiation ” should be extended, is in regard to conditions
under which the quantity of water in the air is very small. Such

ke Angstrom: Arkiv fiir Mat., Astr. och Fysik I, p. 347, 1904. Ibidem, I, p.
395, 1904.
87

88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

observations will not only be more directly comparable with the —
observations on high mountains than those used here for such a
comparison, but they will also furnish a basis for studying the
variations in a dry atmosphere and the influences by which these
variations are affected. Further, the study of the radiation ot the
upper air layers is as yet very incomplete and ought to be extended
by means of continuous observations on high mountains or, perhaps
better, from balloons. My observations indicate that the “ perfectly
dry atmosphere ” has a radiating power as great as 50 per cent of the
radiation of a black body at the temperature of the place of observa-
tion. The upper air layers—the stratosphere—must therefore have
a considerable influence upon the heat economy of the earth as a
whole. Observations at high altitudes of the absorption and radta-
tion of the atmosphere are therefore very desirable.

Finally, means must be found to study the effective radiation
during the daytime in a more systematic way than has been done
in this paper. The effective temperature radiation—that is, the dif-
ference between the total effective radiation and the access of scat-
tered skylight—can evidently be obtained by measuring these two last
named quantities simultaneously ; measurements that do not seem to
involve insurmountable difficulties.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 17 TO 2s

: : Rais ine cal. :
The figures give the effective radiation in Sao ey 10°, plotted as ordinates

against the time (in hours of the night) as abscisse. The curves are governed
by the observations given in several of the tables, XIV to XX. For the
graphical interpretation I have chosen some of the observations that seem to me
to bring forward, in a marked and evident way, the influence of humidity or
temperature upon the radiation. They therefore represent cases where either
the temperature has been almost constant (as on high mountains), and the
humidity subjected to variations, or where the humidity has been constant and
the temperature has varied.

Radiation and temperature.

Indio, Cal., July 24, 1913.

d temperature o.

tion # an

la

Fic. 17— Nocturnal rad

Time in hours.

€161 “fz A[nf{ “yeD ‘orpuy *o ainyesoduioy pue x UOTeIper [eUINJION—8I “o1yT

‘SsInOY Ul OWIT

Radiation and temperature.

Radiation and temperature.

Fic. 19.—Nocturnal radiation x and temperature 0. Lone Pine, Cal., August 11, 1913.

Time in hours.

Radiation and temperature.

Time in hours.

Lone Pine, Cal., August 10, 1913.

Fic, 20.—Nocturnal radiation + and temperature o.

Radiation and temperature.

Lone Pine, Cal., August 5, 1013.

Fic, 21.—Nocturnal radiation + and temperature o.

Time in hours.

‘z161 ‘Zz snsny ‘("W goo'r epnyiye) eespy ‘ereznoyy ‘3. “UOreipes PeusinjON—zz “OI

‘sInoy Ul dWIy,

Radiation.

Radiation and pressure (mm. Hg.).

Mt. San Antonio, Cal. (altitude 2,500 m.), July 12, 1913.

Fic. 23.—Nocturnal radiation + and water-vapor pressure A.

Time in hours.

‘€16r ‘z JsnSny ‘(‘w oery epnynye) ‘Jeo ‘AouTYAA ‘JIN “VY e4nsseid Jodea-so}eM pue v UOTeIpes [euINDO N—ve

“OL

‘sInoy Ul 9UITT,

Radiation and pressure (mm. Hg.)°

‘E161 ‘II Jsnsny ‘(Ww oz apnyyqye) yeo ‘AoupyyAA “HA ‘VY e4nssoid todea-19}eM pue ¥ UOT}eIPes [euINIION—Sz ‘OL
‘SInoy UI SWIT,

Radiation and pressure (mm. Hg.) .

EXPLANATION OF TABLES XIV TO XxI

In the following tables are included all the observations at Indio (Table
XIV), at Lone Pine (Table XV), at Lone Pine Canyon (Table XVI), at
Mount San Antonio (Table XVII), at Mount San Gorgonio (Table XVIII),
at Mount Whitney (Table XIX), and at Mount Wilson (Table XX). Upon the
values given in these tables, the studies of the total radiation are based. Inthe
tables are given: (1) the date, (2) the time, (3) the temperature (¢), (4) the
pressure of aqueous vapor (#7), (5) the radiation of a black body (S¢) at the
temperature (¢) (Kurlbaum’s constant), (6) the observed effective radiation
(Rt), (7) the difference between St and Rz, here defined as being the radiation
of the atmosphere, (8) this radiation reduced to a temperature of 20° C., in
accordance with the discussion presented in chapter V: B (£_.,.), and finally
Remarks in regard to the general meteorological conditions prevailing at the
time of ohservation, With each night of observation is given the initials of the
observers: A. K. Angstrom, E. H. Kennard, F. P. Brackett, R. D. Williams,
and W. Brewster.

I0O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65
TABLE XIV
Place: Indio. Altitude: om. B=760 mm. Instrument No. 17
Date Time t H S; ie | Sy=leal| Binew Remarks
July 22 7:50] 20.6 | 13.59] 0.618] 0.123) 0.495] 0.453/A. K. A. Cloudless
8:40! 24.9 | 13.67] 0.604] 0.118) 0.486] 0.455) sky, wind W.,
10:00] 28.3 | 12.24) 0.632] 0.129) 0.503] 0.451| calm.
10:15! 27.5 | 11.86) 0.625] 0.143) 0.482] 0.436
11:00] 27.8 | 11.43] 0.628] 0.147] 0.481] 0.433
TAZUG) Ads || UOsS37lo oc oecllo code ole Pee ee. eee
1:00| 26.4 | II.13| 0.616] 0.140] 0.476, 0.438)
2:15| 25.8 | 10.64] 0.611] 0.140| 0.471) 0.436
3:45| 23.6 | 10.77) 0.593] 0.133) 0.460] 0.440
4:30, 22.8 | 10.67) 0.587] 0.136).0.451| 0.435
July 23 7:50| 29.5 | 11.33) 0.642} 0.193) 0.449] 0.396,A. K. A. Sky per-
9:00; 28.1 | 11.30) 0.630] 0.193) 0.437] 0.301; fectly cloudless
10:15! 25.2 | 11.56) 0.606] 0.182) 0.424| 0.394) calm.
11:05| 24.7 | I1.41| 0.602] 0.181| 0.421) 0.396
12:45] 23.6 | 10.47] 0.593] 0.172| 0.421| 0.402
2:15) 23.3 | 10.52| 0.591] 0.178) 0.413) 0.307
3:30] 22.2 | 10.52) 0.582] 0.175) 0.407] 0.305
4:25| 21.0 10.82! 0.572| 0.171| 0.401] 0.396
July 24 7:45) 29.5 | 9.65| 0.642] 0.183) 0.459] 0.404,W B. Sky perfect-
9:00] 27.5 | 9.30) 0.625] 0.183) 0.442) 0.399| ly cloudless, calm.
10:05] 25.0 | 10.97| 0.605] 0.166) 0.439! 0.410
I1:15| 23.9 | 10.69) 0.596] 0.169) 0.427) 0.405
12:10) 23.0 | 10.31] 0.588] 0.169} 0.419} 0.402
1:05! 23.0 | 9.37) 0.588] 0.173) 0.415] 0.308
2:00; 21.2 | 9.65) 0.573) 0.170) 0.403) 0.397
3:10) 21.2 | 8.81| 0.573] 0.174) 0.399] 0.303
4:05} 20.6 | 8.43] 0.568] 0.172) 0.396) 0.303
4:20} 19.5 | 8.15| 0.560] 0.163) 0.397} 0.400
TABLE XV
Place: Lone Pine. Altitude: 1,1440m. B=650 mm. Instrument No. 18
Aug. 2 9:25| 18.1 | 10.11] 0.548] 0.145] 0.403) 0.415|/F. P. B., R. D. W.
T0:00 19.4 | 8.99] 0.550] 0.144) 0.415] 0.419} Cloudless, calm.
11:05 17.4 | 9.71| 0.543] 0.127] 0.416] 0.433
12:10) 21.3 | 10.20) 0.575) 0.149) 0.426) 0.420
1:05) 18.2 | 10.58] 0.548] 0.134! 0.414} 0.426
2:00) 18.1 | 10.50] 0.547) 0.136] 0.411| 0.423
3:30| 17.5 | 10.24] 0.544] 0.141] 0.403) 0.4190
4.00} 16.7 | 10.01| 0.538] 0.151) 0.387] 0.407
Aug. 3 8:00) 20.0 | 8.44] 0.564) 0.175] 0.389) 0.380/R. D. W., F. P. B.
9:00) 22.5 | 7.47] 0.584| 0.172] 0.412) 0.3990] Cloudless, calm.
10:00) 21.1 | 8.00] 0.572] 0.182] 0.390] 0.384
11:00) 18.8 | 8,28) 0.554) 0.173) 0.381] 0.380
12:00] 17.8 | 7.07] 0.546] 0.174] 0.372] 0.385
1:00} 15.2 | 8.54] 0.527) 0.139! 0.388) 0.415
2:25) 16.8 | 7.73} 0.538] 0.169; 0.360] 0.386
3:00} 13:0 | 8.47] 0.512) 0.168) 0.344) 0.379
4:00) 13.4 | 8.29] 0.514] 0.147] 0.367) 0.402

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM IOI

. TABLE X V—Continued
Place: Lone Pine. Altitude: 1,140 m. B=650 mm. Instrument No. 18

Date Time t H Ss; R; S,-R; Bae | Remarks
Aug. 4 | 10:07} 19.9 | 8.43) 0.563) 0.169) 0.394) 0.395 F. P. B. Cloudless,
II:00| 19.0 | 7.08 0.556) 0.167! 0.389) 0.395) calm.
12:00] 17.3 g.01| 0.542) 0.183) 0.350) 0:374/R. D. W. Radiation
1:00) 13.2 | 8.39] 0.513) 0.170) 0.343] 0.376) variable.
2:05| 12.7 | 7.59) 0.509) 0.167, 0.342) 0.378)
3:05| 15.0 | 6.99] 0.525] 0.154) 0.371] 0.307]
4:05) 13.3 .90} 0.514) 0.189) 0.325) 0.356
Aug. 5 8:15] 24.6 | 5.87| 0.602] 0.212) 0.390} 0.366/R. D. W., F. P. B.
9:05) 23.0 | 5.70) 0.588) 0.215] 0.373) 0.358) Radiation fluctu-
10:00] 17.1 7.38) 0.541) 0.195) 0.346) 0.360) ating.
11:00] 21.4 | 5.46] 0.575| 0.205] 0.370] 0.363
12:00] 15.6 | 6.33) 0.530) 0.191! 0.339] 0.3590
1:05| 12.4 | 6.96) 0.507) 0.166) 0.341) 0.378
2:05| 14.8 | 5.97] 0.524] 0.189) 0.335] 0.360
3:05, 14.4 | 6.52) 0.521) 0 174 0.347) 0.375
4:05} 14.4 | 5.96) 0.521) 0.170) 0.351| 0.379
Aug. 9 8:00) 21.1 7.99| 0.572) 0.180) 0.392) 0.387/R. D. W., F. P. B.
9:00) 22.4 | 7.18 0.583) 0.177, 0.406, 0.394 Hazy in the even-
10:00 18.8 | 8.29) 0.554) 0.168 0.386 0.304, ing, perfectly
11:00, 16.9 | 7.61) 0.540) 0.163) 0.377) 0.304) cloudless.
12:00 14.6 8.03) 0.523, 0.143) 0.380) 0.408
1:00| 12.7 | 8.13) 0.509} 0.142) 0.367) 0.406
2:00 12.2 | 8.11| 0.506) 0.139] 0.367) 0.407
3:05, 10.7 | 5.42| 0.496) 0.139] 0.357| 0.405
4:00} 10.6 | 8.39] 0.495] 0.133] 0.362) 0.411
Aug. Io 8:20] 21.9 | 7.12] 0.579] 0.196! 0.383) 0.374/E. H. K. Few scat-
9:00] 22.0 | 7.25 0.580 0.211) 0.369 0.360 tered clouds at N.
OPO ee Golerteenese |......| 0:202) 0.378) 0.368) horizon in the
10:10} 21.1 7,38) 0.572) 0.194) 0.378) 0.373, evening. Perfect-
TOEZO).2) Jaslocae..|2.2 es oO) 107|) 0.375] ©.370|. ly cloudless after
11:00} 20.9 | 7.48) 0.571) 0.209 0.362) 0.359 9:00. 5
PUEOR e072 ik |......| O.199| 0.372! 0.369)
12:05] 19.8 | 7.61) 0.562) 0.195] 0.367| 0.371
TEER eee AAU Sabra crane ......| 0.201] 0.361] 0.365}
1:00) 16.9 |. 8.05) 0.540} 0.170, 0.370) 0.387
3:05, 16.4 | 8.23) 0.536) 0.159) 0.377) 0.3890
3:15] 16.4 | 8.23) 0.536) 0.162| 0.374) 0.393
4:30| 12.7 | 8.01/ 0.510) 0.154) 0.356) 0.303
4:40 sy seal leases 0.510) 0.147, 0.363, 0.400
Aug. II 8:25) 20.5 | 6.40) 0.568) 0.189) 0.370| 0.377/E. H. K. Perfectly
9:00 fe GiGine 0.602) 0.197; 0.405} 0.381) cloudless. Breezy.
Seroj ue hee 0.602) 0,223 e376 0.356
10:00 0.590} 0.204) 0.386) 0.371
Torro, $23:25-781 0.590 0.204) 0. 386 0.371)
11:00 0.569] 0.202) 0.367) 0.363)
I1:10 }20.755 78{ 0.569) 0.207, 0.362) 0.358
12:00 0.555) 0.204 0.351) 0.350}
13:90 }18.9.6.50{ 0.555 Le 0.345| 0.352
1:00 0.521) 0.189) 0.332) 0.359
7:00) }14.3/6.18{ 0.521| 0.176] 0.345] 0.372
2:00 0.505| 0.190 0.315) 0.351
3:00) }x2.0[5.78{ 0.505} 0.176 0.329) 0.365

102

TABLE X V—Continued

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOL. 65

Place: Lone Pine. Altitude: 1,140m. B=650 mm. Instrument No. 18

|

Date | Time | Sy lig, | Sa—ltall Baar Remarks
Nb, wie | Be a7{ 0.502| 0.196} o. 0.343|E. H. K. Perfectly
| 3:2 : 0.502] 0.155] O. 0.384) cloudless, fluctua-
| as of 0.490] 0.187] o. 0.349] tions.

eae “3 0.490) 0.180) oO. 0.356

|) = ate 16{ 0:491| 0.173] O. 0.364

4: ; | 0.491] 0.156) o. 0.385

Gis 5.37| 0.484] 0.171] O. 0.365
Aug. 12 fe 7.31| 0.610) 0.208] 0. 0.2372| ES Ee key enneculyy
[eae 5655 ©0060), ©2021 0. 0.369) cloudless, windy.

| 7: 5.56, 0.606 0.209) o. 0. 360

|e Aint cain aval ee 0.606 0.211) oO. 0.367

8: ; | 0.613] 0.199} Oo. 0.381

8: oF {| 0.613] 0.220] 9. 0. 362

8: Wn el ROROANOReES 1 OF 0. 369

toanaye { 0.596) 0.209) oO. 0.368

|; @e “49 0.596) 0.220} oO. 0.357

| 10: 30{ 0.5608) 0.195) o 0.371

| TOs : | 0.568 0.197) Oo 0.369

| : 08 { ©. 553) ©. i077) O- 0.363

d : 0.553) 0.208 o. 0.352

12: 8 { 0.508) 0.189) o. Oneyi7i

1) “5 0.568) 0.220] 0. 0.346

poueitee 7{ 0.568] 0.192] o. 0.374

leases | 0.568] 0.184] o. 0.382

eee 264 0.530] 0.172] 0. 0.380

22 j 0.530] 0.163] Oo. 0.380

Fags orf 0.529} 0.169} o. 0.382

| By ; | 0.529) 0.154] O 0.3907
Aig sis 8: 7.52| 0.592| 0.241| 0 .337|A-K. A. Very clear

ios s006|) OsS02| O23) ©, 347

ie 8 4.69] 0.574) 0.231] 0. .338

TasLe XVI

Place: Lone Pine Canyon. Altitude: 2,500 m. B= 498mm. Instrument No. 22

Aug.

Aug.

Aug.

Aug.

4

rT

oom OO WNNHH
mont ON $wWEWHWNH HUN UF -

S .
by GO NU 0 ONTHH

Se

a7
27,

432
-54
.65
.24
.00
-75
07
53
23

ooo, 00 99090000000 909

-555

526

555
555
555
553
533
533
538
539
526

529

-523

. 510
506
. 500

GAAOQAVOeeQeO0

. 203
. 203

.217T
- 199

226

.220
.218
Ay)
. 209
.194
.214

5 HO)
my,
184!

.161] 0.345
.158] 0.348

(2) (8) ©) 2) ©) ©) Cye) ©

(0)

(oe) ooo900g0909000

-359
. 346

351

. 363
. 334
340
333
334
345
361
334

.376
SB7D

-359
Beier}
. 386

W. B. Cloudless.

W.B. Cloudless.

W.B. Cloudless.

iW. B. Cloudless.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 103

Taste X VI—Continued
Place: Lone Pine Canyon. Altitude: 2,500 m. B= 498mm. Instrument No. 22

Date Time t H Sy R, S,--R, Bicep Remarks
Aug. 9 TOS 5 |e 2 aS 468) 0.508) 0.154) 0.354] 0.3901\W. B. Hazy but
12:00} 12.8 | 5.52) 0.510] 0.169] 0.341| 0.375| cloudless.

1:00] 11.9] 5.88) 0.504} 0.169] 0.335] 0.374!
2:00] 12.8 | 5.18] 0.508) 0.161| 0.347) 0.382/
3:00| 12.0 5.04 0.505| 0.169] 0.336) 0.375]
lo SERS) 12.0 te 0.505, 0.147] 0.358] 0.307
Weeiea 16-85) 1212) 5o3|'0.506|0. 166) 0.440] o,a78\\"- B:, Breezy,
he | 22@)| 10,0) 6.83 0.405] 0.172] 0.323 0.307 cloudless.
4:00] 10.6 eee 0.495) 0.168) 0.327] 0.371) :
| |

TABLE XVII
Place: Mt. San Antonio. Altitude: 3,000 m. B=532mm. Instrument No. 22

July 12 8:00] 18.3 | 3-91) 0.550) 0.202| 0.348] 0.357/A. K. A. Perfectly
: SEOS| clos a5 -+....| 0.550} 0.209] 0.341) 0.350) cloudless, windy.
OOS) W770) |). BoOR) O57) © 209) 0.338 0.348,
HOMON| cutee een tetra 0.547| 0.202] 0.345] 0.355)
11:00] 17-5 | 3-23] 0.544] 0.200] 0.344] 0.357]
12:00] 16.9 | 6.35] 0.539] 0.193] 0.346) 0.362!
IVARLO Senet a san enters 0.539] 0.203] 0.336) 0.352
1:00) 16.7 | 7.85] 0.538] 0.199] 0.339] 0.356
1ZUO)\oococclaonc04)| Oo Sao] ©, WSO ©. 340) ©, AO)
- 2:00) 16.6 | 9.55] 0.537] 0.188] 0.349] 0.366
B2IO\ssasdaloncoes! Oo537)) Os IS7|-Oo9S0| O.207,
3:00| 16.4 | 6.48] 0.536) 0.195] 0.341] 0.358
BETO GeZ | S10) Oss ed Onis O2A03) 45554 | Clouds atter 4:00.
AL OS eet alts ven oe OD EBA On iUCVll @,S7O\ooocue
July 13 72EO|s LIeS2|-25A6|O.1503|)0- 20305300) On sggyA> K. A. Hazy at
7:30| 11.2 | 2.60) 0.499] 0.191| 0,308] 0.346) N. horizon, cloud-
8:30] 10.7 | 2.22) 0.496] 0.213| 0.283) 0.321| less.
8:50) 10.8 | 2.36} 0.496) 0.220) 0.276] 0.312
9:45] I1.2 I.99| 0.490| 0.211) 0.288) 0.324!
10:50] 10.0 | \ 2,27] 0.491| 0.219] 0.272] o 313,
TAZ) iw. 3} 1.63) 0.500) 0.225] 0.275] 0.309
2:15| 9.7 |: 2.16} 0.480] 0.220] 0.260] o 310
4:15| 10.0 | 2.27] 0.491] 0.221] 0.270] oO 310
Taste XVIII
Place: Mt. San Gorgonio. Altitude: 3,500m. B=495mm. Instrument No. 22
July 23 SHOOl ZO) 32805 0.438 0.204 0.234 0.300 E. Pp he Attire
OOO! glen 2.66] 0.432| 0.215) 0.217 0. 282| stormy and rainy
MO}ZO | Masleay i lherctatracs 0.433 0.215| 0.218] 0.283} day perfectly
PE200) 0.6): 0.431| 0.205, 0.226 0.294) cloudless night.
TZLOS|| O.0) |e 0.431| 0.207 0 224] 0.202|
TAG! OLAS oe wot 0.428) 0.208 0.220) 0.290
2:00}, 0.2 | 2.61] 0.426) 0.208) 0.218] 0.288)
3:00] 0.0 | 1.80] 0.425) 0.208) 0.217] 0.288)
4:00|—0.6° 21) 0.421| 0.198) 0.223] 0.299]
| | |
July 24 8:20] 2.8] 1.91] 0.443] 0.211] 0.232| 0.295/F. P. B. Perfectly
OL00} 2.3 1.54] 0.440) 0.215) 0.225] 0.289) cloudless.
NOSOO 22 seca OLA SOLO 215|. 022241 OF 287]
11:00} 1.6 | 1.88] 0.435] 0.223) 0.212] 0.274)
T2700) e acu en WN O nA O 221 0.215| 0.276

104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

TABLE XIX
Place: Mt. Whitney. Altitude: 4,420 m. B=446 mm. Instrument No. 17
|
Date Time t | Si Re, SHIR s\| Bay || Remarks
Aug. I II:00/—2.9 | 3.70 0.407| 0.189) 0.218 0.302\/E. H. K. Cloudless
| only about II:00.
Aug. 2 9:40\—0.8 | 3.23) 0.420) 0.176) 0.244) 0.327/A. K. A. Cloudless .
II:45-—1.4 | 3.81 0.416) 0.165) 0.251) 0.345) after cloudy and
1:05|—1.4 | 3.79 0-416) 0.183) 0.233) 0.320| windy evening.
2:05|—1.9 | 3.61) 0.413] 0.160] 0.253) 0.343
3:35/—1.1 | 1.68 0.418] 0.226] 0.192| 0,260
Aug. 3 7:30| O 3.75 0.425) 0.194| 0.231) 0.306/E. H. K. Perfectly
8:05) 0.3 | 3.30 0.413] 0.207| 0.206) 0.271) cloudless, balloon
9:05|—0.1 | 3.80) 0.424, 0.217] 0.207; 0.277| sent up, calm.
OSE KOI ete esl een | 0.424} 0.170] 0.254) 0.338
I1:00;—0.1 | 3.18 0.424) 0.177) 0.247| 0.329
12:05|—0.4 | 3.15) 0.422| 0.160) 0.262) 0.350
1:00\—0.6 | 2.97| 0.421) 0.171) 0.250) 0.335
2:10 —I.1 2.90 0.418 0.163] 0.255) 0.344
3:25|—1.1 | 1.70] 0.418] 0.167] 0.251] 0.330
4:10|\—1.3 1.40 0.417) 0.183) 0.234) 0.316
Ae 2 Seats ee leer ie | 0.417} 0.179 0.238) 0.321
4:35|—1.6 | 1.76) 0.415] 0.182] 0.233] 0.317
Ac ASl os seu eee | O.455| 10210) 10) 225| 02306
5:00|\—1.7 1-73| 0.414) 0.183) 0.231| 0.314
Aug. 4 8:05, 1.4 | 3.28) 0.434| 0.195] 0.239] 0.310|/A. K. A. Perfectly
8:25|......|......| 0.434] 0.199] 0.235] 0.304; cloudless, balloon
9:00] 1.3 | 2.59] 0.433] 0.193] 0.240] 0.311] up, calm.
COVA ON Meal reel 8 | 0.433) 0.195) 0.238) 0.308
10:00} I.I | 2.39) 0.432] 0.190) 0.242) 0.315
MOZUOls se ca ailanesos| O42) Oil @.2313)) O. 308
11:00} 0.6 | 2.46) 0.429] 0.194) 0.235) 0.308
UE UOle cao oe ...| 0.429} 0.189] 0.240] 0.314
12:00] 0.6 | 2.42) 0.429] 0.188] 0.241) 0.315
E2° TO). < 2. s\ess. te |AOLAZOL OF BOS) OF 24a NO. SRS
1:00! 0.6 | 2.44| 0.429} 0.180] 0.240) 0.327
ETO |e aren erorrae | 0.429) 0.182] 0.247| 0.324
2:15} 0.0 | 2.32) 0.425) 0.179] 0.246| 0.326
BNO hs. sean rales eee | 0.425} 0.184] 0.241] 0.319
3:00} 0.2 | 2.00] 0.426] 0.213] 0.213] 0.281
SET ed aa ole | 0.426| 0.228) 0.198) 0.262
3:20| 0.0]! 1.93) 0.425) 0.200] 0.225) 0.208
BON Sooo n 0.425) 0.210) 0.215] 0.285
4:00) 0.0 | 2.21] 0.425} 0.202] 0.223] 0.295
4:10 Sie tO; 425/00 223|80n202| 082607
Aug. 5 7:10| 1.9 | 2.67) 0.437) 0.179) 0.258) 0.332/E. H. K. Balloon
Heals oo ca alle a all Waaki7/) Oa Uo 0.247 0.317 up, breezy after
8:05, 1.8 | 2.871 0.436) 0.182! 0.254) 0.326) 0:00.
Seen |one veda see eee | 0.436] 0.189] 0.247] 0.317
9:00} 1.3 | 2.74) 0.433] 0.191| 0.242) 0.313
OVE TOW abt act ole | 0.433} 0.200] 0.233) 0.302
10:00} 1.1 2.06) 0.432) 0.188) 0.244| 0.317
OAS ene 0.432) 0.175] 0.257) 0.334
WiEPOL\) 1 1.83) 0.432] 0.195| 0.237, 0.308
TLO|Se eee see | 0.432| 0.199] 0.233) 0.303
[2:00| 0.6] 1.90) 0.429] 0.197] 0.232| 0.304
T2210 |e | 0.429] 0.198) 0.231) 0.303

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 105

Tas_eE XI X—Continued
Place: Mt. Whitney. Altitude: 4,420 m. B= 442 mm. Instrument No. 17

Date Time t H S; Ry |S;—Ky| Eaz20 Remarks
Aug. 5 I:10| 0.3 | 1.86] 0.427| 0.185) 0.242| 0.318/E. H. K. Perfectly
1:20|......|«..-..| 0-427] 0.192| 0.235] 0.309] cloudless
2:10| 0.6 1.81) 0.429) 0.191| 0.238) 0.312
22202 ele OLA20 OL hos) 0823105302
3:00) 0.3 1.32) 0.427| 0.181) 0.246] 0.323
Be O5|ee eee eee ©. 427) O- 1570. 240|0.300
4:05| 0.6 | 1I.52| 0.429] 0.173} 0.256] 0.335
A 2G eee ae ets O42 |sO).1970)10).258\| 0332
Aug. 8 9:45|—1I.3 | 3.59) 0.417) 0.173) 0.244| 0.330|A. kK. A. Cloudless
UOSCO5 caer 0.417| 0.162) 0.255] 0.344] after 9:30.
10:35;—1.4 | 3.35| 0.416) 0.167) 0.249] 0.337
TORS Geese 0.416! 0.161} 0.255! 0.345
Aug. 9 | 12:30-—-3.0 | 3.51| 0.407| 0.150) 0.257| 0.356/4 K A. Cloudless
12:45|......|------| 0.407| 0.154] 0.253) 0.351) after foggy after-
2:30|\—3.6 | 3.07) 0.403) 0.152) 0.251| 0.351| noon.
4:35|—3.7 | 2.46) 0.402 0.160) 0.242) 0.338
AGG Gaon c | 0.402| 0.161) 0.241| 0.337
Aug. 11 8:1o\—2.2 | 2.37| 0.412| 0.201| 0.211] 0.289|A.K. A. Cloudless _
AO kwon 6 0.412| 0.181) 0.231| 0.316, after clear day.
9:05\—2.3 | 1.47| 0.411| 0.221| 0.190| 0.260, Radiation vari-
9:45\—2.4 | 1.47| 0-410] 0.196] 0.214] 0.293) able.
OsGElgonosc 0.410) 0.183) 0.227] 0.311
I1:10|—2.7 12) 0.409| 0.179) 0.230] 0.316
12:55|—3.0 | 1.02] 0.407| 0.172| 0.235] 0.325
TESTO | eter ctcwkll 0.407] 0.174) 0.233] 0.322
2:55|\—2-6 | 0.69| 0.409] 0.191} 0.218] 0.300
eyes naeunen 0.409) 0.189] 0.220} 0.303
4:15\—2.5 | 0.54| 0.410] 0.193) 0.217] 0.298
ADO learnt 0.410] 0.194) 0.216) 0.297
Aug. 12 8:00\—1.4 | 1.17| 0.416] 0.194] 0.222| 0.300|A. K. A. Clouds
SO a allete eae 0.416| 0.192| 0.224| 0.303) after 8:30.
TABLE XX
Place: Mt. Wilson. Altitude: 1,730m. B==615 mm. Instrument No. 17
Aug. 27 g.10| 18.9 | 12.37] 0.555] 0.143) 0.412| 0.420/A. K. A. Calm and
Q:25|......|....0.| 0.555| ©.140| ©.415| 0.423] perfectly cloud-
10:00| 18.8 | 11.45] 0.554| 0.147) 0.407| 0.415] less night.
10:20] 18.5 | 11.34] 0.552) 0.152| 0.400) 0.410
11:00) 18.3 | 10.92| 0.550] 0.150} 0.400] 0.411
HPSTOlS oo bok eee NOS SOs O- L510. 390) 0,410
12:00] 18.2 | 10.97| 0.549] 0.149} 0.400) 0.412
T2ETO| aston: .| 0.549] 0.151} 0.398] 0.410
12:55| 18.4 | 11.13] 0.551| 0.145) 0.406] 0.416
TERCOS| [eerie nae econ 0.551| 0.146) 0.405] 0.415
2:00| 17.8 | II1.17| 0.546} 0.141) 0.405] 0.419
BOM 6 oe woe .| 0.546] 0.141) 0.405] 0.419
2:50| 17.8 | I1.04| 0.546] 0.147) 0.399] 0.413
BEOO| sane 0.546] 0.147) 0.399] 0.413
3:40) 18.5 | 10.69|.0.552| 0.155) 0.397) 0.407
SOLA armel inten 0.552] 0.154) 0.398] 0.408

VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

106

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IXX a1av

~~

AP PE INDI. 1

FREE-AIR DATA IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, JULY AND
AUGUST, tI913*

By THE AERIAL Section, U. S. WEATHER BuREAU—Wwm. R. BLAIR IN CHARGE
[Dated, Mount Weather, Vane May 26, 1914]

The Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, and the
Mount Weather Observatory of the Weather Bureau co-operating during July
and August, 1913, made observations in southern California: (a) Of solar
radiation at high levels, by means of a photographically recording pyrhe-
liometer, carried by free balloons; (b) of the total moisture content of the
air above Mount Wilson, by means of the spectroscope; (c) of nocturnal radia-
tion, by means of the K. Angstrém compensation apparatus; (d) of the
meteorological elements, air pressure, temperature, humidity, and movement,
at different altitudes by means of meteorographs, carried by free balloons at
Avalon, and by captive balloons at Lone Pine and at the summit of Mount
Whitney. The pyrheliometric observations have already been discussed by
C. G. Abbot in Science, March 6, 1914. It is the purpose of this present paper
to communicate more particularly the meteorological observations.

A. THE FREE BALLOON OBSERVATIONS

Morning and evening ascensions were made on July 23 and 24, 1913, and
thereafter daily ascensions until August 12, I913—23 ascensions in all. When
a pyrheliometer was taken up, in addition to the meteorograph, the ascension
for the day was so timed that the highest point would be reached about noon.
On other days the ascensions were made shortly after sunrise or just before
sunset. Table 1 shows the number of balloons recovered, their landing
points, and other information of general interest.

TABLE 1.—Statistics of sounding balloon flights from Avalon, Cal., during
July and August, 1913

Balloons | Hori- | High- | Lowest

a gone Direc- cL tem-

w : . is- tion alti- pera-

Date Hour oe eSce Landing point Weeecegeaccn | tude Make
€ vate | trav- eled | reach- | record-

= OEee | eled ed | ed
1913 Kg. | Km. M. aC.

Tieiky 2B | Ge OG Ei sedal 2 |laesansos Huntington Beach, Cal....| 42 | NE. 25,160 | —56.0
24 | 5:13D 2 @/9 |) Avram, (Cail, Goacatosooosan 122 | ENE. | 20,389 | —55.8

FAS) | SS ttt 40) 2 Ou || Sein IDVesO. (Callen dcocntccose ian |! RNSI3,. ‘|seaanoca|pacceace
27 | 4:57D 2 olo | Oceanside; Call. ......----- or | E. 23,870 | —64.7
28 | 5:05) 2 Siig |} (Climo (Celle, oaesosbovosscn 97 | NE. 19,485 | —62.6
29 | 11:10a 2 ro2-|| bes Auateeliess (Cail, ssoouantoe 80 | N. 23,066 | —60.4
30 | 10:54a 2 1.0 | Atmore’s Ranch, Cal....... 140 | NNW.| 32,643 | —53-9
31 | 10:37a 2 1.6 | Los Pasos Hills, Cal....... 122 | NNW.) 22,204 | —58.9
Aug. 1 | 10:36a 2 | radi |) INGhy IBEW Cal caceeeossocac 128 | N. 23,466 | —58.6
2 | 10:59a @ 1.3 | Inglewood, Cal............. GaN ING 21,302 | —67.3
3 | 5:07) 2 Oe) |) Drone, Cail, cosacsnacooce 70 | N. 17,428 | —67-5

i |) Ss07 0 Bi oats |) Pwillriovs Calls sccosaccnaca 7s | INUNIDS |laaoosdes \iclewnses
7 | 4:52) 2 | @9 |! (Cooihia, (Cele ct agaccascnnne50 120 | NE. 6,442 | —25.2
8 | 5:23P 2 | o.9 | Baldwin Park, Cal......... 97 | NNE. | 14,100 | —43.9
Io | 4:43) 2 @z0) |) IEewnie OCs asaooncodcuss 4|NW. 1,976 19.3

*Reprinted by permission from the Monthly Weather Review, July, 1914,
pp. 410-426.
8 107

108 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

All free balloons were started at Avalon, Santa Catalina Island, Cal.
Because of the possibility of the instrument coming down in the ocean,
balloons were sent up in pairs and with a float. This float weighed approxi-
mately 450 grams. Each balloon was filled until it would lift decidedly
everything to be sent up except the float The balloons were then attached
to the system in such a way that when either of them burst it would detach
itself from the system, which then sank to the earth’s surface with the
remaining balloon. This device by which the balloons are connected with

Fic. 1.—Device for releasing burst balloon.

the system and which serves the purpose of releasing the burst balloon is
shown in figure 1. It is made of spring brass wire of approximately 2.4 mm.
diameter. The pressure of the springs B and C on the wire A at the points
D and _E is sufficient to prevent the rings from slipping off in case cord F or G
becomes slack. The weight of the burst balloon or of what is left of it slips
the ring off easily. Cords F and G must be so short that they will not twist
above the device.

The balloons used were of thick rubber, similar to those used at Huron in
the early autumn of 1910 and at Fort Omaha in the late winter of 1911, but
not so large. They were filled with electrolytic hydrogen which had been
compressed in steel cylinders.

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VOL. 65

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NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM III

The highest ascension of the series was made on July 30. This exceeds
the previous highest ascension from this continent by more than two kilo-
meters. The record obtained in this ascension is shown in figure 2.

In seven of the ascensions from which records were returned the instrument
was carried to an altitude of 18 or more kilometers above sea level. The
temperatures recorded and the ascensional rates of the balloons have been

10 10
9 mara) 9
8 : 8
7 7
8 8
5 5
4 + 4
® ee 3
shi bs i
1 3 ar Ogata Olga Crea Ao 5 5 1
oC} 3h aes -50° -40° -s0° -20° -10° 0 10° = 20

ASLENS/IUNAL RATE, mps. TEMPERATURE, DEGREES LENTIGRADE. ,

Fic. 3.—Relation between ascensional rates of balloons and air temperatures.

averaged and compared in table 2 and in figure 3. The mean of the
observed temperatures in the seven ascensions does not show a minimum of
temperature below the 18-kilometer level. The mean of the ascensional rates
of the balloons shows, in general, an increase with altitude. Above the 18-
kilometer level the individual ascensions show a decrease in the ascensional
rates of the balloons soon after the minimum of temperature has been passed
through. This relation between the air temperature and the ascensional rate of

WU SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the balloons is similar to that already found. (See Bulletin Mount Weather
Observatory, Washington, 1911, 4: 186.) It indicates that, in addition to the
known factors entering into the ascensional rate of any balloon, there is the
unknown factor of the difference in temperature between the gas in the balloon
and the air through which the balloon is passing. While the temperature
distribution in the free air is in general known, it would be impossible to
predict, with sufficient accuracy for a particular ascension, the point of maxi-
mum ascensional rate or minor variations in the rate. On the other hand,
careful observation of the ascensional rate of a free, sealed, rubber balloon
might indicate fairly well the peculiarities of the temperature distribution at
the time of the ascension. In this connection the author calls attention to an
entirely erroneous statement in Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory,
4:186, regarding the adiabatic cooling of hydrogen gas. The approximate
rate of cooling per kilometer came in some way to be considered the rate to
the 15-kilometer level. The statement based on this error should not have
appeared, nor is it needed to account for the observed peculiarities in the
ascensional rate of free rubber balloons under consideration.

The instruments used were the same as those used in previous series of
soundings. The calibration of the instruments was similar to that for pre-
vious series, except that the pressure and temperature elements were calibrated
in a smaller chamber in which ventilation and temperature were under some-
what better control and in which temperatures down to —6o° C. could easily
be obtained. (See Bulletin Mount Weather Observatory, Washington, 1911,
4: 187.)

The data obtained in each ascension are presented in table 4 with inter-
polations at the 500-meter intervals up to 5 kilometers above sea level, and at
1-kilometer intervals above the 5-kilometer level. In figure 4 a diagram of
the temperature-altitude relation is shown for each observation. Figure 5
shows the mean value of this relation for the period. The free air isotherms
for the period are shown in figure 6. The horizontal projections of the
balloon paths, as far as they could be observed, are shown in figure 7. Only
one theodolite was used, the altitudes being computed from the observed
air pressures.

An inversion of temperature, with the maximum temperature somewhere
between the %4- and 2-kilometer levels, is shown in each curve of figure 4.
This inversion of temperature is found, whether the observation be made in
the morning, near noon, or in the late afternoon. It does not seem to accom-
pany any particular wind direction. A similar inversion of temperature was
observed in most of the ascensions made at Indianapolis, Fort Omaha, and
Huron.

As shown in figure 5, the altitude at which the mean temperature for the
period is a minimum is 17 kilometers. The minimum temperature observed
in any ascension may be more than a kilometer above or below the height of
this mean. In two ascensions, those of the 23d and 27th of July, the change
of temperature with altitude begins to decrease at about the 8-kilometer level,
while in the ascensions of August 2 and 3 this change does not take place
until the 12-kilometer level. The temperature change from day to day is best
shown in figure 6. The lowest temperature observed, —67.5° C., was at about
the 16.5-kilometer level on August 3. About the same temperature had been
observed at the 16-kilometer level on the day before.

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Fic. 5.—Curve showing mean temperature gradient at Avalon, Cal., July 23-
August 3, 1913.

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VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

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RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

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imts) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

A comparison of the curve shown in figure 5 with that shown in the Bulletin
of the Mount Weather Observatory, 4: 302, figure 31, shows the surface
temperature indicated in figure 5 higher by 6.4° C., the minimum temperature
lower by 3.5°C., the maximum next above this minimum less than 2° C.
lower than the corresponding values shown in figure 31. The minimum tem-
perature shown in figure 5 occurs at an altitude higher by 1.5 kilometers than
that shown in figure 31. The maximum temperature next above the minimum

Fic. 9.—Horizontal projections of the paths of the sounding balloons liberated
at Avalon, Cal., July 23-August 10, 1973.

temperature is shown at about the same altitude in both curves. The curves
have the same general appearance. That shown in figure 5 represents summer
conditions at latitude 33° N. That shown in figure 31 represents conditions
in all seasons, to some extent, the late summer and early autumn being better
represented than the other seasons, at about latitude 40° N.

The variations of humidity with altitude and from day to day are rather
closely related to the variations of temperature. In table 3 the absolute
humidities observed have been assembled and a mean shown. |

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RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

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EIOI “DD “WoMAPy ‘SalMp JuasayYp WO $1222] SnOLLDA JD (4azam I1QnI 4ag SmDsS) Kyrpruny anjosqy—eE W1aV I,

I20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

TaBLe 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal.
July 23, 1913.

| ee | Humidity Wind

Time | pis Pres- pera- pees | Remarks
| Bley sure | ture [7°™-) Rel.| Abs. | Direction | Vel.

A. M. |

h. m.| Mi. | Mm. BGe P. ct.) g./m.? | M.p.s

6 06.0! AV SSS || He} loon can Tp || WacOgit labo nos0ncecollsongedos 10/10 S. NNW.

6 08.0) 489 | 719.8 Whos} || Tax 83 | 10.111 | N. 48° W. Tipit

eee SOOulvec seats TAs arc: 84 | 10.109 | N. 47° W. I.I

6 09.1 737 | 699.0 12.4| 0.8 92 | 9.972 | N. 17° W. 1.0 | In base of clouds. In-

| version.

sseeses-| 1,000 |.....-- ail uSs5) lncpoon 59 9.

6 10.2) 1,032] 675.0 18.9 |\—2.2 RG || @s

6 12.2) 1,454] 642.3 Wot || Oot || AG ;

daodGoon UAH |locoooocel ~ Ode lhacace 49 .

dbo0do0d 2,000 |---+....! 7249 lodoooe Bit! ie Be

9900 0000 ASOD) oooongos Sin} loaocos| 3 6

O77 257849) 54725) | Or Gu OSS) Gauge

acocuouN 3,000 }....-.-.| SrG al aie eterece 48 ‘

6 18.9] 3,104] 520.8 | 4.9] 0.3 AB || Be

|| BpSOO-no5n0000|| Ao |lacacse| 2) || Ac

Noee AKO) logoonseo|)| = "a® lponecol “XH! ie

srerersyalere ol! Ap5IEO |loaceooooll = alal® |onoo06 Bey |i a!

6 24.5) 4,719 | 430.1 | — 6.1 0.7 Bit || Os

6 24.8) 4,818 | 424.7 | — 6.6] 0.5 au || Os

calsieineiee OOD |looocodaal = Ye) |scaancl| itd] @c

soacbdoo OSC) londaodcel) W457 Nnaoocs 29)| 0.

6 31.7| 6,793 | 327-9 | —20.0 |) @s7 |) 27 || Wc

istevon senate HAG ||) chanceal) 204 llagucaal 27a Oe

o000p000) SCO |oosonoech 20a! looacs 25 | 0.

6 36.4) 8,184] 271.4 | —30-5| 0.8 2 i) Os

so000040] O00 |baao0o0s| Alas) |lanooeoll 2S || Os

aasisteiae TOO |losdocoae| —=MSak3 ocoons| AR | Os

6 42.9 10,289; 200.9 | —39.9|) 0.4) 25 | @s

Oc OOODOw II,000 |....+-+.-| —41.4 |......| 24] 0.

see eee 12,000 Petee S| —43-4 |.---..| 23} O.

6 50.4) 12,584 | 143-9] —44.6! 0.2 ED || Ox

soudnada 13,000 |........| —46.5 |...... 22 Oo.

p¢00nan0 14,000 sananaico| =FOL® |lsodccu) Br) Oz

acoco +++/ 15,000 |.....--.) —54.8 |...00. 20| 0.

7 00.4) 15,092 98.6 | —55.2| 0.2 20 | O.

Meavayaeers 1(@)5@@8) looog0cool| BRS loon sac 20|| 0.

avetepoetates | BY/5@G |conaeasall =FOalH |lecacsc| 20} oO. u

7 08.3) 17,379 69.2 | —56.9 | o.1 20 | oO. .| Inversion.

reieas=es| [G,000) |oe+es-+-| —5O27 leases 20 | oO.

Sheu ae P2C;O@O ksaccoso) =HSezt |accsaul An] Ws

7 15.1| 19,083 | 46.1 | Soon | O.@|| “Zr || oe

ASeenoan | AD OOO Jonsooocal) Gor |loceocs| Zu || Os

eleversteeieral ZERO) |saaccodall =H8s6 \socceo| 2a) Oe

Beanoacn ZB) lsooo5050|| Hilo) logacas Ze) | Oe

RSoengae | 235000 |lcoosonec| 48a llsscconl 22] Wa

peers 24)'Q00) ||-\-/-)-\«\=/e\<|| 46-3) Jae =) | 23) | Of

sodo ddan ABOU) |loooascocl| 41S |oooanc 23 || Os

7 26.8) 25,160 205) ASE Oat 25} || @o

pccoooeol ZB OLD |laoeoascol] S41Ke®@ |soocac 23 | 0.

snoccool| Bea) era Vi esit lls piano! 2 || Os

7 34.0) 23,045 Oot || “isn |=@an || 2D || Os

ateielaXekate¥all 23 \5 OOM stereyarerereis SH lls coal 20 | O.

Seuitene || 235006) oacondoal =42 |boaecc 19 | 0.

sacoaonell Baxee) |bosocccn | =viige) Sacone iectSe moe

7 43-9) 20,314 AIS) || “iets \=@ozh |) 7 || O,

soonnodd ADCS) losoancsa) =49etl |secnac 17 NW Oe

rit -».| I9,000 gon0e| S05 |oconensl! 27 | Oc ,

7 51.5) 18,411 60.0 | —52.8 0.5 We Mo Inversion.

awtnterctoe | 18,000 so00nc6o!| E007 lleooacn ig || O-

7 54.2) 17,857 65.3 | —50.0 —0.3 13})|| OOO07 |loecocvavcqce|so000004)| i

S/o SBE || Gay | SBT || Oak || 1B! @sO0H lacooccnne Neral eae oie .| Inversion.

scoooane H/T) leooooass| Fists loodooc 13} || @cCW9, |coconsnece tl eteeeeee

saoo0ne =|) 160008 |e eile | Siow |lsoosen|] 16) || @2@0G |leaoovoccscas|lossa ono6

tee cnns| UO |essagcoall Koad) |sososal's TQ | 0-007 |eeeccesscceel|ercceece

S VOL) WIAs) | mas) | A || @a || io) || see Idcososocnaclleca oo000

pdoancde | 14,000 |........| —48.6 |......] 20 | 0.009 |..e-esseseee|ecceeees

anvendc 22500 Ibboasced ZAG leaonac he 258 Ph WSCHE lacoano0ea pcallsoosoces

8 18.3] 12,603 | 144.3 | —43.0| 0.3 Bil |" OcCusulsoodocnupaccllaccacs 58

wee e eens | 12,000 teeeeeee| 47.5 if sece ZI | O.02T |sceecccevcee|-ccrcvee

pogdonedl Btls) losoocace) =—eicts} loadoool! 24) Ma@KO jancaccanoavolloosacvee

néanocce | eCL) on eveool| shoe oconed! 4s) MOY" lbonsqconne00|aco0u0G0

8 31.8) 9,855 | 214.8 | —36.0 |—o.5 | 23] 0.042 |.....-...--- lic Waateaeters ;

8 33-7] 93536] 224.9 | —37-7 | 0.8] 23 || 0.035 |...0.0- ge Tae Inversion.

aatigne Bel) Cj@09) Isoonodac| seo) leaooon| 23) Oo@KH llascodestooosllosoogses
| |

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 121

TaslLe 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal.—Continued _
July 23, 1913—Continued

er | ‘ | Humidity | Wind
5 Alti- | Pres- 7 |_Aat |
Time pera- | | Remarks
tude | sure | ture oom’ Rel. | Abs. | Direction | Vel. |
| |
A. M.
h. m.| M. 5 ;
8 37-9 8,667 4 oO.
coooeode 8,000 = | 0.
8 44.3, 7,456 | . O.
soadedee | 7,000 ; Oo.
8 50.0) 6,384 | 4, | oO.
Bere ialevsieve 6,000 | é Oo.
8 56.9) 5,038 | 39 || oO.
napdanoe 5,000 4 | oO.
posdoood 4,500 |---+--+-| — 4-0 |eoeeee| 32 | T-126 |.200-0. see |e-. 02-0]
oopdoo00 A@OQO jloqoraccos | = Gov |loosaos | 32 | 1-464 |.---..-seeee lees eeee
Q 02.3) 3,794 | 483.6 Oa locagoc | 32 | 1.602) |.--------+--|eceeeeee
i | | J |
| |
A. M. |
5 13.8 34 | 750-7| 20.1 5.9 |
5 15.0) 200) |) 8737S) |) LT eZ S- ae 5-9 | Few S. Cu. SW.
Rieions.a| Se@ulsscdocer|) —- nGes Se zt 4.8
5 18.1; 858] 689.3 13-0 N. sia 3-1 | Inversion.
Be cies sie | 24@E@) |lsogoesen| “wld Se x Zo
5 18.8 1,005 | 677.4 14.6 S. 50 2.4
i Adon! p22) |) Cees | meiay S a 1.3 | Inversion.
oceoosed TS OO} | ereielerel-tere 16.3 S. ta 6.2
Re 2r-3) 155077) 88-1 | 16.4) Sr = 6.4
5 23-9| 1,925 | 607.5 | 15.1 Se oe 7.6
oadounee | 2B p@OO |lsscescso) tla Sic a 8.0
Beseia.cnie3 | B53G0 jpeovccon| — atod! SE so] 1.0)
5 29.0 2,984! 534.9 | 8.3 S. N..| 11.9
seoopeed | 3,000 8.1 Ss 'W..| 12.0
Br rereies 5 | 3,500 ee, S: 3! an 12.8
5 33 5. 3,907 2.8 Sie acl oct
Bee eel 45000 2.4 S. we 13.6
cosonovel HoSeD —0.5 Sk sol. iélog
5 37-8 4,759 | 429.8 | — 1.9 S. sie 14.7
5 38-3) 4,853 | 424.7 | — 1.9 Ss. poll Bins
mpeeyaresaicie | Bo@BID locbasouel! == 4as Si dni) Zire)
5 42.1) 5,588 | 386.9 — 6.2 S. ae 18.9 |
awasnoon G00) |ooscnsda| — Ons} Ss oe 18.2
5 48.2 6,968 | 323.4 —16.3 | Se sel) a9
cousddan FOO) laeoceous|! —1G)aS} ESE ae 13.6
BR aidots Zpmizi |) Buy: || Gag) | Se ae 4.0
5 53-1) 7,999 | 281.8 | —20.8 S: Jal 2358} :
Bere sisisils | ROO llbooancool) zo) S. ee Seon
eersiaysisiie |) @_CO9 |losaae0ac) =_29a5} S. gall) 22
5 58-5) 9,171 | 240.2 | —27.3 Sa sol) BAO) |
soqeaoae | D@3@08) |psagcs90| Sic Se Sal 244
6 05.2) 10,423 | 201.6 | —34.0 S: oe 24.6 |
nda b a5) HES) |laooannee BR eailh cites 240 |) 102035) S725 Wire| 923h6))
6 08.9) 11,016 | 185.3 | —38.3 0.7 24 | 0.034 |S. 72° W..| 23.5 | Few S. Cu. SW.
6 15.1| 11,894 | 163.5 | —41.8 | 0.4 25 | 0.024 | S.70° W.. 19.2
toonoooal) 2p) libocobsec ie ieee AS || OoO23) || So 7S" Whoo 08.7
6 18.3 12,464 | 150.3 | 745-1 0.6 24) 0.016 | S.84° W..| 16.4
6 20.0) 12,902 | 140.7 | —45-I 0.0 24 | 0.016 | S. 63° W.. FD oP
Bielererceies || RRC lloscecesal! =AGas} |icaacooll ~2Zh i) Mo@MS |, Soar Won) Aloo
6 21.6 13,206} 134.5 | —A0-0 | 0-3 24 | 0.014) S. 63, W.-..| 16-1
6 24.0| 13,711 | 124.9 | —46.0 0.0 23) OROTAN IE SeOSmaWiee 18.2 °
Betas sieves | TACO® |ecooccsa)) AOI boscoal} 2s |} OoOws? |] So SOP Wo 18.4
6 28.7 14,716 | 107.6 | —47.9 | 0.2 23 | 0.012 | S. 47° W.. 18.8
Bree Vevorsicis | UERS@lel) |Sooorcoa|| —“E)O | seeog) 2k) || oul) || Se See Neo) auscy,
6 32.8) 15,207 98.5 | —5I.3 | 0.6 AG || O)c@las || Se Os Weal aK?
Bieterscisi ve [105 OOOB| eye meee el 52-2) elerei-i|| | 23) |) O07) S= 49" Wee! | 13.2
6 36.6 16,453 82.3 | —52.8| 0.1 23 0.006 | S. 39° W.. 13.9
6 38.7) 16,7905 Psa | S80 | Oo% 22 || On@OS || Sa S77 Whos 7
meiveitiaes |-£7,000)|----.+5-| 55-4 |------| 22 | 0-004 |S. 40) W-| 3.2
6 42.4) 17,763 67-6 | 55.8 |. Ost 22) || Oo || So a2! 1s 4) g.o | Inversion.
Sacodoae TS FOOO |lng0se0uc| —=EHK5 |oeccsa| 24 |) Owes | So 7a Ia co 6.3
6 45.2) 18,207 63-1 | —55.I |—0.1 22 | 0.005 | N.60° E... 4.3 | Few S. Cu. SW.
6 48.0 18,511 60.2 | —54.8 —o.1 23 | 0.005 | S.85° E...| . 13.9
elaieeovaik | T@CG9 |osococac) Se |lbecccal 2a |) WoCWd || SaGZeQe IBsoo)) woon
6 53.3) 19,619 50.8 | —51.4 |—0.3 24 | 0.009 | S. 63° EB... oF
oncoaeee | 20,080 ooasocon)) SOM llocosoa! 2 |) Goods) So Ze Ieos 4.4
6 57.0) 20,389 45-1 | —50.1 |—0.2 24 | 0.009) S.57° W. 3-4 | Balloons disappeared.
| | |

I22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

TasB_E 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal.—Continued
July 27, 1913

| | areca ‘4 Humidity | Wind |
Alti- | Pres- | 3 t
Time | pera | | Remarks
| tude | SES | eae ines Rel. | Abs. | Direction) Vel.
| | i |
Pe ve. | | | a |
h. m.| M. Mm. | °C. IPE VGN) ie M.p.s. |
4 57-5 34 | 759-2 ZO s2ileene ee 69 | 11-949 | S. 86° W.. 3.9 | 2/10 S. Cu. WSW.
Scucndan 00) locopoese| -tesOildoooos|), el @sGsy7 So Soo MN. 2.9
5 00.3 704 | 701.3 mio)e@) | tiadt || Say | FS |) Se Ze Wie 2.5 Inversion.
wneatone IEA) |leongooes TI S2Mloeapac HS \\ oF | Sie 2G Wade 1.0
5 02.3) 1,087 | 669.9 13-8 |—0.8 | Bastoy7 |) So Be haoo 0.6 |
5 04.2) 1,388) 646.3 14.0 |—o.r | 65) 7.775 | N.41° W..| 0.8 |
Bauainene TABOO |aoscsoncl Gof locecacl| OA! oes |) INNaaae Wao 0.8 |
5 07-0) 1,912] 607.0 10.0 0.8 59 | 5.504 | N.56° W.. ai |
Sateen AOD |soanocee 9.6 erecae 55) | Se003, | NiS72 Wiee 1.2 |
5 09.0 2,263) 581.8 8.2) 0.5 ivy | Bou |) See? Bese 1.6 |
etree ZHAN. |lsoanacac @sB icocoa sie) || BSA |) Sbesagonccc 1.8
5 13.0 2,980! 532.8 Do || Od || Ze) || wor || So Bo Woo Bes}
Pees BeOOOL Nae eeu Bee leccoosl|, Ze! meen || Se 7/2 Nae g Aeey |
5 15-0. 3,395 505.9 Oo | "OoB |) 257 |) aewTSwe | INAS? Vion AoA.
steer ettere a flo) ||; coongno) == OnS) ll>co000 28 1.301 | N.86° W.. 2.5 |
Booiebtns AKOO@)|lbonovodel == Ze%/ |aobosol | 2 | WO) Se Boe When 3.8 |
5 20.5) 4,454 | 442.6] — 8.4] 0-8| 35 | 0.860 ).S.85° W.. Sou |
Seat AsO) baaoeoce| == So% sodas) 35!) Ossie) | Gas? Wes 5-2 |
Sa900050 BOO) loaddooos| ==uS48} |oosoca 36 0.581") S- 83° Wi. 6.2
5 25.0) 55202)| 306-51) —15-9 | 0-9 BY) || OoZf3 |! Sie? Whee 6.7
Ey 26nT|) Sesion) 395-2) Toss Oren s4lNNOe425ul Nn S2u7SemVVaere 8.2
ono orta Spo llacsosocel! —AOasy icanacs) Sb) sz) | So yee Moc 8.3 |
5 30.0| 6,422 | 340.8] —24.1 | 0-9] 34] 0.206] S. 737 W..| 8.4 |
5 32.0) 6,853 | 32t-5 | —27-6| 0.8] 3 | 0.133 |S. 85> W.- 8.7 |
Seale 7000) |e) ej-- 21) 20-0) frie) St 0.118 | S. 81° W.. 8.2
sears evere« 8,000 |e. sse+es) —30-4 |------] 28) |) 0-040) |S. 502 We 4.6
5) 38-9] 8,36r | 259-0 | —41-7 } 0-9)|— 27 || (0.027 | S30, Wi. - 253}
Meideits GW) Sono good) jou |socood 26 | ‘0.007 | S. 57° Wi.- ine
5 46.0, 9,905 | 206.6 | —49.9| 0.5 25 | 0-010 | S.83° W.. 8.0 |
area tniersre Ti@),0019) |soboboa!) —=GWo2 |lcocoas|| 25 | pwede) || Soko Woe 8.3
‘ihe leisy she Tt p@80) looaceacd|| ——BHas coop! AA! @n@e@ | Soe Wool was} |
De arora WAL) |loouodeuel — Ho looseca| 28 | OsGog |) So B27 Woo) Wong} | :
5 56.6) 12,029 | 149.3 | —57.5| 0-4] 2 0.003 S.82°W.., 16.4 | Inversion.
5 59-5 12,369 | 141-8 | —56.6 |—0%3 | 23 |* 0.004 | N.87° W.. 7.0
Rte Ke TS ,OOON eee se eels —=5 le 5) \elseieels e231 OROO3 INO Sin WV. cre 8.3
Jaetenetece WARGO) |bososcso| —=S8oy7 |coodcn) 22) WecoR | Si. G7 Woo 9-7
6 07-3 14,080 | ro8.4) —58.7| 0.1 | 22) 0.003 | S. 66° W..- 9.9 2/10 S. Cu. WSW.
6 09.7 14,541 | ToI1-0) —61.1 0-5| 21) 0.002 N.74° W.. 7.4
SonoonGe TH _COO |occonoss)) =Aeiko!s |loocons| 2 0.002 | N.8r° W.. 7-3 |
30090000 T5000) |isosoecsa! —=O2>6# sereee] 21 | 0.007 | SHComevaes) 7.0 |
creer T/A) |Soccaonc| CBO occess| 2a || OAC" || iS. 68° W..! 6.8 | :
6 20.6 17,051 67. —63.I1 0.1 21 | o0.oo1 | S. 67° W.. 6.8 Inversion.
sears 18,000 M.------| 00.0 anes ar |) ©0102 || Sb 2° Woe 6.2
6 28.5 18,797 5r.4 | —58-7 |—0.3| 21 | 0-003 | S. 53: EH... SEA
Sanaaads TOPO Ilkooadodsl Ses, sobded| Zu | WxeGe) So Sis Beco 5-3 |
eerie FOO ldaosoodel| aye laocone| Bu |) @s@os | S AO soe 3.6 |
soouCddd BiG |ocoocsoal SO |oonecc| Ze || @OOs | So Go IBeae 1.9 |
6 35-4 21,506 33.5 | —56.5 |j—o.1 | 21 | 0.004] S.25°E...| 1-0 |
peo DALTGS) |looeooud) — Saco teres 2I | 0.004 | S. 36° E...| ZnO) |
Ce eaitets ZBqOO@) |booosase| S627 laccoon| 2x | OsCO5 |) So GO)? Wess By)
6 41.5 23,870 B10 | =F252 |=Oot | Ai || Moe. | Savor Wasa 6.1 | Balloon burst.
Socduodal SRo@eOlhoodd000 = F565 ||soosca) Ziel Caos) |) (Mine becsnon Tit 3
6 44.3) 22,179 29.7 | —55.1 | z-0| 21 | 0.004 | N.80°E...| 16.2 | Inversion.
iethewiee ZA) \qndasenc| Seo losaoodl|) 2s |) @ocos | So ie Wana) wand
6 45.4 21,821 Be So lO: Zit | @aGey7 | ‘Se Woe 12eo0 8.2 |
ersertone Fit (6100) ||ocobeced|| =Svies soones| 2" || Os0os) || Ss BS lSeod| woe) |
6 49.0) 20,229 40.2 | —57.2 |—0.2| 21) 0.003 | N.80°E...| 13.6 |
pee hn oe AWGOOO \lsonsoocs| G79 loscanc). Ze) Osos |) IN? Woos 12.5 |
6 51.1 19,098 48.0) —59.6| o.0| 19] 0.002 | N.67°E... 7-8 |
Retuarentetd MOK) |lo>susboes| —=HeIO locos! mG) || Ose |) INSYOe Base eo ||
Fee 18,000 Jeseeeees —60.0 |...... 19 | 0.002} S. 84° EB... 6.6 |
Rois ae T7000) |e eceee 2) 0083) laces] LOn|O002 Sa 57a 5.6
6 57.9 16,916 | 67.9 | —60.3 |—0.4 19 | 0.002 S.55°E Bas} ||
7 00.0) 16,284) 75.3 | —63.1 |—0.2 20 | 0.001 | S. 34° E B57.
ratte ea HOC) |aaanose0| Gos \acccos| 20) @cOew | WY sovapoon) Ba
7 03.1| 15,228 89.0 | —64.7 | 0.12 19 | o.oo | N.45° W..| 3.4 | Inversion.
sisjsartete’e 15,000 |....----| —064.0]......| 19 | 0.001 | N.58° W..| 4.5 |
7 0.0) 14,178 | 105.3 | —63.7 | 012 | 20| ©.o0r | S. 76x W.. 8.6 |
wrxeneetets WARGO)! Sob oeosn Gens ldcoces! AON @c@iar |) So 77/5 Nihon 8.6 |
7 11.0 13,498 | 117-5 | —62.0] 0.2| 21 || o.0o0r | S. 79° W.. 8.6 |
sierchoee 13,000 |....--+-] —61.0 |..-..-| 2% | 0.002 | S. 60° W. 8.3 |

Pe

NO. 3

RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

123

TasLE 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal—Continued

July 27, 1913—Continued

Mame | Humidity Wind |
: Alti- | Pres- 7 | At
Time pera- | Remarks
tude | sure fume) soos Rel.| Abs. | Direction) Vel.
| |
P. M. . |
ho m.| MM. Mm. Gr IP. ct.| g./m’. | M.p.s.
7 %5.1| 12,734 | 132.4 | —60.4| 0.0 21 | 0.002 | S. 50° W 8.2
7 17.0) 12,323 | 141.4 | —60.4| 0.0| 21| 0o.002| S. 62° W 10.0 | Balloons disappeared.
cusses 12A@a) Soono0ca) Ox |noonuall 4 |! Os fetal Yetorciava\sscrailmrererstrsicrsl
7 WB, nijow | W308 || —Gooe || Ose |) 2m!) OsOO ||asconecshangicsoco0ec
7 21.2) 11,355 | 164.7) —58.5 | 0.6 FANN (aOR loanoascoodon|coodeons
agoG0008 HES@QOO) |oaasooo0) HOA |ocassal 2 | Os ooovonscapnalsnsane5,
7 24.8) 10,587 | 184.9 | —53.6| 0.8 ZIM MOROOSereinteteeicnielerl level sieves
CapoooDD 20) 501010) boo ao Goo) = i)a Isogucol) | oO. paedooondcaojosoC HDDS
eecehapst sieve @)5008) |rccascos|) =A |osanso 23| 0. Bus aveviliaraleraxavellleravelolsteravs
7 S300! S602 || 28.5 || S36G || O69 |) BA' Os@kB\|locoocosgceanoooaa00r
Rennie eis SR@ewibsdccasall =e bocdedl seeeull 10s adodcgc0008) S009 c0an|
7 42.5) 7,034 | 310.3 | —29.4)| 0.1 25 | 0.092 |. seseeeeeece ceereese
songcoea 7,000 |.++++--.| ~29.4 Jeeeeeel 25 oO. settee nett eee eens!
7. 45.3) 6,443 | 336.6 | —28.6 | 0-7 | 30 | 0.117 |eeeeeeeeeeee ee eeeees
7 46.8) 6,184 | 348-7 | =26.9| 0.5) 31] 0-143 |---...---~-.|----0.e. |
copeopad 6,000 [tte eee ee 260) |[wleieierele Boi eaOr eee aheret Nt elataielele'| sts peioneleietell
soeuneae Ro@0O |baodocaol —=AOds llsovoodt cla ll Os Se ee eee Ae eee
G Silay Asus || ae sG || Sah || 2Bs@ |) 49) |) WaAkN |lcococoosscoo|\boaodo00
Biter 4,500 |.------.| —16.6 |....--| 45] 0. ecteteccioe ait cclererecte
5 Bon) ook |) done ||) = 8sO |) Oo@ |) 4c |) OaGWke | onooneocosadlaconoonal
noPneee | Ae ore) | |Ganaccccl 87S boooeclll ccbralli re eatcisiiente ss
7 58-71 35733 | 484-0 | — 5-4] 0.9 I eBoy" eG eat oS oda cocoudeleecdnoon
uareineis | SsSfow) lecasocea)| == Saez! weee ee 30) te SAS O ACO HABE caac
ceHooan5 | 3,000 |.-...... ot |ooooo0| BS Tee loaooscoaopanlocotoans
8 04.3) 2,980 le se2530i Hoth | @owk |) Bis} || Zo@zi |boag.qoa50q0|oon00000
8 06.0) 2,733 548.5 Aol) || Oaz |) Bo) || | 240252 lbaoopcavcdoa|soncna0a
mferets\erefaie 25500 |.---+-es| 4-I |-.-.-.| 40] 2. odoqd0ondoacllone ga06
8 10.3) 2,132] 500.7 6.8 | 0.4 FATE ||P TET Gel [Rice /apstormratoroesel ete eee
cevousdd A>OOD. |\s000 0000 Os% \looacas 49 | 3. cadcesoad sdlleooaoneal
8 irs 1,077 | 602.2 6.2 de retaiat | 50 | BHGEOE laeoclrers siden meme snare
July 28, 1913
| | |
IDS Wt | | | |
5 05.0 34) 750-7 ADD llsecnad | 65 | ro.813 |S | 9/10 S. Cu. WNW.
5 06.8 Brit |) FAR 15-8] 1.4| 68] 9.073 | S. 16° W
aongtead | SOO |lcoooso6o UASS Ioocods|| < Fill {3c | Sc
5 08.7) 787 | 694.9 Hie || We@) || Fe || We
5 10.0) 962 | 680.5 TOPAN mOsm less In base of S. Cu.
BYGaye s:</0.5 | 25000 |ocgscossl} Ost |lodesag) S|! Ze
5 10.9] 1,117| 667.8 OF | Oo || BE! 7. Inversion.
5 11.4 1,218] 659.9 15.0 |—5.2| 56] 7.
Be t2e3|) L377 | 647.4 16.2 |—0.8 44 | 6.
Was cers | S500 leaccosdall “WGSA Iaacedel Sell. He
5 13.8 1,648 | 627.1 TOn2 |) OLO 22 || Ae
Bebe O23 5 | O07 Woe! |) Oa} Zo) || Bs
onasodoo ANGI) |isanasase WAV lagocns 2onlanse
Riersiacie ss B HOO |locacasoa| WOs®|loscoccl Be || Ae
pdoadoag AROGG) Waseosgu 5.4 teens] 35 2.
5 20.3) 3,048 | 530.1 5.0 | 0.9] 35:| 2.
SSeaceen BES OOM rie B20) oddone) 25) 4), vats
5 22.9) 3,535] 499.1 3-0] 0.4 BEN Mite
Re wyateicis dt (OOO) |noaacoae Os0) laeeoosh . 2) We
5 27.4 4,4 442.6 | — 2.8| 0.6 if} |) Wc
Ce Ose S00 |lcaoadooull) == Gael boooed 17 Oo.
5 31-6] 5,406] 304.3| — 8.1] 0.6 TOM Or
SCO SCOED (HCW loooneoasl Wey llonsoed I6) |) Oe
5 37-1| 6,659 334.6 | —18.1] 0.8 TOMO}
malate ats ase FAITD |ovedeone| Bact loooaodh uG|) Oe
5 40-7] 7,478 | 299.3 | —26.3 I.0 16 | o.
Mea iascae | 8,000 |........| —30.7 |.--... 5) || Os
5 44.7| 8,279 | 268.2 | —33.0| 0.8 i) || Oc
saeesoas | @5C@@ |scaseocal =S7/ls loccase I5 | o.
5 50-6] 9,533 | 223.9] —41.5| 0.7] 14] o.
Se neecoe | 10,000 |.-......| 44.7 |....-.| 14) 0.
5 55-2| 10,309 | 197.3 | —47.2| 0.7 14] o.
BysTaeieiers TACO) lbsqnb0se Oa lbaceco! Bl) (a
6 00.8 11,593 | 165.2 | —53-6| 0.5 us || Os

124

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOL. 65

TABLE 4.—Resulis of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal—Continued

July 28, 1913—Continued
Tension | Humidity Wind
Time Al Fea | pera- — qi Remarks
ture ‘| Rel.| Abs. | Direction | Vel

P. M. | | | | | |

h. m. M. | Mm. cGs IP. ct-| g./m.? | M.p.s. |

Bodoudo WACO) oscascas) —SSa7 |oooscc| tt | | Oc@OS} oacanodascscl|coane00>

(CY OeG| Mane |) aja) | —O.18) I) @aS | 4k || @-COe |basdoscseonellacancanc Inversion.

aereleierereis RZoOOO) |loooocces|| =HO® fiocaosa) Fal) O-OWS |oncoacasacoolloocscoaa

6 09-3] 13,096 | 131.0 | —55.7 |—o.1 Tak || -OcqOOR locodwascacoclloodsoacs Clock stopped at in-

(Wii g| Uz) || ao | ol |—@oe || 5) | OB} Jeogaascuaccn loootcans tervals. Time es-

opocdccn| 14,000 |..----+-| —55-7 |.-----| 13 | 0.003 |----------..|--------|| timated.

6 15.5) 14,084! 112.6 —55-7| 0.0 TAP, Maelo lonsonsadacos Iseondaso Clock stopped, but

oeee----| 19,485 | 48.1 | —56.9 |—o.1 nig} || ee) boo bb0 ese dac||eso0ea00 started again at

BBoancos | H@)5000 |ocoacced) HoH |bsvo5c] 2B) OsOO# |osarocsooanslloseseode highest altitude.

siarereeeyes | 18,010 (Das) | SH HOS! 9, MEO |ocasasscacatileccccons

Seiatainee | 18,000 |-..++-++ =§83 lonosos) 23 |] O-@OZ |oocococcoana||paoceeer

drevatcrete cts | 17,000 |.-..--..| —61.4 |...-..| 12.) 0.001 ecaneea coat iodo cbs ?

coooassa| HO, ce) | 77-1 | —62.6} 0.0) 12] 0.001 Iteyatttatarttaiete ss oval |cyeretetoiotens Inversion.

aous0d00 16,063 S24 O24 OR 2) a2 SOOO | elsielele)et-ral-i=!=1-(elerelet- lel

gapooGeo | 16,000 |........ 762.2 eres TB | @o@Oli locapocaszostolloocoocsn

Baneaces | 15,000 |e++e--+.| 60.1 |. e002) 13 | O.OOT |oeeeeseeeeeelereeceee

ocddooNG 14,253 | 109.6 | —58.5 verses 12. OsCCH locooaunccoucllodsounos

July 29, 1913

A. M. | | | |

Tc LORO! 34 | 760.5 1366) llocoooal 63} 9.933 N.86° W..| 2.5 | 9/10 S. Cu. NW.

iit 0?) 418 | 726.8| 15.2| 0.9 | 73,| 9-393 | N.85° W.. 2.5 |

Cites QO) iddoooovg]) was) looonoal GO |! @anz2 N..80° W.... Bes

heat BAGG) socaooon| 1) renee 92 | 8.913 | N.48° W..| 1.3 ,

TH 1Go3}] HOUB |) G70 10.4} 0.8| 92] 8.802] N.47° W..| 1.20 Balloon disappeared

| in S$. Cu. Inversion.

II 14.8] 1,330] 651.6 | 9-4] 0.3 oF eas Snoncoocouae|esocceas a

Seone00D WoO) Jooacoooe Wee lspoconll 7 7 O45) il lsheisin\ aval oselain\iel|/al™inin\etelare

II 16.5) 1,684] 624.4 Ie, F=o)ac) | GH) Wo@WEs lado oucooancd|loqoooucs

Sooc02cq|| 2@GO joseseoss 129) |e 5000) MANS ebft |\paconcboooeo [Pecersuaverctstet

inp Gsiefl| Zins |! Geiss} |) nts@) || OF 37 ee lodeoua Seaotrs | aa0G0da6

Stemiecises ADA loooonoo0) 9 Bites leosabal) SO I S6OHO locoooccoanucloaanecac

Tao Ee 23625) 557.8 | UW 6% O.1 277 ee tel eVotetatshcereines [oseecees

Edcaoacn 3,000 |--.-.--.| @s3 lloseose BA) WaCs|lbasnooscupac|\oob00csa)

II 22.9) 3,344 | 5Ir.4 Plt Wy e(Osisy\h | ales} WoAWER |boovacdccadnllocococce

doacodve 3,500 poeoee| GiAD ears 16 He UGH ocodsasabbaolocasoooe

Wanleswlo ZOO) Roospced Panead Bret ee hi ua Onyunbsosmncesoenlldododoca|

II 25-7) 4,041 | 469.4 Hol) |} Oos || FE || OGOP Joooacasavooe|oononoce

eyeelesrerae A500 Iaococune| = Bs®) |lectooci) ~RO'|| Mog loooudaoasnvallaccoonos

me Ae Clie || Cleabets) |) oe 1.0 9 ee85 noavoascgans|los0o0000 | Inversion.

oononods B5C00 loocccoga!! = O24) Ioccoca 9 0.205 tet e tee eee teen ee ee!

II 29.9) 5,120| 409.5 | = 6er —0.3 | Ol @OoAG7 lanosccaocosc |e seeeeee

Tit Seiog| 31953 | 367.6 | —13-4]| 0.9 | Fal HO MUES! |e fevate tects cena |-eeeeee-

Fialsie: siete KOO: |locdoccco) Sto lasocad IN Ole TLD sletainiers erereroivea| clerteer sie

ite B00) 5274 |) Bs207/ | Std.2 || O23} | 3) “@aikNG) |Godcddoocons Naito |

ie 2Ooii| (O86) |) Se9.2 |) ==W.@) || 03} | F|\. Ox@lES) |acesnbdacoan Hoceioonrc |

II 37.4) 6,908 | 324.5 | —19.7]| 0.3 | 7 oroee dood accor|isaboooad |

nietetrionien FO) |logondaad)| —2Os4) |aoocco Fi BO ROOOM | taxctere = versterefal| ata <dekevelete|

ee eel) Zaceye Il clear, || Ao? || Oeil | WeOe2 Foaatdcconcelioos-aced |

II 41.0 eee 283.7 | une 0.9 | Gell, MORODTA| sisters see me eet

miavateietatete A@Isio long Shaq) Ata Jeabeee 5 O-OM) |loodcodooooon|loogoadss

Il 43.2) 8,570] 257.7 gee 0.8 : @oGus |laoganhascasallaoceuavg

So0Q0CeD G00 |e o550500) SBOdh llosooce O.OLT |-e+e+-s sense |eeeeeeee|

II 45.0] 9,029] 241.7 | —36.7| 0.8 (5 4 OLOGY libcoocmbcduod lacoc

II 45.7] 9,268] 233.6 | —38-.2]| 0.6 PE: oO Saooudccouer||noaxbooaD

It 46.8) 9,467] 226.9 | 39-1] 0.5 GF, MoO) |scoaasoooood|laoat evan

II 47.9 9,707 BMI20) || A253 || Bel) FH || Os |oocscgccegsollecccoass Inversion.

Ir 48.1) 9,928] 212.2 | —42.1 |—0.2 7 peogy uals atate fearetchers, sie ete ae

atareheveretete M()5@I)9) |Soocodo dl) “islet Nacocec Haile. CH@WO>qnaaacce Coalinovecond|

II 49.4) 10,248 | 202.8 | —47.2]| 1.6 (6) MOBOOSEleisrere ve rasbe ste yell earteeele (Inversion. Onebal-

10 Gesell Mono |} HOW) | 219.0) Of) loo o6ocloanonesclacccadascceolloecasues | loon burst and was

ie Ee toel) MO ZZus ji skstsia) |) 2755}! Ooch, sodhaalagsaascclascuccecctdnllgs500006 | detached; remain-

SOOM ESC |e IKE I) Mineo cy I Kovisoed || nie Anon clagqaccod|dcanusooeds allooocodod { ingballoon hadsuf-
|| ficient lifting force
|. to continue ascent.

Thee ASH Hoopes I aesRe IN| KAtoe Ne O54} \Ingociedioaoces sdllacnduaccoodullnocancoe | Clock stopped.

eerie Fitit OWS) Ibo Goaooo =e Jocecod! |“ Il, @-CO2 |ancocaseooncllocesacac

* Estimated by extrapolation from the ascent.

NO.

5

RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

125

TABLE 4—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal—-Continued

July 29, 1913—Continued

eee

eee

wees

te eee

eae

| 12,000

| II,000

| Min. |
ls V/s

Pres-
sure

Ral

eeecccce

been eee ne

Tem-
pera-
ture

ro
—44.3
—44.5
—49.5
5335)

555) ||

Fee
= 50)07/
—58.4
58-3
—58.5
=58-7
—6o0.
—60.2
759.2

| —58.3

eee e sees

| —50.

—58.3
S570
—57-3
7/8
S58

Humidity Wind
A
é Remarks
Toom.) Rel. | Abs. |Direction | Vel
Ji (oi5 M.p.s
Osi" Bones saeboond esecceoroaen|loonoora Balloon burst.
| se eee eee eee we eee ee eee eel ee ee ee
ee OPN Sacsletevai elecctee.e cis lls afele diovele evaionsy|fotarsuses cies
Pe i i i]
GO betoee| Bins cee s| Dinmicn weerretsl Seen
ee ie eS Aa at
Ostia Pysous eet nace IS aoe neat lea orse | Inversion.
0.1 3 Cisolsit lldnaceeeoaces lane cose |
Saale Ball ORGOM | sereroeee sioreterkelliovereeoe evel
ei sce 3 lta Oe OOM a cleveet ss are cists ol teteveinnereree
0.0 BE AHOR OO lal ltietere areleynrs siavel llsisie eles ste |
Stee Sy PP @aceht deco nenooeee soncosaa
aces Asha Ors OOM | eis eversee cet o. «e's nice aie lstetel|
neo Cellet OMOOZE lievate reeves sia stall evarorexevavas

* Balloon burst; clock started running, but times of this and succeeding levels unknown.

July 30, 1913

A. M.
Io 54.0
Io 57.0
II ot.0
II 03.0
II 06.0
O73
Il 12.3
It 13-9]
II 15.0
II 16.9)
Ti r8/-9}
II 20.0
11 26.0
ie 20).
ne 3 77.0
II 39.0
II 45.0
II 49-3
II 53.0
Ir 55-5
11 58.5

P. M.
I2 o1.0
12 09.0
12 16.0
I2 17.0
12 18.8

|
34 | 760.0
362 | ait
Hal) Savoboudl
695 | 703.8
884 | 688.3
TA@BO) |locone. ao
1,184 | 664.5
1,338 | 652.7
TeeGOOu| serra
1,766 | 621.1
1,927 | 609.5
BOW |\sooccoas
2,045 601.3
25185 | 591-5 |
2,413 | 576.7
2,499 | 570-3
ALGO) |losdaoced |
BG |oooo0500
3,067 | 532-9
3,339 | 516.7
ZOO llocoogocd
Ae(Is\o) ogeconne
4,133 | 470-1
4,362 | 457-3
ARS OOM neers
RA-@e0) liseotdooc
5,157 | 414.9
5,749 | 385-4
(OI) |eoodscs-
6,273 | 360.8
6,672 | 342.7
7,000 |.-.2.-e- |
7,093 | 324-5
7,475 | 309-1
8,000 |....---+}
8,915 | 255.1
@s@WIi|loo0Ga0ee
TOSGOON| es ae isrrnts
10,322 | 210.3
10,521 | 204.6
| 10,832 | 195.7

1 le iene

seen

weoeoe

0.7

SH) |= Oo
—35.6 |

I.0

-| 62 | 12.415
67 | 12.155
ol] FAO) ||, ities)
74 | 11.463
80 | 11.402
-| 69 | 10.625
| 54) 9-190
| 40] 7.008
36 | 6.418
29 | 5.353
26 | 4.636
-+| 34) 5-922
38 | 6.581
45) 7-52
He e3Oltn 5250
| 2aulieaeis2
S| A) igiite)
q 15 2.351
| 14] 2.169
| ar | 1.404
: iit 1.381
-| IO] 0.993
Io | 0.945
Io | 0.832
5 Io |} 0.780
| tie || assy
| a2 0.697
g | 0.399
4 9 | 0.330
Io | 0.2096
Io | 0.230
S|. Lon O20
Io | 0.217
|
8 | 0.142
| 8 | 0.103
7 | 0.051
3 7\ 0.048
. 6 | 0.020
6 | 0.016
6 | 0.016
6| 0.012

seme ee ee eens

HOR b DLO OOK OHA ONE HHO OO

Inversion.

Inversion.

Few Cu.

| Inversion.

| Balloon disappeared.

126

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOL. 65

TABLE 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal.—Continued.

July 30, 1913—Continued

mee ll A Humidity Wind
Time ale pres pera- |; u Remarks
ture |7°°™-) Rel.| Abs. | Direction | Vel.
M.

h. m.| M. Mm nee IP. ct. g./m.s M.p.s
ou6a0ce” Ti CWO) locaccoos|| 7/8 |lsccooo] § || @s@L© oaoasconsces|looosaa0n
12 22.9] 11,724 | 172.1 | —43.6]| 0.9 1) OcOOS Imadcdasscaoallscad 5006
LSleverercets TARO) acanccan| 4k) Iloodobo Ol OoCoruilessnscacacosllaaacccce
I2 25.3) 125301 | 156.0 | —44..9 1 0.2 © |) OCOL |oocoasvacscalios og a006
12 26.8/*12,653 | 150.2 | —48.4 | 1.3 Gill RMOROOZ | Sars tenerersrolorallistearee erste
agno. doll B3x00® |locooc coos AID Inoeooo || WsOos} lsoaecoccdocclloascocso
mievetleriee 410010) |locoooncs ISM Sinllevevepeiare 6] o.
I2 32.1] 14,021 | 122.5 | —51.3| 0.2 G || Os Inversion.
Seavendd | B5)p@OO |locaocooe =19)03 |oooce | OO
12) 37-0) 15,241 To2.1 | —48.6 |—0.2 | 6] oO.
I2 37.8 15,435 99-3 | =5r-4] 1.4 | © |) Os
etefiaehetera -| 16,000 ooauaned|| —xo)os} Jeceeee @ | @s
1) 43) WO70y/ || (shikate) || —=4@o©. || O22 6| o.
eererirc Bll 7/0010) ooo ooboul| =f)! Ibn onon 6| o.
Mov aneloerel| 18,000 |......-.| —53.0 veeeee 6| oO.
I2 47.2) 18,263] 64.7 | —53.9| 0.3 6] o. Inversion.
12 50.1) 18,877 58.9 | —50.5 |—0.6 SRIOr
aieleteteretete | 19,000 |.--+....| —50.7 |......| 5 oO.
opoocoDe | AWQ4OOO) |lsoococon]) $253} loopocall 5 oO.
I2 53-7] 20,131 | 48.8] —52.5| 0.2 | 5 || Op Inversion.
SE eevee | 2s OOO Ilsfovereeiets Shire Aull Sasha & || Os
poov0ded)| ZA5@00:locooa0d0 09 llagoacd 5 Oo.

socoooa| Ain@OO Sooonoos —49.0 |...... 5 | o.

I 01.8) 23,005 | 31-5 | —49.0 |—o.1 | 5 | Oe

I 03-9) 23,932 27.3 | —49.5 | 0.1 | 5 || Oc Inversion.
siesreyoncios | ALO) laoo600c0]| G4) llaccose 5 || @z

sere) 25,000 |eceecace —HU/loyf \Iapouoe 5 oO.
snoddGos|| ZOnOO0) llsgonco00l| —=WOdF llocooce 6 | @
Séondn Soll ZAC) |looonodes| =24los Ioacen.e 6 || O-
p0b0 Gn04|| BSs@OO buoceas «| —42.8 |...... @ || @>

I I1.0| 28,062 14.7 | —42.7 |—0.2 () ||, Os
oo0ac800 ZB)O0O \jooccosc0) =o Ilocoaas GO|) Oc
agooonaa $0 5090 |ocssscool] =#@o4! |oacooe O || @s
ceteisteneee BilAG0O llesoouseo| “Gal |baceoa O |) Oc
Bir ciioteene ZA 50CO |laoavobac =e) nashe ol | ©.

I 20.5] 32,643 7-4 \|—40-8) |) 0-0) | @'|| Os
ayeists ieleveve 27).0108) |roooondel| =“@s" laoce .| 6n|)or
Peairee FOG) ||>cs00000] =42s9 love oo 6} o.
mietternstete | 30,000 |........| —43.4 |......| 5 oO.
Slcpavoieterets ABpOOO |xoo00db0| GAO |ocacoc 5 | o.
any ae AsO) |lboadsded| =e4le7/ |lbcaon- Bi @c
steicualeveiars AP) sacoaooo)| “Gach |oqocco 5 | @s
gpeo0s0e A000) |loscoaces|| A100 550000 5 O-

I 24.9) 25,118 | 22.7 | —46.6'|—o.1 | 3) Os
siasheceie as 253} 000) |nconoca =4OrOu) tates | 5 |] o.
Reyer ZAR OOO! | yeystetelererelll =A Olea oat ets SOE
Sensors Dll 3500) lsqooocsall sas) lacoouc 5 Oo.

(*) 22,249 35.1 | —52.3 | 0.0 5 lt @s
aeeiovaterers 22,000 Bese 4 | 5 |) Oc
dao 21,000 -6 Sileo
nystnrelemete 20,000 |. -0 5 | o.
is aats Se ELOSO Si a3} | 5 | 0.001 Inversion.
stave ate taie -| 19,000 ell 5 0.001
c9n00000 18,000 |... 4 5 | 0.001
et eyaverera -| 17,000 : 6 | 0.002 |
Dasd0o0 -| 16,160 6 | 0.002
GonudSS 16,000 6 | 0.002

* Clock stopped at intervals; times of this and subsequent levels unknown.

July 31, 1913

{
2250) bee
18.0] 1.4
itso) logucea
18.1 | 0.0
20.5 |—1.4

64 | 12.952
74 |_11.261
74 | 11.261
74, | 11.328
63 | I1.102

Sepoodoupodolleeadoseel| Symons: Se

Inversion.

ee

en

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 127

Taste 4—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal.—Continued

July 31, 1913—Continued

Tem ve Humidity | Wind
: Alti- || Pres- i
Time pera- Remarks
tude | sure ture |10°™| Rel.| Abs. | Direction | Vel. :
|
A. M. |
h m.| M. Min Gi P. ct.) g./m.3| M.p.s. |
Io 41.8 995 681.2 21.7 |\—0.6 46 | 8.690 | S. 57° E.. 5-6 |
soomaeus Ts6O@ llboooacon| Ard llbseoccel AS |) Baio | So Giwes 5.6 |
IO 43.2| I,403 |) 649.7 Pie? | OO || 2B\) B.A89))| So IS Woon 6.5
Saisie ersters TS OOM eee ete | 2ic® ocoaoal 26 | 4.717 | S. 52° E... 6.2
To 45.6) 1,808 || 613.4] 19:2) 0.5] 16] 2.613) S. 29° E... 5.1
noodgo0dd AOD |I\>co0scan|| — Weha7/ i i | 2osho |) Soa Bose 5.8 |
10 47.3) 2,354 || 581.4) 17.0] 0.5 1@ || tod! So SF eoe 8.5
Brescia 2,500 |[e--2500-) 17-0 |..ee+e/ 10 1.434 | S. 20° B..|| 10.8 |
Io 48.3| 2,542 || 568.6 W® || OO). UO) weer | Sy, Bg 1a 11.5 |
ireivie oer 3,000 ||..-..-..| 12.8 Ioaacunll gy |) wana Sys BES aan 9-4
1@ Fooal Rone lll Kersey | wea@ |) Oae) |) wer) wv ey7G) | Sa Bae |soo 8.9
Beetle BoSOO Ilodoancoe G43 occas) a4 |) aoan@ | Sie Ba? roe 8.0
IO 52.0| 3,588 | 501.7 8.1] o dil) inet} |) Ge BrO Wess oG |
sosdeona 4,000 )....--.- Gos) lonoodd 12 || ©4899 || Sa 272 Bevo 11.2
Io 54.5] 4,418 || 456.2 3-7) 0-5 | 10| 0.620 | Sasa eae 15.0
4 dO eo AGSo\0) |l|boaeonee Asg |scooeal TO | @oS80 | So SC IBo00 14.6
Beerecseat G00) |caopdoan|)) = Bos) ||beacad| Sil ors44els.340 Ee 12.8 |
TO 57-3|-5.041 || 4179.5) —1-8| 0.9| 8] 0.336] S. 34° E... 12.7 |
II 00.2) 5,795 || 381-0 | — 9.3] 1-0 | 9 | 0.205 | S. 36°E... n3e7
peora scclate §,000 |lesoosconl| Sis looccec| TO |) MoS || SoBHo aoe 14.6 |
Tk Cfo) O56 ||| BASo2 || —=WG.7 || wo || tel) Ogi |) Ss 38° Woe 16.9 |
cooossan F100) Nlooecoco0| —ADG0 Ilnoaoso) mal || @puus || Se AOq lsac 16.2
II 06.0] 7,430 ||. 307.0 | —24.4| 0.9 i || ©.©94 || Sb 20” Ince 15.7 |
stick sie 3,000) Ilsnoccpoc) 23900 llocaceal 11) @.o@o | So nO? IBo65 14.4 | F
II 09.0) 8,384 || 269.1] —31.3] 0-7| 16] 0.048|S. 4°E... 13.6 | Balloons disappeared
| | | iat Cirrus clouds.

Iz 10.0) 8,781 || 254.9 | —32.8]| 0.4 | 16] 0.041 losacoogaonolloceacbas
sahoauee 9,000 |---++---] —34.6 seocnoll 1 || OcOg4! llocancosondcellossodoaal
Soreisielore « T@,600) |lsnoocooc| =WAcD locosan)! 1S) @sOiil llococangacabaltcoonoavel :
ae TE) TOAD | BCI || Ag || Was) TG |) Os@iw |eooacsaabaon|loogs0c00 | 5/10 Ci. S.
ebetetetelefare REO |Nlosogoaal S“WoAl locooca| al || WoW lo snoonooncGnllosc00000
Ti 18e2) 115725) L660) | 5. |) 0-5 14 || MaGOH lloddsacoooaca||coonc00n||
Seennion 12,000 ||....----| ~52.3 |++++-- I4 | 0.004 |---e--.seecnl|eseencce
se00ndo0 13,000 |....+4+| —56.9 |--++++) 13 | 0.002 je-eeveseeesu|eceerees|
in Atal T—nOS ||| 1Wy2@ |) —570 || OS | 1B || Oc@s |loosoescsoocel|oooco000 ;
II 22.6] 13,533 || 126.0 | —58.5| 0.2 | FSH @s@OS lacsodsanacan)oodsc0ce | Inversion
sane0dee AGO) llisoooodoa| BOs ||oaooag! 34)! \@nWWE |bocacdoanoadalloounnoud|
II 23.9) 14,154 114.2 | —56.1 |—0.4 I2 OcOCH llbcgobdcugconlpaopcone |
II 25.4| 14,646 106.0 | —54-5 |—0-3 | 14 0.003 |.---.-.++--. [reer eeee
ievetaleisiela I5,000 ||.....+--| —55.4 teens! 14 0.003 i ee ne gel Ee a mel
soo 889 TOCDD |lo0a9 3600)! —9707/ serere) 12 | 0.002 vevesseeeee|eeeerees
II 29.6] 16,166 | 83.7 | —58.1 || O-2| 12] 0.002 |.........+-:|--20+eee |
TR Zoid) WS) || Sou || Foes || Woz | wa |) Waco lloogacucoadoollao0500ue | Inversion.
II 31.3) 16,933 Goi | =o |—Oan || 12) || oC ||hooasesageaa||eoooocde
Deteatarss FAC) |\laon0c000 | —eelaOnllaacoon aaa ROO liGoecadoorecn| sno oaees |
II 31.8) 17,134 G2 || S36 || Oo8 || 12 || OOO" |oasccccgoc0q[eaasccna| Inversion.
PYotatehey rai 135000 lloococcoal! —=FSa® floosacol 1B > ©2002 |lononcasoscga|eacog0co]
II 34.8 18,607 Sot || —S7o9 |—Oat || 22) OoCO |eocoscsccoas|leosascca
veeeeees 7@ GOO loosesseol| SGA oscsa) 24} | Os@W |ocooccosvcce|iooceaaaa|
II 36.4! 19,580 49.1 | —54.6 j—0-3 | 13 | 0.003 |----++seeeee]eeeeeeee |
le leehs alee 20,000 ||.-+..+++| 53-7 |eeeees) 13 0.003 |e eres seers eleeee rene)
wee e eee 21,000 ||---++e-+| —51.Q |eeeee| 13 0.004 |. .ee eres veel eeeeeeee!|
II 40.3) 21,352 37-4 | —5I-2 |—0 etl! “OR Olay Ml Gorinoe nao eDoCooG GS |
II 41.5] 21,557 36.2 | —51.3 | 0.1 1 ||. Oey baacaconacos|bounoogd | Inversion.
oucb6600 2B OOD |oo0c00c0)) —#Cict) incocan 13 | 0.005 |.--+--+eeee-|--+e oes]
II 43.0 22,194 32-5 | —48.6 |—0-4 | 13 | 0.006 ...+.+.eeeee[eveeeeee

| |

August I, 1913
A. M.
Io 36.0 34| 761.0 eG) lbodaae P hitee (aise hell loneaate core Cobo ocee 4/10 Ci. S.
Io 36.8 179 | 748.4 AoC) || a7/ Gat || TAS ||acoocaccg00alegnosaos Inversion.
Io 38.0 365 | 732.4 BAA |= 53) GH |) T2cCEHO losngcoosnccollsonoc0es
ouse begs HOO) looobocdol 2Qs0 Ioscoosll FO) || MAcO77 Io oncoasnn0ca|losuccese
IO 40.0 707 | 704.1 24.4 |—0.6 46 | 10,137 | S. 8° W.. 0.5
IO 40.9 859 | 691.8 24.7 |—0.2 44 | 9.862 | S. 44° E... 2.6
Rerrieversi sOO0 |lcscacccall 2c lboaceal 4s || Ossie) || So see Wane 6.6
IO 41.9) 1,015 | 679.6 24.2 | 0.3 AB || Soulse || Se eBS> Wooo 753
ocomoatd 5 5GI) lloccoovod| BAO loccoool 22 |) Bo07s |) So Ge? lose 8.1

128

TABLE

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOL. 65

4—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal—Continued
August I, 1913—Continued

sue ee eee

se eeccce
eeeerece
eeeoscee

eee eceee

eee e cece

eeecorece

coe et eee

eeeeenee

eeecreee

eeeesece

eee en eee!

weeercee

Tem-

oy
ROCHA WKMOUY WANS ANO hH DAO O AW

100 mM.

seceee

eoeeee

eccere

eee eee

wees

16.5 Balloon disappeared
| stam (Cit,

Humidity Wind |
|
Rel.| Abs. | Direction | Vel. |
P. ct.| g./m.3 M.p.-s. |
Az O80) S2 42u Bets 8.2 |
43 || G.Gdu || Se 4g? Boss 7-0 |
44 | 5.459|S. 44° E... 5-7 |
“ir -l| BaAGey |) Soci? ace 5.5
AS || 419730) || So BOP ese 6.1 |
BAI) Aaa} || Ss ASP Bee o 6.7
Xo) |), ostey/ | So wee loso5 7.4
On| Bote So wR Wee. eg)
Wil, | 5220) || Sa AAP Baae 8.3
A |) BOB || So BP Bess 8.5
20) || #6662) Ssoccoccaca 10.3°)
BO woth || SBS Woe 11.6
EY \l seve | So. o/lbeor 10.1
87 | sOL604| 5. 12> Hee. 9.5
AS Oo7ds iso Se Wios 15.6
37 | 0.576 | S. 12° W.. 14.8
37 | 0.443) S. 6° W.. 16.0
RO) Ooi || Se we Woes Ws ||
AS |; Oost | So Re Boo 6.6 |
Bn || Ono) | So GP 1B « 8.3
ZO || Oot7S || So Fe WWeoe 8.6 |
40 || O1eg | So 2° ss. iit 93} |
BH || ©0842, |) Ss 2? Woo 14.3 |
am |) @aoe || Sa so Woe
Si |) Oe
ai || Oc
3m || Os
a0 || Os
30 | o.
30 | 0.
aan || Os
Sr || Oo
Rt || Oz
a) || We
30 |. o.
29] 0o.
28) Os
As) || Oc
28] o.
28 | o.
As) || Os
As) || Oc
29 | oO.
30 || Os
30 | o.
20) || (a)
30 | o.
30 | 0.
A) || Oz
30] o.
30] o.
30 | o.
29 | 0.
28 | o.
As) || Os
2s) || @)s
28] o.
28] o.
28 o.
28! o.
Ae) || Oe
28 | o.
28 | o.
20))|| Nor
29 | 0.
25ql Or
AS | Ox
28 | oO.

Remarks

| Inversion.

Poa sie

NO. 3

RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

129

TaBLe 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal.—Continued

August I, 1913—Continued

| iter . Humidity Wind
Time | Als | Pres: | pera- = : | | Remarks
UMS | Ciernen | cad Rel.| Abs. | Direction | Vel.

Pp. M. | | | |

h. m.| M. Mm. Gaul IP. ct.| g-/m.2 M.p.s. |
12 26.5 16,414| 82.0) —54.8| 0.2| 29 | 0.006 | | Inversion.
Bee eisieti'l 205,000 cece eens 53.8) |eatens 29 | 0.007 |...0----0.-e)ee----e |

Sennooee WSpO0O)|Soaceeea| Sted) laser] 920 02000) |

I2 32.4) 14,227| 114.8 | —49.5 —o0.2 29 | 0.012 |

gonsoace TAM OOM eetelleleieell 50 Ol eiciemi-if] 2G OODLE
T2 34-5) 13,254 | 132.9)] —5r-5 | oO. 28 | 0.009 Inversion.
soonoenD| 11-608) |sngadooall = Sito ilocoaos 28 | 0.009 |
2 37.6) 12,441 | 150-0 | —50-7 | O-4 |.....-|1------>

ooocogde)) PANO) scoeeesa —=48)-9) fewnicce 30 | 0.013

Giayefaieielsye MU OOON ee ee neo Aeon seaices|)) San) 0.023)
I2 42.0) 10,857 | 190.0 44-4 0.1 33 | 0.024

npircadadl, T1O)5C00) |inosacpodl ==s¥/ol) lonooss 35 | 0.052
T2750 (Oes03) ll) 237-2) 32.7 |) 0.8 37. 0.096

BEY oteleia OAC |lsasdccac —30%5 |:--.-- 36 | 0.118
12 51.7| 8,188 276.8) —24.3) 0.5 | 33)| 0.106

sccaseesl 8,000 |...-2+++) 23.5 -+++-+ 33. | 0.212
I2 55.9) 7,058 | 322-6} —19.2) 0.9 34 | 0.328 seen ees)

sobo0000 | 7,000 |-.-.---.) —I8.7 |-..... 34 | 0-343

spotecon GC |lsesooce.|| = WOn2 leccooanll BO!) Oaree

TOOLA Syi79) 1 384-01) — 7-7) |) 10m 36 0.936

H @as Boies || Ase) |) = Bo \scoccdiGgoncn|sa0sdn0c

asonocdnl! Sse Vicccoycon) = B28 coves an I.41I

August 2, 1913

A. M. | | '
IO 59.0| EVN) Gionta@) || anole booans (So) |) RAZ I aoenacacco |ocoasose Inversion.
II 00.3) 259) 741-5 | 22.8 1.0 | 71 | 14.287 ...eceeeeeee|eeseeeee | Cloudless.
a Gis! Bey || Geos || Adey7 |=as 1) Se)|) wAo7SE} lesseaccconcallsoocosne

soodenea OOS Sada onell s AACN Seaasalle wiseallmeacorss) honousoasnens| Geode
It 02).7| 504 | 714.5 || 20.0 |—1.6 |) 45 | 12.800 |... e ences ec|ec-ne-is|
II 04.0) FS || Wouno) || zyo)-(0) [0-6 | Bil |) O22) || Ss ERS Whoo ai |
II 05.0 907 | 689-0| 29.0] 0.6| 29) 8.250) S. 64° W.. 3-3 |

Be wlawines | eG) Ibonoocadl) \ASasiloosaodths cull Seyso) ll Spe ace 2.3 |
IE 06.0) 1,059| 677.1) 28.1| 0.6) 27 | 7.312) Sii620 Bees To |
II 07.0, 1,197) 666.6 Ae | Woe || A || Soa) || So cy Wao B07.

Spe eersisi | W5G@O |lbcooccon| 2 Mleeetal| AS || Seas || Se Bue ons BES
II 10.0) I,618| 635.3 Pio) Od || sil] Hoses || Se ase 1555 Zeit
cesesees D089) Ingtoaasoll| | 2vaie iadacool Si || Rasy ll Sw so" ooo Asi
II 14.5 2,289 | 587.7 | 18.4 | 0.9|/ 35) 5-454 | Sh an ene 4.9 | Inversion.
II 14.9) 2,328) 584.7| 19.1 |=1-8| 35) 5:683) S.12°E... 4.6

Bere steisis 2BOON accel Wee acood| | S|) IRs255) 1) Ss oe Wass 57) |
Wa loeinieie S000) wsadoucd| © ies} lssccdal Aey/ | Siceie lise: she nso Tee.
II 19.6) 3,015 | 539.0| 12.2] 1I.0| 37] 3-061 | Sp #2? lBsos 7.3 | Inversion.
II 20.0) 3,053| 530.2| 12.6 |\—1.1 Srl Mao || Sh Of Ikss5 18.8
iste? 2h OES ESO 72 S20 tele eTOLON) OLGuls Essie as atO7, | S. are BE... Yia2,
isiefes seis SEGOO IE eee eere Gah |sscodo!| Oi, Bayten | 5: TOM ers 7-4
II 24.0] 3,661 | 4068.3 | 9-2) 0.4) 28) 2.483 | Syne ess 7.5
SaSeee | 4,000 neta GoHillesovod| 25 | wee | Sy GF Bese 9-2
II 29.0) 4,437.| 453.2 | Ho) Or 2B! ToBGy || Spy TAP 1T. 5 II.4
saceanee | ASO |sscup sec} 2G served) 29) ee || So wee Wong). wie
a | EpGeidleasoced| == Os Gasoae| 20)i|| OsCeo || Se! Bo iss. 10.4
im 36.3) Se707 | 386-1 |— 4-.6| 0-6] 18 |) 0.603] S. 2° 5.4. 9.0

spoeesne OR OOOM ese isles OF Olserererereha 1G I) ORAS I Saneaccoss 9.0
im 42.5) 65780] 336-8 | —12.7 | 0.8 TON PROR272) Ne naa Vihar g.2
Meveratclate FAO) |lanocenas|) lett Ibeageol) § |) Waa liso Go Wine 9.6
It 48-0) 7,912 | 289.8 | —21.7| 0.8 ny | Osi | So ae Bees 11.6
Beasts SHOOON seca |P 225i alee sth LSet OskOS iH eosn ogee. II.5
Breer aveje:eia'l OAT) |nacocacs)) =o) bo0000 14 | 0.055 |(S. 2t> Wi... II.0
II 53-2| 9,086 | 247.1 | —29.0|} 0.6] 14) 95.053 |.S.23°.W.. 10.9
Spomeene IeTOSGOO) |Seeeieesie =3 yal isemseci AG | OLO2T \eSse2On Wane 10.8
I2 00.0) 10,591 | 199.3 | —42.2) 0-9 13,| 0.012 |.S. 28° W.. 10-7

P.M. | | |
saeeaoo DOGO) leases o -elle 4.51 On te eters «6 13 | 0.008 |.S. 29° W.. II.0

Byeters isis | EALOWON| GeScanso! S=SuIAG)qpemed. ie || WxGWk) Pash soe NA Enol a siscts)
12 05.5) 12,031 | 161-1 | —54.4 | 0.8 12 | 0.003 |.S..307 W.. 11.8
Saaenne TASC) |issoadsad| =Ssee, casoon) 28'|| OxeoK Vash ears MASS 2127,
12 09.4] 13,168 | 135.4) —55.31.0.8| 13! 0.003/.S..20°W..| 23.3 | Inversion.

130 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

TABLE 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal.——Continued

August 2, 1913—Continued

| | eee vg |_thumidity | Wind
° - | = || wl $$ |—————qcx“« .
Time Ale Pree pore At oy Remarks
| | | ture | ‘| Rel. | Abs. | Direction | Vel.
Bite | | | |
Ii Gite ||_ is 4) Wife ||, ES || IP. ct.| g-/m.3 M.p.s
I2 I1.0| 13,449 130.0 | —54.0 |—0.5 | 13] 0.003 | S. 8° W 19.3 | :
12 12.5| 13,815 | 122.7 | —55.0| 0.3 13 | 0.003 | S. 8° W 24.3 | Inversion.
scares 143000 |o-.+++-s] —54-1|...---| 13 | 0.003 |S. 8° W 23.0 |
12 14.1| 14,284] 114.4 | —52.8|—o0.5| 13] 0.004|S. 8° W 20.8 ; Gas
| | nversion. ne bal-
12 16.1] 14,541 | 110.1 | —54.1] 0.5 | 12] 0.003] S. 31 W.. 18.3 | loon burst and be-
I2 17.3| 14,799 | 105.7 | —50.3 |—1-5 | 12] 0.005 | = pon We a7 come descr the
sisieierettes IAOOO! Gonngced|! —GOde) loaeaad| U2 I) Maco ll Sp. At 18.4 | remaining balloon
2 22/6) 15,437 | 96.0)| — 52.1 | 0.3) 12! |) 0.004) S. 30. Wi 27.2 | had sufficient lift-
suveiaeleisve TOE GO| ion secic| cares sioen rc ata rece alan iseraiss MSeeec cals 19.7 ing force to con-
| | | tinue ascent.
172 SP -O/NO'190 |bocooogaalsona0900 b000n0 Sb odalsauoasDal Ss Soe 18 7.4 | Ballgons disappeared.
| | | | | few Cu.
I2 56.4 21,302 35.5 | —40.0 |—0.5 TO) “WsOn lhaeondoodood|loadass el
Sates bos \} ARCO Ibocpoooall == Mos) aacdaal CHOI. MoOWs) lb agamesuacsallgeooecios
“0000006 20\y OOO) | ereseretele eye) = 5 OO | evereneiare TOW|) MOmOOAS|| cvorscrcveroraxctaterellterevets iste
eS eeeiancas 1195000) |e cjere erase!’ ——SOuOu lee eerie TOM WOROOTs| eraetcursiseeraasrel erslorelerars
I2 57.9) 18,990 EON | —SSSo7 SOogsl) 10) |] Ox@Wu llbesoccoveccallsons0cec
aR cea teie¥e TOROOOM erotic —61.8 .....- TOU MOTOOI | Sec eer er oe enone
SE gucad T7AOOO) ||eeets 1 elsiei| a= OSSOevoleletels OP" OsOOE Ne oscodpesouilcooaqK66
pooddueS W500) |oscocoss| W050 a5asa0 iO) MAGMA |b ao osoooscbolloasaeses :
I 00.0 15,828 sO) | C705) ) God] — aey || WoOWir socsooosadnallooocasse Inversion.
sobaand0 15} @00) |lscogeodal| —CORo® |ndaoos II OAC llbcaoroccnosodlacucooca|
Sooooooe TALC) |gacooo50) was) loocoas 13)|) WoO Ilbsaccoousacallgcgocccn||
- I or.8| 13,908 | 120.5 | —58.0)| 0.0 GWT NOOO KnubactoauDallecdtenbos|
90000000 IAG) GaonaSOolSrsy/o0) lobooadl!- us Il oO lscaddacasacalagocaosal
doocco0d WARGO) GGdodoUD) =—Sy/ns) loon oud 13 @QsGO2 |ls sodoacosacallascagsan!
I 03.3) 11,806 HGVGS) || —=GY/o8 |oscoco | 13] 0.002 4.....+...2ee|eeeeeene |

*Clock stopped. Altitude computed from ascensional rate.

August 3, 1913

5 07.0 34 | 756.9 26.3 |...... | 62 | 15.199 |..-.-eeneeeeforeeeeee Few Cu. over mount-

| } ains on mainland.
| | | Inversion.

BO 77 Zee. || GEOG || alow |) aie | GB |) 28.419 looooaossaacalleanoacoc

stevens GOO |bosndood! | A060 llbsoccd) ~ 4O'|| nao, |b Ssas0andccd||soqod005)

5 09.4 541 | 714.4 30.8 |—2.2 | a7 || a Gv, |lndooassanacalldocoaccn |

5 3 3B |

5 -3

SCOHHHNNHNHNHNHNHNHWHUNY

ONNNUBWNHYNDRRANDNHHUNDHDANPHHEHRUMNUNMN DN
BONDOPOUNUN DOWN WAN AHNONOUOWA OBRN

6 04.8) 10,790 | 193-0 | —ar.

pocanods 11,000 |s+eeeee4) 42.7 |
| | |

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 131

TaslE 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal—Continued
August 3, 1913—Continued

4 | Tamed! | Humidity | Wind '
Time ee Bac | pera- aoa | Remarks
| ture | * Rel. | Abs. | Direction | Vel.
| |

ae Pama *
P.M.
h. om. M. |
aise eicisieis 12,000
6 10.0) 12,050
6 16.1) 12,936
Ei forsiecss 13,000
6 18.1 13,315
regs is crete | 14,000
6 24.0) 14,729
soacodae Wet 5 OOO ee-<tefe.e/r0)| |
6 29.0) 15,794 | | Inversion.
6 30-1) 15,975 |
couoodda | 16,000
6 33.0| 16,611 | Inversion.
6 34.0] 16,714 |
6 35.7) 16,895 |
eacanepe | 17,000 |
6 38.4) 17,428
arsine 17,000
6 40.0 16,492 |
shoapaod | 16,000
6 41.7) 15,838 |
6 44.1) 15,208 | Inversion.
Biasiveees 15,000 |
Siaiwinlerateye | 14,000
6 50.0] 13,118 |
este isteisiece 13,000
Races see T2000) |
6 54.3) 11,782 |
ryeieietiles II,000 |
7 00.3] 10,052 |
Berereis rete | 10,000
Meo | 9,000 |
7 04.2) 8,539
nogaoode HO) llbconasocu|
7 10.0] 7,080 |
SA deeb aid | 7,000 |
soscnesa 6,000
7 17-7); 5,275 |
Beeetotsssie\s)| 5,000 |
Scene 4,500 |
BNiaveie vis 4,000 *baconen bedstead woar merase
7 24.1) 3,792
potecond 3,500 |
SQOCCERD 35,000
Biers cvere's 2,500
F304) 2a187 |
sooeeaen ZEOOO!|seienicteree
pconades I,500 | iepsie lata vetelleisiavevevciateiaiaverei| AaletNlovese oll
Fi 4ed\ 15208
SAO ABBE 1,000
7 35-9) 849
an 3 Oe 718

}

August 7, 1913

P. M.
4 52.0 34| 756.4 OTA Ail ey tare. 7S TARAS 2H E yn eeleisrcters 1.9 | Few A. Cu., few S.
4 55-7 233 | 739.0 Tol |) Bz 83 | 11.972 | N.51° W.. 1.5 | Inversion.
4 57.2) 455 | 720.1 23.2 |—2.7 70 | 14.411 | S. 37° W.. 2.0
socoeede HOO |socsacwa| Bslo7/ lonococ| GS || Hs07G) || So Bese Woe 2.2
4 58.9 665 | 703.0 26.0 |—1.3 49 | 11.813 | N.69° W.. 3-5
5 00.7 772 | 6094.5 28.8 |—2.6 30 | 8.441 | N.80° W.. 6.8
soowonns USO) lesgacsad! Ae) \lbescad| ee || Wn=72ii) INey/ Winn 7.1
5 03-0} 1,036| 674.2 30.0 |—o0.5 20 | 6.007 | N.88° W.. Fe
5 06.4 1,350} 650.7 30.0 | 0.0 13 | 3-905 | N.82° W.. ery
5 07.8) 1,440; 644.1 Ae} | 1o | 2.814 | N.65° W.. 4.5
sHococedll Jy S{s00 Seqnccso ZO SLs hee 9| 2.631 | N.69° W.. 6.4 | Inversion.
5 09.4| 1,534] 637.4 29.8 |—1.1 Bi) Bar|) INEZZe Wes Foe)
Pieter ol O22e0 27.0| 1.4 6] 1.529 | N.43° W.. 5.1
Rita sveis%s Feo lbsoocoadl| -9se) loneode 6| 1.521 | N.46° W.. 6.5

132

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOL. 65

TAsLe 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal—Continued

August 7, 1913—Continued

Tem A Humidity Wind
; Alti- | Pres- e t
Time pera- Remarks
§ tude | sure | ture |7°™| Rel] Abs. |Direction | Vel.
P. M. |
h. m.| M. Mm. | °C. P. ct. g./m8 M.p.s.
5 17-0) 2,116 | 5096.5 26.8] o.1 Ona suen | Ne4sic Wie iat
AeOGOSaD AWE |lsnooconal 2idls laceedo Ona) Nimes cpr 4.7
5 23-0] 2,551 | 567.5 22.8]. 0.9 6} 1.207 | N.14°E... 4.2
5 26.0) 2,796] 551.5 20.5 | 0.9 7} 1.234|N..8°W.. Rat
Bayete BE OOO rertereteine Wats) |losacad) O) D3 530 pNeeye ea. 3.5
5 35-6 3,459 | 510.1 iaepfel |) ate} 1 ates) || INNSAG 1 6 4.5
Saisteisievos BOO lsooncood! Tipit llooncaoll MSI! Testor || INNO ee. 4.6 | 5/10 A. Cu.; 8.
Renee ASO |oscossae Oo |Pcovecl 2m) TsO | INlasiF 1Bs05 6.4
Sy AG=O| 745 087ml 0472-3) |e kO-7|e2=0) 2 2allerTsoOya | Nieaa enters 6.7 | At the base of A. Cu.
5:57 p.m. Balloons
disappeared.
Bie sores EMIS) loago0055)) = We llscanon|) 4 | ie G) |) IN ge? 1B, 7.8
5 58.0) 4,708 | 436.5 | —10.2| 1.6 6r | 1.292 | N.32°E... 8.4
6 02.0} 4,851 | ABSA || o7f |) a7 |) | WoC locsosseecacallasoosacd
6 04.3) 4,987) 421-0 | —12.9 Bedale isto Inaocack\sul Weer aommcaac Soria gon Inversion.
S5090000 | 5,000 ane SNe eine pO) lemtasee 5 sess dems inaaaoode
@ Osy) Sau | dawg | ney |OoH. || G77 |) ad eo oaascgocnallecasceos
Seo Sok ||| S05} aie |), Of! We) || @s6FO bosusascocccclloascccds
OQ APGOl) Sp etsw | Syl || nan || we |) Om || -@xS@4 Iacoos cosncoliscsouccs
6 24.0| 5,967 | 370-4 | —19.7| 0.7 1 ai) | WoA@) |oaocgasscccnellescnccas
sa000000 @OW9) |so5ocb0|| "Ose |locvond) ZEM OcHD Ihoaoocenoudcllooncbooc
6 36-1| 6,405 | 349.1 | —24.4]| 0.8 |) Bb |) O22! Noss c0nucnccelsspoaqce
6 41.0) 6,442] 347. SASK ||, O's) ) oe i ete) lb soodocceonalacnoonbd)
| | |
August 8, 1913
P.M. | |
GB DR SA lh EGE | “AOS san55 GR Meats || Se Bee AW Sa! 4.3 | 4/10 S. Cu. SSE.
5 25.1 367 | 726.6 17.2| 0.8| 80] 11.608 | S. 32° W..| ~- 4.3}
Eaaweee HO®) |onocuacs! Ws leonoso| 2 | wE-oe | S. G22 Weal oF |
5 26.7 786 | 691.5 TAC tale MOEy, 88 | 10.785 | N.55° W..| 0.9 | Balloons in S. Cu.
| Inversion.
aeclofotoraiers UAW) |Gaeadanc Ui@\atey enoana! . Gy || wires | IN, (2 16 6 1.9 |
5 27-4) D020 | (672.6 2004 |—2.6 | 64 | are2en3)) Nias E... 2.0
5 28-4) 1,122] 664-7 20.8 |—1.4 | 56)| To.640)) IN-16, Eo. | 0.4
5 29-1) 0244 | (655e4 24.5 |=2.2| 49] 10.859 | S. 69; E... 0-2 |
5 29-5] 15413 | 642-9 24.9 |—0.2| 45 | 10.200 | S. 77° W...| I.0
abbeone HGHCD |lbusoncen| lei Inacoocl) 4e4) @axiZG |! INOS WW) I.5 | :
=5 30-2} 21,539 | (633-6 24.2] 0.6| 42) 9-151 | N.73° W..| 1.8 | Inversion.
5 30.7) Lyn) | 62rs3 24-3 |—0.1| 41] 8.984 | N.45° W..| 5.2
atdrerevacrara 1) 2a@G) |socecsca) 9 Best oscoaal 249) 7-983 | N.21° W..| 6.0 |-
5 32-3) 2,080 | 595.4 22)6)i|) On 5) | ees On | maze SOI INGRoiea ae 6.2
Soatoaos 2 SS OO)i|« cieieietereis 19-3 |------| 40] 6.572 N.25° W..| 3.6
5 34-3 2,619! 559.2 18.4] 0.8 | 40) 6.233 N.28° W.. 2.8
sa reevars OOO conic Tos) loaodoo! cl 15) SOS | IN. a0 Wig! AL
5) 36-9) 35326) |) 5age7, 11-4] 1.0| 41/| 4.176 N.13° W..| 5.2
oe siiels SWE OO)||ayenrarstonye Osi lononog) 75) |h Secolsne |! Naw Walon 4.6 |
Ss peyalnvelete A OOOM seers BEG) wesc!) AOnl ease Si leis 2° W..| Bea! |
5 40.5, 4,1 APP Asi) Wot |) zsh) S07) |) No BO IDEA Bay |
sreiantenre AeSOOs| ia cisie iets 2.2 |......| 50] 2.806 | N.17°W..| 3.0
5 43-4| 4,981 | 419-9] — 0.9] 0-7| 53] 2.387] N.45° W.. 3-4 |
siaerecrsen Fae |baoodood! == weOboasod) Hel) Sacto) | INP sai Wiis a 3-4
5 46.8 5,982 369.6 —6.5| 0.6 Gi) meen) So Got Neo 3-0
5) 47-2 55907, 30824) Org) |) 27) en 5ON e037) | o- 1 53enVVier en 5/0
sila siavetere ROO Base adage Ostet Gaon 58 | 1.623 | S.53° W.. Ke)
5 48-0) 16,209)) 354-5 | — 8-7,| 0-6) 58 | -so0n| Sa 75a Wie 5.5 | Inversion.
Re r@ea) GG, |babsosec Blak olin) BA) Sa || Sip ARO Wao! 3-6 | Pressure pen not re-
| cording. Altitude
computed from as- -
censional rate.
5OLO} 165840) \eeeemeras — 8.1 |—o.1 52 | e308 iisa22> Wie) 14.6
sels civtenee HAO |cabdoeag| = sae) |iGsccoo) (Sol!) Rensio | Sy mu? Weal we.a)
B G@as| 7oeGn |bacooae- = Gj || O35 HG) |) many | Se 7, W.:| 10.7 |
Eker) |e 7 Atoll Bono auc = 1G)50) | 46 | 0.763 | S.14° W..| 11.5 |
dooceand 8,000 |.-...-..) —14.5 |..-.--| 45] 0.655 | S.16° W..| 12.8

NO. RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

3 133

Taste 4.—Results of sounding balloon ascensions, Avalon, Cal.—Continued

August 8, 1913—Continued

: Teens [or Humidity Wind
Tacs alt es pera- | Remarks
SES || Sites ‘| Rel.| Abs. | Direction | Vel.
P. M. | | |
h. m.| M. Mm. | °C. P. ct.) g./m.8 | M.p.s. |
5 54.8) 8,275 |........ —15.9| 0.6| 45| 0.582] S. 18° W..| 14.0 | 6/10 S. Cu. SSE. Bal-
eS O22 Ob O5OM setae eter] —=19.5 | O-8 | 45 | 0-422 |n.-.--.e eee o|enenneee loonsdisappeared in
5 56-8) 85850 |.....-.- S207 OG |) ASE Ox87S loos dbaodecbnilogosoaar St. Cu. Observa-
Mtn eatess| GOOD caonnnosol Sse boncaal GeAI| Oa |letooveoncsco|sccnoose| “Wer Oi Bite easion
BES Val OROSON | sis<-leloiets —21.7| 0.4 MV @Qo3QL |ooon0as05008|bo50%000 were made through
5 59.8) 9,700 |.......- —24.3 |) 0.4 £3 \\ Oc2H5 |Saocodogcasallscooosoe this film of St. Cu.
me sranets | 10,000 |.--+---.| 26.1 |....2-| 43 | 0-215 pasdoaconoolopooabos|). whale (alm SS" olor
(6) G22) WOH) issoqacan | =2307 || Oo AB || @Qst52 \gaconedAnoailacasoooal scured balloons
® Weal wWOS7EO \soooou0s | = 2943 || One AB ||” ait) \Incocddo nsec) ocounnDe after 5:26.5 p. m.
saegaose TE,;000 |oes-ccee] = 31-5 assess) 42 | OvT24 |... ce =... ele nee ewne
G ORo) wr WS lbcoonose | S250 || Os | 72. Waetss), |p sooeeodapecsonood%d
soonaace 12,000 |...-.--+| 35.8 |..-s+0| 42 | 0.077 |.----22-e-eeleneeecee
GIO7 5 PL2rOGON ereralelaleter= —36.0] 0.2 41 | 0.076 | eee seen teyel| mytealers vac
(GMOOPAlET 257.00) fee ee lcie ois —37.2| 0.2 AG|| OcGeS |Golsatonapectiandoaccs
Aehisteacss 13,000 |...-..-.| —38.7 See soo) 20 |) “OsO8R Botoatesbsec|sooscca0
6 11.2 13,250 |...-.--. | —39-8 | 0.5 40 | 0.049 |..---+.-+-se|eseeeees
Sissies | 14,000 |.:-..---| 43-4 |..----| 40 | ©-033 |.------.----|esceeoee
6 13.8) 14,100 jorereees —43-9 | 0.5 40) | (O00 |eries isi «= =< la el-in/-)=
| | | |
} } ! |
August 10, 1913
A. M. | | |
4 43-0) 34 | 765.9 Bak \snance 58 | 12.077 | N.46°E... 2.8 | Cloudless.
4 45-7 435 | 722.6 21.3 | 0.5 57 | 10-522 | Ni-24- EK... 1.1 | Inversion.
coooness | SOD lscoonsen|. -28o®) |soseac! 84 || @-0a7 |) No Se lsce eZ
4 48.2) 832 | 690-3| 24.7 |—0.9| 27| 6.052 N.89° W.. 4.0
nooaaads | Bp@GO longscoos| Bile} |ecoson) |) AsG52 | SoS" War 3-5 |
4 49.2) 1,036| 674.3; 24.5 0-1 AQ || Choi || Sn Bo Wilec 3-4
Sateseieisvels le BOSCO bLacoooonl 2808} Ipoancal HS il Bono INA Whee Boe
AMS 2eAlnEle 540) 1OS5|7) |) 0232 | 0.3 14| 2.882 | N.42°W.. Dai
4 54.9 1,976] 604.8) 19.3) 0.6) 15 2.464 N.47° W.. 2.1 | One balloon became
| detached; the other
| | | balloon with the
| meteorograph slow-
| a ly descended.
5d00900g | AeHo \bscecscc| BGO Iscense! 2S | Bote Neve Woe Aoi
MONO ureS TES OOM eysteretelere BION eoeue = 73 | 22358 | N.43°>W - Bee)
5 00-9 1,385} 647.8 Zils || Oo7 13| 2.428 | N.42° W.. 2.2
5 03-0} 1,253 | 657.7 22.4 | 0.8 ON mde 7 On eNies aie 2a
apanacod ) GOGO) Sous se0ol| 4A} loganoo 8 | 1.773 | N.44° W.. 1.8
5 09.0 735 || COs || Ads |=} 7 | 1,706 | N.61° W.. 5) ‘
5 11.0 702 700.8 24.1 | 0.2 7 \ 1-547 || IN-682 Wi. 3.9 Inversion. Balloon
| disappeared behind
the mountains.
5 13-1] 600 | 709.0 24.3 |—0.5 G7) teSB4., "Saesdbaponnsne0n8s0°
soo0ea96 | HOO) sononcos) Age lbsoaaal” UO) Bosse) |paocosoudanpe soocon0n
5 16.6) 360 | 728.9 23.0 |=1.8 Pep || “Sol |baanoooaacesoneddsa0 ?
5) 18-3} Aes | Fieve 2143 eaade Gal (nite Spe qnoodane 0 ao000000 Inversion.
|

The distribution of pressure at the earth’s surface changes but little in
type, and that never abruptly, during the period of observation, nor does the
pressure itself vary much from day to day. Figures 7 and 8 show the pressure
distribution in a general way for the whole period. The positions of the
centers of high and low pressure at 8 a. m. or 8 p. m., seventy-fifth meridian
time, are shown by the circles, in which dates are also indicated. In the case
of high pressure, these circles are connected by solid lines; in the case of low
pressure, by dashed lines.

In three of the ascensions, July 24 and 27 and August 3, the balloons were
followed with the theodolite beyond the altitude at which the minimum tem-

134 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

perature was recorded (see fig. 9). In another, August 2, the air movement .
could be observed up to 17 kilometers. On July 24 and 27 the winds were
westerly, with a small south component up to the height at which the minimum
temperature was found. Above this height the wind was easterly. On
August 2 and 3 the winds were southerly, with a small west component up to
the point of minimum temperature. Here again the winds became easterly.
On July 24 the wind velocity increased as the easterly component made its
appearance; on July 27 there was little change; on August 2 and 3 there
was a decided decrease in velocity as the wind became easterly.

B. Tue Captive BALLoon AND MouNTAIN OBSERVATIONS ON AND NEAR
Mount WHITNEY

By W. R. GREGG

Meteorological observations, including some captive balloon ascensions,
were made at Mount Whitney, Cal., from August I to 13, inclusive, and at
Lone Pine, Cal., from August 1 to 4, inclusive. Mount Whitney is the highest
peak of the Sierra Nevadas, its altitude being 4,420 meters. It lies in latitude
36° 35’ N. and longitude 118° 17’ W. On the north, south, and west it is
surrounded by mountains, many of which are nearly as high as itself; its
eastern slope is quite precipitous and at its foot lies Owens Valley, which is
about 25 kilometers in width and extends in a north-northwest and south-
southeast direction. East of this valley and running parallel to the Sierras
is the Inyo Range, altitude about 3,000 meters. Lone Pine is situated about
midway between these two ranges, near the northern end of Owens Lake.
Its altitude is 1,137 meters and it lies in latitude 36° 35’ N. and longitude 118°
3’ W., about 25 kilometers due east from Mount Whitney. Topographically
the location of Lone Pine is similar to that of Independence, Cal., which is
about 25 kilometers north-northwest of it and therefore practically the same
distance from Mount Whitney. Independence is in latitude 36° 48’ N., longi-
tude 118° 12’ W., and has an altitude of 1,191 meters, or 54 meters higher
than that of Lone Pine.

SURFACE OBSERVATIONS AT MOUNT WHITNEY

The instrumental equipment consisted of a Short and Mason aneroid
barometer, sling psychrometer, small kite anemometer of the Robinson type,
Marvin meteorograph, and Richard meteorograph. The Richard instrument
recorded pressure and temperature only and the object in taking it was to
obtain a surface record of these elements and also to provide a substitute in
case the Marvin instrument were lost or injured. The latter recorded relative
humidity in addition to pressure and temperature. In order to secure good
ventilation during balloon ascensions a section of the horizontal screening
tube containing the humidity and temperature elements had been cut out, thus
exposing these elements directly to the air.

As soon as they were unpacked, both of these instruments were started
recording and a continuous record of pressure, temperature, and relative
humidity was obtained. The sheets were changed at 8 a. m. and 5 p. m., and
eye readings of the aneroid barometer and psychrometer were taken at these
times; also at 11 a. m. and 2 p. m., and during balloon ascensions. In addi-

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 135

tion, readings of the psychrometer were taken by \Messrs. A. K. Angstrom
and E. H. Kennard, representing the Smithsonian Institution, during the
nights when they were observing. These readings have also been used to
check the meteorograph records.

The exposure of the instruments was fairly good. They were kept in an
improvised shelter constructed from the boxes in which they were “ packed”
to the summit. The ventilation was good, but during those afternoons in
which the sun shone, the air in the shelter was considerably heated. How-
ever, there were only four sunny afternoons, and furthermore, the eye readings
at 2 p. m.and 5 p. m. leave but little interpolation necessary.

All of the instruments were calibrated before and after the expedition.
Especial care was taken in the calibration of the aneroid barometer, tests being
made to determine the correction for “lag” or “creeping” and for changes
in temperature. The effect of the latter was found to be negligible.

Owing to the large scale value of the pressure elements in the meteorographs
and to the effect of changes of temperature on those elements, it is impossible
to obtain with much accuracy the hourly values. However, in table 5 are
given the pressures observed at certain hours. The readings at II a. m. are
uniformly higher than those at 8 a. m., 2 p. m., or 5 p.m. It is probable that
the diurnal maximum occurs at about this time.

The range of pressure for the entire period is large, about 8 mm. The
range for the same period at Independence is much less, about 5 mm. At
both places the lowest readings were recorded on August 8 and 9, while a
cyclonic disturbance was central over northern California. This low was
attended by considerable cloudiness, with thunderstorms, and, at Mount
Whitney, snowstorms. The greater pressure range at Mount Whitney than
at Independence is accounted for by the cool weather during the passage of
the low and the consequent crowding together of the isobars in the lower
levels.

Tables 6, 7, and 8 contain the hourly values of temperature, relative humidity,
and absolute humidity, respectively. Means have been computed for the 10
complete days, August 3 to 12, inclusive. Final conclusions may not be drawn
from so short a record, but a few comparisons are of interest. The mean
temperature was 0.7° C.; that in the free air at the same altitude and for the
same time of year, as determined from five years’ observations at Mount
Weather, Va., is —2.0°. The mean temperature at Pikes Peak’ for these
10 days in 1893 and 1894 was 2.8°. Pikes Peak has an altitude of 4,301 meters,
or about too meters below that of Mount Whitney, and to correct for this
difference in altitude about 0.6° should be subtracted from the value at Pikes
Peak. The temperature at Mount Whitney was undoubtedly below normal,
owing to the severe stormy weather which prevailed. However, the values at
both places, compared with those at the same altitude above Mount Weather,
indicate that in summer temperatures on mountains are higher than those in
the free air, although difference in latitude, in this case about 234°, should
be considered. The times of maximum and minimum temperatures at Mount
Whitney were 3 p. m. and 5 a. m.,, respectively; at Pikes Peak they were
I p. m. and 5 a. m., respectively.

Annual Reports of Chief U. S. Weather Bureau, 1893, 1894, 1895-1896,
Washington.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

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138 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Figure 10 shows mean hourly temperatures at Mount Whitney and Inde-
pendence and for the same period during 1893 and 1804 at Pikes Peak. The
range at the latter appears to be somewhat smaller than at ‘Mount Whitney,
and this may be due to the fact that conditions at Pikes Peak are more nearly
like those of the free air, owing to its isolation and the consequent freer
circulation. The curve for Independence shows the large diurnal range
characteristic of valley stations. Beneath the mean temperatures for Mount
Whitney in table 6 are given the means for the same period at Independence
and the differences in temperature change per 100 meters altitude between

em.12 1 2 38 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 1 2 38 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 it 12Tem.

( °
Se 3
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
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a 28
27 97
26 85
25 25
24 24
23 23
22 99
21 21
20 20
19 19
18

5 Sy on :
== Peet ale aaa

Ug 9
Fic. 10—Mean hourly temperatures at Mount Whitney and Independence,

Cal., August 3 to 12, incl., 1913, and at Pikes Peak, Col., August 3 to 12, incl.,
1803 and 1804.

the two places. The temperature change with altitude during the night hours
is somewhat misleading, owing to a marked inversion of temperature between
the surface of the valley and about 200 meters above it, as will be pointed out
in discussing the Lone Pine observations. The hourly differences between
Independence and Mount Whitney during the daytime are large, averaging
about 0.85. The mean for the 24 hours is 0.73.

The relative humidity, table 7, was probably higher than normal for this
season of the year, owing to the unusually stormy weather and the presence of
snow on the ground. The mean was 69 per cent, the mean maximum 79 per
cent at 7 to 8 p. m., and the mean minimum 61 per cent at 4a.m. During the
severe storm of August 8, 9, and 10, 100 per cent was frequently recorded.
The absolute minimum was 15 per cent at midnight of the 12th.

139

RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

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I40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

For the reasons given above, the absolute humidity, table 8, was also probably
higher than normal. The mean was 3.5 grams per cubic meter, the mean
maximum 4.2 at 4 to 5 p. m., and the mean minimum 2.7 at 4a. m. The abso-
lute maximum was 6.2 at 7 p. m. of the 7th and the absolute minimum 0.6 at
midnight of the 12th.

Table 9 gives roughly the average wind velocities. Dial readings of the
anemometer were made at the times indicated by stars. The figures between
these stars represent average velocities for the intervals between readings.
The mean for the entire period was 3.0 m. p. s. That at Pikes Peak for the
same time of year was 6.0m. p. s. This difference may be due partly to the
fact that Pikes Peak stands out in the open, whereas Mount Whitney is
surrounded by peaks nearly as high as itself, and also to the greater proximity
of Pikes Peak to the cyclonic storm paths of the United States. The prevail-
ing wind direction was southeast, but directions ranging between south and
northeast were frequently observed, and a southwesterly wind prevailed during
the blizzard of August 9.

In table 10 may be found the state of the weather for the period, together
with notes on storms, kinds of clouds, and miscellaneous phenomena.

FREE-AIR OBSERVATIONS AT MOUNT WHITNEY, CAL.

The place from which balloon ascensions were made was about 60 meters
to the northwest of the summit of Mount Whitney and about 10 meters below
it. This was the only spot on the mountain that was fairly level and free
from jagged surface rocks. While the balloon was being filled with gas it
rested on a large piece of canvas to protect it from rocks and snow. The
gas, compressed in steel cylinders, was furnished by the Signal Corps of the
United States Army. A hand reel was used for. reeling the wire in and out.
Readings of the psychrometer, aneroid barometer, and anemometer were made
with the aid of a pocket electric flash lamp.

Ascensions were made on only three nights, August 3, 4, and 5, and were
begun immediately after sundown. On all other nights the weather was either
too windy or too stormy. The balloon was allowed to take as great an altitude
as possible and was then kept out until the wind aloft had increased to such
an extent that it was necessary to reel in.

Table 11 contains the tabulated data for the three records obtained, and in
figures II and 12 are plotted the temperature and absolute humidity gradients,
respectively; the slight changes with time at the higher levels in each ascension
are not plotted; only the ascent and descent proper. On August 3 and 4 these
elements diminished with time by nearly the same amounts at all upper levels
as at the surface. There was but little wind during these nights. On August
5, however, there was a fairly high northeast wind aloft and the temperature
and humidity changed very little with time. The change with altitude in
temperature was greater and in absolute humidity less than on the other
nights.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 141

TABLE 11.—Resulis of captive balloon ascensions at Mount Whitney, Cal.,
August 3-5, 1913

| Surface At different heights above sea
| ae
Date andhour p,... sae Rel. Wind [Height pee ee Humidity Wind
| Seas ture | hum. tion | sure |ture | Rel. Abs. dir.
Aug. 3, 1913: | Mm “65, - WES eel fis Mm. | °C. |P. ct.| g./cu.m.
703 Pale <1 | 446.2 0.6 | 80 |S. || 4,410 | 446.2 | 0.6 | 80 AAO 55
7:18 Pp. m..... | 446.2 0.3 Sr Ss || 4,533 | 439.3 |—o.2| 65 3.1 ESE
7=25 Ds Mss. - | 446.2 0.1 80 |S. | 4,631 | 434.0 |—0.9 | 65 2.9 |ESE
9/3235) Bb alonooe | 446.3 0.3 78m Galmayy lie asGSoull 43050) Te: lec cllnics ctor lee E.
TeAShe Alle dois. 446.3 0.2 om Callas || AnSOly | A24 On l—269) Inrecne al cinerea sieve E.
FAG) Peetilla\erel=lc 446.3 Onset esis | 4,683 | 431.2 |—0.8 | 29 eg) We
8:06 p.m..... 446.3 0.3 rey IIB || 4,80t | 424.9 |—1.5 | 18 0.8 jE.
Serospamece 446.3 |- 0.3 74 |E. || 45744 | 427.9 |—1.3 | 16 Onze ie
Ser5 Pesce 446.4 0.2 75 |E. || 4,802 | 424.9 |—2.3 | 13 Ons Ee
Mons ae sencoone 446.4 0.2 76 |B. | 4,664 | 432.4 |—2.0| 26 Tepit E.
Scanipeaer ces | 446.4 O.1 78 |ENE. || 4,579 | 437-0 |—1-5 | 67 2.9 |ENE.
8:41 p. m..... 446.4 0.0 79 |ENE. || 4,509 | 440.9 |—0.7 | 68 3.1 |ENE.
8:51 Pp. m..-..| 446.5 | —o.2 85 |ENE. | 4,410 | 446.5 |—o.2 |) 85 4.0 |ENE
Aug. 4, 1913; |
G45 peters 446.1 2.3 77 \Calm. || 4,410 | 446.1 | 2.3] 77 4.4 |Calm
6:49 p. m..... 446.2 BoD rs (Ceilieaa il iG |) 1 Zievice Il” Gee lloaddeallsasoaodecs Calm.
6:56 p. m..... 446.2 2.0 76 |Calm. |) 4,852 | 422.3 |—0.9 | 64 2.9 |Calm.
7 =O4AN Pa Wills lele\2 446.2 1.8 74 |Calm. || 5,104 | 409.1 |—2.2]| 37 1.5 |Calm.
Viet De epithets ies 446.2 1.6 72 |Calm. || 5,359] 3096.1 |—4.8 | 34 War SSW.
Win2Z Pe Millelelerss 446.2 1.6 71 |Calm. || 5,230 | 402.6 |—4.4 | 33 eet ibs
7:45 p.m 446.3 Ra 7o \Calm. | 5,316 | 398.3 |—5.6| 24 0.7 |WSW.
FietXoij05 188 g0Une 446.3 T.3 67 |Calm. | 5,216 | 403.3 |—4.9| 23 0.8 |WSW.
Sho pepe. 446.3 I.1 60 |E. || 5,258 | 4or.2 |—4.4 | 19 0.6 |SW.
8:55 p.m..... 446.2 ait 55 |Calm. | 5,201 | 404.0 |—3.6 | 12 0.4 |SSW.
G)BI TOs Sad ooue 446.2 eat 50 |Calm. || 5,229 | 402.6 |—3.6 | 12 0.4 |SSW.
Qf 3010. Ms. 0. 446.2 0.9 46 |Calm. || 5,299 | 399.0 |—5.6 12 0.4 Se
10:00 p. m.. 446.2 0.8 45 |Calm. || 5,198 | 404.0 |—4.3 | 12 0.4 |S.
II:45 p.m 446.0 0.6 5r.. |B. | 4,634 | 433.6 |—1.9] 10 Ona es
11:50 p. m....| 446.0 0.6 51 |E. | 4,509 | 440.5 |—o.7 | 23 Ter | ie
12:00 mdt....| 446.0 0.6 ie HB, | 4,410 | 446.0] 0.6] 51 2.6 |E.
Aug. 5, 1913:
O28) [Os lS aooe 446.0 2.8 51 |Calm. || 4,410 | 446.0 | 2.8 | 51 3.0 |Calm.
6:54 p.m..... 446.1 2.5 52 |Calm 4,625 | 434.3 | 0.8] 54 2.8 |SW.
WSO) Pe Tiere 446.2 1.8 50 |Caim 4,810 | 424.4 |—1.4 | 54 Fos} |INBe
[EEG Dost N oA Oe 446.3 1.8 45 |Calm. || 4,995 | 414.7 |—2.8 | 54 2.1 NE.
i= 5 OuD elie cle | 446.4 1.9 47. |Calm. 4,907 | 414.7 |—3.5 | 54 Ago | IND,
8:05 p. m..... | 446.4 1.8 53 |Calm. | 4,808 | 419.9 |—2.7 | 54 Flom (INS
E77] 10s Tale dune 446.5 gy 57 |Calm. || 4,909 | 414.7 |—3.4 | 54 2.0 |NE.
e726 Fagaae 446.6 ites) 55 |Calm. | 4,861 422.1 |—1.8 |} 54 2.3 |NE
SE5G0ps, tee aee 446.7 to 55 |Calm. || 4,736 | 428.9 |—0.3 | 53 225) NES
9:05 p.m..... 446.7 1.3 55 |NE. | 4,820 | 424.4 |—I.1 | 53 24) NIE:
Q)2205 Pe Me rae 446.6 ta 51 |NE. 4,734 | 428.9 |—0.3 | 51 2.4 |NE.
9:44 Pp. m..... 446.5 I.2 46 |NE. | 4.604 | 438.8 1.0 | 48 2.5 NE
II:00 p. m 446.1 ail 38 |NE | 4,410 | 446.1 I.1 38 2.0 |N#.
:

Aug. & I913.—One captive balloon was used; capacity, 28.6 cu. m.

Few Cu., from the east, prevailed throughout the ascension. ;

Aug. 4, 1913—One captive balloon was used; capacity, 28.6 cu. m.; lifting force at
beginning of ascension, 5.4 kg.

ew Cu., from the south, at 7 p. m. Cloudless by 9 p. m. Lightning was seen over or

near Death Valley. There was considerable electricity on the wire.

Aug. 5, 1913.—One captive balloon was used; capacity, 28.6 cu. m. A P

Few Cu., direction unknown, in early evening. Cloudless after 8.50 p. m. Lightning
was seen on the eastern horizon, near Death Valley.

142

fm

5.3
5.2
51

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

AUG. 5.

AUG .4.

AYE. &

SL

A5LENT O—-O—O|_|

DESLENT *—*—*

—

5.0

49
48
47
46
45
44

5.1
5.0

iz

Tem°C -2-1° 0

Syed SS

ine

49
48
47
46
45
44

SSS 0 I an

Fic. 11.—Temperature gradients (°C.), above Mount Whitney, Cal., August
3, 4, and 5, 1913.

Abs, Hum,
1,/ CUM,

0

as

ae

3 4

Fic. 12—Absolute humidity gradients, grams per cubic meter, above Mount

Whitney, Cal., August 3, 4, and 5, 1913.

TapLE 12.—Temperature differences at 100-meter intervals above Mount
Whitney, Cal., August 3, 4, 5, 1913

Observations
100 200 300
Aug. 3, 1913:
IASCeritislers cil ae 0.6 0.8 0.9
Wiescenteesnes 0.5 1.0 0.4
Aug. 4, 1913: |
JNGCBiaifosocooece 0.4 0.4 0.9
Descent. ...... 153} 1.0 0.5 |
Aug. 5, 19013:
INGA oa uoSeon 0.9 1.0 That
Descent.....- 0.1 0.1 0.9
Means....... 0.63 0.72 0.77

Altitudes (meters)

{e)
oO

HH
NN

500

600

ee eeeeee

ee ceeeee

eet eeeee

peer eens

sent wees

[ene encee

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 143

Table 12 contains the temperature differences at I00-meter intervals above
the surface, as observed in all three ascensions. The mean gradient is 0.70
and is fairly constant at all altitudes up to 900 meters.

FREE-AIR OBSERVATIONS AT LONE PINE, CAL.

The balloon ascensions were carried out by Mr. P. R. Hathaway from a
place about 1 kilometer north of Lone Pine. The instrumental and other
equipment was similar to that used at Mount Whitney. Owing to leakage of
a large number of gas tubes, only four ascensions were possible. These were
made on August 1, 2, 3, and 4, and were begun shortly after sundown. Surface
conditions for making ascensions at this time of day were usually excellent.

TABLE 13.—Results of captive balloon observations at Lone Pine, Cal.,
August I-4, 1913

| Surface | At different heights above sea
Date and hour ‘ Tem- Wind Tem- Humidity 7
| Pres- pera- Eel direc- |Height Pres- 1D C1 = 8 | Sener ena Wind
Sure ture a vom | sure |'ture | Rel. Abs. =
Aug.1- 1913: | Mm. Qs Web Gin M. Mm. °C. |P. ct.| g./cu.m.
9:18 p. m..... C6053 1657 79 Cala: TS, Shor 16.7 | 79 Ti oi |Gotna:
0:30). Ts sz || iteing/ 70 alm. | 1,190 Hong || Bron |) so g.I s
250/105 MWlancac 660.5 | 16.8 78 |Calm. | 1,296 | 648.5 | 22.2 | 37 762) We
OF AARDeMar 600: yee 77 Gales || 2,207 ae 21.4 37 6.9 Mi
TOSIO p.m... .| 0. 18.3 72 : | aegeee 47.7 | 23.0 2 5.7 ‘
10:15 p.m... | 660.8 | 16.7 80 eo | 1,470 | 636.0 | 23.1 | 24 4.9 |W.
10:43 p.m....| 661.0 | 16.7 78 |S. | 1,204 | 655.8 | 22.3 | 46 9.0 S.
moe De ey 661.1 16.7 GS \NS)p | aug | Gousw | woay7 || 93 Tits@ |S,
ug. 2, 1913: i
FRG elects | 658.3 | 23.9 46 |NNW. || 1,137 | 658.3 23.9 | 46 0.9 |INNW
FRR De tolana cal 658.5 | 24.2 45 |NNW. || 1,253 | 649.9 | 27.2 | 30 rege WNic
CG) We Fale ooaG 658.8 | 22.6 48 |NNW. || 1,355 | 642.8 | 27.1 17 4.4 |N.
ae BS 1 roe 659-3 10.4 2 eae | ee oe 2a fe os cae
eeATiayeteieset 5 Q- g Nl Mage 79. of 2 5 :
@)RE() 1b Moo oon 660.9 18.6 66 |Calm. || 1,811 Gre. |) 2257/7 20 4.0 SE.
10:48 p. n.. 662.6 17.5 69 |S. | 1,724 618.9 | 22.9 | 20 4.0 SW.
ne Be m.. pe ee 64 = || 1,728 eee Pit eG) || Zale oo a
5 5 aso 2.9 16.4 77 1,432 41.0 | 24.3 2 -0 5
11:13 p. m.. 662.9 | 16.7 Ws \Se | 1,316 | 649.4 | 25.6 | 21 eo) ee
II:I9 Pp. m....| 662.9 17.0 70 |W. 1,234 | 655.5 | 25.5 2I 4.9 E.
Roe De ilocos) COAG) || Aw 70 |W Usey || Ceo) |) 17/62 || “7O to.2 |W.
ug: 3, 1913:
F/SUT) (OY isla CoG 6 | 661.8 Zt 7/ 54 |Calm. 1,137. 661.8 | 21.7 54 10.2 Calm
7:21 Pp. mM..... 661.9 | 21.7 54 |Calm. | 1,296 | 650.0 | 28.4 | 26 Go SSE
9:25 Pp. m...-.. 664.5 | 22.9 37 |SSW. || 1,137 | 664.5 || 22.9) 37 5 Issw.
ug. 4, I9T3: |
A #9 e igmlcaooa poe 19-8 = ean | 1,137 pee 8 58 9.9 cae
aTTNerate -o | 19. 7 alm. || 1,309 WA, || 0x6) |laccocollaoosconane De
F2GUl Da Wloooos 657.4 | 21.0 43 |Calm | Deo: |) GAG PB. lng hws llooooaane oe SE..
PEAS Dp Bilacoan 658.2 | 22.2 39 |S. H Bana || Fj.6) | Bazi \lps000c|laecocap007 SSE
: @2 Ds Wloocec 658.3 Bey, 38 |S. | 3p) || G26 A Odllisoons cllsnoccsuccs ae
05 p. m....-| 58-3 | 23.0 38 |S. Uy AIXey || (Ge%I5G) || Bab) iccaoor PRCAGC ee SE
8:55 p. m.....| 658.2 | 26.4 yf NS 1,137 | 658.2 | 26.4 | 27 6.7 Se

Aug. I, 1913.—One captive balloon was used; capacity, 28.6 cu. m. Cu. Nb., from the
west, decreased from 5/10 to a few. Light rain fell for about two minutes at 9.35 p. m.

Aug. 2, 1913.—One captive balloon was used; capacity, 31.1 cu. m. St. Cu., from the
south, decreased from 6/10 to a few.

Aug. 3, 1913.—One captive balloon was used; capacity, 31.1 cu. m. 1/10 Cu., direction
unknown, disappeared before the end of the ascension.

ae 4, 1913.—One captive balloon was used; capacity, 31.1 cu. m. The sky was
cloudless.

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IN@s 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 145

The records obtained in the balloon ascensions are given in tabular form in
table 13. Figures 13 and 14 show the temperature and absolute humidity
gradients, respectively. There was always a marked inversion of tempera-
ture between the surface and 200 meters above it, amounting on the average
to 6° C. (See table 14.) From 200 to 300 meters there was practically no
change, but above 300 meters the temperature decreased with altitude at a

AUG. 5. Alt

; 13
; | aaa 12
Abs, Hum, Bist aL

DG ¢ Bi) Ty a 4 BO ABO 30 7 8 9 10 preun,

Fic. 14.—Absolute humidity gradients, grams per cubic meter, above Lone Pine,
Cal., August I, 2, and 3, 1914.

TABLE 14.—Temperature differences at 100-meter intervals above Lone Pine,
Cal., August I-4, 1913

| Altitude (meters)

Observations | | | | |
| 100 | 200 | 300 | 400 | 500 | 600 | 700 | 800 | g00. | 1,000] 1,100} 1,200
| | | | | |
:
Aug. I, 1913: |
WNSGente =a.) = /etsy|=IAG) |—)ntralgoocos Geeoob! aaeecal Gon ona Gabaron DEd boone soos unsead
IDESOSMIES 58a..0| Ba? SOs Oss) lad ooo! Sbavelal eabesel anaes edbaon booted oeuoen|daadee leocons
Aug. 2, 1913: | |
UNS GEM sere —=2.7 |—0.5 | 0.5] 0.7 Os7 || On7 |) Oo |) Oso || wou Teh Wanna) ene cre
Descent. ....|—8.3 | 0.0] 1.1 | 0.8] 0:8 |—o0.2| 0.4) 0.7] 0.8 7 Byala aay
Aug. 3, 1913: | |
INSCetibae rere Shlo® |ooowat omer iss Nea Brena eased eter polos [eeu ae iccradeuctoprey evens teval | ataeeee red feratoteretsalt ater orc ters
Aug. 4, 1913: | | |
INSCetit= aaa =O.2 |S h3) 0-7} 0.7 | 0.7 | a7 | Oo Oa?!) On |) OaH | 0.7 0.7
Descent. .... Sig} | | 8} | 0.5 | I.0 | 0.9 1.0 0.9) 0.9 0.8 | 0.5 0.5
c
Means..... S170 30)| @ 10) 0.68; 0.89! 0.52) oO 68 0 | 0.88) 0.85) 0.80] 0.60
| | | | | | |

fairly uniform rate, the mean difference per 100 meters being 0.73. On
August 2 there was about equal cooling with time at all levels; on the 4th
the temperature changed but little at upper levels and increased somewhat at
the surface.

The absolute humidity (fig. 14) diminished rapidly from the surface to the
altitude at which the highest temperature was recorded. Above this, on
August 2, the only night in which a record of humidity at higher levels was
obtained, it diminished slowly.

VOL. 65

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

146

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 147

During the day there was a moderate breeze from the north blowing down
the valley. This became very light toward evening, and at about the same
time the temperature began to fluctuate, sudden changes of 2° to 5°C.
occurring frequently between 6 p. m. and the time of minimum temperature.
These fluctuations are well shown in the thermograph records at Inde-
pendence, Cal. (fig. 15), and in table 15, which contains observed temperatures
and humidities at Lone Pine, Cal. These observations have been referred to
by Dr. Wm. R. Blair in his discussion of mountain and valley temperatures
(Bulletin Mount Weather Observatory, Washington, 1914, 6:122) and are
in accord with the conclusion there reached that “there is not a stream of
cool air past the slope station, but a direct convective interchange between

TABLE 15.—Fluctuations in surface temperature and humidity at Lone Pine,
Cal., August 2 and 3, 1913

Tem- | Relative | Absolute

Date Time perature | humidity | humidity
1913 P.m. AGE Percent. | g./cu. m.

INGER. Ds aaa CBOSS Re Or COCR COMER ECO AROSE erate 7:48 | 22.2 48 9-3
| 7:51 20.6 56 | 9-9

| 8:01 19.4 64 «| I0.6

8.45 20.0 Soma 9-6

g:10 16.7 75 10.6

9:21 18.7 64. 10.2

T0:01 16.7 75 10.6

II:00 18.3 62 9.6

II:05 16.4 if I0.7

11:48 18.9 60 9.6

AN Get Re BOOS es GOD AO O TREO CODED Me eo or 6:50 2B ot 40 9.2
7:40 Busi 50 10.2

7:50 Ig-4 | 56} 9-3

8:05 20-8 | 45 | 8.1

8:37 19.4 Ge) 8.6

9:09 21-1 42 7.7,

9:33 23.9 34 7.3

9:43 21.8 47 8.9

the cool air on the slope and the free air over the valley at the same or
slightly lower levels.” In general, as shown in table 15, the lower tempera-
tures were accompanied by the higher absolute humidities.

Between 8 and 10.30 p. m. it was necessary to bring the balloon down
because of southerly or southeasterly winds aloft. These winds gradually
extended toward the surface and were warm and dry (table 13). The mixing
of the upper southerly and the lower northerly currents seems to account for
the variations in surface temperature and humidity already referred to.

The fact that the upper southerly wind.is warm and dry suggests the
probability that it originates over the Mohave Desert, which is about 150 kilo-
meters south of Lone Pine. The heating and consequent rising of air over
the desert in the daytime, which gives rise to the southerly current aloft, at
the same time causes the surface northerly current down the valley.

APPENDIX 11

SUMMARY OF SPECTROBOLOMETRIC WORK ON MOUNT WIL-
SON DURING MR. ANGSTROM’S INVESTIGATIONS

By C. G. Appor

Table 16, similar in form to tables 35 and 36 of Vol. III of the
Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution,
contains a summary of all Mount Wilson spectrobolometric observations
obtained by Mr. Aldrich, with accompanying measurements and reductions,
for days in which Mr. Angstrom obtained observations in California in 1913.
The final column is of interest in connection with the pyrheliometric observa-
tions on Mount Whitney, given in Appendix III. The third column contains
spectroscopic determinations by Mr. Fowle of the total depth of precipitable
water existing as vapor above the observing station at Mount Wilson (latitude
34° 12’ 55” N., longitude 118° 03’ 34” W., elevation 1,727 meters or 5,665 feet).
The letters given under “grade” have the following meanings: wp, very
poor; p, poor; g, good; wg, very good; e, excellent. All observations were
made between 6 and Io o’clock in the morning except those of August 8,
which were made between 2 and 6 o'clock in the afternoon. For a discussion
of the methods and apparatus used the reader is referred to Vol. III of the
Annals, cited above.

148

ieee el

149

°

RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

NO. 3

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ANE ela DIDS IU 2

SOME PYRHELIOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON MOUNT
WHITNEY

By A. K. Ancstr6m anp E. H. Kennarp

In the summer of 1913 an expedition supported by a grant from the
Smithsonian Institution proceeded to California in order to study the noc-
turnal radiation under different atmospheric conditions. In connection with
these investigations we had an opportunity to measure the intensity of the
solar radiation during seven clear days on the summit of Mount Whitney
(4,420 m.). These measurements were made for different air masses and
include observations of the total radiation and of the radiation in a special
part of the spectrum, selected by means of an absorbing screen, as had been
proposed by K. Angstrém2 Our paper will present the results of the observa-
tions and a computation from them of the solar constant.

INSTRUMENTS

The observations were made with Angstrém’s pyrheliometer No. 158. With
this instrument the energy of the radiation falling upon the exposed strip is
given in calories per square centimeter per minute by the relation /=kC’,
where C is the compensating current sent through the shadowed strip, and k is
a constant which was determined for this instrument at the solar observatory
of the Physical Institute in Upsala and found to be 13.58." The compensating
current was furnished by four dry cells, which proved entirely suited to the
purpose. It was measured by a Siemens and Halske milliammeter. For
further details of the instrument and the method of using it, we refer to the
original paper.’

The absorbing screen, used in order to study a limited part of the spectrum,
was composed of a water cell, in which the water layer had a thickness of
I cm., and a colored glass plate, Schott and Genossen, 43611, the thickness of
which was 2.53mm. The transmission of the combination for different wave
lengths as previously determined at Upsala by Mr. A. K. Angstrom is given
in figure 16. The maximum of transmission occurs at wave length 0.526,
and 85 per cent of the transmitted light is included between 0.484 u and 0.5760 uw.

* Reprinted by permission from the Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 4,
Pp. 350-360.

*iNova, Acta Regs soc, ScUpsaly Ser. Vee. Nowe

* A comparison made at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington showed
that the readings of this instrument are 4.57 per cent lower than the Smith-
sonian scale.

* Astrophysical Journal, 9, 332, 1890.

150

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM I51

The local time of each observation, from which the sun’s zenith angle and
finally the corresponding air mass was computed, was determined from the
readings of three watches. Before and after the expedition to Mount Whit-
ney, the watches were compared with the daily telegraphic time signal at
Claremont, Cal. The time is probably accurate within half a minute.

6 § (Omi.

-45 -50 -55 .60 -65 lk
Fic. 16.—Transmission curve of absorbing screen.

RESULTS

The results are given in tables 17 and 18. Table 17 refers to the measure-
ments of the total radiation and contains: (1) the date, (2) the local apparent
time (t), (3) the computed air mass (m), (4) readings of the milliammeter
(s), (5) the total radiation computed from the readings. Table 18 contains the
same quantities relating to measurements taken with the absorbing screen.

Bemporad’s* expression for the air mass in terms of the apparent zenith
angle was employed. His values for 60°, 70°, 80°, and 85° were available in
a short table given by F. Lindholm. The differences between these values
and the secant of the angle give the (negative) corrections to be applied to
the secants of these angles. Through these values of the correction an alge-
braic curve of four terms was passed and the correction was then calculated
for other angles. In obtaining the apparent zenith angle, allowance was made
for refraction.

* Mitteilungen der Grossherzoglichen Sternwarte zu Heidelberg, No. 4, 1904.
7 Nova Acta Reg. Soc., Sc. Upsal., Ser. IV, 3, No. 6.

152 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS © VOL. 65

TABLE 17.—Measurements of total radiation

s Om
t _m Milliamp. cal.
xg em.2min.
Ih, Gaile
August 2 6 34.2 3-337 100-1 1.224
6 49.2 2372 102-5 1.287
FO) 7/ 2.088 106.3 1.381
& 1302 1.657 108.8 1.446
Q 20.7 1.299 Tbe 3} 1.514
INGISTISEREALrece ne Hees ceo 6@ 23.3 3.630 99.4 _ 1.202
@ 5820 2072) wa! 104.0 1, 322
ORS Don | 104.1 1.325
8 As® i , AMT 108.6 1.441
Q) 6.8 1.359 T10.5 1.493
EL O33 1.089 | 111.7 1.520
Tit (Soe! 1.081 112.0 1.533
INDORE By Bo Mls onncc0006 6 29-5 3.608 97.8 1.169
TP BLO 2.616 103.0 1.296
7 48.0 1.900 107.0 1.399
8 59.0 1-307 110.6 1.495
1 Ons 1-190 III.1 1.508
ANRC Sy PS Wis og aaccde0 DD On8) 1.103 II1.2 TS ir
Bi BES 1.410 109.5 1.465
A Aes 1.830 100.3 1.381
AL BRS 2.185 104.2 1.320
Ase 2.783 100.1 1.224
B BAB So B77 96.6 1.141
INUEUSE 1O)scho¢seaccco onal 9 © 38330 3.630 95.6 i, wit7/
[onde 7c PEO) 2.681 IoO.5 1.235
7 50.5 1.857 105.5 I. 360
AMI UStriie epee ceractn cee eee @ 27.1 3-952 96.9 1.147
6 54.6 2.914 101.9 1.269
7 AO-1 2-053 100.0 1.373
8 41.6 1.514 109.3 1.460
nO) 1033.00 TL 7y7 TEES 9 1.525
ENOTES WE Gee do enous oa 90 20s6 4.018 98.1 iO
6 509.1 2.817 103.6 Tess
ae Seal 1.889 108.5 1.439
871 1.435 III.1 - 1.509
TOMAS RON 1.127 113-0 1.561

RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM

NO. 3 153
TAsle 18.—Measuremenis with absorbing screen
; aS Om
t m Milliamp. cal.
x2 cm.? min.
its Bike

August 2. 6 18.2 4.044 104.5 0.0371
6 54.7 2.733 114.1 0.0442
7 2527 2.158 122.0 0.0505
8 22.7 1.589 125.4 0.0534
3 Bit 97 1.530 120.8 0.0546
9 15.2 1.319 128.8 0.0562
PNTIOUS tay Anetoncone enol 6 16.8 4.204 103-1 0.0361
6 30.3 3.316 112.1 0.0426
W Wigs 2.406 118.9 0.0480
8 9.3 1.699 125.3 0.0533
9 19.3 i. Bull 128.0 0.0556
ri 03.4) 1.077 129.9 0.0573
INTIS ISH) 1S) APNE ns wasn se. 6 17.0 4.237 101.8 0.0352
6 360 28352 108.8 0.0402
2 Ba5 1.755 TAZ, il 0.0515
9 5-5 1.368 127.9 0.0554
MOM/O i, w7s 129.4 0.0568
AGIs JS BsiNtso gu ddendon 2 OnOm: 1.209 10)..@ 0.0567
3 12.8 1.457 126.7 0.0545
4 11.8 1-907 122.4 0.0509
A 40.3 2.287 118.3 0.0475
5 10.3 2.928 114.1 0.0441
5 30-3 3.615 106.6 0.0386
ANTIGUGE Clea eos os Goo mos 6 14.4 4.607 96.0 0.0313
6 33.9 3-559 103.4 0.0363
II 38.9 1.126 128.8 0.0563
ENMIEBIGIE WO g noesiaeen aed e O72 5 4.211 100.6 0.0344
6 38.0 3.428 100.7 0.0387
TORO 2.570 113.8 0.0439
8 2.0 1.804 122.4 0.0508
8 6.0 1.707 122.0 0.0505
ANTICADISE DAIL rahe OMe ae 6 14.6 4.716 102.5 0.0356
6 33.6 3.641 107.9 0.0395
7 Oot 2.770 114.6 0-0445
7 Ale, Tk 1.992 121i 0.0507
8 51.1 1.462 127.1 0.0549
10 18.6 1.166 129.9 0.0573
NGISWISE! T2eta tic ieacie soe ek 6 13.1 4.895 99.1 0.0333
6 34.1 3.656 108.0 0.0307
7 RT 2.671 116.4 0.0459
B Bo6 1.804 123.5 0.0517
9 2.6 1.409 128.1 0.0557
IO 52.6 T.115 US 55 0.0587

154 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE EMPIRICAL METHODS FOR COMPUTING .THE SOLAR
CONSTANT

Empirical methods for determining the solar constant from pyrheliometric
measurements alone have been proposed by K. Angstrém? and by Fowle.?
Both these methods are based upon results obtained from spectrobolometric
observations. Angstrom’s method assumes that from Abbot and Fowle’s
observations we know both the distribution of energy in the sun’s spectrum
and the general transmission of the atmosphere for all wave lengths in terms
of its value for any given wave length. It assumes further that the absorption
caused by the water vapor is a known function of the water-vapor pressure at
the earth’s surface; for this, Angstrom proposed an empirical formula based
upon his spectrobolometric curves. The influence of diffusion and absorption
can then be calculated if the transmission for some chosen wave length is
known from pyrheliometric observations on a limited part of the spectrum.

Fowle’s method is much briefer. He plots the logarithms of the observa-
tions against the air masses and extrapolates to air-mass zero by means of
the straight line that best fits the points. To the “apparent solar constant”
thus obtained he applies an empirical correction depending upon the locality,
and derived from local spectrobolometric observations.

Since these methods are founded upon the spectrobolometric method, one
may ask, what is the justification for using them instead of the latter? Can

they be expected to give something more than the method upon which they

are founded? To the first question one may reply that the justification lies in
their simplicity, which makes it possible to apply them under a wide range of
conditions where the more cumbersome bolometric method could never be used.
A spectrobolometric investigation, like that of Abbot on Mount Whitney in
1910, will probably always be a rare event. But especially in regard to the
question of solar variability it is desirable that the number of simultaneous
observations be large and extended to as high altitudes as possible.

The second question, whether the abridged methods can ever deserve the
same confidence, or even in rare cases give greater accuracy than the spectre-
bolometric observations, is one that must be answered rather through experi-
mental results than through general considerations. Here, however, two
points may be noted.

The first is, that the spectrobolometric method, which under ideal conditions
is naturally superior to any abridged method, is in all practical cases a method
involving a large number of precautions, some of which are very difficult to
take. The abridged methods, founded as they are upon mean values, may
possibly under special conditions avoid accidental errors to which single
spectrobolometric series are subjected.

Secondly, it may be noted, that even in the analytical method of bolometry,
there arises some uncertainty in regard to the ordinates of the bolometric
curve, corrected for absorption, at the points where absorption bands are
situated. This causes an uncertainty in the water-vapor correction in this
method as well as in the abridged methods founded upon it.

* Nova Acta Reg. Soc., Sc. Upsal., Ser. IV, 1, No. 7.
? Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian Inst., 2, 114.

ee

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 155

The methods just discussed lead to a numerical value for the solar constant.
But the measurements in a selected part of the spectrum lead also to a direct
test of solar variability, which seems likely to be especially valuable because
these observations are not affected by aqueous absorption.

MEASUREMENTS WITH ABSORBING SCREEN
We may put:
I=Ioe-vYm

where Jy is the energy transmitted through the absorbing screen at the limit
of the atmosphere, J is its value after passing through the air mass m, and
y is a constant dependent upon the scattering power of the atmosphere. If
now we plot log J against m, the points should lie on a straight line, whose
ordinate for mo is log Io.

The values of Jo thus obtained from our observations are given under the
heading J) in table 19. The straight lines were run by the method of least
squares, not so much because the presuppositions of this method seemed here
to be satisfied, as because thereby all personal bias was eliminated. The
“ probable error” e of each value of Jo is appended as a rough indication of its
reliability, and the weighted mean Jo is given at the bottom of the table. A
comparison between the different values of Jo shows that they all differ by
less than 2 per cent; half of them by less than 4% per cent from the mean
value. The deviation falls as a rule within the limits of the probable error.

This result thus fails to support the variability of the sun inferred by Abbot
from simultaneous observations at Bassour and Mount Wilson. We cannot,
however, with entire safety draw any conclusions about the total radiation
from measurements in a limited part of the spectrum. All that can be said
with certainty is that a change of the energy in the green part of the solar
spectrum exceeding 2 per cent during the period of our observations 1s
improbable.

If we, from this, are inclined to infer that the total solar radiation during the
same period was constant, this inclination rests upon a statement by Abbot*
himself to this effect: “So far as the observations? may be trusted, then,
they show that a decrease of the sun’s emission of radiation reduces the
intensity of all wave lengths; but the fractional decrease is much more rapid
for short wave lengths than for long.”

Yet unpublished measurements by Mr. A. K. Angstrom, in Algeria at 1,160 m.
altitude, give a mean value for J» equal to 0.0708, which is in close agreement
with the value 0.0702 given above. On the former occasion Mr. Abbot’s
spectrobolometric observations gave a mean value for the solar constant of
1.945. If we assume the energy transmitted by our green glass on Mount
Whitney to bear the same ratio to the total energy, the Mount Whitney
observations give a value for the solar constant reduced to mean solar distance
equal to 1.920, which differs by less than 1 per cent from the former value.

+ Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution, 3, 133.
1913.
? Observations of Bassour and Mount Wilson, 1911-1912.

150 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

MEASUREMENTS OF THE TOTAL RADIATION

The general basis of the Angstrém-Kimball method of calculation has
already been described. It is here convenient to make use of the spectrum of
constant energy introduced by Langley, where the abscissa represents the
energy included between an extreme (ultra-violet) wave length and the wave
length corresponding to the abscissa ; the energy-density plotted as ordinate
would then be constant. A table giving wave lengths and corresponding
abscissze is given by Kimball*

Referred to such a spectrum, the atmospheric transmission yx for any wave-
length is well represented by the empirical formula

Yapmiarnmd() (1)
where + is the abscissa, m the air mass, and 6 a quantity dependent upon the
scattering power of the atmosphere. Angstrém made the natural assumption
¢(8) =6. Kimball? finds that ¢(8) =v 4 better fits the observations at
Washington and Mount Wilson. In the latter case we have,

P—003, V—=O06
Making these substitutions in (1) and integrating,

Om=Oo oon ane
or :
0.934
Om= Qo I+ 0.18m V 6
‘Kimball then adds an empirical correction for the absorption due to water
vapor, based upon bolometric measurements at Washington and at Mount
Wilson, and finally obtains

O m

—[o.061—o.0085-+0.012E om |

Qo=

0.93770 (2)

t+o.18m V8

where Eo represents the depth in millimeters to which the earth’s surface
would be covered by water if all the aqueous vapor were precipitated. We
have adopted this expression, but instead of attempting to determine Eo from
humidity measurements at the earth’s surface we have eliminated it between
two equations such as (2) involving different air masses.

Kimball eliminates 6 between two such equations. We have, however,
followed the original method of K. Angstrom and have determined 6 for each
day from our measurements with the green glass. The energy maximum of
the light transmitted by it lies at 0.526 (see fig. 1), to which corresponds the
abscissa 0.27 in the constant energy spectrum. Hence for the transmitted
green light

Im=I00.93”°0. 270-18mv6

from which 6 can be computed. The values of 6 thus obtained are given in
table Io.

* Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 1, Parts 2 and 4.
? Ibid.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 157

In order to compute Qo, a smooth curve was drawn through the observations
and values of Om for m=1I, 2, and 3 were read off from the curve. These
values and the value of 6 for the day were inserted in (2) and Eo then elimi-
nated between the first and second and the first and third of the equations thus
obtained. The results are given in table 19 under the headings Qu, Qis; the
mean of these for each day is given under QxKA and represents the solar con-
stant as obtained for that day by the Angstr6m-Kimball method.

The mean value of all the measurements, reduced to mean solar distance, is

1.931 mecal (Angstrém scale) or 2.019 (Smithsonian scale). The maximum
cm.” min.

deviation from the mean is 3 per cent.

TABLE 19.—Final results

Pp il e Or Qis OKA OF
mm. g cal. ee cal. cal. cal. cal.
cm.?min. em.2min.| cm.2min.| cm.?min.) ¢m.*min.
AUSUSt. 2.25--|(3-02)| 0.30 | ©0689| 0.9) | 1.904 | 1.886 | 1.895 ||(1.820)
ENGOUISt Ane ach BAO 1O.20))) O.0078 |" OO | 1.047 | 1.82 Maseye) |) 470K}
PRUs es ACNIA OM ce tOMe2nONOOSs]| 2 O.3))| L-o71<|)| l.O74.)) T0734 |) Doge
August 5.P.M.| 2.9 | 0.32 | 0.0684] “0.8 | 1.887 | 1.900 | 1.894 | 1.878
PATS aa Meas ile rgeieenas |\(O]. 3) I (QHOOSS) ai «sll sce, gio asici| wie winds Wleii| Sleds Swaialieha
August I0..... Bee Ons LOsOG ZO) EOn 7 ene eta eh O20) 1\(L,.626) (1.770)
PNOSUSH Medan 220 O40 i OLO0Ss) 0:5.) F.o77 .| 870 | £6874 | 1.703
PMUSMSEG2e e220) | 0.20) |) OL0085 || 6.5, | 1-896 | 1.888 | 1.892 | 72-802

Finally, Fowle’s abridged method was applied to the same observations.
Sufficient observations are not available for the elaboration of a special cor-
rection suited to Mount Whitney. But from the values of 6, it appears that
the transmission over Mount Whitney was about the same as over Mount
Wilson, where the average value of 6 is 0.25; and the water-vapor pressure,
the most uncertain factor, was low (2-4 mm.). Hence it may not be devoid
of interest to apply here Fowle’s rule as elaborated for Mount Wilson, which
is: To the “apparent solar constant” obtained by straight-line extrapolation
add 2.7 per cent and as many per cent as there are millimeters in the water-
vapor pressure. The results thus obtained are given in table 19 under the
heading QO; the mean water-vapor pressure is given under p.

a.
Weighted mean Jo = 0.0683 —.———
cm.” min.
: cals
reduced to mean solar distance Jo = 00702 —..—
cm.” min.

(Angstrém scale) ‘
Mean reduced to mean solar distance: QKA =1.931(A.),
cal.

3 min.

= 2.019 (Sm.)

Or =1.872(A),

= 1.960 (Sm.) =

cm.’ min.

158 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

SUMMARY

Our pyrheliometric observations on the top of Mount Whitney, extending
from August 2 to August 12, 1913, have led to the following results:

1. A variation in the solar constant amounting to more than 2 per cent during
this time is improbable.

2. The solar constant computed from the measurements in a selected part
cal.
cm.” min.
(Smithsonian scale), with a possible error of 1.5 per cent. This value is
obtained on the assumption that the energy included between 0.4844 and
0.570 u is a constant known fraction of the total energy in the solar spectrum.

3. The solar constant computed by the Angstrom-Kimball method was found

to be 2.019 _ cal. (Smithsonian).
c in.

of the spectrum, reduced to mean solar distance, came out 1.929

2

4. The solar constant computed according to Fowle’s method comes out
1.960 eee — (Smithsonian).

cm.” min.

The value of the solar constant given in (2) is in close agreement with
Abbot’s mean value of 1.932 obtained from several series of observations
made during the years 1902-1912 at much lower altitudes (e. g., at 1160 m. in
Algeria). The value given in (3) is also in close agreement with the solar
constant computed by Kimball according to the same method from measure-
ments at Washington. Consequently our observations give no support to a
value of the solar constant greatly exceeding 2 cole 3

cm.” min.

Because of their bearing upon the question of solar variability, it seems
desirable that the observations in selected parts of the spectrum by means of
absorbing screens should be extended to different localities, and that if possible
simultaneous measurements at elevated stations should be undertaken.

- CORNELL UNIVERSITY,
December, 1913.

Nore—After the publication of the paper treating the pyrheliometric
observations on Mt. Whitney by Dr. Kennard and myself, the spectrobolo-
metric observations at Mt. Wilson have been published by Dr. Abbot. From
both the simultaneous series, it is evident that our observations have been
carried out during a period of relatively high constancy of the solar activity.
No evidence in regard to the variability of the solar radiation can therefore
with safety be drawn from these few observations alone. If the doubtful
observations of August 8 and August Io are excluded, the simultaneous
observations at the two places seem, however, to confirm one another very
well, as may be seen from figure 17. It seems, therefore, to be probable that
the variations in the computed solar constant values are due to a real solar
variability, the existence of which is very strongly indicated by the work of
several expeditions of the Smithsonian Institution. f

ANDERS ANGSTROM.

* Annals II and III of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian
Institution.

NO. 3 RADIATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE—ANGSTROM 159

Be August }913 10 =

Circles: Mt. Wilson solar constant values.
Crosses: Mt. Whitney solar constant values.

Fic. 17.

oe

\ _
<a

my

rah

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 4

Hodgkins Fund

NEW EVIDENCE ON THE INTENSITY OF.
SOLAR RADIATION OUTSIDE
THE ATMOSPHERE

BY
C. G. ABBOT, F. E. FOWLE, AND L. B. ALDRICH

ee | Nepes

(PusLication 2361)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JUNE 19, 1915

;

TBe Lord Battimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.

Hodgkins Fund

NE Vie VED ENCEION= ths INTENSIDY OF SOLAR
RUAIDILA TON, QUI SIID Ia; ASUS ANIIWOSIZIBUDIRD,

Bya@y Ges bBOt. hE hOWEE, AnpeL.. Bo ALDRICH

The following investigations were suggested by several criticisms
of the work of the Astrophysical Observatory on the “ Solar Con-
stant of Radiation.” We shall show: (1) That on fine days at Mt.
Wilson there is no observable systematic change of atmospheric
transparency from the moment of sunrise to about 10 o’clock, and
(2) That the intensity of solar radiation even at 24 kilometers (15
miles) altitude, at less than one twenty-fifth atmospheric pressure,
falls below 1.9 calories per square centimeter per minute.

It will be useful to preface the paper by a brief account of our
earlier work. We shall draw attention also to various facts tending
to support the result heretofore obtained, namely: The mean value
of the “solar constant” is 1.93 calories per square centimeter per
minute.

SUMMARY OF EARLIER WORK

In Vol. III of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of
the Smithsonian Institution, we published the methods employed, the
apparatus used, and results obtained in determinations of the mean
intensity of solar radiation outside the atmosphere during the years
1902 to 1912. The method employed was that of Langley.’ It
requires measuring the intensity of the total radiation of the sun
with the pyrheliometer and also the measurement of the intensity of
the rays of the different wave lengths with the spectro-bolometer.
Measurements of both kinds are made repeatedly during a clear
forenoon or afternoon from the time when the sun is low until it
becomes high or vice versa. In this way we determine how rapidly

*“ Report on the Mount Whitney Expedition,’ Professional Papers, Signal
Service, No. 15, pp. 135 to 142, and table 120, values I to 5:

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 4

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLKECTIONS VOL. 65

the rays of the sun as a whole and of individual wave lengths in
particular increase in intensity as their path in air diminishes. From
this we estimate the total intensity of the solar radiation outside the
atmosphere altogether.

There are certain parts of the spectrum where by reason of power-
ful selective absorption of rays by water vapor and other terrestrial
atmospheric vapors and gases, sufficiently accurate atmospheric
transmission coefficients cannot be determined in this manner. This
offers no great difficulty, for, with Langley, we assume that these
absorption bands would be absent outside the atmosphere. Hence
the intensity of these parts of the spectrum outside the atmosphere
can be determined by interpolation from the intensities found on
either side of them.

Whatever the value of the atmospheric extinction of solar rays,
all good solar constant work depends on accurate pyrheliometry
expressed in standard calories.

During the investigation we devised two forms of standard pyr-
heliometer on quite different principles. These instruments agree
with each other to within 0.5 per cent, and they yield values of the
solar radiation ranging from 3 to 4 per cent above those found with
different copies of the Angstrém pyrheliometer. This latter instru-
ment was adopted as the international standard for the measurement
of radiation by the meeting of the International Meteorological
Committee held at Southport in the year 1903 and by the Inter-
national Union for Solar Research at its meeting at Oxford in the
year-io@os.. HN TAn wk: Angstrém has, however, lately pointed out
that the Angstrém instrument is subject to slight errors which cause
it to read about 2 per cent too low, according to his opinion. If so,
this brings the scale of the Angstrom within less than 2 per cent of
the scale of the Smithsonian Institution. The latter scale is fortified
by the fact that in our several standard pyrheliometers it is possible
to introduce and determine test quantities of heat. This has been

repeatedly done in each of these instruments, and the test quantities”

of heat have been recovered to within 0.5 per cent.

*Investigations of Fowle showed, however, that transmission coefficients

can be obtained even in the great infra-red bands of water vapor, whose
employment would practically obliterate the bands outside the atmosphere.
Hence we may conclude that if there are diffuse atmospheric bands not easily
recognizable, they will be almost exactly allowed for by ordinary transmission
coefficients. See Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 47.

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, POWLE, AND ALDRICH | 3

The following table gives the results of nearly 700 measurements
of the solar constant of radiation as published in Vol. III of the
Annals above cited: *

TasLte 1—Mean Solar Radiation Outside the Atmosphere

Expressed in standard 15° calories per square centimeter per minute at mean
solar distance

Station | Washington Bassour | Mt. Wilson | Mt. Whitney | Total
|
BiGarisu ss sayin er ies 1902-1907 | IQII-I912 | 1905-1912 | IQOQ-I19I0 |......
Altitudes (meters) | 10 1,160 | 1,730 ASAZO.” Pear.
Observations..... | oy) 2 | 573 4 696
Mean result...... | 1.968 1.928 | £033). | 1.923 1.933

The Washington results fall a little higher than the others. This
may be due, in part at least, to the fact that most of them were made
while sunspots were numerous, for our investigations at Mt. Wilson
indicate that high values prevail when sunspots are at a maximum.

*We note here the following errors which have been found in Vol. III of
the Annals, partly by ourselves, and partly by others who have kindly com-
municated them: 4

Page 119, figure 11, Nov. 8 misplotted. Should be 2.004, see p. 105.
Page 129, table 42, Nov., 1908, for 1.947 read 1.961.
Under “ Mean,” for 1.936 read 1.945.

Page 130, figure 16, Nov., 1908, for 1.947 plot 1.961.

Page 132, table 43, 14th column, for 592 read 607; for 1,338 read 1,363.
16th column, for — 4.4 read —6.6; for —2.1 read — 3.9.

Page 134, table 44, In 1908, for 1.936 read 1.945.
In “ Total,” for,1.9315 read 1.9333.
Under “ General mean,” for 1.932 read 1.933.

Page 138, table 47, Wave lengths, for .5995, .7200, .8085, .9215, 1.0640, 1.1474,
1.2230, 1.3800, read .5980, .7222, .8120, .9220, 1.0620,
UNCC, WARES iey7op

Page 162, table 58, We withdraw the conclusion based on this table as to the
direction of the change of distribution of solar radiation
with change of “solar constant.” A great body of as
yet unpublished experiments leads to modifications.

Page 201, table. Under “Intensity,” for 1,338 read 4,160.

In regard to the matter mentioned by Kron (Vierteljahr. Astron. Gesell. 49
Jahr., p. 68, 1914), we included in our statement, page 127, two days of I911 in
which the Bassour work was very satisfactory, but the Mt. Wilson work was
not. We regret the errors in our figure I5 mentioned by Kron. The principal
one is the omission of August 31. Two others are misplotting the Mt. Wilson
values for September 4 and September 9. All the corrections improve the
appearance of figure 15. See page 122 for the true values.

4. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Our determinations rest on the assumption that for all excellent
days the atmosphere may be regarded without sensible error as made
up of layers, concentric with the earth, which may differ in trans-
parency from layer to layer in any gradual manner, but which, within
the time and space covered by a solar beam during a single morning
of observation, are for each layer by itself sensibly of uniform
transparency. As the relative transparency of the several layers is
not assumed to be known, it is convenient to limit the duration of a
single series of observations to the, time interval during which the
solar zenith distance is less than 75°. During this interval the rate
of decrease of path of the solar beam in the atmosphere, with decreas-
ing solar zenith distance, is sensibly the same in all the supposed
atmospheric layers, and is proportional to the change of the secant
of the zenith distance. For greater zenith distances than these this
proportionality does not hold, because of the influences of curvature
of the earth and of atmospheric refraction.

Figures I and 2, and table 2, show something of the variety of
conditions of observation encountered ; first, as regarding the inten-
sity of sunlight at the observing station; second, as to the effect of
atmospheric humidity on the infra-red spectrum; third, as the effect
of dust upon the visible spectrum. We draw attention to the close
agreement of the solar constant values obtained in these contrasting
circumstances of observation.

TaBLeE 2—Variecty of Conditions of Observation

| Trans- |

Atmos- s
pheric Rawls |mission|Correc-
B Tem- | water | Precip- icccacus coefa- | ted
Place Sas Date pera- | vapor | itable Zenith cient | solar
eter | ture pres- | water? distance Wave | con-
' sure at Ne = length | stant
/ station : | A=.52
. ~ = ae Ske /
ems. mms. eon calories : g
Pons | Bebo 85. O07 MO AS. 1, vAc 1.352 |) :837 |faaxve
Washington 76.5 May ry, 1907 29.0 = fee 0-930 = 2.034
: June 9, 1912 14.0 .94 | 12. 1.302 55 |1.903
Bassour.... 66-3 July 26, 1912 26.0 | 5.360 | II.9 es = 1.915
z. . | Atig. 2T, 1910 -| 2320) | 730° |"22-5 7) Eas .852" |1.933
Mt. Wilson.) 62.5 | Ayo ar, torr | 23.0 | 2.50 | 11.2 | 1.370 | .843 |1-944
fe _ | Sept. 3, 1900 1.0 | 1.97 |(0.g0)} 1.5 .905 |I.Q5I
Mt. Whitney) 44-7 Aue. f4, 1910 | 2.0 | 2.05 | 0.60 1.607!) .923 |1.923

1 This value is corrected as suggested in note 2, Annals III, page 113. ;
2 Determined by Fowle’s spectroscopic method, and gives the depth of liquid water which
would result if all the atmospheric water vapor above the station should be precipitated.
Experiments of 1913 show close agreement of this method in its results with those o tained
for the same days by integration of humidity observed at all altitudes by sounding balloons.

Sate le wet mA

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 5

From the foregoing the reader may see that the soundness of the
theory of the atmospheric extinction of radiation employed by us is
supported by the fact that its application to observations made under
widely diverse conditions yields nearly identical values of the inten-
sity of solar radiation outside the atmosphere. Nevertheless, it is
maintained by some critics that our estimate of the atmospheric
extinction is less than half large-enough. It seems very singular
that a grossly erroneous theory, according to which, however, the

Fic. 1.—Illustrating Atmospheric Extinction on a Clear Day and on a
Hazy Day.

Curve a, Bassour, June 9, 1912. Air-Mass, 1.

Curve b, Bassour, June 9, 1912. Air-Mass, 3.

Curve c, Bassour, July 26, 1912. Air-Mass, 1.

Curve d, Bassour, July 26, 1912. Air-Mass, 3.

Gr Diner

transmission coefficients of the atmosphere for green light are found
to vary in different circumstances from 0.63 to 0.92, should neverthe-
less correlate its errors in such a way that all these diverse values of
transmission coefficients should lead to equal values of the intensity
of solar radiation outside the atmosphere.

In further support of our values of atmospheric transmission, we
call attention to their connection with Lord Rayleigh’s theory of the
scattering of light by molecules and particles small as compared with
the wave length of light. According to this the exponent of scatter-
ing varies inversely as the fourth power of the wave length, and thus

VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

eee Ne eee NY Ge a ee ee

‘6c71=7 yrs “Lo61 V1 Avy ‘UOJSUIYSeA “G 2AIND
‘2011 = 7 wRIEBS ‘OI6I ‘SI “SnYy ‘AouTTY A “IN “PD 2AIND
‘lode JaJeA\ fo uondsosqy surjessni{[[—e “Om :

Or MK oe) d WV

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH W

the product of fourth power of wave length by logarithm of trans-
mission coefficient should be constant. As shown by one of us, the
coefficients of atmospheric transmission obtained on Mt. Wilson
depend slightly on the total atmospheric humidity included between
Mt. Wilson and the sun. The transmission coefficients may be
reduced to dry air conditions by applying a very small correction to
them. These corrected coefficients, a,, are found to be in close
harmony with Lord Rayleigh’s theory, as is shown by the following
table. The observed values of a are means for September 20 and
September 21, 1914:

Wave lengthaA inulo. 3504 Pearoale: 3074/0. 4307 ease 53480. 57420.68580. 7044

Observed trans- | |

mission a..... .610| .671) -744) .786) .851 892 .893, .950, -969
Corrected trans-| — | |
misSiON dp)..... -632| .686] .752| .808| .863) .898) -905) .950| .979

M log ay. ......./—30.0/—31.1 —30.9}—31.8}—32.7;—38.2;—46. 7-40. 331.4

The deviation from a*constant ratio in the yellow and red spectrum
is doubtless due to the very large number of atmospheric absorption
lines in this part of the spectrum.

By the aid of Lord Rayleigh’s theory of the scattering of light,
Mr. Fowle -has determined from the Mt. Wilson experiments the
number of molecules per cubic centimeter of dry air at standard
temperature and pressure. He finds the value (2.70+0.02) x 10”,
while Millikan obtained, by wholly dissimilar methods, (2.705+
WOO5 x 10.

In the course of our experiments at Mt. Wilson, we found the
solar radiation outside the atmosphere variable in short irregular
periods of from five to ten days, and to have a variable range of from
2to 10 per cent. That this variability is really solar was confirmed
by independent simultaneous observing at Bassour in Algeria and
still more recently by as yet unpublished experiments on the distribu-
tion of brightness over the sun’s disk. ‘This latter method is quite
independent of atmospheric disturbances. It seems to us that if our
solar constant results were erroneous to the extent that the solar
constant is really 3.5 calories instead of 1.93, as some of our critics
would persuade us, the probability of finding these real solar varia-
tions of from 2 to Io per cent by simultaneous observing at stations
separated by one-third of the circumference of the earth would be
very small. We should suppose that if there are atmospheric con-

*F. E. Fowle, Astrophysical Journal, 38, 392, 1913; 40, 435, 1914.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

ditions which lead to our underestimating by nearly 50 per cent the
intensity of solar radiation outside the atmosphere, these would
probably be variable from day to day; so that such minute real
changes of the total intensity of the sun’s radiation as we have found
would have been swallowed up in the irregular local fluctuations of
the transparency of the atmosphere.

CRITICISMS OF THE WORK

We turn frotn this summary of the work and the circumstances
which heretofore indicated its validity, to a discussion of the criti-
cisms which have been made of it by several authors, and the new
experiments we have made to refute them. We take the following
summaries of objections from several recent articles :*

1. Mr. F. W. Very remarks that there are several reliable acti-
nometers, capable, when properly handled, of giving results correct
to I or 2 per cent, but that unfortunately some of them may give
results 20 per cent in error when inefficiently used or imperfectly
corrected. Although Mr. Very says in another place that our deter-
minations rest upon perfected instruments and admirable care, yet
he has seemed to indicate by his praise of values of the solar radiation
obtained from observations on the summit of Mt. Whitney, which
reached 2.0 calories per sq. cm. per minute, that he perhaps considers
our results to be 15 per cent too low, because in three different years
we have never observed on Mt. Whitney values exceeding 1.7 calories
per sq. cm. per minute.

2. It is pointed out that we employ the equation *

log R=m log a+log A

as the equation of a straight line. In this equation FR is the intensity
of one wave length of radiation at the station; A, the corresponding

*F. W. Very, Astrophysical Journal, 34, 371, 1011; 37, 25 and 31, 1013;
American Journal of Science, 4th Series, 36, 600, 1913; 39, 201, 1915; Bulletin
Astronomique, xxx, 5, I913.

F. H. Bigelow. Boletin de la Oficina Meteorologica Argentina, 3, 69-87,
1912; American Journal of Science, 4th Series, 38, 277, 1914.

E. Kron, Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft, 49, 53, 1914.

* As pointed out by Radau, Langley, and others, this equation is applicable
only to homogeneous radiation, that is, radiation of approximately a single
wave length. Jt is always with this limitation that we employ it in our defini-
tive solar constant determinations. We have, however, pointed out that for a
limited range of two or three air masses good observations of total solar
radiation, when plotted thus logarithmically, deviate so slightly from the
straight line that the smallness of the deviations is a useful guide to the

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 9

intensity outside the atmosphere; m, the air-mass, and a the coeffi-
cient of atmospheric transmission, assumed as constant. If log a
only apparently, not really, is constant, our results are wrong. Both
Mr. Very and Mr. Kron indicate pointedly that they believe log a is
not constant, but that in fact the transparency of the atmosphere
continually diminishes during the forenoon periods we have chosen
for our observations, so that our transmission coefficients are too
high, and our value of the solar constant too low on account of this
source of error. Mr. Kron indicates possible errors of the solar
constant values of not more than 5 per cent as due to this cause.

It appears, however, that Mr. Very attaches great weight to this
second objection, for he says of the work of Abbot, Fowle, and
Aldrich:

The neglect of diurnal variation of atmospheric quality, and the erroneous
suppositicn that the same coefficients of transmission can be used at all hours
of the day, completely vitiate these reductions.

Again he says:

The Smithsonian observations, for example, usually stop when the air-mass
becomes as large as 3 or 4 atmospheres. Some do not even extend to 2
atmospheres. Reduced by Bouguer’s formula these mid-day readings agree
among themselves, but solely because they have stopped before reaching the
point where disagreement begins. This is equivalent to shirking the diff-
culties, and the seeming extraordinary agreement of the measures is mis-
leading. If the missing readings had been supplied the discrepancies would
have been obvious. Such incomplete observations are incapable of elucidating
the laws of atmospheric absorptien except through the aid of more perfect
measures. By supplying deficiencies under guidance of a criterion we may
in some cases rescue observations which are, otherwise, useless.

Again he says:

The portion of the diurnal curve between the limits of 4 and 10 atmospheres
conforms tolerably well to the conditions needed for a determination of its
slope and general form, and, as a rule, it would seem to be the best part of
the curve to select for computation.

3. Mr. Very states that we adopt too high a value of the absorption
of terrestrial radiation by water vapor and too low a value of its
absorption of solar radiation.

excellence of the observing conditions. In such applications to pyrheliometry
we recognize, however, that A would not be the solar constant. In this
connection see figure 3, in which, although for a range of 20 air-masses there is
a steady and well-marked curvature in the plot of pyrheliometry, any range of
only two air-masses shows this but little. We, therefore, fail to see how Mr.
Very’s emphatic criticism of our procedure in this respect, which he gives in
the French article above cited, is justified.

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL..65

4. We suppose the layers of air to differ gradually from one to
another in transparency. This, according to Mr. Very, may be true
for some atmospheric elements, but there are others which are sharply
restricted to definite layers or other definitely formed volumes, so
that the ordinary air-mass formula fails for this cause.

5. A considerable amount of solar radiation is said by Mr. Very
to be definitely lost to measurement in the atmosphere. The Smith-
sonian observations, he says, give merely the quantity d—B, where
B represents the absorption occurring in fine lines of atmospheric
origin, or radiation cut off by particles too gross to diffract the rays,
or that which is arrested by bands of absorption not composed of fine
lines, but large and diffused, and incapable of being distinguished
certainly amidst the crowd of lines and bands which occur in the
spectrum.

6. The authors underestimate, according to Very, the solar inten-
sity in the infra-red part of the spectrum where terrestrial rays are
sent out. For they suppose the energy there is comparable to that
of a “black body” at 6,000°, whereas the sun’s radiation is much
richer in long waves than that of a body at 6,000°. The solar .
radiation does not correspond to that of a body of uniform tempera-
ture, but its infra-red part corresponds to a body at a higher
temperature than does its visible part.

7. Mr. Kron is of the opinion that the authors underestimate the
solar radiation in the ultra-violet spectrum, owing to the powerful
atmospheric absorption there.

8. Mr. Bigelow finds from thermodynamic considerations that our
solar constant values represent the intensity at about 4o kilometers
altitude, where the atmospheric pressure is less than ;,5 5 of that at
the sea level, but that between this and the limit of the atmosphere
the radiation increases from 1.93 to 4.0 calories!

REPLY TO) THESE, CRIMIEISMS

First objection.—In regard to (1) we may remark, in addition to
what we have said above, that nearly all the pyrheliometry now being
done in the world is done with Angstrom, Marvin, Michelson, or
Smithsonian pyrheliometers. These represent five independent
attempts to fix the standard scale of radiation. They have been
many times compared with each other, and are found in accord to
within less than 4 per cent, and now, in view of A. K. Angstrom’s
researches, perhaps to less than 2 per cent. Of these scales of
pytheliometry, ours gives the highest readings. We have devoted

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION——-ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH TT

much experimenting during many years to the establishment of the
standard scale of pyrheliometry. Many observers reduce readings
obtained with other pyrheliometers to the Smithsonian scale. Dr.

Taste 3—Katios of Transmission Coefficients. Small and Large Air-Masses

. - Air-mass range
Wave length in
mleKons +384 -431 -503 -598 764. 1.07 1.45 Wien 9]
jsmallm large mm
; . small m
Oct. 2, 1910 Ratio ane as I.080 | 1.005 | 0.993 | 0.968 | 1.016 | 0.975 — (|1.006 |1.5-2.5 | 2.5-3.7
._ published m a lvoe
Ratio icc a: 1.031 1.014 +995 -983 1.007 -9QI Es
‘ 851 973 | 1.007 — 1.023 | 1.021 — |0.975 |1.4-2.4 | 2.4-3.6
943 992 | 1.005 = 1.016 | 1.019 0.995
ss -- 1.057 989 964 991 _— 1.000 |1.6-2.6 | 2.6-3.9
= 1.036 998 988 995 _— 1.004
ss 905 975 | 1-023 | 1.007 | 1.000 = 0.995 |0.999 |1.7-2.8 | 2.8-4.0
960 079 | 1-012 | 1.000 997 1.002 |0.992
GG 1.094 | 1.030 1.038 1.016 — — — {1.044 |1.7-2.7 | 2.7-4.2
I.019 | 1.040 | 1.007 | 1.026 — — /|1.023
st 1.016 | 1.023 | 1.012 | 1.028 984. — |1.013 |1.7-2.8 | 2.8-4.1
1.000 | 1.016 | 1.000 | 1.010 993 _— — (|1.004
Nov.17,1911 =e I.109 | 1.035 I.112 1.026 1.019 1.012 | 0.964 |1.039 |1.7-2.5 | 2.5-4.3
1.034 | 1.014 | 1.021 | 1.014 | 1.007 | I.004 got (1.012
ss — 1.002 982 | 1.030 | 1.009 | 1.014 984 (1.003 |1.7-2.6 | 2.6-4.4
= 007 | 1.005 | 1.002 | 1.007 | 1.002 | 1.007 |1.005
Oct. 23, 1913 ss I.11Q -957 | 1.000 -982 .995 | 1-014 | 1.033 |1.014 |1.5-3.0 | 3.0-4.5
f 1.063 999 | 1.007 986 993 | 1-007 | 1.024 |1.011
E — I.007 | 1.035 998 1.005 T.005 o40 |1.015 |1.5-2.4 | 2.4-4.6
— 1.030 | 1.019 | 1.007 | 1.002 | 1.012 | 1.038 |1.015
S 0-991 | 1.042 | 1.042 -989 995 | 1-007 — |1.011 |1.6-2.4 | 2.4-4.5
1.020 | 1.019 | 1.012 989 998 | 1.007 — |1.007
ss 1.067 | 1.016 | 1.062 | 1.067 | 1.038 984 | 1.007 |1.084 |1.6-2.5 | 2.5-5.0
1.035 992 1.002 I.007 | 1.005 995 1.007 |1.006
eS 863 | 1-007 966 | 1-002 982 980 — |0.967 |1.6-2.4 | 2.4-4.7
988 | I.o12 998 | 1-008 997 998 1.000
OY 1.054. 977 968 | 1.014 | 1.002 QOI — {1.001 |1.6-2.4 | 2.4-4.8
975 994. 986 | 1.007 | 1.003 997 — |0.994
fs I.014 | 1.014 957. | 1.002 993 984 — |0.994 |1.7-2.5 | 2.5-5.0
1.037 1.014 980 | 1.004 998 995 998 (1.004
se 865 1.067 982 | 1.028 1.038 r.012 1.005 |1.000 |1.7-2.5 | 2.5-5.2
938 | 1.017 QgI 1.009 | 1.002 | 1.000 995 |0.998
ss 1.009 |1.012 |1.010 1.008 |1.006 |1.000 1.004 1.007
1.003 |1.011 |1.002 1.003 |1.001 |1.002 |1.008 1.004

Hellmann has indeed gone so far as to say publicly * that there is but
one standard pyrheliometer, and that is at the Astrophysical Observa-
tory of the Smithsonian Institution.

* Bericht tuber die Erste Tagung der Strahlungskommission des Internatio-
nalen Meteorologischen Komites in Rapperswyl bei Zurich, 2 September, 1912.

12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Second objection—In view of the great importance attached by
Mr. Very and others to the observation of solar radiation at great
air-masses, we reexamined some of our observations of former years
which were made at larger than the usual air-masses. For each of
the days we give in the preceding table ratios of atmospheric trans-
mission coefficients found for different air-mass ranges at many
points in the spectrum, first, as obtained by comparing results
found at small air-masses with those found at large ones, and,
second, by comparing those heretofore published with those now
obtained at large air-masses. For the determination of transmission
at large air-masses, the observations were replotted, using Bem-
porad’s air-mass tables instead of the secant of the zenith distance.
The new plots did not include the observations at small air-masses,
thus avoiding any prejudice of the observer which might have been
caused by seeing them. The results of the comparison appear in the
preceding table. It cannot be said that this indicates any consider-
able fall of transparency as the air-mass decreases. Had this been
the case the ratios given would in general have been greater than
unity. The slight tendency in that direction is hardly beyond the
error of determination, and, besides, is to be attributed to the depart-
ure of Bemporad’s air-masses from secant Z values used in our
publications heretofore.

OBSERVATIONS OF SEPTEMBER 20 AND SEPTEMBER 21, 1014

For a more thorough test we selected two of the driest and clearest
days on which we have ever observed on Mt. Wilson, namely,
September 20 and September 21, 1914, for combined spectro-bolo-
metric and pyrheliometric measurements, extending from the moment
the sun rose above the horizon * until the close of our usual observing
period at about 10 o’clock in the forenoon. During this interval we
obtained on the first day 11 and on the second day 12 bolographs of
the spectrum, extending from wave length 0.34 to wave length
2.44, and we made 33 pyrheliometric determinations of the solar
radiation on the first day, and 34 such determinations on the second
day. We observed the barometric pressure by means of a recording
Richard barograph, and we observed the humidity of the air by
means of a ventilated Assmann psychrometer.

The following tables include the barometric, hygrometric, and
pytheliometric data:

1We computed the apparent zenith distance of the lower limb of the sun at
the instant of the start of the first bolograph on September 20 to be 88° 20’.
The apparent zenith distance of the mountain horizon at that point is 88° 28’.

tate Kn

at se

NO. 4

SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH

Taste 4—Pyrheliometry and Meteorological Observations

Mt. Wilson, Cal., September 20, 1914

DoS ereccumcliAicmass | Tcesdee | eee:
Hour angle| Barometer water S Vepot
vapor |
Dry Wet (Bemporad) IV VII (Fowle)
E calo- | calo-
ieee cm. + 3 mm. ries} ries mm.
6 06 Bey WOVE | Wo\ayh yh Cisae ant aes erase ee es
5 54.8 61.9 siaetid) | came at es 19.31 Os58O Ion oe
53.8 ant cs tS} a ONSSo bee:
BO Om Moet Pep IK site Bela 15.82 NO2O) | se oe 3e3
49-8 15.10 suse || BOR Be
46.8 pete ar rae 13.89 NGO) Se Ae
45.8 123}, BS} Sie ove Hl ators ae
42.8 | Il.A4 JOS | ose ah
41.8 | | IL.03 soba | 6745 4.0
38:8 9.97 .8I4 aan ee
37.8 | Hite: Sind oF
34.8 | 8.82 .883 oe
AR. 8.57 sce || .Coo
30.8 Foul FO220| 0. 5)
29.8 DWM arene PALO LS Bee
26.8 7.16 OG, | pase 4.1
25.8 | ° 7.00 coo | OVO) Ronee
14.8 : 5.52 TOS | 4 we 4.6
1138) RES NL aN pte 5.42 Se iAOOs Ase
8 TOs || Oat | gat 5.05 Nee cats | eee ae, |
4.8 Soren tees eke: 4.67 ello ili eae eee
Bis) | hee 4.50 Sie te iisle 4.9
4 48.8 | | er Bay 1.232 ae ct
47.8 a5 3.69 598 |o2Z0 oe
44.8 eee 3.50 Tee AD Ge ree 52
43.8 | ver cotal Swe cetera arreeeee 3.52 sas [it Aloe on
Jor | T7pA e835! 9462), Bees eet an. re
32.8 | SO abl aes Seas Bit 1.292 ies eee
31.8 | 3-08 anbic. [leZoM 5.0
9.8 Ine Seesne 2.53 Tee ey Abul tare eee Lee
8.8 [6250 Thou al Peenees eh: DSi Jaco. |ikeAlOy/ 5.0
Ages USD) | ARAN S66 2.108 eran ear ee a Saas
38.8 | : ea oeai AsO lt 4S || ses Gace
BU |" 2.032 Scob [lols 5.8
2 50.8 | é 1.615 TAG | ooo vate
49.8 Leet Me eae T.609 Levee |lealoyy 6.6
44 2052) |IAST | <9. Air 1.573 Serial lees aye
2.8 pisen cae 1.383 Tee SO ieee oe Nes
1.8 ae Bahl are a ele 1.380 sone lilo Sino 8.6
I 56 62.0 | 21.4 | 15.0 |. 9.99 1.360 aes yes

+See Note 1, Table 9.

I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

TABLE 5—Pyrheliometry and Meteorological Observations

Mt. Wilson, Cal., September 21, 1914

VOL. 65

Temperature Pyrheliometer | Precipita-
Hour Pressure Air-mass readings ble water
| Barometer water vapor
Angle | vapor
Dry | Wet |- (Bemporad) IV VII (Fowle)
1 calo- | calo-
he ee cm 4 mm. mest | riest mm.
6 00 aay We maa Wy Bai ne ee
5. 54.8 | 62.1 ue = 20.36 OAS) || oe
53-8 | evar iels Ree 19.34 Sean (On 523 eee
50-8 fe 16.62 EU a ten a 3.8
49.8 | Hh 15.05 2 | eOno ane
46.8 Ss a 13.89 O58 | coos
45.8 | : hes 13s AR sae | oko,
42.8 | Ae ae 11.86 TOW ereaae Be
41.8 | | a me 11.42 Ae eS 4.9
38.8 te as ae 10.31 EFS | Soe + Lae
29.8 ies ae aa 9.98 Hocoy Il o 7S nee
34.8 aes ae ve 9.10 ssa Ns Sac Pak
33.8 | : ae ab 8.84 Bieae. Bay? Sek:
20.8 | [Rae tr See 8.12 EOSOnE ee Oni
29.8 | ee sae sass 7.91 eos aoe
20.8 | siete asi WEES EO EFNM | Sea oe
DES) || Eicna Pees As Fe iil6) soe || .OAA oa
20 17/02 || Ss@) |) A, 0 Bee. Rees ite 6.5
15.8 Perea e ey tes | Bee 5.70 WO27*, | eee cite
14-8 a 5.66 Hoag {iL s@A6) oes
11.8 iS: 5.34 TOOLS| eet an
10.8 ae 2S sob0 ilo@isto Fait
4 58.8 fe 4.32 TUR IIZ0S) h oay BN
BAB ocsc Picea Hes ieee ea 4.25 sone lls WO 304
52 Sec Wot | ©.2 | 2a88 4.00 22s eee a
AB ve ose SGM eh tall emer 3-46 MPA, Bie Bae
40.8 Fyn |iteeea tee a 3.42 Pee e250 A
26.8 ay aie Bey 2.07 PoZCY || soo Brie
25.8 008 is eas | eee 2.94 Ree liners st) ies
15 soe% Wai | Fok || SoCo 2567) he 2 atl eee nae poe
5.8 or Ses cee abn 2.47 ea SOO lio eos ah
ANS |\NO2 15 Ape ule Seanesratte 2.45 Pick e370 8.0
Be ac TSoA) | ONG s5,.92 2.007 BPW Insc Soe
35-8 Boas ah coe DORA |e ANO) || 550 see
34.8 an ee hee Sag 2.010 abe (leackte oe
Be si 30 AD.) || 100) || 6.74 1.625 ete ey ao
47.8 a6 # SER tg I .606 TeAO2 eae as
46.8 26 Seah lSaiseeetes tocoesiae 1.600 soso |reAGle: 8.7
2 00 6.22 22 -2¥| Se” 7A) 1.381 Breteler s Ras
I 49.8 a berlin ee es T9348 i517 4520 ee eee
48.8 2 1.345 boon) ekS3 (33.8)

+See Note 1, Table o.

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH T5

The two days, September 20 and September 21, are in almost
complete agreement in every feature observed, except that the
atmospheric humidity of September 21 slightly exceeded that of
September 20, and this of course led to a slight difference in pyr-
heliometry. We give below our reduction of the spectro-bolometric
work of September 20, and the circumstances of the observations
will be found so completely set forth that if any readers should desire,
they can re-reduce the day’s work for themselves.

It is the principal aim of the investigation to determine if there
was on these two days a systematic change of atmospheric trans-
parency sufficient to vitiate solar constant values obtained by our
usual method. Referring to our Annals, Vol. II, page 14, it may be
shown that for solar zenith distances less than 70° the intensities of
homogeneous rays observed at different zenith distances should be
expressible by the relation: —

log e=secant 2 log a+log e,
where e is the observed intensity of a homogeneous ray; e, its
intensity outside the atmosphere; z the zenith distance of the sun;

@ a constant representing the fraction 2 in which e, is the intensity
2)

which would correspond to s=o. The above equation being the

equation of a straight line, the test of the uniformity of transparency

depends on the closeness with which the logarithmic plots for indi-

vidual wave lengths approximate straight lines.

For zenith distances much greater than 70° the function secant 2
must be replaced by another, F(z), representing the ratio of the
effective length of path of the beam in the atmosphere to that which
corresponds to g=o. This quantity, F(z), has been determined by
Bemporad, taking into account the curvature of the earth, the

+ Mitteilungen der Grossh. Sternwarte zu Heidelberg IV, 1904. The follow-
ing illustrates a computation of air-mass F(z).

EXAMPLE OF Artr-MaAss CoMPUTATION

For mean 120° meridian time:
1914, Sept. 20, 5" 51™ 0° (4. e., 1" 50° after start of first bolograph).

Barometer 24.4 inches = 620 mm. Temperature = 60° F. = 16° C.

Longitude TI8° 3’ 34” W. ~=Equation of time + 6™ 228

Latitude, ¢, 34° 12’ 55” N. Correction for longitude + 7™ 46°
+14™ 8

© Declination, 6, 1° 17’ 28’ N. Apparent time Greens s

Hour angle, 7, 88° 43’ o” E. Hour angle Put ies

Sun’s true altitude h:
Sin h=sin ¢ siné+ cos ¢ cos 6 cos ¢ eS RAG Aa

Sun’s true zenith distance 88° 12’ 46”

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

atmospheric refraction, and the fall of temperature and barometer
with elevation. His assumption regarding the rate of fall of tem-
perature is not quite in accord with recent balloon work, and this
leads him to values of F(z) slightly too high, but this error would
not exceed 0.5 per cent. As is well known, the atmospheric refrac-
tion is uncertain very near the horizon, so that it cannot be expected
that the air-masses obtained with apparent zenith distances of 88°,
computed from hour angles of observation, should be perfectly
accurate.

Strictly, we should determine the value, F(z), to correspond to
the apparent center of intensity of the sun’s light emission at the
proper instant for every wave length, for on account of atmospheric
extinction and refraction this is not coincident with the center of
form of the sun. But we have found the correction to be always
less than 0.5 per cent, and have neglected it.

A far more important consideration relates to the distribution in
the atmosphere of the materials which diminish the intensity of
sunlight, as the zenith distance increases. Bemporad’s discussion
assumes that the atmosphere is of uniform optical quality from top
to bottom, so that equal masses of it transmit equal fractions of
incident light. The researches of Schuster, Natanson, King, Fowle,
and Kron show that on clear days at Mt. Wilson the atmospheric |
extinction, for a large part of the spectrum, seems to be in almost
complete accord with the requirements of Rayleigh’s theory of
scattering. Where this holds, Bemporad’s assumption also holds
good. But it appears distinctly from Fowle’s researches .that in
certain parts of the spectrum, notably in the yellow, red, and infra-
red, the atmospheric extinction is partly or mainly attributable to
water vapor, or substances which accompany it. These atmospheric
constituents, being mainly at low altitudes, require special considera-
tion. We give in the following paragraphs our solution of this
difficulty.

By Crawford’s tables (Lick Observatory Publications, Vol. VII):

If apparent zenith distance is 87° 50’, Refr. = 13’ 46”

If apparent zenith distance is 87° 58, Reity—14) a

Hence assume Refr.= 14’ 16”

Whence sun’s apparent zenith distance is 87° 58’ 30”
By Bemporad’s air-mass tables:

If apparent zenith distance is 87° 58’ 30”, F(z) = 19.650

Bat it 95/1020 ator F*(z) — F(z) =— 0.433

Hence air-mass, F*(z), ==" 16.200

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 7,

Fowle has determined transmission coefficients similar in their
application to the values a given above, but dependent on the total
quantity of precipitable water in the atmosphere as determined spec-
troscopically. He gives the following values of the transmission
coefficients for dry air (da, ) and for the equal of 1 cm. of liquid as
water vapor (@»,) above Mt. Wilson. We employ values obtained
from observations of 1910 and I9QI11I, in preference to later ones,
because obtained prior to the volcanic eruption of 1912.

TABLE 6—Coefficients of Transmission for the Dry Atmosphere and for
Atmospheric Water Vapor (Fowle)
| | | |
Wave |
length X|. 350]. 360]. 371 |.384|.307|.413|.431 |-452 |.475 |-503|.535|.574
Aa. -- -|-032 |.655 |.686 |. 713 |.752|.783 -808 .840 .863 .885 898 |.905
yx +++ -|-917|-940 |.959 |.959 |.962 905 |-968 067 |.973|-076 .980 |.974|.9
pee | |

|

598} .624
.913| .920
78) .977

rs |
pes Vetha, br. 653 6. 722 | le 812 |.864 |.987 ive 146 1. 302 Ir. A452 | 1.603
ak 938.959 .970 .979 980.982.087.987. .086 | 22 | .983
5 ate nett: - 987 985, Fo -985 .990|-989 991 | 088 .990 | .988 .986

)

These water vapor coefficients apply to smoothed energy curves,
and are a measure of the general extinction associated with water
vapor apart from its selective absorption.

By Rayleigh’s theory the dry air coefficients may be calculated
from the known number of molecules of air per cm.® at standard
temperature and pressure. This computation is in close accord
with the values above given. We hold therefore that Rayleigh’s
theory of scattering would yield proper values of general atmospheric
extinction, for clear days on Mt. Wilson, if water vapor were absent.
As our observed general transmission coefficients in the infra-red
spectrum are somewhat less accurate than elsewhere, owing to the
necessity of interpolating the curves over the water vapor bands, and
from other causes, we have thought it right to compute by Rayleigh’s
theory the true transmission coefficients in this region as they would
be if molecular scattering alone were the active agent.

TABLE 7—Computed Atmospheric Transmission and Extinction Coefficients
| | |
Wave ri caas .864 Be .987 |1.062 |1.146 E-2 226 [1-302 say
Computed a, ..|.979].9838].9873 .9903/.9925| .9954 “9959 -9969 .9975| .9980
MLN she seksi ee) .021| .0162].0127|.0097| 0075] .0046| .0041 0031 .0025| .0020

I—awy.........|.007).005 -005 |.005 |.c05 | .005 | .005 | .005 | .005 | .O10
|

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

As appears above, the computed transmission for wave lengths
exceeding 1.37 u 1s approximately unity, and the computed atmos-
pheric extinction coefficient, as given in line 3, sensibly zero. Line 4
gives the general extinction for 0.5 centimeter of precipitable water
vapor, corresponding to the humidity of September 20, 1914.

We are now in position to determine a correction to F(z) as given
by Bemporad. If the extinction were all molecular scattering, his
values would be the true ones. If it were all due to water vapor,
we ought to employ approximately secant g, because of the low level
of water vapor. We have therefore determined for each wave
length the weighted mean between Bemporad’s F(z) and secant g,
giving weights in proportion to the numbers (I—a,)) and
(1 — Aw, ) for wave lengths less than 0.764 », and in proportion to
the numbers (1—a,,) and (1— dw, ) for wave lengths exceeding

0.764. In one case we have made an exception, namely, for wave
length 2.348 », which is within the band of carbon dioxide absorption.
As this gas forms a nearly constant percentage of the atmosphere up
to a level of more than 10,000 meters, we have used Bemporad’s
F(g) at this wave length. In figures 3 and 4 the reader will see
plotted the air-masses as used, and also the lesser air-masses corre-
sponding to Bemporad’s F(z).

The following are the circumstances of the spectro-bolometric
observations of September 20, 1914:
Extent of spectrum observed (in arc) 270’. Bolometer subtends 17, eS

subtends 50”.

Extent of spectrum observed in wave lengths: 10.342 uw to }=2.348 py.
Time elapsing after start 0” 30° to 7™ 15°.

|
BolosraphieNomeaeereerese I 2 | 3 | Ala ans en le | pe ila toe feo)" |) ET!
Time of start; 120th me-.|/. m. s. |h. AND m.\h. m.\|h. m.|h. m.\h. m.|h. m.\h. m.\h. m.
ridian mean time......../5 49 I0|5 59/6 e = Ao0|6 55/7 11/7 fae a 40

Latitude, 34° 12’ 55” N. Longitude, 118° 3’ 34” W. Altitude, 1,727 meters.

1 Bolograph 9 omitted because of interference of a guy wire.

In accordance with our usual course, described in Vol. III of
our Annals, we measured the ordinates of smoothed curves on all
the bolographs at 38 wave lengths. These were equally spaced in
prismatic deviation, excepting that in a portion of the infra-red
spectrum we observed at points twice as close together as in the other
parts of the spectrum. Table 8 includes the measured ordinates of
the smoothed curves (unit 0.1 mm.) and corresponding air-masses,
according to Bemporad, for September 20. Our corrected air-masses
appear only on figures 3 and 4. The third column of the table gives
the factor to reduce to uniform scale throughout the spectrum.

1

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH ie)

TasLe 8—Air-masses and Smoothed Curve Ordinates

Bolographs of September 20, 1914

S eS . |
° 2 a Bolo- Belo: Belo: Bole: Hole Bo | Bolo: Bele: Bolo- | Bolo-
ae Ly S graph | grap grap grap grap graph | graph | graph | graph | graph
3 nc Ae Il WE PN Vv VAL SAVES VERT X+# XI
> 3) “3 |
oO = | |
= halite) os ee pa ™~ | Al | = => = a |
3 Et SG at *s) SS Ola | aes a S a 1S a | a na | z a | an | A ea H
o3) ¢ as S/8.o),% Blak Stee Sil,n| Si, Sila Sil & a ellie § ee passes ee
pa O fa Salosia Sl -3 ja 8) 2 1m 8) 8 aS) 8 1a 9! 2 ia) 8 ao) Si] ale} al 2 ia
eS] = jouolegiaS 8 ia Gis 3 (S| SSS |S al eel se le yes ee
Be) 2 jPSslSqies) SEG) 2 68) 8/88) 88 8 ab) Sieh ee] |e] o| e
27) 8 Jeb ojguisa| S sa) S sel heal DS bal S ise Bite Sl A |S) e |S | A
B/E Op © AAR Ak 4 sake ea e-al<|al/<ia)<
| | |
z i | | | | |
2400.342 | -352| © |----| © |---| 5 |... 5 |....| 2814-68 50 3.80 503.15 100/2.57 1501.63) 1651-39
230| .350 | .215 |.-.'.--.|---+----| 17/8-31| ?30\6.14| 7214.67 108/3.79) 1483.14 2122.56] 3401.63 365|.39
220| .360 | -139 |---.|----++++ +--+) 418.26) 2776.10) 158/4.65 2283.78 3153-14 440 2.56 660) .63) 690) .39
210.371 agit sera[ecce|ereeleeee 308.21) ?70\6.07 90/4-63 1323.77| 1963-13) 2402.55) 3451-63) 3701.39
200| .384 | .270 |..-.)---- [ee eeleeee 468.16) 1116.02) 152'4.61| 2173.75) 2903.12) 35612.55 5301.62 5531-39
190] .397 | -264 |---- +++) 3012.3) 1318.12) 2445.99) 3504-59 4533-74) 5003.11] 6302.55 8401-62) 860\1-39
180| .413 | -630 |....|---.| 4012.2) 928.07| 1605-96] 2104-58| 2803.73) 338)3 - 10) 390|2-54| 5101.62) 5201.38
170| .431 | -584 | ?1518.8 5912.1 1438.01] 2405.93 3234-55) 393 3-72! 4563.10 eeeie 6421.62 6631-38
160) .452 | -544 | ?3618.5| 12612.0) 947. 95, 4405.89 5624-53, 6503.70) 7403.09) 8452.53 10121 .62 1033 1.38
150) -475 1.53 | 23318.3) 7911-9) 1537-91] 2205.86, 2684.52) 3203.69 3453-08) 3802.53 4431.62 4471238
140 .503 1-43 6818.1) 14011.8 2287.87 3055.82) 3694.50 4173.68 4523.07 4992.52 5481.61) 5581.38
130, .535 1-33 | 10017.9| 223 11.6 3407. 80) 4305-80] 4974.48, 5503.67, 5953.06 648 2.52, 7161.61| 7091.38
120) .574 1-24 | I5117.6| 30411-5 4277. 75) 5685-77) 6184.46 680 3.66) 740/3 .06) 7982.51 8901.61) 8841.38
115) .598 [1-20 | 22017-5| 37711-5| 5287-73) 6505.75) 7084.45, 7803.65 8383.05, 897 2-51) 9831.61) 9731.38
I10| .624 1-16 | 29317-4| 46011.4) 637/7-71| 7385-74 8044.44 8703.65] 930/3-05} 992 2.511062 1.611063 1.38
105, .653 |1.-12 | 42517. 3 608 11.4 7807.69 806 5-73, 9504. 44) 990'3.64'1055'3.05 11102.51, 1178.1 -61 11641 38
100) .686 |t.09 | 58017. 2| 77311-3) 942/7 7-64 1045 5-71/1096 4. 42 1143 3.6411873. 04/1238 2.50 1293161 1266,1.38
95) .722 [1.07 | 68717.1| 87211.3 1033 7- 63 » +++ 5-69 11764. 42121013. 63; 1245/3. 04 1296, 2.50 1336,1 .61'1312,1.28
90.764 |1.06 | 78317.0) 95011.2 1093 7-61 +++ +/5-691208 4.411244 3. 62/1265)3. 03/1310|2.50.1345 '[.60 1317|1.38
85 .812 1.10 | 82616.9) 96911.2 110217. 59|.....5-68 1192/4. 40'1225 3. 62 12503. 03/1294.2.49 '1308 1.60 1277/1.38
80 .864 1-17 | 85016.8 966 11. 1/1086)7. 56)..../5.66 11584. 39 1183 3.61/1200/3 .03 1243 2.49 1250 1 .60 1220.38
75| .922 |t.24 | 83416.7 948,11.1 1046/7.54|....|5-65 11084. 3811203 60) 11383. 02 1170.2.49 11801 .60 114411 38
70| .987 [1-29 | 80716.6 Sate 087/7-52|1010 5.63 10304.37|1040/3 60/1057 3.02 1098 2.49) 1092'1 60 1063 1.28
651.062 1.28 | 71916.5 83011-0 878.7.50| 9135.62| 9204.37] 9203.60| 943/3.02! 960/2.48 978 1.60) 947|1 .38
601.146 [1.26 | 62616.4) 73210.9) 7707.47| 8135.60 8194. 36, 8203.59 8403. o1| 8522.48 8601.60 846 1.38
551.226 1.23 | 54316.3| 65210.9 6887.45 7145.59| 72214.35| 7273.58) 742/3.01| 7582.48 7591.60, 752|1.37
501.302 |r.20 | 48916. 2) 580,10.8, 613/7. 43| 6265.58, 6504.34) 6403.58) 662/300) 673|2.48) 690 1.60 660'1 .37
451.377 |I-17 | 45216.1| 51910.8| 5467.41| 5605.57) 5804. 34, 577 3-58| 58913- iad 6002.47) 623 1.60, 5801.37
401.452 |I.14 | 42016.0| 47810.7) 4987-37] 5035-55) 52014. 32| 5163.57| 52813.00 535 2-47| 5601.60, 5101.37
351.528 1.12 | 39215-9) 43610.7) 448/7.35| 4555.53, 4654.31| 4633.56 470 2.99) 475\2.47, 4881.60, 4661.37
301.603 | .363 I110015.8 119010.7'1240l7. 33, 1237 5.521268 4. 31 12703 .56)1280,2.99 1286 2.4 47 1311 1.60 12401 .37
251.670 | .356 98215.7/1065 10.6 1111|7.31 1103 5.52 11304. 3011323.5611442. 99 1150'2.46 1178 1.60 1110 1.37
201.738 | -353 86215.6| 93510.6| 9777. 28, 9805.50) 9924.29 9983.55,1008/2. 98 1011/2.46 1038 1.59 978 1.37
101.870 | .370 | 62015. -5) 68210.5| 7087.25 7185.47 7204. 28 722/3.54) 7302.97, 7332-45 7581.59 7201.37
02.000 | .422 | 37515.2| 43210.4 4407.19 4525-44 4424.26 4473.53| 4532.97, 4602.45 4741.59 4531-37
—I02.123 | .176 | 58015.1) 660 10. 3) 6707. 16, 695 5-42) 67014. 24) 700 3.52 7002. -96) 710|2.45 7301.59 7001.37
—20'2.242 | .239 | 27215.0| 318 10.2 3357. 12| 3505.40] 3504.23] 3553-51| 360 2. 96) 3652-45 3901.59 3751.37
—302.348 | .307 | 12014.8) 15510. 1 180'7.07| 2105.38, 2104. il 220 3.50| 22012.95) as BE ee ccs
| } | | | | | | | | |

1 This factor includes consideration of rotating sectors used, reflecting power of coelostat,
and transmission in spectroscope.

* Galvanometer deflections are here expressed in tenths of millimeters.

3 Bolograph III is a little low in a few points by interference of leaves of a tree.

4 Bolograph IX is omitted because a guy wire interfered.

= peice ely doubtful points, and those for which deflections are less than 1 millimeter,
are omitte

After reducing the measured ordinates (by means of factors
given) for transmission in the apparatus, in accordance with the
practice of Langley and ourselves, we corrected these new ordinates
of the bolographs for the slight changes of sensitiveness of the bolo-
metric apparatus. We determined these changes of sensitiveness by
comparing the areas included under the bolographic curves with the

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22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

readings of the pyrheliometer simultaneously obtained. The deter-
mination of these secondary correcting factors and of the mean
bolometer constant for September 20 follows:

TABLE 9—Sensitiveness of Bolographic Apparatus

| S “ bh a= i) oo | oa
@ | fio | 38 [e82 So see cells ey ee ei year eee
Go [x eerste eos ele cal lice aes Sls | Se
& 5 g SO Se Week| Sayles Ste) Sos] See) 2s
2) 6) 8 eo 88 Se eee eee een aes
38 i 2 ag | Os | OS Noss 6 ]Oas | Seer eames
hom :

T |5 53-5|17-15 | 7475 | — | + 109+—2135| 5449 0-583 |1.070 |1-7.3 | .031°
Il | 42.7\11.39 | 9630 | — 127| 2094| 7663 | .764 |0.997 |0.0 | .000
Wil | 29:8) 7-71 \k1129) |) — 132| 2000 9261 | .943) — — —?
IV | 16.9) 5.75 |12436 | — 138) 1961|/10613 |1.0660 |1.004 |+0.7 | .co3
V 2.0| 4.46 |13232 | +1 136| 188711482 |I.159 |I.009 |+1.2 | .005
VI |4 47.3) 3.67 |13930 25 140) 181912276 |1.233 |1.003 |+0.6 | .003

WAL | sir 33.00) a4622 AI 140) 180712996 |1.294 0.996 |—0.1 | .000
WALL 10.0) 2.53 |15474 70 144) 169214005 |£.377 |0.983 |—1.4 | .904

X |2 51.0) 1.62 |16576 | 163 I50| 162415265 |1.495 |0.979 |—1-8 | .992”

XI | 03.0) 1.38 |16317 | 179 144) 160915031 |I.515 |1-008 |+1.1 | .005
Meano.997

1 The correcting factor for bolograph I is much above the usual magnitude. It was
not used for the following reasons: Firstly, the pyrheliometer exposes 3}, hemisphere,
which is a sky area much larger than the sun. At ordinary air-masses the light of this
area of sky is negligible compared with sunlight. But at sunrise almost 34 of the solar
beam is lost by scattering in the sky, hence the light of the sky close to the sun is a very
perceptible fraction, perhaps 5 per cent, of that of the sun itself. Secondly the radiation
of the pyrheliometer to cold air and to space, which at high sun may reach nearly 0.005
calorie, is at the horizon counterbalanced by the radiation of the immense thickness of the
lower and warmer parts of the atmosphere, so that in comparison with high sun observations
the pyrheliometer reading at sunrise is probably about 1 per cent too high for this second
cause. Exact determinations of these corrections to pyrheliometry are proposed, but not
yet executed. Accordingly bolograph I was omitted in the mean of column to.

2 Correction could not be determined because leaves of a tree intercepted the solar beam
during a part of bolograph III.

2 Bolograph IX omitted, because shadow of a guy wire fell on the slit during a
considerable part of the time.

In figures 3 and 4 we give plots to represent the results of the
spectro-bolometric observations of September 20 at different wave
lengths. The plots given in figures 3 and 4 are logarithmic. The
ordinates correspond to logarithms of the corrected heights of the
bolographs at the 38 selected points, and the abscissae of the diagrams
represent the corresponding air-masses according to the tables of
Bemporad, corrected as heretofore explained.

The original plots have been made on two different scales. In the
first, only those observations which we would ordinarily have used,
for determining the solar constant of radiation were included. They
were plotted on the scales of ordinates and abscissae which we cus-
tomarily employ, in which, in general, I cm.=0.01 in logarithm, and
I cm.=o0.I air-mass. In the other plot we have included all the

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 23

observations, using for this purpose a reduced scale of abscissae, in
which I cm.=0.5 air-mass.

We have read off from the plots so obtained the inclination of the
best straight lines, giving logarithms of transmission coefficients ;
and also the intercepts on the axis of ordinates, giving logarithms of
intensities outside the atmosphere. The plots were read up inde-
pendently for three different ranges of air-masses. The first range
is that which we customarily employ, from about 1.3 to about 4.5 air-
masses. The second reading includes all points from 1.3 to 20
air-masses or thereabouts. The third reading was made with the
portion of the curve which Mr. Very states to be the best, namely,
from air-mass 4 to air-mass 10 or thereabouts. The results of all
three readings are given in table 11. For September 20 this table
gives also the percentage deviations, in ordinates, of the observed
points from the natural numbers corresponding to the straight lines
of the logarithmic plots which were chosen in the second reading to
represent them. In order to show that the somewhatdarge percent-
age errors at some places are not inconsistent with experimental
error of very moderate amount, we give for two bolographs the
deviations expressed in millimeters on the original bolographs. The
reader should bear in mind that the bolographic trace itself is nearly
1 millimeter wide, and subject to tremor. Also the line of zero
radiation is interpolated between zero marks 1 minute of time, or
8 centimeters of plate, apart. . |

We then determined the area which the bolographic curve would
include if it were taken outside the atniosphere, and we multiplied
this area by the appropriate constant (see table 9) to give the result
in calories per sq. cm. per minute. To this we added the small cor-
rections to reduce the result to mean solar distance, and to zero
~ atmospheric humidity, as explained in Annals, Vol. III, p. 43. All the
details of the foregoing processes have been described and investi-
gated in Vols. II and III of the Annals of the Astrophysical
Observatory, and to these the reader is referred.

The following are the solar constant values obtained:

Taste 10—Solar Constant Values

In standard calories (15°) per sq. cm. per minute at mean solar distance

Sepia Zonta. an | 1.936 1.899 1.909

Se

ee a

7
eS

FIG. 4.—LOGARITHMIC CURVES OF ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION. MT. WILSON, SEPT. 20, 1914.

{
4
a
i

WL
y
ala7>

a

NJ

FIG. 4.—LOGARITHMIC CURVES OF ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION. MT. WILSON, SEPT. 20, 1914.

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

TABLE 11—Atmospheric Transmission Coefficients, and Accidental Errors

Wave length

Atmospheric trans-

Linear
tmQ¢ I dievia-
mission coefficients Percentage deviations, Sept. 20 tions on
Computed minus observed original
For observed intensities found on bolo-
Sept. 21, ’14/Sept. 20, 714 Bolographs Nos. graphs in
Air-masses | Air-masses milli-
meters

oS [prog Ich leggy Nikos} A |
tO) | iO | eG lwo | tO | wo) W.) Le TEE || 1A

4 | 20 12| 4 | 20 | 12

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NWHONONDONHOOKMUNOOWANNODOWHODDOWOM COUH

_ We call attention to the decided difference between the behavior
of nearly homogeneous rays, as observed by the bolometer, and of
the total radiation, as observed by the pyrheliometer. The logar-
ithms of the pyrheliometer readings of September 20 are plotted
against Bemporad air-masses in the upper curve of figure 3, and
the reader will readily perceive the pronounced and steady change
of curvature of the resulting plots. This is in sharp distinction to
the close approximation to straight lines shown in the logarithmic
plots of the bolometric observations at single wave lengths. Forbes,
Radau, Langley, and many others have discussed this relation
between total radiation and air-masses, and have shown why such

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—-ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 27

a curvature must occur in logarithmic plots of total radiation. It
will be seen that our observations fully confirm their view, which
depends upon the fact that the total radiation is composed of parts
for which the atmosphere has very different transmission coeffi-
cients.

Referring to tables 2 and 11, and to Annals, Vol. III, table 47,
the reader will see that the atmospheric transmission on September
20 and 21, 1914, was distinctly above the average, and indeed was
as high as we have ever found on Mt. Wilson. Secondly, the
quantity of water vapor between the station and the zenith, as found
by Mr. Fowle’s spectroscopic method, was unusually small and satis-
factorily constant. Hence, we may conclude that the two days in
question were, as they appeared to the eye, days of the highest excel-
lence at Mt. Wilson. When we compare the results obtained from
them on the solar constant of radiation, as given in table 10, with
those obtained in other years, as shown in table 1 and in Annals, Vol.
III, table 44, we see that the values were very close to the mean
results of all our observations. We see further, from table 10, that
the results obtained were very nearly the same, whether we used only
the later observations, taken between air-mass 1.3 and air-mass 4, as
in our usual investigations ; whether we employ only the observations
between air-mass 4 and air-mass 12, as recommended by Mr. Very;
or, finally, whether we take all the observations from air-mass 1.3 to
air-mass 20. In every case the result is the same almost within the
error of computing.

From this we feel ourselves fully justified in drawing the con-
clusion that our former work has not been vitiated by the employment
of too small air-massés, and that, in fact, hardly different results
would have been obtained had we observed from sunrise of every
day in which we have worked. On account of the uncertainty which
attends the theory of the determination of air-masses, when zenith
distances exceeding 75° are in question, we conceive that it will be
better. to confine our observations hereafter, as we have generally
done in the past, to the range of air-masses less than 4, where the
secant formula applies in all atmospheric layers, irrespective of
optical density, refraction, or the earth’s curvature.

Third objection—We attach very little weight to any determina-
tions of the solar constant of radiation which we have made hitherto,
except those made by the spectro-bolometric method developed by
Langley, as just employed for September 20, 1914, and which is the
definitive method employed by the Astrophysical Observatory of the.

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Smithsonian Institution.. However, in Vol. I] of our Annals we
showed in the second part of the work that the results obtained
by this method were harmonious with rougher ones obtained by
considering terrestrial meteorological conditions. In the course of
that discussion we used the data which were at that time available
for determining the transmission through the moist atmosphere of
the long-wave radiations such as the earth sends out. Mr. Very

* Messrs. Very and Bigelow describe as “the spectro-bolometric method”
of determining the solar constant of radiation something quite different, viz.:
They take our determination of the form of the solar energy curve outside the
atmosphere. From this they determine the wave length of maximum energy,
and from it they infer the temperature of the sun, supposing it to be a perfect
radiator or “black body.’ They then determine the intensity of energy which
a perfect radiator of the sun’s size, and of the temperature which they thus
decide upon, would give at the earth’s mean distance. This value they regard
as the solar constant.

In this determination they assume: Firstly, that our atmospheric trans-
mission coefficients, which at other times they describe as altogether erroneous,
do not distort the true form of the sun’s energy curve outside the atmosphere;
Secondly, that our determinations of the transmission of the optical apparatus
(and these we ourselves admit to be determinations of great difficulty, and
only moderate accuracy) also do not distort the form of the energy curve;
Thirdly, that the position of the maximum of energy determines the proper
temperature of the sun; Fourthly, that the total emission of energy of the
sun is the same function of its temperature that the total emission of a “black
body” is.

We are far from wishing to discredit the substantial accuracy of our
determination of the form of the sun’s energy curve outside the atmosphere,
but we totally dissent from these authors’ application of it. In the first place,
the form of the energy curve as determined by us does not agree with the
form of the energy curve of a “black body” at any single temperature
whatever. In the second place, if the temperature of the sun could be
properly inferred from the consideration of the position of maximum energy
in its spectrum, even then there would be no reason to suppose that the
radiation of the sun bears the same relation to its temperature as the radiation
of a “black body” bears to its temperature. Since the sun is not a “black
body ” of uniform temperature, it may depart widely from the conditions of
such a “ black body.”

The same method could just as reasonably be applied to the radiation of a
mercury vapor lamp. The maximum of energy with such a lamp would be
found in the green, as it is in the solar spectrum, and thereby, following Very
and Bigelow, one could infer that the temperature of the lamp is of the order
of six to seven thousand degrees absolute. Then, following still further our
authors, we should assume that the mercury vapor lamp, the sun, and the
“black body” at, say, 6,800° would give equal intensities of energy, provided
these three sources were of equal angular size. Thus the radiation of all three
would be about 3.5 calories per cm.” per min. The absurdity of this conclusion
is apparent.

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 29

has confused that discussion with our definitive determination of the
solar constant of radiation, of which it forms no part at all. We do
not care to discuss, at the present time, the coefficients for terrestrial
radiation, as we are engaged in investigations of this matter which
are not as yet completed. It has no bearing upon the definitive values
of the solar constant obtained by us.

As for the dependence of the transmission of solar rays upon
atmospheric water vapor, we have employed the hypothesis of
Langley, namely, that there will be no water vapor outside the
atmosphere. This gives us the highest results which can properly
be reached. As we shall see in the conclusion of this article, our
results obtained in this manner are supported by another line of
investigation. ;

Fourth objection—We perhaps do not understand just what Mr.
Very has in mind in regard to this. Certainly there is no sheet of
ice or anything of a continuous surface to be found in the air, so far
as we know, which would answer to the description of the conditions
referred to in the fourth objection. Some approach to it may be
found in the case of a cloud. But we have repeatedly ascended from
Pasadena to Mt. Wilson through clouds, and even in this case we
always perceived that the upper edge of the cloud had a gradual
thinning out for at least many meters. We do not conceive that
there is any other layer in the atmosphere for which this is not true.
A transition extending through at least many meters is all that we
require when we speak of a “ gradual ”’ change of transparency from
one atmospheric layer to another.

As Mr. Very hints, there are irregularities in the distribution of
the various bodies of air. For instance, in the neighborhood of a-
mountain there are currents of air of different temperatures rising
and falling along the slopes. These, to be sure, do not fall into the
horizontal layers postulated in our hypothesis of the atmospheric
transmission, but they disturb the regular distribution in altitude
so little relatively to the whole thickness of the atmosphere, and
furthermore, the differences of atmospheric transmission of these
different bodies of air from their immediate surroundings are so
slight, that their influence on the transmission coefficients which we
obtain may be neglected.

Fifth objection—We understand that it is here claimed that the
general, apparently non-selective, losses to which the solar beam is
subject in passing through the atmosphere are due not only to the
scattering of radiation by particles small as compared with the wave
length of light as indicated by Lord Rayleigh’s theory, but also to a

oO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

true absorption occurring in spectrum lines which are so fine as to
have escaped discovery hitherto, although so numerous as to produce
a profound effect upon the transmission of the atmosphere. Indeed,
Mr. Very says in another place that one may prove that atmospheric
losses in the atmosphere are at least three times as great as are indi-
cated by Rayleigh’s theory of scattering, or by the secant formula of
extinction. We have found by balloon experiments, as we shall
show, that the radiation at a level of about 25 kilometers, where
more than twenty-four twenty-fifths of the atmosphere lies below,
is still not greater than 1.9 calories per sq. cm. per minute. Hence
the condition of affairs referred to by Mr. Very, if it exists, applies
only to the very highest layers of the atmosphere, exerting less
than one twenty-fifth part of its pressure. Apparently, however, his.
strongest evidence of this supposed condition of affairs is his fixed
impression that the solar constant must be greater than we have
found it.

As to the effect on solar radiation of particles too gross to diffract
the rays, this must refer to dust particles, or agglomerations of dust
and other materials about nuclei of one kind or another, perhaps
about the hydrols which are thought by some to exist in the atmos-
phere. In regard to this we have only to refer to that line of table
2 which shows the transmission of the atmosphere for July 26, 1912,
when it was filled with volcanic dust. The atmospheric transmission
was then greatly reduced, but in a manner to make the sky white,
not blue. Hence we may say that the particles composing the dust
were large as compared with the wave length of light. But our
values of the solar constant obtained both at Bassour, Algeria, and
at Mt. Wilson, California, did not differ appreciably from those we
had obtained in the clearest of skies.

It is urged that there are diffuse bands of atmospheric absorption
which have escaped detection, but which, if taken account of, would
increase the value of the solar constant of radiation. We call atten-
tion here to the results published by Mr. Fowle, in which he
determined in the ordinary manner, from Washington observations,
transmission coefficients in the great infra-red water vapor bands.
These transmission coefficients, as he showed, sufficed almost, or
quite, to obliterate these bands from the energy curve of the sun
outside of the earth’s atmosphere, just as they ought to do, if effect-
ive, seeing that no water vapor exists in the sun. If, now, there are
other bands which are so inconspicuous that they cannot be found

*Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 47.

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 31

without the most careful consideration of the atmospheric transmis-
sion coefficients, as indeed Mr. Fowle’s researches on the relations
of the transmission coefficients to Lord Rayleigh’s theory of the sky
light have shown, still their effects will be eliminated in the same
manner as the infra-red bands were in the investigation just cited,
because the transmission coefficients in such spectrum regions will be
smaller than they would have been had the bands not been present
there. We feel satisfied that the existence of such bands, even if
there are any others than those which we know of, would hardly in
the slightest degree influence the value of the solar constant of
radiation.

Sixth objection —tIn regard to this matter, we think Mr. Very has
misinterpreted our procedure. We did not determine the quantity
of energy contained in the extreme infra-red part of the emission of
a “black body,” of the size and distance of the sun, at 6,000° abso-
lute temperature, and add that to what we have found from our
spectro-bolometric observations. On the contrary, our procedure
has been to piece out the spectro-bolometric curve as we have found
it to be outside the atmosphere, by joining onto it, where our deter-
mination ends, a curve after the form of the distribution of energy
computed by the Wien-Planck formula for the “black body” at
6,000°. If, now, the condition of the sun is such that its distribution
of radiation in the infra-red corresponds to a “ black body ” at 7,000°,
or some still higher temperature, then the real rate of the falling off
of the curve in the infra-red, beyond the region that we observe,
would be more rapid than that which we have assumed it to be.
Accordingly the area included under such a curve would be less than
we have assumed it to be, and thus our value of the solar constant of
radiation will be too large on account of the error of our method of
extrapolating in the extreme infra-red, rather than too small, as Mr.

Very maintains. At all events, surely the difference so far down in
the spectrum as this is altogether trifling in amount.

Seventh objection—We agree with Mr. Kron thatthe ultra-violet
spectrum may be a little more intense than we have supposed it to be.
However, when we consider the rapid falling off of solar energy in
the violet, and the reasonableness of it in view of the immense number
of solar absorption lines and other solar circumstances, we see no
probability at all that the part neglected would exceed 1 or 2 per cent,
at most, of the value of the solar constant of radiation. In confirma-
tion of this view, we point to the results of the balloon flights, which
we shall shortly describe.

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Eighth objection—As Mr. Very, 1na recent article, has shown that
Mr. Bigelow’s thermodynamic considerations are erroneous, it is not
necessary to discuss them further.

SOUNDING BALLOON OBSERVATIONS

Now we come to the final piece of experimental evidence which
we have secured, which seems to us to show that our solar constant
results are undoubtedly very close to the true ones, and that if there
be any circumstances which have led to the underestimation of the
losses which the solar beam suffers in the atmosphere, they at any
rate relate to the part of the atmosphere which lies beyond the alti-
tude of 24 kilometers, and where the total pressure of it is less than
one twenty-fifth of that which prevails at sea level.

In January, 1913, it was determined on the part of the Smithsonian
Institution to support an expedition to California, in charge of Mr.
A. K. Angstrom, for the purpose of observing the nocturnal radiation
at various altitudes. In connection with this work, the Institution
invited the cooperation of the United States Weather Bureau for the
purpose of sending up sounding balloons and captive balloons, in
order to determine the humidity and temperature at various heights
in the atmosphere, at the time of Mr. Angstrém’s experiments. While
discussing the proposed expedition with Mr. Angstrém, he inquired
of us whether it might not be possible that an instrument could be
devised for measuring the intensity of the radiation of the sun at the
highest altitudes to be reached by sounding balloons. After due
consideration of the matter, it was deemed by us feasible to do this.

Accordingly in the months of April, May, and June, 1913, there
were constructed at the instrument shop of the Astrophysical Observ-
atory, five copies of a special recording pyrheliometer, modified in
form from the silver disk pyrheliometer which we ordinarily employ
in solar-constant work.

The five instruments were sent up, in cooperation with the U. S.
Weather Bureau, by Mr. Aldrich, at Avalon, Santa Catalina Island,
California, in July and August, 1913. All were recovered, and all
had readable records of more or less value. In these experiments,
the balloon in one instance reached the height of 33,000 meters,
but unfortunately, owing to the freezing of the mercury contained in
the thermometers, the pyrheliometric records did not extend above an
altitude of 14,000 meters in any case. There were, besides, certain
sources of error which had not been anticipated at that time, so that
the results of the expedition could only be regarded as of a prelimi-

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 33

nary character. The results, such as they are, indicate radiation
values not exceeding 1.8 calories per cm.” per min.

Early in the year 1914, we began to rebuild the instruments, which
had been injured in their flights. On February 18, the preparations
having been considerably advanced, Mr. Abbot wrote the following
letter to Mr. Very, which is self-explanatory :

FEBRUARY 18, IQI4.
Dear Mr. Very:

As you know, we are interested in the value of the solar COnetne of
radiation. We know that you are also. In our view this quantity lies between
1.9 and 2.0 calories per sy. cm. per min. In yours it lies between 3.0 and 4.0
calories or possibly higher. All measurements made by us rest on the
“ Smithsonian Revised Pyrheliometry of 1913.” They are 3.5 per cent higher
than they would be on Angstrém’s scale, as shown by numerous comparisons
made in America and Europe. In the interests of ascertaining the truth,

which I know to be your sole object, as it is ours, will you be so good as to
answer these questions:

1. Do you consider the “Smithsonian Revised Pyrheliometry of 1913”
satisfactorily furnishing the standard scale of radiation?

2. If not, why not?

3. If in error, is it too high or too low, and how much?

I assume that you are not likely to think its results as much as 5 per cent
too low, and that the discrepancy between your ideas of the solar constant
and ours lies mainly outside of our conclusions as to the realization of the
standard scale of radiation. In this posture of affairs, I propose to try the
following experiments, which I hope will be crucial:

By cooperation with the United States Weather Bureau we propose to send
up with balloons five automatic-registering pyrheliometers in June or July
next. In preliminary experiments last summer the balloons generally reached
20 to 30 kilometers altitude, and in one case 33 kilometers. Mr. Blair expects
personally to attend to the balloons this year, and hopes to get them all above
30 kilometers, and some even to 40 kilometers. [This hope was disappointed,
probably because the balloons used in 1914 were a year old.] These elevations
are of course derived from barograph records, and it is not the elevation we
care about, but the pressure of atmosphere above. This is given directly by
the barographs, which will be calibrated, at the temperatures expected, by Mr.
Blair. [Calibrations were finally made at the Smithsonian Institution.] We
may expect the pressure reached will be less than 1 per cent of that at sea level.
It is designed to make the pressure record on the same drum as the pyrheli-
ometer record, so that there can be no error by differences of running of
independent clocks.

I now come to a second group of questions.

4. Do you think that the intensity of the solar radiation in free space at the
earth’s solar distance is materially higher than that at a station within the
atmosphere of the earth, where the barometric pressure is less than I per cent
of that which prevails at sea level?

5. If so, how much and why?

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

I assume that you do not think the radiation in free space would be as much
as 5 per cent the higher of the two. If so, the proposed balloon experiments
may be expected to be conclusive to you as well as to me, if you are satisfied
as to their accuracy.

to
4
i

0 CENTIMETERS.

o INCHES. |

FILE

saevesestF.

The apparatus is now in so forward a state of preparation that if you should
be in Washington I hope you will do me the kindness to come and see it and
discuss it, As that may be impracticable, I give the following details which

Fic. 5.—Balloon Pyrheliometer.

btannne

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 35

may enable you to suggest sources of error which may be removed before the
flights take place, or at least satisfactorily determined in advance by experi-
ments.

This instrument is a modified form of our disk pyrheliometer. A blackened
aluminum disk, a (fig. 5), encloses a thermometer, d, whose stem is shown in
enlarged cross section at d. The cavity for the bulb of the thermometer
within the disk, a, is filled up with mercury, and sealed at the mouth with
thread and wax as in our pyrheliometers. The disk is enclosed in an interiorly
blackened aluminum box, b. Two polished copper rings, k k*, limit the solar
beam to a cross section less than that of a. As the temperature of the disk a
changes, the mercury in the stem fluctuates, thus allowing the sun to print on
more or less of the length of the photographic drum, e, according to the tem-
perature. Thus when the paper (solio paper) is removed, there is a record
like this (see fig. 9):

A clock work f rotates the drum, and at the same time causes the shutter,
g hit, to be for four minutes in the position above the disk a as shown, then
four minutes opened (as partially shown dotted at the left), then again closed
as shown, and so on, rotating, at the end of each four minutes, 180° on g as
an axis. The shutter comprises three parts. Of these i and 7 are polished
aluminum disks, and h a polished silver cone. The angle of the cone, h, is such
that all rays from a must go either directly or by reflection to the sky, none to
the earth. Hence when the shutter is closed the disk a observes the sky
directly, or by reflection, though not the zenith sky. When the shutter is open
the disk observes the sun plus the sky, at this time the zenith sky. Hence the
difference between the radiation exchange when the shutter is open, or closed,
is not entirely due to the sun, but in part to the difference between zenith and
horizon sky, and to the imperfect reflection of silver. These differences are,
however, not large, and they may be approximately determined. At high
levels the skylight will diminish, and the difference of radiation exchange to
surroundings (other than the sun) between shutter open and shutter closed
may become very small indeed, compared to solar radiation. The shutter is
made, when closed, to hide the sky to 30° zenith distance from all parts of the
disk a, when the apparatus hangs as if suspended from the balloons. The
apparatus is hung by a steel wire of nearly 25 meters length below the balloons.

In order to prevent the mercury in the thermometer from freezing, the cup
b is wound outside and underneath with resistance wire, and batteries are
taken along to heat the wire. Their action is automatically controlled by a
curved strip of brass and invar c lying in a groove in the cup b and arranged
to open against platinum points and complete circuit when the temperature of
the curved strip goes below 0° C. [This arrangement was not used in the
most successful flight, and is not shown in fig. 5.] The whole apparatus is
covered with a blanket of black silk and down, excepting the top of the disk a,
the shutter h, and the thermometer stem d.

Each instrument is to be repeatedly calibrated against silver disk pyr-
heliometers before sending it up, and the flights are to be made on cloudless
days, and pyrheliometer readings taken on the ground during flight. A
correction to the aperture for zenith distance of the sun will be made.

As stated above, similar experiments have already been made with consider-
able success in 1913. Records to 13,000 meters were obtained, but for lack of
the heating apparatus above mentioned the mercury froze, and prevented

36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

higher records. Since then the apparatus has been wholly rebuilt, with Richard
clocks, and the best possible driving mechanism, so that backlash of the drum
is nearly eliminated.

Neither you nor I have read, or ever can read, the pyrheliometer outside the
atmosphere. It is now proposed to cause automatic pyrheliometers to observe
as high up as possible. In the interest of learning the truth I beg that you will
be so good as to suggest to me wherein the proposed experiments are likely to
fail, so that all possible precautions may be taken against failure. Undoubtedly
it will be impossible to get results to 1 per cent, but—

6. Do you see any reason why the experiments should not be decisive as
between a solar constant of 1.9—2.0 calories and one of 3.0—4.0 calories?

I await with much interest your replies to my six (6) questions, and any
suggestions you may have the goodness to offer.

In response to this communication, Mr. Very was kind enough to
send two letters which contain very valuable suggestions. We quote
a portion of the letters as received.

(a) Without actually experimenting myself with such actinometric appa-
ratus as you use, I should not care to express an opinion as to its efficiency.

(b) I regard the upper isothermal layer of the atmosphere as due mainly to
local heating through absorption of solar radiation. Until we get above that
layer, I should expect to find increment of solar radiation with each increase
of altitude. It seems to me improbable that this limit will be reached at
40 kilometers.

(c) Any plan for a high level measurement of solar radiation which has
even a small prospect of success may be worth trying. It is to be regretted
that yours involves the local application of electric heating, which seems to me
very risky and liable to produce all sorts of complications and unforeseen
results. ... 1 would suggest that ascension should be made at night with a
little electric lamp to give the record, to see what sort of a record you would
get when the sun is away. The combination of night and day records
might enable you to eliminate some errors inevitable in the method. ... If
your disk and its attachments are too massive four minutes exposure may not
be long enough. You cannot use a very long exposure because the balloon
ascension ends too soon. It behooves you therefore to have your thermometer
and disk made on the smallest possible scale. Another thing which may he
unavoidable in your construction is the very circumscribed protecting case.
The same instrument may read differently in a wide, roomy case.... The
knowledge of how such an apparatus as you are proposing will behave in the
absence of the sun seems to me almost indispensable. Thus I should be
apprehensive that the interpositions of the metal cone above the heat-measuring
disk will act as a wind shield to some extent. There will, therefore, be less
cooling from contact with the air during shade that there would be if the wind
effect were constant, and the fall of temperature in shade will be too small in
the day observation. At night there might even be a rise of temperature when
the cone is interposed, and it is desirable to learn whether this is so, and the
amount of the change. . . . During the most rapid part of the ascent, the instru-
ment is exposed to a strong resultant air current, which may exceed 7 meters
per second. This powerful wind blowing directly upon the face of the

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH By)

instrument must tend to keep it at air temperature, and will diminish the
effect of the sun’s rays. During calibration, steady, artificial, vertical air cur-
rents, of I to I0 meters per second, should be made to impinge upon the face
of the instrument, and the results tabulated in comparison with the record of a
standard instrument, not thus affected. It is partly on account of this strong
downward air current that I do not approve of your shallow cup, becatise this
construction allows nearly free access of air currents to the heated surface,
which is liable to work great harm to the observations unless corrections are
determined from elaborate researches. . . . I like the principle of the Violle
actinometer, namely, that of a wide, encompassing jacket at constant tempera-
ture; and although some sort of a compromise must be made in your case, it
might be better to use a broader disk (even though this diminishes the sensi-
tiveness of the arrangement) and to place this disk at the center of a double-
walled alcohol jacket several inches in diameter. This will surely diminish
the wind effect, although I should still want to calibrate the thing with the
same strong downward currents as noted above. . . . By rights the temperature
of the alcohol jacket should be recorded, as in Violle’s instrument. This
would require another thermometer, and a duplicate registering apparatus.
With an alcohol jacket the mercury thermometer would work down to nearly
— 40° centigrade, and, with the greater protection of a circumscribed aperture
and partial shielding from the wind, I should suppose that the apparatus might
continue to register when the outside air is quite a little colder than this. But
here I am only guessing, and there is the same objection to doing that in the
present case as there is to answering your “six questions.” I prefer to leave
the guessing to you, and only say: Try it! And 1 wish you success.

In view of Mr. Very’s excellent suggestions, four of the instru-
ments were arranged to be used by day, and one, with a row of
electric lights above the thermometer for recording purposes, was
arranged to be sent up at night. In two of the day instruments the
proposed electric heating was dispensed with. In place of it, there
was substituted a chamber of water (J, fig. 5), completely enclosing
the sides and bottom of the aluminum cup, within which is placed the
aluminum disk. A large number of copper strips for conducting
heat were disposed in all directions through the water chamber, and
soldered to the inside wall of it, so as to bring the water in intimate
thermal conductivity with the immediate surroundings of the alumi-
num disk. Thus it was hoped to make use of the latent heat of
freezing of the water, so that, in fact, the water jacket would act asa
constant temperature case, to prevent the cooling of the thermometer
below the freezing point of water. This worked excellently.

A change was made from the practice of 1913 in attaching the
barometric element as a part of the pyrheliometer, instead of sending
up a separate meteorograph. Barometric elements, loaned by the
Weather Bureau, were mounted as shown at n, figure 5. The light
aluminum arm, o, passing through a slot in the side of the cover

~

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

cylinder, rests upon the photographic paper on the drum, e, between
the thermometer, d, and the drum. A little longitudinal slot is cut
in the aluminum arm, o, at the point where it passes under the ther-
mometer, so that, as the drum revolves, the sun prints through the
thermemeter stem and the slot, and makes a trace of the position of
the arm, 0, appearing as a dark narrow streak between two light
streaks.

No temperature record was obtained in the pyrheliometer flights
of 1914. Certain corrections to the barometric readings depending
on the temperature were worked up by a consideration of the tem-
peratures found in other flights, as will appear in its place. It would
have been better if the mounting of the barometric element had been
wholly of invar, so as to reduce these corrections, but no essential
harm seems to have resulted.

The size of the apparatus was made as small as seemed practicable,
and its entire weight, including about one-half pound of water but
exclusive of silk, feathers, and cotton used for wrapping, was only
three pounds for the water jacketed instruments. ‘The electrically
heated instruments, with their battery * and devices for operating it,
weighed about four pounds.

METHOD OF READING PYRHELIOMETER RECORDS

The records indicate the rate of rise of temperature of the alumi-
num disk during exposure of it to the sun, and the rate of fall of
temperature of it during shading. One desires to know the rate of
rise during exposure as it would be if there were no cooling due to
the surroundings. In reading a record, it was fastened upon a large
sheet of cross-section paper, with the degree marks of the balloon
pyrheliometer record lying parallel to the section lines, in abscissae.
A fine wire was then stretched parallel to a branch of the zigzag
trace, and the tangent of its inclination to the degree marks was read
upon the cross-section paper. Each such tangent was determined by
several readings. The tangent representing each solar heating was
then corrected by adding to it the mean value derived from the
coolings preceding and following it. Thus we obtained, in arbitrary
units, values proportional to the solar heatings. The same method
of reading was applied to the records obtained while calibrating the
balloon pyrheliometer, at Omaha, and at Washington, before and

* A special form of Roberts cell was developed, comprising tin, nitric acid, and
carbon. Each cell was of 20 grams weight, 1.3 volts potential, and furnished
an average of 0.4 ampere for 2 hours.

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 39

after the flight, against standardized pyrheliometers, and so the
results were reduced to calories per sq. cm. per minute.

SOURCES OF ERROR
I, EFFECT OF AIR CURRENTS

In relation to the important point raised by Mr. Very regarding
the effect of a downward current of air, a balloon pyrheliometer was
calibrated in a current of air. The method of doing this is shown in
figure 6, in which a b represents a 20-inch pipe connected to the

Fic. 6.—Testing the Balloon Pyrheliometer in Air Currents.

blower c, and causing the current of air of known velocity to pass
over the balloon pryheliometer d. In this situation the balloon pyr-
heliometer was compared, with and without flow of air, with the
standardized silver-disk pyrheliometer. The rate of flow of the air
was taken at 5 meters per second, which would be the maximum rate
of ascent of the balloon during its flight.

The results of these experiments were surprising to us, for we had
assumed, with Mr. Very, that the effect of the downward current of
air would be to increase the rate of cooling of the aluminum disk
when the shutter was open. The contrary appears to be the case, for

AKO) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the corrected readings of the balloon pyrheliometer were, at the first,
about 16 per cent higher when the current of air was in operation
than when read in still air.

We reduced this source of error very greatly, by attaching to the
instrument. a flat plate of blackened tin (7, fig. 5), level with the
copper ring diaphragms which admit the light to the aluminum disk,
and extending out from the copper disk to about 25 centimeters in
diameter. This tin plate deflected the current of air in such a manner
that the magnitude of the error we had found became reduced to
4 per cent. It seemed to us that the error must be proportional to
the number of molecules carried down by the current of air, and that
it would therefore decrease directly in proportion to the pressure of
air in which the instrument found itself. Accordingly we believe
that at the altitude reached by the instrument, namely, 24 kilometers, -
where the pressure of the air is only one twenty-fifth of that which
prevails at sea level, the effect of this source of error will be to
increase the reading of the pyrheliometer by only about 0.2 per cent.

2. VARIATIONS IN SKY EXPOSURE

As indicated in Mr. Abbot’s letter, there was expected a difference
in the radiation exchanged by the instrument with the sky, depending
upon whether the shutter is opened or closed. This difference grows
less and less as the instrument goes to higher and higher altitudes,
but there could readily be a source of error here if the instrument
were compared on the ground with another instrument erp ooite the
disk very differently.

To avoid this source of error, one of our older pyrheliometers,
No. V, was reconstructed, so that it might be exposed to the sun and
sky in exactly the same manner as the balloon pyrheliometer. In
fact, one of the balloon pyrheliometers was taken to pieces, and the
copper diaphragms and the shutter were transferred to pyrheliometer
No. V, so that, in respect to its exposure, pyrheliometer No. V became
identically similar to the balloon pyrheliometer No. 3. The two
instruments were then compared, and the result of the 16 determina-

No. 3
tions gave us the ratio of their readings: No. V = 1.082 =O10245

We then returned pyrheliometer No. V to its original condition,
except that we retained the same copper diaphragms, so as to prevent
any error from the measurement of the size of the aperture; and we
compared it with silver disk pyrheliometer No. 9. By 14 compari-
sons we determined the constant of pyrheliometer No. V in these

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH Al

circumstances to be 0.849+0.003, to reduce its readings to calories
per cm.? per minute. From this we find the constant of balloon
pyrheliometer No. 3 to be 0.451 +0.006.

In this way, it appears to us, the source of error above mentioned
was avoided. A few comparisons were also made at Omaha directly
between balloon pyrheliometer No. 3 and silver-disk pyrheliometer
No. 9. These show the magnitude of this error, for assuming that
no such error as above considered exists, the results of these com-
parisons yield for the pyrheliometer No. 3 the constant 0.414, which
differs by 8 per cent from the value obtained by the preferred process.

3. ROTATION OF THE INSTRUMENT

Another source of error. which was not inconsiderable depended
upon the rotation of the balloon during its flight, for the instrument
not only rotated, but swung around a small cone, so that the average
angle made by the sun rays with the surface of the aluminum disk
was not given immediately by a knowledge of the latitude of Omaha
and the declination and hour angle of the sun at the time of exposure.
Fortunately the record of the flight gave means of determining this
small correction. The record of the degrees marked upon the ther-
mometer stem, instead of being a series of parallel fine lines as they
are shown in figure 9, became broadened out as the instrument
rotated. By measuring the distance apart of the edges of the broad-
ened lines, as compared with results found in check experiments made
by moving the instrument through known angles, the half angle of
the cone during the highest part of the flight was determined and
found to be about 9 degrees. It was then computed that a correction
of about 1.2 per cent should be added to the readings over and above
that of about 8 per cent which was due to the zenith distance of
the sun.

4. RATE OF THE CLOCKWORK

At Omaha, on July 2, 1914, during calibrations, the mean period
occupied by a complete rotation of the shutter was found 8” 17°;
at Washington, on December 26, 1914, during calibration, 8" 18%.
Other records give similar indications of substantial constancy of
rate of the clockwork. However, on February 4, 1915, at +19° C.,
the mean rate of the drum was .02154 mm. per sec., while at — 46° C.,
the mean rate found was .0217 mm. per sec. This indicates a
change of I per cent for the range of temperature + 34° to —37°,
which occurred on July 11, 1914. This error would tend to diminish
the results by 1 per cent.

3

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

5. HORIZONTAL THERMOMETER STEM AND CALIBRATION

A difficulty was encountered in the experiments of 1913, for, owing
to the horizontal position of the thermometer stem, the mercury
thread sometimes separated, and failed to return after a rise of
temperature. This was overcome by drilling a hole into the upper
bulb, just before the flight, so that air pressure came upon the
mercury column. In 1913, this worked perfectly satisfactorily, but:
in 1914 the mercury column became foul in every case but that of
No. 5 pyrheliometer, owing probably to the creep of the lubricant used
in drilling the glass. This prevented the use of pyrheliometers Nos.
I and 2, and required several washings with benzol and alcohol before
the bore of Nos. 3 and 4 was clean enough to be used. Even then
the upper temperatures were unavailable, so that no use could be
made of records at low altitudes in the flights of July 9 and July
II, 1914. ;

The reader will perhaps wonder why there was not left a small.
gas pressure above the mercury column in the original construction.
This was not done, for we were required to calibrate the thermometer
stems because their bores were not uniform. We could most readily
do so by breaking the mercury thread and moving a short column
from place to place in the bore, observing its length-changes. This
we did for, all the thermometers, and have corrected our results
accordingly. In view of our experience we should now prefer to
introduce gas pressure in the original construction, and calibrate the
thermometers in baths of known temperatures.

6. OTHER CORRECTIONS

The aluminum disk, during the highest flight, differed slightly in
its mean temperature from that which it had during calibration.
Owing to change in the specific heat of aluminum with change of
temperature, a correction of 0.5 per cent should be deducted for this.

The suspending wires in their rotation shaded the disk. A correc-
tion of 0.2 per cent should be added for this.

Variations in the absorption of the disk by deterioration of the
blackened surface between July and December are thought to require
a correction of somewhat less than I per cent to be deducted. :

Variations in reflecting power of the copper diaphragms used in
the calibrations are thought to require an additive correction of 0.25
per cent:

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH A3

While the effect of the downward current of
air seems to be nearly neyligible, as indicated
above, it may be possible that the considerable
difference of temperature between the disk and
the air during recording at highest altitudes
tended to alter or change the sign of this error.

In consideration of all circumstances, it
seems to us that the various small positive
corrections, including the error below men-
tioned in determining the angle of the cone of
rotation, but not that for clock rate or for in-
clination, may be regarded as balancing the va-
rious small negative corrections. We consider,
therefore, in what follows, only the direct
results of the exposures, the calibration at
Washington, the correction for effective solar
zenith distance, the correction to mean solar
distance, the correction for clock rate, and the
probable correction to reduce to outside the
atmosphere.

CIRCUMSTANCES OF OBSERVATION

The. following circumstances attended the
balloon pyrheliometer flights at Omaha: Ob-
servers: For the Smithsonian Institution, L. B.
Aldrich; for the U. S. Weather Bureau, Dr.
Wm. R. Blair, B. J. Sherry, and Mr. Morris.

India rubber balloons, imported by the
Smithsonian Institution from Russia in July,
1913, were used. They were 1.25 meters in
diameter, inflated with hydrogen gas, and were
sent up in groups of three attached as shown
in figure 7.

It was expected that after two of the bal-
loons had burst by expansion, at high altitudes,
the third would bring down the apparatus in
safety. A reward was offered for the safe
return of the apparatus by the finder.

In addition to the barometric element, as a
means of measuring heights reached, the bal-
loons were observed by two theodolites, sepa-
rated by a known base line.

Fic. 7.—Method of
Suspending Balloon
Pyrheliometer.

44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

JULY I, 1914. NIGHT ASCENSION

Balloon launched with No. 5 pyrheliometer at 11" 26" p. m. in clear
sky. Moon half full and setting. Wire, 22 meters long, plus 3
meters, plus 2 meters. Total, 27 meters. Electric flash light
attached, but could be followed only a few minutes with theodolite
at Fort Omaha, and was not seen from the second station. The
_apparatus was found July 3, 6.30 a. m., at Harvard, Iowa, two bal-
loons still inflated. The instrument was somewhat damaged, but the
record not harmed.

JULY 9, I914

Balloon launched with No. 4 pyrheliometer at 10° 8" a. m. Bal-
loons followed by theodolites at both stations for 1" 5", and at one
station for 2" 16". One balloon burst after 42", another after 2” 4”.
The apparatus was found at Omaha after 20 days, but the record was
spoiled by light and water, and the instrument greatly damaged.

JULY II, LO14
Balloon launched with No. 3 pyrheliometer at 10" 30" a.m. Sky
fairly clear, save for cirri near the horizon. All clear near the sun.
Balloons followed by theodolites at both stations for 35 minutes, and
at one station for over two hours. Two balloons burst nearly
simultaneously, after 1" 47". Pyrheliometer A. P. O. 9 was read
immediately after the launching as follows: At 10" 35”, 1.147 cal.;
at 10° 39", 1.161 cal. Apparatus found 3%4 miles northwest of
Carson, Iowa, on July 11, at 5 p. m., and received entirely uninjured
at Mt. Wilson, California. It was later carried uninjured to Wash-
ington, and tested in various ways during the following winter.
Weights of apparatus and accessories:

Grams

Wares lophloweNS, aie AAs) eAraaNs EAC sacooccoesuoncacevs - 8,640
Pyrheliometer cc ck'b sae ae ek ee eae ee 1,250
Water in jacketeys acs ie eee rae oe eer eee 170
Silk, feathers, and cotton wrapping ...................-.--: 370
WAG S © ote ate grea oeene 8 sional ee SPO IA eRe ona eRe eee 50
AT otal Bea Sle ee ee cee ap eS aoe 10,480

DISCUSSION OF REEORDS
I. THE NIGHT RECORD

In figure 8 is given a reproduction of the record obtained in the
night flight made at Omaha on July 1,-1914. “A, A5A, Anis ihe
barometric record, B, B, B, the pyrheliometer record. As shown,

NO. 4 SOLARe RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 45

the lighting current was cut off intermittently to prevent premature
exhaustion of the battery. Unfortunately the mechanism failed to
make electrical contacts in the region A, A,, so that the pyrheliometer

¢ acres

a ONE SS CN I ROMER NN TIE
Soe ae ea

Fic. 8.—Night Record with Balloon Pyrheliometer.

record is missing there. It does not show in the last part of the
record corresponding to A, A,, from which we infer that the electrical
heating proved insufficient to hold the temperature of the disk above
about —15°, corresponding to the position C, and .that the record

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

is lost in stray light somewhere below C. But from B, to B, is a
period of 20 minutes, during which there were 214 complete rotations
(5 swings) of the shutter, and the apparatus rose about 3,000 meters.

Apart from the slight fall of temperature shown at B,, when the
instrument was removed from the balloon shed, there is no appreciable
sudden change of temperature, but only the gradual march attending
increasing altitude. No periodic change attributable to the opening
and closing of the shutter is discernible. From this we conclude that
no considerable error is caused by the current of air due to the uprush
of the balloons, which it was thought might cool the disk unequally,
depending on whether the shutter is open or not.

2. THE DAY RECORD

The record obtained in the day flight of July 11, 1914, was on solio
paper. It was read up while still unfixed, and was at that time very

.

SSF

t “a> Pressure=3.0cm,
Se ATR tude = 24000 ml

Ah a Nala a |

PUTIN ATID ANTI ATTA
TMT RAITT |
TT TTT |
RN 110000
TET

Co
eee

le =

===

:
“ill

Q 123
Centimeters

Fic. 9—Balloon Pyrheliometer Record, July 11, 1914. (From a Tracing.)

clear and good.- Unfortunately it was submitted to the process of
toning, without being first photographed, and became so faint that st
is quite impossible to reproduce it, although it is still readable.

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 47

Accordingly we give merely the readings made upon the original,
and their reduction. Figure 9 is from a tracing made to represent
the march of the record.

The pyrheliometer record consists of a series of zigzag reaches of
shading corresponding to the up and down marches of the mercury
column. We shall principally confine attention to those marked
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, which represent the solar radiation measured
just before the instrument reached maximum elevation. We do this
because: (1) As stated above, the earlier part of the records are of
little value owing to the bore of the thermometer being foul for
temperatures above +10°. (2). A defect in the record occurs just
after the balloons began to descend, first owing to a jerkiness, and
then owing to crossing the seam in the paper, which renders the next
two following readings doubtful. (3) There is doubt as to the
elevation at the time of the last descending records, because the
barometer arm did not work quite free. (4) The record is finally
lost in clouds. All readable records are, however, given for what
they may be worth. :

CORRECHION TO REDUCE TO VERTICAL SUN

The extreme width of the degree marks on the record during
heating B, D, F, was measured and found 1.40 millimeters. Inclining
the pyrheliometer, first 15.5° N., then 15.5° S., when exposed to the
sun, was found to shift the degree marks through a total range of
0.89 mm. Subtracting width of trace, 0.31 mm., and dividing by 2,
we find the record sheet is within the pyrheliometer at a distance X,
such that X tangent 15.5°=0.29 mm. Hence X=1.04 mm. From
this it follows that the tangent of the half angle of the cone swept
1.40 — 0.31
Pe nOs
the cone is 27° 40’. At Omaha, on July 11, at noon the sun’s zenith
distance was 19° 5’. Hence the pyrheliometer was swinging in a
- cone whose half angle was 27° 40’ — 19° 5’=8° 35’.

From these data it follows that the mean value of the cosine of the
inclination of the sun’s rays upon the pyrheliometer disk at noon
was 0.934. But if the instrument had been stationary this value
would have been 0.945. Hence the conical rotation produced a
change of 0.011. This value has been applied as a correction to the
values of cosine Z, corresponding to the several sun exposures. It
is probable that the correction is a little too small, because the record

_ through by the sun rays was Hence the half angle of

48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

of the degree marks is naturally less wide than it would have been if
time had been allowed for full photographic effect at the extremes
of the swing.

READINGS ON BEST THREE RECORDS OF JULY II, IQI4

Cooling Heating Cooling Heating Cooling Heating Cooling

A B (Cc D E F G
2.53 1.34 1.78 1.90 1.96 2.10 1.65
2.22 1.45 EG Pyi 1.78 1.86 2.00 1.53
2.30 ie22 1.84 BGG, 1.97 1.90 1.40
2.64 1.50 1.88 leas 1.92 1.98 1.50
2.40 1.34 1.90 1.88 1.82 1.82 1.61
BaGe Tage 1.91 mee 1.84 1.78 ies
Means 2.45 1.41 1.85 1.82 1.89 I.QI 1.54
2.15 1.87 1.715
Corrected — —
MANAUS. oo oo on oSHHO 3.69 3.625

SUMMARY OF READINGS AND REDUCTIONS

Watch Corrected Cosine Cosine Z Pyrheliometer Reading
time hour angle Z corrected reading 0.451
East for rotation Aas Z
i Goce o"34™ 0.936 0.925 3.56 1.736
I2 04 O 25 .940 . 920 3.69 1.791
122 017 .Q42 .931 22625 1.750
I2 26 O 09 .943 .932 2.225 TE. 501
West ;
T2 36 0 07 .O45 .934 iil I. 501
12 44 0 15 -044 -933 Bee | 1.730
I2 52 O 23 .OAT .930 3.09 1.499

The solar radiation indicated by the mean value of the first three
records, which are by far the best, is 1.761 calories per sq. cm. per
minute. Reduced to mean solar distance and adding 1 per cent for
clock rate, it becomes

1.84 calories per sq. cm. per minute.

As will be shown, the mean altitude at this time was about 22,000
meters, and the corresponding pressure about 3 centimeters. In our
opinion an increase of about 2 per cent would be a proper allowance
for the extinction in the atmosphere above this altitude, considering
atmospheric scattering as I per cent, and atmospheric absorption
EApes Cent

BAROMETRY AND ALTITUDE

The following results are given by the observations of the U. S.
Weather Bureau, as indicated in communications quoted:

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 49

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
WEATHER BuREAU,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,

WasHInctTon, D. C., MARCH I5, IQI5.
Dr. C. D. Walcott,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C.
DEAR SIR:

Replying to your letter of March 13, 1915, no readings of pressure and
temperature were taken preceding the morning ascension of July 11, rota.
However, a reading was taken after the ascension, at I p. m., and another just

preceding the second ascension, at 4 p.m. These readings were:

Pressure Temperature
YAN} Be SLU Sp) DS 0 een ek cron eT SOREN ORCI 732.5 mm. 320 Cae
UAtERA aE TTR CAE Reece sess ava sia asians 732.0 mm. Borie Cs
The values at the Weather Bureau Station in Omaha at these hours were:
Pressure Temperature
JENIE TAL DO L00 Oe a Ries cree aS oS TE ESERIES 730.8 mm. asiae (GC,
TENE 7 RY ONS 0 IRS oR REP ay ecg See pk ogee tee 730.2 mm. 35.6° C.

Applying these differences, + 1.8 mm. for pressure and —2.8° C. for
temperature, to the value at 10.30 a. m. at Omaha, viz., 731.5 mm. and
32.2° C., we get 733.3 mm. and 29.4° as the probable values at Fort Omaha
just preceding the first ascension, or 10.30 a. m.

Very respectfully,
: C. F. Marvin,
Chief of Bureau.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
' WEATHER BUREAU,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
WaAsHIncTON, D. C., MARCH 9, 1015.
Dr. C. D. Walcott,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C.
DEAR SIR:

I inclose herewith the data for July 11, 1914, requested by you in your letter
of January 20, 1915. They include, for the first ascension, when the balloon
pyrheliometer was taken up, altitudes each minute as long as the balloons could
be observed at both stations; for the second ascension, in the afternoon,
temperatures at those levels in which the temperature-altitude relation changed,
and interpolated values at 500-meter levels up to 5,000 meters, and at 1,000-
meter levels above 5,000 meters. Pressures also are given, wherever it was
possible to compute them. A considerable portion of the record has been
rubbed off, by reason of its having lain in a mud pond for some days. There
were several pounds of mud in the instrument when it was received. All
altitudes were computed from the two-station theodolite observations.

The ascensional rates for the two ascensions are almost identical up to 6,000
meters. Assuming that they continue in this relation, a curve extended for

50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the first ascension, as shown in the accompanying chart [not here shown],
indicates an altitude of 25,600 meters at the time one of the balloons burst.
Very respectfully,

C. F. Marvin,
Chief of Bureau.

TEMPERATURES AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES IN BALLOON ASCENSION,

eeeceee

seco ee

eee eee

JULY 11, 1914) Poa.

Altitude Pressure Temp.
mM. mm. GE
312 732.0 2} 5
BOOh ne | Wexsenee B3e2
631 700.4 33-3
962 681.0 29.8
TF COOM. ela aiaverte 20.7
1,503 640.1 26.0
BiQOOs sia 2107
2AM Barco 17.5
SOOO RT iwiL aia 14.0
BEE OO4 Shyer ake 10.8
OAS y iipearey sate 9.9
4,000 ee cietets 9.6
AAA Tia ce Tae ee 9.1
AGS OO. 1 Dhara erite 8.6
4,976 431.5 4.8
OOO! yh ata Aa]
O:000i = 7 aes — 7
OOO. peeee = 7-O
7,592 309.9 Se le 5)
S000; aeose — 13.4
8,507 280.5 — 16.0
8,930 265.3 = 17.9
OOOOR May eee —18.3
TOOOO: © acer ——2AS
10,442 220.3 == 27 10
WT;OOOM £o.08 a crs ers — 31.8
11,572 185.5 = 35.2
T2OOOIN! N aeceae == 3007)
T3iOOONNY Peron 115, 2
13,348 145-5 47-0
WATOOO, oye weeeees — 48.8
DASOAT a) wiley genet ore — 826
Ti? OOO Me anaeer — I,
ISOAO - Vakaeda ol = Silos)
TIGUA Pt She reys et — 48.3
TOLOOOM EEE — 48:3
TOSS Ce ee — 48.3
T7000 a. Aunaae — 46.6
T7TOO) oe iy essere bee
TO LOAS pres ese ueps

Remarks

Balloon launched.

Lowest temperature.

Clock stopped.
Balloon burst.

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 51

ALTITUDES OF BALLOON, DETERMINED FROM THEODOLITE READINGS
eT VWVOk Si AON Sj Uley tle I914, A. M.

Time Altitude Remarks
a. m. =
10:30.3 312 Balloon launched.
10:32 720
10 :33 1,016
10:34 1,286
10:35 1,302
10:36 1,606
10:37 1,760
10:38 1,900
10:39 2,022
10:40 2,166
10:41 2,280
TO AZ 2,424
10:43 2,585
10:44 2,088
10:45 2,808
10 :46 2,982
10:47 3,178
10:48 3,359
10:49 3,508
10:50 3,718
10:51 3,876
10:52 3,970
10:53 - 4,159
10:54 4,270
10:55 4,528
10:56 4,682
10:57 4,950
10:58 5,052
10:50 5,122
II :00 5,218
II :01 5,538
II :02 5,492
II :03 5,825
II :04 6,122
II :05 6,006 Balloon disappeared from view of
p. m. observers at Creighton College.
UA SU 69) Balloon burst.

CALIBRATION OF THE BAROMETRIC RECORD OF
OENG ia. 161A.

This record is marred by the sticking of the aluminum arm at
middle deflections, both in rising and falling flight. Fortunately the
arm appears to have been free at maximum elevation, as shown by
the perfectly normal inflection of the record at precisely the time when

52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the two balloons were observed to burst. Accordingly while no
suspicion attaches to the record at maximum elevation, it is worthless
at intermediate elevations.

The barometer element was calibrated by enclosure of the whole
instrument in a brass box from which air could be exhausted, and of
which the temperature was regulated by immersion in a stirred bath
of gasoline cooled by expansion of liquid carbon dioxide. In one set
of experiments the sensitiveness of the element to change of pressure
was determined at several constant temperatures ranging from +34°
C. to — 49° C., and the change of zero with change of temperature
was determined asa correction. In another set of experiments, both
temperature and pressure were simultaneously lowered to correspond
with the temperatures and pressures indicated by the foregoing
results of the Weather Bureau observers.

We assume that at the time of launching at Omaha, the instrument,
being shone upon by the sun, was 5° in excess of the air temperature,
and hence at +34° C. We assume that at the maximum elevation
the instrument was at — 37° C.

From experiments of December 26, 1914, and February 1 and 4,
IQI5, we find that the zero of the barometric element changed linearly
at the rate of 0.123 mm. per degree, in the sense to diminish the
barometric deflection attending falling pressure. Hence for a fall
of 71° the correction is 8.7 mm.

From the record of July 11, 1914, the barometric deflection is
37.8 mm. at highest altitude. Corrected deflection, 46.5 mm. From
numerous experiments at various constant temperatures, 76.4 cm.
mercury pressure corresponds to a deflection on our record of
50.3 mm. Hence for July 11, 1914, the change of pressure was

40:5 x 76.4=70.7 cm. Hg. The barometer reading at Fort Omaha
was 73.33 cm. Hence, by these experiments, the pressure at maxi-
mum elevation was 2.63 cm. Hg.

Again, on March 18, 1915, a change of pressure of 72.3 cm. Hg.,
and accompanying change of temperature from +34.8° to — 30°,
gave a barometric deflection of 40.0 mm. Hence, from +34° to

— 37° would have given a deflection of 39.1 mm. Hence, the change
of pressure on July 11 was sre <723 =72.0.
Hence, by these experiments the pressure at maximum elevation

was 3.33 cm. Hg. As a mean result, we decide that at maximum

* Here the carbon dioxide used for cooling purposes was exhausted.

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—-ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 53

elevation the barometric pressure was 2.98 cm. Hg., or in round
numbers, 3.0 cm. Hg. From our examination of the records of
various balloon flights at Omaha and Avalon, we suppose this would
be regarded as corresponding to an elevation of 24,000 meters, which
is in good agreement with the results obtained by theodolite work.

COMPARATIVE RESULTS OF PYRHELIOMETRY AT REDUCED
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURES

“In a recent publication, Prof. H. H. Kimball gives the highest
value of solar radiation ever observed at Washington, for zenith
distance 60°, as 1.51 calories per cm.” per min., observed on December
26, 1914. Reduced to vertical sun and mean solar distance, this
result would have been about 1.58 calories.

The highest values observed on Mt. Wilson are those of November
2, 1909, and yield to a similar reduction 1.64 calories, at mean solar
distance and vertical sun.

For Mt. Whitney, for the maximum obtained on September 3, 1909,
the reduced value is 1.72 calories at mean solar distance and ver-
tical sun.

In balloon flights of August 31, September 28, and October 19,
1913, Dr. A. Peppler of Giessen observed with an Angstrom pyr-
heliometer at great altitudes. On September 28 the results were,
in his opinion, vitiated by a defect of the apparatus. On August 31,
the highest result, as reduced by Peppler to the Smithsonian scale of
pytheliometry, was 1.77 calories, obtained at zenith distance 45°,
altitude 5,900 meters, air pressure 36.5 cm. This result, however, is
not a complete Angstrom measurement depending on “left, right,
left ” readings, and therefore may be vitiated by galvanometer drift.
Moreover, it stands very high as compared with others of that date,
and, indeed, much higher than others of that date obtained at greater
altitudes. On October 19, the highest complete result was 1.67
calories, obtained at zenith distance 61°, altitude 7,500 meters, air
pressure 29.8 cm. This result is in good agreement with the others
of that date. Peppler regards the results of October 19 as his best.
When reduced to zenith sun and mean solar distance, the result of
October 19 comes out about 1.755 calories per cm.” per minute.

These direct observations from manned balloons are very meri-
torious, and of course entitled to far greater weight than those
obtained at similar altitudes in our free balloon work at Avalon, in
1913. Hence, although our results there were in complete accord
with Peppler’s, we have not thought it worth while to give them.

54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Peppler intended to repeat the work in 1914 at greater altitudes, but
we fear this may have been one of the valuable things cut off by war.

In figure 10 we give a plot of the pyrheliometer results at various
altitudes, as just collected. It seems to us that, with the complete
accord now reached between solar constant values obtained by the
spectro-bolometric method of Langley, applied nearly 1,000 times in
12 years, at four stations ranging from sea level to 4,420 meters, and

: ES
Free Balloon.
1.8

N

Ov

f Vertical Sun at Mean Distance.

Radiation o
em. min.

=

G Cal.

Barometer.
Fic. 10.—Pyrheliometry at Great Altitudes.

from the Pacific Ocean to the Sahara Desert; with air-masses rang-
ing from 1.1 to 20; with atmospheric humidity ranging from 0.6 to
22.6 millimeters of precipitable water; with temperatures ranging
from 0° to 30° C.; with sky transparency ranging from the glorious
dark blue above Mt. Whitney to the murky whiteness of the volcanic
ash filling the sky above Bassour in 1912, it was superfluous to require
additional evidence.

But new proofs are now shown in figure 10. This gives the results
of an independent method of solar constant investigation. In this

NO. 4 SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 55

method the observer, starting from sea level, measures the solar
radiation at highest sun under the most favorable circumstances, and
advances from one level to another, until he stands on the highest
practicable mountain peak. Thence he ascends in a balloon to the
highest level at which a man may live. Finally he commits his
instrument to a free balloon, and launches it to record automatically
the solar radiation as high as balloons may rise, and where the
atmospheric pressure is reduced to the twenty-fifth part of its sea
level value. All these observations have been made. They verify
the former conclusion; for they indicate a value outside the atmos-
phere well within the previously ascertained limits of solar variation.

Our conclusion still is that the solar constant of radiation is 1.93
calories per sq. cm. per minute.

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 5

iii Me OseeeTROSCOPE IN
MINERALOGY

BY
EDGAR T. WHERRY

Assistant Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology, U. S. National Museum

(PusBLicaTion 2362)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1915

Te Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. Age ee e

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Dae MiICROSPECTROSCOPE IN| MINERALOGY

By EDGAR T. WHERRY

ASSISTANT CURATOR, DIVISION OF MINERALOGY AND PETROLOGY,
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

The possibilities of the microspectroscope in the identification
of minerals and the study of their composition have apparently not
been generally appreciated by mineralogists. Occasional articles in
the journals devoted to physics and microscopy have contained
references to a few minerals ; three contributions to the subject from
a mineralogical point of view have appeared in recent years—brief
discussions of absorption spectra in Miers’ “ Mineralogy ”* and in
Smith’s “‘Gem-Stones”* and F. J. Keeley’s ‘“ Microspectroscopic
Observations ’’*; but in none of these is it treated as fully as might
be desired. The present paper comprises descriptions of the spectra
of a much larger number of minerals than has heretofore been
examined.’

The apparatus which has proved most satisfactory in the studies
here described consists of a Crouch binocular microscope stand,
fitted with a 37 millimeter objective, an Abbe-Zeiss “ Spectral-
Ocular ”’* in the right hand tube, and in the other an ordinary low-
power eyepiece, marked on the lower lens at the point where the
image of a mineral grain falls when it is visible through the spectro-
scope slit; the prism which diverts part of the light into the left

* Macmillan and Co., New York and London, 1902; pp. 275-276.

* Methuen and Co., London, 1912; pp. 50-62.

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1911, pp. 106-116; Mr. Keeley has made a
number of valuable suggestions in connection with the preparation of the
present paper, which are herewith gratefully acknowledged.

*Col. Washington A. Roebling, of Trenton, N. J., kindly furnished the
writer with samples of a number of rare minerals from his very complete
collection to supplement those available at the Museum.

®Mr. Keeley states that he finds a Browning or Beck microspectroscope
ocular useful for preliminary examinations; a Wallace grating-microspectro-
scope, obtained through the kindness of Mr. Thomas I. Miller, of Brooklyn,
N. Y., was also tried, but the spectra it yields are too faint for mineral work
in general.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 5

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

hand tube is withdrawn after the mineral grain has been centered,
so as to permit as much light as possible to pass through the spectro-
scope. A binocular microscope is not absolutely necessary, but
frequent readjustments of the scale and slit have to be made if the
mineral is observed by swinging out the upper part of the spectro-
scope and the slit holder. :

Light may be obtained from any source yielding a brilliant white
light, such as a Welsbach burner or a Nernst lamp, although sunlight
or daylight are objectionable because of showing the Fraunhofer
lines. For the study of minerals in thin sections, and in a few special
cases mentioned below, this is reflected up through the specimen
by means of the sub-stage mirror. In the majority of cases, however,
better results are obtained by concentrating the light laterally on the
specimen by a lens or by a parabolic mirror attached to the objective,
and observing the brightest portion of its path. Not only does the
latter plan yield the better spectra (apparently because they are
connected with fluorescence phenomena), but it permits the examina-
tion of crystals on the matrix, gems in their settings, and other
similar objects, and, further, does not require any polishing or
special preparation of surfaces. The more intense the light the
smaller the grains which can be studied in this way.

To set the wave-length scale of the instrument accurately a sodunee
flame is used, scale division 058.9* being brought into coincidence
with the yellow (D) line. In addition, a small slip of “ didymium ”
glass, which can be readily inserted at the opening where light for
the comparison spectrum enters, is very convenient, the. interval
between the strong absorption bands of neodymium and praseodym-
ium in the yellow being set at about 058 (580 pu). See figure 1.

The scale of the instrument is graduated in hundredths of microns,
but, except at the extreme red end, tenths of divisions can be readily
estimated, and it is most convenient to state measurements in three-
figure wave lengths. Since the edges of many of the absorption
bands are so hazy that they cannot be located exactly, and since the
positions of bands vary somewhat in different directions in aniso-
tropic substances,-as well as from one crystal to another in minerals
of variable composition, readings are liable to an uncertainty of
about 5 units. However, as the object of the present paper is not
to establish wave lengths, but to record the general characteristics

This corresponds to wave length 589 uu; all measurements are stated in
the latter form.
? Obtainable from the Corning Glass Co., Corning, N. Y.

NO. 5 THE MICROSPECTROSCOPE IN MINERALOGY——W HERRY 3

of the absorption spectra of the different minerals for determinative
purposes, this degree of accuracy is quite sufficient.

The light diffused by mineral grains shows in most cases more
intense absorption bands than that transmitted directly through them,
yet it must penetrate considerably to be affected at all, so that ‘only
transparent or fairly translucent minerals yield any effects; in
addition they must be more or less distinctly colored. The number
of minerals suitable for microspectroscopic study is therefore rather
limited, but the fact that the specimens need not be scratched, broken,

Fic. 1—The wave length scale of the Abbe-Zeiss microspectro-
scope, with the absorption spectrum of “didymium™” glass, the
interval between the two strongest bands of which is set at 058.

The several bands lie at 067.5, 062.5, 059.0, 058.2, 057.4, 053.1, 052.5,

051.2, 048.0, 044.8, and 043.3. Transmitted light; source, Welsbach

burner ; exposure I hour; Wratten and Wainwright Panchromatic

plate.
or altered in any way renders the method of considerable use in the
identification of crystals too valuable to be broken up for the usual
tests, and in particular of cut gems, whether free or in their settings.
Even where other methods are applicable the spectra may serve as
confirmatory tests.

This method has proved especially useful in determining the

genuineness of rubies, sapphires, and emeralds sent to the Museum

for examination and report, in picking out corundum, zircon, and

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

garnet from gem gravels in the collection, in distinguishing green-
ockite from other minerals occurring as yellow coatings, and in the
identification of a number of other minerals. The microspectroscope
may also be applied to the measurement of the thickness of iridescent
films and the discovery of the origin of various color phenomena,
but this phase of the subject has been fully discussed by Keeley in
the paper cited and need not be further considered here.

THE RARE EARTH MINERALS

The strong absorption bands shown by salts of certain of the rare
earth metals have long been recognized as a good means for their
detection in solutions, and several writers have pointed out that
minerals containing them also show the bands, and have called
attention to the value of this property for identification of these
minerals. In the preparation of this paper all available minerals
known to contain appreciable amounts of the rare earths have been
examined. Most of the light colored ones, as listed in the tables
below, were found to exhibit two or more of these bands, all except
the violet calcite yielding much more intense effects when viewed at
an angle to the path of the light than when observed in the direction
of the transmitted ray. Not only is the presence of these absorption
bands useful as a means of distinguishing rare earth minerals from
all others, but it may even serve to differentiate certain of the indi-
vidual species; the positions and intensities of the bands vary from
one to another in a fairly characteristic way, although identification
on this basis alone is not always certain, since slight variations may
occur between different grains of the same mineral.

The presence of the rare earth metals in calcite from Joplin,
Missouri, was discovered by W. P. Headden* by analytical pro-
cedure, and has recently been reaffirmed by Pisani, the amounts
present being mostly less than 0.05 per cent. Headden found that
the violet calcite from this locality gives “didymium” absorption
bands. With the microspectroscope this material shows, by trans-
mitted light, two distinct bands, matching approximately those of
neodymium in the “didymium” glass comparison spectrum, and
being probably due to that element, the salts of which have a violet
tint. The most deeply colored specimens show these bands when as
thin as 3 millimeters, although the paler tinted varieties show them
only in greater thicknesses, while the colorless and yellow portions

+ Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 21, 1906, p. 301.
7 Compt. rend., vol. 158, 1914, p. 1121.

NO. 5 THE MICROSPECTROSCOPE IN MINERALOGY—W HERRY 5

of the same crystals fail to show the slightest trace of them. Violet
calcite from another locality, Rossie, New York, also shows these
bands faintly.

On heating the violet calcite in an air bath to about 400° for ten
minutes the color is completely discharged (yellow light being
emitted) and the absorption bands disappear. The simplest expla-
nation of this behavior is that the rare earths are originally present
as carbonates (in solid solution of the mix-crystal type), and in that
form show the absorption bands, but that, on heating, these com-
pounds are converted into oxides, which do not show them. Head-
den’s observation that the yellow calcite from Joplin contains more
rare earths than other varieties can be readily reconciled with the
absence of bands in its spectrum by recognizing that the metals may
be present in it only as oxides in the first place.

It is therefore concluded that violet calcite probably owes its color
to the presence, in mix-crystal form, of traces of a carbonate of
neodymium.

Yellow titanite labeled as from “ Mont Blanc” and brown apatite
from several places in Ontario, Canada, show the neodymium bands
with about the same intensity as the violet calcite, although the
violet color is hidden by stronger ones due to iron or other con-
stituents. The remainder of the minerals listed in the rare earth
tables are well known compounds of those elements.

URANIUM MINERALS

Transparent minerals containing uranium in the uranic form show
an absorption spectrum consisting of several bands in the green,
blue, and violet, viewing the grains at an angle to the path of the
light giving the most brilliant effects. The variation in the posi-
tions and relative intensities of these bands from one species to
another is particularly well marked and of some diagnostic value,
although more than 30 per cent of uranium must be present, and
many minerals with even this amount yield no spectra.

Some specimens of the mineral zircon yield, as has long been
known, a number of absorption bands, which correspond to those
shown by uranium salts after reduction with zinc, that is, when in
the uranous condition. This uranium, which 1s present in minute
amount, mostly less than 0.5 per cent, has the same valence as the
zirconium and no doubt replaces a part of it, giving a blue color to
the mineral, which may, however, be hidden by other tints, due to
iron, manganese, etc. It therefore cannot be predicted whether a
given crystal of zircon will show a spectrum or not, but, on the other

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

hand, if an unknown mineral shows these bands, it is reasonably
certain to be zircon, for no other mineral is as yet known to contain
uranous uranium.
THE GARNET GROUP

The red colors of garnets of the varieties pyrope, almandite,
spessartite, and essonite have been variously interpreted as due to
gold,’ tin, iron, chromium, manganese, and vanadium.’ Two dif-
ferent sets of bands seem to be superposed in the spectra of the
members of this group, (A) a narrow band at 620 and a broad one
centering at about 590 (these often coalesce) ; and (B) two broad
bands at about 530 and 500. In order to correlate, if possible, these
spectra with the amounts of the last three of the above listed ele-
ments, specimens were analyzed by fusing with sodium carbonate
and nitrate, extracting with water, comparing the color of the solu-
tion with that of potassium chromate of known strength, then
acidifying with sulfuric acid, evaporating, adding hydrogen perox-
ide, and titrating the vanadium with standard permanganate °; man-
ganese being determined colorimetrically in the residues (except
in the case of spessartite, where the average of published analyses
was used). The results were as follows:

| Spectra |
Variety Locality Color | oy aes | ion
| A B
Pyrope.....|/Bohemia..--. ..) deep red=.| strong. none...) (1. 12)| none | ee
Almandite. .|\Wrangell, Alaska deep red. .| distinct|strong .|.0.03., 0.02 | 1.45
Almandite../India...........| violet-red.| distinct|strong .| 0.02 | 0.03 | 1.20
Spessartite..|Amelia C. H., Va. brown... .| distinct|distinct.| 0.02 | 0.01 | 33.65,
IBSGOMMESS 5 5 AKCEwOM ace conoos brown-red| distinctjnone...| 0.02 | none} 0.25
Essonite. .. - Ceylon. of see oe | DEOWM.. tatmt. “CIS CE.|OnOl sono mmOnasy

In this table it is evident that spectrum A is connected with the
presence of chromium, while B is, if anything, related to the vana-

*“Tn former ages .... it was believed that gold and tin were the coloring
principle of garnet.” Feuchtwanger, Treatise on Gems, New York, 1838, p. 18.
I am indebted to Dr. William S. Disbrow, of Newark, N. J., for calling my
attention to this reference.

* According to most. writers; but inspection of analyses shows no relation
between the color and the content of either ferrous or ferric iron.

* First detected by Klaproth, Beitr. Chem. Min., vol. 5, 1810, p. 171; men-
tioned as the cause of color of pyrope in many books on precious stones.

“Regarded as the cause of the color by various writers, and of the absorption
spectrum by Brun, Arch. sci. phys. nat., ser. 3, vol. 28, 1892, p. 410, and by
Keeley, loc. cit.

®> Uhlig, Verh. nat. Ver. preuss. Rheinl. Westfal., vol. 67, 1910, p. 307; Zeits.
Kryst. Min., vol. 53, 1913, p. 203.

®Cain and Hostetter, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 34, 1912, p. 274.

NO. 5 THE MICROSPECTROSCOPE IN MINERALOGY—W HERRY 7

dium content. Many artificial salts of the former metal, as well
as the chlorite minerals colored violet by it, show spectrum A, so it
may be considered proved that one factor in the color of magnesium
(and manganese) garnets is the element chromium. (Calcium gar-
nets, which are colored green by this element, show an entirely
different spectrum.) Spectrum B, it must be admitted, has never
been observed in minerals or artificial compounds of vanadium, but
no other silicates containing vanadium as a red compound have been
available for study (the green roscoelite showing no bands) and as,
the mode of combination has great influence on the character of the
spectra shown by a given element, it may be regarded as probable
that vanadium is a second factor in the color of garnets. The total
manganese shows no connection with the spectrum, and the presence
of more or less ferrous iron in all garnets precludes the possibility of
the existence of any manganic compound.

TABEERS

The results of the examination of about 200 minerals with the
microspectroscope are here presented in tabular form. Only a third
of them exhibit distinctive spectra, but as the absence of bands may
also have diagnostic value in some cases, it has seemed best to list
all those tried. The wave lengths of bands which are especially
characteristic of the various minerals are given in bold face type,
and of those which are faint and difficult to see in parentheses. The
limits of visibility (recorded as “ To 700, 440 on,” etc.) vary rather
widely with the thickness of mineral through which the light passes,
but are added for the sake of completeness.

To increase the practical usefulness of the tables a determinative
table, or analytical key, is added after the lists of mineral spectra.
It is based on general character of spectrum, number of bands and
mineral colors, and covers all minerals showing bands of sufficient
intensity for diagnostic purposes. :

Finally, as this method may also prove useful for demonstrating
the presence or absence of certain chemical elements, a table of the
elements showing spectra, with their forms, and the limits to the
amounts present, is also given. It should be noted here that the ele-
ments causing the colors and absorption bands of some minerals are
as yet unknown; thus, the band at or near wave length 605 in the
rare earth minerals with the yttrium group in excess cannot be
ascribed to any known element ; and in the other tables interrogation
points (?) in the “coloring elements” columns show the lack of
information in many cases.

VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

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NO. 5 THE MICROSPECTROSCOPE IN MINERALOGY—-WHERRY

MINERALS SHOWING THE URANIUM ABSORPTION SPECTRA

UrANiIc URANIUM

Bilepioites. = .0.6 4aees-
Weitere eee
Autunite............
Wiranocinjcite.........
MROGbHEerNIte «2... 556.
Uranospinite........
OCUMETITE. 66s. c5 ss ees
fiohannite............
Uranium glass......

Red |Orange}| Yellow Green Blue
.|To 680 (535) (515) | 495 (480)
T0670 Ee apd es Be .-. | 504 488
.|T.0 680 (550) | (532) (515) | 499 484
To 680 (552)|(535) 515 | 495 (485)
T0670 Se lke eee ISOS) (A O7
.|T0 680 (530) 495 482
T0670 Hebe 505 489
To68o0| ... SANs be ir AOw AZO
.|T0630) 595 | 570/545 525 | 505 485

Violet
463 | 455 (440) 430 on
472 | 458 447 440 on
(468)|(455) 445 440 on
(470)|(455) 448 440 on
470 | 458 445 430 on
(467) |(455) (440) 430 on
472 | 459 448 430 on
(466) | (450) 440 on
AOS || coc 460 on

Liebigite includes uranothallite; johannite includes uranochalcite and voglianite; the
following do not show definite spectra: carnotite, rutherfordine, trogerite, uraconite, urani-
nite, uranophane, uranopilite, uranospherite, walpurgite, and zippeite; it may further be
noted that specimens labeled phosphuranylite have proved in almost every case to show
the spectrum of autunite, and have yielded calcium on qualitative examination, but an authen-
tic specimen of this mineral in the Brush collection, loaned for examination through the
kindness of Prof. Ford, showed no spectrum beyond slight general absorption in the blue.
See also note to rare earth table.

Uranous URANIUM

Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet
Zircon, blue.../To690 685 (660)| 65x 618 588 560 | 537. 512 | 483 (460) |440 on
Zircon, green. ./To690 685 (660)) 65x 618 588 (560) | 537. 522 | 483 (460) |440 on
Zircon, yellow.|/To 690 (685) 651 (618) Bee soe (Gey) Csnaiales)) . |450 on
Zircon, pink...|To 690 (685) 65 (618) 588 (537) 512 | (483) . |440 on

Brown, white and colorless zircons do not show spectra.

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65
Cotor RED, PINK OR ORANGE
Colenine Red Orange} Yellow Green Blue Violet
se =
Elematite=csee cise oe ate ens To 690 lpaabes 440 on
Botryogentssasanuess Fe” To 680 ist 560 | on $
Spherocobaltite...... Cov To 680 (570 tio 540) A, 430 on
Baytinnite ieee soa secon To 680 re 560-540 |(500-490)| 4300n
IRGSeliternd scan ceee cae Co” To 680 (570 tio 540) aes 430 on
Zincite . Mn” To 680 : (600-570) : STOmOnmeee
Rhodochrosite. . Mn” To 670 580 to 540 460 on
Rhodonite.. Mn” To 670 580 tio 540 460 on
Zoisite var. thulite. . Mn” To 670 5 560-530 450 on
Piedmontite. Nin? To 660 we See 450 on
Tourmaline var. ru- | Mn” To 670 (560 tlo 490) 430 on
bellite. |
Leh aopAETONKS G5 eo ea cade | Mn” To 680 te re 460 on
Corundum, pink.....; Cr’”’ To 700 680 . | 600-570 460 on
Corundum var. ruby.| Cr’”’ To 700 680 | 600-570 ae 450 on
Corundum var. ruby, | Cr’” To 700 680 600 t!o 510 460 on
synthetic. | | |
Garnet var. pyrope | Cr’” To 670 620 tio 560 460 on
(see. text). | |
Garnet, grossularite, | Cr’” To 660 (610 to 580) 460 on
pink. | |
GrocGitek scenes | Crva To 670 Soe 570 On eas Ae
Cuprites- 5 (etre To 700 630 oe 450 on
Imitation “ruby (Cu | Cu’ 'To 680 ..- | 600-560 | 460 on
glass) | | |
Garnet var. alman- | V’’+Cr’”’ To 680 620 |585-570| 530-520 |510-495| 4500n
dite (see text). | |
Garnet var. spessar- | V’”-+Cr’” To 680 (620) | 580-565 | (540-520) 470 \onwaee
tite.
RLS eye ence rents | Vv To 680 | eS : oo. | 4S GRane
Vanadinite . ae 'To 670 eta 580 tlo 550 4go jon ...
PAScOitesece merece | Vv 'To 670 Sl ae SO) |) Gil soc Ne
ee os aan To 670 Sees. oles ee 560 | on
Cinnabar . -| Hg? 'To 690 610 to 590 ; (aera es 460 on
IRieallamiss err attcceie | ASH ‘To 680 ae 580 tlo 540 470 |on
IDROUStIne st sa aser aes | As”? 'To 670 ... | 600-570 s eee 460 on
Pyrareycites- ese sels e ‘To 670 610 to 580 : Ces 460 on
IRIIEGN. saeco | ? 'To 680 ee (580 t]o 540) 480 jon ...
MOTIES ciate ters | ? ‘To 670 ‘ Kas : ue 440 on
Quartz var. rose-'| ce To 680 440 on
quartz. |
Spinel. . Sass) ? To 680 (580 tlo 540) Ae 460 on
Calcite se. Sateeeertecenll : To 670 cae) ; 490 jon ...
So ere See Ae P To 670 gts ee aay 440 on
shoOpazaaers: ve ? To 680 (570 t|o 530) 450 on

The diene importance of the spectra of the red corundums Cage in ; pefleeeea light ©
only) was pointed out by Keeley (op. cit., p. 109).

NO. 5 THE MICROSPECTROSCOPE IN MINERALOGY—W HERRY It
CoLor YELLOw oR BROWN
Color- | ;
ing ele-| Red |Orange| Yellow Green Blue Violet
ments |
|
Beater at vont aa setae eA L O80 510 on
ORI a) a ay Seen rin eee ore | Fe” |To650 550 | on |
Siderite.. Phe’? a\hoGso 470 on
Garnet var. andradite. . Paes eno070 480 on
Garnet var. grossularite. . bes ahkoGoze 470 on
Vesuvianite....... ....| Fe’ |To660 is 480 on
Staurolite.... Fe’” |T0670 (560-550) 470 on
Tourmaline.. Plena liaoso | ae 490 on
Copiapite.. Bene |a6so: 490 on
Imitation topaz '(Fe- glass) . Speen Fe’” |To660 | 490 on
Corundum.. Fee ee renarrated ailoO7Z0 | ae oe. (455 440 on
reenockite.. Cd” |T0670 | 525-515 | 500 on Bee
Todyrite.. MRR rnc Aree Nee HIKE OOGO | Bed as (445) 440 on
5 TS eae ae As’”” |To680 480 (on ine
WVtiltenite. .:..... .. Movi |T0670 see 460 on
Beata Prins icc A ok oats ise SO) | DOORS 480 on a.
BOleMSUMiNIeL. cvseu-iac aoeean saan es » | Seo |To680 480 on ree
FUlORtee, Fane ee oe eos Soleo Hee ose | ? |Toé68o) mene 440 On
BO Gt Var. CUUIMe.si..0+..5-...2| 2 |LCo70 470 on see
IB AISSIUGIILOR I creo ee tee eae alee To670 ae 450 on
BMSODERVAG a. to ya seis cease s-l, § | LOGzZ0) Re 460 on
eM ee nit coite os eer ens lil) 2 <2 MOCO) | 480 on sae
Smithsonite........ 2 DOLE 7Ol Sore are 460 on
eg aye one sah eras) ea LO OZOF 450 on
MRE ort os atalye ame. |e £. (LOOZO| 460 on
Bp nlbemhe te ery he se ern Sheil: 2) 4) OO70| er 440 on
Meee ee to ee cose | 2 ho6zo 480 on ie
Waar mtr Seiten 5 saci Me ? |T0o670 bee 460 on
AASRIGTIE Ge el ee RO RAS SR Oe en Pp M@ero) ee 450 on
“TT SRANITES gee ete ae ee eee ? |To660) 470 on a
ENDDNETIUS Hels teeta eee °? |To660! 470 on
Bailes Sone peo oer Se antn ae Faden Ta breyeyz0) 470 on

In addition, many rare earth and uranium minerals, listed in the preceding tables, are

yellow or brown in color.

UA SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65
CoLor GREEN
Coloring Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet
elements
Corundamss eee Fe’’+Ti’”|T0670 455 440 on
Diopsideresseenne Fe” T0670 450 on
ING ATO Mts odoo ba ollPS~ To650 eee 460 on
Olivanie: fe yssaeee Kew T0670 500-490 | (460) 430 on
Epidotes seis Fe”1Fe’” |To0670 ne (478) 458 430 on
Tourmaline....... Fe” sag LO] ORO Le 450 on
Clinochlore....... Fe” To650 ae 460 on
SELpentinemte ere Fe” To650 Si 460 on
Melanterite....... Fe” T0650 ae aoe Eee 2s 450 on
Manganosite...... Mn” T0700 650 tlo 575 520 on
JEBTFEIMS 554006000 ¢ Ni” .-. Lo} 640 Ree 500 ~=—jon
Gabrerites...2. 2. Nie 565 LO) G20 ae 500 jon
Spodumene var. |Cr’” ae oe To | 580 500 jon
hiddenite.
Beryl var. emerald.|Cr’” To680 | (640) (620) 470 jon
Garnet var. de- |Cr’” To68o0 (640) (620) 510 +=jon
mantoid.
Garnet var. uvaro- |Cr’” To | 570 500. = jon
vite.
WVesuvaanite:. 0.5 Cr T0670 t fees 480 jon
Muscovite var. |Cr’” T0670 °| (650) 500 jon
fuchsite.
Ntacaimiten eee Cte ... Lo} 630 500 jon
Malachitessee sane Gna -- Lo} 630 500 jon
Atinichaleites.. oo. \eug .. To} 640 phe 500 jon
Dioptase..... ete (Cnns ..T0| 640 (610 tio 580) 490 jon
Chrysocolla....... (Cie? -. To| 640 foe 500 = jon
inv OliEC ase. ek Gu .. To) 620 500 = Jon
Brochantite. -....- Gu .. Lo} 630 500 jon
Natrochalcite.....)|Cu” .- Lo} 620 500 jon
Imitation emerald |Cu” .. To} 620 490 jon
(Cu-glass).
Roscoelite........| Vie le OMNOAo 470 |on
Calciovolborthite..|V’” To650 sient 510 jon
Hitoniteeee sas ee ? T0660 630-610 500 ~=jon ats
Quartz var. chryso- ? ... Lo}. 630 bit: 450 on
prase.
Spinel echeeloe | ? To660 nyt (490) 460 on
_Chrysoberyl var. | ? To690 600-570 | (490-470) 560 on
alexandrite.
Microclines ne neer E T0660 0) WOW
Betyg eels we ? T0670 450 on
Willeniite seas sae. e To660 460 on
Watolite snc e |To660 ce ee ass 450 on
Andalusite (gem & soe LO! OKO 555 525 510 ~©jon Bie
variety).
IENPEIMMIESS 5 G66 60006 ? T0670 ae 450 on
Plitanite reams. er f T0670 Eo) Ow § 52.
ANDEMEMES , 9 ooo oo ae @ T0660 Pee 450 on
Pyromorphite..... ? To660 Ge) im ss.
WRIISCIES 556456 on. 2 To660 Goo) Om 2.
WWenvelinS.. oooes ec ? T0660 Dike 450 on
A few green minerals are included in the rare earth and uranium tables. The absorp-

tion band shown by manganosite has recently been observed by Ford (Amer. Journ. Sci., —
vol. 38, I914, p. 502).

NO. 5 THE MICROSPECTROSCOPE IN MINERALOGY—-W HERRY 13

bd
| Cotor BLUE
Coloring | Red Since Yellow Green Blue Violet
elements | |
) | |
Glaucophane....... Fe’-+-Fe’’'T0 670 ie see — oe Ey 440 on
Tourmaline var. in- | Fe”-+Fe’’’'To 650 | mice deg hy ae 450 on
dicolite.

Whe Mihtt@®s4 Gago anes Fe’+Fe’’'To 660 Be fa! a! wae 460 on
Imitation sapphire | Co” ‘To 700 670t0 640600-580| 550-530 | ee 430 on
(Co-glass). i | |
piel cnt. ss soe se Go% een a ortO4o (590) |555-545 (510) 465 t\0 455 4300n
Movelllite 5... 2.0.5 Cul ‘To 650 Was se ee sat ce 440 on
BrOleit en cates sists ees Cig ‘To 650 eee eee aan ne 450 on
Smithsonite(stained)) Cu” ean |O40 a aoe tas 450 on
AVAL Rene Cug To 650 oe | 510-480 430 on
Calamine (stained) .| Cu” To 660 ns ene Bey A mats 440 on
BiKGMOIS.. 4... 525.2 Cu” To 650 Bat: <3. ye | ae 440 on
halcanthite... 0... Cug a ato, t6zo (590 tio 550) ~—s| ies 440 on
MBITIATAEE Ca ccs ece 2 Gung To 650 [ee en (GOO=560))|n see aie 440 on
Corundum var. sap- | Ti’” To 660 eee i Reeioe Sl eS: 425 on

phire. |
Corundum var. sap- | T1’”’ 'To 650 eres ane sae || hoe 430 on
phire, synthetic. | |
BicraAmMednite: 2... ls:... aie! To 650 ve Kee sachets | af 440 on
BEV ATINEE ois che sien @ < wee IE (8) LOCO pele Mee |b onto ee a see 430 on
Dumortierite....... aliens To 650 ee Serre hcl aay STi gas 450 on
et OIG Hs seca st.) « ARE To 650 Bias Sen aie iar eas eat | a 425 on
BANGLES. ccclo vsslawes os | Nao To680 . | 610 tjo 580 her fee's ee: 440 on
| eS aaa ere ? To 660 es crate nae toe vee 440 on
Beryl var. aquama- ? To 660 Wats Behoatend Peo nee ae 460 on
| rine. |
HONE etek ols cis 2 To 680 eae see e al see 9 5OO=490 425 on
Beodalite.. (2... .2%.. ? To 660 eee 2 ee ARTEL WME ec 430 on
|__CBVAT I at aa rn ? To 660 Icke PS SL | eee 440 on
BROW AZ aod cicidata cee ? To 660 Watemore Pear Wace mr Ft aaa 440 on
Mewclase. .. 0.2.00. ry To 660 Ik ees steerage Pega eniel Be 450 on
BaztNIte. . ee e To 660 secs ep N| ee | wes 460 on
[BSR KGS ase eae enone B To 660 lease Spee. Pl) (aes ta wel aos 440 on
Meclestite |... 5.66.55 ? To 660 | 440 on

14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

CoLor VIOLET OR PURPLE

VOL. 65

Red

Pyroxene var. violan.

Spodumene var. kun-
zite.

Tremolite var. hex-
agonite.

Hodgkinsonite.......

LRMMES 55d o4000n600C

enidolite mame eerncr Mn

Imitation amethyst
(Mn-glass).

Spinella a. ee eens C

Chlorite var. kocschu-
beite, kammererite, |
ere:

Dunrvortientes. eee Ti

(CorrwinGhirin . os 500c05c
Garnet var. almandite.
IBVMOIRNE® sacacacacous
Quartz var. amechyst.|
Diaspore: see

LNGDANES Gots sas Sel dace

To 680
To 650

To 670

To 660
To 670
To 670
To 650

To 670
To 670

To 670
To 700
To 670
To 670
To 660
To 660
To 660

Orange, Yellow
|

Green
| 560-520
(580-570)
|(590-570)
(580-570)| ...
(590) (545)
(500) (555-545
© 560) ed
( 590-560) ae
590-570, 540-520
(600 tio 550)
Ane (520 t

Blue

510-490

(0) 490) )

Violet calcite and lanthanite are included in rare earth list.

Violet

4400n
4400n

4500n

4500n

. 4600n

4600n
4300n

(460) 4400n

4500n

4300n .
4500n
4600n
4400n
4300n
4500n
4400n

THE MICROSPECTROSCOPE IN MINERALOGY—W HERRY 15

NO. 5
ANALYTICAL KEY
Group I.--SpECTRUM CoMpPosED oF NArrow BANDS
Wave
Num- | length
ber of of Elements Minerals
bands | strong-
est
10 | 650 | Uranium (uranous)....|.Zircon (certain varieties)
9} 575 | Neodymium + praseo- | See tables
dymium
8 | 500 | Uranium (uranic)...... See tables
6| 555 | Samarium-+erbium....| See tables
2! 585 | Neodymium (0.005- | See tables
0.5%) .
Group J].—SPEecTRUM ComposEp oF Broap BANDS
tes A.—Cotor RED
|
AA SG/5 | Chromium-+vanadium,. |) Garnet (almandite and spessartite)
A G0) || Chivroxamibtiod 5 occasuooode _Corundum (ruby and pink)
ZaieeocOu Copaltrnts 0 q-n. ose Emytnrite
if eOZOn Copper (Cuprous) a. a... | Cuprite
Te OOO) Onkol nr. anette) Garieba (py nope)
B.—Cotor YELLow
I 520 | Cadmium (as sulfide) Greenockite
I ASS | Ibrom (ui@irimi€)e,csooccoce Corundum (oriental topaz)
C.—CoLor GREEN
2 | 640 | Chromium............. Beryl (emerald)
Z| Bele ? Chrysoberyl (alexandrite)
2 555 ? Andalusite (gem variety)
2 495 | Iron (ferrous).........| Olivine (chrysolite, peridote)
Zale OOm LTO (heLtiC) ee aie ter Epidote
Gol ASS | Miro (rer) os. oe ccdoe a8 Corundum (oriental emerald)
D.—Cotor BLUE
4 | EG Oh COWL iy cetseeeenwes- hs oats | Spinel
Pew lianOsGrla@obaliens....scervehie. ccs | Cobalt glass (imitation sapphire) ]
I SOO! COpperae Bee ee anee es | Azurite
I | 405 ? _ Iolite
E.—Co.or VIOLET
4| 575 | Chromium-+ vanadium .| Garnet (almandite)
Sales SoH MC Oat mca: ee vcee enters Spinel
2| 680} Chromium........ ....| Corundum (oriental amethyst)
I | 540 | Manganese (?}........ Spodumene (kunzite)

VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

16

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VULoIddS YIHHL UNV SLNAWYIH HHL

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 6

EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
IN 1914

(With One P ate)

(PusLicaTiIon 2363)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1915

Tbe Lord Galtimore @ress

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.

si ante et

EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD-WORK OF THE SMITH-
SONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1914

(WitH ONE PLATE)

During the year 1914 explorations and field-work were continued
in various parts of the world under the direction or with the
cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution. The more important
are here reviewed, chiefly in the words of the participants therein.
They include geological, zoological, botanical, anthropological, and
astrophysical lines of investigation.

Three government branches of the Institution are represented ii
this report: the National Museum, although having no funds set
aside for this purpose, avails itself wherever possible of opportunities
to engage in natural history investigations and to add to its collec-
tions; the Bureau of American Ethnology is occupied largely with
field-work among the Indians themselves, the annual report of that
Bureau covering this work in detail ; and the Astrophysical Observa-
tory, in connection with its regular work of studying the physical
properties of the sun and their effects on the earth, undertakes expe-
ditions in this country and abroad for purposes of observation and
investigation.

These various lines of field-work have tended to increase knowledge
in the sciences and have added much valuable material to the col-
lections of the National Museum and the Bureau of American
Ethnology. The Institution was prevented from participating in
many other expeditions only by its limited funds.

GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

In continuation of his previous geological researches in the Rocky
Mountains of Canada and Montana, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, spent a week during the field
season of 1914 at Glacier, British Columbia, where he assisted Mrs.
Walcott (née Mary M. Vaux) in measuring the flow of the Illecille-
waet and Asulkan glaciers, photographs of which are shown in
plate 1 and text figures 1 and 2.

From Glacier, Dr. Walcott proceeded to White Sulphur Springs,
Montana, for the purpose of studying the ancient sedimentary Pre-
paleozoic rocks of the Big Belt Mountains. These explorations
were made on the eastern and southern slopes of this range, and

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 6

VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

‘yore xnea Arey fq ydesZoioyg -saeak aay ysed ay}
SULINP 399} pesipuny [e12AeXs OF 9d! dy} JO Yoeq Suryjaw ay} Aq pasoaooun us9q dARY YSIYM ‘JOOF Ss} ye syOoI
ered oY} pue Uoj10d Surpeosed J9MO] 9Y} SuUIMOYS “Y}I0U oy} WOIy FOIL) JOCMATPIN][] JO MITA—TI ‘ony

is

|
| PANORAMIC VIE

lan entire glecier from Its Inceptior

BULKAN GLACIER.

(treating foot rests on the morainid

OLLECTIONS

VOL. 65, NO. 6, PL. 1

dll — “
——
eK Se Sere

7"
’ Wise

Walcott.
h by Mary Vaux
eet rests from the mountain. Photograph bY
ire glacier nthe morainic débris that it has brought down fr
n entire g
Showing the névé moraines and foot of the glacier. This is an unusual illustration of 2

SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI4

No. 6

*yqo0Te NA xne, Arey Aq ydesis
-0}04g “ddULISIP 9Y} Ul UMOYS SI SYIAJOS 94} JO oSpli W ‘sassed AemjIey oyloeg uerpeued oy} yoIyM Ysnosy}
‘Kaye A JCM]AI]] Premo} Aoj[eA oy} UMOP SBULyOo] ‘s9foepX) UeX[NSy JO JOO} 9y} WoOI, MaIA—z ‘Oly

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Fic. 3—Hard sandstones which rest on the granite at the base of the Belt
Mountain rocks. These sandstones form cliffs along the canyon, about five
miles above Neihart, Montana. Photograph by Walcott.

Frc. 4.—Slaty shales in which the Prepaleozoic crustacean fossils were found
near the mouth of Deep Creek Canyon, Big Belt Mountains, 16 miles east of
Townsend, Montana. Photograph by Walcott.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI4 5

Fic. 5.—Vertical layers of hard sandstone that occur in the formation beneath
the shales, illustrated by fig. 4, and above the limestones carrying the algal
remains that occur higher up in Deep Creek Canyon. Photograph by Walcott.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

then extended to the south on the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson
rivers.

It was found that the Prepaleozoic sedimentary rocks were exposed
by the uplift of the granite mass forming the summit of Mount

Fic. 6.—Conglomerate in the sandstones illustrated by fig. 5, where there
are boulders and pebbles derived from the limestones beneath. This indicates
that the limestones were raised above the surface of the water, so that they
were broken up by weathering, and fragments of them carried by streams into
the near-by lake and embedded in the sand. Photograph by Walcott.

Edith of the Big Belts, in such a way that the thickness of the
sandstones, limestones, and shales could be readily measured in the
numerous sections exposed in the canyons worn by waters descend-

SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914

No. 6

ay} VAOGe INDIO SYDOI VSoy [,

.

‘yooye A Aq ydeasojoyg ‘Vv “sy Ul pozerjsny]! soyeys
UddMJoq ILYs FO sIoAL] ULY} YIM oUOJspuvs jo ssokv] pavy Aq poursoy Hr Y—Z “DIT

VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

si

‘SUTeUaT [el1o}Oeq [ISSO} SNOIOUINU sUTe}UOD YDIYM pue ‘s}isodap [esje Aq yIMoIs
peouenygur seq savy ABUT YOIYM WIOF AI-ATeUOTaINUOD a[qnop ke Jo 19}U99 dy} YsNosY} UOTIaS payoyq—6 ‘or

Gl

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 9

ing from the higher points to the valley surrounding the range.
Nearly five miles in thickness of rock were measured, and in the
limestone belts reefs of fossil algal remains were studied and large
collections made with the assistance of Mrs. Walcott and Charles E.
Resser and sent on to Washington.

It was found that the algal remains were deposited very much
in the same manner as those that are now being deposited in many
fresh-water lakes, and that many of the forms had a surprising

Fic. 10.—Upper surface of a lens-shaped concretionary-like form which
resembles some of the siliceous deposits of the Yellowstone Park hot springs.
This form has been named Galiatinia pertexa. Numerous cells such as occur
in the Blue-green alge have been found in thin sections of this type of sup-
posed algal deposit.

similarity to those being deposited in the thermal springs and pools
of the Yellowstone National Park.

In the lower portion of Deep Creek Canyon southeast of the city
of Helena, a deposit of siliceous shale was examined, where some
years ago Dr. Walcott discovered the remains of crab-like animals

Io SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

suggesting in form the fresh-water cray fishes found in the streams
and ponds all over the world.

These fossils are the oldest animal remains now known, and the
algal deposits which occur at intervals for several thousand feet
below the shales containing the crustaceans, are the oldest authentic
vegetable remains. It is also most interesting that two types of
bacteria have been found in a fossil state in the rock in association
with the algal remains.

On the north side of the Gallatin River, two very rich beds of
algal remains were found, many of which, on account of the fossil
being silicified and embedded in a softer limestone, were weathered
out in relief, as shown by figure 8.

Fic. 11.—Calvert Cliffs, Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, showing outcrop of
Miocene bryozoan beds. Photograph by Bassler.

STUDIES IN COASTAL VEE AEN Si RAEIGR EES aN BD)
PALEONTOLOGY

Dr. R. S. Bassler, curator of paleontology, U. S. National Museum,
was engaged during the month of June, 1914, in a study of the
Tertiary paleontology and stratigraphy of the Atlantic Coast Plain
with special reference to the bryozoan faunas. This work was for
the purpose of making further collections and of determining the
stratigraphic relations of these bryozoan faunas for publication in
the Monograph of North American Early Tertiary Bryozoa, now in
course of completion by Ferdinand Canu of Versailles, France, and
Dr. Bassler.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 II

Starting at Chesapeake Beach, Maryland, and continuing south-
ward through Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and
Alabama, all the classic localities were visited, as well as many not
so well known. The celebrated Calvert cliffs along Chesapeake Bay
yielded a rich Miocene fauna and here many specimens were easily
secured by searching the débris along the beach as shown in the
accompanying photograph (fig. 11).

At Wilmington, North Carolina, an especially fine lot of material.
suitable for biological studies was collected from the city rock
quarry, through the generous cooperation of the contractor in charge
of some convict laborers. In South Carolina, the curator was taken
through the swamps to the fossil localities by Mr. Earle Sloan, former

Fic. 12—Cypress swamp, Santee River basin, South Carolina. Photograph
by Bassler.

State geologist, without whose expert knowledge of the region little
could have been accomplished. Here in many cases the rock expos-
ures consisted of nothing but small outcrops brought to the surface
by the “ knees” of the cypress trees (fig. 12), but weathering of the
hard rock had been so complete that many specimens could be had
free of surrounding matrix. In Georgia and Alabama an abundance
of material collected carefully with regard to its geologic position
was secured and the stratigraphic position of several hitherto
unplaced faunas was determined. The results of this field work from
both the paleontologic and stratigraphic standpoints were so satis-

12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

factory that the completion of a monograph upon the subject is
now assured.

EXPLORATIONS FOR FOSSIL ECHINODERMS IN WESTERN
NEW YORK

The field explorations conducted under the supervision of Mr.
Frank Springer, associate in paleontology in the U. S. National
Museum, for the purpose of adding to the Springer collection of
fossil echinoderms, were devoted mainly to careful work in the
Silurian rocks exposed along the new Erie Canal in western New
York. Here Mr. Springer’s private collector, Frederick Braun,
spent some weeks during the summer of 1914 searching especially
the waste material thrown out in excavations for the canal. The
most valuable specimens from this part of New York occur in the
Rochester shales of Niagaran age, which weather rapidly into mud
upon exposure to the elements. It was necessary, therefore, that
the new outcrops exposed along the canal be examined at once if
valuable returns were to be expected, and Mr. Braun was directed
accordingly to concentrate his efforts upon this area. The results
were highly satisfactory, as numerous specimens of crinoids and
cystids were found, a number of them having, as is rarely the case,
root, stem, and crown preserved. These specimens were prepared
for exhibition during the fall of 1914 and form a valuable addition
to Mr. Springer’s unique collection of fossils.

FOSSIL COLLECTING AT THE CUMBERLAND CAVE DEPOSIP

In continuation of the work of the previous year in the Pleistocene
cave deposit near Cumberland, Maryland, Mr. J. W. Gidley, assistant
curator of fossil mammals, again visited this locality in May and June
of 1914. This expedition was highly successful and has added over
400 specimens to the fine collection from this deposit, including a
good skeleton of the large extinct peccary, a partial skeleton of the
wolverine, and several nearly complete skulls of these and other
species. Among the latter are five good skulls of extinct species oi
the black bear and eight skulls, in more or less good state of preserva-
tion, of the extinct peccary.

Some new forms not before found in this deposit were obtained,
the most important being a new species of badger and a second type
of extinct peccary known as Mylohyus. The collection of the 1914
expedition far exceeds, both in numbers and quality of specimens,
those previously taken from this deposit. The cubic space excavated
was also much greater than before, yet at the end of the season’s
work the deposit showed no signs of immediate exhaustion of fossil-

SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914 13

NO.

co

‘aZzIS [einjeu % ynoqy

ysodap dAvo purjiequing ay} wosy Aivo99q JOUI}X9 FO UOJ TEYS—ET

OUT

MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN

14

‘uoryipedxa vidi ‘Ajrzed wmesnyy

‘Iojsniqmiy Aq ydesrsojoyg
jeuoneN “S ‘Q Aq opew uorjeAeoxe

SUIMOYS JNO peoIIes

UI MOIA—TI ‘DI

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 15

bearing material, and it is expected that this work will be further
continued during the coming summer.

In addition to the fossil bearing cave clays and breccias filling the
old cavern, it was necessary to remove several tons of overhanging
stalactitic rock and anciently fallen blocks of limestone. This added
to the more cave-like appearance of the opening, as may be seen by
comparing figure 14 herein with figure 18° published in last year’s
account of the work at Cumberland.

The results of the work of the 1914 expedition have greatly
increased the possibility of accurate determinations of the fauna
represented in this very interesting cave deposit and it is hoped the

Fic, 15.—Bad Land exposures near the mouth of Dog Creek, Montana.
Photograph by U. S. Geological Survey (T. W. Stanton).

proposed further exploration will furnish added material of even
greater importance.

HUNTING VERTEBRATE FOSSILS IN MONTANA

During the summer of 1914 Mr. Charles W. Gilmore, assistant
curator of fossil reptiles in the National Museum, spent three weeks
searching for fossil vertebrate remains in the Judith River formation
in north central Montana.

By arrangement with the U. S. Geological Survey Mr. Gilmore
worked in cooperation with one of their field parties. From their
camp as a base of operations he conducted an exploration of the
exposures along Dog and Birch creeks, near Judith post office, in

*Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 63, No. 8, 1914, p. 16.

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the hope of collecting identifiable material to supplement the frag-
mentary fossil specimens secured by earlier expeditions. Abundant
evidence of the presence of fossil remains was found, but much of
the material was fragmentary and only a few specimens were shipped

Fic. 16.—Judith River and Claggett formations as ex-
posed on Dog Creek, Montana. Bird remains found at base
of cliff in middle distance. Photograph by Gilmore.

to Washington. From a paleontological standpoint the most note-
worthy discovery was the fragmentary remains of a fossil bird
related to Hesperornis found by Dr. T. W. Stanton on Dog Creek
(fig. 16). It came from practically the same locality as the type of
Coniornis altus Marsh, and is of importance as showing these bird

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q14 17
remains as occurring in the upper part of the Claggett formation,
whereas heretofore it was thought that Coniornis had come from the
lower part of the Judith River formation.

Incidental to this paleontological work a collection of Indian
skeletons was obtained for the National Museum. These remains,
consisting of parts of eleven individuals, were found in shallow
graves in the crevices of a large block of Eagle sandstone that had
been faulted up and which forms a conspicuous landmark in the
valley just above the mouth of Dog Creek. A picture of this rock
is shown in figure I5.

Fic. 17—Unconformity between Lower Chazyan (Stones River) and Lower
Black River (Lowville) strata at Columbia, Tenn. Dr. Ulrich is pointing to
the undulating line which lies one to three inches below the top of the ledge
indicated. Photograph by Bassler.

STRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES IN CENTRAL TENNESSEE

Dr. E. O. Ulrich, associate in paleontology, and R. S. Bassler,
U. S. National Museum, were engaged for several weeks during the
summer of 1914 in a study of debated points in the stratigraphy
of the Central Basin of Tennessee under the joint auspices of the
U. S. Geological Survey and the U. S. National Museum. The par-
ticular objects of the work were: first, to determine accurately the
division line between the Chazyan and Black River groups, and
second, to secure additional information on the black shale problem.

2,

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL..65

The well known marble beds of east Tennessee and associated
shales and sandstones of Upper Chazyan age with a thickness of
over 3,000 feet have never been found in central Tennessee, or in
fact in any area west of the Appalachian Valley. The first problem
was therefore to determine either the corresponding rocks in the
more western areas or, if such strata were wanting, to discover the
unconformity representing this great thickness. After some days
of careful stratigraphic work it was learned that the Lower Chazyan
or Stones River rocks of central Tennessee are succeeded directly
by the lowest Black River or Lowville formation. In other words,

Fic. 18.—Exposure of black shale and underlying Silurian strata at Bakers,
Tenn. Photograph by Bassler.

all of the Upper Chazyan rocks are wanting entirely, and central
Tennessee therefore was presumably a land area during the time of
deposition of the celebrated east Tennessee marbles. The uncon-
formity between the two groups of strata is shown in figure 17,
where it may be seen as an undulating line in a single ledge of
limestone.

The second problem entailed further work on the determination of
the age of the widespread Chattanooga black shale, which previously
had been considered to be middle to late Devonian. In recent years
this determination had been questioned and facts had accumulated
showing it to be of younger age. Two features of considerable

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI4 19

significance in this problem were the discoveries in northern Ten-
nessee, where the shale is well exposed, as shown in figure 18, that
(1) this black shale passes without a discernible break into the over-
lying Mississippian (Kinderhook) shales, and (2) that the fossils of
this overlying shale are of late instead of early Kinderhook age. As
a result of this work good collections of several well preserved
faunas were added to the Museum collection.

GEOLOGY OF CERTAIN AREAS IN EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA

Dr. Edgar T. Wherry, assistant curator of the division of mineral-
ogy and petrology, by arrangement with the U. S. Geological
Survey, spent a month during the summer of 1914 in the study of
the Pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, Ordovician, and Triassic formations
of the Reading and Allentown quadrangles in eastern Pennsylvania.
In the former area particular attention was directed toward the
lithologic character and fossil content of the Conococheague and
Beekmantown limestones, and the mapping of these and other post-
Cambrian formations, which had been begun the previous season,
was practically completed.

In the Allentown region brief visits were paid to several localities
to secure data for the text of the Allentown-Easton folio, which is in
course of preparation. The criteria for recognition of the various
Pre-Cambrian formations, especially the metamorphosed sediments,
were worked out in detail, and sections of the Triassic and Paleozoic
beds measured.

CEOLOGICAR STUDIES tN INEW VWORK> SPADE

Dr. J. C. Martin, assistant curator of geology, has spent some time
completing minor details in the preparation of a report on “ The
Pre-Cambrian Rocks of the Canton, N. Y., Quadrangle,” to be pub-
lished by the New York Geological Survey.

The examination of this area involved the working out of structural
and genetic problems of a high degree of complexity, the solution
of which demanded methods of great accuracy and detail.

Among the results obtained may be mentioned, particularly, the
determination of the close analogy between tectonic elements of
widely differing degrees of magnitude, and the recognition of a type
of major isoclinal folding with steep-dipping axes, paralleled, so
far as known, only by occurrences in Sweden. In addition there
were obtained many new data with reference to the origin and
relations of multiple injection gneisses of more than one generation,

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

as well as the sequence of acid and basic igneous rocks and the
complex interrelations of extensive garnet gneisses, amphibolites,
and other Grenville and post-Grenville crystalline formations.

EXPEDITION TO BORNEO AND CELEBES

Mr. H. C. Raven, who, through the generosity of Dr. W. L-
Abbott, has been working in Borneo since the summer of 1912,

Fic. 19.—The “ Bintang Kumala,”’ used by Mr. Raven in Borneo from July,
1912 to July, 1914. Photograph by Raven.

continued his explorations, with Samarinda, Dutch East Borneo, as
headquarters. During the early part of the year he worked on the
coast north of Samarinda, and later he ascended the Mahakam River.
The results were satisfactory, though the region of the upper
Mahakam proved somewhat disappointing on account of the prac-
tical extermination by the natives of all mammals large enough to
be used as food. About the middle of July Mr. Raven finished his
Bornean exploration and crossed the Macassar Strait to the Island

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI4 21

of Celebes, where he intends to remain for an indefinite period.
This change of base was not so simple a matter as might be supposed,
as is shown by the following passage from a letter dated at Tanjong
Lango, Celebes, August 28, 1914:

As I wrote before, when I returned from the interior of Borneo to Sama-
rinda, I had to have my boat, the “ Bintang Kumala,”’ hauled out. It needed

repairs and drying after having been in the water constantly for two years or
more. The Assistant Resident stationed at Samarinda at this time went up

Fic. 20.—Camp at Karang Tigau, Celebes, August, 1914. Photograph by Raven.

along the coast to Beraoe and I asked him to bring me two or three sea-faring
natives to act as a crew to cross with me to Celebes. He was unable to get
them. I tried, but could find no Bajans or Soeloes who would go, but finally
found, near Samarinda, three Bugginese who claimed they could sail. So
when the boat was ready we started, and to my great disappointment I found
my crew entirely incapable, running the boat ashore before we had gotten
fairly started. There was nothing to do but to return to Samarinda. I thought
of having the boat either towed or lifted across to Donggala by the steamer
making that run at intervals of two weeks; this I found would cost more than
one hundred and fifty dollars, and after crossing I would stand a big chance
of having the same trouble in getting a reliable crew. Just at that time a small
two-master schooner came into Samarinda and my attention was called to it

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

by a European who considered my boat unsafe to cross in. I had a look at
the schooner and found it to be strongly built and in pretty good condition,
54 feet long and 12 feet beam, drawing about 4 feet of water. It is made
entirely of iron-wood.

After considering, I decided the best plan would be to buy the schooner, and
as the owner was willing to sell, we came to terms. He bought my boat for
three hundred and fifty guilders and I was to buy the schooner for thirteen
hundred and fifty guilders, but found that I could not own and sail a boat
under the Dutch flag unless I had been holder of citizen’s papers for a full

Fic. 21—Beraoe Malays at Maratua Island, southeast Borneo.
Photograph by Raven.

year. According to the Dutch law, coasting under a foreign flag is prohibited.
Thus my only way was to make a contract of “ Bond Loan,” stating that I had
loaned thirteen hundred and fifty guilders to Hadji Mohamad Arsad and as
security he gives into my absolute custody his schooner, which he may redeem
only during the thirteenth month after date by paying the sum of thirteen
hundred and fifty guilders and must accept the schooner in any condition in
which she may be at that time. He can never claim damages, inasmuch as the
loan equals the value of the schooner; also that if Hadji Mohamad Arsad
breaks the contract and takes back the schooner before the end of the twelve
months after date (July 4, 1914), he must pay not only the sum of the loan

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914 23

but also a fine of five hundred guilders. To find a crew for this boat was not
difficult, and she is far better to handle than the smaller one and no more
expensive to man, probably cheaper. Having crossed to Celebes in this boat,
I should not care to do it in the smaller one, for Macassar Strait is 140 miles
wide and over a thousand fathoms deep. A current running against the wind
sometimes makes bad weather. Nearly all the coast of Celebes is rocky, with
deep water close in to shore, so that in case of storm we sometimes have to
run out to sea rather than chance going on rocks. In such cases it is exceed-
ingly difficult in a small boat to keep anything dry.

Fic. 22—Dyak woman, Segah River, Borneo. Note ear ornaments and
tattooing on thighs. Tattooing is difficult to photograph on account of its
coloring. Photograph by Raven.

On reaching Celebes Mr. Raven immediately began his field work,
with what success may be inferred from further passages from the
letter of August 28.

The country here is a great contrast to that of Borneo and mammal life not
nearly so plentiful. There is a mining company located at Paleleh working
gold, and they have cut trails back into the jungle. There are several Euro-
peans and they allowed me to use their trails. I went inland about four or
five miles over the mountains and made camp at the edge of the Paleleh River,

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

which is a small brook and at this season nearly dry, with steep mountains
or hills on all sides.

My traps I placed not far-from the river, which at this dry season should
be as good as any place. Nearly everywhere the shore is planted with cocoa-
nuts and oftentimes clearings are made on the hill slopes, but inland the
original forest remains unmolested, though it is not open forest like that of
eastern Borneo. There is much underbrush, composed principally of a
variety of almost worthless rattan. :

Thus far I have collected specimens of Babirusa [a pig with peculiar erect
tusks curved backward above forehead at extremities], two females with

Fic. 23.—Two attitudes of Pangolin. Length of animal: head and body, 26
inches; tail, 22 inches. Mahakam River, Borneo. Photograph by Raven.

skins and some fine skulls of males. Also a peculiar black pig with hard
cartilaginous conical nodules on its nose and hard jowel patches; a marsupial
and two species of squirrels. I have also seen a reddish squirrel running on
the ground, but have not gotten one; also I have seen a small carnivore. Of
rats I have six or seven species, and possibly there are more. I have also
some bats. The ants do not seem to destroy as many rats here as in Borneo;
this will prove a great advantage in collecting.

According to natives, Sapi-utan [a dwarf buffalo peculiar to Celebes] and
Rusa [deer] in certain localities are abundant, though I have yet seen none.
The natives also say there are many wild water-buffalo which have escaped
from captivity years ago.

Reptiles appear to be common and the miners at Paleleh killed a python
which they say measured 10 meters.

—

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 25

Black macacus monkeys are generally common and at a distance look like
black dogs. About the edges of the forest I have seen many birds, but in the
deep forest I have seen very few.

Photographs I can probably send via Gorontalo. The chief difficulty in
making pictures here is the dirty, warm water.

No specimens from Celebes have yet been received in Washington ;
but all the Bornean material is at hand, forming a very important
addition to the National Museum collection. It includes 310

Fic. 24.—Gymnura, an animal related to the European hedgehog, though its
body is covered with coarse hair instead of spines. Length: head and body,
14 inches; tail, 11%4 inches. Samarinda, Borneo. Photograph by Raven.

mammals taken in 1914, making total of 1,613; and 261 birds taken
in 1914, making total of 1,440.

Some of the photographs alluded to by Mr. Raven are here
reproduced. »

EXPEDEMIONS TO THE FAR EAST
Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby has continued his explorations in
Manchuria and northeastern China. Interesting specimens received
from him are two wapiti bucks and a roe deer. A recent letter
announces the capture of two bears and a peculiar rabbit.

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Mr. Copley Amory, Jr., a collaborator of the National Museum,
joined the party accompanying Captain J. Koren to the northeast
coast of Siberia. This party sailed from Seattle about June 25,
and was last heard from at Nome, Alaska, on July 19. It is Mr.
Amory’s intention to explore such territory as may be practicable
from Nijni Kolymsk as a winter base. He will give special attention
to mammals and birds. Figure 25 is from a photograph of Captain
Koren’s boat.

Fic. 25——Captain Koren’s vessel which took exploring party to Siberia.

THE ~ TOMAS BARRERA’? EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CUE

During the months of May and June, 1914, an expedition under
the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the Cuban
Government was made to Cape San Antonio and the Colorados Reefs
of northwestern Cuba. Through the great generosity of Senor
Raoul Mediavilla of Havana, the use of the large and well-equipped
schooner “ Tomas Barrera ” was given the expedition free of all cost
of charter. This schooner, of the class locally known as a “ Vivero,”
contains a large well or tank admitting sea water, a feature which
proved of greatest value for stowage of living specimens. A care-
fully selected crew, familiar with the intricate channels of the reefs,
was also provided by Senor Mediavilla. Besides the schooner, two
power launches were also taken, one especially equipped for dredging
in moderate depths.

No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914 27,

Fic. 26—The “ Tomas Barrera” in Havana Harbor.

Fic. 27.—Setting traps for fish and crustaceans off Cape Cajon.

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Fic. 28.—The Patron of the “Tomas Barrera” with a huge sponge, only a
portion of which appears above water, secured by diving. One of the dredges
used by the party is shown hanging over the edge of the launch.

Fic. 29.—Henderson and Greenlaw collecting Cerions.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI4 29

Fig. 31.—Track for charcoal burners’ carts, extending miles into the interior
at Cape San Antonio, along which were obtained hundreds of specimens of all
kinds of animals.

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The main object of the expedition was to make as complete as
possible a biological survey of the waters of western Cuba, especially
of the extensive Colorados Reefs, heretofore wholly unexplored by
naturalists, and to obtain fine specimens for the exhibition series of
the National Museum. Another purpose of the visit to this region
was to investigate closely the fauna of certain high mountains of
the northern ranges of the Sierra de los Organos to gather material
from those inaccessible localities. The chief interest of the Cuban
Government was a study of food-fish life of the reefs, and to that end

Fic. 32.—Bartsch collecting the rare landshell, Urocoptis dautzenbergiana,
of which several hundred were obtained in the space shown in the photo- —
graph.

Sr. Lesmes of the Cuban Fish Commission was detailed by President
Menocal to accompany the party.

Careful preparation was made for intensive field work and a full
equipment of dredges, traps, submarine electric lights, chemicals
for stupefying marine animals, etc., was taken.

Besides extensive dredging operations carried on daily, shore
parties visited the two great mountains, Pan de Guajaibon and Pan
de Azucar, and also spent some time in the Vifales region, about
Guane, and in the low-lying country about La Fe, and finally spent
several days collecting in the heavily forested region about Cape
San Antonio. From these shore stations an immense number of
specimens were collected, including many species new to science.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI4

Fic. 33.—The Cuban Maja (Epicrates angulifer Bibron). Frequently
met with while hunting landshells in the mountain country.

Sil

32

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL.

Fic. 34.—River at La Mulata on the trail to Mt. Guajaibon, where
fresh-water animals of various kinds were collected. Henderson
and Clapp at water’s edge, and Rodrigues at right.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q14

Fic. 35.—Typical jungle scene and a favorite place for fresh-water
mollusks.

33

34

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Fic. 36.—Cove of Delight in the Vifiales Range.
ground for land mollusks.

A famous collecting

NO. 6 _ SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 35

The expedition met with signal success and returned a great
quantity of interesting material to the Museum, which is now in the
hands of specialists for final report. Splendid collections in all of
the phyla of marine organisms, including protozoa, sponges, corals,

Fic. 37—A Cuban cactus in flower.

gorgonians and medusz and other ccelenterates, annulates, echino-
derms, crustaceans and mollusks, were made. The usual hydro-
graphic data were also carefully kept, and bottom and water samples
were taken at the various stations. Whenever possible collections
of fresh water organisms were secured. The wonderful develop-
ment of molluscan life furnished by far the greater part of our

36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

catch, though the efforts of the expedition were by no means solely
devoted to this end. The vertebrates, as well as the lower organisms,
added materially to our catch. Among plants, special attention was
given to the cacti, of which a number of very interesting forms
were secured. A general account of the expedition, “The Log of
the Tomas Barrera,” by Mr. Henderson, is almost completed, and
detailed reports on results of the expedition, by various specialists,
are to follow. |

The party consisted of Mr. John B. Henderson, member of the
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution; Dr. Paul Bartsch,
curator of marine invertebrates, U. S. National Museum; Dr.
Carlos de la Torre of the University of Havana; Mr. George H.
Clapp of Pittsburgh, Pa.; Mr. Charles T. Simpson of Little Rivers,
Fla., formerly of the Museum staff; and of Mr. Gill, the Museum
colorist, and Mr. Victor Rodrigues, preparator at the University of
Havana.

It is expected that this expedition to western Cuba will be followed
by a series of similar explorations in other parts of the Antillean
regions looking primarily to the enrichment of the Museum collection
in the fauna of the West Indies, in order that we may gain a clearer
understanding of the faunas and faunal relationship of the West
Indies.

EXPERIMENTS WITH CERIONS IN THE FLORIDA KEYS

Brief accounts have been published in previous Smithsonian
exploration pamphlets* of the Bahama Cerion colonies planted oa
the Florida Keys by Dr. Paul Bartsch of the U. S. National Museum,
under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. As
regards the development of the new generation of these shells in a
new environment, it was stated last year that “judging from the
young collected which were born on these keys (fig. 38), the first
generation will be like the parent generation, unless decided changes
should take place in the later whorls, which have not as yet been
developed.” On Dr. Bartsch’s visit to the colonies in April, 1914,
however, adult specimens of the new generation were found at
several localities, and these fully developed adults enable him to
state that a decided change has taken place. So pronounced are the
departures from the parent generation that the specimens would
undoubtedly be considered by one unfamiliar with the history of the
material as distinct species and not closely related to the parent

1 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 60, No. 30, pp. 58-62; Vol. 63, No. 8, pp. 27-30.

SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 37

NO.

“ePLO]

6

Sesny1O 7,

‘Ay peaysassoT uo uMOIS suolisg SunoxX—

"QE “OI

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

stock. Also the first generation shows a wider range of variation
than the parents.

Fic. 39.—Bahama Cerions on Duck Key, Florida.

This departure from the parent generation is shown in the shape,
coloration, and sculpture of the shells (fig. 40). The tendency of
the whole lot is toward elongation, and toward the attenuating and

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914 39

rounding of the base. There is one type of variation in which the
ribs are almost obsolete and very widely spaced. Another is darker
and narrower, and the ribs are much more crowded together. All
these various modifications in the new generation show that the

b a Cc

Fic. 40.—a, A typical planted specimen ; b and
c, two changes shown in the first generation of
Florida-grown specimens.

pn, 4

[es
'

ve

Fig. 41.—Man-o’-war birds suspended on motionless wing on upthrust of
air above southeast corner of Fort Jefferson, Tortugas, Florida.

somaplasm in the Cerions experimented with has been affected by
the new environment in which they were developed.

40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Further even more interesting results bearing on heredity and
environment are expected from the continuation of Dr. Bartsch’s
studies with the Cerions. A full account of the work so far done
and the results obtained will shortly be published by the Carnegie
Institution of Washington.

During Dr. Bartsch’s trip in 1913, a record was kept of the birds
observed on the Florida Keys, and as this list proved of considerable
interest to ornithologists, the observations were continued in 1914.
Some 46 species were noted, including 19 not observed the previous
year. A detailed account appears in the Year Book of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington for 1914, pp. 192-194.

BIRD STUDIES IN ILLINOIS

Incidental to continued work on preparation of manuscript of
the unpublished volumes of “ Birds of North and Middle America ”
(Bulletin 50, U. S. National Museum), Mr. Robert Ridgway made
a careful study of bird-life in southern Illinois, in order to compare
present conditions with those existing half a century ago. The
results of this investigation will be published in the May-June, 1915
number of “ Bird-Lore.” It was found that with a few exceptions
the native birds have greatly decreased in numbers. At least three
species (the passenger pigeon, wild turkey, and ruffed grouse) have
totally disappeared from the region examined, while several others
are on the verge of extermination. A few species, such as the crow
blackbird (bronzed grackle) and blue jay, and perhaps the robin, are,
apparently, as numerous as they were fifty years ago.

The principal causes which have brought about this greatly dimin-
ished bird-life are: (1) in the case of the game birds, relentless
shooting; (2) greatly reduced breeding and shelter areas, through
clearing of forests, cutting away of woody growths along roadsides
and fence-lines and drainage of swampy or marshy areas; (3) intro-
duction of the European house sparrow, which has increased to
such an extent that it now outnumbers, even on the farms, all the
smaller native birds combined, greatly reducing their food supply,
and monopolizing the nesting sites of such species as the blue bird,
purple martin, wrens, swallows, and other birds that nest in cavities
or about buildings; (4) invasion of the woods and fields by homeless
house cats, and destruction of eggs and young (often the parents
also) of ground-nesting species by “ self-hunting ” bird dogs (setters
and pointers) ; and, probably, (5) spraying of orchards.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q14 AI

CACTUS INVESTIGATIONS IN PERU, BOLIVIA, AND CHILE

Dr. J. N. Rose, associate in botany, U. S. National Museum (at
present connected with the Carnegie Institution of Washington in
the preparation of a monograph of the Cactaceze of America), spent
nearly six months in travel and field work on the west coast of South
America during the summer and fall of 1914, visiting Peru, Bolivia,
and Chile. He made collections on the coast at the following places :
Paita, Pacasmayo, Saliverry, and Mollendo in Peru; Iquique, Anto-
fagasta, Coquimbo, Los Vilos, Los Molles, and Valparaiso in Chile.
As his chief work was to study and collect cacti, most of his time was
spent in the interior deserts. A section was made through central
Peru from Callao to Oroya, from sea level to the top of the Andes,
the highest point reached being 15,665 feet. Cacti were found in
the greatest abundance at an altitude of 5,000 to 7,500 feet; but the
various species range from a few feet above sea-level to as high as
12,000 to 14,000 feet.

A second section was made across southern Peru, from Mollendo
to Lake Titicaca via Arequipa. The highest point reached was 14,665
feet. Here also the cacti are found from near sea-level nearly to the
top of the Andes; but the most remarkable display is on the hills
surrounding Arequipa, at an altitude of from 7,000 to 8,500 feet.
While the cacti are abundant in both these regions, they are, with
only a few possible exceptions, quite distinct. Side trips were made
from Arequipa to Juliaca and Cuzco, in Peru, and to La Paz, Oruro,
and Comanche, in Bolivia.

On the pampa below Arequipa are found the famous crescent-
shaped sand dunes. Each dune or pile of sand is distinct in itself,
often separated some distance from any other dune, and occurring,
too, on rocky ground devoid of other sand. The dunes are found
on the high mesa some 5,250 feet above the sea. They form definite
regular piles of sand, each presenting a front 10 to 100 feet wide and
5 to 20 feet high, nearly perpendicular, crescent shaped, and from
the crescent-shaped ridge tapering back to the surface in the direction
from which the wind blows. These piles of shifting sand go forward
about 40 feet a year.

In Chile two sections were made into the interior—one from
Antofagasta to Calama, and one from Valparaiso to Santiago. The
first is through the rainless deserts of northern Chile, the whole
region being practically devoid of all vegetation. The second is
across central Chile, the hills and valleys of which are veritable

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SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI4

NO.

44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

flower gardens, the hills often being a mass of yellow. Various trips
were made in the central valley of Chile and one journey along the
Longitudinal Railway of Chile extended from Caldera to Santiago.
Special trips were made for certain rare plants like Cereus castaneus,
first collected in 1862 and not since observed until found by Dr. Rose;
and Cactus horridus and Cactus Berteri, described in 1833, but long
since discarded by Cactus students. In the central valley of Chile
is seen that beautiful palm, the only one native of Chile, Jubaea
spectabilis H. B. K., which often forms forests of considerable
extent. From this palm is made the “Miel de Palma ”’ so much used
as a syrup on ships and at hotels.

Dr. Rose made extensive shipments of living cacti. Most of the
material is of species new to American collections and quite a number
have not before been in cultivation, while some are new to science.
In addition, formalin and herbarium material was obtained in abun-
dance. His collection represents over 1,000 numbers, consisting not
only of cacti, but ferns, grasses, mosses, marine alge, parasitic fungi,
and other miscellaneous groups which Dr. Rose believed would be
of help to various specialists.

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN NEW MEXICO AND TEXAS

During August and September, 1914, Mr. Paul C. Standley of
the division of plants of the National Museum and Mr. H.C. Bollman
of the Smithsonian Institution spent nearly five weeks camping in
northern New Mexico at the Brazos Canyon in Rio Arriba County.
This locality is about 30 miles south of the Colorado line and about
half way across the state. While the trip was a private undertaking
primarily for vacation purposes, a representative collection of the
plant life of the region was made.

The Brazos Canyon is a gorge through which the Rio Brazos, a
tributary of the Chama River, runs for several miles. Near Tierra
Amarilla, where it flows into the Chama, the Brazos is a broad
stream, with only a moderately rapid current. As one follows up its
course the stream gradually becomes more rapid, and the valley
narrower. Eight or nine miles west of Tierra Amarilla there rises
on the north side of the valley a high mesa, with an abrupt escarp-
ment of naked reddish rocks, and one finally comes to a gigantic
fissure in the escarpment from which the Brazos issues. Here, for
several miles, the stream runs through a deep gorge, bounded by
bare, perpendicular granitic walls from two to three thousand feet
high, in places less than a hundred yards apart. This chasm is

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9I4 45

similar to the Taltec Gorge, which receives so much attention from
the tourists who travel over the line of the Denver and Rio Grande
Railroad between Antonito and Durango, Colorado, and it is probably
superior in size to that better known canyon. The Brazos, within its
canyon, and for a couple of miles after leaving it, is a swift stream
of considerable volume, rushing along over rapids or falling now

Fic. 44—Along the Brazos, looking toward the Brazos
Canyon. Photograph by Standley.

and then over great polished boulders into broad, deep, dark green
pools. It is frequented by large numbers of trout, and for fishing is
not excelled by any stream in the state, unless it may be the upper
Pecos.

The surrounding country is well timbered, at least in the less
accessible portions. The region being included in one of the old
Spanish grants, it has been impossible to conserve it in one of the
national forests, and most of the yellow pine at lower levels has

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS — VOL. 65

been removed. In the vicinity of the canyon, however, there is a
moderately heavy growth of Douglas spruce, Colorado blue spruce,
white fir, white pine, and yellow pine. Animal life is abundant,
especially deer, wild turkeys, grouse, ducks, and beaver. Bears are

S

Fic. 45.—Inside Brazos Canyon. The trees are chiefly
spruce and fir. Photograph by Standley.

said to be common, but in the autumn they were still feeding at the
higher levels and no signs of any were seen.

About 800 specimens of plants were collected, special attention
being given to the cryptogams, of which practically nothing is
known in New Mexico. Several species of rusts were collected

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 47

which are new to the State. The lichens have been named by Mr.
G. K. Merrill. Nearly all of them are additions to the known flora
of New Mexico, and two of them are undescribed species. The

Fic. 46.—Rock slide along the Rio Brazos. Photograph
by Standley.

ferns of the Brazos Canyon region are particularly interesting.
Twelve species were collected, three of which were not known before
from the State. The season was too far advanced to find the flower-

48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

ing plants in the best condition—snow fell on the surrounding
mountains the middle of September, just before camp was broken;
but a considerable collection was obtained, nevertheless. Although
only a part of the phanerogams have been determined, it is found
that several species have been added to the known flora of New
Mexico. Chief among the additions was a family new to the State,
the Sparganiceae. Several of the plants apparently represent spe-
cies new to science, descriptions of which will be published later.

Ne

Fic. 47.—Along the Rio Brazos below the canyon. Photograph by Standley.

COLEECLRINGSEOSSILS TON (CEE SAV Ey NIE aiaiaaN4

During 1914, several trips were made by Mr. William Palmer to
the Chesapeake Miocene on Chesapeake Bay and some very impor-
tant material was collected. Many years ago four very peculiar
caudal vertebrae were described by Prof. Cope as Cetophis hetero-
clitus and these have ever since remained unique. About a dozen
vertebree of this animal were collected during the year by Mr. Palmer,
and while the material is insufficient to reconstruct a skeleton, it
surely indicates that a snake-like mammal of perhaps Io feet in
length and unlike anything known to-day, inhabited the Miocene sea.
The skull is not known.

Material representing Zeuglodont and Squalodont mammals was
also collected, indicating that representatives of those groups lived

No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 49

through the greater part of the existence of the Miocene sea. One
specimen is a very perfect skull evidently unlike anything heretofore
known from North America. Unfortunately it contained no teeth,
but teeth presumably belonging to the species were also collected.
Many other vertebree were found representing known species as well
as others apparently new.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN GUATEMALA

Early in January, 1914, arrangements were made whereby Mr.
Neil M. Judd of the National Museum was enabled to accept an

|
|
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Fic. 48.—A view among the ruins of Utatlan, the last capital of the Quiché
empire.

invitation to participate in the third season’s archeological investiga-
tions at Quirigua, Guatemala, conducted under the direction of Dr.
Edgar L. Hewett by the School of American Archzology. Accounts
of the earlier investigations have been published by the Archeological
Institute of America.’

Plans for the expedition of 1914 included a continuation of former
excavations upon the prehistoric temples and pyramids surrounding
the so-called “ Temple Court,” the religious center of the sacred city
of Quirigua, and the reproduction, in plaster, of several of the huge
stone monuments which have made these ruins world-famous. Mr.

1 Bulletins: Vol. 2, pp. 117-134 (1911), and Vol. 3, pp. 163-171 (1912).
4

50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Fic. 49.—Quiché Indians at Sunday morning market in the central plaza,
San Tomas de Chichicastenango. Every article of native industry and art is
offered for sale on market day.

Fic. 50.—A nearer view of a Quiché fire-altar near San Tomas de Chichi-
castenango. A horizontal stone bearing the figure of a human being and
several lesser carvings stand at the back of the fire pit; rows of the young
tips of spruce bows are spread in front.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI14 51

Fig. 51.—Quiché Indians at fire worship, San Tomas de Chichicastenango.
The worshipper stands or squats in front of the fire and mutters his prayers
into the rising smoke of his burning copal cakes.

Fic. 52.—I914 excavations on the temple at the north side of the Temple Court,
Quirigua, Guatemala.

52

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

Fic. 53.—Building the plaster forms around one of the
Quirigua monuments. By means of these forms glue molds
of the carvings were secured and, from the glue molds, plas-
ter duplicates of the originals were constructed.

VOL. 65

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 53

Judd was directed to superintend this latter phase of the expedition’s
activities, and, with the aid of a small corps of able assistants,
completed casts from six of the colossal stelee before the brief “ dry
season” came to an end. The task of reproduction was greatly
facilitated by the use of glue or gelatine, a medium never before
employed in the torrid zone. With this material, negative impres-
sions of the carvings and inscriptions were obtained from the
monuments ; from these impressions, plaster duplicates of the origi-
nals were readily constructed. The results far surpassed those
which had previouly been secured with other processes. The 1914

Fic. 54.—Plaster cast of a “ Death’s Head”
from one of the Quirigua stele.

reports of the School of American Archeology consider, in detail,
the results of its Guatemala expedition.

At the conclusion of the Quirigua work, Mr. Judd journeyed to
Guatemala City and from there by Indian foot paths to the mountain
valleys that lie between the capital city and the Mexican border.
His object in making this trip was to gain, in the few days at his
disposal, a hasty view of present anthropological possibilities among
the several Indian tribes who inhabit the region. Although each
village has its distinctive ethnological features, but little remains, in
the remnants of the Quiché, Cachiquel, and Tzutuhil tribes, to indi-
cate the strength and magnificence of the Quiché empire which Pedro
de Alvarado destroyed in 1523, at the beginning of his conquest of
Guatemala.

54. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Among other important Indian communities, Mr. Judd visited
Totonicipan and Quezaltenango (Xelahuh), former Quiché strong-
holds which have since become, respectively, a modernized Indian
town and Guatemala’s second city. One day was spent at Lake
Atitlan, that beautiful body of water which played such an important
part in the pre-Columbian history of the native peoples who knew its
shores. Overlooking the blue lake and well-guarded from strangers,
are several small villages, their gardens terracing the volcano slopes
to a point beyond the drifting clouds. San Tomas de Chichicaste-
nango, with its 16,000 Quiché Indians, and Santa Cruz del Quiché
were also visited. At the former pueblo, photographs were taken of
a Quiché fire-altar, with Indians at worship. Other fire-altars were
noticed before the doors of the two Catholic churches whose white
walls tower above the Indian houses.

Near Santa Cruz del Quiché lie the crumbling ruins of Utatlan, the
last capital of the Quiché kingdom and the largest and most important
of the old cities. Every block of dressed stone has been removed
from the old walls and employed in the construction of the modern
village—acres of massed cobblestones, plaster-paved courts, and for-
tifications are all that remain of Utatlan’s ancient splendor. At the
modern town of Santa Cruz there was an opportunity of witnessing a
native play in which was depicted the reception of the Conquerors by
the emperor, Nima-Quiché, and the subsequent faithlessness of the
Spaniards.

Although the natives of these interior valleys have always been
considered treacherous, Mr. Judd experienced few difficulties and his
hurried journey seems to indicate that extended anthropological
investigations in this region will be as easy as they are desirable.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN AFRICA AND SIBERIA.

In connection with the work of the division of physical anthropol-
ogy in the National Museum, two expeditions were sent out during
the year 1914, under the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution
and the Panama-California Exposition.

One of the two expeditions was in charge of Dr. V. Schick,
anthropologist of Prague, Bohemia, and its objects were: 1, to study
the negro child in its native environment, and thereby create a basis
of comparison for the study of the negro child in our country; 2, to
visit the South African Bushmen for the purpose of obtaining
measurements, photographs, and facial casts of the same; and, 3, to
visit British East Africa in search of the Pygmies. The tribe chosen

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI14 55

for the child study were the Zulu of Natal and Zululand, and over
one thousand children and adolescents of all ages—ages which could
be definitely determined—were examined. These data are expected
to contribute some very important results to anthropology. The
Bushmen were reached in the Kalahari Desert and, besides other
results, 20 first-class facial casts were obtained of the people, which
have since then been installed among the anthropological exhibits
at San Diego. As to British East Africa, the work soon after a
successful beginning was interrupted by the war; Dr. Schtick was
arrested and obliged to leave.

The second expedition of 1914 was in charge of Dr. St. Poniatow-
ski, head of the Ethnological Laboratory at Warsaw. The object of
this expedition was to visit a number of the remnants of native tribes
in Eastern Siberia, among which are found physical types which so
closely resemble the American Indian. The expedition reached two
such tribes, and secured valuable data, photographs, etc., when it
was also interrupted by the war.

PREPARATION OF EXHIBITS ILLUSTRATING THE NATURAL
HISTORY OF MAN

Some of the results of exploration and field work by the Institution
among various races of mankind are shown in connection with the
anthropological exhibits of the Panama-California Exposition at San
Diego. These exhibits were in preparation for over three years.
They are original and much more comprehensive than any previous
exhibits in this line, either here or abroad.

The exhibits fill five large connecting rooms, which occupy the
building of the Science of Man at the Exposition. Four of these
rooms are devoted to the natural history of man, while the fifth is
fitted up as a modern anthropological laboratory, library, and lecture-
room. Of the four rooms of exhibits proper, the first is devoted to
man’s phylogeny, or evolution; the second, to his ontogeny, or life
cycle at the present time; the third, to his variation (sexual, indi-
vidual, racial) ; and the fourth to his pathology and death.

The exhibits in room 1, on human evolution, consist of: (a) a
large series of accurate, first-class casts of all the more important
skeletal remains of authentic antiquity; (b) photographic enlarge-
ments and water color sketches showing the localities where the speci-
mens were discovered; (c) charts showing the relation of the
archeological position of the various finds, and their relation to the
extinct fauna and to archeological epochs; (d) a series of sketches
by various scientific men showing their conception of the early man,

56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

with several illustrations of drawings, statuettes, and bas-reliefs,
showing early man as drawn or sculptured by the ancient man him-
self; and (e) a remarkable series of ten large busts, prepared by the
eminent Belgian sculptor, M. Mascré, under the direction of Prof.
Rutot, representing early man at different periods of his physical
advancement.

The main part of the exhibits in room No. 2, devoted to man’s
development at the present time, from the ovum onward, are three

Fic. 55.—Five of the Mascré-Rutot busts in the anthropological exhibits at
San Diego.

series of true-to-nature busts, showing by definite age-stages, from
birth onward and in both sexes, the three principal races of this
country, namely, the “thoroughbred” white American (for at least
three generations in this continent on each parental side), the Indian,
and the full-blood American negro. These series, which required
two and one-half years of strenuous preparation, form a unique
exhibit, for nothing of similar nature has ever been attempted in this
or any other country. Each set consists of 30 busts, 15 males and
15 females, and proceeds from infants at or within a few days after
birth, to the oldest persons that could be found. The oldest negro
woman isi114. After the new born, the stages are 9 months, 3 years,

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NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914 59

6, 10, 15, 20, 28, 35, 45, 55, 65 and 75 years. The utmost care was
exercised in ascertaining the age, particularly among the negro and
Indian. No choice was made of the subjects beyond that due to the
requirements of pedigree, age, and good health. The whites and
negroes were obtained, with a few exceptions, in Washington and
vicinity, but their places of birth range over a large part of the
Eastern, Southern, and Middle States; for the Indian, we chose the
Sioux, a large, characteristic, and in a very large measure still pure-
blood tribe, and one in which the determination of the ages of the
subjects was feasible. Special trips were made to these people, and
no pains were spared to get just what was wanted; in the case of
the new born, it was actually necessary to wait until they came.

Other exhibits in room 2 show the development, by various stages,
of the human brain, the skull, and various other parts of the body.
A large series of original specimens show the animal forms most
closely related to man at the present time, particularly the anthropoid
apes; a series of charts on the walls deal with the phenomena of
senility; finally, ten photographic enlargements show living cen-
tenarians of various races.

Human variation is shown in room 3 by ten sets of large busts
representing ten of the more important races of man; by 200 original
transparencies giving racial portraits; by over 100 bronzed facial
casts, showing individual variations within some of the more impor-
tant branches of humanity; and by numerous charts and other
exhibits.

In room 4, a series of charts and maps relates to the death rate in
various countries; to the principal causes of death in the different
parts of the world, and to the distribution of the more common
diseases over the earth. Actual pathology is illustrated extensively
by pre-historic American material. Many hundreds of original
specimens, derived principally from the pre-Columbian cemeteries
of Peru, show an extensive range of injuries and diseases, such as
have left their marks on the bones. In many instances the injuries
are very interesting, both from their extent and the extraordinary
powers of recuperation shown in the healing; while among the
diseases shown on the bones there are some that find no or but little
parallel among the white man or even the Indian of to-day. In
addition, this room contains a series of 60 skulls with pre-Columbian
operations (trepanation).

The exhibits as a whole are supplemented by a descriptive cata-
logue and other literature, and by frequent lectures and demonstra-

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62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

tions. They constitute an educational unit of considerable value,
have attracted from the beginning the best and most serious attention,
and eventually, it is hoped, will become the foundation of a museum
in San Diego.

PREHISTORIC REMAINS IN NEW MEXICO

Previous to the month of May, 1914, it was pretty generally
believed by archeologists that the elevated plateau extending from
Deming, New Mexico, to the Mexican border was destitute of any
ruins indicating a prehistoric occupation by man. In April of
that year Mr. E. D. Osborn wrote to the Bureau of American

Fic. 62—Ruin near Osborn Ranch. Photograph by J. W. Fewkes.

Ethnology that he had made a considerable collection of pottery and
other objects from a village site (fig. 62) not far from his ranch, 12
miles south of that city. From the nature of these objects, especially
the decoration on the pottery, photographs of a few of which accom-
panied his letter, it was apparent not only that the Mimbres Valley
was peopled in prehistoric times by a sedentary people, but also that
the former inhabitants of this valley had attained a considerable
artistic development. Accordingly Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, an eth-
nologist on the Bureau staff, was sent to Deming to investigate these
remains, and to secure, if possible, a typical collection.

He was two months in the field, confining his work more especially
to the above mentioned ruin, and to the somewhat larger and more
populous village (figs. 63, 64) near Oldtown, 22 miles north of the
above mentioned city. He secured by excavation and purchase a

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 63

collection of over 200 objects, which are typical and regarded as an
important accession to the U. S. National Museum, especially as up
to that time objects illustrating the prehistoric development of the

Fic. 63.—Cliff on which Oldtown ruin is situated, overlooking Sink of Mimbres.
Photograph by J. W. Fewkes.

Fic. 64.—Oldtown ruin. Photograph by J. W. Fewkes.

Mimbres Valley had been unrepresented in any museum in the world.
A preliminary report in which these objects were described and
figured was published by the Smithsonian Institution near the close
of the year.’

* Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 63, No. 10 (Publ. 2316), 1914.

64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The majority of these specimens are mortuary food bowls, the
most significant of which were decorated on their interior with
painted figures representing animals known to the ancient inhabit-

Fic. 65.—a, Two birds, bowl from Pictured Rocks 4 miles north of Oldtown
ruin. Heye Museum. 0, Two birds, bowl from Pictured Rocks, 4 miles north
of Oldtown ruin. Heye Museum.

a b

Fic. 66—Mortuary food bowls. Photographs by E. D. Osborn. a, Four
grasshoppers, bowl from Pictured Rocks, 4 miles north of Oldtown ruin. Heye
Museum. b, Frog, bowl from ruin at Pictured Rocks, 4 miles north of Old-
town. Heye Museum.

ants of the valley, and pictures of warriors or priests engaged in
secular or religious observances. Some of the bowls are decorated
with characteristic geometrical designs so different from any others
yet found in the Southwest that it is believed that they indicate an

No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI4 65

undescribed prehistoric culture area in the valley of the Mimbres.
The symbolic and other figures show that this culture has affinities,
on the one side, with ruins in Chihuahua, and on the other with the
Pueblos in northern New Mexico. Some of the fragments of
Mimbres pottery are identical with Casas Grandes ware.

Fic. 67.—Geometrical design. U.S. National Museum.

The elevated plateau in which the Mimbres lies is commonly
known as the Sierra Madre plateau, which was a trail of migration
for interchange of prehistoric cultures of Mexico and the Pueblo
region. This plateau extends from the headwaters of the Gila far
down into Chihuahua, including the valley of the Casas Grandes
River, in which are situated the largest and best preserved ruins of
northern Mexico. Between these two extremities may be traced a
chain of ruins broken at a few points, indicating prehistoric connec-
tions between Mexican and Pueblo culture.

5

66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Fic. 68.—Geometrical design. U.S. National Museum.

ey
H

a b
Fic. 69.—Mortuary food bowls. Photographs by E. D. Osborn. a, Hunter
with throwing-stick, antelope wounded in neck, Oldtown ruin. Heye Museum.

b, Man carrying a dead man on his back, accompanied by animal. Heye
Museum.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 67

It was found that the ancient people of the Mimbres disposed of
their dead by inhumation, or earth burial, under the floors of their
rooms, and that almost invariably they covered the head or face
with a mortuary bowl. This bowl was artificially punctured, or
“killed,” before it was deposited with the dead, and in many
instances the necklaces, bracelets, and other ornaments of the
deceased were left on the body.

Fic. 70.—Geometrical design. U. S. National Museum.

Many of the dead were buried in a sitting posture or in the well-
known contracted position; the bodies of some were extended at
length or placed on one side. Evidences of cremation were not
noticed, but charcoal, ashes of burnt timber, and charred corn were
repeatedly found in the course of excavating. Several types of
stone implements, a few of which are unique, were brought to light
by the explorations made by Doctor Fewkes in the ruins of Mimbres
Valley. Among the latter may be mentioned a form of rubbing
stone, flat on one side but round on the opposite, in the convex surface

68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

of which are cut grooves for the four fingers and thumb of the
right hand. A large “ holed stone” in the shape of a barrel, found
near Oldtown, is a unique form (fig. 74) from the Southwest. One
end of this is covered with shallow pits similar to those found on
slabs of rocks from other ruins. The use of this stone is unknown,
but, like similar holed stones from Mexico, it may have served in the
ball game called pelota. .

Fic. 71.—Geometrical design. U. S. National Museum.

A number of facts were observed in the course of these studies
suggesting the probable causes of the abandonment of the pre-
historic settlements south of Deming, where the majority of
specimens were found. Until a few years ago, the Antelope Valley,
except in its northern part or that occupied by the Mimbres, was
a desert, capable of supplying water sufficient for stock but hardly
adequate to meet the needs of any considerable human population.
Notwithstanding this inadequacy of the water supply there is evi-

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q14 69

dence of the existence of several populous villages in what is now
an arid desert. Evidently the region formerly had more water than
at present, but the reason for its increased aridity and consequent
abandonment by the prehistoric villagers was not due to a modifica-
tion in climate, but to a change in the bed of the Mimbres River,
which, there are reasons to believe, has occurred since the advent of
man in that valley. The former course of the river past the now

Fic. 72.—Geometrical design. U. S. National Museum.

deserted villages can be easily traced, but by some shifting of the
soil in its bed the river now flows to the east of the Florida Moun-
tains. This change in direction deprived the former inhabitants of
villages situated on the west side of the mountains of their supply
of water, and caused them to abandon their homes.

The construction of the prehistoric buildings, as shown by an
examination of the photographs of village sites (fgs. 62, 63, 64),
indicates that the ancient ruins in the Mimbres region had littie
resemblance to those of the pueblos in northern New Mexico, but

7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

more closely resembled the fragile-walled dwellings of the Pima and
Papago. The walls of the habitations were made of upright logs,
chinked and plastered with clay or a natural cement (caliche), the
base being protected by rows of stones. These walls have fallen, but
the stumps of the logs, generally charred, and the rows of stones
still remain, while a few feet below the surface the floor is generally

Fic. 73.—Pictographs at Pictured Rocks near Brockman’s Mill.
Photograph by J. W. Fewkes.

well preserved. The roof was flat and held up by one or more
vertical logs in the middle of the room. The inner walls of the
room were smoothly polished and apparently sometimes painted.
The different families composing the population of each village were
not apparently crowded into terraced communal dwellings several
stories high, but lived in rancherias composed of several one-storied
isolated houses.

NO. 6 - SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 71

No evidences were found in the Mimbres Valley of the former
presence of walled inclosures or compounds so pronounced at Casa
Grande, or of massive buildings found at Casas Grandes. Sacred
rooms, or kivas, could not be distinguished from secular rooms,
although clusters of depressions resembling subterranean rooms
were especially abundant on the terraces along the river banks.

Fic. 74.—Pitted-holed stone, base of Oldtown Cliff. Photo-
graph by J. W. Fewkes.

These rooms undoubtedly belonged to a very ancient type, of which
the subterranean sacred room, or kiva, of the pueblo is a survival.

It is believed that the character of the prehistoric culture in the
valley of the Mimbres, brought to light by these studies, is more
ancient than the true pueblo of northern New Mexico, and closely
related to that existing in northern Mexico in prehistoric times.

Several hot springs were examined in the upper courses of the
Mimbres which were evidently once used by the natives for sacred

72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

purposes, bones and teeth of extinct animals and stone artifacts,
regarded as sacrificial offerings, having been obtained from them.

The accompanying views show the general character of designs
on pottery from the Mimbres region, and sites of the ancient villages
from which it was obtained.

Fic. 75.—Cherokee bail play: the struggle for the ball.

FURTHER STUDY OF THE CHEROKEE SACRED FORMULAS

On June 22, Mr. James Mooney proceeded to the East Cherokee
reservation in Swain and Jackson counties, western North Carolina,
returning to Washington September 15. Headquarters were made
with the most conservative element of the tribe, in the heart of the
mountains, some 12 miles above the agency, and the time was devoted
chiefly to further study and elaboration of the Cherokee Sacred
Formulas previously collected. Opportunity occurred also for wit-
nessing the ceremonial Ball Play, and by special permission of some

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 73

of the Indian priests Mr. Mooney was able to be present for the
second time at the family ceremony of invoking the blessing. upon
the new corn and on those about to partake of it for the first time.
This ceremony, probably never witnessed by any other white man, is
still strictly observed in private at their homes by most of the full-
blood families before tasting the new corn of the season, the priests
who conduct the rite going, while yet fasting, from house to house
through the settlement for that purpose. The so-called Green Corn
Dance, the great tribal celebration of thanksgiving for the new corn,
was last performed in 1887, on which occasion Mr. Mooney was also
present. The East Cherokee, numbering now about 1,600, consti-
tute that portion of the tribe which remained in the old home territory
when the main body of the nation was removed to the West.

THE SUN AND THE ICE PEOPLE AMONG THE TEWA INDIANS
OF NEW MEXICO

One of the most interesting ceremonies observed by Mrs. Matilda
Coxe Stevenson during her studies among the Tewa is associated
with the coming of spring or the revival of the Earth Mother from
her dormant state through the winter. The Tewa are a poetic
people, but they never allow their love of the beautiful to interfere
with their constant efforts to sustain life. Almost every breath is
a prayer, in one form or another, for food. “ May we be blessed
with food, more food! ”—this great thought is paramount among
these people who have lived in an arid country from time immemo-
rial. Having no outside resources, everything, life itself, depends
upon their own exertions and their influence with their gods. In
order to gain this influence they must have priests who are capable
of communing directly with the gods. ‘Heart speaks to heart,”
they say. The earth must not be wet with summer rains all the time,
nor must it be perpetually covered with ice and snow: conditions
must be equalized. [0 accomplish these desired results in past ages
the Tewa were divided into the Sun and the Ice people. Each body
had its rain priest as it has at the present time, the priest of the Sun
people taking precedence over the priest of the Ice people. The
_ special duty of the priest of the Sun people is to observe the rising
and setting of the sun, and to bring summer rains and new creations.
The priest of the Ice people observes the rising and the setting of the
moon, and the moon aids him in keeping the calendars; he brings
the cold rains of winter, and the snows and ice to retard plant life.
The invocation says in reference to the earth: “Let our Mother
sleep; let her rest so covered in ice and snow that she will sleep well

74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

to awake with the coming of spring in all her greatness.’’ While
it is the duty of the priest of the Sun people to invoke the Sun
Father to bring rains, there is a change in administration from

Fic. 76.—Juan Rey Martinez, ex-Governor and one of the
most distinguished theurgists of San Ildefonso.

October 15 to February 18, when the priest of the Ice people assumes
precedence over the priest of the Sun people, and he observes the
rising and setting sun. He appeals to the Sun Father so to influence

No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914 75

Nuk6®se, the “ black stone man of the north,’ and Tsa" oki Kivi,
the “ white fog woman of the east,” to send their breath to make
cold the waters of the rain makers and convert them into snow and
ice. Summer winds are the breath of the gods.

While the moon is feminine with many Indians, the Tewa believe
the moon to be masculine and brother to the sun. In fact, these
divine ones, according to Tewa philosophy, are the gods of war,
born of a virgin and conceived through the embrace of the rays of
the ancient Sun Father while the maiden slept on the banks of the
lake Aga’channé. Pregnant as she was, the maiden tossed in a
canoe for many days upon the angry waters during the great flood
that covered the earth. Finally the bark landed near the site of
Santa Fe, where the maiden gave birth to twin sons. When the
divine ones learned of their father they determined to find him.
The earth was dark in the day and in the night, but the little fellows
were guided by Kosa, star people who emitted bright light from
their bodies. The father was found in a lake deep under the earth.
The aged Sun Father recognized his children and wept for joy at
meeting them. He’said to them: “The earth is now dark, but it
should have light and warmth. I will make you boys the sun and
moon to pass over the earth with the burning shields of crystal.” He
designated the younger one to be the sun and the elder to be the
moon. The divine ones were happy to remain with their Sun Father
and to perform the duties assigned to them. The present sun
and moon bear the names of their predecessors, Tansédo, “sun
old man,” and Po‘sedo, “moon old man.” They are still elder and
younger brother warriors, and are appealed to as such by the elder
and younger brother Bow Priests, who are the earthly representa-
tives of these gods. The ancient Sun and Moon remain in their
house below, while the divine ones do duty in the world above.

Preparatory ceremonies for the coming of spring begin at sunset
of February 9th in San Ildefonso and close at sunrise the morning
of the 13th. The first three nights the party disbands at midnight,
provided there are no serious interruptions in rehearsing the ancient
songs. This must be learned from the director of the Squash frater-
nity, who knows the ancient prayers and songs by heart. The first
three nights the party in the kiva consists of the rain priest of the
Sun people, his four male and two female associates, younger brother
Bow priest, and the director of the Po”kuni, native Squash fraternity.
The Bow Priest is present as guardian of its altar, and the director
of the fraternity as the sage of San Ildefonso. The e’he alt: r is
erected by the rain priest of the Sun people. On completion of the

76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

altar the rain priest makes a sand painting on the floor a little to the
northeast of the altar. First a circular ground of sand from the
river bank is laid; this is outlined with a circle of black earth from
the river bed; the entire disk is then covered with fine white earth;
a small blue disk is next made in the center of the large one, which
is then surrounded by a circle of yellow and one of red. Four
crosses representing the Pleiades, are made in black upon the smaller
disk. This sand painting is made in honor of the ancient Sun and
Moon and remains until the close of the fourth night, when the
Priests of the Bow gather the sand into a cloth and deposit it in
the Rio Grande to be carried to the house of the ancient Sun and
Moon.

On the fourth and last night the party in the kiva is joined by
the rain priest of the Ice people, his four male and two female asso-
ciates, and the elder brother Bow Priest. The priest of the Ice
people sits at the northern side of the altar, the priest of the Sun
people at the southern side, while the director of the Po”’kuni
fraternity takes his place at the north. The associates of the rain
priest of the Sun people sit back of him and south of the altar, and
the associates of the priest of the Ice people sit back of him and
north of the altar. The two rain priests discuss the change of the
seasons, the rain priest of the Sun people urging that in case the
rain priest of the Ice people is not sure of his functions, he consult
the priest of the Ice people of Tesuque. The rain priest of the Sun
people and the director of the Po’kuni, or native Squash fraternity,
make no claim to understanding the songs and prayers for ice and
snow, but the sage has a perfectly clear knowledge of all ceremonies
associated with the Sun people, and there is no time in the year when
so important a ceremony for the good of all the people is performed
as the one here described. Unless the long and most ancient rites
to the “ old” Sun are observed at this time, there can be no certainty
of the fructification of the earth. The hearts of all the people are
filled with a great desire so to please the ancient Sun Father that he
will use his power to have the rain-makers send the spring rains and
cause the Earth Mother to send forth her being in all its beauty.

The great ceremony is performed on the night of the 17th of
February. This is no ordinary occasion. All the fraternities gather
in the kiva presided over by the priest of the Sun people. Every
man, woman, and child presents offerings to the ancient Sun Father,
which are deposited in a heap before the altar. Each member of
the order of Mystery Medicine carries the wowayi (a perfect ear of
corn decorated with macaw and other plumes), and places it before

.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI4 Fg)

the altar. The fraternities of the Sun people take seats south of the
altar, the women sitting together back of the male members. The
fraternities of the Ice people sit north of the altar, the women
grouping slightly apart from the men. After all the rehearsals of
the priest of the Sun people and the sage of the kiva the people feel
pretty sure that their songs and prayers will be recognized and
received by the ancient Sun Father. All the men present sing to
the accompaniment of the rattle and pottery drum. They are per-
haps more profoundly interested in this ceremony than in any other,
for this ritual enters into the very heart of their lives. This great
ancient Sun God sits in state in his house in the lake, and it is only
once a year that the people as a body invoke him. The larger the
family the greater the offerings, which consist of all food that can be
obtained by the Indians of to-day, and calico, cotton cloth, and a
variety of other things. These offerings are made to Tansédo with
prayers that he will see that the people may be able to secure the
desired objects. All parties dance, except the priest of the Sun
people and the director of the squash fraternity. These two must
listen attentively that no mistake may be made in the song. The priest
of the Ice people and his associates are present, having the same posi-
tion they occupied at the previous meeting. He and his associates join
in the dance for the new creation. The men are nude except for the
breech-cloth, and their bodies are daubed in white. The women
wear the native black woven dress and red belt, but arms, neck, and
legs are bare. Each man carries a rattle in the right hand and a sprig
of spruce in the left. The women carry an eagle-wing plume in
each hand. The spruce signifies the male element, rain. The eagle
plumes signify the same, for eagles live among the clouds. All
night the dance and song continue, invoking the ancient one. Refer-
ring to the great heap of offerings, they sing: “We give these
offerings to you; you are great, the ancient one, you who have lived
always, that you will be happy and contented ; that you will see that
all the world receives much water that all crops may develop for
good. We pray that you will talk to the rain-makers, urge them to
go out and play their games and be happy, and to send rains to every
quarter of the world, such rains as will uproot trees, wash out can-
yons, and cover the Earth Mother in water. Let her heart be great
in water. And we pray that you will lift the Earth Mother from
her sleep, impregnate her with your rays, and make her fruitful to
look upon. Bless the whole world with her fruitfulness.” These
are the invocations to be heard throughout the night, when all
present put their whole souls into supplicating the Ancient One for

78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

food to sustain life. The songs continue until the first light of day,
when the great heap of offerings are carried to the river and depos-
ited to go to the ancient Sun Father. The sands of the painting are
also deposited, wrapped in a cloth, in the river.

These children of nature feel every confidence that the perform-
ance of the ritual so sacred to them will bring all that their long
prayers have asked for throughout the night.

WORK AMONG THE IROQUOIS

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt left Washington on December 11, 1914, for
a short field trip among the Iroquois of Ontario, Canada, and of
western New York. His first stop was at Brantford, Ontario, where,
with the aid of Mr. William K. Loft, a Mohawk speaker, critical
phonetic and grammatic study was made of portions of Mohawk
texts relating to the Iroquois League, recorded by Mr. Hewitt in
former years. Work was also done in taking down a select list of
Mohawk verbs for comparative purposes. His next stop was at
Middleport, Ontario, where, with the aid of Mrs. Mary Gibson, the
widow of the late Chief John Arthur Gibson, Mr. Hewitt recorded a
long Cayuga text relating to the origin and ritual of the Death Feast ;
a comparative Cayuga list of verbs was also obtained. Here, with
the aid of Mr. Hardy Gibson, a Cayuga chief, Mr. Hewitt was able
to clear up satisfactorily certain mooted questions concerning the
ritual of the League Condoling and Installation Council.

Mr. Hewitt also obtained from Mrs. Emily Carrier a list of 50
Nanticoke words which represent all that were remembered by the
informant; this short list is of unique interest, as the Nanticoke
dialect of the Algonquian stock has become practically extinct. Mr.
Hewitt also made about 70 photographs, chiefly of persons.

OSAGE SONGS AND RITUALS

During the year 1914, Mr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, secured
from Wa-thu-xa-ge, a member of the Tsi-zhu Wa-shta-ge, one of
the two peace gentes of the Osage tribe, the rituals and songs of the
Wa-x0-be A-wa-tho", which form the first of the seven degrees of
the great Osage tribal war rites. It was with much difficulty that
Wa-thu-xa-ge was finally persuaded to give this information. He
had three reasons for refusing to give information concerning the
rites, which are now being fast forgotten, as most of the older
members of the tribe have adopted a new religion to which they give
nearly all their thought and attention, and the younger members who
are being educated care very little, if at all, for these ancient rites.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9QI14 79

The first reason given by Wa-thu-xa-ge for refusing to recite the
rituals and to sing the songs is, that he feared to make mistakes which
would expose him and his family to punishment through super-

Fic. 77.—Wa-thu-xa-ge of the Tsi-zhu Wa-shta-ge, a peacemaking gens.

natural means ; second, that the man who introduced the new religion,
above referred to, forbade those who took up the new faith to give
any further thought to the ancient rites, which he told them were the
inventions of Ts’a-to™-ga, the Great Serpent, to lead the people

80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

astray and to prevent them from finding the true path to God; third,
he suspected the man who introduced Mr. La Flesche to him, and who
also belonged to the Tsi-zhu Wa-shta-ge gens, of seeking to secure a
working knowledge of the rituals and songs without going through
the required ceremonies and the payment of the usual fees.

The Wa-x0-be A-wa-tho" degree of the Tsi-zhu Wa-shta-ge gens,
like those of the other gentes, is divided into two great parts. The
first part is called the “ Seven Songs ” and the second part the “ Six
Songs.” The titles of the songs and rituals of the various gentes
are generally the same, but the music and the words differ more or
less. The number of the songs also varies in the degrees of the
various gentes. Wa-thu-xa-ge explained that the number of songs
in the war ceremonies of his gens are fewer than those of any of the
other gentes because of its position in the tribe as a peace-maker, and
that the performing of the war ceremonies of his gens was more a
matter of form than for the purpose of encouraging a warlike spirit.

In some of the degrees the songs and rituals of both of the two
parts are used, in others only those of the first part, and still in others
those of the second part. While the various degrees are used in
common, in forms more or less modified, by the various gentes, it is
said that the “ Seven Songs” belong to the Ho*’-ga dual division,
whose ceremonial place is at the south side of the lodge, and the
“Six Songs” belong to the Tsi-zhu dual division, who occupy the
north side. There also appears to be a further division of the songs
and rituals among the several gentes, thus giving the rites, as a
whole, a composite character.

The degree given by Wa-thu-xa-ge, whose portrait is here shown
(fig. 77), is composed of six rituals and 65 songs—4g9 songs for the
first part and 16 for the second. There are certain preliminary
ceremonies that are performed before conferring a degree which
contains all of the rituals and songs, or only the first or second parts.
These preliminary ceremonies have also been explained by Wa-
thu-xa-ge.

For many years this old man has not had occasion to perform the
ceremonies, therefore his memory of them had weakened consider-
ably. In order to refresh his memory, for the purpose of giving
this information, he attended an initiation which took place a week
or so before he came to Washington, although the new religion
which he had adopted discouraged his witnessing, or his taking part
in, any of the ancient rites. Wa-thu-xa-ge’s wife, who was an
honorary member of the No®’-ho”’-zhi"-ga order, assisted him mate-
rially by prompting him. Wano®-she-zhi"-ga, whose English name

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 81

is Frederick Lookout and who a year ago was the principal chief of
the Osage, not only gave assistance with what knowledge he had of
the rites, but it was through his influence and urging that the old man
consented to give what he remembered of them. Had “ Governor ”
Lookout been less urgent the chances are that the old man would
never have given the information and it would probably have been
lost at his death.

The words of the rituals and songs of the first part of this degree
have been transcribed and type-written, and the music has been
transcribed from the dictaphone, but the words of the songs and the
music of the second part have yet to be transcribed.

Wa-thu-xa-ge also gave, in fragments, the Ni-ki-e degree of his
gens. It was difficult for him to recall all of the songs, rituals and
ceremonial forms. Of this degree he gave three rituals and eleven
songs. The stanzas of these songs vary in number from one to
eleven. Mrs. Lookout said that the Ni-ki-e degree of the Tsi-zhu
Wa-shta-ge gens is not half as long as those of the other gentes.
She had taken part a number of times in some of the ceremonial
forms and thus had gained her knowledge first hand.

Aside from the two degrees of the No”-ho*’-zhi"-ga rites, eight
songs of the new religion were secured from Wa-thu-xa-ge and
“ Governor ” Lookout, who both take active part in the exercises of
this religion.

PRESERVATION OF INDIAN MUSIC

Two field trips were made by Miss Frances Densmore during
the summer of 1914. The first trip was to the Standing Rock reser-
vation in North Dakota, the purpose of which was to revise certain
portions of the manuscript on Sioux music; this was accomplished
by reading the manuscript to several old men of the tribe. Additional
information was secured concerning the Hunka ceremony and the
Spirit-keeping ceremony, as well as on other subjects which had
been studied on previous visits to the reservation. Songs were also
recorded to complete certain series in the material in preparation
for publication.

The second trip was to the Uinta and Ouray reservation in north-
eastern Utah. The Indians on this reservation are the northern
Ute who formerly lived in northern Colorado and are best known by
their comparatively recent expedition into South Dakota, whence
they were brought back by United States troops. The nucleus
of that expedition was the White River band of Ute, and one of
their leaders was Red Cap, chief of the White River band, whose

6

82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

photograph is shown in figure 78. As the location for her work
Miss Densmore selected Whiterocks, a point 15 miles beyond the
agency and 80 miles from the nearest railroad. Whiterocks is the

Fic. 78.—Portrait of Red Cap, chief of the White River band of
Ute. Photograph by Miss Densmore.

point nearest the camps of the White River Ute, who were the prin-
cipal subject of investigation.

The difficulty of the work had not been overestimated. The
Indians were more conservative than any before encountered. Never
having seen a cylinder phonograph, a belief gained some credence

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 83

that whoever sang into the instrument would shortly die, hence
considerable open opposition developed. Fortunately, this was over-
come by the exercise of patience and diplomacy.

B

Fic. 79.—Sub-chief of the White River
band of Ute, commonly known as “ Little
Jim.” Photograph by Miss Densmore.

Fic. 80.—Typical summer abode of the Ute on the Uinta and Ouray reserva-
tion. Photograph by Miss Densmore.

After this adjustment of relations with the Ute the work pro-
gressed with less difficulty. More than 80 songs were recorded,
including songs of the Sun Dance, Bear Dance, and other native
dances, as well as very old war songs, and songs used in the treat-

84. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

ment of the sick. There were also recorded several folk-stories
given by a very aged woman in the manner of a chant. The songs
are very diversified and show the people to be unusually musical.
Among the Chippewa and the Sioux there were old men who said
that when they were young the medicine-men received songs in
dreams, but among the Ute this is a custom of the present time.
Many “dream songs’’ were recorded, among them a set of six
songs by a young man who said they “ were taught him by a little
green man who lived in a little stone house far up the mountain.”
Much interesting information was received concerning this mythical
“ oreen man.”

The industries of these people also received consideration, and a
collection of specimens representative of these industries was pur-
chased. Among these was a bowl-shaped basket, which in old times
was placed over an excavation in the ground, the singers sitting
around it and accompanying their songs by the rasping together of
two sticks, the longer of which was notched. This notched stick
rested upon the inverted basket and the shorter was rubbed across it.
This music is used only in the Bear Dance, which appears to be
peculiar to these people and is still held every spring. A Sun Dance
was performed last June in direct violation of orders from the
Government. The Sun Dance ground was visited. Neither the
Bear Dance nor the Sun Dance was held during Miss Densmore’s
visit, but she attended a Turkey Dance, which is the mid-summer
dance of the tribe and is held about once a month.

In connection with the industries of the Ute Miss Densmore
secured a fire-making apparatus in which a blunt stick and sharp
sand were used, instead of the usual pointed stick. The “hearth”
was similar to that in use among many tribes, except that it contained
a little reservoir for the sand and a “ spillway ” through which the
sand, heated by the friction of the rotated stick, could run down upon
the fragments of bark to be ignited. A unique specimen of woven
work was made for Miss Densmore, consisting of a net for fish or
rabbits, formed of the outer bark of reeds, a very delicate tissue
which required skilful manipulation to make it into a substantial net.

Many visits were made to the camps, figure 80 showing a typical
summer abode of these Indians. Their winter homes are log huts
with earth floors. At some distance from Whiterocks is the burying-
ground of the Ute. The burial places are marked by the bones of
horses slain at the death of their owners. An offering of corn had
been placed in one of the trees, and from another hung the head of a

\

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914 85

dog with the rope still around the neck. Tipi-poles, cooking
utensils, children’s toys, and clothing were among the articles placed
on the graves of their owners.

The work of last summer emphasizes the close connection between
the music of the Indians and the beliefs or ceremonies which
they hold most sacred, and in this lies one of the advantages
in the study of Indian music. If an Indian consents to sing a song
he appears willing to give information which might be difficult to
secure in any other manner. An instance of this is the narration of
personal dreams or visions, and the relation of ceremonial duties by
those who have held responsible positions in native ceremonies. The
collection of Indian songs for preservation and for analysis is impor-
tant, but the recording of these songs also opens the way for the
securing of interesting and valuable descriptive material.

ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES AMONG THE KALAPUYA
INDIANS

Dr. Frachtenberg left Washington on July 6, 1914, going directly
to Oregon for the purpose of concluding his investigations of the
language, mythology, and culture of the Kalapuya Indians which
he had commenced during the previous fiscal year. After a short
trip to the Siletz and Grande Ronde agencies in northwestern
Oregon, made with the object in view of interviewing all available
informants, he proceeded to the United States Indian Training
School situated at Chemawa, where he was soon joined, first by Grace
Wheeler and, later on, by William Hartless. These two Kalapuya
Indians were his chief informants, and he worked with them during
the months of August, September, October, November, and part of
December. This work was brought to a conclusion by a stay at the
Grande Ronde agency that lasted from December 13 until December
20; this brief time was spent mainly in collecting material for a
comparative study of the Kalapuya dialects. A planned trip to the
Yakima reservation for the purpose of interviewing the sole survivor
of the Atfalati tribe had to be abandoned, owing chiefly to the lack
of funds.

Dr. Frachtenberg’s field work proved highly successful. He
obtained 30 myths, tales, historical narratives, and ethnographic
descriptions, told in the various Kalapuya dialects, an unusually large
amount of grammatical notes, sufficient material for a linguistic map
of the several Kalapuya dialects, and some data on Kalapuya
ethnology.

86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

A glance at this material reveals some very interesting facts. The
Kalapuya Indians in former days were the most powerful and
numerous family inhabiting the present State of Oregon. They
claimed possession of the whole fertile valley of the Willamette
River, which extends from the Coast Range on the west to the
Cascade Mountains on the east. Their settlements reached as far
north as Portland and as far south as the middle course of the
Umpqua River. This territory comprises an area of approximately

Fic. 81.—Charles Bradford and wife, Smith River (Athapascan) Indians.
Courtesy of Dr. Max F. Clausius, Siletz, Oregon.

12,000 square miles; and its topographic nature, its rich fauna and
flora, its streams that abound in all kinds of fish, justify the assump-
tion that it sustained a large number of inhabitants. These Indians
were brought into the Grande Ronde agency in 1857, at the close
of the Rogue River war. Unfortunately tribal wars and epidemics
of smallpox and tuberculosis have decimated the several Kalapuya
tribes to such an extent that Dr. Frachtenberg found a mere handful
of these natives, and the time is not far off when the Kalapuya
Indians, like so many other tribes of the Northwest, will have become
an extinct group.

NO. 6

SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, IQI4

Fic. 82.—Ed Bensell and wife, Makwana-lunne (Athapascan)
Indians, dressed for a “ Feather Dance.”

88

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Fic. 83.—Jennie Rooney, an aged Tula-lunne (Athapascan)
woman, ready to participate in the “ Feather Dance.”

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 8&9

The Kalapuya family embraces a number of tribes, the most
important of which are given here as follows: (1) Atfalati, living
formerly on the banks of the Tualatin River; (2) Yamhill, claiming
as their possessions the banks of the river bearing their name; (3)
Lakmayuk, who derived their name from the River Luckiamute ;
(4) Marys River (Calapooia Proper), whose settlements were
situated along the banks of the Calapooia and Marys rivers; (5)
Yonkalla, the most southerly Kalapuya tribe; (6) Ahantsayuk, also
called Pudding River Indians; and (7) Santiam, who formerly
lived on the banks of the Santiam River.

These several tribes spoke varieties of the Kalapuya language that
show remarkable lexicographic diversity. Morphological differentia-
tion exists also, but it is chiefly of a phonetic nature. All differences
between the various Kalapuya dialects seem to have been caused by
a geographic distribution, resulting in three subdivisions, within
which idiomatic differentiation is very slight. Thus, the Yamhill and
Atfalati dialects form one subdivision ; Ahantsayuk, Santiam, Marys
River, and Lakmayuk form the second, while Yonkalla belongs to a
group of its own.

The Kalapuya language, while showing great phonetic variations
(such as the occurrence of a labial spirant f and the presence of the
trilled 7), is structurally closely related to the languages of the
neighboring tribes, such as the Coos, Siuslaw, Yakonan, Salish, and
Athapascan. It belongs to the same type; that is to say, similar
psychologic concepts are expressed by means of identical grammatical
processes. The language belongs to the suffxing type. Its mythol-
ogy differs in no way from the mythologies of the other tribes of
western Oregon, being characterized by the absence of a distinct
creation myth and by the preponderance of animal tales belonging
chiefly to the Coyote cycle. An interesting phase of Kalapuya
mythology is the presence of elements of European folk-lore, espe-
cially the absorption of French fairy tales that deal with the exploits
of the orphan Petit Jean. This feature will be made the subject of
a separate paper, which will probably appear in the near future.

The Jong and continued contact of the Kalapuya Indians with
white settlers has resulted in a complete breaking down of their
native culture and mode of living. Consequently, the ethnological
data that could be obtained by Dr. Frachtenberg were very meager
and, in most cases, were given as information obtained through
hearsay.

go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

INVESTIGATIONS AMONG THE STOCKBRIDGE, BROTHERTON,
AND FOX INDIANS

Early in July Dr. Michelson left for the United States Indian
School at Carlisle to arrange for future translations of his Fox
texts by Horace Poweshiek, as well as to obtain some linguistic notes
on Sauk and Fox. He then proceeded to Wisconsin to investigate
the Stockbridge Indians. His headquarters were at Keshena. About

Fic. 84.—Fox sacred pack.

a dozen persons were found who could give isolated words in the
Stockbridge (Mahican) language, but only one person who could
dictate connected texts. About a half dozen of such texts were
obtained with difficulty. Knowledge of the language was too far
gone to permit unraveling its details, but nevertheless sufficient mate-
rial was obtained to show conclusively that Stockbridge belongs
closely to Natick and Pequot-Mohegan, which are closer to each other
than either is to Stockbridge. Stockbridge likewise shows certain
affinities with Delaware-Munsee. If more material can be obtained
on a future visit, a brief memoir on this language may be expected.

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I9Q14 gi

Fic. 85.—Fox sacred pack.

:

i.
E
F

Fic. 86.—Contents of Fox sacred pack.

Q2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL.. 65

Some incidental notes on Menominee linguistics and ethnology were
obtained.

Among the Stockbridge, near Lake Winnebago, only one person
was found who could give even isolated Stockbridge words, and
no one who could dictate texts.

Fic. 87.—Contents of Fox sacred pack.

There are probably no absolutely pure-blood Stockbridge Indians
living, though perhaps 50 are nearly so; the remainder show various
degrees of mixture with white and negro blood, and some with both ;
however, in all cases the Indian characteristics predominate.

Dr. Michelson next proceeded to investigate the so-called Brother-
ton Indians near Lake Winnebago. Unfortunately not a single

No. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, 1914 93

person had knowledge of anything Indian except the tribal history.
Here again no full-bloods could be found; practically all showed a
large infusion of white blood.

Fic. 88.—Alfred Kiyama, full-blood Fox Indian, age 45. Tama, lowa.

He next went to continue his work among the Foxes of Iowa.
Here particular attention was paid to ritualistic origins; likewise
some translations of myths and tales were obtained. Some informa-
tion was also procured concerning the ancient Midewiwin cere-
monies. This information, however, must be checked by the Sauk

Q4. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

of Kansas and Oklahoma, as these ceremonies are now extinct among
the Foxes proper.

The accompanying photographs are those of a Fox sacred bundle,
with its contents, which is now in Berlin, and of a Fox Indian.

STUDIES OF SOLAR RADIATION

Mount Wilson work.—The Astrophysical Observatory continued
its observations on Mt. Wilson, Cal., for the purpose of measuring
the intensity of the sun’s radiation, as it is at the surface of the earth,

cs ooremeac e nme 1

Fic. 89.—Balloon Pyrheliometer.

and the losses which it sustains in passing through the atmosphere,
so as to permit the determination of the mean intensity outside the
atmosphere, which is called the solar constant of radiation. As
shown in former years, solar radiation is really not strictly constant,
but is variable. The observations were made at Mt. Wilson on
every favorable day throughout the period of the stay of the expedi-
tion, from May until November, in order to study the progress of
this variability of the sun.

In connection with this work, the observatory was equipped with
a tower telescope of 75 feet focus in the autumn of the year 1913.
This instrument has been employed for the study of the distribution
of light over the image of the sun, and the results indicate that this

NO. 6 SMITHSONIAN EXPLORATIONS, I914 95

distribution is variable from day to day. This variability appears
to be closely correlated with the variation of the total radiation of
the sun revealed by the solar constant investigations. It is confi-
dently hoped that further study of these two interesting phenomena
will throw light on the nature of the sun’s radiating envelope.

Sounding balloon work at Omaha.—In order to more thoroughly
confirm our determinations of the solar constant of radiation,
measurements were undertaken in connection with the U. S. Weather
Bureau at Omaha. Sounding balloons were sent up early in July,
1914, equipped with recording pyrheliometers (fig. 89). The work
was in the charge of Mr. L. B. Aldrich, on the part of the Smith-
sonian Institution, and of Dr. William R. Blair, on the part of the
Weather Bureau. Three instruments were sent up and all were
recovered. One of these was sent by night as a check on the accu-
racy of the work, and the other two by day, with the hope of
measuring the intensity of the sun’s radiation at enormous altitudes.
The pyrheliometer was suspended by means of wire 22 meters below
three balloons each 1.25 meters in diameter, weighing with the
apparatus about 23 pounds. An altitude of 15 miles was reached
on July 11 when, as expected, two of the balloons burst by expan-
sion and the third balloon brought the pyrheliometer down in safety
near Carson, Iowa.

One of the instruments made a very fine record of solar radiation
and fortunately was recovered entirely uninjured, and it has been
repeatedly tested and standardized at Washington. The tests are
not yet completely finished, but they indicate that three excellent
determinations of the solar radiation were made at heights so great
that the pressure of the air was extremely small, certainly much
less than one-twentieth of that which prevails at sea-level. The
results, when reduced to mean solar distance and corrected for all
known sources of error, come between 1.8 and 1.9 calories per sq. cm.
per minute, with a probable error of about 3 per cent. This result
is in close accord with the values of the solar constant of radiation
secured by spectrobolometric measurements in former years on Mt.
Wilson, Mt. Whitney, Bassour, Algeria, and at Washington.

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 7

TWO NEW SEDGES FROM THE SOUTH-
WESTERN UNITED STATES

BY
KENNETH K. MACKENZIE

(PuBLICATION 2364)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIL 9, 1915

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.

The Lord Galtimore Press

~

TWO NEW SEDGES FROM THE SOUTHWESTERN
UNITED STATES

By KENNETH K. MACKENZIE

In going over the collections of the Agricultural College of New
Mexico, two species of Carex, which are apparently undescribed,
have been noted. At the request of Mr. Paul C. Standley, who
* wishes to use the names in the Flora of New Mexico, soon to be
published, descriptions are given herewith.

CAREX WOOTONI Mackenzie, sp. nov.

Clumps medium-sized, without long running rootstocks, the culms
3-6 dm. high, usually exceeding the leaves, slightly roughened on
the angles above, phyllopodic; leaves with well developed blades,
3-8 to a culm, on the lower third, the sheaths overlapping, white-
hyaline opposite the blades, the blades flat, 1.5-3.5 mm. wide, 1-2 dm.
long, roughened toward the apex; blades of sterile culm leaves
longer and more attenuate; inflorescence consisting of 3-8 spikes
aggregated into a head 1.5-4 cm. long and 1-2 cm. wide, the spikes .
ovoid-oblong, 8-16 mm. long, 6-8 mm. wide, containing a few incon-
spicuous staminate flowers at base and numerous appressed-ascend-
ing perigynia above; lowest bract 3 cm. long or less, 2-4 mm. wide at
base, usually long-cuspidate, with hyaline margins at base and often
brownish tinged; upper bracts much shorter or wanting; scales
ovate, brownish, with green midrib and hyaline margins, usually
acute but varying from short-cuspidate to acutish, narrower and
noticeably shorter than the mature perigynia; perigynia lanceolate
or narrowly ovate-lanceolate, 7 mm. long, 2.5-3 mm. wide, narrowly
winged to the base, the margins often incurved, nerveless or nearly
so on both faces, noticeably dilated by the thick achene, round-
tapering at base, tapering at apex into the serrulate, shallowly bi-
dentulate beak, this about one-fourth the length of the whole peri-
gynium and winged to near the tip; achenes lenticular, with oblong
faces, 2.5 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, rounded to a nearly sessile base,
rounded at apex, tipped by the straight style; stigmas two.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No, 7

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

This plant of the mountains of New Mexico and Arizona has
heretofore been referred to the northern Carex petasata Dewey
(Carex Liddonu Boott). In the size and shape of its perigynia the
resemblance is very strong, but that species has perigynia strongly
and finely nerved on both faces, and in addition its scales are equal
in length to the perigynia, while in the species here proposed the
perigynia are nerveless or nearly so and the scales are noticeably
shorter than the perigynia. The long narrow perigynia with margins
serrulate to the tip serve to distinguish it from Carex festiva and
its allied species.

Specimens examined—New Mexico: San Francisco Mountains,
Wooton, July 15, 1892 (type, in herb. New Mexico Agricultural
College) ; Winter Folly, Sacramento Mountains, Otero County,
Wooton, August 13, 1899; North Eagle Creek, White Mountains,
Lincoln County, Turner 204, September 14, 1899. ARIZONA:
Southern slope of San Francisco Mountains, Cannon and Lloyd,
August, 1904.

CAREX RUSBYI Mackenzie, sp. nov.

Culms strictly erect, densely cespitose, 2.5-3.5 dm. high, much
exceeding the leaves, roughened on the angles above, brown and
slightly fibrillose at the base; leaves with well developed blades,
usually three or four to a culm, clustered near the base, the blades
erect-ascending, flat, with somewhat revolute margins, 1I.5-3 mm.
wide, 1-2 dm. long, roughened on margins, the sheaths tight, not
readily breaking, not septate-nodulose, the opaque part neither trans-
versely rugulose nor red-dotted; spikes about five, all aggregated
into a rather stiff head, this 1.5-2.5 cm. long and about 7.5 mm. wide,
the upper spikes scarcely distinguishable, the lower readily dis-
tinguishable but little separated, each spike bearing the rather incon-
spicuous staminate flowers above and the one to five ascending
perigynia below; bracts (except lowest) inconspicuous and resem-
bling the scales, the lowest bract exceeding its spike, 1 cm. long,
enlarged at base and terminating in a long cusp; scales ovate, white-_
hyaline, with green midrib, faintly tinged with reddish brown,
acuminate or cuspidate, about the width of and rather shorter than
the perigynia, these not completely concealed; perigynia narrowly
ovate, strongly plano-convex, with slightly raised borders, somewhat
spongy at base, nerveless or nearly so, 4 mm. long, about 1.75 mm.
wide, tapering to the substipitate base, tapering to the minutely
serrulate or nearly smooth beak, this about one-third the length of

NO. 7 TWO NEW. SEDGES—MACKENZIE 3

the body, minutely hyaline-tipped, obliquely cut or in age very
shallowly bidentate; achenes lenticular, with short oblong face,
2.75 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide; style slender, straight, not enlarged
at base; stigmas two.

Among the specimens cited by me in describing Carex neomexi-
cana’ are two specimens collected in Arizona by Dr. H. H. Rusby.
Further study of these specimens has convinced me that while they
have a strong resemblance to that species they represent an entirely
distinct plant. In Carex neomexicana the perigynium beak is deeply
bidentate and strongly serrulate, and the rootstock is short-creeping.
In Dr. Rusby’s specimens the perigynium beak is obliquely cut, or in
age very shallowly bidentate, and minutely serrulate or nearly
smooth on the margins, while the culms are densely cespitose. The
northern species described by me as Carex brevisquama’ is closely
related but is distinguished by its smaller perigynia, less cespitose
culms, and more strongly reddish brown tinged scales.

In addition to Dr. Rusby’s specimens collected in 1883 in Yavapai
County, Arizona, nos. 859 (type, herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.) and 855,
Mr. E. O. Wooton has collected the same species at Van Patten’s
Camp, in the Organ Mountains, Dona Ana County, New Mexico

(May 14, 1899).

* Bull. Torrey Club 34: 154. 1907.

* An earlier name for this northern plant is Carex vallicola Dewey. The
type, which I have seen recently, is a young plant with little developed per-
igynia. In mature plants the bracts and scales are much less prominent than
they appear in the type.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 8

REPORT UPON A COLLECTION OF FERNS
FROM WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA

BY
WILLIAM R. MAXON

ae sone IF
vt TIC ry
INGTO a

(PuBLicaTion 2366)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MAY 3, 1915

>

-

— The Lord Baltimore Press —
BALTIMORE, MD., U.S.A.

REEORD UPON TA COLEECTION OF FERNS PROM
WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA

By WILLIAM R. MAXON

The specimens of ferns and fern allies discussed in the following
pages are part of an interesting collection made in Peru, Bolivia,
-and Chile in the latter half of 1914 by Dr. and Mrs. J. N. Rose.
They were gathered incidentally during the progress of a field inves-
tigation of the cactus flora of western South America by Doctor
Rose, as Research Associate in Botany, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, under the joint auspices of the Carnegie Institution
and the New York Botanical Garden, this exploration being part of
a larger project looking to the preparation of a monograph of the
Cactaceae by Doctor Rose and Dr. N. L. Britton. It being impracti-
cable to make large general collections, attention was given to a few
groups, other than the Cactaceae, such as the ferns, grasses, aud
certain genera of Compositae. Of the ferns and fern allies, 25
species were collected, five of which are apparently new. These are
described herein, together with a Peruvian species of Notholaena
first gathered by the Wilkes Expedition and never properly distin-
guished under a valid name. The rather high proportion of new
species is suggestive of the great amount of botanical. exploration
yet to be done in these interesting regions.

A duplicate set of the ferns, as well as of other herbarium material
of this collection, is deposited in the herbarium of the New York
Botanical Garden. The numbers are in continuation of Doctor
Rose’s earlier series, given mainly to Mexican plants.

POL YP ODIACE AE

CAMPYLONEURUM AUGUSTIFOLIUM (Swartz) Fée
Peru: Cuzco, alt. 3,300 meters (19062). Vicinity of Oroya, alt.
3,700 meters (18691).
POLYPODIUM MOLLENDENSE Maxon, sp. nov.

Rhizome creeping, curved of subintricate, 2 to 3 cm. long, 2 mm.
in diameter, coarsely radicose, densely paleaceous, the scales widely
imbricate, appressed, 2.5 to 3.5 mm. long, very narrowly attenuate-

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 8

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

acuminate from a deltoid-ovate rounded base (here 0.7 to 1.1 mm.
broad), light brown in mass, definitely but not sharply bicolorous,
the darker median area composed of short to elongate, distinctly
luminate cells with reddish brown sclerotic partition walls; marginal -
zone composed oi mostly transverse, thin-walled, whitish cells in 2
to 4 rows, the outermost ones disposed as a deeply and irregularly
denticulate margin, the teeth cleft. Fronds several, approximate,
4 to 8 cm. long; stipe 1.5 to 3 cm. long, light brownish, narrowly
marginate along the ventral face; lamina deltoid-oblong, long-
acuminate, 2.5 to 5.5 cm. long, I to 2.5.cm. broad, obliquely pinnatifid
to within 1.5 mm. of the rachis, the rachis evident beneath, dark
brown; segments 5 to 9 pairs, oblong to linear-oblong, dilatate,
unequal, the upper ones gradually shorter, finally evident as short
oblique lobes merging into the narrowly elongate apex; iargitis
subentire to lightly crenate; midveins concealed; veins 4 to 6
pairs in the larger segments, wide-spreading, mostly once forked
half way to the margin, the sori terminal upon the first branch, the
other branch ending in a minute depressed hydathode near the mar-
gin; lower surface sparsely paleaceous, the scales resembling those
of the rhizome in general structure, but much shorter (0.3 to 0.5 mm.
long) and commonly elongate-deltoid, the dark cells with larger
lumina, the margins more deeply lacerate-denticulate; sori 3 to
6 pairs, medial, not concealed by scales; sporangia glabrous, the
annulus 14-celled; spores diplanate, pale, granulose. Leaf tissue
elastico-coriaceous, the segments tortuous or irregularly involute
in drying, or the whole lamina reversely circinnate.

- Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 700538, collected in low
hills back from the coast near Mollendo, Peru, August 5, 1901, by
R. S. Williams (no. 2978). Collected also at the same locality,
August 25-26, 1914, by Dr. and Mrs. J. N. Rose (no. 18989).

Related closely to P. pycnocarpum and several allied South Ameri-
can species variously confused under this name. These are treated
at length in a paper soon to be published in the Contributions from
the U. S. National Herbarium.

POLYPODIUM PYCNOCARPUM C. Chr.
PERu: Near Oroya, alt. 3,700 meters (19467).

ADIANTUM EXCISUM Kunze
CHILE: Vicinity of Choapa, alt. 235 meters (19511).

NO. t FERNS FROM SOUTH AMERICA—MAXON 3

ADIANTUM GLANDULIFERUM Link

CuiLE: Near Valparaiso, near sea-level (19125). Vicinity of
Choapa, alt. 235 meters (19220). Between La Ligua and Los
Molles, Province of Aconcagua, alt. about 100 meters (19394).

ADIANTUM ORBIGNYANUM Mett.
Peru: Vicinity of Oroya, alt. 3,700 meters (18700).

ADIANTUM SCABRUM Kaulf.

CHILE: Vicinity of Choapa, alt. 235 meters (19512).

CHEILANTHES ORNATISSIMA Maxon, sp. nov.

Rhizome multicipital or usually single, erect, woody, bulbiform,
I to 1.5 cm. high, I to 2 cm. in diameter, densely paleaceous, the
scales erect, very closely tufted, fulvous to castaneous, 5 to 10 mm.
long, mostly less than 0.3 mm. broad at the base, nearly capillary (the
cells long and extremely narrow, attenuate, the walls nearly hyaline),
slightly tortuous, with a few distant, minute, mainly antrorse teeth.
Fronds numerous, cespitose, erect or ascending, mostly arcuate, 8 to
16 cm. long, very densely paleaceous; stipes 1 to 4 cm. long, 1.3 to
1.8 mm. in diameter, brown and sublustrous beneath a dense persist-
ent covering of imbricate scales similar to those of the under side of
the lamina; lamina linear to oblong-lanceolate, 6 to 14 cm. long,
1.5 to6 cm. broad, exactly tripinnate, long-acuminate ; pinnz 15 to 20
pairs, mostly imbricate, the larger ones 3 to 4 cm. long, 7 to 12 mm.
broad, oblong to linear-oblong from a slightly broader base, obtuse
or acutish, sessile, spreading or upwardly falcate, the lower sur-
face wholly obscured by a dense covering of very large, widely
imbricate, brownish-centered scales, the broad, diaphanous, whitish
borders irregularly denticulate-ciliate to copiously lacerate-filamen-
tose, the tangled capillary divisions recurved, mostly extending
between the segments to the upper surface of the lamina and nearly
covering it; pinnules 6 to 9 pairs in the larger pinne, approximate,
broadly oblong, pinnate, the 2 or 3 pairs of segments distant, minute,
sub-globose, crenately lobed, conspicuously revolute, the minute few-
sporangiate sori borne on the back of the lobes at the wholly
unchanged margin; sporangia glabrous; spores triplanate, closely
tuberculate.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 515998, collected in
the high mountains back of Lima, Peru, March, 1892, by William E.

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Safford (no. 996). Besides additional material of the type collection
there are at hand two further collections: (1) a small but complete
specimen: of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, hitherto unnamed
and not mentioned by Brackenridge, labelled merely “ Peru,” and
(2) excellent small specimens collected near Oroya, Peru, altitude
3,700 meters, July 14, 1914, by Dr. and Mrs. J. N. Rose (no. 18707).
All of these specimens are clearly of one species, despite the extremes
of size.

Cheilanthes ornatissima is without much doubt the species illus-
trated by Hooker* as “ Cheilanthes scariosa Presl,’ and probably
represents the species passing under this name in herbaria. It is
not, however, the Peruvian plant which Presl had in hand in describ-.
ing his Cheilanthes scariosa, which appears to be a form of C.
myriophylla. Presl cites as a synonym Acrostichum scariosum
Swartz, 1806, founded on a Mexican plant first described as Acros-
tichum lanuginosum Willd., 1802 (not A. lanuginosum Desf., 1800) ;
but this again is different, being reckoned a Notholaena by Christen-
sen under the name N. scariosa (Swartz) Baker. Obviously, then,
since the name Cheilanthes scariosa Presl was not originally proposed
for a supposed new-.species, but was intended as a transfer of the
older name Acrostichum scariosum Swartz, it is inadmissible to use
it for a second species, as has been done by Christensen. But leaving
out of consideration the matter of nomenclature, it will be seen from _
a careful reading of Presl’s description that Hooker’s plant is very
different from Presl’s. The former is almost certainly that here
described as C. ornatissima; the latter is, in all probability, C. myrio-
phylla Desv.

Cheilanthes ornatissima is the most densely and copiously palea-
ceous species of Cheilanthes known to the writer, the scales of the
under side of the lamina being not only very large but widely over-
lapping and extending beyond the edges of the segments to form a
thick, solid, unbroken protective covering, entirely concealing the
segments. The cellular structure of the scales is very minute; the
surfaces are finely lineolate, the cells being very narrow and greatly
elongate, pointed, and with thin, almost colorless partition walls.
This is in marked contrast to C. Jncarum, described hereafter.

The upper surface of the lamina of C. ornatissima bears a lax but
close covering of long, coarse, silky, white “ wool,’ which upon
careful dissection is found to proceed from the under side of the

“Sp. bily2 pl, 704.7.

No. 8 FERNS FROM SOUTH AMERICA—-MAXON 5

lamina and to consist of the copiously filamentose extremities of the
widely imbricate scales just described. Aside from this derived
covering the upper surface of the segments is glabrous, no scales or
hairs whatever arising from it.

CHEILANTHES INCARUM Maxon, sp. nov.

Rhizome decumbent, woody, about 2 cm. in diameter each way,
very coarsely radicose beneath, densely paleaceous above, the scales
flaccid but erect and closely tufted, light castaneous, 10 to 15 mm.
long, 0.25 to 0.35 mm. broad, linear-ligulate, long-attenuate (the
cells linear to narrowly oblong, indistinct, acutish or mostly obtuse),
sharply flexuous toward the apex, here provided with numerous
large, curved, elongate, mainly retrorse teeth, similar but smaller
teeth borne upon the margins sparingly throughout. Fronds numer-
ous, cespitose, erect, arcuate, 12 to 18 cm. long, densely paleaceous
beneath ; stipes 4 to 6 cm. long, I to 1.3 mm. in diameter, dull reddish
brown beneath a persistent paleaceous covering like that of the
lamina beneath ; lamina narrowly lanceolate-elliptic, 9 to 12 cm. long,
1.8 to 2.8 cm. broad, attenuate at the apex, slightly narrowed at the
base, bipinnate ; pinnz 13 to 18 pairs, sessile, the lowermost 2 or 3
pairs distant, the others adjacent but scarcely imbricate, the larger
ones I to 1.6 cm. long, 5 to 7 mm. broad, elongate-deltoid, inequi-
lateral, obtuse or acutish, broadly ascending, strongly involute, the
lower surface wholly obscured by a dense covering of large, broadly
imbricate, whitish or yellowish brown, nearly concolorous, deltoid-
ovate, denticulate-ciliate scales, the acuminate tips of many of these
recurved upon the upper side of the otherwise glabrous pinne;
pinnules of the larger pinne 4 or 5 pairs, spreading, the larger ones
pinnately divided with 1 or 2 pairs of sessile or semiadnate, roundish
segments, the others crenately lobed, or the apical ones simple;
segments not lobed, slightly revolute, the few-sporangiate sori termi-
nal upon the veins at the slightly modified margin; sporangia
glabrous; spores triplanate, closely tuberculate.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 761644, collected near
Cuzco, Peru, altitude 3,300 meters, September 1, 1914, by Dr. and
Mrs. J. N. Rose (no. 19061).

Related to C. ornatissima, from which it differs in its less dissected
lamina, more distant pinne, and less widely revolute segments, and in
the character of its paleaceous covering. The scales of the under
surface are deeply denticulate-ciliate but not at all filamentose, the
upper side of the lamina being only partially covered by the slender

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

recurved apices of the dorsal scales and lacking altogether the fine
silky white covering described as characteristic of C. ornatissima.
Their structure is equally distinctive, the cells being mostly large,
widely pentagonal or hexagonal, with yellowish sclerotic partition
walls and large lumina, contrasting in a very pronounced way with
the finely lineolate scales of C. ornatissima. The rhizome scales are
very different also, as may be noted from the description, the divari-
cate-flexuose tips and strongly toothed margins of C. Incarum being
characteristic.

CHEILANTHES MYRIOPHYLLA Desv.
Peru: Matucana, alt. 2,375 meters (19465).

CHEILANTHES PRUINATA Kaulf.

Peru: Juliaca, alt. 3,800 meters (19094).

NOTHOLAENA NIVEA (Poir.) Desv.

PERU: Vicinity of Oroya, alt. 3,700 meters (18701). Cuzco, alt.

3,300 meters (19063).
BoriviA: Vicinity of La Paz, alt. 3,600 meters (18917). Vicinity
of Oruro, alt. 3,700 meters (18935).

NOTHOLAENA TENERA Gill.

Peru: Near Cuzco, alt. 3,300 meters (19471).

NOTHOLAENA HYPOLEUCA Kunze

CuiLte: Near Valparaiso, at sea-level (19124). Vicinity of
Choapa, alt. 235 meters (19457). Vicinity of Illapel, alt. 315 meters

(19459).

NOTHOLAENA MOLLIS Kunze, Linnaea 9: 54. 1834.

CHILE: Cerro Grande, vicinity of La Serena, alt. 400 meters
(19301). Vicinity of Illapel, alt. 315 meters (19245). Iquique,
alt. 400 meters (19451).

It seems desirable to call attention again at this place to the fact,
already indicated by Mettenius, that Notholaena doradilla Colla, as
originally described and figured, is identical with N. mollis Kunze,

* Abh. Senckenb. Ges. Frankfurt 3: 74. 1859.
*Mem. Acad. Torino 39: 46. pl. 73. 1836.

No. 8 FERNS FROM SOUTH AMERICA—MAXON 7

published two years earlier. Even a cursory examination of Colla’s
illustration should be sufficient to make clear their identity. Baker,’
however, wrongly associated the species name of Colla with a vastly
different plant from Peru, collected by the Wilkes Expedition,
which departs not only in gross structural characters but very con-
spicuously in its large, widely imbricate, denticulate-ciliate scales of
the under surface, true NV. doradilla being densely tomentose beneath
with closely mingled stellate hairs. The Peruvian plant, having
never been taken up under a valid name, is here described as
Notholaena Brackenridgei, a name given by Baker but published only
as a synonym, apparently. It seems to be a rare species and, so far
as the writer is aware, has been recollected only by Mr. W. E. Safford.
Further particulars are given after the following description:

NOTHOLAENA BRACKENRIDGEI Baker, sp. nov.

“ Notholaena doradilla” Baker in Hook. & Baker, Syn. Fil. 371. 1868, not
Colla, 1836.
Notholaena Brackenridgei Baker, loc. cit., as synoynm.

Plants relatively large and coarse for the genus, erect, 18 to 30 cm.
high. Rhizome ligneous, erect, 5 cm. high, 2 to 3 cm. thick, densely
paleaceous at the summit, the scales closely impacted in an erect tuft,
Hlaccid, linear-ligulate, 5 to 9g mm. long, 0.16 to 0.26 mm. broad at the
base, sharply sinuate-flexuous in the apical half, yellowish brown,
concolorous, finely lineolate (the cells very narrow, greatly elongate),
distantly denticulate toward the apex. Fronds numerous, fascicu-
jate in a peripheral crown, 15 to 28 cm. long, stiffly erect, mostly
long-stipitate ; stipes stout, 6 to 12 cm. long, I to 1.7 mm. in diameter,
light brown, sublustrous, deciduously paleaceous; lamina narrowly
oblong-lanceolate, 12 to 17 cm. long, 2.5 to 6 cm. broad, acuminate,
slightly narrowed at the base, bipinnate-pinnatifid, the rachis stout,

terete, similar to the stipe; larger pinnze about 10 pairs, ascending
- (45°), petiolate, plicate in drying, the basal pair distant, subopposite,
deltoid-ovate, about 3 cm. long, 2 cm. broad at the cordate base,
acutish; middle pinnz closer, larger, alternate, oblong-ovate, 2 to
4 cm. long, 1 to 2 cm. broad at the base, with 2 to 4 pairs of short-
petiolate pinnules below the pinnately parted, short-acuminate tip ;
pinnules deltoid, the larger ones 7 to 11 mm. long, deeply pinnatifid
or lobed, abruptly caudate, the lobes (2 or 3 pairs) spreading, oblong,
rounded-obtuse; lower surface of the pinnz densely paleaceous,
the scales large, widely imbricate, reddish brown in mass, deltoid-

* Syn. Fil. 371. 1868.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

oblong, long-acuminate, evenly denticulate-ciliate, nearly homoge-
neous in structure, the partition walls sclerotic, those of the smaller
(outer) cells paler, strongly sinuate, the cells irregular; upper
surface dull green, glabrescent, a few minute, lax, filiform scales
evident at first along the middle; sori polycarpous, marginal, seated
upon the slightly thickened ends of the oblique, once forked, pin-
nately arranged veins, adjacent, slightly protected by the narrowly
revolute margin, the extreme border undulate-repand, slightly
altered, delicately herbaceous, yellowish; sporangia confluent at
maturity, glabrous; spores triplanate, coarsely tuberculate.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 50959, collected at
Banos, in the Andes of Peru, by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition ;
listed by Brackenridge’ as Notholaena sinuata Kaulf. Agreeing
with the type specimen are plants collected in the high mountains
above Lima, Peru, March, 1892, by W. E. Safford (no. 999).
Although these, being larger and more complete, have afforded the
principal data for the above description, the Wilkes Expedition plant
of Brackenridge is for other reasons selected as the nomenclatorial
type.

Brackenridge’s identifications of the Wilkes Expedition ferns,
though made under great difficulty, were in the main correct. The
present instance is a marked exception, the plant bearing no close
resemblance or relationship whatever to N. sinuata (Swartz) Kaulf.
Baker,’ recognizing Brackenridge’s error, assigned to his plant the
new name Notholaena Brackenridgei, but apparently never published
a description, merely listing it as a synonym under Notholaena dora-
dilla Colla, a Chilean species with which presumably he considered
it identical. Notholaena doradilla is, however, as may be at once
noted from the illustration,’ exactly the plant described from Chile
by Kunze*as N. mollis. The Peruvian plant of Brackenridge never
having, been described under a valid name, the above description is
offered, with the assignment of Brackenridge’s specimen as the
actual type because of its historical association.

Notholaena Brackenridgei might with equal propriety be placed in
Cheilanthes, because of.its slightly thickened fertile vein-ends and
rudimentary indusia. It is one of a number of similarly intermediate
species and suggests the necessity of a modern revision of this
difficult and puzzling group.

*TIn Wilkes, U. S. Explor. Exped. 86: 19. 1854.

TLGIe, Gilte.

*Mem. Acad. Torino-39: 46. pl. 73. 1836.

4 Linnaea 9: 54. 1834; Farrnkr. 1: 115. pl. 53, f. 2. 1843.

No. 8 FERNS FROM SOUTH AMERICA—MAXON 9

NOTHOLAENA AREQUIPENSIS Maxon, sp. nov.

Plants small, 6 to 10 cm. high, erect, closely tufted. Rhizomes
erect or ascending, simple or branched, 1 to 2 cm. high, 1 cm. or less
in diameter, coarsely radicose beneath, paleaceous above, the scales
appressed, partly concealed by the persistent imbricate bases of old
stipes, yellowish brown to bright castaneous in mass, linear, 3 to 5
mm. long, 0.2 to 0.4 mm. broad at the base, long-attenuate (the cells
oblong to linear, thin-walled), distantly denticulate, the teeth minute,
low, acutish, slightly antrorse. Fronds numerous, 5 to 8 cm. long,
long-stipitate, slightly arcuate; stipes very slender, 2.5 to 5 cm. long,
0.3 to 0.5 mm. in diameter, subappressed-paleaceous, brownish
beneath; lamina deltoid-oblong, 2 to 4 cm. long, 1.3 to 2.5 cm.
broad, obtuse or acutish, bipinnate ; pinnz about 4 pairs, subopposite,
petiolate, the basal pair the largest, distant, rounded-deltoid, 10 to
16 mm. long, 7 to 10 mm. broad, with 2 or 3 pairs of segments below
the trilobate or tripartite obtuse apex, the basal segments sessile,
triangular, pinnately parted or lobed, the others simpler, subsessile ;
second pair of pinnz similar, slightly narrower; lower surface of
the lamina (including the slender rachis) densely paleaceous, the
scales large, widely imbricate, appressed, ovate-oblong, long-acumi-
nate, light reddish brown in their lower part (the cells large,
elongate-polygonal, with colored sclerotic partition walls), elsewhere
pale yellowish or whitish (the sclerotic partition walls lighter,
strongly sinuate), the margins deeply erose-denticulate; upper
surfaces very scantily covered with the recurved attenuate apices
of some of the dorsal scales, bearing also a few pale, lax, tortuous,
flattish, linear scales, these mostly deciduous; sori polycarpous,
exactly marginal, terminal upon the short branches of the alternate
once forked veins, approximate, subcontinuous at maturity, scarcely
at all concealed by the slightly revolute unaltered margin; sporangia
glabrous; spores triplanate, faintly tuberculate.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 761435, collected near
Tingo, vicinity of Arequipa, Peru, altitude about 2,300 meters,
August 5, 1914, by Dr. and Mrs. J. N. Rose (no. 18797).

This species, which is known to the writer also from specimens
collected at Arequipa, August 8, 1901, by R. S. Williams (no. 2638),
appears to be most nearly related to the plant passing as Notholaena
Scariosa. From this it differs very obviously, however, in its lesser
size, the greater delicacy of all its parts, its relatively broader, almost
deltoid lamina, and its absolutely unaltered margins, and in having
its upper surface only laxly and very sparingly paleaceous instead

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

of evenly covered with stiffish, persistent, piliform, spreading scales.
In general form it suggests somewhat a greatly reduced miniature
of the plant here described-as N. Brackenridgei, but it has no very
near alliance with that species, being widely different in minute
characters as well as in size and gross structure.

NEPHROLEPIS EXALTATA (Swartz) Schott

Peru: Cultivated at Miraflores; said to have come from eastern
Peru (18670).
One of the forms included in this species as currently understood.

PELLAEA TERNIFOLIA (Cav.) Link
Peru: Vicinity of Oroya, alt. 3,700 meters (18703).

TRISMERIA TRIFOLIATA (L.) Diels
Peru: Near Santa Clara, alt. 400 meters (18736).

ASPLENIUM FRAGILE Presl

Peru: Vicinity of Oroya, alt. 3,700 meters (18702).
Borivia: Vicinity of Comanche, alt. 3,800 meters (18878).

ASPLENIUM IMBRICATUM Hook. & Grev.
Peru: Vicinity of Oroya, alt. 3,700 meters (18706).

DRYOPTERIS ROSEI Maxon, sp. nov.

Rhizome erect or ascending,| ligneous, closely paleaceous at the
included apex, the scales large, flattish, yellowish brown, ovate or
deltoid-ovate, acuminate, entire, glabrous. Fronds ascending, few,
about 65 cm. long, narrow, arranged in a peripheral crown; stipes
about 10 cm. long, angulate in drying, dull olivaceous, minutely
puberulous with short, simple, mainly retrorse hairs; lamina linear-
oblanceolate, about 55 cm. long, ro to 12 cm. broad above the middle,
long-acuminate at the apex, very gradually long-attenuate in the
basal part, bipinnatifid, the pale brownish to olivaceous rachis slen-
der (1 to 2 mm. in diameter), minutely puberulous like the stipe;
pinnz about 35 pairs, subopposite, the lowermost 12 or 13 pairs
gradually shorter, the basal 3 or 4 pairs 2 to 3 cm. apart, vestigial,
t to 3 mm. long; larger pinnz (medial and supramedial) 1.5 to 2 cm.
apart, symmetrical, narrowly linear-oblong, 5 to 6 cm. long, 9 to 12
mm. broad, sessile, slightly falcate toward the acuminate apex,

No. 8 FERNS FROM SOUTH AMERICA—-MAXON II

pinnatifid to within 1.5 or 2 mm. of the costa, the costa
yellowish, elevated on both surfaces, suleate above; upper
leaf surface sparingly but persistently hispidulous throughout, the
hairs short, antrorse, whitish, extending to and along the margins;
lower leaf surface sparingly puberulous throughout, the hairs
whitish, unequal, mostly patent; segments about 15 pairs below the
serrate (finally subentire) apex, those of the lower two-thirds of the
pinna subequal, spreading, oblong, about 4 mm. broad at the base,
obtuse (more or less acutish in drying), slightly concave, the mar-
gine entire, revolute, ciliate; veins simple, 6 or 7 pairs, oblique at
an angle of less than 45°, extending to the margin, slightly elevated
on both surfaces, whitish; sori small, 3 to 7 pairs, medial in attach.
ment, appearing slightly nearer the margin than the midrib;
sporangia setose (sete 0.13 to 0.19 mm. long, hyaline, acicular), the
annulus 14-celled; spores diplanate, nearly smooth ; indusium small,
soon shrivelling, copiously whitish-ciliate. Leaf tissue firmly herba-
ceous, yellowish green beneath, not glandular.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 761336, collected in
the vicinity of Matucana, Peru, altitude 2,375 meters, July 9, 1914,
by Dr. and Mrs. J. N. Rose (no. 18667).

Dryopteris Rosei, which is known only from the type collection, is
a rember of the subgenus Lastrea as redefined by Christensen * and,
according to his treatment, need be contrasted only with the rare
D. leucothrix C. Chr.,’ of Bolivia, the type specimen of which for-
tunately is available for comparison. From this D. Rosei differs
very obviously in most characters, particularly in its shorter stipes,
its shorter and narrower lamina, its shorter and much broader pinnz
(these not narrowly linear), its closer and much larger segments
and more numerous veins, its shorter-ciliate indusia, its setose sporan-
gia, and in its less pronounced hairy covering, D. leucothrix being
densely pubescent beneath, the hairs longer and very numerous. The
sporangia of D. leucothrix are devoid of sete.

EQUISETACEAE
EQUISETUM BOGOTENSE H.B.K.

Peru: Vicinity of Matucana, alt. 2,375 meters (18646).
CHILE: Vicinity of La Serena (19285).

* Biologiske Arbejder, tilegnede Eug. Warming, pp. 73-85. IQIl.
*Dansk. Vid. Selsk. VII. Naturvid. Abh. 102: 53-282. 1913.
* Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 52: 377. 1909.

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

EQUISETUM PYRAMIDALE Goldm.
PERU: Vicinity of Lima, alt. 140 meters (18762).

SE EAGENTG UE Clue.
SELAGINELLA PERUVIANA (Milde) Hieron.

Peru: Vicinity of Matucana, alt. 2,375 meters (19466). Near
Oroya, alt. 3,700 meters (19468).
Botivia: Vicinity of La Paz, alt. 3,600 meters (18845).

=
gr
Ee

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 9

Hodgkins Fund

AREQUIPA PYRKHELIOMETRY

BY
Cc. G. ABBOT

(PuBLicaTIONn 2367)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1916

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fbi oat at

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Hodgkins Fund

PN OO MEANY J Vole Fits) © Vt Rey
By Cn GeeAh BO Tis

In 1910 the Committee on Solar Radiation of the International
Union for Cooperation in Solar Research recommended that regular
observations of the intensity of solar radiation should be under-
taken at additional stations in relatively cloudless regions far re-
moved from existing stations. Prof. E. C. Pickering thereupon
offered to undertake such observations at the Arequipa, Peru,
station of the Harvard College Observatory if suitable apparatus
should be furnished. In conversation between Messrs. Pickering
and Abbot it appeared inexpedient to undertake a complete spectro-
bolometric program for the determination of the solar constant of
radiation, but pyrheliometric observations were proposed whenever
weather should permit.

By authority of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, a
silver disk pyrheliometer was lent for the purpose. This unfortu-
nately was broken in transportation, and much time was lost owing
to the delays of communication, so that it was not until the summer
of 1912 that silver disk pyrheliometer S. I. 17 arrived at Arequipa.
This instrument also was damaged in transportation, by loss of
mercury from the cavity in the silver disk. But this defect was
skillfully repaired by Sefior J. E. Muniz.

It is probable that this alteration involved some slight change in
the constant of the instrument, but probably not more than 1 per
cent. Until we obtain further knowledge we may therefore retain
the value of the constant as stated in ‘“ Smithsonian Pyrheliometry
Revised,” namely, 0.3635.

Individual measurements were made at Arequipa in the manner
described in the publication just cited. The general plan of the
work, as proposed by Mr. Abbot, was to secure measurements of the ©
pyrheliometer and psychrometer at highest sun, and also at a solar
zenith distance of about 70°, corresponding to three times the path
in air which obtains at zenith sun. Some delay occurred in making
these requirements fully understood at Arequipa, and it is to be

Published by the Smithsonian Institution by request of Director E. C.
Pickering of the Harvard College Observatory.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 9.
I

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

regretted that it has not generally proved practicable in connection
with other duties for the observers to secure measurements with the
air mass as great as 3.

At Prof. Pickering’s desire the observations are reduced and
published by the Smithsonian Institution. They were made at
Arequipa mainly by Dr. Leon Campbell, and in part by H. Perrine.
Computations are mainly by L. B. Aldrich. The position of Are-
Quipa is; -Lone4? 467 11-73" Wey Wate 167 223287] (Se salieri
meters.

Nothing would be gained by making a series of pyrheliometer
measurements at a station no higher than Arequipa if such a series
did not throw light on the variability of the sun or on the varia-
bility of the transparency of the earth’s atmosphere. Two kinds of
solar variability are thought to exist. One is associated with that
general solar activity which is indicated by facule, sun spots, and
other visible solar features. This type of variability may be ex-
pected to march in rough correlation with the eleven year sun spot
cycle. Another type of solar variability appears to be of short
irregular intervals in its fluctuations, which are to be measured by
days or months rather than by years.

As for the variations of atmospheric transparency, we need not
consider those caused by ordinary cloudiness. Pyrheliometer meas-
urements are made only when the sky around the sun is cloudless.
Water vapor and dust are the two variable elements which princi-
pally affect the atmospheric transmission of solar radiation. Water
vapor is effective in two ways: it absorbs radiation of certain wave-
lengths, particularly in the infra-red spectrum; and it associates
itself with dust to produce haze which scatters the solar radiation
of all wave-lengths, thus increasing sky light at the expense of
direct sun light.

At so high a station as Arequipa, dust, except as associated with
water vapor to form haze, is generally not very effective to diminish
solar radiation. But after forest fires or great volcanic eruptions
it may be of very great influence.

The hindrance of solar rays by the atmosphere is of course de-
pendent on the length of path of the solar beam therein. For zenith
distances (Z) less than 70° the length of atmospheric path is closely
proportional to secant Z. Suppose one could observe the solar
radiation outside the atmosphere, and also at the earth’s surface at
zenith distances whose secants were I, 2, and 3. Let the four values
of the intensity of radiation be cy, ¢,, C2, C3, respectively. Let the

SL Ubi ee, be denoted by a,, a, a3, respectively. These

fractions

NO. 9 AREQUIPA PYRHELIOMETRY—ABBOT i)

values may be called the atmospheric transmission coefficients at
the given station for the first, second, and third air masses. As
shown by Forbes and many subsequent writers, a,<a,<a3, when,
as with the pyrheliometer, a complex beam including many wave-
lengths is observed.

Confining ourselves altogether in treating of atmospheric trans-
parency to the consideration of the quantity a, for the station Are-
quipa, as we shall do in this paper, we propose to investigate its
dependence on the amount of atmospheric humidity, and on the
season of the year. We hope that the observations may be continued
long enough to give good correlation factors in these respects, so
that in future years abnormal changes like those caused by volcanoes
will reveal-themselves, and their climatic influences may be studied.
Remarks on the influence of the dust from the Katmai eruption of
1912 will appear below.

A second object of the work is to connect by empirical formule
the values of intensity of solar radiation, atmospheric transmission,
and humidity as obseryed at Arequipa with the values of the solar
constant of radiation outside the atmosphere determined by the
spectro-bolometer at Mount Wilson. Thus it is hoped to employ
Arequipa observations to indicate variations of solar emission of
radiation.

No sufficient object to justify printing all Arequipa pyrheliometer
values seems to exist. We therefore abridge the results as shown
in the following table. Generally observations were secured with

secant Z values as small as 1.3, and often as small as 1.05. To give
the best possible comparable values of pyrheliometer measurements,
we have interpolated the values for air mass 1.2." In addition we
give the values for 1.0 and 2.0 air masses whenever this can be done
with fair certainty. From these latter values come the transmission
coefficients a,. The humidity was determined sometimes by swing-
ing wet and dry thermometers, sometimes by the hydrograph. We
have compared results by the two methods, and have expressed all
in terms of pressure of aqueous vapor in millimeters of mercury.
The values given in the table are the mean values for the interval
*of time covered by the pyrheliometer measurements of each day.
The letters A, M, and P signify morning, noon, and afternoon, re-
spectively. In the two final columns, after the date and the initials
_of observers and remarks, are given empirical determinations of the
solar constant of radiation, of which more will be stated hereafter.

¢

* We shall use the term “air mass” in this paper as the equivalent of secant
Z, taking no acount of barometric pressure.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

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SanjvyA uvayy Kjysuop—e aAIAV I,

NO. 9 AREQUIPA PYRHELIOMETRY—ABBOT I9Q

We now give in Table 2 mean monthly values of the intensity
of solar radiation (é,,) at air mass 1. 2, the transmission coefficient
a,, the pressure of aqueous vapor p, and the empirical solar constant
values e,, of which more is said below. The table gives also the
number of days on which radiation was observed. This considerably
exceeds the number of days on which the atmospheric transmission
could be determined. Monthly means based on very meager data
are indicated by parentheses.

li TH =

= al obi ra

bs]

5

" |
a A Ge — i =i

4 |
ij |
lea TEER |

4 4

ihe andl§ec. Z=/.2.

ee
IL

ais ArzquiPa MonTaLy Means
G| u © Observed Values
| 3 ~ Computed. Forte 5 |

[| [i Computed. formulall 7 Ah

Pressure Aqueous Vapar.

age Lee eae

ine, i,

General mean: Of 2), = 1.400; of ¢,=.800;, of p=5.97.

Examination of the foregoing table fails to indicate any notable
abnormalities covering considerable periods. In other words nothing
appears to lead us to suppose that these were not normal years for
Arequipa (unless as regards the number of clear days, on which
we say nothing). This is especially interesting, for in the northern
hemisphere the year 1912 was notable for the great decrease in
direct solar radiation received at the earth’s surface, and of atmos-
pheric transparency, which speedily followed the volcanic eruption
of Mt. Katmai in June of that year. Remnants of this volcanic

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

dust still remained distinguishable by pyrheliometry in the United
States up to near the end of the year 1913. No indication of its
presence above Arequipa in either 1912 or 1913 seems to be shown.
The volcanic dust from Katmai, though general in the northern
hemisphere, seems not to have crossed the equator.

In the last line of the table the mean monthly radiation values
for the whole period of observation have been reduced to what they
would have been if the sun’s distance had remained uniform at
its mean value. The close connection between solar radiation at
the earth’s surface, and atmospheric humidity is brought out graphi-
cally in fig. 1. Ordinates are mean monthly values of e,., reduced
to mean solar distance, abscissz are corresponding mean monthly
values of water vapor pressure (p). The smoothness of the curve
defined by these points is remarkable. It is perhaps to be ascribed
to the great altitude and inland location of Arequipa. Apparently
the degree of atmospheric humidity at the earth’s surface there is
a good index of the total quantity of humidity existing between the
station and the limit of the atmosphere.

It is obvious, of course, that fluctuations of atmospheric trans-
mission coefficients must also produce their effects on the observed
intensity of solar radiation at the station. Such fluctuations are
of two kinds: First, those associated with changes of water vapor.
Second, those associated with changes of dustiness, such as those
produced in the northern hemisphere by the Katmai eruption. The
influence on the solar radiation of fluctuations of the first type,
which are a function of the humidity, may be generally (for a
high-level station like Arequipa) much greater than those associated
with dust alone. But it might well be expected that for certain
months of the year the dust fluctuations would be by no means
negligible. However, restricting our thought to a high-level station
like Arequipa, and remembering the powerful true absorption pro-
duced in the infra-red spectrum by water vapor, and the large
changes in this true absorption attending changes of humidity when
the humidity and air mass are both small, it is easy to see after all
why the observed radiation at M=1.2 at Arequipa seems to be so
well represented as a function of water vapor alone. For both the
true absorption and a large proportion of the variable elements of
the general scattering are functions of water vapor. Compared
to these, the variable scattering produced by dry dust alone is gen-
erally small. ;

In figure 2 the radiation, e, (not reduced to mean solar distance),
the vapor pressure, p, and the transmission, a,, are all given as func-
tions of the time of the year.

NO. 9 AREQUIPA PYRHELIOMETRY—ABBOT 21

The data of figure 1 have been represented by the following two
formulz, one expressing the radiation e,, (reduced to mean solar
distance) as a function of vapor pressure, p, alone, the other as a
function of vapor pressure, p, and transmission a, :

ommitay edi O.OSt Oe
3 pace

Formula IT. e€?"=1.50 + (5.25—p)0.19+ (a,—0.85 )0.63

Arealuirpa |MontHiry Mean Navues .
< JRADIATION. SEC.Z5 1.2.
© |WATER-VAPOR PRESSURE.
X |ATMOBSPHERIIC TRANSMISSION.

In Foy Ea Arr May June Jury Aus Sept Oct Nov. Dec. JAN.

Fie. 2.

We now come to a very interesting application of these formule.
During the period of about four years covered by the Arequipa
observations, we may assign as the mean value of the solar con-
stant of radiation outside the atmosphere 1.93 calories per sq. cm.
per min. Dividing by this value we have the following empirical
formule for obtaining from Arequipa daily observations values of
the solar constant of radiation :

Monn wale, =

corr
21.2

0.777 -+ (5.25—p)0.01 + (4,—0.85 )0.33.

Boral lise, —

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

During the years 1913 and 1914 the solar constant was determined
at Mount Wilson by spectro-bolometric observations on some of the
days when these formulz are applicable to Arequipa observations.
From 34 comparisons of Arequipa and Mount Wilson solar con-
stant values, the average deviation of individual days is about 2.5
per cent. Omitting 5 days when unusually great discrepancies oc-
curred, owing to poor sky at one station or the other, the average
deviation is only 2 per cent.

Under the circumstances it seemed unreasonable to hope that for
individual days the empirically derived solar constant results from
Arequipa observations would be of sufficient accuracy to show the
short-period fluctuations of the solar constant. It might reasonably
be expected, however, that monthly mean values would seldom differ
by more than 1 per cent from the values obtained in corresponding
months at Mount Wilson. Thus a new confirmation of the varia-
bility of the sun in its longer periods may be hoped for from
pyrheliometry and psychrometry at Arequipa alone. This hope
seems to be confirmed by the following Table 3. Both Arequipa
values (formule I and II) are given, but the number of days
relates to the first method values, which are more numerous.

Taste 3—Monthly Mean Solar Constant Values

rota 1914
Monthy eens. eiaceeesses July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | June] July | Aug. Sept.| Oct.
IN eeainiind een ‘1.87 1.80 1.90 |1.86 |1.92 |1.96 |1.95 |I-96 |1.94
age ae |i G0) |1 92) L280) | ses. 2.0L |LiOS mom iAoO4
IN@SGAWSsns5hsccccnl 7 me | me) at 12 ie. Wega nS || ne
Mount Wilson... .. ./1.925/I1.931|1.920|1.874|1.876|1.952|1.956|1.964|1.0943) ...
INKOs GENS wasdoosass 3 18 25 24 5 14 YA || ise We

The comparisons of July and November, 1913, have little weight
because of the small number of days observed at Mount Wilson.
Apart from these months only one, August, 1913, shows a difference
of more than I per cent between Arequipa and Mount Wilson. Both
stations agree in showing the interesting reSult that the solar constant
was decidedly higher in 1914 than in 1913.

With the word of caution that individual day’s values may often
be in error by as much as 5 per cent, and on the average by as much
as 2 per cent, we have included in Table 1 two columns giving the —
daily solar constant values determined from Arequipa pyrheliometry
by means of formule I and I]. Table 2 gives the mean monthly
solar constant values by formule I and II. Months for which no
values of vapor pressures are available are supplied by taking the

NO. 9 AREQUIPA PYRHELIOMETRY—ABBOT : 23
mean monthly vapor pressures for these months for several years as
given in Table 2. Such solar constant values are given in parentheses.

Finally the 29 days with solar constant values available for fav-
orable comparison between Mount Wilson and Arequipa have been
divided into two groups of high and low values respectively, as in-
dicated by Mount Wilson work. The mean values are as follows:

Station Group I Epes Group II nem Group I-Group II
Miron Vall Omen eels oes I 954 15 1.803 14 ee
: ormnnlle, lls g5ec]) ) 2 5@8} 15 1.900 14 0.03
Arequipa Jeo@manisilla) IMs Ao ee 1.943 13 1.907 14 0.036

The days selected are these:
TOUR AUS 2. Ton Sept. 2, 3s.0, b7wlos 22"
| 1914. June 16, 23, 24; July 17, 23, 28.
HOPS AULA AMOS) Sep A. S10, 20, 2720) 20);
(Chae, Oneehits
1914. June 21.

Group I.

Group a

This comparison, so far as it has weight, evidently tends to con-
firm the existence of short-period irregular solar variations, dis-
covered by other investigations.

SumMMarRy.—Observations with the silver disk pyrheliometer and
nearly simultaneous measurements of atmospheric humidity have
been made since August, 1912, at Arequipa, Peru, at the station of
the Harvard College Observatory.

From these observations have been determined values of the
solar radiation at Arequipa corresponding with secant Z equal to
1.0, 1.2, and 2.0; values of pressure of aqueous vapor, and values of
the diminution of radiation attending the passage of the sun from
the zenith distance whose secant is 1.0 to that whose secant is 2.0.

Owing to other occupations the observers have generally made
these observations when the sun was within 60° of the zenith. On
this account determinations of atmospheric transparency are not
always possible, and are of less weight than other data given.

The results are collected to- give monthly mean values. These
show a remarkably close connection between radiation and vapor
pressure. Advantage is taken of this close correlation to determine
by empirical formulze values of the solar constant of radiation.
These empirical values agree quite as well as could be expected with
values obtained at Mount Wilson, California, by complete spectro-
bolometric and pyrheliometric measurements combined. The Are-

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

quipa results confirm the variability of the sun, both from year to
year and from day to day, shown by investigations at Mount Wilson
and elsewhere.

It seems probable-that from observations similar to those at
Arequipa, if conducted at eight or ten favorable stations of high
level in various parts of the world, the variations of the sun cculd be
determined almost or quite as certainly as from two stations equipped
for complete spectro-bolometric determinations of the solar constant.

The Arequipa results indicate that the volcanic dust which was
general in the atmosphere in the northern hemisphere for more than
a year after the volcanic eruption of Mt. Katmai, Alaska, in June,
1912, did not influence the transparency of the atmosphere in Peru.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 10

A Phylogenetic Study of the Recent Crinoids, with
Special Reference to the Question of Spe-
cialization Through the Partial or Complete
Suppression of Structural Characters

BY
AUSTIN H. CLARK

(PuBLICATION 2369)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 19, 1915

Man? Yi

als ol
aed

%, : ; ’ Ue

“i Bs The Lord Baltimore Press Sie
G BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. ; paint An

i

eivcOGwIND DiC SlUDY OF THEERECENL CRINOMMS,
Withee GIA REFERENCE VO TEE OUESTION
OF SPECIALIZATION THROUGH THE PARTTAL OR
COMPLETE SUPPRESSION OF STRUCTURAL CHAR-
HN € (MES)
By AUSTIN H. CLARK

CONTENTS ae

PrRSHEVGS" 5 ots cae ste ERO Ooo OE ETE Ceci ICs RUE ee ae I
The determination e the phylogenetic significance of the differential

Charactensmemploved inmsyStematic i yOGken- a lasses rere: 2
The course taken by phylogenetic progression, or progressive specializa-

(HG, Ebene Uae. Cininonje ce aavoainadwamon Occ romeoon cae Uae oor Sener 3

The apparently new structures in the later Crinoids..................... 4

The contrasting characters used in differentiating the groups of recent
Crinoids, with the families exhibiting each, and an explanation of

their ditterential and phylogenetic significance: ..2....<..-.2. 2... -- 6
The families of recent Crinoids, with the characters, as previously given,

OUESENTUREG|- CID NYS MErEVC) OS Hames a coals cla eos crcko'e Catia cin Gocitka Gr ake acto cero ea a OIC 46
The occurrence in the various families of both components of contrasting

TD PEINEES. ac piree pete sa ah leek ta Be Les aM ne cee ai a NG pa ge ORE 55
The Crinoid families considered as the sum of the contrasted characters

coselal byte Cig Lagan SAM Patni oe ack a ay ete ae eyecare eal RES oa, SERN Meee oc 57
The true phylogenetic sequence of the Crinoid families having recent

TGC PIES CEMU ALI VGES tay eee ete opelhc sede: enittav one sea ako OAPI TG Ca ay usr eects ka ete eR 50
The relative specialization of each structural unit in the Crinoid families

ACH AGin SamReECEMt SPECIESNs wes ase oes eistecsiaero oitielai ee be < ereuace ech oheie bic aces 60
The phylogenetic sequence of the recent Crinoids on the basis of the

relative specialization of each of the component structural units...... 60
Examination of each ofthe structural units in detail 262.6% 26.2 42c2 ee 61
The corrected relative sequence of the recent Crinoids on the basis of the

relative specialization of each of the component structural units...... 64
The relation between phylogenetic development and bathymetrical and

(ele Sheraves 8 calfigiorar Oph OV likes exe Rei a ee ne a A See a 66

zi PREFACE

In the study of any group of animals from the systematic stand-
point the ultimate aim is the arrangement of the units within the
group ina sequence which shall conform as nearly as possible to their
relative phylogenetic status.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 10

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The consummation of such an arrangement is not always an easy
task, for we too commonly fall into the error of over-estimating the
comparative value of, and thereby placing too much reliance upon,
some single obvious or exaggerated character, instead of taking into
consideration and carefully weighing all of the characters presented.

Thus we are prone to place types distinguished by some unique
and phylogenetically aberrant feature, though not otherwise remark-
able, ahead of others which, more conservative throughout, are except
for this single feature more advanced.

The recent crinoids offer a good illustration of the many difficul-
ties in the path of a logical phylogenetic arrangement. The sequence
of the families now commonly accepted 1 is, beginning with the most
specialized, as follows:

Order Articulata
Pentacrinitide (including the Pentacrinitida

and the Comatulida)

Apiocrinidze
Phrynocrinidz
Bourgueticrinidze
Holopodidze

Order Inadunata
Plicatocrinidze

This sequence has been determined not by an exhaustive study of
the characters of each type and a subsequent comparison based upon .
the results of such a study, but rather by a more or less fortunate
application of the doctrine of prebabilines based upon general resem-
blances.

It is the aim of the present paper to analyze all of the characters
employed in the differentiation of the larger groups of recent cri-
noids, and, on the basis of this analysis, to indicate the true linear
phylogenetic interrelationships of the recent types.

THE DETERMINATION OF THE PHYLOGENETIC SIGNIFICANCE
OF THE DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERS EMPLOYED
IN SYSTEMATIC WORK

In the systematic study of organisms the differential characters
are always employed in pairs, the two components of each fet being
contrasted with each other.

Within each group individual pairs have ordinarily only a Shared
application, serving for the differentiation of certain units, but being
quite useless for the differentiation of others.

NO. I0 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 3

Thus in every large group a large number of such contrasted pairs
of characters must be employed, each of them having a more or less
limited value. :

A detailed study of the pairs of contrasted characters used in the
differentiation of the groups of recent crinoids, and especially of the
relation of the two components of each pair to each other, should
not only indicate the phylogenetic interrelationships of the various
types, but should also show clearly by what broad principle phylo-
genetic advance, or specialization, has come about.

Therefore in addition to determining the correct phylogenetic
status of each of the groups of recent crinoids, an attempt will be
made in the present paper to analyze the pairs of contrasted charac-
ters in an effort to discover the significance of each of the compo-
nents, and thereby to indicate along what lines the phylogenetic
devélopment of the crinoids has progressed.

THE COURSE TAKEN BY PHYLOGENETIC PROGRESS, OR PRO-
GRESSIVE SPECIALIZATION, AMONG THE CRINOIDS

The dominant feature of the progressive specialization among
the crinoids from the earliest times to the present day has always
been a process of progressive simplification in structure, the result
of a process of progressive atrophy or suppression affecting some
part or other of the organism. ‘Thus the more specialized types
differ from the more generalized through the atrophy or suppression
of some important structural element, while the later groups are
differentiated among themselves according to the lines which this
atrophy or suppression has followed.

In a broad way this has long been appreciated ; we recognize that
the (recent) Articulata are distinguished from the Inadunata by the
extreme atrophy of their calyx, involving in most cases the com-
plete disappearance of certain essential elements; the comatulids
are differentiated from all other (recent) types by the suppression
of the column, excepting only the topmost columnal which becomes
permanently attached to the calyx; Holopus is differentiated from
all other (recent) genera through the suppression of the column
excepting only the base, upon which directly the calyx rests; the
Phrynocrinide differ from the Bourgueticrinide in the complete
suppression of the radicular cirri; and the Bourgueticrinide differ
from the Phrynocrinidz in the suppression of the terminal stem plate.
But as yet no attempt has been made to apply this principle to all of
the differential characters which collectively make up the crinoid
whole.

A SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

THE APPARENTLY NEW STRUCTURES IN THE LATER.CRINOIDS

In the process of development and specialization of the crinoid
phylogenetic line no new features have been added ; nothing is found
in the later and more specialized types that does not occur, usually
in a more extended form, in the earlier and more generalized.

There are two apparent exceptions to this statement. The penta-
crinites and the comatulids are chiefly remarkable for the great
development of cirri, which are unknown in most of the earlier types
and which therefore might be assumed to be of relatively recent
phylogenetic origin ; and most of the later forms possess one or more
series of paired plates, of which the outermost is axillary, inter-
polated between the radials and the arm bases, whereas in the more
primitive types the arms are given off directly from the radials.

As is explained further on, in the Articulata the column, after
reaching a certain definite length, abruptly ceases further develop-
“ment, and the last formed columnal becomes permanently attached
to the calyx. Though the skeletal development of the column ceases
abruptly, the growth of the other constituents of the column is not
so suddenly arrested, for we notice that the columnal which is
attached to the calyx increases in size and gradually becomes more
or less differentiated from the other columnals. If the column be
very short—in other words if the suppression of the columnar devel-
opment has been very abrupt—cirri are developed which break
through the walls of the enlarged topmost columnal. These cirri,
invariably associated with atrophied, dwarfed, or attenuated columns,
represent a diffuse lateral diversion of the normally linear longi-
tudinal stem development. The sudden suppression of the develop-
ment of the skeleton of the column is not correlated with a corre-
spondingly sudden suppression in the development of the other sys-
tems which enter into the columnar structure ; and the organic adjust-
ment or equilibrium necessitated by the continued development of the
organic portions of the column after the inorganic portion has reached
its limit is attained by a lateral diversion of this ontogenetic force,
resulting in the formation of a varying number of cirri, each of the
cirri representing a fractional degenerate derivative from a sup-
pressed column of the normal type, while all of the cirri collectively
represent the degree of excess of development possessed by the “ soft
parts’ of the column over that possessed by the skeleton.

In order to understand the significance of the pair of ossicles in
the later ten-armed types which occur between the radials and the
arm bases it is necessary to bear in mind that the radials are not true

NO. I0 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 5

calyx plates, but arm plates. The true calyx plates are (1) the
basals, corresponding to the genitals in the urchins, and (2) the
infrabasals, corresponding to the echinoid oculars. The radials,
which always retain traces of an ultimate origin from two fused
plates, are in practically all types the basic.plates of the arms; but
possibly they were originally the second arm plates, for in many of
the older types there occur beneath one or more of them, most com-
monly under the right posterior, small additional plates which sepa-
rate them from the infrabasals. This small plate beneath the right
posterior radial is known as the radianal; in the young comatulid
the same plate, which usually appears at a greater or lesser distance
from its original position, has almost universally been designated
as the anal, though it does not correspond to the anal of the older
types.

_ As the calyx, through specialization by atrophy, decreases in size,
the arms which, being composed dorsally of an extension of the
heavily calcified dorso-lateral wall of the calyx and ventrally of an
extension of the ventral surface of the disk which draws out along |
these skeletal supports prolongations from the various ring systems
about the mouth, are necessarily situated where these two divisions
of the body surface join, cannot accompany the radials in their dis-
talward migration. The increasing gap between the radials and the
arm bases is therefore filled by a pair of apparently new plates of
which the outer, almost invariably axillary, is a double plate, a very
close duplication of the radials, but with the two original elements
less completely fused, while that between it and the original radial
possibly represents the original subradial. The forms with the
division series composed of paired ossicles (such as the species of
Endoxocrinus for example) thus possess between the radials and the
arm bases a series of paired plates, the inner plate of each pair resting
upon the radial itself, or upon the outer plate of a preceding pair,
and the outer plate of each pair being a reduplication of the original
radial. Thus these paired plates of which the division series are
formed in most of the later crinoids are not in any way new struc-
tures, but an adaptation through a system of reduplication, involving
a complicated twinning process, of plates of fundamental signifi-
cance common to all crinoids. The formation of the division series
of paired plates is exactly comparable to the formation of the column
in the pentacrinites, which involves a continuous linear repetition of
the complete original column, each unit corresponding to the original
column resting upon a cirriferous nodal as a terminal stem plate,
and terminating itself in a cirriferous nodal, which, though in origin

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

and significance a true proximale, never succeeds in attaching itself
permanently to the calyx.

Thus upon close analysis neither the cirri nor the paired division
series are found to be in reality new structures ; the cirri, which occur
sporadically in certain of the older types as well as uniformly in
many of the later, are always associated with atrophy, dwarfing or
attenuation of the column, and are in reality merely the evidence of
the diversion of the column-forming substance from its original
intent in the direction of the production of imperfect fractional
columns, while the paired division series are merely reduplications
of the primitive arm base, made necessary by the atrophy of the
calyx and the consequent creation of a gap between the radials, of
necessity in contact with the true calyx plates, and the arm bases, of
necessity situated on the border between the ventral and the lateral
surfaces of the animal.

THE CONTRASTING CHARACTERS USED IN DIFFERENTIATING
THE GROUPS OF RECENT CRINOIDS, WITH THE FAMILIES
EXHIBITING EACH, AND AN EXPLANATION OF THEIR DIF-
FERENTIAL AND PHYLOGENETIC SIGNIFICANCE

In the following pages, grouped under the headings “I. Calyx,
II. Column, III. Disk, IV. Arms, V. Pinnules and VI. General,”
are listed all of the more important differential characters of broader
significance found in the recent crinoids.

These characters are given in contrasting pairs, the more general-
ized being in each case numbered “1” and the more specialized
miumbered y 2s)

In each of these pairs the more specialized character (2) is always
derived from the more generalized by a process of degeneration »
through reduction or more or less complete suppression.

Under each member of each pair are grouped the families pre-
senting the character as described with its bathymetric and thermal
distribution, and after each pair the significance of the two con-
trasting characters is pointed out, as well as the significance of the
difference between them.

TD. CALYX

1. Calyx in the form of a cup, protecting the viscera dorsally and
laterally.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
lolopodidsereans earn eee 5-120 Fido)

PieenocmiiGinGes .ssccascoccuvdcundon 266-2575 31.1-43.90

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 7

2. Calyx forming a platform upon which the viscera rest, more
or less supported by the arm bases.

Bathymetric Thermal
range Tange
Rentacninitide: W.ne sate osc sese ss. 0-2900 28.7-80.0
ANDIOOTIMCES” sbaoonaconcoobloooaous 565-940 36.7-38.1
Phinynocrinidcmaee aes aso aac os 508-703 38.1—40.0
Bouneteticginidceareeee sesso ee ao 62-2690 29.1-70.75

In the majority of the older crinoids, as well as in the pentacrinoid
young of the comatulids, the visceral mass is protected dorsally and
laterally by two or three alternating rings of plates, with the summit
of the column covering the opening in the center of the innermost
ring.

In the later types, as in the developing young of the comatulids,
we see a progressive decrease in the relative size of the calyx plates,
as a result of which they become more and more restricted to the
dorsal apex, leaving more and more of the lateral portion of the
visceral mass exposed, until finally they become so reduced as to
serve merely as a platform upon which the dorsal apex of the visceral
mass rests, the lateral portions being supported by the arm bases.

The reduction of the crinoid calyx from the primitive condition of
a cup entirely enclosing and protecting laterally and dorsally the vis-
ceral mass, is obviously specialization by inhibition and progressive
suppression of the skeleton forming power; it is correlated with a
similar reduction affecting other portions of the skeleton.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
; “Dases
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 if 2 80-75 fo) I
100-200 I 2 75-70 I 2
200-300 I 2 70-65 0 2
300-400 I 2 65-60 (0) 2
400-500 I 2 60-55 O 2
500-600 I 4 55-50 to) B
600-700 I 4 50-45 O 2
700-800 I 4 45-40 I 2
800-900 I 2 40-35 T 4
900-1000 I 3 35-30 I 2
1000-1500 I 2 320-25 Oo 2
1500-2000 I 2
. 2000-3000 I 2
1 2
PACT AEM EM Eb ary aahe.c eek tess tncha ce ienerne a ae ‘.... 808 fathoms 785 fathoms

Averave temperature: 4.).0. --... heen: en Fahr. SOs Pal

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

1. Calyx reduced by the moving inward of all the calyx plates, so
that they become closely appressed and, their longitudinal axes all
being parallel, form a closely knit column upon the summit of which
the visceral mass rests.

Bathymetric Thermal
range Tange
Phrynocrinide (Naumachocrinus) 508-703 38.1—40.0
Boursueticrinidess sepeeeree see eee 62-2690 29.1-70.75

2. Calyx reduced by the eversion and imbrication of the calyx
plates, so that eventually they come to form a platform composed of
superposed circlets of plates, all the plates in the same circlet lying
in the same plane.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
IPSAVEINAMEGES oochosccoccconsdo00 0=2900 28.7-80.0
eAPLOCninid sa ask asin nese ack eeren 505-940 36.7-38.1
Phrynocrinide (Phrynocrinus) ...508-703 38.1-40.0

One type of calyx reduction consists in the calyx abruptly ceasing
growth upon reaching its perfected form, or, in the most extreme
cases, closing up after the manner of an umbrella, so that the visceral
mass, which continues to grow, is extruded and thus comes to lie,
entirely exposed laterally, upon the summit of a short column com-
posed of the much narrowed and more or less aligned calyx plates,
supported chiefly by the arm bases.

But more commonly the reduction of the calyx plates takes the
course of a progressive retardation in their development whereby
they become smaller and smaller in relation to the lateral and dorsal
area of the visceral mass, the inner edges of the plates of each
circlet, as the circlets decrease in diameter, slipping inward over the
outer edges of the plates of the circlet next within.

These two types of calyx reduction are, in a way, parallel to each
other ; yet the first appears to be of a more primitive character than
the second, for the reason that the cessation of calyx growth and
development does not begin until after the calyx has reached its
perfected form, whereas in reduction by the second method the altera-
tion of the relation of the calyx plates begins, at least in the develop-
ing comatulids, in the very early stages before the elimination of the
radianal from the radial circlet.. Thus it would appear logical to
derive the second type from the first by carrying the inhibition of the
.formation of the calyx further back in the ontogeny or in the
phylogeny.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 9

Frequency at different depths

“Degrees
Fathoms -1 2 Fahrenheit
0-100 I I 80-75
100-200 I I 75-70
200-300 I I 70-605
300-400 I I 65-60
400-500 it I 60-55
500-600 2 3 55-50
600-700 2 3 50-45
700-800 - 3 45-40
800-900 I 2 40-35
goo-1000 I 2 35-30
1000-1500 I I 30-25
1500-2000 I I
2000-3000 I I
1
ANTESEAE GIG Os aie Sepoiettae aeaola ne Bene rarer 777 fathoms
AWierdce stempenatine a craracs seca cone 48.8° Fahr.
1. Basals present. Beihyeeec
range
Pentacrinitide (Atelecrinide; Pen-
(GaVOLEI ON ETNG eR) \anea eee ites Bice eae are tare 5—-1350
Ati octind deny ac. 2a er eye Mey taeianien ds 6 565-040
IPINTAMOSMINIGES s5555000sgannodu oes 508-703
ROMS MISHIORIMIGES. 5 o55c000b0080 505 62-2690
Pivcatocrinides cx. ct cinckes tele 260-2575
2. No basals. Bathymetric
range
Pentacrinitide (Comatulida, ex-
cept Atelecrinide) ............. 02900
olopodide) saacssc ster okeo eens 5-120

Frequency at different temperatures
es a ee

HH NN AH HR RR eR Opt
+ HO 4 AH 4 4 Ho Ho HS WN

2
=

771 fathoms
FOr me balans:

Thermal

range

36.0-71.0
36.7-38.1
38.I—40.0
20.1-70.75
31.1-43.9

Thermal
range

28.7-80.0
71.0

In the crinoids, including the developing comatulids, the two sets
of plates which appear to be of the greatest importance are the
basals and the radials, the former true calyx plates (corresponding
to the echinoid genitals) and the latter properly speaking arm plates,
though always forming part of the calyx cup.

It is only in types of very late occurrence, and, among the coma-
tulids, very late in the ontogeny, that the basals become atrophied and

disappear.

The elimination of the basals from the calyx in the more perfected
types indicates phylogenetic advance through suppression of one
of the most fundamental crinoid structures.

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 z
0-100 2 2 80-75 o) i
100-200 2 2 75-70 2 2
200-300 3 I 70-65 2 I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 I
500-600 5 I 55-50 2 I
600-700 5 I 50-45 2 I
700-800 5 I 45-40 3 I
800-900 4 I 40-35 5 I
900-1000 4 I 35-30 2 I
1000-1500 3 I 30-25 I I
1500-2000 B I
2000-3000 2 I
it 2
NGERAG® GEO soacccccsocouasnDs Jists. ee es 761 fathoms 713 fathoms
> JINGERASS WEUNDERAEIES .ococoscecccacccovcgcud 49.0° Fahr. 54.1° Fahr. ~
1. Five basals. Bathymetric Thermal
range range
IPSMASMIONCRS, oosn0¢scoucsoonugoo 5-1350 36.0-71.0
AIO CTMMNICES 55250005006 Dans et 565-940 36.7-38.1
IPlaKryyiMGXSIrONGES oo 500dca0snsgc00006 508-703 38.1-40.0
IBOVKAS DISCHARGES 5 cocccaccoaca0se 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Plicatocrinide (Calamocrinus)....392-782 38.5-43.9
2. Less than five basals. Bones Sea ae
range tange

Plicatocrinide (except Calamo-
CHATS) aio8, ices Rete Mee STORE 266-2575 31.1-43.9

The number of the basals in the crinoids, like the number of the
corresponding plates, the genitals, in the urchins, appears funda-
mentally to be five.

Variation from this number, which is always by reduction, appears
invariably to be an indication of specialization, for it always occurs
in correlation with specialization in other directions.

The reduction in the number of basals from five to three is an
example of specialization through suppression; though the reduc-
tion is by coalescence and not by loss of two of the original five, and
therefore all of the original substance included in the primitive five
basals is equally included in the specialized three, the segregation of
four into two pairs indicates a suppression of the individuality of
the units involved, though without an actual loss of their substance.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK ial

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
ae Degrees i
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 2 (e) 80-75 8) (0)
100-200 2 (o) 75-70 2 (0)
200-300 B I 70-65 2 oO
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 0
400—500 B I 60-55 2 e)
500-600 5 I 55-50 2 O
600-700 5 I 50-45 2 0)
700-800 5 I 45-40 3 I
800-900 3 I 40-35 5 I
9g00-1000 3 I 35-30 I 0)
{000-1500 B I 30-25 I fo)
1500-2000 I I
2000-3000 I I
; 1 2
IAW CVAC ee DLs center nobher smiley saree Meckel pvel crane 681 fathoms 936 fathoms
“Average Lemp eratiinmen “maser ese ec semanas 49.8° Fahr. 40.0° Fahr.
1. Basals separate. Bathymetric Thermal
range range

Pentacrinitide (Atelecrinus; Pen-

GACT AN) clas apace ares ce 5-1350 30.0-71.0
ANDIOCEWONGES soos cbcovccoscnsocccan 505-940 36.7-38.1
IP\niryaocenMnGkes 5 cogsc0 coe evinces sme 508-703 38.1—40.0
Bourgueticrinide (Monachocrinus,

Democrinus, Bythocrinus) 62-2217 37.4—40.5

Plicatocrinide (Calamocrinus, Hy-
ocrinus, Gephyrocrinus, Thalas-
ESO GIUIIES) Vemtn AlN 2 ence we ay ie 302-2575 31.1-43.9

2. Basals fused into a single calcareous element.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (except Atelecri-
“mus and Pentacrinitida)”........; 0-2900 28.7-80.0
Bourgueticrinide ([lycrinus, Bathy-
CHINUS TNUZOCTINUS ee a. 62444. os 77-2535 30.9-48.7
Plicatocrinide (Ptilocrinus) ......266-2485 35.3

Primarily the basals form each a separate and distinct skeletal ele-
ment at the head of one of the interradial areas.

But, if through reduction of the calyx in its relation to the visceral
mass, or in any other way, the basals lose their intimate connection
with the structures lying immediately within them, they also lose
more or less their individuality, becoming closely united and forming
a single skeletal element, a ring or “ rosette,” which in extreme cases
is functionally little more than a topmost columnal, for which, indeed,
it has often been mistaken.

12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The reduction of the basals and their fusion into a single calcareous
element is evidence of the inhibition and suppression of the normal
skeleton forming power by which the basal ring primarily develops
from five distinct centers in the form of a circlet of five similar large,
separate and perfect plates.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms i 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 2 2 80-75 o I
I00—200 2 2 75-70 I I
200-300 2 3 70-05 I I
300-400 3 3 é 65-60 I I
400-500 3 3 60-55 I I
500-600 5 3 55-50 I I
600-700 5 3 50-45 I 2
700-800 5 3 45-40 3 2
800-900 4 3 40-35 5 3
Qo00—1000 4 3 35-30 I 2
1000-1 500 3 3 30-25 fo) I
1500-2000 2 3
2000-3000 2 3
1 2
Averase) dep titan 3c eas Ate ee 774 tathoms 846 fathoms
Avierace: temperatiken nice eerie Agi selase 48.4° Fahr.
1. Infrabasals present as individual plates.
Bathymetric Thermal
Tange Tange
Pentacrinitide (Teliocrinus, Hypa-
locrinus, Metacrinus, Isocrinus). 5-1350 36.0-71.0
2. Infrabasals absent, or fused with other plates.
Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (Comatulida, and
EWOOROCTINUS)) casa 0—2900 28.7-80.0
IROWUSUSHOMIMIGES Soca o5csccccceoce 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Rolo podideeerene eer 5-120 71.0
Piicatocninidces peeatenee eee ee 266-2575 31.I-43.9

The infrabasals, which correspond to the oculars of the echinoids,
do not appear to be of such fundamental significance as their repre-
sentatives in that group, for in the earlier crinoids they may or may
not be present. But whatever their status in the ancient types may
be, they are regarded as either actually or potentially present in the
order Articulata, to which all but one of the recent families belong.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 13

Primarily the infrabasals occur as five small plates within (or below)
the basal ring, and alternating in position with the basals.

Although potentially present in all the recent families of the Articu-
lata, at best the infrabasals are represented by insignificant plates,
invisible exteriorly, in the adults, while usually they are represented
only in the very young, or are absent altogether.

The progressive suppression and final elimination of the infra-
basals, plates which, so far as we know, are of fundamental impor-
tance in the Articulata, is directly correlated with the specialization
of the respective types. The Plicatocrinidz, which belong not to the
Articulata but to the Inadunata, represents probably a primarily
monocyclic type.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
a) SEE
Degrees

Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2

0-100 I 3 80-75 0) I

100-200 I 3 75-70 I 3

200-300 I 3 70-65 I 2

300-400 I 3 65-60 I 2

400-500 I 3 60-55 I 2

500-600 I 3 55-50 I 2

600-700 I 3 50-45 I 2

700-800 = I B 45-40 I 3

800-900 I RB 40-35 I 3

goo—- 1000 I 3 : 35-30 O 3

IOO0C—1500 I 3 30-25 ) 2
1500-2000 0) 3
2000-3000 (0) 3

1 2
AHETASS (CET aise sigs dace wale ER ere 568 fathoms 808 fathoms
AWeragemtenipehatiiereme- see aes caeeice cs = 58.0° Fahr. 50.5° Fahr.
1. Five radials. Bathymetric Thermal
range range

Pentacrinitide (except Promacho-

crinus and Thaumatocrinus).... O-2900 28.7-80.0
JNDICORUNGES Wb ocnae usted cop eoeo oe 505-940 36.7-38.1
IPlavrysNO AUIS‘ s so55c00cduecancooe 508-703 38.1—40.0
IBoMEereticrinid sas ater ase ee eee 62-2690 29.1-70.75
iolopodide satin crcr co tees 5-120 71.0
Bhicatocmmidcea cetacean eee oe 266-2575 31.1-43.9
2. Ten radials. Bathymetric Thermal
Tange range
IPO MMV OGT THIS condccdsoncscccec 10-222 28.7

Thaumatocrinus ......0.....5+-+- 361-1800 37.4—42.7

14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
o- 100 2 I 80-75 I (9)
T00—-200 2 I 75-70 3 O
200-300 3 I 70-605 2 (0)
300-400 B I 65-60 2 oO
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 fo)
500-000 5 I 55-50 2 oO
600-700 5 I 50-45 2 0)
700-800 5 I 45-40 3 I
800-900 4 I 40-35 5 I
go00-—1000 4 I 35-30 3 0)
1000-1500 3 I 20-25 2 I
1500-2000 3 aT
2000-3000 3 O
1 2
IAVERASE MED hima as em eee acs era tees 822 fathoms 666 fathoms
Average: temperablinews ss seiecdce aes ceeeee ane 49.5° Fahr. 35.8° Fahr.
1. Interradials present. Bacbemeene nea
Tange Tange
PEOMAGHOCHINUS ee nee ee 10-222 2a me
DPROUMALOCTINGUSS wee ee eee 361-1800 37.4-42.7
2. Interradials absent. BMece ih eee
range Tange
Pentacrinitidze (except Promacho-
crinus and Thaumatocrinus).... O-2900 28.7-80.0
APIOCGUAI Meanie eke ee Rr 505-940 36.7—38.1
Bhirynocrinidce penser ites. eee 508-703 38.1—-40.0
Bourgueticrinide ......... ree ee 62-2600 29.1-70.75
Holopodidze! Wisacmec tact eee 5-120 71.0
Ritcatocnintdear ess ste eer: 266-2575 31.1—-43.0
Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Nea ai A— SS ee | SE
Degrees
Fathoms al 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 2 80-75 xe) I
100-200 it 2 75-70 (0) z
200-300 I 3 70-605 fo) 2
300—400 I 3 65-60 (a) 2
400-500 I 3 60-55 fo) 2
500-600 I 5 55-50 a) 2
600-700 I 5 50-45 fo) 2
700-800 I 5 45-40 I 3
800-900 I 4 40-35 I 5
Q00—-1000 I 4 35-30 o) 3
IO00—-1500 I 8 30-25 I 2
1500-2000 i 3
2000-3000 fo) 3
1 2
AVERAGE sCEPthl terrane cotvers ectreetone ee eee 666 fathoms 822 fathoms

Averagveatempenatinen eerste one 35.60 salir 49.5° Fahr.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 1S

1. Anal #, bearing a process, present.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
IZ LOMACHOCTUNUS eit seein oe 10-222 28.7
TRWGUWMOLOGHINUS 0 occ. - cme cin ss 361-1800 37.4-42.7
2. Anal + absent. Bathymetric Thermal
range range

Pentacrinitide (except Promacho-

crinus and Thaumatocrinus).... 0O-2900 28.7-80.0
NI DIO LEILA Ob een exci ces Gio acing Soke ora 505-940 30.7-38.1
Pry MO Chua ce Wy kesaWels cece tes ies acces 508-703 38.1-40.0
Bomnomtericnimidcemenir ernest cee 62-2690 20.1-70.75
bliolopodidae, ett d rule dade ln n sex 5-120 71.0
Plicatoeninidee: wie 2. es. 2 oo ea 266-2575 31.1-43.9

The problem of the so-called interradials in Promachocrinus and
Thaumatocrinus is a very complicated one.

These five interradial radials arise as five simple interradials, cor-
responding exactly to the interradials of many fossil forms, and that
in the posterior interradius gives rise to a process, being the homo-
- logue of the anal x of fossil types.

These interradial radials being primarily interradials, and the one
in the posterior interradius being the representative of anal +, it
naturally follows that the forms in which they occur present a more
primitive type of structure, more nearly similar to the ancient struc-
tural types, than those from which they are absent as a result of the
progressive simplification of the skeleton by the gradual suppression
and elimination of superfluous calcareous elements.

But on the other hand these interradial radials do not retain the
status of simple interradials. They grow to an equal size with the
true radials, and each gives rise to a post-radial process which, start-
ing as a simple linear series of ossicles, eventually comes to be exactly
like that arising from the true radials.

This type of structure is quite unique, and may therefore be con-
sidered as an evidence of specialization.

Hence the five interradial radials of Promachocrinus and Thauma-
tocrinus must be considered, if viewed in the light of their origin, as
indicating a low degree of specialization marked by the retention of
the primitive interradials, and of anal x; but if viewed in the light of
their ultimate condition, as indicating a high degree of specialization.

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

It may be remarked that in certain fossil types there are analogous
cases of doubling of the radials through a transformation into radials
of plates originally of quite different significance.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
_ J on a ——
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 2 80-75 O I
100-200 I 2 75-70 O 3
200-300 I 3 70-65 fo) a2
300-400 I R 65-60 ) 2
400-500 I 3 60-55 0 2
500-600 I 5 55-50 (e) 2
600-700 I 5 50-45 ©) 2
700-800 I 5 45-40 I 3
800-900 I 4 40-35 I 5
g00--1000 I 4 35-30 fo) R
1QQ0-1500 I 3 30-25 I 2
1500-2000 I 3
2000-3000 oO 3
1 2
Averages depthicin., ceris see acer enone 666 fathoms 822 fathoms
SACAIAS HORI SIAINE “54 oooh eos nocsouAoe dsr 35.8° Fahr. 49.5° Fahr.
1. Interbrachials present. peeled Fiticcssell
range range

Pentacrinitide (Comasterine, Calo-
metride, Mastigometra, Ante-
don, Erythrometra, Pentacrini-

IEG E-) tei iar cere scien oh cirri ro BO 0-1350 36.0-80.0

Phicatocnimida ssc eee ee 00-2575 31.1-43.9

2. Interbrachials absent. Batemelucie aera
range range

Pentacrinitide (except Comasteri-
ne, Calometride, Mastigometra,
Antedon, Erythrometra, Penta-

CHIMILIClad Var aken cake cera aces ees 0-2900 28.7-80.0
Npio crime oe ice saath. 565-9040 26.7-38.1
PAM VMOXSIANGES gaccocvboccs0ecgcce 508-703 38.1—-40.0
BONNETS NIGED Gocoocognsncaavc 62-2690 29.1-70.75
JAIOMOWNOGHCES: Sours aco osowoucemooulsc 5-120 71.0

Interbrachials, characteristic of most fossil crinoids, occur, usually
as small and thin, more or less irregular and poorly developed, plates,
in many recent types.

Usually, however, they are quite absent, at least in adults.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 17

The disappearance of the interbrachials is quite in line with the
progressive development of the crinoid skeleton through the pro-
gressive elimination of the less essential elements.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
(77 a = \\ SSS
Degrees
Fathoms 1 4 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 3 80-75 I I
100-200 I 3 75-70 I 3
200-300 . 2 2 70-65 I 2
300-400 2 2 65-60 I 2
400-500 2 2 60-55 I 2
500-600 2 4 55-50 I 2
600-700 2 4 50-45 I 2
700-800 2 4 45-40 2 2
800-900 (2 3 40-35 2 4
g00-1000 12 3 35-30 I 2
TOOO—1 500 2 2 30-25 O 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 2
AMVEREIS® Gl dM pao onau boo aes ene aya 750 fathoms 747 fathoms
NV CLACCH TEM PELALUITE aie sen testes ae snes 52.5° Fahr. 51.0° Fahr.
II. COLUMN
I. Entire column present. Eapenee Diereas
range Tange
ANMOGHINGED —G pao Soo kaodeonue an mes 565-940 30.7-38.1
Pionmyn@erimck® Goaacsoones eee ee 508-703 38.1—40.0 -
Bounetetieninidee esses nee: 62-2690 29.1-70.75
lolopodideetine sessace «cis cytes cee Se 5-120 71.0
Plicatocnrinidseies mate ese elec ee 266-2575 31.1-43.9
2. Original column discarded in early life.
Bathymetric Thermal
Tange Tange
Rembacittatdsee rerun aam ce aoe eet oer 0-2900 28.7-80.0

Whatever may be said of crinoids as a whole, or of echinoderms
as a class, the column is an essential feature of the structure of the
Articulata, to which all of the recent crinoids except those of the
family Plicatocrinide belong, and of the Inadunata, which includes
that family. ;

The absence of the column, or the atrophy and rejection of the
larval stem, therefore, is clear evidence of specialization.

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The rejection of the column in the young and the subsequent
adoption of a so-called free existence, is an example of specialization
through the suppression of an originally fundamental structure.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Str ee Ret Degrees
Fathoms 1 4 Fahrenheit a “2
0-100 2 I 80-75 O I
100-200 2 I 75-70 2 I
200-300 2 I 70-65 I I
300-400 2 I 65-60 I I
400-500 B I 60-55 I I
500-600 4 I 55-50 I I
600-700 4 I 50-45 I I
700-800 4 I 45-40 2 I
800-900 3 I 40-35 4 I
Qo0—1000 3 I 35-30 2 I
1000-1500 2 I 30-25 I I
1500-2000 2 I
2000-3000 2 I
1 2
Average depth 2 Aseatynte tome eine eu cen eae 785 fathoms 808 fathoms
Average temperatune: eee sane ei ae ee Ages ee Havlatss 52.5° Fahr.
1. Column jointed. Bathymetric Thermal
range range
APIO ERInide ass sy casa cee 565-940 36.7-38.1
Phirymocrimicdeeyiarrtseoecrteciee pene 508-703 38.1—40.0
Bomnenteticninid=zeesee eee eens 62-2690 29.1-70.75
PAT CAOCTIMIGES sooconcuccosonbscse 266-2575 31.1-43.9
2. Column unjointed. Barna Fheceal
range range
Elolopodidaesterr eras sae tee 5-120 71.0

Not only are the Articulata and the Inadunata fundamentally pro-
vided with a column, but that column is primarily composed of
numerous short ossicles united end to end in the form of a long
jointed stem.

The reduction of this jointed column to a simple calcareous base
is therefore a form of specialization over the original condition, as
is evident from a study of the earlier types, and from a study of the
developing young.

The reduction of the primitive long jointed column to a single
spreading base is evidently an example of specialization through
suppression of the normal stem forming power.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—-CLARK 19

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Sse
Fathoms al 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I I 80-75 fo) oO
100-200 I I 75-70 I I
200-300 2 fo) 70-65 I (0)
300-400 2 (0) 65-60 it (0)
400-500 2 fo) 60-55 I (e)
500-600 4 0 55-50 I )
600-700 4 fo) 50-45 I (0)
700-800 4 (0) 45-40 2 O
800-900 3 fo) 40-35 4 fe)
goo0—1000 3 O 35-30 2 (e)
1000-1500 2 (0) 30-25 I fo)
1500-2000 2 fo)
2000-3000 2 fo)
1 2
PX CRACCMGE DTN ose ca ciiclemits See siciele che elses « 828 fathoms 60 fathoms
Acetate LemMpPeratubes vases: ise «ve oe we ones 45.8° Fahr. 71.0° Fahr.

1. Column composed of short cylindrical ossicles bearing radial
crenellz on their articular faces.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
ID icentoreninnGks “dyodoecogecde saenoe 266-2575 31.1-43.9

2. Column not composed of short cylindrical ossicles bearing radial
crenellz on their articular faces.

Bathymetric Thermal
Tange range
(Pemiiacrmainingee) “4 s6asceos0000570 0-2900 28.7-80.0
AMpiOehiMidce) =... s)1eeieae 222.8 a+ 505-040 360.7-38.1
PMiAVINOCMMMUCES wren nos ooo oda coats 508-703 38.1—-40.0
Boungidencrimicdee =. 44.8.4 450 o ose 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Il@lopodidcer hexcagy cutscene ie ne ee 5-120 71.0

In all primitive types, and in practically all of the Palzeozoic cri-
noids, the column is composed of a great number of short cylindrical
ossicles with their circular articular faces marked with radial crenelle.

But in most of the families of the Articulata, and in a few of the
earlier forms, such for instance as the Platycrinide, the column, in
addition to a marked decrease in the number of the columnals, has
been greatly reduced in volume through the reduction in size of
each of the component ossicles which, instead of being circular in
cross section, have become elliptical, the long axes of the ellipses
representing the diameter of the original circle, and the difference
in length between the two axes indicating the amount of calcareous
matter lost; rigidity is maintained in this (the so-called “ bourgueti-

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

crinoid”’) type of column by a difference in the direction of the
long axes of the ellipses at either end of each columnal whereby
the column as a whole forms a series of spirals.

The bourgueticrinoid type of column, with its relatively few
columnals, each of the minimum volume compatible with the neces-
sary rigidity, is a good instance of specialization through the gradual
suppression of the skeleton forming power of the animal.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
_— — == —~ ee
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 (e) 3 80-75 fo) I
100-200 (0) 3 75-70 (0) 3
200-300 I 2 70-605 0 2
300-400 I 2 65-60 (o) 2
400-500 I 2 60-55 Co) 2
500-600 I A 55-50 ) 2
600-700 I 4 50-45 ©) 2
700-800 I 4 45-40 I 2
800-900 I 3 40-35 I 4
Q00—1000 I B 35-30 I 2
1000-1500 I 2 30-25 - (0) 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2,
1 2
Average depth n:55 ac saeicicte neers neni ie oe 936 fathoms 747 fathoms
IASTHECS WOUMNATENTIITS socovooscndccucns0cGo00 37.5. Kahr. 51.0° Fahr.

1. Column composed of a single type of columnals, without a
proximale or nodals.

Bathymetric Thermal
range Tange
IPneehowMANGES 5 os5 5500050 e500 40 00 pAOO=DE7E 31.1-43.9
Apiocrinide (Carpenterocrinus).. .565 38.1
2. Column including modified columnals, a proximale or nodals.
Bathymetric Thermal
range range
IPSMACDMEIGES 5 ccbsnccccanoocscos 0—2900 28.7-80.0
Apiocrinide (Proisocrinus) ...... 940 36.7
IPIMAVMOXCMMIONGES Ssscsdoccobooued vos 508-703 38.1-40.0
IB OUnete HC riniccs meee eee 62-2690 29.1-70.75

In the primitive crinoids, and in the very young (phytocrinoid
stage) of the comatulids, the column is composed of an indefinite
number of similar ossicles, which continuously increases during the
life of the individual.

In the Articulata, however, the column typically, after attaining
a certain definite number of columnals and reaching a certain definite
length, abruptly ceases further growth, and the topmost columnal
becomes attached to the calyx by close suture, developing into what
is, to ali intents and purposes, an apical calyx plate, the so-called

+ Tae

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—-CLARK 21

proximale. The so-called centrodorsal of the comatulids is such a
proximale below which the original: column has been discarded. In
the pentacrinites the early growth is exactly as in the comatulids,
but the proximale never becomes attached to the calyx; instead, new
columnals are formed between it and the crown and a new stem is
formed for which the original proximale serves as a terminal stem
plate, and a second proximale appears beneath the calyx ; this process
continuing, a series of so-called nodals is formed, each of which
represents, so to speak, an attempt of the column to limit itself to a
definite length and to cease all further growth. In the Bourgueti-
crinide, and in most of the Apiocrinidz, the original proximale is
reduplicated, so that just beneath the calyx there is found a more or
less conical structure composed of a series of proximales which
increase in perfection to that just beneath the calyx.

The abrupt limitation in the growth of the column, and the forma-
tion of a proximale which becomes rigidly attached to the calyx, pre-
venting the formation of additional columnals between it and the
calyx, in contrast to the primitive method of continuous stem growth
during life, is specialization through inhibition and definite limita-
tion of the skeleton forming power of the column.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
uz HS= SS ==
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 Ps
0-100 oO 2 80-75 (a) I
100-200 (0) 2 75-70 (0) 2
200-300 I 2 70-65 ) 2
300-400 I 2 65-60 O 2
400-500 I 2 60-55 ) 2
500-600 2 3 55-50 (0) 2
600-700 I 2 50-45 ) 2
700-800 I 3 A5—40 I 2
800-900 I 2 40-35 2 4
900-1000 I 3: 35-30 I 2
1000-1500 I 2 30-25 fo) 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 =
NwerAS ede p thle. sc heen eat eccs ce ate tier o .... 904 fathoms 797 fathoms
Averace vem penratune a tise +. osee fs nls Qeceea 37.5° Fahr. 50.1° Fahr.

1. Column terminating in an expanded terminal stem plate.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
GRentacninitidz) 2 ne Us spe seeker 0—2900 28.7-80.0
ENDIOLSANRU OREN eB See pon cle eae eA Cee 505-940 36.7-38.1
IPnirnnOemonCks aehc onc ocoeshoneoss 508-703 38.1—40.0
Eolopodidcee se eeee eer Fae States 5-120 Tie Oe

lieabocrinidca ys nik vance 266-2575 31.1-43.9

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

2. Column without a terminal stem plate.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
IBYoborreRbeCIMANGES 5554 oc00ccsc00cce 62-2690 29.1-70.75

The columns of the earlier crinoids typically (though by no means
always) terminated in an expanded base composed of a number of
enlarged columnals which, in later types, became simplified as a
single terminal stem plate from which the column more or less
abruptly arises.

The presence of a terminal stem plate appears to be of fundamental
significance, and therefore any type without it must be considered
as possessing a highly specialized type of column.

The absence of a terminal stem plate indicates specialization
through suppression of a fundamentally important skeletal structure.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
a aa am =a s\
Degrees
Fathoms 1 = Fahrenheit 1 P4
0-100 2 I 80-75 I oO
100-200 2 I 75-70 2 I
200-300 2 I 70-05 I I
300-400 2 I 65-60 I I
400-500 2 it 60—55 I I
500-600 A I 55-50 I I
600-700 A I 50-45 I I
700-800 4 I 45-40 2 I
800-900 3 il 40-35 4 I
Qo00—1000 3 I 35-30 2 I
1000-1500 2 ir 30-25 I I
1500-2000 2 I
2000-3000 2 I
1 2
Averacevdepth onan. chee oe elu tenderly 785 fathoms 808 fathoms
Averageatemperauiner i eur sora crerte 52.0° Fahr. 44.8° Fahr.
t. Radicular cirri present. eae ee
range range
IBYOUNRSTUICIICIANMICES co cocanaeccoansne 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Ze Radicilanctin absent: aa ence sincere
range range
(CReaiacerianiGke) sooscucusscscd0d 0-2900 28.7-80.0
Amiocginidze 05% ersascee co vce sche 565-940 36.7-38.1
PIBPAOSHVINGES sgcgacnasebocounsns 508-703 38.1-40.0
Eolopodidceiwac: atc eee 5-120 71.0
Plicatocnimidzey see) qu nena eee 200=25775 - 21.1-43.9

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 23

Combined with a broad spreading base composed of a mass of
swollen, distorted and overgrown columnals, the early crinoids com-
monly possessed stout and massive radicular cirri, which were very
irregular in position, and equally irregular in structure. In the
Articulata this type of stem base occurs only in fossil species belong-
ang to the family Apiocrinide, though a suggestion of it is found in
the young of certain macrophreate comatulids, particularly those
belonging to the genus Hathrometra; elsewhere one or other of the
root systems has been suppressed.

The presence of radicular cirri appears to be of the same funda-
mental significance as the presence of a terminal stem plate, and
therefore any type without it must be considered as possessing a
highly specialized type of column.

The absence of radicular cirri, just as the absence of a terminal
stem plate, indicates specialization through suppression of a funda-
mentally important skeletal structure.

The recent crinoids possess either radicular cirri or a terminal
stem plate, but never both combined as do many of the earlier types;
one or the other is always suppressed. As the suppression of either
is equally an evidence of specialization, it naturally follows that we
have here, in the presence or absence of the radicular cirri and the
correlated absence or presence of the terminal stem plate, two cate-
gories each of which is the complement of the other, while both repre-
sent an equivalent stage in phylogenetic advancement.

; Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 2 80-75 ) I
100-200 I 2 75-70 I 2
200-300 I 2 70-65 I I
300-400 I 2 65-60 I I
400-500 I 2 60-55 I I
500-600 — I A 55-50 I I
. 600-700 © I 4 50-45 I I
700-800 I 4 45-40 I 2
800-900 I 3 40-35 I 4
Q00-1000 I 3 35-30 I 2
1000-1500 I 2 30-25 I I
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 2
PAVE AS CIRM ED UI, nie itiet ee tara tn soe ca Sco eoe 808 fathoms 785 fathoms

PAVCh ACM REMIP CLALIT cana laiehda cia eee 44.8° Fahr. 52.0° Fahr.

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

1. Cirri absent.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Apiocrinide (Carpenterocrinus).. .565 38.1
IPNyMOCTMMIGES 2cpccsccccacoesc0ce 508-703 38.1—40.0
BO UIASDSMGMIMMGES socccuccecssccac 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Elolopo didae ise serie eee re 5-120 71.0
Biicatocrinidae sere eee 266-2575 31.1-43.9
2. Cirri present. Bathymetric Thermal
Tange range
PSMACIMMONGES 255 ,0cc0d00908000005 0-2900 28.7-80.0
Apiocrinide (Proisocrinus) ......940 30.7

The cirri, in contrast to the radicular cirri, properly speaking
are structures primarily associated with the calyx and not with the
column, though always arising from the latter. They are always
associated with the existence of a proximale, or modified proximal
columnal, upon which they are situated, and hence are almost entirely
confined to the Articulata.

The presence of cirri is always correlated with a great reduction
in the size and number of constituent elements of the column, and
in the relative size and number of skeletal elements of the calyx.

While undoubtedly a new structure, the cirri by their presence
always indicate a very high degree of reduction in the skeleton of
the calyx and of the column, and hence are always an index of
specialization through suppression of skeletal development. .

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 2 I 80-75 Oo I
100-200 2 I 75-70 2 I
200-300 2 I 70-05 I I
300-400 2 I 65-60 I I
400-500 2 I 60-55 I I
500-600 4 I 55-50 i I
600-700 B L 50-45 I I
700-800 3 I 45-40 2 I
800-900 2 I 40-35 “4 2
900-1000 2 2 35-30 2 I
1000-1500 2 I 30-25 ir I
1500-2000 2 I
2000-3000 2 I
1 2
PS OUCUENS eI Perio aso pasate wapote Dat2 S026 < 783 fathoms 818 fathoms

Average temperate) ee. sala eee cme soon “ij: leelie. 51.3° Fahr.

ety

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 25

III, DISK
1. Disk entirely covered with plates.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range

Pentacrinitide (Zygometride, Calo-

metridz, Pentacrinitida) ....... O-1350 36.0-80.0

Re Np Ochi desma shia neien crams oan 565-940 36.7-38.1
lelolkoysyoali@sa eee an rors cakioe Cae 5-120 71.0

iGatocianidceieer see BRE pet ona 266-2575 31.1-43.9

2. Disk naked, or with scattered granules.

Bathymetric Thermal
: range range
Pentacrinitide (Comatulida, except
Zygometride and Calometride). o~-2900 28.7-80.0
Dilirayn@crinicle yaaa a ae 508-703 38.1—40.0
Bourgtentenmdere sere eset 62-2690 .29.1-70.75

In the earlier crinoids belonging to the order Camerata, as in the
very young of the comatulids, the disk is always entirely covered
with plates, which form a solid pavement over it.

Only in the later types, chiefly in the Articulata, does this disk
armament: become less and less complete, eventually disappearing
altogether.

The partially plated or unplated disks of many of the later crinoids
furnish an example of specialization through suppression of a
fundamental primitive character.

Frequency eC UNSICE depths Frequency at different temperatures
os Degrees
Fathoms 1 = Fahrenheit 1 z
0-100 2 2 80-75 I I
100—200 2 2 75-70 2 2
200-300 2 2 70-05 I 2
300-400 2 2 65-60 I 2
400-500 2 2 60-55 I 2
500-600 3 3 55-50 I 2
600-700 3 3 50-45 I D
700-800 3 3 45-40 2 2
800-900 3 2 40-35 3 3
Q00—-1000 3 2 35-30 I 2
TO00—1 500 2 2 30-25 (0) 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 2
ANS SHRIEEGIS Dd oP eae: See eee en oe nae eee 707 fathoms 791 fathoms

AWASPNES USMS IIMS cbobdagecocedeouescoace 52.8° Fahr. 50.7° Fahr.

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

1. Orals present. - Bathymetric _ Thermal

Tange Tange

Pentacrinitide (Calometride, Pen-

tACrimikidayy ceachaeio we er G—-1350 36.0-80.0
PADLOCK der. ne acne eee ee 565-040 36.7-38.1
Eolopodidcete sean toner 5-120 71.0
Pitcatocrinidztaaoee eee 266-2575 31.1-43.9
2. Orals absent. Bathymetric Thermal
range range

Pentacrinitidz (Comatulida, except

Galomethid) meee eee O= 2000 28.7-80.0
IDINTFNOSMMGES socccccysao00gsnsce 508-703 38.1—40.0
Boursieticnimi dsm saee eee: 62-2690 29.1—70.75

Correlated with the presence of a solid plating over the surface
of the disk is the presence of large and definite oral plates surround-
ing the mouth.

These orals dwindle in size with the disintegration of the pavement
on the surface of the disk, finally, like that pavement, disappearing
altogether.

The disappearance of orals is an example of specialization through
the suppression of a fundamental feature, and is quite comparable
to the disappearance of the disk plating, with which, in a general
way, it is associated.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
(ae es > (GEER ae a See on) ag oye ort or aN
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 2 2 80-75 I I
100-200 2 2 75-70 2 2
200-300 2 2 70-65 I 2
300—400 2 2 65-60 I 2
400-500 2 2 60-55 I 2
500-600 3 3 55-50 I 2
600-700 2 2) 50-45 I 2
700-800 3 3 45-40 2 2
800-900 3 2 40-35 3 3
g00-1000 3 2 35-30 ii 2
1000-1500 2 2 30-25 O 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 2
Agena ge miGdeptlnaiy seus autem eccrine) atl teencmeen ate 707 fathoms 791 fathoms
Average temperature. oss sueeocsssme tea aae a. 52.8° Fahr. 50g 2 ali
1. Orals of different sizes. Hult cmeese Bee
range range

Pleo EMITNGES sooodcacccapetanoes 266-2575 31.1—43.9

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 27

2. All five orals of the same size.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
‘Pentacnimitidcer:< smice. uae oa cotes 2 0—2900 28.7-80.0
Holopodidzerr sss okole sens ses 5-120 71.0

In the older crinoids, in which as a rule the posterior interradius
was enlarged and modified by the inclusion of plates not occurring
in the other interradi, the posterior oral was as a rule larger than
the other four.

In the later types which, through the suppression of features
causing the differentiation of the anal interradius, exhibit a very
nearly perfect pentamerous symmetry, the orals are commonly all of
the same size.

The similarity of the orals is always associated with, and is an
index of, a suppression of certain constituent parts of the original
calyx structure, and is almost invariably associated with a reduction
in the size of the orals themselves.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
| am Sa a, Lek (anmae =S eee sr ak
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
o—-100 fo) 2 80-75 (e) I
100-200 O 2 IGE O 2
200-300 I I 70-05 Oo I
300-400 I I 65-60 co) :
400-500 I I 60-55 fo) I
500-600 I I 55-50 (e) I
600-700 I I 50-45 fe) I
700-800 I I 45-40 I I
800-900 I I 40-35 I I
900-1000 I I 35-30 I I
1000-1500 I Ti 30-25 (o) I
1500-2000 I I
2000-3000 I I
: 1 2
NRG CLGRETEy OVESDI Cee eR se re can nee ay oe 936 fathoms 713 fathoms
ENVET APC ELCIMpPeGALUGe Ic s2\- cn + se ee ee Byes allie 54.2° Fahr.
1. Orals with their inner edges upturned.
Bathymetric Thermal
Tange Tange
Pentacrinitide (Calometride) .... 0-333 52.0-75.7

Plicatocrinide (except Ptilocrinus) 392-2575 31.1-43.9

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65
2. Orals a spherical triangle. mene Fate a
range range
Pentacrinitide (except Calometri-
eit a daw Store, eaateatate 0-2900 28.7-80.0
Holopodide ic... wie marion secs 5-120 71.0
Plicatocrinide (Ptilocrinus)......266-2485 ao

In the earlier crinoids (except the Flexibilia) the orals were rela-
tively thick plates lying in the tegmen, of which they formed part
of the plated surface, and hence they acquired more or less the form
of spherical triangles of very appreciable thickness. . The disintegra-
tion of the orals, following that of the pavement of the disk, took
place from the periphery of the oral circlet, gradually working toward
the center. As the orals became thinner and thinner dorso-ventrally
it naturally resulted that their edges bordering the ambulacral
grooves, which were the last portions to be affected, became promi-
nent, standing up above the general surface as thin blade-like borders
parallel to the dorsoventral axis of the disk of gradually increasing
height, the orals eventually disappearing not as horizontal plates
lying in the tegmen but as five trough-like structures surrounding
the mouth with their angles in apposition, and with their longest
dimension, representing the long dimension of the trough, parallel
to the dorsoventral axis. Orals of this type are characteristic of the
pentacrinoid young of the macrophreate comatulids.

But while the reduction and disappearance of the orals after their
complete formation as skeletal structures characteristic of the adults
took this course, reduction of the orals gradually was shoved further
and further back into the ontogeny of the later types so that it set
in before the orals commenced to thicken. Cessation of development
of the orals at this stage leaves them in the form of very thin plates
lying in, and conforming in contour to, the inner angles of the
interambulacral areas.

Thus the presence of thin orals lying in and conforming in contour
to the inner angles of the interambulacral areas is an indication of
an advanced stage of suppression of those plates, which has been
shoved far forward into the ontogeny. So far as we know the orals
of the stalked young of the oligophreate comatulids never develop
further than this point.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 29

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 2 80-75 I I
100-200 I 2 75-70 I 2
200-300 I 2 70-05 I 1
300-400 2 2 65-60 I I
400-500 I 2 60-55 I I
500-600 I 2 55-60 I I
600-700 I 2 50-45 (0) I
700-800 I 2 45-40 I I
800-900 I 2 40-35 I 2
go0-1000 I 2 35-30 I Te
1000-1500 I 2 30-25 (6) I
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 2
PEL AP MED UMN te vnietele late ove viele s|s\e eine = wie. aieveie oe © 596 fathoms 808 fathoms
°
AVIETACE UCIMIP CATING fet. ale mivin a tee eines pe Fahr. 52.9° Fahr.
i Mouth central. Bathymetric Thermal
range range

Pentacrinitide (except Comasteri-
dz, and the five largest genera of

Eteliometiince) eames niece 0-2900 28.7-80.0
PTV ATO RENIN Bei vane, crac in ojevslntee las 508-703 38.1—40.0
BQ NAnIGUbOGS Sp65 o50qe0nan000 62-2690 29.1-70.75

Eighkejnouligkd .gssee vaosonacon desc 5-120 71.0
Bivcatochiniicce ne aa eereeer remorse 266-2575 31.1-43.9
2. Mouth more or less excentric.

Bathymetric Thermal

range range

Pentacrinitide (Comasteride, and
the five largest genera of Helio-
TUETENTE DD)” Maa cr eee os Siete cts Coe 00-1062 28.7-80.0

One of the most invariable features of crinoidal structure, a neces-
sary corollary of the primitive and fundamental pentamerous sym-
metry of these animals, is the central position of the mouth upon
the disk.

Only in a very few types, and in these only very late in the
ontogeny, do we find the mouth in an excentric position.

The migration of the mouth to an excentric position indicates a
high degree of specialization which, like many similar features, is
of more or less sporadic occurrence. The migration of the mouth
toward an excentric position indicates the gradual suppression of the
primitive and fundamental pentamerous symmetry of the crinoids.

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 65

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Gz od —— eee aN
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 3 I 80-75 I I
100-200 3 I 75-70 & I
200-300 3 I 70-65 2 I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 3 rf 60-55 2 I
500-000 4 I 55-50 2 I
600-700 4 I 50-45 2 I
700-800 4 I 45-40 3 I
Soo-900 3 I 40-35 4 I
Q00—1000 3 I 35-30 3 I
ITO000—1 500 3 I 30-25 2 I
T500—2000 3 fe)
2000-3000 3 (o)
1 2
Aneragectdepth: sac cnn aut sees Hee otemeeanieicie 775 fathoms 568 fathoms
Averace’ temperature: 7s ah occ ie eee eee 50.0° Fahr. 52.5° Fahr.

IV. ARMS

t. Arms composed of a linear series of ossicles, without 1 Br series.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (Pentametrocrinide
and part of Atelecrinidz) ...... 103-1800 33.5-00.6
Plicatocrinide (except Calamocri-
nus) alate seaiors Cae ones Sransatcrmaer OURS OIE 31.1-43.9

2. Arms dividing one or more times, or, if undivided, with IBr

SETIES. Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (except Pentametro-

crinide and part of Atelecrini-

CEES rae cf cta cana eee Ae ee ep ee 0-2900 28.7-80.0
INDIOCHINIG CER ine ces a oon oes 565-9040 36.7-38.1
Phrynockinide scsi cos cassie kes 508-703 38.1-40.0
IBXOVUS TNL GES Sag auase sanoncsse 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Elolopodidceeceiee aan ee 5-120 71.0
Plicatocrinide (Calamocrinus) ....302-782 38.5-43.9

Whatever may have been the ultimate origin of the crinoid arm as
a structure, the immediate ancestor of the recent types certainly pos-
sessed arms composed of an undifferentiated linear series of ossicles.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOTDS—CLARK 31

Subsequently this simple type of arm became modified through
the interpolation between the arm base and the radial of the so-called
[Br series, a pair of ossicles which is in reality a more or less perfect
reduplication of the radial (corresponding to the IBr,) and the
infraradial (corresponding to the [Br,).

The presence of IBr series is rendered possible only by a very
considerable reduction in the development of the calyx. The arms
arise from the border of the disk, and are outgrowths of which the
dorsal skeletal structures are derivatives from the skeletal structures
of the sides of the calyx cup, while the ventral structures, the ambu-
lacral grooves, water, blood, muscle and ventral nerve systems, are
outgrowths from the corresponding structures on the disk which
have extended themselves outward over the dorsal skeletal structures
as a support. Being in part derived from the lateral body wall and
in part an outgrowth from the ventral surface, the arms necessarily
must maintain their original position on the edge of the disk. In
the reduction of the calyx from the primitive condition of a cup
entirely enclosing the visceral mass dorsally and laterally to the
form of a small cap covering only the dorsal pole of the visceral
mass, or of a platform upon which the visceral mass rests, the arms,
as much a part of the disk as of the dorsal skeletal structure, are
unable to maintain their original connection with the now greatly
reduced radials. The growing gap between the arm bases and the
radials is filled not by a dorsalward extension of the arm bases, but
by the formation of an entirely new pair of plates, the IBr series,
between the radials and the arm bases, which serve to maintain the
connection, and which are in origin and in structure a more or less
perfect reduplication of the now atrophied radial and infraradial
(or possibly infrabasal). The presence of [Br series is therefore
a certain indication of the suppression of other more extensive skele-
tal structures, and is therefore an indication of specialization through
suppression. In this respect the presence of [Br series is of the same
significance as the presence of cirri, which always indicate and accom-
pany a suppression of development in the column. As the specializa-
tion of the column through suppression of its growth is correlated
with the specialization of the calyx through suppression of its devel-
opment, it is only natural that we should find the development of
cirri more or less closely correlated with the development of IBr
(and additional comparable) series.

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperattres
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 (o) 3 80-75 oO I
100-200 I 3 75-70 (0) 3
200-300 2 2 70-65 (0) 2
300-400 2 3 65-60 I 2
AO0—500 2 3 60-55 I 2
500-600 2 5 55-50 I 2
600-700 2 5 50-45 I 2
700-800 2 5 45-40 B 3
800-900 2 3 ‘40-35 2 5
900-1000 2 3 35-30 2 2
1000-1500 2 2D 30-25 ) 2
1500-2000 2 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 2
Averaged embliy cyaeny tt ras mentee eden rete ae 795 fathoms 723 fathoms
AWeracem tem peratll;em et aarti e Te eee 37.0° Fahr. 42.9° Fahr.

1. Arms with [Br series in which the outer element is axillary.

Bathymetric Thermal
range Tange

Pentacrinitide (except Eudiocrinus

ancl WICUOIEUDUIS) coeedcoccocccs 0—2900 28.7-80.0

AAI SVG ED: ie ee Seah we ces eec Sees 565-940 30.7-38.1
Bourgueticrinide (Jlycrinus, Bathy-

crinus, Monachocrinus) .........743-2690 30.9-40.0

EVolopodtdeee nee ere er ae _ 5-120 71.0

2. Arms with IBr series in which the outer element is not axillary.

Bathymetric Thermal
range Tange
Pentacrinitide (Eudiocrinus and
WIGS) Udana cas ouecdbaes Jon 22-630 30.5-71.0
Bourgueticrinide (Democrinus, By-
thocrinus, Rhizocrinus) ........ 61-1300 31.8-48.7

In the course of the development of the [Br series it came about
that the outer element (the IBr,) is normally axillary, bearing two
exactly similar arms instead of a single arm as in the case of an
arm-bearing radial.

Occasionally it happens that the IBr, is not axillary, but gives
rise to a linear series of ossicles, like the primitive radial. A more
or less common meristic variation in many diverse types, this feature
has in others become fixed and invariable.

The reduction of the [Br, from its normal condition of an axillary
to an ossicle giving rise to a simple linear series of ossicles, with the

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 33

resultant loss of half of the number of arms, is an illustration of
specialization through suppression.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
en aa SSS my ——— LL
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 2 2 80-75 I (0)
100-200 2 2 75-70 2 I
200-300 I 2 70-65 I I
300-400 I 2 65-60 I I
400-500 I 2 60-55 I I
500-600 2 2 55-50 I I
600-700 2 2 50-45 I 2
700-800 3 I 45-40 I 2
800-900 3 I 40-35 z 2
Q00-1000 3 I - 35-30 2 I
1000-1500 “Dp I 30-25 I O
1500-2000 2 oO
2000-3000 2 fo)
1 2
ANSTO EAGIS OU As ieee o Rene aae eeee 865 fathoms 483 fathoms
NViehACe sLempPeLatune ices seis aoe cele clei se 50.5° Fahr. 50.0° Fahr.

1. The first bifurcation is at a more or less indefinite distance
beyond the second post-radial ossicle.

Bathymetric Thermal

range range
Pentacrinitide (Metacrinus) ....,. 30-630 39.5-71.0
PTiPVMOCRMMNGES bcd ocoved cscs shbas 508-703 38.1-40.0
licarocninideesssmeeeeeae eee a es 266-2575 31.1—-43.9

2. The first bifurcation is on the second post-radial ossicle.

-Bathymetric Thermal
range , range
Pentacrinitide (except Metacrinus) 0-2900 28.7-80.0
AN DIOLS RHINKG eo etree eke aioe aera 565-940 36.7—38.1
BonuTpetetienintd sess] eee eae 62-2690 29.1-70.75
lolopodidess waaaau-e yan e suslo tees ets 5-120 71.0

In the earlier crinoid types, especially before the formation of
definite [Br series, the bifurcation of the arms commenced at a more
or less indefinite distance from the radials.

Later the number of plates intervening between the radials and
the first axillary became reduced to one only.

The reduction of the number of plates between the radials and the
first axillary from several to one only indicates specialization through
the suppression of useless skeletal structures.

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
—-- SS —---, — --
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 3 80-75 0) I
100-200 I 3 75-70 I 3
200-300 2 2 70-65 I 2
300-400 2 2 65-60 I 2
400-500 2 2 60-55 I 2
500-600 3 3 55-50 I BD
600-700 3 3 50-45 I 2
700-800 2 3 45-40 2 2
800-900 I 3 40-35 3 3
900-1000 I 3 35-30 I 2
IO000—-1500 I 2 30-25 (0) 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 - I 2
1 2
Average: Gepthicn cerry carie cate cueer rations 700 fathoms 756 fathoms
AV erace mem p Chatline men crr rile erie 49.1° Fahr. 51.6° Fahr.

1. A suture (or pseudo-syzygy) between the ossicles of the [Br

Series. Bathymetric Thermal

range range
Pentacrinitide (Comatula, Comas-

ter, Zygometride, Pentacrinitida) 0-1350 36.0-80.0
PMCAMOCIMIGES Goosdoncdcoacoadsoe 508-703 38.1—40.0
Piicatocuinids eee oie cine OO-25715 31.1-43.9

2. A ligamentous articulation (or synarthry) between the ossicles
otf the [Br series.

Bathymetric Thermal
A ee: range range
Pentacrinitide (except Comatula,

Comaster, Zygometride, Penta-

Ghimitiday)) tee erenne mee se 0—2900 28.7-80.0
Asp io Gist dees gees eeerisncie ceecions eins 565-040 36.7-38.1
IROUUNETTIEMNGWAIGES 5 oa6s50n00000006 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Holopodidaer ace cote aeeracrier 5-120 71.0

So far as can be ascertained, the union between the plates of the
IBr series in the earlier crinoids was by means of a more or less
featureless suture.

This suture in the later types became developed into a very dis-
tinctive ligamentous articulation known as the synarthry, composed
of two lateral ligament bundles separated by a strong dorsoventral
ridge running entirely across the apposed articular faces.

The development of a union composed of large and definite liga-
ment bundles from a union of scattered and diffuse fibers occupying
a much greater surface indicates a great reduction in the skeleton

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 35

whereby the original fibers have been collected and compressed into
compact bundles, and is therefore an indication of development by
suppression of the skeleton forming power.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 3 80-75 I I
100-200 it 3 75-70 I 3
200-300 2 2 70-05 I 2
3200-400 2 2 65-60 I 2
400-500 2 2 60-55 I 2
500-600 23 3 55-50 I 2
600-700 3 3 50-45 I 2
700-800 3 3 45-40 2 2
800-900 2 3 40-35 3 3
Qo0-1000 2 3 35-30 I 2
1000-1500 2 2 30-25 O 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 2
ACES CEDURES esas eo nmcionece sae aco 740 fathoms 755 fathoms
INVEFARECTEMIPeKAtTe Vva.. Sic ise swede ae wee ples ee liallates 51.6° Fahr.

1. Division series composed of an irregular number of ossicles.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (Metacrinus, Isocri-
TELS) Yates ae ah edenetesatne hy tales Pees ENC 5-667 30.5-71.0
IPA PNKSMGES Saosonc sup dodesmoo 508-703 38.1—-40.0
IPIMCRHOSRUNIGHKS «econ bloc noebauocso0e 266-2575 31.1—43.9

2. All of the division series composed of a fixed number of seg-
ments.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (except Metacrinus and Iso-

GOTH). Baba eee ne Biren tecstetragacte 0—2900 28.7-80.0
Aiiocuimidcee parent. A ee 565-940 - 36.7-38:1
Bouncneticnimidc sneha. <-1a97 00> - 62-2690 29.1—70.75
Elolopodide. ss seer cine 5-120 71.0

Like the first division series, the succeeding division series in the
more primitive crinoid types were composed of a variable and irregu-
lar number of ossicles.

After the evolution of the IBr system, of two ossicles only, inter-
polated between the radials and the arm bases, this system, as the
calyx continued to decrease in size, became developed and extended
so as to supplant all of the succeeding division series.

36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The substitution of the primitive division series of a variable and
irregular number of ossicles by a system made up of units of two
ossicles each, resulting in a great diminution in the number of ele-
ments necessary to support a given number of ultimate arm branches,
is an example of specialization through suppression of superfluous
skeletal elements.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
= Snee ae TE ee
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 . I 3 80-75 0) I
100-200 I 3 75-70 I 13
200-300 2 2 70-65 I 2
300—400 2 2 65-60 I 2
400-500 2 2 60-55 I 2
500-600 B 2 55-50 Te 2
600-700 B 3 50-45 I @
700-800 2 2 45-40 2 2
800-900 I 3 40-35 3 3
900-1000 I 3 35-30 I 2
1000-1500 I 2 30-25 (e) 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
1 2
Average: deptha ces: samussom aoe oe at ee 698 fathoms 756 fathoms
ASTOTAGS WMS Ghoapseocccocaoddncocud 49.1° Fahr. 51.6° Fahr.

1. The arms occupy only a portion of the distal border of the
radials.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (certain genera of
Galometnidc) seer rereeear ne 0-333 52.0-75.7
Phcatocrintdee seer eee eee aes 266-2575 31.1-43.9

2. The arms occupy the entire distal border of the radials.

’ Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (except certain gen- :
epaionGalometnide)eaee tess. ne ne O-2G00 28.7-80.0
NN Olermiindee Lowe a ou a SIN 5.6 ot 505-940 36.7-38.1
Phin ocrimmides: se 5 svn ecto tine oie 508-703 38.1-40.0
Boureuetierinidss saeco Purse 62-2690 29.1-70.75
FE olopodid sexo. seit omarion eee 5-120 71.0

In the primitive crinoids and in the young of the comatulids the
calyx more or less extensively encloses the visceral mass dorsally
and laterally, and the arms occupy only a relatively small part of the
distal border of the radials.

NO. [0 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK By)

But in the more specialized types and in the fully grown comatulids
the reduction in size of the calyx and its retreat toward the dorsal
pole causes the arms, which always remain of approximately the same
relative proportions, gradually to come to occupy the entire distal
border of the radials.

The occupation by the arm bases of the entire distal border of the
radials is an indication of the reduction in size of the radials and other
calyx plates, and hence must be regarded as indicating specialization
through suppression or atrophy of the skeletal structures.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Dasrass
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 3 80-75 it I
100-200 I 3 75-70 I 3
200-300 2 2 70-65 I 2
300-400 2 2 65-60 I 2
400-500 I 2 60-55 I 2
500-600 I 4 55-50 I 2
600-700 I 4 50-45 HO 2
700-800 I 4 45-40 I 2
800-900 I 3 40-35 I 4
9Q00—1000 I 3 35-30 I 2
IO000—1500 I 2 30-25 Oo 2
1500-2000 I 2
2000-3000 I 2
a 2
ANSVESTRH SI: ALS Dtdl dae Rote ope een Comere commen 6 612 fathoms 747 tathoms
PAV ERAC EME eMINET ALIEN a. si ctiies, cane setae se SE, Babe 51.0° Fahr.
1. All the arms of equal length. 5.1 metric De RA oF
range range
Pentacrinitide (except Comasteri-
(GLEE) i Seer Neher ares ea ean a 0-2900 28.7-80.0
NMIO GMCs erase she Sec eas 565-940 30.7-38.1
IPnAyMOWrnAUIGED “Sobacdkooonous0ssne 508-703 38.1-40.0
BOUT SOISNSMNONCES 444 aocou enna noon 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Pivcatocrinmidcaeteweneysseii ie seers: 266-2575 31.1—-43.9
2. The posterior arms dwarfed. painymetric These
range Tange
Pentacrinitidz (Comasteride) .... 0-830 44.5-80.0
TMolopodidzeun: cess seiicree: eines a cee 5-120 71.0

The crinoids being primarily and fundamentally pentamerous, all
five of their arms (or groups of arms) are primarily of equal size
and length.

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

But in certain types the posterior arms (in the Paleozoic usually
the anterior), particularly the left posterior, are more or less dwarfed
or atrophied, this resulting in a more or less marked bilateral sym-
-metry in which the anteroposterior axis may pass either through
the left posterior arm and the right anterior interambulacral area,
or through the anterior arm and the posterior interambulacral area.

The dwarfing or atrophy of one or both of. the posterior arms is
specialization through partial suppression of the normal arm devel-
opment.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 2 2 80-75 I I
100-200 2 2 75-79 2 2
200-300 3 I 70-65 2 I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 B I 60-55 2 I
500-600 5 I 55-50 2 I
600-700 5 I 50-45 2 if
700-800 5 I 45-40 3 I
800-900 4 I 40-35 5 fo)
go0—-1000 4 fo) 35-30 a) fo)
1000-1500 B O 30-25 2 (o)
1500-2000 3 fe)
2000-3000 3 (0)
1 2
Averace «Ge pth esc ece soot are ae een 822 fathoms 359 fathoms
Aver semtempeattinemss rte tien ee 48.6° Fahr. 61.4° Fahr.

1. All the arms terminate in a growing tip.

Bathymetric Thermal
Tange Tange
Pentacrinitide (except Comasteri-

2) easrmentaeteaman inrdasy etn ecpe Gis in cua 00-2900 28.7-80.0
A PIOCRIM Ge. 2 ooo hanren See 565-9040 36.7-38.1
Phrynocrinidce ss seceemeecer ere 508-703 38.1-—-40.0
Bounsuehicginitdc see neers 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Eolopodidsey Arsamas sce ee 5-120 71.0
Iblicatocnrinidcem mcrae 266-2575 31.1-43.9

2. Some of the arms terminate in a pair of pinnules.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (Comasteride) .... 0-830 - 44.5-80.0

Normally in the crinoids the arms grow continually throughout
life, and the arms therefore always terminate in a growing tip.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—-CLARK 39

But in case arm growth is arrested it frequently happens that a
definite perfected arm type is acquired which terminates in a pair of
pinnules and is capable of no further development.

The presence of (posterior) arms terminating in a pair of pinnules
indicates specialization through more or less extensive suppression of
the normal arm growth.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
= 0-100 3 I 80-75 I I
100-200 3 I 75-70 3 I
200-300 2 if 70-65 2 I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 I
500-600 5 I 55-50 2 I
600-700 5 I 50-45 2 I
700-800 5 I 45-40 3 T
800-900 3 I 40-35 5 (a)
Qo0-I000 3 fo) 35-30 2 (0)
1000-1500 2 oO 30-25 2 9)
1500—2000 2 O
2000-3000 2 ‘o)
al 2
NV CLAS CAGE DE IN yA evcestciats veda sarate Seneleuen teaaren Suara ct 723 fathoms 450 fathoms
Average: temperattne 5.5. seaeer woes cae. = 42.9° Fahr. 60.0° Fahr.

1. All the arms are provided with ambulacral grooves.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (except Comasteri-

GED os racine dares ole or oT erg HERR 00-2900 28.7-80.0
INDIOC TAIN OSS fs oe mone Nes et See 565-940 36.7-38.1
Phigyatocrimidee! seyeise. = ocie sess 508-703 38.1—40.0
BOunetMeticrinidsels en eee eee 62-2690 29.1-70.75
lElGiovoaliqks “Ss lbeossotocesnacade 5-120 71.0
IDiveaiveirGkS Bosacsose sass eooboe 266-2575 31.1-43.9

2. The posterior arms are without ambulacral grooves.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Comastentdce ee wee AC eee 0-830 44.5-80.0

In the crinoids all of the arms are normally provided ventrally
with ambulacral grooves.

From the posterior arms of certain types, which always are correla-
tively more or less dwarfed, these ambulacral grooves may be absent.

The absence of ambulacral grooves on the posterior arms (which
may involve as many as three of the five radii) indicates specializa-

AO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

tion through the suppression of one of the most fundamental elements
of the arm structure.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
i Degrees
Fathoms 1 Pa Fahrenheit 1 Pe
0-100 3 I 80-75 I I
100-200 B I 75-70 R I
200-300 2, I 70-65 2 I
300-400 2 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 I
500-600 5 I 55-50 2 I
600-700 ais I 50-45 2 I
700-800 5 iE 45-40 3 I
800—900 B I 40-35 5 fo)
900-1000 3 O 35-30 2 50
1000-1500 2 (0) 20-25 2 3)
1500—2000 2 O
2000-3000 2 fo)
1 2
Average: deptiitcjcce tse nee ees bocoosieg.c's 723 fathoms 450 fathoms
Average temperattne ae aeeen eee noe eee 42.9° Fahr. 60.0° Fahr.

V. PINNULES

1. Pinnules, at least the proximal, more or less sharply triangular
in cross section.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (except Macrophre-

EAN) else fav Roce re wea sere Serer ee 0—-1600 34.2-80.0
PAUDIOLCIg TOMI Sw aeecou.c oadicub owes Ot 565-940 36.7-38.1
IPMANCOHIMNGES “oo coccsveosos dds ce 508-703 38.1—40.0
Bougemeticnintdz: arene: 62-2690 29.1-70.75
lolopodida ieee ne eee eee 5-120 71.0
Pivcatocrimidce screener encores 266-2575 31.1-43.9

2. Pinnules circular or elliptical in cross section.
Bathymetric Thermal
range ; range
Pentacrinitide (Macrophreata) ... 0-2900 28.7-79.1

In all of the earlier crinoids in which the structure of the pinnules
can be made out these organs are found to be prismatic in form and
more or less sharply triangular in cross section, the ambulacral
groove occupying a side opposite to a sharp (dorsal) ridge.

In a few highly specialized types the pinnules, instead of being
strongly prismatic and triangular in cross section, are more or less
cylindrical and circular or elliptical in cross section, with very slender
segments and swollen joints.

In the change from the prismatic to the cylindrical type the pinnules
lose a very large part of the calcareous substance, becoming very

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK Al

slender ; and hence we may look upon this change as correlated with
an increasing suppression of the skeleton forming power.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
Degrees
Fathoms 1 = Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 3 I 80-75 I I
100-200 3 I 75-70 3 I
200-300 3 I 70-05 2 I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 I
500-600 5 I 55-50 2 I
600-700 5 I 50-45 2 I
700-800 5 I 45-40 3 I
800-900 4 I 40-35 5 I
go0—1000 4 I 35-30 B I
1000-1500 23 I 30-25 I I
1500-2000 3 I
2000-3000 2 I
1 2
PAG GTN: bc oceacnisae we ae parse cs ine Wed chine 754 fathoms 808 fathoms
ANGE TASS ALENT CHATUE fie Siete vat Grcioe eu w wravegnce evapeces 50.4° Fahr. 25a,
t. All of the pinnules similar. ee see
range range

Pentacrinitide (Ptilometrine, Ate-

lecrinide, Pentacrinitida) ...... 0-1350 36.0-80.0
ATOR RIG ihe: ima ee eee ee 505-940 - 36.7-38.1
Piary iO Citi dasa ae se emis teas S 508-703 38.1-40.0
IBOKbERERMIOTIMGES, scccocnasennccss 62-2690 29.1-70.75
IsI@l ojo otis ee aicime aoe aoe Seen 5-120 71.0
PMCALOCKINIGs jhe eac acne eee 266-2575 31.1-43.9

2. The proximal pinnules modified.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (Comatulida, except
Ptilometrine and Atelecrinide). 0-2900 28.7-80.0

So far as we know the earlier crinoids, like the young comatulids
before the appearance of P,, had all the pinnules similar, except in
the cases in which the proximal segments of the lower pinnules were
embedded in the calyx wall, when these were enlarged and broadened.

But in the dominant types to-day the proximal pinnules are almost
always modified, having lost their original significance and adopted
instead the function of slender tactile or stout protective organs.

The modification of the proximal pinnules is always associated
with the loss not only of the ambulacral grooves and the associated
structures, but also of the genital organs ; and it therefore is possible

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

to consider it as an indication of specialization through suppression
of all of the functions of pinnules, which has permitted a radical
change in their structure.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
————— emery SS SS =
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 3 I 80-75 I I
100-200 3 I 75-70 3 I
200-300 3 I 5 70-65 2 I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 I
500-600 5 I 55-50 2 I
600-700 5 I 50-45 2 I
700-800 5 I 45-40 3 I
800-900 4 I 40-35 5 I
9g00-I000 4 I 35-30 2 I
100-1500 3 I 30-25 I I
1500-2000 2 I
2000-3000 2 I
1 2
Average idepthie cis aemcis sere ie no ornare 621 fathoms 808 fathoms
ANYVSTNGS WHSTIDSENNUIN® “coo geodaconucecooacor = 5f.0- wali, 52h Malin

1. Pinnulation of the arm bases more or less deficient.

Bathymetric Thermal
ie , range range
Pentacrinitide (part of Capillaste-

rine, Colobometride, Zenometri-
ne, Pentametrocrinide and Atele-
crinidz, and all of the Perometri-

TES) hye cee oenle Rek ie Ree eos O-1050 37.0-80.0
Phisynocrinidce yee oars eeleoe 508-703 38.1—40.0
Bounsueticnmidc see ere 62-2690 29.1-70.75
Piicarocninidccun eee nee en ee 266-2575 31.1-43.9

2. All of the proximal pinnules present.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range

Pentacrinitide (except part of Ca-
pillasterinz, Colobometride, Ze-
nometrine, Pentametrocrinide,
and Atelecrinide, and the Pero-

MICEHINIZE) el Meee ees Seon eee eae ts ee ale 0-2900 28.7-80.0
Apiocrinidzeriy: akc. Shere 565-940 36.7-38.1
IBloNoynohieeS eaccoooseccobcoococe 5-120 71.0

In the earlier crinoids all of the pinnules were commonly present,
_ but with the decrease in the size of the visceral mass and the corre-
sponding increase in the size and in the length of the arms which we
are, in a general way, able to trace from the earlier to the later types,

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 43

the arm bases became more or less crowded together, so that the
development of pinnules on the earlier brachials became impossible.

With the further reduction of the calyx, which chiefly involved
the turning outward of the radials so that ultimately they attained
a position at right angles to instead of parallel with the dorsoventral
axis of the animal, the arms progressively became more and more
widely separated, and then, step by step, the proximal pinnules were
again able to develop.

Although originally the crinoids possessed all of the proximal
pinnules, the primitive condition of the immediate ancestors of the
groups to which the recent types belong was a deficient pinnulation
of the arm bases. As the reappearance of the pinnules on the arm
bases was made possible by, and is therefore directly correlated with,
the more advanced stages in the reduction of the calyx, perfection
of the proximal pinnulation is in reality an evidence of specialization
through a reduction of the more fundamental elements of the
skeleton.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
(Ta S Sr ae) 0 |
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 2 2 80-75 I I
100-200 2 2 75-70 2 2
200-300 3 I 70-65 2 I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 I
500-600 4 2 55-50 2 I
600-700 4 2 50-45 2 if
700-800 4 2 45-40 3 I
800-900 3 2 40-35 4 2
900-1000 3 2 35-30 2 I
1000-1500 3 I 30-25 I I
1500-2000 2 I
2000-3000 2 I
1 2
Aw cracemdep bliemiact ae ae. atts © nceidneino debian 763 fathoms 722 fathoms
PAV CEASE MHEMIPChALGE «cic oho. 5 ais Geta sea ea 50.7° Fahr. 52.9° Fahr.
I. Side- and covering-plates highly developed.
Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitidze (Calometride, Tha-
lassometride, Charitometride,
ancl IReaayerbamaGe)) sgoecsacacsc 0-1600 34.2-75.7
AMLOGHINIdse) san. elec mes cheese ae 565-940 36.7-38.1
Boucseneninidcem em eee tee: 62-2690 29.1-70.75
ElOlopodidzee wry carvers ere ne 5-120 71.0

lieatocnimidcemevas sic ave eee 266-2575 31.1-43.9

44 ‘ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

2. Side- and covering-plates rudimentary.

Bathymetric Thermal
Ca 4 range 2 Tange
Pentacrinitide (except Calometri-
de, Thalassometride, Charito-
metride, and Pentacrinitida) ... 0-2900 28.7-80.0
Phrynocninideee sce ani 508-703 38.1-40.0

Side- and covering-plates, in one form or another, are of almost
universal occurrence among the earlier crinoids.

In certain of the later and more specialized types the development
of the plates has been more or less completely suppressed.

In this we see a clear example of specialization through suppression
of a fundamental structure.

Frequency ai UEP ELE depths Frequency at different temperatures
id : Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 B I 80-75 I I
100-200 2 I 75-70 2 I
200-300 3 I 70-65 B I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 1
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 1
500-600 4 B 55-50 B 1
600-700 4 2 50-45 2 Te
700-800 4 2 45-40 3 I
800-900 4 I 40-35 4 z
go00-1000 4 I 35-30 3 I
1000-1500 3 I 30-25 I i
1500—2000 3 I
2000-3000 2 I
1 2
INTSEAERS GION. Eapgeacsmareunsoesgorwaor dose 794 fathoms 778 fathoms
Average) tempenatine eras ile sheet niet 50.0° Fahr. 51.2° Fahr.

1. All of the pinnules beyond the oral provided with ambulacral

STOOVES. Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (except Comasteri-
de and Charitometride) ....... 0—2900 28.7-80.0
APIO CHNG Tes Vac denaces wit aie weer ane 565-040 36.7-38.1
Pihnayaoeciiid ae oh wie us neem 508-703 38.1—40.0
Xo NFER ATOMS soccdodscdca0cas 62-2690 29.1—70.75
Flolopodideys aceener inde eee 5-120 71.0

IPA ROTTED os aucasvocee ots ee 266-2575 31.1-43.9

—

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—-CLARK 45

2. Some or all of the pinnules on certain arms without ambulacral
grooves.

Bathymetric Thermal
Pen ; i, Tange Tange
Pentacrinitide (Comasteride,
Chngurivomneiin@es)) Soopsccagutcoue 0-1200 39.5-80.0

Primarily all the pinnules on a crinoid arm are similar, and all are
provided with ambulacral grooves. In many of the later types,
however, the ambulacral grooves on the proximal pinnules have been
suppressed.

In other late types not only have the ambulacral furrows and asso-
ciated structures been suppressed on the proximal pinnules, but also
they have disappeared from the genital, and in many cases from all,
the pinnules.

The disappearance of the ambulacral grooves and associated struc-
tures from the genital and distal pinnules is an instance of specializa-
tion through suppression of a fundamental structure.

Frequency at different depths Frequency at different temperatures
= Ss > = Do —,
’ Degrees
Fathoms 1 Z Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 3 I 80-75 I I
100-200 3 I 75-70 3 I
200-300 3 I 70-605 2 I
300-400 3 I 65-60 2 I
400-500 3 I 60-55 2 I
500-600 5 I 55-50 2 I
600-700 5 I 50-45 2 I
700-800 5 I 45-40 3 I
800-900 4 I 40-35 5 I
Q00—1000 4 I 35-30 3 (e)
1000-1500 2B I 30-25 2 fo)
1500-2000 8 (a)
2000-3000 3 (0)
1 2
ASHOREISEs CDT Ian ane Oe ee UR ae 822 fathoms 568 fathoms
EVLA Se sLemperamiire tas mee noe cicm neue oe ee ye 49.5° Fahr. 57-5. Fahr.

VI. GENERAL
1. Skeleton composed of more than a million ossicles.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range

Pentacrinitide (part of Capillaste-
rine, Comasterine, Zygometride,
Himerometride, Mariametride,
Colobometridz, and Heliometri=
nae andes Pentacnimtida)) s2..ees 0-1350 28.7-80.0

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

2. Skeleton composed of less than a million ossicles.

Bathymetric Thermal
range range
Pentacrinitide (except part of
Capillasterine, Comasterinz, Zy-
gometride, Himerometridez, Ma-
riametride, Colobometride, and
Heliometrine, and Pentacrini-
tai) iuacuars cone Ries telae net nees accrue rok 0—2900 28.7-80.0
Apiocrinideey i sascus arene ee 565-940 36.7-38.1
IPIMANGCTMONGES 5 asdoagcccdocc vcd ec 508-703 38.1—40.0
BYORI MUMGED | 5 5000caccob0s ces 62-2690 29.1-70.75
etolopodicaeie tere rere 5-120 71.0
IPIbiGMCVSMNGES “So oacdonsendcesd boc 266-2575 31.1-43.9

In the older crinoids the skeleton was usually composed of an
enormous number of ossicles.

In the later and more specialized types the individual skeletal ele-
ments are as a rule very much less in number.

This is a good example of specialization through suppression.

Frequency at different depths Y Frequency at different temperatures
* APES — Ee : ——
Degrees
Fathoms 1 2 Fahrenheit 1 2
0-100 I 3 80-75 I I
100-200 I 3 75-70 I 3
200-300 I 3 70-05 I 2
300-400 I 3 65-60 I zZ
400-500 I B 60-55 I 2
500-600 I 5 55-50 I 2
600-700 I 5 50-45 I 2
700-800 I 5 45-40 I 3
800-900 I 4 40-35 I 5
g00—1000 I 4 35-30 I RB
1000-1500 I 3 30-25 I 2
1500-2000 0 3
2000-3000 (0) 4
1 2
AYO GION 5 scce0svocnoac east ein soc ae Arey ea 568 fathoms 822 fathoms
Average) tempenrauune saat erence 52.5° Fahr. 49.5° Fahr.

THE FAMILIES OF RECENT CRINOIDS, WITH THE CHARACTERS,
AS PREVIOUSLY GIVEN, PRESENTED BY EACH
In the following pages each of the families including recent cri-
noids is given, together with the characters as just described which
it presents. ;

NO. I0 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 47

PENTACRINITIDE
Calyx

2. Calyx forming a platform upon which the viscera rest, more or
less supported by the arm bases.

2. Calyx reduced by the eversion and imbrication of the calyx plates.
1. Basals present (minority).
2. Basals absent (majority).

1. Five basals.

. Basals separate (minority).

Basals fused into a single calcareous plate (majority).

Infrabasals present as individual plates (minority ).

Infrabasals absent, or fused with other plates (majority).

. Five radials (majority).

Ten radials (minority).

Interradials present, (minority).

Interradials absent (majority).

Anal +, bearing a process, present (minority).

Anal x, bearing a process, absent (majority).

Interbrachials present (large minority).

Interbrachials absent (small majority).

Sr EO CU ae Nl pl aay

Column

2. Original column discarded in early life.
2. Column not composed of short cylindrical ossicles with radial
crenellz.
2. Column including modified columnals, a proximale or nodals.
(1. Column terminating in an expanded terminal stem plate.)
(2. Radicular cirri absent.)
2. Cirri present.
Disk
1. Disk entirely covered with plates (minority).
2. Disk naked, or with scattered granules (majority).
1. Orals present (minority).
_ 2. Orals absent (majority).
2. All five orals of the same size.
1. Orals with their inner edges upturned (minority).
2. Orals a spherical triangle (majority).
1. Mouth central (majority).
2. Mouth more or less excentric (minority).

4

48

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Arms

. Arms composed of a linear series of ossicles, without 1Br

series (minority).

. Arms dividing one or more times, or, if undivided, with [Br

series (majority).

. Arms with [Br series in which the outer element is axillary

(majority).

. Arms with [Br series in which the outer element is not axil-

lary (minority).

. The first bifurcation is at a more or less indefinite distance

beyond the second post-radial ossicle (minority).

. The first bifurcation is on the second post-radial ossicle

(majority).

1. A suture between the ossicles of the IBr series (minority).

. A ligamentous articulation in the 1Br series (majority).

1. Division series composed of an irregular number of elements

ey og sa

me bw & Wb

(minority ).

. Division series composed of a fixed number of elements

(majority).

. The arms occupy only a portion of the border of the radials

(minority).

The arms occupy the entire distal border of the radials
(majority).

All the arms of equal length (majority).

The posterior arms dwarfed (minority).

All the arms terminate in a growing tip (majority).

Some of the arms end in a pair of pinnules (minority).

All of the arms are provided with ambulacral grooves
(majority).

The posterior arms are without ambulacral grooves (minor-
ity).

Pinnules

. Pinnules, at least the proximal, more or less sharply triangular

in cross section (majority).
Pinnules circular or elliptical in cross section (minority).
All of the pinnules similar (minority).
The proximal pinnules modified (majority).
Pinnulation of the arm bases more or less deficient (minor-
ity).
All of the proximal pinnules present (majority).

1. Side- and covering-plates highly developed (minority).

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 49

b&b be ee SD

2. Side- and covering-plates rudimentary (majority).

t. All of the pinnules beyond the oral provided with ambulacral
grooves (majority).

2. Some or all of the pinnules on certain arms without ambu-
lacral grooves (minority).

General

1.‘ Skeleton composed of more than a million ossicles (minority).
2. Skeleton composed of less than a million ossicles (majority).

APIOCRINID®

Calyx

. Calyx forming a platform upon which the viscera rest more or

less supported by the arm bases.

. Calyx reduced by the eversion and imbrication of the calyx plates.

Basals present.
Five basals.
Basals separate.
Five radials.
Interradials absent.
Anal x absent.
Interbrachials absent.
Column
Entire column present.

. Column jointed.

Column not composed of short cylindrical ossicles with radial
crenelle.
1. Column composed of a single type of columnals, without a
proximale or nodals (half).
2. Column including modified columnals, a proximale or nodals
(half).

Column terminating in an expanded terminal stem plate.

. Radicular cirri absent.

1. Cirri absent (half).
2. Cirri present (half).

Arms.

. Arms dividing one or more times, with [Br series.

t. Arms with [Br series in which the outer element is axillary.

. The first bifurcation is on the second post-radial ossicle.

eH Ww Ss Ho

He Ww & Wb

Oo NH DY HH HH HY

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

. A ligamentous articulation between the ossicles of the [Br series.
. Division series composed of a fixed number of ossicles.

. The arms occupy the entire distal border of the radials.

. All the arms of equal length.

. All the arms terminate in a growing tip.

. All the arms are provided with ambulacral grooves.

Pinnules

Pinnules more or less sharply triangular in cross section.
All of the pinnules similar.

All of the proximal pinnules present.

Side- and covering-plates highly developed.

All of the pinnules provided with ambulacral grooves.

General

Skeleton composed of less than a million ossicles.

PHRY NOCRINIDZ&

Calyx

. Calyx forming a platform upon which the viscera rest, more or

less supported by the arm bases. ’

1. Calyx reduced by the moving inward of all the calyx plates
(half).

2. Calyx reduced by the eversion and imbrication of the calyx
plates (half).

. Basals present.

Five basals.

Basals separate.
Five radials.
Interradials absent.
Anal « absent.
Interbrachials absent.

Column
Entire column present.
Column jointed.
Column not composed of short cylindrical ossicles with radial
crenellz.

. Column including modified columnals, a proximale or nodals.

Column terminating in an expanded terminal stem plate.
Radicular cirri absent.
Cirri absent.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 51

Disk
2. Disk naked.
2. Orals absent.
1. Mouth central.

Arms

2. Arms dividing one or more times, but without IBr series.

1. The first bifurcation is at a more or less indefinite distance beyond
the second post-radial ossicle.

A suture between the ossicles of the [Br series.

Division series composed of an irregular number of ossicles.

. The arms occupy the entire distal border of the radials.

. All the arms of equal length.

. All the arms terminating in a growing tip.

. All the arms provided with ambulacral grooves.

HSH A & WH HH eR

Pinnules

Pinnules more or less sharply triangular in cross section.
All of the pinnules similar.

Pinnulation of the arm bases more or less deficient.
Side- and covering-plates rudimentary.

. All of the pinnules provided with ambulacral grooves.

eS NO SH SS &

General

2. Skeleton composed of less than a million ossicles.

BOURGUETICRINIDE
Calyx

2. Calyx forming a platform upon which the viscera rest, more or
_ less supported by the arm bases.
1. Calyx reduced by the moving inward of all the calyx plates.
1. Basals present.
1. Five basals.
1. Basals separate (half).
2. Basals fused into a single calcareous element (half).
No infrabasals.
. Five radials.
. Interradials absent.
. Anal + absent.
. Interbrachials absent.

bo b&b bY HN

52

HoH & WH NO Drgist oS.

i)

‘S)

e
.

is)

bo Ww NY NWN

Ln
. .

= = eS [en en
. . . . .

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Column
Entire column present.
Column jointed.

. Column not, composed of short cylindrical ossicles with radial

crenellz.
Column including modified columnals, a proximale or nodals.

. Column without a terminal stem plate.
. Radicular cirri present.
. Cirri absent.

Disk
Disk naked.
Orals absent. '
Mouth central.

Arms

Arms with IBr series.
Arms with IBr series in which the outer element is axillary.
The first bifurcation is on the second post-radial ossicle.

. A ligamentous articulation between the ossicles of the [Br series.
. Division series composed of a fixed number of ossicles.
. The arms occupy the entire distal border of the radials.

All the arms are of equal length.
All the arms terminate in a growing tip.

Pinnules

Pinnules more or less sharply triangular in cross section.
All of the pinnules similar.

Pinnulation of the arm bases more or less deficient.
Side- and covering-plates highly developed.

All of the pinnules provided with ambulacral grooves.

General

Skeleton composed of less than a million ossicles.

HOLOPODIDE .
Calyx
. Calyx in the form of a cup, protecting the viscera dorsally and
laterally.
No basals.

No infrabasals.

oT lala ah il

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—-CLARK 53

N WN NHN

. Five radials.

. Interradials absent.

. Anal # absent.

. Interbrachials absent.

Column

1. Entire column present.

bal deat DS) 1S) RS), LS) LS) Sr) mt IS) TS) tet iS

HH N AH

. Column unjointed.
. Column not composed of short cylindrical ossicles with radial

crenelle.

. Column terminating in an expanded terminal stem plate.
. Radicular cirri absent.
. Cirri absent.

Disk

Disk entirely covered with plates.
Orals present.

. All five orals of the same size.

Orals a spherical triangle.

. Mouth central.

Arms

. Arms dividing once, with IBr series.

. Arms with [Br series in which the outer element is axillary.

. The first bifurcation is on the second post-radial ossicle.

. A ligamentous articulation between the elements of the [Br series.
. Division series composed of a fixed number of ossicles.

. The arms occupy the entire distal border of the radials.

. The posterior arms are dwarfed.

. All the arms terminate in a growing tip.

. All the arms are provided with ambulacral grooves.

Pinnules

. Pinnules more or less sharply triangular in cross section.
. All of the pinnules similar.

. All of the proximal pinnules present.

. Side- and covering-plates highly developed.

. All of the pinnules provided’ with ambulacral grooves.

General

. Skeleton composed of less than a million ossicles.

Bete ee

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

PLICATOCRINID/Z

Calyx

. Calyx in the form of a cup, protecting the visceral mass dorsally

and laterally.

. Basals present.

1. Five basals (minority).
2. Three basals (majority).
1. Basals separate (majority).
2. Basals fused into a single calcareous element (minority).
No infrabasals.
Five radials.
Interradials absent.
Anal x absent.
Interbrachials present.

Column

. Entire column present.
. Column jointed.
. Column composed of short cylindrical columnals with radial

crenelle.

. Column composed of a single type of columnals, without a proxi-

male or nodals.
Column terminating in an expanded terminal stem plate.
Radicular cirri absent.

. Cirri absent.

Disk

. Disk entirely covered with plates.
. Orals present.
. Orals of different sizes.

2. Orals a spherical triangle (minority).
1. Orals with upturned inner edges (majority).

. Mouth central.

Arms
1. Arms composed of a linear series of ossicles, without IBr
series (majority).
2. Arms dividing one or more times, without IBr series (minor-
ity).

. The first bifurcation is at a more or less indefinite distance from

the second post-radial ossicle.
A suture between the first two post-radial ossicles.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 55

. Division series composed of an irregular number of ossicles.

. The arms occupy only a portion of the distal border of the radials.
. All the arms are of equal length.

All the arms terminate in a growing tip.

All the arms are provided with ambulacral grooves.

SH S SS = &

Pinnules

Pinnules more or less sharply triangular in cross section.
All of the pinnules similar.

Pinnulation of the arm bases more or less deficient.

Side- and covering-plates highly developed.

All of the pinnules provided with ambulacral grooves.

HH He HW WH

General

LS)

. Skeleton composed of less than a million ossicles.

THE OCCURRENCE IN THE VARIOUS FAMILIES OF BOTH COM-
PONENTS OF CONTRASTING PAIRS

Excepting for the Holopodide, which is represented in the existing
seas by only a single species, all of the families of recent crinoids
agree in exhibiting, in closely related genera included in them, both
of the contrasted characters in a greater or lesser number of pairs.

The number of entire pairs included in the various families 1s
apparently proportionate to the known recent representation of each
family. It is largest in the Pentacrinitide, which includes by far
the greater part of all the existing types.

In detail the contrasted pairs in each family are as follows:

PENTACRINITID
Te Galym

The presence or absence of basals.

The individual occurrence, or fusion, of the basals.
The presence or absence of infrabasals.

The occurrence of five or ten radials.

The presence or absence of interradials.

The presence or absence of anal +.

The presence or absence of interbrachials.

56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Tit. Disk

The presence or absence of plating on the disk.

The presence or absence of orals.

The condition of the orals, whether with or without upturned
edges.

The central or excentric position of the mouth.

IV. Arms

The structure of the arms, whether a linear series of ossicles with-
out IBr series, or dividing one or more times, or with IBr series.

The condition of the IBr,, whether axillary or not.

The position of the first post-radial axillary, whether on the
second post-radial plate or beyond.

The type of the union between the plates of the [Br series, whether
a suture (pseudo-syzygy) or a synarthry.

The condition of the division series, including a definite or an
indefinite number of plates.

The condition of the union between the radials and the arm bases,
whether or not the latter occupy the entire distal border of the
former.

The equality or inequality in the length of the arms.

The definite or indefinite termination of the arms.

The presence or absence of ambulacral grooves on all the arms.

V. Pinnules

The prismatic or cylindrical form of the pinnules.

The presence or absence of differentiation of the proximal pinnules.

The development or non-development of side- and covering-
plates.

The presence or absence of ambulacral grooves on all the pinnules.

VI. General

The presence of more or less than a million skeletal elements.

PLICATOCRINIDZ&

LCaly
Five or fewer basals.
The individual occurrence, or fusion, of the basals.

ia

NO. IO PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 57

ih. Disk

The condition of the orals, whether with or without upturned
edges.

IV. Arms

The structure of the arms, whether a linear series of ossicles with-
out IBr series, or dividing one or more times, or with IBr series.

BOURGUETICRINID
ll; (CGI

The individual occurrence, or fusion, of the basals.

IV. Arms

The condition of the IBr,, whether axillary or not.

APIOCRINIDZE
Il. Column

The presence or absence of nodals.
The presence or absence of cirri.

PHRYNOCRINID
Galva,
The method of reduction of the calyx.

THE CRINOID FAMILIES CONSIDERED AS THE SUM OF THE
CONDERAST ED CHARACH ERS! EX oTBIL ED BYe WEE Mi

If we take each crinoid family, and, for each of the structural
divisions given (Calyx, Column, Disk, Arms, Pinnules and General
Structure), add the primitive characters (1) and the specialized
characters (2), the difference between the two totals will give us
an index of the relative condition of specialization of each of the
different structural units.

The figures are as follows:

PENTACRINITIDA
Gallien eshte = areca temconusre eee cee) g (2) difference 1 (2)
Goltinmttiae soto ke eee setteee hee m (G2) 5 (@) se A (B))
[DVI Ee gies eas eer Oe Sere aea her aa anaes 4 (1) 5 (@) $ ss)
JAGR TIS aE anata ge na PRE <j (0) or) e (0)
airman ttleste sir clo ates Me hee wanes inate: & (ir) SS (@) Ne 0)
(GS Sani ea eee ce Ses en TGE) i (2) = 0)

ZEN (Ga) 34 (2) difference 6 (2)

58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65
c APIOCRINIDAE
Callivs) a oie See is eae ey eee a ey AL (a) 5 (2) difference I (2)
Golumt ns cs Ge ee eee &. @) 4 (2) T nr)
NUREVI G2 scat orci et ava aan ouceae Bere ene Al (a) 5 (a) 4 I (2)
Pamimiales? Raita sicker a ee 4 (1) I (2) Ss (it)
Generali ose esas Seatac on ores (a) (2) nN i (@))-
ig? (at) 16 (2) difference 1 (1)
PHRY NOCRINID/E
(Gel Mb Sani ee neetater Greer RAEN es wid eras 5 (a) 5 (2) difference o
Coltimin: stones eee a ae ee 4 (1) Be) ss Tee)
ID Sa eM St inch nin bebe eee Re ais it) (Ca) 22) ie T(@)
IAGriTaS; = aah eae e ok ces (ore ener eee G (i) A (2) x He.)
Pinntiless: s3 eee ieee eee eee 4 (1) T@) 5S 35 (a)
General? <2 enone ee eee om i (2) S i (2)
20 (1) 14 (2) difference 6 (1)
BOURGUETICRINID/E
Calyscrn ts sacar: AF abies tea fae = (i) 6 (2). difference I (2)
Golan Ae ee ee Ee eae ev AL (at) am) rs et (Gi)
Ds) gener nates eta IIe AR APN Rete ee dca mt (@)) a (@) . i (2)
UASTEITUS aps oncyeuoavoses cielo eee a sueeeoen betes 2) (a) 5 (2) 2m(@))
Pintirules: © 3a eerie oe ene eer & (a) fo) es & (i)
Genmetalll: a.otarnic ee coe reir ine (0) I (2) i (2)
18 (1) 17 (2) difference 1 (1)
HOLOPODIDE
Gallic Te ele ae ie PEO eee eee 2ACi) 5 (2) difference 3 (2)
Golumnis. sasgesaee eae eee eC eee a (Gp) om) i O
DUSTED Rene. estomvctcteeve Acre ares ee Seca onsets 2) (a) 2 (2) S 1 (a)
IANTATISOR RA ee eee ene eee reer 2) (G1) 6 (2) is 3 (2)
Rinnless sais pedes ee meee eae ee Zi, (Gt) im (a) = (x)
General sirens eee ee Cees (e) nm (2) ce it (@)
15 (1) 18 (2) difference 3 (2)
PLICATOCRINIDAE
Cally GO ape RE eee crt acess fae Ae 6 (1) 5 (2) difference 1 (1)
Goltatnin: oe ite ian ee tte as cree ere 6 (1) t @) x Be)
ID Sis) keine: tices ob os Sent ecton doled a ped ore 3 (x) ip (A) as 4 (a)
ASITNIS Ls 3 eRe ea era aE ee 8 (1) T@)) f 7)
Pininules: |e eeeaee seca eaecee Raa) ) is 5 (1)
General covis oo Pa eet nee camer ) Te) S Ta)
30 (1) 9 (2) difference 21 (1)

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 59

In this connection the Pentacrinitidz deserve more detailed exam1-
nation. Very many characters are represented in this exceedingly
large and very heterogeneous group by both components of the
contrasted pairs, one of which is found in a—usually large—major-
ity, while the other occurs in a—usually small—minority of the
genera.

In the preceding lists the totals represent all of the characters
under each heading ; hence many characters in this family are given
in the totals for both (1) and (2); such characters are neutral so
far as their effect upon the general total is concerned.

If we eliminate this neutralization of one of the components of a
pair by the other by considering only the components of each pair
which are either represented alone or in the majority of the genera
our results will naturally be somewhat different.

This method will give us the average state of specialization to
which the family has attained, through eliminating the influence of
a few conservative types which by the other method are accorded far
more than their true phylogenetic importance.

' So >. , mv >a e av AS
go aie E 55a : esi
5} Ses ira} O55} O 3) o, 20
x woe 5 Qos o GO Pe
eS| Se ears | Soa oe Ss fli. 2 oe
= coe z mes Ree
= ee ae = gage = Sees
- ~aeo . Pees Ni eae
oe ogad oe oges icles ee ices
= a8 Ean Paes 1s S| Gre Tacs 388 a8
sy) a") iss) is} ss) iss)
Ele SS ee Be ASS oue Ze = Shera
a a A A a a
Walysciacs.. 28 (1) Z(G) 9 (2) 8 (2) difference 1 (2) 6 (2)
Colmmmn-..-..L (0) I (1) 5 (2) 5 (2) difference 4 (2) 4 (2)
Disk . ..4 (I) I (1) 5) 2) ene) ditlerencesys(2)a) a2)
PMtciSees st. -).. 0) (1!) 4 (1) 9 (2) 5 (2) _ difference o I (2)
Pinmules....5 @). 2 (1) 5(2) 3°@) difference’o rT (2)
General ....1 (1) (a) I (2) I (2) difference o I (2)
28 (1) to (1) 34 (2) 26 (2) difference 6 (2) 16 (2)

ih ew deb wcOGE NrihiC SHOURNCE OF sit, ‘CRENOID
FAMILIES HAVING RECENT REPRESENTATIVES
Judged on the basis of the preceding tables, the proper phyloge-
netic sequence of the crinoid families including recent species is as
follows :

Pentacrinitide .... 28(1) [10(1)] 34(2) [26 (2)] CHS Sng: 6 (2) [16 (2)]
Holopodide ....... ms (it) 18 (2) 3 (2)
Bourgueticrinide .. 18 (1) itz) (@)) s it (iz)
Apiocrinide ....... 17 (1) 16 (2) © i (i)

_ Phrynocrinide .... 20 (1) 14 (2) a: 6 (1)
Plicatocrinide .... 30 (1) 9 (2) 4 ai (1)

128 (1) [110 (1)] 108 (2) [100 (2)] difference 20 (1) [10 (1)]

60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

According to the table just given the true phylogenetic arrange-
ment of the families of recent crinoids, together with their relative
positions in the scale of phylogenetic advancement, reckoning from
the Plicatocrinide as the least specialized type, is as follows:

Pentacrinitidzes a. ae oere meme ene +6 (+16) or 30 (40)
Holopedidas: meee ae eee Cee aL 4 or 24
Bounsueticninidc eee een —I or 20+
Apioeninida. .2se pees peeks —I or 20—
Phiywocrimides ©) rp aerer cerr eer ae —6 Gras
Piicatocrinidse pen semicieera tei — 21 Or L

THE RELATIVE SPECIALIZATION OF EACH STRUCHIURAT pingien
IN THE CRINOID FAMILIES INCLUDING RECENT SPECIES
In the various families the several structural units are not neces-
sarily correlated in the amount of specialization they exhibit. The
sequence, in each family, as deduced from the preceding tables, is as
follows, the most specialized structural unit being in each case placed
at the head of the list, and units of equal value being bracketed.

4
A 3

= ‘I AS] &

Be s & 2) s S

S -o 2 ~ = te,

a rs] 3) vo uv °

5 “ot [o) 5 io) [s)

a oO =) oo a +

= ae) ee 5 2 5

6) a ae S) So) Be]

a < ae ea q ce
Column f Calyx Disk Arms Arms General
Calyx Arms General Calyx Calyx Calyx
Disk General Calyx Disk General Disk

Arms Column Column General Column Column
Pinnules Pinnules Pinnules Column Disk Pinnules
General (No disk) Arms Pinnules Pinnules Arms

THE PHYLOGENETIC SEQUENCE OF THE RECENT CRINO@ GDS
ON THE BASIS OF THE REEATIVE SPECIALIZAMiON@r
EACH OF IfS COMPONENT STRUCTURAL UNIS

If we take each structural unit and in each family assign to it a
number (from I to 6) according to its condition of specialization in
reference to all the other families (if of the same value in two or
more families giving it the same number in each), the family show-
ing the lowest total will be the one which, as the sum total of all these
structural units, is the most specialized.

The figures are given in the following table ; the figure 1 indicates
the maximum specialization for each structural unit, and the figure 6 ©
the minimum.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—-CLARK 61

Fi gg

4 & : a = = =

Lge Mice ebay 8

o ° oo 7 oe) () (o}

; OPN, SHON s aie shh hye Sn (a H
lnlollopecliGks 3 s3¢cccaseac I 2 3 I 2 I 10
IPemimerianisiGes odce sence B I I 4 I 2 II
ANONOCMNGES G5550056 apie A 3 ) 3 2 I 13
Bourgueticrinide ........ 3 4 2 2 3 I 15
lelmmamocrianGke 5 55¢q0080c 5 4 2 5 2 I 19
Pitcatocrinidcaresce ser 6 5 4 6 3 I 25

If, however, we consider the Pentacrinitidee on the basis of the
average specialization, that is, if we consider each of the pairs of
characters of which it exhibits both components on the basis of the
majority representation alone, disregarding the small minority repre-
sentation, this family easily takes precedence over the Holopodide.

EXAMINATION OF EACH OF THE STRUCTURAL UNITS IN
DETAIL

A critical study of each structural unit, on the basis of the con-
trasted characters as previously given, is of considerable interest.

In the following tables each of these units is listed separately, the
families in each case being arranged according to their relative
specialization in regard to the unit under consideration, with the
most specialized at the head of the list.

When the total is the same in two families, the one which possesses
the higher number of specialized characters (or the lesser number
of generalized characters) is given precedence. Families with
identical totals are bracketed.

Calyx
it, IEI@lomochGks “1 ceases soouasooos 2 (Gt) 5 (2) difference 3 (2)
a, IP SmACMMMEGES 5 65 desceenone oo 8 (1) 9 (2) e t (2)
Se OUGeMe erica ees Je. 22s es = (it) Ome) ‘¢ Te2))
MaeN MIOCENE << aa 5cnlsdece tee: A (GO) =a) : it (2)
pee ealis aval Cialtll dee tec Aele sclo,c0a 6 &(@) & (2) o oO
6G, IPincswocmiinck® soba soonveoosus 6 (x) 5 (a) a Te GIy)
20 (1) 35 (2) difference 5 (2)
Column
it, — IPyerniiavereniamiGes) 4 o6q dep ooo ooo. it (it) 5 (2) difference 4 (2)
2, “lelolkonouhiGEe)d oteccousooue one 6 (Gi) a (2) - fo)
ieee NTO GI MINd cee Us edna s Severe eke & (rt) 4 (2) - it (ii)
IPininyinieveimmide® Z\5.u05g0000000 6 LG) an@)) a i (i)
EP Wbouncmetietintcdee meses ie cece AnD) a (@) ‘s 1. (Cie)
& IP ieehoreribnnGk® 05 Gaeeoclen doce 6 (1) i. (@) ai 5 (i)

2 (Ct) Ig (2) difference 4 (1)

62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65
Disk
i, IP@MECMAMECES - scosccbondeons ae (Gr) 5 (2) difference I (2)
: (@Pbnynochinidss (i. errr ete Ta) 2a(@)) ass 1 ©)
> \UBoureneticrinida: | ..2es- eee (Ge) 2 (2) . To)
8: ) Elolopodidess Remsen aterm Clg) A (a) 2 m (2)
Aly IPGEAKOS HINGES Gogoganasoddocc & (i) wt (@)) s 4 (1)
Sy (Apiocrinidee st chs sod. arse Cala te nue Non eee
14 (1) 12 (2) difference 2 (1)
Arms
ty) daloiejoeuliGke” scsnckocoouscoses Br(CTy) 6 (2) difference 3 (2)
2. Boursueticrinidze 2s ..e4- -- ener ae \eTS) 5) ie 25)
By Aplocmntdee sare a eee 4 (1) 5 (2) = e(():
As IEAMEGAIMIBCES Sdaooocebanodcs @ (a) 9 (2) i 0
EY (Phaynocrinideaat ance 6 (1) 22) S$ AG)
(Ge “WElbcwererMOMGES . Gacpaceeoodsas SS (a) iz (@ td UG)
a (im) 28 (2) difference 5 (1)
Pinnules
fo Rentacninitidces eae nearer & (a) 5 (2) difference o
AN DOS ME Ce saacdondiwoooss A (GE) & Ta) sf aN@)
as Phrynocrinidse<)anco0 antennae AL (a) im (a) 4 eri((it))
IEIOIGOGIGES “Sonccecocessncece Aba (Gia) z (@) f a (i)
Bourgueticrinide ............. i (i) fe) — “ is (at)
SWPheatocrimdce (0.0 eae 5 (1) o « (GD)
27a (le) 8 (2) difference 19 (1)
General
ApOCKIn Gs. patter sae ae tS oO 1 (2) difference I (2)
| Phrynocrinide ............... o) it (@)) x i (2)
1.4 Bourgueticrinide ...... ae aes oO Te (2) Sy 1 (@))
olopodidesss: eee erences (0) ie) s Te)
Plicatocrinidsey sae see eee fo) Ty) ie)
A, IPSMBGMMGES Soaddcsseauooes if (a) i (@)) : fo)
re (G8) 6 (2) difference 5 (2)

As shown by the preceding tables, the relative condition of spe-
cialization of the various structural units is as follows:

General! teen se cr cen arto ie (it)
(Gai liyax Ws itr ears red eee rere Keays 30)4(z)
Dishe c.g orients cae cs cee ates 14 (1)
Coltinine anes Sie ee age (rn)
AIS: Rsk cian tee eater o tates rake ago ae (CD)
Pinntil es) ict ae canacaueatea coe setae 27a Gt)

6 (2) difference 5 (2)
35 (2) : 5 (2)
im (2) ie 2a)
19 (2) 4 (1)
28 (2) 7 5 (1)

8 (2) raptor (Cp)

108 (2) difference 20 (1)

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 63

This, however, is not a strictly correct presentation of the case.

In dealing with the families we considered in each the same number
of contrasted characters and, with a few exceptions, each pair was
represented in each family, so that the totals were directly comparable.

But the number of the contrasted pairs considered in the various
structural units varies very greatly, running from Ito 10. As there
are six families, the actual number of pairs and the actual number of
characters for each structural unit is as follows:

: alk e Tota be
Structural meeaits of com. See | ahemraern
the families considered

Gallivexc wrens cela aiee 10 60 120
ANIONS) Bigeye Goes oie Crear nee 9 54 108
Golam cece 3 7 42 84
Disk. Se ea eL es 5 30 2
Pinnules....... ae 5 30 60
General Structure. . I 6 12

Thus in order to raise the figures for all the structural units in
all the families to the same relative value it is necessary to multiply
each by the following numbers:

Galliych ccpectsctsres veces TORIO3 S10—— 2750) WiSkess cae cei lace 5 x 126 x 6—3780
PSGRNIS RR Se sccknet ane te Ox 70 x 6—3780)— Pinniules: =... 405-- 5 x 126 x 6—3780
(Collisimin’ sanodyoacac 7x90 x 6—3780 General ........... 1x630x6—3780

Applying these multiples to the table (eae figures of which already
include the multiple 6) we have:

General? 65 Ages pagcucec eee 630 (1) 3780 (2) difference 3150 (2)
(CAIN Seva Ble. clon oct ae Reae ne CREE 1890 (1) 2205 (2) # 315 (2)
DDS eeepc ree Wis te as a 1764 (1) 1512 (2) ¥ 252)
PANTING RUE ee OES, Shee ars 2310 (1) 1960 (2) 5 350 (1)
Coliinmererace es cee ee 2070 (1) 1710 (2) ms 360 (1)
Evita Se sae aryents Sarak =e 3402 (1) 1008 (2) mR 2394 (1)

In terms of the least specialized structural unit (the pinnules) this
gives us the following ratios of specialization:

According to the According to the

first table second table
Genretalimsctactn sin aesa cen = 5 24 + 3150 5544.
Calyxee te eae ces uens +5 24 + 315 2700
Disk eee oh a teceicts oh cite —2 17 — 252 2142
PNGTeITS eae pees aie teres, sates at =—=5 14 — 350 2044
Coliiinitat see secre —4 15 — 360 2034

eatatalesacs. 25/55. chs, 2 oa — 19 I — 2304 I

64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

THE CORRECTED RELATIVE SEQUENCE OF THE RECENT
CRINOIDS ON THE BASIS OF THE RELATIVE: SPECIAEIZA=
TON OF HACH OF ITS COMPONENT SPiRUCTURAE Oiiiaes

In order to appreciate correctly the phylogenetic sequence of the
recent crinoids on the-basis of the relative specialization of each of
its component structural units, it is necessary to apply as a correction
the foregoing figures, representing the relative state of the specializa-
tion of each structural unit in terms of the least specialized.

To do this we may make use of the table given on p. 63, modified
so that the least specialized structural unit will be indicated by the
number I, and the most specialized by the number 6 (that is, with
the figures reversed), multiplying each number by the relative value
of the structural unit under consideration in terms of the pinnules.

Applying both sets of figures given above, we get the following
tables:

Applying the figures of the first table:

Relative standing
fhe Pbcaeauas

de being taken
Calyx Column Disk Arms Pinnules General Total as 100

Holopodide .....144 6 34 Ba 2 48 372 SBD
Pentacrinitide ...120 73 (OS AB 2 24 332 279
Bourgueticrinide. 96 20 | Bil 70 I 48 206 248
Apiocrnide 25... 72 45 ® 56 2 48 223 187
Phrynocrinide ... 48 BOmSiE 28 2 48 207 174
Plicatocrinide ... 24 iS 0% iA I 48 119 100

Applying the figures of the second table:

Relative standing
of the families,
the Plicatocrini-
de being taken

Calyx Column Disk Arms Pinnules General Total as 100

Holopodide ..... 16254 .8136 4284 12264 2 T1088 52028 250
Pentacrinitide... 13545 10170 8568 6132 3 5544 430962 219
Bourgueticrinide 10836 4068 6426 10220 I 11088 42639 213
Apiocrinide..... 8127 6102 GQ wind 2 T1088 33405 167
Phrynocrinide... 5418 4068 6426 4088 2 11088 31090 155
Plicatocrinide... 2709 2034 2142 2044 I T1088 20018 100

The figures upon which these tables are based are:

EVclopodidesiaeeee noes 6 4 2 6 2 2 22
Pentacninitidzess ser reee 5 5 4 3 3 I 21
AiMIOCHINIGse ee ee cee eae B B Oo 4 2 2 14
Bourgueticrinide ....... 4 2 3 5 I 2 17
Phiryarocrimidcesyne sss er 2 2 3 2 2 2 13
Phicatocrintdzetseee ena eee I I I I I 2 7

It will be seen that these corrected figures give the same sequence
of families as the table summarizing the characters in each family
(p. 60), except that the Holopodide come before the Pentacrinitide.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT- CRINOIDS—CLARK 65

It differs from the sequence of the families on the basis of the
uncorrected figures for the structural units in that the position of
the Bourgueticrinide and the Apiocrinidz is reversed.

If we judge the phylogenetic status of the Pentacrinitide on the
basis of its average development, by considering only the character
in each pair having the majority representation and leaving out of
consideration the primitive features exhibited only by a negligible
percentage of the species, the Pentacrinitidz occupy a position well in
advance of that of the Holopodide.

The Bourgueticrinide and the Apiocrinide undoubtedly are on
very nearly the same plane, as is evident on even a superficial survey
of their fossil species. Judging from the general structure of the
recent genera the disk of the recent Apiocrinidz, as yet not known,
is probably more like that of the stalked pentacrinites than like that
ot the Bourgueticrinide or of the comatulids; if so, this would
emphasize the phylogenetically advanced position of the Bourgueti-
crinide.

From the three tables showing the relative phylogenetic status of
the crinoid families including recent species we get the following
differences between each family and the family below it:

S S (S)

° fo) fe)

x © S

rQ a Qa.

& Buca Sy

n

gS gS gS

2a Le, oS,

ca ca ea
IPSniaveriimuiGks go goccusas Sab edeceoac 6 B33 4O
TEI) Koy oxavalivalees ce cen Geena cere ncn 4 31 6
Bouncwetienimidceen yee: cesses ose: fo) 61 46
TANDIVOLGI UND Gk: Sunk Bie sace eres eee Pane Aen 5 13 12
ImRnOCnGes Seoadouecudupocc ded < 14 74 55
Plicafocrinideey ei snesrish- noe: (0) (e) (e)

This indicates that there is a very broad phylogenetic gap between
the Plicatocrinide (belonging to the Inadunata) and the remaining
families (all of which belong to the Articulata). There is another
broad gap between the Bourgueticrinide and the Apiocrinide.

Thus it would appear that the crinoid families represented in the
recent seas, on the basis of their recent representation, fall into three
well marked groups separated by broad phylogenetic gaps, as follows:

Group I Group 2 - Group 3
Pentacrinitidz , eee eas aa
Holopodide P aoe Plicatocrinidz

Phrynocrinidz

Bourgueticrinidz

66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

THE RELATION BETWEEN PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT
AND BATHYMETRICAL AND THERMAL DISTRIBUTION
The relationship of phylogenetic development to depth and to
temperature presents a problem of considerable interest.

In the following table is given the amount of excess of the more
primitive (1) or the more specialized (2) characters in each of the
thirty-seven contrasted pairs.

Depth. Temperature. Depth. Temperature.
Excess of Excess of Excess of Excess of
ae _ ————

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
768 ee a 25.2 5 22
463 a a Weft KG 23 uo 2k
382 Py ao Wet ke 23 ae 1.4
273 oe ae 16.7 ws 35 st 1.4
273 ae ate TAF ste 54 a fia
254 ae ve 7 a 56 sie 12
223 ae Ae 13.5 an 58 a 0.3
207 a S10 12.8 Ne 72 0.5
189 an eee 12.6 7 84 * 0.5
156 ae ae 8.0 bts 84 Tis
107 att Sie Bs is 135 2,il

72 m be 5.9 a 150 2.1

48 a an 5.1 ae 156 3.0

AI Bi ss 5.0 Se 187 TD)

23 a a 3.8 tes 212 as

23 a4 ae 353 As 240 * 8.3

16 We ae 2.5 oe 254 9.8

6 ia ee 2.5 ne 255 17)
hy 3 * 2s He sf

In the temperature column the three figures marked with an
asterisk (*) represent the difference between two sharply imeicet
nodes in a single character pair.

These double nodes all fall under the more primitive characters
(1). The difference between each element of the three double nodes
and the average under the more specialized characters (2) are:

1 2

12.1 15.4
14.0 13.5
20.9 12.6

In the bathymetric distribution the more primitive components of
the character pairs exceed the more specialized in 18 cases, while the
reverse is true in 19 cases.

NO. 10 PHYLOGENETIC STUDY OF RECENT CRINOIDS—CLARK 67

In the thermal distribution the more specialized components of the
character pairs exceed the more primitive in 26 cases, the reverse
being true in II cases.

The excess in depth of the primitive characters over that of the
specialized is 1422 fathoms, each of the 18 primitive characters
having an average depth of 196 fathoms, as against 110 fathoms
for each of the 19 specialized characters.

The excess in temperature of the specialized characters over that
of the primitive is 141.9°, each of the 26 specialized characters having
an average temperature of 7.6°, as against 5.1° for each of the 11
primitive characters.

Thus it appears that, taken collectively, the specialized characters
are developed in shallower and warmer water than the more primitive.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 11

a MAGNETON ,THEORY OF THE
PPRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

(With Two P tates)

BY
A. L. PARSON

(PuBLICATION 2371)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

NOVEMBER 29, 1915

The Lord Baltimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A-

A MAGNETON THEORY OF THE STRUCTURE OF

THE ATOM
By A. LE. PARSON

(With Two Piates)

CONTENTS

Part I. INTRODUCTORY.

Simm G ElerlehelnanicS ac enia ce titer elses oc ci ee e Peer tea use i arias Soin
Ae EonsrderatiOns Ob mMAaSnetiSmy Gawain ws ok ne fo oe rotates te seteeecn
aes tereochemicaly 1evid ence tes serene. talc cio ahie oo suchen eleinara tae eae) «
4. The scope of electrostatic theories of valence.................-- ms

Part II. THe StructTuURE oF THE ATOM.

Sci HoncessbDetweelmagnetonses:= ssn.= 2. wee ae sees essere ee noe
CuMvheweroupmot cereliteesa shi. cceteneae 1 see dee Noche beatae TAREE Coen
Ze WWerCOUStEMMONSCOL the-atOMS eras cits asi: cient tenes wee a nen Se tae
Swbhesniumber on macnetons im te: atom@ ron 444. 0scs eee ase ose.

Part II]. VALENCE.

§ 9. Two kinds of combining action and three kinds of bonds .

10. Molecules containing the “negative” bond .................0065
Ti NesidttalTOLCes.. MmaAcnetiCaneelectiicrsce. usc cioseceirs. Aes
uz; WWiasehenteetsrern shal wisloueanaure xcovstncybinGls. Senora geseogeec one de ome us
Hoe eetranciMtOnesehiesuol Clements), =e cle As aire os ae cle «

Part IV. VoLuME.

Sieedhne volumeron the, positive: spheres it. caatgas4 «aides sessed
15. Atomic volumes in the liquid and solid states ..................
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IN@te Ga IDR, WRDSRHS WOH basnocdoacdasoegeseacaneedooanb cane

Part V. MAGNETISM.

§17.
18.

19.
20.
oie
22.

2B

The radius and moment of the magneton .....................0-.
The possibility of detecting the magneton directly: the heat of

GissOciaLionmon (ny AhOSeMhs] sem errant ce meer. kee ce eee
‘he magnetic properties Of matter ae. 4- 45 7s ance actos. ite
The magnetic properties of the elements .....:...........-..-2-
The magnetic properties of compounds .........:......-..+--+--
The dependence of magnetism upon temperature and physical

SPO dees sai a scner cle gaposeliorer cigesshs) OS ohn enavenetclemay'srel aut saava sage stialee-eatevegeiena ers
Weiss’ magneton; and quantitative relations .........../......7.
Note on experiments suggested by this theory ...................

SMITHSONIAN MiSCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 11

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

PARDEE INTRODUCTORY
§1. GENERAL REMARKS

The non-electrical bond between atoms, such as may be supposed
to exist in the Hydrogen molecule, is an important factor in chemical
union; but no plausible suggestion as to its nature has ever been
made, and the failure to account for this bond is one of the greatest
defects of the electronic theory of matter as it now stands.

Now the present theory is the outcome of an attempt made some
years ago to remedy this defect even at the expense of a considerable
departure from accepted fundamental ideas: it seemed then to the
author that the idea of replacing the classical electron by the mag-
neton here described, which makes the bond in question magnetic,
was less revolutionary than any other that could definitely attain the
end in view; and the contents of this paper bear witness to its
subsequent fertility. .

In postulating this magneton for chemical reasons, the phenomena
of magnetism and radiation were of course not lost sight of. In
the field of magnetism, the magneton has been at once and automatic-
ally as strikingly successful as in chemistry—as indeed we ought to
require it to be. As regards its application to the phenomena of
radiation, not much can be said at present; but the magneton seems
@ priori a promising conception here, and its possibilities have been
looked into already by Dr. D. L. Webster in a paper on “ Planck’s
Radiation Formula and the Classical Electrodynamics” (Amer.
Acad., Jan., 1915).

As might be expected of a theory that had such an origin, the special
considerations which led to the theory of Rutherford and Bohr, for
example, were not taken into account; and thus any representation
that it has been or will be able to give of the phenomena of a-particle
scattering, of spectrum series, of the Rontgen ray spectra, or of the
mass of the atom, are necessarily of a supplementary nature: but
the theory does not, I believe, exclude the possibility of such repre-
sentation for any of these phenomena (see the note in §16).

The properties of atoms fall into two distinct classes, the nature
of this distinction having been clearly defined by J. J. Thomson, who
points out that the atom behaves as if it were made up of a few
electrons in an “outer shell”’ which are responsible for the chemi-
cal and light-absorbing properties of the atoms, surrounding a
dense central mass made up of other electrons and positive elec-
tricity which might be called the “core” of the atom and is the seat
of the strictly additive properties such as the mass, the Rontgen ray

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—-PARSON 3

emission, and the radioactivity: in the properties of the outer shell
there is a periodicity, in those of the core not. To this brief sketch
might be added the magnetic properties as obviously being due to the
behavior of the outer part of the atom.

Now there is no theory that is able to explain, to any appreciable
extent, both sets of phenomena. Nor even is there any that shows
much promise in connection with the properties of the outer shell
alone—especially the chemical and magnetic properties of the atom:
most of the recent work (by Rutherford, Moseley, and others) has
emphasized the other part of the problem—the properties of the core,
or nucleus of the atom. Bohr’s theory, based upon the conception
of the nuclear positive charge, gives an interesting treatment of the
problem of spectrum series, but its chemical application is very
meager indeed (see §8). On the other hand, the present theory,
since it originated in a study of the simpler aspects of chemical
affinity, emphasizes the properties of the outer shell, though not
necessarily at the expense of the other set of properties.

The essential assumption of this theory is that the electron is itself
magnetic, having in addition to its negative charge the properties of
a current circuit whose radius (finally estimated to be 1.5 x 10° cm.:
see §16) is less than that of the atom but of the same order of
magnitude. Hence it will usually be spoken of as the magneton. It
may be pictured by supposing that the unit negative charge is dis-
tributed continuously around a ring which rotates on its axis (with
a peripheral velocity of the order of that of light: §§5, 6); and
presumably the ring is exceedingly thin. It might at first sight be
supposed that if the electron were really thus magnetic, this property
would have been detected in the behavior of kathode rays, but it will
be shown later (§18) why it could not.

This rotation of a ring-shaped negative charge is intended to
replace the usual conception of rotating rings of electrons in pro-
viding that orbital motion of electricity which is required by all
theories of the magnetic and optical properties of atoms. No
attempt will be made, however, to discuss the internal structure of
the magneton.

With regard to the positive part of the atom, it will be necessary
to avoid Rutherford’s conception of a nucleus of very small dimen-
sions—while fully recognizing the value of the evidence upon which
he bases it—because it could not allow magnetons to take up the
configurations that are essential to this theory, while the uniformly
charged sphere of the Kelvin or Thomson “atom” is particularly

4 SMITHSONIAN” MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. .65

well adapted to the purpose. As for the possible intersection of
positive spheres, since any great amount of intersection, or coales-
cence, of the model atoms of this or of any other theory must
abolish their individuality, and since the positive sphere is little
more than a simple mathematical expression of the coherence and
individuality of the atom (see also §7), it is consistent, as well as
very necessary, to assume that positive spheres cannot intersect. It
will also be assumed that the volume of the positive sphere is nor-
mally proportional to its charge, that is, to the number of magnetons
in the atom, but that it is compressible; and that the normal radius
of the magneton is about half that of the positive sphere of the
Hydrogen atom:* that the volume of the positive sphere of an atom
is usually very different from the total space occupied by the atom,
and a way to account for this, will be made clear later (§15).

Some reasons for believing that the electron is this magneton may
be enumerated now, and discussed more fully afterwards. They
ance

1. It seems to be the only satisfactory way of securing valence
electrons which are at rest, or vibrating within narrow limits, near
the surface of the atom—a great desideratum from a stereochemical
standpoint—without abandoning the very essential idea of orbital
motion in the atom.

2. Even if the orbital motion is abandoned, and we suppose that
the atom does contain electrons of the usual type in positions of
equilibrium near its surface, the purely electrostatic nature of their
action would be altogether inadequate from a chemical point of view.
‘The additional magnetic forces furnished by the magneton are
exactly what the phenomena of chemical action require.

3. It alone can give the atom a structure that accords closely ae
what is known about the magnetic properties of matter.

A general discussion of these points is given in §§2, 3, 4, the last
being considered first. In §5 there is a brief study of the forces
between two magnetons. In §6 it is argued that a number of mag-
netons within a sphere of uniform positive electrification must tend
to arrange themselves in groups of eight. This suggests structures
for the atoms (§7). that are in good accord with the general relations
in the Periodic Scheme.. A model which partially illustrates the
behavior of the group of-eight magnetons is also described, and the
accompanying plates (1 and 2) show photographs of it. In §8 these
results are compared with what is known about the number of

*The diagrams in this paper are drawn to scale on this basis.

>

NO. II . STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 5

electrons in the atom, especially in reference to the hypothesis of

atomic numbers, with which they conflict to a certain extent. Then

follows a detailed application of the theory to the problems of
valence (§§9, 10, 12, 13), with a discussion of the residual magnetic
and electric forces due to different groupings of magnetons (§11).
§§14, 15 deal with the volumes of atoms, and after this (§16) it is
convenient to recapitulate the assumptions of the theory, which is at

_ that stage fully developed. §§17, 18 deal with the moment of the

magneton and a few questions connected with it; and §§19-23 con-
tain a full treatment of magnetic phenomena.

§2. CONSIDERATIONS OF MAGNETISM

The arguments for the substitution of the conception of the
magneton for that of the classical electron in orbital motion, in
explaining magnetic phenomena especially, are principally concerned
with the radiation difficulties involved in the latter conception,
although conclusive arguments of another kind (pp. 9, 1@)) are
also available. The radiation difficulties have of course been a
matter of common knowledge, but since on account of the apparent
impossibility of avoiding them they have largely been ignored, it is
worth while to make a critical study of them as they occur in appli-
cations of the electron theory to magnetism.

Of all the theories so far suggested, the present magneton theory
is the only one that allows the existence of orbital motion and so of
steady magnetic forces in the atom without the accompaniment of
radiation processes. Disturbances or irregularities of any kind in
the rotation of the magneton’s annular charge will give rise to
radiations certainly, but these will be non-essential to the chemical
and magnetic individuality of the atom, and will be set up always by .
chance external stimuli, just as all the radiation processes in atoms -
(not including the emission of a and 6 “ rays ”) are known to be in
actual fact.

The contrary is the case with the classical electron. Every system
of such electrons that has as yet been devised to explain magnetic
phenomena either permits of continuous radiation or precludes the
possibility of the atom giving radiations of at all the same kind as
are observed: this will be made clear in what follows.

To begin with, it has long ago been pointed out by Sis psf.
Thomson that it is out of the question to consider orbits containing

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

only one classical electron, or a very few such, for these would
radiate energy excessively fast.”

In a paper on “ The Magnetic poets of Systems of Cor-
puscles describing Circular Orbits” (Phil. Mag., 6, 673, 1903) he
shows, however, that when the number in an orbit is as great as six
and their linear velocity is small compared with that of light, the
loss of energy becomes quite. slow; and therefore he attempts to
explain magnetic phenomena by means of rings of many corpuscles
(electrons).

Now there are two great objections to such an explanation. In
the first place, subsequent work by Barkla and others has shown that
the lighter atoms, such as those of Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium, do
not contain enough electrons to form even one such ring. It may be
argued here that perhaps this evidence does not cover the total
electron content of the atom. But at least it indicates that a certain
number of electrons, distinct from the rest (if any), cannot be in
orbital motion: and it is important to notice that these are the more
loosely bound electrons, which play a part in chemical, magnetic, and
optical phenomena.

The second objection originates in the fact that for diamagnetic
atoms it is necessary to assume the existence of independent orbits
in the atom that are so great in number or else undergo such rapid
variations that they can be considered to have their axes uniformly
distributed in three dimensions—this to account for a zero resultant
magnetic moment. Now separate rings of this sort cannot maintain
their individualities unless the difference in their radii is so great
that their disturbance of one another is inappreciable. This con-
dition, if granted, would limit the possible number of rings and the

*Thomson has more recently proposed an electron with such properties that
it could rotate in an orbit by itself. This is the electron with all its field con-
centrated along a narrow cone, or, to adopt Faraday’s mechanism, with a
single tube of force. Although he has not attempted to develop a theory of the
structure of the atom from this, or to explain radiation or magnetism by it,
he has used the conception in a theory of chemical affinity (Phil. Mag., May,
1914), though in a manner that is not at all definite, as may easily be imagined
from the following considerations. Since the electron is attached to its
equivalent positive charge by means of its single tube of force, it cannot exert
any electric force upon any other body, and, even if it is in stable orbital
motion, it cannot for the same reason give rise to magnetic forces or any sort
of radiation. Hence, unless we accept some entirely new and at present incon-
ceivable view of the properties of the electromagnetic field, such an electron
is a wholly unprofitable conception. The assumptions made in Bohr’s theory
involve similar difficulties, which, however, are ignored in its development.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON Wi

chance of their resultant moment being zero altogether too much, for
most substances are diamagnetic; while if the radii are not different
enough to prevent interference, an altogether chaotic motion will
result in the atom. Hence rotating rings of electrons, where they
can exist at all, must be coaxial, and all atoms containing them must
have a magnetic axis. Now the diamagnetism of a substance does
not of course extend to its constituent atoms in all cases, for stable
molecules of no magnetic moment can be formed from magnetic
atoms; but the diamagnetism of Helium and Argon gases (P. Tanz-
ler, Ann. der Phys., 24, 931-938, 1907) must mean that the separate
atoms of these elements are diamagnetic. Here it might perhaps be
argued that rotating rings of electrons would have a gyroscopic
action which, for perfectly independent atoms, would prevent a para-
magnetic reaction. But this independence, which cannot be com-
plete even in the gaseous state, must be lost in the liquid state, and
yet there is no reason to believe that liquid Argon is paramagnetic
(as far as can be ascertained, there have been no studied observations
on the point) ; nor can the diamagnetism here be explained by the
formation of polyatomic molecules. Also it should be observed that
in oxygen and nitric oxide we have cases of paramagnetic gases.

Thus the idea of rings of electrons, which is used in the model
atoms of Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr, is experimentally shown
to be untenable.

If the laws of electrodynamics are to be applied quite rigor-
ously—and the present attempt to show that the magneton is
fundamentally a better assumption than the classical electron in
orbital motion of course requires this test—it may be said of a system
of classical electrons that the separate electrons must either be at rest
relatively to one another or else be in chaotic motion: in either case
there may or may not be an additional rotation of the whole system
about some axis passing through the center of the system. Now
these conditions do not allow of a state such as was assumed in
Thomson’s theory of magnetism, as we have just seen, nor of a state
such as was assumed in Langevin’s theory, which we now come to
consider.

Langevin (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., 5, 70-127, 1905) assumes
that the electrons rotate in individual orbits with radii not much
smaller than that of the atom, thus producing average effects similar
to those of ordinary current circuits; and that the axes of these
orbits may be distributed in all directions.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

But, as we have just seen, the mutual interference of these orbits,
even if they each contained several electrons, would make their indi--
vidual persistence impossible, and so the system would at once drift
into chaotic motion. Let us therefore consider what modifications
the supposition that there is this chaotic motion in the atom would
make in Langevin’s results.

It would not affect.that part of the superstructure of his theory
which deals with the orbits altogether statistically, for chaotic
motion, from a statistical standpoint, is certainly equivalent to motion
in a great many separate orbits whose axes are uniformly distributed
in three dimensions. But for those parts of his work which deal with
the Zeeman effect, or presuppose in any way the existence of sepa-
rate definite periods of vibration in the atom, as, for example, where
he says that the constancy of wave-lengths of spectrum lines shows
that the interior of the atom is not much affected by temperature
changes—for those parts, the assumption of motion in separate orbits
is essential, and those parts would therefore have to be abandoned.

Again, in the case of either supposition, while the difficulty about
accelerated motion of classical electrons being accompanied by con-
tinual radiation may be obviated by supposing that the atom contains
so large a number of electrons that the compensation among their
chance motions reduces the average radiation to an inappreciable
amount, we still have the difficulty that for these compensations to
be even approximately complete the number of electrons would have
to be much greater than the number actually believed to be present
in many atoms: this difficulty is thus similar to one that Thomson’s
theory encounters. Apart from this difficulty of the allowable
number of electrons, the theory labors under the following dilemma:
If the internal compensation is not complete, the radiation will be
continual and promiscuous and will rapidly exhaust the atom’s store
of energy: if the compensation is complete, it does not seem possible
to imagine any additional mechanism in such an atom that could
explain the phenomena of radiation. We may notice also in passing
that chaotic motion seems to be quite inadmissible from a chemical
standpoint.

But in spite of the existence of such substantial objections to his
fundamental assumption, even when it is replaced by the less objec-
tionable one of chaotic motion, the superstructure of Langevin’s
theory is in excellent accord with the facts. The circumstance, then,
that the substitution of the magneton here described for Langevin’s
electron in orbital motion not only removes all of the difficulties just

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 9

mentioned, but leaves the superstructure of his theory almost intact,
is a strong argument in favor of the magneton. That this substi-
tution can be made will be made clear by a short quotation from the.
conclusion of his paper:

. and we can form a simple and exact picture of all the facts of
magnetism and of diamagnetism by imagining the individual currents pro-
duced by the electrons to be indeformable but movable circuits of no resistance
and very great self-induction, to which all the ordinary laws of induction are
applicable.

The substitution I have suggested has further advantages: it
makes a great advance upon Langevin’s theory, owing to the fact
that, whereas the reaction of one of Langevin’s orbits to its environ-
ment must vary with the phase of the motion of its electron, each
magneton has the properties of an ordinary current circuit at every
instant, and it is no longer necessary to think of the orbits statis-
tically either in respect to their number or in respect to time. The
importance of this difference is easily shown. I will first give another
quotation from Langevin.

After showing that a single one of his orbits can have a moment as
great as that of the oxygen or iron atom, he says (loc. cit., p. 122) :

Since the individual currents due to the other electrons present in the
molecule neutralize one another just as in a purely diamagnetic body, it
follows that, in magnetic molecules, one or more electrons are sharply
separated from the rest and are alone responsible for the magnetic properties,
_ while all the electrons co-operate to produce diamagnetism.

These are perhaps the very same electrons, situated in the outer part of the
system forming the molecule, that play a part in chemical actions, where we
know that electrons equal in number to the valence come into action. That
would account for the profound influence of the state of molecular association,
physical or chemical, upon paramagnetism, and its virtual lack of effect upon
diamagnetism.

It is remarkable how completely the present theory, by means of
the magnetic forces between magnetons, realizes in a quite definite
manner the state of affairs here hinted at by Langevin.” It should be
observed, however, that he does not specify that the chemical forces
due to his electrons are magnetic in nature. This is very probably

1Tangevin’s deduction that the magnetism of the oxygen or iron atom
must be due to a few sharply distinct orbits is perhaps not altogether valid
on his theory: a rotation of the whole of an otherwise diamagnetic system
of electrons, whether moving in individual orbits or in chaotic motion, could
give the same result. It may also be pointed out that if the orbits containing
the few valence electrons were distinct, as Langevin suggested, the radiation
from them could not possibly be reduced to almost zero by compensations, on
account of their small number.

10) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

because the magnetic forces set up by electrons moving in orbits with
about one-hundredth the velocity of light, as his are, would be much
too small to be of significance in interatomic actions. However, a
still greater objection, to bring out which was the chief purpose of
the above quotation, is that such systems, as it seems, would not
attract but repel one another magnetically.

Suppose that two electrons are constrained to move in parallel
orbits, and in the same sense. If they can move synchronously,
keeping always on the same side of their orbits, they will attract one
another magnetically; but it can be shown that this is not a stable
configuration, at least for velocities small compared with that of
light. For, since the electric repulsion between them is greater than
the magnetic attraction, the resultant force between them is one of
repulsion; and thus if by some chance one of them is slightly dis-
placed relatively to the other, the action of the tangential component
of the repulsion between them will increase the separation until they
are on opposite sides of their orbits, in which positions they will repel
one another magnetically, as well as electrically.

When, therefore, it is remembered that the whole of the explana-
tion of chemical phenomena given by the present theory depends
upon the possibility of magnetic attraction taking place between two
magnetons, it is evident that the substitution of the magneton for
Langevin’s electronic orbit is imperative.

Thus the magneton not only provides in a simple way the orbital
motion which must otherwise be secured by making inconsistent
assumptions about the behavior of classical electrons, but, what is
equally important, it supplies a foundation for a detailed explanation
of specific interatomic attractions of all kinds by providing an orbit
which is equivalent to a current circuit at every instant and not only
as an average effect in time.

This theory was first worked out in connection with the phenomena
of valence; and probably that was necessary, for chemical phe-
nomena are, from their nature, very much more detailed and distinct-
ive than magnetic phenomena; but the groupings of magnetons
about to be discussed from a primarily chemical standpoint must
also bear the test of criticism from a magnetic standpoint. This test
I will apply in detail at the end of this paper, but enough will be said
here to show why the atoms of the inert gases should be the most
diamagnetic of all atoms—as they are. In the same place the empiri-
cal magneton of P. Weiss will be considered: that is not a mechan-
istic conception and so could not have been developed in connection
with the topics dealt with here.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON II

§3. STEREOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE

The rapid orbital motion of the valence electrons, together with
the other electrons in the atom, which is a feature common and
essential to most theories of atomic structure, makes it hard to
see how these latter can ever furnish an extended explanation of
chemical phenomena.

The difficulty here is twofold. In the first place, it is known that
the action of a single electron is the predominating feature of any
chemical bond that undergoes electrolytic dissociation; and the
general regularities of the Periodic Scheme make it highly probable
that the same is true of bonds that do not, such as those in hydro-
carbon molecules; besides, there is a fine gradation between these
two extreme types. This, together with the stereochemical evidence
for a definite spatial arrangement of the groups attached to a Carbon
or other atom, makes it very unlikely that the valence electrons can
be taking part in the rapid orbital motion of a system of electrons in
rings. It is indeed conceivable that in a molecule of the type XHn,
where all the bonds are ionizable, the nuclear X atom may take into
its own system of rings the electrons it has extracted from the H
atoms, while the positively charged H residues arrange themselves
symmetrically around it; but this could not apply to the bonds in
which no actual transfer of an electron takes place, such as those
probably are which do not ionize or leave charged groups when
broken. In such cases, at least, it appears that the electron associated
with a unit of combining action must remain near the point of contact
with the atom that is held by that action.

The second objection, and for the Thomson model this merges
with the first, is that rings of electrons must usually all rotate about
the same axis, so that the symmetrical action in three dimensions
which seems to be a normal property of the atom could be exerted
by the Thomson atom only in the limited electrostatic sense
already described, and not at all by Rutherford’s atom. Fully to
appreciate this difficulty one need only turn to that point in Dr.
Bohr’s papers (Joc. cit.) at which he comes to consider the “ tetra-
hedral” Carbon atom. We see there that the theory comes to a
complete halt when confronted with the problems of “ Chemistry in
Space.” Nor is the tetrahedral Carbon atom an isolated problem:
the asymmetric compounds of other elements, such as Nitrogen and
Cobalt, are still further beyond the reach of such theories, not only
in their present form, but, it would appear, in any conceivable state
of development along the same lines.

Te, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

It should be noted in this connection that Werner, some years ago,
put forward a theory of stereochemical phenomena (described in
his “ Stereochemie,” pp. 48-50, 224) which discarded the notion of
directed action, and represented the atom as exerting a uniform
attractive force in all directions, without specifying the nature of
that force. It did not profess to have a physical basis of any sort,
but was meant to be nothing more than a symbolical representation
of the facts, being directed chiefly against the narrow mechanical
views of the time, according to which the Carbon atom was an actual
tetrahedron and so forth. It is true that all the stereochemical phe-
nomena for which ultra-mechanical explanations were at one time
favored, such as optical activity, “ethylene” isomerism, and the
facts that gave rise to Baeyer’s “Strain Theory,” or Bischoff’s
“Dynamic Hypothesis,” can be better pictured by using the concep-
tion of equilibrium between more diffuse forces; but a compromise
seems desirable on account of the difficulty in imagining the exact
nature of such forces. Apart from other objections, a force like that
of gravitation is too promiscuous in its action, while no concrete.
scheme of electrically charged or electrically polarized atoms is
flexible enough to be consistently followed out through the molecule
of the average Carbon compound. “ Werner’s Theory,” then, is not
a theory of chemical action so much as a clear statement of the
conditions with which such a theory must comply. It will be seen
that the structures derived for the atoms in this paper permit that
mobility of linkages, the recognition of which led to the proposal of
Werner’s theory, without giving up the idea of definite units of
combining action.

If, then, the valence electrons are in positions of equilibrium near
the surface of the atom, the other electrons cannot have any trans-
lational motion, for these two states cannot coexist in the same
system, except in the special case where the stationary electrons lie
on the axis about which the others rotate. Now any attempt to
reconcile this result with the certainty that there is some kind of
orbital motion of electric charges within the atom leads inevitably to
the idea of the magneton.

Again, theories involving rotating rings of electrons do not seem
to provide a really satisfactory derivation of the valences of atoms.
With them it is a question of how many electrons are stable in one
ring; how many pass into another; and so on. Now, even if a
limited agreement with the facts can sometimes be secured, the idea
of rings of electrons cannot possibly harbor any essential peculiarity
that could explain the definite system of “octaves”? which is the

NO. II _ STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 13

predominating feature of the Periodic Scheme. On the other hand,
the magneton gives more or less independent units of valence, while
the explanation to which it leads for the “ Law of Octaves”’ is
dependent ultimately upon the three-dimensional nature of space,
and the fact that of the simple figures which are symmetrical in three
dimensions the cube is alone in furnishing an arrangement of mag-
netons with a very low magnetic energy.

§4. THE Scope oF ELECTROSTATIC THEORIES OF VALENCE

Since we have concluded that the atom cannot contain spherical

r “ point ” electrons in rotating rings, let us next consider what are

the possibilities of such electrons if they are supposed to be in a

state of rest in the atom. It must be borne in mind that anything

which is true for such electrons must also be a factor in the electro-
static part of the behavior of the magneton.

The fundamental problem from a chemical point of view is to
show how two electrically neutral systems, such as atoms must be,
can attract one another at all; and an analogy originally due to
Lord Kelvin is typical of the way in which this question can be
approached on the basis of the electrostatic action of movable
charges. If a single electron
is situated within a sphere of
uniform positive electrifica-

tion of equivalent amount, the (os

whole is electrically neutral,

but the force required to drag a /

the electron out of its positive a /

sphere is the greater the more

dense the latter is, being in-

versely proportional to the

square of its radius. If two such systems are brought into contact,
the smaller and denser sphere will just be able to extract the electron
from the other if the ratio of their radii is .695: 1.000, as in the
figure: now, if the two spheres are pulled apart, there will be an
electrostatic attraction between them, and they will resemble the ions
of a diatomic molecule like HCl. This principle holds true for all
kinds of electrons, and wilt have to be taken into account in subse-
quent developments of the present theory wherever necessary (see
-§16), but its inadequacy as the sole basis of an explanation of chemi-
cal action is shown by the mere fact that it requires a higher atomic
volume for Hydrogen than for any halogen element. -

I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Attraction between neutral atoms might take place in another way.

If their positive spheres intersect, thus :

they will be attracted together. It can be shown, however, that in
such a case there would be a tendency to complete coalescence (J. J.
Thomson, ‘‘ The Corpuscular Theory of Matter”); and the diffi-
culties involved in such a possibility have already been emphasized
in §1. Besides, an attraction of this sort could not explain valence.

Other suggestions of ways’in which stationary valence electrons
might account for attraction between neutral atoms have been made
—mostly very tentative, and not physically definite enough to be
criticised from the present point of view.

It is evident, then, that while the Kelvin model gives a rough repre-
sentation of the HCI molecule, the cases of union between like atoms
are a great difficulty from an electrostatic standpoint. The bond in
the H, molecule is probably the simplest kind of combination between
atoms, and yet it has proved to be the hardest of all to explain.
Electrostatic explanations seem to be suited only to an alternate
arrangement of the so-called “positive” and “negative” atoms.
There is indeed a tendency to such an arrangement, even in organic
molecules, aceto-acetic acid being a good example of this; and the

tautomerism and acidic hydrogen atoms

a a ie a characteristic of such groupings are signifi-

i Tol 2 ' cant. But the assignment of positive and
negative functions is not usually so easy:

C—C—C—C—O-H tie

Reshenin 26 wiv yee there is difficulty whenever groups of oppo-

site nature are attached to the same Carbon
atom, or groups of the same nature to contiguous Carbon atoms, as in
the molecules
H—C=Cl,, H,=C—C=H,, O=CH—CH=O.
RR be a te RE priya ye hay Bc a

We are forced to the conclusion that there is a factor in the union of
atoms which is unconnected with electrical polarization, and is almost
as independent, simple, and ready to hand, as. the stroke that is used
in a structural formula to represent its action. This is provided by
the magneton, which is eminently adapted to function as a “ link,”
for its two sets of forces enable it to hold to its parent atom by

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 15

electrical attraction and to the magneton or magnetons of another
atom by magnetic attraction at one and the same time.

PART Mp tHE STRUCTURE OBST HE ATOM
§5. ForRcES BETWEEN MAGNETONS

In assuming that the magneton has the properties of a current
circuit (§1), we have pictured it as a rotating annular charge, and
implied that the behavior of this charge is in accordance with the
laws of ordinary electrodynamics. This picture I shall use in further
delimiting the nature of the magneton as it is required by the present
theory.

First must be considered the exact nature of the forces acting
between two magnetons, and more especially the conditions under
which they could be attracted together so closely as to coalesce; for
coalescence, if spontaneous, would be an irreversible phenomenon,
and therefore could not be possible for the magnetons that are con-
cerned in the chemical actions of the atom. (We can, without
inquiring into the nature of the magneton’s structure, define coales-
cence as the coming of two magnetons into the most intimate contact. )

If two magnetons, of fixed dimensions and peripheral velocity, with
their axes in the same straight line, are at a distance d apart, the
forces between them obey the following laws:

The magnetic attraction or repulsion (1) is as = when d is very
small, and as - when d is very great, compared with the radius of
the magneton. The corresponding functions for the electrical repul-
sion (£) are -- and =
before coalescence, the forces are similar to those between two
parallel linear charges of infinite length that are moving in the direc-
ion of their length with a velocity equal to the peripheral velocity of

the magneton (v). Then, if c is the velocity of light, the ratio of the

Thus, when d is small, as it would be just

forces, : , is equal to 2 . Therefore, if v<c, M<E and magnetons

cannot coalesce; also the resultant force is one of repulsion for all
values of d, because M falls off more rapidly than E£ as d increases.

Even with v=c, the ratio - remains <I, except in its limiting value

when d becomes zero: this would just permit coalescence, but only
if the magnetons were first brought together by extraneous forces.
I have neglected the “ thickness ” of the magneton: on account of this

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

it would require a value of v somewhat greater than c for coalescence.
(It should be said that the cases v=c and v>c do not here violate the
law of relativity, for the continuous distribution of the charge around
the magneton ensures it a uniform field for all values of v.)

Now it will be shown in §6 that if the magnetic forces between —
magnetons are to be great enough to account for chemical actions
satisfactorily, v must not be much less than c. It is simplest, there-
fore, to assume v to be equal to c. We can neglect the mutual’ induc-
tion between magnetons approaching one another, as, for magnetons
that are far from coalescing, these will be small; even if two coa-
lesced, the flux per magneton would only be halved.

Turning now to the phenomena of chemical combination, we find
that the bond in the H, molecule, which presents such difficulties to
electrostatic theories, is the simplest of all to explain. It may be
attributed to the magnetic attraction between two electrically neutral
atoms containing one magneton apiece. Diagrammatically, the H

atom may be represented: ; and the El, moleeales

or ee f . (These two con-

figurations are equally satisfactory from a chemical point of view,
but magnetically their properties would be very different.) The mag-
netons are pulled away from the centers of their positive spheres,
and the fact that the H, molecule does not combine with more H
atoms is accounted for by the obstructing action of the positive
spheres, which prevent other magnetons from coming as close to
these two magnetons as they are to one another. But residual mag-
netic forces remain, and would account, always for a part, and
sometimes for almost the whole, of those actions between molecules
and parts-of molecules which are not indicated in structural formule
and which find their most general expression in the phenomena of
cohesion (§§$11, 16). (For a calculation of the heat of dissociation
of the H, molecule from this model, see §18.)

. Before proceeding to the study of atoms containing more than one
magneton, it may be well to point out that, although the fundamental
concepts of this theory, the magneton and the positive sphere, are-in

NO LE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—-PARSON 17

themselves simple, yet the situations to which they can give rise are
so exceedingly complex from a mathematical standpoint, that a rigid
quantitative treatment is practically impossible. In what follows,
therefore, I have not usually attempted to arrive at much more than
the relative order of the various effects. But even so, it seems
possible to extend the theory over quite a wide range of facts before
the uncertainties in its development accumulate enough to make its
application meaningless.

86. THE Group oF EIGHT

The configurations of small numbers of electrons at rest within a
sphere of positive electrification have been described by Sir J. J.
Thomson in his book, “The Corpuscular Theory of Matter,” pp.
102-106, where he states that while three, four, and six electrons
would take up triangular, tetrahedral, and octahedral arrangements
respectively, the symmetrical cubical arrangement of eight can be
shown to be unstable. The magneton, however, introduces two new
factors into the problem: one, the extended ring shape of the elec-
tron, and another which is yet more significant, the “ bi-polar ”
magnetic forces. To give a configuration with the minimum mag-
netic energy, it is evident that the currents in all adjoining parts of
magnetons must be parallel and in the same direction, or, to take a
cruder though possibly more vivid picture, the “.N ” and “S”’ poles
of the magnetons must be placed alternately in every direction.
From this point of view let us consider the groups of three, four, six,
and eight magnetons (five and seven obviously have not the possi-
bilities of the other numbers).

The stablest configuration for three magnetons is shown in

Ya
S

i S |
the diagram = . Four can have the configuration:
N
nfs s\
=> |
N -— , which under symmetrical electrostatic conditions
SIAN

would form an irregular tetrahedron (this, which has been produced
in a model, may be pictured by imagining one pair of opposite mag-
netons to be raised above the plane of the paper). The octahedral
group of six would probably be made up in a similar way of three
pairs of magnetons; but six can have a configuration of lower

2

18 _ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

magnetic energy than this, which, however, is not so symmetrical—
this is a triangular-prism arrangement consisting of two parallel
groups of three.

But quite apart from the lack of three-dimensional symmetry of
some of these configurations (the effect of which will be seen
shortly), they can none of them have so low a magnetic energy (in
proportion to the number of magnetons) as the cubical arrangement
of eight. This, with its three fourfold axes of symmetry, is mag-.
netically ideal; and although it is not quite stable for spherical elec-
trons, there is no doubt that it would be exceedingly stable for
magnetons, because no other arrangement of eight can be nearly so
symmetrical.

To illustrate the unique properties to be expected in this group of
eight, I have made a model (plate 1) in which eight coils of insulated
wire are set in gimbals at the corners of a cube, the side of which is
two and a half times the radius of the coils. This cannot completely
illustrate the behavior of the group, because the cubical arrangement
is made compulsory, the distances are fixed, and the electric forces
are absent; but, when excited by an electric current, it shows what
configurations the eight can assume under such conditions. Most of
these are shown on plate 2, where it may be seen that the most sym-
metrical and stable configurations resolve themselves into a cycle of
six (figs. 1-6) which are very closely related to one another and
easily interconvertible: 1, 3, and 5 are identical except for their
relative attitudes in space, and the same is true of 2, 4, and 6. The
group is thus very stable, and yet very mobile, for its magnetons can
easily veer in all directions without destroying its identity. This
mobility, which is not possible without three-dimensional symmetry,
is a source of additional stability, for the group can adjust itself to
casual external fields, such as it would continually meet with owing
to the motion of the molecules, without needing to turn as a whole.
The directions of the currents and of the flux in configuration I are
shown in the following diagrammatic section of the upper four

SaN
a t=
N /

: :
coils: —a a . For the lower coils they are exactly
/

/

\

Nees erie
Hs

reversed. The less symmetrical configuration numbered 7 is most
easily described by saying that the four coils nearest to the camera
have their “ N ” poles to the left, and the others have them to the

=
Ca

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 11, PL. 1

CONFIGURATIONS OF GROUP OF EIGHT
(See explanation Plate 2)

*S}!09 94} Ul! JUSIUND 84} JO UO}}D94!1p BY} U! AjUO daYyZOUe eUO WoOAJdassIp YOIUM *g pue gS
*sBlyuod ulosje f| *Biyuod uy sjlod 943 Bulz}}} ul ‘|, a3e1q ssouoe 8ul| 243 Aq UMOYS UO}}D941P 94} U! Sal] YO! UM ‘pjals S,YRIeA BY} JO JOEJIE OY} 9ION
LHSIS 40 dNOYD 4O SNOILVHNDISNOO

UX

Z “1d ‘IL “ON ‘G9 “0A SNOIL931109 SNOANVITAOSIN NVINOSHLIWS

IN@s / ALI STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON IQ

right (or vice versa). All these configurations are free from mag-
netic moment; hence their presence in an atom would make for
diamagnetism.

In its perfect symmetry, mobility, and very low magnetic energy,
the group of eight evidently has a combination of properties which
must make it more stable than groups of any number less than eight,
or of any number not much greater than eight, as a consideration of
the possibilities readily shows: it is reasonable, therefore, to suppose
that this group will tend to be formed rather than other groups.

Further, the force retaining a magneton in a group of eight must be
decidedly greater (cet. par.) than the force between two single mag-
netons—probably quite twice as great—and, if the magneton rotates
with the velocity of light, would be great enough, in certain cases, to
bring about the transfer of a magneton from one atom to another.
We may then attribute to this effect that kind of combining action
which is characteristic of electronegative atoms such as those of
Oxygen or Chlorine. The former, as we shall see later, has six
valence magnetons, and the latter seven, and each succeeds in making
up a group of eight by extracting magnetons from other atoms. This
state of affairs can conveniently be represented in structural formule
by placing a circle around the symbol for every atom that is the seat
of a group of eight thus formed, as follows:

o
Hcl), H{O}H , H{0}C140), H-H-
©

The theory thus allows for the transfer of electrons in certain cases
without requiring that it should be an inevitable accompaniment of
chemical union (cf. the H—H molecule), and is in exact accord with
the valence relations that are to be found in the short periods of the
Periodic Scheme.

An atom containing exactly eight magnetons will neither extract
magnetons from other atoms nor, under ordinary conditions, part
with its own, and will have the properties of the Helium atom (cf.
also its diamagnetism, §2). The photographs in plate 2 are thus a
diagrammatic representation of the Helium atom, according to this

theory.

§7. THE CONSTITUTIONS OF THE ATOMS

The singular properties of the group of eight may possibly explain
the sequence of the elements throughout the Periodic Scheme also.
It is at once evident that a separation of all the magnetons in the

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

%
atom into groups of eight, with a remainder of valence magnetons,
would give an ideal explanation of the “ Law of Octaves.” Indeed,
no other arrangement of the magnetons—as, for example, in one
large group—could give a picture of the facts, chemical and mag-
netic, that even approaches this in fidelity. What follows, therefore,
is an attempt to analyze the behavior of large numbers of magnetons
in a positive sphere with a view to finding conditions which could
lead to such a grouping.

Any number of magnetons within a sphere of equivalent positive
electrification must arrange themselves so as to secure an equilibrium
between the two tendencies of the magnetic energy and the electric
energy, respectively, to be ata minimum. The first would be satisfied
by a gathering of all the magnetons into one very compact group,
the second by an even distribution of single magnetons; and in view
of the fact that magnetic forces increase more rapidly than electric
forces as the distance diminishes, it might be thought that a likely
compromise between the two tendencies would be the formation of
groups containing the smallest number of magnetons that is com-
patible with a low magnetic energy, and at the same time with sym-
metry and mobility, in the group—that is, groups of eight. But more
careful study of the matter shows that when a magneton is displaced
from the position it would occupy in a plan of even distribution, the
electrostatic forces of restitution are greater than the opposing mag-
netic forces; so that the stable condition is one of even distribution.

What has been said, however, implies the assumption that the
positive sphere is rigid; if, on the contrary, it is compressible, we
have a set of conditions that requires further consideration. This
compressibility of the positive electricity will be found necessary to
explain atomic volume relations and also the phenomena of gaseous
collisions and a-particle scattering (see the note at the end of §16):
it will therefore be introduced here. I

The hypothetical positive sphere we are using must be supposed to
possess two distinct sets of properties. In the first place it is a
uniform charge of positive electricity, and on that account tends to
expand indefinitely into space. Secondly, it has a coherence due to
forces; something like elastic forces, which are in equilibrium with
the expansive electrostatic forces. Thus when isolated from mag-
netons it would be in a state of distension, and very compressible.
Further, to preserve the individualities of the positive spheres of
different atoms we need to assume an internal structure like that of
an elastic solid rather than that of a fluid. What has been said does
not, as might seem at first, burden the positive sphere with more

PS

NO. i1 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM——PARSON 2

complex assumptions than heretofore: it merely substitutes an elastic
coherence for a rigid coherence, and it has the advantage of enriching
the atom with additional degrees of freedom.

In such a sphere, each magneton will, by electrostatic attractions,
condense positive electricity in and around itself, and thus its electro-
static action on other magnetons will be weakened: the first effect
of endowing the positive sphere with elasticity will therefore be a
general diminution in volume under the action of the electric and
magnetic forces. In order that magnetons may not entirely neutral-
ize themselves in this way, it must be further supposed that the
elastic tension that obtains in the isolated positive sphere becomes
zero when the charge density has increased to a certain value, and
then changes sign, becoming a compression and combining with the
electrostatic repulsion to oppose a further increase in charge density :
such change of sign is of course connoted in the ordinary use of the
term “elastic.”

It is possible to make a somewhat elaborate study of the conditions
in such an atom, but they are very complex and hard to discuss with
any definiteness. Apart from the diminution of volume under the
action of the electric and magnetic forces, the elastic sphere will
apparently still behave, under static conditions, in much the same way
as the rigid sphere ; 7. e., there will probably be no spontaneous separa-
tion into groups. This statement is no more than a well-considered
guess, because the complicated nature of the dependence of the repul-
sive forces in the elastic sphere upon the nature of the elasticity makes
it very difficult to decide whether or not there can be conditions which
would give us an unstable equilibrium in the case of even distribu-
tion. A spontaneous separation requires, of course, that at the point
of even distribution the rate of change of the magnetic forces shall
be greater than the rate of change of the combined electric and
elastic forces as the magnetons move towards group formation.

There is, however, one important respect in which the two cases
differ. Molecular collisions will cause much more irregular dis-
turbances in an elastic than in a rigid sphere. Such disturbances
will lead to the momentary formation of separate groups. Under
these circumstances, the groups that form most often and have the
longest average existence will be the smallest groups that can possess
a minimum of magnetic energy and also great symmetry and mobil-
ity—the last being especially important under dynamic conditions.
There is thus a strong probability of an average state of grouping
into eights in the atom (see §6).

i)
iS)

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The effect just described is possibly sufficient in itself to determine
the properties of an atom, although it would admittedly be more
satisfactory to find a mechanism that could hold for a static condition
of the atom also. If it should be found that the static separation is
an essential idea, and that the elasticity of the positive sphere does
not secure it, it would be better, I think, to make further and more
arbitrary assumptions about the magneton or the positive part of the
atom than to fall back upon the idea of-a single large group of
magnetons, because of the very much better picture of the facts that
the grouping into eights affords us. One such set of assumptions
has been suggested to me by Dr. D. L. Webster: the magneton might
be supposed to exert magnetic forces that are greater than the
electric forces at moderately short distances (as if v were greater
than c); this would secure separation into groups, and the coales-
cence of such magnetons could be prevented by the assumption of a
new repulsive force which followed an “inverse cube” law up to
very short distances.

It must be remembered, of course, that a static condition of the
atom cannot occur except at the absolute zero of temperature: fur-
thermore, even if the distribution into groups of eight within an
atom were statically stable, the reactivity of the valence magnetons
could not be developed except under conditions of inter- and intra-
atomic disturbance. On the other hand, if the grouping into eights
owes its very existence to these disturbances, it is hard to see how
the valence magnetons could retain, at any temperature, that marked
individuality which is shown in the permanence of structure in
organic molecules, and yet more in the stability of optical isomers—
and which, indeed, was one of the original reasons for introducing
the idea of this magneton (§§1, 3). However, we should expect,
from the immediate point of view, to find just that relative stability
of the “ organic ” compounds of Carbon, Silicon, and Titanium which
is actually observed, because an increase in the number of groups of
eight within the vibrating atom would more and more swamp the
effect of the valence magnetons (in forming the “positive bond,” at
all events: see §Q).

Without trying to settle this matter any more completely here,
I will, for what follows, eke out the argument by the assumption
that the separation into groups of eight actually can take place under
static conditions—without, however, abandoning the dynamical *
conception of vibration and possibility of configurational changes
within the atom, which is, as will be seen, the key-note of the treat-
ment in this paper.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 23

We can now derive constitutions for the atoms of all the elements
in the manner shown in the accompanying table. Hydrogen, with
one magneton only, is followed by a gap; then comes Helium with a
group of eight (represented by “y’’), and the table goes on regularly
with Lithium (y+1), Beryllium (y+2), Boron (y+3), and so on.
While this works out very well in the short periods, it is evident that
for the long periods the plan must be modified; for Manganese
(3y +7) behaves very differently from Chlorine (2y+7). Now a
comparison of Vanadium with Phosphorus, Chromium with Sulphur,
Manganese with Chlorine, and the Iron-Cobalt-Nickel trio with
Argon, shows that these metals of the long period have just the
properties that we should expect if there were no tendency in the
systems represented by 3y+5, 3y +6, 3y+7 to form a fourth group
of eight, and 4y were really 3y+8. To represent this, I have placed
a bar over the number referring to the valence magnetons, thus:
By +5, 3y+6, 3y+7, 3y+8. This state of affairs, which accounts
very well for the differences between what are usually called sub-
groups A and B, is carried on, in a diminishing degree, through

SY dy ty LO

Copper, Zinc, and Gallium, with the constitutions Jk , Jk,
(3y+ti) (4y+1) 4y+2
\\ » and the overdue group of eight is assumed not to be

4y +3
firmly established until Germanium (4y+4) in group IV is reached.
The constitutions assigned to these elements will be discussed in §13
of this paper.

I am unable to see any good reason for the non-formation of this
group of eight, or to suggest any simple additional assumption that
would secure it. It may be observed that each long period begins
with an odd number of groups of eight already within the atom, but
that is not likely to be of any particular significance. The non-
formation, in certain cases, of the group of eight must then be classed
as a subsidiary assumption (§$§15, 16) ; but I have shown, in what
follows, how well in accordance with the most various facts are the
deductions that can be made from it. The tautomerism which has, as
one result, been ascribed to the atoms of Copper, Zinc, and Gallium
(and their analogues) seems to be a particularly fruitful conception

(see §§13-15).

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

THE PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF DEE PEE NE Nass:
WITH THEIR ATOMIC CONSTITUTIONS
IN TERMS OF MAGNETONS

Double long Long

Long periods period period
A Kr Xe —+-— Nt
37 SY 7Y 11Y
Rb Cs —- ——
Sari AaRE
Sir Ba -—+—- Ra
oye 7V¥ +2 ry+2
NG La —+- —
es Sars 7Y+3
Trans. .. Lx Ce —+- Th
EG ara lIy+4
hal) weal IN 2 = ka
I 5Y+5 9Y-+5
II MI® =b=. WW on aU eee
5v+6 9Y +6 I1y+6
Ill = == = —
lV NerAN /\FeCoNi RuRhPd —- OsIrPt —-
yt+t4 2y7+4 \ 37+8 5y¥+8 9y+8
\ _N Pe x NGue se Ae i =a At
yt5 2y+5 Nar \ 3y+9 © sY+9 9v+9
eee \k “yk
ar \ Gyv+1) (y+1) (ioy+1)
VG Reape OF ack Ve MG Vay te ale
y+6 2y+6 3Y+10 5Y+I0 9Y +10
\h AK IN
4y+2 6y +2 loy+2
AVAIL SP eae 2h Cl Gael te ee eee
Mare 2DAET) (3Y+11) (s¥+11) (oy+11)
YK yk \s
mi 4V+3 6yY+3 I0oy+3
Ge Sn —t— Pb
4y +4 6-4. roy +4
‘As Sb ne
AY+5 6y+5 roy +5
‘Se Te —+- —
47 +6 67 +6
Br I ==
AY dD ON Sara ere

...., Proto-elements (see § 8).
, Unknown elements the possibility of whose existence is not contested
theoretically.

—+-, Rare-earth elements, possibly with the constitutions 7y-+5, ...) 7¥-+20
( 4 8y+12 oy+4). See § 13.

INO al STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM——PARSON

iS)

on

88. THE NuMBER OF MAGNETONS IN THE ATOM

The following table gives a comparison of the numbers of mag-
netons apportioned to the atoms in the last section with the “ atomic
numbers ” of van den Broék (which are the numbers of electrons in
the atom, according to Bohr), and also the atomic weights of the
elements :

H Heli Be B C N O F Ne|Na...S..Fe€o Ni..-OsIr Pt Au..

Magneton number (NV) 1....8 | 9 I0 II 12 13 14 I5 16 | 17..-22...32 32 32...80 80 80 8&1...
CC Uu—-,--Y

Atomic number I BS 0 % OG wy HG WO |) Mas ocilSconAd B7 AssocWS 70) a Witsoe

Atomic weight I 4|7 9 Il 12 14 16 19 20 | 23...32...56 50 59--191 193 195 197---

The two sets of numbers become identical for the heavy atoms for
which Rutherford has calculated numbers of electrons from a-particle
scattering, but for the lighter elements the atomic numbers seem at
first to have much in their favor. First there is their close approxi-
mation to half the atomic weight, although this does not hold for
Hydrogen or the heavy atoms. Secondly, the most definite calcula-
tions made from experimental results, viz., those from Barkla’s
work on the secondary Roéntgen radiation (Phil. Mag., 5, 685-608,
1903; 21, 648-652, 1911), give numbers of electrons that are about
half the atomic weight numbers for the lighter atoms.

The point to be emphasized here, however, is that none of such
calculations have any meaning for the present theory, for the follow-
ing reasons :

Rutherford’s numbers, got from the phenomena of a-particle
scattering, assume that the total charge on the electrons is equivalent
to the charge on a small positive nucleus; but for the model atoms
described in this paper, the nucleus, if there is any, must be neutral
(see the note at the end of §16). Also the “ characteristic numbers ”
got by Moseley, which, it should be remembered, are less than the
atomic numbers by unity, have not been definitely correlated with
the numbers of electrons in the atoms except through the idea of a
positive nucleus. To turn to Barkla’s work, the calculation of abso-
lute values by means of Thomson’s formula requires certain assump-
tions. One is that the dimensions of an electron are small compared
with the length of a Rontgen ray pulse: this is not entirely the case
with magnetons. Another, that the electrons in the atom are so far
apart that any pulse can act on only one at a time: this can hardly be
true of the electrons in the inner ring (radius 107° cm.) of the atoms
of Bohr’s theory, which is the prominent application of the hypothesis

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

E 2 Gi .
of atomic numbers. Again, the values of e and i used in the

calculations are still subject to some uncertainty (an alteration in
the accepted value of e from 1.13 to 1.55x10-°° has changed the
number of electrons calculated for the average molecule of air from
25 to 14). And lastly, it has been shown by Crowther that a large
part of the radiation scattered at the smaller angles is not accounted
for by Thomson’s formula, and Webster has pointed out that this is
due to Thomson’s neglect of a mutual reinforcement of the scattered
radiations from the separate electrons. With so many uncertainties,
the extant calculations from Barkia’s results cannot have much exact
significance for any theory of atomic structure.

The hypothesis of atomic numbers fails to accord with the chemical
properties of the elements. J. W. Nicholson, in a recent criticism
(Phil. Mag., 27, 541-564, 1914), has shown that Bohr’s arguments
about the behavior of electrons in his model atom are open to objec-
tion, and that the system with three electrons, for example, which
Bohr assigned to Lithium, would actually behave like an inert atom.
If applied to the present theory, the hypothesis would cause the same
confusion. .Nitrogen, with seven magnetons then in the atom, would
be the most electronegative element known; Oxygen, with a single
eroup of eight, would be inert; and Fluorine (then y+1) would be
expected to behave like Lithium. .

A circumstance frequently made mention of on behalf of this
hypothesis is that the a-particle, which is a charged atom of Helium,
always possesses exactly two units of charge. Now the sudden dis-
appearance of the a-particle (as such) when its velocity falls below
82x 10° cm. per second can hardly be due to anything but its neu-
tralization at this point. If at that still enormous velocity it can
become neutral, one would not expect it to lose all its electrons at
velocities that are not very much higher, and a theory like Ruther-
ford’s, or Bohr’s modification of it, shows no reason why the two
electrons, if there are only two, should not be lost one by one;
whereas, if the neutral Helium atom is stable up to a velocity of
82x 10° cm. per second, the present theory would actually predict
that for a considerable range of velocity above that point the atom
would be stable with a deficit of two magnetons, partly because each
succeeding magneton is harder to extract than the previous one, but
mostly because the group of six which would remain comes much
nearer to the group of eight in its magnetic stability than does the
group of seven or any other small group ($6).

Lastly, the lack of any very definite evidence of the existence of
atoms intermediate in mass between those of Hydrogen and Helium

INO eeien STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 27

is the main bulwark of the hypothesis of atomic numbers. According
to the present theory, it must be remembered, there are missing from
our observation on the earth’s crust six theoretically possible ele-
ments, containing two to seven magnetons in the atom, which should
occupy the gap between H (1) and He (y). But it appears, on con-
sideration, that even if such elements existed they would be inactive
(with the exceptions mentioned below), because two to. seven mag-
netons can form groups of much lower magnetic energy when alone
in a positive sphere than in the presence of groups of eight, which
must scatter them towards the surface of the atom.

The configuration inside the first two of these hypothetical atoms

would be , and in the third
Proto- Proto-boron
beryllium

{

probably | = oe , perhaps with the four magnetons at the

Proto-carbon

corners of an irregular tetrahedron (see §6). The last two of these
have no magnetic moment and therefore no attraction for other mag-
netons at a distance; also they could not unite stably with H atoms
even when brought into contact, for the intra-atomic forces beween
the magnetons are too strong to allow them to separate for such a
purpose. The first atom, Proto-beryllium, has a moment, and it
might combine with one H atom (for the two magnetons are too
strongly attracted together to be able to act separately); but it
would not be expected to part with a magneton to make up a group

of eight in another atom—as the H atom does in H-{Cl) 2

probable behavior of Proto-beryllium can
be compared with that of Beryllium by con-

sidering the diagram for the atom of the \
latter. Thus the only kind of combination
that seems possible for these proto-atoms is
where a group of eight is made up within h,

the atom itself. This would be impracti-
cable except for atoms containing as many

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

as five magnetons already (§9), but Protofluorine (7), certainly,
should be an even more strongly “negative” element than Fluorine
OE:

As far as these atoms are inactive, or combine only with Hydrogen,
their absence from the earth is to be expected, for they are light
enough to escape from the atmosphere, as even Helium is believed to
do slowly; but the absence (or excessive rarity) of Proto-oxygen
and Proto-fluorine must be attributed to unknown causes of the same
sort as condition the rarity of Neon, Krypton, and Xenon, and the
apparent absence of the analogues of Manganese.

Strong evidence for the existence of the proto-atoms is the occur-
rence in the spectrum from the corona of the sun (where gravitation
is much stronger than on the earth) of the bright unfamiliar line
attributed to an unknown element, Coronium; on similar grounds
an element Nebulium is believed to exist in the nebulz. Such ele-
ments as these could apparently find no place in the Periodic Scheme
except before Helium. (The proto-elements have been discussed,
though from a different point of view, by J. W. Nicholson (Phil.
Miaiee, 225 SOAR uOiuTy iy)

A noteworthy feature of this magneton theory is that it leads to
numerically identical constitutions for the atoms of the three elements
in each of the triplets in the transition group (Fe, Uo, Ni; Ru, Rh,
Pd; Os, Ir, Pt). According to Moseley’s calculations from the
Rontgen ray spectra of the elements (Phil. Mag., 26, 1024-1034,
1913), the constant difference of one unit (presumably one electron)
from atom to atom applies to these elements just as to the rest.
There may indeed be some such regular difference in the nucleus,
but we have seen above that Moseley’s results cannot well mean
anything for the “ outer shells ” of the model atoms of the present
theory, and the way in which the physical and chemical properties
of these elements throw them together in one group suggests strongly
that there is in their case some less fundamental difference in the
structure of that part of the atom.

39

DAR ties Vie ENCE:
$9. Two KInpDs or COMBINING ACTION AND THREE KiNnDs oF BONDS

There is no simple term in general use for the “ combining action ”
of an atom that is broad enough to include the ideas of a numerical
factor (valence), an intensity factor (affinity?), and sign (in the
conventional chemical sense), all within itself. I shall therefore
frequently speak of the action of an atom, to include all this.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM——PARSON 29

From the results in §$6, 7, we are able to distinguish between two
distinct kinds of action for the atoms:

1. Where an atom combines with others through the magnetic
forces due to its separate valence magnetons, no attempt being made
to form a group of eight in the atom. This is characteristic of the
atoms which have always been classed as “ positive,’ so the term
does very well to describe this kind of action; but it must be made
clear that in this sense its connection with positive electricity is only
incidental (e. g., when the H atom combines with a Cl atom it gives
up its single magneton to the latter and is then left with a positive
charge, but this does not happen when it combines with another H
atom in H,, or with a C atom in CH, : see below).

2. Negative action, where an atom which possesses nearly eight
valence magnetons succeeds in making up a group of eight by
extracting magnetons from other atoms.

In the following typical molecules, Ca and H atoms display positive
action, and O and Cl atoms negative:

H-H, H{c1), H£O}H, ue = Ca€O),
, Ko).
In "Qo , however, Cl is acting positively.

The way in which the Cl, and O, molecules have been represented
requires explanation. In Cl, we have two atoms that contain seven
valence magnetons each and are normally monovalent negatively.
It is evidently impossible for them both to form groups of eight |
simultaneously, nor, on account of molecular collisions, would one
be likely to form such a group permanently at the expense of the
other: we are thus led to think that this group must oscillate between
the two atoms. If this occurs, there must be formed, transitorily, a
condensed group of fourteen magnetons, which is related to the group
of eight very much as the naphthalene molecule is related to that of
benzene. If we take a horizontal section through the upper four coils

" [s
in config. I (see §6), we get the diagram = ae A similar

S
1.

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

section through the condensed group of fourteen would give us:

‘|S aE
N S N (cf. \) and €8 ). It may be seen
se oe

from this that the group would have a certain degree of intrinsic
stability, although not nearly so much as the more symmetrical and
mobile group of eight. In the same way the O, molecule may con-
tain a transitory group of twelve, which can be pictured by imagining
config. 1 to have three coils in each vertical row instead of two: a
condensed group of ten for the N, molecule is not so easy to imagine,

but the same oscillation of the “negative” function can take place

there: Ry =f (where represents a pair of free mag-

netons. A bond of this kind, which allows of the more or less
rapid oscillation of the “ negative” function (1. e., of the group-of-

eight formation) between two atoms, with the intermediate forma-
tion of a condensed group, will be called the negative bond.
Diagrammatically, then, the Cl atom may be represented :

Since we have called the bond in the negative bond,

that in H—H may appropriately be cailed the positive bond, and

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON ; 31
that in H-{Cl) the neutral bond.” Diagrammatically the mole-

cules H—H and H Cl) may be represented :

*TIn the case of the neutral bond, this formal.terminology becomes somewhat
artificial, and possibly misleading—for it is exactly there that an electric ©
polarity is developed in the molecule by the transfer of a magneton. On
the other hand, this bond has closely associated with it the idea of the union
of oppositely charged ions to give an electrically neutral molecule.

But in any case the choice of terminology here is difficult. Perhaps the best,
from a descriptive point of view, is that given by Bray and Branch in a paper
n “Valence and Tautomerism” (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 35, 1440-1447,
1913). Their “polar bond” is largely identical with the neutral bond here.
. But it would not be possible to use their term “non-polar” to describe what
is here called the positive bond, because the latter can probably be “ polar”
in a few cases (e. g., in metallic hydrides: these are not discussed in this
paper, but see §16; and the present purpose is to classify bonds by the
mechanism of their formation rather than by their ultimate effect upon the
behavior of the molecule. However, the use of the terms “ polar” and “ non-
polar” in a purely adjectival sense, such as their authors meant, is highly
desirable: the negative bond might then be described as “ambi-polar,’ as I
have indicated below.

The following table of some possible i eeaeslocise seems to show that the
most formal, besides giving a good synthesis of ideas, is perhaps the safest:

The action of an atom The bond between atoms Criticism
positive negative | positive neutral negative Formal.
extensive intensive eran Biccad Nae Vaguely de-
dispersed collected Sede ed: meee: scriptive.

non-polar polar ambi-polar | Describes elec-
(not always) tric effect.
linear cubical oscillating | Describes ar-
cubical rangement of
magnetons.
simple compound | simple compound oscillating | Vague.
compound
two- eight- oscillating | Gives number
eight- of magnetons
used.

With regard to these terminologies, objections besides those which I have
mentioned will readily suggest themselves.

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

(The above diagrams are drawn on half the scale of those given in
the previous sections. The black dots, representing valence mag-
netons, do not of course show their real distribution, whatever that
may be.)

The exact use of the terms positive, negative, and neutral, in con-
nection with this theory, in describing an atom’s action on the one
hand, and the bond between atoms on the other, is then as follows:
A positive* atom-+a positive atom use the positive bond: H—H.

A negative atom-+a negative atom use the negative bond: (CEKC!).

A positive atom+a negative atom use the neutral bond: HCl).

There follows a table of the typical oxides and hydroxides that
are so familiar in connection with the Periodic Scheme, together with
the numerical values, and relative intensities (qualitatively: see
below), of the combining actions derived for the atoms in this paper :

Group: 0 I II III We

V VI Vil
Highest normal (.... Liz0 BeO Be2Os COz NeOs a
oxide ..:. NasO” MgO® AlzO3s SiO: P20 SSQ:mGEe7
Positive valence 0 Po Sa SS gh SS eae’ oh Ones
Hydrides ets eer (CaH2) BHs CHa Ne SOR nae

Negative valence-ojion 8< 7) < SGN <= Ss 94 eae
impracticable P

It will readily be seen that this scheme, which is a direct mechan-
ical consequence of the assumptions of this theory, contains all the
features of the well-accredited scheme of “ valencies and contra-
valencies ” which is associated with Abegg’s name; and it also shows
why the “ contravalencies ” in groups I-III should be merely hypo-
thetical—for example, the Ca atom, with only two valence mag-
netons, can be seen, from electrostatic considerations, to have very
little or no tendency to draw in six more from six H atoms to give

Fae ged

the molecule HCA} : instead, it simply combines with two, using
[BEY Jel

the positive bond: H—Ca—H.

For those atoms that do show negative action, it is to be expected
that its intensity will diminish as the number of outside magnetons

”

* Or better, “positively acting,” and so for the rest.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 33

required to make up the group of eight increases, because of the
increasing eae strain involved; and so the order of inten-

O C . : si ;
sity is ae ae P }> Sis: If the intensity of the negative action

. of the atom of an element is to be judged by the readiness with which
it unites with Hydrogen or with the metals, as is reasonable, Nitrogen
and Phosphorus must be fairly weak in this respect, and Carbon and
Silicon can have very little tendency to combine negatively; this is
just as theory here would lead us to expect.

_ Further, this gradation in the tendency to form the group of eight
leads us to the conclusion that there must be, in the molecules of the
hydrides of these elements a kind of tautomerism or dynamical
equilibrium between the two possible modes of union, as follows:

Gal (Gas Sa oe neutral bend (polae™
{f Si)

C=H, N=H, (= *n) B tS positive bond (non-polar),
the proportion of polarized molecules increasing regularly from
CH,, where it is very small, to HF, in which it greatly predominates.
In view of the incessant vibrations of all molecules, this is mechanic-
ally a more likely condition than the statical one in which the
Carbon atom just does not, and the Nitrogen atom just does, succeed
in forming the group of eight. The constitutions of these molecules
are of fundamental importance in chemistry, for they are the four
typical molecules of the old type theory; and three of them, viz.,
NH,, OH,, and FH, typically represent almost all ionizing solvents ;
these three also differ from CH,, as we have seen, in that the
unpolarized tautomer contains a certain number (always even) of
valence magnetons that are free—that is, it is unsaturated.

With regard to the intensity of the positive action of an atom (as
shown in its typical oxide), the increasing number of magnetons
that must be extracted from an atom in forming its typical oxide, as
we pass from group I to group VII, results in a decreasing stability
of that oxide, for electrostatic reasons. Hence we have the following
stability relations :

BO. COl> NO OO EO.
EG Oi ess OF als Os 56) so SHOE
TiO; OO: CrO, >Mu;0,, etc.

The progress from basicity to acidity in the hydroxides as we pass
from group I to group VII is a matter of the greatest interest, and
much light can be thrown upon it by considering the electrostatic

3

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

forces set up by the extraction of different numbers of magnetons —
from the parent atom: I hope to discuss this in a somewhat quantt-
tative way, when dealing with the “retaining powers” of atoms for
magnetons (see §16).

In this section the relations between analogous atoms in any group
of the Periodic Scheme have not been discussed: this also must be
postponed.

$10. MOLECULES CONTAINING THE NEGATIVE BonpD

The more typical compounds of the elements have been briefly
classified in the last section: many compounds of less ordinary types
may be brought into the general scheme by means of the nega-

tive bond. As in the case of (axel), this is formed between those

atoms and groups only that are capable of negative action. Some

such are: (cl), O}H, =ENJ) = (which is for the most of the time

in the other phase: see §Q), +0} SO,f0}H ; and among their

binary compounds we have:

(ci¥c1), chlorine molecule ;
(cY60}-H , hypochlorous acid ;

COAX, , chloramide ;
lal H , hydrogen peroxide ;
H ON , hydroxylamine ;
Coe , hydrazine ;
H SoO}H, monopersulphuric acid ;
H+0} so,f0¥0} so{O}H, persulphuric acid.

Molecules like these are liable to the same kind of tautomerism as
HCl, H,O, H,N molecules (§9), but it will be more complicated, for

INOS il STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM——PARSON 35

either half can tautomerize. The constitution given to H,O,, for
example, is only one phase in the oscillations of a very mobile

molecule. The half-polar tautomer H0} 6-H might easily

| ye
pass over into Ca . This would be exactly analogous

H lal
A KC yz :
ce H Sl oir lar ] ;
to the change £O}-NC == (G5 N =H or hydroxylamine ;

and while there is no ee evidence that this takes place in
the simple substance, it is known that the attempt to get an amine

Sais like (0} nZ

aH he
H 0} N (unless the amine is tertiary).

Zi always yields the $-hydroxylamine
(ala

With regard to the “ double” negative bond in the O, molecule,
> oN
the unsaturated tautomer, which most likely predominates, (0%6

(§9), would account for that adding on of whole molecules which
seems to be the first stage of oxidation by gaseous oxygen (cf.
“autoxidation ” phenomena).

Ozone, which is formed by the union of an O, molecule with a

y$2)

nascent O atom, may then, in different phases, be O

D ue ©

S see wit), or O with the negative bond oscillating
¥0) 2)

(like

around the ring.

S11. RestpUAL Forces, MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC

In discussing the actions between atoms in the foregoing pages,
we have considered only the primary, or valence, effects of the
magnetons, and have left out of account the residual magnetic forces
that must be exerted to a greater or less extent by all combinations
of magnetons. Now, as a rule, these forces would be negligible in
determining the number of atoms in molecules such as are stable in

36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the gaseous state, because they are so much weaker than the primary

forces; although this may not be so invariably, just as it is not true

that the primary forces are always effective in holding together the

parts of the molecule of a gas (cf. N,O,, or I,). But the residual

forces within a molecule might affect its properties considerably.

These forces, as they are magnetic, will be forces of attraction

wherever possible, and we can in many cases form a rough idea of

their distribution, magnitude, and influence on the molecule.

Let us first consider the factors that would

determine the amount of attraction between two

nis ul}s magnetons. In the case of simple groups, such

as groups of two each, it is evident that they

h j must take up certain “ complementary ” attitudes
SIAN Si@n :
towards one another, as shown in the figure, if

there is to be any great amount of attraction

between them, and such complementary attitudes are not possible
unless the two groups are very similar in structure. For instance,

nis MS
N
the two groups AND —>

Pe is

when in the relative attitudes I have depicted, but not so much as the
more symmetrical pair first mentioned.

This principle seems to be perfectly general; and, in applying it
to the present theory, we can distinguish between two very distinct
types of groups: (1) groups of eight, with their stable symmetrical
distribution of magnetons; and (2) less symmetrical groupings,
where the magnetons are “free” or in positive bonds (no doubt
further distinctions could be made here).

The group of eight has a symmetrical but very checquered field,
and is not fitted to attract a single magneton very strongly, or any
group that is not very similar to itself. In the same way, less regu-.
lar groups may under favorable circumstances have more attraction
for one another than they could have for groups of eight.

Not the least important feature of these attractions is that the
external field of a group of any kind of structure will tend to impose
a similar structure upon any neighboring group, so as to increase
the attraction between them and lower their mutual energy. This
tendency will affect irregular groups more than groups of eight, for
their magnetons are less firmly held, so that irregular groups will

can attract each other

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON OU.

more frequently be able to take up configurations such that they can
attract one another. It must be remembered, of course, that, from
the very nature of magnetic forces, no groups of magnetons could
affect one another appreciably at distances that are much greater
than the distances between the magnetons within the groups, for
changes such as could decrease the mutual energy of the groups must,
except for slight changes, increase their internal energy still more,
because the distances there are smaller. However, intra-molecular
distances would not usually be too great, for we have assumed the
radius of the magneton to be of the same order of magnitude as
that of the atom.

We have now reached the following generalizations about the
mutual action of groups of magnetons:

1. Groups of eight can attract one another and irregular groups
can attract one another much more than irregular groups can attract
groups of eight.

2. A group of eight will tend to induce the formation of other such
groups in its vicinity ; and conversely, an irregular part of the mole-
cule will tend to weaken any groups of eight that are near to it.
Groups of eight will also mutually reinforce one another.

These principles are of great promise in connection with the
influence of “negative” groups in the molecules of Carbon com-
pounds, for the negative action of an atom has been identified, in the
preceding pages, with its tendency to form a group of eight. Another
application is to the properties of unsaturated molecules (§$§12, 13),
for these will naturally show the disturbing influence of free mag-
netons on groups of eight, if the present conclusions are correct.

There are also residual electrostatic forces to be considered. It
has long been recognized that the bond in a molecule like HCl is
electrostatic, and owes its existence to the extraction of an electron
from the H atom by the Cl atom, whatever may be the cause of that
extraction. The electrical polarity which presumably is thus set up
in the molecule has been used to explain many phenomena by Sir
J. J. Thomson in a recent paper on “ The Forces between Atoms and
Chemical Affinity ” (Phil. Mag., May, 1914) ; also a discussion of this
effect from a more chemical standpoint is given by G. N. Lewis ina
paper on “ Valence and Tautomerism ” (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.,
1448-1455, 1913), and by others. Now the explanations of the mag-
nitude of the dielectric constant, extent of molecular association, and
other things, by means of this conception are not affected by the
assumptions of the present theory (except in so far as they may in
some cases be made more definite) ; but a part of the phenomena

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

which it has been attempted to explain as due to electrostatic induction
between molecules will be found to be more plausibly ascribed to a
magnetic induction. It should be noted that the electrostatic induc-
tion, which must of course occur, would often have much the same
effect as the magnetic induction described above, especially in actions
between separate molecules ; but there is much in the intra-molecular
influences in carbon compounds that can be explained by the latter
conception only. This I hope to discuss in a future paper, but it may
be pointed out now that the two effects (electrostatic and magnetic)
are closely interdependent, according to the present theory, for elec-
tric polarization of a molecule has its origin in a rearrangement of
magnetons to form the group of eight.

§12. UNSATURATION IN INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

This only occurs when an atom, acting positively, has a valence less
than its maximum; for negative valence is fixed—for example, an
atom with six valence magnetons can part with any number up to six,
but to make up a group of eight within itself it must take in exactly
two. The formule

OROAD [+ Gre Ge

explain themselves. In most of such molecules the unsaturated atom
has a pair of free magnetons, which is represented by the symbol /\.
This tendency of free magnetons to go in pairs is referred to again
below.

Now these free magnetons may be expected to produce two effects
in the molecule. One is obvious: it is a tendency to form the cor-
responding saturated molecule, CO,, PCl;, SO;, N.O;, N.O,, and so
lower the magnetic energy. But this must always raise the electric
energy—e. g., in SO, the S atom has lost four magnetons, in SO,
six—and that tends to oppose saturation. The point of equilibrium
between these two tendencies, apart from metastable conditions of
the molecule, will naturally be further and further from the point of
saturation as we pass from group IV to group VIII of the Periodic
Scheme: an inspection of the oxides in these groups shows that this
prediction agrees with the facts.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 39

The other effect is due to their influence upon what linkages are
already formed. We have seen (§11) that free magnetons weaken
neighboring groups of eight. This results in a tendency for un-
saturated molecules to break down in such a way as to form molecules
of other types that are more saturated, if that is possible. This may
occasionally take place by the formation of the molecules of the
elements, as in the reaction

oe a 2 (0¥0)+(Ci¥Cl) mse y A,

but more often by a change of the following type:

1-659 3K £0} 0 + K-{Cl)...B,

which combines the two effects of the free magnetons.

Changes of type A do not take place readily unless the resulting
elementary molecules are well saturated in character, for if they are
not, the reverse action readily occurs. The nature of elementary
_ molecules cannot be discussed at this stage; but it is noteworthy that
the high molecular weights of gaseous Sulphur and Phosphorus and
the high melting points of Carbon and Silicon are in accordance with
the fact that their oxides, even when unsaturated, do not break down
into the constituent elements; while the metastable nature of the
oxides of Nitrogen is in accordance with the saturated character of
the N, molecule. The facts in these cases could have been predicted,
quite independently of any theory, from the mere conception of
unsaturation; but the same cannot be said of the comparisons which
now follow.

To see clearly the effect of free magnetons in loosening linkages,
it is necessary to compare the Oxygen compounds of some element
whose oxides are all metastable, that is, an element which will not
combine directly with Oxygen at all. Thus we eliminate the reverse
action which confuses the issue in the case of Sulphur, Carbon, etc.
Fluorine and Oxygen are too extremely negative to possess oxides
(except for O,), but we have an ideal case in Chlorine. Of the

Chr 64D)

oxides of Chlorine, (0¥cHo}c1 is found to decompose

One age)

40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

a
less readily than (CF Cl ; and this remarkable result is only

to be explained by the absence of free magnetons from the molecule
of the former, for that oxide must have much the higher electric
energy of the two. In the case of the oxyacids of Chlorine, the
velocities of decomposition, under equal conditions, are in the
following order:

a ee ogi oN
@QiO- 1 GAG-0 Sew

and the same is true for their Potassium salts. Also the heat evolu-
tion for complete conversion into KCl1+ Oxygen is much greater for
KCIO, than for KC1O,, and very probably is greater still for KCIO,.
(I have left Cl,O and HOCI out of account, because they contain the
negative bond, thus:

GI-@=GOO=4.O
1-8 Q=n- OG) = 1-4,

For Bromine and Iodine the relations are less regular: HBrO, is
not known, and HIO,(2H,O) is less stable than HIO,. In the case
of Nitrogen the oxyacids obey the rule, but most of the oxides do not.
No other negative elements satisfy the condition of not combining
directly with Oxygen.

As examples of changes of the type B, we have the following that
take place on heating:

Ih

an

4KC1O,—>3KC1O, + KCl
BHCIO,.> HClO, |. HO 2CI0, {group vue
4Na,SO,—>3Na,.S0,+ NaS (group VI,
4H,PO, aq.—3H,PO,+ PH, )

5Na,AsO,—>3Na,AsO,+ 3Na,0 fee Bara
and others that are spontaneous at ordinary temperatures:
3H,MnO, aqg—2H,MnO,+2H,0+ MnO, group VII,
3HNO, aq—HNO,+H,0+2NO i sroup V,
2Na,SnO, aq.—Na,SnO,+2NaOH+Sn_ (group IV.

(Unsaturated molecules are italicized throughout.) The effect thus
seems very general, although it will be recognized that two or three

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON Al

of these examples may not have much significance. In many cases
(as with nitrites, bromates, iodates) such changes have not been
observed, but when it is remembered that the electric strain is invari-
ably greater in the saturated than in the unsaturated molecule, it
seems that the evidence here collected is enough to establish the
principle of the interfering action of free magnetons.

A difficulty in interpreting the chemical data arises from the fact
that, although a reaction will not take place at all unless it causes a
diminution in free energy, the velocity of the reaction is very little
dependent upon the amount of that diminution. It seems, on consid-
eration, that the loosening effect of the presence of free magnetons
ought to have a more definite effect in accelerating a change (as in
the decomposition of the oxyacids of Chlorine) than in conditioning
it, thus resembling a catalyst: for it is impossible to predict whether
the magnetic energy due to the presence of free magnetons in the
molecule would or would not be greater than the increase in electric
energy which accompanies saturation. In the case of a reaction like

4KCl0,>3KC1O, + KCl, however, it should be noticed that while
the magnetic energy of all four molecules is diminished, the electric
energy increases in only three of them, being greatly diminished in
the fourth.

The rule (with numerous exceptions) that the positive valence of
an atom, when it has not its maximum value, has a value that is less
than that by two units, is in accordance with the present conceptions ;

N
because a group of two magnetons (+ <=) not only has
S N ;

considerably less than twice the magnetic energy of a single mag-
neton, but on account of its nature will interfere less with the stability
of a group of eight, for the latter is made up of four such pairs.
A group of three, whatever its configuration, must have as great a
disturbing effect as a single magneton. Again, four free magnetons
probably could not maintain a compact symmetrical configuration,
because they lie in an outer layer of the atom (§§7, 14), and would
probably be distributed so as to act like two groups of two, thus
causing about twice the amount of disturbance that one of these
can cause: in accordance with this, we find that molecules like

a A SS :
(cd-S cr) and H 0} C10) are quite rare, and very unstable.

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The exceptional cases

Ue N= Se
Cit =

can reasonably be attributed to the fact that in the case of penta- and —
hepta-valent elements those oxides which have an even number of
free magnetons in the atom are bound to have cumbrous molecules

iss (o¥ § 0} 840):

The frequent occurrence of a pair of magnetons as a subsidiary
group in the outer part of the atom, and its comparative stability, are
the reasons for the use here of the symbol , to represent it.

Unsaturation in Carbon compounds is quite a different kind of
phenomenon and will not be discussed in the present paper.

§13. THE TRANSITION SERIES OF ELEMENTS

In §6 constitutions were assigned to the elements of the series as
follows:

an V Cr Mn (Fe Co Ni) Cu =Zin) Ga Ge

(3y+) 4 8 a * (i

(47+) [rt] 2 3 4

|
Oo’
“IT

They were based on an arbitrary assumption—that in certain specified
cases (7. é., in the middle of the long periods) the group of eight was
not formed by eight or more free magnetons. The justification for
this is that it enables us, without any further assumptions whatever,
to systematize and explain the outstanding properties—at first sight
so irregular—of these elements.

In the first place, some of the properties of the first four are quite
normal. For example, Mn, which is 3y+7, although without nega-
tive action, has a positive valence of seven, as is shown in Mn,O,
(cf. Cl,O,) and KMnO, (which is isomorphous with KCIO,).
Similarly, in the nature of their higher oxygen derivatives, V and Cr

1 The kinetic effect here implied should of course be taken into account con-
tinually in any complete analysis of the behavior of atoms, but it is difficult to
see how this can be done even in a qualitative way except in thé very simplest
cases.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 43

resemble P and S. The elements Fe, Co, Ni have been given the
constitution 3y+8, and, although they themselves are not known to
be octovalent, the analogous elements Ru (5y+8) and Os (9y+8)
give the oxides RuO, and OsQ,.

Again, Cu, Zn, and Ga, the last three of the series, give compounds
in which they are mono-, di-, and tri-valent respectively, thus resem-
bling the typical elements of the groups I, IJ, and III, in which they
lie. Now we have seen (§7) that the atoms of these elements may
be supposed to undergo an intra-atomic tautomerism similar to the
intra-molecular tautomerism described for CH,, NH,, OH,, HF, in
89; and, as in that case, brackets have been used to represent roughly
the proportions we may expect of the two phases. What we should
predict from this is true in fact, for the first long period at all events:
compounds of monovalent Cu (from the 4y+1 phase) are less stable
than those of divalent Cu (from the 3y +9 phase, as explained below),
while compounds of trivalent Ga (from the 4y+3 phase) are stabler
than the other compounds of Ga. In the case of Zn, it will be shown
that both phases make for divalency. For the other two long periods
the agreement is not so good.

In addition to the individual properties already referred to, all the
elements of this series give basic oxides in which the atom of the
metal tends to be trivalent towards the left of the series, and divalent
towards the right. The very regularity of this series of oxides
indicates that they are in some way due to the 3y phases of these
atoms: (3y+) 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11; but the connection seems at first
sight to be remote. It appears as if the successive additions of
magnetons have a very slight effect in these transitional series, as far
as the basic oxides are concerned (compare with this the even greater
monotony in the series of rare-earth elements: see the table of the
Periodic Scheme at the end of §7).

Of course Cu, for example, could not be expected to give stable
salts in which it is 9-valent, such as CuCl,, not only because of the
mechanical hindrance to this, but also because the extraction of so
many magnetons from the Cu atom would have to be effected against
comparatively great electrostatic forces: towards negative groups the

‘atom must remain unSaturated, and some of its nine magnetons will
be free. This brings us to yet another application of the principle of
the disturbing action of free magnetons, which was discussed in §12.
We get the result, paradoxical at first sight, that the more free
magnetons an atom possesses, the fewer it can use to combine with
negative radicles—unless it succeeds in using them all, which is not

4A SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

possible beyond a certain number (cf. the instability of Cl,O, and
Mn,O,). This would account for the steady progress from trivalence
to divalence that has just been noted. Subjoined is a list of the
valences of the transition metals in their chlorides:

X.O; | XOg-| X20, XO, <m — Saturated oxides
Vv Gr | Ma “le Gann Cu Zar Ga
4 4
3 3 3 3.303 3c . (3)
Sm
2 2 2 2.32. 2 2 (2) 2
(Ce aa Re seas I
Nb Mo | —— | (Ru Rh Pd) _ Ag Cd In
5 5
4 4A 4
SU 3 sesh ee a (3)
2? 2 ee 222 ae (2) 2
(1) ie I
ata | “7 == | Geie Bs Ae He Tl
5 5
4 4 a AULA
OY 3 5 ne ies eu 2 BS ae (3)
2 PY DD 2? (2)
(1) IP I
Ge | MOnnin 8 9 To [17]
= \N \M \s
[y-+1] +2 Y+3

The numbers in heavy type represent the chlorides that are stablest
to oxidation or reduction (as far as the relations could be ascer-
tained), and the decrease in effective valence from left to right is
brought out clearly. The values in parentheses do not of neces-
sity belong to this scheme, but can be due to the other phase of the
atom’s structure: however, the tendencies of the two phases may
coincide, as in the case of Zn, Cd, and Hg. (Monovalent Hg, in the

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 45

sense in which Ag is monovalent, is of doubtful existence, for the
mercurous ion has been shown to be double: Hg,**.)

The case of Ag is remarkable. We would certainly expect AgCl,
or AgCl, to exist, even if they were not as stable as AgCl, but Ag is
monovalent in its salts almost without exception. However, this
atom’s power to form complex ions, which, as I hope to show later,
is a characteristic property of these unsaturated atoms and condi-
tioned by their unsaturation, is good evidence for the existence of
the 3y-+9 phase.

The whole of this explanation, apart from its simplicity and con-
sistency, is strongly supported by the nature of the physical properties
of these elements; for there is marked parallelism between their high
melting points, electrical conductivities, and magnetic susceptibilities,
and the large numbers of free magnetons in their atoms. Their small
atomic volumes are also in accordance with the results of this paper,
as may be seen in the next section (§14).

PART IV. VOLUME
§14. THE VOLUME OF THE POSITIVE SPHERE

The atomic volume of an element in the liquid or solid state is, as is
well known, far from being, even approximately, a simple function
of its atomic weight, or of the number of magnetons that are in the
atom according to the present theory. The elements at the maxima
of the well-known atomic volumes curve have atomic volumes that
are about seven times as great as those of the elements at the minima.
The periodic nature of these fluctuations, however, and their obvious
relation to fluctuations in other properties of the elements, such as
their valences or melting points (the relation being of an inverse
character in these two cases), have made it fairly clear that they are
to be ascribed to differences in the forces acting between atoms rather
than to corresponding fluctuations in the volumes that the atoms
might have if they could be isolated.

This is the “ Hypothesis of Compressible Atoms ” for which T. W.
Richards has brought forward many kinds of evidence (Faraday
Lecture, 1911; Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 36, 617-634, 1914; etc.) ;
and the final justification for bringing this idea very concretely into
the present theory (which has already been done in $7) is that the
elements which lie along the minima of the atomic volumes curve
are just those to which we have ascribed the maximum numbers of
magnetons not bound in groups of eight or tending to form them
(the constitutions assigned to (Fe Co Ni), Cu, Zn, Ga, and their ana-

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

logues being, in that respect, the new features of the present treat-
ment, §§7,13). Also the fact that the maxima of magnetic suscepti-
bility are almost coincident with the minima of atomic volumes (even
in the case of Cu salts) takes on a new significance when the forces
between atoms are attributed to specific attractions between mag-
netons, as they are here.

Evidence about the volumes of isolated atoms is not entirely lack-
ing; and, as might be expected, it has been got from the behavior
of gases, especially those with monatomic molecules. If mu is the
refractive index of a monatomic gas for very long waves, and the
atom is assumed to be made up of electrons within a uniform positive
sphere, it can be shown that 4—1 is proportional to the volume of this
sphere. Values for » have been got for various gaseous elements
by Cuthbertson and Metcalfe (Phil. Trans. A., 207, 138, 1907), and
the corresponding values for p-I are tabulated in Thomson’s “ Cor-
puscular Theory of Matter,” chap. VII, p. 165. I have tabulated
them below together with the atomic volumes of the elements in the
solid or liquid state, their atomic weights, and their magneton
numbers (NV).

—————

Atomic Atomic volume (u—1) X10 _ é N

ht ce gaseous atomic | o Normal volume of

WHEL Solid Pianid volume the positive sphere
*Hydrogen .. I TNE TE 14.3 139 I
Eveline se 4 peat 27.4 72 8
INeomieeacSe 20 See — 137 16
INGORE Rene 40 oe 28.1 507 24
Ky ptonsense. 82 Bs Was 37-9 850 40
MEMOS sdocue 128 eect 20nd 1378 56
TESNC 6 pe A oo 6 65 Q.2 fe 2060 34
(Cacdimitim sass ee 13.0 ks 2675 50
Miencuny =. s- 200 ater 14.7 1866 82
*OxySeN..-.- 16 it 52 12.6 270 14
eS til eeies 32 15.5 Eg IIOI 22
*Selenium.... 70 16.5 ene 15605 : 38
*Tellurium ..| 128 20.4 nara 2495 54
*Nitrogen ... 14 13.6 16.9 207 13
*Phosphorus. 31 Ital Ui Ene 1197 21
*Arsenic..... 75 16.0 Beis 1550 37

* Not monatomic.

It may be seen from this table that the values of »—1 for the
elements of any group show a much greater parallelism to the mag-
neton numbers than do the ordinary atomic volumes (except in the
single case of Hg); but if these values are plotted against the

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 47

magneton numbers to give a curve of gaseous atomic volumes as
shown below, a much more striking relation is brought out. In-

complete as this curve is, it may be seen that its maxima correspond
closely to the minima of the ordinary atomic volumes curve. It is
true that the »—1 relation holds in strictness for monatomic gases
only, but if O, N, P, S, etc., could be obtained in the monatomic state,
their values for »—1 would almost certainly be even higher than they
are here, for the atoms in a polyatomic molecule must be somewhat
compressed.

It seems then that the presence of a large number of valence
magnetons, which we have held responsible:for the abnormally low
atomic volumes of some solid elements, is accompanied by an abnor-
mally high atomic volume in the case of gaseous elements. This
result, remarkable as it may seem at first, is not at all out of harmony
with the present assumptions: indeed, the curve of gaseous atomic
volumes is easier to explain than the other.

We saw in §7 that the extent of the compression of the positive
sphere depended in part upon the magnetic attractions between the

magnetons. Now when an atom contains valence magnetons (1. é.,
\

48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

magnetons not in groups of eight), the average magnetic energy per
magneton is higher and the average attractions between the mag-
netons are less. Since the valence magnetons are distinct from the
others (as an average effect at all events), this will show itself chiefly
in the existence of a rather less compressed outer layer in which the
valence magnetons lie, but partly also in an expansion of the groups
of eight in the atom owing to the disturbing effect described in §11.
The total result is thus an expansion of the atom,
the amount of which must be roughly propor-
tional to the number of valence magnetons in it.
Hence we would expect a periodic fluctuation of
the atom’s normal volume just like that in the
curve given above. There, the maximum volumes
are about three times as great as the minimum, but
it should be borne in mind that this only means a
45 per cent increase in the radius of the atom for the transfer of
about one-third of its magnetons from a closely to a loosely bound
condition.

The abnormally high value of »—1 for Hydrogen is not entirely
unexpected, because, although the positive spheres of all atoms are
internally compressed to the same extent by electrostatic forces ($7),
the Hydrogen atom is the only one that is not further compressed
by internal magnetic forces, for it contains only one magneton. Even |
in the H, molecule the compression cannot be nearly so great as in
the Helium atom; so that the volume of the positive sphere of the
atom of gaseous Hydrogen may be expected to be abnormally great—
if not quite so great as the »—1 relation indicates.

§15. ATomic VOLUMES IN THE LIQUID AND SOLID STATES

In considering now the volumes of atoms in liquids and solids, it
might loosely be taken for granted that the action of valence mag-
netons on atoms such as I have hitherto described could produce the
differences in volume that are observed. This involves a fallacy, the
avoidance of which leads to an important conclusion about the distri-
bution of the atom’s positive sphere, which up to the present has been
assumed to be uniform in the absence of magnetons.

If a naturally uniform positive sphere contains magnetons propor-
tional in number to its charge (and normal volume), which are not
attached to it except by electrostatic forces, the average compression
in a cluster of such spheres must be about the same whether the
magnetic forces are acting almost entirely within the separate

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 49

spheres, or are acting largely between them, and so the average
volume per magneton should be about the same in the two cases.
If there is any difference at all between the two cases, it is that the
cluster in which the forces between atoms are considerable will be
compressed even less than the other; because it is rarely possible
for valence magnetons to reach a state of such low magnetic energy
as exists in an atom where the magnetic, forces are acting almost
entirely within the atom owing to all its magnetons being in groups

of eight. Even in the case of a molecule like H-{C)), where it is

true that all the magnetons are in groups of eight, the electrostatic
strain must increase their magnetic energy and expand the groups
somewhat.

This theoretical result is of course directly at variance with the
facts. A cluster of atoms of Argon (3y) or of Krypton (5y) has
about four times the volume per magneton of a cluster of Iron, Co-
balt, or Nickel atoms (3y+8) ; and a similar relation holds between
Helium atoms (y) and Carbon atoms (y+4). The great decrease
in volume that is undoubtedly caused by an increase of the magnetic
forces between the atoms at the expense of the magnetic forces
within the atoms is much more than a filling in of “spaces ” could
account for, and can have only one explanation: the positive sphere
must have a much lower charge density and a much greater com-
pressibility at its boundary than in its interior; and thus the com-
pression of this boundary layer, since it is due to the action of the
valence magnetons chiefly, is found to be a “ periodic” effect as the
atomic weight increases.

This boundary layer, which I shall call the envelope of the atom,
will be assumed to exist quite independently of the action of mag-
netons upon the positive sphere, and may reasonably be supposed to

4

50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

be of the same thickness for all atoms, since it abuts upon a positive
sphere which has the same normal charge density for them all. It
may be of uniform density, but it seems more natural to suppose
that its density falls off rapidly as‘the distance from its inner bound-
ary increases, as shown in the diagram, where O represents the
center of the atom. With regard to its extent in the case of an
isolated atom there is no need to speculate. If it is to fulfill the
purpose for which its existence was assumed, it must be supposed to
have so low a charge density that magnetons do not lie in it, and
therefore its presence does not appreciably affect the values of »—1
($14). As being by far the most compressible part of the atom, the
envelope is the seat of the greater part of the volume change that
accompanies a chemical or physical change, and it may be supposed
to be compressed into a very small space when the forces between
atoms are strong.

This envelope, the assumption of which will enable us to give a
qualitative explanation of practically all the observed volume rela-
tions, must be distinguished from the comparatively very dense layer
in which the valence magnetons lie as they surround the groups of
eight, and which owes its existence entirely to the presence of the
valence magnetons, being simply a less compressed part of the posi-
tive sphere proper (see §14). In the diagrams hitherto used in
this paper, both this layer and the envelope have been disregarded,
but they are represented in the more complete diagrams which are
given below for the atoms of Argon (3y) and Iron (3y+8) when
these elements are in the liquid and solid states respectively. Their
magneton numbers are 24 and 32, but because of the expanding
effect of the valence magnetons (which approximately trebles the vol-
ume: see §14), the volumes of their positive spheres, neglecting the
envelopes, are 24 and 96 respectively (in arbitrary units). These
are represented by the circles in the diagrams. The dotted hexagon
represents the total space, frequently duodecahedral in shape, that is
occupied by the atom when it is one of a cluster. In the case of
Iron, this space is shown as being only a little greater than the volume
of the positive sphere proper ; 7. e., about 110 units. The total space
for thé Argon atom is therefore represented as having a volume of
about 430 units, to accord with the relative atomic volumes observed
for these elements. It may be seen that the distances across which
the interatomic forces must act are thus made to be about as we

"This gives the “ thickness’? a meaning even if the envelope is infinite in
extent.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 51

would expect from what is known of the cohesion of these two sub-
stances, especially in view of the fact that the Iron atom has eight
valence magnetons and the Argon atom none. The assumption that
the envelope of the Iron atom is already compressed to a very small
volume (as shown in the figure) is justified by the exceedingly low
compressibility of this element—as found by T. W. Richards.

The curve of atomic volumes—Owing to the complexity of the
factors involved, it is useless to try to make up an expression that
would yield a complete atomic volumes curve; but it is nevertheless
possible to predict a number of the features of such a curve.

Cngan (igi), Sram (sofia),

Nell!

Relative botal volumes 430 ~
(Qlemic volumes 28-| 1")

In the first place, the force that compresses the atoms is likely to
come chiefly from the valence magnetons, and to a less extent from
the groups of eight in the atom. Now the slight cohesion of the
inert elements shows that the latter factor is small enough to be
neglected when there are valence magnetons present—in the present
rough treatment at any rate. It is important, however, to find out
the effective numbers of the valence magnetons in the various atoms.
That these are not necessarily the same as the actual numbers may
readily be seen by comparing the probable behavior of Cl (2y+7)
with that of Mn (3y+7). The former has a strong tendency to
form the group of eight, and so in its cohesive action it will
behave as if it contained fewer than seven magnetons. This argu-
ment applies to all the halogens, and to a less extent to the nega-

52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

tive elements of groups VI and V of the Periodic Scheme. Thus
in the short periods the effective numbers of magnetons will be
HEATey Omi v2 sa eh

than to 1 2345067, although this almost certainly under-
estimates the numbers in groups V-VII. Similarly, in the long
periods we can substitute for the actual numbers, which are

ane
\

NIN yi
@) 2 2 A567, the emectime
numbers : £23 2-5 6.7 On7 (OF (54 12) 2a ee mGemEanN

these numbers (in italics) would place C and Si at the minima of
the curve in the short periods, and Fe Co Ni and the Platinum
metals at the minima in the long periods—as they are in the curve
of actual atomic volumes.

With regard to the shape of the curve, since the envelope, as we
have pictured it, is bound to be more compressible at small than at
great compressions, we could predict the flat minima and peaked
maxima that are observed, and would expect, from what has been
said, a curve of the general shape shown in the figure (the signifi-

--

cance of the “ dotted ” loci is explained below). The chief defect in
this curve is that it places all the inert elements at the maxima. In
actual fact He is at the first maximum, and Ne probably at the second
(its density in the liquid state has apparently not been determined),
but the other maxima are occupied by the alkali metals K, Rb, Cs.
Now although it is difficult to explain why the atomic volumes of
these elements should be greater than those of A, Kr, Xe, it is easy
to see why they should not be very much less. When each atom in a
cluster has only one valence magneton, the chance that the valence
magnetons will cooperate effectively to compress the cluster is very
small, and much less, for éxample, than one-fourth of the chance
when each atom contains four—not only because of their small

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM——PARSON 53

number, but also because the greater depth of the atom’s envelope
(due to the smaller compression) makes it less likely that the mag-
netons will be able to maintain the most favorable attitudes. Most of
their action will be upon groups of eight, for which their attraction is
slight. Also this difficulty will increase as N (and the size of the
atom) increases: this is represented by the locus for the alkali metals
in the above diagram. For similar reasons the elements Be, Mg, Car
Sr, Ba would lie rather higher on the curve than might at first have
been expected.

Now if the atoms had no envelopes, and all their magnetons were
in groups of eight, their volumes would be nearly (but not quite:
see a, below) proportional to their magneton numbers, and they
would lie on a straight line such as OA in the diagram. But for any
series of analogous elements the volume will not increase as fast as
N, for three reasons :

a. Even the volume of the positive sphere proper does not increase
quite as fast as N, because the amount of compression due to internal
magnetic forces increases somewhat as N increases: this makes most
difference in the case of H (see §14).

b. The expanding effect of a given number of valence magnetons
(§14) becomes proportionately less as N increases. The locus of the
atomic volumes of the elements with 8 valence magnetons will then
be about as I have drawn it through the minima of the curve, it being
assumed for simplicity (and the flatness of the minima fairly justifies
the assumption) that the envelope has practically disappeared in these
cases. There will probably be some envelope left in C and Si: hence
their positions.

c. The addition of the envelope will increase the volume of a small
positive sphere proportionately more than that of a large one, for
the envelope has been assumed to be of the same “ thickness ” for all
atoms; thus, if two spheres with radii in the ratio 1:2 (volumes
1:8) have added to each of them an envelope with a thickness equal
to the radius of the larger, their new radii are in the ratio 3:4, and
their volumes now 27: 64—a very different ratio. This effect, while
it is more important for H than for any other single atom, will affect
the series of inert elements more than any other series, for their
envelopes should be less compressed than those of other elements:
this is shown by the locus in the diagram. The actual relation in the
case of these elements is in excess of the prediction, for the atomic
volumes scarcely increase at all as N increases, that of Argon being
even less than that of Helium: but valence magnetons-are absent,

54. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

and the compression is due entirely to the action of the increasing
number of groups of eight—which might account for the increasing
compression, though, on consideration, it cannot be definitely said
that it would.

There is another reason why atomic volumes should not increase
as fast as N, which is not general but applies only to the halogens
and the other “negative”? elements for which we chose corrected
“effective numbers ” on account of their tendency to form the group
of eight. This tendency to form the group of eight will be dimin-
ished as N increases ;* hence the effective number of valence mag-
netons will be increased. i

In this unavoidably involved set of predictions there is still another
factor to be taken into account. As the surface of the atom increases
with N, the average force on unit area that is caused by the action
of a given number of valence magnetons must diminish—more
rapidly at first than for large values of N. This will be true for all
except the inert elements (see c, above). Hence, as N increases,
atomic volumes (except for He, Ne, etc.) will increase faster than
we have supposed, and the final predicted curve could be got from the
curve in the diagram by multiplying the separate values which it
represents by a set of factors whose relative magnitudes are roughly
indicated by the curved line OB.

The extremely qualitative and even uncertain nature of this reason-
ing is very apparent, but it is the best that can be done under the
circumstances.

If atoms have envelopes, as has been assumed in this section, we.
would expect the envelopes in a diatomic gas molecule to be dis-
tributed somewhat as follows:

\
(|
¢

~=
oe ea = Oe,

- 4 7
7". own”

the compressions due to collisions (see T. W. Richards, Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc., 36, 617-634, 1914) affecting the envelopes chiefly. The
advantage of this idea is obvious, for if polyatomic molecules were

* This effect has not been alluded to as yet, but it is doubtless connected with
the fact that as the number of groups of eight in the atom increases, the
valence magnetons must be more and more scattered.

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

PARSON 55

not “ padded ” into a more or less approximately spherical shape in
some such way as this, they would be expected to dissociate more
readily than they do in actual fact. This padding need not be so
complete as to abolish the so-called energy of rotation.

With regard to the assumptions that have been made in this paper
about the existence, distribution, and compressibility of the positive
sphere, it might be argued that a reference of the ordinary super-
ficial conceptions of volume and compressibility to a more funda-
mental conception that is equally gross is no explanation at all. But
a simplification has undoubtedly been made by the present method.

Again, it is obviously desirable to avoid a multiplicity of funda-
mental concepts; but it has not hitherto been found possible to base
any theory of the constitution of matter upon a single concept. For
example, the nearest approach that has as yet been made to such a
fundamental concept is the electric charge. Now, in the first place,
this cannot explain observed mass relations except through the idea of
the volume of acharge. Inthe second place, an electric charge, if it is
nothing more than that, must be dissipated throughout all space on
account of the repulsions between the separate portions of it. Thus
the various ideas of the electron, the magneton here described, the
uniform sphere of positive electrification of Kelvin and Thomson,
and the minute positive nucleus of Rutherford, all imply the existence
of some non-electric constraint which has essentially the same kind
of action upon the electric charge as the forces of cohesion have
upon gross matter. If then the introduction of this idea is necessary,
as it seems to be, it is both legitimate and useful to develop it to its
fullest possible extent.

J

§16. SUMMARY OF ASSUMPTIONS, ETC.

I have attempted in the foregoing pages to show that this magneton
theory can go a long way towards explaining the most diverse kinds
of chemical combination; and further applications, to phenomena
such as those of ionization (§9), the formation of complex salts and
molecular compounds (§13), and the structural influences in the
molecules of Carbon compounds (§11), have been suggested. Before
these latter can be adequately dealt with, however, one other factor
in the behavior of magnetons must be studied: this is the electro-
static retaining force which opposes the extraction of a magneton
from its parent atom (see Kelvin’s analogy, §4), and is important
because it determines the strength of a linkage and sometimes its
mode of dissociation also.

56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Quite another field opens up. before this theory in the physical
properties of matter, for it has professed to take into account, in a
qualitative way, most or all of the factors in the action of atoms upon
one another. The interaction of magnetons and “ positive spheres ”
should account not only for the chemical properties of the elements
and their compounds, but also for their melting and boiling points,
tenacities, atomic volumes under various conditions (already touched
upon in §§14, 15), electrical conductivities, and, above all, for their
magnetic properties (see §§2,13 and Part V). It is evident, how-
ever, that the application of the theory to the details of these phe-
nomena must be a very complex and difficult matter.

I will conclude this part of the work by summarizing the assump-
tions made in the course of it, and the working material derived
from them.

ASSUMPTIONS

1. The atom is made up of a positive part and magnetons, which
are ring-shaped negative charges (hitherto called electrons and sup-
posed to be spherical or concentrated at a point) rotating with a
peripheral velocity of the order of that of light, their radii being
comparable with but less than that of the atom (§1). Their rotation
is independent of any attracting positive charge.

2. The positive part of the atom is a sphere of uniform positive
electrification, with the properties of an elastic solid (§$7, 14), and
with a volume normally proportional to the number of magnetons it
contains (§1). It is surrounded by an atmosphere or envelope of.
very low charge density, which is also elastic (§15).

3. The formation of the group of eight (of low magnetic energy),
which is practically proved for a system of eight magnetons, is
assumed to take place also in atoms containing more than eight.
[| This is not altogether an assumption, as the reasoning in §7 shows. |

4. To explain the occurrence of long periods in the Periodic
Scheme, and at the same time the properties of the elements in these
periods (§§13, 15), it is necessary to assume that there is in certain
cases a hindrance to the formation of a group of eight when it is
normally due. [An arbitrary assumption: see $7.]

The last two, although they come early in the development of the
theory, are assumptions which it would be very desirable to avoid:
further study of the behavior of magnetons or some alteration in the
more fundamental assumptions may make this possible.

These assumptions have furnished the following factors in the
behavior of magnetons, atoms, and molecules:

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON Wi

1. The simple magnetic attraction between two magnetons (§5).

2. The tendency to form the group of eight (§6).

3. The residual magnetic forces exerted by all combinations of
magnetons: their attracting and inducing actions ($11).

4. The electric polarization set up by the extraction of a magneton
from one atom by another atom: its attracting and inducing actions
(§r1).

5. The effect upon the nature of a linkage of the electrostatic
retaining power of an atom for magnetons (not yet discussed).

6. The pressure and volume changes that are possible in the posi-
tive sphere, and more particularly in the envelope, of the atom
($814, 15).

In quantity and variety this working material far surpasses that
which is afforded by any purely electrostatic theory of the atom (and
strictly speaking, no theory is purely electrostatic: see §15).

This work was done largely in England, but has been amplified
and completed at Harvard University and at the University of
California.

NotEe.—Besides his work on radiation, which is not confined to the
paper mentioned in §1, Dr. Webster has made an important addition to
this theory in suggesting that a minute nucleus could be added to the
model atom here described, without much affecting the behavior of its
other parts if the nucleus were neutral or nearly so. This, which I
have only mentioned casually in §8, will be discussed in connection
with a-particle scattering and other matters in a forthcoming paper
by him.

PART V. MAGNETISM
817. THE Rapius AND MoMENT oF THE MAGNETON

From the results of the last séction it is possible to calculate
approximately the radius of the magneton, starting from the assump-
tion originally made that it is about half that of the positive sphere
of the Hydrogen atom. Since that assumption was made, however,
we have seen that the radius of the Hydrogen atom’s positive sphere
is a less significant quantity than that of the positive sphere of a large
atom, because Hydrogen is exceptional in having no internal magnetic
compression and therefore has an abnormally large positive sphere.
Since the volume (V) of the positive sphere of a large atom is
nearly proportional to its magneton number (N), the radius of the
magneton which has been used to construct atoms in the preceding
I BVA
; 2 . 4nrN -
experimentally accessible for most atoms, are given by the ordinary

section will be about

Now values for V, though not

58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

atomic volumes in the case of those elements in which the compres-
sion is reasonably supposed to be so great that the envelope has
practically vanished (see §15). Such are Iron and Platinum. Divid-
ing the atomic volumes of these by Avogadro’s constant (6.0 x 10°),
we get 11.4 10-** and 14.6 10** as values for V in the two cases.
Since their respective magneton numbers are 32 and 80, the two
values 2.2x 10° and 1.8x1I0° are got for the magneton’s radius.
That Iron should give the larger value was to be expected, for the
assumption that the envelope has vanished is less nearly true for it
than for Platinum, as their relative compressibilities show. Allowing,
then, for the presence of some envelope even in metallic Platinum,
we may take the radius of the magneton to be about 1.5 x 10° cm.
This is only about one-tenth of the radius of the total atomic space
usually found in a solid or liquid, where the envelope may occupy a
large part of it.

Now since the velocity at the circumference of the magneton has
been assumed equal to c (the velocity of light), we have for the
moment of the magneton:

Moment=area X current

9 ec
S77 Ok
2nr
eee’
a7

= (5610; ) MICS 5pcLOm In (Ge elGae tease
== OLS tOr MEU:

1 The radii of some atomic spaces may be given for comparison with those
of the corresponding positive spheres, and that of the magneton. It should
be noticed that the values of (R’—R) got from the table below give the
volume of the envelope. :
R’ (of atomic space) FR (of positive sphere) r+ (of magneton)

lal “((QoliGl))" Boo kscoone 17 << 1O- 220 << LORS alts) SX T@=©
ees Clic aid)) eee eee ee Bias hal
Cia(solid)) is Seer Ses: Mula poles SY ae ee
O SS ok keto tices oars ae Tras ote 2a)
ING ib er coc ene eit = Daag Orr ees
K Pedant aa ALG) OL ad
Fe re AAP SM tes dil ieds eaereteg iit s
Pt PY Ado eal eet Giese 1.5 .

The values given for R must all be too great because they are derived from
the assumption that the envelope has quite disappeared in solid Platinum. In
the case of H there is also a factor that would tend to make it too small—
the lack of internal magnetic compression has been left out of account. Ina
subsequent paper, evidence will be adduced from the phenomena of electrolytic
dissociation to show that the positive sphere of this atom has a radius of about
FO eLOne

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 59

In comparison with this we have for the moment of the Iron atom
in the metal at saturation the value 2x 10~°° only, and for the Iron
atom in salts or for the Oxygen atom considerably smaller values.
Also the moment of Weiss’ magneton is 1.85 x 10771.

If, therefore, the magneton under discussion were required to
correspond to an empirical unit of magnetic moment, as does Weiss’
magneton, this result would be fatal to it: but with magnetons which
are movable current circuits, the result is exactly what we would look
for. On the present theory, it can be definitely affirmed that no atom,
however many magnetons it contains, can have a moment greater than
that of one magneton, and that the moment of most atoms will be
very much less than this, because the force between the magnetons
in an atom will always tend to orient them so as to make their result-
ant moment zero. The group of eight, with a very low magnetic
energy, has no moment: the free, or valence, magnetons will always
tend to lie in configurations of no moment; and indeed the only
atoms that could be imagined to have a moment as great as that of the
magneton are the atoms H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, of the constitution
my+1, which contain only one valence magneton each. Further,
what has just been said applies only to isolated atoms: in polyatomic
molecules, or in the liquid or solid state, the moment of the atom will
be still further reduced by the mutual actions of the magnetons of
different atoms. To take an illustration, the isolated H atom should
have the moment of one magneton, but the H, molecule can have the

configuration S> , with no moment, while in HCl

or HI all the magnetons are in groups of eight (for most of the time).
Nothing, I believe, is known about the magnetic properties of any
substances as monatomic gases except Helium and Argon (see §2),
and perhaps Mercury. The investigation of them would present
exceptional difficulties, but it would be a valuable test of much of this
magneton theory, and will be undertaken at the earliest opportunity.

Meanwhile, the view here taken that the moment of the Iron atom,
even, iS a comparatively small difference effect has everything to
recommend it. The great dependence of the moment upon tempera-
ture and upon the mode of chemical combination makes it clear that
it is a very delicately balanced effect which is due beyond all doubt to
certain favorable configurations of those portions of the atom which
are responsible for the forces exerted on other atoms. It is most

60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

unlikely that it could be due to any simple rectilinear arrangement of
unit magnets or current circuits, such as N|S—N|S—N|S—N|S,
etc., which is the only conception of the atom’s structure that could
give Weiss’ magneton any structural significance.

§18. THE PossiBiLity OF DETECTING THE MAGNETON DIRECTLY:
THe Heat oF DIssociaATION oF HyDROGEN

That the magneton has never yet been detected directly by its
magnetic moment is not at all surprising, for a consideration of the
possibilities shows that this is either beyond or just at the limit of the
present experimental resources.

First, in kathode rays: We have for the force which produces the
familiar deflection across the lines of magnetic force:

TCU — Hele 15 eM Once Ga ah On
= a5 Ona yas.
Now the force on the magneton due to any non-uniformity in a
magnetic field through which it passes is

=. Vi 355 Oi ayes:

Seeing that in experiments on kathode rays, H has been perhaps 500
li
ds
50,000 gauss per cm. by any means whatever, it is obvious that the
second force is too small ever to be detected by any deflection of
kathode rays.

Another line of attack is more promising. If the electron has a
magnetic moment, we may expect to be able to increase the concen-
tration of electrons in an earthed conductor by setting up a magnetic
field over it. In this case we can calculate the potential reached (V)

by equating the electric work gained with the magnetic work lost for
the movement of each magneton.

gauss, and that a gradient ae can scarcely be made to exceed

ues ie
: a BES UO
J. V=Hx 1.57 X 102°

= ASX TOL VOLES:

Now over a conductor of such a size and situation as to have a
reasonably great capacity (such as 10 E. S. U.), it is difficult to set
up a magnetic field of more than 1,000 gauss. Assuming this field,

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 61

we have V=4.5 x 10% volts. Complications apart, this is within the
range of the most sensitive electrometers, but a practical study of the
problem shows many difficulties. However, experiments on this
matter are in progress.

Langmuir’s recent work on atomic Hydrogen opens up another
line of attack, for the H atom should have the same moment as one
magneton. -Langmuir found that these atoms could be made to
travel some distance from the point of their dissociation without
recombining, and could then increase the resistance of a coil of fine
platinum wire in which they*dissolved. The present author proposes
to study the effect of a non-uniform magnetic field on their move-
ments.

Although there has not as yet been any direct. detection of the
moment of the magneton, it is possible to make a rough calculation of
the heat of dissociation of the H, molecule from the assumptions of
this theory.

In §5 was given a diagrammatic representation of the H, molecule.
Using the original assumption that the radius of the magneton is

about half that of the H atom, we see that the two
Ly magnetons in this molecule are about twice the length
of their radius (7) apart.
Let the distance from the circumference of one mag-
neton to the center of the other be ur.

Now the field due to one magneton, at a point lying on its axis and

distant by nr from its circumference, is

gi Ne ies eM
Tha (WE) eee
Hence the magnetic work done in bringing the other magneton from
infinity up to this point is roughly
PCIe (2.5) s<lOr
een Cl LOLs
eZ ylOe
a n®
and for a gram-atom of Hydrogen this amounts to

Ba ali@One
4a ergs.

ergs,

Substituting the values 1, 2 (most probable), and 3 for n, we have
ASE LO; 5.6X 10”, eZXCIO ?) Cr SS
for the heat of dissociation. Now Langmuir’s calculations from
experiment give as the probable value about 77,000 cal.” or
2 2e 10. Cres:

*Phil. Mag., 27, 188, 1914.

62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

If it had been assumed that v for the magneton was about .oI xc
(which is the sort of velocity usually attributed to the electron in
orbital motion), the calculated heat of dissociation would have been
10,000 times less, and even if the radius of the magneton were sup-
posed to be as great as that of the whole atom, the value would only
be increased 10 times. This is strong support for the assumption
v=c, which was made originally on more general grounds.

In the foregoing calculation the electric work required to draw the
magnetons from the centers of their atoms, and the elastic work
required to compress the envelopes of the atoms, have been neglected.
These would obviously be smaller quantities, as they are associated
with secondary effects, and could not affect the order of magnitude
of the result. Their effect would, in fact, be to diminish the work
required to separate the two atoms, and so, probably, to bring the
calculated value into even better agreement with the actual value.
It should also be borne in mind that the calculation has been made
for the more improbable of the two conceivable configurations of
the molecule (see §$ 5, 20) ; but it is certain that the resultant forces
would be very much the same in the two cases, although the mathe-
matics involved would be more intricate for the other configuration.

S819. THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER

A brief survey of the present state of our understanding of -
magnetism may be included at this point.

A theory giving a complete account of magnetic phenomena must,
in its final deductive aspect, proceed in certain logical steps. First
it must provide a sub-atomic mechanism that would actually be
expected to produce, in a general way, the external magnetic phe-
nomena that are observed for gross matter. Secondly, it must
include a fairly detailed view of the structures of the different atoms,
so as to explain their different magnetic properties. And lastly, the
combining properties which it gives to the atoms must be such that
the explanation can be extended to the magnetic properties of all
kinds of molecules and solid aggregates of atoms and molecules.

Hitherto no theory of magnetism has attempted to go further than
the first step, and I have shown in §2 how incomplete even that has
been. The present theory, on the one hand, is of so definite and
far-reaching a character that it is able, in a certain sense, to cover
the whole ground. It is true that very little is known as yet about
the magnetic properties of the atoms themselves, but what is known
is explained by it (see $2, and below, for Helium and Argon).

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 63

Again, while the theory gives a good account of the magnetic
changes that may be expected to accompany chemical changes, it has
up to the present yielded very little in explanation of ferromagnet-
ism. This phenomenon, after all, is generally recognized to be due
to a fortuitous alignment, which can occur only in favorable circum-
stances, of the magnetic effects of separate atoms or molecules; and
the problems connected with it, when regarded from the present
fundamental point of view, are of a higher order of difficulty
altogether than the problems of paramagnetism: the two stand in
much the same mutual relation as the problem of the structure of a
solid bears to that of a simple molecule. This has been emphasized
by Curie and Weiss.

In the study of the magnetic properties of gross matter, the most
important step in recent years is recognized to have been the formu-
lation of Curie’s laws: 1. Ferromagnetic substances have a transition
point, at different temperatures for different substances, at which
they lose most of their moment and become merely paramagnetic
(the “Curie point’’). This transition is compared to that between
a liquid and its vapor. The moment of a ferromagnetic substance is
not proportional to the field intensity, but reaches a maximum value,
called the saturation value. (These things had long been appreciated
in the case of Iron.) 2. The susceptibility (x) of a paramagnetic
substance is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature (T)
—so that «xT is a constant (the ‘Curie constant”): « is inde-
pendent of the field intensity. 3. The susceptibility of a diamag-
netic substance is independent of both the temperature and the field
intensity.

These results led to a consistent theory of “external” magnetic
phenomena based on Langevin’s electronic orbit as the unit upon
which the field acts. Diamagnetism, due to currents induced in these
_ orbits, would be expected to be independent of the temperature,
because for other reasons, such as the constancy of wave-lengths of
spectrum lines, the interior of an atom is supposed to be not much
affected by atomic collisions. Paramagnetism is obtained when the
atoms of a substance have a magnetic moment great enough to out-
weigh the ever present diamagnetic effect: molecular vibrations are
bound to interfere with the orientation of these atoms by the external
field, and in this way the temperature relation found by Curie has
been explained by Langevin (loc. cit., §2). Ferromagnetism, only
possible below a critical temperature, is the state in which the dis-
turbing effect of the vibrations is overcome and the atoms align them-

64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

selves definitely, in greater or less numbers according to the strength
of the external field, until at saturation they are all aligned.

The relation x7 =const. for paramagnetic substances was found by
Curie to hold for Oxygen, Palladium, and certain salts, and over a
certain range of temperature for Magnetite; but it has been amply
demonstrated that the law is not of universal application. Weiss and
Kamerlingh Onnes have shown (Journal de Physique, 1910) that
Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt are exceptions; and that the susceptibilities
of Vanadium, Chromium, and Manganese are not increased by cool-
ing to the boiling point of Hydrogen (14° abs.), whereas according
to Curie’s law they should increase about twentyfold. It is remark-
able also that, even down to such low temperatures, no transition into
a ferromagnetic state is observed in these elements. Again, the work .
of Honda (loc. infra) has shown that there is a class of substances
whose susceptibilities even increase with rise of temperature.

This last effect is to be expected from the magneton theory,
because sometimes magnetons which at lower temperatures are held
quasi-rigid by interatomic forces might at higher temperatures be
more free to add to the paramagnetic effect. We may say, then, that
the occurrence of molecular collisions will tend to make paramagnet-
ism obey Curie’s law, but that the action of intermolecular and inter-
atomic forces would be expected to enhance paramagnetism as the
temperature rises, although the latter effect would not be marked
except during a change of molecular complexity, such as occurs
during gaseous dissociation and to a less extent during fusion and
volatilization (see §22).

The law for diamagnetism—that it is independent of tempera-
ture—is not universally true either. As a striking example of this,
Bismuth becomes less diamagnetic as the temperature rises, and at
the melting point the change is so great that liquid Bismuth is the
least diamagnetic substance known.

These departures from Curie’s laws will seem less anomalous after
considering the vivid picture of the distribution of magnetic forces
within atoms, molecules, and lumps of solid matter, which this theory
affords. ;

In beginning to apply the theory, we can see at once that the stable
group of eight magnetons (§6) is an almost ideally diamagnetic
system. It has no intrinsic magnetic moment, and on account of its
low magnetic energy is not easily given one. The way in which an
external field would tend to distort the group is well shown in
configs. I, 3, 3a on plate 2 (§6) : this illustrates the paramagnetic part

NOx TT STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 65

of the behavior of the group. But when we remember that the earth’s
field is for that model relatively very much stronger than any possible
field can be for actual atoms, it is easy to see that the paramagnetic
effect would be slight.

The presence of free magnetons, on the other hand, would make
for paramagnetism ; but would not necessarily succeed in producing
it in all cases, for even “ free”? magnetons may form fairly stable
N S
S N

groupings of no intrinsic moment, such as for two,

N
SN —S— for three, and so on. It must always be borne in mind
Vea ;

S
that the observed magnetic effect is the difference between the
separate paramagnetic and diamagnetic effects, as Langevin points
out; and unless it is large in proportion to the number of magnetons
in the atom, it gives very little clue to the absolute value of either of
them. (This explains those cases where diamagnetism seems to be
dependent upon temperature.) These considerations will make it
clear that, while any obvious contradictions will be evidence against
the theory, not too much in the way of positive correlation of mag-
neton constitutions with magnetic phenomena must be expected from
it at this first attempt.

There follows now a set of references to the investigations from
which I have collected data, with the letters (in parentheses) by
which they will be referred to in what follows:

(Q) Quincke: Gases at pressures up to 40 atm.: method of the effect of a
magnetic field on gas-liquid surfaces (Wied. Ann., 34, 401, 1888).

(C) P. Curie: Effect of temperature on the magnetic properties of typical
substances (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., 1895).

(M) Stephan Meyer: Magnetic properties of the elements, and periodicity
in them (Wied. Ann., 68, 325, 1809). A survey of all classes of inorganic com-
pounds in search of additive relations (Wied. Ann., 69, 236, 1899; Ann. der
Phys., [3] 1, 1890, 1900).

(L) Liebknecht and Willis: Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, in their salts (Ann. der
Phys., [3] 1, 177, 1900); du Bois and Liebknecht: Rare-earth elements in
their chlorides (Ann. der Phys., [3] 1, 189, 1900).

(T) P. Tanzler: Susceptibilities of He, A, air, compressed in glass bulbs:
method of moment in a non-uniform field (Ann. der Phys., [5] 24, 931, 1907).
(U) Urbain and Jantzsch: Rare-earth oxides (C. R., 147, 1286, 1908).

(P) P. Pascal: The susceptibilities of many non-metallic elements and
easily liquefiable gases—all diamagnetic: also carbon compounds studied, and
additive relations found, but constitutive influences are very marked—all
diamagnetic (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., 19, 5, 1908). The magnetism of V,
Cr, Mn, Fe, in relation to their state of combination (C. R., 147, 742, 1908).

5

66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

(B) Bernstein: He and Cl gases at 1 atm. (diss: Halle, 1909). I am
unable to find out his method, or whether his results are reliable.

(H) K. Honda: The specific susceptibilities of the elements, and their
temperature coefficients, with special allowance made for ferrous impurities
in the specimens used (Ann. der Phys., 32, 1027, 1910).

(W) P. Weiss and co-workers: (Papers in C. R., 150; 152; Jour. de Phys.,
[4] 9, 1910). A summary of his whole work (Jour. de Phys., [5] 1, 900, 965,

IQII).

: a E. Faytis: Complex salts, especially cobaltammines, are almost always
diamagnetic: molecular paramagnetism is greater in hydrated than in anhy-
drous salts (C. R., 152, 708, 1911).

(O) A..E. Oxley: Irom and Nickel carbonyls and KiFe(CN)s are dia-
magnetic; KsFe(CN)<« is slightly paramagnetic (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 17,
450, 1914).

In all cases where the authors give specific susceptibilities, the
atomic or molecular values have been calculated for use here, except
where the contrary is stated: for uniformity all values are expressed
as +x 10° and the 10° factor is dropped.

§20. THE MacNeETIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS

Turning to the structures derived for the atoms in Part II, we see
that the atoms of the inactive rare gases should be the most strongly
diamagnetic of all atoms. That this is so, with the barely possible
exception of H in the H, molecule (see below), may be seen from
the accompanying table. Comparing atomic susceptibilities, we find
that Helium (7) is more diamagnetic than any element (of another
group) lighter than solid Zirconium (5y+4), while Argon (3y) is
second only to solid Bismuth (10y+5). This is especially significant
because the gaseous state, particularly the monatomic gaseous state,
must be less favorable to diamagnetism than the liquid or solid state,
for it allows any “free” magnetons to have their fullest freedom
(see §22). .

The case of the H, molecule is difficult to deal with. The two
possible configurations described in §5 would correspond to very |

different magnetic properties. would be

expected to be diamagnetic, as it has no natural moment, but

strongly paramagnetic. On account of the

67

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON

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ey aoe eg IS BD) eer SIN (W)1°Z + ag sce te ee ew tlw ee we ow & c+
= = ae) gy + 4a Oe Ot 411+ ®N Le. 1 Cimealtal “tap
IN ae : 9X 1 (UU =F oN (QS ee—= a
Alt Ags *hZ Kg:***AS Ky = KE he 10

68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

number of factors in the problem it is hard to say which configuration
to predict from the original assumptions. The two factors of mag-
netic attraction between the magnetons and electric attraction
between each magneton and its positive sphere would make for the
first configuration, but the electric repulsion between the magnetons
for the second.

Nor do there seem to be any reliable data for the susceptibility of
this gas, the low density of which makes a determination very diffi-
cult. Quincke (loc. cit.) obtained for the susceptibility per cc. the
value +.008 at I atm., but +.000 at 40 atm. The only other deter-
mination available seems to be that by Bernstein (loc. cit.), who gets
the value —.o05 for the specific susceptibility at 1 atm., which corre-
sponds to an atomic susceptibility of —50 (x10°). But his only
other result (according to Landolt’s tables )—the value — 78 for the
atomic susceptibility of gaseous Chlorine at I atm.—is nearly four
times as great as Pascal’s more reliable value (—20.9) for Chlorine
in the liquid state, where the element certainly could not be less
diamagnetic (see §22). It seems, therefore, that the H, molecule,
if diamagnetic, is less so, and probably much less so, than two
He atoms. m

But the solid alkali metals, whose atoms, like H atoms, contain only
one valence magneton, are slightly paramagnetic. In their case,
however, one of the factors that made for the diamagnetic configura-
tion in the H, molecule—the attraction of the positive spheres for
the magnetons—is obviously modified by the presence of the groups
of eight in such a way as to make the diamagnetic configuration of
the valence magnetons less stable than in the case of H,: also, the
vibration of the neighboring atoms would tend to prevent the forma-
tion of a stable positive bond such as the H, molecule possesses, thus
leaving the magnetons freer than they could be in the latter, which,
though isolated, has its two atoms firmly united together.

With regard to periodicity in magnetic properties, the first short
period of the Periodic Scheme is exceptional in some respects, but
as we pass along the second short period we find that the presence of
I, 2, and 3 valence magnetons makes the atom more and more para-
magnetic, though not in proportion to their number. The absence of
proportionality may be attributed partly to the superimposed dia-
magnetic effect of the two groups of eight, which is probably similar
to that of the Neon atom (2y) in all three; and partly to the inter-
ference of the valence magnetons, in the same and in contiguous
atoms, with one another’s freedom. ‘The intra-atomic part of this
interference culminates towards the end of the period in the tendency

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 69

to form a new group of eight that is characteristic of the “ negative ”’
atoms: this destroys the paramagnetism. If Phosphorus, Sulphur,
or Chlorine atoms were isolated, they might be found to be para-
magnetic (it may be possible to test this with monatomic Iodine gas) ;

but the ordinary state of Chlorine is , in which all the mag-

netons are bound for most of the time (see §9), while the complexity
of the gaseous molecules of Sulphur and Phosphorus leaves little
doubt that most of the valence magnetons are in groups of eight or

Coa

SS = § .
double positive bonds * as in \ 4 ,(P==P=P <P); etc.
AG.

©)

In the first short period, the diamagnetism of Boron (y+3) is
explainable on the principles already set forth; and the striking
feature is the strong paramagnetism of the Oxygen (y+6) molecule
as compared with the comparative magnetic inertness of the Nitrogen
(y+5) molecule. The only available determinations for Nitrogen
appear to be Quincke’s, who gives for the susceptibility per ce.
+.001 at I atm., and +.04 at 40 atm.: these are evidently more
reliable than his values for Hydrogen, but there is the possibility
here of contamination with Oxygen.

H
As for Oxygen, since in oxides, such as (0), Ca€0)), it is
Jal

invariably diamagnetic, its paramagnetism in the molecular state has
led J. J. Thomson and others to suppose that one of the two atoms
is acting “ positively.” This, according to the present theory, would

RK
be represented by (o}- 6. which formula has already been given
in §g: there it was supposed that the molecule had another phase
_ containing the double negative bond: (of0). If the existence of

the first phase is the true explanation of the paramagnetism of the O,

Nn
molecule, we should expect the N, molecule, (NSN , to be para-

1A double positive bond is expected to have no magnetic moment, as will be
shown in a future paper: as we have seen for the H2 molecule, a single positive
bond need have none.

7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

magnetic also, unless, as is possible, it is easier, in the presence of a
group of eight, for two magnetons to form a group of no moment than
for a larger number (see arguments at the end of §12). A diatomic

molecule very similar in constitution to N, and O, is NO (o> ne)

this is strongly paramagnetic (Q); and, contrary to the usual
impression, the paramagnetism must lie in the unsaturated N atom.
rather than in the O atom, according to the present view. Liquid

N,O, Bux and N,O, (+8 40} 80) ae

diamagnetic (P), but liquid Oxygen retains its paramagnetism
almost unaltered (K. Onnes). N.O, whose constitution is possibly

N <N
| (0) , or || (O°), is according to Quincke slightly paramagnetic.
N <N

Possibly N,O,; has a more condensed structure than has just been

written, e. g., ‘© ), which would accord better with its dia-

magnetism. From all this, we may see the possibility of diatomic
sulphur vapor being paramagnetic, and we would expect NO, to be
less diamagnetic than N,O, or even paramagnetic: these points have
not as yet been investigated experimentally.

Turning to the long periods, we find that the assumption made on
chemical grounds about the absence of a tendency to form the group
of eight is justified in the magnetic properties of the transition
metals. Unlike P (2y+5), S (2y+6), Cl (2y+7), A (3y), which
are all diamagnetic, V (3y +5), Cr (3y +6), Mn (3y+7), (Fe Co Ni)
(3y+8) are all paramagnetic, quite apart from ferromagnetism.
The same is true of the corresponding series in the second and third |
long periods: Nb, Mo, , (Ru Rh Pd); and Ta, W, ——,
(Os Ir Pt). The rare-earth elements, which precede Tantalum, and
whose structures have been compared with those of the elements
just mentioned (§13), are also strongly paramagnetic, some of their
salts being even more so than Iron salts.

N@ zy at STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 71

In the second half of the long periods we find that the elements
are all diamagnetic. For the first three of them, ~

Cu_ Ze Ga _
3y+9 Sie LOmmn | ay a

\K \t \\
[4y+t] 4y+2 4y+3

this is somewhat surprising, although their 4y phases, certainly,
would not be expected to be particularly magnetic. We may note,
however, that Cu and Zn are much less diamagnetic than elements
nuitichwane expected to be se’; ¢. ¢., A, Bi, Cl, Br, ete. As, Se; Br
and Sb, Te, I are diamagnetic for the same reasons as P, S, and
Cl are.

As regards the cases just noted where diamagnetism is found
instead of the paramagnetism at first expected, we may say that, as
already indicated, the interference of free magnetons with one
another’s orientation, both in the same atom and in neighboring
atoms, holds out a possibility of a sufficient explanation, although
the rules governing this interference must be very complex and are
at present obscure. More definite corroboration of the principles of
the magneton theory is got from a consideration of certain com-
pounds, which follows now.

§21. THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF COMPOUNDS

The typical saturated compound has no free magnetons; and of
most saturated inorganic molecules we can say more: all the valence
magnetons of the constituent atoms have gone to make up groups
of eight. Thus it is that, while O, is paramagnetic and the metals
Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr (?), Ba are all paramagnetic, the oxides

and chlorides of these metals, such as Mg=£0), K -£c1), are

without exception diamagnetic.

The ordinary salts of Fe, Ni, Co, which according to the present
views must contain free magnetons, are strongly paramagnetic, while
the complex Fe salts and the “ cobaltammines,” in which, presumably,
these free magnetons are bound, are very slightly paramagnetic, or,
more often, diamagnetic.

A table of data illustrating these points and the arguments which
follow is given herewith. It was found necessary to supplement the
available data by a few determinations for the complex compounds of
Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Hg: the rough method used gave results which
agreed with known values (in the case of other substances) to 10 per
cent or so.

VOL. 65

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

72

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NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 73

In comparing these values two things should be borne in mind:
first, that susceptibilities of paramagnetic substances in solution are
in general greater than for the undissolved substances (Pascal’s
values under (P) are for solutions) ; and second, the values obtained
for diamagnetic salts have little significance for the metal atoms that
are in them except to show that they are not decidedly paramagnetic,
for the acid radicles themselves are diamagnetic,

In the table I have given space to the compounds of the transition .
metals of groups V, VI, VII, VIII, I B, Il B only, because there the
relations are much more complex. We may notice first that the
free elements V, Cr, Mn, are much less paramagnetic than their
salts. This, I think, is due to the same cause as the general rule that
these salts are more paramagnetic when hydrated than when anhy-
drous (F), and still more so in solution. If, as this theory would
indicate, paramagnetism is an effect of free magnetons in the metal
atom, then the farther removed from one another these atoms are,
the more free from constraint must be their magnetons (as many
as remain free). In metallic Chromium, for example, the six val-
ence magnetons are used to a considerable extent, as the high
melting point indicates, in binding the atoms together by positive
bonds (not so diamagnetic an arrangement, however, as if it involved

WW (Cl)
groups of eight). In Ee) it is true that only three free

magnetons are left, but these are likely to be more free from the
influence of other Cr atoms than can be the case in metallic Chro-
mium. In hydrated CrCl, they are still more free, not being used up
in combining with H,O molecules as might at first be suspected, for
since H,O is most of the time in the “saturated” phase (see §Q) it
would not have much attraction for free magnetons. For other facts _
illustrating this general principle see $23.

Turning to the relations between the compounds of these metals
of groups V-VIII, we see that, if the uncombined metals are excepted,
the paramagnetism runs parallel with the number of free valences or
magnetons, until in the saturated compounds it vanishes (NaVO,,
CrO,), or becomes very small (KMnO,). This relation has been
roughly indicated by Pascal (loc. cit.).

In the transition metals of groups I B and II B, however, we find a
different set of relations. We have seen that a great deal is explained
by the tautomerism which naturally falls to the lot of these elements
(see table of Periodic Scheme, §7). The very striking fact that

74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Copper, while diamagnetic as metal or in cuprous compounds, is
paramagnetic in cupric compounds, is attributable to this tauto-
merism also.

In monovalent Cu, Ag, Au, and in the salts of Zn, Cd, Hg, there
are 8 free magnetons left, and the tautomerism 8 + y is still pos-
sible: therefore we expect, and find, diamagnetism. But in bivalent
Cu, where only 7 are left, this tautomerism is no longer possible, and
the salts are strongly paramagnetic, as this theory would predict.
Another prediction—that AuBr (8 4 y) should be diamagnetic, and
AuBr, (6) paramagnetic—is not so successful, for both are dia-
magnetic: but the obvious refuge from the difficulty will suggest
itself. Compounds of bivalent or trivalent Silver are of course not
available for comparison.

The complex salts of these metals were also studied, in the hope of
getting results analogous to the well-known relations for Fe and
Co (F). Bivalent Cu was obviously the best point of attack,
but the most stable complex cupric salt obtainable seems to be
Cu(NH,),SO,-H,O, and this is still very paramagnetic: a cupri-
cyanide (K,Cu(CN),), if it were stable, might be expected to show
a much diminished paramagnetism, just as ferri-cyanides do. The
complex cyanides derived from salts which are diamagnetic already,
é. g., those of Cu! (84 y), Ag? (8 = y), Mm" CS y); areal
diamagnetic, although it is hard to see how, in a small complex
molecule like KAg(CN),, all the 8 free magnetons of the monovalent
Ag atom can be involved. However, the effect we should be inclined
to look for in such cases—a paramagnetism—has been observed in
one compound at least. Pascal found that the salt K,HgI, in solution
is paramagnetic; so it seems that not all of the free magnetons of
bivalent mercury, Hg™ (8 +y), are involved in this case.

§22. THE DEPENDENCE oF MAGNETISM UPON TEMPERATURE AND
PHYSICAL STATE

In the preceding sections (esp. §19), the influence of neighboring
atoms and molecules on one another’s magnetism has been continu-
ally spoken of, and it has been brought out in a general way that
this may be expected to diminish a resultant paramagnetism or
increase a resultant diamagnetism. A summary of the experimental
evidence on this point will now be given; and in considering this, it
should be remembered that the influence of one atom or molecule
upon another becomes diminished as the temperature rises.

NO- et STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 75

1. For the paramagnetism of a metallic atom we have the follow-
ing relations:

Salts in solution>Hydrated salts>Anhydrous salts>Free metal.

This is true for V, Cr, or Mn. In the case of ferromagnetic metals,
the last step in the series does not hold, of course, except above the
Curie point. These relations have not been established with any
great completeness, and possibly some exceptions exist.

2. In mixtures of liquid Oxygen and Nitrogen, the molecular
susceptibility of the Oxygen becomes greater as its concentration
becomes less (K. Onnes).

3. Contrary to Curie’s law, almost half of the paramagnetic ele-
ments become increasingly paramagnetic as the temperature rises
(H). This can only be due to increased freedom acquired by the
magnetons that are responsible for the forces between atoms, as
explained in §19.

4. Most of the diamagnetic solid elements (e. g., Bi, Sb, Pb, Tl, Te,
In, Cu) become less diamagnetic as the temperature is raised (H),
the change being in some cases especially marked at the melting point,
after which a further rise in temperature does not usually alter the
magnetic properties. Evidently we have here cases of complex mole-
cules which become less stable as the melting point is approached, and
which at that point are suddenly broken down into the atoms or
molecules that are stable in the liquid phase. From the magneton
theory we should expect this process to be accompanied by the
magnetic changes that are observed. Those elements which do not
show this effect are for the most part elements of lower atomic
weight which are known to give stable complex molecules persisting
in the liquid and even in the gaseous state (e. g., P, As, S, Se):
these, therefore, act more like the substances described under the
next heading (5). A very striking example of the effect of fusion is
given by the alloy FeZn,,; when solid this is non-magnetic, when
liquid it is very strongly magnetic: a comparison of the suscepti-
bility of this alloy with that of the Iron atom in salts would be of
great interest, but appears not to have been made. An example of the
effect of dissociation by dilution is given by solutions of Bismuth in
mercury, which when very dilute are less diamagnetic than pure mer-
cury: this must be due to the dissociation of the complex Bi mole-
cules. There are, however, a few exceptions to this general rule. Ag
and I become more diamagnetic as the temperature rises (H).
Crystalline Tin is slightly paramagnetic, liquid Tin is diamagnetic ;
but here we have grey Tin, which is still more diamagnetic.

70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

5. Diamagnetic compounds, such as NaCl, HCl, H,O, etc., do not
show noticeable magnetic changes as the temperature or physical
state is changed. This also would be expected from the magneton
theory, because the simplest possible molecules of these substances
contain no free magnetons, and are essentially diamagnetic: hence
polymerization or solidification, which it should be observed is
brought about in these cases by the electrostatic forces mentioned in
$12 rather than by magnetic forces, cannot appreciably affect the
magnetic susceptibility.

To summarize: As the changes,

Complex molecule —> Simple molecule + Atom,

take place, from whatever cause, we may expect, with the qualifica-
tions already noted, that diamagnetism will give way to paramagnet-
ism. Gaseous dissociations are the cases where new evidence is
most urgently needed—and where it is most difficult to get.

This collected evidence seems conclusive for para- and dia-
magnetic substances, but it is important to observe that we are driven
to exactly the opposite conclusion in the case of ferromagnetism.
Here it seems that it is easier to obtain a system with a large magnetic
moment that is made up of constituents drawn from two or more
atoms than to obtain such a system within a single atom. The
conclusive evidence on this point is the behavior of the Heusler and
similar alloys: in these, as has frequently been pointed out, the
ferromagnetic units must be groups of several atoms; it is very
likely, then, that the same is true for ferromagnetic elements like
Iron. The way in which these complexes are built up is not at all
indicated by the magneton theory up to the present ; but see $79.

§23. WEISS’ MAGNETON, AND QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS

With regard to a comparison of the results of the theory here
described with Weiss’ work on “‘ the magneton,” I will first quote a
few sentences (translated) from the conclusion of a summary of his
work that appeared in the Journal de Physique, [5] 1, 900, 965, 1911.
These should be compared with the passages already quoted from
Langevin (§2).

“What is the role of magnetic phenomena in chemical combina-
tion? Are chemical forces magnetic in nature? Are the valences,
indeed, referable in some way to magnetons?”’ In the same paper he
mentions the possibility that his magneton is the same as the unit
magnet postulated by Ritz in the latter’s theory of spectrum series.

Notwithstanding these suggestive passages, Weiss’ magneton 1s
not in any way identified with the electron, but is an empirical quan-

NO. If STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON

7/7
tity directly derived from the magnitudes of the susceptibilities of
paramagnetic elements and compounds, and for such substances
only: it has no meaning for diamagnetic substances. He maintains
that the moments of paramagnetic atoms and molecules, when extra-
polated to the absolute zero where the disturbing effect of molecular
motions vanishes, are in simple integer ratio to one another. The
highest common factor is 1122.7 for the paramagnetic salts, and
1123.5 for the ferromagnetic elements; and the agreement between
these two values is certainly close. On this basis, the numbers of
magnetons in some atoms and molecules are: Fe—11.0, Co—8.6,
Ni—3.0 (8 and 9 at higher temperatures) ; 4(Fe,O,)—4, 5, 6, 8, 10,
in five successive states corresponding to five linear portions of the
curve plotting the inverse of the saturation magnetism against the
temperature. There follow his numbers (to the nearest integer) for
some compounds :

In solution

In the solid state

HOG CGIND Ae croc es e's 8 al 50) spel SY 21 Ol Bd he tie alo, Sa eae 29
Megiesammonam citrate... 22 KeCl-2NE ClO... . 27
PGC Ian pile deceit ae, Sioa ae ea ae Zxoyeuedetelnapore BLO) ye SRN hig aisiteenrctel Di
HliG CSO) Ai DOR eee Alay MSA CIN elas 2k am kia s were 29
Nene woxalates 2 iene. 27a we acetmlacetomate rise. or 25
ISO) ig aie aeRO BO Ver GMO), ye Avesta, ee oe 18
ERIM GO)», Seale ie ie ea me Grol Ci ae eam aap ei ME Ae ole 20
SQ) ana a ae TOM Co aceiplacetonate 7... 21
Cit NUE) SO nee ers 6
U( SOS: Sees eer Tat) oe Neody nO tee te 18
CO Clie 4 secant naan an neem Digs Weaoela Oat ea, ie eros cess iuetea sas 8
NIMS OV pete scr cneers = he hiss oc BO! US EUS ORS fiber ca eitsitrs Ge eects 18
—- TG ae Ge sh wees ccna Meare Ge AI
ede 2g © Pen penis Pt Saath en meee ae psc 50
EDV Spits Oe We a ome wie oes ege 50

With regard to the integral
divergences Of .l Or 2 are quite
such as:

nature of the exact numbers,
frequent, while there are values

(ZO RE Poe ee a ea er Se eee er Ses Cae ta rT 8.6
(Chaveoimne aiiiiad “(MONO bass aeedsnacecsor 190.45
r ir foeel (SUC CU sadece ota retin tes era ela 19.25
NVA Rare pes cers a pias ann Se Ne teen fe Sta aOR 9.21
VAC PSS at sc te feae are i war areas ean ase ae 6.65
5 citar tA ere toa eg ides CEREAL 8.41

78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Thus the degree of approximation to integers seems to be about the
same as in the case of the atomic weights of the elements. Further,
in arriving at the number 9 (8.78) for the curious paramagnetic salt
K,HeI,, Weiss makes corrections for the diamagnetism of the three
constituent elements, a thing which is apparently not done in other
cases.

It seems, therefore, that whatever may be the significance of
the integral values for the metals Fe, Co, Ni (even here the value
for Co is poor), the larger numbers obtained for the various hydrated
and complex salts shown above cannot have any simple theoretical
meaning—certainly none in so far as they may profess to represent
definite numbers of natural unit magnets. Almost any mechanistic
interpretation of Weiss’ magneton involves the fallacy that elemen-
tary magnetic units can be additive in their effect on the magnetism
of atoms and molecules in the same way as elementary electric units
can be. This is no more true than that the moments of bar magnets,
in an assemblage of such, are in general additive. Recently H. S.
Allen (Phil. Mag., May, 1915) has discussed, in connection with
Weiss’ magneton, a magnetic atom model in which he surmounts
this difficulty by ascribing the different magneton numbers to the
presence of different numbers of electrons in a rotating ring, and to
different angular velocities of this ring and of the central positive
charge, which is also supposed to rotate. But the insuperable objec-
tions to hypotheses 6f rotating rings of electrons have already been
explained (§2); and besides, the arbitrary nature of the assump-
tions which this model requires compares very unfavorably with the
simplicity of Langevin’s scheme or with the “automatic” way in
which the model atoms of the present theory show a qualitative
agreement with the most diverse facts of magnetism.

The futility of trying to express the magnetic properties of most
atoms as simple functions of their magneton constitutions has been
amply demonstrated in §§19-22. Apart from the paramagnetism ©
expected in the isolated H atom, the only case in which, in the present
state of the theory, we can make an absolute prediction of even the.
sign of the magnetism, is when the atom or molecule contains no free
magnetons and only groups of eight. The atoms of He, Ne, A,
Kr, Xe fulfill this condition, and for two of them we know the
values (T):

He (y) —388,
A (3y) —212.8 (=3 xX 70.9) = (3 X 38.8) +96.4).

Unlike paramagnetic moments, diamagnetic moments must always

NO. II STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM—PARSON 79

be additive; but the value for Argon would be expected to be more
than three times that for Helium, because groups of eight mutually
strengthen one another (§11). Thus we may with some confidence
take the susceptibility of the isolated group of eight to be about
— 38.8.

Now, while the groups of eight in the Argon atom are strength-

ened, those in “salt ”’ molecules like KCl). 1x0), jab SeC "

etc. (which contain nothing but groups of eight), are weakened by
the electrostatic strain set up by the transfer of magnetons from one
atom to another: the groups of eight in such molecules retain their
structure in spite of electrostatic forces.” We expect, then, what the
following table shows to be the case—a decreased diamagnetism.

Vas AN Oy
48) (Gl) &) 42) £2) 4) |-€3 £0) Ko)
| |
s 7 Si og josctal
Li ah
Nat nt Bae se sa | ee 6 ee
ee 2 ee 2. ee eee teen
ce ae are ae a
Srl a ie =e G3 | |
pede ee sei se Bue aeay ee
Znt 63 Sh | os, 6.1
|
Ca" Re 4.6
He Siew ee |

The numbers here are calculated from the data in the comprehensive
work of Stephen Meyer on diamagnetism (Joc. cit.). The upper

*Not merely one group of eight in the chloride ion, cl) (3y) (which

is got from the chlorine atom, Cl (2y+7)), suffers in this way, for the
strain must be evenly distributed among all three.

8o SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

value in each case gives the susceptibility per gram (small type) and
the lower value the susceptibility per group of eight (large type).
It may be seen that while the former varies between —1.1 and —.10
(ratio 11), the latter varies only between —9.7 and —1.7 (ratio
5.7): this makes the present view of the atom’s structure seem all
the more plausible.

We have seen on a broad scale the gradation between the
reinforced, isolated, and strained groups of eight (susceptibilities
—70.9, — 38.8, and about —5, respectively) ; but it must be admitted
that no gradations of a definite kind can be seen in the table just
given for salt molecules. This may possibly be due to impurities in
the materials used by Meyer. In any case a more careful scrutiny
of these relations, with more accurate data perhaps, may yield some
useful information about the structure of molecules.

NOTE ON EXPERIMENTS SUGGESTED BY THIS THEORY

1. The effect of a magnetic field on the electron concentration in
an earthed conductor, or on the potential of an insulated conductor:
A P. D. of 4X10~ volt is expected for a field of 1,000 gauss, but
there are many complications (§18).

2. The effect of a non-uniform magnetic field on the movements
of the H atoms worked with by I. Langmuir: The expectations from
this experiment are vague (§18).

3. The magnetic properties of monatomic Iodine gas, diatomic
Sulphur gas, Sodium gas, N,O, and NO,, etc.: These determinations
present forbidding difficulties.

Some of this work is under way, but it may readily be seen that
the problems are of such a nature that the attainment of significant
results may be a very slow and difficult process. This very circum-
stance, however, is a promising sign, for it is not likely that so impor-
tant a property of the electron as is here dealt with would have
remained undiscovered if the discovery of it were to be at all easy.

The absence of chemical problems from this list may be noted.
Here, the theory has up to the present been occupied in correlating
a vast body of facts and lesser generalizations in a field where the
accumulation of experimental data has always far outstripped the
assimilation of it into theory ; and the result mentioned is therefore
to be expected at this stage.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 12

THE JAW OF THE PILTDOWN MAN

(With Five Piates)

BY
GERRIT S. MILLER, Jr.

(PUBLICATION 2376)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
NOVEMBER 24, 1915

i

The Lord Baltimore (Press :

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.

Ee avy OF EE Pil EDO@W N: MAN
By GERRIT S. MILLER, Jr.
(WitH Five PiatEs)

‘ About three years ago Mr. Charles Dawson found the right half
of an ape-like jaw in undisturbed material five feet below the level
of the surrounding country in a gravel pit at Piltdown, Sussex,
England. It lay in a depression at the bottom of the third and lowest
stratum of the deposit, a band eighteen inches thick consisting of
“dark brown ferruginous gravel, with subangular flints and tabular
ironstone, pliocene rolled fossils .... ‘ eoliths,’ and one worked flint”
(Dawson and Woodward, 1914, p. 83). This third layer is supposed
to be “in the main composed of pliocene drift, probably reconstructed
in the pleistocene epoch” (Dawson and Woodward, 1914, p. 85).
Within a yard of the same spot, and at precisely the same level, Dr.
A. Smith Woodward later dug out a small piece of a human occipital
bone. From this pit, and presumably from about the same part of
it, other fragments were secured. They represent about half of a
human braincase, a pair of human nasal bones, and a simian canine
tooth; also teeth of beaver, horse, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and two
kinds of elephant. The human and simian remains were regarded
by their discoverers as parts of one individual. On the basis of this
assumption, though before the canine tooth and the nasal bones had
been found, Dr. Woodward established a genus Eoanthropus, char-
acterized by the combination in one skull of a human braincase and
a completely ape-like jaw (Dawson and Woodward, April 25, 1913,
p- 135).

Few recently discovered fossils have excited more interest than the
“Dawn Man of Piltdown,” and few have given rise to more discus-
sion (see bibliography at end of this paper). Deliberate malice could
hardly have been more successful than the hazards of deposition in so
breaking the fossils as to give free scope to individual judgment in
fitting the parts together. As a result no less than three restorations
of the braincase already exist (see Gregory, 1914, fig. 9), while the
canine tooth has been assigned to the right lower mandible and the -
left upper jaw. The estimates on the capacity of the braincase range
from 1,070 to 1,500 cubic centimeters. While there is no doubt that

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 12
I

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. .65

the braincase, whatever its exact size, represents a member of the
family Hominide, there is wide difference of opinion as to the pos-
sibility of joining it with the mandible as parts of one skull. One
author regards “this association of human brain and simian features”
as precisely what he had anticipated (Smith, 1913, p. 131), while an-
other says that it seems to him “as inconsequent to refer the mandible
and the cranium to the same individual as it would be to articulate a
chimpanzee foot with an essentially human leg and thigh” (Waters-
ton, 1913, p. 319). I cannot find, however, that anyone has yet
definitely identified the jaw as that of a member of an existing simian
genus, or that any zoologist has attempted a detailed comparative
study of this part of “ Eoanthropus.’ Dr. Woodward, who regarded
the jaw as “ almost precisely that of an ape,’ compared the specimens
with young and adult chimpanzee only, while Dr. Gregory chose for
his simian standard a female orang. Neither appears to have exam-
ined any considerable series of jaws of great apes.

Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has submitted to me a set of casts of the Pilt-
down fossils, and has suggested that I compare the mandible with
the jaws of Pongide in the United States National*Museum. This
material includes the mandibles of 22 chimpanzees, 23 gorillas, and
about 75 orangs. I have also had access to the series of human
skulls in Dr. Hrdli¢ka’s custody. Study of these specimens, together
with the general collection of primates in the museum, shows that the
characters of the mandible and lower molars throughout the order
Anthropoidea are much more diagnostic of groups than has hitherto
been realized. It also convinces me that, on the basis of the evidence
furnished by the Piltdown fossils and by the characters of all the men,
apes, and monkeys now known, a single individual cannot be sr
posed to have carried this jaw and skull.

ANALYSIS OF THE PUBLISHED OPINIONS THAT THE JAW AND SKULL
WERE Parts OF ONE ANIMAL

The reasons that have been given for associating the jaw with the
skull as parts of one animal are of three kinds: distributional, geolog- -
ical, and anatomical. They may be briefly reviewed before the char-
acters of the fossil are taken up in detail.

The distributional evidence is negative. It is thus summarized by
Dr. Gregory (1914, p. 194):

The suggestion that while the braincase was human, the lower jaw belonged
to another creature, an ape, is not in harmony with what is already known
of the fauna and climate of Europe during pleistocene times. Thousands

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 3

of mammalian remains of pleistocene age have been discovered in the
glacial and interglacial deposits of England and the Continent, but in this
highly varied fauna the anthropoid apes have always been conspicuously
absent, and there is no reliable evidence that any of the race ever lived in
England during the pleistocene epoch.

In this statement two facts are not given their due weight; first,
that the paleontological record is so fragmentary that unexpected
discoveries need cause no surprise, and second, that a tooth from
Taubach, Saxe-Weimar, described and figured by Nehring in 1895
as essentially similar to the first lower molar of a chimpanzee, had
already indicated the possible occurrence of the genus Pan in Europe
during the pleistocene age.

The geological evidence in favor of intimate association of the jaw
and braincase is merely that the bones were found close together,
at one level, and in a uniform condition of fossilization and water-
wearing. These circumstances would give additional reasons for
associating remains that presented no zoological difficulties ; but when
there is obvious incompatibility they do not furnish serious elements
of proof. Mr. Dawson’s remarks about the deposition of the other
mammalian remains found in the same gravel apply with equal force
to the skull and the jaw of “Eoanthropus”: the mere fact that they
lay near each other means little. He says (Dawson and Woodward,

HOMES Ova) be

The occurrence of certain pliocene specimens in a considerably rolled con-
dition, while the human remains bore little traces of rolling, suggested a
difference as to age, but not to the extent of excluding the possibility of
their being coeval. The rolled specimens might have entered the stream
farther up the river than the human remains, and thus might have drifted
into the hole, or pocket, in the river bed, where they were found, during the
same age but in different condition .... It must be admitted that any
attempt to fix any exact zoological date for specimens found in a gravel-
~bed is fraught with difficulties.

6

The anatomical reasons are (a) that the jaw “corresponds suffi-
ciently well in size to be referred to the same specimen [as the brain-
case] without any hesitation” (Dawson and Woodward, 1913, p.
129) ; (b) that the measurements are “on the whole nearer to those
obtained from early human jaws than to those of full-grown apes”
(Gregory, 1914, p. 195); (c) that the molars recall human rather
than simian teeth in their flattened, worn surfaces and their very thick
enamel; and (d) that the condyle, or what remains of it, is more like
the average human type than that of an ape. As to the relative size of
the jaw and braincase nothing very definite can be said except that

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

no proof is afforded. To Dr. Woodward the parts appeared to
present no discrepancies as to size; but to others who have examined
the casts the jaw seems to be too lightly built to correspond with the
massive cranial bones. A mandible as heavy as that of the pleisto-
cene Homo heidelbergensis would probably be in due proportion;
but the Piltdown jaw is even less robust than in well developed recent
men. As regards actual dimensions the table on page 20 shows the
wide divergence of the Piltdown jaw from both Homo sapiens and ,
H. heidelbergensis, and its essential agreement with that of recent
chimpanzees. Comparisons with Gorilla and Pongo are not neces-
sary. About the teeth Dr. Woodward went so far as to say: “such
a marked regular flattening has never been observed among apes,
though it is occasionally met with in lower types of men” (Dawson
and Woodward, 1913, p. 132). Yet I find that among nine chimpan-
zees with teeth at nearly the same stage of wear as in the type, the
smooth condition shown by the fossil is closely approached by one
individual and exactly matched by another (No. 84655, pl. 1, fig. 1,
from cast, and pl..2, fig. 1”, from actual specimen). While the thick-
ness of the enamel is usually greater in Homo than in Pan, individual
variation in both genera is sufficient to make this character, taken
by itself, of little diagnostic value. The cast and Dr. Woodward’s
figures indicate that the Piltdown teeth have enamel differing in no
essential feature from that of Pan No. 84655 (compare pl. 2, figs.
1” and 2”). As regards the mandible of the fossil it must be remem-
bered that the articular process is worn off to the level where it begins
to widen and thicken to form the base of the condyle. From the
characters of the part which remains Dr. Gregory reasoned that the
condyles were “more slender, less expanded transversely, and sup-
ported by more slender pillars of bone” than in the great apes,
features which would make the jaw “more like the average human
type” (1914, p. 195). This conclusion may be true when the only’
alternatives considered are Homo and Pongo, but it does not hold
good when the Piltdown jaw is compared with those of Homo and
Pan. The articular process near level of fracture shows more lateral
compression than I have been able to find in any specimen of Homo,
and there is no indication of the deep concavity beneath the inner two-
thirds of anterior edge of condyle which is a conspicuous feature of
this region in Homo as compared with all the great apes. While the
outer border of the fracture is unusually long relatively to the poste-
rior and inner borders of the same region as seen in most specimens
of Pan, the conditions in the Piltdown jaw would be almost exactly

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 5

reproduced by similar mutilation of the articular process of No.
174699, an adult female chimpanzee from French Congo. The argu-
ments from anatomy, like those from geology and geography, are
thus seen to have little force.

MANDIBULAR CHARACTERS OF THE ANTHROPOIDEA

Before trying to decide how much importance should be assigned
to the peculiarities of the Piltdown jaw it is necessary to understand
the more conspicuous mandibular characters of the Anthro poidea.

In the Hominide* as in all other Anthropoidea the mandibular
halves become completely ossified at the symphysis soon after birth.
This character distinguishes members of the order from the recent
Lemuroidea, in all of which the halves remain distinct. Two main
peculiarities of the lower jaw and its toothrow separate the Hominide
from other Anthropoidea and especially from the great apes. The
two halves of the jaw together form a horseshoe-like arch (text
fig., 1 and 3, and pl. 3), so broadly rounded in front that the width
between the anterior molars is decidedly greater than the distance
from the first molar to the symphysion, and so widely open behind
that the distance between the condyles (outer borders) is conspicu-
ously greater than that from condylion to symphysion. In other
members of the order the arch is so narrow that the distance between
the anterior molars never exceeds that from first molar to the sym-
physion, and the distance between the condyles rarely if ever equals
that from condylion to symphysion (text fig., 2, and pl. 4). The
toothrow in the Hominide@ is narrowed and weakened in front of the
molars, the change taking place abruptly with posterior premolar.
Each premolar is single rooted, and the crown-area is less than half
that of the first molar. The canine never projects conspicuously
above the general level of the other tooth summits; its size, form and
function are essentially incisor-like. Among the great apes the
robust character of the toothrow is carried forward through the
large, double-rooted premolars to the strongly functional canine, the
point of which rises in males conspicuously above the general level
of the other teeth. Together with its anterior weakening the tooth-
row as a whole is characterized in the Hominide by a widely arched
form corresponding to that of the jaw. The inward curve on each

*Tncluding the various living species of Homo and the pleistocene H.
neanderthalensis King and H. heidelbergensis Schoetensack, but excluding, as
members of the family Pongide, the genera Pithecanthropus Dubois and
Sivapithecus Pilgrim.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

side begins with the molars, while in the great apes it begins with
the premolars or canines. A line joining the middle of posterior
border of m, with the middle of anterior border of m,, will, if contin-
‘ued forward in front of incisors, converge rapidly with the sagittal
line similarly extended (text fig., 1 and 3, b). In the great apes
and in most of the monkeys except certain smaller South American
forms a line passing through middle of posterior border of m, and
middle of anterior border of m, is essentially parallel to the sagittal
line (text fig., 2, b). In the Hominide the inward curve of the tooth-
row normally begins with the first lower molar. The axis of this
tooth prolonged backward (text fig., 1 and 3, c) diverges rapidly
from a line parallel to the sagittal plane and crosses the posterior bor-
der of m, on outer side of middle; continued still further it passes
through the condyle. That of the second tooth similarly prolonged,
while diverging slightly from a line parallel to the sagittal plane,
passes considerably to inner side of condyle. In all living genera
of great apes and in the fossil Propliopithecus, Dryopithecus, and
Sivapithecus the axes of the two teeth (text fig., 2, b) lie in one
line essentially parallel to the sagittal line and passing further to inner
-side of condyle than is the case with the axis of m, in the Hominide.
The symphysial region in the Hominide seldom extends conspicu-
ously behind the level of the incisors, and never bears a marked con-

cavity on its posterior border for insertion of the lingual muscles;
in other primates it always extends conspicuously behind level of in-
cisors and it usually bears a marked concavity on its posterior border.
The mylohyal ridge is well developed in the Hominide, but is barely
indicated in monkeys and apes.

While sharing those general peculiarities which distinguish other
primates from the Hominide, the three* genera of living great apes
are readily separable from each other by the details of their mandibu-
lar structure. In Pan and Pongo the digastric muscle is inserted
along the lower border of the mandible, rarely extending forward

= the most recent complete work on the order, Elliot’s “ Review of the
Primates,” New York (1912), June, 1913, four genera are recognized: Pongo
Lacépéde for the orangs, Gorilla I. Geoffroy for the gorillas, Pseudogorilla
Elliot (1. c. vol. 3, p. 224) for an animal supposed to be the Gorilla mayema
of Alix and Bouvier, and Pan Oken for the chimpanzees. The genus
“ Pseudogorilla”’ was based on two specimens of true Goril/a, an immature
male with all the teeth in place but with the basal suture open and the tem-
poral ridges separate (I. c. pl. 32), and a mature female with the basal
suture closed and the temporal ridges joined (I. c. pl. 33). Three valid
genera are thus left in the group.

~~

JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER

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8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

beyond the extreme posterior edge of the bone. This region of
attachment forms a thin, sharply-defined ledge beneath the pit in
which the other tongue-muscles are inserted. While the lower border
is essentially alike in the two genera the pit is deeper and narrower
in Pan than in Pongo and its upper border is usually well-defined
by an abrupt convexity in the posterior profile of the symphysis; the
hinder margin of this convexity lying at level of canine or anterior
premolar. In both genera the region of temporal muscle-insertion is
characterized by the presence of a distinct and narrow ridge curving
upward from behind the alveoli and extending to or above the middle
of the coronoid process. While they thus agree in certain characters
the two genera differ from each other in the form of the symphysis,
which, like the entire horizontal ramus, is deeper in Pongo than in
Pan. The base of the articular process in Pan is strengthened by
a conspicuous ridge extending obliquely downward on the inner side
of the mandible. In Pongo this ridge is barely indicated. Below the
ridge in Pan a distinct groove extends upward and backward from
the dental foramen; this is scarcely visible in Pongo. Turning to
Gorilla it is seen that the digastric muscle pushes conspicuously
forward under posterior border of mandible, so that the ledge beneath
the pit is broadly rounded off. The pit is small and ill-defined, and
the region which it occupies is carried so far backward by the very
gradually sloping symphysis that its upper margin lies at level of
posterior premolar. In the region of temporal muscle-insertion the
ridge extending upward toward the coronoid process is usually de-
flected forward below the base of the process. The dental foramen
and the region behind it are about as in Pongo. The strengthening
“ridge of articular process is more evident than in Pongo but less
defined than in Pan.

The lower molars in the living primates represent three main types
of structure, peculiar respectively to: (a) the American monkeys,
(b) the Hylobatide, great apes, and Hominide, and (c) the remain-
ing Old World forms. The first type (most clearly shown by
Alouatta) is essentially that of the more primitive lemur molars (as
in Propithecus) modified by partial or complete suppression of the
paraconid and by various degrees of flattening out of the original tri-
angles, with no addition of new elements. In the second type the
paraconid is absent (sometimes a faint trace in Gorilla) and there is
normally a well-developed talonid. The posterior half of the crown
is, as in the first type, basin-shaped ; and any transverse ridge which

+ Also in the extinct genera Dryopithecus and Sivapithecus.

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 9

it may bear extends obliquely between hypoconid and talonid. In
the third and most specialized type the paraconid is absent, the talonid
is not well developed except in m,, and the posterior half of the
crown is not basin-shaped. The region occupied by the hollow in the
other types is here filled by the bases of the hypoconid and entoconid.
Usually the bases of these cusps join to form a high, squarely-
transverse ridge.

While the great apes and the Hominide agree in the fundamental
structure of their lower molars each genus shows obvious characters
of its own. In Gorilla the crowns are low and the cusps high, sub-
terete and more conspicuous than in any of the others. The cingulum
on anterior border of m, sometimes bears a nodule which may be the
last remnant of the paraconid, a character which I have found in this
genus only. The talonid of m, is very distinct, often larger than the
hypoconid and often connected with the hypoconid by a rudimentary
oblique transverse ridge. The cingulum at the postero-internal border
of crown occasionally bears a minute cusp, while sometimes it is com-
pletely transformed into a well-developed single or double cusp. The
secondary folding of the enamel is evident, but not sufficiently devel-
oped to obscure the plan of cusp-arrangement. A low supplemental
cusp is sometimes present between the protoconid and the hypoconid.
In Pan the depressions between the cusps are not so deep as in
Gorilla, so that the crowns appear to be less brachydont and the cusps
less terete and less conspicuous. The talonid in m, is less developed
than in m, or m,, not larger than the hypoconid. Cingulum of postero-
internal border often so thickened as to form a supplemental cusp.
The secondary folding of the enamel is more evident than in Gorilla;
it tends to obscure some of the details of the cusp-arrangement. In
Pongo the cusps take the form of ridge-like elevations at the extreme
border of the shallow depression which occupies most of the surface
of the crown. The talonid is well developed but is somewhat obscured
by the flattening common to all the cusps and by the extremely con-
spicuous and complicated secondary enamel folding which covers
almost the entire surface of the teeth except the summits of the main
cusps. In the Hominide the crowns are slightly less brachydont than
in any of the genera of great apes; and the cusps are less distinctly
outlined by intervening depressions. Viewed from above they are seen
to be less squarely truncate, so that each tooth comes less broadly in
contact with the one in front of it (compare pls. 3 and 4). This round-
ing off at the sides takes place in front at expense of both protoconid
and metaconid. There is a similar reduction at the posterior border,

16) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65.

making the entire tooth shorter and more nearly circular in outline
than in any of the great apes. The posterior shortening occurs in the
region occupied by the talonid and the postero-internal cingulum.
The talonid is therefore less constantly present than in the great apes,
though it appears to occur normally in m, (where it is sometimes
divided into two cusps), often in m,, and less frequently in m, ; rarely
it is present in all three teeth. The postero-internal cingulum is
seldom a noticeable element. The secondary enamel folding though
present is less evident than in any of the great apes. In general the
lower molars of the Hominid@ may be described as like those of Pan
but with higher crowns, lower, broader, less sharply-marked-off -
cusps, less wrinkled enamel, and more rounded-off anterior and
posterior borders, the rounding-off behind practically eliminating the
postero-internal cingulum and decidedly reducing the talonid or
“fifth cusp” (compare pls. 3 and 4).

Two main facts are now evident : that among the living and recently
extinct great apes and Hominide (a) all the more important features
of each group remain constant in such widely separated forms as
Homo sapiens and H. heidelbergensis* on the one hand and Pongo,
Gorilla and Pan on the other, and (b) each known genus is sharply
differentiated from all the others by characters visible in the Pilt-
down jaw.

CoMPARISON OF THE PILTDOWN JAW AND TEETH WITH THOSE OF
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE ORDER

The Piltdown jaw (pl. 1, fig. 2, and pl. 2, fig. 2) admittedly differs
from every known mandible of living or extinct members of the
family Hominide. Although broken away a little to the right of the
symphysis, it has an abrupt anterior bend which is exactly that of a
great ape. The symphyseal region extends conspicuously behind the
level of the incisors. The region of the mylohyal ridge is smoothly
rounded. The two molars (pl. 2, fig. 2) show no indication of the
beginning of a curve in the toothrow. The main axis of the first tooth
is continued backward by that of the second in a line passing as far to
inner side of condyle as in the Pongide. In front of the first molar
the entire hinder border of the alveolus of pm, is plainly visible. It
shows that the missing tooth was fully as large as in the great apes

* Regarded as a distinct genus by at least two authors: Bonarelli, Revista
Ital. di Paleont., Perugia, vol. 15, p. 26, March 15, 1909 (Paleanthropus) ; and }
Ameghino, An. Mus. Nac. de Buénos Aires, vol. 19 (ser. 3, vol. 12), p. 195,
July 27, 1909 (Pseudhomo).

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER IEE

and that the toothrow did not become abruptly weakened at the point
where this conspicuous change takes place in all known Hominde.
The molars are distinctly less hypsodont * than in recent or pleistocene
Hominide. On the outer surface of each tooth there is a trace of a
deep sulcus extending downward between the protoconid and the
hypoconid nearly to the lower border of the enamel in a manner rarely
seen in Homo (compare pl. 3 with pl. 2, figs. 2” and 4) but constant in
Gorilla, Pan and Pongo. In each tooth there is a large talonid anda
postero-internal cingulum, better seen in the photograph (pl. 2, fig.
2”) than in the cast (pl. 2, fig. 2’). The anterior border of the crown
is squarely truncate; and the general outline of each tooth is unlike
that known in any recent or fossil man.

Though its general characters are the same as those of all the living
great apes, the Piltdown jaw is readily distinguishable from jaws of
Pongo and Gorilla. There is no trace of the deepening of the horizon-
tal portion of the mandible characteristic of Pongo, nor do the teeth
show any indication of ridge-like cusps and heavily wrinkled enamel.
Enough of the symphyseal region remains to prove that this did not
extend backward as in Gorilla; while the teeth differ at least as widely
from those of Gorilla as from those of Pongo. Comparison with the
mandible of Pan brings out no such discrepancies. On the contrary
there is agreement in all the features which distinguish Pan from the
two other genera: in depth of horizontal portion, in form of sym-
physis, in the ridges on inner side of ascending ramus, and in the
peculiarities of dental foramen and the groove behind it. On plates
1 and 2 the Piltdown jaw is compared with casts of the mandibles of
two African chimpanzees mutilated in as nearly as possible the same
manner. It will be seen that the main peculiarities of the fossil, apart
from the large teeth and robust horizontal shaft, lie within the limits
of variation shown by these two African specimens. In another
African specimen (No. 174710, pl. 5, fig. 2) the depth of shaft as
well as that of the ascending branch is essentially equal to that in the
fossil (see table of measurements, p. 20). Further details of vari-
ation in the mandible of recent chimpanzees are shown in plate 5. The
teeth resemble those of certain living chimpanzees in structure,
agreeing in all essential features with those of Pan No. 176226 from
southern Kameroon (compare pl. 2, figs. 2” and 4; allowances must be
made for the different degree of wear in the two sets of teeth, and for

1Tn the cast and in the photograph (Woodward, 1915, pl. 4) ; in the original
figure (Dawson and Woodward, 1913, pl. 20) the crowns are represented as
essentially human in height.

IZ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the fact that the enamel is absent from the antero-internal corner of
m, in the recent specimen). Their size is greater in proportion to
that of the jaw than in any recent material that I have seen. From
modern African specimens of Pan the Piltdown jaw differs there-
fore in mere details of proportion and in the actual size of the
molar teeth.

The canine tooth found in the Piltdown gravel did not form part of
the remains on which the genus “ Eoanthropus” was based. Yet
its interest is so great that it deserves special attention. Of this
tooth Dr. Woodward says: it “ obviously belongs to the right side
of the mandible . . . . and its worn face shows that it worked with
the upper canine in true ape fashion” (1913: Nature, p. 110, Geol.
Mag., p. 432), while Dr. Gregory remarks: “ Its resemblances are on
the whole closer to the left upper canine.’ Boule (1915), however,
leaves the tooth in the lower jaw without comment. As “the enamel
on the inner face of the crown has been completely removed by
mastication”? (Dawson and Woodward, 1914, p. 87) and the worn
area is a wide, shallow concavity directly backward and inward, there
is no reason to doubt the correctness of the second view. Such
mechanical interrelation of the teeth as would produce a worn sur-
face of this kind on a lower canine is not only unknown among
primates, but I have been unable to find any mammal with the upper
and lower teeth so arranged that it could exist. .A concavity on the
inner aspect of the lower canine may be present, as in adult Propt-
thecus or in the milk tooth of Homo, but not as the result of gouging ~
out by an upper tooth. The fact that its concave surface is worn there-
fore removes all significance (Dawson and Woodward, 1914, p. 91;
Woodward, 1915, p. 23) from the superficial resemblance of the Pilt-
down tooth to the lower milk canine of man. In all the living great
apes the postero-internal surface of the lower canine is convex (see
pl. 4, and Woodward, 1915, fig. 8A as compared with fig. 8B).
The worn area normally appears first at the summit of the tooth, then
extends down the postero-internal limb of the convexity ; later it may
spread to the antero-internal surface, and in aged individuals may
reduce the tooth to a flattened stub. No matter how long a lower
canine may have been in use it never assumes the form seen in that
of “ Eoanthropus,’ nor does it lose all trace of the original convexity
of its inner portion. The upper canines, on the other hand, are nor-
mally worn away over exactly the same area as in the Piltdown tooth.
Among the living great apes, while there is much individual variation
in size and form, the canines are larger and higher-crowned in males

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 3

than in females. Comparison of the Piltdown tooth with those of
males of all three genera and of females of Gorilla and Pongo show
numerous and striking discrepancies which need not be detailed here.
On comparison with the left upper canine of adult female Pan, how-
ever, no stich discrepancies are found. The cast of the tooth almost
fits the left alveolus of No. 174700, an adult female chimpanzee from
French Congo. Its greater size and straighter, more compressed
root prevent its taking a wholly natural position in the socket; but
when as nearly as possible in place it is in all important respects
symmetrical with the canine of the right side and with the cheek-
teeth of the left series. The only characters by which I am able to
distinguish it from the corresponding tooth of adult female recent
chimpanzees are the slightly greater size, the less backward-bent
extremity of root, and the greater area and deeper concavity of the
worn region on postero-internal aspect of crown. The distinction of
root from crown is not so well marked as in recent teeth, but this cir-
cumstance is probably due to the incomplete condition of the enamel
which Dr. Woodward (Dawson and Woodward, 1914, p. 87) has
described.

INCOMPATIBILITY OF THE PILTDOWN JAW AND SKULL

Discussion of the relationships of the man represented by the Pilt-
down braincase to the various living and extinct species of Homo
does not come within the scope of this paper. Certain characters of
the skull-fragments are, however, of special importance in connec-
tion with the supposed association of the jaw with those remains.

The occipital bone has been said to approach “a lower [than typ-
ically human] grade. . . . in the attachment for the neck”’ (Dawson
and Woodward, 1913, p. 132). On comparing it with a few dozen
recent human skulls taken at random from the series in the National
Museum I find that its peculiarities of form are so exactly matched
that none can be regarded as of more than individual importance.
The ‘relatively large extent and flatness of its smooth upper
squamous portion” (1. c. p. 128) is completely within the range of
variation in modern species of Homo. This feature, connected as it
is with the upright position of the body, and the consequent shrinking
of the area for attachment of the neck-muscles, is one of the family
characters of the Hominide. In the Pongide a very small smooth
area* is present in the young above the region of muscle-attachment,
but in the adult this area is always encroached on‘ and often obliterated

1More noticeable in Gorilla and Pan than in Pongo.
? More rapidly and completely in Gorilla and Pongo than in Pan.

I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

by the constantly increasing lambdoid crest. ‘The fact that the
squamous portion of the occipital bone is well developed in the fossil
therefore indicates wide divergence from the known great apes.
Another fancied resemblance to the Pongide is seen by Boule, who
remarks (1915, p. 59) that to him the lower curved line appears to lie
relatively nearer to the upper curved line than in recent Homo, its
position thus more as in H. neanderthalensis and still more as in the
chimpanzees. The distance between the two lines in the Piltdown
skullis 15.5 mm. In two adult skulls of American Indians, one from
Illinois (No. 243881) the other from North Dakota (No. 228876),
which happened to be lying side by side in one of the exhibition cases
it is respectively 14.5 mm. and 27 mm. Among adult chimpan-
zees I find extremes of 15.5 mm. (No. 174790) and 24.5 mm.
(Nos. 84655 and 176227). When a character varies so much in both
genera no conclusion can be based on the conditions found in any one
skull. Even if a conclusion regarding the lines Were justified it would
have little meaning in view of the strictly human features of all other
parts of the occipital bone.

Aside from the superior maxilla the parts of the skull most directly
related to the mandible are: (a) the point of actual contact, (b) the
region of origin of the masseter muscle, and (c) that of origin of the
temporal muscle. Of these three the first and last are well preserved
in the fossils. The glenoid region has been recognized as “ typically
human in every detail” (Dawson and Woodward, 1913, p. 128).
Comparison with many human skulls shows that it presents the char-
acteristically human features of narrow articulating surface and deep
fossa in a much more than usual degree of development. Unfor-
tunately the absence of the condyle makes it impossible to know
whether the corresponding surface of the Piltdown jaw had the broad
and slightly convex form seen in all three genera of living Pongide;
but the part immediately below the fracture shows, in the region
over the dental foramen, the highly developed strengthening ridge
characteristic of the genus Pan (see pl. 1). A slight indication of the
ridge is often present in Homo; but I have been unable to find a
specimen even among those in a set particularly selected to illustrate
the variations of human mandibles, in which the structure of this
region agrees with living chimpanzees and the Piltdown jaw. The
_ facts are that the Piltdown skull presents extreme human character-
istics in the glenoid region calling for correspondingly extreme human
conditions of narrow and strongly convex articular surface in the
mandible which hinged on it. But this entire mandible, from sym-

ia ss

NO, 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 15

physis to base of condyle, is like that of a chimpanzee. Hence in
order to fit its articulating surface to that of the skull it would be
necessary to imagine an abrupt change of plan in the few millimeters
of condyle that have been lost.

Another incongruity is found when the area of origin of the tem-
poral muscle on the skull is compared with that of its insertion on the
mandible. Both regions have been carefully described and figured
(Dawson and Woodward, 1913, pp. 128, 131, pl. 18, fig. 3, pl. 20, figs.
2a, 2c). The anterior border of the muscle appears to have extended
upward on the frontal with somewhat unusual abruptness, an impres-
sion that may be heightened by the way in which the bone is broken.
The posterior border was not carried very far back on the parietal.
In general features the area of origin for the whole muscle is strictly
human, and its extent is considerably less than in many of the human
skulls with which I have compared it. In all three genera of Pongide
this area is much greater in proportion to the size of the animal, push-
ing its way in adult individuals gradually over the braincase to median
line, where the muscles of the two sides are often separated merely by

-a sagittal crest." The area of insertion of the muscle on the Piltdown

mandible has not only all the more important general characters
peculiar to this region in Pan; it has also the individual features
which in living members of that genus are connected with the greatest
extension of the area of origin of the muscle on the skull. Young
chimpanzees show a slight approximation to Homo in the form of the
area on which the temporal muscle is inserted. The ridge which
extends upward from the base of the coronoid process is broad and
low, giving this whole region the smoothly convex appearance usually
found in members of the family Hominide. With increasing age the
ridge becomes narrower and the region behind it changes from flat
to concave; finally the surface of the main ridge becomes marked by
secondary ridgelets which give extreme strength of attachment to the
muscle-fibers. This last stage of roughening on the mandible is asso-
ciated in chimpanzees with the closest approach of the upper end of
the muscle to the median line of the braincase and especially with the

formation of a sagittal crest. It is well-marked in the Piltdown jaw.

In order to associate this jaw with the braincase it would therefore be
necessary to assume the existence of an animal related to both Homo
and Pan but with a temporal muscle working on a different mechan-
ical scheme from either ; that is, moderate in size and strength at the

2 Most frequently developed in Gorilla, least frequently in Pan.

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

region of origin on the skull and excessively heavy at the mandibular
end. That such an animal may have lived cannot be denied ; but noth-
ing so contrary to the facts which are now known need be believed
without the evidence of a jaw found in place.

Two other features of the human skull, both connected with the
upright position of the body, and both represented by the Piltdown
fragments, have an important bearing on the question of the associa-
tion of the mandible with the braincase. One of these is the form of
the basicranial region, the other is that of the nasals. That human
skulls differ from those of other primates in the position of the
foramen magnum and the occipital condyles appears to have been first
clearly recognized by Daubenton, as long ago as 1764." The subject
has received attention from many subsequent authors.’ While some
individual variation in this respect is shown by recent man, and the
conditions may prove to be less pronounced in the Pleistocene Homo
neanderthalensis than in living members of the group, the family
Hominid@ is distinguished from all other mammals by the fact that
the occipital region is so produced behind the condyles, while at the
same time the anterior maxillary region (including front of lower jaw)
is so retracted, that the points of support on the erect upper portion
of the vertebral column stand essentially beneath the center of gravity
of the skull, thus balancing the head in its characteristic poise. Asa
result of the maxillary retraction the nasal floor is shortened anteriorly
and the nasal aperture is made to open directly forward instead of
forward and upward. The nasal bones roofing this modified aperture
are normally thrown into a prominence unknown in any monkey or
great ape. Whether the maxillary retraction came about primarily as
part of a general readjustment of the skull to its upright attitude or
through other agencies, the fact remains that this character is not yet
known among primates except as part of a set of changes, one result
of which is to bring the point of cranial support to the position where
it affords the most effective balance. In all primates other than the
Hominide the condyles lie behind the center of gravity and the head
is held in place on the oblique or horizontal anterior portion of the

*Mém. Acad. Roy. Sci., Paris (1764), pp. 568-577. 1767.

? See, for instance, Huxley, Man’s Place in Nature, p. 76, 1863; Owen Comp.
Anat. and Physiol. Vert., vol. 2, p. 554, 1866; Broca, Rev. d’Anthrop., Paris,
vol. 2, pp.. 193-234, 1873 (reprint in Mém. d’Anthrop., vol. 4, pp. 595-641,
1883) ; Papillault, Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, ser. 4, vol. 9, pp. 336-385.

®See Boule, Ann. de Paléont., vol. 6, pp. 156-159, 1911 (Homme fossile
de la Chapelle-aux-Saints, pp. 48-51).

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 17

vertebral column by strong muscles ;* the anterior maxillary region
is not retracted, and the nasal bones are flatly sunk into the interorbital
region and the upper border of the nasal orifice. In the Homimide
the peculiar position of the condyles is accompanied by special modifi-
cations in the floor of the braincase. The area between the foramen
magnum and the choanz is bowed upward, the mastoid process is
carried downward and forward until it almost encroaches on the
region lying below glenoid notch, and the tympanic plate and entire
petro-mastoid are distorted from their primitive form. The temporal
bone of “ Eoanthropus”’ (Dawson and Woodward, 1913, pl. 19, fig.
2) shows by its exact resemblance to the same bone in Homo that this
fundamental part of the skull was completely adjusted to the task of
supporting a human brain in the upright position. Belief that a
primate like the one to which this temporal bone belonged, and living
as recently as the late pliocene or early pleistocene, lacked that cor-
responding balance-adjustment in the maxillary region which is pres-
ent in all members of the Hominide actually known, cannot reason-
ably exist without the evidence of an entire specimen; yet such
absence of mechanical unity between the two parts of the skull must
be assumed in order to provide the specimen with a long, narrow
upper arch to fit the lower jaw* (compare pls. 3 and 4). Similarly, in
the absence of a specimen showing human nasal bones coexisting with
the protruding anterior maxillary region of the great apes, there is
every reason to suppose that the Piltdown jaw was not closely asso-
ciated with this pair of typical human nasals (Dawson and Wood-
ward, 1914, pl. 15, fig. 1) until the deposition of the remains near
each other in the old river-bottom. It is not improbable that ancient

1A peculiar instance of approach to a balanced condition of the head is
furnished by the South American monkeys of the genus Saimiri. Here the
back part of braincase protrudes so far that the condyles are made to be
nearer the middle of the skull than in any other monkey that I have examined.
There is no indication of a general readjustment of the skull, the base of
braincase together with the facial region remaining as in related genera.

2 As the cranial floor between the temporal bone and the median line is not
represented by the fragments it is perhaps not safe to assume that the dis-
tance from one glenoid to the other was as great as in recent Homo. Every
feature of the specimen makes it appear probable, however, that such was
actually the case. If this human widening existed, the articular surfaces of
the corresponding jaw, to accord with the conditions present in all other
known primates, should have been wide apart, the jaw should have been
strongly arched, and the lower toothrow should have begun to bend inward
behind the premolars. Neither the teeth nor the horizontal portion of the
Piltdown mandible present any such characters.

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

fossil forms will be found in which the characters of face, braincase,
jaws and teeth are so generalized as to represent a structure that could
have given rise to the distinguishing features of both Hominide and
Pongide. But nothing could be more contrary to the conditions
present in all living and fossil Anthropoidea now known than the
simultaneous occurrence in a pleistocene or recent genus of fully
developed fundamental characters elsewhere diagnostic of the two
groups.
SUMMARY

The Piltdown remains include parts of a braincase showing funda-
mental characters not hitherto known except in members of the genus
Homo, and a mandible, two lower molars, and an upper canine show-
ing equally diagnostic features hitherto unknown except in members
of the genus Pan. On the evidence furnished by these characters
the fossils must be supposed to represent: either a single individual
belonging to an otherwise unknown extinct genus (Eoanthropus),
or two individuals belonging to two now-existing families (Homu-
nide and Pongide). The fossils are so fragmentary that their
zoological meaning will probably remain a subject of controversy.
Yet the weight of the difficulties on the two sides is unequal.
In order to believe that all the fragments came from a single indi-
vidual it is necessary to assume the existence of a primate differing
from all other known members of the order by combining a brain-
case and nasal bones possessing the exact characters of a genus
belonging to one family, with a mandible, two lower molars, and an
upper canine possessing the exact characters of a genus belonging to
another. Thus must be associated in a single skull: (a) one type of
jaw with another type of glenoid region, (b) one type of temporal
muscle-origin with another type of temporal muscle-insertion, (c)
a high degree of basicranial adjustment to the upright position with
absence of that corresponding modification in the lower jaw called for
by all that is now actually known of the structure of the braincase and
mandible in primates, and (d) a protruding lower jaw with a form
of nasal bone not elsewhere known except in connection with .a_
retracted upper dental arch. In each instance the opposed char-
acters are sharply defined and easily recognizable in the fossils ; while
in no single feature is there any trace of the blending of the two types.
On the other hand the assumption that the skull‘and jaw belonged
respectively to a man and a chimpanzee carries with it only two diffi-
culties: (a) that of the deposition within a few feet of each other of
the remains of two animals whose bones are rarely found in gravel

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 19

pits, and (b) that of the supposed absence of chimpanzees from the
European pleistocene faunas. Concerning the first nothing can be
said, except that those local conditions which caused the deposition
of one specimen near a given spot might be expected to act in about
the same way with another. The second is at least partly met by the
fact that a tooth described and figured as not certainly distinguishable
from the first lower molar of a chimpanzee has been found in the
pleistocene of Germany. Until the discovery of further material it
seems proper to treat the case as a purely zoological problem by
referring each set of fragments to the genus which its characters
demand.

Tue BritTisH PLEISTOCENE CHIMPANZEE

Accepting the conclusions (a) that each set of the Piltdown frag-
ments shall be treated according to the existing characters, and (b)
that the characters of the lower jaw are those of a member of the
genus Pan, it becomes necessary to distinguish the British pleistocene
chimpanzee from the living African species. No special fragment
was designated by Dr. Woodward as the type specimen of Foan-
thropus dawsoni. As the species was referred to the family Homuude
I now restrict the name to the human elements of the composite,
selecting as type the temporal bone (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London,
vol. 69, pl. 19, fig. 2). For the chimpanzee represented by the mandi-
ble with its first and second molar teeth I propose the name:

PAN VETUS, sp. nov.
Gale ie ell: 2 ane, 2)

Diagnosis.—General characters of mandible and of first and second
lower molars as in living species of Pan from French Congo and
southern Kameroon, but horizontal ramus more robust and teeth
larger.

Measurements.—In the table (page 20) the measurements of the
type (from cast) are compared with those of seven mandibles of Pan
from French Congo and Kameroon, among which are represented the
maximum and minimum dimensions for the entire National Museum
series of adults. Only one of these individuals contrasts noticeably
with the type in the worn condition of the molar crowns. For con-
venience of further comparisons I have added the measurements of
Homo heidelbergensis (from cast) and of three specimens of modern
Homo, one extremely large, another medium in size and the third
rather small. ;

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‘SINANANNSVAN AO ATAVL

NO. I2 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER Zi

Remarks.—Within the limits of the generic characters recent
chimpanzees, like other great apes, show many variations the nature
of which is imperfectly understood. Numerous species have been
described* but their cranial peculiarities, if such exist, are not yet
known. Among the skulls in the National Museum series I have
been unable to find satisfactory characters by which to distinguish
local forms.

Comparing the Piltdown mandible with those from Kameroon
and French Congo I have found no constant features other than those
already mentioned. That part of mandible in front of m, is, for
instance, shorter than in the two African jaws figured on plate 1;
but No. 174710 (pl. 5, fig. 2) from French Congo has this region fully
as short and nearly as deep as the type. In Pan vetus the thickened
area which extends downward on outer side of mandible in contin-
uation of the base of the coronoid process is more prominent than in
most African specimens. It contributes to the robustness of the jaw
in that region, and stands out noticeably beyond the level of the lower
edge when the mandible is viewed at a certain angle from above. In
African specimens this thickening is usually not sufficient to project
noticeably beyond the level of the angular margin, but in No. 176235
from southern Kameroon it does so almost as much as in Pan vetus.
The angle of the jaw is more evenly rounded off in Pan vetus than in
mast African chimpanzees that I have seen. These usually show a
slight concavity below the angular region and another, often the
more pronounced of the two, above it. In No. 174710 (pl. 5, fig. 2)
from French Congo a very slight wearing away of the edge of the
bone such as appears to have taken place in the Piltdown jaw would
exactly produce the outline of the type. The teeth appear to be more
diagnostic than the jaw, as I have been unable to find any African
specimen in which they equal those of Pan vetus in size.

+See Elliot, Rev. Primates, vol. 3, pp. 229-254, June, 1913, and Matschie,
Sitzungsber. Gesellsch. naturforsch. Freunde, Berlin, 1914, pp. 327-335, July,
IQI4.

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Newspaper articles of a popular nature are not included )

Anonymous. A Palaeolithic Skull. .The Times, London, November 23, 1912,
p. 10.

Announcement that: Excavations in Sussex undertaken by an an-
thropological student have brought to light fragments of a human skull
detailed description of which will be presented at a meeting of the
Geological Society to be held on December 18.

Anonymous. Discovery of Human Skull (Early Pleistocene?) near Lewes.
Nature, vol. 90, p. 390. December 5, 1912.

A “note” announcing Mr. Dawson’s discovery of the Piltdown
remains.

Anonymous. A Palaeolithic Skull. The Times, London, December 19, 1912,

D. 4.
Principally an abstract of paper presented at meeting of Geological
Society, December 18. No name printed.

AnonyMous. Palaeolithic Man. Nature, vol. 90, p. 438. December 19, 1912.

Brief synopsis of history and characters of Piltdown man. No
name printed.

Anonymous. The Piltdown Skull. Nature, vol. 91, pp. 640-641. August
21, 1913.

Account of the discussion by members of the anatomical section,
International Congress of Medicine.

AntHony, R. Les restes humains fossiles de Piltdown (Sussex). Revue
Anthropologique, vol. 23, pp. 203-306. September, 1913.

Accepts the association of the skull with jaw: “Ce qui pourrait le
rendre vraisemblable c ‘est que, chez les jeunes Anthropoides nous voyons
précisément associée a une boite cranienne sensiblement sphérique une
machoire 4 menton fuyant,” p. 304. Regards the formation of a new
genus as not justified: “En raison de sa capacité cranienne toute
humaine il me semble cependant contre-indiqué de le séparer du genre
Homo. Le nom spécifique d’Homo dawsont me semble devoir. etre
préfére a celui d’ Eoanthropus dawsom ....” (p. 305).

Bouts, Marcettin. L’Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints. Annales de

Paléontologie, vol. 6, pp. 111-172, 1911, vol. 7, pp. 21-56, 85-192, 1912, vol.

8, Pp. I-70. 1913.

Eoanthropus frequently mentioned, pp. 245-265, but at this time
known to the author from descriptions only. (See next title.)

Boute, Marcettin. La Paléontologie humaine en Angleterre. L’Anthro-
pologie, vol. 26, pp. 1-67, figs. 1-21. April, 1915.

Eoanthropus, pp. 39- -67. Accepts association of skull with jaw,
though recognizing that jaw is exactly that of a chimpanzee, and that
it would have been described as Troglodytes dawsoni if found alone
(p. 60). Admits that the presence of a pliocene anthropoid ape in
western Europe would be ‘nothing extraordinary (p. 62). Regards the
creation of a new genus as unnecessary. Criticizes Waterston’s view
that jaw did not belong with skull: “Cet argument, d’ordre purement
anatomique, n’est donc pas sans valeur. Mais il a le tort d’etre imprégné
d’un vieux parfum cuviérin et de reposer trop exclusivement sur les
données morphologiques tirées de l’Homme actuel. Or, les paléon-
tologistes savent combien la nature est fertile en combinaisons impreé-
vues; elle a pu associer d’autant plus facilement un condyle et une
fosse glénoide d’ Homme a une machoire de Singe que, mécaniquement
et physiologiquement, cette association ne parait pas absurde. II semble
que, dans l’évolution d’une téte osseuse, quand la face diminue, la man-
dibule diminue plus lentement, ne suivant en quelque sorte que de loin le
mouvement de retrait” (p. 62).

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 23

Dawkins, Boyp. [Discussion of the Piltdown skull.] Abstr. Proc. Geol.
Soc. London, session 1912-13, pp. 23-24. December 28, 1912. (See also
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 69, pp. 148-149. March, 1913, issued
April 25, 1913.)

_ Accepts association of skull and jaw. Concludes that Eoanthropus
is “a missing link between man and the higher apes, appearing at that
stage of the evolution of the higher mammalia in which it may be
looked for—in the pleistocene age. The modern type of man had no
place in this age.”

Dawson, CHARLES, and Woopwarp, ARTHUR SMITH. On the discovery of
a palaeolithic human skull and mandible in a flint-bearing gravel over-
lying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex).
Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc. London, session 1912-13, pp. 20-22. December
28, 1912.

Abstract of history and characters. Name not printed. “.... it

may be regarded as representing a hitherto unknown genus and species,
for which a new name is proposed.”

DAwson, CHARLES, and Woopwarp, ArTHUR SMITH. On the discovery of a
palaeolithic human skull and mandible in a flint-bearing gravel over-
lying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex).
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 69, pp. 117-124, pls. 15-21 (wash
drawings; for photographs see Woodward, 1915), figs. 1-10. March, 1913.
Read December 18, 1912; issued April 25, 1913.

Dawson, CHarRLES, and Woopwarp, ArtHuR SmitH. Supplementary note
on the discovery of a palaeolithic human skull and mandible at Piltdown
(Sussex). Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc. London, session 1913-1914, pp. 28-209.
December 31, 1913.

“In shape, the canine resembles the milk canine of man and that of
the apes more closely than it agrees with the permanent canine of any
known ape. In accordance with a well-known palaeontological law,
it therefore approaches the canine of the hypothetical Tertiary An-
thropoids more nearly than any corresponding tooth hitherto found.”

Dawson, CHARLES, and Woopwarp, ARTHUR SMITH. Supplementary note
on the discovery of a palaeolithic human skull and mandible at Piltdown
(Sussex). Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 70, pp. 82-93, pls. 14-15,
figs. 1-3. April 25, 1914.

“Tt results, therefore, from these comparisons that, among known
Upper Tertiary and Recent Anthropoids, the permanent lower canine of
Eoanthropus agrees more closely in shape with the milk-canine both
of man and of the apes than with the corresponding permanent tooth
in either of these groups. It is also obvious that the resemblance is
greater between EHoanthropus and Homo than between the former and
any known genus of apes. In other words, the permanent tooth of
the extinct Eoanthropus is almost identical in shape with the tem-
porary milk-tooth of the existing Homo. Hence it forms another illus-
tration of the well-known law in mammalian palaeontology, that the
permanent teeth of an ancestral race agree more closely in pattern with
the milk teeth than with the permanent teeth of its modified descend-
ants -~ (p; OL).

DuckwortH, Dr. [Discussion of the Piltdown skull]. Abstr. Proc. Geol.
Soc. London, session 1912-1913, p. 24. December 28, 1912. (See also
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 69, p. 149. March, 1913. Issued
April 25, 1913.)

“It was justifiable to associate the various fragments as parts of
one human skull, and the presence of so many simian characters in
one and the same specimen was a point of great significance.”

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Exuiot, G. F. Scott. Prehistoric Man and His Story. London and Phila-
delphia, 1915, pp. I-XIV, 1-308, 64 illustr. and diagrams.

Piltdown woman, pp. 125-129. “ The jaw in some respects resembles
that of a young chimpanzee .. . . Though there are a few distinctively
ape-like characters, most of those points in which the skull differs
from modern man can be detected in one or another of the primitive
races. If so, she is the only representative known of one of the very
earliest strains of mankind, perhaps the very first known of the original
‘generalized world-ranging type’ from which all other varieties were
derived” (pp. 128-129).

Forestier, A. Periods of Prehistoric Man: Pleistocene Types, Weapons and
Tools. Illustrated London News, vol. 143, pp. 206-297. Numerous figures.
August 23, 1913.

Accepts Keith’s reconstruction of jaw.

GIUFFRIDA-RUGGERI, V. Dawson (Ch.) e Woodward (A. S.). On the dis-
covery of a palaeolithic skull and mandible in a flint-bearing gravel over-
lying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex).
Arch. Antrop. e Etnol., Firenze, vol. 43, pp. 184-186. 1013.

Review. Doubts the distinctness of the genus Eoanthropus from
Homo. “In ogni caso sin d’ora appare che |’ ‘Eoanthropus’ non é un
fossile ben chiaro, como nuovo genere, e che molto probabilmente
rientrera nei fossili gia noti: forse il Gibraltar é il pit vicino.”

Grecory, WittiAM Kine. The Dawn Man of Piltdown, England. Am. Mus.
Journal, vol. 14, pp. 189-200, figs. 1-11. May, 1914.

Accepts association of skull with jaw. Compare fig. 5 with text fig.
in present article.

Happon, A. C. Eoanthropus dawsoni. Science, n. s. vol. 37, pp. 91-92.
January 17, 1013.

HroiicKa, A. The most ancient skeletal remains of man. Ann. Rep. Smiths.
Inst., 1913, pp. 401-552, pls. 1-41, figs. I-12.

Eoanthropus, pp. 500-509. “It represents doubtless one of the most
interesting finds relating to man’s antiquity, though seemingly the last
word has not yet been said as to its date and especially as to the
physical characteristics of the being it stands for.”

Irvinc, A. Some recent work on later quarternary geology and anthropology,
with its bearing on the question of “ pre-boulder-clay man.” Journ.
Royal Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Brit. and Ireland, vol. 44, pp. 385-303. July-
December, 1914.

“The hominid Eoanthropus dawsoni (Piltdown) is undoubtedly of
pre-chalky boulder-clay age” (p. 393).

KeitH, A. [Discussion of the Piltdown skull.] Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc.
London, session I912-13, p. 23. December 28, 1912. (See also Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 69, p. 148. March, 1913. Issued April
25, 1013.)

Accepts association of skull with jaw but considers that recon-
struction of jaw is made to be too much like chimpanzee.

Keita, A. Ape-man or Modern Man? The two Piltdown skull recon-
structions. Illustrated London News, vol. 143, p. 245, figs. 1-6. August
16, I913.

Jaw ‘reconstructed to hold a human dentition.

Keiro, A. Ape-man or Modern Man? The two Piltdown skull recon-
structions. The case for Professor Arthur Keith’s reconstruction. Illus-
trated London News, vol. 143, p. 282. August 23, 1913. 4 figures.

Reconstruction of jaw to resemble as nearly as possible that of Homo.

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 25

KeirH, A. The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature, vol. 92, pp. 197-1099,
figs. 1-3. October 16, 1913.

Keitu, Artur. The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature, vol. 92, p. 292.
November 6, 10913.

Keira, ArrHur. The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature, vol. 92, pp.
345-346. November 20, 1913.

KeitH, A. [Discussion of new reconstruction of skull of Eoanthropus.]
Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc. London, session 1913-14, p. 30. December 31,
1913. (See also Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 70, p. 98, April
25, 1914.)

Admits difficulties in associating jaw, skull and canine as parts of
one individual, but regards all as representing one species: “ Two other
difficulties he had encountered were (1) the presence of a pointed pro-
jecting canine in the jaw and an articular eminence at the glenoid fossa
of the skull; and (2) a much-worn canine tooth in a jaw in which the
third molar tooth—according to the published X-ray photograph of the
Piltdown mandible—was not completely erupted. (See Underwood,
December 31, 1913.) He agreed that all three parts—skull, jaw, and
canine tooth—must be assigned to Eoanthropus, but he was not con-
vinced that they could all belong to the same individual.”

KeitH, A. Problems relating to the teeth of the earlier forms of pre-
historic man. Proc. Roy. Soc. Medicine, vol. 6, Odont. sect., pp. 103-119,
figs. I-10. I9Q13.

Piltdown mandible, pp. 116-110.

KeirH, ArtHuR. The Significance of the Discovery at Piltdown. Bedrock,
vol. 2, pp. 435-453, figs. 1-3. January, 1914.

“There is one way out of this difficulty—that suggested by Sir E.
Ray Lankester and urged by Professor Waterston—namely, that the
mandible and skull are parts of different kinds of beings; the mandible
that of some unknown anthropoid, and the skull that of a primitive
form of man. When we seek to get out of our difficulty in this way
we raise others. The molar teeth in the Piltdown mandible are essen-
tially human in appearance; the texture of the mandible is similar to
that of the skull. The markings for the temporal muscle, which acts
on the jaw, are different to any ever seen in a human skull and indicate
that the mandible should be of a peculiar character—such as has been
found.”

Kerru, ArtHur. The reconstruction of fossil human skulls. Journ. Royal

Anthrop. Isnt. Gt. Brit. and Ireland, vol. 44, pp. 12-31, figs. 1-16. January-

June, 1914.
Describes process of reconstructing the Piltdown skull.
Kerro, Artuur. The Antiquity of Man. London and Philadelphia, 1915,
(preface dated July), pp. I-XX, 1-519, 189 figures and diagrams.
Piltdown skull, pp. 293-511; the most elaborate discussion yet pub-
lished. Account of mandible with special reference to simian features,
pp. 430-452 (drawings reproduced in figs. 165 and 167 should be com-
pared with photographs in present article). Account of teeth, pp. 453-
457. Conclusions: “ Thus in our scrutiny and reconstruction of the
Piltdown mandible, although we have come across many details of
structure which seem to suggest that it formed part of an anthropoid
rather than a human being, we have met with no feature which clearly
debars it from being placed with the skull .... our difficulties are
infinitely greater if we try to allocate the skull to a human being and
the mandible to an unknown kind of anthropoid (p. 453) .... Thus
in the manner in which it has become worn by use the Piltdown canine
differs from all known human and anthropoid [mandibular] teeth (p.

206 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

459). The molar teeth leave us in no doubt; they are human. If the
question is asked: What are the characters of these teeth which are so
essentially human? it must be confessed that a direct and explicit answer
is not easily returned .... However we may waver about the Pilt-
down mandible, the clear direct evidence of the molar teeth comes ever
to our aid” (pp. 469-470). Places Eoanthropus on a line distinct from
those leading to Homo heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis on the
one hand and to modern man on the other (p. 501). (See Pilgrim and
Sutcliffe.) “That we should discover such a race [human, with canine
teeth pointed, projecting, and shaped as in anthropoid apes], has been
an article of faith in the anthropologist’s creed ever since Darwin’s
time” (p. 459). Received too late for notice in body of text.

LANKESTER, Ray. [Discussion of the Piltdown skull.] Abstr. Proc. Geol.
Soc. London, session 1912-13, pp. 22-23. December 28, 1912. (See also
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 69, pp. 147-148. March, 1013.
Issued April 25, 1913.)

“He did not consider it certain that the lower jaw and the skull
belonged to the same individual.”

Maccurpy, G. G. Ancestor Hunting: the Significance of the Piltdown Skull.
Amer. Anthrop. n. s. vol. 15, pp. 248-256, April-June, 1913.

Morr, J. Rew. The Piltdown Skull. The Times, London, December 25, 1912,
p. 8.

“Tn my opinion, then, Mr. Dawson is to be congratulated on having

made the immensely important discovery of the remains of one of the
beings who made the eolithic flint implements.” (See Sutcliffe.)

Munro, Ropert. Prehistoric Britain (Home University of Modern Knowl-
edge), pp. I-VI, 1-256, figs. 1-24. 1913.

Eoanthropus, pp. 25, 52-55, 70-74, figs. 8-9. Accepts association of
skull with jaw. °

Neurinc, A. Ueber einen menschlichen Molar aus dem Diluvium von
Taubach bei Weimar. Zeitschr. fir Ethnologie, vol. 27, pp. 573-577, figs.
1-4. October, 1805.

The author regards this tooth as human, but is unable to compare
it with anything except the first lower molar of a chimpanzee. Accord-
ing to the figures it almost exactly resembles the corresponding tooth
of Pan vetus. Size not so great: 11.7 x 9.9 mm. In the actual speci-
men the similarity to m: of Pan is said to be still greater than in the
drawing.

Pircrim, Guy E. New Siwalik primates and their bearing on the evolution
of man and the Anthropoidea. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, vol. 45, pp. 1-74,
pls. 1-4, figs. 1-2.

Accepts association of skull with jaw and places Eoanthropus on line
leading to Homo neanderthalensis. (See Keith, 1915, and Sutcliffe. )

Puccioni, Netto. Appunti intorno al frammento mandibolare fossile di Pilt-
down (Sussex). Archivio per l’Antropologiae la Etnologia, vol. 43,

pp. 167-175: 10913.

Jaw and skull not from one individual. Jaw more like Neanderthal
man than like chimpanzee. “ Mi sembra pertanto indubitabile che la
mandibola in questione appartenga ad un tipo rozzo, a mio parere piu
simile al tipo di Neanderthal che non al Troglodites e mi sembra
altresi che non si possa considerare probabile che i caratteri grossolani
di questa mandibola si accompagnassero ai caratteri relativamente fini
(assenza dell arcate sopraorbitarie, fronte alta e dritta ecc.) dei fram-
menti cranici che le furono rinvenuti accanto: ond’é, che concordemente
a quanto pensano due eminenti scienziati inglesi (il Lankester e il
Waterston), io sono di opinione che la mandibola ed il cranio abbiano
probabilmente appartenuto a due individui distinti” (p. 175).

te et Se

NO. 12 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 27

Puccroni, Netto. Morphologie du maxillaire inférieur. L’ Anthropologie,
vol. 25, pp. 291-321, figs. 1-3. 1914.

Reaffirms view that Piltdown mandible is less simian than Smith
Woodward makes it appear (p. 315).

Pycrart, W. P. The most ancient inhabitant of England: the newly-found
Sussex Man. Illustrated London News, vol. 141, p. 958. December 28,
1912.

Pycrart, W. P. Ape-Man or Modern Man? The two Piltdown skull
reconstructions. The case for Dr. A. Smith Woodward’s reconstruction.
Illustrated London News, vol. 143, p. 282. August 23, 1913. Four figures.

“But no one competent to express an opinion would accept this
interpretation [that skull is man and jaw ape].

Rosinson, Louis. The Story of the Chin. Knowledge n. s., vol. 10, pp. 410-
420. November, 1913. (Reprinted in Smithsonian Report for 1914, pp.
599-609, pls. 1-12, 1915.)

Piltdown jaw (symphyseal region) figured (pl. 7) but not mentioned
in the text. -

Scuwatsr, G. Kritische Besprechung von Boule’s Werk: “L’Homme fossile
de la Chapelle-aux-Saints.” Zeitschr. fur Morphologie und Anthro-
pologie, vol. 16, pp. 227-610. January 31, 1914.

Piltdown skull and jaw, pp. 603-4. Not willing to accept the suggestion
that skull and jaw did not belong to one individual, but considers the
facts too uncertain to form basis of positive opinion.

SHaAttock, S. G. Morbid thickening of the calvaria; and the reconstruction
of bone once abnormal; a pathological basis for the study of the thickening
observed in certain pleistocene crania. Seventeenth International Congress
of Medicine, London, 1913, sect. 3, pt. 2, pp. 3-46, pls. 1-4, text figs. 1-3.
1914.

Piltdown skull, pp. 42-46. “But to conclude. Without making any
dogmatic statement, certain details of the Piltdown calvaria suggest the
possibility of a pathological process having underlain the thickened con-
dition” (p. 46). Accepts association of skull with jaw, and regards the
third lower molar as unerupted (p. 43). See Underwood, December
31, 1913.

SmitH, G. Ertiot. Appendix [to paper by Dawson and Woodward]. Abstr.
Proc. Geol. Soc. London, session 1912-13, p. 22. December 28, 1912.

Abstract of paper mentioned under next title. The last paragraph
of abstract does not occur in full account. Te ige “Uns Zire me
grounds whatever for supposing that this simian jaw and human brain-
cast did not belong to one and the same individual, who was probably
a right-handed female.”

SmitrH, Grarron Ettiot. Preliminary report on the cranial cast [of the
Piltdown skull]. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 69, pp. 145-147.
March, 1913. Issued April 25, 1913.

Situ, G. Exxior. The Piltdown Skull. Nature, vol. 92, p. 131. October
2, 1913.

Accepts association of skull with jaw and adds: ‘The small and
archaic brain and thick skull are undoubtedly human in character, but
the mandible, in spite of the human molars it bears, is more simian
than human. So far from being an impossible combination of char-
acters, this association of brain and simian features is precisely what
I anticipated in my address to the British Association at Dundee
(Nature, September 26, 1912, p. 125), some months before I knew of
the existence of the Piltdown skull, when I argued that in the evolution
of man the development of the brain must have led the way. The

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

growth in intelligence and in the powers of discrimination no doubt
led to a definite cultivation of the aesthetic sense, which, operating
through sexual selection, brought about a gradual refinement of the
features.”

SmitH, G. Ettior. The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature, vol. 92, pp.

267-268. October 30, I913.

SmitH, G. Ettior. The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature, vol. 92, pp.
318-319. November 13, 1913.

Smiru, G. Errior. The controversies concerning the interpretation and
meaning of the remains of the dawn-man found near Piltdown. Nature,
vol. 92, pp. 468-469. December 18, 1913.

“ There is definite internal evidence that the jaw is not really an ape’s;
the teeth it bears are human...

Smitu, G. Erttior. On the exact determination of the median plane of the
Piltdown skull. Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc. London, session 1913-14, p. 20,
December 31, 1913. (See also Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 70,
Pp. 93-97, figs. 4-6, April 25, 1914.)

SmitH, G. Ettiotr. The controversies concerning the interpretation and mean-
ing of the remains of the dawn-man found near Piltdown. Mem. and
Proc. Manchester Lit. and Philos. Soc., vol. 58, pp. VII-IX. March 31,
IOI4.

“That the jaw and cranial fragments .... belonged to the same
creature there had never been any doubt on the part of those who have
seriously studied the matter” (p. VIII). The author believes that:
“When man was first evolved the pace of evolution must have been
phenomenally rapid.” He alludes to “the turmoil incident to the
inauguration of the Pleistocene Period.” (p. IX).

SmitH, G. Erutor. The Significance of the Discovery at Piltdown. Bedrock,
vol. 3, pp. 1-17. April, 1914.

A detailed criticism of Professor Keith’s views.

Sottas, W. J. Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representatives. Ed. 2,
London, 1915, pp. I-XIV, 1-501, 314 figs.

Piltdown man, pp. 49-56. “Some have regarded such a being as an
improbable monster and have suggested that the jaw may not have
belonged to the skull, but to a true ape. The chances against this are,
however, SO overwhelming that the conjecture may be dismissed as
unworthy of serious consideration. Nor on reflection need the com-
bination of characters presented by Eoanthropus occasion surprise. It
had, indeed, been long previously anticipated as an almost necessary
stage in the course of human development” (p. 54).

SutcuirFe, W. H. A criticism of some modern tendencies in prehistoric
anthropology. Mem. & Proc. Manchester Lit. and Philos. Soc., vol. 57,
no. 7, pp. I-25, pls. 1-2. June 24, 1914.

Skull and jaw “undoubtedly belonging to the same individual.”
Eoanthropus placed on line leading to Homo sapiens, pl. 1. (See Keith,
1915, and Pilgrim.) Eoliths produced by natural agencies. (Seé Moir.)

Tuacxer, A.G. The Significance of the Piltdown Discovery. Science Prog-
ress, vol. 8, pp. 275-200. October, 1913.

Accepts association of skull with jaw.

TyrELt, G. W. The Sussex Skull. Knowledge, vol. 36, p. 61, February, 1913.

Account of paper by Dawson and Woodward. Name Eoanthropus
not printed.

NO. 12 : JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER 29

Unvberwoop, ArtHuR S. The Piltdown Skull. British Journal of Dental
Science, vol. 56, pp. 650-652, 3 plates (not numbered). October 1, 1913.
Accepts association of skull with jaw, but shows by means of radio-
graphs the exact similarity of the jaw to that of a chimpanzee. Does
not especially discuss the characters of the molars.

Unverwoop, A. S. [Discussion of “ Supplementary Note” on Piltdown skull.]
Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc. London, session 1913-14, pp. 30-31. December
31, 1913. (See also Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 70, p. 99. April

25, 1914.)
“The sockets of the third molar were not those of an erupting tooth,

the roots had been quite completed, and the tooth was in its final
position at death.” (See Keith, December 31, 1913.)

Vram, U. G. Le reconstruzioni dell’ Eoanthropus Dawsoni, Woodward.
Boll. Soc. Zool. Ital., Roma, ser. 3, vol. 2, pp. 195-198. 1913.

Accepts association of jaw with skull, but considers that a new

species should not have been based on such incomplete material.
Watxkuorr, Dr. Entstehung und Verlauf der phylogenetischen Umformung
der mensclichen Kiefer seit dem Tertiar und ihre Bedeutung ftir die
Pathologie der Zahne. Deutsche Monatsschr. ftir Zahnheilkunde, vol.

~ 31, PP. 947-979, figs. 1-9. December, 1913.
Piltdown jaw, pp. 971-979. Accepts association of skull and jaw.
Regards the jaw as a confirmation of his views on the origin of the chin.
e Das Kieferbruchsttick von Piltdown wird damit zu einem neuen, sehr
wichtigen Beweise ftir meine Theorie der Kinnbildung, nach welcher
eine Reduktion des gesammten Kiefers, insbesondere aber des Kiefer-
k6rpers in dorsaler Richtung stattfand mit Ausnahme der vorderen
Basalpartie, welche unter dem Einfluss der Muskeln steht, die bei der
artikulierten Sprache tatig sind” (p. 974).

WatersToN, Pror. [Discussion of the Piltdown skull.]} Abstr. Proc. Geol.
Soc. London, session 1912-13, p. 25. December 28, 1912. (See also Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 609, p. 150. March, 1913. Issued April
25, 1913.)

Very difficult to believe that the two specimens could have come from
the same individual.

Waterston, Davin. The Piltdown Mandible. Nature, vol. 92, p. 319, figs. 1-3.
November 13, 1913.

Compares with chimpanzee and concludes that . . it seems to
me to be as inconsequent to refer the mandible and the cranium to the
same individual as it would be to articulate a chimpanzee foot with
the bones of an essentially human thigh and leg.”

Woopwarp, A. SmitH. The Piltdown Skull. Brit. Med. Journ., vol. 2 for
1913, p. 762. September 20, 1913.

Abstract of lecture before the British Newneion at Birmingham on
September 16. Announcement of discovery of canine tooth (see also
next title). “As to the question whether the ape-like mandible belonged
to the skull, it could only be said that its molar teeth were typically
human, its muscle markings such as might be expected, and that it
was found in the gravel near the skull.” “The Piltdown man might

. well have been the direct ancestor of modern man, connecting
him with the undiscovered tertiary apes, whose rounded skulls must
have resembled those of the immature young of existing apes.”

“

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Woopwarp, A. SmitH. The Piltdown Skull. Nature, vol. 92, pp. 110-111.
September 25, 1913.

Abstract of lecture before the British Association at Birmingham on
September 16. Announcement of discovery of canine tooth. “ This
tooth corresponds exactly in shape with the lower canine of an ape,
and its worn face shows that it worked upon the upper canine in the
true ape fashion.”

Woopwarp, A. SmitH. Note on the Piltdown Man (Eoanthropus dawsont).
Geol. Mag. n.s., dec. 5, vol. 10, pp. 433-434, pl. 15. October, 1913.

Woopwarp, A Smitu. A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man in the British
Museum, pp. 1-33, pls. 1-4, figs. I-I2. IQI5.

Contains photographs of the Piltdown remains (pls. 1-4). These
should be compared with the wash drawings in Dawson and Woodward,
April 25, 1913, particularly as regards the teeth.

NO. I2 JAW OF PILTDOWN MAN—MILLER Syl

EXPLANATION OF PLATES
PLATE I
All figures about 34 natural size. Casts.

Fic. 1. Pansp. Africa: no exact locality. No. 84655, U. S. National Museum.
Fic. 2. Paw vetus, England: Piltdown.
Fic. 3. Pan sp. Africa: French Congo. No. 174700, U. S. National Museum.

The casts of the African specimens have been mutilated as nearly

as possible in the same manner as the fossil.

PLATE 2
All figures about 34 natural size. Casts, except nos. 1”, 2” and 4.
1. Pansp. Africa: no exact locality. No. 84655, U. S. National Museum.
Fic. 2. Pan vetus, England: Piltdown.
Fic. 3. Pan sp. Africa: French Congo. No. 174700, U. S. National Museum.
Fic. 4. Pan sp. Africa: southern Kameroon. No. 176226, U. S. National
Museum.
Fig. 2” is copied from the photograph published by Dr. Woodward
in the Guide to Fossil Remains of Man in the British Museum, pl. 4.
Note that enamel on lingual side of metaconid has flaked off from mi
in fig. 4.

Fic.

PLATE 3
Skull greatly reduced, mandible about 34 natural size.
Homo sp. Skull, North American Indian, No. 262540, U. S. National Museum ;
mandible, Mongolian, No. 278783, U. S. National Museum.
To show the association of cranial and mandibular characters normal
in the Hominide.
PLATE 4
Skull greatly reduced, mandible about 34 natural size.
Pan sp. African: southern Kameroon. No. 176226, U. S. National Museum.
To show the association of cranial and mandibular characters normal
in the Pongidae.
PLATE 5
All figures about 24 natural size. Nos. 1 and 3 from casts.
Mandible of four adult individuals of recent Pan to show individual
variation. Note particularly the symphysis, the sigmoid notch and the
angular region.
Fic. 1. Pan sp. Africa: no exact locality. No. 84655, U. S. National
Museum.
Fic. 2. Pansp. Africa: French Congo. No. 174710, U. S. National Museum.
Fic. 3. Pansp. Africa: French Congo. No. 174700, U. S. National Museum.
Fic. 4. Pan sp. Africa: southern Kameroon. No. 176244, U. S. National
Museum. (Coronoid process restored.)

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 12, PL. 1

1 and 8, PAN SP. AFRICA (RECENT), X 4
2, PAN VETUS. ENGLAND (PLEISTOCENE), x 7

The casts of the African specimens have been mutilated as nearly as possible in the same
manner as the fossil

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 12, PL. 2

1, 8, and 4, PAN SP. AFRICA (RECENT), x #
2, PAN VETUS. ENGLAND (PLEISTOCENE), ?

The casts of the African specimens have been mutilated as nearly as possible in the same
manner as the fossil

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. 65, NO. 12, PE:

HOMO SP. (RECENT). SKULL GREATLY REDUCED, MANDIBLE X Be
To show the association of cranial and mandibular characters normal in the Hominide

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 12, PL.

PAN SP. (RECENT) SKULL GREATLY REDUCED, MANDIBLE x #
To show the association of cranial and mandibular characters normal in the Pongide

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65, NO. 12, PL. 5

PAN SPP. (RECENT), 3
To show variations in form of mandible

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 13

Descriptions of Seven New Subspecies and One
New Species of African Birds (Plantain-
Eater, Courser, and Rail)

BY

EDGAR A. MEARNS
Associate in Zoology, United States National Museum

(PuBLicaTION 2378)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
NOVEMBER °26, 1915

Be Bord Batti imore Press

_ BALTIMORE, MD., Te

DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVEN NEW SUBSPECIES AND ONE
NEW SPECIES OF AFRICAN BIRDS (PLANTAIN-
EATER, COURSER, AND RAIL)

By EDGAR A. MEARNS

ASSOCIATE IN ZOOLOGY, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

This is the author’s thirteenth publication devoted to descriptions
of new forms of African birds. Three of the forms here described
are from the collection made by the Paul J. Rainey African Expedi-
tion, 1911-12; three are from the Smithsonian African Expedition,
1909-10 collection, made under the direction of Col. Theodore Roose-
velt; one is from the collection of the Childs Frick African Expe-
dition, I91I-12; and one is from the African collection made for the
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Massachusetts, by
Dr. Glover M. Allen, in the year 1909. The names of special tints
and shades of colors used in this paper conform to Robert Ridgway’s
“Color Standards and Color Nomenclature,” issued March Io, 1913.
All of the measurements were taken, in millimeters, by Miss Celestine
B. Hodges.

TURACUS HARTLAUBI (Fischer and Reichenow)
Hartlaub’s Plantain-eater

Coryihaix Hartlaubi FiscHER and REICHENoW, Journ. fiir Ornith., 1884, p.°52
(base of Mount Meru, near Kilimanjaro, Masai Land, German East
Africa).

Hartlaub’s Plantain-eater has never been divided into its com-
ponent subspecies, because of the assumption that it does not vary
geographically. It is apparent, however, on spreading out sixty-four
specimens from various parts of the range of the species, that there
are four easily-recognizable geographical forms, three of which are
characterized beyond. The four subspecies may be recognized by
means of the following

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 13

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

KEY TO THE SUBSPECIES OF Turacus hartlaubt (FiscHErR and
REICHENOW )

a. Thighs and crissum black.............. Turacus hartlaubi crissalis (p. 3)
aa. Thighs and crissum varying from greenish violet-gray to blackish
violet-gray.
b. Wings and back dark bluish violet
5 Turacus hartlaubi hartlaubi (p. 2)
bb. Wings and back helvetia blue or antwerp blue.

c. Anterior under parts, sides of face, neck, and upper back
cerro green; red portion of wing-quills pomegranate
purple above, pansy purple below

Turacus hartlaubi medius (p. 3)
cc. Anterior under parts, sides of face, neck, and upper back
calla green; red portion of wing-quills spectrum red
above, amaranth purple below
Turacus hartlaubi cerulescens (p. 4)

In this species the sexes are practically alike in color and size, the
differences between the subspecies being in color alone. There is
considerable individual variation in size. The coloration is affected
by wearing and fading as the result of attrition, sunlight, and soak-
ing rains. Color change is most apparent on the red feathering of
the wing-quills, and, naturally, is more marked on the upper or
exposed side than on the under surface. When the birds are in
freshly-assumed plumage the green color extends farther backwards
upon the upper back, the color being imparted to this part by green
filamentous tips to the feathers; when these green tips have been
worn away, the underlying color becomes exposed, and then the
bluish coloring extends higher upon the back. Despite the differences
which are due to the causes noted above, no difficulty is experienced
in separating the four geographical forms. In the following diag- ~
noses the race characters of the subspecies are presented in con-
secutive order:

TURACUS HARTLAUBI HARTLAUBI (Fischer and Reichenow)
Hartlaub’s Plantain-eater

Corythaix Hartlaubi FiscHer and REICHENow, Journ. fiir Ornith., 1884, p. 52
(Meru Mountain, near Mount Kilimanjaro, German East Africa).
Subspecific characters——Wings and back dark bluish violet ; ante-
rior under parts, sides of face, neck, and upper back spinach green,
much mixed with subterminal blue spots on the latter ; upper side of
head dark violet-blue ; upper surface of red portion of, wings violet-

* Females average a trifle smaller than males.

NO. 13 NEW AFRICAN BIRDS—MEARNS : 3

carmine, lower surface dahlia purple; upper side of tail blackish
violet, paler on outer webs of lateral rectrices; thighs and crissum
violet-gray with a slight admixture of green to the feather-tips.

Average measurements of two adult males from Mount Kiliman-
jaro.—Wing, 168.5; tail, 185; culmen (chord), 23; tarsus, 39.2.

Average measurements of five adult females from Mount Kiliman-
jaro (4,000 to 7,000 feet).—Wing, 164; tail, 182; culmen (chord),
21.5; tarsus, 39.1.

Geographical range.—From the Meru and Kilimanjaro mountains,
on the east, westward across German East Africa, and into British
East Africa in the hills of the Sotik District, on the headwaters of the
Southern N’guasso Nyiro River (Ngare Narok River), in the south-
western part of British East Africa.

Remarks—tThe original form hartlaubi differs from all of the
others in having a more saturated coloration.

TURACUS HARTLAUBI MEDIUS, new subspecies
Mount Kenia Plantain-eater

Type-specimen.—Adult female, Cat. No. 214870, U. S. Nat. Mus. ;
collected on Mount Kenia at 10,000 feet altitude, British East Africa,
October 4, 1909, by Edgar A. Mearns. (Original number, 17008.)

Subspectfic characters—Wings and back helvetia blue; anterior
under parts, sides of face, neck, and upper back cerro green, with
less admixture of blue to the feathering of the upper back than in
the typical form; upper side of head dark violet-blue; upper surface
of red portion of wings pomegranate purple, lower surface pansy
purple; upper side of tail cyanine blue, darker on middle pair of
rectrices ; thighs and crissum blackish violet-gray.

Measurements of type (adult female) —Wing, 176; tail, 188.5;
culmen (chord), 23; tarsus, 39.5.

Average measurements of five adult male topotypes——Wing, 169;
tail, 187; culmen (chord), 22.3; tarsus, 39.7..

Average measurements of seven adult female topotypes—Wing,
168; tail, 184.5; culmen (chord), 22.5; tarsus, 38.7.

Geographical range-—Forested highlands, north of the Uganda
Railway, from Machacos to Lake Victoria.

TURACUS HARTLAUBI CRISSALIS, new subspecies
Crissal Plantain-eater

Type-specimen—Adult female, Cat. No. 217621, U. S. Nat. Mus. ;
collected on Mount Mbololo, east of Mount Kilimanjaro, latitude 3°

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

South, altitude 4,000 feet, British East Africa, November 9, 1911, by
Edmund Heller. (Original number, 418.)

Subspecific characters——Wings and back azurite blue; anterior
under parts, sides of face, neck, and upper back yellowish oil green,
the upper back but slightly mixed with blue-tipped feathers ;* upper
side of head blackish green-blue; upper surface of red portion of
wings carmine, lower surface aster purple; upper side of tail blackish
azurite blue, brightening to azurite on outer webs of lateral rectrices ;
thighs and crissum black.

Measurements of type (adult female)—Wing, 161; tail, 188;
culmen (chord), 20; tarsus, 37.

Geographical range-——Known only from the type-locality—the
forested summit of Mount Mbololo, east of Mount Kilimanjaro, in
British East Africa.

TURACUS HARTLAUBI CHRULESCENS, new subspecies
Mount Gargues Plantain-eater

Type-specimen.—Adult male, Cat. No. 217620, U. S. Nat. Mus. ;
collected on Mount Gargues (North Creek), at 6,000 feet altitude,
British East Africa, August 28, 1911, by Edmund Heller. (Original
number, 271t.)

Subspecific characters—Wings and back antwerp blue; anterior
under parts, sides of face, neck, and upper back calla green, with
very little admixture of blue to the plumage ofthe upper back ; upper
side of head dark violet-blue; upper surface of red portion of wings
spectrum red, lower surface amaranth purple; upper side of tail
marine blue, paling to antwerp blue on outer webs of lateral rectrices ;
thighs and crissum dusky green-gray.

Measurements of type (adult male) —Wing, 167; tail, 187; culmen
(chord), 21; tarsus, 37.5.

Average Wicasunemonts of six adult male topotypes. Wing, 168.1 ;
tail, 185.9; culmen (chord), 22.5; tarsus, 38.2.

Average measurements of five adult female topotypes—Wing,
166; tail, 182.4; culmen (chord), 22.8; tarsus, 38.8.

Geographical range —Forested summit of Mount Gargues, from
6,000 to 7,100 feet (about twenty miles north of the Northern Guaso
Nyiro River), in British East Africa.

*When the green filamentous tips of the feathering of the upper back are
worn away by. attrition the subterminal blue becomes exposed.

NO. 13 . NEW AFRICAN BIRDS—-MEARNS 5

CORYTHZOLA CRISTATA YALENSIS, new subspecies
Yala River Plantain-eater

Type-specimen.—Adult male, Cat. No. 217630, U. S. Nat, Mus.;
collected on the Yala River, British East Africa, February 7, I9QII,
by Edmund Heller. (Original number, 454.)

Subspecific characters——Larger than Corytheola cristata ee
(Vieillot) ; upper parts paler and more greenish blue; forehead,
around base of bill, with a broader band of pale bluish.

Measurements of type (adult male) = Wing, 335 ; tail, 380; culmen
(chord), 43; tarsus, 57.

Average measurements of two adult males (type, and topotype No.
217628, U. S. Nat. Mus.) —Wing, 235.5; tail, 389; culmen (chord),
42.3; tarsus, 58.

Measurements of one adult female topotype (Cat. No. 217629, U.
S. Nat. Mus.).—Wing, 338; tail, 393; culmen (chord), 39; tarsus,
54-

CURSORIUS GALLICUS MERUENSIS, new subspecies
. Meru Courser

? Cursorius somalensis Lonnberg, Kungl. Sv. Vet. Akad. Handlingar, 47,
No. 5, 1911, p. 37 (Lekiundu River, British East Africa).

Type-specimen.—Adult female, Cat. No. 56130, Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; collected on plains by
the Meru River, northern base of Mount Kenia, British East Africa,
August 10, 1909, by Dr. Glover M. Allen. (No original number.)

Subspecific characters—A member of the Cursorius gallicus
group, most closely related to Cursorius gallicus littoralis Erlanger,
from which it differs in being darker and more drabish in color. It
requires no close comparison with C. g. somalensis Shelley, which
is so much paler, and less grayish above, as to be instantly dis-
tinguished.

Description of type (adult female).—Forehead and crown ante-
riorly antique brown, passing into gray (dark gull gray) on the
occiput ; two black lines extend backwards from the eye, beginning
at the upper and lower border, respectively, the upper black band
joining the one from the opposite side on the upper nape, the lower
one broadening posteriorly and ending on the side of the neck, the
two black bands enclosing. a triangular area of white; a whitish
stripe also extends backwards from the angle of the mouth, below
the eye, to include the upper half of the ear-coverts, below which the

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

side of the head is pale clay color; chin and throat soiled white ; back,
rump, upper tail-coverts, scapulars, and wing-coverts grayish wood
brown; primaries black, the three innermost narrowly tipped with
pure white ; rectrices light drab, the external feather edged externally
and broadly tipped with white, the next feather narrowly tipped with
white; breast, upper abdomen, and sides light drab; axillars soiled
white; under wing-coverts light drab, except those bordering the
edge of the wing which form a band of slate color ; lower abdomen
and crissum soiled white.

Measurements of type (adult female) —Length of skin, 190;
wing, 130; tail, 52; culmen (chord), 24; tarsus, 54.

Remarks.—The geographical forms of Cursorius gallicus (Gmelin)
have been elucidated and figured by Erlanger ’* and Zedlitz.’

CURSORIUS TEMMINCKII JEBELENSIS, new subspecies
Jebel River Courier or Courser

Type-specimen.—Adult male, Cat. No. 216167, U. S. Nat. Mus.;
collected at “Rhino Camp,” Lado Enclave, on the left (west) bank
of the Bahr-el-Jebel, latitude 2° 55’ North, some fifteen miles north
of Wadelai on Albert Nyanza, in the Egyptian Sudan, Africa, Jan-
uary II, 1910, by Edgar A. Mearns. (Original number, 17991.)

Characters—Smaller than Cursorius temminckii temminckii
Swainson ;’ general color of upper parts darker, also differing from
temmincku in the following particulars: upper side of head tawny
instead of ochraceous-tawny ; upper side of neck, mantle, back, rump,
upper tail-coverts, middle pair of rectrices, wing-coverts, and exposed
portion of inner secondaries buffy brown instead of wood brown;
upper breast light drab, of precisely the same shade as in Cursorius
gallicus meruensis, described above, instead of avellaneous; lower
chest with only a trace of the tawny color anterior to the black
abdominal center.

Measurements of the type (adult male) —Length of skin, 175;
wing, 114; tail, 42; culmen (chord), 20; tarsus, 37.5.

Average measurements of two adult males of Cursorius tem-
mincku temmincku (from the Loita Plains, Southern N’guasso Nyiro

* Journ. fiir Ornith., 1905, pp. 56-58, pl. 1.

* Journ. fiir Ornith., 1910, pp. 306, 307, pl. 6.

*Cursorius Temminckii Swainson, Zoological Illustrations, Vol. 2, 1822, pl.
106, described on the succeeding page (“arid tracts of Africa, at a distance
from the sea”). Swainson’s colored figure was made from a specimen in the
Leadbeater collection, which perhaps came from South Africa.

fei)

NO. 13 NEW AFRICAN BIRDS—MEARNS 7

River, Sotik District, British East Africa).—Wing, 120; tail, 48;
culmen (chord), 19; tarsus, 40.5.

Average measurements of two adult females of Cursorius tem-
mincku temmincku (same locality as above).—Wing, 117; tail, 44;
culmen (chord), 19; tarsus, 38.

Remarks.—Unquestionably the bird figured by Swainson in Zoo-
logical Illustrations, Vol. 2, 1822, plate 106, and described on the suc-
ceeding page, is the same as a series of five specimens obtained by
us in the Sotik District of British East Africa, east of Lake Victoria;
and Mr. C. H. B. Grant’s three specimens, one from the Lemek

_ Valley, and two from Kamchuru, in the Lobor District, British East

Africa, north of Lake Victoria, commented on by him in “ The Ibis,”
1915, page 60, belong to the same dark, typical form of Cursorius
temminckit Swainson. In his Birds of Western Africa, Vol. 2, p.
230, pl. 24, Swainson described and figured a pale-colored form of
this species, under the name Tachydromus Senegalensis Lichtenstein,
from West Africa. Both of these forms are subspecifically distinct
trom that described above.

RHINOPTILUS AFRICANUS RAFFERTYI, new subspecies *
Abyssinian Courser

Type-specimen.—Adult male, Cat. No. 243063, U. S. Nat. Mus. ;
collected at the Iron Bridge, Hawash River, Abyssinia, February 4,
1912, by Edgar A. Mearns. (Original number, 20081.)

Subspecific characters—Most closely related to Rhinoptilus afri-
canus hartingi Sharpe and R. a. bisignatus (Hartlaub). From
hartingi it differs in being very much darker in coloration, with
general color of crown blackish instead of cinnamon-buff, and with
the pale tips to the rectrices crossed by a subterminal blackish bar
which is absent in hartingi; from bistgnatus it differs in being much
less ochraceous above and below, with narrower and paler margins
to the feathers of the upper parts, and with narrower transverse

black pectoral bands; and from both hartingi and bisignatus it may

be instantly distinguished by the grayness of its upper parts.
Measurements of type (adult male) —Length of skin, 185; wing,
145; tail, 63; culmen (chord), 14; tarsus, 46.
Material—Two males from the Hawash Valley, taken January 25
and February 4, 1912.

* Named in honor of Dr. Donald G. Rafferty, a member of the Childs Frick
African Expedition, who first drew my attention to this Courser, in the
Hawash Valley.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

Remarks.—I can find no previous name applicable to the present
subspecies. Following is a list of the names which have been pro-
posed for the whole species africanus; those preceded by an asterisk
(*) are currently recognized as valid subspecies :

*Africanus (Cursorius) Temminck, 1807. Cat. Syst. Cab. d’Orn.,
1807, pp. 175, 263 (Namaqualand, Southwestern Africa).
Collaris (Tachydromus) Vieillot, 1817. N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat., Vol.

8, 1817, p. 293 (Africa).

Bicinctus (Cursorius) Temminck, 1829. Man. d’Orn., Vol. 2, 1829,
p. 515 (Interior of Africa).

Grallator (Cursorius) Leadbeater, 1830. Trans. Linn. Soc., N. S.,
Vol. 16, 1830, read December 20, 1825, p. 92 (type-locality not
mentioned). sp

*Bisignatus (Cursorius) Hartlaub, 1865. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,

1865, p. 87 (Benguela, Angola).
*Gracilis (Cursorius) Fischer and Reichenow, 1884. Journ. fiir
Ornith., 1884, p. 178 (Masailand).

*Hartingi (Rhinoptilus) Sharpe, 1893. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, Vol.
3, 1893, p. Xiv (Somaliland, East Africa).

'*Sharpei (Rhinoptilus africanus) Erlanger, 1905. Journ. fiir

Ornith., 1905, p. 59 (type-locality not given, but fixed by C. H.
B. Grant,’ who designated Deelfontein, central Cape. Colony,
as the particular type locality).

*Raffertyi (Riinoptilus africanus) Mearns, 1915. Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections, Vol. 65, No. 13, 1915, p. 7 (Iron Bridge,
Hawash Valley, Abyssinia).

SAROTHRURA LORINGI, new species
Loring’s Rail or Crake

Type-specimen.—Adult female, Cat. No. 214680, U. S. Nat. Mus. ;
collected on the west side of Mount Kenia, at the altitude of 8,500
feet, in British East Africa, October 13, 1909, by J. Alden Loring.
(Original number, 439.) irs

Characters ——This form belongs to the group including Sarothrura
reichenowi” and S. buryi,’ all of which will probably prove to be sub-

*Ibis, 1915, p. 61.

> Corethrura reichenovi Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., Vol. 23, 1894, p. 121
(“ Cameroons, W. Africa”). arcs

* Sarothrura buryi Ogilvie-Grant, Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club, Vol. 21, No. 143,
1908, p. 93 (“ Dubar, Wagga Mountains, Somaliland’’).

NO. 13 NEW AFRICAN BIRDS—MEARNS 9

species of S. elegans.’ It differs from elegans and buryi in its darker
coloration and heavier markings, especially as to the under parts,
and, in this regard, corresponds more closely to reichenovt.

Description of type (and only specimen).—General color of upper

parts army brown; back, rump, scapulars, and wing-coverts numer-
ously spotted with buckthorn brown, each spot bordered with black-
ish above and below; bastard-wing and primary-coverts slaty brown,
with small ocherous spots on the outer edge of the outer webs; quills
slaty brown; upper tail-coverts and tail cinnamon-brown heavily
cross-banded with black ; head army brown, finely spotted with buck-
thorn brown and narrowly cross-banded with blackish; sides of
-head, including eye and lores, ochraceous-buff finely dotted with
brown; ear-coverts without a dark line along the upper margin (in
which respect it differs from elegans) ; chin and throat soiled white,
thickly cross-banded with brownish black; chest sayal brown, spot-
ted with bister; abdomen soiled white heavily cross-banded with
blackish, the blackish bands being broader than the whitish inter-
spaces; thighs and crissum sayal brown, spotted and obscurely
cross-banded with sepia and dirty white, but with the under tail-
coverts redder and broadly barred across with blackish sepia; axil-
lars brownish-black, banded and tipped with white; under wing-
coverts hair brown edged with white.

Measurements of type (adult female; measurements taken from
dry skin)—Length of skin, 155; wing, 92; tail, 42; culmen
(chord), 15; tarsus, 27; middle toe and claw, 32.

Remarks.—The type-specimen was taken in a “ Cyclone ” mouse-
trap, set in a dense forest of bamboo, by J. Alden Loring, a member
of the Smithsonian African Expedition, in whose honor the species
is named. The following measurements and notes on the colors of

‘the soft parts were taken by the author from the fresh specimen:
Length, 188; alar expanse, 300; wing, 93; tail, 48; culmen (chord),
15; tarsus, 30; middle toe and claw, 32. Irides brown; bill purplish
gray, flesh color on basal half of mandible; legs, feet, and claws
uniform purplish gray.

1Gallinula elegans A. Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Afr., Aves, 1839, pl. 22 (South
Africa).

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 65, NUMBER 14

HE SENSE OKGANS ON THE MOUTH:
Pokis OR Tk HONEY BEE

BY
N. E. McINDOO, Ph. D.
Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C.

(PusBLicaTion 2381)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JANUARY 12, 1916

Che Lord Gattimore Preece

BALTIMORE, MD., U.S. A.

iE SN SP ORGANS ON, THE MOUTEHEPARTS OF THE
HONEY SBE i

By N. E. McInpoo, Pu. D.
BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY, WASHINGTON, D. C.

CONTENTS aa
Imnitrodiuctionmande tae tiwOds: icici issmecsicc coeine ee ee cee tne oes cane I
Experiments to determine whether bees have likes and dislikes in regard
HOMO © CSimrs auntie a UWA naira he ts AREA ah 7b: AN po atte A IMUAL olen 2 de ts 3
1. Preliminary experiments in feeding bees foods containing various
SUMStATICES pot Warten Al ePID Daina el ita oot TE lint anne Lunn Mulls 4
2. Experiments in feeding bees foods containing repellents.......... 8
Be Expepinents il feeding weesssweet LOOUS) .0—oniase-eeeniarioe soe oe 10
4. Experiments in feeding bees foods containing bitter substances.... 14
5. Experiments in feeding bees foods containing sour substances..... 15
6. Experiments in feeding bees foods containing sodium salts........ 17
7. Experiments in feeding bees foods containing potassium salts...... 19
Sa Summa ky; OF Upreced ing. experinentsna. mera sears ae eee 20
Morphology of the sense organs on the mouth-parts of the honey bee...... 21
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INTRODUCTION AND METHODS

Little experimental work has ever been performed to determine
whether insects have a true gustatory sense, although the sense organs
on the mouth-parts of various insects have been studied considerably.
At least three different kinds of sense organs on the mouth-parts have

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 65, No. 14

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

been called organs of taste, but no one has ever attempted to prove ex-
perimentally the function of these organs. Judging from the fact
that insects prefer some foods to others and that certain insects often
refuse poisoned foods, it is generally believed that insects can taste,
regardless of whether or not they have gustatory organs.

At this place it is desirable to define the human senses of smell
and taste, so that we may use the definitions as a basis for interpreting
the responses to the same or similar stimuli in the honey bee. The
sense of smell is called forth by substances in a gaseous or vaporous
condition, although gases dissolved in the liquids of the mouth may
give rise to actual tastes. The.sense of taste is brought about by sub-
stances either in solution when introduced into the mouth, or dis-
solved by the liquids in the mouth. Parker and Stabler (1913), after
experimenting upon themselves, and Professor Parker upon other
vertebrates, say:

We therefore definitely abandon the idea that taste and smell differ on the
basis of the physical condition of the stimulus, a state of solution for taste,
a gaseous or vaporous condition for smell, and maintain that both senses are
stimulated by solutions, though in smell, at least for air-inhabiting vertebrates,

the solvent is of a very special kind..... In air-inhabiting vertebrates the
olfactory solvent is a slimy fluid of organic origin and not easily imitated.

From the preceding definitions it is evident that the senses of smell
and taste in vertebrates cannot be sharply separated, and the present
paper will show that these two senses in the honey bee cannot be —
separated at all. In the honey bee it will be shown that the sense of
taste is only one phase of the olfactory sense. We have not the slight-
est conception as to how odor and taste stimuli in any animal act upon
nerve endings to produce the various sensations of smell and taste;
and as shown in the following pages, when bees are fed foods which
contain undesirable substances emitting extremely weak odors, they
refuse to eat the foods after “tasting” them. In view of the two
preceding facts we may call this perception an olfactory-gustatory
sense, although the writer will endeavor to show that the gustatory
sense plays no part in these responses.

In the investigation herein recorded, two objects which throw
considerable light on whether or not bees have a true gustatory sense
have been kept in view: (1) To determine whether bees have likes and
dislikes in regard to foods, and (2) to make a careful study of the
morphology of all the sense organs on the mouth-parts of the honey
bee.

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 3

To obtain material for the study of the disposition of the sense
organs on the mouth-parts, adult specimens were used. In regard to
preparing the specimens with caustic potash and to bleaching them
with chlorine gas, the reader is referred to the writer’s work on
Hymenoptera (1914b, p. 295).

To obtain material for the study of the internal anatomy of the
sense organs herein discussed, worker pupze 17 to 21 days old
(counting from the time the eggs were laid) were mostly used, but a
few adult worker bees were also employed. In regard to fixing this
material in Carnoy’s fluid and to embedding it in celloidin and par-
affin, the reader is referred to the writer’s paper on Coleoptera (1915,
p. 409). The sections were cut from five to ten microns in thickness,
and were stained with iron hematoxylin and eosin, safranin and gen-
tian violet, and with Ehrlich’s hematoxylin and eosin.

All the drawings were made by the writer and all are original
except the internal anatomy of the mentum (Mf?) in figure to,
which was copied from Snodgrass (1910). They were made at the
base of the microscope with the aid of a camera lucida.

EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE WHETHER BEES HAVE LIKES
AND DISLIKES IN REGARD TO FOODS

The writer (1914a) made a thorough study of the morphology and
physiology of the olfactory pores found on the wings, legs, and sting
of the honey bee. At that time the same organs were seen on the
mouth-parts, but they were left for future study, Since the olfactory
pores are so widely distributed, it is impossible to prevent all of them
from functioning either by eliminating them by operations or by
covering them with a substance, because the more an insect is
mutilated, the more abnormal its behavior becomes. This is particu-
larly true when the mouth-parts are mutilated. When the appendages
are covered with liquid glue, vaseline, etc., bees do not eat until the
substance is removed. When certain mouth-appendages are removed,
bees are not entirely normal and their eating is more or less affected.

Since it is impossible to eliminate the olfactory sense while deter-
mining whether bees have a true gustatory sense, and as the various
sense organs on the mouth-parts cannot be mutilated without caus-
ing considerable abnormality in the behavior of the bees while eating,
it was decided to ascertain if bees have likes and dislikes in regard to
foods and to make a careful study of the morphology of all the sense
organs on the mouth-appendages in order to be able to judge whether
or not bees have a true sense of taste.

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

I. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING BEES Foops CoNTAINING
VARIOUS SUBSTANCES

To determine the behavior of bees toward foods containing various
substances under conditions which permitted of their close observa-
tion, triangular experimental cases were employed. These were made
of three narrow wooden strips, two of which were ten and the third
six inches long, each strip being an inch wide. Wire screen served as
bottoms and tops for the cases whose apices and bases rested on sup-
ports above a table near a window.

Since cane-sugar candy is most conveniently fed to bees in ex-
perimental cases, a quantity of this food was made by thoroughly
kneading a good quality of confectioner’s sugar with a small amount
of honey. For convenience in handling it while feeding the bees, a
small lump of five grams, placed upon a small piece of cardboard,
was put into each case.

Sometimes it was necessary to feed the bees honey. This food was
poured into small tin feeders, each one being two and a quarter inches
long, one inch wide, and one-fourth inch deep. To prevent the bees
from wasting the honey, fine parallel pieces of wire, one-eighth inch
apart, were stretched lengthwise over the tops of the feeders.

One drop of oil of peppermint was thoroughly mixed with 25 grams
of cane-sugar candy. This mixture was then divided into five equal
parts. One hundred milligrams of quinine sulphate were also thor-
oughly mixed with 25 grams of cane-sugar candy, and the mixture
was then divided into five equal parts.

Twenty worker bees from the alighting-boards of various hives
were introduced into each of five of the experimental cases, and they
were immediately fed the two foods just described and an equal
amount of pure cane-sugar candy. The order of placing the foods
into the cases was rotated so that case No. 1 received the pure cane-
sugar candy first, the candy containing oil of peppermint second and
the candy containing quinine third. Case No. 2 received the candy
containing oil of peppermint first, the candy containing quinine
second and the pure cane-sugar candy third. Case No. 3 received the
candy containing the quinine first, the pure cane-sugar candy second,
and the candy containing the oil of peppermint third. Cases Nos. 4 and
5 were treated similarly. The order of arrangement of the candies
in the cases was also rotated so that no two cases contained the candies
in the same arrangement.

When the pure cane-sugar candy was fed first, the bees covered it
and ate greedily for several moments. When the candy containing

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 5

oil of peppermint was fed first, several bees ate greedily for only a
few seconds, and when pure cane-sugar candy was given to them only
occasionally was a bee observed eating the candy containing oil of
peppermint. When the candy containing quinine was fed first, many
of the bees ate greedily until the pure cane-sugar candy was given
to them ; then they soon deserted the former for the latter. It was soon
observed that after eating 10 minutes, the bees were able to select the
candy they liked best; therefore the first count was made 10 minutes
after giving them the first food and thereafter every 30 minutes. In
these experiments, as in nearly all the others performed, 15 or more
counts were recorded, but since some of the substances fed cause a
greater mortality than others, and in order to obtain a total average
as nearly uniform as possible, of the bees eating at any one count,
only the first five counts have been considered. To ascertain if the
direction of the light was a factor in helping to select the food, the
cases were often reversed end for end. After recording the number
of bees eating, they were often driven from a certain food by blowing
upon them, but they invariably soon returned to the same food. As
a general rule for all the experiments performed, the longer the bees
were confined in the cases, the smaller was the number observed eat-
ing at any given time. Neither the direction of the light nor the
arrangement of the food in the cases is a factor in helping to select
the foods they like best.

The preceding set of experiments was repeated twice. As an aver-
age for the 300 bees for five counts, 35.8 per cent of the bees were
seen eating pure cane-sugar candy, none eating candy containing oil
of peppermint, and 2.3 per cent were observed eating candy containing
quinine, making a total average of 38.1 per cent eating at any one
count. Twelve bees in case No. 4 of the first set of experiments began
to die when the fifth count was recorded. They had freely eaten the
candy containing quinine.

Two days later three grams of chinquapin (Castanea pumila)
honey were poured into each of five feeders. This food was then
given to the bees used in the third set of experiments just described.
During the first 15 minutes after introducing the honey, only seven
bees ate a little of it. After that they walked over the feeders, but
never offered to eat the honey again. This honey has a strong, char-
acteristic, bitter odor. Asan average for the 100 bees for five counts,
15 minutes after introducing the honey 24.8 per cent were seen eating
pure cane-sugar candy at any one count, but none was noticed eating

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the candies containing oil of peppermint and quinine or the chinqua-
pin honey.

The following day honey containing oil of peppermint was substi-
tuted for the chinquapin honey. This was had by mixing one drop
of the oil of peppermint in 25 cubic centimeters of honey, and the
mixture was then divided into five equal parts. It emitted only a faint
odor of peppermint, but when eaten by the writer the peppermint
attribute was quite pronounced. It no longer tasted like honey.
During the first five minutes only a few bees ate a little of it, and
after that none offered to eat it. As an average for the 100 bees for
five counts, 26.6 per cent were observed eating pure cane-sugar candy
at any one count, but none was seen eating the candies and the honey
containing oil of peppermint and quinine. Later the pure cane-sugar
candy in case No. 1 became exhausted, and instead of the bees select-
ing either the candy or the honey containing oil of peppermint, they
chose the candy containing quinine. For two hours they ate it as
freely as they previously had eaten the pure cane-sugar candy, but
after the third hour they ceased to eat it. By this time a few were
dead and several were sick.

One drop of cider vinegar was mixed with 25 grams of cane-sugar
candy and one drop of carbolic acid was mixed with an equal amount
of cane-sugar candy. Each one of these mixtures was then divided
into five equal parts. Fresh bees were introduced into the cases and
were fed pure cane-sugar candy and the mixtures just described. As
an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 17.4 per cent were
observed eating pure cane-sugar candy, 28.8 per cent eating candy
containing vinegar, and 1.4 per cent were seen eating candy contain-
ing carbolic acid, making a total average of 47.6 per cent eating at
any one count. The vinegar seemed to have brought about a chemical
change in the candy and probably inverted the cane sugar. After the
fifth count the bees ate this candy more freely than before.

Two days later the candy containing vinegar was removed and
candy containing alum was placed in its exact position. The latter
candy was composed of one-half powdered alum, and the other half
of powdered sugar and honey. At first the bees ran over it, and
thereafter only occasionally ate a little of it. As an average for the
100 bees for five counts, 19.2 per cent were seen eating pure cane-
sugar candy, 3.8 per cent eating candy containing carbolic acid, and
3.4 per cent were seen eating candy containing alum, making a total
average of 26.4 per cent eating at any one count. The candy contain-
ing carbolic acid at this time emitted only a faint odor.

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 7

The following day mannose (a monosaccharide or simple sugar)
candy was given to the bees used in the preceding experiments. This
candy was made by kneading pure mannose (crystallized and washed
twice) and honey. For a few moments the bees in two cases seemed
to like the mannose candy equally as well as the cane-sugar candy,
although after a short time they became sick and later several died.
As an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 24.2 per cent were
observed eating pure cane-sugar candy, 0.2 per cent eating candy con-
taining carbolic acid, none eating candy containing alum and 3.6 per
cent were seen eating mannose candy, making a total average of 28.1
per cent eating at any one count.

Fifteen grams of common salt (NaCl) were kneaded in honey.
This mixture was then divided into five equal parts. It and chinqua-
pin honey were fed to fresh bees. During the first 15 minutes the
bees ate the salt containing honey rather freely, but seldom touched
the chinquapin honey and after that seldom ate any of either food.
Forty-five minutes after introducing the food, several bees in each
case began to die. Asan average for the too bees for five counts, 2.2
per cent were seen eating chinquapin honey and 2 per cent eating salt
containing honey, making a total average of 4.2 per cent eating at any
one count.

The following is a tabulated summary of the preceding results
obtained by feeding bees foods containing various substances. The
figures in the third to tenth columns represent the average per cent or
number of bees eating a particular food at any one count.

TABLE I
Preliminary Experiments in Feeding Bees Foods Containing Vurious
Substances

Average per cent of bees eating foods containing various bales
us) substances als
()) ———— L he Ones
3 = . > | be to | py uo
a 2 3 Se os S es Ba |Ua me ee ai | 6.0
BN SS be Se ec es err Sey ONIN Ci ciic i sia abides
a 5 & Oo | 9 bo igi ‘eo | 2 bo © bo R Gi ND
Sealey are Oe Sil en > cee ede pete ete) eee OTe | ie Sal ye
2 g I me o| o 8 a |o, | morl weg) ws v = gad
o o Se |eso|a8.| 2 So OPER etereeel nent) | mens 3 Se | 890

sey ’ 1 o i 1+ Si
a | 2 | og |tee\one| 2 |e elane lees) 2a) = | 25 | Sa8
3 3 Ze) BOO Bois = Sotladiol|aca| ao! & ate S00
Z Z ow 6) 'S) Oo |x ©) oO O A yn a
300 | - 5 | 35-8) 0.0] 2-3 |.----|oyste|es +> | [Sor aifor eral. | 38.1
HOG || 2 ale AZ OaOal MOBO Oe Cll lo Bate nllbaciea| Shins SSG ae be2dae
too | 5 | 26.6) 0.0 | 0.0 0.0.02. 2).222-[a- ee lpsceons tise milk 2OKG
too | 5 ity pile ees eer | Bavspateae ns aco: 47.6
100 | 5 19.2]. |: | [eee Wigs! pane 2a
i | fe | 0.2 | 0.0 AO ors 28.0
Too) «5 24.2|. =|: | | Ig |
TOGO) | 5: Weeec -| 2:2 |... l. | ieee el ee cape Cou i yak?

| | | |

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The preceding preliminary experiments clearly show the following :
(1) In regard to foods bees have likes and dislikes ; (2) before show-
ing preferences between foods bees always eat more or less of them
first, unless the foods contain strong repellents; (3) the longer the
bees are confined in the experimental cases the less they eat, and (4)
some of the substances fed are injurious to them. For the last two
reasons only the first five counts are sufficiently reliable for determin-
ing the total average per cent of bees eating at any one count. These
experiments indicate that bees may have a sense of taste, because
neither the direction of the light nor the arrangement of the food in
the cases helps in selecting the food they like best, and the olfactory
sense may not be the sole factor in selecting foods, for bees must
usually eat more or less of them before being able to show preferences
between them. It is probable that bees cease eating some foods
because their alimentary tracts may be affected, and for this reason
alone they may reject the particular food that does not agree with
them.

The preceding results suggest five classes of foods to be used in the
following experiments. Foods containing strong repellents may be
employed to determine the importance of the olfactory sense in caus-
ing bees to avoid such substances, and foods containing sweet, bitter,
sour, and salty substances may be used to ascertain if bees show pref-
erences between foods having the four attributes of human taste.

2. EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING BEES Foops CONTAINING REPELLENTS

Pure cane-sugar and candy containing oil of peppermint (de-
scribed above, page 4) were fed to fresh bees in the cases as
described in the preceding pages. After waiting 10 minutes the first
count was recorded, and thereafter every 30 minutes. As an average
for the 100 bees for five counts, 35.4 per cent were seen eating the
pure cane-sugar candy at any one count, while they never touched the
candy containing oil of peppermint.

The preceding was repeated by feeding candy containing carbolic
acid (described on p. 6) and pure cane-sugar candy to fresh bees.
As an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 41.4 per cent were seen
eating pure cane-sugar at any one count, while none touched the
candy containing carbolic acid.

The preceding was repeated by feeding pure honey and honey
containing whiskey to fresh bees. Four grams of pure honey were

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 9

poured into each of five feeders, and the same amount containing three
drops of whiskey was likewise poured into each of five other feeders.
The odor of whiskey from the latter food was not pronounced to
the writer, but the taste of whiskey was quite pronounced. When
these foods were introduced into the cases the bees ate one as freely
as the other. Five minutes after feeding them the first count was
taken and thereafter every five minutes. Since it takes bees confined
in these cases only 10 to 15 minutes to fill their honey stomachs with
liquid foods, only two counts were taken. As an average for the 100
bees for two counts, 30 per cent were seen eating pure honey and 22
per cent eating honey containing whiskey, making 52 per cent eating
at any one count.

A mixture of 25 cubic centimeters of honey and two drops of car-
bolic acid was divided into five equal parts, each part being fed to 20
fresh bees in the usual manner. For the first 15 minutes after intro-
ducing the food, the bees avoided it, but later a few ate it to a lim-
ited degree. As an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 3 per
cent were seen eating it at any one count. Nine days later this honey
did not emit such a strong carbolic-acid odor. It was again fed to
bees. Only two counts were taken. As an average for the 100 bees,
27.5 per cent were seen eating at any one count.

The preceding was repeated by feeding honey containing oil of
peppermint (described on p. 4) to fresh bees. As long as the mix-
ture emitted a strong odor of peppermint the bees avoided it, but
nine days after preparing the mixture the bees ate it rather freely.
As an average for the 100 bees, 27.5 per cent were seen eating it at any
one count.

Twenty-five cubic centimeters of honey were mixed with two drops
of each of the following: formic acid, sulphuric acid, xylol, formal-
dehyde, kerosene, and lime-sulphur. The bees usually avoided these
mixtures, but occasionally one or two offered to eat a little of the
food. The first count was recorded 30 minutes after introducing the
food and thereafter every hour. As an average for the 100 bees in
each set of experiments for five counts, the following numbers repre-
sent the bees seen eating at any one count: Formic acid—7.4 per cent,
sulphuric acid— 4.2 per cent, xylol—5.2 per cent, formaldehyde—
3.2 per cent, kerosene—1.6 per cent, and lime-sulphur—1.2 per cent.

The following is a tabulated summary of the preceding results
obtained by feeding bees foods containing repellents. The figures

ie) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

in the third to fourteenth columns represent the average per cent or
number of bees eating a particular food at any one count.

TABLE II

Experiments in Feeding Bees Foods Containing Repellents

> Average per cent of bees eating pure foods and foods ae
=) iS containing repellents 5

S
a fs Oley
ei | S$ at ao bo bo |op |bo |e |b | bo oo ofe
| ba ae Ses | 2 8 |S0/ Sols | s aS ag 5
o| 5 $0 a” Gos) | S5/8 | 28/8218) s gs ims)
alo = oO wy 8 wo & a aula \a° eels o| a ae dus g
a Ue ma > Hod uae a= PolHL PolH Ole a] + $a 3
Sule o v Bom | oa | Ss |eale |e) 88} q gv SrA ia

: S Ss ws] ws a Om |Oole eslesioS) ets os mie

HW a 3 ° pe | a5 Om |O.2/0_ |o5\/o@/ On| ov hn ee) Se
eis Ss) = aSo|/ ol?) so |m>s|polaslagl>S| 22] mf way
r= o) 3) oes | on™ o's |OR(osal/ol&loelog! oF ve = 3
= 4 So soo] gow so Sol/salas\se5lSaul go a& Sue
sj 5 5 Sj BOM | Goo OF |On|OK)Sm/OH/O 0] OY oS OoOW
ZZ fy oy ©) ') x Ge et ee le x a
100), SAMA sat Web eullos.c sage) GoD Iesecac Sree: 2504
NCO! SI CsA oo 3000 OL OUP EE Tales -| 41.4
LOO|225 ena ZO. O thes 2 Rl Mea OM | Pawel a a allie eee ae een eee 52.0
100| 5 Aone heel |S pcan Son etetay Sa logos Feel ear eedleeeell Meelis cll si 6 5
TOO PAS (ener eee elite treat ee ene meee aia Ma Seles tl Ral meilamwwmslimioges. ~ sce
HOOPS Ui eye teckel nee SA ares tesa a Socata epi aoe I He lan
HOO G5 ees aravallherseeustane Cid ceo Delo bio oe diito-0. 010.4 em ollaoolonalsjoAile otis ac cdloocuoe
ICON hal eer ees toe eos lean Hpk Se Oleeceaaalte Q
TOO Silja cic wk oe ccuetorell eee ares laa vepeyeeal é : sell one Wek SOME se ete ae pegs
TOOWAGY Nakers ec Njallavehousyevs|lte cee ate ell eualeoaraps |. 3 estsi er ioe

The preceding results clearly show that when bees are given prefer-
ences between pure foods and foods containing strong repellents they
freely eat the former and refuse the latter, and when they are fed
foods containing repellents without having a preference for pure
foods, they eat sparingly. Judging from these experiments we are
certainly safe in saying that the bees avoided the foods containing
repellents on account of the odors emitted from these substances.

3. EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING BEES SWEET Foops

To ascertain if bees show preferences between sweet foods, the
following candies were made by using basswood honey with chemi-
cally pure potato starch, dextrine and the following sugars: saccha-
rine, mannose, levulose, dextrose, raffinose, lactose and maltose. An
equally small amount of honey was kneaded with 15 grams of each
of the above nine substances, except that only eight grams of sac-
charine were used. Each lump of candy was then divided into five
equal parts. In the order of the sweetest to the writer, the eight
sugars stand as given above. Saccharine, varying from 300 to 500
times as sweet as cane sugar, has a disagreeable sweet-sickening taste.

NO. 14. SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO II

Mannose, which appears to be almost as sweet as saccharine, has a
disagreeable, bitter-sweet taste. Each one of these sugars has its own
faint, characteristic odor, but the predominating odor emitted from
the candy made of each is that of honey. To the writer the starch
candy gave off only one faint odor, that of honey. Dextrine is light
yellow and emits a stronger odor than does any one of the sugars.

Twenty fresh bees were introduced into each of five cases. When
the preceding nine candies were put into the cases, the bees wandered
about considerably and ate a little of each candy, but ate the mannose
and levulose most greedily. A short time after eating the mannose,
many of the bees began to die. Thirty minutes after feeding the bees,
the first count was taken, and thereafter every half hour. The four
counts recorded showed that only one bee was seen eating mannose,
four eating levulose and none eating any of the other candies. This
small number is certainly due to most of the bees soon becoming sick
and some dying.

The preceding experiments were repeated by feeding cane-sugar
(saccharose), saccharine, mannose and levulose candies to fresh bees.
As usual the bees wandered about considerably and ate a little of each
candy except the saccharine. An hour later those that had eaten the
mannose became sick and ate no more that day, but the next morning
most of them had recovered and a few were seen eating a little. As
a total for the 100 bees for 17 counts, 10.7 per cent were seen eating
cane-sugar, 6 per cent eating levulose, 1 per cent eating saccharine
and none eating mannose candy.

To ascertain if bees could be forced to eat saccharine, fresh bees
and a lump of the saccharine candy were put into each of the five cases.
The bees perched upon and ran over the candy as if it were a piece of
wood. It neither repelled nor attracted them, and during an entire
hotir only five bees licked the candy for a few seconds. The starch
candy was next tried alone. During the first ten minutes several
bees ate it rather freely, but after that for an hour only occasionally
did a bee eat a little of it.

Cane-sugar, dextrose, dextrine and raffinose candies were put into
each case, and fresh bees were employed as usual. As an average for
the 100 bees for five counts, 41.2 per cent were seen eating cane-sugar,
2.6 per cent eating dextrose, none eating dextrine and 0.2 per cent
eating raffinose candy, making a total average of 44 per cent eating
at any one count.

“ Levulose, dextrose and raffinose candies were next used. As an
average for the 100 bees for five counts, 20 per cent were seen eating

12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

levulose, none eating dextrose and 1.8 per cent eating raffinose candy,
making a total average of 21.8 per cent eating at any one count.

Dextrose, raffinose and dextrine candies were used in the same way.
As an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 21 per cent were seen
eating raffinose, 12 per cent eating dextrose and 6.8 per cent eating
dextrine candy, making a total average of 39.8 per cent eating at any
one count.

Dextrine, lactose and maltose candies were used in the same way.
As an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 42 per cent were
observed eating maltose candy at any one count, but none was seen
eating lactose or dextrine candy.

The preferences shown between these candies may have been par-
tially due to the amount of water in them. No two of these candies
absorbed the same amount of water vapor from the air, but during
the first day the water in any of them was not noticeable, although
after that it was quite noticeable. Levulose absorbed the most water
vapor and saccharine the least.

Dextrose, raffinose and maltose candies were next used. As an
average for the 100 bees for five counts, 16 per cent were seen eating
maltose, 12 per cent eating raffinose and 7 per cent eating dextrose
candy, making a total average of 35 per cent eating at any one count.

To ascertain if bees show preferences between honeys, an equal
amount of light-colored honey and dark-colored honey was poured
into each of five feeders. Perhaps most of the light-colored honey
came from basswood trees, while the source of the dark-colored honey
was unknown. The latter honey was taken in the crystallized form
from old combs and was then melted. The odors and tastes of these
two honeys were quite different. Fresh bees from the alighting-
boards were introduced into the cases, and during the first five minutes
after giving them the two honeys, they ate each one greedily. By the
time they had eaten five minutes, most of them had selected the honey
they liked the better. At this stage the ones eating were counted,
and five minutes later were counted again. . After this few were seen
eating, because nearly all of them by this time had filled their honey
stomachs. This set of experiments was repeated twice. As an aver-
age for the 300 bees for two counts, 24.3 per cent were seen eating the
light-colored honey and 18.8 per cent the dark-colored honey, making
a total average of 43.1 per cent eating at any one count.

Fresh bees were placed in the cases, and they were fed light-
‘colored honey and sugar syrup (half sugar and half water) in the
‘same manner as just described. As an average for the 100 bees for

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 13

two counts, 37 per cent were seen eating the honey and 4 per cent
the syrup, making a total average of 41 per cent eating at any one
count.

In the same manner light-colored honey and pollen mixed thor-
oughly with light-colored honey (1 part pollen to 4 parts honey) were
given to fresh bees. As an average for the 100.bees for three counts,
26.3 per cent were seen eating the light-colored honey and 16.3 per
cent the honey mixed with pollen, making a total average of 42.6 per
cent eating at any one time.

In the same way light-colored honey, and sugar mixed with light-
colored honey (half and half) were fed to bees. As an average for
the 100 bees for five counts, 30.4 per cent were seen eating the honey
and 11 per cent the mixture of sugar and honey, making a total
average of 41.4 per cent eating at any one count. Since one of these
foods was a thick paste, five counts were recorded before the bees
ceased eating, while in the experiments just preceding only three
counts were necessary, because the mixture of pollen and honey made
a thin paste.

The following is a tabulated summary of the preceding results
obtained by feeding bees sweet foods. The figures in the third to
fourteenth columns represent the average per cent or number of bees
eating a particular food at any one time.

TABLE III
Experiments in Feeding Bees Sweet Foods

Average per cent of bees eating || Average per cent of bees eating ae

os) candies liquid foods 3)
2 i aa
sj | & > eg lea asics blag)
Beale log > | 2 : aa ee eeeeec| ese
o = a ue) > ue) ue) S| = WH 12 OV/O* Og] vog
a (3) 3) S ~ S is] ne) & Oo ae) a, OUSalods oy} WHS
Se all aes u 33 (S| GY G4 (S| oO = © so, Os Oloe S| So
5 a (3) 3 3) S) 3 (3) ° bl races ae a Be 2] kw
Se | TEAS ad Ma reat ES aT i gest in che su erate ea eee) OR MeaS |e Bir.
Spel a | es | elo | oa e || 8S | Oa e sels oS ele geo) sa
SE] 2 Se Se Se SS SIESR Sse 4) Gea
ites § 3 % e 0 | a|o moe | Se |PaEl ase S)locakS| Soa

| All 1) 4 = o a) ha) |e 4 A in 4 4 &
HOO SE WATE 2 |i Cele ibs KOVC)| asennad se RE eee ke ems re al ae 44.0
BOONES | eet) |-20. 0: 1.8] 0.0 Besa lestee sa cy eee ee he Seay velit, Gu ell eee 21.8
Too} 5 er eahe fai ON TEZPACG) eerie Deco hex epee ee netla Me naeea ES ches ual Lo GerS Ie | 39.8
100} 5 .| 42.0] . |0.010.0}|. Bey ool tan oe ae cee 42.0
100} 5 | 16.0] 12.0 |. Loreal s5onee 35-0
I00| 2 | Aid @ | AUS e oo oll 43.1
100} 2 | Bao) | ooo} UloOlisccoc|lwoncde 41.0
100] 3 | AAS SYA pe eal anes a eel Ol ota eee i | 42.6
100} 5 -| 30.4 ohettelltaletenencts II.0 | 41.4

|

It is evident from the above table that bees show preferences
between sweet foods.

T4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

4. EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING BEES Foops CONTAINING BITTER
SUBSTANCES

Two lots of 25 grams of cane-sugar candy each were thoroughly
mixed, one with 500 milligrams of finely pulverized quinine sulphate
and the other with a like quantity of strychnine sulphate. Each
mixture was then divided into five equal parts. To the writer the
odor from each mixture was exactly like that from pure cane-sugar
candy, although the human nose is able to detect a faint odor emitted
from a large quantity of either quinine or strychnine. Strychnine is
regarded as the bitterest of all substances. To the writer both of these
mixtures were extremely bitter. Equal amounts of pure cane-sugar
candy and of these other two foods were fed to fresh bees in the
usual manner. Five minutes after introducing the foods, the first
count was taken and thereafter every 15 minutes. As an average for
the 100 bees for five counts, 47.4 per cent were observed eating pure
cane-sugar candy, 5.8 per cent eating candy containing quinine, and 4
per cent eating candy containing strychnine, making a total average
of 57.8 per cent eating at any one count.

These experiments were repeated by feeding fresh bees only the
candies containing quinine and strychnine. As an average for the
100 bees for five counts, 39.4 per cent were seen eating candy con-
taining quinine and 4 per cent eating candy containing strychnine,
making a total average of 43.4 per cent eating at any one count. An
hour after introducing the foods, the bees began to die.

Twenty-five grams of cane-sugar candy were mixed with 500 milli-
grams of liquid picric acid, and then the mixture was divided into five
equal parts. This food was almost as bitter as quinine and emitted
a faint odor, different from that of pure cane-sugar candy. The
preceding experiments were repeated by feeding fresh bees this
mixture, candy containing quinine and pure cane-sugar candy. Asan
average for the 100 bees for five counts, 19.2 per cent were seen eating
pure cane-sugar candy, 34.4 per cent eating candy containing picric
acid and 2.2 per cent eating candy containing quinine, making a total
average of 55.8 per cent eating at any one count.

The preceding was repeated by using the same amount of powdered
picric acid instead of the liquid picric acid and by discarding the candy
containing quinine. As an average for the 100 bees for five counts,
45 per cent were observed eating pure cane-sugar candy and I per
cent eating candy containing picric acid, making a total average of 46
per cent eating at any one count.

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 15

The experiments just described were repeated by making a candy of
powdered picric acid and honey. As an average for the 100 bees for
five counts, 45 per cent were seen eating the pure cane-sugar candy
at any one count, but none ate the candy made of picric acid and honey.
Judging from the three sets of experiments in which picric acid was
used, it seems that this acid in the liquid form effects a chemical
change in cane sugar, thereby causing bees to prefer candy mixed
with it to pure cane-sugar candy.

Chinquapin honey, which has a bitter taste, was next fed to bees
as described on page 5. As an average for the 100 bees for seven
counts, only 3.4 per cent were seen eating at any one count.

The following is a tabulated summary of the preceding results
obtained by feeding bees foods containing bitter substances. The
figures in the third to ninth columns represent the average per cent
or number of bees eating a particular food at any one count.

TABLE IV
Experiments in Feeding Bees Foods Containing Bitter Substances
= Average per cent of bees eating foods containing fab
a ‘S bitter substances o
5 ©
rs Ss ei > on Oia uy) 2s) wo > 4 a
= = u Be U¢d aoe GBD Se © SS) an
2B 5 Cs aon fs} tol) ols 3) | Og
wo i) bh 3 oot Css GO) EI) Dea a weet: vos
= 2 B 2 0 eRe ‘3.2 rae larch estes a8
ce a f tes Heo G he bo 5 SPS yy ee: no
° ) o belo Sag Sao Coen Sree Ne, uBo
u u S 00 & ee hes ere oS |} 3) | Fos
eI seg 38a, oo va S
s S S aS nad no aed ca | =] Bo0
2 a tS) poe Pag © OO ey Lee) || S SS
& & z Oe os ahs oa STO TOM |r Sug
5 5 3 aos eon gue avU gas, ees
Z a a 1S) 1S) ©) O S) ees) =
Weighed
Too | 5 ATA |" 5.8 ANG oir Ne Sates teeta free Rewer ceehell crazesetais [5728
HOO RRL eer 30.4 4.0 etree tegh Nahe caebonl a aE aes | 43-4
100 5 IOSQA Boel sehos sowe BA Aen eye eee "eee ststtanens eesseo
TOO | 5 45.0 Time Wn excets erent A0n0
TOO |S ABI OW IE archaea Ns etonore eee Rea she oil aeRPeRS ophes ROROlactens A5-0
CIO) ||! G7 BliGsteesel eeats ton seme ae meee oc | | BAN leate sts ae

Judging from the above table, it is plain that bees show preferences
between foods containing bitter substances.

5. EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING BEES Foops CONTAINING SOUR
SUBSTANCES.

Twenty grams of honey were thoroughly mixed with 45 drops
of lemon juice. The lemon juice made the honey considerably thin-
ner and gave it a slightly different odor and a slightly sour taste. This
mixture and an equal amount of pure honey, after being divided into
five equal parts, were fed to fresh bees in the usual manner. As an

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

average for the 100 bees for two counts, 26.5 per cent were observed
eating pure honey and 17 per cént eating honey containing lemon
juice, making a total of 43.5 per cent eating at any one count.

The preceding was repeated by using three drops of acetic acid
(99.5 per cent) in each feeder containing four grams of honey. The
acid made the honey quite sour and changed its odor slightly. As
an average for the 100 bees for two counts, 28 per cent were seen
eating pure honey and 5.5 per cent eating honey containing acetic
acid, making 33.5 per cent eating at any one count.

Hydrochloric acid (37 per cent) was used in the same manner. It
slightly changed the odor of the honey and gave it a sharp, sour taste.
As an average for the 100 bees for two counts, 50 per cent were ob-
served eating pure honey at each count, but none ate the honey con-
taining acid.

Sulphuric acid (95 per cent) was next used in the same manner.
This acid gave the honey a less sharp, sour taste than did hydro-
chloric acid. As an average for the 100 bees for two counts, 28.5
per cent were seen eating pure honey at each count, while none ate the
honey containing acid.

Nitric acid (68 per cent) was employed in the same way. This acid
gave the honey a sour taste, although not sharp. As an average for
the 100 bees for two counts, 33.5 per cent were observed eating pure
honey at each count, while none ate the honey containing acid.

The following is a tabulated summary of the preceding results ob-
tained by feeding bees foods containing sour substances. The
figures in the third to eighth columns represent the average per cent
or number of. bees eating a particular food at any one count.

TABLE V
Experiments in Feeding Bees Foods Containing Sour Substances
Average per cent of bees eating foods containing ai
~ sour substances o
a 2 bo
a | ; : a ' ; ~
Ertallwews| a8 ie eS Be chs Ao
| 2 ae ay 4 a
v Sa 83 ae) Se, a 8) oo §
2 S go qs reins) Se da DoH 5
G4 Ga > og fom) oO CO O90 oO Oo
° ° v 990 os od os O-n aan
| : < € Oo aw 7) ees > U <
Ln m ° >> ho Pamir > “a Bos
Pa tal lene is oO os Oy & o 4 os a
S S S) & oo Si &p Shy S = St [is ofeaites 2
Eyl Sj =e os °.§ ©.32! O83 SEW Mies Se
Faew | e oe q x q q q |S
| c
100) |} 2 | 2o,5 TH NOP: es es aa anaes 43.5
100 2 | 28.0 me Se Sel ra abe ret neealeoctahnene oarepaae B2n5
100 2 SOOM Pascraaverenallyccsyelarpcterteae 0.0 50.0
100 BF WR DOW ras Ain IANA el ah ROR oe | eae aE ae 0.0 28.5
100 PMT He Ye} val (yeaa ees ee AU eee all see Ce yeas aL PO OL ae ihe 0.0 33.5

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO WH

Judging from the above table, it is seen that bees prefer pure honey
to honeys containing sour substances.

6. EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING BEES Foops CoNTAINING SODIUM
SAEs

Five lots, each containing 15 grams of cane-sugar candy, were each
thoroughly mixed respectively with 500 milligrams of the following
finely pulverized and chemically pure salts : sodium chloride (common
salt), sodium sulphite, sodium nitrate, sodium carbonate and sodium
fluoride. Each one of these mixtures was then divided into five equal
parts. Each of the salts used has a faint odor and no two have odors
alike, and the odor of each mixture was slightly different from that of
pure candy. The taste of the mixture containing sodium chloride was
slightly salty and the tastes of the other mixtures were more or less
different from that of pure candy; no two were alike and none was
exactly salty. Sodium fluoride has a sharp, astringent taste and seems
to burn the mucous membrane. Some of the mixtures absorbed more
water vapor from the air than others and some changed slightly in
color. All five mixtures and pure cane-sugar candy were fed to fresh
bees in the usual manner. At first the bees ate a little of each candy,
and before having time to select the ones they liked best, many bees
became sick and soon began to die.

Pure cane-sugar candy and the candy containing sodium chloride
were tried alone. Since all these salts were more or less injurious to
bees, the first count was made five minutes after introducing the food
and thereafter every 15 minutes. As an average for the 100 bees
for five counts, 39.6 per cent were seen eating pure cane-sugar candy
and 5.8 per cent eating the candy containing sodium chloride, making
a total average of 45.4 per cent eating at any one count.

The candies containing sodium carbonate and sodium sulphite were
tried alone. As an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 9 per cent
were observed eating the latter mixture, but only 0.6 per cent eating
the former mixture, making a total average of 9.6 per cent eating at
any one count. A half hour after introducing the food, many bees
were sick and a half hour still later several were dead.

The mixture containing sodium nitrate and sodium fluoride were
next tried alone. As an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 2.2
per cent were seen eating the latter mixture and 9.6 per cent eating
the former mixture, making a total average of 11.8 per cent eating
at any one count. A half hour after feeding the bees, many became
sick and soon began to die.

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65
°

Pure cane-sugar candy and the mixture containing sodium car-
bonate were fed alone. As an average for the 100 bees for five
counts, 56.6 per cent were observed eating pure cane-sugar candy at
any one count, while none ate the mixture containing sodium car-
bonate.

Pure cane-sugar candy and the mixture containing sodium sul-
phite were also fed alone. As an average for the 100 bees for five
counts, 52.2 per cent were seen eating pure cane-sugar candy and
3.2 per cent eating the mixture containing sodium sulphite, making a
total average of 55.4 per cent eating at any one count. An hour after
introducing the food, a few bees became sick.

Pure cane-sugar candy and the mixture containing sodium nitrate
were likewise fed alone. As an average for the 100 bees for five
counts, 45.6 per cent were seen eating pure cane-sugar candy and 3.8
per cent eating the mixture containing sodium nitrate, making a total
average of 49.4 per cent eating at any one count.

Pure cane-sugar candy and the mixture containing sodium fluoride
were fed last. As an average for the 100 bees for five counts, 22:2
per cent were observed eating pure cane-sugar candy and only 0.4
per cent eating the mixture containing sodium fluoride, making a total
average of 32.6 per cent eating at any one count. A half hour after
introducing the food, several bees became sick.

The following is a tabulated summary of the preceding results
obtained by feeding bees foods containing sodium salts. The figures
in the third to eighth columns represent the average per cent or num-
ber of bees eating a particular food at any one count.

TABLE VI
Experiments in Feeding Bees Foods Containing Sodium Salts

iS, Average per cent of bees eating foods containing eae
=) aS) sodium salts o
9) S bo
3 a ' ' ' ' i Hg
= S 3 Boy Bo | SO, Bo ok SS)
o SI i) Gog ga | Bupa gn v aus og
og ra) co Tey Gl 8B cs c 7 6 .8 vos
a ° 3 O op Cn | O oS Cnt O oO Sha 5
= re a nS cei ff eee Ei) iste Sene
Oo 5) ro) GS Gat Bm 5 S45 Bean g og
a b S RSS) Sasi: RSE) Se ES >Us
Pe: ee 5 aag aS aeg aS6 eae | S20
5 E o oes oes oes os 5 ves. | gene
= 3 3 S30 S30 Sou Sou S30 | SOs
Z aq Ay O oO O u oO a

| |

100 S| 40.0 SO a ates fos Jade cee Selena er Cer: | 45:4
100 Isa les (6) Reet nee 3.8 spa 49.4
100 GO TSB E lion ne GBR r Ceara ke Ie Fated ere boos Se pal Rea eye tl 55-4
100 Shera ee SOREZ IA le ase) peesiteac cll ges hecaet cee pel eatuec oes 0.4 ices 3200
100 ea Tis CMO See one seccrioaseell eee ae men nce Paes CSR RENTS oa ee ; 0.0 56.6
100 SEM age ek OnORG) Eee peste tue 0.6 9.6
100 Ga Alle ee tecae ieee deat ts O50: 7 lapse oases DSN ie Peer 11.8

NO. 14. SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOG IQ

Judging from the above table, it is seen that bees prefer pure cane-
sugar candy to any one of the above foods containing sodium salts,
and that they show preferences between these various mixtures.

7, EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING Begs Foops CONTAINING PoTaAssIUM
SALTS

The preceding experiments were repeated by using potassium
bromide, potassium carbonate, potassium cyanide, potassium ferro-
cyanide, potassium iodide, and potassium nitrate. When potassium
bromide, potassium ferrocyanide, and potassium nitrate were mixed

TABLE VI

Experiments in Feeding Bees Foods Containing Potassium Salts
ss, Average per cent of bees eating foods containing a3
= potassium salts 7)

| s ; aoe

| 3) a) ies , te | : ' us
a | » |oov| coe Bos goo | Sow | oo Se
o 3 sai | seas Sead BO gauv0 | saa os
QD oO oh 3 a) tS cers a 0 | ee eo ous
= =) S) Oye Oma oO mS Oo ots Ome | 9 we BLY 5
n € a) “oo uo ero us Heo | eee So
Oo v= v Gn . Glos o-s Ce og a5 | den o atone
EE al Pe = | ee | AS os & iE Erg. |) HOR Eyl be Bale oie
= a S| RSE hae Se ae Be nee ae | oS
° 3 2 2en| 84a o8a | fas | 6a | ofa) Be
Si) is 3 Sons OSE Sion BOS SAO s os Boe

Phe eh a cf oO (6) Oo | Oo | O S) =

~ | -
100 Be eS On 2h OR Oplinie nis aichees Nereirceens meta 45.9
OOM 5.5.) One OSA neat Mise dicccae aliens apc en aeesc 40.6
TOON MSIL LAsES eRerats OOM ed ates eeeanevay| 43.8
100 BeAr On| Araneccrors ae? 12.4 AialG
100 PR ee erst tl I ep n pal et eece tess Ue eae ais ate Sn aye OM eeoe 34.8
100 ieee? OMe eet sarees iy ea Elin haere
100 5 Aaae 0.0 BRAS lia rsetaval erercen er 33-4
100 Boe ae ys TH WOW ee MONG) OY) 22- ie see \ale atic © yz [ieleta viel EH 15.6
100 Saal ae Set | acer opel bee te ae ete feet aoe Rs elena OO o- 30 9.6

with pure cane-sugar candy, the mixtures emitted odors and tasted
like pure cane-sugar candy as far as the writer could detect. Potas-
sium carbonate and potassium iodide did not change the odor of the
cane-sugar candy when mixed with it, but each gave the mixture a
slightly bitter taste. The potassium cyanide gave the cane-sugar
candy a slightly bitter taste and a comparatively strong odor like
cyanogen. It changed the candy from white to a lemon-like color.
Three of the other mixtures were also changed slightly in color. The
six mixtures were fed, two at a time, to fresh bees, and then each
one was fed with pure cane-sugar candy in the manner described for
the foods containing the sodium salts. When the bees ate the mix-
tures containing potassium bromide, potassium carbonate, potassium
iodide, and potassium nitrate, they soon became sick and thereafter

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

almost ceased eating. They wholly refused to eat candy contain-
ing potassium cyanide but freely ate the mixture containing potas-
sium ferrocyanide, and this salt apparently did not affect them. A
detailed account of these experiments is not necessary, because the
results are similar to those when the sodium salts were used.

Table VII is a tabulated summary of the results obtained by
feeding bees with foods containing potassium salts. The figures in
the third to ninth columns represent the average per cent or number
of bees eating a particular food at any one count.

It is evident from the above tabulated results that bees prefer pure
cane-sugar candy to the mixtures containing potassium salts, and that
they also show preferences between foods containing these salts.

8. SUMMARY OF PRECEDING EXPERIMENTS

The preceding results clearly demonstrate that bees have likes and
dislikes in regard to foods, and it seems that their faculty to dis-
criminate between foods is more highly developed than ours, because
they can distinguish differences between the foods fed to them better
than the writer. The candies containing strychnine and quinine best
illustrate this point. Equal amounts of these two bitter salts were
used ; but when the writer tasted the candies containing them, little or
no difference in bitterness could be detected, although, judging from
the number of bees that ate them when the two foods were fed alone,
the bees distinguished a marked difference between them.

As a general rule, foods agreeable to us are also agreeable to
bees, but there are a few. marked exceptions. All foods scented
with peppermint are pleasant to us, but repellent to bees. The writer
does not care for candy containing potassium ferrocyanide, but bees
are rather fond of it, and it does not seem harmful to them.

In regard to the repellents used, the few experiments performed
do not warrant definite deductions, but the results indicate. that lime-
sulphur and kerosene are the strongest of the repellents used, while
formic acid repels the least and carbolic acid the most among the.
acids. That the acids as a rule dre not better repellents may pos-
sibly be explained by the fact that bees are more or less accustomed
to the odors from the acids found in their foods and various
secretions.

The results obtained demonstrate that bees like honey best of all
foods and that they are able to distinguish marked differences be-
tween various kinds of honeys. Substitutes for honey as food for
bees may be better than honey in a few instances, but these investi-

NO.14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 21
gations indicate that no substitute can be had which will be liked
by bees as well as the best pure honey.

The fact that bees must first eat more or less of the foods before
being able to discriminate differences between them, unless they con-
tain repellents, indicates that bees have a true gustatory sense, Ppro-
viding this discrimination is “not accomplished by means of the
olfactory sense. Since this point cannot be determined experi-
mentally, our only criterion is to make a thorough study of all the
sense organs on and near the mouth-parts. This part of the work is
given in the following pages.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE SENSE ORGANS ON THE MOUTH-PARTS
OF THE HONEY BEE

In the preceding pages it is stated that bees show preferences
between foods. In order that they may show preferences between
the foods emitting weak odors, it is first necessary for them to eat
a little of the foods. This fact indicates that bees may have a true
sense of taste. If the mouth-parts possess setise organs which are
anatomically fitted for receiving gustatory stimuli, we are safe in
saying that bees can taste. In order to find such organs, if possible,
it was necessary to make a special study of all the sense organs on and
near the mouth-parts. In order to distinguish the sense organs from
other structures on the mouth-parts, the internal anatomy of all the
structures on the integument was first studied. This was accom-
plished by making many transverse and longitudinal sections through
all parts of the mouth-appendages and even through the entire head.
Only two general types of sense organs were found; vig.: inner-
vated hairs and innervated pores.

Hairs on the honey bee are of two kinds—branched or barbed hairs
and unbranched ones. As far as known the branched ones are never
innervated and are never found on the mouth-appendages, but on
the head near the mouth-parts and elsewhere. The unbranched
hairs not only occur on the mouth-appendages but also on the other
parts of the integument, although most abundantly on the mouth-
parts and compound eyes. They may or may not be innervated.

All true hairs, whether branched or unbranched, arise from hair
sockets (fig. 2 Q, HrSk) whose cavities (SkCav) communicate with
the lumens (L) of the appendages and with the cavities (HrCav)
of the hairs. The long hairlike structures (fig. 3 AG Hr?) om: the
tongue or glossa may be called pseudo-hairs, because they are merely

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

prolongations of the chitin. They do not arise from sockets, are not
hollow and do not communicate with the lumen (L) of the tongue.
The spoon-shaped lobe, the labellum (fig. 7, LbI) forming the tip
of the tongue, is also covered with pseudo-hairs. These are short and
thick and are branched at their tips, while those on the tongue are
long and slender and are unbranched. Several minute pseudo-hairs
are also present on the dorsal side of the mentum (fig. 7, Mt) and
elsewhere on various parts of the integument.

The writer in 1914 made a study of the innervated pores (called
olfactory pores) found on the wings, legs, and sting of the honey bee.

Fig. 1.—Internal anatomy of varieties a and b of spinelike, innervated hairs
of worker honey bees, x 580. A, variety a on epipharynx (figs.9 A and 10, Ep).
B, C, D and E, variety b: b: from outer surface at proximal end of mandible
(fig. 7, Md), bz: from inner surface at distal end of mandible (fig. 8, Md), bs
from pharyngeal plate (figs. 9 B and 10, PhPl), and bs from outer surface at
tip of mandible (fig. 7, Md). C from 17-day-old pupa, B and E from 20-day-old
pupz, and A and D from 21-day-old pupe. The nerve (Ns) in D is taken from
a deeper focus than the other parts in the figure. See page 54 for explanation
of abbreviations.

At that time he also saw the same pores on the mouth-parts, and
since then has seen a few on each antenna near its articulation with
the head.

I. STRUCTURE OF THE INNERVATED HAIRS

Innervated hairs may be roughly divided into spinelike and peglike
hairs, although there is no sharp dividing line between the two classes.
The different varieties of these two classes vary gradually from long,
slender hairs to short, stubby ones. For description the varieties may
be designated alphabetically.

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 23

(a) SPINELIKE HAIRS

Variety a. In describing the spinelike hairs we shall begin with
the most delicate ones and then proceed toward the largest, and
we shall carefully examine the anatomy of each variety to ascertain
if it is anatomically adapted for receiving odor stimuli.

In regard to the thickness of the walls, the most delicate variety
1s found on the epipharynx (figs. 9A and 10, Ep). These are not
typically true hairs, because they do not arise from hair sockets, but
from small cones (fig. 1 A, Con,) which, however, might be regarded
as another type of sockets. Of all the hairs, these have the thinnest
walls. The walls become gradually thinner from the bases to the
tips. These hairs are so small and so light in color that they are easily
overlooked. Each one arises from the summit of a small cone whose
walls are thick and are dark in color, while the chitin (Ch,) between
the cones is light in color. Chitin is stained little or not at all with
Ehrlich’s hematoxylin. Flexible chitin is usually light in color, and
when chitin is not flexible it is generally dark in color. For this reason
these hairs cannot be bent at their bases but may be bent near their
tips; and likewise the cones, which project slightly above the level
of the surrounding chitin, are rigid, but since the surrounding chitin
is flexible each ‘cone with its hair has considerable freedom of motion.

In most cross-sections through the epipharynx showing these hairs
the sense cells are grouped together so closely that each hair seems
to be provided with either a multinucleated sense cell or with more
than one cell, each having only one nucleus. In extremely thin sec-
tions where the sense cells are not piled upon one another, however,
it is clearly seen that each hair is innervated by a single sense cell
(fig. r A, SC) having only one nucleus (SCNuc). In the 21-day-old
pupa the hypodermis (Hyp) is comparatively thin.

Wolff (1875) regarded these cones with their hairs as having an
olfactory function, and according to their anatomy they are adapted
equally as well for gustatory organs, but since chitin after once
formed is dead matter and is not porous, it does not seem reasonable
to think of either odoriferous particles or liquid foods being able
to pass into the hairs in order that the nerves may be stimulated, even
if the walls of these hairs are extremely thin.

Variety b. This variety is found on the mandibles (figs. 7, 8, and
6 B, b,, b, and b,) and on the pharyngeal plate (figs. 9 B and 10, b,).
These are short, stout hairs with thick walls. At the proximal end of
the mandible (fig. 7, b,) they are usually bent and about a half of each
one lies buried in the chitin surrounding the socket (fig. 1 B, b,).

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The chitin (Ch) at this place is extremely thick, causing the sense
fibers (SF) to be very long. In all sections passing through this
group of hairs the sense ceils (SC) are discernible, but their fibers
are usually severed because an entire cell rarely lies in the same plane
in which the section was cut. In the 20-day-old pupa the hypodermis
(Hyp) is comparatively thin.

On the ventral side of the mandible (fig. 8, b,) these hairs are
straight, but have the same structure as the ones just described,
except that the sockets (fig. 1 C) are sunk only slightly beneath the
outer surface of the chitin.

Those on the pharyngeal plate (fig. 1 D, b,) are slightly larger than
the ones just described. These are slightly curved and most of them
point toward the mouth. Their sockets stand a little above the level
of the chitin, and the walls at their tips are not so thick as at the
bases. The sense fibers run nearly all the way to the tips of the hairs.
Beneath the pharyngeal plate in the 21-day-old pupz, the hypodermis
(Hyp) is extremely thick and its cells are so grouped together that
each hair seems to be innervated by a large group of cells, but in all
such cases no sense fibers were seen running from the groups to the
hairs. After spending considerable time it was ascertained that the
sense cells (SC) seldom lie in the middle of the hypodermis, but near
its inner edge. They are usually cut transversely, and for this reason
the fibers are rarely seen connecting with the cell bodies.

The hairs (figs. 1 E and 7, b,) at the distal ends of the mandibles
_are the longest ones of this variety, and their tips are blunt, while
the tips of the others are sharp. In structure they are like those on
‘the ventral side of the mandibles (fig. 1 C, b,), except that they are
slightly curved.

Variety c. This variety, found on the head and all the head appen-
dages, varies from the smallest hairs on the antenne (fig. 2 A) to the
largest on the maxille (fig. 2U). Figure 2 A and B represent the
smallest and largest on the flagellum of a worker bee, and figure 2 C
those on the scape. All of those on the maxillz are of about the same
size (fig. 2 D and E), but when first observed those on the maxillary
palpi (fig. 2 E) appear to be the smallest. Those on the labial palpi
(fig. 2 F) are slightly larger than those on the maxillz. Those on the
mandibles (fig. 2 G) and paraglosse (fig. 2 H) are of the same
size and are considerably larger than the ones just described. On the
cetvical plate (fig. 10, CvP/) these hairs (fig. 2 I to K) vary con-
siderably in size. Just inside the buccal cavity a few innervated hairs
(fig. 2 L) were found; also a few (fig. 2 M) on the head near the

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 25

Fic. 2—Internal anatomy of variety c of spinelike, innervated hairs of worker
honey bees, x 580. A, smallest and B, largest of these on flagella of antenne;
C from base of scape of flagellum; D from maxilla; E from maxillary palpus;
F from labial palpus; G from proximal end of mandible; H from base of para-
glossa; 1 to K from cervical plate; L from just inside buccal cavity; M from
side of head, near base of mandible; N from median line on top of head, over
pharyngeal plate; O from palpiger ; P from side of mentum; Q from middle of
glossa, the hair being from a whole mount and the hair socket (HrSk) from
section; R from tip of glossa; S from dorsal and T from ventral surface of
labrum ; U from tip of maxilla. All of these hairs, except c: to cs, may be located
by referring to figures 7,8,9 Cand 10. They were taken from pupa and imago
workers of various ages. See page 54 for explanation of abbreviations.

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

base of the mandibles, and a few (fig. 2 N) on top of the head directly
above the pharyngeal plate (fig. 10). The following figures repre-
sent the innervated hairs found in sections through the palpigers
(figs. 2 O, 7, Pig) ; on the side of the mentum) (igs) 2,257) com
the glossa (fig. 2 QO and R) ; on the labrum (fig. 2 S and T) ; and on
the labial palpi and maxille (fig. 2 U).

In structure these various hairs are all alike in that they have thick
walls, sharp points and distinct sockets. The sockets of the smaller
hairs usually lie slightly beneath the external surface of the chitin,
as shown in figure 2 D, while those of the larger hairs may lie a little
beneath the external surface of the chitin, as seen in figure 2 G, or
above the surface of the chitin, as shown in figure 2 Q. The chitin con-
necting the base of the hair with the socket is always more or less

Fic. 3.—Cross-sections through glossa or tongue of a worker honey bee,
showing internal anatomy including | groove (Gw), canal (Can) inside rod (R),
sense cells (SC), nerve (N1), trachea Cini- lumen (L), and bases of pseudo-
hairs (Hr to Hr’) and innervated hairs (Ge), X20), JAN, ‘through middle and B
through tip of glossa.

flexible, so that the least movement of the hair mechanically irritates
the end of the sense fiber.

The sense cells belonging to all the hairs drawn were not seen, but
the sense fibers were seen as shown. A hair was never regarded a
sense organ unless a sense fiber was seen running into it. The sense
cells are always spindle-shaped and the sense fibers (fg. Pa eals Se)
never run far into the hairs.

The hairs at the tip of the tongue of the honey bee (fig. 7, Gls)
have been regarded as gustatory in function, but as yet no one has
ever shown that they are innervated. In cross-sections through the
middle of the tongue the sense cells (fig. 2 QO, SC) are generally dis-
cernible, but owing to the poor fixation only traces of them may be
seen in the tip of the tongue, although the sense fibers (fig. 2 R, SF)
are usually visible. On either side of the tongue a nerve (fig. 2 QO,
N,) and a trachea (Jr) are always present. They lie side by side
and are fastened together with connective tissue. Branches from

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 27

the nerve are given off now and then which run toward the sense cells,
but the actual connection of them with the cells was not observed.
The internal anatomy of the tongue is best understood by referring
to the semidiagrammatic figure 3 A and B. Figure 3 A is through the
middle of the tongue, while 3 B is through the tip.

(b) PEGLIKE HATRS

Two varieties of peg-shaped hairs occur on the maxille and labial
palpi. To compare them with those found on the antennz, two of the
latter have been drawn.

Variety d. Figure 4 A and B represent the smallest and largest
pegs seen on the flagellum of a worker bee. The chitin at the tips is
about as thick as elsewhere. Other observers state that the chitin at
the tips of these hairs is much thinner than elsewhere. This is ap-

& aS

Pxae ns a1)

Fic. 4.—Internal anatomy of varieties d, e and f of peglike, innervated hairs
of worker honey bees, x 580. A, smallest and B, largest of pegs on flagella of
antenne; C from maxilla; D from labial palpus; E from outer surface near
tip of maxilla. These hairs, except d: and d2, may be located by referring to
figures 7 and 8.

parently true when a bright light is used, for the chitin is so nearly
transparent at the tip that it appears thinner than where it is darker.
When these hairs are carefully observed through the highest lenses
and with less light, it seen that the chitin at their tips is about as thick
as at their bases.

Variety e. The peglike hairs on the maxille (figs. 4 C, 7 and 8, e,) |
and labial palpi (4 D and 8, e,) are similar in structure to those on
the antennz. The following slight differences may be pointed out.
Those on the mouth-parts are never so large as those on the antenne.
Their tips are less blunt and their sockets project slightly above the
surface of the chitin, while the sockets of those on the antennz lie a
little below the external surface of the chitin.

Variety f. These are found on the distal ends of the maxille and
labial palpi (figs. 7 and 8, f). They are long and slender, usually

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

slightly curved, and have blunt tips (fig. 4 E). The chitin of the distal
half of the maxilla contains many long longitudinal and deep grooves
(fig. 4 E, Gv). These grooves cause the wide maxillary lobe to be
quite flexible, thus enabling the bee to fold the maxillz around the
other mouth-parts.

Judging from the anatomy of all the spinelike and peglike hairs
described in the preceding pages, it does not seem possible that they
can serve either as gustatory or as olfactory organs because the
odoriferous particles in the air and the liquids carrying substances in
solution could not pass through the hard and thick walls of the hairs
to stimulate the ends of the nerves. Since insects cannot feel weak
mechanical stimuli through their chitinous integuments without some
kind of a sensory organ, it seems that all of these innervated hairs are
well adapted to serve as tactile organs. The sense of touch is further
discussed on page 39.

2. STRUCTURE OF THE OLFACTORY PoRES

Olfactory pores were found on the mandibles (figs. 7 and 8, Md,
Por), maxille (fig. 8, M42), labial palpi (fig. 7, LDPIp), tongue (fig.
7, Gls), side of head, in the buccal cavity, on the cervical plate and on
the bases of the scapes of the antenne. In structure all of these are
similar, and they are identical with those which have already been
found on the legs, wings and sting.

Figure 5 A represents one of the largest olfactory pores found on
the mandibles. The chitin (Ch) of the mandibles is always very
thick, making the necks (fig. 5 E, NRF/) of the small pores long and
slender. A chitinous cone (fig. 5 A, Com) is always present. In
pupze these cones are usually connected with a hypodermal secretion
(HypS), but in adults this secretion is never seen. Sometimes this
secretion fills the entire pore, and it generally contains streaks run-
ning from the hypodermis (Hyp) to the cone. Unless all stages
of these organs are critically studied, it is easy to imagine that
this secretion is a permanent structure of the pores. This ex- .
plains why Janet (1911) regards this substance as a part of the
organ, and why he thinks that the cavity of the pore is filled with
two or three concentric cylinders. In studying the same organs
in Coleoptera, the writer (1915, p. 422) shows that the cones are a
later formation than the chitin surrounding them and that the hypo-
dermal secretion does not begin to form the cones until the sense fibers
have connected with the pore apertures. The writer has also shown

a

NO. 14. SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE——McINDOO 29

that the sense cells begin to differentiate when the hypodermal cells
begin to form the chitin. It is thus seen that by the time the chitin is
of considerable thickness, the sense fibers have united with the pore
apertures and the formation of the cones has begun. There are two
possible functions of the cones: (1) to strengthen the chitin forming
the bottoms of the flask-shaped pores, and (2) to insure firm attach-
ments for the peripheral ends of the sense fibers. The latter function

PorAp Con

PorW ©
© ©

Fic. 5.—Internal anatomy and superficial appearance of olfactory pores on
mouth-parts, head and cervical plate of worker honey bees, x 580. A to F,
cross-sections ; A, one of largest olfactory pores from mandible of a 20-day-old
pupa, showing sense cell (SC), pore aperture (PorAp), and hypodermal
secretion (HypS) forming the cone (Con); B, two olfactory pores and one
sense cell from base of glossa; C, three olfactory pores and one sense cell from
maxilla; D, a group of olfactory pores and sense cells in labial palpus; E, an
olfactory pore from side of head; F, two olfactory pores from buccal cavity ;
G to K, superficial appearances: G, three of largest olfactory pores on man-
dible; H, one of the two groups of olfactory pores on base of tongue; I, group
of olfactory pores on maxilla; J, group of olfactory pores on labial palpus; K,
three of largest olfactory pores on cervical plate. These pores may be located
by referring to figures 7, 8, 9 C and 10. See page 54 for explanation of
abbreviations.

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

seems absolutely necessary for the following reason. In adult bees the
hypodermis is quite thin and in certain places has practically disap-
peared. It no longer is firmly fastened to the chitin and it can no
longer hold the sense cells in their proper places. If the sense fibers
were fastened to the chitin only by the ends of their walls and not by
the entire peripheral ends being surrounded by the chitinous cones,
the sense fibers would break loose from the pore apertures. Firm
attachments for the sense fibers in spiders (McIndoo, 1911) are not
necessary, because the sense cells lie in a thick hypodermis which per-
sists throughout the lives of the spiders; and furthermore, cones are
not formed, because the pore apertures pass entirely through the
cuticula, so that the sense fibers join the apertures on the internal
surface of the integument.

The olfactory pores on the base of the tongue (fig. 5 B), maxillz
(fig. 5 C), labial palpi (fig. 5 D),and the smallest on the mandibles, are
of about the same size as those on the wings. The spindle-shaped
sense cells are easily seen ; but owing to the small size of the pores, the
pore apertures are rarely discernible. Beneath the group of pores
on the labial palpus, the sense cells (fig. 5 D, SC) occupy about a half
of the space inthe appendage. Fig. 5 Eand F represent, respectively,
the sizes of the pores found on the side of the head near the base of
the mandible, and just inside the buccal cavity. A nerve (N,) and
a trachea (fig. 2 F, Tr) run near the group of sense cells through the
labial palpus. Figure 2 I shows the structure of the largest olfactory
pores on the cervical plate. These are equally as large as the largest
ones on the mandibles, but the smallest ones are never so small as the
smallest on the mandibles.

Under the microscope with transmitted light the olfactory pores
appear as bright spots. Each bright spot is surrounded by a dark
line, the pore wall (fig. 5 G, PorW). Outside this line the chitin is
generally dark in color, while inside of it the chitin is almost trans-
parent, and at the center there is an opening, the pore aperture
(PorAp).

Figure 5 Gto K represent, respectively, the sizes of the superficial
appearances of the pores on the mandible, tongue, maxilla, labial
palpus, and cervical plate.

To learn how well the mandibles are provided with sense organs,
the reader is referred to figure 6 A. This is a semidiagrammatic
drawing taken from one cross-section through the middle of a man-
dible of a 20-day-old worker pupa. The details of the hypodermis

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 31

(Hyp) were taken from another section in which the hypodermal cells
were better fixed. Any section through the middle of a mandible
invariably shows from two to four large pores, from one to three
small pores, and one or more innervated hairs. The nearer the distal
end of the mandible a section is taken, the fewer the large pores and

Fic. 6.—Internal anatomy of mandible of a worker honey bee, showing how
well this appendage is innervated. A, semidiagram of cross-section through
middle of mandible, showing innervation of olfactory pores (Por) and tactile
hairs (cr), blood sinuses (BlSin), nerve (N), nerve branches (NB), trachez
(Tr), etc. The details of the hypodermis (Hyp) were taken from another
section, x 185. B, diagram of transverse-longitudinal view of mandible,
showing innervation of olfactory pores (Por) and tactile hairs (bi, bs and C1);
and superficial appearances of these sense organs. The hairs in solid black are
not innervated, while all the others are connected with sense cells (SC). See
page 54 for other abbreviations.

the greater the number of small pores and innervated hairs it shows.
Large hypodermal cells, called hair-mother cells (HrMC), are often
seen beneath the largest hairs on the mandibles. They send processes

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

into the hairs through which the cellular secretion passes to form
the hairs. At first sight these cells resemble sense cells, but a further
study shows that they are quite different. The tracheze (7r) are
suspended to the hypodermis by connective tissue (ConT) and the
nerves (N) are suspended to the trachez in the same manner. All
the space not occupied by the enumerated structures may be called
blood sinuses (BlSin).

A still better idea of how well the mandibles are innervated is
gained by referring to figure 6 B. This is a transverse-longitudinal
diagram showing the main nerve (N) sending off branches to the
sense cells (SC) belonging to the olfactory pores (Por) and the three
varieties of innervated hairs (b,, b, and c,).

3. DISPOSITION OF THE INNERVATED HAIRS

In the preceding pages the distribution and number of the sense
organs on the mouth-parts have been briefly discussed in connection
with their anatomy. Now since we have classified these organs on
the basis of their structure, their disposition will be given in detail.
In counting the number of sense organs herein discussed, five individ-
uals each of workers, queens and drones have been used. Owing to
some of the parts being mutilated and concealed, a few of the groups
of hairs and olfactory pores could not be counted ; so it was necessary
to estimate the number in such groups. It was not possible to count
all the sense organs on the mandibles on account of the opaqueness
and rotundity of these appendages; therefore, only estimates of all
the sense organs on the mandibles except variety b, of the hairs will
be given.

(a) SPINELIKE HAIRS

Variety a. This variety is found only on the epipharynx. The
epipharynx is a large three-lobed appendage (fig.g A, Ep) depending
from the roof of the preoral cavity (fig. 10, Ep) just in front of the
mouth (Mo). It is movable up and down and serves to close the
mouth opening. These hairs (fig.9g A, a) are arranged in two groups
at the base of the epipharynx, a group lying on either side of the high,
vertical, keel-shaped median lobe (K) of the so-called dorsal tongue.
For workers, the number of hairs in a single group varies from 41
to 79 ;in a pair of groups, from 83 to 147, with an average of 104 hairs
for one worker. For queens, the number of hairs in a single group
varies from 24 to 92; in a pair of groups, from 55 to 176, with an
average of 103 hairs for one queen. For drones, the number of hairs

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 33

in a single group varies from 40 to 74; ina pair of groups, from 82 to
134, with an average of 101 hairs for one drone. It is thus seen that
each caste possesses virtually the same number of hairs on the
epipharynx.

Variety b. Hairs marked b, are found only at the proximal end of
the mandible on the outer, dorsal corner (fig. 7, b,). There are about
85 in each group. :

Hairs marked b, occur only on the inner surface of the mandible, on
an elevated ridge (figs. 8 and 10, Rg) just posterior to the biting sur-
face (BS). Each mandible has a single row of these organs, consist-
ing of about five hairs.

Hairs marked b, are present only on the pharyngeal plate. This
plate is a strong chitinous structure forming the anterior part of the
floor of the pharynx (fig. 10, PhPl). It has two terminal points (figs.
9g Band 10, TP) hanging downward over the lower rim of the mouth
and two long chitinous rods which are attached to the sides of the
plate. These rods (PAPIR) run around the sides and to the top of the
pharynx (Ph), where they are fastened to muscles which in turn are
attached to the chitin on the top of the head. The posterior part of the
pharyngeal plate is arched upward, forming two large domes, with
a deep groove between the domes. The hairs under discussion are
grouped on these domes. Some of the hairs point forward, some
backward and others toward the roof of the pharynx. The number
of hairs in the groups varies only slightly. As an average for workers,
there are 90 hairs on a pharyngeal plate ; for queens, 74 hairs ; and for
drones, 66 hairs. It is thus seen that these hairs in the three castes
vary considerably in number.

Hairs marked b, (fig. 7) are found only on the outer surfaces of
the mandibles at the tips. They are arranged irregularly, except that
one row follows the contour of the biting edge. The hairs in this row
project slightly beyond this edge and often curve over it. There
are probably 100 of these hairs on each mandible.

Variety c. Hairs marked c, are present on the flagella of the
antenne where there are no pore plates. Those marked c, are usually
found between the pore plates. Those marked c, occur only on the
scapes of antenne.

Only a few hairs marked c, (figs. 7 and 8) occur on each maxilla.
Twenty-five marked c,; are found on the base of each maxillary palpus.
Only a few marked c, are present among the olfactory pores on the
inner surface of the labial palpus. About 75 marked c, occur on each
mandible, the most of them being on the outer surface, and about 4o

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

of the same kind are found at the base of each paraglossa on the
dorsal side. About 35 hairs are present on each cervical plate, the
most of them being the ones marked c,,._ This plate is a heavy chitin-
ous structure on the “throat ” of the bee (figs. 9 C and 10, CvPl),
and the writer has called it the “cervical” plate on account of its

ca -Lbl

C6

b hy

Fig. 7——Diagram of mouth-parts of a worker honey bee spread out flat,
showing disposition of innervated hairs (bi, bs, cx to Cz, Cus tO Cis, e: and f) and
olfactory pores (Por), on dorsal surfaces of glossa (Gls), paraglossa (Pegi),
palpigers (Plg), mentum (Mz), and labrum (Lm), on inner surfaces of labial
palpi (LOP/p), and on outer surfaces of maxille (Mx) and mandibles (Md),
x 25. All the hairs shown are innervated, and the pseudo-hairs on the glossa
have been omitted. See page 54 for other abbreviations.

position. It has two deep folds, in the anterior one (fig. 9 C and
10, F) of which may be seen the tactile hairs (c, to c,,) and olfactory
pores (Por). A few scattered, innervated hairs were found just
inside the buccal cavity, a few on the side of the head and a few on

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO

TABLE VIII

Disposition of Innervated Hairs herein Discussed

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saiod yo 1aquin OOH
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saiod JO 1equinyy eh
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30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

top of the head (fig. 10, c,,). Several were seen on each palpiger
(figs. 7 and 8, c,,) and several, marked c,,, on the ventral surface and
sides of the mentum. Eighty-three hairs marked c,, were counted on
the tongue. The most of these lie on the ventral side. Several inner-
vated hairs marked c,, were seen on each side of the labrum near the
anterior edge. All the large hairs marked c,, on the maxille and
labial palpi seem to be innervated.

(b) PEGLIKE HAIRS

Variety d. Those marked d, and d, are found only on the flagella
of the antenneze.

Variety e. Those marked e, are found on ee sides of the maxillz
near the maxillary palpi. There are perhaps 50 on each maxilla.
Only a few marked e, are present on the base of each labial palpus.

Variety f. Several marked f occur at the distal end of each max-
illa and labial palpus.

In conclusion under this heading it is seen that all the true hairs
on the tongue are innervated, while practically all on the maxille,
labial palpi, palpigers, paraglossee and mentum are connected with
nerves. All of those near the anterior edge of the labrum and all on
the mandibles, except two varieties of large hairs (figs. 6 B, Hr, and
10, Hr,), are also connected with sense cells.

Table VIII is a tabulated summary of the disposition of the
innervated hairs herein discussed. The blank spaces mean that hairs
were not looked for on the appendages recorded.

4. DISPOSITION OF THE OLFACTORY PoRES

Olfactory pores (figs. 7 and 8, Por) were found irregularly dis-
tributed over the entire surface of the mandibles (Md), except on the
biting surfaces (BS) and between the two ridges (Rg). Very few
occur on the proximal half of this appendage, while they are quite
abundant on the distal half. There are at least 150 on each mandible
of the workers.

On the tongue (fig. 7, Gls) olfactory pores were found only on the
dorsal side at the base. These are arranged in two groups, each
group being located on a prominence just posterior to the notch (Nf).
A groove (Gv) connecting with the two notches runs between the
two prominences and continues as a shallow depression (Gv,) to the
base of the mentum (Mt). The number of pores in either group on
any given tongue is almost constant, and the individual variations

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 37

Fic. 8.—Diagram of mouth-parts of a worker honey bee spread out flat, show-
ing disposition of innervated hairs (bz, cs, cis to Cis, @1, €2, and f) and olfactory
pores (Por) on ventral surfaces of glossa (Gls), palpigers (Pig), mentum
(Mt) and labrum (Lim), on outer surfaces of labial palpi (LDP/p), and on
inner surfaces of maxille (Mx) and mandibles (Md), x 25. The mandibles
and labrum are seen by looking through the other appendages. All the hairs
shown are innervated, and the pseudo-hairs on the glossa have been omitted.
See page 54 for other abbreviations.

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

are insignificant, but the caste variations are sufficiently large to
indicate that queens and drones do not have as strong likes and
dislikes for foods as do workers. As an average for workers, there
are 48 pores on each tongue; for queens, 32 pores; and for drones,
31 pores.

On the inner surface of each labial palpus (fig. 7, LbPIp) a group
of olfactory pores (Por). extends entirely across the base of this
appendage. These groups are always present and the individual
variations are slight. As an average for workers, there are 34 pores
on each labial palpus; for queens, 24 pores; and for drones, 23 pores.

On the inner surface of each maxilla (fig. 8, Ma) near the max-
illary palpus (MxPlp) there is a group of olfactory pores (Por).
This group is never absent and the individual variations in number
of pores in it are slight. As an average for workers, there are 28
pores on each maxilla ; for queens, 20 pores ; and for drones, 20 pores.

A group of olfactory pores (figs. 9 C and 10, Por) is always
present on the cervical plate (CvPl). Asan average for workers, this
group contains 26 pores; for queens, 24 pores; and for drones, 23
pores.

A few olfactory pores were seen in each of the following places:
just inside the buccal cavity, on each side of the head, and on the base
of the scape of each antenna.

Table IX is a tabulated summary of the disposition of the olfac-
tory pores herein discussed and those previously found elsewhere
on the honey bee by the writer. The plus sign, “ +,’’ means that
there were more than the number recorded. The single question
mark, “ ?,”’ means that the pores were estimated ; and the double ques-
tion mark, “ ??,” means that the numbers recorded were computed by
using the ratios of the total number of pores on the other mouth-parts
as a basis.

It is thus seen that drones as an average have a few more than
2,948 olfactory pores; workers a few more than 2,766, and queens a
few more than 2214 olfactory pores.

In various papers the writer has shown experimentally that the
olfactory pores on the legs and wings of hymenopterous and coleop-
terous insects receive odor stimuli, and it is only reasonable to sup-
pose that the same organs on the mouth-parts perform the same or a
similar function, although we have no way of knowing whether
the sensation produced is that of smell or that of taste. Judging
from the anatomy of the organs, we are inclined to call the sensation
smell, but judging merely from the experiments to determine whether

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 39

bees have likes and dislikes in regard to foods, the indications are that
bees have a sense more or less similar to our sense of taste.

To ascertain whether the elimination of the olfactory pores on the
wings would produce any effect upon the ability of bees to discrim-
inate between foods, the wings of 20 workers were pulled off at their
articulations. Such an operation eliminates all the sense organs on the
wings, and the writer has previously shown that bees without wings
behave normally in all respects except that they respond more slowly
to odor stimuli. These 20 bees were fed pure cane-sugar candy and
cane-sugar candy containing-strychnine, as described on page 14. At
first a few ate a little of the poisoned candy, but after that not a single
bee was seen eating it, but they ate the pure cane-sugar candy nor-
mally. This indicates that when the 1500 pores on the wings are
prevented from functioning, the remaining 1200 pores found else-
where on a worker are sufficient to enable the bee to distinguish the
candy containing strychnine from the pure candy. These experi-
ments showed that further experimentation along this line was
useless.

5. [HE TAcTILE SENSE OF THE HONEY BEE

Since the innervated hairs herein discussed certainly cannot serve
either as olfactory or as gustatory organs, there still remain only two
known senses which we might consider in connection with these
hairs. (1) An auditory function has never been attributed to any
of these hairs, but similar hairs on spiders have been called auditory
hairs. We need not consider the sense of hearing further. (2) The
tactile sense seems to be the most plausible function to attribute to
them, although no experiments were performed to test this view.

If we call these innervated hairs tactile hairs, we can easily explain
many of the activities of bees. Since bees are covered with a hard
chitinous integument, a person often wonders how it is possible that
they can perform their many duties of caring for the brood, building
comb, etc., unless they have an acute sense of touch. They certainly
cannot feel weak mechanical stimuli through the integument as we
do through the skin, and for this reason various kinds of hairs have
become innervated.

Instead of the innervated hairs on the tongue being gustatory in
function, they are certainly used chiefly in examining food as to
whether it is solid or liquid. If the food should be solid and must
be dissolved before being eaten, these hairs perceive stimuli which
cause a copious flow of saliva. If the food should be a solid and

40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

not to be dissolved, it is first probably examined by the maxille and
labial palpi before being seized by the mandibles. By means of the
many sense hairs covering the mandibles, these appendages are able
at any moment to perceive the size, shape and frmness of the food;
and when the food particles are sufficiently small to be swallowed,
they are placed upon the dorsal side of the mentum (fig. 7, Mf).
While watching a bee eat, it is easily observed by using a pair of
binoculars that the mentum (fig. 10, Mt) may be moved in three
directions. The forward and backward movement is most noticeable.
The second movement is up and down and the third is a sidewise

AYA

Fic. 9.—Superficial appearances of the innervated hairs (a, cu, bs, cs to C1)
on the epipharynx, labrum, pharyngeal plate and cervical plate, and of the
olfactory pores (Por) on the cervical plate of worker honey bees. A, ventral
surfaces of labrum (Lm) and epipharynx (Ep), showing two groups of
variety a of innervated hairs on prominences at base of epipharynx, x 45. B,
inner surface of pharyngeal plate, spread out flat, showing two groups of
variety b of innervated hairs (bs) on dome-shaped prominences at posterior
end of this plate, x 45. C, outer surface of cervical plate (CuvPl), spread out
flat, showing a group of variety c of innervated hairs (cs to cio) on either side
of this plate with a long group of olfactory pores (Por) between them, x 50.
For other abbreviations see page 54.

one. The mentum, including the appendages attached to it, acts like
a small crane which may be moved backward and forward, up and
down, and from side to side to a limited degree. The mentum is
moved forward when the food particles are to be conveyed from the
mandibles to the mouth. After these particles have been placed
upon the mentum posterior to the paraglossz, the mentum is moved
backward and upward through the buccal cavity (BCav) until the
particles are at the mouth opening (Mo). The tactile hairs inside

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 4I

this cavity may be stimulated by the particles touching them, thereby
informing the bee that the food is ready to be swallowed. The
presence of the food in the mouth is made known to the bee by means
of the hairs on the epipharynx (Ep) coming in contact with it. The
act of swallowing is facilitated by means of the epipharynx pushing
the food into the mouth. This act is explained by the fact that the
fleshy-like epipharynx may be moved up and down by a set of longi-
tudinal muscles (/,), and it is also capable of completely closing the
mouth opening by the longitudinal (/,) and transverse muscles
(M,,) working in unison.

Should a particle of food, too large to pass through the narrow
cesophagus (fig. 10, E), be swallowed, it would be stopped when it
reached the hairs (b,) on the pharnygeal plate (PhPI) by means of
the transverse muscles (M,,) contracting, thereby forcing it to the
exterior. It is thus seen that the hairs on the pharyngeal plate act as
a safety device to prevent pieces of solid food, too large to go through
the cesophagus, from passing into the pharynx (Ph).

The tactile hairs on the maxille and labial palpi are of the utmost
importance to workers while caring for the brood and in examining
the comb, etc. The hairs marked b, on the mandibles perhaps play
their greatest role while these appendages are being used for building
comb. Regarding these as tactile hairs, it is easy to understood how
bees are able to mold the walls of all the cells of uniform thickness.

6. How Bees Eat Liourp Foops

While watching a bee eat honey under a simple microscope, it will
be observed that the maxilla remain almost stationary while the
mentum, carrying the tongue, paraglosse and labial palpi, is being
moved forward and backward, up and down through the buccal cavity
between the maxillary bases as if the honey were being either pumped
or sucked up into the mouth. It is now generally believed that
liquid foods pass up the glossa or tongue by capillary attraction and
are then sucked into the mouth. This view seems to be the only
plausible one, and after completely understanding this method it is
seen that Nature could not have devised a better plan. If a bee ate
only liquid foods, a proboscis connecting directly with the mouth
would be a better apparatus, but we well know that bees eat more or
less of solid food in the form of pollen.

As a typical example to serve all purposes, let us suppose that a
bee is about to eat candy containing a small amount of quinine, and
let us suppose that the bee cannot smell the quinine in the candy.

4

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

The bee probably first recognizes the candy as food by smelling it
before touching it. After smelling the candy the first reaction of the
bee is to move toward it, to extend the tongue and to examine the
food with the sense hairs on the tip of the tongue. The extending of
the mentum (fig. 10, Mt) is accomplished by muscles not shown in
figure 10. The tongue is unfolded from beneath the mentum by
the contraction of a pair of muscles (1/,), attached to a pair of hard
chitinous processes (Pr). The tongue is folded beneath the men-
tum by means of two muscles (fig. 10, /,) pulling on a pair of chi-
tinous rods (t,) which are the two forks of the chitinous rod (2)
extending the full length of the glossa through the center. When the
tongue is extended and as quickly as the bee recognizes that the food
must be dissolved, the salivary syringe (SS) forces its supply of saliva
to the exterior, at the point marked S in figures 7 and 10. The saliva
runs forward along the groove between the two groups of olfactory
pores (fig. 7, Por) and passes around the notches (Nt) to the ventral
side of the tongue, where it enters the proximal end of the groove (fig.
8, Gv) which extends the full length of the glossa. The extreme prox-
imal end of the groove is wide and shallow, and at this place there is no
distinction between the groove (fig. 3 A, Gv) proper and the canal
(Can) formed by the rod (Rk). Not far from the notches the wide
groove becomes narrow and deep and the canal is distinctly separated
from the groove. A portion of the ventral surface of the mentum
extends as a fleshy tongue (fig. 8, 7”) along the roof and through
the center of the wide groove. The end of this tongue terminates
where the canal is separated from the groove. Now the saliva, in
traveling from the external opening of the salivary syringe on the
dorsal side of the tongue to the ventral side of the tongue by capillary
attraction, is guided into the canal by means of the fleshy tongue just
described. From this place to the tip of the tongue the canal is com-
pletely separated from the groove by minute interlocking pseudo-hairs
(fig. 3 A, Hr?) which point toward the tip of the tongue. According
to the law of capillarity the saliva, aided by the pseudo-hairs, passes
through the canal as rapidly as oil climbs a wick. The saliva, after
reaching the tip of the tongue, spreads over the surface of the spoon-
shaped labellum (fig. 8, Lbl) which is used for scraping the candy.
The scraping and changing of the sugar to liquid is facilitated by the
many forked pseudo-hairs on the labellum. When the food is dis-
solved, it enters the grave at the tip of the tongue, passes through
the entire length of the groove to the base of the tongue, where it
then passes through the notches to the dorsal side of the tongue and

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS UN MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 43

then along the groove (fig. 7, Gv.) to the place marked X on the
dorsal surface of the mentum (fig. 10).

While eating honey and syrup greedily, the distal half of the groove
may be opened widely to the exterior so that the liquid may enter more
rapidly. Since there are no muscles in the glossa, the only way to ex-
plain the opening of the groove is by supposing that the blood rushes

Fic. 10.—Diagram of sagittal section through head of a worker honey bee,
slightly lateral to median line of head, pharyngeal plate (PhP1), epipharynx
(Ep), labrum (Lm), cervical plate (CvP/), mentum (Mt), paraglossa (Pgl),
and glossa (Gls). Diagrams of longitudinal sections of maxilla (Ms) and
labial palpus (LDP/p), and of inner surface of right mandible (Md), are
drawn in their approximate positions. This diagram is meant to show chiefly
innervation of glossa by nerve marked Nui, labial palpus by nerve marked N»,
maxilla by nerve marked Ns, epipharynx by nerve marked N., pharyngeal
plate by nerve marked N; and cervical plate by nerve marked Ne, and to show
how foods are swallowed when elevated to mouth (Mo) at point marked X on
mentum (Mt) by means of various combinations of contracting and relaxing
of muscles (Ms to Mu) attached to epipharynx, pharyngeal plate and walls of
pharynx. Muscles matked M, and M2 fold and unfold glossa respectively. For
other abbreviations see page 54.

into this part of the tongue and the edges of the groove (fig. 3 A, E d)
are widely separated by blood-pressure. In sections the rod (R) is
often everted to the outside of the tongue.

44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

According to the law of capillarity the height to which a liquid rises.
in a tube varies inversely with the diameter of the tube. In other
words, the smaller the tube the higher a liquid rises in it. Using a
tube four times as long as the glossa and with the diameter equal to
that of the average diameter of the groove in the glossa, water would
rise to the top of the tube merely by capillary attraction. This demon-
strates that liquids quickly pass through the groove, and the move-
ment of them is increased by the aid of the many pseudo-hairs (fig.
3 A, Hr’) lining the groove and by some of them interlocking at the
extreme edges of the groove to exclude the outside air. These hairs
point toward the base of the tongue, making the groove as capable of
carrying liquids as a wick is of lifting oil from the bottom of a tall
bottle.

At the proximal end of the groove the liquid is turned to either
side of the glossa by the fleshy tongue (fig. 8, 7), and is prevented
from traveling further on the ventral side of the mentum by the
shoulder which is formed by the two chitinous processes (Pr) pro-
jecting below the ventral surface of the glossa. The shallow groove
(fig. 7, Guv,) on top of the tongue probably serves to hold the excess
of liquid when it has difficulty in following its proper course.

As soon as saliva mixes with the food, a chemical or physical
change is effected, and this change perhaps liberates odors that were
not smelled by the bee before the food was eaten. Again, the saliva
might so affect the quinine in the food described on page 14 that the
faintest odor imaginable could be detected by the pores on the base
of the tongue, and also probably by those on the labial palpi and
maxille. It-must be remembered that while the liquids are passing
from the ventral side to the dorsal side of the tongue, and vice versa,
the paraglosse close around the tongue, making a perfect tube, and
the labial palpi close tightly against the paraglossz, and the maxillary
lobes are folded around all of these appendages. It is thus seen that
the olfactory pores on the glossa, labial palpi and maxille are almost
against the liquid as it passes to the base of the mentum, for, as
already pointed out, the pores on the labial palpi and maxille lie on
the inner surfaces of these appendages.

This closes the description of the rdle played by capillary attraction
in carrying liquids from the tip of the tongue to the base of the
mentum. The entire process is clear to the writer except where the
saliva and liquid food pass around the base of the tongue. It is
strange that both liquids can travel in opposite directions along the
same route by no force other than capillarity. This is partially

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO A5

elucidated by the fact that the paraglossz, in closing tightly around
the base of the tongue, make a perfect tube which connects the groove
on the ventral side of the glossa with the one on the dorsal side of the
same appendage, and perhaps most of the liquid food is sucked into the
mouth from the cavity formed by the paraglossz.

Weare now ready to explain how the liquid is sucked into the mouth.
Cross-sections through the head of the bee show that the pharynx
(fig. 10, Ph) assumes various shapes, but the shape shown in figure
10 is the most typical. Just posterior to the hairs (b,) on the pharyn-
geal plate, it expands into a large, saclike body, while its posterior end
gradually becomes smaller and is called the cesophagus (E£) where it
enters the thorax. The walls of the alimentary tract, from the mouth
to the honey stomach, were examined to see if they contain sense
organs, but none was found other than those already described.
Nerves running to the cervical plate (V,), pharyngeal plate (NV) and
the epipharynx (N,) were seen, but no other nerves were observed
connected with the pharynx, although several muscles were traced
from the pharynx to their places of attachment. A study of these
muscles shows that the pharynx may be moved in at least six different
ways as follows: Muscles marked M, pull it forward; M,, upward;
M,and M,, upward and backward; M,, directly backward ; /,, down-
ward and backward; and M,, and M,, change the diameter of it.
It will be seen that M, is attached to the pharyngeal plate rod
(PhPIR) and M, is fastened to the pharyngeal plate. The contrac-
tion of either one of these muscles would enlarge the tube leading
from the mouth to the pharynx. From the preceding description
it is easily understood that by various combinations of these muscles
the pharynx works like a powerful pump, and when the liquid food
on the dorsal surface of the mentum is raised to the mouth opening,
the suction from the pharynx draws it into the mouth as easily as
a person draws into his mouth water held in the palm of the hand.

7. SUMMARY OF SENSE ORGANS

Only two general types of sense organs were found on the mouth-
parts of the honey bee. They are innervated hairs and innervated
pores, called olfactory pores by the writer (1914a). Judging from
their anatomy, the innervated hairs can serve only as tactile organs,
and none of them are anatomically adapted to function either as
olfactory organs or as gustatory organs. The writer has divided them
into spinelike and peglike hairs. Both types vary considerably in
size and structure. In size the spinelike hairs vary from the smallest

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

ones on the antenne to the largest ones on the maxille and labial
palpi; the peglike hairs, from the short and thick ones on the maxillee
to the saber-shaped ones on the labial palpi and maxillz. The spine-
like hairs were found on all the mouth-parts, pharyngeal plate, an-
tennze, in the buccal cavity, all over the head and on the cervical plate.
The peglike hairs were observed only on the antennz, maxille and
labial palpi.

Judging from the disposition and innervation of the hairs under
discussion, the tactile sense in the honey bee is highly developed. The
application of this perception easily explains how bees are able to
perform their many duties, such as caring for the brood, building
comb, etc.

The act of eating liquid foods is accomplished by capillary attrac-
tion, and by the pumping force of the pharynx.

Olfactory pores were found at the bases of the tongue and labial
palpi, on the maxillz near the maxillary palpi, widely distributed over
the mandibles, on the cervical plate, in the buccal cavity, on the sides
of the head and on the scapes of the antenne. Their structure is
identical with that of the olfactory pores on the legs, wings and sting,
and therefore their function should be the same.

DISCUSSION OF LITERATURE

A review of the literature pertaining to the sense organs on the
mouth-parts and to the gustatory sense of insects shows so much con-
fusion in regard to the names of the various sense organs and their
probable functions that it is impossible to classify the various struc-
tures correctly. The present writer has separated all the sense organs
on the mouth-parts of the honey bee into olfactory pores and inner-
vated or tactile hairs, the latter group being divided into spinelike and
peglike hairs. Other writers have called the hairs sete, pegs, cones,
bristles, or just “ hairs,’ and the few who have seen the olfactory
pores have called them taste-pits, taste-cups, taste-papillz or beaker-
shaped organs, etc. Let us consider the olfactory pores first.

Meinert (1861) seems to be the first to suggest that insects have
gustatory organs. He described a row of chitinous canals on the
maxilla and base of the tongue of ants. He thought they were inner-
vated and might serve as gustatory organs. Forel (1873) saw the
same or similar structures on the maxille and tongue of Formica,
and he called them gustatory papillz.

Wolff (1875) first described the olfactory pores on the base of the
tongue of the honey bee. He called them taste-beakers in analogy

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 47

to the gustatory organs at the base of our tongues, and he thought
that the secretion of the salivary glands, always present inside the
glossal covering, kept the beakers constantly moist and gustatory
stimuli were effected by the saliva changing the honey which passes
through the groove in the glossa.

Joseph (1877) saw taste-pits on the bases of the tongues of speci-
mens belonging to nearly all the insect orders, and especially on those
of plant-eating insects. |

Kraepelin (1883) thought that he found gustatory organs on the
proboscides of flies. These were seen on the inner surface of the
cushion of the labellum. [From his description they may be the same
as the olfactory pores under discussion.

Will (1885) described the olfactory pores on the tongue, maxille
and labial palpi of the honey bee and various other insects in much
the same manner as depicted by the present writer. He called them
beaker-shaped organs and imagined that they receive gustatory
stimuli because the peripheral ends of their nerves come in direct
contact with the food. He saw two groups of them on the base of
each tongue, and the number of organs in each group varies as
follows: Apis (worker), about 25 ; Osmia, 14 to 16; Bombus, 20 to 24;
and Ichneumonide, 12 to 14. About 40 organs were seen in each
group on the maxillz of the Apidz, but very few in the Tenthredin-
ide. Will failed to understand the internal anatomy of these organs.
He thought the sense cells are multinucleated and that their sense
fibers pierce the thin membranes covering the beakers in order to
come in contact with the external air.

Breithaupt (1886) describes the pits or pores found on the base
of the tongue of the honey bee. Being unable to make thin sections
through these organs, he constructed a schematic drawing of a single
pore which shows the sense fiber of the spindle-shaped sense cell run-
ning to the extremely thin and transparent membrane which covers
the pore.

Vom Rath (1886) seems to have found organs similar to the olfac-
tory pores in the labium of millipedes (Chilognatha). Each organ is
porelike and is two-thirds filled with a pear-shaped bundle of nerve
fibrillaz which pass through the fine pore aperture and come in con-
tact with the external air. The same author (1887, 1888) seems to
have seen the same organs on the palpi of beetles.

Janet (1904) found a constant group of olfactory pores on each
labial palpus, two rows on the tongue, and some on the pharynx of
ants. Those seen by him on the pharynx perhaps really lie on the

48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

cervical plate, as already described by the present writer, because
either in sections or in whole mounts of the integuments of the heads
it is often difficult to determine whether the pores lie on the pharyn-
geal plate or on the cervical plate. Janet (1911) saw the same
organs widely distributed over the integument of the mandibles of the
honey bee. According to him, all the pores, whether on the mouth-
parts or on the legs, have a similar structure, and they resemble the
structure of the olfactory pores described by the present writer ; how-
ever, there are a few slight differences. He calls the chitinous cone an
umbel, which is always separated from the surrounding chitin by a
chamber. This chamber communicates with the exterior by means of
the pore. The sense fiber, or his manubrium, runs into the umbel,
and he thinks that it spreads out over the inner surface of the umbel
and does not open into the chamber. Thus the umbel forms a thin
layer of chitin which separates the end of the sense fiber from the
external air. Janet thinks that the role of these organs is evidently
to permit the end of the nerve to become distributed on a surface
relatively large and separated from the air only by a thin layer of
permeable chitin. He imagines that they are special olfactory organs,
but different from the olfactory organs on the antennz. In regard to
those on the mandibles, he believes that they aid in building comb and
in collecting pollen and propolis.

Hochreuther (1912) found a few olfactory pores on the epicranium
near the margin of the eyes, 11 on the first and second joints of the
antenne, a few on the dorsal side of the labrum, very few on the
dorsal side of the mandibles, several on the maxille and many on the
legs of Dytiscus marginalis. He called them dome-shaped organs
and describes and gives drawings of them in a manner somewhat
similar to that of Janet.

We shall now discuss the innervated hairs only briefly, because, as
already pointed out, they probably serve neither as olfactory organs
nor as gustatory organs.

Wolff (1875) was the first to describe the hairs on the epipharynx.
In the honey bee he described each organ as a small cone with a pit
in the summit bearing a small hair. He thought that each hair is con-
nected with a sense cell group and that these organs receive olfactory
stimull.

Kunkel and Gazagnaire (1881) found innervated hairs on the
paraglossz, on the epipharynx and on the pharyngeal plate of Diptera.
They imagined that these hairs receive gustatory stimuli.

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 49

Becker (1882) found sense hairs on the ventral side of the labrum
of certain Diptera. He believed that they serve as gustatory organs.

Haller (1882) says that the small hairs and pegs on the dorsal side
of the labium of Hydrodroma rubra probably serve as gustatory
organs.

Kraepelin (1882, 1883) attributes a gustatory or olfactory function
to certain innervated hairs on the proboscides of Hymenoptera and
Diptera.

Kirbach (1883) calls certain small hairs in Lepidoptera gustatory
papillee.

Briant (1884) regards the innervated hairs on the tongue of the bee
as merely tactile organs and not as gustatory structures as generally
believed.

Sommer (1885) found innervated hairs on the legs, palpi, labrum
and labium of Macrotoma plumbea (Thysanura), but he says
nothing about their function.

Will (1885) gives a drawing of a hair from the tip of the tongue
of Vespa, but none from Apis nor Bombus. The sense cell is multi-
nucleated, and the sense fiber stops in the base of the hair, whose walls
are thick.

Breithaupt (1886) described papille with very short hairs on the
mouth-parts of Bombus. He thinks that somé serve as gustatory
organs while others serve as tactile organs, the function being deter-
mined by the location of the hairs.

Gazagnaire (1886) says that the gustatory organs in Coleoptera
should be found in the buccal cavity in the form of hairs.

Vom Rath (1887, 1888, 1894, 1896) has made a comprehensive
study of the morphology of all kinds of hairs on the mouth-parts
belonging to various insect orders. All his drawings are good, and
each sense hair, peg or cone is usually innervated with a sense cell
group, but sometimes with a single sense cell.

Reuter (1888) describes cone-shaped sense hairs on the palpi of
Lepidoptera. These are connected with sense cell groups.

Packard (1889, 1903) studied the epipharynx in various insect
orders. He almost invariably found hairlike sense organs on each
epipharynx examined. These organs are sete associated with sense
pits, cups and rods. Packard seems to think that some of the sete
are used merely to guard the sense cups while the others aid the sense
cups in receiving gustatory stimuli.

Nagel (1892, 1894, 1897) has made a special study of the mor-
phology of the olfactory and gustatory organs of insects. He divides

50 . SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

the organs receiving gustatory stimuli into inner gustatory organs
and outer ones. The inner ones found inside the buccal cavity are
located on the epipharynx as minute pit-pegs or cones. The outer
ones are found outside the buccal cavity on the various mouth-parts.
They are cones and pit-pegs of various sizes and shapes.

Rohler (1906) found various kinds of sense hairs on the mouth-
parts of the grasshopper, 7ryxalis. He thinks that some of these
serve mechanically to examine the food, while the others function as
gustatory organs.

The following is a brief discussion of the experimental work per-
taining to the sense of taste.

Forel (1873, 1908) was apparently the first to determine experi-
mentally that insects show preferences between foods. When mor-
phine and strychnine are mixed with honey, he says that ants do not
at first recognize these substances by smell, but after eating a little
honey containing these substances, they immediately leave it. Ants
do not always know how to distinguish foods containing injurious
substances, because when he fed them honey containing phosphorus,
they gorged themselves with it and many of them soon died. In
repeating the experiments of Plateau (1885) and Will (1885), Forel
amputated the antennz and the four palpi of several wasps. When
he fed them honey containing quinine, they soon left it after eating a
little of it, but greedily ate pure honey not containing quinine. From
this he concludes that the gustatory faculty is independent of the
antenne and palpi, and that it resides in the mouth. He agrees with
Plateau and Will that the amputation of the palpi in no way modifies
the olfactory, gustatory or masticatory faculties. He thinks that
the palpi serve as special tactile organs.

Will (1885) carried on a series of experiments to demonstrate the
sense of taste in insects. He ascertained that wasps, bees, and bumble-
bees soon leave foods containing alum, quinine, and salt after eating
alittle of them. He thinks that the gustatory perception lasts a rather
long time, because insects, after eating foods containing these sub-
stances, clean their mouths for several minutes and then, when given
pure honey, “taste”’ it several times before definitely beginning to
eat. Asa general rule, Will found that the larve are more “ diffi-
cult to please ” in the choice of their foods than the imago insects.

Lubbock (1899) noticed that some individual ants seem to possess
a finer sense of taste than others, and he thinks this is partially ex-
plained by the fact that the number of taste-pits is not the same in all
individuals. He concludes “that the organs of taste in insects are

NO. 14 SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO 51

certain modified hairs situated either in the mouth itself or on the
organs immediately surrounding it.” “But though the lower
animals undoubtedly possess the sense of taste, it does not, of course,
follow that substances taste to them as they do to us. I have found
by experiment that sugar and saccharine, which are so similar to us,
taste very differently to ants and bees.”

In conclusion under this heading, the results obtained by the pre-
ceding authors are less satisfactory in explaining that insects have
a true gustatory sense than the results obtained by the present author
in showing that insects do not have a true gustatory sense, because
the preceding authors have found no organs anatomically adapted for
receiving gustatory stimuli. Even if the antenne are amputated, the
olfactory organs are not eliminated, because olfactory pores are
widely distributed over the integument, and for this reason the
olfactory sense cannot be eliminated while testing for the sense of
taste. The present writer’s opinion is that insects do not have a sense
of taste, because their highly developed olfactory organs are suffi-
ciently capable of receiving the odors, however weak, from any and
all substances. Whenever the odors are extremely weak, it is then
necessary for the insects to eat a little of the foods containing the
undesirable substances before being able to smell these substances.
For this reason the present writer has called this faculty an olfactory-
gustatory sense, although according to the definition of the sense
of taste in vertebrates the gustatory perception plays no part in the
responses.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

The present writer, and the few other authors who have fed insects
foods containing undesirable substances, have observed that the
insects sooner or later refuse such foods after eating more or less of
them. Judging from this behavior, the other authors have concluded
that insects can taste, regardless of knowing whether or not they
have sense organs, anatomically adapted for receiving gustatory
stimuli, and without considering the role played by the olfactory sense
in these responses. As Parker has already said for vertebrates, and
as we well know for ourselves, it is almost impossible to determine
whether we taste or smell certain substances when we eat them. To
us sometimes a food, before being eaten, emits only a faint odor or no
odor at all; but when we eat it, we perceive a pronounced odor. In
such a case the odorous particles are not given off until the food is
taken into the mouth and mixed with saliva. The same principle is
certainly applicable when bees eat candies which contain undesirable

52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 65

substances emitting extremely weak odors. As quickly as the saliva
has dissolved the candy and has had time to effect a chemical or
physical change, the odorous particles are given off, and since the
olfactory pores on the mouth-parts are nearest the food, they are the
first ones to receive the odorous particles. For this reason the so-
called gustatory sense in insects is only a phase of the olfactory sense.

That we cannot smell certain substances is no proof that insects
cannot smell them, for the many experiments performed by the
present writer during the past four years cause him to believe that the
olfactory sense in the honey bee is much more highly developed than
ours.

It is reasonable to think that many foods and chemicals emit odors,
although we may not be able to perceive all of them ; but judging from
the experiments herein discussed, it is not impossible for bees to dis-
-criminate between them better than we can. If they are not able to do
this without eating them, only a few “ tastes ” are necessary to demon-
strate their preferences. In a few instances the present writer was
not able to discriminate differences between candies containing certain
chemicals by using both senses of smell and taste, but the bees were
able to distinguish marked differences. It therefore seems evident
that this faculty in the honey bee is more highly developed than in
man.

In all probability bees have no other means of chemically discrim-
inating between foods than by smelling them, because no sense organs
-were found connected with the alimentary tract between the pharyn-
geal plate and the honey stomach, and because the innervated hairs
described are not anatomically adapted for this purpose. The walls
-of the alimentary canal certainly cannot serve such a function except
when corrosive or caustic substances are eaten.

After once refusing foods which contain undesirable substances
-emitting weak odors, bees seem to know these foods and seldom
eat any more of them unless forced to partake of them by the removal
of the foods they like better.

In conclusion it may be said that the olfactory sense in the honey
bee is highly developed and that it serves as an olfactory and gustatory
perception combined. |

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ABBREVIATIONS
EE AR nah ea ese re cal variety @ of innervated hairs
Dae tuoy Dyitaidbc uecla atc variety b of innervated hairs
CistOnCianeeier saute: variety c of innervated hairs
Gh eyatal Gly bcp doaec variety d of innervated hairs
eqeandyesta ee ciee variety e of innervated hairs
TOPE ue MIR Mm aA COL variety f of innervated hairs
BiGavaistisoukiiak ‘buccal cavity
BI Sia eas blood sinus
IB Sis s.eanh nea gee biting surface of mandible
Car ee aareeatalats canal in rod of glossa
Gli aei ieee chitin
Chin Rae Sere ite flexible chitin
Cont ss). eee eee cone of olfactory pore
Gone cone of innervated hair on epipharynx
Conds cee nes connective tissue
Ev-Bln vee emoor cervical plate
TEEN en eT Gao esophagus
TE Clear ees Sak eo ae edge of groove on glossa
Tes fo aytes eaten eaten Ger ee epipharynx
IBRaepies erence a med Nero fold in cervical plate
Glig we Meni testis glossa, tongue or proboscis
Gy, Gy: to Gvs ...groove
Hr: and Hr. ..... non-innervated hairs on mandible
lnbr Wel lelie’ yaa oyeor pseudo-hairs on glossa
Fn Cay arenes ca hair cavity
VEC ieee soe hair-mother cell
Telit Se aia Nery gee sees hair socket
ET ype oi Sete a ret esahe hypodermis
TeKADINEE Saccadecs hypodermal nucleus

EDV DiS IW a radcotaene toes hypodermal secretion

NO. 14. SENSE ORGANS ON MOUTH-PARTS OF BEE—McINDOO

Gee 3 we eee keel-shaped lobe of epipharynx

eet ok... LUIMeR

AIBN laisen sesh saeeieress labellum of glossa

TRIKE Da eae ae labial palpus

JETT oe erage labrum

aS cs ereeas ae ROMMIM

IME: HO Wise Go oo a oo 6 muscles

JWG [ean ee aint Gooch mandible

INN@ sasieckt teratn mace att mouth

I EN creas oro oko mentum.

IWiscen Sane sma ct La

MES 2 aye ye chee chen maxillary palpus

ING Nie HONG ceca nerves

INI Bae oie Up UNTO ee nerve branch

NIE NEN neurilemma

IN| LEGS Fa AA a nerve fiber

INLETS UAE So aires neck of flask-shaped pore

ING ee one enloLchiatrbaseioimelossa

Sena i cacatle, baetgecraiees paraglossa

Bites Bre ic ceate eaoes pharynx

rae sk eae dicen: pharyngeal plate

Teall SAS aber ete pharyngeal plate rod

1B Kester ay ee palpiger

POL ie aorratcas olfactory pore

ROnAp yee saares olfactory pore aperture

OT Whos cvceterstajecere s olfactory pore wall

TOY ae Pome ar can NAG chitinous process in base of glossa

1B CURIA eee AS An rod in glossa

Rais Scene eget fork of rod in glossa

LBS. I'd ape a ren a ridge on inner side of mandible

SCA e oe arenes aes external opening of salivary syringe

SCs ures sense cell

SCNucw sg. sense, cellemncleus

SDs eee cena salivary duct

SS) RM oes aieteat ND sense fiber

Sk Cav Jeeves cavity in hair socket

ASN aan ere atte submentum

‘SS RA to sie ee salivary syringe

Bla rs eG vera fleshy tongue on ventral surface of men-
tum

AD en sce ae eer RI terminal tip of pharyngeal plate

AD uae Le en Oe re trachea

thor ot ocr eee place on dorsal surface of mentum to

which liquid foods perhaps travel be-
fore being swallowed

are

ne a eee
Les Oe RAEI
n Petey

MA Soc
paar
av,

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